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rd Swindley in 1964, and stayed a virgin until her 39th year, when she made love with her [[Hungary|Hungarian]] revolutionary boyfriend. She finally married, in 1972, Ernest Bishop, whose murder she had to cope with in 1978. Emily is now a [[widow]] in her seventies, a neighbourhood stalwart respected and liked by all, and the Street's only character to be heavily involved in the religious community. In January 2003, she was badly injured after being hit over the head by [[Richard Hillman]] (who minutes later killed [[Maxine Peacock]]) but made a full recovery and returned home. *''[[Betty Turpin|Betty Williams]]'', (formerly Betty Turpin, played by [[Betty Driver]]), began as a policeman's wife first brought to the Street as convenient help for her sister Maggie Clegg ([[Irene Sutcliffe]]). Since then, she has been pulling pints and making her legendary [[Lancashire Hotpot]] at the Rovers for over 35 years. *''[[Rita Sullivan]]'' (formerly Rita Littlewood/Fairclough, played by [[Barbara Knox]]), one-time nightclub singer, twice-widowed owner of a small newsagent's shop, whose role often is to play the 'straight' part of a comedy double act, the other being the invariably odd-ball co-worker, Mavis or, most recently, Norris. *''[[Mike Baldwin]]'' ([[Johnny Briggs (actor)|Johnny Briggs]]), London-born businessman who ran the ''Baldwin's Casuals'' jeanswear factory before selling to a property developer, who built the houses in which many characters now live. He then established an underwear business further up the street, called ''Underworld''. Married four times — to [[Susan Barlow]], [[Jackie Ingram]] and [[Alma Sedgewick]], all of whom divorced him; and Linda Sykes, from whom he is estranged. Has three sons — Mark Redman (from an affair with florist Maggie Redman in the early 80s); Adam Baldwin (by first wife Susan, though Mike always believed Susan had aborted the baby); and Danny Baldwin (by his brother Harry's wife in the 1960s - Mike and Danny weren't told the truth until 2005 when Harry died). *''[[Deirdre Barlow]]'' (formerly Deirdre Hunt/Langton/Rachid, played by [[Anne Kirkbride]]) third and current wife of Ken Barlow. Her first husband Ray Langton left her. Ken Barlow was her second. Her third husband, Samir Rachid, died in mysterious circumstances while on his way to donate a kidney to Deirdre's daughter Tracy (he died, so she got both kidneys). Deirdre and Ken reconciled after being divorced for over a decade, and remarried in 2005. *''[[Gail Platt]]'' (formerly Gail Potter/Tilsley/Hillman, played by [[Helen Worth]]), thrice-married, twice-divorced and twice-widowed (she remarried her first husband, who was later killed) forty-something who came into the series as a teenage girl in the 1970s, whose third husband, [[Richard Hillman]], was a serial killer. *''[[Audrey Roberts]]'' (formerly Audrey Potter, played by [[Sue Nicholls]]), widow of former Weatherfield mayor Alf Roberts, owner of the local hair salon, mother of Gail and near-victim of ''[[Richard Hillman]]''; *''[[Vera Duckworth|Vera]] and [[Jack Duckworth]]'' ([[Elizabeth Dawn|Liz Dawn]] and [[William Tarmey]]) — the street's most legendary comedy duo, the perennial losers, with a villain son who returns to visit and rip them off occasionally. Having inherited a large sum, they lost it to Richard Hillman. Vera initially appeared without Jack, who was mentioned for two years before appearing onscreen. ===Other well-known actors=== Actors and actresses who began or spent part of their career in ''Coronation Street'' include: ====Regular appearances==== * [[Amanda Barrie]], who played Alma Baldwin, one-time wife of Mike Baldwin, was an early star of the ''Carry On'' series of British films. * [[Chris Bisson]] as Vikram Desai, later the star of [[East is East (film)|East is East]] and a recurring star in [[Shameless]]. * [[Craig Charles]], star of [[Red Dwarf]] as cab-driver Lloyd. * Ex-[[Boyzone]] star [[Keith Duffy]] played Ciaran McCarthy, a Rovers Return barman. * [[Peter Duncan (actor)|Peter Duncan]], who went on to present [[Blue Peter]] and become the UK's chief scout, played Christopher Cullen in the mid-1970;s. * [[Roy Hudd]] played Audrey Robert's close friend - and professional undertaker - Archie Shuttleworth in 2002-2003, who assisted Audrey in trying to bring down the Street's serial killer, Richard Hillman. * [[Ben Kingsley]], who portrayed [[Mahatma Gandhi]] in [[Richard Attenborough]]'s biographical film, ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]''. * [[Arthur Lowe]], who starred as ''Captain Mainwaring'' in ''[[Dad's Army]]'' appeared for several years as Leonard Swindley, taking the character into the spin-off sitcom [[Pardon The Expression]]. * [[Linus Roache]], son of Bill Roache (Ken Barlow) who played Peter Barlow and went on to star in the film ''Priest''. * [[William Russell (actor)|William Russell]], regular companion in [[Doctor Who]] as Rita's second husband Ted Sullivan in 1992. * [[Michael Sheard]] who played Mr. Bronson in [[Grange Hill (television)|Grange Hill]] appeared as Arthur Dabner in 1989. * [[Elisabeth Sladen]], who went on to genre fame as [[Sarah-Jane Smith]] in Doctor Who, played Anita Reynolds in 1970. * [[Debra Stephenson]], star of [[ITV]] prison drama [[Bad Girls (television series)|Bad Girls]] as Frankie Baldwin. * [[Bradley Walsh]], comedian, once half of a comedy duo with [[Joe Pasquale]] , who has become Danny Baldwin, Mike's "nephew" who later found out he was his son. ====Short-term appearances==== * [[Honor Blackman]] played an ageing wife-swapper who wanted to swap with Norris and Rita. * Music star [[Cliff Richard]] appeared in a scene, but he had his back to the camera. The main characteristics of him in the scene, which was shot in the Rovers, were black hair, and a jumper which had the words 'Rock and Roll' across it. * [[Graham Fellows]], the comedian-pop star who created the fictional personas [[Jilted John]] and [[John Shuttleworth]], had a cameo role in one episode and later returned as truck driver Les Charlton, a regular at Gail's cafe. * [[Davy Jones]] of [[The Monkees]] made an appearance before he became famous in 1961 as Ena Sharples's grandson Colin Lomax. * [[Bolton]] [[comedian]] [[Peter Kay]] played a shopfitter in 1997 and made a cameo appearance over two episodes in January 2004. * [[Joanna Lumley]] of ''[[Absolutely Fabulous]]'' and ''[[The New Avengers]]'' * [[Sir Ian McKellen]] starred in 10 episodes in 2005 as dodgy novelist Melvin Hutchwright * [[Peter Noone]] of [[Herman's Hermits]] * [[Status Quo (band)|Status Quo]], the legendary [[rock (music)|rock]] band, appeared as themselves on Friday 23rd September 2005, when they assaulted Les for an incident which involved him 20 years previous. They appeared again on October 31, 2005 to play at Les and Cilla's wedding. * [[Charles, Prince of Wales|The Prince of Wales]], who played himself in a walk-on part (see below). * [[Norman Wisdom]], comedian, played fitness fanatic Ernie Crabbe in one episode in 2004 * [[Peter Kay]] who played a man who went on a date with Shelley Unwin. [[Laurence Olivier]] once offered to take part in a scene on the Street, acting alongside Jean Alexander, whom he admitted was his favourite actress on the programme. However, scheduling conflicts between the Street and the film ''[[Marathon Man]]'' denied him the chance to act on his favourite TV programme. [[Michael Crawford]] and [[Robbie Williams]] have both appeared as extras, drinking in the bar of the Rovers. On [[8th December]] [[2000]], the show celebrated its fortieth year by broadcasting an hour long edition of the show, its first episode to be broadcast live in decades. Guest of honour in the show was the Prince of Wales, heir-apparent to the British Throne, who featured in a pre-recorded segment, a 'news bulletin report' of his being welcomed to Weatherfield by then-mayor Audrey Roberts, which was being shown on the TV in the Rovers Return at one point on the evening. (His mother, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], has visited the ''Coronation Street'' set and met the cast on a number of occasions, even taking a drink with the cast in the ''Rovers Return''.) ==Backstage staff== * [[Bill Podmore]] was the show's longest serving producer. By the time he stepped down in 1988 he had completed 13 years at the production helm. Nicknamed the "godfather" by the tabloid press, he was renowned for his tough, uncompromising style and was feared by both crew and cast alike. He is probably most famous for sacking [[Peter Adamson]], the show's Len Fairclough, in 1983. *[[Paul Abbott]] was a [[script editor]] on the programme in the 1980s, the youngest ever person to hold such a position on the show at the time, and in 1989 began writing episodes. He left in 1993 to produce ''[[Cracker (British television)|Cracker]]'', for which he later wrote, before creating his own highly-acclaimed dramas such as ''[[Touching Evil]]'', ''[[Clocking Off]]'', ''[[State of Play]]'' and ''[[Shameless]]''. *[[Russell T. Davies]] was briefly a storyliner on the programme in the mid-1990s, also writing the script for one of the [[direct-to-video]] specials. He, too, has become a noted writer of his own high-profile television drama programmes, including ''[[Queer as Folk (UK)|Queer as Folk]]'', ''[[The Second Coming (TV)|The Second Coming]]'', ''[[Casanova (2005 television)|Casanova]]'' and the 2005 revival of ''[[Doctor Who]]''. ==Scheduling== The programme is currently shown in five episodes on four evenings a week on British television: on Mondays at 19.30 and 20.30 (with the current affairs programme [[Tonight with Trevor MacDonald]] in between the two episodes), and at 19.30 on Wednesdays, Fridays and Sundays. On Tuesdays and Thursdays, when the [[BBC1]] soap ''[[EastEnders]]'' goes out at 19.30, the "Corrie slot" on ITV is filled by [[regional programme]]s. ''[[EastEnders]]'' is broadcast four times a week on the B
onCapital.JPG|The [[Indo-Scythian]] [[Mathura lion capital]], 1st century CE. Image:6thPillarOfAshoka.JPG|Fragment of the 6th Pillar [[Edicts of Ashoka|Edict of Ashoka]] (238 BCE), in [[Brahmi]], sandstone. Image:KanishkaCasket.JPG|The [[Kanishka casket]], dated to [[127|127 CE]], with the [[Buddha]] surrounded by [[Brahma]] and [[Indra]]. Image:CrystalGoose.JPG|A [[Hamsa bird|Hamsa]] sacred goose [[reliquary]], [[Gandhara]], 1st century CE. Image:BimaranCasket.JPG|The [[Bimaran casket]], Gandhara, 1st century CE. Image:EmaciatedBuddha.JPG|The [[Buddha]] as an ascetic. [[Gandhara]], 2-3rd century CE. &lt;/gallery&gt; ===Hellenistic galleries=== &lt;gallery&gt; Image:ScythianArchers.JPG|Gold clothing appliqué, showing two [[Scythian]] archers, 400-350 BCE. Probably from Kul Oba, [[Crimea]]. Image:PalmyraWoman.JPG|Funerary bust of a woman. [[Palmyra]]. Mid-late 2nd century CE. &lt;/gallery&gt; == External links == {{Spoken Wikipedia|En-british_museum.ogg|2006-01-14}} {{Commons|British Museum}} * [http://the.british.museum/ Official website of '''The British Museum'''] * [http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/visit/datelist.html A list of important dates in the British museum's history from the official website] * [http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/education/asia/diploma.html '''Diploma in Asian Art, The British Museum''' from the official website] {{London museums}} &lt;!--needs to be in all three because it has many exhibits which are not art--&gt; [[Category:Art museums and galleries in London]] [[Category:Museums in London]] [[Category:National museums]] [[Category:Archaeology museums]] [[Category:Camden]] [[Category:Public bodies and task forces of the United Kingdom government]] [[Category:Grade I listed buildings in London]] [[ar:المتحف البريطاني]] [[ca:Museu Britànic]] [[de:Britisches Museum]] [[eo:Brita Muzeo]] [[es:Museo Británico]] [[fr:British Museum]] [[he:המוזיאון הבריטי]] [[nl:British Museum]] [[ja:大英博物館]] [[it:British Museum]] [[no:British Museum]] [[pt:Museu Britânico]] [[ru:Британский музей]] [[sl:Britanski muzej]] [[fi:British Museum]] [[sv:British Museum]] [[zh:大英博物馆]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bloody Sunday</title> <id>4676</id> <revision> <id>41866390</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:04:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Valip</username> <id>219754</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bloody Sunday''' can refer to any of the following historical events (in chronological order): *[[Bloody Sunday (1887)]], violence in [[London]] on [[13 November]] [[1887]]. *[[Bloody Sunday (1900)]], a day of high casualties in the [[Second Boer War]] on [[18 February]] [[1900]]. *[[Bloody Sunday (1905)]], massacre in [[Saint Petersburg]] on [[22 January]] [[1905]]. *[[Bloody Sunday (1913)]], violence in [[Dublin]] on [[31 August]] [[1913]] during the [[Dublin Lockout]] *[[Bloody Sunday (1920)]], violence in [[Dublin]] on [[21 November]] [[1920]]. *[[Bromberg Bloody Sunday]], said to have taken place in [[Bydgoszcz]] on [[3 September]] [[1939]]. *[[Bloody Sunday (1939)]], during the [[Siege of Warsaw]], [[10 September]] [[1939]] *[[Selma to Montgomery marches#Bloody Sunday - the first march|Bloody Sunday (1965]]): Violence during the [[Selma to Montgomery marches]] on [[7 March]] [[1965]] *[[Bloody Sunday (1972)]], violence in [[Londonderry]] on [[30 January]] [[1972]]. '''Most commonly used''' *''[[Bloody sunday (film)|Bloody Sunday]]'' is also the name of a [[2002]] movie depicting the events of [[Bloody Sunday (1972)]]. == See also== * [[Black Sunday]] * [[Bloody Friday]] * [[Sunday Bloody Sunday]] {{disambig}} [[Category:Sunday]] [[de:Blutsonntag]] [[es:Domingo Sangriento]] [[hr:Krvava nedjelja]] [[it:Bloody Sunday]] [[ja:血の日曜日事件]] [[ko:피의 일요일]] [[nl:Bloody Sunday]] [[pl:Krwawa niedziela]] [[ro:Duminica însângerată]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Binomial theorem</title> <id>4677</id> <revision> <id>39695496</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T05:10:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LouScheffer</username> <id>639456</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Trivia */ Added names</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other topics using the name &quot;binomial&quot;, see [[binomial (disambiguation)]].'' In [[mathematics]], the '''binomial theorem''' is an important [[formula]] giving the expansion of [[exponentiation|power]]s of [[sum]]s. Its simplest version reads :&lt;math&gt;(x+y)^n=\sum_{k=0}^n{n \choose k}x^ky^{n-k}\quad\quad\quad(1)&lt;/math&gt; whenever ''n'' is any non-negative integer, the numbers :&lt;math&gt;{n \choose k}=\frac{n!}{k!(n-k)!}&lt;/math&gt; are the [[binomial coefficient]]s, and &lt;math&gt;n!&lt;/math&gt; denotes the [[factorial]] of ''n''. This formula, and the [[Pascal's triangle|triangular arrangement of the binomial coefficients]], are often attributed to [[Blaise Pascal]] who described them in the [[17th century]]. It was, however, known to Chinese mathematician [[Yang Hui]] in the [[13th century]]. The Persian mathematician [[Omar Khayyám]] may have been the first to discover it. For example, here are the cases ''n''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;2, ''n''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;3 and ''n''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;4: :&lt;math&gt;(x + y)^2 = x^2 + 2xy + y^2\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;(x + y)^3 = x^3 + 3x^2y + 3xy^2 + y^3\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;(x + y)^4 = x^4 + 4x^3y + 6x^2y^2 + 4xy^3 + y^4.\,&lt;/math&gt; Formula (1) is valid for all [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] numbers ''x'' and ''y'', and more generally for any elements ''x'' and ''y'' of a [[semiring]] as long as ''xy''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''yx''. ==Newton's generalized binomial theorem== [[Isaac Newton]] generalized the formula to other exponents by considering an [[infinite series]]: :&lt;math&gt;{(x+y)^r=\sum_{k=0}^\infty {r \choose k} x^k y^{r-k}\quad\quad\quad(2)}&lt;/math&gt; where ''r'' can be any [[complex number]] (in particular ''r'' can be any real number, not necessarily positive and not necessarily an integer), and the coefficients are given by :&lt;math&gt;{r \choose k}={1 \over k!}\prod_{n=0}^{k-1}(r-n)=\frac{r(r-1)(r-2)\cdots(r-(k-1))}{k!}\,&lt;/math&gt; In case ''k''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0, this is a [[empty product|product of no numbers at all]] and therefore equal to 1, and in case ''k'' = 1 it is equal to ''r'', as the additional factors (''r''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1), etc., do not appear. Another way to express this quantity is :&lt;math&gt;{r \choose k}=\frac{(-1)^k}{k!}(-r)_k,&lt;/math&gt; which is important when one is working with infinite series and would like to represent them in terms of [[generalized hypergeometric function]]s. The notation &lt;math&gt;(\cdot)_k&lt;/math&gt; is the [[Pochhammer symbol]]. This form is vital in applied mathematics, for example, when evaluating the formulas that model the statistical properties of the phase-front curvature of a light wave as it propagates through optical atmospheric turbulence. A particularly handy but non-obvious form holds for the reciprocal power: :&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{(1-x)^r}=\sum_{k=0}^\infty {r+k-1 \choose k} x^k \equiv \sum_{k=0}^\infty {r+k-1 \choose r-1} x^k.&lt;/math&gt; For a more extensive account of Newton's generalized binomial theorem, see [[binomial series]]. The sum in (2) converges and the equality is true whenever the real or complex numbers ''x'' and ''y'' are &quot;close together&quot; in the sense that the [[absolute value]] |&amp;nbsp;''x/y''&amp;nbsp;| is less than one. The [[geometric series]] is a special case of (2) where we choose ''y''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1 and ''r''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;1. Formula (2) is also valid for elements ''x'' and ''y'' of a [[Banach algebra]] as long as ''xy''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''yx'', ''y'' is invertible and ||''x/y''|| &lt; 1. ==&quot;Binomial type&quot;== The binomial theorem can be stated by saying that the [[polynomial sequence]] :&lt;math&gt;\left\{\,x^k:k=0,1,2,\dots\,\right\}\,&lt;/math&gt; is of [[binomial type]]. ==A proof== We use [[mathematical induction]]. When ''n'' = 0, we have :&lt;math&gt; (a+b)^0 = 1 = \sum_{k=0}^0 { 0 \choose k } a^{0-k}b^k.&lt;/math&gt; For the inductive step, assume the theorem holds when the exponent is &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;. Then for &lt;math&gt;n=m+1&lt;/math&gt;, :&lt;math&gt; (a+b)^{m+1} = a(a+b)^m + b(a+b)^m&lt;/math&gt; ::&lt;math&gt; = a \sum_{k=0}^m { m \choose k } a^{m-k} b^k + b \sum_{j=0}^m { m \choose j } a^{m-j} b^j&lt;/math&gt; by the inductive hypothesis ::&lt;math&gt; = \sum_{k=0}^m { m \choose k } a^{m-k+1} b^k + \sum_{j=0}^m { m \choose j } a^{m-j} b^{j+1}&lt;/math&gt; by multiplying through by &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; ::&lt;math&gt; = a^{m+1} + \sum_{k=1}^m { m \choose k } a^{m-k+1} b^k + \sum_{j=0}^m { m \choose j } a^{m-j} b^{j+1}&lt;/math&gt; by pulling out the &lt;math&gt;k=0&lt;/math&gt; term ::&lt;math&gt; = a^{m+1} + \sum_{k=1}^m { m \choose k } a^{m-k+1} b^k + \sum_{k=1}^{m+1} { m \choose k-1 }a^{m-k+1}b^{k}&lt;/math&gt; by letting &lt;math&gt; j = k-1&lt;/math&gt; ::&lt;math&gt; = a^{m+1} + \sum_{k=1}^m { m \choose k } a^{m-k+1}b^k + \sum_{k=1}^{m} { m \choose k-1 }a^{m+1-k}b^{k} + b^{m+1}&lt;/math&gt; by pulling out the &lt;math&gt; k=m+1&lt;/math&gt; term from the RHS ::&lt;math&gt; = a^{m+1} + b^{m+1} + \sum_{k=1}^m \left[ { m \choose k } + { m \choose k-1 } \right] a^{m+1-k}b^k&lt;/math&gt; by combining the sums ::&lt;math&gt; = a^{m+1} + b^{m+1} + \sum_{k=1}^m { m+1 \choose k } a^{m+1-k}b^k&lt;/math&gt; from [[Pascal's rule]] ::&lt;math&gt; = \sum_{k=0}^{m+1} { m+1 \choose k } a^{m+1-k}b^k&lt;/math&gt; by adding in the &lt;math&gt; m+1&lt;/math&gt; terms. as desired. ==Trivia== * In the [[Sherlock Holmes]] books, the villain [[Professor Mori
|Constan&amp;#355;a]], [[Yalta]], [[Odessa]], [[Sevastopol]], [[Kerch]], [[Novorossiysk]], [[Sochi]], [[Sukhumi]], [[Poti]], [[Batumi]], [[Trabzon]], [[Samsun]]. == Name == Modern names of the Sea are universally translations of Μαύρη Θάλασσα &quot;Black Sea&quot;, [[Turkish language|Turkish]] Kara Deniz, [[Russian language|Russian]] Чёрное море, [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] Черно море, Cherno more, [[Georgian language|Georgian]] შავი ზღვა, shavi zghva, [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] Chorne More, [[Romanian language|Romanian]] Marea Neagră, [[Laz]] Ucha Zuğa (or simple Zuğa &quot;Sea&quot;), [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] {{IPA|ʃʷaʤa}}. This type cannot be traced to an earlier date than the [[13th century]], but there are indications that it may be considerably older, cf. below. [[Strabo]] (1.2.10) reports that in antiquity, the Black Sea was often just called &quot;the Sea&quot; (''pontos''), just like [[Homer]] was often simply called &quot;the Poet&quot;. For the most part, Graeco-Roman tradition refers to the Black Sea as {{Polytonic|Εὔξεινος Πόντος}} (''Euxeinos Pontos'') &quot;Hospitable sea&quot;. This is a [[euphemism]] replacing an earlier ''Pontos Axeinos'' &quot;Inhospitable Sea&quot;, first attested in [[Pindar]] (early 5th century BC). Strabo (7.3.6) thinks that the Black Sea was called &quot;inhospitable&quot; before Greek colonization, because it was difficult to navigate, and because its shores were inhabited by savage tribes, and that the name was changed to &quot;hospitable&quot; after the [[Milesians]] had colonized, as it were making it part of the Greek civilization. It is, however, likely that the name ''Axeinos'' arose by [[popular etymology]] from an Iranian ''axšaina-'' meaning &quot;dark&quot;; the designation &quot;Black Sea&quot; would, after all, go back to Antiquity. The motive for the name may be an ancient assignment of colours to the direction of the compass, &quot;black&quot; referring to the north, and &quot;red&quot; referring to the south. [[Herodotus]] on one occasion uses [[Red Sea]] and &quot;Southern Sea&quot; interchangeably. Cf. Schmitt 1996. ==Geology== The Black Sea is the largest anoxic, or [[oxygen]]-free, marine system. This is a result of the great depth of the sea and the relatively high salinity (and therefore density) of the water at depth; freshwater and seawater mixing is limited to the uppermost 100 to 150 m, with the water below this interface (called the [[pycnocline]]) being exchanged only once every thousand years. There is therefore no significant gas exchange with the surface, and as a result [[decay]]ing [[organic compound|organic]] matter in the [[sediment]] consumes any available oxygen. In these anoxic conditions some [[extremophile]] microorganisms are able to use [[sulfate]] (SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;) for oxidation of organic material, producing [[hydrogen sulfide]] (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;S) and [[carbon dioxide]]. This mix is extremely toxic (a lungful would be fatal to a human), resulting in a sea that has almost all of its ecology living in that top layer down to a depth of approximately 180 m (600 ft). The relative lack of [[micro-organisms]] and oxygen has allowed deep-sea expeditions to recover ancient (on the order of thousands of years) human artifacts, such as boat hulls and the remains of settlements. [[Image:Ostrvo.gif|thumb|right|400px|The Bulgarian coastline of the Black Sea has only a few small, barren islands.]] Large amounts of organic material reach the bottom of the sea and accumulate in the sediments in concentrations of up to 20%. These kinds of sediments are called [[sapropel]]. While it is agreed that the Black Sea has been a freshwater lake (at least in upper layers) with a considerably lower level during the last glaciation, its postglacial development into a marine sea is still a subject of intensive study and debate. There are catastrophic scenarios such as put forward by William Ryan and Walter Pitman as well as models emphasizing a more gradual transition to saline conditions and transgression in the Black Sea. They are based on different theories about the level the freshwater lake had reached by the time the Mediterranean Sea was high enough to flow over the Dardanelles and the Bosporus. On the other hand, a study of the sea floor on the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] side shows that in the [[8th millennium BC|8th millennium BCE]] there was a large flow of fresh water out of the Black Sea (New Scientist, [[4 May]] [[2002]], p. 13). == Ryan-Pitman Deluge Theory == ''For more detail, see the main article at [[Black Sea deluge theory]].'' In 1997, William Ryan and Walter Pitman from [[Columbia University]] published a theory that a massive flood through the [[Bosporus]] occurred in ancient times. They claim that the Black and [[Caspian Sea]]s were vast freshwater lakes, but that about [[5600 BC]], the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] spilled over a rocky sill at the Bosporus, creating the current communication between the Black and Mediterranean Seas. Subsequent work has been done to both support and discredit this theory, and it remains an active subject of debate among archaeologists. ==History== The steppes to the north of the Black Sea have been suggested as the original homeland (''[[Urheimat]]'') of the speakers of the [[Proto-Indo-European language]], (PIE) the progenitor of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] family, by some scholars (see [[Kurgan]]; others move the heartland further east towards the [[Caspian Sea]], yet others to [[Anatolia]]). The name 'Black Sea' (initially ''Pontos Axeinos'', &quot;inhospitable sea&quot;, later renamed ''Pontos Euxeinos'', &quot;hospitable sea&quot; to gain the sea's good favor) was coined by the [[Ancient Greek]] navigators, because of the unusual dark color, compared with the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Visibility in the Black Sea is on average approximately 5 metres (15 feet), as compared to up to 35 metres (100 feet) in the Mediterranean. The water however is as blue as any other sea on bright, clear days. The land at the eastern end of the Black Sea, [[Colchis]] (now [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]), marked for the Greeks an edge of the known world. ==Holiday resorts and spas== [[Image:sochi_edited.jpg|right|thumb|Photo of the Black Sea near Sochi, taken in 1915.]] *[[Ahtopol]] (Bulgaria) *[[Anapa]] (Russia) *[[Alupka]] (Ukraine) *[[Alushta]] (Crimea, Ukraine) *[[Balchik]] (Bulgaria) *[[Emona (Burgas)|Emona]] (Bulgaria) *[[Eupatoria]] (Crimea, Ukraine) *[[Theodosia]] (Crimea, Ukraine) *[[Giresun]] (Turkey) *[[Gagra]] (Georgia) *[[Golden Sands]] (Bulgaria) *[[Gurzuf]] (Crimea/Ukraine) *[[Jupiter, Romania|Jupiter]] (Romania) *[[Kobuleti]] (Georgia) *[[Koktebel]] (Crimea/Ukraine) *[[Mamaia]] (Romania) *[[Mangalia]] (Romania) *[[Neptun, Romania|Neptun]] (Romania) *[[Nessebar]] (Bulgaria) *[[Novorossiysk]] (Russia) *[[Odessa]] (Ukraine) *[[Olimp, Romania|Olimp]] (Romania) *[[Pitsunda]] (Abkhazia/Georgia) *[[Pomorie]] (Bulgaria) *[[Rize]] (Turkey) *[[Rusalka]] (Bulgaria) *[[Saturn, Romania|Saturn]] (Romania) *[[Sochi]] (Russia) *[[Sozopol]] (Bulgaria) *[[Sudak]] (Crimea/Ukraine) *[[Sunny Beach]] (Bulgaria) *[[Sveti Vlas]] (Bulgaria) *[[Trabzon]] (Turkey) *[[Tuapse]] (Russia) *[[Vama Veche]] (Romania) *[[Venus, Romania|Venus]] (Romania) *[[Yalta]] (Crimea/Ukraine) ==See also== *[[Anoxic event]] *[[Bulgarian Black Sea Coast]] *[[Ancomah]] ==References== * Charles King, ''The Black Sea: A History'', 2004, ISBN 0199241619 * William Ryan and Walter Pitman, ''Noah's Flood'', 1999, ISBN 0684859203 * Neal Ascherson, ''Black Sea'' (Vintage 1996), ISBN 0099593718 * [[Özhan Öztürk]]. Karadeniz: Ansiklopedik Sözlük (Black Sea: Encyclopedic Dictionary). 2 Cilt (2 Volumes). Heyamola Publishing. Istanbul.2005 ISBN 975-6121-00-9. * Rüdiger Schmitt, &quot;Considerations on the Name of the Black Sea&quot;, in: ''Hellas und der griechische Osten'' (Saarbrücken 1996), pp. 219-224 ==External links== *[http://blacksea.orlyonok.ru/blacksea.shtml Black Sea Environment and Marine Life - Learning Pages] (available in Russian and English languages) *[http://www.blacksea-archaeology.org/ The Center for Black Sea Archaeology] (available in German and English languages) *[http://goobix.com/black-sea-pictures/ Goobix.com - Black Sea Pictures] (from February 2005) *[http://www.museum.upenn.edu/Sinop/SinopIntro.htm The Black Sea Trade Project] *[http://ebs.hit.bg/ ECOLOGY OF BLACK SEA] *[http://www.sonbaski.com/fotograf1.htm Black Sea Photo/Turkey] *[http://earthfromspace.photoglobe.info/spc_blacksea.html Earth from Space] - Black Sea [[Category:Black Sea]] [[Category:Seas]] {{Link FA|sl}} [[ar:بحر أسود]] [[ast:Mar Prieta]] [[bg:Черно море]] [[ca:Mar Negra]] [[cs:Černé moře]] [[cy:Y Môr Du]] [[da:Sortehavet]] [[de:Schwarzes Meer]] [[el:Μαύρη Θάλασσα]] [[et:Must meri]] [[es:Mar Negro]] [[eo:Nigra Maro]] [[fr:Mer Noire]] [[fy:Swarte See]] [[gl:Mar Negro]] [[ko:흑해]] [[hr:Crno more]] [[id:Laut Hitam]] [[is:Svartahaf]] [[it:Mar Nero]] [[he:הים השחור]] [[la:Pontus Euxinus]] [[lt:Juodoji jūra]] [[hu:Fekete-tenger]] [[mk:Црно Море]] [[mo:Маря Нягрэ]] [[nl:Zwarte Zee]] [[ja:黒海]] [[ka:შავი ზღვა]] [[no:Svartehavet]] [[nn:Svartehavet]] [[os:Сау денджыз]] [[pl:Morze Czarne]] [[pt:Mar Negro]] [[ro:Marea Neagră]] [[ru:Чёрное море]] [[scn:Mari Niuru]] [[simple:Black Sea]] [[sk:Čierne more]] [[sl:Črno morje]] [[sr:Црно море]] [[fi:Mustameri]] [[sv:Svarta havet]] [[th:ทะเลดำ]] [[tr:Karadeniz]] [[uk:Чорне море]] [[zh:黑海]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Berlin Film Festival</title> <id>3387</id> <revision> <id>41651287</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:27:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hede2000</username> <id>284384</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+da:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Berlinale logo small.png|right]] '''The Berlin International Fi
available bandwidth can be immediately dedicated to those users who are actually sending at any given moment, providing higher utilisation where users only send or receive data intermittently. Web browsing, receiving e-mails as they arrive and [[instant messaging]] are examples of uses that require intermittent data transfers, which benefit from sharing the available bandwidth. Usually, GPRS data are billed per kilobytes of information transceived while circuit-switched data connections are billed per second. The latter is to reflect the fact that even during times when no data are being transferred, the bandwidth is unavailable to other potential users. GPRS originally supported (in theory) [[Internet protocol|IP]], [[Point-to-Point Protocol|PPP]] and [[X.25]] connections. The latter has been typically used for applications like wireless payment terminals although it has been removed as a requirement from the standard. X.25 can still be supported over PPP, or even over IP, but doing this requires either a router to do encapsulation or intelligence built into the end terminal. === GPRS speeds and profile === Packet-switched data under GPRS is achieved by allocating unused cell bandwidth to transmit data. As dedicated voice (or data) channels are setup by phones, the bandwidth available for packet switched data shrinks. A consequence of this is that packet switched data has a poor bit rate in busy cells. The theoretical limit for packet switched data is approx. 160.0 kbit/s (using 8 time slots and CS-4). A realistic bit rate is 30&amp;ndash;80&amp;nbsp;[[kbit/s]], because it is possible to use max 4 time slots for downlink. A change to the radio part of GPRS called [[Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution|EDGE]] allows higher bit rates of between 160 and 236.8&amp;nbsp;kbit/s. The maximum data rates are achieved only by allocation of more than one time slot in the TDMA frame. Also, the higher the data rate, the lower the error correction capability. Generally, the connection speed drops logarithmically with distance from the base station. This is not an issue in heavily populated areas with high cell density, but may become an issue in sparsely populated/rural areas. === The GPRS Capability Classes=== ; Class A : Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), using both at the same time. No such devices are known to be available today. ; Class B : Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), but using only one or the other at a given time. During GSM service (voice call or SMS), GPRS service is suspended, and then resumed automatically after the GSM service (voice call or SMS) has concluded. Most GPRS mobile devices are Class B. ; Class C : Are connected to either GPRS service or GSM service (voice, SMS). Must be switched manually between one or the other service. ===GPRS Multislot Classes=== GPRS speed is a direct function of the number of TDMA time slots assigned, which is the lesser of (a) what the particular cell supports and (b) the maximum capability of the mobile device expressed as a '''GPRS Multislot Class'''. :{| border=&quot;1&quot; ! &amp;nbsp; Multislot Class &amp;nbsp; ! &amp;nbsp; Downlink Slots &amp;nbsp; ! &amp;nbsp; Uplink Slots &amp;nbsp; ! &amp;nbsp; Active Slots &amp;nbsp; |- | align=&quot;center&quot; | 1 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 1 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 1 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 |- | align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 1 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 |- | align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 |- | align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 1 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 |- | align=&quot;center&quot; | 5 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 |- | align=&quot;center&quot; | 6 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 |- | align=&quot;center&quot; | 7 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 |- | align=&quot;center&quot; | 8 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 1 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 5 |- | align=&quot;center&quot; | 9 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 5 |- | align=&quot;center&quot; | 10 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 5 |- | align=&quot;center&quot; | 11 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 5 |- | align=&quot;center&quot; | 12 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 | align=&quot;center&quot; | 5 |} The most common GPRS Multislot Classes are: :; Class 2 : Minimal GPRS implementation :; Class 4 : Modest GPRS implementation, 50% faster download than Class 2 :; Class 6 : Modest implementation, but with better uploading than Class 4 :; Class 8 : Better implementation, 33% faster download than Classes 4 &amp; 6 :; Class 10 : Better implementation, and with better uploading than Class 8, seen in better cell phones and PC Cards :; Class 12 : Best implementation, with maximum upload performance, typically seen only in high-end PC Cards ===GPRS Coding=== Transfer speed depends also on the channel encoding used. The least robust (but fastest) encoding scheme (CS-4) is available near the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) while the most robust encoding scheme (CS-1) is used when the Mobile Station (MS) is further away from the BTS. Using the CS-4 it is possible to achieve a user speed of 20.0&amp;nbsp;[[kbit/s]] per time slot. However, using this scheme the cell coverage is 25% of normal. CS-1 can achieve a user speed of only 8.0 kbit/s per time slot, but has 98% of normal coverage. Newer network equipment can adapt the transfer speed automatically depending on the mobile location. :{| border=&quot;1&quot; ! || &amp;nbsp; Speed (kbit/s) &amp;nbsp; |- | align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;nbsp; CS-1 &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; 8.0 |- | align=&quot;center&quot; | CS-2 || &amp;nbsp; 12.0 |- | align=&quot;center&quot; | CS-3 || &amp;nbsp; 14.4 |- | align=&quot;center&quot; | CS-4 || &amp;nbsp; 20.0 |} :{| border=&quot;1&quot; ! || &amp;nbsp; Download (kbit/s) &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; Upload (kbit/s) &amp;nbsp; |- | &amp;nbsp; CSD || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; 9.6 || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; 9.6 |- | &amp;nbsp; HSCSD || &amp;nbsp; 28.8 || &amp;nbsp; 14.4 (2+1) |- | &amp;nbsp; HSCSD || &amp;nbsp; 43.2 || &amp;nbsp; 14.4 (3+1) |- | &amp;nbsp; GPRS 4+1 || &amp;nbsp; 80.0 || &amp;nbsp; 20.0 (Class 8 &amp; 10 and CS-4) &amp;nbsp; |- | &amp;nbsp; GPRS 3+2 &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; 60.0 || &amp;nbsp; 40.0 (Class 10 and CS-4) |} Note: Like [[Circuit Switched Data|CSD]], [[HSCSD]] establishes a circuit and is usually billed per minute. For an application such as [[downloading]], HSCSD may be preferred, since [[circuit-switched]] data are usually given priority over [[packet-switched]] data on a mobile network, and there are relatively few seconds when no data are being transferred. GPRS is packet based. When [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] is used, each phone can have one or more [[IP address|IP addresses]] allocated. GPRS will store and forward the IP packets to the phone during cell handover (when you move from one cell to another). A radio noise induced pause can be interpreted by TCP as packet loss, and cause a temporary throttling in transmission speed. ==GPRS Services== GPRS upgrades GSM data services providing: *[[Point-to-point]] (PTP) service: internetworking with the Internet (IP protocols) and X.25 networks. *[[Point-to-multipoint]] (PT2MP) service: point-to-multipoint multicast and point-to-multipoint group calls. *[[Short Message Service]] (SMS): bearer for SMS. *Anonymous service: anonymous access to predefined services. *Future enhancements: flexible to add new functions, such as more capacity, more users, new accesses, new protocols, new radio networks. ==GPRS in practice== Telephone operators have priced GPRS relatively cheaply (compared to older GSM data transfer, [[Cellular Switched Data|CSD]] and [[high-speed circuit-switched data|HSCSD]]) in many areas, such as [[Finland]]. Most [[mobile phone operator]]s don't offer [[flat rate]] access to the Internet (with the notable exceptions of [[T-Mobile]] in both [[United States]] and [[Europe]], and [[Cingular]] in the [[United States]]), instead basing their tariffs on data transferred, usually rounded off per 100 kilobyte. Typical rates vary wildly, ranging from [[Euro|EUR]] &amp;euro;1 per [[megabyte]] to over &amp;euro;20 per megabyte. In the U.S., [[T-Mobile]] offers US$30 per month unlimited GPRS. In [[India]], BPL Mobile ([[Bombay]]) offers unlimited GPRS for Rs.500 (USD 11) per month. [[AirTel]] offers nation-wide unlimited GPRS and [[EDGE]] for Rs. 600 (USD 13.5). Orange (UK) offers a 1 Gigabyte package for &amp;euro;128 a month, and a £1 per day unlimited use package for pre-paid users. In [[Poland]], [[Era GSM]] offers a 2 Gigabyte package of GPRS and UMTS transmission under [[Blueconnect]] brand for &amp;euro;30 a month and [[Plus GSM]] offerts a 1 Gigabyte package for &amp;euro;15 a month. GPRS Data on pre-paid packages is usually expensive, and limited to [[WAP]] and [[Multimedia Messaging System|MMS]]. Full internet access, allowing Web browsing, access to POP/IMAP mail, FTP and other mainstream Web applications is usually restricted to contract packages, and are made available at lower cost. The maximum speed of a GPRS connection (as offered in [[2003]]) is the same as [[modem]] connection in an analog wire telephone network, about 4&amp;ndash;5&amp;nbsp;kB/s (depending on the phone used). [[Latency]] is very high; a round-trip [[ping]] being typically about 600&amp;ndash;700&amp;nbsp;ms and often re
his streak interrupted by two-time champion [[Alberto Ascari]] of [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]. Though [[United Kingdom|Britain's]] [[Stirling Moss]] was able to compete regularly, he was never able to win the World Championship. Fangio is remembered for dominating Formula One's first decade and has long been considered the &quot;grand master&quot; of Formula One. The first major technological development, [[Cooper Car Company|Cooper's]] re-introduction of mid-engined cars (following [[Porsche]]'s pioneering and all-conquering [[Auto Union|Auto Unions]] of the 1930s), which evolved from the company's successful [[Formula 3]] designs, occurred in the 1950s. [[Jack Brabham]], champion in 1959 and 1960, soon proved the new design's superiority. By 1961, all competitors had switched to mid-engined cars. The first [[United Kingdom|British]] World Champion was [[Mike Hawthorn]], who drove a Ferrari to the title in 1958. However, when [[Colin Chapman]] entered F1 as a chassis designer and later founder of [[Lotus (car)|Lotus]], [[British racing green]] came to dominate the field for the next decade. Between [[Jim Clark]], [[Jackie Stewart]], [[Jack Brabham]], [[Graham Hill]], and [[Denny Hulme]], British teams and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] drivers won twelve world championships between 1962 and 1973. In 1962, Lotus introduced a car with an aluminium sheet monocoque chassis instead of the traditional spaceframe design. This proved to be the greatest technological breakthrough since the introduction of mid-engined cars. In 1968, Lotus painted [[Imperial Tobacco]] livery on their cars, thus introducing [[sponsor|sponsorship]] to the sport. Aerodynamic [[downforce]] slowly gained importance in car design from the appearance of [[aerofoil]]s in the late 1960s. In the late 1970s Lotus introduced [[ground effect]] aerodynamics that provided enormous downforce and greatly increased cornering speeds (though the concept had previously been tested by [[Jim Hall]]'s [[Chaparral (car)|Chaparral]] [[IndyCar]] team in the 1960s). The formation of the [[Federation Internationale du Sport Automobile]] in 1979 set off the [[FISA-FOCA War]], during which FISA and its president [[Jean Marie Balestre]] clashed repeatedly with the [[Formula One Constructors Association]] over television profits and technical regulations. === Rise in popularity === 1981 saw the signing of the first [[Concorde Agreement]], a contract which bound the teams to compete until its expiration and assured them a share of the profits from the sale of television rights, bringing an end to the [[FISA-FOCA War]] and contributing to [[Bernie Ecclestone]]'s eventual complete financial control of the sport, after much negotiation. The [[FIA]] imposed a ban on [[ground effect]] aerodynamics in [[1983 Formula One season|1983]]. By then, however, [[turbocharger|turbocharged]] engines, which [[Renault Sport|Renault]] had pioneered in 1977, were producing over 700&amp;nbsp;[[bhp]] (520&amp;nbsp;[[kilowatt|kW]]) and were essential to be competitive. In later years, notably 1987, the Formula One turbo cars produced in excess of 1,000 bhp in racing trim (and perhaps as much as 1,250 bhp in qualifying trim). These cars were the most powerful [[open-wheel]] circuit racing cars ever. To reduce engine power output and thus speeds, the FIA limited fuel tank capacity in 1984 and [[boost]] pressures in 1988 before banning turbocharged engines in 1989. In the early 1990s, teams started introducing electronic driver aids such as [[Suspension_%28vehicle%29#Passive.2C_Semi_Active.2C_and_Active_Suspensions|active suspension]], [[Gearbox#Semi-automatic_transmission|semi-automatic gearbox]]es and [[traction control]]. Some were borrowed from contemporary road cars. Some, like active [[suspension (vehicle)|suspension]], were primarily developed for the track and later made their way to the showroom. The FIA, due to complaints that technology was determining the outcome of races more than driver skill, banned many such aids in 1994. However, many observers felt that the ban on driver aids was a ban in name only as the FIA did not have the technology or the methods to eliminate these features from competition. The teams signed a second Concorde Agreement in 1992 and a third in 1997, which is due to expire on the last day of 2007. On the track, the [[Team McLaren|McLaren]] and [[WilliamsF1|Williams]] teams dominated the 1980s and 1990s. [[Honda]] and McLaren dominated much of the 1980s, whilst [[Renault]]-powered Williams drivers won several world championships in the mid 1990s, with a McLaren comeback in the late 1990s. The rivalry between racing legends [[Ayrton Senna|Senna]] and [[Alain Prost|Prost]] became F1's central focus in [[1988 Formula One season|1988]], and continued until Prost retired at the end of 1993. Tragically, [[Ayrton Senna]] died in a crash at the [[1994 San Marino Grand Prix]] having taken over Prost's lead drive at Williams that year. The [[FIA]] vowed to improve the sport's safety standards; since that weekend, no driver has died on the track during a race. Drivers from McLaren, Williams, [[Renault F1|Renault]] (formerly [[Benetton Formula|Benetton]]) and [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]], dubbed the &quot;Big Four&quot;, have won every World Championship from 1984 to the present day. Due to the technological advances of the 1990s, the cost of competing in Formula One rose dramatically. This increased financial burden, combined with four teams' dominance (largely funded by big car manufacturers such as [[DaimlerChrysler]]), caused the poorer independent teams to struggle not only to remain competitive, but to stay in business. Financial troubles forced several teams to withdraw. Since 1990, 28 teams have pulled out of Formula One. This has prompted former [[Jordan Grand Prix|Jordan]] owner [[Eddie Jordan]] to say that the days of competitive privateers are over.{{ref|EJ_privateers}} === Modern F1 === [[Image:F1 yellow flag and SC sign.jpg|thumb|200px|Safety is of paramount concern in modern F1.]] [[Image:F1 logo.png|thumb|130px|The official Formula One logo is part of the [[Formula One Administration]]'s efforts to give F1 a corporate identity.]] Many records have been broken in the 21st century especially in the hands of German [[Michael Schumacher]] and recently the young Spaniard [[Fernando Alonso]]. The early 2000s were dominated by [[Michael Schumacher]] and a resurgent [[Ferrari]]. In 2001, Schumacher set the new record for the most Grands Prix ever won; the earlier record holder was [[Alain Prost]], with 51 wins to his name. In 2002, Schumacher also set a new record by claiming the championship earlier in the season than any previous driver by winning the French Grand Prix in [[July]] that year.{{ref|Schumacher_record}} In 2003, Schumacher claimed his sixth championship title, beating the earlier record-holder, [[Juan Manuel Fangio]] with five championships. His record now stands at 7 championships. In 2003 [[Fernando Alonso]] became the youngest ever pole sitter by qualifying first at [[2003 Malaysian Grand Prix|Malaysia]]. Later that year he became the youngest ever winner of a Grand Prix when he took the chequered flag in [[2003 Hungarian Grand Prix|Hungary]]. Despite Ferrari's dominance, [[Kimi Räikkönen]] driving for [[McLaren]] had a theoretical chance of claiming the championship in 2003 right until the end of the season at the [[Japanese Grand Prix]]. [[Juan Pablo Montoya]] driving for [[Williams]] also came close in 2003. Ferrari's championship streak finally came to an end on [[September 25]], [[2005]] when [[Fernando Alonso]] clinched the 2005 championship with a third place finish at the Brazilian Grand Prix to become the youngest champion to date, replacing previous record holder [[Emerson Fittipaldi]] of Brazil. Michael Schumacher had been world champion for more than 1,800 days. In the rulebook, several driver aids returned due in part to developments that allowed teams to evade the FIA &quot;restrictions&quot;. Meanwhile, several changes to the rules were made in a bid to improve the on-track action and cut spiralling costs. Most notably, the qualifying format has changed several times since 2003. Another new regulation made drivers start each race with the same level of fuel they had during qualifying, introducing a new tactical element to each team's strategy. Other new restrictions included one making it mandatory for each engine to last two races; a driver that had to have his engine replaced would be penalised by starting at a lower position in the starting grid of the race. In 2005, drivers were no longer allowed to change tires during the race, unless the tires are deemed to be dangerously worn. The first few years of the 21st century in F1 also saw some controversies and scandals. At the [[Austrian Grand Prix]] in 2002, [[Rubens Barrichello]], Schumacher's teammate at Ferrari who was leading the race, was ordered to allow Schumacher to overtake him. The ensuing scandal saw Ferrari slapped with a fine by the FIA, who also banned any further use of team orders in the new rules and regulations. {{ref|team_orders}} In 2005, the [[United States Grand Prix]] at [[Indianapolis]] saw only three out of ten teams race in a bizarre mishap when it turned out that the [[Michelin]] tires for the other seven teams could not be safely used on the surface of the track, causing them to pull out {{ref|tyre_scandal}} when the FIA refused a change for safety reasons, insisting on keeping to the letter of the regulations. During the early 2000s, Bernie Ecclestone's [[Formula One Administration]] created a number of trademarks, an official logo, and an official website for the sport in an attempt to give it a corporate identity. Ecclestone experimented with a digital television package (known colloquially as [[Bernievision]]), which was launched at the 1996 German Grand Prix in cooperation with German digital television service &quot;
d DNA of the [[Thylacine]] (Tasmanian Tiger), extinct about 65 years previous, using [[polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR)[http://www.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/auspac/05/28/aust.thylacines/]. However, on [[February 15]] [[2005]] the museum announced that it was stopping the project after tests showed the specimens' DNA had been too badly degraded by the ([[ethanol]]) preservative. Most recently, on [[May 15]] [[2005]], it was announced that the project would be revived, with new participation from researchers in New South Wales and Victoria. One of the continuing obstacles in the attempt to clone extinct species is the need for nearly perfect DNA. Cloning from a single specimen could not create a viable breeding population in sexually reproducing animals. Furthermore, even if males and females could be cloned, the question would remain open if they would be viable at all in the absence of parents that teach or show them natural behavior. Essentially, even if cloning an extinct species would succeed - it must be considered that cloning still is an experimental technology that succeeds only by chance -, it is far more likely than not that any resulting animals, even if they were healthy, would be little more than curios or museum pieces. Most [[conservation biology|conservation biologists]] are rather vehemently opposed to cloning and consider it a smokescreen fit for generating headlines, but detrimental to conservation success, as funds needed to preserve habitat and wild populations threaten to be diverted to such cloning projects and eventually might even cause the extinction of species in a wild state; the rule-of-thumb in animal conservation is that conservation attempts in captivity are not to be undertaken on a standalone basis if it is still feasible to conserve habitat and viable wild populations. The banteng cloning project was an exception, as the animal cloned was a distinct genetic lineage and the value of preserving this piece of genetic diversity of an already inbred species outweighed the uncertainties. ==Dolly The Sheep== [[Image:Dolly the sheep2-thumb.jpg|right|190px|thumb|Dolly and her first-born lamb, Bonnie]] {{main|Dolly the Sheep}} Dolly ([[5 July]] [[1996]] – [[14 February]] [[2003]]), an ewe, was the first mammal to have been successfully cloned from an adult cell. She was cloned at the Roslin Institute in Scotland and lived there until her death when she was 6. Her birth was announced on [[22 February]] [[1997]]. [[Ian Wilmut]] is the leader of the research team who created Dolly. The name &quot;Dolly&quot; came from a suggestion by Jesse Haase who helped with her birth, in honour of Dolly Parton, because it was a mammary cell that was cloned. The technique that was made famous by her birth is somatic cell nuclear transfer, in which a non-reproductive cell containing a nucleus is placed in a de-nucleated ovum (which then develops into a fetus). When Dolly was cloned in 1996 from a cell taken from a six-year-old ewe, she became the centre of much controversy that still exists today. On [[9 April]] [[2003]] her stuffed remains were placed at Edinburgh's Royal Museum, part of the National Museums of Scotland. ==Technical Hurdles== Cloning is quite inefficient and usually there are over 600 to 1000 nuclear transfers before one is able to grow into a [[stem cell]]. This inefficiency is thought to be due to [[genetic imprinting]] in the cloned adult cell that interferes with the correct gene expression in the embryo. Even those animals that are successfully cloned are not as heathly as the original animal. For example, Dolly had arthritis and sign of premature aging. ''see'' [[Methylation#Epigenetics|methylation]] and [[epigenetic]] ==Publications== [http://www.liebertpub.com/publication.aspx?pub_id=9 Cloning and Stem Cells], published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., publishes peer-reviewed research papers on the remarkable new opportunities in medicine, biology, and agriculture that arise from the demonstration of far greater than expected developmental plasticity in mammalian cells. Papers cover all aspects of cloning along with the culture and differentiation of stem cells from all stages of development from embryo to adult. ==Cloning in fiction== Cloning has been widely explored in science-fiction. *''[[Sleeper (movie)|Sleeper]]'' (1973). [[Woody Allen]]'s comedic exploration of a [[Dystopia|dystopic]] future includes an attempt to resurrect an assassinated dictator by cloning him from the only surviving body part, namely his nose. *''[[Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones]]'' (2002) and ''[[Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith]](2005)'', two of the sequels in the George Lucas' [[film]] series. A species called [[List of Star Wars races#Kaminoan|Kaminoans]] use an accelerated cloning technique to create an [[Grand Army of the Republic (Star Wars)|army]] of over a million [[human (Star Wars)|human]] soldiers that participate in a galaxy-wide conflict known as the [[Clone Wars]]. *''[[Parts: The Clonus Horror]]'' (1979). A science fiction film about an isolated community in a remote desert area, where clones are bred to serve as a source of replacement organs for the wealthy and powerful. *''[[The Boys from Brazil]]'', [[novel]] (1976) and film adaptation (1978). Nazi Dr. Josef Mengele clones children from [[Adolf Hitler]]’s DNA in Paraguay. *''[[Brave New World]]'' (1932). An allegorical novel of social commentary. People do not [[sexual reproduction|reproduce sexually]], but are cloned by [[embryo]] splitting, the way monozygotic [[twin#Identical twins|(”identical”) twins]] actually occur, and the lower castes are [[Chemistry|chemically]] stunted. Describes the impact of an extrinsic noble Savage on a regulated and [[sedative|tranquilized]] World State. *''[[The 6th Day]]'' (2000). A film whose main themes are clones (e.g., the protagonist), and branching ethical cloning problems. *''[[The Island (2005 film)|The Island]]'' (2005). A film about the ethics of cloning. Follows the story of clones grown in a secret complex for the sole purpose of harvesting their [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] for use as replacements in the originals, while they believe they are living independent, purposeful lives. *''[[Jurassic Park]]'', novel (1990) and film (1993) by [[Michael Crichton]]. Vacation island populated with [[dinosaur]]s cloned using DNA from [[blood]] sucked by [[fossil]]ized, prehistoric [[insect]]s. Initially only [[female]]s, they learn to [[biological reproduction|reproduce]]. The enclosure fails and [[disaster]] ensues. *''[[The House of the Scorpion]]'', Nancy farmer (2002). Young adult novel following the life of Matteo Alacran, a cloned young man who goes through a normal life, but soon finds out about his origin. *''[[Metal Gear Solid]]'' A man believed to be the best soldier of the 21th century, is cloned while comatosed. *''The Clone'' (year?) by [[H. G. Wells|H.G. Wells]], the [[historian]] and novelist who, along with the equally prescient [[Jules Verne]], established the [[science fiction]] genre at the end of the [[19th century]]. * ''Cloning'', [[User:David Shear|David Shear]] (1972). Novel about a scientist who discovers he is a clone. His mind and body are taken over by the psyche of a genetic twin he never knew. Describes cloning by [[cell nucleus|nuclear]] transfer, [[gene therapy]], and growing replacement organs. Explicates the [[abortion]] debate and the criterion for [[death]]. *''[[Godsend]]'' *''[[Gattaca]]'' (1997). Movie about the struggles of a man not [[genetic engineering|genetically engineered]], in a world where people produced by sexual union are considered unworthy of good [[profession]]s. The letters in the name are [[Adenine|A]], [[Thymine|T]], [[Guanine|G]], and [[Cytosine|C]], the elements of the [[genetic code]] in [[DNA]]. *''[[Never Let Me Go]]'' (2005). by [[Kazuo Ishiguro]] details a world where clones are raised away from the [[public]] to provide [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] for [[organ donation]]. *The [[Vorkosigan Saga]] by [[Lois McMaster Bujold]] has as a significant plot thread the cloning industry of the planet Jackson's Whole and the use of clones as spare bodies into which the brains of rich, elderly customers are transferred. *In the episode of [[South Park]] titled [[An Elephant Makes Love to a Pig]], Dr. Mephisto creates an clone of [[Stan Marsh|Stan]], which turns out deformed and destructive. ==End Notes== #{{Note|Wasmannia}}&quot;[http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/mg18625065.600 Bizarre stand-off in battle of the sexes]&quot; ''[[New Scientist]],'' [[July 2]] [[2005]] ==External links and references== *[http://www.stemcellsclub.com/ Stem Cells &amp; Cloning Club (SCCC) - online community dedicated to the provision and discussion of information related to stem cell, cloning and cell therapy research; news, articles, interviews, business, discussion and more...]. *[http://www.reproductivecloning.net The Reproductive Cloning Network] Cloning articles, resources and links *[http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/cloning/ Cloning in Focus], an accessible and comprehensive look at cloning research from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center *[http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/cloning/clickandclone/ Click and Clone]. Try it yourself in the virtual mouse cloning laboratory, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3548210.stm Cloned Cats in Texas] *[http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/categories/index/cloning.php Cloning News from Genome News Network (GNN)] *[http://www.roslin.ac.uk/public/cloning.html Discussion of cloning from the Roslin Institute] - creators of [[Dolly the sheep]] *[http://edition.cnn.com/interactive/health/0108/cloning.timeline/content.html Cloning timeline]: from [[CNN]] *[http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/research/story/0,9865,1280916,00.html Green Light to Cloning in Britain] *[http://www.jpgmonline.com/artic
. There are 85,067 housing units at an average density of 433.3/km&amp;sup2; (1,122.3/mi&amp;sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 82.29% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 8.07% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.35% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 3.50% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.05% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 3.52% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.23% from two or more races. 6.61% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race. There are 80,504 households out of which 29.5% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.7% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 12.6% have a female householder with no husband present, and 39.5% are non-families. 31.9% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.2% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.39 and the average family size is 3.04. In the city the population is spread out with 24.8% under the age of 18, 10.6% from 18 to 24, 31.8% from 25 to 44, 20.4% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 34 years. For every 100 females there are 93.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 90.5 males. The median income for a household in the city is $38,408, and the median income for a family is $46,590. Males have a median income of $31,712 versus $25,832 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $19,467. 11.4% of the population and 7.9% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 14.9% of those under the age of 18 and 7.6% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. ==Government== [[image:Des Moines City Hall.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Des Moines City Hall]] Des Moines currently operates under a [[council-manager government|council-manager]] form of government. The council consists of a mayor (who, as of [[2005]], is Frank Cownie), two at-large members, and four members representing each of the city's four wards. A plan to merge the governments of Des Moines and Polk County was rejected by voters during the [[November 2]], [[2004]], election. The [[consolidated city-county]] government would have had a full-time mayor and a 15-member council that would have been divided among the city and its suburbs. Each suburb would have still retained its individual government but had the option to join the consolidated government at any time. Although a full merger was soundly rejected, many city and county departments and programs have been consolidated. == Transportation == Most residents of Des Moines get around the region by car. [[Interstate 235 (Iowa)|Interstate 235]] cuts through the city, and [[Interstate 35]] and [[Interstate 80]] both pass through the Des Moines metropolitan area. [[U.S. Highway 65]] and Iowa Highway 5 form a freeway loop to the east and south of the city. [[U.S. Highway 6|U.S. Highways 6]] and [[U.S. Highway 69|69]] and Iowa Highways 28, 141, and 163 are also important routes to and within the city. Des Moines's public transit system, operated by the [[Des Moines Metropolitan Transit Authority]], consists entirely of buses, including regular in-city routes and express and commuter buses to outlying suburban areas. Downtown Des Moines features a 3.5 mile-long (5.6 km) [[skyway|skywalk]] system, allowing people to move between buildings without going out of doors. [[Greyhound Bus Lines]] and [[Jefferson Lines]] run long-distance, inter-city bus routes to Des Moines. The nearest [[Amtrak]] train station is in [[Osceola, Iowa|Osceola]], about 40 miles (64 km) south of Des Moines. Trains on the route that passes through Osceola, the [[California Zephyr]], go east to [[Chicago, Illinois]] and as far west as [[Oakland, California]]. The [[Des Moines International Airport]] (DSM), located in the southern part of Des Moines, on Fleur Drive, offers non-stop service to destinations within the United States, including to major hub airports such as [[Chicago O'Hare]], [[Hartsfield International Airport|Atlanta Hartsfield]] and [[Dallas-Ft. Worth International Airport]]. Despite its name, there are no direct flights, as of [[2005]], between the airport and destinations outside of the United States. == Colleges and universities == *[[AIB College of Business]] *[[College of Podiatric Medicine and Surgery]] *[[Des Moines University]] *[[Des Moines Area Community College]] *[[Drake University]] *[[Grand View College]] *[[Hamilton College, Iowa|Hamilton College]] *[http://www.mchs.edu Mercy College of Health Sciences] *[[Simpson College]] *[[William Penn University]] == Culture == === Media === ==== AM radio stations ==== * [[WOI-AM]] 640, [[National Public Radio|NPR]] affiliate (generally talk) * [[KPSZ]] 940, Christian music and programming * [[WHO (AM)|WHO]] 1040, news, [[talk radio]], [[University of Iowa]] sports * [[KWKY]] 1150, Christian talk, music *[http://www.1350krnt.com KRNT] 1350, &quot;Great Songs, Great Memories&quot; * [[KXNO]] 1460, sports talk, [[Iowa State University]] sports ==== FM radio stations ==== * [[KJMC]] 89.3 &quot;K-Jam&quot; [[Urban Contemporary]] * [[WOI-FM]] 90.1, NPR Affiliate (Generally music) Classical, Jazz, Public Broadcasting * [[KJJY]] 92.5, [[country music]] * [[KIOA]] &quot;Oldies 93.3&quot;, [[oldies]] * [[KGGO]] 94.9, [[classic rock]] * [[KHKI]] 97.3 &quot;The Hawk&quot;, country music * [[KWQW]] 98.3 &quot;Wow FM&quot;, talk radio (Formerly [[KRKQ]] 98 Rock) * [[KZZQ]] Positive Hits &quot;Q99.5 KZZQ&quot; Christian CHR * [[KMXD]] 100.3 &quot;My 100&quot;, mixture of [[1980s]], [[1990s]], and current hits * [[KSTZ]] &quot;Star 102.5,&quot; hot [[adult contemporary]] * [[KAZR]] &quot;Lazer 103.3,&quot; [[hard rock]] music * [[KLTI]] &quot;Lite 104.1,&quot; soft adult contemporary * [[KCCQ]] 105.1 &quot;Channel Q,&quot; Modern Rock * [[KDRB]] &quot;106.3 the Bus,&quot; blend of classic hits, similar to [[Jack FM]] (changed from its previous [[hip-hop]] and [[R&amp;B]] format on [[April 1]], [[2005]]) *[[KNWI]] 107.1 &quot;Life 107.1&quot; Christian Music * [[KKDM]] 107.5 &quot;Kiss 107 FM,&quot; [[Top 40|Contemporary Hits/Top-40]] ==== Television stations ==== * [[WOI-TV|WOI]] 5, local [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] affiliate * [[KCCI-TV|KCCI]] 8, local [[CBS]] affiliate * KDIN 11, local [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] member station, [[Iowa Public Television]] network flagship * [[WHO-TV|WHO]] 13, local [[NBC]] affiliate * [[KDSM-TV|KDSM]] 17 local [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] affiliate * [[KPWB-TV|KPWB]] 23 local [[The WB Television Network|WB]] affiliate * [[KFPX-TV|KFPX]] 39 local ''[[I (TV network)|i]]'' affiliate ==== Print ==== * ''[[Des Moines Register]]'', [[newspaper]] * ''[[Cityview]]'', an [[alternative weekly]] newspaper * ''[[Des Moines Business Record]]'' * ''Juice'', a weekly publication from the ''Register'' targeted toward the 25- to 34-year-old demographic === Points of interest === [[image:Des Moines East Village.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The East Village]] * [[Iowa State Fair]] and Grounds * [http://www.downtowndsm.info/ Downtown Attractions] ** [[Iowa State Capitol]], featuring a genuine gold-covered dome ** The [[Iowa Events Center]] ** [http://www.eastvillagedesmoines.com East Village Shopping Area] ** [http://www.sciowa.org Science Center of Iowa and IMAX theatre] Court Ave ** [[Des Moines Botanical Center]] ** [http://www.knowdowntown.com/events/farmersmarket/ Downtown Farmer's Market] ** [http://www.principal.com/riverwalk Principal Riverwalk] ** [http://www.desmoinesartsfestival.org Des Moines Art Festival] ** [http://www.civiccenter.org Des Moines Civic Center] ** [http://www.hoytsherman.org Hoyt Sherman Place] ** [http://www.shermanhill.org Sherman Hill Neighborhood], historic district just north of downtown * [[Des Moines Art Center]], designed by [[I.M. Pei]] and other international architects * The [http://www.blankparkzoo.com Blank Park Zoo] * [[Arie den Boer Arboretum]] * [[Lilac Arboretum and Children's Forest]] * [[Merle Hay Mall]], one of Iowa's oldest and largest [[shopping mall]]s * [[Terrace Hill]], home of the governor of Iowa * [[Jordan Creek Town Center]], central Iowa's newest and largest mall * [[Adventureland (Iowa)|Adventureland]], a regional theme park * [[Prairie Meadows]], a casino and thoroughbred raceway in Altoona * [[Valley West Mall]] * [[Southridge Mall (Iowa)|Southridge Mall]] * [http://www.ci.des-moines.ia.us/departments/PR/trails.htm Recreational Trail System] * [http://www.ci.des-moines.ia.us/departments/PR/grayslake.htm Grays Lake Park] * [[Saylorville Lake]] === Sports === *The [[Iowa Cubs]] [[baseball]] team of the [[Pacific Coast League]], the Class AAA affiliate of the major-league [[Chicago Cubs]]. They play their home games at [[Principal Park]] (formerly Sec Taylor Stadium). *The [[Des Moines Dragons]] [[basketball]] team played in the IBL from 1997-1998 season until the end of the 2000-2001 season. They played at Veterans Memorial Auditorium. *The [[Des Moines Menace]] [[soccer]] team plays in [[Waukee, Iowa|Waukee]]. *The [[Des Moines Buccaneers]] of the [[United States Hockey League]] play at [[95KGGO Arena]] (formerly the Metro Ice Sports Arena and Buccaneer Arena) in neighboring [[Urbandale, Iowa|Urbandale]]. *The [[Iowa Stars]] of the [[American Hockey League]] play at Wells Fargo Arena (part of the [[Iowa Events Center]]). *The [[Iowa Barnstormers]] of the [[Arena Football League]] moved to New York in [[2000]] and are now the [[New York Dragons]]. Drake University hosts the nationally known Drake Relays each April. == Notable natives == *[[Bill Bryson]], author *[[Stephen Collins]], actor *[[Thomas M. Disch]], author *Rory Freeman, star on television show ''[[Survivor: Vanuatu]]'' *[[Tana Goertz]], star on television show ''[[The Apprentice 3]]'' *[[David Anthony Higgins]], actor, ''[[Malcolm in the Middle]]'' *[
ost-apocalyptic America (Russia bombed and then invaded the United States in 1957), features a rock-and-rolling martial arts hero named &quot;Buddy&quot; who sports familiar black horn-rimmed glasses and a tuxedo. The film follows Buddy's journey to &quot;Lost Vegas&quot;, the last outpost of freedom in the world, to claim the crown of the recently-deceased King Elvis. Buddy Holly was part of the first group inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] on its formation in 1986. His pioneering contribution to the genre has been recognized by the [[Rockabilly Hall of Fame]]. [[The Smithereens]]' song &quot;Maria Elena&quot; is a Buddy Holly tribute as sung to his widow. == Selected discography == * &quot;[[That'll Be the Day]]&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1957]] * &quot;[[Peggy Sue]]&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1957]] * &quot;Everyday&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1957]] * &quot;Oh Boy!&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1957]] * &quot;[[Not Fade Away (song)|Not Fade Away]]&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1957]] * &quot;Maybe Baby&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1958]] * &quot;Rave On&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1958]] * &quot;Heartbeat&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1958]] * &quot;Well All Right&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1958]] * &quot;It Doesn't Matter Anymore&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1959]] (coincidentally, on the charts when he died) * &quot;Raining in My Heart&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1959]] * &quot;[[Peggy Sue|Peggy Sue Got Married]]&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1959]] * &quot;Crying, Waiting, Hoping&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1959]] * &quot;True Love Ways&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1960]] * &quot;Reminiscing&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1962]] * &quot;Bo Diddley&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1963]] * &quot;Brown Eyed Handsome Man&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1963]] ===Covers=== Since his death many bands and artists have covered Buddy Holly material such as [[The Beatles]], [[The Rolling Stones]], [[John Lennon]], [[Linda Ronstadt]], [[Humble Pie (band)|Humble Pie]], [[Rush (band)|Rush]], [[Grateful Dead]], [[Bruce Springsteen]], [[James Taylor]] and many others. ---- ''[[Buddy Holly (song)|Buddy Holly]]'' was a hit song in [[1994]] for [[Weezer]] on their [[The Blue Album (Weezer)|self-titled debut]] album. The [[music video]] for the song was included with [[Microsoft]] [[Windows 95]]. A free internet book on Buddy's recording dates and facts about songs can be found at http://www.pmoorcroft.freeserve.co.uk/tshaw1.htm == External links == * [http://www.buddyholly.com/ Official Web Site] * [http://www.buddyhollyonline.com/ Buddy Holly Online] * [http://www.fiftiesweb.com/crash.htm Day the Music Died; Info on crash, Coroner's Report etc.] * {{last.fm|Buddy+Holly}} * {{musicbrainz artist|id=d352f5dd-3023-4565-a7bb-52396bf8821d|name=Buddy Holly}} * [[The Buddy Holly Recordings]] by [[Terry R. Shaw]] http://www.pmoorcroft.freeserve.co.uk/tshaw1.htm [[Category:1936 births|Holly, Buddy]] [[Category:1959 deaths|Holly, Buddy]] [[Category:Accidents and incidents in general aviation|Holly, Buddy]] [[Category:American rock singers|Holly, Buddy]] [[Category:American songwriters|Holly, Buddy]] [[Category:American rock musicians|Holly, Buddy]] [[Category:Baptists|Holly, Buddy]] [[Category:Buddy Holly|*]] [[Category:English Americans|Holly, Buddy]] [[Category:Entertainers who died in their 20s|Holly, Buddy]] [[Category:People from Texas|Holly, Buddy]] [[Category:Plane crash victims|Holly, Buddy]] [[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Holly, Buddy]] [[Category:Songwriters|Holly, Buddy]] [[Category:Lubbockites|Holly, Buddy]] [[da:Buddy Holly]] [[de:Buddy Holly]] [[es:Buddy Holly]] [[fr:Buddy Holly]] [[ga:Buddy Holly]] [[it:Buddy Holly]] [[he:באדי הולי]] [[hu:Buddy Holly]] [[nl:Buddy Holly]] [[ja:バディ・ホリー]] [[no:Buddy Holly]] [[pl:Buddy Holly]] [[pt:Buddy Holly]] [[scn:Buddy Holly]] [[simple:Buddy Holly]] [[fi:Buddy Holly]] [[sv:Buddy Holly]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brian Transeau</title> <id>4409</id> <revision> <id>42131969</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:58:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DeaconJericho</username> <id>591882</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Film appearances &amp; scores */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BT_ozonic.png|frame|right|BT holding a M-Audio Ozonic keyboard]] '''Brian Transeau''' (born '''Brian Wayne Transeau''' on [[October 4]], [[1971]] in [[Rockville, Maryland|Rockville]], [[Maryland]]) is an [[electronica]] [[musician]] who records under the [[stage name]] '''BT'''. Classically trained from the age of 13, he attended [[Berklee School of Music]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] for one year before dropping out and moving to [[Los Angeles, California]], and then back to [[Washington, D.C.]]. Transeau's music was not very well received in the [[United States]], and he moved temporarily to [[Europe]] where his music was discovered by [[Sasha]], a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[DJ]] who introduced BT's music into the [[nightclub|club]] circuit. Instantly popular, BT's [[1996 in music|1996]] album ''[[Ima]]'' helped shape the future of the burgeoning [[progressive house]] scene as it merged with, and later came to define, the [[trance music]] style. While ''Ima'' was comprised solely of the &quot;progressive&quot; sound, [[1997 in music|1997]]'s ''[[ESCM]]'' was more experimental (although it still produced several big records for the electronic dance music scene). BT's [[1999 in music|1999]] album ''[[Movement in Still Life]]'' continued his experimentation outside of the [[trance]] genre he helped to define through his more adventurous work and the more structured, commercially viable tracks. This album also featured a strong element of [[nu skool breaks]], a genre he helped define with the classic ''Hip-Hop Phenomenon'', in collaboration with [[Tsunami One]]. [[2003 in music|2003]] saw the release of ''[[Emotional Technology]]'' featuring more vocal tracks than usual, including six with vocals by Transeau. He also provided vocals on the [[DJ Tiësto]] single &quot;Love Comes Again,&quot; and recently worked together with [[David Bowie]] on the song &quot;(She Can) Do That,&quot; recorded for the movie ''[[Stealth (movie)|Stealth]]'' ([[2005]]), which BT also composed the score for. In recent years, he has also moved into [[film score|film scoring]], including ''[[Go (1999 film)|Go]]'' ([[1999]]), ''[[Under Suspicion]]'' ([[2000]]), ''[[Driven]]'' ([[2001]]), ''[[The Fast and the Furious (2001 film)|The Fast and the Furious]]'' (2001), and ''[[Monster (film)|Monster]]'' ([[2003]]). He recently completed the score for ''[[Stealth (film)|Stealth]]'' (2005), as well as the score for ''[[The Underclassman (2005 movie)|The Underclassman]]'' (2005). Unlike many artists working in electronica, Transeau frequently performs his music live. In [[2004 in music|2004]], he did a very popular &quot;last night of summer&quot; concert at [[BT Tower]] (named for [[British Telecom]], not Transeau). On December 14, 2002, Transeau invited 20 fans to his home for a private party to preview his (as of then, unreleased) upcoming album, ''[[Emotional Technology]]'' (2003). Aliases include ''Kaistar'', ''Libra'' (as ''Libra Presents Taylor''), with [[John Selway]] as ''Dharma'', with [[Deep Dish]] and John Selway as ''Prana'', with Shaun Keng Collins as ''Elastic Reality'', with Taylor as ''Elastic Chakra'', with Guy Oldhams and Taylor as ''GTB'', and with Sasha as ''2 Phat Cunts''. He has been playing piano since the age of 3. He has an [[IQ]] of over 170. He has a young daughter, Kaia. He lives and composes his works in his [[Los Angeles]] home/studio. ==Musical Progression== The variety of BT's music is considered one its most notable qualities. In the early portion of his career (roughly [[1995]]-[[2000]]), he was generally refered to as a trance artist; or the more ambiguous term of [[DJ]], prompting the motto [http://stores.musictoday.com/store/product.asp?band_id=385&amp;dept_id=934&amp;pf_id=B2CT02&amp;sfid=2 I am still not a DJ]. He has been consistently experimental in his music, making it impossible to classify him, as an artist, in any one genre. His first album featured vocals from [[Tori Amos]]. In 1997, BT released ''[[ESCM]]'', which featured more complex melodies and more traditional harmonies along with a heavier use of vocals. The tone of the album is darker and less whimsical than ''[[Ima]]'', the individual tracks being much tighter and cohesive. The album, as a whole, is much more diverse than BT's freshman album. While ''Lullaby for Gaia'' and ''Remember'' (both featuring [[Jan Johnston]]) are code [[trance music]], other tracks find their way into the canon's of other electronic sub-genres that were emerging in the mid-ninties. ''Love, Peace, and Grease'' is [[breakbeats]], ''Firewater'' and ''Orbitus Terranium'' are considered [[house]], ''Flaming June'' (probably the most famous single of the album) and ''Nectar'' are examples of [[hard trance]]. The most experimental track on the album is ''Solar Plexus'' which is easily divided into two parts. The first part is dark and suspenseful with a raging crescendo chorus, and features gritty vocals that proclaim &quot;I burn!&quot; in the chorus. This half of the song has been featured in numerous film trailers, including [[Blade 2]] and [[Hellboy]]. The second half of the song is slow and introspective, with a single piano and slowly building electronic accents. The vocals in the second half are clear and quiet to the point of obscurity. The mystery of what the lyrics to ''Solar Plexus'' actually are has been a sort of in-joke among BT fans since the album's release. BT's third album, ''[[Movement in Still Life]]'', moved into less experimental music and was somewhat worrying to some fans on the artist's message boards. The strong hip-hop influence on ''Madskillz-Mic Chekka'' and ''Love on Haight Street'' was the cause of this worry as hip-hop and trance are essentially complete opposites in style. ''Smartbomb'' provided the missing link between BT'
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|Ø||[[Ř]]||[[Ĝ]]||Ø||[[и]]||[[ظ]]||[[Ψ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ø||[[ุ]]||[[Ų]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ø||[[Ű]] |- !11011001!!331!!217!!D9 |Ù||[[Ů]]||Ù||[[Ų]]||[[й]]||[[ع]]||[[Ω]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||Ù||[[Ų]]||[[ู]]||[[Ł]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Ù |- !11011010!!332!!218!!DA |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Ú||[[к]]||[[غ]]||[[Ϊ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ú||[[ฺ]]||[[Ś]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Ú |- !11011011!!333!!219!!DB |Û||[[Ű]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Û||[[л]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ϋ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Û||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ū]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Û |- !11011100!!334!!220!!DC |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Ü||[[м]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ά]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ü||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Ü |- !11011101!!335!!221!!DD |colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ý||[[Ŭ]]||[[Ũ]]||[[н]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[έ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[İ]]||Ý||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ż]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ý||[[Ę]] |- !11011110!!336!!222!!DE |Þ||[[Ţ]]||[[Ŝ]]||[[Ū]]||[[о]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ή]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ş]]||Þ||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ž]]||[[Ŷ]]||Þ||[[Ț]] |- !11011111!!337!!223!!DF |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ß||[[п]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ί]]||[[‗]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ß||[[฿]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ß |- !11100000!!340!!224!!E0 |à||[[ŕ]]||à||[[ā]]||[[р]]||[[ـ]]||[[ΰ]]||[[א]]||à||[[ā]]||[[เ]]||[[ą]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|à |- !11100001!!341!!225!!E1 |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|á||[[с]]||[[ف]]||[[α]]||[[ב]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|á||[[แ]]||[[į]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|á |- !11100010!!342!!226!!E2 |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|â||[[т]]||[[ق]]||[[β]]||[[ג]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|â||[[โ]]||[[ā]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|â |- !11100011!!343!!227!!E3 |ã||[[ă]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||ã||[[у]]||[[ك]]||[[γ]]||[[ד]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ã||[[ใ]]||[[ć]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ã||[[ă]] |- !11100100!!344!!228!!E4 |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ä||[[ф]]||[[ل]]||[[δ]]||[[ה]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ä||[[ไ]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ä |- !11100101!!345!!229!!E5 |å||[[ĺ]]||[[ċ]]||å||[[х]]||[[م]]||[[ε]]||[[ו]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|å||[[ๅ]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|å||[[ć]] |- !11100110!!346!!230!!E6 |æ||[[ć]]||[[ĉ]]||æ||[[ц]]||[[ن]]||[[ζ]]||[[ז]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|æ||[[ๆ]]||[[ę]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|æ |- !11100111!!347!!231!!E7 |colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Ç]]||[[į]]||[[ч]]||[[ه]]||[[η]]||[[ח]]||[[Ç]]||[[į]]||[[็]]||[[ē]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Ç]] |- !11101000!!350!!232!!E8 |[[È]]||[[č]]||[[È]]||[[č]]||[[ш]]||[[و]]||[[θ]]||[[ט]]||[[È]]||[[č]]||[[่]]||[[č]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[È]] |- !11101001!!351!!233!!E9 |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[É]]||[[щ]]||[[ى]]||[[ι]]||[[י]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[É]]||[[้]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[É]] |- !11101010!!352!!234!!EA |[[Ê]]||[[ę]]||[[Ê]]||[[ę]]||[[ъ]]||[[ي]]||[[κ]]||[[ך]]||[[Ê]]||[[ę]]||[[๊]]||[[ź]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Ê]] |- !11101011!!353!!235!!EB |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[Ë]]||[[ы]]||[[ً]]||[[λ]]||[[כ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Ë]]||[[๋]]||[[ė]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Ë]] |- !11101100!!354!!236!!EC |[[Ì]]||[[ě]]||[[Ì]]||[[ė]]||[[ь]]||[[ٌ]]||[[μ]]||[[ל]]||[[Ì]]||[[ė]]||[[์]]||[[ģ]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Ì]] |- !11101101!!355!!237!!ED |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[Í]]||[[э]]||[[ٍ]]||[[ν]]||[[ם]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Í]]||[[ํ]]||[[ķ]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Í]] |- !11101110!!356!!238!!EE |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|î||[[ю]]||[[َ]]||[[ξ]]||[[מ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|î||[[๎]]||[[ī]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|î |- !11101111!!357!!239!!EF |ï||[[ď]]||ï||[[ī]]||[[я]]||[[ُ]]||[[ο]]||[[ן]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ï||[[๏]]||[[ļ]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|ï |- !11110000!!360!!240!!F0 |ð||[[đ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[đ]]||[[ȑ]]||[[ِ]]||[[π]]||[[נ]]||[[ğ]]||ð||[[๐]]||[[š]]||[[ŵ]]||ð||[[đ]] |- !11110001!!361!!241!!F1 |ñ||[[ń]]||ñ||[[ņ]]||[[ё]]||[[ّ]]||[[ρ]]||[[ס]]||ñ||[[ņ]]||[[๑]]||[[ń]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ñ||[[ń]] |- !11110010!!362!!242!!F2 |ò||[[ň]]||ò||[[ō]]||[[ђ]]||[[ْ]]||[[ς]]||[[ע]]||ò||[[ō]]||[[๒]]||[[ņ]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|ò |- !11110011!!363!!243!!F3 |colspan=&quot;3&quot;|ó||[[ķ]]||[[ѓ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[σ]]||[[ף]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ó||[[๓]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ó |- !11110100!!364!!244!!F4 |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ô||[[є]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[τ]]||[[פ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ô||[[๔]]||[[ō]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|ô |- !11110101!!365!!245!!F5 |colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[ő]]||[[ġ]]||õ||[[ѕ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[υ]]||[[ץ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|õ||[[๕]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[ő]] |- !11110110!!366!!246!!F6 |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ö||[[і]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[φ]]||[[צ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ö||[[๖]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ö |- !11110111!!367!!247!!F7 |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|÷||[[ї]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[χ]]||[[ק]]||÷||[[ũ]]||[[๗]]||÷||[[ṫ]]||÷||[[ś]] |- !11111000!!370!!248!!F8 |ø||[[ř]]||[[ĝ]]||ø||[[ј]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ψ]]||[[ר]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ø||[[๘]]||[[ų]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ø||[[ű]] |- !11111001!!371!!249!!F9 |ù||[[ů]]||ù||[[ų]]||[[љ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ω]]||[[ש]]||ù||[[ų]]||[[๙]]||[[ł]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|ù |- !11111010!!372!!250!!FA |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ú||[[њ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ϊ]]||[[ת]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ú||[[๚]]||[[ś]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|ú |- !11111011!!373!!251!!FB |û||[[ű]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|û||[[ћ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ϋ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|û||[[๛]]||[[ū]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|û |- !11111100!!374!!252!!FC |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ü||[[ќ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ό]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ü||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ü |- !11111101!!375!!253!!FD |colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ý||[[ŭ]]||[[ũ]]||§||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ύ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ffff99;&quot;|''LRM''||[[ı]]||ý||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ż]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ý||[[ę]] |- !11111110!!376!!254!!FE |þ||[[ţ]]||[[ŝ]]||[[ū]]||[[ў]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ώ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ffff99;&quot;|''RLM''||[[ş]]||þ||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ž]]||[[ŷ]]||þ||[[ț]] |- !11111111!!377!!255!!FF |ÿ||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[˙]]||[[џ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||ÿ||[[ĸ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[’]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|ÿ |} At position 0xA0 there's always the non breaking space and 0xAD is mostly the soft hyphen, which only shows at line breaks. Other empty fields are either &lt;font style=&quot;background:#ccffcc; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;unassigned&lt;/font&gt; or the system used isn't able to display them. There are &lt;font style=&quot;background-color:#ffff99; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;new additions&lt;/font&gt; as ISO/IEC 8859-7:2003 and ISO/IEC 8859-8:1999 versions. LRM stands for left-to-right mark (U+200E) and RLM stands for right-to-left mark (U+200F). == Relationship to Unicode and the UCS == &lt;!-- this could do with some trimming a lot of whats in here isn't really relavent to this article [[User:Plugwash|Plugwash]] 11:55, [[21 June]] [[2005]] (UTC)--&gt; Since 1991, the Unicode Consortium has been working with ISO to develop the [[Unicode|Unicode Standard]] and [[Universal Character Set|ISO/IEC 10646: the Universal Character Set]] (UCS) in tandem. This pair of standards was created to unify the ISO 8859 character repertoire, among others, by assigning each character, initially, to a 16-bit code value, with some code values left unassigned. Over time, their models adapted to map characters to abstract numeric code points rather than fixed bit-width values, so that more code points and encoding methods could be supported. Unicode and ISO/IEC 10646 currently assign about 100,000 characters to a code space consisting of over a million code poi
arms to propel the ball in general play. The winner is the team which has scored most goals at the end of the match. The sport is also known by [[football (soccer) names|other names]] in some parts of the [[English language|English]]-speaking world, usually '''association football''' and its contraction, '''soccer'''. These names are often used to distinguish the game from [[football|other codes of football]], since [[football (word)|the word &quot;football&quot;]] may be used to refer to several quite different games. &lt;!-- Please see above polite suggestions before changing this line--&gt; Football is played at a professional level all over the world, and millions of people regularly go to football [[stadium|stadia]] to follow their favourite team, whilst billions more avidly watch the game on television. A very large number of people also play football at an amateur level. According to a survey conducted by [[FIFA|Fédération Internationale de Football Association]] (FIFA), football's governing body, published in the spring of 2001, over 240 million people regularly play football in more than 200 countries in every part of the world. Its simple rules and minimal equipment requirements have no doubt aided its spread and growth in popularity. In many parts of the world football evokes great passions and plays an important role in the life of individual fans, local communities, and even nations; it is therefore often claimed to be the most popular [[sport]] in the world. Because of this it is often dubbed as the '''World's Favorite Pastime'''. == Nature of the game == The game is played in accordance with a set of rules known as the [[Laws of the Game]], which are summarised below. Two teams of eleven players each compete to get a round ball (itself known as a ''[[football (ball)|football]]'') into the other team's goal, thereby scoring a goal. The team which has scored the most goals at the conclusion of the game is the winner; if both teams have an equal number of goals then the game is a draw. The primary rule for this objective is that players, other than the goalkeepers, may not ''intentionally'' touch the ball with their hands or arms during play (though they do use their hands during a [[throw-in]] restart). Although players mainly use their feet to move the ball around, they may use any part of their bodies other than their hands or arms. [[Image:Soccer goalkeeper.jpg|thumb|250px|A goalkeeper dives to stop the ball from entering his goal.]] The physical contact between players is restricted: holding, tripping, kicking or excessively pushing opponents is not allowed. Such actions (along with handling the ball) are called [[foul (football)|fouls]] and are punishable by a [[free kick]] (or a [[penalty kick]] if commited in the vicinity of the offender's goal; [[#Fouls and misconduct|see below]] for details). In typical game play, players attempt to move towards a goal through individual control of the ball, such as by dribbling (running with the ball close to their feet); by passing the ball from team-mate to team-mate; and by taking shots at the goal. Opposition players may try to regain control of the ball by intercepting a pass or through tackling the opponent who controls the ball. Football is generally a free-flowing game with the ball in play at all times except when the ball has left the field of play by wholly crossing over a boundary line (either on the ground or in the air), or play has been stopped by the referee. When play has been stopped, it recommences with a specified restart (see below). At a professional level, usually a few goals are scored during a match. For example, during [[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004-05]] season of the [[FA Premier League]], an average of 2.57 goals per match were scored, and 88% of the matches ended up with not more than 4 goals scored. However, only 8% of the matches finished goalless. ===Tactics=== {{seealso|Football positions|Formation (football)}} The Laws of the Game don't specify any player positions other than goalkeeper. However, during the development of the game a number of specific [[football positions|player specializations]] have evolved. They include: *[[defender (football)|defenders]] - players who specialize in the prevention of scoring by opponents, *[[midfielder]]s - players who develop the team's attacks and provide strikers with passes, but also help their defenders by disrupting opposition attacks at an early stage, *[[striker]]s - players whose main task is to score goals. These positions are futher differentiated by the side of the field that the player spends most time in. For example, there are central defenders and left midfielders. Players may spend most part of the game in a specific part of the field, however, they are not restricted by the Laws of the Game and can switch positions at any time. This even applies to goalkeepers, who usually spend most of the game near their goal but can participate in their team's open play, this usually only happens at free kicks or corner kicks. The layout of the players on the pitch is called [[formation (football)|formation]]. The formations popular in modern football include [[formation (football)#4-4-2|4-4-2]], [[formation (football)#3-5-2|3-5-2]] and [[formation (football)#4-5-1|4-5-1]]. Defining a team's formation and tactics is usually the prerogative of a [[coach (sport)|coach]]. == The Laws of the Game == === History and development === {{seealso|Football}} The ''Laws of the Game'' are based on efforts made in the mid-[[19th century]] to standardise the rules of the widely varying games of football played at the [[Independent school (UK)|independent schools]] of [[England]]. The [[The Cambridge Rules|first set of rules]] resembling the modern game were produced at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] in [[1848]], at a meeting attended by representatives from [[Eton College|Eton]], [[Harrow School|Harrow]], [[Rugby School|Rugby]], [[Winchester College|Winchester]] and [[Shrewsbury School|Shrewsbury]], but they were far from universally adopted. During the [[1850s]], many clubs were formed, thoughout the English-speaking world, independent of schools or universities, to play various forms of football. Some came up with their own distinct codes of rules, most notably the [[Sheffield F.C.|Sheffield Football Club]] (formed by former pupils from [[Harrow School|Harrow]]) in [[1857]], which led to formation of a [[Sheffield &amp; Hallamshire Football Association|Sheffield FA]] in 1867. In [[1862]], J.C. Thring of [[Uppingham School]] also devised an influential set of rules. These efforts contributed to the formation of [[The Football Association]] (The FA) in [[1863]] which first met on the morning of [[26 October]] [[1863]] at the Freemason's Tavern in Great Queen Street, [[London]]{{ref|FA}}. The only school to be represented on this occasion was [[Charterhouse School|Charterhouse]]. The Freemason's Tavern was the setting for five more meetings between October and December, which eventually produced the first comprehensive set of rules. At the final meeting, the first FA treasurer, who was the representative from [[Blackheath Rugby Club|Blackheath]], withdrew his club from the FA over the removal of two draft rules at the previous meeting, the first which allowed for the running with the ball in hand and the second, obstructing such a run by hacking (kicking an opponent in the shins), tripping and holding. Other [[History of rugby union|English rugby clubs followed this lead]] and did not join the FA but instead in [[1871]] formed the [[Rugby Football Union]]. The eleven remaining clubs, under the charge of [[Ebenezer Cobb Morley]], went on to ratify the original fourteen rules of the game. Despite this, the Sheffield FA played by its own rules until the 1870s. Today the laws of the game are determined by the [[International Football Association Board]] (IFAB). The Board was formed in [[1886]]{{ref|IFAB}} after a meeting in [[Manchester]] of The Football Association, the [[Scottish Football Association]], the [[Football Association of Wales]], and the [[Irish Football Association]]. The Fédération Internationale de Football Association [[FIFA]], the international football body, was formed in [[Paris]] in [[1904]] and declared that they would adhere to the rules laid down by the IFAB. The growing popularity of the international game led to the admittance of FIFA representatives to the IFAB in [[1913]]. Today the board is made up of four representatives from FIFA and one representative from each of the four British associations. [[Image:Kid playing soccer.jpg|thumb|250px|Football is popular among children as well as adults.]] ===Overview of the Laws=== There are seventeen Laws in the official [[Laws of the Game]]. The same laws are designed to apply to all levels of football, although the preface to the Laws does grant national associations the ability to authorise certain modifications for juniors, seniors, women, etc. The Laws are often framed in broad terms, which allows flexibility in their application depending on the nature of the game. In addition to the seventeen Laws, numerous IFAB decisions and other directives contribute to the regulation of football. The Laws can be found on the [http://www.fifa.com/en/regulations/regulation/0,3527,3,00.html official FIFA website]. === Players and equipment === Each team consists of a maximum of eleven players (excluding [[substitute (football)|substitute]]s), one of whom must be the goalkeeper. Competition rules may state a minimum of seven players are required to constitute a team. There are a variety of [[Football (soccer) positions|positions]] in which the outfield players are strategically placed by a manager/coach, though these positions are not defined or required by the Laws. One player on each team must be designated as that team's goalkeeper. The goalkeeper is the only player allowed to handle the ball with his hands or
of Scotland]]. When Eleanor tried to join them, she was intercepted. Henry, who put down the rebellion, imprisoned her for the next 15 years, much of the time in various locations in England. During her imprisonment, Eleanor had become more and more distant with her sons, especially Richard (who had always been her favorite). She did not get the chance to see her sons very often during her imprisonment, though she was released for special occasions such as Christmas. About four miles from Shrewsbury and close by Haughmond Abbey is &quot;Queen Eleanor's Bower,&quot; the remains of a triangular castle which is believed to have been one of her prisons. Henry lost his great love, [[Rosamund Clifford]], in 1176. He had met her in 1166 and begun the liaison in 1173, supposedly contemplating divorce from Eleanor. When Rosamund died, rumours spread that Eleanor had poisoned her, but there is no evidence to support this. [[image:aliaenor.JPG|thumb|left|Eleanor's tomb: she is depicted in her pious old age]] In [[1183]], Henry the Young tried again. In debt and refused control of [[Normandy]], he tried to ambush his father at [[Limoges]]. He was joined by troops sent by his brother Geoffrey and [[Philip II of France]]. Henry's troops besieged the town, forcing his son to flee. Henry the Young wandered aimlessly through Aquitaine until he caught [[dysentery]] and died. The rebellion petered out. == Later Life == Upon Henry's death in [[1189]], Eleanor helped her son [[Richard I of England | Richard I]] to the throne, and he released her from prison. She ruled [[England]] as regent while Richard went off on the Third Crusade. She personally negotiated his ransom by going to Germany. She survived him and lived long enough to see her youngest son [[John of England | John]] on the throne. Eleanor died in [[1204]] and was entombed in [[Fontevraud Abbey]] near her husband Henry and son Richard. Her tomb [[effigy]] shows her reading a [[Bible]]. She was the patroness of such literary figures as [[Wace]], [[Benoît de Sainte-More]], and [[Chrétien de Troyes]]. ==In historical fiction== Eleanor and Henry are the main characters in the play ''[[The Lion in Winter]]'', by [[James Goldman]], which was made into a film starring [[Peter O'Toole]] and [[Katharine Hepburn]], and remade for television in 2003 with [[Patrick Stewart]] and [[Glenn Close]]. The depiction of her in the play and film ''[[Becket]]'' contains historical inaccuracies, as acknowledged by the author, [[Jean Anouilh]]. Eleanor appears briefly in the BBC production of ''[[Ivanhoe]]'' portrayed by [[Sian Phillips]]. She is also a major character in [[Thomas B. Costain]]'s ''Below the Salt'', and the subject of [[E. L. Konigsburg]]'s children's book ''A Proud Taste for Scarlet and Miniver''. Her life is chronicled in three books by [[Sharon Kay Penman]] ''When Christ and His Saints Slept'', ''Time and Chance'', and ''The Devil's Brood''. The novel ''The Book of Eleanor'' by Pamela Kaufman tells the story of Eleanor's life from her own point of view. &quot;Queen Elinor&quot; appears in [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[King John]]'', along with other members of the family. ==Biographies== * ''Eleanor of Aquitaine: Lord and Lady'', John Carmi Parsons &amp; Bonnie Wheeler, 2002 * ''Queen Eleanor: Independent Spirit of the Medieval World'', Polly Schover Brooks (©1983) (for young readers) * ''Eleanor of Aquitaine: A Biography'', Marion Meade (©1977) * ''Eleanor of Aquitaine and the Four Kings'', Amy Kelly (©1950) * ''Eleanor of Aquitaine: The Mother Queen'', Desmond Seward (©1978) * ''Eleanor of Aquitaine: A Life'', [[Alison Weir]] (©1999) * ''Women of the Twelfth Century, Volume 1 : Eleanor of Aquitaine and Six Others'', [[Georges Duby]] {{start box}} {{succession box one to two|before=[[William X of Aquitaine|William X]]|title1=[[Duke of Aquitaine|Duchess of Aquitaine]]&lt;br /&gt;''with [[Louis VII of France|Louis]] and [[Henry II of England|Henry I]]''|years1=1137&amp;ndash;1168|title2=[[Count of Poitiers|Countess of Poitiers]]&lt;br /&gt;''with [[Louis VII of France|Louis]] and [[Henry II of England|Henry I]]''|years2=1137&amp;ndash;1153|after1=[[Richard I of England|Richard I]]|after2=[[William, Count of Poitiers|William]]}} {{end box}} [[Category:1122 births]] [[Category:1204 deaths]] [[Category:Women in war]] [[Category:English queen consorts]] [[Category:French nobility|Aquitaine, Eleanor, duchesse d']] [[Category:Crusades]] [[Category:House of Anjou]] [[cs:Eleonora Akvitánská]] [[cy:Eleanor o Aquitaine]] [[de:Eleonore von Aquitanien]] [[es:Leonor de Aquitania]] [[fr:Aliénor d'Aquitaine]] [[it:Eleonora d'Aquitania]] [[he:אלינור מאקוויטניה]] [[nl:Eleonora van Aquitanië]] [[pl:Eleonora Akwitańska]] [[pt:Leonor, Duquesa da Aquitânia]] [[ru:Элеонора Аквитанская]] [[simple:Eleanor of Aquitaine]] [[fi:Eleonoora Akvitanialainen]] [[sv:Eleonora av Akvitanien]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Epistle to Philemon</title> <id>9963</id> <revision> <id>40595906</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T18:39:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdrbot</username> <id>263608</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation: Philemon</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}} The '''Epistle to Philemon''' is a book of the [[Bible]] in the [[New Testament]]. Philemon is now generally regarded as one of the undisputed works of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], although it was questioned in the past by [[Ferdinand Christian Baur|F.C. Baur]]. It is the shortest of Paul's extant letters, consisting of only 25 verses. ==The letter and its reconstruction== Paul, who is apparently in prison (probably in either [[Rome]] or [[Ephesus]]), writes to a fellow-Christian [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]] and two of his associates. (If the letter to the [[Colossians]] is authentic, then Philemon must live in [[Colossae]].) Paul writes on behalf of Philemon's slave, one [[Onesimus]] (whose name means 'useful'). Beyond that, it is not self-evident as to what has transpired. Onesimus is described as having been 'separated' from his master, once having been 'useless' to him (a pun), and having done him wrong. The dominant scholarly consensus is that Onesimus is a run-away slave: a ''fugitivus'', who has encountered Paul and become a Christian believer. Paul now (apparently) sends him back to face his aggrieved master, and strives in his letter to effect reconciliation between these two Christians. What is more contentious is how Onesimus came to be with Paul. Various suggestions have been given: 1) Onesimus being imprisoned with Paul; 2) Onesimus being brought to Paul by others. 3) Onesimus deliberately seeking Paul out, as a friend of his master's, in order to be reconciled. Paul's letter is cryptic. He tactfully addresses Philemon (Luther spoke of 'Holy flattery'), speaking of Philemon's Christian compassion, but at the same time Paul subtly reminds Philemon of his authority over him, and the (spiritual) debt Philemon owes to him. He also points out that Onesimus's conversion has brought about a new state of affairs. And so Onesimus is returned &quot;no longer as a slave but more than a slave, a beloved brother&quot; (vs. 16). It is less than clear what that critical phrase means, and what Paul wants Philemon to do. Is Onesimus simply to be forgiven, or freed (given ''[[manumission]]'')? Is Onesimus now Philemon's 'brother' as well as his 'slave', or does his position of 'brother' supplant that of 'slave'. The letter is unclear and scholars are divided. But this interpretation is important for an understanding of the social impact of Paul's gospel. There is no way of knowing what happened to Onesimus after the letter. [[Ignatius of Antioch]] mentions an Onesimus as Bishop of [[Ephesus]] in the early second century. But Onesimus was not an uncommon slave name, so to identify the bishop with Philemon's slave is entirely speculative. ==Significance== Philemon has been of only marginal interest in Christian theology and ethics. The German Protestant theologian and reformer [[Martin Luther]] saw a parallel between Paul and Christ in their work of [[reconciliation]]. However, Luther insisted that the letter upheld the social-status quo: Paul did nothing to change Onesimus' legal position as a slave - and he complied with the law in returning him. The letter was a cause of debate during the British and later American struggles over the [[Abolitionism|abolition]] of [[slavery]]. Both sides cited interpretations of Philemon for support. Modern scholarship has tended to assume that either Paul did undermine slavery in this letter, or that he would have, had circumstances permitted. ==Bibliography== * J.M.G. Barclay, ''Colossians and Philemon'', Sheffield Academic Press 1997 (ISBN 1850758182) * [[N.T. Wright]], ''Colossians and Philemon'', Tyndale IVP 1986 (ISBN 0802803091) ==External links== Online translations of the [[Epistle to Philemon]]: * {{biblegateway||Philemon}} ---- {{eastons}} &lt;center&gt; &lt;br&gt; {| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot; |- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot; |colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible''' |- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot; |&lt;Center&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle to Titus|Titus]] |'''[[Epistles]]''' |&lt;Center&gt;Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] |} &lt;/center&gt; [[Category:New Testament books|Philemon]] [[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[de:Brief des Paulus an Philemon]] [[fr:Épître à Philémon]] [[ko:필레몬에게 보낸 편지]] [[id:Surat Paulus kepada Filemon]] [[jv:Filemon]] [[nl:Brief van Paulus aan Filemon]] [[ja:ピレモンへの手紙]] [[pl:List do Filemona]] [[pt:Epístola a Filemon]] [[fi:Kirje Filemonille]] [[sv:Filemonbrevet]] [[zh:腓利門書]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Exhibition</title> <id>9964</id> <revisio
n superstition === [[Image:Head to head clowns.jpg|thumb|right]] It is common for clowns to avoid the use of blue face paint, as this is considered bad luck. Clowns do not wish each other good luck, an old [[show business]] custom, however, among clowns the expression &quot;knock 'em dead&quot; seems more prevalent than the customary expression, &quot;break a leg.&quot; Wishing a fellow performer &quot;good luck&quot; is considered a [[jinx]]. ==Clowning Frameworks== Frameworks are the general outline of an act that clowns use to help them build out an act. Frameworks can be loose, including only a general beginning and ending to the act, leaving it up to the clown's creativity to fill in the rest, or at the other extreme a fully developed script that allows very little room for creativity. '''Shows''' are the overall production that a clown is a part of, it may or may not include elements other than clowning, such as in a circus show. In a circus context, clown shows are typically made up of some combination of Entrées, Side dishes, Clown Stops, Track Gags, Gags and bits. ===Gags, bits and business=== ''&quot;Business&quot;'' is the individual motions the clown uses, often used to express the clown's character. A ''&quot;gag&quot;'' is a very short piece of clown comedy which when repeated within a bit or routine may become a ''&quot;running gag&quot;''. Gags may be loosely defined as ''&quot;the jokes clowns play on each other&quot;'' Bits are the clown's sketches or routines made up of one or more gags either worked out and timed before going on stage or impromptu bits composed of familiar improvisational material. A gag may have a beginning, a middle and an end to them, or they may not. Gags can also refer to the prop stunts/tricks or the stunts that clowns use, such as a squirting flower. ===The menu=== '''Entrées''' are feature clowning acts lasting 4-8 minutes. They are typically made up of various gags and bits, and usually use a clowning framework. Entrées almost always end with a blow-off. (The blow-off is the comedic ending of a show segment, bit, gag, stunt or routine.) '''Side dishes''' are shorter feature acts. Side dishes are essentially shorter versions of the Entrée, typically lasting 1 - 3 minutes. Side dishes are typically made up of various gags and bits, and usually use a clowning framework. Side dishes almost always end with a blow-off. ===Interludes=== '''Clown Stops''' or '''interludes''' are the brief appearance of clowns while the props and rigging are changed. These are typically made up of a few gags or several bits. Clown Stops almost always end with a blow-off. Clown stops will always have a beginning, a middle and an end to them. ===Prop Stunts=== Among the more well-known clown stunts are: squirting flower; the &quot;too-many-clowns-coming-out-of-a-tiny-car&quot; stunt; doing just about anything with a [[rubber chicken]], tripping over ones own feet (or an air pocket or imaginary blemish in the floor), or riding any number of ridiculous vehicles or &quot;[[Clown bicycle|clown bikes]]&quot;. Individual prop stunts are generally considered to be individual bits. == Cooperative bits and 'improv'== A clown duo might employ a number of cooperative &quot;bits&quot; to help them create an [[Improvisational comedy|improvisational]] performance. Using this technique allows both clowns to participate in what looks like a well-rehearsed [[Sketch comedy|sketch]], but might well be a mere placeholder/spacefiller for a missing act, or used to cover &quot;prop failure&quot; etc. Particularly in a [[Circus]] or [[Variety show]], clowns are often relied on to perform &quot;at the drop of a hat&quot; and a well-prepared clown will not only have a large repertoire of bits, but will remain alert when off-stage. In accordance with the well-known ''[[Show business|&quot;show biz&quot;]]'' tradition that ''&quot;The Show Must Go On&quot;'', the best clowns will always be ready to save the day, even in the midst of a tragedy -- such as an injured performer. ===Pete and re-Pete=== ::''In &quot;Pete and re-Pete&quot;, the first clown narrates the gag, the second &quot;repeats&quot; the main elements of the first clown's exposition'': &quot;I see you bought yourself a new hat&quot; --&quot;Yeah, a New Hat (big happy smile of contentment with his battered stovepipe hat) &quot;Get it uptown?&quot; --&quot;Yup, Got it Up Town, oh Yeah, you're not gonna get a Fine New Hat like this one DOWN town (taking the hat off again for another satisfied look at the hat, and rocking up on to the balls of his feet and back on his heels, proudly) &quot;You can say that again&quot; --&quot;OK: Got it Up Town, yeah, not gonna get one of these downtown&quot; (another proud look at the hat, picking an imagined piece of lint from the torn brim of the bedraggled Fine New Hat), yep, nothing like an Up Town Hat&quot; &quot;Uhuh... they pay you much?&quot; (the first clown narrates the gag, the second repeats main elements of this exposition) === &quot;That's good/that's bad&quot; === ''In &quot;that's good/that's bad&quot;, the first clown narrates the gag, the second responds alternately with &quot;that's good /that's bad&quot;'': &quot;I found a dog&quot; --&quot;that's good&quot;(noncommittally) &quot;It wasn't a hot dog though&quot; (showing the dog) --&quot;that's too bad&quot; (looking at the dog, wistfully) &quot;He's really friendly&quot; --&quot;Oh, that's good&quot; (agreeably) &quot;with people's legs&quot; --&quot;Well THAT's bad&quot; (appalled) &quot;He doesn't eat much --&quot;that's good&quot; (nodding agreeably) &quot;He sure poops a lot though&quot; --&quot;that's bad&quot;('that stinks' expression) &quot;he's housebroken&quot; --&quot;THAT's good&quot;(of course it is) &quot;No that's bad, he did some jail time for the last housebreak&quot; --&quot;Ok, then that's bad...&quot;(willing to be corrected) &quot;No that's good - it was his second offense. He's gone straight now&quot; --&quot;that's... uhhh... good?&quot;(confused now) &quot;No that's bad, he's gone straight for your pastrami sandwich!&quot; This bit is also seen with other &quot;good/bad&quot; interjections: perhaps ''&quot;that's fortunate/unfortunate&quot;'' or even (with a pair of two &quot;Surfer Dude&quot; clowns) as ''&quot;Dude that rocks!/Man, that bites&quot;''. Note that a clown would likely choose the word 'pastrami' rather than 'corned beef', because pastrami is a [[Inherently funny word|funny word]] and corned beef is not. Clowns prefer: ''monkey wrenches'' to &quot;spanners&quot;; ''doohickeys'' to &quot;gadgets&quot;; ''kitchen gadgets'' to &quot;small appliance&quot;; ''[[Moniker|moniker]]s'' to &quot;nicknames&quot;; would much prefer to be ''fidgety'' than &quot;restless&quot;. Each clown has his own gags or bits, these techniques are used to share gags with other clowns that are unfamiliar with the material, by using &quot;Yes, and...&quot; techniques (''&quot;Yes and&quot;'' has become a technique commonly taught in ''&quot;[[Improvisation|improv]]&quot;'' classes) such as &quot;Pete and re-Pete&quot;, and &quot;That's good/that's bad&quot;, the clowns avoid conflicting gags, supporting each other in whatever they may say, and keeping the performance flowing. ::It is considered bad [[Improvisation#Comedy|improvisation]]al form to &quot;deny the proposition&quot; as in: &quot;Hi Dewey, looks like you got yourself a new pair of shoes&quot; -- &quot;No, Tiny, these are my regular shoes.&quot; ::... as this tends to stop the show, &quot;killing&quot; the &quot;comedic momentum&quot; crucial to keeping the attention of the audience. The &quot;Pete and re-Pete&quot; act has also been used in the Simpsons episode &quot;[[Treehouse of Horror III]]&quot; == Famous Circus-Style Clowns== * [[Achille Zavatta]] (1915 - 1993). * [[Batatinha]] (literally ''Little Potato''), from [[Portugal]]. A very well-known clown. * [[Bim Bom]], a famous clown of Revolutionary [[Russia]]n, executed by the [[Cheka]] for his [[Bolshevik]] [[satires]]. * [[Charlie Rivel]] - Other than Grock perhaps the most beloved an respected of all European clowns. * [[Coco the Clown]] ([[Nicolai Poliakoff]]), Longtime star clown of the Bertram Mills Circus. * [[ David Konyot ]], 4 times winner best clown (U K) Hungarian circus festival, Polish circus Festival. * The Chickys, classic European clown act. * [[Emmett Kelly]] - Extremely well-known American tramp clown. * [[Francesco Caroli]]. * [[The Fratellinis]], a dynasty of French clowns. * [[George Carl]] - American clown who found great success in Europe. Performed &quot;Royal Command Performance&quot; for the Queen at the Paladium in London. He also received the coveted &quot;Golden Clown&quot; award from Princess Grace, (Grace Kelly) at the Circus Festival of Monte Carlo. * [[Glen &quot;Frosty&quot; Little]], America's only living Master Clown and longtime &quot;Boss Clown&quot; with the [[Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey Circus]]. * Grock ([[Adrian Wettach]]). * [[Joe Jackson]] Sr &amp; Jr. - famous tramp clown entree with a breakaway bicycle. * [[Karandash]] (Mikhail Nikolayevich Rumyantsev). * [[Lou Jacobs]] - During his 60 years in the American circus Master Clown Lou Jacobs came to be known as one of the most famous clowns in the world through his innovative comic routines, compassion for others and strong dedication to his work. * [[Oleg Popov]], Greatly admired clown from the Soviet Union. * [[Otto Griebling]] - Prolific and influential Master Clown with the Cole Bros. and Ringling circuses. The single most admired and respected American circus clown of the 20th century. * [[The Rastellis]] - European clown act * [[Remi (the clown)|Remi]], &quot;Puerto Rico's Greatest Clown&quot;. * [[Yuri Nikulin]], Russian clown and actor. == Contemporary Circus-Style Clowns == * [[Barry Lubin]] - &quot;Grandma&quot;, star clown of the[[ Big Apple Cir
ter the end of the Cold War. However, a renewed interest has been seen since terrorism has struck on American soil. These shelters also provide a safe haven from natural disasters such as tornadoes and hurricanes. A fallout shelter features prominently in the [[Robert A. Heinlein]] novel ''[[Farnham's Freehold]]'', the Dean Ing novel ''Pulling Through'', and the [[Walter M. Miller]] novel ''[[A Canticle for Leibowitz]]''. ==See also== *[[Bunker]] *[[Blast shelter]] == External links == *[http://www.survivalring.org SurvivalRing.org]This website offers dozens of free downloadable digitized documents on fallout shelter plans, regulations, standards, technical specifications, and more, as well as US targeting info as provided by FEMA. *[http://www.oism.org/ Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine]This website offers the entire online version of Nuclear War Survival Skills with full graphics and web navigation, created with the permission of the author Cresson Kearny. This manual has proven technical info on expedient fallout shelter, shelter habitation, and assorted shelter system needs that can be created from common household items. OISM also offers free downloads of other civil defense and shelter information as well. *[http://www.survivalring.org/CivilDefenseShelters-FEMA-Assessment-1986(final).pdf FEMA Civil Defense Shelters - A state of the Art Assessment - 1986 ] This 25 megabyte PDF file is the complete 300 page plus report on civil defense fallout shelter and shelter systems as compiled under contract for FEMA. Includes information on the design, construction, testing and cost of blast and fallout shelters, and includes a bibliography of over 1000 documents. Hosted by SurvivalRing.org. *[http://www.survivalring.org/FalloutShelterSurvey.pdf Fallout Shelter Surveys: Guide for Architects and Engineers] 58 page PDF document - Provides a guide for architects and engineers with procedures and standards for evaluating potential fallout shelter areas in existing buildings. Hosted by SurvivalRing.org. *[http://www.survivalring.org/shelter%20management%20manual.pdf FEMA Fallout Shelter Management Handbook] 22 page PDF document - &quot;The safety and well-being of the people in this shelter depend on capable leadership. If a civil defense shelter manager is not present, anyone seeing this handbook who has leadership experience can and should TAKE CHARGE IMMEDIATELY.&quot; Hosted by SurvivalRing.org. *[http://www.survivalring.org/shelter01.pdf FEMA Underground Fallout Shelter Plan H-12-1] 9 page PDF document. Actual FEMA plan for a backyard underground fallout shelter. Hosted by SurvivalRing.org. &lt;!--Categories--&gt; [[Category:Cold War]] [[Category:Nuclear warfare]] [[Category:Radioactivity]] [[Category:Radiobiology]] [[Category:Subterranea]] [[Category:Shelters]] [[fr:Abri anti-atomique]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of the Federated States of Micronesia</title> <id>11494</id> <revision> <id>40363594</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:51:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Federated States of Micronesia''' are located on the [[Caroline Islands]] in the western Pacific Ocean. The ancestors of the Micronesians settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious empire centered on [[Yap]]. [[Europe]]an explorers - first the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] in search of the [[Spice Islands]] ([[Indonesia]]) and then the [[Spain|Spanish]] - reached the Carolines in the 16th century, with the Spanish establishing sovereignty. In 1914 German administration ended when the Japanese navy took military possession of the Marshall, Caroline and Northern Mariana Islands. Japan began its formal administration under a [[League of Nations]] mandate in [[1920]]. During this period, extensive settlement resulted in a Japanese population of over 100,000 throughout Micronesia while the indigenous population was about 40,000. Sugar cane, mining, fishing and tropical agriculture became the major industries. World War II brought an abrupt end to the relative prosperity experienced during Japanese civil administration. By the War's conclusion most infrastructure had been laid waste by bombing, and the islands and people had been exploited by the Japanese Military to the point of impoverishment. The United Nations created the [[Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands]] (TTPI) in 1947. [[Ponape]] (then including Kusaie), [[Truk]], Yap, [[Palau]], the Marshall Islands and the Northern Mariana Islands, together constituted the TTPI. The United States accepted the role of Trustee of this, the only United Nations Trusteeship to be designated as a &quot;Security Trusteeship,&quot; whose ultimate disposition was to be determined by the UN Security Council. As Trustee the US was to &quot;promote the economic advancement and self-sufficiency of the inhabitants.&quot; On [[May 10]], 1979, four of the Trust Territory districts ratified a new constitution to become the [[Federated States of Micronesia]]. The neighboring trust districts of Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands chose not to participate. The Honorable Tosiwo Nakayama, the former President of the Congress of Micronesia, became the first President of the FSM and formed his Cabinet. The FSM signed a [[Compact of Free Association]] with the U.S., which entered into force on [[November 3]], 1986, marking Micronesia's emergence from trusteeship to independence. Under the Compact, the U.S. has full authority and responsibility for the defense of the FSM. This security relationship can be changed or terminated by mutual agreement. The Compact provides U.S. grant funds and federal program assistance to the FSM. Amended financial assistance provisions came on-line in FY 2004. The basic relationship of free association continues indefinitely. :''See also:'' [[Federated States of Micronesia]] ==External links== * [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1839.htm U.S. State Department Background Note: Micronesia] {{Oceania in topic|History of}} [[Category:Federated States of Micronesia]] [[ca:Història dels Estats Federats de Micronèsia]] [[es:Historia de los Estados Federados de Micronesia]] [[pt:História dos Estados Federados da Micronésia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of the Federated States of Micronesia</title> <id>11495</id> <revision> <id>41619880</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:47:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Wikify dates</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Federated States of Micronesia}} '''Politics of the Federated States of Micronesia''' takes place in a framework of a [[federation|federal]] [[presidential system|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of the Federated States of Micronesia]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]] [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. The internal workings of the [[Federated States of Micronesia]] are governed by the 1979 constitution, which guarantees fundamental [[human rights]] and establishes a separation of governmental powers. The Federation is in free association with the [[United States]]; the Compact of Free Association entered into force [[3 November]] [[1986]]. ==Executive branch== {{office-table}} |[[President of the Federated States of Micronesia|President]] |[[Joseph J. Urusemal]] | |[[11 May]] [[2003]] |- |Vice-President |[[Redley Killion]] | |[[11 May]] [[2003]] |} The president and the vice president are elected by Congress from among the four senators-at-large for four-year terms. The president is both the chief of state and head of government. Their congressional seats are then filled by special elections. The president and vice president are supported by an appointed cabinet. ==Legislative branch== The [[Congress of Micronesia|Congress]] has 14 non-partisan members, 10 members elected for a two year term in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] and 4 members elected for a four year term by [[proportional representation]]. ==Political parties and elections== The Federated States of Micronesia elects on national level a [[head of state]] (the [[president]]) and a [[legislature]]. As far as available, at the last elections, [[8 March]] [[2005]], only non-partisans have been elected. The president is elected for a four year term by the parliament. There are no political parties in Micronesia, though they are not banned. Political allegiances depend mainly on family- and island-related factors. {{Micronesian federal election, 2005}} ==Judicial branch== The judiciary is headed by the Supreme Court, which is divided into trial and appellate divisions. The president appoints judges with the advice and consent of the Congress. ==Administrative divisions== The FSM is divided in four states, [[Chuuk]] (Truk), [[Kosrae]], [[Pohnpei]], and [[Yap]], has its own constitution, elected legislature, and governor. The state governments maintain considerable power, particularly regarding the implementation of budgetary policies. ==International organization participation== AsDB, ESCAP, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFC, IMF, Intelsat, IOC, ITU, OPCW, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UN, UNCTAD, WHO, WMO ==See also== * [[Federated States of Micronesia]] * [[Electoral calendar]] * [[Electoral system]] * [[Index of political parties]] to browse parties by name * [[Lis
t with [[Laplace]], when he used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxide produced, eventually they found the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion. [[Image:Calorimeter.gif|thumb|115px|left|Constant [[pressure]] [[calorimeter]] made by Lavoisier for chemical [[enthalpy]] experiment.]] He also made remarkable contributions to [[chemical bond|chemical bonding]] by stating the radical theory, believing that radicals, which function as a single group in a chemical reaction, would combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility of [[allotropy|allotropy in chemical elements]] when he discovered that [[diamond]] is a crystalline form of carbon. He also updated many chemical concepts, for the first time the modern notion of elements was laided out systematically; the three or four elements of classical chemistry gave way to the modern system, and Lavoisier worked out reactions in chemical equations that respect the conservation of mass (see, for example, the [[nitrogen cycle]]).[[Image:Lavoisier_humanexp.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Lavoisier conducting an experiment in the [[1770s]].]] His contributions are considered the most important in advancing the science of chemistry to the level of what had been achieved in physics and mathematics during [[18th century]]. ==Law and politics== Of key significance in Lavoisier's life was his study of [[law]]. He received a [[law degree]] and was admitted to the [[bar association|bar]], but never practiced as a [[lawyer]]. He did become interested in French [[politics]], and as a result, he obtained a position as [[tax]] collector in the ''[[Ferme Générale]]'', a [[tax farming]] company, at the age of 26, where he attempted to introduce reforms in the French [[monetary system|monetary]] and [[tax]]ation system. While in government work, he helped develop the [[SI|metric system]] to secure uniformity of [[weights and measures]] throughout France. ==Execution== As one of 28 French tax collectors and a powerful figure in the unpopular Ferme Générale, Lavoisier was branded a traitor during the Reign of Terror by [[French Revolution|revolutionists]] in 1794, and tried, convicted and [[guillotine|guillotined]] all on one day in Paris, at the age of 51. Ironically, Lavoisier was one of the few liberals in his position. One of his actions that may have sealed his fate was a contretemps a few years earlier with the young [[Jean-Paul Marat|Jean-Paul Marat]], who subsequently became a leading revolutionary. An appeal to spare his life was cut short by the judge: &quot;The Republic has no need of geniuses [or, alternately, &quot;scientists.&quot;].&quot; His importance for science was expressed by the mathematician [[Joseph Louis Lagrange]] who lamented the beheading by saying: &quot;It took them only an instant to cut off that head, but France may not produce another like it in a century.&quot; One and a half years following his death, Lavoisier was exonerated by the French government. When his private belongings were delivered to his widow, a brief note was included reading &quot;To the widow of Lavoisier, who was falsely convicted.&quot; About a century after his death, a statue of Lavoisier was erected in Paris. It was later discovered that the sculptor had not actually copied Lavoisier's head for the statue, but used a spare head of the [[Marquis de Condorcet]], the Secretary of the Academy of Sciences during Lavoisier's last years. Lack of money prevented alterations being made and, in any case, the French argued pragmatically that all men in wigs looked alike anyway. The statue was melted down during the [[World War II|Second World War]] and has never been replaced. == Can a severed head think? == A story relates how Lavoisier arranged a final experiment at his death intended to determine whether and for how long a severed head remains conscious after [[decapitation]]. Supposedly, Lavoisier decided to blink as many times as possible, and had an assistant count the blinks, which numbered between 15 and 20. The story may be apocryphal. Standard biographies have never mentioned the incident, and some biologists have expressed skepticism that it would be possible. However romantic, the story is false.[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a5_262.html] ==References== * Berthelot, M. ''La révolution chimique: Lavoisier.'' Paris: Alcan, 1890. * Daumas, M. ''Lavoisier, théoricien et expérimentateur.'' Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1955. * Lavoisier, A. ''Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes, 2 vols.'' Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789. Reprinted Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965. * Antoine Lavoisier, ''Elements of Chemistry'', Dover Publications Inc., New York, NY,1965, 511 pages. ==Further reading== *Donovan, Arthur, &quot;Antoine Lavoisier: Science, Administration, and Revolution.&quot;, Cambridge University Press, 1993. * Hundred Greatest Men, 1885 [http://www.lib.utexas.edu www.lib.utexas.edu] *Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, &amp; Pyrotechnics by Jack Kelly - The history of the explosive that changed the world (Basic Books, 2004 - 0-465-03718-6). *Grey, Vivian. &quot;The Chemist Who Lost His Head: The Story of Antoine Lavoisier.&quot;, Coward, McCann &amp; Geoghegan, Inc. , 1982 ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{commons|Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier|Antoine Lavoisier}} * [http://moro.imss.fi.it/lavoisier/ A virtual museum of Antoine Lavoisier] * [http://histsciences.univ-paris1.fr/i-corpus/lavoisier/index.php The Complete Works of Lavoisier] * [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a5_262.html Does the head remain briefly conscious after decapitation?] from [[The Straight Dope]], references Lavoisier's execution * [http://www.chemheritage.org/EducationalServices/chemach/fore/all.html Antoine Lavoisier], Chemical Achievers profile [[Category:1743 births|Lavoisier, Antoine]] [[Category:1794 deaths|Lavoisier, Antoine]] [[Category:French scientists|Lavoisier, Antoine]] [[Category:French chemists|Lavoisier, Antoine]] [[Category:Lunar Society|Lavoisier, Antoine]] [[Category:Guillotined French Revolution figures|Lavoisier, Antoine]] [[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements|Lavoisier, Antoine]] [[ar:أنطوان لافوازييه]] [[bg:Антоан Лавоазие]] [[ca:Antoine Laurent Lavoisier]] [[da:Antoine Laurent Lavoisier]] [[de:Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier]] [[el:Αντουάν Λωράν Λαβουαζιέ]] [[es:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[fr:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[ko:앙투안 라부아지에]] [[hr:Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier]] [[id:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[it:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[he:אנטואן לבואזיה]] {{Link FA|he}} [[ka:ლავუაზიე, ანტუან]] [[ms:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[nl:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[ja:アントワーヌ・ラヴォアジエ]] [[no:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[pl:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[pt:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[ru:Лавуазье, Антуан Лоран]] [[sk:Antoine Laurent Lavoisier]] [[sl:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[fi:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[sv:Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier]] [[tr:Antoine Lavoisier]] [[zh:拉瓦锡]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alan Cox</title> <id>1823</id> <revision> <id>42054440</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:10:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>212.113.198.67</ip> </contributor> <comment>Interview link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the radio presenter, see [[Alan Cox (radio presenter)]].'' '''Alan Cox''' (born 1968) is a [[programmer]] heavily involved in the development of the [[Linux kernel]] since its early days (1991). Whilst employed on the campus of [[University of Wales, Swansea]], he installed a very early version of [[Linux]] on one of the machines belonging to the [[Swansea University Computer Society|university computer society]]. This was one of the first Linux installations on a busy [[computer network| network]], and revealed many bugs in the networking code. Cox fixed many of these bugs, and went on to rewrite much of the networking subsystem. He then became one of the main developers and maintainers of the whole kernel. [[Image:With-alan-cox.jpg|thumb|Alan Cox, wearing a red hat, with two [[Gentoo]] developers at the LinuxWorld Expo 2005]] He maintained an old branch (2.2.x), and his own versions of the previous stable branch (2.4.x) (signified by an &quot;ac&quot; in the version, for example 2.4.13-ac1). This branch was very stable and contained bugfixes that went directly into the vendor kernels. He was once commonly regarded as being the &quot;second in command&quot; after [[Linus Torvalds]] himself. His dense and friendly comments have guided many programmers on the [[linux kernel mailing list]]. Alan is employed by [[Red Hat]] and lives in [[Swansea]], [[Wales]] with his wife, Telsa Gwynne. Since then he has also been involved in the [[GNOME]] and [[Xorg]] projects. He was the main developer of [[AberMUD]], which he wrote whilst a student at the [[University of Wales, Aberystwyth]]. He is an ardent supporter of programming freedom, and an outspoken opponent of [[software patent]]s, the [[DMCA]] and the [[CBDTPA]]. He resigned from a subgroup of [[Usenix]] in protest, and said he would not visit the [[United States]] for fear of being imprisoned after the arrest of [[Dmitry Sklyarov]] for DMCA violations. Cox was the recipient of the [[Free Software Foundation]]'s [[2003]] [[FSF Award for the Advancement of Free Software|Award for the Advancement of Free Software]] at the [[FOSDEM]] conference in [[Brussels]]. On October 5th 2005, Cox received a lifetime achievement award at the [[LinuxWorld]] awards in London. == External links == *[http://www.softpanorama.org/People/Cox/index.shtml Alan Cox: The maintainer of production version of the Linux kernel. Ch. 5 of ebook ''Open Source Pioneers'', includes a lot of difficult to find interviews] *[http://www.redhat.com/advice/ask_alancox.html Interview on his biography] *[http://zenii.linux.org.uk/diary/ His diary] in [[Welsh language|W
[[French colonial empires|colonial empire]], the comparative economic status, population and status as a dominant [[nation state]]. The [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]] was established after World War II, to be replaced in 1958 by the current semi-presidential [[French Fifth Republic|Fifth Republic]] established under General [[Charles de Gaulle]]. In recent decades, France's reconciliation and cooperation with [[Germany]] have proved central to the political and economic integration of the evolving [[European Union]], including the introduction of the [[euro]] in January 1999. France has been at the forefront of European Union member states seeking to exploit the momentum of monetary union to create a more unified and capable European Union based political, defence and security apparatus. However the French electorate voted against ratification of the [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe|European Constitutional Treaty]] in May 2005. ==Government and politics== [[Image:Marque du Gouvernement de la République Française.gif|thumb|200px|right|Symbol of the French government]] [[Image:Declaration_of_Human_Rights.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The basic principles that the French Republic must respect are found in the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]].]] {{main articles|[[Government of France]] and [[Politics of France]]}} The [[Constitution of France|constitution]] of the Fifth Republic was approved by [[referendum]] on [[September 28]] [[1958]]. It greatly strengthened the authority of the executive in relation to [[Government of France#The legislative branch|Parliament]]. Under the constitution, the [[President of the French Republic]] is elected directly by universal adult suffrage for a 5-year (originally 7-year) term. Presidential arbitration assures regular functioning of the public powers and the continuity of the state. The president names the prime minister, presides over the cabinet, commands the armed forces, and concludes treaties. The French [[parliament]] is a bicameral legislature comprising a [[French National Assembly|National Assembly]] (''Assemblée Nationale'') and a [[French Senate|Senate]]. The National Assembly deputies represent local constituencies and are directly elected for 5-year terms. The Assembly has the power to dismiss the cabinet, and thus the majority in the Assembly determines the choice of government. Senators are chosen by electoral college for 6-year terms (originally 9-year terms), and one half of the seats are submited to election every 3 years starting in September 2008.{{ref|FrenchSenate2007}} The [[French Senate|Senate]]'s legislative powers are limited; in the event of disagreement between the two chambers, the National assembly has the final say, except for constitutional laws (amendments to the constitution &amp; &quot;lois organiques&quot;). The government has a strong influence in shaping the agenda of Parliament. For the past thirty years, French politics has been characterised by the two politically opposed groupings: one [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]], centred around the [[Socialist Party (France)|French Socialist Party]], and the other [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]], centred around the [[Rally for the Republic|Rassemblement pour la République (RPR)]] and its successor the [[Union for a Popular Movement|Union pour un Mouvement Populaire (UMP)]]. The right-wing ''[[National Front (France)|Front National]]'' party made significant inroads in the early 1980's, seized on voter concern about the perceived decline of France and 'national dissolution' as a result of immigration and globalisation, by advocating tougher law-and-order and immigration policies. Lately its share of the votes has remained stable at approximately 16%. French foreign policy has been largely shaped by membership of the [[European Union]]. On [[May 29]], [[2005]] the French electorate voted in the [[French referendum on the European Constitution|referendum]] with about 55% against ratification of the proposed [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]]. The outcome of the vote was widely regarded as crucial for the future development of the EU, as well as for France's ability to retain leadership in Europe. France is also a member of the [[Secretariat of the Pacific Community]] (SPC), the [[Indian Ocean Commission]] (COI), an associate member of the [[Association of Caribbean States]] (ACS) and a leading member of the [[La Francophonie|International Francophone Organisation]] (OIF) of fifty-one fully or partly French-speaking countries. France hosts the headquarters of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]], [[Interpol]], and the [[Bureau International des Poids et Mesures|International Bureau for Weights and Measures]] in charge of the international [[SI|metric system]]. {{seealso|Constitution of France|President of France|List of Prime Ministers of France|List of Foreign Ministers of France|Foreign relations of France}} ==Transportation== {{main|Transportation in France}} ==Military== {{main|Military of France}} The French [[armed forces]] are divided into four branches: * [[French Army|Army]] (Armée de Terre) * [[Marine nationale|Navy]] (Marine Nationale) * [[French Air Force|Air Force]] (Armée de l'Air) * [[French Gendarmerie|Gendarmerie]] (Gendarmerie Nationale), a military police force which serves for the most part as a rural and general purpose police force. Military age is 17. Since the [[Algerian War of Independence]], [[conscription]] has been steadily reduced and was abolished by the government of [[Jacques Chirac]] in 1996. Among the larger European economies, France and the [[United Kingdom]] are the only significant spenders on defence: France with 2.6% of [[GDP]], and the [[United Kingdom|UK]] at 2.4%, according to 2003 figures from [[NATO]]. Those two countries account for 40% of EU defence spending. In most other EU countries, defence spending is less than 1.5% of GDP. About 10% of France's defence budget goes toward its ''[[force de frappe]]'', or [[France and weapons of mass destruction|nuclear weapons]]. {{NATO}} ==Economy== [[Image:A380_Reveal_2.jpg|thumb|300px|The first completed [[Airbus A380]] at the &quot;A380 Reveal&quot; event in [[Toulouse]] on [[January 18]], [[2005]].]] {{main|Economy of France}} France's economy combines extensive private enterprise (nearly 2.5 million companies registered) with substantial (though declining) government intervention (see [[dirigisme]]). The government retains considerable influence over key segments of infrastructure sectors, with majority ownership of railway, electricity, aircraft, and telecommunication firms. It has been gradually relaxing its control over these sectors since the early [[1990s#Economics|1990s]]. The government is slowly selling off holdings in [[France Télécom]], [[Air France]], as well as the insurance, banking, and defence industries. A member of the [[G8]] group of leading industrialised countries, it ranked as the fifth-largest economy in the world in 2004, behind the [[United States]], [[Japan]], [[Germany]], and the [[United Kingdom]]. France joined 10 other [[European Union|EU]] members to launch the [[Euro]] on [[January 1]] [[1999]], with [[euro coins]] and [[euro banknotes|banknotes]] completely replacing the French [[French franc|franc]] in early 2002. According to the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], in 2004 France was the world's fifth-largest exporter of manufactured goods, behind the [[United States]], [[Germany]], [[Japan]], and [[China]], (but ahead of the [[United Kingdom]]). It was also the fourth-largest importer of manufactured goods (behind the United States, Germany, and China, but ahead of the United Kingdom and Japan). Yet according to the OECD, in 2003 France was the OECD country that received the most [[foreign direct investment]] ([[Luxembourg]] excepted, where foreign direct investment was mostly monetary transfers to banks located in that country). With 47 billion USD of foreign direct investments, France ranked above the United States (39.9 billion USD of FDI received), the United Kingdom (14.6 billion USD of FDI received), Germany (12.9 billion USD of FDI received), or Japan (6.3 billion USD of FDI received). At the same time, French companies invested 57.3 billion USD outside of France, ranking France as the second most important outward direct investor in the OECD, behind the United States (173.8 billion USD of outward FDI), but ahead of the United Kingdom (55.3 billion USD of outward FDI), Japan (28.8 billion USD of outward FDI), or Germany (2.6 billion USD of outward FDI). In the 2005 edition of ''OECD in Figures'', the OECD also noted that France leads the [[G7]] countries in terms of productivity (measured as GDP per hour worked). [http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/102008121078] In 2004, the GDP per hour worked in France was 47.7 USD, ranking France above the United States (46.3 USD per hour worked), Germany (42.1 USD per hour worked), the United Kingdom (39.6 USD per hour worked), or Japan (32.5 USD per hour worked). [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/30/40/29867116.xls] Despite a higher productivity per hour worked than in the US, France's GDP per capita is significantly lower than the US GDP per capita, being in fact comparable to the GDP per capita of the other European countries, which is on average 30% below US level. The reason for this is because a much smaller percentage of the French population is working compared to the US, which sinks the GDP per capita of France, despite its higher productivity. In fact, France has one of the lowest percentage of its population at work among the OECD countries. In 2003, 41.5% of the French population was working, compared to 50.7% in the US, and 47.3% in the UK. This phenomenon is the result of almost thirty yea
locks readable to the nearest 15 minutes. [[image:big.ben.scaled.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The massive clock on [[Big Ben]], [[London]], [[England]]. The 5 foot 4 inch (1.63 m) person &quot;holding on&quot; to the six o'clock marking has been inserted into the picture at correct scale. The hour hand is 9 feet (2.7 m) long and the minute hand is 14 feet (4.3 m) long]] The next major development in accuracy occurred in [[1657]] with the invention of the [[pendulum clock]]. [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] had the idea to use a swinging bob to propel the motion of a time telling device earlier in the [[17th century]]. [[Christiaan Huygens]], however, is usually credited as the inventor. He determined the mathematical formula that related pendulum length to time (99.38 cm or 39.13 inches for the one second movement) and had the first pendulum driven clock made. In [[1670]], the English clockmaker [[William Clement]] created the [[anchor escapement]], an improvement over Huygens' [[crown escapement]]. Within just one generation, [[minute]] hands and then [[second]] hands were added. The excitement over the pendulum clock attracted the attention of designers resulting in a proliferation of clock forms. Notably, the longcase clock (aka [[grandfather clock]]) was created to house the pendulum and works. The English clockmaker [[William Clement]], inventor of the [[anchor escapement]], is credited with developing this form in [[1670]]. It was also at this time that clock cases began to be made of wood and [[clock face]]s to employ [[Vitreous enamel|enamel]]. On [[November 17]], [[1797]], [[Eli Terry]] received his first [[patent]] for a clock. Terry is known as the founder of the American clock-making industry. The development of [[electronics]] in the [[twentieth century]] led to clocks with no clockwork parts at all. Time in these cases is measured in several ways, such as by the behaviour of [[quartz]] crystals, or the decay of radioactive elements. Even mechanical clocks have since come to be largely powered by batteries, removing the need for winding. ==Types== There are four major types of clocks. ===Analog clocks=== [[Analog signal|Analog]] clocks may be [[mechanical clock|mechanical]] or have a [[quartz movement]]. A [[clock face]] is the part of an [[analog signal|analog]] clock that tells time through the use of a fixed numbered dial or dials and moving hand or hands. It usually has a circular scale of 12 [[hour]]s, which also serves as a scale of 60 [[minute]]s, and often also as a scale of 60 [[second]]s. The [[analog clock with digital display]] emulates a digital clock but with an analog movement. The ultimate analog clock is the [[sundial]], which tracks the sun continuously, registering the time by the shadow of its [[gnomon]]. [[image:Digital-clock-radio-basic.jpg|thumb|Basic digital clock radio.]] ===Digital clocks=== [[Digital clock]]s use electronic methods of keeping time. Battery operated digital clocks such as wrist watches use a quartz crystal oscillator for time keeping, whereas mains-powered clocks, such as bed-side alarm clocks, use typically the 50 or 60 [[hertz]] oscillation of [[AC power]] or a [[crystal oscillator]] as in a [[quartz movement]]. A [[digital]] clock typically displays a numerical hour range of 0-23, or 1-12 (with an indication of [[12-hour_clock|AM or PM]]) using an [[LCD]] or [[LED]] display, although digital versions of analog-style faces exist. Mains-driven digital clocks are often reset after a power failure, and, typically, begin flashing to alert us that the time they display is incorrect. After a reset digital clocks lacking a backup [[battery (electricity)|battery]] either start counting from 00:00, or stay 00:00 to indicate that their time needs to be set. ===Textual clocks=== Textual clocks present the time visually in the form of [[natural language]]. For instance, in english, the time 12:35 could be represented as &quot;Twelve thirty-five&quot;. Some versions of these clocks use a more approximate version intended to be relaxing, such as &quot;About twelve thirty&quot; &lt;ref&gt;[http://muse.jhu.edu/cgi-bin/access.cgi?uri=/journals/modernism-modernity/v006/6.1whittier-ferguson.html Project Muse]&lt;/ref&gt; ===Auditory Clocks=== For convenience, distance, telephony or blindness, auditory clocks present the time as sounds. the form is either spoken [[natural language]], (e.g. &quot;The time is twelve thirty-five&quot;), or as auditory codes (e.g. number of sequential bell rings on the hour represents the number of the hour like the clock [[Big Ben]]). &lt;!-- Keep this line break; it prevents the digital clock picture from overlapping into the next section and thus neatens up the page --&gt; &lt;br clear=&quot;left&quot; /&gt; ==Purposes== Clocks are in homes and offices; smaller ones ([[watch]]es) are carried; larger ones are in public places, e.g. a [[train station]] or [[church]]. A small clock is often shown in a corner of [[computer display]]s or [[mobile phone]]s. The main purpose of a clock is not always to ''display'' the time. It may also be used to ''control'' a device according to time, e.g. an alarm clock, a [[VCR]], or a time [[bomb]] (see: [[counter]]). Practically all [[computer]]s depend on an accurate internal [[clock signal]] to allow synchronized processing. (A few research projects are developing CPUs based on [[asynchronous circuit]]s). Some computers also maintain time and date for all manner of operations whether these be for alarms, event initiation or just to display the time of day. ===Ideal clocks=== An [[ideal clock]] is a scientific principle that measures the ratio of the duration of natural processes, and thus will give the time measure for use in physical theories. Therefore, to define an ideal clock in terms of any physical theory would be circular. An ideal clock is more appropriately defined in relationship to the set of all physical processes. [[Image:PDphotos-org_alarm_clock_1_bg_050304.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A desk clock]] This leads to the following definitions: * A clock is a [[process|recurrent]] [[period (physics)|periodic]] [[process]] and a [[counter]]. * A good clock is one which, when used to measure other recurrent processes, finds many of them to be periodic. * An ideal clock is a clock (i.e., recurrent process) that makes the most other recurrent processes periodic. The recurrent, periodic process (a [[metronome]]) is an [[oscillator]] and typically generates a ''clock signal''. Sometimes that signal alone is (confusingly) called &quot;the clock,&quot; but sometimes &quot;the clock&quot; includes the counter, its indicator, and everything else supporting it. This definition can be further improved by the consideration of successive levels of smaller and smaller error tolerances. While not all physical processes can be surveyed, the definition should be based on the set of physical processes which includes all individual physical processes which are proposed for consideration. Since atoms are so numerous and since, within current measurement tolerances, they all beat in a manner such that if one is chosen as periodic then the others are all deemed to be periodic also, it follows that [[atomic clock]]s represent ideal clocks to within present measurement tolerances and in relation to all presently known physical processes. However, they are not so designated by fiat. Rather, they are designated as the current ideal clock because they are currently the best instantiation of the definition. ===Navigation=== Accurate [[navigation]] by ships beyond the sight of land depends on the ability to measure [[latitude]] and [[longitude]]. Latitude is fairly easy to determine through [[celestial navigation]], but the measurement of [[longitude]] requires accurate measurement of time. This need was a major motivation for the development of accurate mechanical clocks. [[John Harrison]] created the first, highly accurate [[marine chronometers]] in the mid-18th century. The [[Noon gun]] in [[Cape Town]] still fires an accurate signal to allow ships to check their [[chronometers]]. ===Modern clocks=== [[Quartz movement|Quartz]] timepieces were invented in the [[1920s]]. The [[digital clock]] was invented in [[1956]]. ==Specific types of clocks== [[Image:Windup alarm clock.jpg|thumb|A windup, mechanical, spring-driven alarm clock.]] * [[alarm clock]] * [[analog clock with digital display]] * [[astronomical clock]] * [[atomic clock]] * [[binary clock]] * [[bracket clock]] * [[cartel clock]] * [[chiming clock]] * [[clock network]] * [[Data]] clock for [[timescapes]] created with [[time-technology]] * [[doll's head clock]] * [[Railroad chronometers]] * [[countdown clock]] * [[cuckoo clock]] * [[flip clock]] * [[game clock]] * [[grandfather clock]] * [[hourglass]] * [[longcase clock]] * [[mantel clock]] * [[pedestal clock]] * [[pendulum clock|swinging pendulum clock]] * [[torsion pendulum clock]] * [[projection clock]] [[Image:Digital-clock-oven.jpg|thumb|Digital clock display in an oven.]] * [[quartz clock]] * [[sidereal clock]] * [[skeleton clock]] * [[stopwatch]] * [[striking clock]] * [[sundial]] * [[tide clock]] * [[time clock]] * [[watch]] * [[water clock]] * [[world clock]] ==See also== * [[chronometer]] * [[Iron Ring Clock]] * [[Allan variance]] * [[biological clocks]] * [[clock face]] * [[Cox's timepiece]] * [[Clock of the Long Now]] * [[Clock signal]] (digital circuits) * [[Clock tower]] * [[Clockmaker]] * [[Colgate Clock]], the world's largest clock * [[Horology]] * [[Intellectual history of time]] * [[Metrology]] * [[National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors]] * [[Radio clock]] * [[Star clock]] * [[Time standard]] * [[Timeline of time measurement technology]] * [[Timer]] * [[Time to digital converter]] * [[Watchmaker]] ==External links== {{commons|Category:Clocks}} * [http://www.awci.com/ American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute] * [http://www.bhi.co.uk/oldindex
Section=Procurement&amp;Template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&amp;ContentID=1109 NDIA Program Management Systems Committee] * [https://acc.dau.mil/simplify/ev.php?ID=1500_201&amp;ID2=DO_COMMUNITY The Acquisition Community Connection on EVM] [[Category:Project management]] [[Category:Management]] [[Category:Production and manufacturing]] [[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12489;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12496;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12517;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12510;&amp;#12493;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12513;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12488;]] [[zh:&amp;#25379;&amp;#20540;&amp;#31649;&amp;#29702;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electron microscope</title> <id>9730</id> <revision> <id>41452422</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T12:31:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>152.14.55.60</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Selected area diffraction}} [[Image:Elektronenmikroskop.jpg|thumb|A transmission electron microscope.]] The '''electron microscope''' is a [[microscope]] that can magnify very small details with high [[resolving power]] due to the use of [[electron]]s as the source of illumination, magnifying at levels up to 500,000 times. == History == The first electron microscope was built by the German physicist [[Ernst Ruska]], who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1986 for its invention. He knew that [[electron]]s possess a wave aspect, so he believed he could treat them in a fashion similar to light waves. Ruska was also aware that [[magnetic]] fields could manipulate electrons, possibly focusing them as optical [[Lens (optics)|lenses]] do to light. After confirming these principles through research, he set out to design an electron microscope. Ruska had deduced that an electron microscope would be much more powerful than an ordinary [[optical microscope]], because he knew that [[magnification]] increased with shorter wavelengths. Since electron waves were shorter than ordinary light waves, it followed that they would allow for greater magnification. In [[1932]] Ruska and a collaborator, German physicist [[Max Knoll]], under whom he obtained his doctorate, built the first crude electron microscope. Despite the fact that it was primitive and not fit for practical use, the instrument was still capable of magnifying objects '''400''' times. The first practical electron microscope was built by [[Eli Franklin Burton]] and students at the [[University of Toronto]], [[Canada]] in [[1938]]. Although modern electron microscopes can magnify an object 2 million times, they are still based upon Ruska's [[prototype]] and his correlation between wavelength and magnification. The electron microscope is an integral part of many laboratories. Researchers use it to examine biological materials (such as microorganisms and cells), a variety of large molecules, medical biopsy samples, metals and crystalline structures, and the characteristics of various surfaces. ==Types == ===Electron beam microscopes === ====Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) ==== The [[Transmission electron microscopy|Transmission Electron Microscope]] (TEM) involves a high [[voltage]] electron beam emitted by a [[cathode]] and formed by [[magnet|magnetic]] lenses. The electron beam that has been partially transmitted through the very thin (and so semitransparent for electrons) specimen carries information about the inner structure of the specimen. The spatial variation in this information (the &quot;image&quot;) is then magnified by a series of magnetic lenses until it is recorded by hitting a fluorescent screen, photographic plate, or light sensitive sensor such as a CCD (charge-coupled device) camera. The image detected by the CCD may be displayed in real time on a monitor or computer. Resolution of the high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) is limited by spherical and chromatic aberration, but a new generation of aberration correctors has been able to overcome spherical aberration. Software correction of spherical aberration has allowed the production of images with sufficient resolution to show carbon atoms in diamond separated by only 0.89 [[ångström]] (89 [[picometer]]s) and atoms in silicon at 0.78 ångström (78 picometers) at magnifications of 50 million times. The ability to determine the positions of atoms within materials has made the HRTEM an indispensible tool for nano-technologies research and development in many fields, including heterogeneous catalysis and the development of semiconductor devices for electronics and photonics. ====Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) ==== Unlike the TEM, where electrons are detected by beam transmission, the [[Scanning Electron Microscope]] (SEM) produces images by detecting secondary electrons which are emitted from the surface due to excitation by the primary electron beam. In the SEM, the electron beam is rastered across the sample, with detectors building up an image by mapping the detected signals with beam position. Generally, the TEM resolution is about an order of magnitude better than the SEM resolution, however, because the SEM image relies on surface processes rather than transmission it is able to image bulk samples and has a much greater depth of view, and so can produce images that are a good representation of the 3D structure of the sample. ====Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope (STEM) ==== A [[Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope]] (STEM) is a specific sort of TEM, where the electrons still pass through the specimen, but, as in SEM, the sample is scanned in a raster fashion.&lt;!-- No, 'raster' is not a typo--&gt; ====Reflection Electron Microscope (REM) ==== In addition there is a '''Reflection Electron Microscope''' (REM). Like TEM, this technique involves electron beams incident on a surface, but instead of using the transmission (TEM) or secondary electrons (SEM), the reflected beam is detected. This technique is typcially coupled with [[RHEED|Reflection High Energy Electron Diffraction]] and ''Reflection high-energy loss spectrum (REELS)''. Another variation is Spin-Polarized Low-Energy Electron Microscopy (SPLEEM), which is used for looking at the microstructure of [[magnetic domain]]s [http://ncem.lbl.gov/frames/spleem.htm]. ===Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) === A [[Scanning Tunneling Microscope]] (STM) can be considered type of electron microscope, but it is a type of [[Scanning probe microscopy]] and it is non-optical. The STM employs principles of quantum mechanics to determine the height of a surface. An atomically sharp probe (the tip) is moved over the surface of the material under study, and a voltage is applied between probe and the surface. Depending on the voltage electrons will ''tunnel'' or jump from the tip to the surface (or vice-versa depending on the polarity), resulting in a weak electric current. The size of this current is exponentially dependent on the distance between probe and the surface. == Sample Preparation == Samples viewed under an electron microscope may be treated in many ways: *''Cryofixation'' - freezing a specimen so rapidly, to liquid nitrogen or even liquid helium temperatures, that the water forms [[Amorphous ice|vitreous (non-crystalline) ice]]. This preserves the specimen in a snapshot of its solution state. This technique produces the best specimen preservation, but isn't applicable to all specimens. An entire field called [[cryo-electron microscopy]] has branched from this technique. *''Fixation'' - preserving the sample to make it more realistic. [[Glutaraldehyde]] - for hardening - and [[osmium tetroxide]] - which stains [[lipid]]s black - are used. *''Dehydration'' - replacing [[water]] with organic solvents such as [[ethanol]] or [[acetone]]. *''Embedding'' - infiltration of the tissue with a [[resin]] such as [[araldite]] or [[epoxy]] for sectioning. *''Sectioning'' - produces thin slices of specimen, semitransparent to electrons. These can be cut on an [[ultramicrotome]] with a [[diamond]] knife to produce very thin slices. [[Glass knives]] are also used because they can be made in the lab and are much cheaper. *''Staining'' - uses heavy metals such as [[lead]], [[uranium]] or [[tungsten]] to block electrons to give contrast between different structures, since many (especially biological) materials are nearly &quot;transparent&quot; to electrons (weak phase objects). *''Freeze-fracture or freeze-etch'' - a preparation method particularly useful for examining lipid membranes and their incorporated proteins in &quot;face on&quot; view. The fresh tissue or cell suspension is frozen rapidly (cryofixed), then fractured by simply breaking or by using a microtome while maintained at liquid nitrogen temperature. The cold fractured surface (sometimes &quot;etched&quot; by increasing the temperature to about -100°C for several minutes to let some ice sublime) is then shadowed with platinum at an average angle of 45° in a high vacuum evaporator. A second coat of carbon, evaporated normal to the average surface plane is often performed to improve stability of the replica coating. The specimen is returned to room temperature and pressure, then the extremely fragile &quot;pre-shadowed&quot; replica of the fracture surface is released from the underlying biological material by careful chemical digestion with acids, hypochlorite solution or SDS detergent. The still-floating replica is thoroughly washed from residual chemicals, carefully fished up on EM grids, dried then viewed in the TEM. *''Embedding'' - infiltration of the tissue with a [[resin]] such as [[araldite]] or [[epoxy]] for sectioning. *''Ion Beam Milling'' - thins samples until they are transparent to electrons by firing [[ions]] (typically [[argon]]) at the surface from an angle and sputtering material from the surface. A subclass of this is [[Focused ion beam]] milling, where [[gallium]] ions are used to produce an electron transparent membrane in a specific region of the sample
ifepristone up to 49 days gestation (7 weeks), though evidence based regimens exist for its use up to 61 days gestation with similar success rates. Misoprostol alone can also be used, though it is not FDA approved for this purpose. Misoprostol (Cytotec) alone has the advantage of costing less than one dollar for an effective dose, as opposed to several hundred dollars for an effective dose of mifepristone. In cases of failure of medical abortion, vacuum or manual aspiration is used to complete the abortion surgically. ====Other means of abortion==== Historically, a number of [[herb]]s reputed to possess [[abortifacient]] properties have been used in [[folk medicine]]: [[tansy]], [[pennyroyal]], [[black cohosh]], and the now-extinct [[silphium]] (see [[Abortion#History of abortion|history of abortion]]). The use of herbs in such a manner can cause serious — even lethal — side effects, such as [[multiple organ dysfunction syndrome|multiple organ failure]], and is not recommended by [[physician]]s. {{ref|othermethods1}} Abortion is sometimes attempted through means of trauma to the [[abdomen]]. The degree of force applied, if severe, can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing [[miscarriage]]. {{ref|othermethods2}} Both accidental and deliberate abortions of this kind can be subject to criminal liability in many countries. In [[Myanmar|Burma]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Thailand]], there is an ancient tradition of attempting abortion through forceful abdominal [[massage]]. {{ref|othermethods3}} Reported methods of unsafe, [[self-induced abortion]] include the misuse of the [[ulcer]] [[drug]] [[Misoprostol]] and the insertion of non-surgical implements such as [[knitting needle]]s and [[clothes hanger]]s into the [[uterus]]. ==Health effects== &lt;!--MAJOR REORG NEEDED. Entire section is argumentative, and biased: See Talk. --&gt; Early-term surgical abortion is a simple procedure, and when performed by competent doctors (and in some states, nurse practitioners, nurse midwives and physician assistants) in first-world nations (before the 16th week), is safer than carrying the pregnancy to term. {{ref|healtheffects1}} &lt;!-- As I pointed out earlier, listing the negatives of this generally safe procedure first would be biased. --&gt; As with most surgical procedures, the most common surgical abortion methods carry the risk of potentially serious complications. These risks include: a perforated uterus, perforated [[bowel]] or [[Urinary bladder|bladder]], [[septic shock]], sterility, and death. The risk of complications occurring can increase depending on how far the pregnancy has progressed, but may be counterbalanced by [[Complications of pregnancy|complications]] that would occur from carrying the pregnancy to term. It is difficult to accurately assess the risks of induced abortion due to a number of factors. These factors include wide variation in the quality of abortion services in different [[Society|societies]] and among different [[socio-economic]] groups, a lack of uniform [[definition]]s of terms, and difficulties in patient follow-up and after-care. The degree of risk is also dependent upon the skill and experience of the practitioner; maternal age, health, and [[parity]]; [[gestational age]]; pre-existing conditions; methods and instruments used; [[medication]]s used; the skill and experience of those assisting the practitioner; and the quality of recovery and follow-up care. A highly-skilled practitioner, operating under ideal conditions, will tend to have a very low rate of complications; an inexperienced practitioner in an ill-equipped and ill-staffed facility, on the other hand, will often have a higher incidence of complications. In the [[United Kingdom]], the number of deaths due to legal abortion between the years of 1991 and 1993 was 5, as compared to the 9 deaths caused by [[ectopic pregnancy]] during the same time frame. {{ref|mortality1}} In the [[United States]], during the year 1999, there were a total of 4 deaths due to legal abortion. {{ref|mortality2}} &lt;!--need to compare the number of abortions and the number of pregnancies for these numbers to relate --&gt; Some practitioners advocate using minimal [[anesthesia]] so that the patient can alert them to possible complications. Others recommend [[general anesthesia]], in order to prevent patient movement, which might cause a perforation. General anesthesia carries its own risks, including death, which is why public health officials recommend against its routine use. [[Dilation]] of the [[cervix]] carries the risk of cervical tears or perforations, including small tears that might not be apparent and might cause [[cervical incompetence]] in future pregnancies. Most practitioners recommend using the smallest possible dilators, and using [[osmotic]] rather than [[mechanical]] dilators after the first [[trimester]] of pregnancy. Instruments are placed within the uterus to remove the fetus. These can, on rare occasions, cause [[perforation]] or [[laceration]] of the uterus, and damage to structures surrounding the uterus. Laceration or perforation of the uterus or cervix can, again on rare occasions, lead to even more serious complications. Incomplete emptying of the uterus can cause [[hemorrhage]] and infection. Use of [[ultrasound]] verification of the location and duration of the pregnancy prior to abortion, with immediate follow-up of patients reporting continuing pregnancy symptoms after the procedure, will virtually eliminate this risk. The sooner a complication is noted and properly treated, the lower the risk of permanent injury or death. In rare cases, the abortion will be unsuccessful and the pregnancy will continue. An unsuccessful abortion can also result in the delivery of a live [[neonate]], or infant. This, termed a failed abortion, is more likely to occur if the procedure is carried out later in the pregnancy. Some doctors faced with this situation have voiced concerns about the ethical and legal ramifications of then letting the neonate die. As a result, recent investigations have been launched in the [[United Kingdom]] by the Confidential Enquiry into Maternal and Child Health (CEMACH) and the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, in order to determine how widespread the problem is and what an ethical response in the treatment of the infant might be. {{ref|failed}} Use of other methods (e.g., overdose of various drugs, insertion of various objects into [[uterus]]) for abortion is potentially dangerous, carrying a significantly elevated risk for permanent injury or death compared to abortions done by [[physician]]s. ===Suggested effects=== There is controversy over a number of proposed risks and effects of abortion. Evidence, whether in support of or against such claims, might in part be influenced by the political and religious beliefs of the parties behind it. ====Breast cancer==== {{main|Abortion-breast cancer hypothesis}} The ''abortion-breast cancer (ABC) hypothesis'' posits a [[causality| causal relationship]] between having an induced abortion and a higher risk of developing [[breast cancer]] in the future. An increased level of [[estrogen]] in early [[pregnancy]] helps to initiate [[cellular differentiation]] (growth) in the [[breast]] in preparation for [[lactation]]. If this process is terminated, through abortion, before full differentiation in the third [[trimester]], then more &quot;vulnerable&quot; undifferentiated cells will be left than there were prior to the pregnancy. It is proposed that this might result in an elevated risk of [[breast cancer]]. The majority of interview-based studies have indicated a link, and some have been demonstrated to be [[statistically significant]], {{ref|abc1}} but there remains debate as to their reliability because of possible [[response bias]]. Larger and more recent record-based studies, such as one in 1997 which used data from two national [[registry|registries]] in [[Denmark]], found the correlation to be negligible to non-existent after statistical adjustment. {{ref|abc2}} The [[National Cancer Institute]] conducted an official workshop with dozens of experts on the issue, between [[February 24]]-[[February 26]], [[2003]], which concluded from its examination of various evidence that it is &quot;well established&quot; that &quot;induced abortion is not associated with an increase in breast cancer risk.&quot; {{ref|abc3}} These findings and how the Denmark study statistically adjusted their overall results have been disputed by [[Joel Brind|Dr. Joel Brind]], {{ref|abc4}} an invitee to the workshop and the leading scientific advocate of the abortion-breast cancer hypothesis. Nevertheless, gaps and inconsistencies remain in the research, and the subject continues to be one of political and scientific contention. ====Fetal pain==== {{main|Fetal pain}} The experience of the fetus during abortion is a matter of medical, ethical and public policy concern. Evidence is conflicting, with some authorities holding that the fetus is capable of feeling pain from the first [[trimester]], and others maintaining that the neuro-anatomical requirements for such experience do not exist until the second or third trimester. [[Pain|Pain receptors]] begin to appear in the seventh week of pregnancy. The [[thalamus]], the part of the brain which receives signals from the [[nervous system]] and then relays them to the [[cerebral cortex]], starts to form in the fifth week. However, other anatomical structures involved in the [[pain|nociceptic]] process are not present until much later in gestation. Links between the thalamus and cerebral cortex aren't forged until around the 23rd week. {{ref|pain1}} Researchers have observed changes in the heart rates and [[hormones| hormonal levels]] of newborn [[infants]] after [[circumcision]], [[blood tests]], and surgery — effects which were alleviated with
al [[election observer]]s are often called in by external bodies like the United Nations, and protected by foreign forces, to guarantee fairness. In addition, elections in which opposition candidates are not given access to radio, newspaper and television coverage are also likely to be biased. An example of this kind of structural bias was the 2004 re-election of [[Russia]]n president [[Vladimir Putin]], in which the state controlled media consistently supported his election run, consistently condemned his opponents, provided virtually unlimited free advertising to Putin's campaign, and barred attempts by his opponents to run campaign advertisements. For this reason, many countries ensure equal air time to election ads from all sizeable parties and have systems that help pay for election advertising or, conversely, limit the possibilities to advertise, to prevent rich parties or candidates from oustripping their opponents. Some allege that beyond the examples given here, there are more subtle and systemic forms of 'false-diversity' in elections which are not generally recognised. [[Noam Chomsky]] and other &quot;progressives&quot; argue that in the West, and especially the U.S., powerful corporate interests behind the [[media]] act as a filter that, statistically, only lets preordained views be heard by the public and excludes [[third political party|third parties]] and alternative viewpoints. They point out that in the U.S., the two big political parties are both sponsored by essentially the same large corporations (such as [[Microsoft]], [[Coca-Cola]], [[McDonnell-Douglas]], ...), thereby representing the interests of a tiny minority of citizens (the richest few percent) and no political parties representing the vast majority of relatively poor citizens have any realistic chance of having their political platforms presented to the public through the corporate controlled media. In this sense, they argue that the U.S. has what is in practice a one-party political system. ===Corruption of democracies=== The very openness of a democracy means that in many states it is possible for voters to vote to get rid of democracy itself. Democracies have failed many times in history from [[ancient Greece]] to 18th and 19th century [[France]] (see [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]] under [[Napoleon III]]), and perhaps most famously in 20th century [[Germany]], when the [[National Socialist German Workers Party|Nazis]] initially came to power by democratic means (albeit by [[plurality]] vote). Throughout most of the developing world today democracies remain unstable, often collapsing to military [[coup]]s or other forms of dictatorship. Thinkers such as [[Aristotle]] and many others long believed democracy to be inherently unstable and to always quickly collapse. Most democracies have some form of [[separation of powers]] so that even if a [[tyrant]] is elected the [[constitution]] would still have to be obeyed, in theory at least. Of course, an elected government can change the constitution, but this can be made difficult by, in some cases, requiring a 2/3 majority in two consecutive elected governments&amp;mdash;the actual requirements vary by each constitutional system. To limit this danger the system used in many states indirectly places limits on how easily new parties can form. The [[first past the post]] electoral system makes it hard for new parties to quickly gain power. In states using [[proportional representation]] systems, there is a determined proportion of the popular vote that must be won before a party can be admitted to parliament. This [[election threshold]] may be simply the amount of votes required to get one seat, such as in the [[Politics of the Netherlands|Netherlands]], but it may also be set higher, to prevent small parties from getting a seat in government. ==Elections around the world== {{see|List of election results}} ==See also== *[[List of politics-related topics]] *[[Bipartidism]] *[[Demarchy]] &amp;mdash; &quot;Democracy without Elections&quot; *[[Election law]] *[[Electoral fraud]] *[[Criticisms of electoralism]] *[[Electoral Reform]] *[[Foreign interference with elections in democratic countries]] *[[Garrat Elections]] *[[Gerontocracy]] *[[Meritocracy]] *[[Pluralism]] *[[Political campaigning]] *[[Political science]] *[[Polling station]] *[[Sortition]] *[[Allotment]] *[[Appointment]] *[[Voter turnout]] *[[Close elections]] ==External links== *[http://www.angus-reid.com/tracker/ Angus Reid Consultants: Election Tracker] *[http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/election.watch/ CNN.com World News: Election Watch] *[http://www.electionworld.org Electionworld.org] *[http://www.idea.int/esd/world.cfm IDEA's Table of Electoral Systems Worldwide] [[Category:Elections| ]] [[Category:Ethics]] [[bg:Избори]] [[da:Valg]] [[de:Wahl]] [[es:Elecciones]] [[eo:Baloto]] [[fr:Élection]] [[it:Elezione]] [[he:בחירות]] [[lt:Rinkimai]] [[nl:Verkiezing]] [[ja:選挙]] [[nn:Val]] [[pl:Wybory]] [[pt:Eleição]] [[simple:Election]] [[fi:Vaalit]] [[sv:Val]] [[zh:選舉]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Executive power</title> <id>9458</id> <revision> <id>15907348</id> <timestamp>2004-04-11T23:45:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Timwi</username> <id>13051</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Executive (government)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Enniskillen</title> <id>9459</id> <revision> <id>40347392</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T23:43:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Donama</username> <id>506765</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Notable Residents/People From Enniskillen */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:coles_monument.jpg|thumb|250px|Cole's Monument]] '''Enniskillen''' (''Inis Ceithleann'' in [[Irish language|Irish]]) is the county town of [[County Fermanagh|Fermanagh]] in [[Northern Ireland]]. It is located almost exactly in the centre of the county on the natural [[island]] which separates the Upper and Lower sections of [[Lough Erne]]. With a population of 13,599 people in the 2001 Census, it is by far the largest settlement in the county and the main retail centre for the county. It is also the seat of local government for [[Fermanagh District Council]]. == [[The Troubles]] == In recent years Enniskillen has become synonymous with the tragedy of the [[Troubles|Northern Ireland conflict]]. Until [[1987]] the town had been relatively untouched by the conflict, but an [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] [[bomb]] on [[Remembrance Sunday]], the [[Remembrance Day Massacre]], killed eleven civilians (including nurse Marie Wilson, whose father [[Gordon Wilson (peace campaigner)|Gordon Wilson]] went on to become a leading campaigner for an end to violence in Northern Ireland). The IRA later claimed that their target was a colour guard of [[British army|British soldiers]]. At the same time on the same day as the Enniskillen Remembrance Day bomb, the IRA also planted a bomb 20 miles away near Pettigoe, where the Boys' Brigade were also taking part in a Remembrance service. Fortunately it failed to detonate or the loss of innocent life would have been catastrophic. The [[Enniskillen bomb]] is acknowledged by some as a turning point in the [[Northern Ireland]] peace process, although terrorist killings did continue in its aftermath. On Remembrance Day [[1997]] the leader of [[Sinn Féin]], Gerry Adams, formally apologised for the bombing. *[[26 August]] [[1972]] Alfred Johnston (32) and James Eames (33), [[Protestantism|Protestant]] members of the [[Ulster Defence Regiment]] were killed by a [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]] remote controlled bomb, hidden in an abandoned car, detonated when their patrol approached, Cherrymount, near Enniskillen. == Places of interest == [[Image:Enniskillen_Round_O.jpg|thumb|300px|The Island town of Enniskillen from the River Erne]] * Enniskillen Castle * The Ardhowen Theatre * [[Castle Coole]] * [http://www.enniskillencathedral.org St Macartin's Cathedral] * [[Portora Royal School]] * [[Earl of Enniskillen|Cole's]] Monument == 2001 Census == Enniskillen is classified as a '''Medium Town''' by the [http://www.nisra.gov.uk/ NI Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA)] (ie with population between 10,000 and 18,000 people). On Census day ([[29 April]] [[2001]]) there were 13,599 people living in Enniskillen. *23.2% were aged under 16 years and 17.4% were aged 60 and over *48.1% of the population were male and 51.9% were female *61.5% were from a [[Catholic]] background and 36.3% were from a [[Protestantism|Protestant]] background *5.2% of people aged 16-74 were unemployed. For more details see: [http://www.ninis.nisra.gov.uk/ NI Neighbourhood Information Service] ==Notable Residents/People From Enniskillen== *[[Henry Francis Lyte]], hymn composer, most notably ''Abide With Me'' *[[Oscar Wilde]], satirist and playwright, educated at Portora Royal School *[[Samuel Beckett]], playwright, educated at Portora Royal School *[[Roy Carroll]], former goalkeeper for Manchester United *[[Sean Quinn]], entrepreneur and Irelands' richest man *[[Duke of Westminster]], spent much of childhood at the families estate at Ely Lodge *[[Frank Ormsby]], poet *[[Charles Lawson]], actor ([[Coronation Street]] and other roles) == See also == *[[List of towns in Northern Ireland]] *[[List of villages in Northern Ireland]] == External links == * [http://www.enniskillen.com Enniskillen.Com] * [http://www.portoraroyal.co.uk Portora Royal School] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/timelines/ni/ennis_newt.shtml BBC - Williamite Wars] [[de:Enniskillen]] [[no:Enniskillen]] [[nl:Enniskillen]] [[Category:Towns in Fermanagh]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Environmental organizations</title> <id>9460</id
ll a dragon. The dragons' job is to complete the level by killing all enemies in it. If this is not achieved within a time limit, the message &lt;b&gt;&quot;Hurry up!&quot;&lt;/b&gt; will flash across the screen. When this happens, enemies become &quot;angry&quot; (making them move faster thus making them more dangerous). Approximately ten seconds later, one or two Skel enemies appear on screen. Enemies also become &quot;angry&quot; if they escape from a bubble that is not burst quickly enough by one of the dragons. They calm down when one of the dragons dies. When in Super Mode, enemies get swapped with a counterpart, e.g. Boa-Boa's replace Monstas and viceversa. There are 7 kinds of normal enemies, plus the final [[boss (video games)|boss]] and two kinds of invincible monsters that appear after the &quot;hurry up&quot; limit, each with their own names. Roughly, in order of appearance, they are: * [[Image:Benzo.gif]] '''Benzo''' (Japanese &quot;Zen-Chan&quot;): A box-shaped, clockwork walking monster with a medium moving speed and good jumping abilities. Interestingly, this monster appears in the graphic [[tiles]] of the [[ROM image|ROM]] of the arcade game ''[[Chack'n Pop]]'', along with the '''Stoner''' and '''Beluga''', but doesn't actually appear ''inside'' the game. ''Super Mode counterpart: '''Incendo'''.'' * [[Image:Ghost.gif]] '''Stoner''' (Japanese &quot;Mighta&quot;): A walking monster with red eyes wearing a white robe, much like a [[ghost]]. Has a medium moving speed, good jumping abilities and able to shoot. This monster actually first appeared in Taito's 1983 game ''[[Chack'n Pop]]''. ''Super Mode counterpart: '''Drunk'''.'' * [[Image:Blubba.gif]] '''Blubba''' (Japanese &quot;Monsta&quot;): A flying blue/dark purple monster shaped roughly like a small [[whale]]. It flies fast but can only bounce off walls to change direction. This monster also first appeared in ''[[Chack'n Pop]]''. ''Super Mode counterpart: '''Boa-Boa'''.'' * [[Image:Boaboa.gif]] '''Boa-Boa''' (Japanese &quot;Pulpul&quot;): A pink flying monster looking like a toy bear with a small [[rotor]] on his head. Flies around slowly but with greater control than the Blubba, and creep in very small openings other monsters and players cannot pass through, thus making it very dangerous in some rounds. ''Super Mode counterpart: '''Blubba'''.'' * [[Image:Incendo.gif]] '''Incendo''' (Japanese &quot;Hidegons&quot;, singular): A fast walking monster with shooting abilities, but poor jumping. Unlike the Mighta, he doesn't have to stop walking in order to shoot fireballs. ''Super Mode counterpart: '''Benzo'''.'' * [[Image:Mushroom.gif]] '''Colley''' (Japanese &quot;Banebou&quot;): A mushroom shaped-monster which can only move by making short jumps, having a single powerful [[Spring (device)|spring]] instead of legs. ''Super Mode counterpart: stays the same.'' * [[Image:Drunk.gif]] '''Drunk''' (Japanese &quot;Gromit&quot;): A fast moving monster with good jumping capabilites, and able to throw a bottle which rebounds off walls and is re-caught by the thrower. The final boss is modelled after them, but is instead called '''Grumple Grommit''' or '''Super Drunk'''. ''Super Mode counterpart: '''Stoner'''.'' * [[Image:Invader.gif]] '''Super Socket''' (Japanese &quot;[[Space Invaders|Invader]]&quot;): A robotic-looking monster, fast, but can only move left or right, and downwards if it reaches the end of a platform. It can shoot something resembling lightning, but only vertically (downwards), making it very dangerous in some stages. First appears on stage 60, and doesn't appear at all in the Super version of the game, being replaced by '''Incendo''' or '''Colley''' instead. * [[Image:Baron.gif]] '''Baron von Blubba''' (Japanese &quot;Skel-Monsta&quot;): It is the invincible monster that appears after the time limit for a round has expired (this limit can be as low as 1 or 2 seconds on some rounds, but there are two rounds with no time limit; round 94 and round 100). It looks like a white Monsta but it can only move vertically or horizontally at timed intervals, but can pass through walls, ceilings, floors and it speeds up each time players avoid getting caught, down to the point of moving continuously. In two players mode, two '''Skels''' appear, each one homing on one player only, although both players can be killed by touching either of the '''Skels'''. A '''Skel''' can only be destroyed by killing a player, or if a player who has just been killed touches his companion's '''Skel''' while he is still flickering, and thus invincible. However, he disappears when the last regular enemy is destroyed. Another way to get rid of Skel is to pick up the '''flashing heart''' powerup (the only one which remains on the screen after the &quot;hurry up!&quot; warning. * [[Image:Rascol.gif]] A smaller '''Rascol''' (Japanese &quot;Room Skel&quot;) also appears in the secret diamond-filled rounds, which can be accessed by special bonuses that appear on rounds 20, 30 and 40 under certain conditions (explained in later section). Losing one's last life inside such a secret room will cause the maximum round reached to be &quot;Round 102&quot;, &quot;Round 103&quot; or &quot;Round 104&quot; depending upon in which secret room death occurred, and the first new game started after that will teleport players to the first secret round straight from round 1, but will also cause secret rounds to appear earlier, at stages 10, 20 and 30, and the special 20-stage skip bonus on stage 40 instead of stage 50. * [[Image:Boss.gif]] '''Super Drunk''' is the endgame boss that appears in level 100. He is huge, bounces off walls, and fires arcs of bottle-shaped missiles. The level contains a magic potion that lets you breathe lightning bubbles, and you have to hit him with lots of lightning to trap him in a bubble. &lt;!--Interestingly - is this encyclopedically &quot;interesting&quot;??--&gt; If this bubble is not popped soon enough, he will escape and become angry just like regular enemies. ===Weapons and bonuses=== The dragons' main weapon is their ability to blow bubbles. After being blown, they shoot forward for a short distance, then float upwards slowly. It is possible to jump on bubbles to reach otherwise inaccessible areas. An enemy hit by a forward-shooting (not floating) bubble will be trapped in it. The bubble can then be popped, killing the enemy and turning it into an item that can be collected for bonus points. If left floating, it will become angry and escape the bubble after a while. In some levels, there are special bubbles that appear by themselves: * Bubbles with letters that yield an [[extra life]] when one collects a complete set - all six letters to spell 'extend'. Extend bubbles appear when one has popped several enemies at the same time. They will only appear on levels which have holes in the top or bottom of the screen. * Water-filled bubbles that can be popped to release a stream of water that flows down and drowns enemies, turning them into 7000-point blue diamonds. * Bubbles containing lightning bolts that, when the bubble is popped, shoot sideways (even through walls) and kill any enemies they hit, turning them into 8000-point yellow diamonds. The lightning goes in the opposite of the direction that the dragon that popped it was facing. * Bubbles containing flames that, when the bubble is popped, drop downwards setting any surface they touch on fire for a short time, killing any monsters that touch the flame and turning them into 9000-point red diamonds. * A very rare red bubble with a pulsating yellow spark, which when popped awarded 100,000 points and gives the player which popped it the ability to breathe fireballs for the six consecutive rounds. The main power-ups are: * Red Shoes that enable faster walking and jumping * A blue candy which increases the travelling and forming speed of bubbles * A purple candy which increases the shooting range of bubbles * A yellow candy that increases the rate at which bubbles can be blown. * A yellow lamp which gives all three bubble-related bonuses. * A red cross which gives the player who takes it the ability to breathe flames until the end of the current round. * A yellow cross which causes several lighting bolts to cross the screen, killing any monster they hit, including bubbled ones. * A blue cross which kills all monsters by flooding the round with water. This takes some 3 or 4 seconds to complete though, and players are still vulnerable. * A red lamp which instantly kills all monsters, turning them into 9000-point red diamonds. * A bomb, which instantly kills all monsters, turning them into 10,000-point dark blue diamonds. * A book, which triggers an earthquake that kills all monsters. * A candy cane that gives large power ups worth varying large amounts of points depending on color In addition to this Bubble Bobble has several secret levels. These can be accessed by not losing a life before levels 20, 30, 40 and 50. For example, if you complete level 20 without dying, a grey door with flames on either side will appear in the next level. This secret level contains 36 diamonds and a message in a special symbol font. The key for decoding it is given on each message's plate, as the first line represents the 26 letters of the english alphabet in coded form. The level 50 doesn't take the form of a secret room, but instead is a 20 level skip. [[Image:Room30.gif|right]] ===Secret rooms=== If a player can survive until stage 20 without losing a life, a door icon appears that, if collected in time, transports Bub &amp; Bob to one of three secret rooms. Along with loads of diamonds, there is a different coded message written on an orange plaque in each room. The first line of which indicates the alphabet (+=A, @=B etc.) and what follows explains game tips and cheat codes that work on the arcade machine. Secret doors appear on levels 20, 30 and 40, with one that skips you forward 20 levels if you make it to stage 50 wit
l). ==Islamic perspectives== Some Islamic organizations cite this work in support of the Islamic view of Jesus; in particular, the noted Muslim thinkers [[Rashid Rida]] in Egypt and [[Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi]] in [[Pakistan]] have given it qualified acceptance (though the latter rejects its naming of Muhammad as an interpolation.) While some Muslim scholars also agree that this Gospel of Barnabas is fabricated or has been changed over time, others believe that Barnabas himself wrote the Gospel, whereas the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John were written by followers of Paul long after the events they describe, and that therefore the Gospel of Barnabas is more authentic than the other Gospels. Some Muslims take a position between these poles, suggesting that, while the work contains &quot;Muslim interpolations&quot;[http://www.answering-christianity.com/answersamgreen.htm], it nonetheless consists mainly of early material that contradicts Christian traditions and confirms Muslim beliefs. Although the Gospel of Barnabas is, in several respects, inconsistent with Islamic teaching, some Muslim scholars cite this as evidence of the genuineness of the gospel by arguing that no Muslim would fake a document and have it contradict the Qur'an. They believe the contradictions of the Qur'an in the Gospel of Barnabas are signs of textual corruption (which Muslims already ascribe for a majority of the [[Bible]].) The difference is that the Gospel of Barnabas is not ''as corrupt'' as other religious works, and still maintains the truth about Jesus not being crucified and not being God or son of God. ==External links and text== *Lonsdale &amp; Laura Ragg, ''The Gospel of Barnabas'', Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907. ISBN 1881316157. *[http://www.latrobe.edu.au/arts/barnabas/Entry.html R. Blackhirst, &quot;The Medieval Gospel of Barnabas&quot;]: Full text of the Italian ms of ''Gospel of Barnabas'', (in English), with supplementary material and photographs ** [http://www.latrobe.edu.au/arts/barnabas/Spanishpreface.html Preface of the Spanish manuscript] ** [http://www.latrobe.edu.au/arts/barnabas/Bibliog.html Bibliography] * [http://www.depts.drew.edu/jhc/Blackhirst_Barnabas.html Blackhirst, &quot;Was there an early Gospel of Barnabas?&quot;] {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ===Christian perspectives=== *[http://answering-islam.org/Green/barnabas.htm Samuel Green] identifies this as a 14th century Islamic forgery. *[http://answering-islam.org/Barnabas/saleeb.html Extracts from the preface of ''Answering Islam: The Crescent in the Light of the Cross''] (Norman L. Geisler and Abdul Saleeb) * [http://www.chrislages.de/barnarom.htm The ''Gospel of Barnabas'' in recent research], by Jan Slomp, a former missionary to Pakistan *[http://folk.uio.no/leirvik/tekster/Barnabas.htm ''History as a Literary Weapon:The Gospel of Barnabas in Muslim-Christian Polemics'']Oddbjørn Leirvik: a historical survey of both Christian and Islamic perspectives. {{col-break}} ===Islamic perspectives=== * [http://www.mlife.org/bible_kjv/historyofbarnabas.html The History of the Gospel of Barnabas] * [http://www.barnabas.net/ ''Gospel of Barnabas''] * [http://www.understanding-islam.com/related/text.asp?type=article&amp;aid=174 The Gospel of Barnabas&amp;mdash;Abdul Sattar Ghauri] * [http://www.answering-christianity.com/answersamgreen.htm Answer to the &quot;Answers&quot; of Samuel Green 1-6] by Shamsuddin {{col-end}} [[Category:Christian texts]] [[Category:Pseudepigraphy]] [[ar:إنجيل برنابا]] [[de:Barnabasevangelium]] [[fi:Barnabaan evankeliumi]] [[fr:Évangile de Barnabé]] [[zh:巴拿巴福音]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Georg Agricola</title> <id>12475</id> <revision> <id>39018265</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T03:51:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>88.212.31.1</ip> </contributor> <comment>sk IW</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Georg_Agricola.jpg|thumb|150px|Georg Agricola]] '''Georg''' (or '''Georgius''') '''Agricola''' ([[March 24]], [[1490]] - [[November 21]], [[1555]]) was a [[Germany|German]] scholar and man of science. Known as &quot;the father of [[mineralogy]]&quot;, he was born at [[Glauchau]] in [[Saxony]]. His real name was '''Georg Bauer'''; ''Agricola'' is the [[Latin]]ised version of his name, ''Bauer'' meaning ''peasant''. Gifted with a precocious intellect, he early threw himself into the pursuit of the &quot;new learning,&quot; with such effect that at the age of twenty he was appointed Rector extraordinarius of Greek at the so-called Great School of [[Zwickau]], and made his appearance as a writer on [[philology]]. After two years he gave up his appointment in order to pursue his studies at [[Leipzig]], where, as rector, he received the support of the professor of classics, [[Peter Mosellanus]] (1493-1524), a celebrated humanist of the time, with whom he had already been in correspondence. Here he also devoted himself to the study of [[medicine]], [[physics]], and [[chemistry]]. After the death of Mosellanus he went to [[Italy]] from 1524 to 1526, where he took his doctor's degree. He returned to Zwickau in [[1527]], and was chosen as town physician at [[Joachimsthal]], a centre of mining and smelting works, his object being partly &quot;to fill in the gaps in the art of healing,&quot; partly to test what had been written about mineralogy by careful observation of ores and the methods of their treatment. His thorough grounding in philology and philosophy had accustomed him to systematic thinking, and this enabled him to construct out of his studies and observations of minerals a logical system which he began to publish in 1528. Agricola's dialogue ''Bermannus, sive de re metallica dialogus'', (1530) the first attempt to reduce to scientific order the knowledge won by practical work, brought Agricola into notice; it contained an approving letter from [[Erasmus Alberus|Erasmus]] at the beginning of the book. In 1530 [[Maurice, Elector of Saxony|Prince Maurice of Saxony]] appointed him [[historiographer]] with an annual allowance, and he migrated to [[Chemnitz]], the centre of the mining industry, in order to widen the range of his observations. The citizens showed their appreciation of his learning by appointing him town physician in 1533. In that year, he published a book about Greek and Roman weights and measures, ''De Mensuis et Ponderibus''. He was also elected [[burgomaster]] of Chemnitz. His popularity was, however, short-lived. Chemnitz was a violent centre of the Protestant movement, while Agricola never wavered in his allegiance to the old religion; and he was forced to resign his office. He now lived apart from the contentious movements of the time, devoting himself wholly to learning. His chief interest was still in mineralogy; but he occupied himself also with medical, mathematical, theological and historical subjects, his chief historical work being the ''Dominatores Saxonici a prima origine ad hanc aetatem'', published at [[Freiberg, Saxony|Freiberg]]. In 1544 he published the ''De ortu et causis subterraneorum'', in which he laid the first foundations of a physical [[geology]], and criticized the theories of the ancients. In 1545 followed the ''De natura eorum quae effluunt e terra''; in 1546 the ''De veteribus et novis metallis'', a comprehensive account of the discovery and occurrence of minerals; in 1548 the ''De animantibus subterraneis''; and in the two following years a number of smaller works on the metals. His most famous work, the ''De re metallica libri xii'', was published in [[1556]], though apparently finished several years before, since the dedication to the elector and his brother is dated 1550. It is a complete and systematic treatise on mining and [[metallurgy]], illustrated with many fine and interesting woodcuts and containing, in an appendix, the German equivalents for the technical terms used in the Latin text. It long remained a standard work, and marks its author as one of the most accomplished chemists of his time. Believing the black rock of the [[Schlossberg]] at [[Stolpen]] to be the same as [[Pliny the Elder]]'s [[basalt]], he applied this name to it, and thus originated a petrological term which has been permanently incorporated in the vocabulary of science. In spite of the early proof that Agricola had given of the tolerance of his own religious attitude, he was not suffered to end his days in peace. He remained to the end a staunch Catholic, though all Chemnitz had gone over to the Lutheran creed; and it is said that his life was ended by a fit of [[apoplexy]] brought on by a heated discussion with a Protestant divine. He died at Chemnitz on the 21st of November 1555, and so violent was the theological feeling against him, that he was not suffered to rest in the town to which he had added lustre. Amidst hostile demonstrations he was carried to [[Zeitz]], seven miles (prussian land miles, each about 7.5 km) from Chemnitz, and there buried. ''De Re Metallica'' is considered a classic document of the dawn of metallurgy, unsurpassed for two centuries. 1n 1912, the ''Mining Magazine'' (London) published an English translation. The translation was made by an American mining engineer, [[Herbert Hoover]], nowadays better known for his later career as a [[President of the United States]], and his wife [[Lou Henry Hoover]]. ==External links== * [http://archimedes.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/toc/toc.cgi?step=thumb&amp;dir=agric_remet_001_la_1556 De Re Metallica ] * [http://www.rhosybolbach.freeserve.co.uk/agricola.htm a biography] ==References== *{{1911}} *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01231a.htm Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia] [[Category:1490 births|Agricola, Georg]] [[Category:1555 deaths|Agricola, Georg]] [[Category:German mineralogists|Agricola, Georg]] [[Category:Philologists|Agricola, Georg]] [[cs:Georgius Agricola]] [[de:Georgius Agricola]] [[eo:Georgius AGRICOLA]] [[e
this English translation of the opening line is spurious. The actual German line runs like this: :''Als Gregor Samsa eines Morgens aus unruhigen Träumen erwachte, fand er sich in seinem Bett zu einem ungeheueren Ungeziefer verwandelt.'' English translators have often sought to render the word ''Ungeziefer'' as &quot;insect&quot;, but this is not accurate, and is based on a misguided attempt to clarify what Kafka intended (according to his journals and letters to the publisher of the text) to be an ambiguous term. In German, ''Ungeziefer'' literally means &quot;[[vermin]]&quot; and is sometimes used to mean &quot;bug&quot; &amp;ndash; a very general term, totally unlike the scientific sounding &quot;insect&quot;. Kafka had no intention of labelling Gregor as this or that specific thing, but merely wanted to convey disgust in his transformation. Literally, the end of the line should be translated as ''...transformed in his bed into a monstrous vermin'' (this is the phrasing used in the David Wyllie translation [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/metam10h.htm]), although the feeling of the word in German is more colloquial sounding. Amusingly, generations of English translators have gotten more and more carried away with this literal (and incorrect) version of Gregor's transformation, and have actually rendered ''Ungeziefer'' as &quot;[[cockroach]]&quot;, &quot;[[dung beetle]]&quot;, &quot;[[beetle]]&quot;, and other highly specific terms. The only term in the book is &quot;dung beetle&quot;, used by the cleaning lady near the end of the story, but it is not used in the narration. This has become such a common misconception, that English speakers will often summarize ''Metamorphosis'' as &quot;...a story about a guy who turns into a cockroach&quot;. Despite all this, no such creature appears in the original text. [[Vladimir Nabokov]], who was an [[entomologist]] as well as writer and literary critic, insisted that Gregor was ''not'' a cockroach, but a beetle with wings under his shell, and capable of flight - if only he had known it. ==Influence== A very short sequel, [[The Retransformation of Gregor Samsa]], was written by Karl Brand. Brand, who suffered from [[tuberculosis]] and had to rely on his family, identified himself strongly with Samsa. A longer sequel, [[Insect Dreams: The Half Life of Gregor Samsa]] was written in 2002 by [[Marc Estrin]].[http://endeavor.med.nyu.edu/lit-med/lit-med-db/webdocs/webdescrips/estrin12147-des-.html] In it, Gregor is revealed to have survived his apparent death at the end of the original story and goes on to have additional travels and experiences. In [[Mel Brooks]]' [[1968]] movie ''[[The Producers (1968 film)|The Producers]]'', two men working on a fraud scheme are looking for the worst play they can find, and pass up ''The Metamorphosis'' (after having read the line about Gregor being a giant insect) as being &quot;too good&quot;. This dialogue survives in the [[2001]] [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] and [[2006]] movie adaptations. In another Mel Brooks movie, ''[[Spaceballs]]'', [[Dark Helmet]] passes a reference to Kafka when their spaceship is transforming into a gigantic maid. The dialogue driven cartoon [[Home Movies (cartoon series)|Home Movies]] did a tribute to &quot;The Metamorphosis&quot; in &quot;Director's Cut&quot;, an episode in the first season of the show. The characters performed a rock opera style retelling of the short story. In [[The Venture Bros.]] episode &quot;Mid-Life Chrysalis&quot;, Dr. Venture's transformation into a caterpillar slightly mirrors that of [[Gregor Samsa]]'s transformation. Quote: &quot;Gentlemen, what you are about to see is a nightmare inexplicably torn from the pages of Kafka!&quot; Notorious American cartoonist [[Robert Crumb]] drew an illustrated adaptation of the novella. Another, rather twisted, parody appears in the [[anime]] series [[Bokusatsu Tenshi Dokuro-chan]]. In the comic book [[Johnny the Homicidal Maniac]] by [[Jhonen Vasquez]], the titular Johnny is plagued by a roach that keeps appearing in his house no matter how many times he kills it (whether or not this roach is immortal or simply many different roaches is up to interpretation) and is affectionately named &quot;Mr. Samsa&quot;. In the Simpsons book Treehouse of Horror Spook-tacular, [[Matt Groening]] did a [[Parody|spoof]] on the metamorphisis, entitling it Metamorphsimpsons. In the Steve Jackson game [[Munchkin Bites!]], players may face &quot;Gregor&quot;, a giant cockroach reading a book titled ''Kafka for Dummies''. In the popular comic [[Calvin and Hobbes]], Hobbes claims that if he does not receive a good night kiss, he will have Kafka dreams. In the popular comic [[FoxTrot]], Jason sleeps with the hopes of waking up as a beetle but instead wakes up as a younger clone of his sister. ==External links== * [http://www.digbib.org/Franz_Kafka_1883/Die_Verwandlung Etext of original German] at DigBib.org (text, pdf, html) * [http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/stories/kafka-E.htm English translation] by [[Ian Johnston]] * {{gutenberg|no=5200|name=Metamorphosis}} &amp;mdash; [[David Wyllie]]'s [[English language|English]] translation * [http://ciudadseva.com/textos/cuentos/euro/kafka/metamor.htm Etext of a Spanish translation] (translator not identified) * [http://victorian.fortunecity.com/vermeer/287/nabokov_s_metamorphosis.htm Lecture on the Metamorphosis] by [[Vladimir Nabokov]] * [http://www.tameri.com/csw/exist/ Existential Primer] * [http://www.nvcc.edu/home/vpoulakis/Translation/kafkatr1.htm Lesson on the difficulties of translating the story into English] {{wikisource}} {{philos-novel-stub}} [[Category:1915 books|Metamorphosis]] [[Category:Existentialism|Metamorphosis]] [[Category:German stories|Metamorphosis]] [[Category:Shapeshifting in fiction|Metamorphosis]] [[cs:Proměna (povídka)]] [[de:Die Verwandlung]] [[es:La metamorfosis]] [[fr:La Métamorphose]] [[hr:Preobrazba (F. Kafka)]] [[it:La Metamorfosi]] [[nl:De gedaanteverwisseling]] [[ja:変身 (小説)]] [[pt:A Metamorfose]] [[sv:Förvandlingen]] [[zh:变形记 (卡夫卡)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Free links</title> <id>10863</id> <revision> <id>19200455</id> <timestamp>2005-07-20T03:17:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jnc</username> <id>18024</id> </contributor> <comment>Better target</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[CamelCase and Wiki]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Free software licenses</title> <id>10864</id> <revision> <id>38624361</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T15:43:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gronky</username> <id>87356</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* FSF-approved free software licenses */ remove redundant div tags</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Free software]] is [[software]] which grants recipients the [[freedom]] to run it, to study it, to modify it, and to redistribute it. [[Copyright]] law prohibits most of these actions, so for software to be free software, the copyright holder must give all recipients an explicit permission to do these things. This grant of rights is called a license, and if the above noted freedoms are included in the grant, the license is a '''free software license'''. Put another way, a free software license is a license which grants permissions to the recipient to remove any ownership issues which would otherwise prevent the software from being [[free software]]. ==FSF-approved free software licenses== [[Free Software Foundation]], the group that maintains The Free Software Definition, maintains a list of free software licenses. The list distinguishes between free software licenses that are compatible or incompatible with the FSF license of choice, the [[GNU General Public License]], which is a [[copyleft]] license. The list also contains licenses which the [[FSF]] considers non-free for various reasons. Note that the [[open source license]] list differs slightly, but in almost all cases the definitions apply to the same licenses. {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} * [[Academic Free License]], version 1.1, 2.1 * [[Affero General Public License]] * [[Apache License]], Version 1.0, 1.1, 2.0 * [[Apple Public Source License]], version 2 * [[Arphic Public License]] * [[Artistic License 2.0]] * [[Berkeley Database License]] (aka the Sleepycat Software Product License) * [[Boost Software License]] * [[CeCILL version 2]] * [[Clarified Artistic License]] * [[Common Development and Distribution License]] * [[Common Public License]], version 1.0 * [[Cryptix General License]] * [[EU DataGrid Software License]] * [[Eclipse Public License]], version 1.0 * [[eCos license version 2.0]] * [[Eiffel Forum License, version 2]] * [[Expat License]] * [[GNU General Public License]] * [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] * [[IBM Public License]], Version 1.0 * [[Intel Open Source License]] (as published by OSI) * [[Interbase Public License]], Version 1.0 * [[Jabber Open Source License]], version 1.0 * [[LaTeX Project Public License]] 1.2, 1.3a * [[License of GNU Ada|License of the run-time units of the GNU Ada compiler]] * [[License of Guile]] * [[License of Netscape Javascript]] * [[License of Vim, Version 6.1 or later]] * [[License of ZLib]] {{col-2}} * [[License of the iMatix Standard Function Library]] * [[License of xinetd]] * [[Lucent Public License Version]], also known ask the Plan 9 License, version 1.02 * [[Modified BSD license]], first used by [[FreeBSD]] and [[OpenBSD]] * [[Mozilla Public License]] * [[Netizen Open Source License]], Version 1.0 * [[Netscape Public License]] * [[Nokia Open Source License]] * [[Old OpenLDAP License, Version 2.3]] * [[Open Software License, version 1.0]] * [[OpenLDAP License]], Version 2.7 * [[OpenSSL license]] * [[Original BSD license]], still used by [[NetBSD]] * [[PHP License]], version 3.0 only * [[Phorum License, V
esirable as a baking sweetener, and prone to degradation in high-pH products requiring a long shelf life. Aspartame's stability under heating can be improved to some extent by encasing it in [[fat]]s or in [[maltodextrin]]. Aspartame's stability when dissolved in water depends markedly on [[pH]]. At room temperature, it is most stable at pH 4.3, where its [[half-life]] is nearly 300 days. At pH 7, however, its half-life is only a few days. Most soft-drinks have a pH between 3 and 5, where aspartame is reasonably stable. In products that may require a longer shelf life, such as syrups for [[soda fountain|fountain beverages]], aspartame is sometimes blended with a more stable sweetener, such as [[saccharin]]. In products such as powdered beverages, aspartame's amino group can undergo a [[Maillard reaction]] with the [[aldehyde]] groups present in certain [[aroma compound]]s. The ensuing loss of both flavor and sweetness can be prevented by protecting the aldehyde as an [[acetal]]. == Discovery and approval == Aspartame was discovered in [[1965]] by James M. Schlatter, a chemist working for [[Searle (company)|G.D. Searle &amp; Company]]. Schlatter had synthesized aspartame in the course of producing an anti-[[ulcer]] drug candidate. He discovered its sweet taste serendipitously when he licked his finger, which had accidentally become contaminated with aspartame. Initial safety testing suggested that aspartame might cause brain tumors in rats; as a result, the [[Food and Drug Administration|U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) did not approve its use as a food additive in the [[United States]] for several years. In [[1980]], the FDA convened a Public Board of Inquiry (PBOI) consisting of independent advisors charged with examining the purported relationship between aspartame and [[brain cancer]]. The PBOI concluded that the risk of mental retardation and brain damage from aspartame ingestion was negligable, but it recommended against approving aspartame at that time, citing unanswered questions about possible brain cancer potential. In [[1981]], U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]], prompted by U.S. Vice-President [[George H. W. Bush]], released the then current FDA commissioner, Jere E. Goyan, Ph.D., and appointed [[Arthur Hull Hayes]] as FDA commissioner. Arthur Hull Hayes, at the urging of Donald Rumsfeld and George Bush, approved aspartame quickly. Hayes approved aspartame for use in dry goods [http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/ANS00772.html]. In [[1983]] the FDA further approved aspartame for use in carbonated beverages, and the FDA commissioner, Arthur Hull Hayes ended up leaving the FDA to work directly for Donald Rumsfed under Searle. The FDA approved aspartame for use in other beverages, baked goods, and confections in [[1993]]. In [[1996]], the FDA removed all restrictions from aspartame allowing it to be used in all foods. In [[1985]], G.D. Searle was purchased by [[Monsanto]]. In this acquisition, Searle's aspartame business became a separate Monsanto subsidiary, the [[NutraSweet|NutraSweet Company]]. The U.S. [[patent]] on aspartame expired in [[1992]], and the aspartame market is now hotly contested between the NutraSweet Company and other manufacturers such as [[Ajinomoto]], Merisant and the Holland Sweetener Company. == Health risks controversy == While it is well-known that aspartame contains [[phenylalanine]] and is unsafe for those born with [[phenylketonuria]], some believe that aspartame can be implicated in other public health issues. Some of these contentions are backed by reputable scientific research, while others depend heavily on anecdotal evidence and layman's interpretations of chemistry. &lt;!-- Put this section before components because it seems better to start with more general information on potential health effects as opposed to getting right into the potential health effects of the components --&gt; The FDA receives more complaints related to aspartame than any other food additive. Concerns about aspartame frequently revolve around symptoms and health conditions that are allegedly caused by the sweetener. The 92 health effects reported to the FDA are: [[abdominal pain]], [[anxiety attack]]s, [[arthritis]], [[asthma]], asthmatic reactions, bloating/[[edema]], blood sugar control problems ([[hypoglycemia]] or [[hyperglycemia]]), [[brain cancer]] (Pre-approval studies in animals), breathing difficulties, burning eyes or throat, burning [[urination]], inability to think clearly, [[chest pain]]s, [[chronic cough]], [[chronic fatigue]], confusion, death, [[clinical depression|depression]], [[diarrhea]], dizziness, excessive thirst or hunger, fatigue, feeling 'unreal', flushing of face, hair loss (baldness) or thinning of hair, headaches/migraines, hearing loss, heart palpitations, hives (Urticaria), hypertension (high blood pressure), impotency and sexual problems, inability to concentrate, infection susceptibility, insomnia, irritability, itching, joint pains, laryngitis, &quot;like thinking in a fog,&quot; marked personality changes, memory loss, menstrual problems or changes, muscle spasms, nausea or vomiting, numbness or tingling of extremities, other allergic-like reactions, panic attacks, phobias, poor memory, rapid heartbeat, rashes, seizures and convulsions, slurring of speech, swallowing pain, tachycardia, tremors, tinnitus, vertigo, vision loss, and weight gain. {{ref|fda728}} Questions have been raised about [[brain cancer]], [[lymphoma]], and [[genotoxic]] effects such as [[DNA]]-protein crosslinks, but these questions are primarily not based on reported case histories. The sources for reported symptoms and health conditions that have raised questions include: # Reports and analysis of case histories in scientific journals and at medical conferences # Symptoms reported to the FDA and other governmental agencies # Symptoms reported to non-governmental organizations, researchers, and physicians # Reports of symptoms and health conditions in the media # Self-reported cases on the Internet. There is a significant debate in the scientific and medical community as to whether these symptoms are or are not caused by short-term or long-term exposure to aspartame. Some human and animal studies have found adverse effects and some have found no adverse effects. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=8373935&amp;query_hl=2], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9734727&amp;query_hl=30], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3277925&amp;query_hl=6], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3657889&amp;query_hl=32], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11408989&amp;query_hl=13], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9230890&amp;query_hl=15] It is not only the results of the research that have been questioned, but the design of the research that led to specific outcomes. For example, in human research of aspartame, the aspartame is usually provided in slow-dissolving capsules. But the biochemical changes from ingesting aspartame in slow-dissolving capsules are many times smaller than &lt;!--parallelism, PLEASE--&gt;those from ingesting aspartame dissolved in liquids (such as carbonated beverages). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3574137&amp;query_hl=18] Therefore, the amount of aspartame used in most human studies is equivalent to a much smaller &quot;real-world&quot; amount. Other questions that have been raised about aspartame research involve the length of the studies, the number of test subjects, conflict of interest issues, and improper testing procedures. Since the FDA approved aspartame for consumption in 1981, some researchers have suggested that a rise in brain tumor rates in the United States may be at least partially related to the increasing availability and consumption of aspartame. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=8939194&amp;dopt=Abstract] In 2005, researchers with the (Ramazzini) Cancer Research Centre in [[Italy]] reported that aspartame &quot;causes a dose-related statistically significant increase in [[lymphoma]]s and [[leukaemia]]s in female [[rats]] at dose levels very near those to which humans can be exposed.&quot; However, the report also found that &quot;no statistically significant increase in malignant brain tumors was observed.&quot; [http://www.ramazzini.it/fondazione/docs/AspartameGEO2005.pdf] The study, published in the ''European Journal of Oncology'', raises concerns about the levels of aspartame exposure. [http://webcenter.health.webmd.netscape.com/content/Article/109/109244.htm?pagenumber=1] &lt;!-- Replace NPOV discussion of only 1 component. NPOV and verifiability text for the 4 items below is in the discussion section. --&gt; There are four chemical components of aspartame that scientists and physicians have debated as to whether they are causing or can cause adverse health effects: === Methanol === Scientists agree that approximately 10% of aspartame (by weight) is broken down into [[methanol]] in the small intestine. Most of the methanol is absorbed and quickly converted into [[formaldehyde]]. Some scientists believe that the methanol cannot be a problem because: a) there is not enough methanol absorbed to cause toxicity, b) methanol and formaldehyde are already a by-product of human metabolism, and c) there is more methanol in some alcoholic beverages and fruit juices than is derived from aspartame ingestion. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubm
rns. For instance, for several consecutive years Estonia had led the world in the production of sulfur dioxide per capita. Nearly 75 % of Estonia's air pollution was reported to come from two oil shale-based thermal power stations operating near Narva. The mining of oil shale in northeastern Estonia also left gigantic mounds of limestone dotting the region. Near the town of Sillamäe, site of a former uranium enrichment plant, about 1,200 tons of uranium and about 750 tons of thorium had been dumped into the Gulf of Finland. This was said to have caused severe health problems among area residents. In the coastal town of Paldiski, the removal of waste left by Soviet army nuclear reactors was also a major concern. The combined cost of environmental cleanup at both towns was put at more than EKR3.5 billion. '''Natural hazards:''' flooding occurs frequently in the spring '''Environment - current issues:''' air heavily polluted with [[sulfur dioxide]] from oil-shale burning power plants in northeast; contamination of soil and groundwater with [[petroleum]] products, chemicals at former Soviet military bases; Estonia has more than 1,400 natural and artificial lakes, the smaller of which in agricultural areas are heavily affected by organic waste; coastal sea water is polluted in many locations. '''Environment - international agreements:'''&lt;br /&gt; ''party to:'' Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ship Pollution, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands&lt;br /&gt; ''signed, but not ratified:'' Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]] ==Area and boundaries== '''Area:'''&lt;br /&gt; ''total:'' [[1 E10 m²|45,226 km²]]&lt;br /&gt; ''land:'' 43,211 km²&lt;br /&gt; ''water:'' 2,015 km²&lt;br /&gt; ''note:'' includes 1,520 islands in the Baltic Sea '''Land boundaries:'''&lt;br /&gt; ''total:'' 633 km&lt;br /&gt; ''border countries:'' Latvia 339 km, Russia 294 km '''Coastline:''' 3,794 km '''Maritime claims:'''&lt;br /&gt; ''exclusive economic zone:'' limits fixed in coordination with neighboring states&lt;br /&gt; ''territorial sea:'' 12 nm '''Elevation extremes:'''&lt;br /&gt; ''lowest point:'' Baltic Sea 0 m&lt;br /&gt; ''highest point:'' [[Suur Munamagi]] 318 m ==Resources and land use== '''Natural resources:''' shale oil (kukersite), [[peat]], [[phosphorite]], [[amber]], [[cambrian blue clay]], limestone, [[dolomite]], arable land '''Land use:'''&lt;br /&gt; ''arable land:'' 25%&lt;br /&gt; ''permanent crops:'' 0%&lt;br /&gt; ''permanent pastures:'' 11%&lt;br /&gt; ''forests and woodland:'' 44%&lt;br /&gt; ''other:'' 20% (1996 est.) '''Irrigated land:''' 110 km² (1996 est.) ==Sources== *[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies] *''CIA World Fact Book'' [[Category:Geography of Estonia| ]] [[Category:Geography by country|Estonia]]] [[fr:Géographie de l'Estonie]] [[pt:Geografia da Estónia]] [[fi:Luokka:Viron maantiede]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Estonia</title> <id>9389</id> <revision> <id>38633826</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T17:01:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Charles Matthews</username> <id>12978</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>sp</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The name &quot;Eesti,&quot; or [[Estonia]], could be derived from the word &quot;[[Aesti|Aestii]],&quot; the name given by the ancient [[Germanic people]] to the peoples living northeast of the [[Vistula River]]. The Roman historian [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] in [[98]] A.D. was the first to mention the &quot;Aestii&quot; people, and early [[Scandinavians]] called the land south of the [[Gulf of Finland]] ''Eistland'', and the people ''eistr''. [[Estonian language|Estonian]] and [[Finnish language|Finnish]] languages are very closely related, belonging to the same [[Finnic]] branch of the [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] language family. The two languages are mutually intelligible to native speakers. Both Estonian and Finnish are distantly related to the [[Ugric languages|Ugric]] [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] language. [[Estonians]] have strong ties to the [[Nordic]] countries and [[Germany]] stemming from the strong cultural and religious influences gained over centuries during [[Denmark|Danish]], German and [[Sweden|Swedish]] rule and settlement. This highly literate society places strong emphasis upon education, which is free and compulsory until age 16. The first known book in Estonian was printed in [[1525]]. Written with the [[Latin alphabet]], Estonian is the language of the Estonian people and the official language of the country. One-third of the standard vocabulary is derived from adding suffixes to root words. The oldest known examples of written Estonian originate in 13th century chronicles. During the [[Estonian SSR|Soviet era]], the [[Russian language|Russian]] language was imposed in parallel to, and often instead of, Estonian in official use. Between [[1945]] and [[1989]] the share of ethnic Estonians in the population resident within currently defined boundaries of [[Estonia]] dropped from 96% to 61%, caused primarily by the [[Soviet]] program promoting mass immigration of urban industrial workers from [[Russia]], [[Ukraine]], and [[Belarus]], as well as by wartime emigration and [[Stalin]]'s mass deportations and executions. In the decade following the reconstitution of independence, large scale emigration by ethnic Russians and the removal of the Russian military bases in [[1994]] caused the proportion of ethnic Estonians in Estonia to increase from 61% to 68% in [[2003]]. Modern Estonia is, as a whole, multicultural, but geographically a largely ethnically homogeneous country. 13 of Estonia's 15 counties are over 80 percent ethnic Estonian, the most homogeneous being [[Hiiumaa]], where Estonians account for 98.4% of the population. In the counties of [[Harju County|Harju]] (including the capital city, [[Tallinn]]) and [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru]], however, Estonians make up 60% and 20% of the population, respectively. Ethnic [[Russians]] make up 25.7% of the total population, but account for 36% of the population in Harju county, and 70% of the population in Ida-Viru county. ==Population== * 1,408,556 (July [[2003]] estimate) * 1,431,471 (July 2000 estimate) * 1,376,743 (last [[census]] [[March 31]], [[2000]]) * 1,356,045 (official, [[January 1]], 2003) ===Age structure=== *0-14 years: 18% (male 129,204; female 124,269) *15-64 years: 68% (male 466,960; female 503,233) *65 years and over: 14% (male 67,781; female 140,024) (2000 est.) ===Population growth rate=== *-0.59% (2000 est.) ===Birth rate=== *8.45 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) ===Death rate=== *13.55 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) ===Net migration rate=== *-0.79 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) ===Sex ratio=== * at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female *under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female *15-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female *65 years and over: 0.48 male(s)/female *total population: 0.87 male(s)/female (2000 est.) ===Infant mortality rate=== 12.92 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) ===Life expectancy at birth=== *total population: 69.45 years *male: 63.4 years *female: 75.79 years (2000 est.) ===Total fertility rate=== 1.19 children born/woman (2000 est.) ==Nationality== *noun: Estonian(s) *adjective: Estonian ===Ethnic groups=== Estonian 68.4%, Russian 25.7%, Ukrainian 2.1%, Belarusian 1.2%, Finn 0.9%, other 2.3% (2003) ==Religion== Traditional religion of the Estonians is the Christian belief in the form the Evangelical [[Lutheran]] confession (as in many other countries in Scandinavia). Less than a third of the population define themselves as believers, of those the majority are Lutheran, whereas the Russian minority is Eastern Orthodox. Ancient equinoctial heathen traditions are held in high regard. Today, about 32 % of the population are members of a church or religious group, thereof: * 14.8 % Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church * 13.9 % Orthodox * ca. 6,000 Baptists * ca. 3,500 Roman-Catholics There are also a number of smaller Protestant and Jewish groups. ==Languages== [[Estonian language|Estonian]] (official), [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], [[English language|English]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], other ===Literacy=== * age 15 and over can read and write * total population: 100% (1998 est.) :''See also :'' [[Estonia]] [[Category:Demographics by country|Estonia]] [[Category:Estonian society]] [[es:Demografía de Estonia]] [[pt:Demografia da Estónia]] [[ru:Население Эстонии]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of Estonia</title> <id>9390</id> <revision> <id>41125056</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T05:12:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Unigolyn</username> <id>165192</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Estonia}} '''Politics of Estonia''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Estonia]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised byby the [[Council of Ministers of Estonia|Council of Ministers]] which is led by the [[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]]. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. Executive affairs of government are devised With the proclamation of Estonia's national independence in [[1918]], a parliamentary republic was formed. The Parliament elected a Riigivanem (president) who acted as the leader of the government and head of state. In 1991 the Republic of Estonia was restored on the basis of continuity with the constitution prior to 1938. The contemporary Estonian governme
rcedes (calculator)]] *[[Adding machine]] *[[Addiator]] *[[Curta calculator|Curta]] Electronic calculators: *[[List of calculators]] ==Patents== * {{US patent|2668661}} – ''Complex computer'' – [[George Stibitz|G. R. Stibitz]] (electromechanic device that would calculate, record, and print results) * {{US patent|3819921}} – ''Miniature electronic calculator'' – [[Jack Kilby|J. S. Kilby]] (TI electromechanic device) ==External links== * [http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/company/history/calc.shtml On TI's US Patent No. 3819921] – From TI's own website * [http://sharp-world.com/corporate/info/his/h_company/1994/ 30th Anniversary of the Calculator] – From Sharp's web presentation of its history; including a picture of the CS-10A desktop calculator * [http://www.maths.hscripts.com/ Online Calculators and Converters] * [http://web.peoriadesignweb.com/calculator Online Calculator Software] * [http://www.satsig.net/seticalc.htm Online deep space SETI range calculator] * [http://ostermiller.org/calc/calculator.html JavaScript Scientific Calculator] – Scientific notation, hex, octal, decimal, binary, and math functions; requires [[JavaScript]] (from ostermiller.org) * [http://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com The Old Calculator Web Museum] * [http://www.calculators.de Calculator Museum] * [http://www.taswegian.com/MOSCOW/soviet.html Museum of Soviet Calculators] * [http://www.rk86.com/frolov/calcolle.htm Soviet Calculators Collection] * [http://www.vintagecalculators.com/index.html Vintage Calculators] * [http://www.lendingok.com various calculators] * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Arithmetic/BrokenCalculator.shtml Broken Calculator] * [http://www.graphcalc.com GraphCalc – an Open Source graphing calculator program] * [http://www.binarythings.com/hidigit/ HiDigit scientific calculator] * [http://www.hpmuseum.org The Museum of HP Calculators] ([http://www.hpmuseum.org/prehp.htm slide rules/mech. section]) * [http://www.hydrix.com/wiki/ HP Calculator Wiki] *[http://www.typeonline.co.uk/number_pad_lesson1.html Number pad typing tutorial] * [http://www.casiocalc.org International Casio Calculator Community] * [http://www.graph100.com French Casio Calculator Community] * [http://mycalcdb.free.fr MyCalcDB] : 70's and 80's calculators database [[Category:Calculators|*Calculator]] [[Category:Mathematical tools]] [[Category:Office equipment]] [[bg:Калкулатор]] [[da:Lommeregner]] [[de:Taschenrechner]] [[es:Calculadora]] [[eo:Kalkulilo]] [[fr:Calculatrice]] [[he:מחשבון]] [[it:Calcolatrice]] [[nl:Rekenmachine]] [[nn:Kalkulator]] [[ja:電卓]] [[pl:Kalkulator]] [[pt:Calculadora]] [[ro:Calculator]] [[ru:Калькулятор]] [[sl:računalo]] [[sr:Дигитрон]] [[fi:Laskin]] [[sv:Miniräknare]] [[th:เครื่องคิดเลข]] [[zh:电子计算器]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cash register</title> <id>7594</id> <revision> <id>40058118</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T20:54:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ewlyahoocom</username> <id>241538</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Disambiguate [[Key]] to [[Key (lock)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AntiqueCashRegister7.gif|thumb|250px|right|Antique crank-operated cash register]]A '''cash register''' or '''till''' (British English) is a mechanical or electronic device for calculating and recording sales transactions, and an attached [[cash drawer]] for storing [[currency]]. Usually the cash register also prints a [[receipt]] for the customer. Usually the drawer can be opened only after it is done recording a sale, except when using a special [[key (lock)|key]], which only senior personnel or the owner has. This reduces the risk of personnel [[stealing]] from the [[shop]] owner by not recording a sale and pocketing the money, in the case that the customer does not require a receipt and has to be given change (cash is more easily checked against recorded sales than [[inventory]]). In fact, cash registers were first invented for the purpose of eliminating employee theft or [[embezzlement]]. The first registers were entirely mechanical, without receipts. The employee was required to ring up every transaction on the register, and when the total key was pushed, the drawer opened and a bell would ring, alerting the manager to a sale taking place. Those original machines were nothing but simple adding machines. A cash register may be compulsory for [[tax]] purposes. The law sometimes also requires customers to collect the receipt and keep it at least for a short while after leaving the shop, again for checking that the shop records sales, so that it cannot [[tax evasion|evade taxes]]. Often cash registers are attached to [[weighing scale|scales]], [[barcode scanner]]s, [[checkstand|checkstands]], and [[EFTPOS]] or [[credit card]] terminals. Increasingly, dedicated cash registers are being replaced with general purpose [[computer]]s with [[Point of sale|POS]] software. Today, these machines scan the barcode (usually [[EAN]] or [[Universal Product Code]] (UPC)) for each item, retrieve the price from a [[database]], calculate deductions for items on sale, calculate the [[tax]], calculate differential rates for preferred customers, time and date stamp the transaction, record the transaction in detail including each item purchased, record the method of payment, keep totals for each product or type of product sold as well as total sales for specified periods, and do other tasks as well. Cash register manufacturers include [[Casio]], [[NCR Corporation|NCR]], [[International Business Machines|IBM]], [[Wincor-Nixdorf]] and [[Uniwell]]. == Self checkout == {{main|Self checkout}} Some supermarkets have introduced self-checkout machines, where the customer is trusted (to an extent) to scan the barcodes (or manually identify uncoded items like fruit), and place the items into a bagging area (where the bag is weighed, the machine complains vocally when it thinks that something in the bag doesn't seem to weigh what the inventory database lists the weight as). There is normally a supervisor watching over several such checkouts; as such the benefit to the customer is little, the benefit to the supermarket is reduced staffing levels. Payment on these machines is accepted by card [[EFTPOS]], or cash via coinslot and bank note scanner. ==Origin== The first cash register was invented by [[James Ritty]] in [[1879]]. He was the owner of a tavern in [[Dayton, Ohio]] and wanted to stop dishonest employees from pilfering his profits. [http://www.cashregistergroup.com/acatalog/Glossary.html Cash register terms] [http://www.tillservices.co.uk/discus Cash register forum] [http://www.cash-register.info Cash register instruction manuals] [[Category:Distribution, retailing, and wholesaling]] [[Category:Commerce]] [[de:Registrierkasse]] [[fr:Caisse enregistreuse]] [[it:Registratore di cassa]] [[io:Kazo registragilo]] [[nl:Kassa (apparaat)]] [[no:Kasseapparat]] [[ja:キャッシュレジスター]] [[zh:收银器]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chronometer</title> <id>7595</id> <revision> <id>42101732</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:09:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bota47</username> <id>341052</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: cs</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''chronometer''' is a [[clock]] accurate enough to be used as a portable [[time standard]] on a vehicle, usually in order to determine [[longitude]] by means of [[celestial navigation]]. In [[Switzerland]], only timepieces certified by the [[COSC]] may use the word 'Chronometer' on them. ==History== Until the mid 1750s, [[navigation]] at [[sea]] was an unsolved problem due to the difficulty in calculating longitudinal position. Navigators could determine their [[latitude]] by measuring the sun's angle at noon. However to find their [[longitude]], they needed a portable time standard that would work on a ship. Conceptually, at local high [[noon]] they could compare the chronometer's [[time]] to determine their longitude (in modern practice, a navigational almanac and trigonometric sight reduction tables permit navigators to measure the [[Sun]], [[Moon]], visible [[planet]]s or any of 57 navigational stars at any time that the horizon is visible). The problem of creating a sea-worthy timepiece was difficult. At the time, the best clocks were [[pendulum clock]]s, and the rolling of a ship at sea rendered the pendulum useless. [[John Harrison]], a Yorkshire carpenter, invented a clock based on a pair of counter-oscillating weighted beams connected by springs, whose motion was not influenced by gravity or the motion of a ship. His first two chronometers used this system but he became rightly convinced that they had a fundamental sensitivity to centrifugal force which meant that they could never be accurate enough at sea. His third machine replaced one headache with a bigger one and he eventually abandoned the large machines altogether. He finally solved the accuracy problems with his H4 chronometer, essentially a large 5 inch (12 cm) diameter pocket watch, winning a prize of £20,000 offered by the government in the early 18th century. His design used a fast-beating balance wheel controlled by a temperature-compensated spiral spring. This general layout remained in use until [[microchip]]s reduced the cost of a [[quartz clock]] to the point that electronic chronometers became commonplace. Ownership of the marine chronometer's design passed to the Admiralty, who now needed manufacturers. [[Thomas Earnshaw]], [[John Arnold]] and others tackled this, moving the temperature compensation into the balance wheel itself and developing the practical and simple spring detent [[escapement]]. This combination was the defining technology of marine chronometers until the electronic era. [[Aaron Lufkin Dennison]] was the pioneer in the in
Red Sea. This elevated region has a natural drainage pattern that rarely functions because of insufficient rainfall. It also has a complex of irregular, sharply cut wadis that extend westward toward the Nile. The Eastern Desert is generally isolated from the rest of the country. There is no oasis cultivation in the region because of the difficulty in sustaining any form of agriculture. Except for a few villages on the Red Sea coast, there are no permanent settlements. The importance of the Eastern Desert lies in its natural resources, especially oil (see Energy , ch. 3). A single governorate, the capital of which is at Al Ghardaqah, administers the entire region. ==Sinai Peninsula== This triangular area covers about 61,100 square kilometers (slightly smaller than West Virginia, USA). Similar to the desert, the peninsula contains mountains in its southern sector that are a geological extension of the Red Sea Hills, the low range along the Red Sea coast that includes Mount Catherine (Jabal Katrinah), the country's highest point--2,642 meters. The Red Sea is named after these mountains, which are red. The southern side of the peninsula has a sharp escarpment that subsides after a narrow coastal shelf that slopes into the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. The elevation of Sinai's southern rim is about 1,000 meters. Moving northward, the elevation of this limestone plateau decreases. The northern third of Sinai is a flat, sandy coastal plain, which extends from the Suez Canal into the Gaza Strip and Israel. Before the Israeli military occupied Sinai during the June 1967 War (Arab-Israeli war, also known as the Six-Day War), a single Egyptian governorate administered the whole peninsula. By 1982 after all of Sinai was returned to Egypt, the central government divided the peninsula into two governorates. North Sinai has its capital at Al Arish and the South Sinai has its capital in At Tur. ==Area and boundaries== '''Area:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 1,001,450 km&amp;sup2; &lt;br&gt;''land:'' 995,450 km&amp;sup2; &lt;br&gt;''water:'' 6,000 km&amp;sup2; '''Area - comparative:''' slightly more than three times the size of [[New Mexico]] (US) '''Land boundaries:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 2,689 km &lt;br&gt;''border countries:'' Gaza Strip 11 km, Israel 255 km, Libya 1,150 km, Sudan 1,273 km '''Coastline:''' 2,450 km '''Maritime claims:''' &lt;br&gt;''contiguous zone:'' 24 nautical miles (44 km) &lt;br&gt;''continental shelf:'' 200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation &lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:'' 200 nautical miles (370 km) &lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:'' 12 nautical miles (22 km) '''Elevation extremes:''' &lt;br&gt;''lowest point:'' [[Qattara Depression]] -133 m &lt;br&gt;''highest point:'' [[Mount Catherine]] 2,629 m ==Resources and land use== '''Natural resources:''' [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[iron ore]], [[phosphates]], [[manganese]], [[limestone]], [[gypsum]], [[talc]], [[asbestos]], [[lead]], [[zinc]] '''Land use:''' &lt;br&gt;''arable land:'' 2% &lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:'' 0% &lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:'' 0% &lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:'' 0% &lt;br&gt;''other:'' 98% (1993 est.) '''Irrigated land:''' 32,460 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.) ==Environmental concerns== '''Natural hazards:''' periodic droughts; frequent earthquakes, flash floods, landslides, volcanic activity; hot, driving windstorm called khamsin occurs in spring; dust storms, sandstorms '''Environment - current issues:''' agricultural land being lost to [[urbanization]] and windblown [[sand]]s; increasing [[soil salination]] below [[Aswan High Dam]]; [[desertification]]; [[oil pollution]] threatening [[coral reef]]s, [[beach]]es, and marine habitats; other [[water pollution]] from agricultural [[pesticide]]s, raw [[sewage]], and industrial effluents; very limited natural [[fresh water resources]] away from the [[Nile]] which is the only perennial water source; rapid growth in population overstraining natural resources '''Environment - international agreements:''' &lt;br&gt;''party to:'' [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Environmental Modification]], [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Marine Dumping]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]), [[Tropical Timber 83]], [[Tropical Timber 94]], [[Wetlands]], [[Whaling]] &lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:'' Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]] '''Geography - note:''' controls [[Sinai Peninsula]], only land bridge between Africa and remainder of Eastern Hemisphere; controls [[Suez Canal]], shortest sea link between [[Indian Ocean]] and [[Mediterranean Sea]]; size, and juxtaposition to Israel, establish its major role in Middle Eastern geopolitics ==Sources== *[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies] *''CIA World Fact Book'' ==External links== *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/egypt_pol97.jpg Map] {{Africa in topic|Geography of}} [[Category:Geography by country|Egypt]] [[Category:Geography of Egypt| ]] [[bg:География на Египет]] [[es:Geografía de Egipto]] [[fr:Géographie de l'Égypte]] [[he:גאוגרפיה של מצרים]] [[pt:Geografia do Egipto]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Egypt</title> <id>9349</id> <revision> <id>41933585</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:51:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zerida</username> <id>454491</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 40553103 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Life in Egypt}} [[Egypt]] is the most populous country in the [[Arab world|Arabic]]-speaking world and the second-most populous on the [[Africa]]n Continent. Nearly 100% of the country's 78 million people live in three major regions of the country: [[Cairo]] and [[Alexandria]] and elsewhere along the banks of the [[Nile]]; throughout the Nile delta, which fans out north of Cairo; and along the [[Suez Canal]]. These regions are among the world's most densely populated, containing an average of over 3,820 persons per square mile (1,540 per sq. km.), as compared to 181 persons per sq. mi. for the country as a whole.&lt;BR&gt; Small communities spread throughout the [[desert]] regions of Egypt are clustered around oases and historic trade and transportation routes. The government has tried with mixed success to encourage migration to newly [[irrigation|irrigated]] land reclaimed from the desert. However, the proportion of the population living in rural areas has continued to decrease as people move to the cities in search of employment and a higher [[standard of living]]. == People == The Egyptians are a fairly homogeneous people. Ethnically and culturally, [[North Africa]]n and Eastern [[Mediterranean]] influences are more predominant in the north, while the south which bears the same influences is also home to people related to [[Nubian]]s and Africans further southeast in the land encompassing modern [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]]. Many theories have been proposed regarding the origins of the Egyptians, but the most widely accepted based on the [[scientific method|scientific]] evidence is that prehistoric Egyptian society was formed through a mix of [[Berber|North]] and [[Northeast Africa]]n, as well as [[Southwest Asia]]n peoples who moved to the Nile Valley after the [[Ice Age]]. By 6000 B.C., organized agriculture had appeared in the Nile Valley. Egypt has endured as a unified state for more than 5,000 years, and [[archaeology|archaeological]] findings show that primitive tribes lived along the Nile long before the dynastic history of the [[pharaoh]]s began. Egyptians take pride in their pharaonic heritage and in their descent from what many consider mankind's earliest civilization. The [[Classical Arabic]] word for Egypt is Misr (Masr in [[Egyptian Arabic]]), which appears in many ancient Semitic languages and originally connoted &quot;civilization&quot; or &quot;metropolis&quot;. The bulk of modern Egyptian society still maintains a homogeneous genetic tie to ancient Egyptian society since the predynastic period, which has always been regarded as rural and most populous compared to the neighboring demographics. The Egyptian people have spoken only languages from the Afro-Asiatic family (previously known as Hamito-Semitic) throughout their history starting with Old Egyptian to modern [[Egyptian Arabic]] (Masri). Ethnic minorities include other established communities, namely a small number of [[Bedouin]] Arab nomads in the Sinai and eastern and western deserts, as well as some [[Nubian]]s clustered along the Nile in Upper (southern) Egypt who are estimated to be about 0.8% of the population. Egypt was host to many foreign communities during the colonial period, such as [[Greeks]], [[Italians]], [[Syrians]], and [[Armenians]], though most left following the political developments that swept the country in the 1950s. The country still hosts some 90,000 refugees and asylum seekers, mostly [[Palestinian refugees|Palestinians]] and [[Sudanese refugees in Egypt|Sudanese]]. The literacy rate in modern Egyptian society is about 57% of the adult population. Education is free through university and compulsory from ages six through 15. Rates for primary and secondary education have strengthened in recent years. Ninety-three percent of children enter primary school and about one-quarter drop out after the sixth year; in 1994-95, 87% entered primary school and about half dropped out after the sixth year. There are 20,000 primary and secondary schools with some 10 million students, 13 major universities with more than 500,000 students, and 67 teacher colleges. Major universities include Cairo University (100,000 students), Alexandria University, and the 1,000-year-old Al-Azhar University, one of the world's major cente
the Confederate side in Maryland and Virginia Regiments. Two months before the end of the Civil War, however, Delaware voted on [[February 18]], [[1865]] to reject the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment]] to the United States Constitution and so voted unsuccessfully to continue slavery beyond the Civil War. Delaware symbolically ratified the amendment on February 12, 1901&amp;mdash;40 years after [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]]'s [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. Slavery ended in Delaware only when the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] took effect in December of 1865. Delaware also rejected the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|14th amendment]] during the [[Reconstruction]] Era. == Law, government, and politics == [[Image:wiki_delaware.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Greetings from Delaware]] Delaware's fourth and current constitution, adopted in [[1897]], provides for executive, judicial and legislative branches. === Legislative branch=== [[Delaware General Assembly]] consists of a [[Delaware House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] with 41 members and a [[Delaware Senate|Senate]] with 21 members. It sits in [[Dover, Delaware]], the State capital. Representatives are elected to two-year terms, while Senators are elected to four-year terms. The Senate confirms judicial and other nominees appointed by the Governor. ===Judicial branch=== The Delaware Constitution establishes a number of courts: *The [[Delaware Supreme Court]] is the state's highest court. *The Superior Court of Delaware is the state's trial court of general jurisdiction. *The [[Court of Chancery]] deals primarily in corporate disputes. *The Family Court handles domestic and custody matters. *The Court of Common Pleas has jurisdiction over a limited class of civil and criminal matters. Minor non-constitutional courts include the [[Justice of the Peace]] Courts and Aldermen's Courts. Significantly, Delaware has one of the few remaining Courts of [[Chancery]] in the nation, which has jurisdiction over [[equity]] cases, the vast majority of which are corporate disputes, many relating to [[mergers and acquisitions]]. The Court of Chancery and the Supreme Court have developed a worldwide reputation for rendering concise opinions concerning corporate law which generally (but not always) grant broad discretion to corporate boards of directors and officers. In addition, the [[Delaware General Corporation Law]], which forms the basis of the Courts' opinions, is widely regarded as giving great flexibility to corporations to manage their affairs. For these reasons, Delaware is considered to have the most business-friendly legal system in the United States; therefore a great number of public and private companies are [[Delaware corporation|incorporated in Delaware]]. ===Executive branch=== The executive branch is headed by the [[Governor of Delaware]]. The present governor is [[Ruth Ann Minner]] (Democrat), who was elected as the state's first female governor in 2000. The lieutenant governor is [[John C. Carney, Jr.]]. Delaware's U.S. Senators are [[Joe Biden|Joseph R. Biden, Jr.]] (Democrat) and [[Thomas R. Carper]] (Democrat). Delaware's single US Representative is [[Michael N. Castle]] (Republican). {{see|List of Governors of Delaware}} ===Politics=== Delaware has three counties: [[Kent County, Delaware|Kent County]], [[New Castle County, Delaware|New Castle County]], and [[Sussex County, Delaware|Sussex County]]. ''See: [[List of counties in Delaware]]'' Each county elects its own legislative body (known in New Castle and Sussex counties as '''County Council''', and in Kent County as '''Levy Court'''), which deal primarily in zoning and development issues. Most functions which are handled on a county-by-county basis in other states -- such as courts, law enforcement, and the like -- have been centralized in Delaware, leading to a significant concentration of power in the Delaware state government. The Democratic Party holds a [[plurality]] of registrations in Delaware. Until the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000]] Presidential election, the state tended to be a Presidential [[bellwether]], sending its three [[electoral votes]] to the winning candidate for over 50 years in a row. Bucking that trend, however, in 2000 and again in 2004 Delaware voted for the Democratic candidate. [[John Kerry]] won Delaware by eight percentage points with 53.5% of the vote in 2004. Historically, the Republican Party had an immense influence on Delaware politics, due in large part to the monied [[Du Pont family|du Pont family]]. This trend was so notable that [[Ralph Nader]] assembled a [[working group]] to investigate Delaware's political-industrial complex, resulting in a book published in [[1968]] entitled ''The Company State''. As DuPont's might has declined, so has that of the Delaware Republican Party. The Democrats have won the past four gubernatorial elections and currently hold six of the nine statewide elected offices (Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Treasurer, Insurance Commissioner, Attorney General, U.S. Representative-at-large, and two U.S. Senators). However, this belies the fact that the Democratic Party gains most of its votes from heavily-developed New Castle County, whereas the lesser-populated Kent and Sussex Counties vote Republican. == Geography == [[Image:datamil_de_map.jpg|thumb|left|Map of Delaware]] Delaware is bounded to the north by Pennsylvania, to the east by the Delaware River and the Atlantic Ocean and to the west and south by Maryland. Small portions of Delaware are also situated on the far, or eastern, side of the Delaware River Estuary, and these small parcels share land boundaries with New Jersey. The largest city is [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]], and the capital is [[Dover, Delaware|Dover]]. The state of Delaware, together with the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland and two counties of Virginia, form the [[Delmarva Peninsula]], a geographical unit stretching far down the Mid-Atlantic and into the South Atlantic Coast. The definition of the northern boundary of the state is highly unusual. Most of the boundary between Delaware and Pennsylvania is defined as an arc extending twelve miles from the [[cupola]] of the courthouse in [[New Castle, Delaware|New Castle]], and is referred to as the [[Twelve-Mile Circle]], being the only true-arc political boundary in the United States. This border extends all of the way to the low-tide mark on the [[New Jersey]] shore, which continues down the shoreline until it again reaches the twelve-mile arc in the south; then the boundary continues in a more conventional way in the middle of the main channel ([[thalweg]]) of the [[Delaware River]] [[Estuary]]. A portion of this arc extends into Maryland to the west, and the remaining western border is a tangent to this arc that runs a bit to the east. The wedge of land between the arc and the Pennsylvania-Maryland border remained in dispute until [[1921]], when the land was given to Maryland. The border between New Jersey and Delaware is still disputed. ===Topography=== Delaware lies on a level plain, the highest elevation being less than 450 feet above sea level. The northern part is associated with the [[Piedmont (United States)|Appalachian Piedmont]] and is hilly, with a rolling surface. South of Newark and Wilmington, the state follows the [[Atlantic Coastal Plain]] with flat, sandy, and, in some parts, swampy ground. A [[ridge]] about 75 to 80 feet in altitude extends along the western boundary of the state and is the drainage divide between the two major watersheds of the [[Delaware River|Delaware]] in the east and of several streams falling into [[Chesapeake Bay]] in the west. The principal streams draining into the Delaware are the [[Christina River|Christina]] and the [[Brandywine Creek|Brandywine]] rivers. The Christina is navigable for large ships as far as [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]], and for small ships as far as [[Newport, Delaware|Newport]]. The coast of [[Delaware Bay]] is marshy; the Atlantic coast has many sand beaches, enclosing shallow lagoons. The largest of these are [[Rehoboth Bay]], [[Indian River Bay]], and a portion of [[St. Martin's Bay]]. The only harbors of consequence are Wilmington, [[Lewes, Delaware|Lewes]], and New Castle. ===Climate=== Since the great majority of Delaware is a part of the [[Atlantic Coastal Plain]], the climate is moderated by the effects of the ocean. The southern third of the state has a mild subtropical climate, with hot, humid summers and mild winters. The middle portion is the transition to the upper portion of the state, which has a warm continental climate and receives occasional winter snowfall. == Demographics == [[Image:Delaware_population_map.png|thumb|right|300px|Delaware Population Density Map]] As of 2005, Delaware has an estimated population of 843,524, which is an increase of 13,455, or 1.6%, from the prior year and an increase of 59,924, or 7.6%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 21,978 people (that is 58,699 births minus 36,721 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 39,138 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 11,226 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 27,912 people. The racial breakdown of the state is: *72.5% [[Whites|White]] *19.2% [[Blacks|Black]] *4.8% [[Hispanics|Hispanic]] *2.1% [[Asian American|Asian]] *0.3% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]] *1.7% [[Mixed race]] The five largest ancestries in Delaware are: [[African American]] (19.2%), [[Irish American|Irish]] (16.6%), [[German-American|German]] (14.3%), [[British-American|English]] (12.1%), [[Italian-American|Italian]] (9.3%). Delaware has the largest [[African American]] population, percentage-wi
lstruct | cubic face centered }} {{Elementbox_oxistates | '''3''', 4&lt;br /&gt;(mildly [[base (chemistry)|basic]] oxide) }} {{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.12 }} {{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 534.4 | 1050 | 1949 }} {{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|185]] }} {{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }} {{Elementbox_eresist_ohmm | ([[room temperature|r.t.]]) (&amp;beta;, poly) 828 n}} {{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 11.3 }} {{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmk | ([[room temperature|r.t.]]) (&amp;gamma;, poly)&lt;br /&gt;6.3 }} {{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 2100 }} {{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | (&amp;gamma; form) 33.6 }} {{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | (&amp;gamma; form) 13.5 }} {{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | (&amp;gamma; form) 21.5 }} {{Elementbox_poissonratio | (&amp;gamma; form) 0.24 }} {{Elementbox_mohshardness | 2.5 }} {{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa | 270 }} {{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 412 }} {{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-45-1 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=cerium | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=134 | sym=Ce | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E s|3.16 days]] | dm=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de=0.500 | pn=134 | ps=[[lanthanum|La]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=136 | sym=Ce | na=0.19% | n=78 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=138 | sym=Ce | na=0.25% | n=80 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=139 | sym=Ce | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E s|137.640 days]] | dm=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de=0.278 | pn=139 | ps=[[lanthanum|La]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=140 | sym=Ce | na=88.48% | n=82 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=141 | sym=Ce | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E s|32.501 days]] | dm=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=0.581 | pn=141 | ps=[[praseodymium|Pr]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=142 | sym=Ce | na=11.08% | hl=[[1 E s|&gt; 5&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt; years]] | dm=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=unknown | pn=142 | ps=[[neodymium|Nd]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=144 | sym=Ce | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E s|284.893 days]] | dm=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=0.319 | pn=144 | ps=[[praseodymium|Pr]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_end}} {{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }} '''Cerium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Ce''' and [[atomic number]] 58. == Notable characteristics == Cerium is a silvery metallic element, belonging to the [[lanthanide]] group. It is used in some rare-earth alloys. It resembles iron in color and luster, but is soft, and both malleable and ductile. It tarnishes readily in the air. Only [[europium]] is more reactive than cerium among rare earth elements. Alkali solutions and dilute and concentrated acids attack the metal rapidly. The pure metal is likely to ignite if scratched with a knife. Cerium oxidizes slowly in cold water and rapidly in hot water. Because of the relative closeness of the 4''f'' and outer shell orbitals in cerium, it exhibits an interestingly variable chemistry. For example, compression or cooling of the metal can change its oxidation state from about 3 to 4. Cerium in the +3 oxidation state is referred to as '''cerous''', while the metal in the +4 oxidation state is called '''ceric'''. Cerium(IV) salts are orange red or yellowish, whereas cerium(III) salts are usually white. == Applications == Uses of cerium: * In [[metallurgy]]: ** Cerium is used in making [[aluminium]] [[alloy]]s. ** Adding cerium to [[cast iron]]s opposes graphitization and produces a malleable iron. ** In [[steel]]s, cerium degasifies and can help reduce sulfides and oxides. ** Cerium is used in [[stainless steel]] as a [[precipitation hardening]] agent. ** 3 to 4% cerium added to [[magnesium]] alloys, along with 0.2 to 0.6% zirconium, helps [[grain refinement|refine the grain]] and give sound [[casting]] of complex shapes. It also adds heat resistance to magnesium castings. ** Cerium is used in alloys that are used to make permanent magnets. ** Cerium is used as an alloying element in [[tungsten]] electrodes for [[gas tungsten arc welding]]. ** Cerium is a major component of [[ferrocerium]], also known as &quot;[[lighter (fire starter)|lighter]] flint&quot;. Although modern alloys of this type generally use [[Mischmetal]] rather than purified cerium, it still is the most prevalent constituent. ** Cerium is used in [[carbon arc lamp|carbon-arc lighting]], especially in the [[film|motion picture]] industry. * [[Cerium(IV) oxide]] ** The oxide is used in incandescent gas mantles, such as the [[Gas mantle|Welsbach mantle]], where it was combined with [[Thorium]], [[Lanthanum]], [[Magnesium]] or [[Yttrium]] oxides . ** The oxide is emerging as a hydrocarbon [[catalyst]] in self cleaning ovens, incorporated into oven walls. ** Cerium(IV) oxide has largely replaced [[Rouge]] in the [[glass]] industry as a polishing abrasive. ** Cerium(IV) oxide is finding use as a petroleum cracking catalyst in petroleum refining. ** In glass, cerium(IV) oxide allows for selective absorption of [[ultraviolet light]]. * Cerium(IV) sulfate is used extensively as a volumetric [[oxidizing agent]] in quantitative analysis. * Cerium compounds are used in the manufacture of [[glass]], both as a component and as a decolorizer. * Cerium compounds are used for the coloring of enamel. * Cerium(III) and cerium(IV) compounds such as [[cerium(III) chloride]] have uses as [[catalyst]]s in [[organic synthesis]]. == History == Cerium was discovered in [[Sweden]] by [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] and [[Wilhelm von Hisinger]], and independently in [[Germany]] by [[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]], both in [[1803]]. Cerium was so named by Berzelius after the asteroid [[1 Ceres|Ceres]], discovered two years earlier ([[1801]]). == Occurrence == Cerium is the most abundant of the [[rare earth element]]s, making up about 0.0046% of the Earth's crust by weight. It is found in a number of minerals including [[allanite]] (also known as orthite)&amp;mdash;(Ca, Ce, La, Y)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(Al, Fe)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(SiO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(OH), [[monazite]] (Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y)PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, [[bastnasite]](Ce, La, Y)CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;F, hydroxylbastnasite (Ce, La, Nd)CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(OH, F), rhabdophane (Ce, La, Nd)PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;-H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O, and synchysite Ca(Ce, La, Nd, Y)(CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;F. Monazite and bastnasite are presently the two most important sources of cerium. Cerium is most often prepared via an [[ion exchange]] process that uses monazite sands as its cerium source. Large deposits of monazite, allanite, and bastnasite will supply cerium, thorium, and other rare-earth metals for many years to come. See also ''[[:Category:Lanthanide minerals]]'' == Compounds == Cerium has two common [[oxidation state]]s, +3 and +4. The most common compound of cerium is [[cerium(IV) oxide]] (CeO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), which is used as &quot;jeweller's [[rouge]]&quot; as well as in the walls of some self-cleaning ovens. Two common [[Oxidation#Oxidizing_and_Reducing_agents|oxidising agent]]s used in [[titration]]s are [[ammonium cerium(IV) sulfate]] (ceric ammonium sulfate, (NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Ce(SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) and [[ammonium cerium(IV) nitrate]] (ceric ammonium nitrate or CAN, (NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Ce(NO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;). Cerium also forms a [[chloride]], CeCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; or [[cerium(III) chloride]], used to facilitate reactions at [[carbonyl group]]s in [[organic chemistry]]. Other compounds include [[cerium(III) carbonate]] (Ce&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), [[cerium(III) fluoride]] (CeF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), [[cerium(III) oxide]] (Ce&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), as well as [[cerium(IV) sulfate]] (ceric sulfate, Ce(SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and cerium(III) triflate (Ce(OSO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;). See also ''[[:Category:Cerium compounds]]'' == Isotopes == Naturally occurring cerium is composed of 3 stable [[isotope]]s and 1 radioactive isotope; 136-Ce, 138-Ce, 140-Ce, and 142-Ce with 140-Ce being the most abundant (88.48% [[natural abundance]]). 27 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized with the most {abundant and/or stable} being 142-Ce with a [[half-life]] of greater than 5&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt; years, 144-Ce with a half-life of 284.893 days, 139-Ce with a half-life of 137.640 days, and 141-Ce with a half-life of 32.501 days. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lives that are less than 4 days and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 10 minutes. This element also has 2 [[meta state]]s. The isotopes of cerium range in [[atomic weight]] from 123 [[atomic mass unit|u]] (123-Ce) to 152 u (152-Ce). == Precautions == Cerium, like all rare earth metals, is of low to moderate &lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;toxicity&lt;/font&gt;. Cerium is a strong reducing agent and ignites spontaneously in air at 65 to 80 °C. Fumes from cerium fires are toxic. Water should not be used to stop cerium fires, as cerium reacts with water to produce hydrogen gas. Workers exposed to cerium have experienced itching, sensitivity to heat, and skin lesions. Animals injected with large doses of cerium have died due to cardiovascular collapse. Cerium(IV) oxide is a powerful oxidizing agent at high temperatures and will react with combustible organic materials. While cerium i
e summer. In late summer the bulb produces one or two naked stems 30-60 cm tall, each of which bear a cluster of 2 to 12 funnel-shaped [[flower]]s at their tops. Each flower is 6-10 cm diameter with six [[tepal]]s (three outer sepals, three inner petals, with similar appearance to each other), white, pink or purple in colour. This flowering pattern is the cause of its common name 'naked lady'. The scientific name ''Amaryllis'' is named after a shepherdess in one of [[Virgil]]'s pastorals, and means any young rustic maiden. The Belladonna Lily was introduced into cultivation at the beginning of the [[18th century]]. However, most of the so-called Amaryllis bulbs sold as 'ready to bloom for the holidays' belong to the allied genus ''[[Hippeastrum]]'', despite being labeled as 'Amaryllis' by sellers and [[nursery (horticulture)|nurseries]]. Adding to the name confusion, some bulbs of other species with a similar growth and flowering pattern are also sometimes called 'naked ladies', even though those species have their own more widely used and accepted common names, such as the [[Resurrection Lily]] (''Lycoris squamigera''). [[Category:Asparagales]] [[de:Amaryllis (Gattung)]] [[es:Amaryllis]] [[fr:Amaryllis (fleur)]] [[it:Amaryllis]] [[nl:Amaryllis]] [[ja:アマリリス]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amasis I</title> <id>1682</id> <revision> <id>15900147</id> <timestamp>2004-08-13T20:02:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Timwi</username> <id>13051</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double-redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ahmose I]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alfonso III of Aragon</title> <id>1683</id> <revision> <id>41013661</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T14:06:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Francisco Valverde</username> <id>495548</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* References */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{verify}} '''Alfons''' or '''Alfonso III of Aragon''' ([[1265]] &amp;ndash; [[June 18]], [[1291]], also '''Alfons II of Barcelona'''), surnamed ''the Liberal'', was the king of [[Aragon]] and count of [[Barcelona]] from [[1285]] to [[1291]]. He was a son of [[Peter III of Aragon]] and his [[Queen consort]] Constance of Sicily, daughter and heiress of [[Manfred of Sicily]]. His maternal grandmother Beatrice of Savoy was a daughter of [[Amadeus IV of Savoy]] and Anne of Burgundy. He conquered the island of [[Minorca]] in [[1287]]. His inability to resist the demands of his nobles left a heritage of trouble in Aragon. By recognising their right to rebel in the articles called the [[Union of Aragon]] he helped to make anarchy permanent. For this reason, probably, [[Dante Alighieri]], in [[the Divine Comedy]], recounts that he saw Alfonso's spirit seated outside the gates of [[Purgatory]] with the other monarchs whom Dante blamed for the chaotic political state of [[Europe]] during the [[13th century]]. == References == *DANTE ALIGHIERI, ''Purgatorio'', Canto VII, l. 115ff. {{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=[[Peter III of Aragon|Peter III]]}} {{s-ttl|title=King of [[List of Aragonese monarchs|Aragon]] and [[List of Valencian monarchs|Valencia]],&lt;br/&gt;[[List of Counts of Barcelona|Count of Barcelona]] |years=[[1285]]-[[1291]]}} {{s-aft|after=[[James II of Aragon|James II]]}} {{end}} [[Category:1265 births]] [[Category:1291 deaths]] [[Category:Aragonese monarchs]] [[Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy]] [[Category:Counts of Barcelona]] [[ca:Alfons el Franc]] [[de:Alfons III. (Aragón)]] [[es:Alfonso III de Aragón]] [[it:Alfonso III di Aragona]] [[ja:アルフォンソ3世 (アラゴン王)]] [[pt:Afonso III de Aragão]] [[sv:Alfonso III av Aragonien]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alfonso IV of Aragon</title> <id>1684</id> <revision> <id>37722042</id> <timestamp>2006-02-01T20:10:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ian Pitchford</username> <id>230605</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfonso IV of Aragon''', surnamed ''the Kind'' ([[Catalan language|Catalan]]: ''Alfons el Benigne'') was the king of [[Aragon]] and count of [[Barcelona]] (as Alfonso III) from [[1327]] to [[1336]]. Born in [[1299]] and died [[January 24]] [[1336]], he was the second son of [[James II of Aragon]] and [[Blanche of Anjou]]. He became heir after his older brother James renounced his rights to become a monk. He married Teresa of Entença and Antillon (1300-1327), heiress of [[Urgell]]. With this marriage, Urgell was definitively incorporated into the crown of Aragon. After widowing, he married Leonor de Castile, who should have been his brother James' wife but he refused to consummate the marriage. She was the sister of [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] and was murdered by her nephew [[Peter I of Castile]]. ===Children=== By Teresa of Entença: * Alfons (lived only one year). * [[Peter IV of Aragon|Peter IV]] * James (Jaume), Count of Urgell (1320-1347). He also inherited Entença and Antillon. * Fadrique (died young). * Constança (1322-1346), married [[James III of Majorca]]. * Elizabeth (died young). * Sanç (1327, lived only a few days). By Leonor de Castile: * [[Ferdinand, Prince of Aragon|Ferdinand]] (Ferran), Marquis of Tortosa. Married [[Maria of Portugal (1342-1367)|Maria of Portugal]] (daughter of [[Peter I of Portugal]]) and was killed by his half-brother Peter IV. * John (Joan). Married Isabel Núñez de Lara and was killed by order of his cousin Peter I of Castile. {{start box}} {{succession box three to three| before=[[James II of Aragon|James II]]| after=[[Peter IV of Aragon|Peter IV]]| title1=[[List of Aragonese monarchs|King of Aragon]]| title2=[[List of Counts of Barcelona|Count of Barcelona]]| title3=[[List of Valencian monarchs|King of Valencia]]| years1=1327&amp;ndash;1336| years2=1327&amp;ndash;1336| years3=1327&amp;ndash;1336| }} {{end box}} [[Category:1299 births]] [[Category:1366 deaths]] [[Category:Aragonese monarchs]] [[Category:Counts of Barcelona]] [[ca:Alfons el Benigne]] [[de:Alfons IV. (Aragón)]] [[es:Alfonso IV de Aragón]] [[it:Alfonso IV di Aragona]] [[ja:アルフォンソ4世 (アラゴン王)]] {{Euro-royal-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amasis II</title> <id>1685</id> <revision> <id>40338054</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T22:32:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>That Guy, From That Show!</username> <id>419920</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] removed redundant category &amp; cleanup formatting</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Hiero/3name | name= Amasis II | horus=&lt;hiero&gt;s-mn:n-U1-mAa:t&lt;/hiero&gt; | praenomen=&lt;hiero&gt;ra-W9-m-ib&lt;/hiero&gt; | nomen=&lt;hiero&gt;N12-ms-R24-zA&lt;/hiero&gt; | align=right | era=lp}} '''Amasis II''' (also '''Ahmose II''') was a [[pharaoh]] ([[570 BC]]-[[526 BC]]) of the [[Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt]], the successor of [[Apries]]. His capital was at [[Sais, Egypt|Sais]]. He was the last great ruler of [[Egypt]] before the [[Iran|Persia]]n conquest. Most of our information about him is derived from [[Herodotus]] (2.161ff) and can only be imperfectly verified by monumental evidence. According to the Greek historian, he was of common origins. A revolt of the native soldiers gave him his opportunity. These troops, returning home from a disastrous expedition to [[Cyrene (city)|Cyrene]], suspected that they had been betrayed in order that [[Apries]], the reigning king, might rule more absolutely by means of his [[mercenaries]], and their friends in Egypt fully sympathized with them. Amasis, sent to meet them and quell the revolt, was proclaimed king by the rebels, and Apries, who had now to rely entirely on his mercenaries, was defeated and taken prisoner in the ensuing conflict at [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]; the [[usurper]] treated the captive prince with great leniency, but was eventually persuaded to give him up to the people, by whom he was strangled and buried in his ancestral tomb at Sais. An inscription confirms the fact of the struggle between the native and the foreign soldiery, and proves that Apries was killed and honourably buried in the 3rd year of Amasis. Although Amasis thus appears first as champion of the disparaged native, he had the good sense to cultivate the friendship of the [[Ancient Greece|Greek world]], and brought Egypt into closer touch with it than ever before. Herodotus relates that under his prudent administration [[Egypt]] reached the highest pitch of prosperity; he adorned the temples of [[Lower Egypt]] especially with splendid [[monolith]]ic [[shrine]]s and other monuments (his activity here is proved by remains still existing). To the Greeks, Amasis assigned the commercial colony of [[Naucratis]] on the [[Canopic]] branch of the [[Nile]], and when the [[temple of Delphi]] was burnt he contributed 1,000 [[talent (weight)|talents]] to the rebuilding. He also married a Greek princess named '''Ladice''', the daughter of [[Battus]], king of Cyrene, and he made alliances with [[Polycrates of Samos]] and [[Croesus of Lydia]]. His kingdom consisted probably of Egypt only, as far as the [[First Cataract]], but to this he added [[Cyprus]], and his influence was great in Cyrene. At the beginning of his long reign, before the death of Apries, he appears to have sustained an attack by [[Nebuchadrezzar II]] ([[568 BC]]). [[Cyrus II of Persia|Cyrus]] left Egypt unmolested; but the last years of Amasis were disturbed by the threatened invasion of [[Cambyses]] and by the rupture of the alliance with Polycrates of Samos. The blow fell upon his son [[Psammetichus III]], whom the Persian deprived of his kingdom after a reign of only six mont
stain easily and therefore may appear as a mixture of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. In addition, [[mycobacteria]] - the causative agents of [[tuberculosis]] and [[leprosy]] - are said to be [[acid-fast]] and resistant to Gram staining entirely. [[Ziehl-Neelsen stain|Ziehl-Neelsen staining]] is particularly useful as a Gram stain alternative in these cases. ==One-step Gram staining== If a [[Microscopy|fluorescent microscope]] is available, the Gram stain can be reduced to a one-step procedure where Gram-positive and Gram-negative cells fluoresce with different colours. This shortens the length of the procedure considerably, which is especially useful if staining a large amount of samples (which is often the case in a clinical laboratory). ==Mechanism== Gram-positive bacteria have a thick mesh-like cell wall made of [[peptidoglycan]] which is capable of retaining the violet dye/iodine complex. Gram-negative bacteria have a thin cell wall made of a layer of peptidoglycan. In addition to an inner membrane, they also have an outer membrane which contains [[lipid]]s, and is separated from the cell wall by the periplasmic space. The decolourising mixture causes dehydration of the multilayered peptidoglycan in the Gram-positive cell wall, thus decreasing the space between the molecules and causing the cell wall to trap the crystal violet-iodine complex within the cell. But in Gram-negative bacteria, the decolourising mixture acts as a lipid solvent and dissolves the outer membrane of the Gram-negative cell wall. The thin layer of peptidoglycan is unable to retain the crystal violet-iodine complex and the Gram-negative cell is decolorized. The decolourisation step is the crucial one, and requires some degree of skill, as being Gram-positive is not an all-or-none phenomenon. As a rule of thumb (which has exceptions), Gram-negative bacteria are more dangerous as disease organisms, because their outer membrane is often hidden by a capsule or [[slime layer]] which hides the antigens of the cell and so acts as &quot;camouflage&quot; - the human body recognises a foreign body by its antigens; if they are hidden, it becomes harder for the body to detect the invader. Often the presence of a [[capsule]] will increase the virulence of a [[pathogen]]. Additionally, Gram-negative bacteria have [[lipopolysaccharide]] in their outer membrane. Lipopolysaccharide is an [[endotoxin]] which increases the severity of [[inflammation]]. This inflammation may be so severe that [[septic shock]] may occur. Gram-positive infections are generally less severe because the human body does not contain peptidoglycan, and in fact the human body produces an [[enzyme]] called [[lysozyme]] which attacks the open peptidoglycan layer of Gram-positive bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria are also frequently much more susceptible to [[beta-lactam antibiotic]]s, such as [[penicillin]]. ==See also== * [[Staining (biology)]] ==References== * {{cite journal | authorlink = Hans Christian Gram | last = Gram | first = HC | title = Über die isolierte Färbung der Schizomyceten in Schnitt- und Trockenpräparaten | journal = Fortschr Med | year = 1884 | volume = 2 | pages = 185-89 }} * {{cite book | last = Bergey | first = David H. | coauthors = John G. Holt; Noel R. Krieg; Peter H.A. Sneath | title = Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology | edition = 9th ed. | publisher = Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins | year = 1994 | id = ISBN 0-683-00603-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Madigan | first = MT | coauthors = Martinko J; Parker J | title = Brock Biology of Microorganisms | edition = 10th Edition | publisher = Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-130-66271-2 }} * {{cite book | last = Ryan | first = KJ | coauthors = Ray, CG | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = McGraw Hill. | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-838-58529-9 }} [[Category:Staining]] [[Category:Bacteriology]] [[cs:Gramovo barvení]] [[de:Gram-Färbung]] [[es:Tinción de Gram]] [[fr:Coloration de Gram]] [[he:צביעת גרם]] [[it:Colorazione di Gram]] [[ko:그람 염색]] [[nl:Gram-kleuring]] [[no:Gramfarging]] [[pt:Técnica de Gram]] [[vi:Nhuộm Gram]] [[zh:革蘭氏染色]] [[zh-min-nan:Gram ní-sek-hoat]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gram-positive</title> <id>12936</id> <revision> <id>40852422</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T12:33:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gram_Stain_Anthrax.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Gram-positive [[anthrax disease|anthrax]] bacteria (purple rods) in [[cerebrospinal fluid]] sample. The other cells are [[white blood cell]]s]] '''Gram-positive''' [[Bacteria|bacteria]] are those that are stained dark blue or violet by [[Gram staining]], in contrast to [[Gram-negative]] bacteria, which cannot retain the stain, instead taking up the [[counterstain]] and appearing red or pink. The stain is caused by a high amount of [[peptidoglycan]] in the [[cell wall]], which typically, but not always lacks the secondary membrane and [[lipopolysaccharide]] layer found in Gram-negative bacteria. In the original bacterial phyla, the Gram-positive forms made up the [[phylum (biology)|phylum]] [[Firmicutes]], a name now used for the largest group. It includes many well-known genera such as ''[[Bacillus]]'', ''[[Listeria]]'', ''[[Staphylococcus]]'', ''[[Streptococcus]]'', ''[[Enterococcus]]'', and ''[[Clostridium]]''. It has also been expanded to include the Mollicutes, bacteria like ''[[Mycoplasma]]'' that lack cell walls and so cannot be stained by Gram, but are derived from such forms. The [[actinobacteria]] are another major group of Gram-positive bacteria; they and the Firmicutes are referred to as the high and low G+C groups based on the [[guanosine]] and [[cytosine]] content of their [[DNA]]. If the second membrane is a derived condition, the two may have been basal among the bacteria; otherwise they are probably a relatively recent monophyletic group. They have been considered as possible ancestors for the [[archaea]]ns and [[eukaryote]]s, both because they are unusual in lacking the second membrane and because of various biochemical similarities such as the presence of [[sterol]]s. The [[Deinococcus-Thermus]] bacteria also have Gram-positive stains, although they are structurally similar to Gram-negative bacteria. Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria may have a membrane called an [[S-layer]]. In Gram-negative bacteria, the S-layer is directly attached to the outer membrane. In Gram-positive bacteria, the S-layer is attached to the [[peptidoglycan]] layer. == References == * {{cite book | last = Baron | first = Samuel | title = Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston | year = 1996 | id = ISBN 0-9631172-1-1 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=mmed.TOC&amp;depth=10 }} * {{cite book | author = Madigan, Michael; Martinko, John (editors) | title = Brock Biology of Microorganisms | edition = 11th ed. | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0131443291 }} * {{NCBI-scienceprimer}} [[Category:Staining]] [[Category:Bacteria]] [[cs:Grampozitivní bakterie]] [[es:Bacteria Gram-positiva]] [[fi:Grampositiivinen bakteeri]] [[fr:Gram positif]] [[nl:Gram-positief]] [[pl:Bakterie Gram-dodatnie]] [[zh:革蘭氏陽性菌]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gram-negative</title> <id>12937</id> <revision> <id>41822738</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:45:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DavidArnold</username> <id>621590</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Added links to mentioned antibiotics.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cleanup-date|January 2006}} &lt;!--Note to editors: the article needs to be reorganised so it is easier to read, perhaps using headers? --&gt; '''Gram-negative''' [[Bacteria|bacteria]] are those ''not'' stained dark blue or violet by [[Gram staining]]. On most Gram-stain preparations, Gram-negative organisms will be [[counterstain]]ed and appear red or pink. The difference lies in the [[cell wall]] of the two types of bacteria; in contrast to most [[Gram-positive]] bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria have only a few layers of [[peptidoglycan]] and a secondary cell membrane made primarily of [[lipopolysaccharide]]. The space between the layers of peptidoglycan and the secondary cell membrane is called [[periplasmatic space]]. Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria may have a membrane called an [[S-layer]]. In Gram-negative bacteria, the S-layer is directly attached to the outer membrane. In Gram-positive bacteria, the S-layer is attached to the [[peptidoglycan]] layer. Many species of Gram-negative bacteria are ''[[Pathogen|pathogenic]]'', meaning they can cause disease in a host organism. This pathogenic capability is usually associated with certain components of Gram-negative cell walls, particularly the [[lipopolysaccharide]] ([[endotoxin]]) layer. The [[proteobacteria]] are a major group of Gram-negative bacteria, including for instance ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Salmonella]]'', and other [[Enterobacteriaceae]], ''[[Pseudomonas]]'', ''[[Moraxella catarrhalis|Moraxella]]'', ''[[Helicobacter]]'', ''[[Stenotrophomonas]]'', ''[[Bdellovibrio]]'', [[acetic acid bacteria]], ''[[Legionella]]'' and a great many others. Other notable groups of Gram-negative bacteria include the [[cyanobacteria]], [[spirochaete]]s, [[green sulfur bacteria|green sulfur]] and [[green non-sulfur bacteria|green non-sulfur]] bacteria. Two major subclassifications of Gram-negative bacteria are Gram-negative cocci and Gram
rown University|Brown]] and [[Columbia University|Columbia]]. == Contributions to science == On January 17, [[1912]] he placed a part of chicken's embryo heart in fresh nutrient medium in a stoppered [[Pyrex]] flask of his design. Every forty-eight hours the tissue doubled in size and was transferred to a new flask. The tissue was still growing 20 years later, longer than life of the chicken itself. Carrel was honored in 1912 with a [[Nobel prize]] in medicine in recognition of his work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs. [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1912/index.html] During the [[First World War]], Carrel and the English chemist, [[Henry Drysdale Dakin]], developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with sutures, which prior to the development of widespread [[antibiotics]], was responsible for saving many lives. For this, Carrel was awarded the [[Légion d'honneur]]. He co-authored a book with [[Charles A. Lindbergh]], ''The Culture of Organs'', and worked with Lindbergh in the mid-1930s to create the &quot;perfusion pump,&quot; which allowed living organs to exist outside of the body during surgery. The advance is said to have been a crucial step in the development of open-heart surgery and organ transplants, and to have laid the groundwork for the [[artificial heart]], which became a reality decades later. Some critics of Lindbergh claimed that Carrel overstated Lindbergh's role to gain media attention. (Wallace, ''American Axis'' p. 101). Both Lindbergh and Carrel appeared on the cover of [[Time (magazine)|Time magazine]] on [[June 13]], [[1938]]. In 1972, the Swedish Post Office honored Carrel with a stamp that was part of its Nobel stamp series. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel/stamps/1972.html] In 1979, the [[lunar crater]] [[Carrel (crater)|Carrel]] was named after him as a tribute to his scientific breakthroughs. == Relation to [[eugenics]] and [[fascism]] == In 1935, Carrel published a best-selling book titled ''L'Homme, cet inconnu '' (''Man The Unknown'') which advocated, in part, that mankind could better itself by following the guidance of an elite group intellectuals, and by implementing a regime of enforced [[eugenics]]. Roger Callois, writing in ''The Edge of Surrealism'', quotes and paraphrases ''L'Homme, cet inconnu '' as follows: &quot; '(p)resent-day proletarians owe their status to inherited intellectual and physical defects' (sancta simplicitas). And he suggests that this state of affairs should be accenetuated through appropriate measures, so as to correlate social and biological inequalities more precisely. Society would then be directed by a hereditary aristocracy composed of descendants from the Crusaders, the heroes of the Revolution, the great criminals, the financial and industrial magnates&quot; (p. 360). Carrel advocated the use of gas chambers to rid humanity of inferior stock. His endorsement of this idea began in the mid-1930's, prior to Nazi implementation of such practices. In the 1936 German introduction of his book, at the publishers request, he added the following praise of the Nazi regime which did not appear in the editions in other languages: &quot;(t)he German government has taken energetic measures against the propagation of the defective, the mentally diseased, and the criminal. The ideal solution would be the suppression of each of these individuals as soon as he has proven himself to be dangerous.&quot; (quoted in Reggiani, p. 339). He also wrote: &quot;(t)he conditioning of petty criminals with the whip, or some more scientific procedure, followed by a short stay in hospital, would probably suffice to insure order. Those who have murdered, robbed while armed with automatic pistol or machine gun, kidnapped children, despoiled the poor of their savings, misled the public in important matters, should be humanely and economically disposed of in small euthanasic institutions supplied with proper gasses. A similar treatment could be advantageously applied to the insane, guilty of criminal acts.&quot; (quoted in Szasz) In 1937, Carrel joined [[Jean Coutrot]]’s Centre d’Etudes des Problèmes Humains. (Coutrot’s aim was to develop what he called an ‘‘economic humanism’’ through &quot;collective thinking.&quot;) In 1941, through connections to the [[Petain]] cabinet (specifically, French industrial physicians André Gros and Jacques Ménétrier) he went on to advocate for the creation of Fondation Française pour l’Etude des Problèmes Humains (French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems) which was created by decree of the collaborationist [[Vichy]] regime in 1941, and where he served as 'regent' (see Andrés Horacio Reggiani, ''Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy'', as well as Callois, p. 107). &quot;The foundation was chartered as a public institution under the joint supervision of the ministries of finance and public health. It was given financial autonomy and a budget of forty million francs—roughly one franc per inhabitant—a true luxury considering the burdens imposed by the German Occupation on the nation’s resources. By way of comparison, the whole Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) was given a budget of fifty million francs.&quot; (Reggiani) [http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331] According to Par Gwen Terrenoire, writing in ''Eugenics in France (1913-1941) : a review of research findings'' (Joint Programmatic Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, 2003) [http://ong-comite-liaison.unesco.org/ongpho/acti/3/2/document/8/pdfen.pdf] &quot;The foundation was a puridisciplinary centre that employed around 300 researchers (mainly statisticians, psychologists, physicians) from the summer of 1942 to the end of the autumn of 1944. After the liberation of Paris, Carrel was suspended by the Minister of Health ; he died in November 1944, but the Foundation itself was &quot;purged&quot;, only to reappear in a short time as the Institut national d’études démographiques (INED) that is still active.&quot; Scholars including Lucien Bonnafé, Patrick Tort and Max Lafont have accused Carrel of responsibility for the execution of thousands of mentally ill or impaired patients under Vichy. They argue that this policy was inspired by Carrel's advocacy. Other scholars state that Carrel merely provided intellectual cover for policies that would have been undertaken with or without his advocacy. All this eventually led many in France to accuse him of collaboration with the Nazis. This association with Vichy, and the harshness of his advocacy for eugenics, has led to his descent from fame to obscurity. In recent years, [[Jean-Marie le Pen]], the French neo-fascist politician, has become an advocate for Carrel, referring to him as &quot;the first environmentalist, or, if you will, the first modern ecologist, precisely because he committed himself to defining the relationships of natural harmony.&quot; (le Pen, L'Espoir 133-134, cited in Golson, Fascism's Return). His writings on eugenics are studied &quot;avidly in the training camps of the [[National Front]]&quot;. (Lucien Bonnafé and Patrick Tort, ''L'Homme, cet inconnu? Alexis Carrel, Jean-Marie le Pen et les chambres a gaz'' [http://www.amazon.fr/exec/obidos/ASIN/2907993143/403-4807364-1466832]) In the 1990's, the attention the [[National Front]]'s support brought to Carrel's fascist associations and advocacy for forced euthenasia created a series of controversies with respect to streets and institutions named in honor of Carrel. Over 20 French cities and towns, including Paris, renamed streets previously named for Carrel. The controvery came to a head in Lyon, his birhtplace, where a medical school was named in his honor. [[Lyon libération]] questioned the wisdom of this. In response to this, &quot;(i)n May 1995, the Palais des Congrès of Lyon hosted a conference on Carrel and scientific racism at which several of the participants accused the inquiry commission of whitewashing the controversial scientist. In early 1996, after five years of embarrassing publicity, the governing board of the University of Lyon decided to rename its school of medicine after [[René Laënnec]], inventor of the stethoscope.&quot; [http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331] In the United States as well as France, the 1990's were not kind to Carrel's reputation. In an interview for PBS' The American Experience, historian Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. blamed Carrel for Charles Lindbergh's increasing racism in the 1930's. Schlesinger states in response to a question concerning the source of Lindbergh's beliefs on this subject: &quot;I suppose he got a lot of it from Alexis Carrel, the French biologist who had a kind of racial mysticism of a sort.&quot; [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/lindbergh/filmmore/reference/interview/schlesinger03.html] == Alleged influence on the rise of Islamism == Carrel's eugenic ideas are alleged by some scholars to have had &quot;superficial commonalities&quot; with the thought of such early advocates of [[Islamism]] as [[Ali Shariati]] and Muslim Brotherhood propagandist [[Sayyed Qutb]]. Qutb, in fact, cites Carrel more than any other author. (Qutb was one of the key philosophers in the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] movement after the death of its founder in 1949 and Qutb's brother was [[bin Laden]]'s intellectual mentor at [[King Abdul Aziz University]] in [[Jeddah]], along with [[Abdullah Azzam]]). (For more on the Carrel / Islamist connection, see Tariq Ali, ''Clash of Fundamentalisms'', p. 274; Youssef Choueiri, ''Islamic Fundamentalism'' (London 1990) and Rudolph Walther, ''Die seltsamen Lehren des Doktor Carrel'', DIE ZEIT 31.07.2003 Nr.32) Tariq Ali, Youssef Choueiri, Abu-Rabi, and Aziz Al-Azmeh, as well as other scholars of Islamism, see Carrel as a primary (if unwitting) influence on the origin of Islamism. Quoting from Rudolf Walther's article in ''Die Zeit'': &quo
IPA|[k]}}) becomes C except before E and I (''character'' &amp;rarr; ''caracter''; but ''oligarchic'' is unchanged) ** PH becomes F (''telephono'' &amp;rarr; ''telefono'') ** RH becomes R (''rhetorica'' &amp;rarr; ''retorica'') ** TH becomes T (''theatro'' &amp;rarr; ''teatro'') ** Y (vowel) becomes I (''mytho'' &amp;rarr; ''mito''). Some current users apply the simplified spelling of Greek-derived words, but almost all retain the double consonants. == Grammar == {{seesubarticle|Interlingua grammar}} The grammar of Interlingua is based on that of the Romance languages, but simplified, primarily under the influence of English. Grammatical features absent from any of the primary control languages were dropped. For example, there is neither adjectival [[agreement]] (Spanish ''gatos negros'' 'black cats'), since this feature is absent in English, nor progressive verb tenses (English ''I am reading''), since they are absent in French. The definite article ''le'' is invariable, as in English. Nouns have no grammatical [[gender]] and are pluralised by adding ''-s'' (''-es'' after a final consonant, ''-hes'' after a final ''-c''). [[Pronoun]]s take [[nominative]], [[oblique case|oblique]], and [[genitive]] cases. Most [[adverb]]s are derived from [[adjective]]s by adding ''-(a)mente''. The verb system is a simplified version of the systems found in English and the Romance languages. Except (optionally) for ''esser'' 'to be', there are no personal inflections, and the [[indicative]] also covers the [[subjunctive]] and [[imperative]] moods. Three common verbs usually take short forms in the present tense. A few other irregular verb forms are available though little used. There are four simple tenses/moods (the present, past, and future tenses and the conditional mood) and four compound tenses/moods/voices (the past and future tenses, the conditional mood, and the passive voice). These compound structures employ an auxiliary plus the infinitive or the past participle. Simple and compound tenses can be combined in various ways to express more complex tenses (e.g., ''Nos haberea morite'' 'We would have died'). Word order is essentially Subject–Verb–Object, except that pronouns often follow the Romance pattern Subject–Object–Verb (''Io les vide'' 'I see them'). Adjectives may precede or follow the nouns they modify. The position of adverbs is flexible, though constrained by common sense. == Community == Estimates of the number of speakers of Interlingua range from as few as 100 to as many as 10,000. The majority of conservative estimates, however, place the number of active users of Interlingua at between 1,000 and 1,500. There are no known native speakers. Interlingua has active supporters in [[North America|North]] and [[South America]], [[Europe]] (particularly [[Scandinavia]]), and [[Russia]]. There are Interlingua web pages (including editions of Wikipedia and Wikitionary) and several periodicals, including ''Panorama in Interlingua'' from the [[Union Mundial pro Interlingua]] (UMI) and the magazines of the national societies allied with it. There are several active mailing lists, and Interlingua is also in use in certain [[Usenet]] newsgroups, particularly in the europa hierarchy. In recent years, samples of Interlingua have also been seen in music and animé. Every two years, the UMI organizes an international conference in a different European country; the most recent conference ([[2005]]), in [[Sweden]], was attended by slightly over 250 people. In the year between, the Scandinavian Interlingua societies co-organize a conference in Sweden. Interlingua may well be the most widely spoken [[international auxiliary language]] (IAL) after [[Esperanto]], although the estimated number of speakers overlaps with that of [[Ido]]. It is also claimed to be the most widely ''understood'' IAL by virtue of its naturalistic (as opposed to schematic) grammar and vocabulary, allowing those familiar with one of the primary control languages to read and understand it with little study. == Criticisms and controversies == Like any project of such scope, Interlingua has generated some heated discussion, both among Interlingua users and among non-users (frequently proponents of other auxiliary languages). Some common criticisms (and their common responses) are noted below. * Some say that Interlingua is too Romance in its grammar and vocabulary, and is not fair towards Germanic languages. Its defenders note that the Romance languages, being based on Latin, have the advantage in the linguistic impact of the old [[Roman Empire]], which is still seen today in that a Romance language is spoken on five out of seven continents; the only Germanic languages with an international scope are [[English language|English]] (which is already a primary language) and [[German language|German]] (which is already a secondary language). However, [[Spanish_language|Spanish]], which has a very regular grammar and inflectional system compared to other Romance languages, and is quite easy for English-speakers to learn, has threatened to obviate the need for not only Interlingua but Esperanto and Ido, especially in the [[United States]], where Spanish is the most common second language studied. (In fact, there is debate in the Interlingua community as to expanding the language's sources to other languages; see [[:ia:Creation_de_nove_parolas_in_Interlingua|Creation de nove parolas in Interlingua]] (in Interlingua) for an overview of the debate.) * Others note that Interlingua, being [[Europe]]an in nature, is primarily of use to Europeans. Interlingua supporters point out that [[Esperanto]], despite being based on Slavic, Germanic, and Romance languages, has some of its strongest communities in [[China]] and [[Japan]], where the local languages are totally unrelated to the [[Indo-European languages]]. (See [[color argument]].) * Finally, some argue that Esperantists outnumber Interlingua users to such a degree (estimates range from 50:1 to 1000:1) that anyone interested in promoting an auxiliary language should support [[Esperanto]] instead. Supporters counter that it is a lot easier to understand Interlingua without training than Esperanto, because Interlingua uses the most widespread words of the Romance languages, whereas Esperanto makes up many of its own words according to internal rules. For example, one can speak Interlingua with anyone who knows Italian or Spanish. One will even be understood by Portuguese speakers, but will have difficulty understanding them. Whereas if one tries to communicate in Esperanto to speakers of these other languages one will have very limited success. == Samples == {| |''Scientistas varia justo como nos alteros. Il ha sapientes e fatuos, sobrios e dissipatos, solitarios e gregarios, corteses e inciviles, puritanos e licentiosos, industriosos e pigros, et cetera. Como genere illes exhibi certe tendentias. Per exemplo, illes es totos de alte intelligentia. Le scientista pote esser stupide re certe cosas, ma ille debe haber le basic potentia mental que es requirite pro devenir scientista; ille non pote esser moron in le stricte senso psychometric.'' |Scientists vary just like the rest of us. There are the wise and the foolish, the sober and the dissipated, the solitary and the gregarious, the courteous and the rude, the puritanical and the licentious, the industrious and the lazy, and so on. As a type they exhibit certain tendencies. For example, they are all of high intelligence. The scientist may be stupid about certain things, but he must have the basic mental capacity that is required to become a scientist; he cannot be a moron in the strict psychometric sense. |} The [[Lord's Prayer]] (also available as an [http://www.wikipedia.com/upload/paternoster-ia.mp3 MP3 file]): : ''Nostre Patre, qui es in le celos,'' : ''que tu nomine sia sanctificate;'' : ''que tu regno veni;'' : ''que tu voluntate sia facite'' : ''super le terra como etiam in le celo.'' : ''Da nos hodie nostre pan quotidian,'' : ''e pardona a nos nostre debitas'' : ''como nos pardona a nostre debitores,'' : ''e non duce nos in tentation,'' : ''sed libera nos del mal.'' == See also == {{InterWiki|code=ia}} {{Wikibookspar||Interlingua}} * [[Irregularities and exceptions in Interlingua]] * [[International auxiliary language]] * [[Esperanto and Interlingua compared]] == References == * Falk, Julia S. ''Women, Language and Linguistics: Three American stories from the first half of the twentieth century.'' Routledge, London &amp; New York: 1999. * Gode, Alexander, et al. [http://www.interlingua.com/ied/ ''Interlingua-English: a dictionary of the international language'']. Storm Publishers, New York, 1951. * Gode, Alexander, and Hugh E. Blair. [http://members.optus.net/~ado_hall/interlingua/gi/home/entry_page.html ''Interlingua: a grammar of the international language'']. Storm Publishers, New York, 1951. * Gopsill, F.P. [http://www.geocities.com/hkyson/directorio/interlinguistica/html/lehistoriahtml.htm ''Le historia antenatal de Interlingua.'']. (In Interlingua.) Accessed [[28 May]] [[2005]]. * International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA). [http://www.interlingua.com/lectura/iala-general-report.htm ''General Report'']. IALA, New York: 1945. * Pei, Mario. ''One Language for the World and How To Achieve It.'' Devin-Adair, New York; 1958. * Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI). [http://www.interlingua.com/historia/ ''Interlingua 2001: communication sin frontieras durante 50 annos''] (in Interlingua). Accessed [[3 December]] [[2005]]. == External links == * [http://www.interlingua.com/ Union Mundial pro Interlingua], the official site of the UMI. * [http://www.interlingua.com/ied/ ''Interlingua-English: a dictionary of the international language'']. * [http://members.optus.net/~ado_hall/interlingua/gi/home/entry_page.html ''Interlingua: a grammar of the international language'']. * [http://dmoz.org/World/Interlingua/ Directory of
elsh]] *[http://zenii.linux.org.uk/~telsa/Diary/diary.html His wife Telsa's diary] *[http://lwn.net/1999/features/ACInterview/ LWN interviews Alan Cox] *[http://kerneltrap.org/node/view/9 Interview with Alan Cox - January 15, 2002] *[http://www.sucs.org/ The Swansea University Computer Society] *[http://www.lugradio.org/episodes/24 LugRadio interview] *[http://www.linuxformat.co.uk/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=Sections&amp;file=index&amp;req=viewarticle&amp;artid=15 Linux Format interview - August 2005] &lt;!-- Categories --&gt; [[Category:1968 births|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:Adult learners of Welsh|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:Bloggers|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:Linux|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:British hackers|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:Living people|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:Programmers|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:Welsh people|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:University of Wales, Aberystwyth Alumni|Cox, Alan]] [[Category:Free Software developers]] &lt;!-- Translations --&gt; [[ca:Alan Cox]] [[cs:Alan Cox]] [[de:Alan Cox]] [[es:Alan Cox]] [[fr:Alan Cox]] [[pl:Alan Cox]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>A roll</title> <id>1824</id> <revision> <id>15900287</id> <timestamp>2005-05-21T18:19:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kelly Martin</username> <id>158241</id> </contributor> <comment>changed to redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Footage]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe</title> <id>1825</id> <revision> <id>23283077</id> <timestamp>2005-09-15T13:29:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>David Berardan</username> <id>369964</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>interwiki</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Adolfkolbe.jpg|right]] '''Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe''' ([[September 27]], [[1818]] &amp;ndash; [[November 25]], [[1884]]) was a [[chemist]]. Kolbe was born in Elliehausen near [[Hanover]], [[Germany]]. He became an assistant to [[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]] at the [[University of Marburg]] in [[1842]], after studying [[chemistry]] with [[Friedrich Woehler|Friedrich Wöhler]]. Subsequently he assisted [[Lyon Playfair, 1st Baron Playfair|Lyon Playfair]] at the University of [[London]] and from 1847 to 1851 was engaged in editing the ''Handwörterbuch der reinen und angewandten Chemie'' (''Dictionary of Pure and Applied Chemistry'') written by [[Justus von Liebig]] and Wöhler. Kolbe then succeeded Bunsen at Marburg, and in 1865 he went to the University of [[Leipzig]]. At that time, it was believed that organic and [[inorganic compound]]s are independent from each other, and that organic compounds could be created only by living organisms. Kolbe believed that [[organic compound]]s could be derived from inorganic ones, directly or indirectly, by substitution processes. He validated his theory by converting [[carbon disulfide]], in several steps, to [[acetic acid]] (1843-45). Introducing a modified idea of structural [[free radical|radicals]], he contributed to the establishment of [[structural theory]]. He also predicted the existence of secondary and tertiary [[alcohol]]s. He worked on the [[electrolysis]] of the salts of [[fatty acid|fatty]] and other [[acid]]s ([[Kolbe electrolysis]]) and prepared [[salicylic acid]], a building block of [[aspirin]] in a process called [[Kolbe synthesis]] or [[Kolbe-Schmitt reaction]]. With [[Edward Frankland]] he found that [[nitrile]]s can be hydrolyzed to the corresponding acids. As editor of the ''Journal für praktische Chemie'' (''Journal of practical chemistry'', 1869), he was sometimes severely critical of the work of others. He died in [[Leipzig]], [[Germany]] [[Category:1818 births|Kolbe, Adolph Wilhelm Hermann]] [[Category:1884 deaths|Kolbe, Adolph Wilhelm Hermann]] [[Category:German chemists|Kolbe, Adolph Wilhelm Hermann]] [[de:Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe]] [[fr:Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>April 18</title> <id>1826</id> <revision> <id>40972460</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T05:09:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Calton</username> <id>128887</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt; {| style=&quot;float:right;&quot; |- |{{AprilCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=18}} |} '''April 18''' is the 108th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (109th in [[leap year]]s). There are 257 days remaining. ==Events== *[[1025]] - [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boles&amp;#322;aw I Chrobry]] is crowned as the first king of [[Poland]]. *[[1042]] - [[Michael V]] attempts to remain sole ruler of the [[Byzantine Empire]] by sending his adoptive mother and co-ruler [[Zoe (empress)|Zoë of Byzantium]] to a [[monastery]]. *[[1518]] - [[Bona Sforza]] is crowned as queen of [[Poland]]. *[[1775]] - Two [[lantern]]s were hung from the [[steeple (architecture)|steeple]] of the [[Old North Church]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]. [[Paul Revere]], [[William Dawes]] and [[Samuel Prescott]] ride to warn of impending arrests of [[Samuel Adams]] and [[John Hancock]] and seizure of weapons. Only Prescott finishes the ride. *[[1797]] - [[Battle of Neuwied (1797)|Battle of Neuwied]] resulted in the victory of [[France|French]] under General [[Louis Lazare Hoche]] against [[Austria]]ns under General [[Wermecek]]. *[[1880]] - A [[Fujita scale|F4]] tornado strikes [[Marshfield, Missouri]], killing 99 people and injuring 200. *[[1899]] - [[St. Andrew's Ambulance Association]] is granted a [[Royal Charter]] by [[Queen Victoria]] *[[1906]] - An [[earthquake]] with an estimated magnitude of 7.8, destroys much of [[San Francisco, California]]. (See [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]]) *1906 - The ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' runs a front-page story on the [[Azusa Street Revival]], launching [[Pentecostalism]] as a worldwide movement. *[[1915]] - Early [[France|French]] [[aviator]] and a [[fighter aircraft]] pilot [[Roland Garros]] was shot down and glided to a landing on the [[Germany|German]] side of the lines during [[World War I]]. *[[1923]] - [[Yankee Stadium]], &quot;The House that [[Babe Ruth|Ruth]] Built&quot;, opens. *[[1934]] - The first [[washateria]] opens in [[Fort Worth, Texas]]. *[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Doolittle Raid]] on [[Tokyo]] occurs. *1942 - [[Pierre Laval]] becomes Prime Minister of [[Vichy France]]. *[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: Over 1,000 bombers attack the small island of [[Heligoland]], [[Germany]], leaving nothing standing. *[[1946]] - The [[League of Nations]] is dissolved. *[[1949]] - The [[Republic of Ireland Act]] comes into force. *[[1954]] - [[Gamal Abdal Nasser]] seizes power in [[Egypt]]. *[[1958]] - A [[U.S.]] federal court rules that [[poet]] [[Ezra Pound]] be released from an [[insane asylum]]. *[[1961]] - [[Conferência das Organizações Nacionalistas das Colónias Portuguesas|CONCP]] is founded in [[Casablanca]] as a united front of African movements opposing [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colonial rule. *[[1972]] - The [[Roland Corporation]] is founded in [[Osaka, Osaka|Osaka]], [[Japan]]. *[[1974]] - [[Italy|Italian]] prosecutor [[Mario Sossi]] is kidnapped by the [[Red Brigades]]. *[[1980]] - The Republic of [[Zimbabwe]] (formerly [[Rhodesia]]) comes into being, with [[Canaan Banana]] as the country's first [[List of Presidents of Zimbabwe|President]]. *[[1981]] - A [[Minor League baseball]] game between the [[Rochester Red Wings]] and the [[Pawtucket Red Sox]] at [[McCoy Stadium]] in [[Pawtucket]], [[Rhode Island]] becomes the [[longest baseball game|longest professional baseball game]] in history: 8 hours and 25 minutes/33 innings (the 33rd inning was not played until [[June 23|June 23rd]]). *[[1983]] - A [[suicide bomber]] [[April 1983 U.S. Embassy bombing|destroys the United States embassy]] in [[Beirut]], [[Lebanon]], killing 63 people. *[[1987]] - [[Mike Schmidt]] becomes the 14th member of the [[500 home run club]] with a [[Home run|home run]] at [[Three Rivers Stadium]] in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]. *[[1988]] - U.S. launches [[Operation Praying Mantis]] against Iranian naval forces in retaliation for the [[April 14]] [[naval mine|mining]] of the [[USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58)]] in the [[Persian Gulf]] during [[Operation Earnest Will]]. The one-day action is the world's largest naval battle since World War II. *[[1992]] - [[General]] [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] revolted against [[President of Afghanistan|President]] [[Mohammad Najibullah]] of the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] and allied with [[Ahmed Shah Massoud]] to capture [[Kabul]]. *[[1996]] - In [[Lebanon]], 102 [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] civilians are killed when the [[Israel Defense Forces]] shell the [[UN]] compound at [[Qana]] (see [[Qana Massacre]]). *[[2002]] - A new order of [[insect]]s, [[Mantophasmatodea]], is announced. ==Births== *[[1480]] - [[Lucrezia Borgia]], Florentine ruler and daughter of [[Pope Alexander VI]] *[[1580]] - [[Thomas Middleton]], English dramatist (d. [[1627]]) *[[1590]] - [[Ahmed I]], [[Ottoman Emperor]] (d. [[1617]]) *[[1605]] - [[Giacomo Carissimi]], Italian composer (d. [[1674]]) *[[1771]] - [[Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg]], Austrian field marshal (d. [[1820]]) *[[1772]] - [[David Ricardo]], English economist (d. [[1823]]) *[[1797]] - [[Adolphe Thiers]], French statesman (d. [[1877]]) *[[1819]] - [[Franz von Suppé]], Austrian composer (d. [[1895]]) *[[1838]] - [[Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]], French scientist (d. [[1912]]) *[[1857]] - [[Clarence Darrow]], American attorney (d. [[1938]]) *[[1864]] - [[Richard Harding Davis]], American author (d. [[1916]]) *[[1874]] - [[Ivana Brlic-Mazuranic]], Croatian writer (d. [[1938]]) *[[1880]] - [[Sam Crawford]], baseball player (d. [[1968]]) *[[1882]] - [[Leopold Stokowski]], Polish conductor (d. [[1977]]) *[[1888]] - [[Du
''[[livre tournois]]'' (Tours pound). ==French franc== The [[French franc]] was the national currency of [[France]] from [[1360]] until [[1641]], and from [[1795]] until [[1999]] (franc coins and notes were legal tender until 2002). Though abolished as a legal coin by [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]] in [[1641]] in favor of the gold [[louis (coin)|louis]] and silver [[écu (coin)|écu]], the term franc continued to be used in common parlance for the [[livre tournois]]. The franc was also minted for many of the former French colonies, such as Morocco, Algieria, French West Africa, and others. Today, after independence, many of these countries continue to use the franc as their standard denomination. ==CFA and CFP francs== Fourteen African countries use the [[CFA franc|franc CFA]] (in west Africa, ''Communauté financière africaine''; in equatorial Africa, ''Coopération financière en Afrique centrale''), originally ([[1945]]) worth 1.7 French francs and then from [[1948]], 2 francs (from 1960: 0.02 new franc) but after January [[1994]] worth only 0.01 French franc. Therefore, from January [[1999]], 1 CFA franc is equivalent to 0.00152449 euro. A separate ([[CFP franc|franc CFP]]) circulates in [[Islands controlled by France in the Indian and Pacific oceans#Pacific Islands|France's Pacific territories]], worth 0.0084 euro (formerly 0.055 French franc). ==Comorian franc== In 1981, The [[Comoros]] established an arrangement with the French government similar to that of the CFA franc. Originally, 50 [[Comorian franc]]s were worth 1 French franc. In January 1994, the rate was changed to 75 Comorian francs to the French franc. Since 1999, the currency has been pegged to the euro. ==Belgian and Luxembourg francs== The conquest of most of western Europe by Revolutionary and Napoleonic France led to the franc's wide circulation. Following independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the new Kingdom of [[Belgium]] in [[1832]] adopted its own franc, equivalent to the French one, followed by [[Luxembourg]] in [[1848]] and Switzerland in [[1850]]. Newly-unified [[Italy]] adopted the lira on a similar basis in [[1862]]. In [[1865]] France, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy created the [[Latin Monetary Union]] (to be joined by [[Greece]] in [[1868]]): each would possess a national currency unit (franc, lira, drachma) worth 4.5 g of silver or 0.290 322 g of gold (fine), all freely exchangeable at a rate of 1:1. In the [[1870s]] the gold value was made the fixed standard, a situation which was to continue until [[1914]]. In [[1926]] [[Belgium]] as well as France experienced depreciation and an abrupt collapse of confidence, leading to the introduction of a new gold currency for international transactions, the ''belga'' of 5 francs, and the country's withdrawal from the monetary union, which ceased to exist at the end of the year. The [[1921]] monetary union of Belgium and Luxembourg survived, however, forming the basis for full economic union in [[1932]]. Like the French franc, the Belgian/Luxemburgese franc ceased to exist in [[January 1]], [[1999]], when it became fixed at 1 EUR= 40.3399 BEF/LUF, thus a franc was worth 0.024789 &amp;euro;. Old franc coins and notes lost its legal tender status in [[February 28]], 2002. 1 Luxembourg franc was equal to 1 Belgian franc. Belgian francs were legal tender inside Luxembourg and Luxembourg francs were legal tender in Belgium. The equivalent name of the Belgian franc in [[Dutch language|Dutch]], Belgium's other official language, was &quot;Belgische Frank.&quot; ==Swiss franc== {{main|Swiss franc}} The [[Swiss_franc|Swiss franc]] ([[ISO 4217|ISO code]]: CHF or 756), which appreciated significantly against the new European currency from April to September 2000, remains one of the world's strongest currencies, worth today around two-thirds of a euro. The [[Swiss_franc|Swiss franc]] is used in [[Switzerland]] and in [[Liechtenstein]]. The name of the country &quot;Swiss Confederation&quot; is found on some of the coins in [[Latin]] (''Confoederatio Helvetica''), as Switzerland has four official languages, all of which are used on the notes. The denomination is abbreviated &quot;Fr&quot; on the coins which is the abbreviation in all four languages. ==Congolese franc== The [[Congolese franc]] is used in the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]]. Suppressed in [[1967]] by [[Mobutu]], it was re-established in [[1998]] by [[Laurent Kabila]]. ==Burundian franc== Used in [[Burundi]]. ==Rwandan franc== Used in [[Rwanda]]. ==Djiboutian franc== Used in [[Djibouti]]. Pegged to the [[US dollar]] since 1973. ==Guinean franc== Used in [[Guinea]]. Suppressed in [[1972]] by dictator [[Sékou Touré]], re-established in [[1986]] by his successor [[Lansana Conté]]. ==Malagasy franc== The [[Malagasy franc]] was replaced by the [[Malagasy ariary]] on [[January 1]], [[2005]]. This controversial decision was taken by President [[Marc Ravalomanana]]. ==See also== *[[Latin Monetary Union]] *[[Burundian franc]] *[[Cape Verdean escudo]] *[[Comorian franc]] *[[Congolese franc]] *[[Djiboutian franc]] * The Latverian Franc is the currency of the fictional country of [[Latveria]]. *[[Malagasy franc]] *[[Rwandan franc]] *Special settlement currencies **[[UIC Franc|UIC franc]] **[[Gold-Franc|gold franc]] *[[Livre tournois]] (French pound) *[[Roman currency]] *[[New Hebrides franc]] ==External links== *[http://www.cashfollow.ch/ Swiss Franc Tracker - CHF] {{PreEuroCurrencies}} [[Category:Currencies of Europe]] [[ca:Franc (moneda)]] [[da:Franc]] [[de:Franc]] [[es:Franco (moneda)]] [[fr:Franc]] [[ko:프랑]] [[it:Franco (valuta)]] [[he:פרנק (מטבע)]] [[ja:フラン (通貨)]] [[pt:Franco (moeda)]] [[sl:Frank]] [[sv:Franc]] [[zh:法郎]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Francophone</title> <id>10816</id> <revision> <id>39709686</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T08:03:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mikkalai</username> <id>28438</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}} A '''Francophone''' is a person who is able to speak the [[French language]]. Geopolitically, it is used to refer to a person that speaks French as a first language or who self-identifies with this language group. As an adjective, it means French-speaking, whether referring to individuals, groups or places. In a narrower sense the notion of &quot;Francophone&quot; reaches beyond the dictionary definition of &quot;French language speaker&quot;. The term specifically refers to people whose cultural background is primarily associated with French language, regardless ethnic and geographical differences. The Francophone culture beyond Europe is the legacy of the [[French colonial empire]] and its arradiation. Francophone countries include [[France]], [[Belgium]], [[Canada]], [[Switzerland]], [[Haiti]] and the [[French West Indies]], and several countries in [[Africa]] that are former [[French colonies]]. These countries are members of the ''[[La Francophonie]]'' organization. ==See also== *[[French Canadian]] *[[Language in Canada]] [[Category:French language]] [[Category:History of Canada]] [[Category:Customary categories of people]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fiction</title> <id>10817</id> <revision> <id>41848524</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:17:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sifaka</username> <id>916327</id> </contributor> <comment>rvv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Threegraces.jpg|250px|thumb|The [[Charites|Three Graces]], here in a painting by [[Sandro Botticelli]], were the goddesses of charm, beauty, nature, human creativity and fertility in [[Greek mythology]].]] '''Fiction''' is [[storytelling]] of [[imagination|imagined]] events and stands in contrast to [[non-fiction]], which makes factual claims about [[reality]]. A large part of the appeal of fiction is its ability to evoke the entire spectrum of human [[emotion]]s: to distract our minds, to give us hope in times of despair, to make us laugh, or to let us experience empathy without attachment. Fictional works&amp;mdash;[[novel]]s, [[short story|stories]], [[fairy tales]], [[fables]], [[fictional film|film]]s, [[comic book|comics]], [[interactive fiction]]&amp;mdash;may be partly based on factual occurrences but always contain some imaginary content. The term is also often used synonymously with [[literature]] and more specifically fictional prose. In this sense, fiction refers only to novels or short stories and is often divided into two categories, [[popular fiction]] (e.g., [[science fiction]] or [[mystery fiction]]) and [[literary fiction]] (e.g., [[Victor Hugo]] or [[William Faulkner]]). Fiction is largely perceived as a form of [[art]] and/or [[entertainment]], although not all fiction is necessarily artistic. Fiction may be created for the purpose of educating, such as fictional examples used in [[school]] textbooks. Fiction is also frequently instrumentalized by [[propaganda]] and [[advertising]]. Fiction may be propagated by parents to their children out of [[tradition]] (e.g. [[Santa Claus]]) or in order to instill certain beliefs and values. [[Fable]]s with an explicit moral goal are not necessarily targeted at children, however. Fiction may over time blend with factual accounts and develop into [[mythology]]. Many [[atheist]]s perceive [[religion]] as no different from any fictional tale, whereas members of religious groups typically explain their beliefs with [[faith]] and claim they are fundamentally different from fictional tales (although they may call other religious views fictional). The sociological school of [[constructivist epistemology|constructivism]] argues that every view of reality is fundamentally a construction of the self and that a safe distinction between fact and fiction is impossible, whereas the [[philosophy of naturalism]] holds that reality can be approx
the [[Gaelic College of Celtic Arts and Crafts]]. ==Notable Facts== * On [[February 8]], [[1631]] [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] grants Cape Breton Island to Robert Gordon of [[Lochinvar]] and his son Robert. {{ref|OTD}} * Cape Breton Island has two major coal deposits: the Sydney Coal Field in the southeastern part of the island along the Atlantic Ocean drove the Industrial Cape Breton economy throughout the 19th and 20th centuries - until after [[World War II]] its industries were the largest private employers in Canada; the Inverness Coal Field in the western part of the island along the Gulf of St. Lawrence is signficantly smaller but hosted several mines. * [[The Men of the Deeps]] are a male choral group composed of miners and former miners from the Industrial Cape Breton area. * District 26 of the [[United Mine Workers of America]], from the Industrial Cape Breton area, was the only district of the UMWA to attempt to join the [[Red International]] of Trade Unions. * The [[Cabot Trail]] is a scenic road circuit around and over the [[Cape Breton Highlands]] with spectacular coastal vistas; over 400,000 visitors drive the Cabot Trail each summer and fall. Coupled with [[Fortress Louisbourg]], it has driven the growth of the tourism industry on the island in recent decades. The ''[[Conde Naste]]'' travel guide has rated Cape Breton Island as one of the best island destinations in the world. * [[Cape Breton fiddle music]] refers to a two-century-old Scottish fiddle style of music, drawing on Irish and Acadian musical influences as well. A step dance form preserved by Irish and Scottish descendants usually accompanies performances at what are known as &quot;[[Ceilidh|ceilidhs]]&quot;. Inverness County's [[Ceilidh Trail]] derives its name from these performances and celebrations in its rural communities. * [[Fortress Louisbourg]] is Canada's largest National Historic Site and the largest historic restoration in North America - it depicts the 18th-century fortified French harbour town of Louisbourg. * [[Alexander Graham Bell]] was a Scottish-born inventor who eventually settled permanently at his summer residence near [[Baddeck, Nova Scotia|Baddeck]] on Cape Breton Island's [[Bras d'Or Lake]]. He is credited with inventing the [[telephone]], [[hydrofoil]], [[hearing aid]], and [[iron lung]], as well as doing extensive work with hearing- and visually-impaired persons, notably [[Helen Keller]]. Bell contributed to the design of the ''[[AEA Silver Dart|Silver Dart]]'', an aircraft that made the first powered flight in the [[British Empire]] from the ice of Bras d'Or Lake. He and his wife are buried on their estate near Baddeck. * The [[Marconi Museum]] in Glace Bay is a museum celebrating the first trans-[[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] [[radio signal]]s sent by [[Guglielmo Marconi|Marconi]]. *[[Alistair MacLeod]] is a noted fiction writer and winner of the IMPAC Dublin Prize. Born in Saskatchewan to Cape Breton parents, he summers near Inverness and bases some of his writing on the island's influences. *[[Angus MacAskill]] was the world's largest natural giant and was raised on Cape Breton Island. He later became a strongman performer with [[P.T. Barnum]]'s circus before returning to his family home at Englishtown on St. Ann's Bay. *[[Glen Breton]], based in Inverness County, is the only [[single malt whisky]] distilled in North America. *Cape Breton Island is the home of actor [[Rick Ravanello]], as well as former [[National Hockey League]] athletes [[Mike McPhee]] and [[Al MacInnis]]. * Cape Breton Island has been the setting and inspiration for several films: **''[[Johnny Belinda]]'' by [[Elmer Blaney Harris]]. **''[[Margaret's Museum]]'' starring [[Helena Bonham Carter]]. **''[[The Bay Boy]]'' starring [[Keifer Sutherland]]. **''[[New Waterford Girl]]'' **''[[The Hanging Garden]]'' **''[[Marion Bridge]]'' * Cape Breton Island is famous for its cultural personalities, including: ** singer-songwriter [[Rita MacNeil]] of [[Big Pond, Nova Scotia|Big Pond]] ** [[The Rankin Family]] from [[Mabou, Nova Scotia|Mabou]] ** the [[Barra MacNeils]] ** fiddle player [[Buddy MacMaster]] ** singer-songwriter [[John Allan Cameron]] ** fiddle player [[Natalie MacMaster]] of [[Troy, Nova Scotia|Troy]] ** fiddle player [[Ashley MacIsaac]] of [[Creignish, Nova Scotia|Creignish]] # {{note|OTD}} [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=08 ''On this day'' in Canada] == See also == *[[Canadian Gaelic]] *[[Cape Breton accent]] *[[Provinces and territories of Canada]] *[[Cape Breton Labour Party]] *[[Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia]] [[Category:Cape Breton Island|*]] [[Category:Islands of Nova Scotia]] [[Category:Former British colonies]] [[zh-min-nan:Breton Hái-phīⁿ Tó]] [[da:Cape Breton]] [[de:Cape Breton]] [[fr:Île du Cap-Breton]] [[no:Cape Breton]] [[pt:Ilha Cape Breton]] [[sv:Kap Bretonön]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cthulhu mythos</title> <id>5725</id> <revision> <id>41905164</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:41:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Web sites */ fix authors</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--No Source Information: [[Image:cthulu.png|thumb|Cthulhu in R'lyeh]]--&gt; '''Cthulhu mythos''' (often capitalized: ''Cthulhu Mythos'') is the term coined by the writer [[August Derleth]] to describe the shared themes, characters, and elements in the works of [[H.P. Lovecraft]], his protegés, and writers influenced by him. Together, they form the [[mythos]] that authors, writing in the [[Lovecraftian horror|Lovecraftian milieu]], have used&amp;mdash;and continue to use&amp;mdash;to craft their stories.{{Rn|Harms-viii-a}} Although this mythology is sometimes called the ''Lovecraft Mythos''&amp;mdash;most notably by the Lovecraft scholar [[S. T. Joshi]]{{Rn|Joshi-31ff}}&amp;mdash;it has long since moved beyond Lovecraft's original conception.&lt;!--HIDING POSSIBLE WP:NOR--WHAT PUBLISHED SOURCE SAYS THIS (?): Still, purists who wish to discuss Lovecraft's work, rather than the modifications and expansions of it written by others, consider this to be the most accurate term.--&gt; Lovecraft himself occasionally referred to it as the ''[[Arkham, Massachusetts|Arkham]] cycle''{{Rn|Joshi-50}}, after the main fictional town in his world, or ''[[Yog-Sothoth]]ery''{{Rn|Joshi-51}}, after one of its primary gods. ==Lovecraft and the mythos== In his essay &quot;The Lovecraft Mythos&quot;, S. T. Joshi defines four key elements in Lovecraft's mythos: (1) the fundamental principle of ''cosmicism'', (2) an imaginary New England setting, (3) recurring &quot;pseudomythological&quot; entities, and (4) works of arcane literature. Joshi points out, however, that Lovecraft never fully realized his mythos at any time in his career, but instead developed it gradually, adding elements to it with each story he wrote.{{Rn|Joshi-32}} ===Cosmicism=== Common themes in Lovecraft's fiction are the insignificance of [[humanity]] in the [[universe]]{{Rn|Price1991-247B}} and the search for knowledge ending in disaster{{Rn|Price1996-xviii}}. Humans are often subject to powerful beings and other cosmic forces, but these forces are not so much malevolent as they are indifferent toward humanity{{Rn|Price1991-249}}. Lovecraft called this viewpoint ''Cosmicism'', a doctrine that holds that humankind's religious beliefs are a mere conceit and that ultimately humanity is alone and defenseless in an uncaring universe.{{Rn|Tremlett-tum}} This is opposed to [[anthropocentrism]] or [[humanism]], ideas of [[theology]] and [[philosophy]], respectively. ===Imaginary New England setting=== A number of Lovecraft's mythos-related stories take place in a fictional [[New England]] setting that is centered around the equally fictional [[Arkham]]; consequently, these tales may be part of what Lovecraft called his &quot;Arkham cycle&quot;. Lovecraft's fictitious locations may also parallel real-life places in [[Massachusetts]] (see table below). {{Rn|Joshi-31}} This setting is sometimes referred to as &quot;[[Lovecraft Country]]&quot;, especially in [[Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)|role-playing games]] based on the mythos. {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |+'''Lovecraft's parallels to real places''' !Fictional town or city !Actual location in Massachusetts |- |[[Arkham]]||[[Salem, Massachusetts|Salem]] |- |[[Dunwich (Lovecraft)|Dunwich]]||Vicinity of [[Hampden, Massachusetts|Hampden]], [[Wilbraham, Massachusetts|Wilbraham]], and [[Monson, Massachusetts|Monson]] |- |[[Deep One#Innsmouth|Innsmouth]]||[[Newburyport, Massachusetts|Newburyport]] |- |[[Kingsport (Lovecraft)|Kingsport]]||[[Marblehead, Massachusetts|Marblehead]] |} ---- ===Lovecraft's pantheon=== [[Image:CthulhumythosShrefflerchart.png|frame|right|Lovecraft's original pantheon]] When Lovecraft conceived his imaginary mythology, he apparently never laid out a definitive plan to follow. Instead, he simply launched into writing his stories{{Rn|Shreffler-156a}}, changing the mythos elements as needed to serve the plot. By recreating the mythos with each story he wrote, Lovecraft added to the deepening mystery of the myth cycle and illustrated the inability of the human mind to fully comprehend it.{{Rn|Dziemianowicz-44}} Nonetheless, Phillip A. Schreffler, in his book ''The H. P. Lovecraft Companion'', argues that by carefully scrutinizing Lovecraft's writings a workable framework emerges for a pantheon of beings (see figure at right).{{Rn|Shreffler-156b}} Not included in this chart is [[Nodens (Cthulhu mythos)|Nodens]]{{Rn|Shreffler-157}}, a member of a rival group of potent deities known as the &quot;Elder Gods&quot; (never expanded by Lovecraft) that were more or less benign.{{Rn|Mosig-24}} Lovecraft's central deities are [[Azathoth]] and [[Yog-Sothoth]], both representing opposin
aw. After a few months, Ríos Montt dismissed his junta colleagues and assumed the ''de facto'' title of &quot;President of the Republic&quot;. Guerrilla forces and their leftist allies denounced Ríos Montt. Ríos Montt sought to defeat the guerrillas with military actions and economic reforms; in his words, &quot;rifles and beans&quot;. In May [[1982]], the Conference of Catholic Bishops accused Ríos Montt of responsibility for growing militarization of the country and for continuing military massacres of civilians. General Ríos Montt was quoted in the ''[[New York Times]]'' of [[July 18]], [[1982]] as telling an audience of indigenous Guatemalans, &quot;If you are with us, we'll feed you; if not, we'll kill you.&quot; The [[Plan de Sánchez massacre]] occurred on the same day. The government began to form local civilian defense patrols (PACs). Participation was in theory voluntary, but in practice, many Guatemalans, especially in the northwest, had no choice but to join either the PACs or the guerrillas. Ríos Montt's conscript army and PACs recaptured essentially all guerrilla territory &amp;mdash; guerrilla activity lessened and was largely limited to hit-and-run operations. However, Ríos Montt won this partial victory at an enormous cost in civilian deaths. Ríos Montt's brief presidency was probably the most violent period of the 36-year internal conflict, which resulted in thousands of deaths of mostly unarmed indigenous civilians. Although leftist guerrillas and right-wing death squads also engaged in summary executions, forced disappearances, and torture of noncombatants, the vast majority of human rights violations were carried out by the Guatemalan military and the PACs they controlled. The internal conflict is described in great detail in the reports of the [[Historical Clarification Commission]] (CEH) and the Archbishop's Office for Human Rights (ODHAG). The CEH estimates that government forces were responsible for 93% of the violations; ODHAG earlier estimated that government forces were responsible for 80%. On [[August 8]], [[1983]], Ríos Montt was deposed by his own Minister of Defense, General [[Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores]], who succeeded him as ''de facto'' president of Guatemala. Mejía justified his coup, saying that &quot;religious fanatics&quot; were abusing their positions in the government and also because of &quot;official corruption&quot;. Seven people were killed in the coup, although Ríos Montt survived to found a political party (the [[Guatemalan Republic Front]]) and to be elected President of Congress in 1995 and 2000. Awareness in the United States of the conflict in Guatemala, and its ethnic dimension, increased with the 1983 publication of the &quot;testimonial&quot; account ''I, Rigoberta Menchú''; [[Rigoberta Menchú]] was later awarded the 1992 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for her work in favor of broader social justice. In 1998 a book by a North American anthropologist David Stoll challenged some of the details in Menchú's, creating an international controversy. After the publication of Stoll's book, the Nobel Committee reiterated that it had awarded the Peace Prize based on Menchú's uncontested work promoting human rights and the peace process. General Mejía allowed a managed return to democracy in Guatemala, starting with a [[July 1]], [[1984]] election for a [[Constituent Assembly]] to draft a democratic constitution. On [[May 30]], [[1985]], after nine months of debate, the Constituent Assembly finished drafting a new constitution, which took effect immediately. [[Vinicio Cerezo]], a civilian politician and the presidential candidate of the [[Guatemalan Christian Democracy|Christian Democracy Party]], won the first election held under the new constitution with almost 70% of the vote, and took office on [[January 14]], [[1986]]. ===1986 to 2000=== Upon its inauguration in January [[1986]], President Cerezo's civilian government announced that its top priorities would be to end the political violence and establish the rule of law. Reforms included new laws of habeas corpus and ''amparo'' (court-ordered protection), the creation of a legislative human rights committee, and the establishment in 1987 of the Office of Human Rights Ombudsman. The Supreme Court also embarked on a series of reforms to fight corruption and improve legal system efficiency. With Cerezo's election, the military moved away from governing and returned to the more traditional role of providing internal security, specifically by fighting armed insurgents. The first two years of Cerezo's administration were characterized by a stable economy and a marked decrease in political violence. Dissatisfied military personnel made two coup attempts in May 1988 and May 1989, but military leadership supported the constitutional order. The government was heavily criticized for its unwillingness to investigate or prosecute cases of human rights violations. The final two years of Cerezo's government also were marked by a failing economy, strikes, protest marches, and allegations of widespread corruption. The government's inability to deal with many of the nation's problems &amp;mdash; such as infant mortality, illiteracy, deficient health and social services, and rising levels of violence &amp;mdash; contributed to popular discontent. Presidential and congressional elections were held on [[November 11]], [[1990]]. After a runoff ballot, [[Jorge Antonio Serrano Elías]] was inaugurated on [[January 14]], [[1991]], thus completing the first transition from one democratically elected civilian government to another. Because his [[Movement of Solidarity Action]] (MAS) Party gained only 18 of 116 seats in [[Congress of Guatemala|Congress]], Serrano entered into a tenuous alliance with the Christian Democrats and the National Union of the Center (UCN). The Serrano administration's record was mixed. It had some success in consolidating [[civilian control of the military|civilian control]] over the army, replacing a number of senior officers and persuading the military to participate in peace talks with the URNG. He took the politically unpopular step of recognizing the sovereignty of Belize. The Serrano government reversed the economic slide it inherited, reducing inflation and boosting real growth. On [[May 25]], [[1993]], Serrano illegally dissolved Congress and the Supreme Court and tried to restrict civil freedoms, allegedly to fight corruption. The ''autogolpe'' (or autocoup) failed due to unified, strong protests by most elements of Guatemalan society, international pressure, and the army's enforcement of the decisions of the Court of Constitutionality, which ruled against the attempted takeover. In the face of this pressure, Serrano fled the country. On [[June 5]], [[1993]], Congress, pursuant to the 1985 constitution, elected the Human Rights Ombudsman, [[Ramiro de León Carpio]], to complete Serrano's presidential term. De León was not a member of any political party; lacking a political base but with strong popular support, he launched an ambitious anticorruption campaign to &quot;purify&quot; Congress and the Supreme Court, demanding the resignations of all members of the two bodies. Despite considerable congressional resistance, presidential and popular pressure led to a November 1993 agreement brokered by the Catholic Church between the administration and Congress. This package of constitutional reforms was approved by popular referendum on [[January 30]], [[1994]]. In August 1994, a new Congress was elected to complete the unexpired term. Controlled by the anti-corruption parties &amp;mdash; the populist [[Guatemalan Republican Front]] (FRG) headed by Ríos Montt, and the center-right [[National Advancement Party]] (PAN) &amp;mdash; the new Congress began to move away from the corruption that characterized its predecessors. Under de León, the peace process, now brokered by the United Nations, took on new life. The government and the URNG signed agreements on human rights (March 1994), resettlement of displaced persons (June 1994), historical clarification (June 1994), and indigenous rights (March 1995). They also made significant progress on a socioeconomic and agrarian agreement. National elections for president, Congress, and municipal offices were held in November 1995. With almost 20 parties competing in the first round, the presidential election came down to a [[January 7]], [[1996]] runoff in which PAN candidate [[Álvaro Arzú|Álvaro Arzú Irigoyen]] defeated [[Alfonso Portillo Cabrera]] of the FRG by just over 2% of the vote. Arzú won because of his strength in Guatemala City, where he had previously served as mayor, and in the surrounding urban area. Portillo won all of the rural departments except Petén. Under the Arzú administration, peace negotiations were concluded, and the government signed peace accords ending the 36-year internal conflict in December 1996. (See section on peace process) The human rights situation also improved during Arzú's tenure, and steps were taken to reduce the influence of the military in national affairs. Guatemala held presidential, legislative, and municipal elections on [[November 7]], [[1999]], and a runoff presidential election on [[December 26]]. In the first round the [[Guatemalan Republican Front]] (FRG) won 63 of 113 legislative seats, while the [[National Advancement Party]] (PAN) won 37. The New Nation Alliance (ANN) won 9 legislative seats, and three minority parties won the remaining four. In the runoff on December 26, [[Alfonso Portillo]] (FRG) won 68% of the vote to 32% for [[Óscar Berger]] (PAN). Portillo carried all 22 departments and Guatemala City, which was considered the PAN's stronghold. Portillo was criticized during the campaign for his relationship with the FRG's chairman, Ríos Montt. Many charge that some of the worst human rights violations of the internal conflict were committed under Ríos Montt's rule. Nevertheless, Portillo's impressive ele
holding the pack, face-down, in one hand, and removing cards from the top of it with her other hand to distribute to the players, placing them face-down on the table in front of the players to whom they are dealt. The rules of the game will specify the details of the deal. It normally starts with the players next to the dealer in the direction of play (left in a clockwise game; right in an anticlockwise one), and continues in the same direction around the table. The cards may be dealt one at a time, or in groups. Unless the rules specify otherwise, assume that the cards are dealt one at a time. Unless the rules specify otherwise, assume that all the cards are dealt out; but in many games, some remain undealt, and are left face down in the middle of the table, forming the talon, skat, or stock. The player who received the first card from the deal may be known as eldest hand, or as forehand. The set of cards dealt to a player is known as his or her ''hand''. Throughout the shuffle, cut, and deal, the dealer should arrange that the players are unable to see the faces of any of the cards. The players should not try to see any of the faces. Should a card accidentally become exposed (visible to all), then normally any player can demand a redeal - that is, all the cards are gathered up, and the shuffle, cut and deal are repeated. Should a player accidentally see a card (other than one dealt to herself) she should admit this. It is dishonest to try to see cards as they are dealt, or to take advantage of having seen a card accidentally. When the deal is complete, all players pick up their cards and hold them in such a way that the faces can be seen by the holder of the cards but not the other players. It is helpful to fan one's cards out so that (if they have corner indices) all their values can be seen at once. In most games it is also useful to sort one's hand, rearranging the cards in a way appropriate to the game. For example in a [[trick taking game]] it is easier to have all one's cards of the same suit together, whereas in a [[rummy]] game one might sort them by rank or by potential combinations. == The rules == A new card game starts in a small way, either as someone's invention, or as a modification of an existing game. Those playing it may agree to change the rules as they wish. The rules that they agree on become the &quot;house rules&quot; under which they play the game. A set of house rules may be accepted as valid by a group of players wherever they play. It may also be accepted as governing all play within a particular house, café, or club. When a game becomes sufficiently popular, so that people often play it with strangers, there is a need for a generally accepted set of rules. This is often met by a particular set of house rules becoming generally recognised. For example, when [[whist]] became popular in 18th-century [[England]], players in the [[Portland Club]] agreed on a set of house rules for use on its premises. Players in some other clubs then agreed to follow the &quot;Portland Club&quot; rules, rather than go to the trouble of codifying and printing their own sets of rules. The Portland Club rules eventually became generally accepted throughout England. There is nothing &quot;official&quot; about this process. If you decide to play [[whist]] seriously, it would be sensible to learn the Portland Club rules, so that you can play with other people who already know these rules. But if you only play whist with your family, you are likely to ignore these rules, and just use what rules you choose. And if you play whist seriously with a group of friends, you are still perfectly free to devise your own set of rules, should you want to. It is sometimes said that the &quot;official&quot; or &quot;correct&quot; sets of rules governing a card game are those &quot;in Hoyle&quot;. [[Edmond Hoyle]] was an 18th-century Englishman who published a number of books about card games. His books were popular, especially his treatise on how to become a good whist player. After (and even before) his death, many publishers have taken advantage of his popularity by placing his name on their books of rules. The presence of his name on a rule book has no significance at all. The rules given in the book may be no more than the opinion of the author. If there is a sense in which a card game can have an &quot;official&quot; set of rules, it is when that card game has an &quot;official&quot; governing body. For example, the rules of tournament [[contract bridge|bridge]] are governed by the World Bridge Federation, and by local bodies in various countries such as the ACBL in the USA, and the EBU in England. The rules of [[skat]] in [[Germany]] are governed by the Deutsche Skatverband which publishes the ''Skatordnung''. The rules of French tarot are governed by the Fédération Française de Tarot. But there is no compulsion to follow the rules put out by these organisations. If you and your friends decide to play a game by a set of rules unknown to the game's official body, you are doing nothing illegal. Many widely-played card games have no official regulating body. An example is [[Canasta]]. === Rule infractions === An infraction is any action which is against the rules of the game, such as playing a card when it is not one's turn to play and the accidental exposure of a card. In many official sets of rules for card games, the rules specifying the penalties for various infractions occupy more pages than the rules specifying how to play correctly. This is tedious, but necessary for games that are played seriously. Players who intend to play a card game at a high level generally ensure before beginning that all agree on the penalties to be used. When playing privately, this will normally be a question of agreeing house rules. In a tournament there will probably be a tournament director who will enforce the rules when required and arbitrate in cases of doubt. If a player breaks the rules of a game deliberately, this is cheating. Most card players would refuse to play cards with a known cheat. The rest of this section is therefore about accidental infractions, caused by ignorance, clumsiness, inattention, etc. As the same game is played repeatedly among a group of players, precedents build up about how a particular infraction of the rules should be handled. E.G. &quot;Sheila just led a card when it wasn't her turn. Last week when Jo did that, we agreed ... etc.&quot;. Sets of such precedents tend to become established among groups of players, and to be regarded as part of the house rules. Sets of house rules become formalised, as described in the previous section. Therefore, for some games, there is a &quot;proper&quot; way of handling infractions of the rules. But for many games, without governing bodies, there is no standard way of handling infractions. In many circumstances, there is no need for special rules dealing with what happens after an infraction. As a general principle, the person who broke a rule should not benefit by it, and the other players should not lose by it. An exception to this may be made in games with fixed partnerships, in which it may be felt that the partner(s) of the person who broke a rule should also not benefit. The penalty for an accidental infraction should be as mild as reasonable, consistent with there being no possible benefit to the person responsible. ==Types of card games== ===Trick-taking games=== ''See also [[trick-taking game]]s'' * [[500 (card game)|500]] * [[Cassino (game)|Cassino]] * [[Contract bridge|Bridge]] * [[Écarté]] * [[Euchre]] * [[Hearts (game)|Hearts]] * [[Pinochle]] * [[Piquet]] * [[ROOK]] * [[Spades]] * [[Sixty-three_card_game|Sixty-three]] * [[Sueca (game)]] * [[Whist]] * [[Wizard card game|Wizard]] * [[Pairs(u/c)]] * [[list of trick-taking games]] ===Rummy-style games=== * [[500 Rum]] * [[Canasta]] * [[Concentration (game)|Concentration]] * [[Durak]] * [[Five Crowns]] * [[Gin rummy]] * [[Go Fish]] * [[Haihowak]] * [[Happy Families]] * [[Jolly]] * [[Kemps]] * [[Phase 10]] * [[Robbers' rummy]] * [[Seven Bridge]] * [[Shanghai rum]] * [[Spoons/donkey]] * [[Tonk (game)|Tonk]] * [[Tri (game)|Tri]] * [[Wyatt Earp (card game)|Wyatt Earp]] *[[Steal the old man's pack]] * [[Cooncan]] ===Casino or gambling card games=== ''See also [[casino]] or [[gambling]]'' * [[Baccarat]] * [[Bingo (card game)|Bingo]] * [[Blackjack]] * [[Blind Hookey]] * [[Bourré]] * [[Cribbage]] * [[Poker]] * [[Primero]] * [[Red dog (card game)|Red dog]] * [[Texas hold 'em]] * [[Texas Hold'em Bonus Poker]] * [[Thirty-one (game)|Thirty-one]] * [[Three card brag]] ===Solitaire (or ''Patience'') games=== ''See also [[Solitaire]]'' * [[Ace of the Pile]] * [[Baker's Dozen (solitaire)]] * [[Calculation (solitaire)|Calculation]] * [[Concentration (game)|Concentration]] * [[FreeCell]] * [[Kings in the Corner]] (multi-player) * [[Klondike solitaire|Klondike]] * [[Russian Bank]] * [[Solitaire Showdown]] ===Shedding games=== * [[Bartok (game)|Bartok]] / [[Bartok (game)|Bartog]] * [[Big Two]] *[[Bullshit (game)|Bullshit]] * [[California Speed]] * [[Chase the Ace]]/[[Old Maid]] * [[Craits]] * [[Crazy Eights]] * [[Eleusis (game)|Eleusis]] * [[Mao (game)|Mao]] * [[President (game)|President]] * [[Shichi Narabe]] * [[Shithead (card game)|Shithead]] * [[Spit (card game)|Spit]] / [[Spit (card game)|Speed]] * [[Spite and Malice]] * [[Tien len]] * [[UNO (game)|UNO]] ===Accumulating games=== * [[Beggar-My-Neighbour]] * [[Egyptian Ratscrew]] * [[Seven Spades]] * [[Slapjack]] * [[Snap (game)|Snap]] * [[Top Trumps]] * [[War (card game)|War]] * [[Screw Your Neighbor]] ===Miscellaneous playing card games=== * [[Sevens (card game)|Sevens]] ===Multi-genre games=== * [[Eleusis (game)|Eleusis]] * [[Poke (game)|Poke]] * [[Skitgubbe]] * [[Tichu|Tichu]] * [[Tripoli(game)|Tripoli]] === Collectible card games (CCG's) === ''see also [[collectible card game]]'' * [[List of collectible card games]] * [[Duelmast
he shaft and the top of the pedestal. *An easily-confused homonym for [[Bass|Bass (disambiguation)]], referring to various usages of bass and to basso, the vocal range. {{disambig}} [[ca:Base]] [[de:Base]] [[es:Base]] [[fr:Base]] [[pl:Zasada (chemia)]] [[pt:Base]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Basel Convention</title> <id>4012</id> <revision> <id>40121505</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T07:38:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>208.12.28.50</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Basel Convention''' (verbose: '''Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal''') is an international [[treaty]] that was designed to reduce the movements of [[hazardous waste]] between nations, and specifically to prevent [[dumping]] of hazardous waste from [[developed countries|developed]] to [[Less Developed Countries|less developed countries]] (LDCs). The [[Convention]] is also intended to minimize the amount and [[toxicity]] of wastes generated, to ensure their environmentally sound management as closely as possible to the source of generation, and to assist LDCs in environmentally sound management of the hazardous and other wastes they generate. The Convention was opened for signature on [[March 22]], [[1989]], and entered into force on [[May 5]], [[1992]]. A list of parties to the Convention, and their ratification status, can be found on the Basel Secretariat's [http://www.basel.int/ratif/convention.htm web page]. Of the 166 parties to the Convention, [[Afghanistan]], [[Haiti]], and the [[United States]] have signed the Convention but have not yet [[ratification|ratified]] it. ==History== With the tightening of environmental laws (e.g., [[RCRA]]) in developed nations in the 1970s, disposal costs for hazardous waste rose dramatically. At the same time, globalization of shipping made transboundary movement of waste more accessible, and many LDCs were desperate for foreign currency. Consequently, the trade in hazardous waste, particularly to LDCs, grew rapidly. One of the incidents which led to the creation of the Basel Convention was the [[Khian Sea waste disposal incident|''Khian Sea'' waste disposal incident]], in which a ship carrying incinerator ash from the city of Philadelphia in the United State after having dumped half of its load on a beach in Haiti, was forced away where it sailed for many months, changing its name several times unable to unload its cargo in any port, and ended up dumping much of it illegally at sea. ==Basel Ban Amendment== After the initial adoption of the Convention, some LDCs and environmental organizations argued that it did not go far enough. Many nations and [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]] argued for a total ban on shipment of all hazardous waste to LDCs. In particular, the original Convention did not prohibit waste exports to any location except Antactica but merely required a notification and consent system known as &quot;prior informed consent&quot; or PIC. Further, many waste traders sought to exploit the good name of recycling and begin to justify all exports as moving to recycling destinations. Many believed af full ban was needed including exports for recycling. These concerns led to several regional waste trade bans, including the [[Bamako Convention]]. Lobbying at the 1995 Basel conference by LDCs, [[Greenpeace]] and key European countries such as Denmark, led to a decision to adopt the [[Basel Ban Amendment]] to the Basel Convention. Not yet in force, but considered morally binding by signatories, the Amendment prohibits the export of hazardous waste from a list of developed (mostly [[OECD]]) countries to developing countries. The Basel Ban applies to export for any reason, including [[recycling]]. An area of special concern for advocates of the Amendment was the sale of ships for salvage, [[shipbreaking]]. The Ban Amendment was strenuously opposed by a number of industry groups as well as nations including the [[United States]] and [[Canada]]. As of late-[[2005]], 61 nations have ratified the Basel Ban Amendment; 62 are required for it to enter into force. The status of the amendment ratifications can be found on the Basel Secretariat's [http://www.basel.int/ratif/ban-alpha.htm web page]. The [[European Union]] fully implemented the Basel Ban in its [[Waste Shipment Regulation]] ([[EWSR]]), making it legally binding in all EU member states. ==References== * [[CIA World Factbook]], [[2003]] edition * ''Toxic Exports'', Jennifer Clapp, Cornell University Press, 2001. * Basel Action Network website (www.ban.org) ==See also== *[[Bamako Convention]] ==External links== * [http://www.greenpeaceweb.org/shipbreak/basel.asp Page on the Basel Convention at the Greenpeace website] * [http://www.basel.int/ Secretariat of the Basel Convention web site] * [http://www.baselpretoria.org.za/ Basel Convention Regional Centre Pretoria] * [http://www.ban.org Basel Action Network] [[Category:1992 in law]] [[Category:Treaties on the environment]] [[Category:Waste]] [[cs:Basilejská úmluva]] [[de:Basler Übereinkommen]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bar Kokhba</title> <id>4013</id> <revision> <id>38454872</id> <timestamp>2006-02-06T12:28:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nikai</username> <id>9759</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Personnel */ dab organ</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the 2nd-century Jewish military leader see [[Simon bar Kokhba]].}} ---- {| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;width:20em;&quot; |- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; !style=&quot;background: Orange;&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|'''''Bar Kokhba''''' |- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Image:Bar Kokhba (album cover).jpg|200px|Album cover]] |- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; !style=&quot;background: Orange;&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Album]] by [[John Zorn]] |- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; |'''Released''' |colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[1996]] |- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; |'''Recorded''' |colspan=&quot;2&quot;|August 1994, December 1995, &amp; March 1996; Baby Monster Studios, [[New York City|NY]] |- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; |'''[[Music genre|Genre]]''' |colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Avant-garde jazz]] |- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; |'''Length''' |colspan=&quot;2&quot;|128:09 |- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; |- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; |style=&quot;padding-right:1em;&quot;|'''[[Record label|Label]]''' |colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Tzadik]] |- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; |'''[[Record producer|Producer]] |colspan=&quot;2&quot;|John Zorn |- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; !style=&quot;background: Orange;&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Professional reviews |- |colspan=&quot;3&quot;|&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; * [[All Music Guide]] [[Image:4hv out of 5.png]] [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=10:l1uw6j8o71w0] |- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; !style=&quot;background: Orange;&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|John Zorn chronology |- style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:smaller;&quot; |style=&quot;width: 33%;&quot;|''[[Filmworks III]]'' &lt;br /&gt; (1996) |style=&quot;width: 33%;&quot;|''Bar Kokhba''&lt;br /&gt;(1996) |style=&quot;width: 33%;&quot;|''[[Masada: Zayin]]''&lt;br/ &gt; (1996) |} '''''Bar Kokhba''''' is a [[double album]] by [[John Zorn]], recorded between 1994 and 1996. It is made up of music from Zorn's ''Masada'' project, rearranged from quartet pieces to various groupings (from solo to quartets). ==Track listing== ::'''Disc 1''' #&quot;Gevurah&quot; (6:55) #&quot;Nezikin&quot; (1:51) #&quot;Mahshav&quot; (4:33) #&quot;Rokhev&quot; (3:10) #&quot;Abidan&quot; (5:19) #&quot;Sheloshim&quot; (5:03) #&quot;Hath-Arob&quot; (2:25) #&quot;Paran&quot; (4:48) #&quot;Mahlah&quot; (7:48) #&quot;Socoh&quot; (4:07) #&quot;Yechida&quot; (8:24) #&quot;Bikkurim&quot; (3:25) #&quot;Idalah-Abal&quot; (5:04)&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; #:'''Disc 2''' #&quot;Tannaim&quot; (4:38) #&quot;Nefesh&quot; (3:33) #&quot;Abidan&quot; (3:13) #&quot;Mo'ed&quot; (4:59) #&quot;Maskil&quot; (4:41) #&quot;Mishpatim&quot; (6:46) #&quot;Sansanah&quot; (6:56) #&quot;Shear-Jashub&quot; (2:06) #&quot;Mahshav&quot; (4:50) #&quot;Sheloshim&quot; (6:45) #&quot;Mochin&quot; (13:11) #&quot;Karaim&quot; (3:39) ''(all compositions by John Zorn.)'' ==Personnel== *[[John Zorn]]: [[alto saxophone]] *[[Mark Feldman]] (2,4,6,10,12,14,16,20,21,25): [[violin]] *[[Erik Friedlander]] (2,4,6,10,12,14,16,21,25): [[cello]] *[[Greg Cohen]] (2,4,6,9,10,12,14,16,18,21,25): [[Double bas|bass]] *[[Marc Ribot]] (9,18,24): [[guitar]] *[[Anthony Coleman]] (1,3,11,17,19): [[piano]] *[[David Krakauer]] (3,8): [[clarinet]]s *[[John Medeski]] (5,7,8,13,15,17,20,22,23): [[organ (music)|organ]], piano *[[Mark Dresser]] (1,15,19): bass *[[Kenny Wollesen]] (1,2,15,19,23): [[Drum kit|drums]] *[[Chris Speed]] (5,13,20,23): clarinet *[[Dave Douglas]] (23): [[trumpet]] [[Category:Jazz albums]] [[Category:1996 albums]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bipolar Disorder</title> <id>4014</id> <revision> <id>15902316</id> <timestamp>2003-07-14T17:14:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Anome</username> <id>76</id> </contributor> <comment>redirecting as per naming conventions</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Bipolar disorder]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BASIC programming language</title> <id>4015</id> <revision> <id>41609308</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:07:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mohammed Khalil</username> <id>541247</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+ar</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''BA
merican West]] [[Category:Idaho|*]] [[Category:States of the United States]] [[Category:1890 establishments]] [[ang:Idaho]] [[bg:Айдахо]] [[ca:Idaho]] [[cs:Idaho]] [[da:Idaho]] [[de:Idaho]] [[et:Idaho]] [[es:Idaho]] [[eo:Idaho]] [[fr:Idaho]] [[gl:Idaho]] [[ko:아이다호 주]] [[id:Idaho]] [[is:Idaho]] [[it:Idaho]] [[he:איידהו]] [[ka:აიდაჰო]] [[ks:ऐडहो]] [[lv:Aidaho]] [[lt:Aidahas]] [[hu:Idaho]] [[mk:Ајдахо]] [[nl:Idaho]] [[ja:アイダホ州]] [[no:Idaho]] [[nn:Idaho]] [[os:Айдахо]] [[pl:Idaho]] [[pt:Idaho]] [[ru:Айдахо]] [[sq:Idaho]] [[simple:Idaho]] [[sl:Idaho]] [[sr:Ајдахо]] [[fi:Idaho]] [[sv:Idaho]] [[th:มลรัฐไอดาโฮ]] [[uk:Айдахо]] [[zh:愛德荷州]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>-ism</title> <id>14608</id> <revision> <id>39979982</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T06:15:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Elthon73</username> <id>764879</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses3|ISM}} &lt;!--needed because [[Ism]] redirects here--&gt; {{Table_Suffixes}} {{wiktionarypar|-ism}} The [[English language|English]] [[suffix]] ''-'''ism''''' was first used to form a [[noun]] of action from a verb. It is taken from the [[Greek language|Greek]] suffix ''-ismos'' that likewise forms abstract nouns from verbal stems. An example is ''baptism'', from Greek ''baptismos'' &quot;immersion&quot;, derived from ''baptizein'', a Greek verb meaning &quot;to immerse&quot;. Its usage was later extended to signify larger organized systems and concepts &amp;mdash;in [[belief]], [[ideology]], [[doctrine]], and [[ritual]] practice. The first recorded usage of the suffix ''ism'' as a separate word in its own right was in [[1680]]. By the nineteenth century it was being used by [[Thomas Carlyle]] to signify a pre-packaged [[ideology]]. It was later used in this sense by such writers as [[Julian Huxley]] and [[George Bernard Shaw]]. In the present day, it appears in the title of a standard survey of political thought, ''Today's ISMS'' by William Ebenstein, first published in the [[1950s]], and now in its 11th edition. The -ism suffix can be used to express the following concepts *doctrine or [[philosophy]] (e.g. [[pacifism]], [[olympism]]) *[[theory]] developed by an individual (e.g. [[Marxism]]) *[[political movement]] (e.g. [[feminism]]) *[[artistic movement]] (e.g. [[cubism]]) *[[Action (philosophy)|action]], [[process]] or [[practice]] (e.g. [[voyeurism]]) *[[characteristic]], [[quality]] or [[origin]] (e.g. [[heroism]]) *[[state]] or [[condition]] (e.g. [[pauperism]]) *[[excess]] or [[disease]] (e.g. [[botulism]]) *[[prejudice]] or [[bias]] (e.g. [[racism]]) *characteristic [[speech]] patterns (e.g. [[Yogiism]], [[Bushism]]) *[[religion]] or belief system (e.g. [[Mormonism]]) Many ''isms'' are defined as an act or practice by some, while also being defined as the doctrine or philosophy ''behind'' the act or practice by others. Examples include [[activism]], [[altruism]], [[despotism]], [[elitism]], [[optimism]], [[sexism]] and [[terrorism]]. ==See also== *[[List of Isms]] *[[List of philosophical isms]] *[[classical compound]] *[[-ology]] *[[Isms of the 20th Century Theater]] [[Category:Suffixes|ism]] [[Category:Greek suffixes|ism]] [[da:-isme]] [[de:-ismus]] [[fr:Idée politique]] [[lb:Politesch Iddien]] [[ja:主義]] [[sv:Lista över ismer]] [[zh:主义]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Italian</title> <id>14611</id> <revision> <id>41106699</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T02:13:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Westfall</username> <id>965234</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionary}} '''Italian''' may refer to : *[[Italy]], a country *[[Italian language]], a Romance language spoken primarily in Italy *[[Italian people]], an ethnic group *[[Italian cuisine]] *[[Italian Game]], a chess opening ''See also:'' [[:Category:Italy]] {{disambig}} [[de:Italienisch]] [[it:Italiano]] [[no:Italiensk]] [[simple:Italian]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Interrogatories</title> <id>14612</id> <revision> <id>40363009</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brianhe</username> <id>82697</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Example */ ty</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CivilProcedure}} In [[law]], '''interrogatories''' (also known as Requests for Further Information) are a formal set of written questions propounded by one [[litigant]] and required to be answered by an adversary, in order to clarify matters of [[evidence (law)|evidence]] and help to determine in advance what facts will be presented at any [[trial (law)|trial]] in the case. =Purpose of Procedure= The vast majority of such questions are to find background information about the litigants that is not specific to each case, so it is common to use pre-printed forms containing standard questions that are generally relevant to the type of case at hand, called '''form interrogatories'''. These may even be determined by [[statute]] or [[court]] rules. In [[civil]] cases, the issues to be decided can potentially be more complex that in [[criminal]] cases. For example if a person is charged with [[speeding]], in a hypothetical case the prosecution have to prove that the person was the driver of the motor vehicle and that it was being driven in excess of the proper speed without any lawful excuse. =Example= One common civil claim that is brought compensation arising out of a road accident. In reality a road traffic accident is rarely complicated. However to demonstrate the concept, this section assumes there is a car accident in a Common Law jurisdiction that does use complicated concepts In this hypothetical claim the injured person would usually rely on the fact that the driver to be held responsible has (in the injured person's opinion) breached the [[tort]] of [[negligence]]. If they did that, the law requires the injured person to show that the driver owed them a duty of care and breached it. In practical reality, the courts accept that drivers owe other road users and pedestrians a duty of care, and the case would come down to whether the driver drove in accordance with the standard of a reasonable driver, and whether the injured person's injuries are a foreseeable consequence of the driving. However, the manner in which the injured person could seek to prove those things is very variable. In the simplest case the injured person could allege that the driver went too fast, failed to control the car properly or failed to keep lookout. The driver may have a defence to those allegations, perhaps if the accident occurred at low speed, and was unavoidable (maybe due to some third party intervention). The injured person may, however, argue that the driver was still responsible (perhaps the driver should have used the horn of the vehicle to alert the third party), or there may be other allegations. The [[pleadings]] of the parties are intended to let the other parties know what each side will seek to prove at trial, and what case they have to answer. However, in a complicated case, the pleadings may not give enough information. In the above exmample, the pleading may allege: :The driver drove negligently. The details of the negligence are, ::#failing to drive carefully ::#driving too fast ::#failing to make proper use of the car's controls ::#failing to take reasonable steps to alert the third party so as to avoid the accident. The driver is told the broad outlines of the case, but still does not know what allegation is being made regarding alerting the third party. The driver can therefore issue an inerrogatory to require the injured party to state exactly what it is that the driver did not do and should have done. In the hypothetical example, this would assist the litigation process, because for example, if the injured person states that the driver ought to have alerted the third party, the driver may be aware that the law imposes no such duty, and can issue a motion, (or application) to the court to have that part of the claim dismissed. =Specific Jurisdictions= ==England and Wales== In England and Wales, this procedure is governed by Part 18 of the [[Civil Procedure Rules 1998]]. It is known as a ''Request for Further Information'' In the ''Request for Further Information'' procedure, use of standard pre-printed forms is not common, and any such request would almost certainly be looked upon critically by the courts, as use of standard forms rather than requests tailored specifically to the case is likely to offend against the 'Overriding Objective' in that it is unlikely to be proportionate to the case, and instead result in the parties or their lawyers having to spend time, money and resources in answering the questions. The way the rules work, this could easily result in the party making the request having to pay both their own costs and the costs of the opponent - even if they win the case at the end. In England and Wales, firstly the person wanting to know the information request it in writing, either in letter form, or more usually, on a blank document with the questions on one side of the page and space for the answers on the other side. A deadline is set for the opponent to answer the request. If they fail to answer, the person requesting can make an [[motion|Application on Notice]] to the court and ask the procedural judge to make an order compelling the opponent to answer the questions. Whether the judge will make an order is discretionary and will be determined in accordance with the overriding objective, and in the context of the questions asked. In particular, the procedure is not intended to be used to ask questions that would ordinarily be dealt with at [[Trial (law)|trial]]. [[Category:Civil procedure]] [[Category:Evidence]] [[Category:Legal terms]]</
e links from the mainland. Broadband internet became available to subscribers in urban areas in mid 2005 through the local internet service provider, CIIA (formerly dotCX). A container port exists at Flying Fish Cove with an alternative container unloading point to the south of the island at Norris Point for use during the December to March 'swell season&quot; of seasonal rough seas. There are two weekly flights from Perth, Western Australia operated by National Jet Systems on Mondays and Thursdays and a single weekly flight from Denpasar, Bali, operated each Saturday by Austasia airlines. A bus service on the island runs frequently from Flying Fish Cove to the new recreation centre at Phosphate Hill. There is also a taxi service. The road network covers most of the island and is generally good quality, although four wheel drive vehicles are needed to access some more distant parts of the rain forest or the more isolated beaches. ==Bibliography== *CIA World Factbook 2002 *Charles. W. Andrews, A Description of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean). ''Geographical Journal'', '''13(1)''', 17-35 (1899). *Charles W. Andrews, A Monograph of Christmas Island, London,1900. *National Library of Australia, The Indian Ocean: a select bibliography.. 1979 ISBN 0642991502 *W. J. L. Wharton, Account of Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. ''Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography'', '''10(10)''', 613-624 (1888). ==External links== * [http://scaleplus.law.gov.au/html/pasteact/0/288/top.htm Christmas Island Act 1958] * {{dmoz|Regional/Oceania/Christmas_Island/|Christmas Island}} * The CIA World Factbook -- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/kt.html Christmas Island] ==Notes== &amp;sup1; CIA Factbook: est. 2004 396 + note: &quot; The Australian Bureau of Statistics reports a population of 1508 as of the 2001 Census&quot; [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/kt.html#People] {{Australia}} [[Category:British rule in Singapore]] [[Category:Christmas Island| ]] [[Category:Islands of Australia]] [[Category:Indian Ocean]] [[ca:Illa Christmas]] [[cs:Vánoční ostrov]] [[da:Christmas Island (Indiske Ocean)]] [[de:Weihnachtsinsel]] [[et:Jõulusaar]] [[es:Isla de Navidad]] [[eo:Kristnaskinsulo]] [[fr:Île Christmas (Australie)]] [[ko:크리스마스 섬]] [[is:Jólaeyja]] [[it:Isola di Natale]] [[he:כריסטמס (אי)]] [[lt:Kalėdų sala]] [[hu:Karácsony-sziget]] [[nl:Christmaseiland]] [[ja:クリスマス島 (オーストラリア)]] [[pl:Wyspa Bożego Narodzenia]] [[pt:Ilha Christmas]] [[fi:Joulusaari]] [[sv:Julön]] [[tr:Christmas Adası]] [[zh:聖誕島]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of Christmas Island</title> <id>5501</id> <revision> <id>15903708</id> <timestamp>2005-03-30T04:38:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Roisterer</username> <id>61920</id> </contributor> <comment>merged info from this page to main article &amp; planting redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christmas Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Christmas Island</title> <id>5502</id> <revision> <id>15903709</id> <timestamp>2004-07-17T01:50:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jiang</username> <id>10049</id> </contributor> <comment>merge</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Christmas Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Christmas Island</title> <id>5503</id> <revision> <id>15903710</id> <timestamp>2004-07-17T01:35:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jiang</username> <id>10049</id> </contributor> <comment>merge</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Christmas Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Government of Christmas Island</title> <id>5504</id> <revision> <id>15903711</id> <timestamp>2004-07-17T01:34:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jiang</username> <id>10049</id> </contributor> <comment>merge</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Christmas Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economy of Christmas Island</title> <id>5505</id> <revision> <id>15903712</id> <timestamp>2004-07-17T01:33:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jiang</username> <id>10049</id> </contributor> <comment>merge</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Christmas Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Communications in Christmas Island</title> <id>5506</id> <revision> <id>15903713</id> <timestamp>2004-07-17T01:32:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jiang</username> <id>10049</id> </contributor> <comment>merge</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Christmas Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transportation in Christmas Island</title> <id>5507</id> <revision> <id>15903714</id> <timestamp>2004-07-17T01:31:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jiang</username> <id>10049</id> </contributor> <comment>merge</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Christmas Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of Christmas Island</title> <id>5508</id> <revision> <id>15903715</id> <timestamp>2004-07-16T07:03:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jiang</username> <id>10049</id> </contributor> <comment>there is no military</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Christmas Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Clipperton Island</title> <id>5510</id> <revision> <id>41786316</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:13:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pavel Vozenilek</username> <id>87110</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rvv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{France divisions levels}} '''Clipperton Island''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Île de Clipperton'' and sometimes ''Île de la Passion'') is an uninhabited [[1 E6 m²|seven-square-kilometer]] coral [[atoll]] in the North [[Pacific Ocean]], 1,300 km southwest of [[Mexico]], at {{coor dm |10|18|N|109|13|W|}}. It is an overseas possession of [[France]] administered from [[French Polynesia]] by its gubernatorial [[high commissioner]] of the Republic. Its [[List of FIPS country codes|FIPS 10-4]] data code is IP, but [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2|ISO 3166]] has reserved the code CP for Clipperton Island on request of the [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]]. [[Image:Ip-map.png|thumb|left|Map of Clipperton Island]] Although 115 species of fish have been identified in the territorial waters of Clipperton Island, the only economic activity is [[tuna]] fishing. It has no other natural resources. It lies about 965 km from [[Tejupan Point]] on [[Mancanilla Bay]], [[Mexico]], the nearest mainland. The ring-shaped island has completely enclosed its [[lagoon]] for approximately a century and is about 8 km (5 miles) in circumference. The lagoon has acidic water at the bottom and is stagnant. Clipperton Rock, at 21 m (69 ft), is the highest point. The island has a tropical oceanic climate, with average temperatures of 20&amp;ndash;32°C. The rainy season occurs in May&amp;ndash;October, and the island is subject to tropical storms. Surrounding ocean waters are warm with a westerly current, which flows directly from the mainland. ==Vegetation== Clipperton Island is now largely covered with [[scrub]] vegetation, with a few stands of [[coconut palm]]s. The scrub vegetation seems to have disappeared for some time between [[1858]] and [[1917]]. When Snodgrass and Heller visited the island in 1898, they reported that &quot;no land plant is native to the island.&quot; (Snodgrass and Heller 1902). Sachet (1962), however, points out that according to historical accounts from the island in [[1711]], [[1825]], and likely in [[1839]], the island had a low grassy and/or suffrutescent (partially woody) vegetation. It is hypothesized that the vegetation may have been destroyed by a [[tropical storm]], and was then unable to regenerate due to the large population of land [[crab]]s. There also is a [[August 24]], [[1909]] article from the [[San Francisco Chronicle]] speculating on the possibility that a group on Clipperton Island was washed over by a [[tsunami]] caused by an earthquake. After the introduction of [[pig]]s by [[guano]] miners, the [[flora]] was able to re-establish itself as the [[pigs]] helped to keep the land crabs in check (Sachet 1962). During the period of settlement, the island's flora was multiplied by the introduction of alien species; [[coconut]] palms (Cocos nucifera) were introduced in the 1890s. According to Sachet's visit in [[1958]], the vegetation is a sparse cover of spiny grass and low thickets, a creeping plant ([[Ipomoea]]), and stands of coconut palm. This low-lying herbaceous vegetation appears to be pioneer in nature, and the majority is believed to be composed of recently introduced species. Sachet suspected that the sedges, ''[[Heliotropium curassavicum]]'', and possibly ''[[Portulaca oleracea]]'' are native in origin (Sachet 1962). At the northwest side of the island, at least, the most abundant species are ''[[Cenchrus echinatus]]'', ''[[Sida rhombifolia]]'', and ''[[Corchorus aestuans]]''. These plants compose a shrub cover up to 30 cm in height, and are intermixed with [[Eclipta]], [[Phyllanthus]], and [[Solanum]], as well as a taller plant, ''[[Brassica juncea]]''. An interesting feature was observed in that the vegetation is arranged in parallel rows of species; dense rows of taller species alternate with lower, more open vegetat
*[[Oceania Football Confederation|OFC - Oceania Football Confederation]] in [[Oceania]] *[[UEFA|UEFA - Union of European Football Associations]] in [[Europe]]. Nations straddling the traditional boundary between Europe and Asia have generally had their choice of confederation. As a result, nations including [[Football Union of Russia|Russia]] and [[Turkish Football Federation|Turkey]] have chosen to become part of UEFA despite the bulk of their land area being in Asia. [[Israel Football Association|Israel]], although lying entirely within Asia, joined UEFA in [[1994]], after decades of isolation by many of its Middle Eastern neighbours. [[Football Union of Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]] were the latest nation to make the move from AFC to UEFA, in [[2002]]. [[Guyana Football Federation|Guyana]] and [[Surinaamse Voetbal Bond|Suriname]] have always been CONCACAF members despite being South American countries. [[Football Federation Australia|Australia]] have been given permission to join the AFC instead of the OFC from [[2006]] onwards. Australia have long lobbied for a change due to [[Australia national football team|its national team's]] strength, which is disproportionate to the other Oceania teams. No team from the OFC is offered automatic qualification to the World Cup; instead the winner of their section must play a play-off against a CONMEBOL side, a hurdle at which Australia have traditionally fallen. Perhaps ironically, Australia successfully qualified for the {{Wc|2006}} by winning [[Football World Cup 2006 - Oceania-South America Qualification Playoff|just such a playoff]] in a [[penalty shootout (football)|penalty shootout]] against [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]], just a few months after the clearance to move was granted. In total, FIFA recognises 207 national federations and their associated national teams; see the [[list of national football teams]] and their respective [[list of FIFA country codes|country codes]]. The [[FIFA World Rankings]] are updated monthly and rank each team based on their performance in international competitions, qualifiers, and friendly matches. There is also a [[FIFA Women's World Rankings|world ranking for women's football]], updated four times a year. ==Recognitions and awards== FIFA awards, each year, the title of [[FIFA World Player of the Year]] to the most prestigious player of the year, as part of its annual awards ceremony with also recognises team and international football achievements. As part of its centennial celebrations in [[2004]], FIFA organised a &quot;Match of the Century&quot; between [[France national football team|France]] and [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]], the most successful national teams of the last decade. In addition, it commissioned arguably the most famous player ever, [[Pelé]], to produce a list of the greatest players of all time. This list, the [[FIFA 100]], included 50 players who were still actively playing at the time of publication ([[Mia Hamm|one of whom]] was female), and 75 retired players (including himself, but not including deceased players, with [[Michelle Akers|one woman]]). The list was originally planned to be just 100 players long but Pelé is understood to have found it too hard to choose just 100. ==Commercial activities== FIFA announced in [[April 2004]] that it is expecting to earn $144 million profit on $1.64 billion in revenue between [[2003]] and [[2006]] (the 4 year cycle including the 2006 World Cup). FIFA has licensed its name and copyrighted content to [[computer game]] designer [[EA Sports]] to provide a number of football simulation games for [[Personal computer|PC]] and various [[game consoles]]. A new instalment in this [[FIFA series]] of games is introduced each year, and additional versions are released with World Cup branding to coincide with these tournaments. 2005 saw an additional &quot;urban football&quot; video game franchise, [[FIFA Street]], added. ==External links== *[http://www.fifa.com/ FIFA web site] {{fb start}} {{International Football}} {{fb end}} {{FIFA Presidents}} [[Category:FIFA| ]] [[ar:الاتحاد الدولي لكرة القدم]] [[zh-min-nan:FIFA]] [[bs:FIFA]] [[ca:FIFA]] [[cs:FIFA]] [[da:FIFA]] [[de:Fédération Internationale de Football Association]] [[et:FIFA]] [[es:FIFA]] [[eo:FIFA]] [[fa:فیفا]] [[fr:Fédération internationale de football association]] [[gl:FIFA]] [[ko:국제축구연맹]] [[hr:FIFA]] [[id:FIFA]] [[ia:FIFA]] [[it:Fédération Internationale de Football Association]] [[he:פיפ&quot;א]] [[lv:FIFA]] [[lt:FIFA]] [[hu:FIFA]] [[nl:FIFA]] [[ja:国際サッカー連盟]] [[no:FIFA]] [[nn:FIFA]] [[pl:FIFA]] [[pt:FIFA]] [[ro:FIFA]] [[ru:ФИФА]] [[simple:Fédération Internationale de Football Association]] [[sr:ФИФА]] [[fi:FIFA]] [[sv:FIFA]] [[tr:FIFA]] [[zh:国际足球联合会]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of Presidents of FIFA</title> <id>11052</id> <revision> <id>27679379</id> <timestamp>2005-11-08T02:23:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KocjoBot</username> <id>467651</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: sl</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Presidents of the [[FIFA]]: * [[Sepp Blatter]], [[Switzerland]], elected [[June 8]] [[1998]] * [[João Havelange]], [[Brazil]], [[1974]]-[[1998]], Honorary President of FIFA nominated [[June 8]] [[1998]] * [[Stanley Rous|Sir Stanley Rous]], [[England]], [[1961]]-[[1974]], Honorary President of FIFA nominated [[June 11]] [[1974]] * [[Arthur Drewry]], [[England]], [[1955]]-[[1961]] * [[Rodolphe Seeldrayers]], [[Belgium]], [[1954]]-[[1955]] * [[Jules Rimet]], [[France]], [[1921]]-[[1954]], Honorary President of FIFA nominated [[June 21]] [[1954]] * [[Daniel Burley Woolfall]], [[England]], [[1906]]-[[1918]] * [[Robert Guérin]], [[France]], [[1904]]-[[1906]] [[Category:Football (soccer) related lists|Presidents of FIFA]] [[Category:Presidents of FIFA| List of Presidents of FIFA]] [[sl:Seznam predsednikov FIFE]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Frontline tv series</title> <id>11053</id> <revision> <id>18764927</id> <timestamp>2005-07-13T19:57:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DanMS</username> <id>288353</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixed link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frontline (PBS)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fascism</title> <id>11054</id> <revision> <id>42117384</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:01:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>71.51.24.2</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* International fascism */ removed vandalism &quot;fukin shit stirers&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}} {{NPOV}} &lt;!-- This article may give too much attention to fringe theories, and may not identify them clearly as such. The sections on fascism and religion are in particular need of attention. The fringe theories should be simply identified in the body of the text as being (possibly) fringe theories (e.g. &quot;fascism is just a form of corporatism which governs the entire planet!!&quot; is DEFINITELY a fringe theory) and modified with appropriate comments. --&gt; {{Fascism}} '''Fascism''' (in [[Italian language|Italian]], ''fascismo''), capitalized, was the [[authoritarian]] political movement which ruled [[Italy]] from 1922 to 1943 under the leadership of [[Benito Mussolini]]. Similar political movements, including [[Nazism]], spread across [[Europe]] between [[World War I]] and [[World War II]]. The most restrictive definitions of fascism include only one government, that of Mussolini in Italy. However, the term is frequently applied to [[Nazi Germany]] under [[Adolf Hitler]] and is used to refer to similar regimes and movements across Europe in the same time period, such as [[Hungary]]'s [[Arrow Cross Party]], [[Romania]]'s [[Iron Guard]], [[Spain]]'s [[Falange]], and the French political movements led by [[Marcel Déat]] and [[Jacques Doriot]]. More broadly, it is sometimes (by both supporters and opponents) applied to other authoritarian regimes of the period such as those of [[Imperial Japan]] under [[Hideki Tojo]], [[Austria]] under [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] and [[Greece]] under [[Ioannis Metaxas]]. Its use for similar but longer-lived regimes such as [[Spain]] under [[Francisco Franco]] and the [[Estado Novo]] of [[António de Oliveira Salazar]] in [[Portugal]] is widespread among opponents of those regimes but is often disputed by their supporters. This trend toward the term being used only by opponents is amplified in the case of more recent authoritarian regimes such as [[Indonesia]] under [[Suharto]], and [[Chile]] under [[Augusto Pinochet]]. Although the broadest definitions of fascism may include every authoritarian state that has ever existed, most theorists see important distinctions to be made. Fascism in Italy arose in the 1920s as a mixture of [[syndicalist]] notions with an anti-[[materialist]] theory of the state; the latter had already been linked to an extreme [[nationalism]]. Fascism in many ways seems to have been clearly developed as a reaction against [[Communism]] and [[Marxism]], both in a philosophic and political sense, although it opposed democratic capitalist economics along with [[socialism]], [[Marxism]], and [[liberal democracy]]. It viewed the state as an organic entity in a positive light rather than as an institution designed to protect collective and individual rights, or as one that should be held in check. It tended to reject the Marxist notion of [[social class]]es (and universally dismissed the concept of ''[[class conflict]]''), replacing it instead with two more nebulous struggles: conflict between races and the struggle of the youth versus their elders. This meant embracing nationalism and [[mysticism]], and advancing ideas of strength and power as means of legitimacy, a might makes right that
he world safe and to get what he wanted. Bogart's persona was much better suited to the war years than to the [[1930s]]. Bogart played a guy who'd grown up on the streets, a guy who knew how to fire a gun, how to punch a guy on the jaw, and spit out &quot;Tell that to your boss.&quot; [[Image:Casabl meetrick.jpg|right|framed|In ''[[Casablanca (film)|Casablanca]]'', &quot;Everybody comes to Rick's.&quot;]] ===''Casablanca''=== Bogart got his first real romantic lead in ''Casablanca'', playing Rick Blaine, the nightclub owner. Bogart had learned how to convey pain in his eyes and to show emotion with subtle shadings of his voice. He was still young but looked like a man who had lived hard. As ''Casablanca'' became an iconic movie, much was made of the fact that its script was still being written as shooting on the movie began. Less well understood is that the character of Rick Blaine drew powerfully on the persona that Bogart had been cultivating in real life for at least six years. The soured idealist; the loner; the hard-drinking man exiled from better things in New York&amp;mdash;all of these were crucial parts of Rick Blaine&amp;mdash;and of Bogart. Bogart played a complex man wary of showing his emotions or ideals, a [[chess]] player who kept even his friends off balance. In real life, Bogart himself played tournament chess, achieving expert strength, one level below master level. Bogart reportedly asked that Blaine also be portrayed as a chess player. Bogart was surrounded by a fine international cast, including [[Ingrid Bergman]], [[Claude Rains]], [[Peter Lorre]], [[Sidney Greenstreet]], [[Paul Henreid]] and [[Conrad Veidt]]. [[Dooley Wilson]] played the part of Sam, Rick's confidant and piano player, even though he could not play the piano. The script and [[Max Steiner]]'s musical score have both been praised extensively, as has the cinematography. The stories that [[Ronald Reagan]] had been offered, but passed on, the role of Rick are just that, stories, resulting from the casual lies pumped out by studio publicity departments in those days to keep fans interested in the activities of a star who was not doing anything newsworthy at the time. [[Warner Bros.]]' publicity department concocted similar tales during the shooting of ''Casablanca'', e.g., that Bogart was learning Swedish so that he could woo Bergman, that were just as spurious. Off the set, Bergman and Bogart hardly spoke during the filming of ''Casablanca''. She said later, &quot;I kissed him but I never knew him.&quot; Years later, after Ingrid Bergman had taken up with Italian director [[Roberto Rossellini]], and borne him a child, Bogart bawled her out for it. &quot;You used to be a great star,&quot; he said. &quot;What are you now?&quot; &quot;A happy woman,&quot; she replied. ''Casablanca'' won the [[1943 in film|1943]] [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]. Bogart was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor in a Leading Role]], but lost out to Paul Lukas for his performance in ''[[Watch on the Rhine]]''. ==Bogart and Bacall== Only Bogart's fourth marriage, to [[Lauren Bacall]] (&quot;Baby&quot;), was a happy one. They met while filming ''[[To Have and Have Not]]'', in which Bogart played a tough, independent fisherman named Steve, who gets pushed to his limit by some unsavory people and then gets his revenge. They were married on [[May 21]] [[1945]] in [[Mansfield, Ohio]], at [[Malabar Farm State Park|Malabar Farm]], the country home of [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning author [[Louis Bromfield]], who was a close friend of Bogart's. Bacall became an overnight sensation with a famous line delivered to Bogart. Leaning against a doorway, her head down and voice low, she told Bogart's character: &quot;You know how to whistle, don't you, Steve? Just put your lips together, and blow.&quot; Bogart fell in love with Bacall. The movie's director, [[Howard Hawks]], once commented: &quot;When two people are falling in love with each other, they're not tough to get along with, I can tell you that. Bogie was marvelous. I said &quot;You've got to help&quot; and of course after a few days he really began to get interested in the girl. That made him help more.&quot; Hawks also said of Bacall: &quot;She had to keep practicing for six to eight months to keep that low voice. Now, it's perfectly natural. And the funny thing is that Bogie fell in love with the character she played, so she had to keep playing it the rest of her life.&quot; Bogart had another strong, unspoken friendship with [[Walter Brennan]], who played the harmless drunk Eddie in ''To Have and Have Not''. Hawks recalled: &quot;The fellow who rented their boat said 'What do you take care of him for?' Bogart looked at him and said, 'He thinks he's taking care of me.' And he wasn't very nice the way he said it. Those are the relationships that happen between men.&quot; [[Image:thebigsleep.jpg|thumb|Bogart and Bacall in The Big Sleep (1946)]] Bogart and Bacall's relationship is at the heart of the film noir masterpiece ''The Big Sleep''. The plot is complex and has holes in it that even [[Raymond Chandler]], who wrote the novel on which it was based, could not explain. Hawks himself admitted &quot;I never figured out what was going on but I thought [it] had great scenes in it&amp;hellip;After that got by, I said, 'I'm never going to worry about being logical again.'&quot; Chandler thoroughly admired Bogart's performance: &quot;Bogart can be tough without a gun. Also he has a sense of humor that contains that grating undertone of contempt.&quot; Bacall allowed Bogart lots of weekend time on his boat. She got seasick on boats and Bogart liked the boat to be an all-male preserve, stating &quot;The trouble with having dames on board is you can't pee over the side.&quot; Bogart would frequently sail to Catalina with friends or set some lobster traps. Bogart allowed Bacall romantic crushes on [[Adlai Stevenson]] and [[Leonard Bernstein]], knowing she'd married young before ever having much chance to date. But he made it clear he'd leave Bacall if she ever had an affair. She never did. Bacall once wrote of Bogart: &quot;You had to stay awake married to him. Every time I thought I could relax and do everything I wanted, he'd buck. There was no way to predict his reactions, no matter how well I knew him.&quot; Bogart and Bacall moved into a $160,000 white brick mansion in [[Holmby Hills, Los Angeles, California|Holmby Hills]], an exclusive neighborhood between [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]] and [[Bel-Air, Los Angeles, California|Bel-Air]]. Bogart and Bacall had two [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar]] cars, and three blooded [[Boxer (dog)|Boxer]] dogs. Bogart said &quot;We moved where all the creeps live.&quot; But he enjoyed some of his neighbors, especially [[Judy Garland]]. When Lauren Bacall learned she was pregnant, she was ecstatic. Bogart came home from a day at the studio, and she met him with the great news. He grew very quiet. He put his arm around her and led her gently into the house. He was quiet during dinner&amp;#8212;and then, after dinner, Bogart and Bacall had the worst fight they ever had. Bogart had finally found a woman he truly loved, and he didn't want to share her. He was scared of losing her affection to a baby. When Lauren Bacall gave birth to a son, [[Stephen Bogart|Stephen]], Bogart became a father at 49. He'd had months to absorb the news, had even had his own baby shower. ([[Frank Sinatra]] had brought him baby rattles.) But Bogart still felt awkward about being a father. (&quot;What do you do with a kid?&quot; he asked a friend. &quot;They don't drink.&quot;) In 1952, they had their second child, Leslie (a girl, named after actor [[Leslie Howard]]). ==Bogart parties== There are many tales from the [[1950s]] about Bogart's behaviour in bars and clubs. ===The panda case=== In [[1950]], Bogart and his friend Bill Seeman arrived at the [[El Morocco]] Club in New York after midnight. Bogart had bought two giant stuffed panda bears for Stephen, and he and Seeman introduced the bears around as their &quot;dates&quot; and demanded a table for four. They propped up the bears in separate chairs, and began doing some heavy drinking. Two young women at the club saw the pandas. One of them picked up one of the pandas. Bogart got angry and pushed her. After she fell to the floor, her friend picked up the other panda, Bogart said something cruel, and her boyfriend arrived and began throwing plates. After a wild scuffle, Bogart, Seeman and the pandas were thrown out of El Morocco and told never to return. One of the women sued Bogart for $25,000. He showed up in court and was asked: &quot;Were you drunk?&quot; &quot;Isn't everybody at three in the morning?&quot; he replied. The case was dropped. Later, he mused: &quot;[[Errol Flynn]] and I are the only ones left who do any good old hell-raising.&quot; ===Stories from Romanoff's=== Bogart loved to go to Romanoff's in [[Beverly Hills]]. A valet would take the Jaguar, and a ''maitre d' '' would lead Bogart to his regular booth. Friends would stop by to chat or talk shop: [[David Niven]], [[Judy Garland]], [[Richard Brooks]], [[Marilyn Monroe]], [[Swifty Lazar]], Spencer Tracy. [[Rock Hudson]] was a rising star; when he saw him, Bogart would ask, &quot;What the hell kind of name is 'Rock' Hudson?&quot; Bogart considered [[Mike Romanoff]] a poseur but nonetheless counted him a close friend. Among other things, Bogart admired him as a chess player and appreciated his tendency to needle people. Mike Romanoff was a man with a cultivated [[Oxford accent]], who insisted that his true name was &quot;Prince Michael Alexandrovitch Dmitri Obolensky Romanoff&quot;, and that he was a blood nephew of the former Russian [[tsar]]. Romanoff would greet Bogart by saying, &quot;Good afternoon, Mr. Bogart. Are you going to be paying your bill today? I thought that might be a pleasant change.&quot; Bogart would smil
wn as the &quot;2600 Jr.&quot;]] Although not formally discontinued, the 2600 was de-emphasized for two years after Warner's 1984 sale of Atari to [[Commodore Business Machines]] founder [[Jack Tramiel]], who wanted to concentrate on [[home computer]]s. In [[1986]] a new version of the 2600 was released (although it was planned for release two years earlier). The new redesigned version of the 2600, unofficially referred to as the 2600 Jr., featured a smaller cost-reduced form factor with a modernized [[Atari 7800]]-like appearance. The redesigned 2600 was advertised as a budget gaming system (under $50) that had the ability to run a large collection of classic games. With its introduction came a resurgence in software development both from Atari and from third parties. The Atari 2600 continued to sell in the USA and Europe until [[1990]], and continued to sell in [[PAL]] version in Asian nations until the early 1990s. Over its lifetime, an estimated 25 million units were shipped, and its [[List of Atari 2600 games|video game library]] reportedly numbers more than 900 titles. At the turn of the millennium, 25 years+ after the launch of the Atari 2600, new [[homebrew (video games)|homebrew games]] for the system are still made and sold by hobbyists, several new titles are available each year, and the console and its old and new games are very popular with collectors because of its significant impact on video game and consumer electronics history and also due to its nostalgic value for many people. In addition, modern Atari 2600 clones remain on the market. One example is the Atari Classics 10-in-1 TV Game, manufactured by [[Jakks Pacific]], which simulates the 2600 console with an NES on a Chip, and includes converted versions of 10 games, into a single Atari-brand-look-a-like joystick with [[composite video]] outputs for connecting directly to modern televisions or VCRs. Another is the [[TV Boy]] which includes 127 games in an enlarged joypad. Additionally, [[Benjamin Heckendorn]] has created several different versions of a portable 2600, created by cutting apart full-sized vintage units, adding screens and putting them into new enclosures. ==Description== [[Image:2600IntCartridgeChip07052004.jpg|thumb|right|2600 game cartridge innards: basically a [[printed circuit board|circuit board]] with a [[read-only memory|ROM]] chip (center) and dual-sided 24-pin [[edge connector]] (bottom).]] The basic layout of the 2600 is fairly similar to most consoles and home computers of the era. The CPU was the [[MOS Technology 6507]], a cut-down version of the 6502, running at 1.19 [[megahertz|MHz]] in the 2600. The 6507 included fewer memory address pins &amp;mdash; 13 instead of 16 &amp;mdash; and no external interrupts to fit into a smaller 28-pin package. Smaller packaging was, and still is, an important factor in overall system cost, and since memory was very expensive at the time, the 6507's small 8&amp;nbsp;[[kilobyte|KB]] of maximum external memory space wasn't going to be used up anyway. In fact memory was so expensive they couldn't imagine using up even 4K, and when they got a deal on 24-pin connectors for the cartridge socket, they were only too happy to thereby limit the games to 4K.{{ref|cartridge-socket}} Later games got around this limitation with [[bank switching]]. The console had only 128 [[byte]]s of [[random-access memory|RAM]] for [[runtime]] data that included the [[call stack]] and the state of the game world. There was no [[frame buffer]], as the necessary RAM would have been too expensive. Instead the video device had two [[bitmap]]ped [[sprite (graphics)|sprites]], two one-line &quot;missile&quot; sprites, a one-pixel &quot;ball,&quot; and a &quot;playfield&quot; that was drawn by writing a bit pattern for each line into a register just before the television scanned that line. As each line was scanned, a game had to identify the non-sprite objects that overlapped the next line, assemble the appropriate bit patterns to draw for those objects, and write the pattern into the register. By default the right side of the screen was a duplicate of the left; to control it separately, the software had to modify the patterns as the scan line was drawn. After the controller scannd the last active line, a more leisurely [[vertical blanking interval]] began, during which the game could process input and update the positions and states of objects in the world. Any mistake in timing produced visual artifacts, a problem programmers called ''racing the beam''. The video hardware gave the 2600 a reputation as one of the most complex machines in the world to program, but those programmers who understood it realized that such direct control over the video picture was also a source of flexibility. For example, although each sprite nominally had only one color, it was possible to color the rows differently by changing the sprite's color as it was drawn. If the five hardware sprites were not enough for a game, a developer could share one sprite among several objects (as with the ghosts in ''Pac-Man'') or draw software sprites, which was only a little more difficult than drawing a fixed playfield. The ''Pitfall!'' screen shot below demonstrates some of these tricks: the player is a multi-color sprite, one sprite is multiplexed for the logs and the scorpion, and the swinging vine is drawn by software. Despite the hardware limitations, many Atari 2600 games had a lot of action on the screen, creating an engaging experience. ==Notable games== ''A comprehensive alphabetical list of games is given in the article [[List of Atari 2600 games]]'' &lt;gallery&gt; Image:Atlantis_Atari2600.png|''[[Atlantis (video game)|Atlantis]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Imagic]] ([[1982]]) Image:A2600_Breakout.png|''[[Breakout]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1978]]) Image:A2600_Combat.png|''[[Combat (video game)|Combat]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1977]]) Image:A2600_Donkey_Kong.png|''[[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]''&lt;Br&gt;[[Coleco]] ([[1982]]) Image:A2600_E.T..png|''[[E.T. (video game)|E.T.]]''&lt;Br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1982]]) Image:A2600_Kaboom!.png|''[[Kaboom!]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Activision]] ([[1983]]) Image:KeystoneKapers2600.JPG|''[[Keystone Kapers]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Activision]] ([[1983]]) Image:A2600_Ms.Pac-Man.png|''[[Ms. Pac-Man]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1982]]) Image:A2600_Pac-Man.png|''[[Pac-Man]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1981]]) Image:A2600_Pitfall.png|''[[Pitfall!]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Activision]] ([[1982]]) Image:A2600_Pole_Position.png|''[[Pole Position]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1983]]) Image:A2600_Realsports_Tennis.png|''RealSports Tennis''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1983]]) Image:Solaris_Atari_game_screenshot.JPG|''[[Solaris (Atari 2600)|Solaris]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1986]]) Image:A2600_Space_Invaders.png|''[[Space Invaders]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] Image:Swordquest_Title_Screen.png|''[[Swordquest]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1982]]&amp;ndash;[[1983]]) Image:A2600_Yars_Revenge.png|''[[Yars' Revenge]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1981]]) &lt;/gallery&gt; == Technical specifications == ===Console hardware=== * CPU: [[MOS Technology 6507]] @ 1.19 MHz * Audio + Video processor: [[Television Interface Adapter|TIA]]. 160 x ~192 [[pixel]], 128 colors (16 on screen), 2 channel mono sound. * RAM (within a [[MOS Technology 6532|MOS Technology RIOT]] chip): 128 [[byte]]s (plus up to 256 [[byte]]s built into the game cartridges) * ROM (game cartridges):&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;4 [[kilobyte|KB]] maximum capacity (32 KB+ with [[bank switching|paging]]) * Input (controlled by MOS RIOT): ** Two screwless [[DE-9 connector|DE-9]]{{ref|de9-ports}} controller ports, for single-button [[joystick]]s, [[paddle (game controller)|paddle]]s, &quot;[[trackball|trakball]]s&quot;, &quot;driving controllers&quot;, 12-key &quot;keyboard controllers&quot; (0&amp;ndash;9, #, and *) and third party controllers with additional functions ** Six switches (original version): Power on/off, TV signal (B/W or Color), Difficulty for each player (called A and B), Select, and Reset. Except for the power switch, games could (and did) assign other meanings to the switches. On later models the difficulty switches were miniaturized and moved to the back of the unit. * Output: [[RF modulator|B/W or Color TV]] picture and sound signal through [[RCA connector]] ([[NTSC]], [[PAL]] or [[SECAM]], depending on region; game cartridges are exchangeable between [[NTSC]] and [[PAL]]/[[SECAM]] machines, but this will result to wrong or missing colors and often a rolling picture.) ===Third-party peripherals=== * [[Starpath Supercharger]], a cartridge with a [[compact audio cassette|cassette]] player connector, giving 6 1/8 [[kilobyte|KB]] storage capacity * [[Gameline]] Master Module, a modem allowing downloads of games from an extensive catalog which could be playable for a limited amount of time. ==Notes== # {{note|plug-in-carts}} The first game console to use exchangeable plug-in cartridges was the [[Fairchild Channel F]]; however, that machine did rather dismally in the market. Thus, the Atari 2600 was the console which made the plug-in concept popular among the game playing public. # {{note|cartridge-socket}} The cartridge connector's 24 pins were allocated to one supply voltage line, two ground lines, 8 data lines, and 13 address lines. However, the uppermost address line was used as a so-called [[chip select]] for the cartridge's ROM chip, leaving only 12 address lines for the chip's game program. Thus, without special &quot;hardware tricks&quot; built into the cartridge, an Atari 2600 game could occupy a maximum address space of 4K. # {{note|de9-ports}} The screwless [[DE-9 connector|DE-9]] controller ports subsequently became the mechanical/electrical [[de facto]] standard for game controllers in the 8-bit and early 16-bit era, and was used in most subsequent Atari and Commodore consoles and home computers, among many others. ==See also== *[[List of Atari 2600 games]] *[[Atari 2000]] *[[Atari 2700]] *[[Atari 28
Tricolour Hound - see [[Serbian Tricolour Hound]] ==See also== *[[List of dog breeds by country]] *[[Wikipedia:List of images/Dogs|Album of dog photo thumbnails]] ==External links== *Lists of recognized breeds for major kennel clubs as listed in breed boxes in all dog breed articles: **[http://www.akc.org/breeds/complete_breed_list.cfm American Kennel Club] (United States) **[http://www.ankc.aust.com/breeds_by_group.html Australian National Kennel Council] **[http://www.ckc.ca/Default.aspx?tabid=73 Canadian Kennel Club] **[http://www.fci.be/nomenclatures.asp?lang=en&amp;sel=0 Fédération Cynologique Internationale] (most of Europe) **[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/groupIndex.html The Kennel Club] (United Kingdom) **[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/dogselect.html New Zealand Kennel Club] **[http://www.ukcdogs.com/RegistrationBreeds.htm United Kennel Club] (United States) [[Category:Dog breeds|* L]] [[Category:Lists of animals|Dogs]] [[cs:Plemeno psa]] [[da:Hunderacer]] [[de:Liste der Hunderassen]] [[eo:Hundrasoj]] [[es:Lista de razas de perros]] [[fr:Liste des races de chiens]] [[he:&amp;#1490;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1497; &amp;#1499;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;]] [[ja:&amp;#29356;&amp;#12398;&amp;#21697;&amp;#31278;&amp;#19968;&amp;#35239;]] [[nl:Lijst van hondenrassen]] [[no:Liste over hunderaser]] [[pl:Wykaz ras psów]] [[pt:Lista de raças de cães]] [[ru:&amp;#1055;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1099; &amp;#1089;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1082;]] [[simple:List of dog breeds]] [[sr:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1092;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1112;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1087;&amp;#1086; &amp;#1072;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1095;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1084; &amp;#1088;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1091;]] [[fi:Luettelo koiraroduista]] [[sv:Alfabetisk lista över hundraser]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Daniel Jones (phonetician)</title> <id>8617</id> <revision> <id>41602572</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T12:45:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>64.168.129.182</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Daniel Jones''' ([[12th September]] [[1881]]&amp;ndash;[[1967]]) was a [[London]]-born [[United Kingdom|British]] [[phonetics|phonetician]] . He was a disciple of [[Paul Passy|Paul-Edouard Passy]]. In [[1900]], he studied at [[William Tilly]]'s [[Marburg Language Institute]] in [[Germany]]. In [[1903]] He received a degree in mathematics at [[Cambridge]]. From 1905 to 1906, He studied with [[Paul Passy]], founder of the [[International Phonetics Association]], in [[France]], married Passy's niece in [[1911]] and studied under [[Henry Sweet]]. In [[1907]] he became a phonetic lecturer in [[University College]], London, and in [[1912]] he became the head of department of phonetics. In [[1949]] he retired. From [[1950]] to [[1967]], he was the president of the International Phonetic Association. He wrote ''The Pronunciation of English'' in [[1909]] and ''An outline of English Phonetics'' in [[1918]]. This is considered to be the first comprehensive description of [[Received Pronunciation]]. He uses the term [[phoneme]] in the current sense. The problem of the phonetic description of vowels was a long-standing one. Earlier phoneticians such as Bell and Ellis had suggested a system of reference vowels; and Henry Sweet did much work on the systematic description of vowels. Jones however was the one who is credited with having solved the problem by introducing the concept of 'cardinal vowels', a system of reference vowels which are taught with much care in the British tradition. (Most British-trained phoneticians can trace their teachers through to Jones.) Jones uses in his theory a two-parameter diagram to visualize how [[vowel | vowels]] are produced. Jones also systematised the phonetic analysis of vowels&amp;mdash;still known as the [[cardinal vowels]]. Tongue height is represented on the vertical axis and frontness and backness on the horizontal axis. Lip-rounding is implicit in the system, so that front vowels (such as [i e] and [a]) have spread or neutral lip postures, but the back vowels (such as [o] and [u]) have increased lip-rounding as vowel height increases. The International Phonetic Association still uses Jones's model. Jones studied the phonetics of various languages. In particular, for example, he did an analysis of the tone in [[Tswana]]. He developed new [[alphabet | alphabets]] for African and Indian languages. He also researched [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]], [[Sinhalese]], and other non-Indo-European languages. ==External links== *[http://www.ttt.org/LingLinks/i_m.html Section on Daniel Jones] ==References== *R. E. Asher, ''The encyclopedia of language and linguistics'', Pergamon Press, 1994 [[Category:1881 births|Jones, Daniel]] [[Category:1967 deaths|Jones, Daniel]] [[Category:British linguists|Jones, Daniel]] [[Category:Phoneticians|Jones, Daniel]] [[Category:Cantonese (linguistics)]] [[de:Daniel Jones (Sprachwissenschaftler)]] [[udm:Джоунз, Дэниэл]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>David Beckham</title> <id>8618</id> <revision> <id>42154868</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:31:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sahafan</username> <id>452948</id> </contributor> <comment>/* World Cup 2002 and final season at United */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football player infobox| playername= David Beckham | image =[[Image:David Beckham.jpg|200px]]&lt;br/&gt;&lt;center&gt;&lt;small&gt;Image: soccer-europe.com&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/center&gt; | fullname = David Robert Joseph Beckham | nickname = Becks, Goldenballs , DB, | dateofbirth = [[May 2]], [[1975]] | cityofbirth = [[Leytonstone]] | countryofbirth = [[England]] | height = 5'11.5'' (182cm) | currentclub = [[Real Madrid]] | position = Right midfield, centre midfield | youthyears = [[1991]]–[[1992|92]] | youthclubs = [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] | years = [[1993]]–[[2003]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1995]]&lt;br/&gt;[[2003]]– | clubs = [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Preston North End F.C.|Preston NE]] (loan)&lt;br/&gt;[[Real Madrid]] | caps(goals) = 266 (61)&lt;br/&gt;5 (2)&lt;br/&gt;81 (8) | nationalyears = [[1996]]– | nationalteam = [[England national football team|England]] | nationalcaps(goals) = 86 (16) }} '''David Beckham''' [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] (born [[May 2]], [[1975]] in [[Leytonstone]], [[London]]) is a [[Jewish]] [[England|English]] [[football (soccer)|footballer]], widely regarded as the most famous player in the sport. He currently plays for [[Real Madrid]] and as captain of the [[England national football team|English]] national team. David Beckham is especially noted for the quality of his crossing and the ability to hit [[free-kick]]s particularly from long-range and swinging [[corner kick|corner]]s. He is also famed for his [[celebrity]] lifestyle trappings, [[media]] attention and [[marketing]] potential. He signed schoolboy forms for [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] in [[1989]], became a trainee in [[1991]] and signed a professional contract with them soon after making his first first-team appearance in [[1992]]. By [[1995]], he had established himself as a first-team player at United and won [[FA Premier League|Premier League]] and [[FA Cup]] winners' medals with the club in [[1996]]. He was soon selected to play for England, but after winning another league medal in [[1997]], he was sent off in a [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] match against [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] for kicking [[Diego Simeone]]. Beckham became a figure of public hatred among some English football supporters, but he redeemed himself with his strong play and helped United win the league, FA Cup, and [[UEFA Champions League]] the following year to complete an unprecedented treble. His relationship with the club's manager [[Alex Ferguson|Sir Alex Ferguson]] began to deteriorate, though, and although he won further league championships with United in [[2000]] and [[2001]], he left the club to join [[Real Madrid]] in 2003. While his performances for Real Madrid have attracted praise, the team itself has been in turmoil. As of November [[2005]], Beckham has had 5 different coaches in [[Real Madrid]] and failed to win any major trophies with his struggling new team. Beckham's relationship with and marriage to the former [[Spice Girls|Spice Girl]] [[Victoria Beckham|Victoria (née Adams)]] has contributed towards him becoming a major celebrity away from football, and his name was searched for on Google more than that of any other sporting personality in 2003 and 2004.{{ref|googlehits}} The Beckhams have three sons, Brooklyn, born [[March 4]], [[1999]], Romeo, born [[September 1]], [[2002]], and Cruz, born [[February 20]], [[2005]]. ==Childhood and early career== Beckham was born in [[Leytonstone]], east [[London]], the son of Ted Beckham (a kitchen fitter) and Sandra West (a hairdresser). In his first [[autobiography]] My World, which was serialised in [[OK!|OK! Magazine]], David was quoted as saying; &quot;I've probably had more contact with [[Judaism]] than with any other religion.&quot; Beckham is Jewish on his maternal grandfather's side. (Presently, Beckham and his wife have embraced the mystic Jewish offshoot of [[Kabbalah]]. Both have also obtained matching tattoos from the [[Song of Songs]] that says, in Hebrew: “I am for my beloved, and my beloved is for me, who grazes sheep in rose-like pastures.”) The Beckhams were fanatical Manchester United supporters, who would regularly travel to [[Old Trafford (football)|Old Trafford]] by coach and frequently went to away games. David was a strong cross-country runner who regular
[[destruction]] of something. '30' was widely used in [[journalism]] to mean &quot;end of story&quot;, and it is sometimes used in other contexts to signify &quot;the end&quot;. ==Gödel code== In [[mathematics]], a [[Gödel code]] was the basis for the proof of [[Gödel]]'s [[incompleteness theorem]]. Here, the idea was to map [[mathematical notation]] to a [[natural number]] (a [[Gödel number]]). ==See also== [[List of coding terms]] [[Category:Encodings]] [[da:Kode]] [[de:Code]] [[eo:Kodo]] [[es:Código]] [[fr:Code (information)]] [[hr:Kod]] [[ja:&amp;#31526;&amp;#21495;]] [[ko:&amp;#51064;&amp;#53076;&amp;#46377;]] [[nl:Code]] [[pl:Kod]] [[pt:Código]] [[ru:Кодировка]] [[sk:Kód]] [[th:&amp;#3619;&amp;#3627;&amp;#3633;&amp;#3626;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chess Pieces</title> <id>5226</id> <revision> <id>15903450</id> <timestamp>2002-04-04T15:35:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username> <id>43</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chess piece]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chess Board</title> <id>5227</id> <revision> <id>15903451</id> <timestamp>2002-04-04T15:27:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username> <id>43</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chessboard]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cheirogaleidae</title> <id>5228</id> <revision> <id>38783596</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T17:02:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MTSbot</username> <id>899034</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: lt</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Cheirogaleids | image = Katzenmaki (Chirogaleus furcifer).png | image_width = 222px | image_caption = [[Masoala Fork-crowned Lemur]] (''Phaner furcifer'') | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia | ordo = [[Primates]] | subordo = [[Strepsirhini]] | infraordo = [[Lemuriformes]] | superfamilia = '''Cheirogaleoidea''' | superfamilia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], [[1873]] | familia = '''Cheirogaleidae''' | familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], [[1873]] | subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]] | subdivision = ''[[Cheirogaleus]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Microcebus]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Giant mouse lemur|Mirza]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Hairy-eared Dwarf Mouse-lemur|Allocebus]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Phaner]]'' }} '''Cheirogaleidae''' is the family [[strepsirrhine]] [[primate]]s that contains the various dwarf and mouse lemurs. Like all other [[lemur]]s, '''cheirogaleids''' live exclusively on the island of [[Madagascar]]. This is the only family in the '''Cheirogaleoidea''' superfamily. Cheirogaleids are smaller than the other lemurs and, in fact, they are the smallest primates. They have a soft, long fur colored grey-brown to reddish on top with a generally brighter underbelly. Typically they have small ears, large, close set eyes, and long hind legs. Like all strepsirrhines they have fine claws at the second toe of the hind legs. They grow to a size of only 13 to 28 cm, with a tail that is very long, sometimes up to one and a half times as long as the body. Dwarf and mouse lemurs are [[nocturnal]] and [[arboreal]]. They are excellent climbers and can also jump far, using their long tail for balance. When on the ground (a rare occurrence) they move by hopping on their hind legs. They spend the day in tree hollows or home-made nests. Cheirogaleids are typically solitary but sometimes live together in pairs. Some species (such as the [[Lesser Dwarf Lemur]]) store fat at the hind legs and the base of the tail and hibernate. Cheirogaleids are [[omnivore]]s, eating fruits, flowers and leaves (and sometimes nectar) as well as insects, spiders and small vertebrates. The females usually have three pairs of nipples. After a meager 60 day gestation, they will bear two to four (usually two or three) young. After five to six weeks these are weaned and become fully mature near the end of their first year or sometime in their second year, depending on the species. In human care, they can live for up to 15 years, although their life expectancy in the wild is probably significantly shorter. ==Classification== * '''Superfamily Cheirogaleoidea''' ** '''Family Cheirogaleidae''' *** Genus ''[[Cheirogaleus]]'': dwarf lemurs **** ''C. medius'' group ***** [[Lesser Dwarf Lemur]], ''Cheirogaleus medius'' ***** [[Spiny Desert Dwarf Lemur]], ''Cheirogaleus adipicaudatus'' **** ''C. major'' group ***** [[Greater Dwarf Lemur]], ''Cheirogaleus major'' ***** [[Crossley’s Dwarf Lemur]], ''Cheirogaleus crossleyi'' ***** [[Small Iron-gray Dwarf Lemur]], ''Cheirogaleus minusculus'' ***** [[Large Iron-gray Dwarf Lemur]], ''Cheirogaleus ravus'' ***** [[Sibree's Dwarf Lemur]], ''Cheirogaleus sibreei'' *** Genus ''[[Microcebus]]'': mouse lemurs **** [[Gray Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus murinus'' **** [[Red-and-gray Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus griseorufus'' **** [[Ravelobe Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus ravelobensis'' **** [[Northern Rufous Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus tavaratra'' **** [[Sambirano Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus sambiranensis'' **** [[Simmons' Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus simmonsi'' **** [[Peters' Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus myoxinus'' **** [[Eastern Rufous Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus rufus'' **** [[Berthe's Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus berthae'' **** [[Goodman's Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus lehilahytsara'' *** Genus ''[[Giant mouse lemur|Mirza]]'': giant mouse lemurs **** [[Coquerel's Dwarf Lemur]] or Coquerel's Mouse Lemur, ''Mirza coquereli'' **** [[Northern Giant Mouse Lemur]], ''Mirza zaza'' *** Genus ''[[Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur|Allocebus]]'' **** [[Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur]], ''Allocebus trichotis'' *** Genus ''[[Phaner]]'': fork-crown lemurs **** [[Masoala Fork-crowned Lemur]], ''Phaner furcifer'' **** [[Pale Fork-crowned Lemur]], ''Phaner pallescens'' **** [[Pariente’s Fork-crowned Lemur]], ''Phaner parienti'' **** [[Mt. d’Ambre Fork-crowned Lemur]], ''Phaner electromontis'' {{Wikispecies|Cheirogaleoidea}} {{Wikispecies|Cheirogaleidae}} [[Category:Prosimians]] [[de:Katzenmakis]] [[fr:Cheirogaleidae]] [[lt:Nykštukiniai lemūrai]] [[nl:Dwergmaki's]] [[ja:コビトキツネザル科]] [[sv:Muslemurer]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Callitrichinae</title> <id>5229</id> <revision> <id>37515071</id> <timestamp>2006-01-31T14:02:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdr</username> <id>55814</id> </contributor> <comment>converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Callitrichinae | image = Callitrichidae-drawing.jpg | image_width = 225px | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia | ordo = [[Primate]]s | familia = [[Cebidae]] | subfamilia = '''Callitrichinae''' | subfamilia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], [[1821]] | subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]] | subdivision = ''[[Callithrix]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Leontopithecus]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Saguinus]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Callimico]]'' }} The '''Callitrichinae''' (synonym Hapalinae) are a subfamily within the family [[Cebidae]], one of the four families of [[New World monkeys]]. The subfamily includes several [[genus|genera]], including the [[marmoset]]s and [[tamarin]]s. Until recently this group of animals were regarded as a separate family, called the Callitrichidae, and this classification will still be encountered in much current literature. All callitrichines are arboreal. They are the smallest of the anthropoid (i.e. [[simian]]) [[primate]]s. They eat insects, fruit, and the sap or gum from trees; occasionally they will take small vertebrates. Callitrichines typically live in small, [[territory (animal)|territorial]] groups of about 5 or 6 animals. They are the only primate group that regularly produce twins, which constitute over 80% of births in species that have been studied. Unlike other male primates, male hapalines generally provide as much parental care as females, more in some cases. Typical social structure seems to constitute a breeding group, with several of their previous offspring living in the group and providing significant help in rearing the young. Studies in captivity, and the first field studies, suggested that the breeding group was invariably a single monogamous pair; subsequent field work on [[Brown-mantled Tamarin]]s (''Saguinus fuscicollis''), has shown that many of the groups involve multiple males, and [[polyandry]] seems to be the commonest arrangement, though monogamous pairs do occur, and so, though rarely, does [[polygyny]]. In polyandrous groups, both (or all) the mature males regularly copulate with the female, and all contribute equally to parental care. It is now thought that this flexible system, with a tendency towards polyandry, may be the typical mating system among hapalines, though until field studies on more species have been completed any generalisation must be tentative. == Species list== '''Subfamily Callitrichinae''' * Genus ''[[Callithrix]]'' ** [[Common Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) jacchus'' ** [[Black-tufted Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) penicillata'' ** [[Wied's Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) kuhlii'' ** [[White-headed Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) geoffroyi'' ** [[Buffy-headed Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) flaviceps'' ** [[Buffy-tufted Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) aurita'' ** [[Rio Acari Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) acariensis'' ** [[Manicore Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) manicorensis'' ** [[Silvery Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) argentata'' ** [[White Marmoset]], ''Callithrix
will into war with Russia, he came nearer than any Turkish sovereign before or since to breaking the power of his northern rival, whom his [[grand vizier]] [[Baltaji Mahommed Pasha]] succeeded in completely surrounding near the [[Prut River]] in 1711. In the treaty which Russia was compelled to sign, the Ottoman Empire obtained the restitution of [[Azov]], the destruction of the forts built by Russia and the undertaking that the [[tsar]] should abstain from future interference in the affairs of the [[Poland|Poles]] or the [[Cossacks]]. Discontent at the leniency of these terms was so strong at [[Constantinople]] that it nearly brought on a renewal of the war. In 1715 the [[Morea]] was taken from the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]]. This led to hostilities with [[Austria]], in which the Ottoman Empire was unsuccessful, and [[Belgrade]] fell into the hands of Austria in 1717. Through the mediation of England and the [[Netherlands]] the [[peace of Passarowitz]] was concluded in 1718, by which Turkey retained her conquests from the Venetians, but lost [[Hungary]]. A war with [[Persian Empire|Persia]] terminated in disaster, leading to a revolt of the [[Janissary|janissaries]], who deposed Ahmed in September 1730. He died in captivity six years later. Nevsehirli Damad Ibrahim Pasha directed the government from 1718 to 1730. {{Details|Nevsehirli Damad Ibrahim Pasha}} The course of the Persian war, in which the Turks had at made successive conquests with little check from the armies, though often impeded by the nature of the country the fierce spirit of the native tribes, became after a few years less favourable to Ottoman ambition. The celebrated Nadir Konli Khan (who afterwards reconquered and conquered states for himself), gained his first renown by exploits against the enemies of Shah Tahmasp. A report reached Constantinople that the lately despised Persians were victorious, and were invading the Ottoman Empire. This speedily caused excitement and tumult. Sultan Ahmet had become unpopular by reason of the excessive pomp and costly luxury in which he and his principal officers indulged; and on [[20 September]], [[1730]], a mutinous riot of seventeen janissaries, led by the Albanian Patrona Khalil, was encouraged by the citizens as well as the soldiery, till it swelled into an insurrection, before which the Sultan quailed, and gave up the throne. Ahmet voluntarily led his nephew Mahmut to the seat of sovereignty, and made obeisance to him as Padischah of the empire. He then retired to the apartments in the palace from whence his successor had been conducted, and died after a few years of confinement. The reign of Ahmet III, which had lasted for twenty-seven years, though marked by the deep disasters of the Austrian war, was, on the whole, neither inglorious nor unprosperous. The recovery of Azov and the Morea, and the conquest of part of Persia, more than counterbalanced the territory which had been given up to the Austrian Emperor at the peace of Passarowitz. Ahmet left the finances of the Ottoman Empire in a flourishing condition, which had been obtained without excessive taxation or extortionate rapacity. He was a liberal and discerning patron of literature and art; and it was in his time that the first printing press was set up in Constantinople. It was in this reign that an important change in the government of the Danubian Principaiitics was introduced. Hitherto, the [[Porte]] had employed Voivode.s, or native [[Moldavia]]n and [[Wallachia]]n nobles, to administer those provinces. But after the war with [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] in 1711, in which Prince Cantcinir betrayed the Turkish and aided the Russian interests, the Porte established the custom of deputing Greeks from Constantinople as [[Hospodar]]s, or viceroys, of Moldavia and Wallachia. These were generally selected from among the wealthy Greek families that inhabited the quarter of Constantinople called the [[Fanar]], and constituted a kind of Raya Noblesse, which supplied the Porte with functionaries in many important departments of the state. The Moldo-Wallachians called the period of their history, during which they were under Greek viceroys (and which lasted till 1821), the Fanariote period. ==References== * {{1911}} * This article inncorporates text from ''History of Ottoman Turks'' (1878) {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[Ottoman Sultan]]|before=[[Mustafa II]]|after=[[Mahmud I]]|years=1703&amp;ndash;1730}} {{end box}} [[Category:1673 births|Ahmed III]] [[Category:1736 deaths|Ahmed III]] [[Category:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire]] [[ar:أحمد الثالث]] [[de:Ahmed III.]] [[es:Ahmed III]] [[hr:Ahmed III.]] [[hu:III. Ahmed]] [[nl:Ahmet III]] [[ja:アフメト3世]] [[sr:Ахмед III]] [[sv:Ahmed III]] [[tr:III. Ahmet]] [[uk:Ахмед III]] [[zh:艾哈迈德三世]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ainu people</title> <id>1530</id> <revision> <id>41977655</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:24:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Khoikhoi</username> <id>657950</id> </contributor> <comment>format</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Ethnic group| |group=Ainu |image=[[Image:AinuGroup.JPG|320px]] Group of Ainu people, 1904 photograph. |poptime= '''50,000''' people with half or more Ainu ancestry&lt;br&gt; '''150,000''' Japanese people with some Ainu ancestry&lt;br&gt; *(''some estimates on the number of Japanese with some Ainu blood range as high as '''1,000,000'''; the exact number is unknown'')&lt;br&gt; Pre-Japanese era: ~'''50,000''', almost all pure Ainu |popplace=[[Japan]]&lt;br&gt; [[Russia]] |langs='''[[Ainu language|Ainu]]''' is the traditional language, but today somewhere between 1% and 5% of Ainu can speak it fluently, between 5% and 10% are [[passive speakers]] or [[partial speakers]], and about 50% of Ainu have a very basic command of the language |rels=[[Animism]], some are members of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] |related= Modern genetics has proven they are East Asians. They are usually grouped with the non-[[Tungus]]ic peoples of [[Sakhalin]], the [[Amur]] river valley, and the [[Kamchatka peninsula]]: *[[Nivkhs]] *[[Itelmens]] *[[Chukchis]] *[[Koryaks]] *[[Aleuts]] }} The '''Ainu''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|/ˈainu/}}, &quot;eye-noo&quot;, アイヌ / aynu) are an ethnic group [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] to [[Hokkaido]], the northern part of [[Honshu]] in Northern [[Japan]], the [[Kuril Islands]], much of [[Sakhalin]], and the southernmost third of the [[Kamchatka peninsula]]. The word &quot;ainu&quot; means &quot;human&quot; in the [[Ainu language]]; '''[[Emishi]]''', '''[[Ezo]]''' or '''[[Yezo]]''' (&amp;#34662;&amp;#22839;) are [[Japanese language|Japanese]] terms; and '''[[Utari]]''', &amp;#12454;&amp;#12479;&amp;#12522;, (meaning &quot;comrade&quot; in Ainu) is now preferred by some members. There are most likely over 150,000 Ainu today, however the exact figure is not known as many Ainu hide their origins or in many cases are not even aware of them, their parents having kept it from them so as to protect their children from racism. ==Origins== The origins of the Ainu are uncertain. Some commentators believe that they derive from an ancient proto-Asian stock that may have occupied most of Asia before the [[Han Chinese|Han]] expansion (see [[Jomon|Jomon people]]). Various other Asian [[indigenous peoples]], from the [[Ryukyu]]s to the [[Taiwanese]] are also thought to be related to them. In the early 20th century [[anthropology|anthropologists]] debated what [[Typology#Anthropology|typological classification]] (such as [[Mongoloid]] or [[Caucasoid]]) the Ainu belonged to. The typological models of [[Race (historical definitions)|racial classification]] in use at that time have since undergone significant revision, in the light of developments in fields such as [[genetics]]. Many physical characteristics which had been employed to distinguish &quot;Mongoloid&quot;, &quot;Caucasoid&quot; or other racial-types are viewed by many contemporary authorities to arise more typically from climatic or environmental selection, rather than necessary indicators of relatedness/distinctiveness. While a minority still hold to the view that race typology usefully reflects underlying biological differences, the classification of &quot;Mongoloid&quot; versus other groups is mostly seen as being problematic. ''See also [[Tocharians]] and [[Sami]]'' The prevailing mythology in Japan has been of the Ainu as a race of &quot;noble savages,&quot; a proud but reclusive culture of hunter-gatherers. This mythology became a useful defense for the Japanese expropriation of Ainu lands. In fact, the Ainu were farmers from the earliest centuries of the [[Common Era]].[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/hokkaido/ainu.html] ==North American Connection== In the late 20th Century, much speculation arose that the Ainu may have been one of the first groups to settle [[North America]]. This theory is based largely on skeletal and cultural evidence among tribes living in the western part of North America and certain parts of [[Latin America]]. It is quite possible that North America had several peoples among its early settlers--the Ainu being one of them, perhaps even the first. The most well known instance supporting this theory is probably [[Kennewick Man]]. Genetic mapping studies by [[Cavalli-Sforza]] have shown a pattern of genetic expansion from the area of the [[Sea of Japan]] towards the rest of eastern Asia and the American continent. This appears as the third most important genetic movement in Eastern Asia (after the &quot;Great expansion&quot; from the African continent, and a second expansion from the area of Northern Siberia), which would make it consistent with the early [[Jomon]] period &lt;ref&gt;&quot;The synthetic maps suggest a previously unsuspected center of expansion from the Sea of Japan but cannot indicate dates. This development could
and the [http://www.elmwoodartfest.org/ Elmwood Festival of the Arts] - bring thousands of people to the city to browse and purchase original artwork. === Architecture === [[Image:Darwin_Martin_House_-_2004.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Darwin [[Martin House]], Buffalo, New York]] Many architectural treasures exist in Buffalo, including: The country's largest intact system of parks and parkways designed by [[Frederick Law Olmsted]] and [[Calvert Vaux]], including [[Delaware Park]] which is said to be a model for Olmsted's ''Central Park'' in NYC. The [http://ah.bfn.org/a/church/28/ Guaranty Building], by [[Louis Sullivan]], was one of the first steel-supported, curtain-walled buildings in the world, and its thirteen stories made it, at the time it was built, the tallest building in Buffalo. The [[H.H. Richardson Complex]] is also located in Buffalo , originally The ''State Asylum for the Insane'' is Romanesque in style and is named for its famous designer [[Henry Hobson Richardson]]. The grounds of this hospital were also designed by Olmsted. Though currently in a state of serious disrepair, negotiations are underway to preserve this treasure. Other notable buildings: * [[Gordon Bunshaft]] designed [[Albright-Knox Art Gallery]] * [[Eliel Saarinen]] and [[Eero Saarinen]] designed [[Kleinhans Music Hall]] * [[Max Abramovitz]] designed [http://www.tbz.org/ Temple Beth Zion] * [[Alexander Phimister Proctor]] designed the ''Lions'' for the [[McKinley Monument]] The creme-de-la-creme of Buffalo architecture, however, are several buildings by [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], including the [[Martin House|Darwin Martin House]], [[Barton House|George Barton House]], [http://ah.bfn.org/a/soldiers/76/ William Heath House], [http://graycliff.bfn.org/ The Graycliff Estate], as well as the now demolished [[Larkin Administration Building]]. === Nightlife === [[Last call (bar term)|Last call]] is 4 am in Buffalo, which is special because most of the nation is 2am. Several distinct and thriving [[nightlife]] districts have grown around clusters of bars and nightclubs in the City. The most visible nightlife district is [http://www.westchippewa.com/ West Chippewa Street], between Main Street and South Elmwood Avenue, home to high-energy dance clubs, crowded bars, trendy coffehouses, a sex shop, and restaurants. Bohemian Allentown, where bars are as numerous but the atmosphere is a bit more relaxed, is a 20-minute walk to the North. Allentown has other &quot;alternative&quot; fare, such as the film-arts organization, [http://www.squeaky.org/ Squeaky Wheel], and several tattoo parlors. Another 20-minute walk north on Elmwood Avenue from Allentown is the Elmwood Strip, which runs from about Bryant and Elmwood to Elmwood and Forest. This Strip is unique, catering to many small boutiques and lacks corporations. Crowds on this strip range from college students, to adults with families. === Points of interest === * [[Buffalo and Erie County Botanical Gardens]] * [[Erie Canal]] * [[Martin House]] * [[McKinley Monument]] * [[Niagara Falls]] * [[USS Little Rock|USS Little Rock (CG-4)]] in [[Buffalo and Erie County Naval &amp; Military Park]] === Famous People === See the article on [[Famous_people_from_Buffalo,_NY|Famous people from Buffalo, New York]] for an extensive listing of many of Buffalo's Sons and Daughters ==Sports teams== &lt;b&gt;Current Teams&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt; [[Image:BuffaloBills_100.png|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Bills]], a charter team of the [[American Football League]] (1960-1969), now in the [[National Football League]]. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt; [[Image:BuffaloSabres_100.png|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Sabres]] of the [[National Hockey League]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt; [[Image:BuffaloBisons_100.png|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Bisons]] of [[Minor league baseball|Minor League Baseball's]] [[International League]], AAA team for the [[Cleveland Indians]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt; [[Image:Buff.gif|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Bandits]] of the [[National Lacrosse League]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt; [[Image:Abarapids.gif|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Rapids]] of the [[American Basketball Association (21st century)|American Basketball Association]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt; &lt;b&gt;Former Teams&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt; [[Image:BuffaloBillsAAFClogo.gif|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Bills (AAFC)|Buffalo Bills]] from [[1947]]&amp;ndash;[[1949]] and [[Buffalo Bills (AAFC)|Buffalo Bisons]] in [[1946]] of the defunct [[All-America Football Conference]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt; [[Image:buffaloblizzardlogo.gif|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Blizzard]] of the defunct [[National Professional Soccer League]] from [[1992]]&amp;ndash;[[2001]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt; [[Image:BuffaloBraves.png|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Braves]] of the [[National Basketball Association]] from [[1970]]&amp;ndash;[[1978]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt; [[Image:BuffaloDestroyers.png|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Destroyers]] of the [[Arena Football League]] from [[1999]]&amp;ndash;[[2003]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt; [[Image:Misl1.gif|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Stallions]] of the defunct [[Major Soccer League|Major Indoor Soccer League]] from [[1979]]&amp;ndash;[[1984]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt; [[Image:BuffaloStampedeRHI.gif|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Stampede]] of the defunct [[Roller Hockey International]] from [[1994]]&amp;ndash;[[1995]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt; ==Media== ===Television=== *[[WGRZ]], Channel 2 ([[NBC]]) *[[WIVB]], Channel 4 ([[CBS]]) *[[WKBW]], Channel 7 ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]) *[[WNED]], Channel 17 ([[PBS]]) *[[WNLO]], Channel 23 ([[UPN]]) *[[WNYB]], Channel 26 ([[Trinity Broadcasting Network|TBN]]) *[[WUTV]], Channel 29 ([[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]]) *[[WNYO]], Channel 49 ([[The WB]]) *[[WPXJ]], Channel 51 ([[I (TV network)|i]]) *[[WNGS]], Channel 67 ([[Independent station|Ind]]) See also [[:Category:Television stations in Buffalo]] ===Film industry=== *The film ''[[Bruce Almighty]]'' is set primarily here, but was filmed mostly in San Diego. *The film, ''[[The Natural]]'', while not set here, was mostly filmed here. *''[[Buffalo 66]]'' was set and filmed here. *The film ''[[Shadow Creature]]'' was filmed here. *The film ''[http://imdb.com/title/tt0248169/ Manna from Heaven]'' was filmed here. ==Transportation== The [[Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority]], or NFTA, operates public transit throughout the Buffalo area. The NFTA runs a number of buses throughout the city and suburbs, as well as a 6-mile [[Buffalo Metro Rail|Metro Rail]] [[light rail]] rapid transit system in the city. The NFTA also operates [[Buffalo Niagara International Airport]] and [[Niagara Falls International Airport]]. The [[Buffalo Metro Rail|Metro Rail]] is unique in that unlike most urban rail systems it is at/above ground in the downtown area and underground in the outer areas instead of the other way around. The underground portion also means that Buffalo is the smallest city in the U.S. to have a [[subway]]. The city is served by [http://www.trainweb.org/amtrakpix/stationphotos/BUF/buf.html Buffalo-Depew (Amtrak)] and [http://www.trainweb.org/amtrakpix/stationphotos/BFX/bfx.html Buffalo-Exchange Street (Amtrak)] stations. Downtown Buffalo is also served by [http://www.buffalobiketaxi.com The Buffalo Bike Taxi Co.] ==Sister cities== Buffalo has nine sister cities, as designated by [http://www.sister-cities.org Sister Cities, Inc. (SCI)]: *{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Siena]], [[Italy]] *{{flagicon|GER}} [[Dortmund]], [[Germany]] *{{flagicon|POL}} [[Rzeszow]], [[Poland]] [http://www.wnypolonia.com/buffalo-rzeszow] *{{flagicon|JPN}} [[Kanazawa, Ishikawa]], [[Japan]] *{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Tver]], [[Russia]] *{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Lille]], [[France]] *{{flagicon|ISR}} [[Kiryat Gat]], [[Israel]] *{{flagicon|GHA}} [[Cape Coast]], [[Ghana]] *{{flagicon|UKR}} [[Drohobych]], [[Ukraine]] ==References== *''Names on the Land'' by [[George R. Stewart]] (4th ed. 1983) ISBN 093853002X *''Mark Twain: A Biography'' by [[Albert Bigelow Paine]], Harper &amp; Brothers, New York, 1912 ==External links== {{Commons|Buffalo, New York}} * [http://www.ci.buffalo.ny.us/ City of Buffalo webpage] * [http://www.buffalonews.com/ ''The Buffalo News''] * [http://www.buffalo.com/ Buffalo.com - Everything Buffalo] * [http://www.visitbuffaloniagara.com/ Buffalo Niagara Convention &amp; Visitors Bureau webpage] * [http://www.GoBuffaloNiagara.com/ Buffalo Niagara Online Event Guide] * [http://ah.bfn.org/ Buffalo Architecture and History] * [http://fixbuffalo.blogspot.com/ Fix Buffalo Today!] * [http://www.buffalonian.com/history/ Histories of Western New York at ''The Buffalonian''] * [http://www.wgrz.com/enter/archtour.asp WGRZ: Architectural Tour of Buffalo] * [http://www.peterbeers.net/interests/flw_rt/New_York/new_york.htm Frank Lloyd Wright in Western New York] * [http://www.buffalomusic.org/ Buffalo Music Hall of Fame] * [http://www.buffaloresearch.com/ Buffalo Research] * [http://www.wbuf.noaa.gov/bufclifo.htm Buffalo Climate Information from NOAA] {{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.904657|-78.849405}} {{New_York}} [[Category:Buffalo, New York| ]] [[Category:All-America City]] [[Category:Erie Canal]] [[Category:Erie County, New York]] [[ca:Buffalo]] [[de:Buffalo]] [[eo:Bufalo]] [[fr:Buffalo (New York)]] [[mk:Бафало]] [[nl:Buffalo (New York)]] [[ja:バッファロー (ニューヨーク州)]] [[pl:Buffalo (Nowy Jork)]] [[pt:Buffalo]] [[sv:Buffalo, New York]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Benjamin Franklin</title> <id>3986</id> <revision> <id>42107007</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:46:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>209.133.54.175</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''Ben Franklin redirects her
. Schouhamer Immink|Kees Immink]], who also designed [[Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation|EFM]], is 6% less efficient than Toshiba's SD code, which resulted in a capacity of 4.7GB instead of SD's original 5GB. The great advantage of EFMPlus is its great resilience against disc damage such as scratches and fingerprints. The result was the DVD specification Version 1.5, announced in [[1995]] and finalized in September [[1996]]. In May 1997, the DVD Consortium was replaced by the DVD Forum , which is open to all companies. The first DVD players and discs were available in November [[1996]] in [[Japan]], March [[1997]] in the [[United States]], [[1998]] in [[Europe]] and in [[1999]] in [[Australia]]. The first pressed DVD was the movie ''[[Twister (film)|Twister]]'' in 1996. The movie had the first test for 2.1 surround sound. The first titles released in the U.S., on March 19, 1997, by Lumivision, authored by AIX Entertainment, were [[IMAX]] adaptations: ''Africa: The Serengeti'', ''Antarctica: An Adventure of a Different Nature'', ''Tropical Rainforest'', and ''Animation Greats''. By the spring of 1999 the price of a DVD player had dropped below $300 US. At that point [[Wal-Mart]] began to offer DVD players for sale, but DVDs represented only a small part of their video inventory; VHS tapes of movies made up the remainder. As of 2006 the situation is reversed; DVDs make up the bulk and VHS is a slim minority. The price of a DVD player has dropped to below the level of a typical [[VCR]] (although DVD recorders are still significantly more expensive than VCRs); a low-end player with reasonable quality can be purchased for under $35 US in many retail stores and many modern computers are sold with [[DVD-ROM]] drives. Most, but not all, movie &quot;sets&quot; or series have been released in [[box set]]s, as have some entire seasons or selected episode volumes of older and newer [[television program]]s. DVD rentals first topped those of VHS during the week of [[June 15]], [[2003]] (27.7 M rentals DVD vs. 27.3 M rentals VHS). Major U.S. retailers [[Circuit City]] and [[Best Buy]] stopped selling VHS tapes in 2002 and 2003, respectively. In June 2005, Wal-Mart and several other retailers announced plans to phase out the VHS format entirely, in favor of the more popular DVD format. However, blank VHS tapes are still widely available since DVD video recorders are significantly less common than DVD players. Many films released to theaters from [[2004]] onwards are released solely to DVD format and not to VHS format. Consumers have predicted that [[2006]] would be the final year for new releases on VHS. According to the Digital Entertainment Group (DEG), all DVD sales and rentals (films, television series, special interests, etc) totaled $21.2 billion in 2004. The sales portion of that was $15.5 billion. In comparison, the total 2004 US box office for theatrical rentals was $9.53 billion (per the National Association of Theater Owners or NATO). While the growth of theatrical films on DVD has cooled recently, that of television programs and music video has increased dramatically. In 2000, Sony released its [[PlayStation 2]] console in Japan. In addition to playing [[Computer and video games|video games]] developed for the system it was also able to play DVD movies. This proved to be a huge selling point because the PS2 cost about the same as standard DVD players but could do much more. As a result, many electronic stores that normally did not carry video game consoles carried PS2s. In keeping with this tradition, Sony has announced that it will implement one of DVD's possible successors, [[Blu-ray Disc|Blu-ray]], into its next PlayStation console currently known as the [[PlayStation 3]]. [[Microsoft]]'s [[Xbox]], released a year after the PlayStation 2, also had the capability to play DVD discs with an add-on remote control kit, cementing the DVD's place in [[video game consoles]]. [[Nintendo]]'s [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]] ordinarily cannot play DVDs but uses a modified DVD for its game media. However, one GameCube model known as the Panasonic Q (sold only in Japan) allowed for DVD playback in the GameCube. Later, when the Xboxs follow-up, the [[Xbox 360]] was released, it played dvd's without the addon. &quot;DVD&quot; was originally an [[Acronym and initialism|initialism]] for &quot;'''Digital Video Disc'''.&quot; Some members of the DVD Forum believe that it should stand for &quot;'''Digital Versatile Disc'''&quot; to reflect its widespread use for non-video applications. Toshiba, which maintains the official DVD Forum site [http://www.dvdforum.org/faq-dvdprimer.htm#1], adheres to the latter interpretation, and indeed this appeared within the copyright warnings on some of the earliest examples. However, the DVD Forum never reached a consensus on the matter, and so today the official name of the format is simply &quot;DVD&quot;; the letters do not officially stand for anything.[http://www.dvddemystified.com/dvdfaq.html] == Technical information == DVDs are made from a 0.6 mm thick disc of [[polycarbonate]] plastic coated with a much thinner reflective layer of [[aluminium]] or [[gold]]. Two such discs are glued together to form a 1.2 mm disc that can be designed to be read from one side (single sided) or both sides (double sided). The substrates are half as thick as a CD to make it possible to use a lens with a higher [[numerical aperture]] and therefore use smaller pits and narrower tracks. Discs commonly come in 8cm or 12cm diameters. A single-layer DVD can store 4.7 [[Gigabyte|GB]] (4.38 [[Gibibyte|GiB]], or 4,707,000,000 [[Byte|Bytes]]), which is around seven times as much as a standard CD-ROM. By employing a red laser at 650 nm wavelength (compared to 780 nm for CD) and a [[numerical aperture]] of 0.6 (compared to 0.45 for CD), the read-out resolution is increased by a factor 1.65. This holds for two dimensions, so that the actual physical data density increases by a factor of 3.5. DVD uses a more efficient coding method in the physical layer. CD's error correction, [[CIRC]], is replaced by a powerful [[Reed-Solomon]] product code, RS-PC; [[Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation]] (EFM) is replaced by a more efficient version, [[EFMPlus]], which uses eight-to-sixteen modulation. There is no subcode as in CD. As a result, the DVD format is 47 percent more efficient with respect to CD-ROM, which uses a &quot;third&quot; error correction layer. ===Application types=== There are a variety of application types for DVD: * [[#DVD-Video|DVD-Video]] (containing movies (video and sound)) * [[DVD-Audio]] (containing high-definition sound) * [[SACD]] (containing high-definition sound) * DVD-VR (containing recorded video and sound, usually from TV or camcorder) * DVD+VR (a variation of DVD-Video used for recording on +R and +RW discs) * PS2 DVD (containing games for [[PlayStation 2]]) * Xbox DVD (containing games for [[Xbox]]) * Xbox 360 DVD (containing games for [[Xbox 360]]) * GameCube Mini-DVD (containing games for [[Nintendo GameCube]]) * DVD-Data (containing data) ===Different Media=== The disc medium can be: * DVD-ROM: read only, manufactured by a press * [[DVD-R]]: recordable once * [[DVD-RW]]: rewritable * [[DVD-RAM]]: random access rewritable * [[DVD+R]]: recordable once * [[DVD+RW]]: rewritable * [[DVD-R DL]]: dual layer record once * [[DVD+R DL]]: dual layer record once * [[DVD-RW DL]]: dual layer rewritable * [[DVD+RW DL]]: dual layer rewritable ===Single and Dual Layer naming=== [[Image:DVD_two_kinds.jpg|thumb|right|500|Two DVDs with different bottom sides.]] The disc may have one or two sides, and one or two layers of data per side; the number of sides and layers determines the disc capacity. * ''DVD-5'': single sided, single layer, 4.7 [[gigabyte]]s (GB), or 4.38 [[Binary prefix|gibibytes]] (GiB) * ''DVD-9'': single sided, double layer, 8.5 GB (7.92 GiB) * ''DVD-10'': double sided, single layer on both sides, 9.4 GB (8.75 GiB) * ''DVD-14'': double sided, double layer on one side, single layer on other, 13.3 GB (12.3 GiB) * ''DVD-18'': double sided, double layer on both sides, 17.1 GB (15.9 GiB) There are also 8 cm DVDs (not [[MiniDVD|mini-DVD]], which usually refers to DVD-Video data on a CD) with a disc capacity of 1.5 GB. The capacity of a DVD-ROM can be visually determined by noting the number of data sides, and looking at the data side, or sides, of the disc. Double-layered sides are usually gold-colored, while single-layered sides are usually silver-colored, like a CD. Another way to identify how many layers a DVD contains is to look at the center ring on the data side(s) of the disc. If there are two barcodes, there are two layers on that side. If there is one barcode, there is only one layer. Each medium can contain any of the above content and can be any layer type. [[Image:Dvdrw 180x75.PNG|thumb|250px|right]] The [[DVD Forum]] created the official DVD-ROM/R/RW/RAM standards and the [[DVD+RW Alliance]] created the DVD+R/RW standards. Since DVD+R/RW discs are not technically DVDs as per the DVD Forum standards, they are not allowed to display the DVD logo. Instead, they display an &quot;RW&quot; logo, even if it is not rewritable, which some consider to be deceptive advertising. However, they are readable by most DVD drives, so they are commonly referred to as DVD+R and DVD+RW. The &quot;+&quot; (plus) and &quot;-&quot; (dash) are similar technical standards and are partially compatible. As of 2005, both formats are equally popular, with about half of the industry supporting &quot;+&quot;, and the other half &quot;-&quot;. Around 90% of DVD readers (drives and player) can read the recordable formats, with DVD-R having the best overall compatibility in independent tests. Almost all DVD writers can write both formats and carry both the +RW and DVD-R/RW logos. Unlike compact discs, where sound (CDDA, [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]]) is stored in a fundamentally different fashi
hoping to demoralize the opposing players while exciting their own, as well as settling personal scores. Both players in an altercation receive five-minute major penalties for fighting. The player deemed to be the &quot;instigator&quot; of an NHL fight is penalized an additional two minutes for instigating, plus a ten-minute misconduct penalty. This so-called instigator rule is highly controversial in NHL hockey: many coaches, sportswriters, players and fans feel it prevents players from effectively policing the objectionable behavior of their peers, which is often cleverly hidden from referees. They point to less extreme on-ice violence during the era before the rule was introduced. [[Toronto Maple Leafs]] owner [[Conn Smythe]] famously observed that &quot;If you can't beat 'em in the alley you can't beat 'em on the ice.&quot; ==Periods and overtime== A game consists of three ''periods'' of twenty minutes each, the clock running only when the puck is in play. In international play, the teams change ends for the second period, again for the third period, and again after ten minutes of the third period. In many North American leagues, including the NHL, the last change is omitted. Various procedures are used if a game is tied. In tournament play, as well as in the NHL playoffs, North Americans favor ''sudden death [[Overtime (ice hockey)|overtime]]'', in which the teams continue to play 20 minute periods until a goal is scored. Up until the 1999-00 season regular season NHL games were settled with a single 5 minute sudden death period with 5 players (plus a goalie) per side, with the winner awarded 2 points in the standings and the loser 0 points. In the event of a tie , each team was awarded 1 point. From 1999-00 until 2005-06 the [[National Hockey League]] decided ties by playing a single five-minute sudden death overtime period with each team having 4 players (plus a goalie) per side to &quot;open-up&quot; the game. In the event of a tie, each team would still receive 1 point in the standings but in the event of a victory the winning team would be awarded 2 points in the standings and the losing team 1 point. International play and several North American professional leagues, including the NHL (in the regular season), now use an overtime period followed by a [[Overtime (ice hockey)#Shoot out|penalty shootout]]. If the score remains tied after an extra overtime period, the subsequent shootout consists of five (or three) players from each team taking [[Penalty shot (ice hockey)|penalty shot]]s. After these ten (or six) total shots, the team with the most goals is awarded the victory. If the score is still tied, the shootout then proceeds to a ''sudden death'' (actually sudden victory) format. Regardless of the number of goals scored during the shootout by either team, the final score recorded will give the winning team one more goal than the score at the end of regulation time. In the NHL if a team is decided by a shootout the winning team is awarded 2 points in the standings and the losing team is awarded 1. Ties no longer occur in the NHL. ==Women's ice hockey== [[Image:Womenplayinghockey.jpg|right|thumb|Women playing hockey at [[Rideau Hall]] circa. 1890 (earliest known image of women's hockey)]] Ice hockey is one of the fastest growing women's sports in the world, with the number of participants increasing 400 percent in the last 10 years.{{ref|strategis.ic.gc.ca.870}} While there are not as many organized leagues for women as there are for men, there exist leagues of all levels, including the [[National Women's Hockey League]], [[Western Women's Hockey League]], and various European leagues; as well as university teams, national and [[Olympics|Olympic]] teams, and [[recreation]]al teams. There have been nine [[IIHF World Women Championships]]. The chief difference between women's and men's ice hockey is that bodychecking is not allowed in women's ice hockey. After the 1990 Women's World Championship, bodychecking was eliminated because women in many countries do not have the size and mass seen in North American players. There are many who feel that the relative lack of physical play is a detriment to its popularity among the mainstream hockey public. One woman, [[Manon Rhéaume]], appeared as a goaltender for the [[Tampa Bay Lightning]] in preseason games against the [[St. Louis Blues (hockey)|St. Louis Blues]] and the [[Boston Bruins]], and in 2003 [[Hayley Wickenheiser]] signed with the [[Kirkkonummi Salamat]] in the [[Finland|Finnish]] men's [[Suomi-sarja]] league. Several women have competed in North American minor leagues, including goaltenders [[Kelly Dyer]], [[Erin Whitten]], Manon Rhéaume, and forward [[Angela Ruggeiro]]. ==Sledge hockey== '''Sledge hockey''' is a form of ice hockey designed for players with physical [[disability|disabilities]] in their lower bodies. The players ride double-bladed [[sled|sledges]] using sticks which have a spike on one end for propulsion and a blade on the other end for directing the puck. The rules are very similar to [[International Ice Hockey Federation|IIHF]] ice hockey rules. ====Sport description==== [[Sledge hockey]] is an innovative team sport that incorporates the same rules and discipline structure as regular ice hockey. In sledge hockey, players use their sticks not only to pass, stickhandle and shoot the puck but also to maneuver their sledges. [[Canada]] is the most recognized international leader in the development of the sport of sledge hockey and equipment for players. Much of the equipment for the sport was first developed in Canada, such as sledge hockey sticks laminated with [[fiberglass]], as well as aluminum shafts with hand carved insert blades and special aluminum sledges with regulation skate blades. ===History of sledge hockey=== Sledge hockey was invented by three [[Sweden|Swedish]] wheelchair athletes on a frozen lake at a rehabilitation centre in [[Stockholm]] in 1961. The game was not a instant success, and after only a couple of years of development, five teams competed for the Stockholm City Championship. The Swedish players subsequently introduced the sport to their [[Norway|Norwegian]] neighbors and regular matches between respective national teams ensued. Norway in turn introduced the sport to [[British]] wheelchair athletes. In the early 1980s one of the inventors, [[Rolf Johansson]], a gold medal Paralympian in [[track wheelchair]], gave one of his hockey sledges to [[Dick Loiselle]], the former director of the [[1976 Winter Olympics]] in [[Montreal]]. Mr. Johansson did so under the condition that Mr. Loiselle introduce sledge hockey in Canada. As a result of rapid growth of the sport, Sledge Hockey of Canada (SHOC) was created in 1993 and given the mandate by the Government of Canada (Sport Canada) to be the national sport federation responsible to coordinate, develop and promote the sport of sledge hockey in Canada. In 1994, sledge hockey was introduced as a demonstration sport at the [[1994 Winter Paralympics|Paralympic Winter Games]] in [[Lillehammer]], [[Norway]]. The sport became a full medal event at the [[1998 Winter Paralympics]] in [[Nagano]], [[Japan]]. ==International competition== The annual men's Ice Hockey World Championships are highly regarded by Europeans, but they are less important to North Americans because they coincide with the [[Stanley Cup]] playoffs. Consequently, Canada and the United States have never been able to field their best possible teams because many of their players are playing for the Stanley Cup. Furthermore, for many years professionals were barred from play, so Canada and the United States were further hampered. Now that many Europeans play in the NHL, the world championships no longer represent the best of any nation's players. Hockey has been played at the Winter Olympics since 1924 (and at the summer games in 1920). Canada won six of the first seven gold medals. The [[Soviet Union|USSR]] won all but two Olympic ice hockey gold medals from 1956 to 1988, and won a final time as the [[Unified Team]] at the [[1992 Winter Olympics|1992 Albertville Olympics]]. Since all players in the communist system were &quot;amateurs,&quot; the USSR's elite national team was the best the country had to offer, while the best Americans, Swedes, Finns, and Canadians were professionals and thus barred from [[Olympics|Olympic]] competition. Nonetheless, U.S. amateur college players defeated the heavily favored Soviet squad on the way to winning the [[gold medal]] at the [[1980 Winter Olympics|1980 Lake Placid Olympics]]. This &quot;[[Miracle on Ice]]&quot; launched a surge of newfound popularity for a game about which many Americans had not cared much. The United States won their first gold medal in 1960. The [[1972 Summit Series]] established [[Canada]] and the [[USSR]] as a major international ice hockey rivalry. It was followed by five [[Canada Cup]] tournaments, where the best players from every hockey nation could play. This tournament later became the [[World Cup of Hockey]], played in 1996 and 2004, Canada won in 2004 and the U.S. in 1996. Since 1998, NHL professionals have played in the Olympics as well, so that the best in the world have had more opportunities to face off. There have been nine women's world championships, beginning in 1990. Women's hockey has been played at the Olympics since 1998. Currently Canada and the US dominate the world scene. All world championship and Olympic finals have involved at least one of the two countries. The [[2006 Olympics]] marks first world or Olympic championship final that did not involve both countries. ==Hockey in popular culture== [[Image:Lisa on Ice.png|thumb|250px|Lisa and Bart Simpson attempt to daunt each other before their game in ''Lisa on Ice'']] Like all of the major sports, hockey plays a major part in American popular culture. Though it is the least popular of the four professional sports in the US, a n
thus recovering initial components which made the battery work. ===Solid state Lithium battery=== Most of the batteries work using an [[aqueous]] electrolyte or a moist electrolyte paste instead, however a solid state battery operates using a solid electrolyte. Solid state [[lithium]] batteries are an example of this, where a solid Lithium bar acts as the [[anode]], a bar of [[Lithium sulfide]] or [[Vanadium oxide]] acts as the [[cathode]] and a [[polymer]], allowing the passage of [[ions]] and not [[electrons]], serves as the electrolyte. The advantage of this kind of battery from others is that Lithium possess the highest negative value of standard reduction potential. It is also a [[light metal]] and therefore less mass is required to generate 1 [[faraday constant|mole of electrons]]. This battery is rechargeable and it can provide a [[direct current]] of about 3 [[Volts|V]]. Although solid state batteries are frowned upon nowadays, it is likely they will someday become a reliable source of [[electricity]]. ===Fuel cells=== {{Main|Fuel cell}} [[Fossil fuels]] are used on [[power plants]] to supply electrical needs of a certain area, however the conversion of them into electricity is a low efficient process, in fact the most efficient electrical power plant it may convert into electricity about 40[[percentage|%]] of the original [[chemical energy]] when [[combustion|burned]] or processed. To enhance electrical production, scientists developed fuel cells where [[combustion]] reactions are stimulated by electrochemical methods, thus requiring continuous replenishment of the [[reactants]] consumed. The most popular is the oxygen-hydrogen fuel cell, where two [[inert electrode|inert–electrodes]] ([[porous]] electrodes of [[Nickel]] and [[Nickel oxide]]) are placed in an [[electrolytic solution]] such as hot [[caustic potash]], in both compartments (anode and cathode) gaseous [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] are bubbled into solution. Oxygen-hydrogen fuel cell reactions are shown bellow: :&lt;math&gt;Anode: 2H_{2}(g)+ 4OH^{-}(aq)\rightarrow 4H_{2}O(l)+4e^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;Cathode: O_{2}(g)+ 2H_{2}O(l) + 4e^{-}\rightarrow 4OH^{-}(aq)\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Overall reaction:} 2H_{2}(g) + O_{2}(g)\rightarrow 2H_{2}O(l)\,&lt;/math&gt; The overall reaction is some-like to [[hydrogen]] [[combustion]], differing on oxidation and reduction took place in [[anode]] and [[cathode]] separately, similar to the electrode used in the cell for measuring standard reduction potential having a double function acting as [[electrical conductors]] providing a surface required to decomposition of the [[molecules]] into [[atoms]] before electron transferring, thus named [[Electrocatalyst|electrocatalysts]]. [[Platinum]], [[nickel]], [[rhodium]] are good electrocatalysts. ==Corrosion== {{Main|Corrosion}} Corrosion is the term applied to [[metal]] [[rust]] caused by an electrochemical process. The most common is the [[iron]] corrosion, other examples include, [[silver]] [[mist|misted]] and greenish-like layer may appear over [[brass]] and [[copper]]. The cost of replacing metals lost to corrosion is in the multi-billions of [[american dollar|dollars]] per year. ===Iron corrosion=== [[Image:Iron-rusting-scheme.PNG|thumb|270px|right|Diagram showing a water [[drop|droplet]] over an iron surface. Electrochemical mechanisms involved develop iron rusting process.]] For iron rust to occur the metal has to be in contact with [[oxygen]] and [[water]], although [[chemical reaction|chemical reactions]] for this process are some complex and not all of them have been completely understood, it is believed the causes are the following: #Electron transferring (Reduction-Oxidation) ##One surface of the metal acts as the anode where the oxidation occurs. ###:&lt;math&gt;Fe(s)\rightarrow Fe^{2+}(aq) + 2e^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt; ##[[Electrons]] are transferred from [[iron]] reducing oxygen in the [[atmosphere]] into [[water (molecule)|water]] on the cathode, which is placed in another region of the metal. ###:&lt;math&gt;O_{2}(g) + 4H^{+}(aq) + 4e^{-} \rightarrow 2H_{2}O(l)\,&lt;/math&gt; ##Global reaction for the process: ##:&lt;math&gt;2Fe(s) + O_{2}(g) + 4H^{+}(aq) \rightarrow 2Fe^{2+}(aq) + 2H_{2}O(l)\,&lt;/math&gt; ##Standard [[emf]] for iron rusting: ###:&lt;math&gt;E^{o}=E^{o}_{cathode}-E^{o}_{anode}\,&lt;/math&gt; ###:&lt;math&gt;E^{o}=1.23V-(-0.44V)=1.67V\,&lt;/math&gt; Iron corrosion takes place on acid medium; [[Proton|H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;]] [[ions]] come from reaction between [[carbon dioxide]] in the atmosphere and water, forming [[carbonic acid]]. Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; ions oxides, following this equation: :&lt;math&gt;4Fe^{2+}(aq) + O_{2}(g) + (4+2x)H_{2}O(l) \rightarrow 2Fe_{2}O_{3}.xH_{2}O + 8H^{+}(aq)&lt;/math&gt; [[Iron(III) oxide]] [[hydrated]] is known as rust. Water associated with iron oxide it varies, thus chemical representation is presented as &lt;math&gt;Fe_{2}O_{3}.xH_{2}O\,&lt;/math&gt;. The [[electric circuit]] works as passage of electrons and ions occurs, thus if an electrolyte is present it will facilitate [[oxidation]], this explains why rusting is quicker on [[salt water]]. ===Corrosion of coinage metals=== [[Coinage metal|Coinage metals]], such as copper and silver, can also slowly corrode. At standard temperature and pressure, a [[patina]] of green-blue [[copper carbonate]] forms on the surface of [[copper]]. [[Silver]] [[cutlery]] that is in contact with food can develop a layer of [[Silver sulfide]]. ===Prevention of Corrosion=== Attempts to save a metal from becoming anodic are of two general types. Anodic regions dissolve and destroy the structural integrity of the metal. While it is almost impossible to prevent [[anode]]/[[cathode]] formation, if a [[Insulator|non-conducting]] material covers the metal contact with the [[electrolyte]] is not possible and corrosion will not occur. ====Coating==== Metals are [[coat|coated]] on its surface with [[paint]] or some other non-conducting coating. This prevents the [[electrolyte]] from reaching the metal surface '''IF''' the coating is complete. [[Scratch|Scratches]] exposing the metal will corrode with the region under the paint, adjacent to the scratch, to be [[anode|anodic]]. Other prevention is called ''[[passivation]]'' where a metal is coated with another metal such as [[tin can]]. Tin is a metal that rapidly corrodes to form a mono-molecular [[oxide]] coating that prevents further corrosion of the tin. The tin prevents the electrolyte from reaching the base metal, usually [[steel]] ([[iron]]). However, if the tin coating is scratched the iron becomes anodic and the can corrodes rapidly. ====Sacrificial anodes==== A method commonly used to protect a structural metal is to attach a metal which is more anodic than the metal to be protected. This forces the structural metal to be [[cathodic]], thus spared corrosion. It is called ''&quot;sacrificial&quot;'' because the [[anode]] dissolves and has to be replaced periodically. [[Zinc]] bars are attached at various locations on steel [[ship]] [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]] to render the ship hull [[cathode|cathodic]]. The zinc bars are replaced periodically. Other metals, such as [[magnesium]], would work very well but zinc is the least expensive useful metal. To protect pipelines, buried or exposed an ingot of magnesium (or zinc) is [[bury|buried]] beside the [[pipeline]] and [[wire|connected electrically]] to the pipe above ground. The pipeline is forced to be a cathode and is protected. The magnesium anode is sacrificed. At intervals new [[ingot|ingots]] are buried to replace those lost. ==Electrolysis== {{Main|Electrolysis}} Spontaneous redox reactions produces electricity, thus passage of electrons through a wire in the [[electric circuit]]. Electrolysis requires an external source of [[electrical energy]] to induce a chemical reaction, this process takes place in a compartment called [[electrolytic cell]]. Principles involved on electrolysis are the same as featured on electrochemical cells. ===Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride=== [[Image:Downs sodium productioncell.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Down's cell diagram.]] [[Sodium chloride]] when molten it can be electrolysed to yield metallic form of [[sodium]] and gaseous [[chlorine]]. Industrially this process takes place in a special cell named Down's cell. The cell is connected to a battery, allowing [[electrons]] [[migration]] from the battery to the electrolytic cell. Reactions that take place at Down's cell are the following: :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Anode (oxidation): }2Cl^{-} \rightarrow Cl_{2}(g) + 2e^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Cathode (reduction): }2Na^{+}(l) + 2e^{-} \rightarrow 2Na(l)\,&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Overall reaction: }2Na^{+} + Cl^{-}(l) \rightarrow 2Na(l) + Cl_{2}(g)\,&lt;/math&gt; This process can yield industrial amounts of metallic sodium and gaseous chlorine, and is widely used on [[mineral dressing]] and [[metallurgy]] [[industry|industries]]. Standard [[emf]] for this process is approximately -4 [[V]] indicating an non-spontaneous process. In order this reaction to occur the battery should provide at least a potential of 4V. However, on mineral refining industry, higher voltages are used, due to low efficiency on the process. ===Electrolysis of water=== [[Image:Electrolysis hoffman.PNG|thumb|190px|Diagram of a Hofmann voltameter, showing electrolysis of water.]] {{Main|Electrolysis of water}} [[Water]] at standard temperature and pressure conditions doesn't decompose into [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] [[Spontaneous process|spontaneously]] as the [[Gibbs free energy]] for the process at standard conditions is a higher positive value, about &lt;math&gt;474.4 kJ\,&lt;/math&gt; However a special [[laboratory glassware]] has been designed for this purpose called [[Hofmann voltameter]] where a pair of inert [[electrodes]] usually made of [[platinum]] acts as anode and cath
d Boy]]'' (1970) ** ''[[A Soldier Erect]]'' (1970) ** ''[[A Rude Awakening]]'' (1978) * ''The Moment of Eclipse'' (1971: short story collection) * ''[[Frankenstein Unbound (novel)|Frankenstein Unbound]]'' (1973) A 21st century scientist, a creator of a technological monster himself, is transported to 19th century Switzerland where he encounters both [[Victor Frankenstein|Frankenstein]] and [[Mary Shelley]]. It was the basis for the somewhat flawed 1990 [[Frankenstein Unbound|film]] of the same title, directed by [[Roger Corman]]. * ''The 80 minute Hour'' (1974) * ''[[The Malacia Tapestry]]'' (1976) * ''Brothers of the Head'' (1977) This was a large-format book, illustrated by [[Ian Pollock]], telling the strange story of the rock stars Tom and Barry Howe, [[Siamese twins]] with a third, dormant head, which eventually starts to awaken. * ''Last Orders and Other Stories'' (1977) * ''Pile'' (1979; Poem) * ''New Arrivals, Old Encounters'' (1979) * ''Moreau's Other Island'' (1980) * The Helliconia Trilogy ** ''[[Helliconia Spring]]'' (1982) ** ''[[Helliconia Summer]]'' (1983) ** ''[[Helliconia Winter]]'' (1985) * ''Seasons in Flight'' (1984) * ''Courageous New Planet'' (c. 1984) * ''The Year before Yesterday'' (1987); A fix-up of ''Equator'' from 1958 combined with ''The Impossible Smile'' from 1965. * ''Ruins'' (1987) * ''Forgotten Life'' (1988) * '' A Tupolev too Far'' (1994) * ''[[Somewhere East of Life: Another European Fantasia]]'' (1994) * ''The Secret of This Book'' (1995) * ''When the Feast is Finished'' (with Margaret Aldiss) (1999) * ''White Mars Or, The Mind Set Free'' (1999) * ''Supertoys Last All Summer Long and Other Stories of Future Time'' (2001) ''the title story was the basis for the [[Steven Spielberg]] film ''[[A.I. (movie)|A.I.]]'' * ''Super-State'' (2002) * ''Affairs at Hampden Ferrers'' (2004) * ''Jocasta'' (2005) === Poetry === * ''Home Life With Cats'' (1992) * ''At The Caligula Hotel'' (1995) * ''Songs From The Steppes Of Central Asia'' (1995) * ''A Plutonian Monologue on His Wife's Death '' (2000) * ''At A Bigger House'' (2002) * ''The Dark Sun Rises'' (2002) === Non-Fiction === * ''Cities and Stones - A Traveller's Yugoslavia'' (1966) * ''The Shape of Further Things'' (1970) * ''Item Eighty Three'' (with Margaret Aldiss) (1972): a comprehensive bibliography of all books and short works published to that date. (The book is number 83 in its own list). * ''Billion Year Spree: The History of Science Fiction'' (1973) in which he argues that [[Mary Shelley]]'s [[Frankenstein]] was the first true science fiction novel. Revised and expanded as ''Trillion Year Spree'' (with [[David Wingrove]])(1986) * ''Hell's Cartographers'' (1975, edited with Harry Harrison): a collection of short autobiographical pieces by a number of science fiction writers, including Aldiss. The title is a reference to Kingsley Amis's book about science fiction, ''New Maps of Hell'' * ''The Pale Shadow Of Science'' (1986) * ''This World and Nearer Ones: Essays exploring the familiar'' (1979) * ''The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy'' (1995) * ''The Twinkling of an Eye or My Life as an Englishman'' (1998) * ''Art after Apogee: The Relationships between an Idea, a Story, a Painting'' (with Rosemary Phipps) (2000) * ''Bury My Heart in W.H. Smith's - A Writing Life'' - an autobiography ==External links== * [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/5.01/ffsupertoys_pr.html Supertoys Last All Summer Long] story * [http://www.brianwaldiss.com Official Website] * {{isfdb name|id=Brian_W._Aldiss|name=Brian W. Aldiss}} * {{contemporary writers|id=01J29L511112620228}} * {{iblist name|id=340|name=Brian Aldiss}} * [http://freesfonline.de/authors/aldiss.html Brian Aldiss's online fiction] at ''Free Speculative Fiction Online'' * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4204853,00.html Guardian newspaper profile] *[http://wiredforbooks.org/brianaldiss/ Two Audio Interviews with Brian Aldiss] from 1984 (26 min. 25 sec.) and 1986 (44 min. 14 sec.), RealAudio [[Category:1925 births|Aldiss, Brian]] [[Category:British World War II veterans|Aldiss, Brian]] [[Category:Nebula Grand Masters|Aldiss, Brian]] [[Category:English science fiction writers|Aldiss, Brian]] [[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Aldiss, Brian]] [[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Aldiss, Brian]] [[Category:Natives of Norfolk|Aldiss]] [[Category:Living people|Aldiss, Brian]] [[da:Brian Aldiss]] [[de:Brian Aldiss]] [[es:Brian W. Aldiss]] [[fr:Brian Aldiss]] [[it:Brian Aldiss]] [[nl:Brian W. Aldiss]] [[ja:ブライアン・オールディス]] [[pl:Brian Aldiss]] [[fi:Brian Aldiss]] [[sv:Brian Aldiss]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>British public houses</title> <id>4562</id> <revision> <id>15902824</id> <timestamp>2003-02-01T03:28:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mintguy</username> <id>3295</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Public house]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Public house]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Battle of Jutland</title> <id>4563</id> <revision> <id>41702354</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:00:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cosal</username> <id>153219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* References */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict |conflict=Battle of Jutland |partof=[[World War I]]| |image=[[Image:Grand fleet jutland.jpg|300px|The British Grand Fleet at the Battle of Jutland]]| |caption=The British Grand Fleet at the Battle of Jutland |date=[[31 May]] [[1916]]&amp;ndash;[[1 June]] [[1916]] |place=Near [[Denmark]], in the [[North Sea]]| |result=German tactical victory&lt;br&gt;British strategic victory |combatant1=[[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|20px]] [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] |combatant2=[[Image:Flag of the German Empire.svg|20px]] [[German Empire]] |commander1=[[John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe|Sir John Jellicoe]], &lt;br&gt; [[David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty|Sir David Beatty]] |commander2=[[Reinhard Scheer]], &lt;br&gt; [[Franz von Hipper]] |strength1=28 [[battleship]]s, &lt;br&gt; 9 [[battlecruiser]]s, &lt;br&gt; 8 [[armoured cruiser]]s,&lt;br /&gt;26 light cruisers,&lt;br /&gt;78 destroyers |strength2=16 battleships, &lt;br&gt; 5 battlecruisers, &lt;br&gt; 6 pre-dreadnoughts, &lt;br&gt; 11 light cruisers, &lt;br&gt; 61 torpedo-boats |casualties1=6,094 killed &lt;br&gt; 510 wounded &lt;br&gt; 177 captured &lt;br&gt; 3 battlecruisers &lt;br&gt; 3 armoured cruisers &lt;br&gt; 8 destroyers &lt;br&gt; (115,025 tons sunk) |casualties2=2,551 killed &lt;br&gt; 507 wounded &lt;br&gt; 1 battlecruiser &lt;br&gt; 1 pre-dreadnought &lt;br&gt; 4 light cruisers &lt;br&gt; 5 torpedo-boats &lt;br&gt; (61,180 tons sunk) }} {{Campaignbox North Sea 1914-1918}} The '''Battle of Jutland''' ([[Danish language|Danish]]: ''Søslaget ved Jylland''/''Søslaget om Skagerrak''; [[German language|German]]: ''Skagerrakschlacht'' (''Battle of the [[Skagerrak]]'')), was the largest [[naval battle]] of [[World War I]], and the only full-scale clash of [[battleship]]s in that war. It was fought on [[May 31]]&amp;ndash;[[June 1]], [[1916]], in the [[North Sea]] near [[Jutland]], the mainland of [[Denmark]]. The combatants were the [[Kaiserliche Marine]]'s [[High Seas Fleet]], commanded by [[Vice Admiral]] [[Reinhard Scheer]], and the [[Royal Navy]]'s [[British Grand Fleet|Grand Fleet]], commanded by [[Admiral]] [[John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe|Sir John Jellicoe]]. The Germans planned to use Vice Admiral [[Franz von Hipper]]'s scouting group of five modern battlecruisers to lure Vice Admiral [[David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty|Sir David Beatty]]'s [[battlecruiser]] squadrons into the path of the main German battle [[naval fleet|fleet]] and so destroy them. But the British had learned from signal intercepts that a major fleet operation was in prospect, and on [[30 May]] Jellicoe sailed with the Grand Fleet to rendezvous with Beatty. On the afternoon of [[31 May]], Beatty and Hipper encountered each other, and in a running battle to the south Hipper drew the British into the path of the High Seas Fleet. Beatty turned and fled towards the Grand Fleet and from 18:30 until nightfall at about 20:30 the two huge fleets &amp;mdash; 250 ships &amp;mdash; were heavily engaged. Fourteen British and eleven German ships were sunk with great loss of life. Jellicoe tried to cut the Germans off from their base in the hope of continuing the battle in the morning, but under cover of darkness Scheer crossed the wake of the British fleet and returned to port. Both sides claimed victory. The British had lost more ships and many more sailors, but Scheer's plan of destroying Beatty's squadrons had failed. For the remainder of the war, apart from brief sorties in August 1916 and April 1918, the High Seas Fleet stayed in port. They continued to pose a threat that required the British to keep their battleships concentrated in the North Sea, but they never again contested control of the seas. Instead, the German Navy turned its efforts and resources to [[unrestricted submarine warfare]]. ==Background== [[Image:British Grand Fleet 2.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[British Grand Fleet]] in parallel columns steaming in line ahead]] ===Naval tactics in 1916=== The general idea was that a fleet approaching battle should be in parallel columns moving in line ahead, as in this formation a fleet could maneuver with relative ease. Several short columns could change their heading faster than a single long column while maintaining formation. Also signals made with [[flag]]s or [[searchlight]]s from the flagship (usually placed at the head of the center column) could be seen by many ships. In a single column it would often take 10 minutes or more for a signal to be passed from the flagship at the front of the column to the last sh
ding to Scandinavian traditions. The Polish archaeologist Tomasz Skorupka states that a migration from Scandinavia is regarded as a matter of certainty: [[Image:Stonecircle.JPG|thumb|400px|The stone circle was one of the Scandinavian burial traditions used by the Goths in [[Pomerania]]]] :''Despite many controversial hypotheses regarding the location of Scandia (for example, in the island of [[Gotland]]ia and the provinces of [[Westrogothia|Västergotland]] and [[Ostrogothia|Östergotland]]), the fact that the Goths arrived on today's Polish land from the North after crossing the Baltic Sea by boats is certain.''[http://www.muzarp.poznan.pl/muzeum/muz_eng/wyst_czas/Goci_katalog/index_kat.html] However, the Gothic culture also appears to have had continuity from earlier cultures in the area[http://www.muzarp.poznan.pl/archweb/gazociag/title5.htm], suggesting that the immigrants mixed with earlier populations, perhaps providing their separate aristocracy. The Oxford scholar Heather suggests that it was a relatively small migration from Scandinavia (1996:25). This scenario would make their migration across the Baltic similar to many other population movements in history, such as the [[Anglo-Saxons#The &quot;Anglo-Saxon invasion&quot; and genetic history|Anglo-Saxon Invasion]], where migrants have imposed their own culture and language on an indigenous one. The Willenberg/Wielbark culture shifted south-eastwards towards the [[Black Sea]] area from the mid-2nd century. It was the oldest part of the Wielbark culture, located west of the Vistula and which had Scandinavian burial traditions, that pulled up its stakes and moved[http://www.muzarp.poznan.pl/muzeum/muz_eng/wyst_czas/Goci_katalog/index_kat.html]. In the Ukraine, they imposed themselves as the rulers of the local, probably Slavic, [[Zarubintsy culture]] forming the new [[Chernyakhov Culture]] (ca [[200]] - ca [[400]]). There is archaeological and historical evidence of continued contacts between the Goths and the Scandinavians during their migrations. === Linguistics === According to at least one theory, there are closer linguistic connections between [[Gothic language|Gothic]] and [[Old Norse]] than between Gothic and the [[West Germanic languages]] (see [[East Germanic languages]] and [[Gothic language|Gothic]]). Moreover, there were two tribes that probably are closely related to the Goths and remained in Scandinavia, the [[Gotlander]]s and the [[Geats]], and these tribes were considered to be Goths by Jordanes (see [[Scandza]]). The names ''Geats'', ''Goths'' and ''Gutar'' (Gotlanders) are three versions of the same tribal name. ''Geat'' was originally [[Proto-Germanic]] *''Gautoz'' and ''Goths'' and ''Gutar'' were *''Gutaniz''. According to Andersson (1996), *''Gautoz'' and *''Gutaniz'' are two ablaut grades of a Proto-Germanic word (*''geutan'') with the meaning &quot;to pour&quot; (modern Swedish ''gjuta'', modern German ''giessen'') designating the tribes as &quot;pourers of semen&quot;, i.e. &quot;men, people&quot;. [[Gapt]], the earliest Gothic hero, recorded by [[Jordanes]], is generally regarded as a corruption of ''Gaut''. A compound name, ''Gut-þiuda'', the &quot;Gothic people&quot;, appears in the ''Gothic Calendar'' (''aikklesjons fullaizos ana '''gutþiudai''' gabrannidai''). Besides the Goths, this way of naming a tribe is only found in Sweden (see [[Suiones]] and [[Suiþioð]]). Etymologically, the name of the Goths identical to that of the ''Gutar'', the inhabitants of [[Gotland]], and island in the [[Baltic Sea]]. The number of similarities that existed between the [[Gothic language]] and [[Old Gutnish]], made the prominent linguist [[Elias Wessén]] consider Old Gutnish to be a form of Gothic. The most famous example is that both [[Gutnish language|Gutnish]] and [[Gothic language|Gothic]] used the word ''lamb'' for both young and adult sheep. Still, some claim that [[Gutnish language|Gutnish]] is not closer to Gothic than any other Germanic dialect. The fact is that virtually all of those phonetic and grammatical features that characterize the [[North Germanic languages]] as a separate branch of the [[Germanic]] language family (not to mention the features that distinguish various [[Norse]] dialects) seem to have evolved at a later stage than the one preserved in Gothic. Gothic in turn, while being an extremely archaic form of Germanic in most respects, has nevertheless developed a certain number of unique features that it shares with no other Germanic language (see [[Gothic language]]). However, this does not exclude the possibility of the Goths, the Gotlanders and the Geats being related as tribes. Similarly, the Saxon dialects of Germany are hardly closer to [[Anglo-Saxon]] than any other West Germanic language that hasn't undergone the High German consonant shift (see [[Grimm's law]]), but the tribes themselves are definitely identical. The Jutes (Dan. jyder) of Jutland (Dan. Jylland, in Western Danmark) are at least etymologically identical to the [[Jutes]] that came from that region and invaded Britain together with the Angles and the Saxons in the 5th century AD. Nevertheless, there are no remaining written sources to associate the Jutes of Jutlandia with anything but North Germanic dialects, or the Jutes of Britain with anything but West Germanic dialects. Thus, language is not always the best criterion for tribal or ethnic tradition and continuity. The Gotlanders (''Gutar'') themselves had oral traditions of a mass migration towards southern Europe, written down in the [[Gutasaga]]. If the facts are related, that would be a unique case of a tradition that survived in more than a thousand years and that actually pre-dates most of the major splits in the Germanic language family. ==Symbolic meaning== In Medieval and Modern Spain, the Visigoths were thought to be the origin of the [[Spanish nobility]] (compare [[Gobineau]] for a similar French idea). Somebody acting with arrogance would be said to be &quot;''haciéndose de los godos''&quot; (&quot;making himself to come from the Goths&quot;). Because of this, in [[Chile]], [[Argentina]] and the [[Canary Islands]], ''godo'' was an [[ethnic slur]] used against European Spaniards, who in the early colony period would feel superior to the people born locally (''[[Spanish Criollo peoples|criollos]]''). This claim of Gothic origins led to a clash with the Swedish delegation at the [[Council of Basel]], [[1434]]. Before the assembled [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s and delegations could undertake the theological discussions, they had to decide how to sit during the proceedings. The delegations from the more prominent nations were to sit closest to the [[Pope]], and there were also disputes about who was to have the finest chairs and who was to have their chairs on mats. In some cases they compromised so that some would have half a chair leg on the rim of a mat. In this infected conflict, the bishop of [[Diocese of Växjö|Växjö]], [[Nicolaus Ragnvaldi]] claimed that the Swedes were the descendants of the great Goths, and that the people of [[Västergötland]] (''Westrogothia'' in Latin) were the [[Visigoth]]s and the people of [[Östergötland]] (''Ostrogothia'' in Latin) were the [[Ostrogoths]]. The Spanish delegation then retorted that it was only the ''lazy'' and ''unenterprising'' Goths who had remained in Sweden, whereas the ''heroic'' Goths, on the other hand, had left Sweden, invaded the Roman empire and settled in Spain (Ergo 12-1996). The Goths' relationship with Sweden became an important part of Swedish nationalism, and until the [[19th century]] the view that the Swedes were the direct descendants of the Goths was common. Today Swedish scholars identify this as a [[cultural movement]] called [[Gothicismus]], which included an enthusiasm for things [[Old Norse]]. In Scandinavia, both Old Norse matters and the Goths' relationship to Sweden are ideologically very infected, and the stance that historians take in the issue is an ideological symbol. ==References== *Andersson, Thorsten. (1996) &quot;Göter, goter, gutar&quot; in ''Journal Namn och Bygd'', Uppsala. *Mastrelli, Carlo Alberto in Volker Bierbauer et al, ''I Goti'', Milan: Electa Lombardia, Elemond Editori Associati, 1994. *Graf E.C. Oxenstierna: ''Die Urheimat der Goten''. Leipzig, Mannus-Buecherei 73, 1945 (later printed in 1948). *Bell-Fialkoff, A.: ''The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe'', London: Macmillan, 2000. *Dabrowski, J. (1989) Nordische Kreis un Kulturen Polnischer Gebiete. ''Die Bronzezeit im Ostseegebiet. Ein Rapport der Kgl. Schwedischen Akademie der Literatur Geschichte und Alter unt Altertumsforschung über das Julita-Symposium 1986''. Ed Ambrosiani, B. Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien. Konferenser 22. Stockholm. *Findeisen, Joerg-Peter: ''Schweden - Von den Anfaengen bis zur Gegenwart'', Regensburg: Verlag Friedrich Pustet, 1998. *Heather, Peter: ''The Goths'' (Blackwell, 1996) *Hermodsson, Lars: ''Goterna - ett krigafolk och dess bibel'', Stockholm, Atlantis, 1993. *Kaliff, Anders: ''Gothic Connections. Contacts between eastern Scandinavia and the southern Baltic coast 1000 BC – 500 AD''. 2001. *Nordgren, I.: ''The Well Spring of the Goths : About the Gothic peoples in the Nordic Countries and on the Continent'' (2004) *Nordgren, I.: ''Goterkällan - om goterna i Norden och på kontinenten'', Skara: Vaestergoetlands museums skriftserie nr 30, 2000. *Rodin, L. - Lindblom, V. - Klang, K.: ''Gudaträd och västgötska skottkungar - Sveriges bysantiska arv'', Göteborg: Tre böcker, 1994. *''Schaetze der Ostgoten'', Stuttgart: Theiss, 1995. Studia Gotica - Die eisenzeitlichen Verbindungen zwischen Schweden und Suedosteuropa - Vortraege beim Gotensymposion im Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm 1970. *Tacitus: ''Germania'', (with introduction and commentary by J.B. Rives), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999. *Wenskus, Reinhard: ''Stammesbildung und Verf
forward by ID Theory. *[http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/darwinanddesign.html Intelligent Design?] special feature in the Natural History Magazine *[http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/design.htm Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Design Arguments for the Existence of God] *[http://www.ncseweb.org/article.asp?category=8 National Center for Science Education articles and other resources about Intelligent Design] *[http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2002/1106id2.shtml Resolution from the American Association for the Advancement of Science] *[http://www.nap.edu/openbook/0309064066/html/index.html Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences] Second Edition (1999) *[http://www.talkorigins.org Talk Origins Archive] (Archive of a UseNet discussion group) *[http://www.pamd.uscourts.gov/kitzmiller/kitzmiller_342.pdf 139 page in-depth analysis of intelligent design, irreducible complexity, and the book &quot;Of Pandas and People&quot;] by the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District judge *[http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forumy/2005/12/kitzmiller-intelligent-ruling-on.php Kitzmiller: An Intelligent Ruling on 'Intelligent Design'], [[JURIST]] *[http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2006/01/ken_miller_webc.html Ken Miller on Intelligent Design (2 hour video)] *[http://www.csicop.org/intelligentdesignwatch/differences.html ID and Creationism] *[http://philosophy.wisc.edu/sober/design%20argument%2011%202004.pdf The Design Argument] Elliot Sober, 2004. '''Media articles''' *[http://www.cjr.org/issues/2005/5/mooney.asp How the media have covered ID] ([[Columbia Journalism Review]]) *[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/20/AR2005122000591.html Judge Rules Against Pa. Biology Curriculum] ([[Associated Press]]) *[http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/1221/p01s01-ussc.html Banned in biology class: intelligent design] ([[Christian Science Monitor]]) *[http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050530fa_fact Devolution] ([[The New Yorker]]) *[http://www.nytimes.com/pages/science/sciencespecial2/ The Evolution Debate] ([[The New York Times]]) *[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5014428 Debating Evolution in the Classroom] ([[National Public Radio|NPR]]) *[http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1142672,00.html Darwin Victorious] ([[Time (magazine)|Time]]) *[http://www.justicetalking.org/viewprogram.asp?progID=506 Intelligent Design: Scientific Inquiry or Religious Indoctrination?] &quot;Justice Talking&quot; debate recorded 19-Apr-2005 [[Category:Intelligent design|*]] [[Category:Issue in the Culture Wars]] [[Category:Neo-Creationism]] [[Category:Pseudoscience]] [[ca:Disseny intel·ligent]] [[da:Intelligent design]] [[es:Diseño inteligente]] [[eo:Inteligenta Dezajno]] [[fr:Dessein intelligent]] [[ko:지적 설계]] [[id:Intelligent Design]] [[he:תכנון תבוני]] [[hu:Intelligens tervezés]] [[nl:Intelligent design]] [[ja:インテリジェント・デザイン]] [[no:Intelligent design]] [[pl:Teoria inteligentnego projektu]] [[fi:Älykäs suunnittelu]] [[sv:Intelligent design]] [[tr:Akıllı tasarım]] [[zh:智能设计论]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Interfaith organizations</title> <id>15315</id> <revision> <id>36668474</id> <timestamp>2006-01-25T18:09:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>NicM</username> <id>152416</id> </contributor> <comment>fix</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Interreligious organisations]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Imperialism</title> <id>15316</id> <revision> <id>41971348</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:33:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.120.233.230</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Modern imperialism */ Added Iran in the list of countries which suffered from US-backed coups.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the computer strategy game released in 1997, see [[Imperialism (game)]].}} '''Imperialism''' is a policy of extending control or authority over foreign entities as a means of acquisition and/or maintenance of [[empire]]s, either through direct [[territory|territorial]] conquest or through indirect methods of exerting control on the [[politics]] and/or [[Economics|economy]] of other countries. The term is often used to describe the policy of a country in maintaining [[colony|colonies]] and dominance over distant lands, regardless of whether the country calls itself an empire. Insofar as 'imperialism' might be used to refer to an intellectual position, it would imply the belief that the acquisition and maintenance of empires is a positive good, probably combined with an assumption of cultural or other such superiority inherent to imperial power (see [[The White Man's Burden]]). Imperialism draws heavy criticism on the grounds that historically it has been frequently employed for economic [[exploitation]] in which the imperialist power makes use of other countries as sources of raw materials and cheap labor, shaping their economies to suit its own interests, and keeping their people in [[poverty]]. When imperialism is accompanied by overt military conquest, it is also seen as a violation of [[freedom (political)|freedom]] and [[human rights]]. In recent years, there has also been a trend to criticize imperialism not at an economic or political level, but at a simply cultural level, particularly the widespread global influence of [[American culture]] - see [[cultural imperialism]]. Some dispute this extension, however, on the grounds that it is highly subjective (to differentiate between mutual interaction and undue influence) and also applied selectively (hamburgers being imperialist and black tea not). The debate continues. == Etymology == The Latin root is ''imperium'' (command or supreme power). The original meaning of ''imperialist'' was &quot;an adherent of an emperor&quot;. Its current meaning dates from the late 19th century in relation to the actions of the [[British Empire]]; it subsequently grew to apply to any historical or contemporary instance of a greater power acting, or perceived to be acting, at the expense of a lesser power. Imperialism is therefore not only used to describe bona fide empire-building policies, such as those of the Romans, the Spanish or the British, but it is also used controversially and/or disparagingly, for example by both sides in communist and anti-communist propaganda, or to describe actions of the United States since its acquisition of overseas territory during the [[Spanish American War]], to its present-day position as the world's only superpower. == Modern imperialism == [[Image:US-UK-power.jpg|right|thumb|Political caricature illustrating U.S. and U.K. as world leaders.]] {{mergefrom|Modern Western Imperialism}} There is a contemporary debate surrounding the [[United States]] and whether the power it exerts upon much of the world and its policy amounts to imperialism &amp;mdash; hence sometimes the U.S. is referred to as the &quot;[[American Empire (term)|American Empire]].&quot; This is because, with the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]] and the end of the [[Cold War]], the [[United States]] is now the dominant power in the world. Furthermore, the U.S. has, many times over the past century, used both military intervention and economic or political influence to shape the countries within the [[Western Hemisphere]]. Opinions vary greatly within the U.S.: there are those who regard the active use of military force abroad as a part of the nation's responsibility or [[national interest]], and there are others who argue for [[United States non-interventionism|non-interventionism]], and many shades of opinion in between. The term ''American Empire'' is naturally controversial, since ''empire'' is largely limited to descriptions of history (rather than contemporary events) and likewise the historical examples of empire tend to be more familiar and evocative of the concept. As such, modern examples of coercion and [[militarism]] may be viewed differently. The United States has also only had very few years of status as sole [[superpower]], without the [[Soviet Union]] as its dominant political, military, and ideological foe. The [[Cold War]] battle for [[geopolitics|geopolitical]] supremacy tends to be cast in terms of 'freedom versus repression,' thereby diminishing the imperial aspects of both powers. Further, as &quot;imperialism&quot; tends to have negative connotations of [[tyranny]] and [[Political repression|repression]], such a claimed empire's &quot;subjects&quot; may be naturally disinclined to use it in any reference to themselves. In the early 21st Century, the U.S. has turned military, political, and economic resources towards oil-rich countries in [[Central Asia]] and the [[Middle East]]. Beginning with the end of [[World War II]], the U.S. largely took over from the [[UK]] certain roles by which it exerted influence in the [[Middle East]]. Through [[United States]]-instigated and assisted assassinations and coups, several Middle Eastern nations have felt the strong influence of Western societies: [[Egypt]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], and [[Israel]] have been directly or otherwise substantially influenced by U.S. policy. (This does not include prior or continuing [[British Empire]] holdings of the time &amp;mdash; notably in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]].) As there are few other countries with such a capability, it has been said by some that U.S. military actions are partly or mostly acts of militarist imperialism. Others simply believe that such allegations are used as groundless criticism against the U.S. whenever it takes a military action. Two uncontroversial facts are that the U.S. currently has a much larger and more sophisticated military than any other country &amp;mdash; operating over 100 bases in every part of the world. The U.S. has also used its military to control its interests. It is debat
each state and territory and at the federal level. == States and territories== {{main|States and territories of Australia}} [[Image:Map of Australia.png|thumb|240px|States and territories of Australia]] Australia consists of six states, two major mainland territories, and other minor territories. The states are [[New South Wales]], [[Queensland]], [[South Australia]], [[Tasmania]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and [[Western Australia]]. The two major mainland territories are the [[Northern Territory]] and the [[Australian Capital Territory|Australian Capital Territory]]. In most respects, the territories function similarly to the states, but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments. By contrast, federal legislation overrides state legislation only with respect to certain areas as set out in [[Section 51 of the Australian Constitution|Section 51]] of the [[Constitution of Australia|Constitution]]; all residual legislative powers are retained by the state parliaments, including powers over hospitals, education, police, the judiciary, roads, public transport and local government. Each state and territory has its own [[Parliaments of the Australian states and territories|legislature]] ([[Unicameralism|unicameral]] in the case of the Northern Territory, the ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the remaining states). The [[lower house]] is known as the [[Legislative Assembly]] ([[House of Assembly]] in South Australia and Tasmania) and the [[upper house]] the [[Legislative Council]]. The [[head of government|heads of the governments]] in each state and territory are called [[Premiers of the Australian states|premiers]] and [[Chief Minister|chief ministers]], respectively. The Queen is represented in each state by a [[Governors of the Australian states|governor]]; an [[Administrator of the Northern Territory|administrator]] in the Northern Territory, and the Governor-General in the ACT, have analogous roles. Australia also has several minor territories; the federal government administers a separate area within New South Wales, the [[Jervis Bay Territory]], as a naval base and sea port for the national capital. In addition Australia has the following, inhabited, external territories: [[Norfolk Island]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]], and several largely uninhabited external territories: [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]], [[Coral Sea Islands]], [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] and the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]. ==Foreign relations and military== {{main articles|[[Foreign relations of Australia]] and [[Australian Defence Force]]}} Over recent decades, [[Foreign relations of Australia|Australia's foreign relations]] have been driven by a close association with the [[United States]], through the [[ANZUS|ANZUS pact]] and by a desire to develop relationships with [[Asia]] and the Pacific, particularly through [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations|ASEAN]] and the [[Pacific Islands Forum]]. In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seat at the [[East Asia Summit]] following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation. Australia is a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], in which the [[Commonwealth Heads of Government]] meetings provide the main forum for co-operation. Much of Australia's diplomatic energy is focused on international trade liberalisation. Australia led the formation of the [[Cairns Group]] and [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]], and is a member of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] and the [[WTO]]. Australia has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements, most recently the [[Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement|Australia-US Free Trade Agreement]]. Australia is a founding member of the [[United Nations]], and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance. The 2005–06 budget provides A$2.5&amp;nbsp;bn for development assistance;{{ref|AGov2005}} as a percentage of GDP, this contribution is less than that of the UN [[Millennium Development Goals]]. Australia's armed forces — the [[Australian Defence Force]] (ADF) — comprise the [[Royal Australian Navy]] (RAN), the [[Australian Army]], and the [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF). All branches of the ADF have been involved in UN and regional peacekeeping (most recently in East Timor, the Solomon Islands and [[Sudan]]), disaster relief, and armed conflict, including the [[2003 Invasion of Iraq]]. The government appoints the chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services; the current chief is Air Chief Marshal [[Angus Houston]]. In 2005–06, the defence budget is A$17.5&amp;nbsp;bn.{{ref_label|AGov2005|8|a}} ==Geography== {{main|Geography of Australia}} [[Image:Australia-climate-map_MJC01.png|thumb|250px|Climate map of Australia]] Australia's 7,686,850 [[square kilometre]]s (2,967,909 [[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]) landmass is on the [[Indo-Australian Plate]]. Surrounded by the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]], [[Southern Ocean|Southern]] and [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by the [[Arafura Sea|Arafura]] and [[Timor Sea|Timor]] seas. Australia has a total 25,760 [[kilometre]]s (16,007&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) of coastline and claims an extensive [[Exclusive Economic Zone]] of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,057&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi). This exclusive economic zone does not include the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]. The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2,000 kilometres (1,250&amp;nbsp;mi). The world's two largest monoliths are located in Australia, Mount Augustus in Western Australia is the largest and Uluru in central Australia is the second largest. At 2,228 [[metre]]s (7,310 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland, although Mawson Peak on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island is taller at 2,745 metres (9,006&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). ==Climate== The largest part of Australia is [[desert]] or [[semi-arid]] – 40% of the landmass is covered by [[sand dune]]s. Only the south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil. The northern part of the country has a tropical climate: part is tropical [[rainforest]]s, part grasslands, and very little desert. Australia receives [[snowfall]] in some cities, but mostly in towns and at higher evaluations. Climate is highly influenced by ocean currents, including the [[El Niño]] southern oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia. Rainfall is highly variable, with frequent [[drought]]s. Rising levels of [[salinity]] and desertification in some areas. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore has no active volcanism only extinct volcanos, although it may sometimes receive minor earthquakes. The terrain is mostly heavily weathered, low [[plateau]] with deserts, rangelands and a fertile plain in southeast. Tasmania and the [[Australian Alps]] do not contain any permanent [[icefield]]s or [[glacier]]s, although they may have existed in the past. The [[Great Barrier Reef]], by far the world's largest [[coral]] [[reef]], lies a short distance off the north-east coast. [[Mount Augustus National Park|Mount Augustus]], in [[Western Australia]], is the largest [[monolith]] in the world. == Flora and fauna == {{main articles|[[Flora of Australia]] and [[Fauna of Australia]]}} [[Image:Koala climbing tree.jpg|right|thumb|240px|The [[Koala]] and the ''[[Eucalyptus]]'' make an iconic pair of Australian flora and fauna.]] Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, it covers a diverse range of habitats, from alpine heaths to tropical [[rainforest]]s. Because of the great age and consequent low levels of fertility of the continent, its extremely variable weather patterns and its long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's [[biota (ecology)|biota]] is unique and [[biodiversity|diverse]]. About 85% of [[flowering plant]]s, 84% of [[mammal]]s, more than 45% of [[List of Australian birds|bird]]s, and 89% of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are [[Endemic (ecology)|endemic]].{{ref|DEH}} Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and [[Invasive species in Australia|introduced plant and animal species]]. The federal ''Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999'' is a legal framework used for the protection of threatened species. Numerous [[Protected areas of Australia|protected areas]] have been created to protect and preserve Australia's unique ecosystems, 64 wetlands are registered under the [[Ramsar Convention]], and 16 [[World Heritage Site]]s have been established. Australia was ranked 13th in the World on the 2005 [[Environmental Sustainability Index]]. Most Australian plant species are evergreen and many are adapted to fire and drought, including the [[Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] and [[acacia]]s. Australia has a rich variety of endemic [[legume]] species that thrive in nutrient-poor soils because of their symbiosis with [[Rhizobia]] bacteria and [[Mycorrhiza|mycorrhizal]] fungi. Well-known Australian fauna include [[monotreme]]s (the [[platypus]] and [[echidna]]); a host of [[marsupial]]s, including the [[koala]], [[kangaroo]], [[wombat]]; and birds such as the [[emu]], [[cockatoo]], and [[kookaburra]]. The [[dingo]] was introduced by Austronesian people that traded with Indigenous Australians around 4000 [[Common Era|BCE]]. Many plant and animal species became extinct soon after human settlement, including the [[Australian megafauna]]; many more have become extinct since European settlement, among them the [[Thylacine]] (Tasmanian Tiger). == Economy
hristianity, as a [[theist|theistic]] and [[proselyte|proselytising]] religion views atheism as sinful. According to [[Psalm 14:1]], &quot;The fool hath said in his heart, there is no God.&quot; According to John 3:18-19, all who reject Christianity (and presumably its attendant theism) do so &quot;because their deeds are evil&quot;. A famous but idiosyncratic atheistic belief is that of [[Thomas Altizer]]. His book ''The Gospel of Christian Atheism'' (1967) proclaims the highly unusual view that God has literally died, or self-annihilated. According to Altizer, this is nevertheless &quot;a Christian confession of faith&quot; (p.102). Making clear the difference between his position and that of both [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche's]] notion of the death of God and the stance of theological non-realists, Altizer says: &lt;blockquote&gt;To confess the death of God is to speak of an actual and real event, not perhaps an event occurring in a single moment of time or history, but notwithstanding this reservation an event that has actually happened both in a cosmic and in a historical sense.(p.103)&lt;/blockquote&gt; However, many would dispute whether this is an atheist position at all, as belief in a dead God implies that God once existed and was alive. Atheism typically entails a lack of belief that any gods ''ever'' existed, as opposed to not existing currently. For further discussion, see Lyas (1970). Other, unrelated practitioners of Christian atheism may include [[Liberal Christianity|Liberal Christian]] atheists who follow the teaching of [[Jesus]], but who may not believe in the literal existence of god. In this case, however, many would dispute whether the atheists in question are truly [[Christianity|Christians]], though they certainly are by some of the looser definitions of the word. It should be noted that although Christianity as a ''faith'' has to be construed as irreconcilable with atheism, this is markedly not the case regarding the church institutions which currently are nominally Christian. Indeed the great [[Positivism|positivist]] luminaries in all earnestness encompassed a Catholic Church which would retain all it's ceremonies and ecclesiastical structures, whilst transforming into a purely atheistic church, much in the same way that christianity has co-opted the organisational traditions of the native faiths it has encountered around the world, and through the ages. ===Islam=== In [[Islam]], atheists are categorized as [[kafir]] (كافر), a term that is also used to describe polytheists, and that translates roughly as &quot;denier&quot; or &quot;concealer&quot;. The noun ''kafir'' carries connotations of blasphemy and disconnection from the Islamic community. In Arabic, &quot;atheism&quot; is generally translated ''ilhad'' (إلحاد), although this also means &quot;heresy&quot;. As the [[Sharia]] punishment for [[apostasy]] in Islam is [[death penalty|death]] and such apostasy is also widely socially disapproved of, atheists (as well as converts from Islam to other religions) in Islamic countries and communities frequently conceal their non-belief. The surveys mentioned above that indicate 100% religious belief in certain Islamic countries should be interpreted in light of this fact. ===Asian spirituality=== It is difficult to categorize the Eastern thought systems in distinct terms of theism or atheism. Therefore, it should be noted that even the thoughts that would be characterized as atheistic in the western sense, often have some theistic tendencies, and vice versa. [[Carvaka]] (also ''Charvaka'') was a [[materialist]] and atheist school of thought in [[India]], which is now known principally from fragments cited by its [[Hindu]] and [[Buddhist]] opponents. The proper aim of a Carvakan, according to these sources, was to live a prosperous, happy, productive life in this world (cf [[Epicureanism]]). There is some evidence that the school persisted until at least 1578. [[Buddhism]] is often described as atheistic, since Buddhist authorities and canonical texts do not affirm, and sometimes deny, the following: * The existence of a [[creation]], and therefore of a creator god * That a god, gods, or other divine beings are the source of moral imperatives * That human beings or other creatures are responsible to a god or gods for their actions Buddhists might also be deemed atheistic in anti-Buddhist Hindu polemic, since Buddhists opposed the authority of the [[Vedas]] and of Vedic priests, and the power of the rituals of [[Vedic religion]]. However, all canonical Buddhist texts that mention the subject accept the ''existence'' (as distinct from the ''authority'') of a great number of deities, including the Vedic deities. From the point of view of Western theism, certain concepts of the [[Buddha]] found in the [[Mahayana]] school of Buddhism, e.g. of [[Amitabha]] or the Adibuddha may seem to share characteristics with Western concepts of God. Other schools continue to consider themselves as fundamentally atheistic, in the strong sense of the term. [[Jainism]] is also sometimes classified as atheistic since Jains's believe that &quot;In the most basic sense, God is not seen as a person, place or tangible thing, but as the ideal state of an individual soul's existence&quot; [http://www.dd-b.net/~raphael/jain-list/msg01226.html]. [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]] are arguably atheistic in the sense that they do not explicitly affirm, nor are they founded upon a faith in, a higher being or beings. However, Confucian writings do have numerous references to 'Heaven,' which denotes a transcendent power, with a personal connotation. Neo-Confucian writings, such as that of [[Chu Hsi]], are vague on whether their conception of the Great Ultimate is like a personal deity or not. Also, although the Western translation of the [[Tao]] as 'god' in some editions of the [[Tao te Ching]] is highly misleading, it is still a matter of debate whether the actual descriptions of the [[Tao]] by [[Lao Zi]] has theistic or atheistic undertones. ==Reasons for atheism== Although not all atheists claim to have a rational justification for their stance, a majority of explicit atheists do assert that their stance has a rational basis, and there are some especially common reasons given by them. ===Philosophical reasons=== A majority of explicit atheists base their stance on rational or philosophical grounds, arguing that their position is based on logical analysis, and subsequent rejection, of theistic claims. These [[existence of God#Arguments_against_the_existence_of_God|arguments against the existence of deities]] consist of a number of different problems with theism. Chief among these problems is a perceived lack of evidence supporting theistic claims. &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Within the framework of [[scientific]] [[rationalism]] one arrives at the belief in the nonexistence of God, not because of certain knowledge, but because of a sliding scale of methods. At one extreme, we can confidently rebut the personal Gods of creationists on firm [[empirical]] grounds: science is sufficient to conclude beyond reasonable doubt that there never was a worldwide flood and that the evolutionary sequence of the Cosmos does not follow either of the two versions of Genesis. The more we move toward a deistic and fuzzily defined God, however, the more scientific rationalism reaches into its toolbox and shifts from empirical science to [[logical]] philosophy informed by science. Ultimately, the most convincing arguments against a deistic God are [[Hume's dictum]] and [[Occam's razor]]. These are philosophical arguments, but they also constitute the bedrock of all of science, and cannot therefore be dismissed as non-scientific. The reason we put our trust in these two principles is because their application in the empirical sciences has led to such spectacular successes throughout the last three centuries.&quot; [http://psy.ucsd.edu/~eebbesen/Psych110/SciRelig.htm]&lt;/blockquote&gt; Many atheists hold that as their view is merely the absence of a certain belief, the only defense that atheism needs is a good offense. If theism's arguments are refuted, nontheism, as the only alternative, becomes the default position. As such, many atheists have argued against the most famous &quot;proofs&quot; of God's existence for centuries. Whether all of the theistic arguments have been refuted is a matter in dispute. &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Throughout the centuries, theistic philosophers have offered logical arguments in support of God's existence. Most of these can be divided into four major classes - ontological, cosmological, teleological, and moral&quot; [http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism/] &lt;/blockquote&gt; In general, atheists contend that these have been refuted. There are also many atheists who attack specific forms of theism as being self-contradictory. One of the most common arguments against the existence of a specific God is the [[problem of evil]]. &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The problem of evil is probably the most enduring and the most potent argument atheism has to offer against many varieties of theism. Christian apologist [[William Lane Craig]] aptly styled it ''atheism's killer argument''. In brief, it seeks to establish that the existence of evil in the world is logically incompatible with the existence of a benevolent God, and that it is more reasonable to conclude that God does not exist than that he does exist but does nothing to stop evil.&quot; [http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism/allpossibleworlds.html]&lt;/blockquote&gt; Other well-known positive arguments include [[theological noncognitivism]], [[incoherency argument]]s (which seek to prove contradictions within the nature of &quot;god&quot;), atheistic teleological arguments, and the [[Transcendental argument for the non-existence of God]]. ===Personal and social reasons=== As well as atheists with philosophical reasons, there are explicit atheists who c
rg Museum of Chinese in the Americas] &amp;mdash; &quot;Have You Eaten Yet?: The Chinese Restaurant in America&quot; running from Sept 2004 to June 2005 ==See also== * [[Chinese cuisine]] * [[American cuisine]] * [[Canadian Chinese cuisine]] * [[List of Chinese dishes]] * [[Oyster pail]] ==External links== * [http://www.well.com/~indigo/crpintro.html Chinese Restaurant Project] &amp;mdash; Indigo Som's project to document Chinese-American restaurants * [http://print.google.com/print?id=mO56R0JGP9QC&amp; The Eater's Guide to Chinese Characters] - Jim McCawley, a linguistics professor at the University of Chicago, wrote a field guide for Westerners who want authentic Chinese cuisine. *[http://www.chopstix.com/ Chopstix] &amp;mdash; From the UK but covers the USA *[http://chinesefood.about.com/ About.com] &amp;mdash; From the USA *[http://www.chineserestaurantsonline.com Chinese Restaurants] Chinese Restaurants in the U.S. [[Category:Asian American-related topics]] [[Category:Chinese cuisine]] [[Category:American Chinese cuisine]] [[Category:Hawaiian cuisine]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ahenobarbus</title> <id>1559</id> <revision> <id>37475186</id> <timestamp>2006-01-31T05:27:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>220.239.42.10</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Ahenobarbus''''' (&quot;brazen-bearded&quot; or &quot;red-haired&quot;) is the name of a plebeian [[Roman Republic|Roman]] family of the ''[[gens]]'' Domitia. The name was derived from the red beard and hair by which many of the family were distinguished. Amongst its members the following may be mentioned: * '''Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus''', consul [[192 BC]] * '''Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus''', consul [[122 BC]]. As [[proconsul]] in 121 BC, successfully fought against the [[Allobroges]], a [[Gallic]] tribe, in retaliation for their attacks on [[Rome]]'s Allies, the [[Aedui]]. Was subsequently elected [[Censor]] with Lucius Caeilius Metellus, and removed 32 members from the Senate. Father of the following. * '''Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus''', son of the same named consul of 122 BC, tribune of the people [[104 BC]], brought forward a law (''lex Domitia de Sacerdotiis'') by which the priests of the superior colleges were to be elected by the people in the ''comitia tributa'' (seventeen of the tribes voting) instead of by co-optation; the law was repealed by [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]], revived by [[Julius Caesar]] and (perhaps) again repealed by [[Mark Antony]], the triumvir ([[Cicero]], ''De Lege Agraria,'' ii. 7; [[Suetonius]], ''Nero,'' 2). Ahenobarbus was elected pontifex maximus in [[103 BC]], consul in [[96 BC]] and censor in [[92 BC]] with Lucius Licinius Crassus the [[orator]], with whom he was frequently at variance. They took joint action, however, in suppressing the recently established Latin rhetorical schools, which they regarded as injurious to public morality ([[Aulus Gellius]] xv. 11). * '''Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus''', consul [[94 BC]] * '''Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus''', son of Gn. Domitius Ahenobarbus cos 96 BC, husband of Porcia Catones the sister of [[Cato the younger]], friend of [[Cicero]] and enemy of [[Julius Caesar]], and a strong supporter of the aristocratical party. At first strongly opposed to [[Pompey]], he afterwards sided with him against Caesar. He was consul in [[54 BC]], and in 49 he was appointed by the senate to succeed Caesar as governor of Gaul. After the outbreak of the civil war he commanded the Pompeian troops at Corfinium, but was obliged to surrender. Although treated with great generosity by Caesar, he stirred up Massilia (today's [[Marseille]]) to an unsuccessful resistance against him. After its surrender, he joined Pompey in [[Greece]] and was slain in the flight after the [[battle of Pharsalus]], in which he commanded the right wing against Antony (Caesar, ''Bellum Civile,'' i., ii., iii.; Dio Cassius xxxix., xli.; Appian, ''B.C.'' ii. 82). * '''[[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (1st century BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]]''', son of the above, ally of Mark Antony and later of [[Augustus]]. * '''Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus''', the only child of the above Gn. Domitius and Aemilia Lepida. His mother was a paternal cousin to triumvir [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]]. His paternal grandmother was [[Porcia Catones]]. He won an honorary [[Roman triumph|triumph]], by penetrating deeper into Germany, than anyone else before him. As a youngman he was a famous charioteer. [[Suetonius]] describes as 'arrogant, cruel, notorius and extravagant'. Lucius held the office of aedile. As praetor and consul made married knights and married women star in pantomimes. He enjoyed presenting gladiatorial contests and wild animal hunts. In Augustus' will he was nominated to purchase his household possessions. Lucius married [[Antonia Major]], Augustus' niece. They had [[Domitia Lepida Major]], Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and [[Domitia Lepida]]. Lucius died in AD [[25]]. * '''[[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (1st century AD)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]]''', son of the above, father of [[Nero]]. * '''Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus''' ('''[[Nero]]'''), fifth [[Roman Emperor]] and son of the above. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Families of Rome]] [[de:Ahenobarbus]] [[nl:Ahenobarbus]] [[pl:Ahenobarbus]] [[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ahmad Shah</title> <id>1560</id> <revision> <id>40909368</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T20:54:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Siddiqui</username> <id>308269</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Ahmad Shah Durani}} :''See [[Ahmad Shah Qajar]] for the [[Iran|Persia]]n ruler ([[1909]]-[[1925]]).'' [[Image:Ahmad Shah Durrani.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Ahmad Shah Durrani]] '''Ahmad Shah''' ('''احمد شاہ''') (1773–1724), also known as '''Ahmad Shah Abdali''' ([[Persian language|Persian]]: احمد شاہ ابدالی), founder of the [[Durrani]] dynasty in [[Afghanistan]], was the son of Zaman-Khan, hereditary chief of the Abdali tribe. The name 'Durrani' or 'Durr-i-Durran' means the 'pearl of pearls' in Persian and was given to the Abdali tribe in [[1747]] when Ahmad Shah Abdali united the Pashtun tribes following a [[loya jirga]] and changed his own name to Ahmad Shah Durrani when he became the king of Afghanistan and founded the Durrani Empire. Ahmad Shah and his sons were the first [[Pashtun]] rulers of Afghanistan, from the [[Sadozai]] line of the Abdali or [[Durrani]] group of clans. It was under the leadership of Ahmad Shah that the nation of Afghanistan began to take shape following centuries of fragmentation and exploitation. [[Nadir Shah]], then ruler of [[Persian Empire | Persia]], gave Ahmad Shah the command of a body of cavalry composed chiefly of Abdalis. On the assassination of [[Nadir Shah]] in 1747, Ahmad retreated to Afghanistan and persuaded local tribes to join him for a [[jihad]] against [[Hindu]]s. He took with him the [[Koh-i-noor]] diamond, given to him by [[Shah Rukh of Persia | Shah Rukh]], Nadir's grandson. He first crossed the [[Indus river|Indus River]] in 1748, when he took [[Lahore]], and in 1751, he inflicted a heavy defeat on the Sikhs of Lahore. In 1750 he took [[Nishapur]], and in 1752 subdued [[Kashmir]]. In 1756 he stripped and looted every corner of [[Delhi]] and took the treasures of the [[Mughul Empire]]. In 1757, he attacked the Golden Temple in Amritsar once again and filled its sarovar (pond) with the blood of slaughtered cows. Perhaps this was the last straw that prompted the [[Maratha]] chiefs to declare holy war on Ahmad Shah. In 1758 the Marathas obtained possession of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], but in January 1761 they were routed by Ahmad in the great [[Third Battle of Panipat|Battle of Panipat]]. In a later expedition he inflicted a severe defeat upon the Sikhs, but had to hasten westward immediately afterwards in order to quell an insurrection in Afghanistan. Meanwhile the Sikhs again rose, and Ahmad was now forced to abandon all hope of retaining the command of the Punjab. He died in 1773, leaving to his son [[Timur Shah | Timur]] the great kingdom he had founded. Unfortunately, within 50 years after Ahmad's death, Afghanistan would be embroiled in civil war. Even today there are thousands of people each year named their sons Ahmad Shah in tribute to the first Emir of Afghanistan. ==See also== * [[Durrani Empire]] ==External links== * [http://www.afghan-network.net/Culture/ahmadshah.html Invasions Of Ahmad Shah Abdali] * [http://famousdiamonds.tripod.com/koh-i-noordiamond.html Famous Diamonds: The Koh-I-Noor] {{Afghanistan-bio-stub}} {{royal-stub}} [[Category:1724 births]] [[Category:1773 deaths]] [[Category:Emirs of Afghanistan]] [[fr:Ahmad Shâh]] [[ja:アフマド・シャー・アブダーリー]] [[no:Ahmed Shah Durrani]] [[sv:Ahmed Shah Durrani]] [[zh:艾哈迈德·沙·杜兰尼]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aidan of Dalriada</title> <id>1561</id> <revision> <id>15900029</id> <timestamp>2003-11-21T22:12:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stan Shebs</username> <id>7777</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Aedan of Dalriada]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aedan of Dalriada]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aidan of Lindisfarne</title> <id>1562</id> <revision> <id>41687763</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:46:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Android79</username> <id>88250</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Meowedfr|Meowedfr]] ([[User talk:Meowedfr|talk]]) to last version by Binabik80</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne''' or Lindesfarne , the '''Apostl
v6 stacks. There are no known implementations that implement IPv6 only. ===Tunneling=== In order to reach the IPv6 Internet, an isolated host or network must be able to use the existing IPv4 infrastructure to carry IPv6 packets. This is done using a technique somewhat misleadingly known as ''[[tunneling_protocol|tunnelling]]'' which consists in encapsulating IPv6 packets within IPv4, in effect using IPv4 as a link layer for IPv6. IPv6 packets can be directly encapsulated within IPv4 packets using a protocol number of 41. They can also be encapsulated within UDP packets e.g. in order to cross a router or NAT device that block protocol 41 traffic. They can of course also use generic encapsulation schemes, such as [[AYIYA]] or [[Generic_Routing_Encapsulation|GRE]]. ====Automatic tunneling==== ''Automatic tunneling'' refers to a technique where the tunnel endpoints are automatically determined by the routing infrastructure. The recommended technique for automatic tunneling is [[6to4]][http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3056.txt] tunneling, which uses protocol 41 encapsulation. Tunnel endpoints are determined by using a well-known IPv4 anycast address on the remote side, and embedding IPv4 address information within IPv6 addresses on the local side. 6to4 is widely deployed today. ''[[Teredo_tunneling|Teredo]]'' [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc4380.txt] is an automatic tunneling technique that uses UDP encapsulation and is claimed to be able to cross multiple NAT boxes. Teredo is not widely deployed today, but an experimental version of Teredo is installed with the default Windows XP SP2 IPv6 stack. ====Configured tunneling==== ''Configured tunneling'' is a technique where the tunnel endpoints are configured explicitly, either by a human operator or by an automatic service known as a [[Tunnel Broker]][http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3053.txt]. Configured tunneling is usually more deterministic and easier to debug than automatic tunneling, and is therefore recommended for large, well-administered networks. Configured tunneling typically uses either protocol 41 (recommended) or raw UDP encapsulation. === Proxying and translation === When an IPv6-only host needs to access an IPv4-only service (for example a web server), some form of translation is necessary. The one form of translation that actually works is the use of a dual-stack [[Proxy_server|application-layer proxy]], for example a web proxy. Techniques for application-agnostic translation at the lower layers have also been proposed, but they have been found to be too unreliable in practice due to the wide range of functionality required by common application-layer protocols, and are commonly considered to be obsolete. See for example NAT-PT[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2766.txt], [[TCP-UDP Relay]][http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3142.txt], Socks-based Gateway[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3089.txt], [[Bump-in-the-Stack]] or [[Bump-in-the-API]][http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2767.txt]. ==Major IPv6 announcements== *In [[2003]], [[Nihon Keizai Shimbun]] (as cited in CNET Asia Staff, 2003) reported that [[Japan]], [[China]], and [[South Korea]] claimed to have made themselves determined to become the leading nations in internet technology, which would partially take the form of jointly developing IPv6, and completely adopting IPv6 starting in 2005. *[[ICANN]] announced on [[20 July]] [[2004]] that the IPv6 AAAA records for the Japan (.jp) and Korea (.kr) country code Top Level Domain (ccTLD) nameservers became visible in the [[DNS root server]] zone files with serial number 2004072000. The IPv6 records for France (.fr) were added a little later. This made IPv6 operational in a public fashion. ==Related IETF working groups== * [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/OLD/6bone-charter.html 6bone] IPv6 Backbone * [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/OLD/ipngwg-charter.html ipng] IP Next Generation (concluded) * [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/ipv6-charter.html ipv6] IP Version 6 * [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/OLD/ipv6mib-charter.html ipv6mib] IPv6 MIB (concluded) * [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/multi6-charter.html multi6] Site Multihoming in IPv6 * [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/shim6-charter.html shim6] Site Multihoming by IPv6 Intermediation * [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/v6ops-charter.html v6ops] IPv6 Operations ==Further reading== === Core specifications === * RFC 1924: A Compact Representation of IPv6 Addresses * RFC 2374: An IPv6 Aggregatable Global Unicast Address Format * RFC 2460: Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification (obsoletes RFC 1883) * RFC 2463: Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMPv6) for the IPv6 Specification * RFC 2464: Transmission of IPv6 Packets over Ethernet Networks * RFC 3513: Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) Addressing Architecture (obsoletes RFC 2373) === Stateless autoconfiguration === * RFC 2461: Neighbor Discovery for IP Version 6 (IPv6) * RFC 2462: IPv6 Stateless Address Autoconfiguration === Programming === * RFC 3493: Basic Socket Interface Extensions for IPv6 (obsoletes RFC 2553) ** see [[Getaddrinfo#Protocol_Independent_Programming|&lt;tt&gt;getaddrinfo&lt;/tt&gt;]] for an example of client/server programming in an IPv4/IPv6 independent manner using some of RFC 3493 extensions * RFC 3542: Advanced Sockets Application Program Interface (API) for IPv6 (obsoletes RFC 2292) * RFC 4038: Application Aspects of IPv6 Transition === Books === There are a number of IPv6 books: * ISBN 1590595270 [http://www.runningipv6.net Running IPv6] (2006) * ISBN 0596009348 [http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/ipv6na/ IPv6 Network Administration] (2005) * ISBN 3952294209 [http://www.sunny.ch/publications/f_ipv6SE.htm IPv6 - Grundlagen, Funktionalität, Integration]] by Silvia Hagen (German Edition, 2004) * ISBN 0596001258 [http://www.sunny.ch/publications/f_ipv6.htm IPv6 Essentials]] by Silvia Hagen (English, 2002) * IPv6, théorie et pratique, by Gisèle Cizault (in French). This is available online [http://livre.point6.net/]. * ISBN 013241936X [http://www.huitema.net/ipv6.asp IPv6: The New Internet Protocol] by Christian Huitema (1998) (The original IPv6 bible) ==External links== === Misc === * [http://www.ipv6tf.org The IPv6 Portal] - All the IPv6 News and Info * [http://www.sixxs.net SixXS] - IPv6 Deployment &amp; Tunnel Broker * [http://tb.ipv6.btexact.com BT Exact] - Free IPv6 Tunnel Broker * [http://www.moonv6.org/ Moonv6] * [http://www.ipv6.bieringer.de Display Connection information of IPv6 Clients] (IPv6 only) * [http://www.govexec.com/dailyfed/0605/062905tdpm2.htm Federal gov to deploy IPv6 by 2008] * [http://bgp.potaroo.net/iso3166/v4cc.html Dominance of IPv4 in current market] * [http://bgp.potaroo.net/iso3166/v6cc.html Percentage of current market] * [http://linuxreviews.org/features/ipv6/ Why you want IPv6] * [http://cr.yp.to/djbdns/ipv6mess.html The IPv6 mess], a critique of the IPv6 transition plan, by D. J. Bernstein === Address Space === * [http://www.iana.org/assignments/ipv6-address-space IANA Address Assignments] * [http://www.sixxs.net/tools/grh/ GRH] SixXS's Ghost Route Hunter (Looking Glass + Address Usage overview) * [http://www.cisco.com/en/US/about/ac123/ac147/archived_issues/ipj_8-3/ipv4.html A Pragmatic Report on IPv4 Address Space Consumption] * [http://bgp.potaroo.net/ipv4/ Exhaustion of IP resources] * [http://www.3com.com/other/pdfs/infra/corpinfo/en_US/501302.pdf Understanding IP Addressing Everything You Ever Wanted To Know] Detailed explanation of IPv4/6 implementation. * [http://www.hznet.de/tools/generate-rfc4193-addr A tool to generate uniq local IPv6 unicast addresses] (In conformance with RFC4193) === Software (Operating Systems + Applications) === * [http://www.kame.net/ KAME] BSD IPv6 Stack * [http://www.linux-ipv6.org/ USAGI] Linux IPv6 Stack * [http://www.deepspace6.net/docs/ipv6_status_page_apps.html DeepSpace6] - Current Status of Applications supporting IPv6 / Linux IPv6 Info * [http://playground.sun.com/pub/ipng/html/INET-IPng-Paper.html Overview of IPng/IPv6] (provided by one of the co-chairs of the SIPP [[working group]]) [[Category:Internet protocols]] [[Category:Internet standards]] [[Category:Internet architecture]] {{Link FA|de}} [[ar:IPv6]] [[da:IPv6]] [[de:IPv6]] [[es:IPv6]] [[fr:IPv6]] [[ko:IPv6]] [[id:IPv6]] [[it:IPv6]] [[he:IPv6]] [[nl:Internet Protocol Version 6]] [[ja:IPv6]] [[no:IPv6]] [[nn:IPv6]] [[pl:IPv6]] [[pt:IPv6]] [[ru:IPv6]] [[sk:IPv6]] [[fi:IPv6]] [[sv:IPv6]] [[tr:IPv6]] [[zh:IPv6]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Inca Empire</title> <id>15319</id> <revision> <id>42078560</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:57:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RexNL</username> <id>241337</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.153.36.3|68.153.36.3]] ([[User talk:68.153.36.3|talk]]) to last version by Huhsunqu</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of &quot;Inca&quot;, see [[Inca (disambiguation)]].'' {{History of Peru}} [[Image:Machu-Picchu.jpg|thumbnail|290px|right|A view of [[Machu Picchu]], &quot;the [[Lost city|Lost City]] of the Incas,&quot; now an [[archaeological site]].]]The '''Inca Empire''' ('''Tawantin Suyu''' in [[Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift|Quechua modern orthography]], or '''Tahuantinsuyo''' in [[Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift|Hispanicized Quechua orthography]]; ''The Four United Regions''), was an empire centered in what is now [[Peru]] from [[Anno Domini|AD]] [[1438]] to AD [[1533]]. Over that period, the Inca used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate in their empire a large portion of western South America, centred on the [[Andes|Andean]] mountain ranges. The Inca empire proved short-lived: by AD [[1533]], [[Atahualpa]], the last Inca emperor, called a [[Sapa Inca]], was killed on the orders of the [[conquistador]] [[Francisco Pizarro]], marking the beginning of Spanish rule. ''Ta
y, which moved its capital to [[Hangzhou]] (杭州). The Southern Song Dynasty also suffered the humiliation of having to acknowledge the Jin Dynasty as formal overlords. In the ensuing years China was divided between the Song Dynasty, the Jin Dynasty, and the [[Tangut]] [[Western Xia]] (西夏). Southern Song was a period of great technological development which can be explained in part by the military pressure that it felt from the north. == Mongols and the Yuan Dynasty == {{main|Yuan Dynasty}} The Jin Empire was defeated by the [[Mongol]]s, who then proceeded to defeat the Southern Song in a long and bloody war, the first war where firearms played an important role. Some scholars estimate that about half the population, 50 million Han Chinese people may have perished in total as a result of the Mongols' invasion and conquest. During the era after the war, later called the ''[[Pax Mongolica]]'', adventurous Westerners such as [[Marco Polo]] travelled all the way to China and brought the first reports of its wonders to Europe. In China, the Mongols were divided between those who wanted to remain based in the steppes and those who wished to adopt the customs of the Chinese. [[Kublai Khan]] (忽必烈/元世祖), grandson of [[Genghis Khan]] (成吉思汗), wanting to adopt [[Han Chinese]] customs, established the [[Yuan Dynasty]] (元朝). This was the first dynasty to rule the whole of China from [[Beijing]] (北京) as the capital. Beijing had been ceded to Liao in AD [[938]] with the [[16 Prefectures of Yan Yun]] (燕雲十六州). Before that, it had been the capital of the Jin, who did not rule all of China. == Ming Dynasty: Revival of Han rule == {{main|Ming Dynasty}} There was strong sentiment, among the populace, against the rule of the &quot;foreigner&quot; (known as D&amp;aacute;zi 韃子), which finally led to peasant revolts. The Mongolians were pushed back to the steppes and replaced by the [[Ming Dynasty]] (明朝) in [[1368]]. During Mongol rule, the population had dropped by 40 percent, to an estimated 60 million. Two centuries later, it had doubled. Urbanization thus increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as [[Nanjing]] and [[Beijing]], also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. Despite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of [[neo-Confucianism]], China under the early Ming Dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly [[Japan]] (倭國), increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the [[Indian Ocean]], reaching [[East Africa]] with the voyages of [[Zheng He]] (鄭和, original name [[Ma Sanbao]] 馬三保). [[Zhu Yuanzhang]] (朱元璋) or ([[Hongwu Emperor of China|Hong-wu]], 洪武皇帝/明太祖), the founder of the dynasty, laid the foundations for a state interested less in commerce and more in extracting revenues from the agricultural sector. Perhaps because of the Emperor's background as a peasant, the Ming economic system emphasized agriculture, unlike that of the Song and the Mongolian Dynasties, which relied on traders and merchants for revenue. Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods were expropriated by the Ming rulers. Great landed estates were confiscated by the government, fragmented, and rented out. Private slavery was forbidden. Consequently, after the death of [[Yongle Emperor of China|Emperor Yong-le]] (永樂皇帝/明成祖), independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture. These laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the previous regimes. The laws against the merchants and the restrictions under which the craftsmen worked remained essentially as they had been under the Song, but now the remnants of the older foreign merchant class also fell under these new Ming laws. Their influence quickly dwindled. The dynasty had a strong and complex central government that unified and controlled the empire. The emperor's role became more autocratic, although Zhu Yuanzhang necessarily continued to use what he called the &quot;Grand Secretaries&quot; to assist with the immense paperwork of the bureaucracy, including memorials (petitions and recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds, and tax records. It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its decline. Emperor Yong-le strenuously tried to extend China's influence beyond its borders by demanding other rulers send ambassadors to China to present tribute. A large navy was built, including four-masted ships displacing 1,500 tons. A standing army of 1 million troops (some estimate as many as 1.9 million) was created. The Chinese armies conquered [[Annam]] (安南) while the Chinese fleet sailed the China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa. The Chinese gained influence over [[Turkestan]]. Several maritime Asian nations sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor. Domestically, the [[Grand Canal of China|Grand Canal]] was expanded, and proved to be a stimulus to domestic trade. Over 100,000 tons of iron per year were produced. Many books were printed using movable type. The imperial palace in Beijing's Forbidden City reached its current splendor. The Ming period seems to have been one of China's most prosperous. It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully exploited. New crops were widely cultivated, and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished. During the Ming dynasty was the last construction on the Great Wall. While the Great Wall had been built in earlier times, most of what is seen today was either built or repaired by the Ming. The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watch towers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length. == Qing Dynasty == {{main|Qing Dynasty}} The [[Qing Dynasty]] (清朝, [[1644]]&amp;ndash;[[1911]]) was founded after the defeat of the [[Ming]], the last [[Han Chinese]] [[dynasty]], by the [[Manchu]]s (滿族). The Manchus were formerly known as the ''[[Jurchen]]'' and invaded from the north in the late seventeenth century. Even though the Manchus started out as alien conquerors, they quickly adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government. They eventually ruled in the manner of traditional native dynasties. The Manchus enforced a 'queue order' forcing the Han Chinese to adopt the Manchu queue and Manchu-style clothing. The Manchus had a special hair style: the &quot;queue&quot;. They cut hair off the front of their heads and made the remaining hair into a long pigtail. The traditional Chinese clothing, or [[Hanfu]] (漢服) was also replaced by Manchu-style clothing. ''Qipao'' (Chinese dress, 旗袍) and ''Tangzhuang'' (唐裝), usually regarded as traditional Chinese clothing nowadays, are actually Manchu-style clothing. The penalty for not complying was death. [[Kangxi Emperor of China|Emperor Kangxi]] (康熙皇帝/清聖祖) ordered the creation of [[Kangxi Dictionary|the most complete dictionary]] of Chinese characters ever put together at the time. Under [[Qianlong Emperor of China|Emperor Qianlong]], the compilation of a catalogue of the important works on Chinese culture was made. The Manchus set up the &quot;Eight Banners&quot; system (八旗制度) in an attempt to avoid being assimilated into Chinese society. The &quot;Eight Banners&quot; were military institutions, set up to provide a structure with which the Manchu &quot;bannermen&quot; were meant to identify. Banner membership was to be based on traditional Manchu skills such as archery, horsemanship, and frugality. In addition, they were encouraged to use the Manchu language, rather than Chinese. Bannermen were given economic and legal privileges in Chinese cities. Over the next half-century, the Manchus consolidated control of some areas originally under the [[Ming]], including [[Yunnan]] (雲南). They also stretched their sphere of influence over [[Xinjiang]] (新疆), [[Tibet]] (西藏) and [[Mongolia]] (蒙古). [[Image:china_imperialism_cartoon.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|In this famous French political cartoon, [[China]] is being divided up by the [[United Kingdom]], [[Germany]], [[Russia]], [[France]], and [[Japan]].]] During the [[19th century]], [[Qing]] control weakened. China suffered massive social strife, economic stagnation, and Western penetration and influence. Britain's desire to continue its opium trade with [[China]] collided with imperial edicts prohibiting the addictive drug, and the [[First Opium War]] (鴉片戰爭) erupted in [[1840]]. [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and other Western powers, including the [[United States]], thereupon forcibly occupied &quot;concessions&quot; and gained special commercial privileges. [[Hong Kong]] (香港) was ceded to [[United Kingdom|Britain]] in [[1842]] under the [[Treaty of Nanking]] (南京條約). In addition, the [[Taiping Rebellion]] (太平天國) ([[1851]]-[[1864]]) and the [[Boxer Rebellion]] (捻軍起義) occurred in this century. In many ways the rebellions and the unfair treaties the Qing were forced to sign with the imperialist powers are symptomatic of the innability of the Chinese government to respond adequately to the challenging conditions facing China in the 19th century. The two Opium wars and the opium trade were costly outcomes for the [[Qing]] dynasty and the Chinese people. The Qing imperial treasury was declared bankrupt twice arising from indemnities incurred in the [[Opium wars]] and the large outflow of silver due to the opium trade (in tens of billions of ounces). China suffere
vectors is generated. Multivectors are thus the direct sum of grade ''k'' elements ('''''k''-vectors'''), where ''k'' ranges from 0 (''scalars'') to ''n'', the dimension of the original vector space &lt;math&gt;\mathcal V&lt;/math&gt;. Multivectors are represented here by boldface caps. Note that scalars and vectors become special cases of multivectors (&quot;0-vectors&quot; and &quot;1-vectors&quot;, respectively). ==The contraction rule== The connection between Clifford algebras and [[quadratic form]]s come from the contraction property. This rule also gives the space a [[metric (mathematics)|metric]] defined by the naturally derived [[inner product]]. It is to be noted that in geometric algebra in all its generality there is no restriction whatsoever on the value of the scalar, it can very well be negative, even zero (in that case, the possibility of an inner product is ruled out if you require &lt;math&gt;\langle x, x \rangle \ge 0&lt;/math&gt;). The contraction rule can be put in the form: :&lt;math&gt;Q(\mathbf a) = \mathbf a^2 = \epsilon_a {\Vert \mathbf a \Vert}^2&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\Vert \mathbf a \Vert&lt;/math&gt; is the [[modulus]] of vector '''a''', and &lt;math&gt;\epsilon_a=0, \, \pm1&lt;/math&gt; is called the ''signature'' of vector '''a'''. This is especially useful in the construction of a [[Minkowski space]] (the [[relativity]] [[spacetime]]) through &lt;math&gt; \mathbb{R}_{1,3}&lt;/math&gt;. In that context, null-vectors are called &quot;lightlike vectors&quot;, vectors with negative signature are called &quot;spacelike vectors&quot; and vectors with positive signature are called &quot;timelike vectors&quot; (these last two denominations are exchanged when using &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt; instead). ==Inner and outer product== The usual [[dot product]] and [[cross product]] of traditional vector algebra (on &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^3&lt;/math&gt;) find their places in geometric algebra &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{G}_3&lt;/math&gt; as the inner product :&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b} = \frac{1}{2}(\mathbf{a}\mathbf{b} + \mathbf{b}\mathbf{a})&lt;/math&gt; (which is symmetric) and the outer product :&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}\wedge\mathbf{b} = \frac{1}{2}(\mathbf{a}\mathbf{b} - \mathbf{b}\mathbf{a})&lt;/math&gt; with :&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b} = -i(\mathbf{a}\wedge\mathbf{b})&lt;/math&gt; (which is antisymmetric). Relevant is the distinction between axial and polar vectors in vector algebra, which is natural in geometric algebra as the mere distinction between vectors and bivectors (elements of grade two). The &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; here is the unit [[pseudoscalar]] of Euclidean 3-space, which establishes a duality between the vectors and the bivectors, and is named so because of the expected property &lt;math&gt;i^2 = -1&lt;/math&gt;. The inner and outer product can be generalized to any dimensional &lt;math&gt;\mathcal G_{p,q,r}&lt;/math&gt;; however the cross product is only defined in a 3-dimension space. Let &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a},\, \mathbf{A}_{\langle k \rangle}&lt;/math&gt; be a vector and a homogeneous multivector of grade ''k'', respectively. Their inner product is then :&lt;math&gt; \mathbf a \cdot \mathbf A_{\langle k \rangle} = {1 \over 2} \, \left ( \mathbf a \, \mathbf A_{\langle k \rangle} + (-1)^{k+1} \, \mathbf{A}_{\langle k \rangle} \, \mathbf{a} \right ) = (-1)^{k+1} \mathbf A_{\langle k \rangle} \cdot \mathbf{a}&lt;/math&gt; and the outer product is :&lt;math&gt; \mathbf a \wedge \mathbf A_{\langle k \rangle} = {1 \over 2} \, \left ( \mathbf a \, \mathbf A_{\langle k \rangle} - (-1)^{k+1} \, \mathbf{A}_{\langle k \rangle} \, \mathbf{a} \right ) = (-1)^{k} \mathbf A_{\langle k \rangle} \wedge \mathbf{a}&lt;/math&gt; ==Applications of geometric algebra== A useful example is &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}_{3, 1}&lt;/math&gt;, and to generate &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{G}_{3, 1}&lt;/math&gt;, an instance of geometric algebra called '''spacetime algebra''' by Hestenes. The electromagnetic field tensor, in this context, becomes just a bivector &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{E} + i\mathbf{B}&lt;/math&gt; where the imaginary unit is the volume element, giving an example of the geometric reinterpretation of the traditional &quot;tricks&quot;. [[Lorentz boost|Boosts]] in this Lorenzian metric space have the same expression &lt;math&gt;e^{\mathbf{\beta}}&lt;/math&gt; as rotation in Euclidean space, where &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{\beta}&lt;/math&gt; is of course the bivector generated by the time and the space directions involved, whereas in the Euclidean case it is the bivector generated by the two space directions, strengthening the &quot;analogy&quot; to almost identity. == History == [[David Hestenes|David Hestenes ''et al.'']]'s '''''geometric algebra''''' [H1999] is a reinterpretation of Clifford algebras over the reals (said to be a return to the original name and interpretation intended by [[William Kingdon Clifford|William Clifford]]). A book of the same title by [[Emil Artin]] covers the algebra associated with many different &quot;geometries,&quot; including affine, projective, symplectic, and orthogonal. ==References== * [H1999] David Hestenes: New Foundations for Classical Mechanics (Second Edition). ISBN 0792355148, Kluwer Academic Publishers (1999) * Baylis, William (2002). ''Electrodynamics: A Modern Geometric Approach'' (2nd ed.). Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-8176-4025-8 * Chris Doran and Anthony Lasenby. ''Geometric Algebra for Physicists''. Cambridge (2003) * W. E. Baylis, editor, ''Clifford (Geometric) Algebra with Applications to Physics, Mathematics, and Engineering'' , Birkhäuser, Boston 1996. * Bourbaki, Nicolas. &quot;Eléments de Mathématique. Algèbre chap 9. §9 Algèbres de Clifford&quot;. Hermann, Paris (1980). * D. Hestenes and G. Sobczyk. &quot;Clifford Algebra to Geometric Calculus&quot;. D. Reidel, Dordrecht (1984). ==External links== * http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/~clifford/introduction/intro/intro.html * http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/~clifford/ * http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/~clifford/ptIIIcourse/course99/ * http://www.science.uva.nl/ga/ * http://modelingnts.la.asu.edu/GC_R&amp;D.html * http://www.ibell.co.uk/maths/geoalg.htm, comprehensive introduction and reference for programmers * [http://www.jaapsuter.com/ A Geometric Algebra Primer], especially for computer scientists * [http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/GeometricAlgebra.html Geometric Algebra at PlanetMath] * [http://sinai.mech.fukui-u.ac.jp/gcj/gc_int.html Geometric Calculus International], Research, Software, Conferences * [http://sinai.mech.fukui-u.ac.jp/GA-Net/index.html GA-Net], Geometric Algebra/Clifford Algebra development news [[Category:Clifford algebras]] [[Category:Ring theory]] [[es:Álgebra geométrica]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Genetic</title> <id>12942</id> <revision> <id>35371067</id> <timestamp>2006-01-16T06:52:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gflores</username> <id>153556</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">*In [[biology]], '''genetic''' means pertaining to [[genetics]]. *In [[linguistics]], '''genetic''' means due to descent from a common [[protolanguage]]. *In [[computer science]], a [[genetic algorithm]] is a kind of search technique modeled on evolutionary biology. {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gate House</title> <id>12943</id> <revision> <id>39963181</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T03:18:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jersyko</username> <id>163681</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/142.150.48.199|142.150.48.199]] to last version by SimonP</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gate_House.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Gate House seen from the Victoria College Quad]] '''Gate House''' (also known as G-HOUSE) is an all male residence at [[Victoria College, U of T|Victoria College]] in the [[University of Toronto]]. The building first opened to students in [[1913]] and since then many famous individuals have come through Gate House including [[Lester B. Pearson]]. In 1995 the building was completely renovated. The house has three floors. The first floor only has one double room. This room, which used to be a super single has a pair of bed-desks and is the smallest double rooms in the house. However, it is divided into two sections, with one resident getting a separate nook allowing for more privacy than in other rooms. In addition to the double room there is the residence common room with kitchen facilities, a television, and couches. Half the floor is taken up by the apartment of the Residence Life Coordinator. This large apartment has its own entrance underneath the Gate. The second floor has four double rooms and seven single rooms. It has two private washrooms and one larger communal one. This floor is also home to the residence don, who gets a much larger room and a private washroom. The floor also has its own kitchen. The third floor is almost identical, except that in place of the don's room there are two single rooms. As the only all male residence at Victoria College Gate House has, in recent years, had a rather raucous reputation. It is known for its pranks on other houses, penetration of the steam tunnel system, and boisterous welcoming ceremonies. In the past it was also well known for hosting large parties. For almost 20 years up to 2003 it hosted Novemberfest, the largest annual party at U of T. Held each year in Burwash Hall. In the winter it hosted an annual toga party, that according to house legend was the first ever toga party. According to this legend [[Donald Sutherland]], who lived in neighbouring South House, remembered the Gate House party when working on the film ''[[Animal House]]'' and the producers of that film decided to include a toga party in it, popularizing t
ut 95%. The Canal resulted in a massive population surge in western [[New York]], and opened regions further west to increased settlement. [[Image:Erie Canal Map 1853.jpg|400px|thumb|1853 Map of the Erie Canal.]] ==Geopolitics== &lt;div class=&quot;thumb tright&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;width:auto;&quot;&gt; {| width=304 |[[Image:Water Level Route on US map.png|300px]]&lt;br&gt;[[Image:Water Level Route on US map cropped.png|300px]]&lt;div class=&quot;thumbcaption&quot;&gt;Map of the Water Level Routes of the New York Central Railroad (purple), [[West Shore Railroad]] (red) and [[Erie Canal]] (blue)&lt;/div&gt; |} &lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt; The [[Appalachian Mountains]] cut off the interior of [[North America]] from the Atlantic Ocean. At their northern end, the Appalachians connect with the equally formidable [[Canadian Shield]]. The [[Adirondack Mountains]] in northeastern New York state are actually an extension of the Canadian Shield although they are often seen as part of the Appalachians. It was possible to use [[canoes]] and pack animals to bring light, high-value products like [[fur]]s from the interior to the [[Atlantic]] coast for export. However, the only way to economically move bulky low-value agricultural and timber products was by water. It was these latter products that formed the majority of North American exports until the 20th century. There are only four navigable water routes through or around the mountain barrier into the interior &amp;ndash; [[Hudson Bay]], the [[St. Lawrence River]], the [[Hudson River]] and the [[Mississippi River]]. Until the development of [[Rail transport|railroads]] in the middle of the 19th century, much of North American history revolved around the contest to control these routes. In some ways, the Hudson River is the least attractive of these routes. Once past the mountains it ends in a cul-de-sac with no access to the rest of the Great Lakes Basin. The Erie Canal addressed this weakness by providing a route from the Hudson River to Lake Erie via the [[Mohawk River]] valley. Prior to the construction of the canal, the British colonies north of the Great Lakes expected to be major beneficiaries of the settlement of the American Midwest, since without the Erie Canal, produce from the Midwest would have flowed through the St. Lawrence River, and [[Montreal]], rather than [[New York, New York|New York]], would have become the great exporting and immigration center for North America. Because the Great Lakes Basin has no great heights of land [[Continental divide|separating]] it from neighboring [[drainage basin]]s, access to the Great Lakes also provides access to other regions of North America. The early French access to the Great Lakes allowed them to become the first Europeans to explore the Mississippi River system. Today, the [[Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal|Chicago Ship Canal]] allows ships to travel between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River. In the west, fur traders from Montreal were able to [[portage]] between the Great Lakes and the Hudson Bay drainage basin which extends all the way to the [[Rocky Mountains]]. From this drainage basin, other portages gave access to the [[Mackenzie River]] system. These two drainage basins effectively define the western and [[Alaska]]n borders between [[Canada]] and the United States. == History == The extraordinary success of the [[Bridgewater Canal]] in Britain, completed in 1761 to connect a coal mine to [[Manchester]], led to a frenzy of canal building in England late in the 18th century. The idea of a canal or artificially improved waterway to tie the east coast to the new western settlements was in the air—[[Cadwallader Colden]] first proposed using the Mohawk River valley in 1724. [[George Washington]] led a serious effort to turn the [[Potomac River]] into a navigable link to the west, sinking substantial energy and capital into the Patowmack Company from 1784 until his death fifteen years later. [[Christopher Colles]], who was familiar with the Bridgewater Canal, surveyed the Mohawk River valley and made a presentation to the New York state legislature in 1784 proposing a canal from Albany to [[Lake Ontario]]; the proposal drew considerable attention and some action, but the effort would ultimately come to nothing. [[Gouverneur Morris]] and [[Elkanah Watson]] were other early proponents of a canal along the Mohawk, whose efforts lead to the creation of the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company, which took the first actual steps to improve navigation on the Mohawk; the company was to prove that private financing was inadequate for a task of such scope. The canal proponent whose efforts would lead directly to the canal was the entrepreneurial [[Jesse Hawley]], who imagined being able to grow huge quantities of grain in the upstate [[New York]] plains (then largely unsettled) for sale on the [[Eastern Seaboard]]. However he went [[bankrupt]] trying to ship it to the coast, and while sitting in the [[Canandaigua (city), New York|Canandaigua]] debtors' prison he started pressing for the construction of a canal running along the [[Mohawk River]] valley. He had strong support from [[Joseph Ellicott]], the agent for the [[Holland Land Company]] in [[Batavia, New York|Batavia]]. Ellicott realized that a canal would add immense value to the land he was selling in the western part of the state. Ellicott later became the first canal commissioner. The Mohawk River, a tributary to the Hudson, runs in a [[Ice age|glacial meltwater]] channel across the northern reaches of the Appalachians, separating them in New York State into the [[Catskills]] and [[Adirondacks]]. The Mohawk Valley was the only cut across the Appalachians north of [[Alabama]], and pointed almost directly from the already widely used [[Hudson River]] to the east, to either [[Lake Ontario]] or Lake Erie on the west. From there much of the interior and many settlements would be accessible on the lakes. [[Image:1832 Erie Canal.jpg|thumb|center|600px|Profile of the original canal]] The problem with this was that the land rises about 600 feet (183 m) from the Hudson River at [[Albany, New York]] to [[Lake Erie]]. Locks at the time could handle a change of up to 12 feet (3.5 m), so at least 50 locks would be required along the 360 mile canal. Any such canal would cost a fortune even today, but in [[1800]] such an undertaking was barely imaginable. President [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] thought the proposal was ridiculous and rejected it. Nevertheless Hawley managed to interest the governor, [[DeWitt Clinton]], and after surveying the plan went ahead. The canal was to consist of a forty foot (12 m) wide, four foot (1.2 m) deep cut, with the removed soil being piled on the downhill side to form a walkway on that side. Barges, up to 3.5 feet (1.07 m) in draft, would be pulled by [[mule]]s on the walkway. When barges crossed there was a quick unhitching and re-hitching of the mule teams while the barges continued due to momentum. The sides of the cut would be lined with stone, while the bottom would be covered with [[clay]]. The stone work required hundreds of German [[Masonry|mason]]s to be brought in, who would later go on to build many of New York's famous buildings when the canal was completed. [[Image:Erie Lock4083.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Stonework of Erie Canal lock (abandoned due to route change), Durhamville, New York]] Construction began [[July 4]], [[1817]], at [[Rome, New York]]. The first 15 mile (24 km) section between Rome and [[Utica, New York|Utica]] opened two years later. At this rate the canal would not have been finished for another 30 years or so. The main problems were cutting the trees through miles of virgin forest, and moving the dirt, which was proving to be much slower than expected. Solutions were discovered, trees were pulled down with a rope thrown over the top of the tree and then winched down, and the stumps pulled out with a huge tripod-mounted winch. Mule-pulled carts were filled from much larger wheelbarrows to clear the dirt. A three-man team with mules could now build a mile long stretch in a year, meaning that the problem now was staffing. The men who planned and oversaw construction were novices, both as surveyors and as engineers&amp;mdash; there ''were'' no civil engineers in the United States at the time. James Geddes and Benjamin Wright who laid out the route were judges, who had gained experience in surveying in settling boundary disputes; Geddes had only used a surveying instrument for a few hours. Canvass White was a 27-year-old amateur engineer, who talked Clinton into letting him go to Britain at his own expense to study the canal system there. Nathan Roberts was a math teacher and land speculator. Yet these men &quot;carried the Erie Canal up the Niagara escarpment at Lockport, maneuvered it onto a towering embankment to cross over Irondequoit creek, spanned the Genesee River for it on an awesome aqueduct, and carved a route for it out of the solid rock between Little Falls and Schenectady&amp;mdash;and all of those venturesome designs worked precisely as planned.&quot; (Bernstein, p. 381) Construction continued at an increased rate as new workers arrived, but halted completely when the canal reached the [[Montezuma Marsh|Montezuma Swamp]] in [[1819]] at the outlet of [[Cayuga Lake]] west of [[Syracuse, New York]], when over 1000 workers died of swamp fevers. Work continued on the &quot;downhill&quot; side towards the Hudson, and when the swamp froze over in the winter, the crews all worked to complete the section right across the swamps. The middle section from [[Utica, New York|Utica]] to [[Salina, New York|Salina]] was completed in [[1820]], and traffic on that section started up directly. The eastern section of the canal, 250 miles (402 km) from [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]] to [[Albany, New York|Albany]], was opened on [[September 10]], [[1823]], to great fanfare; the 64-mile
ge|Japanese]], [[Thai language|Thai]], etc.), nouns in Bangla cannot be counted directly by adding the numeral directly adjacent to the noun. The noun's measure word ('''MW''') must be used in between the numeral and the noun. Most nouns take the generic measure word ''ţa'', although there are many more specific measure words, such as ''jon'', which is only used to count humans. {| border=1 align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3 &lt;CAPTION&gt;'''Measure Words'''&lt;/CAPTION&gt; |align=center|'''Bangla''' |align=center|'''Literal translation''' |align=center|'''English translation''' |- |align=center|Nôe-'''ţa''' ghoŗi |align=center|Nine-'''MW''' clock |align=center|Nine clocks |- |align=center|Kôe-'''ţa''' balish |align=center|How.many-'''MW''' pillow |align=center|How many pillows |- |align=center|Ônek-'''jon''' lok |align=center|Many-'''MW''' person |align=center|Many people |- |align=center|Char-pañch-'''jon''' shikkhôk |align=center|Four-five-'''MW''' teacher |align=center|Four or five teachers |} Measuring nouns in Bangla without their corresponding measure words (e.g. ''aţ biŗal'' instead of ''aţ-'''ţa''' biŗal'' &quot;eight cats&quot;) would typically be considered ungrammatical. However, omitting the noun and preserving the measure word is grammatical and not uncommon to hear. For example, ''Shudhu êk-'''jon''' thakbe.'' (lit. &quot;Only one-'''MW''' will remain.&quot;) would be understood to mean &quot;Only one '''person''' will remain.&quot;, since ''jon'' can only be used to count humans. The word ''lok'' &quot;person&quot; is implied. ===Verbs=== Verbs divide into two classes: finite and non-finite. Non-finite verbs have no inflection for tense or person, while finite verbs are fully inflected for [[Grammatical person|person]] (first, second, third), [[Grammatical tense|tense]] (present, past, future), [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] (simple, perfect, progressive), and [[honorific|honor]] (intimate, familiar, and formal) -- but not for number. [[conditional mood|Conditional]], imperative, and other special inflections for [[grammatical mood|mood]] can replace the tense and aspect suffixes. While the [[syntax]] of Bangla is not drastically different across the various dialects, the inflectional suffixes in the morphology of Bangla vary from region to region. ===Syntax=== As a Head-Final language, Bangla follows [[Subject Object Verb]] [[word order]], although word order variation is highly common. Bangla makes use of [[postposition|postpositions]], instead of English-style [[preposition|prepositions]]. [[determiner|Determiners]] follow the [[noun]], while numerals, [[adjective|adjectives]], and [[Possession (linguistics)|possessors]] precede the noun. Yes-no questions do not require any change to the basic word order; instead, the low (L) [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]] of the final syllable in the utterance is replaced with a falling (HL) [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]]. Additionally optional [[grammatical particle|particles]] (e.g. [-ki], [-na], etc.) are often [[clitic|encliticized]] onto the first word of a yes-no question. Wh-questions are formed by fronting the wh-word to [[focus (linguistics)|Focus]] position, which is typically the first or second word in the utterance. == Vocabulary == [[Image:Bengali_Vocabulary.GIF|Sources of Bangla words|250px|right]] ''Main article: [[Origins of Bangla Words]]'' The typical Bangla dictionary lists 75,000 separate words, of which 50,000 (67%) are considered '''tôtshôm''' (direct reborrowings from Sanskrit), 21,100 (28%) are '''tôdbhôb''' (native Bangla vocabulary), and the rest being '''bideshi''' (foreign) and '''deshi''' (indigenous [[Austroasiatic_languages|Austroasiatic]]) words. However, these figures do not take into account the fact that a huge chunk of these words are archaic or highly technical, minimizing their actual usage. The productive vocabulary used in modern literary works, in fact, is made up mostly (67%) of tôdbhôb words, while tôtshôm only make up 25% of the total. Deshi and bideshi words together make up the remaining 8% of the vocabulary used in modern Bengali literature. Due to centuries of contact with [[Europeans]], [[Mughals]], [[Arabs]], [[Persians]], and [[East Asians]], Bangla has absorbed countless words from foreign languages, often totally integrating these [[Loanword|borrowings]] into the core vocabulary. The most common borrowings from foreign languages come from three different kinds of contact. Close contact with neighboring peoples facilitated the borrowing of words from [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Burmese language|Burmese]], and several indigenous [[Austroasiatic_languages|Austroasiatic languages]] of Bengal. After centuries of invasions from [[Persia]] and the [[Middle East]], numerous [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and [[Farsi language|Farsi]] words were absorbed and fully integrated into the lexicon. Later, European colonialism brought words from [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[French language|French]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], and most significantly [[English language|English]]. ==Variation in dialects== Dialectual differences in Bangla manifest themselves in three forms: [[standardized dialect]] vs. regional dialect, literary language vs. colloquial language and lexical influences. ===Phonological variations=== There are marked dialectal differences between the speech of Bengalis living on the ''Poshchim'' (western) side and ''Purbo'' (eastern) side of the [[Padma River]]. ====Fricatives==== In the dialects prevalent in much of eastern Bangladesh ([[Barisal]], [[Chittagong]], [[Dhaka]] and [[Sylhet]] divisions), many of the stops and affricates heard in Kolkata Bangla are pronounced as fricatives. Poshchim Bangla [[postalveolar consonant|palato-alveolar]] affricates চ [tʃ], ছ [tʃ&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;], জ [{{IPA|d&amp;#658;}}], and ঝ [{{IPA|d&amp;#658;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#614;&lt;/sup&gt;}}] correspond to Purbo Bangla চ&amp;#x02bb; [ts], ছ় [s], জ&amp;#x02bb; [dz], and ঝ় [z]. A similar pronunciation is also found in [[Assamese]], a related language across the border in India. The aspirated velar stop খ [{{IPA|k&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;}}] and the aspirated labial stop ফ [{{IPA|p&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;}}] of Poshchim Bangla correspond to খ় [x] and ফ় [f] in many dialects of Purbo Bangla. These pronunciations are most extreme in the [[Sylheti language|Sylheti dialect]] of extreme northeastern Bangladesh -- the dialect of Bangla most common in the [[United Kingdom]]. Many Purbo Bangla dialects share phonological features with Assamese, including the debuccalization of শ [{{IPA|ʃ}}] to হ [h] or খ় [x]. ====Tibeto-Burman Influence==== The influence of Tibeto-Burman languages on the phonology of Purbo Bangla is seen through the lack of nasalized vowels, a more fronted place of articulation for the apico-postalveolar stops ট [{{IPA|&amp;#648;}}], ঠ [{{IPA|&amp;#648;&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;}}], ড [{{IPA|&amp;#598;}}], and ঢ [{{IPA|&amp;#598;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#614;&lt;/sup&gt;}}], and the lack of distinction between র [{{IPA| &amp;#638;}}] and ড়/ঢ় [{{IPA|&amp;#637;}}]. Unlike most Indic languages, some Purbo Bangla dialects do not include the breathy voiced stops ঘ [{{IPA|g&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#614;&lt;/sup&gt;}}], ঝ [{{IPA|d&amp;#658;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#614;&lt;/sup&gt;}}], ঢ [{{IPA|&amp;#598;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#614;&lt;/sup&gt;}}], ধ [{{IPA|d&amp;#810;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#614;&lt;/sup&gt;}}], and ভ [{{IPA|b&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#614;&lt;/sup&gt;}}]. Some variants of Bangla, particularly Chittagonian and Chakma Bangla (considered by some to be separate languages), have contrastive [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]; differences in the pitch of the speaker's voice can distinguish words. ===Lexical variations=== The third major factor in dialectical difference, specifically between the dialects of West Bengal and Bangladesh, is a lexical one. Even in Standard Bengali, vocabulary items often divide along the split between the predominantly Muslim Bangladeshi populace and largely Hindu West Bengali populace. Due to their cultural and religious traditions, Muslims occasionally utilize Perso-Arabic words instead of the Sanskrit-derived forms. Some examples of lexical alternation between standard West Bengali forms (or commonly called Hindu forms) and their corresponding standard Bangladeshi forms (or commonly called Muslim forms) are as follows: * hello: nômoshkar (S) corresponds to assalamualaikum/slamalikum (A) * invitation: nimontron/nimontonno (S) corresponds to daoat (A) * guest: otithi (S) corresponds to mehman (P) * sir: môshae (S) corresponds to shaheb (A) * bath/shower: snan/chan (S) corresponds to gosol (A) * water: jôl (S) corresponds to pani (S/Hindi) * meat: mangsho (S) corresponds to gosh/goshto/gosto (P) * prayer: prarthona (S) corresponds to doa (A) * god: bhôgoban, ishshor (S) corresponds to Allah (A), Khoda (P) * mother: ma (S) corresponds to amma (A) * father: baba (S) corresponds to abba (A) * maternal aunt: mashi (S) corresponds to khala (A) * paternal aunt: pishi (S) corresponds to fupi/fupu (P) * paternal uncle: kaka (S) corresponds to chacha (S/Hindi) (here S = derived from Sanskrit; A = derived from Arabic, P = derived from Persian) The differences above depend on the region contemplated and are not always clearly distinct. For example, many people in West Bengal continue to use the words ''chan'' and ''gosol'' (or ''nimontron'' and ''daoat'') interchangeably with no particular bias towards one word or the other; a similar situation prevails (even among Muslims) in Hindu majority and Western regions of Bangladesh. Additionally, ''baba'' and ''ma'' are also heard often in Bangladesh. Though ''jôl'', ''pani'', ''kaka'', and ''chacha'' are all Sanskrit derivatives, ''pani'' and ''chacha'' became more associated with the [[Hindustani language]] that imbibed so much of [[Mughal]] culture and so became the word of c
/> <comment>Categories</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Invertebrate]]s are commonly introduced into freshwater [[aquarium|aquaria]]. There are several [[snail]] species, numerous [[shrimp|shrimps]], and [[crayfish]] that are found in aquaria. Some of these species are: * [[Apple snail]] * Japanese Glass Shrimp (''[[Caridina japonica]]'') * ''[[Caridina serrata]]'' * ''[[Macrobrachium lar]]'' * ''[[Carambellus montezuema]]'' * ''[[Procambarus]]'' species. [[Category:Fishkeeping|Invertebrate]] [[Category:Lists of animals|Invertebrate]] {{Invertebrate-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of freshwater aquarium plant species</title> <id>11753</id> <revision> <id>39072007</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T14:51:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>196.211.8.134</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Listed alphabetically by scientific name */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Aquatic plant]]s are used to give the [[aquarium]] a realistic appearance, oxygenate the water, and provide habitat for fish, especially fry (babies) and for invertebrate species. Some aquarium fish and invertebrates also eat live plants. Many commonly-used plant species come from the rivers of [[South America]]. While most of them are plants that live fully-submerged in nature and can live in the same way in aquariums, some are semi-aquatic plants that usually live in marshes of near the water. From the last category only some of them can actually survive fully submerged in aquariums, but usually with a slow or uneasy growth (for example, ''[[Saururus cernuus]]''). Plants like these usually need to grow only half submerged, and are better for a [[paludarium]] than an aquarium. ==Listed alphabetically by scientific name== As a very important note, the [[taxonomy]] of most aquatic plant genera is not final. Scientific names and classifications have changed often in the past years, creating confusion for most aquarists. Most of the old names are still in use today on some web sites. Common aquarium plant [[genus|genera]] and [[species]]: * ''[[Alternanthera (aquarium)|Alternanthera sp.]]'' * ''[[Ammannia|Ammannia sp.]]'' * ''[[Anubias|Anubias sp.]]'' * ''[[Aponogeton|Aponogeton sp.]]'' * ''[[Azolla spp.]]'' * ''[[Bacopa|Bacopa sp.]]'' * ''[[Barclaya|Barclaya sp.]]'' * ''[[Blyxa|Blyxa sp.]]'' * ''[[Cabomba|Cabomba sp.]]'' ([[fanwort]]) * ''[[Ceratophyllum|Ceratophyllum sp.]]'' ([[Ceratophyllaceae|hornwort]]) * ''[[Ceratopteris|Ceratopteris sp.]]'' * ''[[Crinum|Crinum sp.]]'' * ''[[Cryptocoryne|Cryptocoryne sp.]]'' ([[water trumpet]]) * ''[[Echinodorus|Echinodorus sp.]]'' ([[sword plant]]) * ''[[Egeria (genus)|Egeria sp.]]'' * ''[[Hygrophila|Hygrophila sp.]]'' * ''[[Lemna]]'' ([[Lemnaceae|duckweed]]; floating plants) * ''[[Limnophila|Limnophila sp.]]'' * ''[[Ludwigia|Ludwigia sp.]]'' * ''[[Marsilea|Marsilea sp.]]'' * ''[[Microsorum|Microsorum sp.]]'' * ''[[Myriophyllum|Myriophyllum sp.]]'' * ''[[Nymphaea|Nymphaea sp.]]'' * ''[[Pistia|Pistia sp.]]'' (water lettuce; floating plant) * ''[[Riccia fluitans|Riccia fluitans]]'' * ''[[Rotala|Rotala sp.]]'' * ''[[Sagittaria|Sagittaria sp.]]'' * ''[[Salvinia spp.]]'' * ''[[Saururus cernuus|Saururus cernuus]]'' * ''[[Vallisneria|Vallisneria sp.]]'' * ''[[Vesicularia dubyana]]'' (Java moss) ==Fake or pseudo-aquarium plants== Several species of land plants such as [[Sciadopitys|umbrella pine]] and [[aluminum plant]] (''[[Pilea cadairei]]'') are also frequently sold as &quot;aquarium plants&quot;. While such plants are beautiful and can survive for some time under water, they will eventually die and must be removed so their decay does not contaminate the aquarium water. There are 3 categories of pseudo-aquarium plants: * [[#List of semi-aquatic plants|Semi-aquatic plants]], that live near water or in marshes, but cannot live fully submerged. They usually last for about a year. * [[#Garden plants|Garden plants]], which usually last from 2 weeks to a maximum of 6 months. * [[#Rock plants|Rock plants]], which usually last for less than 2 months. ====List of semi-aquatic plants==== * Acorus sp. * Alisma sp. * Baumea sp. * Canna sp. * Colocasia sp. * Crinum americanum * Cyperus sp. * Dichichium sp. * Equisetum sp. * Eriophorum sp. * Euryale ferox sp. * Hibiscus sp. * Houttuynia sp. * Hymenocallis sp. * Ipomea sp. * Iris sp. * Juncus sp. * Lobelia sp. * Lysimachia sp. * Myosotis sp. * Orontium sp. * Pontederia sp. * Ranunclus sp. * Scripus lacustris * Thalia dealbata ====Garden plants==== * Actinidia sp. * Aglaonema sp. * Ceanothus sp. * Chamaerops sp. * Caladium sp. * Cyperus sp. * Cordyline sp. * Dieffenbachia sp. - also poisonous * Dracaena sp. * Fittonia sp. * Hemigraphis sp. * Hottonia sp. * Ophipogon sp. * Rosmarinus sp. * Spatiphyllum sp. - also poisonous * Syngonium sp. ====Rock plants==== * Ajuga pyramidalis * Acantholimon sp. * Dianthus erinaceus == See also == [[List of freshwater aquarium fish species]] {{plant-stub}} [[Category:Fishkeeping]] [[Category:Aquatic plants]] [[Category:Lists of plants]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fonni</title> <id>11754</id> <revision> <id>38272077</id> <timestamp>2006-02-05T06:12:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>OrphanBot</username> <id>621721</id> </contributor> <comment>Removing image with no copyright information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Stemmafonni.jpg]] --&gt; FONNI is a town in Sardinia, in the province of Nuoro, 328o ft. above sea-level. Population (Census 1991) 4323. It is the highest village in Sardinia, and situated among fine scenery with some chestnut woods. Fonni is a winter sports centre with a ski lift to Monte Spada and Bruncu Spina. ==History== &quot;Fonni&quot; probably derives from the Latin &quot;fons&quot; that it means Fontain or also ' God of the sources '. In fact the village counts numerous spring fountains. A little to the south. of Fonni, stood the Roman station of Sorabile, mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary as situated 87 m. from Carales on the road to Olbia. Excavations made in 1879 and 1880 led to the discovery of the remains of this station, arranged round three sides of a courtyard some roo ft. square, including traces of baths and other buildings, and a massive embanking wall above them, some 150 ft. in length, to protect them from landslips (F. Vivanet, in Notizie degli scavi, 1879, 350; 1881, 31), while a discharge certificate (tabula honestae missionis) of sailors who had served in the classis Ravennas was found in some ruins here or hereabouts (id. ib., 1882, 440; T. Mommsen, Corp. inscr. Lat. x. 8325). Near Fonni, too, are several &quot; menhirs &quot; (called pietre celtiche in the district) and other prehistoric remains. ==Monuments== There is the very important Sanctuary of the [[Vergine dei Martiri]] from the XVIII century which is a destination for pilgrims right next to the Franciscans Convent.The church was built in 1708 in Baroque Style and contains some curious paintings by local artists. Another important church built in the XI century is the Patron Saint church of [[San Giovanny Battista]], located in the oldest section of the village also know as &quot;Su Piggiu&quot;. [[Image:fonni_san_giov.jpg]] ==Costumes== The local costumes are extremely picturesque, and are well seen on the day of St John the Baptist, the patron saint. The men's costume is similar to that worn in the district generally; the linen trousers are long and black gaiters are worn. The women wear a white chemise; over that a very small corselet, and over that a red jacket with blue and black velvet facings. The skirt is brown above and red below, with a blue band between the two colours; it is accordion-pleated. Two identical skirts are often worn, one above the other. The unmarried girls wear white kerchiefs, the married women black.</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fasces</title> <id>11755</id> <revision> <id>41434145</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T07:42:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>60.234.226.62</ip> </contributor> <comment>tweaks</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fasces.png|frame|Roman ''fasces''.]] '''Fasces''' (the plural, almost a ''[[plurale tantum]]'', of the Latin word ''fascis'', 'bundle') symbolise summary [[power (sociology) |power]] and jurisdiction. The traditional Roman ''fasces'' consisted of a bundle of [[birch]] rods tied together with a red ribbon as a cylinder around an [[axe]]. The coined term [[fascism]] ultimately descends from this Latin root. Although the victorious powers after [[World War II]] largely suppressed the National Socialist use of the [[swastika]] and subsequently banned any use of the symbol in many countries, the fasces as used in fascist [[Italy]] (and before) remain in widespread international use. ==Antiquity== [[Image:Cincinnatus_statue.jpg|thumb|left|A statue of [[Cincinnatus]] resigning from dictatorship by returning the Roman fasces]] The '''''fasces lictoriae''''' (&quot;bundles of the [[lictor]]s&quot;) (in Italian, '''fascio littorio''') [[symbol]]ised power and authority (''[[imperium]]'') in ancient [[Rome]]. A corps of ''apparitores'' (subordinate officials) called ''[[lictor]]s'' each carried fasces as a sort of [[staff of office]] before a magistrate, in a number corresponding to his rank, in public ceremonies and inspections, and bearers of fasces preceded [[praetor]]s, [[propraetor]]s, [[consul]]s, [[proconsul]]s, [[Master of the Horse|Masters of the Horse]], [[Roman dictator|dictator]]s, and [[Caesar (title)|caesar]]s. During [[Roman triumph|triumph]]s (public celebrations held in Rome after a military conquest) heroic soldiers — those who had suffered injury in b
[[Egyptian Mythology]]. The goddess [[Bast (goddess)|Bast]] was sometimes depicted holding a ceremonial [[sistrum]] in one hand and an aegis in the other -- the aegis usually resembling a collar or [[gorget]] embellished with a lion's head. Also, in [[Norse Mythology]], the dwarf [[Fafnir]] wears a helmet named Aegis. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category: Mythical objects]] [[Category:Motif of harmful sensation]] [[Category:Ornaments]] [[bg:Егида]] [[cs:Aigis]] [[da:Ægide]] [[es:Égida]] [[fr:Égide]] [[it:Egida]] [[nl:Aegis (Zeus)]] [[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12462;&amp;#12473;]] [[pl:Egida]] [[zh:&amp;#22467;&amp;#30328;&amp;#26031;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aegisthus</title> <id>2629</id> <revision> <id>33390763</id> <timestamp>2005-12-31T17:07:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.32.157.134</ip> </contributor> <comment>interwiki cat &amp; esp</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Greek mythology]], '''Aegisthus''' (&quot;goat strength&quot;, also [[transliteration|transliterated]] as '''Aegisthos''' or '''Aigísthos''') was the son of [[Thyestes]] and his daughter, [[Pelopia]]. Thyestes felt he had been deprived of the [[Mycenae|Mycenean]] throne unfairly by his brother, [[Atreus]]. The two battled back and forth several times. In addition, Thyestes had an affair with Atreus' wife, [[Aerope]]. In revenge, Atreus killed Thyestes' sons and served them to him unknowingly. After eating his own sons' corpses, Thyestes asked an [[oracle]] how best to gain revenge. The advice was to father a son with his own daughter, Pelopia, and that son would kill Atreus. When Aegisthus was born, his mother was ashamed of her incestuous act. She abandoned him and he was raised by shepherds and suckled by a goat. Atreus, not knowing the baby's origin, took Aegisthus in and raised him as his own. When Aegisthus reached adulthood, Thyestes revealed his true parentage, that he was both father and grandfather to Aegisthus, who then killed Atreus and seized the throne. Aegisthus and Thyestes ruled over [[Mycenae]] jointly, exiling Atreus' sons, [[Agamemnon]] and [[Menelaus]] to [[Sparta]], where King [[Tyndareus]] gave the pair his daughters, [[Clytemnestra]] and [[Helen]], to take as wives. At his death, Tyndareus gave his throne to Menelaus, who then helped Agamemnon overthrow Aegisthus and Thyestes. After Agamemnon left Mycenae for the [[Trojan War]], Aegisthus wanted to seduce his wife, Clytemnestra (mother of [[Erigone]]). Agamemnon had left Clytemnestra with a singer; as long as the singer was present, Clytemnestra resisted Aegisthus. Aegisthus then took the singer to a deserted island, and Clytemnestra was seduced. On the kings' return after the ten-year war, Aegisthus helped Clytemnestra kill Agamemnon (and his new concubine, [[Cassandra]]); they subsequently ruled Mycenae for seven years. Eight years later, Agamemnon's son, Orestes, and his daughter, [[Electra]], returned to Mycenae and killed both Clytemnestra, and Aegisthus. [[Homer]], ''Od.'' iii. 263, iv. 517; [[Gaius Julius Hyginus|Hyginus]], ''Fab.'' 87. Much later, when Orestes was visiting [[Iphigenia]] in [[Crimea]], Aegisthus' son, [[Alete]], took over [[Mycenae]]. Orestes killed him upon his return. [[Category:Greek mythological people]] [[ca:Egist]] [[de:Aigisthos]] [[es:Egisto]] [[fr:Égisthe]] [[it:Egisto]] [[lt:Egistas]] [[nl:Aegisthus]] [[pl:Aigistos]] [[pt:Egisto]] [[sv:Aigisthos]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aegospotami</title> <id>2630</id> <revision> <id>34635318</id> <timestamp>2006-01-10T17:46:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vriullop</username> <id>750481</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>interwiki +ca</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aegospotami ''' (i.e. ''Goat Streams'') is a small river issuing into the [[Hellespont]], northeast of [[Sestos]]. It was the scene of the decisive [[battle of Aegospotami|battle]] in [[405 BC]] by which [[Lysander]] destroyed the [[Athens|Athenian]] fleet in the [[Peloponnesian War]]. The township of that name, whose existence is attested by coins of the 5th and 4th centuries, must have been quite insignificant. ==References== *{{1911}} [[ca:Aegospotami]] [[nl:Aegospotami]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AElfric</title> <id>2631</id> <revision> <id>15901026</id> <timestamp>2005-05-03T22:39:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Krun</username> <id>246742</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ælfric]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aelia Capitolina</title> <id>2632</id> <revision> <id>40544408</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T09:05:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TShilo12</username> <id>153537</id> </contributor> <comment>adding in what the prohibition in question was</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Madaba map.jpg|thumb|150px|The Madaba Map depiction of sixth-century [[Jerusalem]] has the ''[[Cardo]] Maximus'', the town’s main street, beginning at the northern gate, today's [[Gates in Jerusalem's Old City Walls|Damascus Gate]], and traversing the city in a straight line from north to south to [[Nea Church]].]] '''''Aelia Capitolina''''' ([[Latin language|Latin]] in full: ''Colonia Aelia Capitolina'') was a city built by the emperor [[Hadrian]] in the year [[131]], and occupied by a [[Roman colony]], on the site of [[Jerusalem]], which was in ruins when he visited his dominion known as [[Syria Palæstina]]. &quot;Aelia&quot; came from Hadrian's ''[[Roman naming convention|nomen gentile]]'', ''[[Aelius]]'', while &quot;Capitolina&quot; meant that the new city was dedicated to ''[[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]] [[Capitoline Hill|Capitolinus]]'', to whom a temple was built on the site of the [[Jewish temple]]. The establishment of ''Aelia Capitolina'' resulted in the failed [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]] of [[132]]-[[135]]. Jews were forbidden to live in the city. Roman enforcement of this prohibition continued through the fourth century. The city was without walls, protected by a light garrison of the Tenth legion, during the Late Roman Period. The detachment at [[Jerusalem]], which apparently encamped all over the city’s western hill, was responsible for preventing [[Jew]]s from returning to the city. The urban plan of Aelia Capitolina was that of a typical [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] town wherein main thoroughfares crisscrossed the [[Urban planning|urban grid]] lengthwise and widthwise. The original thoroughfare, flanked by rows of columns and shops, was about 73 feet wide (roughly the equivalent of a present-day six lane highway). The Hadrianic Cardo Maximus of Aelia terminated somewhere in the area of the present David Street. The Latin name &quot;Aelia&quot; is the source of the Arabic term Iliya (إلياء), an early Islamic name for Jerusalem. {{1911}} == See also == *[[Judea]] *[[Iudaea Province]] *[[Palestine (region) | Palestine]] *[[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] *[[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] *[[Names of Jerusalem]] ==External links== * [http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Aelia_Capitolina.html The History of the Ancient Near East] [[Category:Archaeological sites in Israel]] [[Category:Nerva-Antonine Dynasty]] [[Category:Ancient Jewish Roman history]] [[Category:Roman sites in Israel]] [[Category:History of Jerusalem]] [[fr:Colonia Ælia Capitolina]] [[he:איליה קפיטולינה]] [[pt:Aelia Capitolina]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aelian</title> <id>2633</id> <revision> <id>32378937</id> <timestamp>2005-12-22T17:29:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GregorB</username> <id>179697</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>{{hndis}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Aelian''' may refer to one of two people: *[[Aelianus Tacticus]], a Greek military writer of the 2nd century, who lived in Rome *[[Claudius Aelianus]], a Roman teacher and historian of the 3rd century, who wrote in Greek {{hndis}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aelianus Tacticus</title> <id>2634</id> <revision> <id>39511230</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T00:30:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BDAbramson</username> <id>196446</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] re-categorisation per [[WP:CFD|CFD]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aelian''' (Aelianus Tacticus) was a [[Hellenism|Greek]] [[military]] writer of the [[2nd century]] [[Anno domini|AD]], resident at [[Rome]]. He is sometimes confused with the Roman writer [[Claudius Aelianus]]. Aelian's military treatise, ''Taktike Theoria'', is dedicated to [[Hadrian]], though this is probably a mistake for [[Trajan]], and the date AD [[106]] has been assigned to it. It is a handbook of Greek, i.e. [[Macedon]]ian, [[parade (military)|drill]] and [[tactics]] as practised by the [[Hellenistic]] successors of [[Alexander the Great]]. The author claims to have consulted all the best authorities, the chief of which was a lost treatise on the subject by [[Polybius]]. Perhaps the chief value of Aelian's work lies in his critical account of preceding works on the art of [[war]], and in the fulness of his technical details in matters of drill. Critics of the [[18th century]]&amp;mdash;[[Guichard Folard]] and the [[Prince de Ligne]]&amp;mdash;were unanimous in thinking Aelian greatly inferior to [[Arrian]], but both on his immediate successors, the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]s, and later on the [[Arab]]s, (who translated the text for their own use), Aelian exercised a great influence. The emperor [[Leo VI]] incorporated much of Aelian's text in his own work on the military art. The Arabic versi
[[Earth]] from orbit around the [[Moon]]. *[[1968]] - [[Ringo Starr]] temporarily quits [[The Beatles]] *[[1973]] - The [[Intelsat]] communication satellite is launched. *[[1975]] - Successful [[Communism|Communist]] coup in [[Laos]] *[[1976]] - A major [[earthquake]] in [[China]] kills thousands of people. *[[1979]] - [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] dancer [[Alexander Godunov]] defects to the [[United States]]. *[[1985]] - [[Hans Tiedge]], top counter-spy of [[West Germany]], defects to [[East Germany]]. *[[1987]] - Heavy rains and floods in [[Bangladesh]] kill hundreds of victims. *[[1989]] - [[Singing Revolution]]: two million people from [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]] stand on the Vilnius-Tallinn road, holding hands ([[Baltic way]]). *1989 - All of [[Australia]]'s 1,645 domestic airline pilots resign after the airlines threaten to sack them and sue them over a dispute. *[[1990]] - [[Saddam Hussein]] appears on Iraqi state television with a number of Western &quot;guests&quot; (actually hostages to try to prevent the [[Gulf War]]). *1990 - [[Armenia]] declares its independence from the [[Soviet Union]]. *1990 - [[West Germany]] and [[East Germany]] announce that they will unite on [[October 3]]. *[[1992]] - [[Hurricane Andrew]] hits South [[Florida]]. *[[1996]] - [[Osama bin Laden]] issues message entitled 'A declaration of war against the Americans occupying the land of the two holy places' *[[1998]] - That 70's Show pilot episode aired on the FOX T.V. Network *[[2000]] - A [[Gulf Air]] [[Airbus A320]] crashes into the [[Persian Gulf]] near [[Manama, Bahrain]], killing 143 *2000 - [[Nicaragua]] becomes a member of the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]]. This essentially [[deprecated]] the [[Buenos Aires Convention]] treaty, because as of this date, all members of the BA Convention were also signatories to Berne. *[[2005]] - [[TANS Peru Flight 204]] crashes near [[Pucallpa]], [[Peru]], killing 41. ==Births== *[[686]] - [[Charles Martel]], grandfather of [[Charlemagne]] (d. [[741]]) *[[1486]] - [[Sigismund von Herberstein]], Austrian diplomat and historian (d. [[1566]]) *[[1524]] - [[François Hotman]], French lawyer and writer (d. [[1590]]) *[[1623]] - [[Stanisław Lubieniecki]], Polish astronomer (d. [[1675]]) *[[1724]] - [[Abraham Yates]], American Continental Congressman (d. [[1796]]) *[[1741]] - [[Jean-François de Galaup, count de La Pérouse]], French explorer (d. [[1788]]) *[[1754]] - King [[Louis XVI of France]] (d. [[1792]]) *[[1769]] - [[Georges Cuvier]], French biologist and statesman (d. [[1832]]) *[[1783]] - [[William Tierney Clark]], English civil engineer (d. [[1852]]) *[[1785]] - [[Oliver Hazard Perry]], U.S. naval officer (d.[[1819]]) *[[1805]] - [[Anton von Schmerling]], Austrian statesman (d. [[1893]]) *[[1829]] - [[Moritz Cantor]], German mathematician (d.[[1920]]) *[[1847]] - [[Sarah Frances Whiting]], American physicist and astronomer (d. [[1927]]) *[[1849]] - [[William Ernest Henley]], British poet, critic, and editor (d. [[1903]]) *[[1852]] - [[Arnold Toynbee]], English economist and social reformer (d.[[1883]]) *[[1864]] - [[Eleftherios Venizalos]], [[Prime Minister of Greece]] (d.[[1936]]) *[[1869]] - [[Edgar Lee Masters]], American author (d. [[1950]]) *[[1875]] - [[William Eccles]], English radio pioneer (d. [[1966]]) *[[1880]] - [[Alexander Grin]], Russian writer (d. [[1932]]) *[[1883]] - [[Jonathan Mayhew Wainwright IV]], U.S. general (d. [[1953]]) *[[1884]] - [[Will Cuppy]], American humorist (d. [[1949]]) *[[1900]] - [[Ernst Krenek]], Austrian-born composer (d. [[1991]]) *[[1901]] - [[John Sherman Cooper]], U.S. Senator from Kentucky (d. [[1991]]) *[[1903]] - [[William Primrose]], Scottish violist (d. [[1982]]) *[[1905]] - [[Constant Lambert]], British composer (d. [[1951]]) *[[1911]] - [[Birger Ruud]], Norwegian athelete (d. [[1998]]) *[[1912]] - [[Gene Kelly]], American dancer and actor (d. [[1996]]) *[[1917]] - [[Tex Williams]], American singer (d. [[1985]]) *[[1921]] - [[Kenneth Arrow]], American economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner *[[1922]] - [[George Kell]], baseball player *[[1923]] - [[Edgar F. Codd]], English computer scientist (d. [[2003]]) *[[1924]] - [[Ephraim Kishon]], Israeli writer (d. [[2005]]) *1924 - [[Robert Solow]], American economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1927]] - [[Dick Bruna]], Dutch illustrator *[[1929]] - [[Vera Miles]], American actress *[[1930]] - [[Michel Rocard]], [[Prime Minister of France]] *[[1931]] - [[Hamilton O. Smith]], American microbiologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] *[[1932]] - [[Houari Boumedienne]], [[President of Algeria]] (d. [[1978]]) *1932 - [[Mark Russell]], American comedian, musician, and political commentator *[[1933]] - [[Robert Curl]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate *1933 - [[Pete Wilson]], Governor of California *[[1934]] - [[Barbara Eden]], American actress *1934 - [[Sonny Jurgensen]], American football player *[[1936]] - [[Henry Lee Lucas]], American serial killer (d. [[2001]]) *[[1943]] - [[Nelson DeMille]], American novelist *[[1947]] - [[Keith Moon]], English singer and drummer ([[The Who]]) (d. [[1978]]) *[[1947]] - [[David Robb]], British actor *[[1949]] - [[Shelley Long]], American actress *1949 - [[Rick Springfield]], Australian singer and actor *[[1951]] - [[Akhmad Kadyrov]], President of Chechnya (d. [[2004]]) *1951 - [[Queen Noor]] of Jordan *[[1952]] - [[Vicky Leandros]], Greek singer *[[1953]] - [[Bobby G]], British singer ([[Bucks Fizz]]) *[[1956]] - [[Andreas Floer]], German mathematician (d. [[1991]]) *[[1963]] - [[Hans-Henning Fastrich]], German field hockey player *1963 - [[Kenny Wallace]], American race car driver *[[1965]] - [[Roger Avary]], Academy Award Winning writer/director/producer *[[1966]] - [[Rik Smits]], Dutch basketball player *[[1969]] - [[Keith Tyson]], Turner prize-winning English artist *1969 - [[Jeremy Schaap]], American sportswriter *[[1970]] - [[Jay Mohr]], American actor and comedian *1970 - [[River Phoenix]], American actor (d. [[1993]]) *1970 - [[Fred Durst]], American singer *[[1974]] - [[Ray Park]], British actor *[[1975]] - [[Eliza Carthy]], English singer and fiddler *[[1978]] - [[Kobe Bryant]], American basketball player *1978 - [[Julian Casablancas]], American musician *[[1982]] - [[Natalie Coughlin]], American olympic swimmer *[[1982]] - [[YTCracker]], American musician *[[1984]] - [[Glen Johnson (footballer)|Glen Johnson]], English footballer *[[1988]] - [[Niki Leinso]], Croatian singer and songwriter ==Deaths== *[[93]] - [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]], Roman Governor of Britain (b. [[40]]) *[[634]] - [[Abu Bakr]], Arabian caliph *[[1176]] - [[Emperor Rokujo]] of Japan (b. [[1164]]) *[[1305]] - [[William Wallace]], Scottish patriot (executed) *[[1387]] - King [[Olav IV of Norway]] (b. [[1370]]) *[[1507]] - [[Jean Molinet]], French writer (b. [[1435]]) *[[1519]] - [[Philibert Berthelier]], Swiss patriot *[[1540]] - [[Guillaume Budé]], French scholar *[[1591]] - [[Luis Ponce de León]], Spanish poet and mystic (b. [[1527]]) *[[1618]] - [[Gerbrand Adriaensz Bredero]], Dutch writer (b. [[1585]]) *[[1628]] - [[George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham]], English statesman (b. [[1592]]) *[[1723]] - [[Increase Mather]], New England Puritan minister (b. [[1639]]) *[[1618]] - [[Gerbrand Adriaensz Bredero]], Dutch writer (b. [[1585]]) *[[1652]] - [[John Byron, 1st Baron Byron]], English royalist politician (b. [[1600]]) *[[1806]] - [[Charles Augustin de Coulomb]], French physicist (b. [[1736]]) *[[1813]] - [[Alexander Wilson]], Scottish-born ornithologist (b. [[1766]]) *[[1819]] - [[Oliver Hazard Perry]], American naval officer (b. [[1785]]) *[[1866]] - [[Auguste Barthelemy]], French poet (b. [[1796]]) *[[1926]] - [[Rudolph Valentino]], Italian actor (b. [[1895]]) *[[1927]] - [[Nicola Sacco]], Italian anarchist (executed) (b. [[1891]]) *1927 - [[Bartolomeo Vanzetti]], Italian anarchist (executed) (b. [[1888]]) *[[1937]] - [[Albert Roussel]], French composer (b. [[1869]]) *[[1955]] - [[Reginald Tate]], British actor (b. [[1896]]) *[[1960]] - [[Oscar Hammerstein II]], American lyricist (b. [[1895]]) *[[1962]] - [[Walter Anderson]], German folklorist (b. [[1885]]) *1962 - [[Hoot Gibson]], American actor (b. [[1892]]) *[[1966]] - [[Francis X. Bushman]], American actor (b. [[1883]]) *[[1974]] - [[Roberto Assagioli]], Italian psychiatrist (b. [[1888]]) *[[1982]] - [[Stanford Moore]], American biochemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1913]]) *[[1997]] - [[John Kendrew]], British molecular biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] (b. [[1917]]) *[[1999]] - [[James White (author)|James White]], Northern Irish science fiction writer (b. [[1928]]) *[[2001]] - [[Peter Maas]], American novelist (b. [[1929]]) *[[2002]] - [[Hoyt Wilhelm]], baseball player (b. [[1922]]) *[[2003]] - [[Imperio Argentina]], Argentine singer and actress (b. [[1906]]) *2003 - [[Bobby Bonds]], baseball player and manager (b. [[1946]]) *2003 - [[Jack Dyer]], Australian footballer (b. [[1913]]) *2003 - [[John Geoghan]], American Catholic priest *[[2005]] - [[Brock Peters]], American actor (b. [[1927]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Roman festivals]] - [[Vulcanalia]] *[[Calendar of Saints|RC Saints]] - [[Saint Rose of Lima]] *[[Romania]] - [[Liberation Day]] ([[1944]]) *[[Swaziland]] - [[Umhlanga Day]] *[[Astrology]] - First day of sun sign [[Virgo]] == Fiction == *[[Squall Leonhart]]'s birthday (from [[Final Fantasy VIII]]). *[[Temari (Naruto)|Temari's]] birthday (from [[Naruto]]). ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/23 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[August 22]] - [[August 24]] - [[July 23]] - [[September 23]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:23 Augustus]]
VIC-20]] ([[1980]], N. Am.) (under US$300; first computer in the world to pass the one million sold mark) * [[TRS-80 Color Computer]] ([[1980]], N. Am.) ([[Motorola 6809]], [[OS-9]] multi-user multi-tasking) * [[Texas Instruments TI-99/4A]] (June 1981, N. Am., based on the less-successful TI-99/4) (First home computer with a [[Texas Instruments TMS9900|16-bit CPU]]) * [[Sinclair ZX81]] ([[1981]], Europe) (£49.95 in kit form; £69.95 pre-built) (released as [[Timex Sinclair 1000]] in US in [[1982]]) * [[BBC Micro]] ([[1981]], Europe) (premier educational computer in the UK for a decade; advanced [[BBC BASIC programming language|BASIC]]) * [[ZX Spectrum]] (April 1982, Europe) (best-selling British home computer; &quot;made&quot; the UK software industry) * [[Commodore 64]] (August 1982, N. Am.) (best-selling computer model of all time: &gt; 20 million sold) * [[MSX]] (late 1983, Japan) (a computer 'reference design' by [[ASCII (company)|ASCII]] and [[Microsoft]], manufactured by several companies) * [[Apple Macintosh]] ([[1984]], N. Am.) (first fully [[graphical user interface|GUI]]-based home/personal computer; first 16/32-bit) * [[Amstrad|Amstrad/Schneider]] [[Amstrad CPC|CPC]] &amp; [[Amstrad PCW|PCW]] ranges (1984, Europe) (British std. prior to [[IBM PC]]; German sales next to [[Commodore 64|C64]]) * [[Atari ST]] (1985, N. Am.) (first with built-in [[Musical Instrument Digital Interface|MIDI]] interface; also 1[[Megabyte|MB]] [[random-access memory|RAM]] for less than US$1000) * [[Commodore Amiga]] (July 1985, N. Am.) ([[Original Amiga chipset|custom chip set]] for graphics and sound; multitasking [[AmigaOS|OS]]) * [[Acorn Archimedes]] (1987, Europe) (based on the powerful Acorn-developed 32-bit [[ARM_architecture|ARM]] microprocessor) &lt;!-----&gt; &lt;!-- Almost totally unknown outside Japan, the only market for these machines:--&gt; &lt;!-----&gt; &lt;!-- [[NEC PC-8001]] ([[1979]], Japan) --&gt; &lt;!-- Changed this from the PC-8801, which was a CP/M machine from 1981, to the PC-8001. The Wikipedia article about the PC-8801 actually seems to describe the PC-8001, so perhaps that's where the confusion comes from. --&gt; &lt;!-- [[Sharp X1]] ([[1982]], Japan) --&gt; &lt;!-- [[Sharp X68000]] ([[1987]], Japan) --&gt; &lt;!-- [[FM Towns]] ([[1989]], Japan) (A proprietry [[i386]]-based computer, not IBM-compatible) --&gt; &lt;!-- Is this one actually a *1980s-era* *home* computer? --Wernher. Does 1989 count? --ae-a --&gt; &lt;!-- Sure it does! --Zilog Jones --&gt; &lt;!-----&gt; ==Notable game consoles== The list below includes the '''most popular and/or significant video game consoles of the home computer era''' and other superlatives. Though not general purpose computers, many consoles competed for consumer money in the same market as the more low-end home computers (and used similar hardware, sometimes directly affecting the development of home computers). This market was also flooded with several oddball or badly marketed systems that never achieved much success, and neither introduced any technical novelties; accordingly, those systems are not mentioned here. (For a comprehensive overview of game consoles, i.e. not just the most notable ones given below, see the [[List of video game consoles]], which includes most game consoles up to the present.) *[[Magnavox Odyssey]] ([[1972]]) (first console, only one without sound and color, all-analog){{ref|patents}} *[[Fairchild Channel F]] ([[1976]]) (first microprocessor-based console, first one with sound, and color, first console to use cartridges) *[[Atari 2600|Atari 2600 (aka Atari VCS)]] ([[1977]]) (first very successful console, largest video game library) *[[Magnavox Odyssey²]] ([[1978]]) (aka Philips Videopac G7000) (first with full [[QWERTY]] [[membrane keyboard|keyboard]]) *[[Microvision|Milton Bradley Microvision]] ([[1979]]) (first [[handheld game console|handheld]] cartridge-based video game system; monochrome LCD screen) *[[Mattel Intellivision]] ([[1980]]) (most direct competitor against Atari 2600; first 16-bit console albeit crude [[Atari 2600|Atari]]-like graphics; first console with Internet connection) *[[Vectrex]] ([[1982]]) (only non-handheld console with built-in display screen, only one with real [[vector graphics]]) *[[Atari 5200]] ([[1982]]) (first video game console based upon a home computer) *[[Colecovision]] ([[1982]]) (most popular 2nd-gen. 8-bit console, first with [[arcade game|arcade]]-quality graphics) *[[Nintendo Entertainment System]] ([[1985]]) (most popular 3rd-gen. 8-bit console in the U.S.) *[[Sega Master System]] ([[1986]]) (outsold the Nintendo Entertainment System in parts of Europe and Brazil) *[[Sega Mega Drive]]/[[Sega Genesis|Genesis]] ([[1988]]/[[1989]]) (first successful 16-bit console) *[[Game Boy|Nintendo Game Boy]] ([[1989]]) (first successful, and bestselling, handheld video game console) *[[Atari Lynx]] ([[1989]]) (first color graphics, backlit [[LCD]] handheld, albeit a [[List of commercial failures in computer and video gaming|marketing flop]]) *[[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super Nintendo (SNES)]] ([[1991]]) (arguably the most advanced 16-bit console, top U.S. and worldwide 16-bit seller) == Notes == # {{note|patents}} The patents registered for the Magnavox Odyssey, despite its all-[[analog electronics|analog electronic]] construction, affected Atari 2600, Mattel, Activision, Nintendo and several [[arcade game]] manufacturers) == See also == *[[History of computing hardware (1960s-present)]] == External links == *[http://pc-museum.com/ Rune's PC Museum] *[http://www.retromadness.com/ Computer History Museum] &amp;ndash; An online museum of home computing and gaming *[http://www.homecomputer.de/ HCM - Home Computer Museum] *[http://arstechnica.com/articles/culture/total-share.ars/ &quot;Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures&quot;] &amp;ndash; From [[Ars Technica]] [[Category:Home computers|*Home computer]] [[da:Hjemmecomputer]] [[de:Heimcomputer]] [[es:Ordenador doméstico]] [[fi:Kotitietokone]] [[it:Home computer]] [[ja:ホビーパソコン]] [[nl:Homecomputer]] [[pl:Komputer osobisty]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hitachi 6309</title> <id>13951</id> <revision> <id>38008489</id> <timestamp>2006-02-03T15:43:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lamune</username> <id>586184</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HD63C09EP.jpg|thumb|320px|Hitachi 63C09E, a 3MHz external clock version of the 6309]] The '''6309''' is [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi's]] version of the [[Motorola 6809]] [[microprocessor]]. Compatible with the 6809, it added two new [[8-bit|eight-bit]] [[processor register|register]]s that could be added to form a second [[16-bit]] register, and all four eight-bit registers could form a [[32-bit]] register. The 6309 also featured division, some 32-bit arithmetic, additional bit manipulation instructions, and block move instructions, and was generally 30% faster in [[native mode]] than the 6809. Surprisingly, this information was never published by Hitachi. The April 1988 issue of ''Oh! FM'', a Japanese magazine for Fujitsu personal computer users, contained the first description of the 6309's additional capabilities. Later, Hirotsugu Kakagawa posted details of the 6309's new features and instructions to comp.sys.m6809. This led to the development of [http://www.nitros9.org NitrOS9] for the [[Tandy Color Computer]] 3. {{FOLDOC}} {{Motorola processors}} [[Category:Microprocessors]] [[pl:Hitachi 6309]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Home Computers</title> <id>13952</id> <revision> <id>15911536</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Home computer]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hominy</title> <id>13953</id> <revision> <id>38376283</id> <timestamp>2006-02-05T22:53:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>THB</username> <id>320771</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hominy''' or '''nixtamal''' is dried [[maize|maize (corn)]] kernels which have been treated with an [[alkali]] of some kind. The traditional [[United States|U.S.]] version involves ''soaking'' dried corn in [[lye]]-water ([[sodium hydroxide]] or [[potassium hydroxide]] solution), traditionally derived from wood ash, until the germ is removed. Mexican recipes describe a preparation process consisting primarily of ''cooking'' in lime-water ([[calcium hydroxide]]). In either case, the process is called [[nixtamalization]], and removes the germ and the hard outer hull from the kernels, making them more palatable, easier to digest, and easier to process. It also alters the flavor in a way that many consider to be an improvement. The process dates back nearly 10,000 years in ancient [[Mesoamerican]] cultures. It affords several significant nutritional advantages over untreated maize products. It converts some of the [[niacin]] (and possibly other [[B vitamins]]) into a form more absorbable by the body, improves the availability of the [[amino acids]], and (at least in the [[Agricultural_lime|lime]]-treated variant) supplements the calcium content, balancing maize's comparative excess of [[phosphorus]]. Some recipes using hominy include [[menudo (soup)|menudo]] (a spicy tripe and hominy soup), [[pozole]] (a stew of hominy and pork, chicken, prawns, or other meat), hominy bread, hominy chili, casseroles and fried dishes. Hominy can be ground coarsely to make [[grits]], or into a fine mash (dough) to make [[masa]] for [[tamales]] and [[tortilla]]s. Hominy can also be used as animal feed. {{cookbookpar|Hominy recipe}} ==External links== * The Mountain Laurel (2005). [http://www.mtnlaurel.com
properties of larger and larger cardinals. Since cardinality is such a common concept in mathematics, a variety of names are in use. Sameness of cardinality is sometimes referred to as '''equipotence''', '''equipollence''', or '''equinumerosity'''. It is thus said that two sets with the same cardinality are, respectively, '''equipotent''', '''equipollent''', or '''equinumerous'''. == Formal definition == Formally, the order among cardinal numbers is defined as follows: |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;le; |&amp;nbsp;''Y''&amp;nbsp;| means that there exists an [[injective]] function from ''X'' to ''Y''. The [[Cantor–Bernstein–Schroeder theorem]] states that if |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;le; |&amp;nbsp;''Y''&amp;nbsp;| and |&amp;nbsp;''Y''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;le; |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| then |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| = |&amp;nbsp;''Y''&amp;nbsp;|. The [[axiom of choice]] is equivalent to the statement that given two sets ''X'' and ''Y'', either |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;le; |&amp;nbsp;''Y''&amp;nbsp;| or |&amp;nbsp;''Y''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;le; |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;|. Formally, assuming the axiom of choice, cardinality of a set ''X'' is the least ordinal &amp;alpha; such that there is a bijection between ''X'' and &amp;alpha;. This definition is known as the [[von Neumann cardinal assignment]]. If the axiom of choice is not assumed we need to do something different. The oldest definition of the cardinality of a set ''X'' (implicit in Cantor and explicit in Frege and [[Principia Mathematica]]) is as the set of all sets which are equinumerous with ''X'': this does not work in [[ZFC]] or other related systems of [[axiomatic set theory]] because this collection is too large to be a set, but it does work in [[type theory]] and in [[New Foundations]] and related systems. However, if we restrict from this class to those equinumerous with ''X'' that have the least [[rank (set theory)|rank]], then it will work (this is a trick due to [[Dana Scott]]: it works because the collection of objects with any given rank is a set). A set ''X'' is [[Dedekind-infinite]] if there exists a [[proper subset]] ''Y'' of ''X'' with |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| = |&amp;nbsp;''Y''&amp;nbsp;|, and [[Dedekind-finite]] if such a subset doesn't exist. The [[finite]] cardinals are just the [[natural numbers]], i.e., a set ''X'' is finite if and only if |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| = |&amp;nbsp;''n''&amp;nbsp;| = ''n'' for some natural number ''n''. Any other set is [[infinite]]. Assuming the axiom of choice, it can be proved that the Dedekind notions correspond to the standard ones. It can also be proved that the cardinal ℵ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; (aleph-0, where aleph is the first letter in the [[Hebrew alphabet]], represented ℵ) of the set of natural numbers is the smallest infinite cardinal, i.e., that any infinite set admits a subset of cardinality ℵ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;. The next larger cardinal is denoted by ℵ&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and so on. For every [[ordinal]] ''a'' there is a cardinal number ℵ&lt;sub&gt;''a''&lt;/sub&gt;, and this list exhausts all cardinal numbers. ==Cardinal arithmetic== We can define [[arithmetic]] operations on cardinal numbers that generalize the ordinary operations for natural numbers. If ''X'' and ''Y'' are [[disjoint]], addition is given by the [[union (set theory)|union]] of ''X'' and ''Y'' :|''X''| + |''Y''| = |''X'' &amp;cup; ''Y''| The product of cardinals by the [[cartesian product]] :|''X''| |''Y''| = |''X'' &amp;times; ''Y''| Exponentiation is given by :|''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Y''|&lt;/sup&gt; = |''X''&lt;sup&gt;''Y''&lt;/sup&gt;| where ''X''&lt;sup&gt;''Y''&lt;/sup&gt; is defined as the set of all [[function (mathematics)|function]]s from ''Y'' to ''X''. It can be shown that for finite cardinals these operations coincide with the usual operations for natural numbers. Furthermore, these operations share many properties with ordinary arithmetic: * addition and multiplication of cardinal numbers is [[associative]] and [[commutative]] * multiplication [[distributivity|distributes]] over addition * |''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Y''| + |''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; = |''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Y''|&lt;/sup&gt; |''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; * |''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Y''| |''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; = (|''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Y''|&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; * (|''X''||''Y''|)&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; = |''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; |''Y''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; The addition and multiplication of infinite cardinal numbers (assuming the axiom of choice) is easy: if ''X'' or ''Y'' is infinite and both are non-empty, then :|''X''| + |''Y''| = |''X''||''Y''| = max{|''X''|, |''Y''|}. Note that 2&lt;sup&gt;|&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;|&lt;/sup&gt; is the cardinality of the [[power set]] of the set ''X'' and [[Cantor's diagonal argument]] shows that 2&lt;sup&gt;|&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;|&lt;/sup&gt; &gt; |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| for any set ''X''. This proves that there exists no largest cardinal. In fact, the [[class (set theory)|class]] of cardinals is a [[proper class]]. Further rules for exponentiation are as follows: *|''X''|&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; = 1 (in particular 0&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; = 1), see [[empty function]] *0&lt;sup&gt;|''Y''|&lt;/sup&gt; = 0 if ''Y'' is not empty *1&lt;sup&gt;|''Y''|&lt;/sup&gt; = 1 *|''X''| &amp;le; |''Y''| implies that |''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;le; |''Y''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; *if |''X''| and |''Y''| are both finite and greater than 1, and ''Z'' is infinite, then |''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; = |''Y''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; *if ''X'' is infinite and ''Y'' is finite and non-empty then |''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Y''|&lt;/sup&gt; = |''X''|. === Successor cardinal === {{main|Successor cardinal}} Every cardinal κ has a successor κ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, and there are no cardinals between κ and its successor. For finite cardinals, the successor is simply κ+1. For infinite cardinals, the successor cardinal differs from the [[successor ordinal]]. ==The continuum hypothesis== The [[continuum hypothesis]] (CH) states that there are no cardinals strictly between &lt;math&gt;\aleph_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;2^{\aleph_0}&lt;/math&gt;. The latter cardinal number is also often denoted by ''c''; it is the [[cardinality of the continuum]] (the set of [[real number]]s). In this case &lt;math&gt;2^{\aleph_0} = \aleph_1&lt;/math&gt;. The [[generalized continuum hypothesis]] (GCH) states that for every infinite set ''X'', there are no cardinals strictly between |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| and 2&lt;sup&gt;|&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;|&lt;/sup&gt;. The continuum hypothesis is independent from the usual axioms of set theory, the Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms together with the axiom of choice ([[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory|ZFC]]). ==See also== * [[large cardinal]] * [[Nominal number]] * [[Ordinal number]] * [[Serial number]] * [[Cantor's paradox|The paradox of the greatest cardinal]] ==References== *Hahn, Hans, ''Infinity'', Part IX, Chapter 2, Volume 3 of ''The World of Mathematics''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1956. *[[Paul Halmos|Halmos, Paul]], ''[[Naive Set Theory (book)|Naive set theory]]''. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1960. Reprinted by Springer-Verlag, New York, 1974. ISBN 0-387-90092-6 (Springer-Verlag edition). [[Category:Cardinal numbers|*]] [[Category:Set theory]] [[cs:Kardin&amp;#225;ln&amp;#237; &amp;#269;&amp;#237;slo]] [[da:Kardinaltal]] [[de:Kardinalzahl (Mathematik)]] [[es:Número Cardinal]] [[fr:Nombre cardinal]] [[he:&amp;#1506;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1510;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1492;]] [[io:Kardinala nombro]] [[it:Numero cardinale]] [[nl:Cardinaliteit]] [[ja:&amp;#22522;&amp;#25968;]] [[pl:Liczba kardynalna]] [[pt:Número cardinal]] [[ru:&amp;#1052;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1097;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1100; &amp;#1084;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1078;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1072;]] [[sl:kardinalno &amp;#353;tevilo]] [[sv:Kardinaltal]] [[zh:&amp;#22522;&amp;#25976;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cardinality</title> <id>6174</id> <revision> <id>40148704</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T14:39:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Goetz</username> <id>420622</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>added link to german wikipedia</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''cardinality''' of a [[set (mathematics)|set]] is a measure of the &quot;number of elements of the set&quot;. There are two approaches to cardinality &amp;ndash; one which compares sets directly using [[bijection, injection and surjection|bijections, injections, and surjections]], and another which uses [[cardinal number]]s. ==Comparing sets== We say that two sets ''A'' and ''B'' have the same cardinality if there exists a [[bijection]], i.e. an [[injection|injective]] and [[surjection|surjective]] [[function (mathematics)|function]], from ''A'' to ''B''. For example, the set ''E'' = {2, 4, 6, ...} of [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] [[even number]]s has the same cardinality as the set '''N''' = {1, 2, 3, ...} of [[natural numbers]], since the function ''f''(''n'') = 2''n'' is a bijection from '''N''' to ''E''. We say that a set ''A'' has cardinality greater than or equal to the cardinality of ''B'' (and ''B'' has cardinality less than or equal to the cardinality of ''A'') if there exists an injective function from ''B'' into ''A''. We say that ''A'' has cardinality strictly greater than the cardinality of ''B'' if ''A'' has cardinality greater than or equal to the cardinality of ''B'', but ''A'' and ''B'' do not have the same cardinality, i.e. if there is an injective function from ''B'' to ''A'' but no bijective function from ''A'' to ''B''. For example, the set '''R''' of all [[real number|real numbers]] has cardinality strictly greater than the cardinality of the
D|dropped D]]&quot;, various transposed and open chord tunings, usually to simplify fretting of some chord inversions in a certain key. Seven-string models exist, most of which add a low B string below the E. Seven-string guitars were popularized by Steve Vai and others in the [[1980s|'80s]], and have been recently revived by some [[nu metal]] bands. Jazz guitarists using a seven-string include veteran jazzman Bucky Pizzarelli and his popular son John Pizzarelli. There are even eight-string electric guitars, such as the [[Novax]] played by [[Charlie Hunter]], but they are extremely unusual. The largest manufacturer of 8- to 14-strings is Warr Guitars, and their models are used by [[Trey Gunn]] and [[King Crimson]]. [[Jimmy Page]], an innovator of [[hard rock]], used and made famous custom Gibson electric guitars with two necks - essentially two instruments in one; in his case, a 6-string and 12-string guitar, to replicate his use of two different guitars when playing live &quot;[[Stairway to Heaven]]&quot;. These are commonly known as [[double-neck guitar|double-neck]] (or, less commonly, &quot;twin-neck&quot;) guitars. The purpose is to obtain different ranges of sound from each instrument; typical combinations are six-string and four-string (guitar and bass guitar) or, more commonly, a six-string and [[twelve-string guitar|twelve-string]]. Such a combination may come handy when playing [[ballad]]s live, where the 12-string gives a mellower sound as accompaniment, while the 6-string may be used for a guitar solo. English [[progressive rock]] bands such as [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]] took this trend to its zenith using custom made instruments produced by the [[Shergold]] company. [[Rick Nielsen]], guitarist for [[Cheap Trick]], uses a variety of custom guitars, many of which have five necks - more for comic effect than for actual usefulness. Guitar virtuoso [[Steve Vai]] occasionally uses a triple-neck guitar; one neck is twelve string, one is six string, and the third is a fretless six string. [[Image:Stratocaster_detail_DSC06937.jpg|thumb|right|Detail of a Squier-made Fender Stratocaster. Note the tremolo arm, the 3 single-coil pickups, the volume and tone knobs.]] Some electric guitars have a [[tremolo arm]] or ''whammy bar'', which is a lever attached to the bridge that can slacken or tighten the strings temporarily, changing the pitch or creating a [[vibrato]]. Tremolo properly refers to a quick variation of volume, not pitch; however, the misnaming (probably originating with Leo Fender printing &quot;Synchronized Tremolo&quot; right on the headstock of his original 1954 Stratocaster) is probably too established to change. [[Eddie Van Halen]] often uses this feature to embellish his playing, as heard in [[Van Halen]]'s &quot;Eruption&quot;. Early tremolo systems tended to cause the guitar to go out of tune with extended use; an important innovator in this field was [[Floyd Rose]], who introduced one of the first tremolos which allowed the guitar to stay in tune, even after heavy use. == Pickups == Electric guitars are not usually amplified by using a microphone, but with special pickups that sense the movement of strings. Such pickups tend to also pick up the ambient electrical noises of the room, the so-called &quot;hum&quot;, with a strong 50- or 60-[[Hertz|Hz]] component depending on the locale. Hum is annoying, especially when playing with distortion, so &quot;humbucker&quot; pickups were invented to counter this. Normal pickups are single-coil; humbuckers are essentially like twin microphones arranged in such a way that electrical noise cancels itself. A similar effect may be achieved using a guitar with multiple single coil pickups with an appropriate selection of dual pickups. (See main articles on [[pickup (music)|pickup]]s and [[humbucker]]s.) Another instrument, the pedal steel guitar, does not look like a guitar at all, but resembles a small rectangular table with one or more sets of strings on top. Country musician [[Junior Brown]] uses a custom-built instrument of his invention, the [[guit-steel]], which has one neck that is a steel guitar, and one standard electric guitar neck. == The physical principle == The physics of electric guitars and other electric [[string instrument]]s is fairly simple, since they are based on induced currents (see the [[electromagnetism]] article for more details). [[Magnet]]s are located under each string, which make the strings behave as magnets themselves. When a string is played, it oscillates at a certain frequency, causing the magnetic field it creates to oscillate with it. [[Solenoid]]s (electromagnetic coils) are wrapped around each magnet, giving a periodic induced current (at the same frequency) [http://www.europhysicsnews.com/full/10/article2/article2.html]. == Electric guitar sound and effects == [[Image:Godin_LG-Squier_Strat.jpg|thumb|right|Both the North America-built Godin LG (left) and the Fender Stratocaster (right - an entry-level, Korean-made [[Squier]] model is shown) are solidbody electric guitars, but they differ significantly in design, including scale length, neck and body woods, and pickup type.]] An acoustic guitar's sound is largely dependent on the vibration of the guitar's body and the air within it; the sound of an electric guitar is largely dependent on a magnetically induced electrical signal, generated by the vibration of metal strings near sensitive pickups. The signal is then shaped on its path to the amplifier. By the late [[1960s]], it became common practice to exploit this dependence to alter the sound of the instrument. The most dramatic innovation was the generation of [[distortion]] by increasing the gain, or volume, of the [[Pre amplifier|preamplifier]] in order to clip the electronic signal. This form of distortion generates [[The Mathematics of Western music|harmonics]], particularly in even multiples of the input frequency, which are considered pleasing to the ear. Beginning in the [[1960s]], the [[timbre|tonal palette]] of the electric guitar was further modified by introducing an [[Electric Guitar/effects unit|effects box]] in its signal path. Traditionally built in a small metal chassis with an on/off foot switch, such &quot;[[stomp box|stomp boxes]]&quot; have become as much a part of the instrument for many electric guitarists as the electric guitar itself. Typical effects include [[chorus effect|stereo chorus]], [[fuzz_(electric_guitar)|fuzz]], [[wah-wah]] and [[flanging]], [[compression_(electric_guitar)|compression/sustain]], [[delay_(electric_guitar)|delay]], [[reverb]], and [[phaser_(electric_guitar)|phase shift]]. Some important innovators of this aspect of the electric guitar include guitarists [[Link Wray]], [[Jimi Hendrix]], [[Brian May]], [[Eddie Van Halen]], [[Steve Jones (rock musician)|Steve Jones]], [[Jerry Garcia]], [[David Gilmour]], [[Yngwie J. Malmsteen]], [[Thurston Moore]], [[Daniel Ash]], and [[Tom Morello]], and technicians such as [[Roger Mayer]]. By the [[1980s]], and [[1990s]], digital and [http://guitar-sound.info software] effects became capable of replicating the analog effects used in the past. These new digital effects attempted to model the sound produced by analog effects and tube amps, to varying degrees of quality. There are many free to use guitar effects software for personal computer downloadable from the Internet. Today anyone can transform his PC with sound card into a digital guitar effects processor. Although there are some obvious advantages to digital and software effects, many guitarists still use analog effects for their real or perceived quality over their digital counterparts. Some innovations have been made recently in the design of the electric guitar. In [[2002]], Gibson announced the first digital guitar, which performs analog-to-digital conversion internally. The resulting digital signal is delivered over a standard [[Ethernet]] cable, eliminating cable-induced line noise. The guitar also provides independent signal processing for each individual string. Also, in 2003 [[instrument amplifier|amp]] maker [[Line 6]] released the [[Variax]] guitar. It differs in some fundamental ways from conventional solid-body electrics. For example it uses [[Pickup_%28music%29#Piezoelectric_pickups|piezoelectric pickup]]s instead of the conventional electro-magnetic ones, and has an onboard computer capable of modifying the sound of the guitar to realistically model many popular guitars. == Uses == The electric guitar can be played either solo or with other instruments. It has been used in numerous genres of popular music, as well as (much less frequently) classical music. ===Rock and jazz=== In rock music, the electric guitar is generally used in conjunction with [[electric bass|electric bass guitar]] and [[drum set]]. When two electric guitars are used, one generally plays the role of [[Lead guitar|&quot;lead&quot; guitar]] and the other is the [[Rhythm guitar|&quot;rhythm&quot; guitar]]. === Contemporary classical music === While the [[classical (nylon string) guitar|classical guitar]] had historically been the only variety of guitar favored by classical composers, in the 1950s a few contemporary classical composers began to use the electric guitar in their compositions. Examples of such works include [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]]'s ''Gruppen'' (1955-1957); [[Morton Feldman]]'s ''The Possibility of a New Work for Electric Guitar'' (1966); [[George Crumb]]'s ''Songs, Drones, and Refrains of Death'' (1968); [[Hans Werner Henze]]'s ''Versuch über Schweine'' (1968); and [[Michael Tippett]]'s ''The Knot Garden'' (1966-70). In the 1980s and 1990s, a growing number of composers (many of them composer-performers who had grown up playing the instrument in rock bands) began writing for the instrument. These include [[Steven Mackey]], [[Lois V Vierk]], [[Tim Brady]], [[John Fitz Rogers]], [[Tristan Murail]], and [[Yngwie Malmsteen]] with his [[Concerto Suite for Electr
g, especially on the slopes of Mamayev Kurgan and inside the factory area in the northern part of the city, continued as fiercely as ever. The battles for the [[October_Revolution|Red October]] steel factory, the Dzerzhinsky tractor factory and the Barrikady gun factory became world famous. While Soviet soldiers defended their positions and took the Germans under fire, factory workers repaired damaged Soviet tanks and other weapons in the direct vicinity of the battlefield, sometimes on the battlefield itself. ==The Soviet counter-attack: Operation Uranus== [[Image:Battle of Stalingrad.png|thumbnail|right|300px|The Soviet counter-attack at Stalingrad {{legend-line|solid #0000cf 2px|German front, [[19 November]]}} {{legend-line|solid #ff6600 2px|German front, [[12 December]]}} {{legend-line|solid #009a00 2px|German front, [[24 December]]}} {{legend|#c3c3c3|border=solid grey 1px|Russian advance, 19-[[28 November]]}} ]] During the siege the German, Hungarian, and Romanian armies protecting Army Group South (B)'s [[flank]]s had pressed their [[headquarter]]s for support. The 2nd Hungarian Army (consisting of mainly ill-equipped and ill-trained units) were given the task of defending a 200&amp;nbsp;km section of the front north of Stalingrad. This resulted in a very thin line of defense with some parts where 1-2km stretches were being guarded by a single [[platoon]]. Soviet forces held several points on the south bank of the river and presented a potentially serious threat to Army Group South (B). However, Hitler was so focused on the city itself that requests from the flanks for support were refused. The chief of the German High Command [[OKW]], [[Franz Halder]], expressed concerns about Hitler's preoccupation with the city, pointing at the Germans' weak flanks. Hitler replaced Halder in mid-October with General [[Kurt Zeitzler]]. In Autumn the Soviet general [[Georgy Zhukov]], responsible for strategic planning in the Stalingrad area, concentrated massive Soviet forces in the steppes to the north and south of the city. The German northern flank was particularly vulnerable, since it was defended by [[Hungarian Army|Hungarian]] and [[Romanian Army|Romanian]] units which suffered from inferior equipment and low [[morale]]. Zhukov's plan was to keep pinning the Germans down in the city, and then to punch through the overstretched and weakly defended German flanks and to surround the Germans inside Stalingrad. The operation was code-named &quot;[[Operation Uranus|Uranus]]&quot; and launched in conjunction with [[Operation Mars]], which was directed at [[Army Group Center]]. On [[November 19]], [[1942]] the Red Army unleashed Uranus. The attacking Soviet units under the command of General [[Nikolai Vatutin]] consisted of three complete armies, the 1st Guards Army, 5th Tank Army, and 21st Army, including a total of 18 infantry [[Division (military)|division]]s, eight tank [[brigade]]s, two [[Mechanized force|motorized]] brigades, six [[cavalry]] divisions and one anti-tank brigade. The preparations for the attack could be heard by the Romanians, who continued to push for reinforcements, only to be refused again. Thinly spread, outnumbered and poorly equipped, the 3rd Romanian Army, which held the northern flank of the German 6th Army, was shattered after a one-day defense. On [[November 20]], a second Soviet offensive (two armies) was launched to the south of Stalingrad, against points held by the Romanian 4th Army Corps. The Romanian forces collapsed almost immediately. Soviet forces raced west in a [[pincer movement]], and met two days later near the town of [[Kalach]], sealing the ring around Stalingrad. The Soviets thought they had trapped less than 100,000 Germans; in fact about 250,000 German and Romanian soldiers, as well as some [[Croatia]]n units and volunteer subsidiary troops were encircled in the pocket. Not all German soldiers from the 6th Army were trapped: 50,000 were brushed aside outside the pocket. The encircling Red Army units immediately formed two defensive fronts: one facing 'inward' to defend against breakout attempt by the surrounded Germans, the other facing 'outward' to defend against any relief attempt. Hitler had already declared in a public speech on [[September 30]] that the German army would never leave the city. At a meeting shortly after the encirclement, German army chiefs pushed for an immediate breakout to a new line on the west of the Don. [[Hermann Göring]] instead claimed that the [[Luftwaffe]] could supply the 6th Army with an &quot;air bridge.&quot; This would allow the Germans in the city to fight on while a relief force could be assembled, a plan that had been used successfully a year earlier at the [[Demyansk Pocket]] on a much smaller scale (an army corps versus an entire army). The German Sixth Army was the largest unit of this type in the world, almost twice as large as a regular German army. Also trapped in the &quot;pocket&quot; was a corps of the Fourth Panzer Army. It should have been clear that supplying the pocket by air was impossible: the Luftwaffe's carrying capacity after the [[Battle of Crete]] had not been reinforced, and the maximum 300 tonnes they could deliver a day would be less than the 500 needed by the pocket. However, Hitler backed Göring's plan and re-iterated his order of &quot;no surrender&quot; to his trapped armies. The air supply mission failed almost immediately. Heavy Soviet anti-aircraft fire and fighter interceptions led to the loss of many German transport aircraft. The winter weather reduced the flying efficiency of the Geram air force. In general only 10 percent of the needed supplies could be delivered. Those transport planes which made it would evacuate technical specialists and sick or wounded men when taking off from the besieged enclave. The 6th Army slowly starved. [[Aviator|Pilot]]s were shocked to find the troops assigned to offloading the planes too exhausted and hungry to unload food. Soviet forces consolidated their positions around Stalingrad, and fierce fighting to shrink the pocket began. An attack by a German battlegroup formed to relieve the trapped armies from the South, ''[[Operation Wintergewitter]]'' (&quot;Winter Storm&quot;) was successfully fended off by the Soviets in December. The full impact of the harsh Russian winter set in. The Volga froze solid, allowing the Soviets to supply their forces in the city more easily. The trapped Germans rapidly ran out of heating fuel and medical supplies, and thousands started dying of [[frostbite]], [[malnutrition]] and [[disease]]. In January the Soviets launched a second offensive, [[Operation Saturn]], which attempted to punch through the Axis army on the Don and take [[Rostov-on-Don|Rostov]]. If successful, this offensive would have trapped the remainder of Army Group South in the Caucasus. The Germans set up a &quot;mobile defense&quot; in which small units would hold towns until supporting armor could arrive. The Soviets never got close to Rostov, but the fighting forced von Manstein to extract Group A from the Caucasus and restabilize the frontline some 250&amp;nbsp;km away from the city. The 6th Army was now beyond all hope of German reinforcement. The German troops in Stalingrad were not told this, however, and continued to believe that reinforcements were on their way. Some German officers requested that Paulus defy Hitler's orders to stand fast and instead attempt to break out of the Stalingrad pocket. Paulus refused, as he abhorred the thought of disobeying orders. ==Soviet victory== [[Image:Paulus_POW.jpg|thumb|right|300px| German POWs: The staff of Field Marshal Paulus]] The Germans inside the pocket retreated from the [[suburb]]s of Stalingrad to the city itself. The loss of the two [[airfield]]s at Pitomnik and Gumrak meant an end to air supplies and to the evacuation of the wounded. The Germans were now literally starving, and running out of [[ammunition]]. Nevertheless they continued to resist stubbornly, partly because they believed the Soviets would execute those who surrendered. In particular, the so-called &quot;HiWi&quot; troops, ex-Soviets fighting for the Germans, had no illusions about their fate if captured. The Soviets, in turn, were initially surprised by the large number of German forces they had trapped, and had to reinforce their encircling forces. Bloody [[urban warfare]] began again in Stalingrad, but this time it was the Germans who were pushed back to the banks of the Volga. Hitler promoted Paulus to ''[[Generalfeldmarschall]]'' on [[January 30]], [[1943]] (the 10th anniversary of Hitler coming to power). Since no German [[field marshal]] had ever been taken prisoner, Hitler assumed that Paulus would fight on or take his own life. Nevertheless, when Soviet forces closed in on Paulus' headquarters in the ruined [[ State_Universal_Store|GUM]] department store, Paulus surrendered. The remnants of the German forces in Stalingrad surrendered on [[February 2]] [[1943]]; 91,000 tired, ill and starving Germans were taken captive. To the delight of the Soviet forces and the dismay of the Reich, the prisoners included 22 generals. Hitler was angry at the Field Marshall's surrender and confided that &quot;Paulus stood at the doorstep of eternal glory but made an about-face&quot;. Only 6,000 of the 91,000 German [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] survived their captivity and returned home. Already weakened by disease, starvation and lack of medical care during the encirclement, they were sent to [[labour camp]]s all over the Soviet Union, where most of them died of overwork and malnutrition. A handful of senior officers were taken to [[Moscow]] and used for propaganda purposes. Some, including Paulus, signed anti-Hitler statements which were broadcast to German troops. General [[Walther von Seydlitz-Kurzbach]] offered to raise an anti-Hitler army from the Stalingrad survivors, but the Soviets did not accept this offer. It was not until 195
l Children's Eurovision. Thus, starting in 2003, an annual children's version of the Contest was established, called the [[Junior Eurovision Song Contest]]. As originators of the concept, Denmark were given the honour of hosting the first running of the event, which was won by [[Croatia]]. In the Junior Eurovision Song Contests the performers always compose their own songs. === An American Eurovision Contest? === In 2006 the format of the Eurovision Song Contest was sold to an American Broadcaster in order to compete with [[American Idol]] in the ratings. The member countries of the [[EBU]] will be replaced by the different States and terriories of the United States. ===Intervision Song Contest=== Between 1977 and 1980 the countries of the former Eastern bloc had a song contest of their own, known as the [[Intervision Song Contest]]. Organised by the [[Intervision Network]] and held in [[Sopot]], [[Poland]], it replaced an earlier event &amp;mdash; the [[Sopot International Song Festival]]. ===The 50th Anniversary Contest=== see [[Congratulations (Eurovision)]] ==Trivia== * The [[1974]] [[Carnation Revolution]] in Portugal began when their entry ''[[E depois do adeus]]'' was broadcast on Portuguese radio. The song was the signal to the rebels to start the revolution. * Lebanon had intended to participate for the first time in [[2005]], but withdrew when it emerged that Lebanese law made it impossible to show the Israeli entry. (The Contest rules require participating broadcasters to show all the songs). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4362373.stm BBC coverage] ===The Contest in Popular Culture=== * As mentioned previously, the Eurovision Song Contest was the central focus of an episode of ''[[Father Ted]]''. * In an episode of ''[[The Young Ones]]'', [[Alexei Sayle]] dressed as [[Benito Mussolini]] and performed a mock Contest entry called &quot;Make Silly Noises&quot;. * The short-lived BBC comedy [[Heartburn Hotel]] featured an episode in which the delegation from the impoverished Eastern European state of Zagrovia stayed in the grotty Birmingham hotel run by [[Tim Healy]] whilst taking part in that year's Eurovision Song Contest. Although the country in question is, of course, fictitious, the Contest had indeed been held in Birmingham that year (1998), and the programme notably included some specially filmed footage of the Zagrovian &quot;entry&quot; - entitled &quot;Love, Love, Love&quot; - being performed on the actual ESC stage at the [[National Indoor Arena]]. [http://library.digiguide.com/lib/episode/4724] * At the 2005 [[MTV]] European Music Awards, the British host [[Sacha Baron Cohen]] made a parody of Eastern European countries hosting the Contest. As the fictitious [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] TV personality [[Borat]], Cohen opened the show by welcoming the viewers to ''The Eurovision Song Contest 2005''. The award show also included other, more subtle, references to the ESC, like overly long folk-dance sequences (common in the ''interval act'' of the ESC), and a pointless appearance by the (still fake) Kazakh president. * British comedy [[Maid Marian and her Merry Men]] (1989) included a Eurovision parody in their song contest 'a Song for Worksop.' Upon forming the idea for the song contest, Marian described in vivid detail the exact manner in which she would host the show, mirroring Eurovision hosts of the past, and the winning song was the Guy of Gisborne's idiotic composition 'Ding-a-Ling-a-Ling, Dong-a-Long-a-Long.' *Famous British comedy troupe, [[Monty Python]], parodied the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] in their popular 70's variety comedy show, [[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]. * In the 1977 film ''[[Jubilee (1977 film)|Jubilee]]'' a character is referred to as &quot;England's entry for the Eurovision Song Contest&quot; about 32 minutes in. * In the 2000 film ''[[An Everlasting Piece]]'' after about 7 minutes a wig technician asks during customer/client smalltalk whether the client knows where the Eurovison Song Contest is being held that year. ===See also=== *[[List of years in music]] *The [[Organización de Televisión Iberoamericana]] organizes a similar contest for Latin America, Portugal and Spain. *[[Eurofolk Song Contest]] or [[Alternative Eurovision]] *[[Schlager]] *[[Diggil-ej]] ==External links== ===Official Websites=== * [http://www.eurovision.tv/ Eurovision.tv - the official website of the Eurovision Song Contest] * [http://www.ebu.ch ebu.ch - the official website of the European Broadcasting Union] ===Fan sites=== * [http://www.onikipuan.com Onikipuan.com OGAE Turkey Forum] * [http://www.eurovision-turkey.com/index.html Eurovision Turkey] * [http://enorama.11.forumer.com Eurovision forum in English] * [http://eurovision.eliit.com EuroFanForum - Eurovision forum in Estonian] * [http://eurovil.iba.org.il Eurovil - The Official Israeli Song Contest Eurovision Site] * [http://eurovision.ert.gr/en/ Greek official website] * [http://eurovision.le-site.info/ L'eurovision en français (in French)] * [http://eurovision-hungary.tar.hu/ Hungary in the Eurovision Song Contest] * [http://www.diggiloo.net/ The Diggiloo Thrush] * [http://www.doteurovision.com/ Doteurovision] * [http://www.esckaz.com/ ESCKaz (In English and Russian)] * [http://www.ecgermany.de/ Eurovision Club Germany (in German)] * [http://www.esc-dk.dk/ ESC-dk - Eurovisionens Melodi Grand Prix (in Danish)] * [http://www.escmalta.com/ ESCMalta Community website] * [http://www.esctoday.com/ ESCToday] * [http://www.eurobosnia.com/ Eurobosnia] * [http://www.eurosong.net/ Eurosong.net - Chatroom, fan voting &amp; lyrics] * [http://www.eurovisionblog.com/ Eurovisionblog] * [http://www.eurovision-db.com/ Eurovision-db] * [http://www.eurovision-fr.net/ Eurovision-fr(in French)] * [http://www.eurovision-greece.com/ Eurovision-Greece] * [http://www.eurovisionmalta.com/ EurovisionMalta] * [http://www.eurovision-romania.tk/ Eurovision-Romania] * [http://www.eurovision-spain.com/ Eurovision-Spain (in Spanish)] * [http://www.geocities.com/national_finals/ Eurovision Song Contest National Finals] * [http://www.gylleneskor.se/ Gylleneskor (in Swedish)] * [http://www.hoteyes.net/ Hoteyes.net - MP3 and video downloads] * [http://www.kolumbus.fi/jarpen/ Eurovision Song Contest Statistics] * [http://www.ogae.net/ OGAE Network - Eurovison Fanclub Network] * [http://www.oikotimes.com/ Oikotimes] * [http://www.oneurope.biz/ OnEurope] * [http://www.escchat.com/ #esc] * [http://www.eurovisionmadrid.com/ EurovisionMadrid] * [http://www.creepycrawlyweb.com/eurovisiongallery/ This is how WE celebrated the 50th contest] ===Miscellaneous Links=== *[http://orangecow.org/pythonet/sketches/europoli.htm/ Monty Python's Parody of the Eurovision Song Contest, &quot;The Europolice Song Contest&quot;] ===Eurovision Shops=== * [http://www.theeurovisionshop.com The Eurovision Shop - Large Selection of Eurovision items] ===Eurovision Wiki=== * [http://www.eurovisionwiki.com The Eurovision Wiki - A Wealth Of Knowledge on Eurovision] ==Endnotes== #{{note|Israel}} Israel declined to host the [[1980]] Contest because the [[Israel Broadcasting Authority|IBA]] preferred to spend their budget on upgrading their transmission to [[Television#Color television|colour]]. {{Eurovision Song Contest}} {{EurovisionCountries}} [[Category:Eurovision Song Contest|*]] [[Category:Singing competitions]] {{Link FA|sr}} [[bs:Eurosong]] [[da:Eurovision Song Contest]] [[de:Eurovision Song Contest]] [[es:Festival de la Canción de Eurovisión]] [[eo:Eŭrovido-Kantokonkurso]] [[fr:Concours Eurovision de la chanson]] [[it:Eurofestival]] [[he:אירוויזיון]] [[ja:ユーロビジョン・ソング・コンテスト]] [[lb:Eurovision Song Contest]] [[nl:Eurovisiesongfestival]] [[no:Eurovision Song Contest]] [[pl:Konkurs Piosenki Eurowizji]] [[pt:Festival Eurovisão da Canção]] [[simple:Eurovision Song Contest]] [[sl:Pesem Evrovizije]] [[sr:Песма Евровизије]] [[fi:Euroviisut]] [[sv:Eurovisionsschlagerfestivalen]] [[uk:Пісенний конкурс Євробачення]] [[ro:Concursul muzical Eurovision]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Enriched Air Nitrox</title> <id>9955</id> <revision> <id>40727733</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T16:38:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Osgoodelawyer</username> <id>318707</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Oxygen toxicity */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;width:300px;text-align:center&quot;&gt;[[Image:EANxDecal.png]]&lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;Typical decal used on scuba cylinders containing Nitrox&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/div&gt; '''Nitrox''' is a [[breathing gas]] consisting of [[oxygen]] and [[nitrogen]] (similar to [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]), but with a higher proportion of [[oxygen]] than the normal 20.9%. == Purpose== Nitrox is mainly used in [[Scuba diving]] to reduce the proportion of [[nitrogen]] in the breathing gas mixture. Reducing the proportion of nitrogen by increasing the proportion of oxygen reduces the risk of [[decompression sickness]], allowing extended dive times without increasing the need for [[decompression stop]]s. Nitrox is not a safer gas than compressed air in all respects: although its use reduces the risk of decompression sickness, it increases the risk of [[oxygen toxicity]] and fire, which are further discussed below. It is commonly believed that breathing nitrox can reduce the effects of [[nitrogen narcosis]], but this has not been fully studied. In fact, there is some suggestion that oxygen may also have some narcotic properties under pressure; thus one should not expect a reduction in narcotic effects due only to the use of nitrox. There is anecdotal evidence that the use of nitrox reduces post-dive fatigue, particularly in older divers, but there have been no studies conducted to either confirm or refute this. == Naming== Nitrox is known by several names: Enhanced&amp;nbsp;Air&amp;nbsp;Nitrox, Oxygen&amp;nbsp;Enriched&amp;nbsp;Air,
//www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=11715] * [[Save the Children]], State of the World&amp;#8217;s Mothers: ** [[2004]]: N/A [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2004/images/pdf/SOWM_2004_final.pdf] * [[Transparency International]], Corruption Perceptions Index: ** [[2004]]: ranked 21 out of 146 countries surveyed [http://www.transparency.org/pressreleases_archive/2004/2004.10.20.cpi.en.html 21st] * [[UN]], [[Human_Development_Index|Human Development Index (HDI)]]: ** [[2004]]: ranked 29th out of 177 countries [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/pdf/presskit/HDR04_PKE_HDI.pdf 29th] (3rd in the Americas, after [[Canada]] and the [[United States]] ** [[2003]]: ranked 27th out of 175 countries [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2003/pdf/presskit/HDR03_PKE_HDI.pdf 27th] ** [[2002]]: ranked 31st out of 173 countries [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2002/en/pdf/HDR%20PR_HDI.pdf 31st] ** [[2001]]: ranked 31st out of 162 countries [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2001/en/pdf/hdi.pdf 31st] ** [[2000]]: ranked 30th out of 174 countries [http://www.undp.org/hdr2000/english/presskit/hdi.pdf 30th] ** [[1999]]: ranked 29th out of 174 countries [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/1999/en/pdf/hdr_1999_back1.pdf 29th] ** [[1998]]: N/A * [[World Economic Forum]], Global Competitiveness Report/Growth Competitiveness Index: ** [[2004]]-[[2005]]: N/A [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Global+Competitiveness+Programme%5CGlobal+Competitiveness+Report] * [[World Bank]]: ** Total [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita]] *** [[2003]] (World Bank): ranked 38 -- $ 15,712 ** Total [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|GDP (nominal)]] *** [[2003]]: ranked 138 -- $ 2,628 {{CIA WFB 2000}} {{CIA WFB 2003}} ==Further reading== *Scott, Caroline 1999. ''Insight Guide Barbados''. Discovery Channel and Insight Guides; 4th edition, Singapore. ISBN 0887290337 *O'Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson 2000. ''An Empire Divided - The American Revolution and the British Caribbean''. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia ISBN 0812217322 *Hamshere, Cyril 1972. ''The British In the Caribbean''. Harvard University Pres, Massachusetts USA. ISBN 674082354 *Rogozinski, Jan 1999. ''A Brief History of the Caribbean - From the Arawak and Carib to the Present''. Revised version New York, USA. ISBN 0816038112 * Burns, Sir Alan 1965. ''History of the British West Indies''. George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London England. ==See also== * ''List of: [[List of Cities, towns and villages in Barbados|Cities, towns and villages]] in Barbados.'' * [[List of Eastern Caribbean people#Barbados|List of Barbadians]], (persons from Barbados.) * [[Nationality law of Barbados]] * [[Foreign relations of Barbados]] * [[Communications in Barbados]] * [[Transportation in Barbados]] * [[Military of Barbados]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Barbados}} ===Government=== * [http://www.barbados.gov.bb/ Barbados Government Information Network] - official website * [http://www.barbadosparliament.com/ Parliament of Barbados official website] * [http://www.centralbank.org.bb/ Central Bank of Barbados website] * [http://www.barbadosparliament.com/sm_facts_abt_barbados.php Parliament of Barbados - Some facts about Barbados] * [http://www.bidc.com/ Barbados Investment and Development Corporation] ===Directories=== * [http://www.totallybarbados.com Totally Barbados - Online Island Guide] * [http://www.accessbarbados.com Barbados Vacation Travel Guide &amp; Business Directory] * [http://nigel.search.co.tt/ the Barbados Webdirectory] * [http://www.bcslbarbados.com/barbados.aspx Points and places of Interest when in Barbados] * [http://www.bdscham.com/ Barbados Chamber of Commerce and Industry] * [http://www.bajan.org/ Bajan - The Hitch Hiker's Guide to Barbados] -- Note-- Hitchhiking is actually not recommended. ===Tourism=== *{{wikitravel}} * [http://www.visitbarbados.org/ Official website of The Barbados Tourism Authority] * [http://barbadostourisminvestment.com/ Barbados Tourism Investment] Inc. ===Other=== * [http://www.hurricanecity.com/city/barbados.htm Hurricane History of Barbados] {{maplr|13.16|-59.55|Barbados}} See also MapQuest zoom levels 8, 9, and 10. ''Maps of Barbados from Caribbean-On-Line.com'' * [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/br/brmap.shtml Map of Barbados] {{West_Indies}} {{caricom}} [[Category:Barbados| ]] [[Category:CARICOM member states]] [[Category:Caribbean countries]] [[Category:Caribbean islands]] [[Category:Monarchies]] [[Category:Island nations]] [[Category:Former British colonies]] [[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[an:Barbados]] [[ar:بربادوس]] [[bg:Барбадос]] [[zh-min-nan:Barbados]] [[bn:বার্বাডোস]] [[bs:Barbados]] [[ca:Barbados]] [[cs:Barbados]] [[da:Barbados]] [[de:Barbados]] [[et:Barbados]] [[es:Barbados]] [[eo:Barbado]] [[eu:Barbados]] [[fr:Barbade]] [[gl:Barbados]] [[ko:바베이도스]] [[hr:Barbados]] [[id:Barbados]] [[is:Barbados]] [[it:Barbados]] [[he:ברבדוס]] [[ks:बार्बाडोस]] [[lv:Barbadosa]] [[lt:Barbadosas]] [[hu:Barbados]] [[ms:Barbados]] [[na:Barbados]] [[nl:Barbados]] [[nds:Barbados]] [[ja:バルバドス]] [[no:Barbados]] [[nn:Barbados]] [[oc:Barbados]] [[pl:Barbados]] [[pt:Barbados]] [[ro:Barbados]] [[ru:Барбадос]] [[sa:बार्बाडोस]] [[sq:Barbadosi]] [[simple:Barbados]] [[sk:Barbados]] [[sl:Barbados]] [[sr:Барбадос]] [[fi:Barbados]] [[sv:Barbados]] [[tl:Barbados]] [[tr:Barbados]] [[uk:Барбадос]] [[zh:巴巴多斯]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bassas da India</title> <id>3456</id> <revision> <id>39884327</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:29:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koavf</username> <id>205121</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]][[de:Bassas da India]] [[eo:Basas-de-India Insulo]][[it:Bassas da India]][[category:Indian Ocean atolls]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Belarus</title> <id>3457</id> <revision> <id>42142637</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:34:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kuban kazak</username> <id>439789</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} &lt;!-- BEGIN INFOBOX --&gt; {{Infobox Country | native_name = Рэспубліка Беларусь&lt;br /&gt; Республика Беларусь&lt;br /&gt; Respublika Biełaruś&lt;br /&gt; Republic of Belarus | common_name = Belarus | image_flag = Flag_of_Belarus.svg | image_coat = Belarus coa.png | national_motto = ''none'' | image_map = LocationBelarus.png | national_anthem = ''[[My Belarusy]]'' | official_languages = [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Russian language|Russian]] | capital = [[Minsk]] |latd=53|latm=55|latNS=N|longd=27|longm=33|longEW=E| government_type = [[Republic]] | leader_titles = [[President of Belarus|President]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Prime Minister of Belarus|Prime Minister]] | leader_names = [[Alexander Lukashenko]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Sergey Sidorsky]] | largest_city = [[Minsk]] | area = 207,600 | areami² = 80,155 | &lt;!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt; area_rank = 93rd | area_magnitude = 1 E11 | percent_water = negligible (183 sq. km)¹ | population_estimate = 10,300,483 | population_estimate_year = 2005 | population_estimate_rank = 65th | population_census = 10,045,200 | population_census_year = 1999 | population_density = 49 | population_densitymi² = 127 | &lt;!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt; population_density_rank = 142nd | GDP_PPP_year = 2005 | GDP_PPP = $77,770 million | GDP_PPP_rank = 64th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = $7,600| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 104th | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.786 | HDI_rank = 67th | HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] | established_events = &amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;Declared&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;Established | established_dates = From the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;br/ &gt; [[July 27]] [[1990]]&lt;br/ &gt; [[August 25]] [[1991]] | currency = [[Belarusian rouble|rouble]] | currency_code = BYR | time_zone = [[EET]] | utc_offset = +2 | time_zone_DST = [[EEST]] | utc_offset_DST = +3 | cctld = [[.by]] | calling_code = 375 | footnotes = &lt;small&gt;1: [http://www.cci.by/En/Belarus/Tourism.html http://www.cci.by/En/Belarus/Tourism.html]&lt;/small&gt;| }} &lt;!-- END INFOBOX --&gt; The '''Republic of Belarus''' is a landlocked [[nation-state]] in [[Eastern Europe]], which borders [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]], [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]]. Its capital city is [[Minsk]], and other important cities include [[Brest, Belarus|Brest]], [[Grodno]] (Hrodna), [[Gomel]] (Homyel'), [[Mahilyow]] and [[Vitebsk]] (Viciebsk). Throughout much of history, the area which is now known as Belarus was part of various countries including [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]] and the [[Russian Empire]]. Eventually, in 1922, Belarus became a republic in the [[Soviet Union]] as the [[Byelorussian SSR]]. The republic officially declared its sovereignty on [[27 August]] [[1990]], and following the [[History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)|collapse]] of the Soviet Union, declared independence as the Republic of Belarus on [[25 August]] [[1991]]. Since 1994, amidst allegations of human rights violations and [[autocracy]], [[Alexander Lukashenko]] has been the nation's president. As a consequence, Belarus has been excluded from joining the [[Council of Europe]]. The country also continues to suffer from the effects of [[nuclear fallout]] from the 1986 Chernobyl accident, which took place in neighboring [[Ukrainian SSR|Ukraine]]. Belarus is also in negotiations with neighboring Russia to integrate both of their economies, among other things, in a plan called the [[Union of Russia and Belarus]]. Officially, the country is known as the '''Republic of Belarus''' ([[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]: Рэспубліка Беларусь, [[Lacinka alphabet|Łacinka]]: Respublika Biełaruś; [[Russian (language)|Russian]]: Республика Беларус
theory maintains that properties are ''bundled'' together in a collection without describing how are they tied together. For example, bundle theory regards an apple as red, four inches (100 mm) wide, and juicy but lacking an underlying ''substance''. The apple is said to be a ''bundle of properties'' including redness, being four inches (100 mm) wide, and juiciness. Critics question how bundle theory accounts for the properties' ''[[wikt:compresence|compresence]]'' (the ''togetherness'' relation between those properties) without an underlying ''substance''. Critics also question how any two given properties are determined to be properties of the same object if there is no ''substance'' in which they both ''inhere''. Traditional bundle theory explains the ''compresence'' of properties by defining an object as a collection of properties ''bound'' together. Thus, different combinations of properties and relations produce different objects. Redness and juiciness, for example, may be found together on top of the table because they are part of a bundle of properties located on the table, one of which is the &quot;looks like an apple&quot; property. By contrast, [[substance theory]] explains the ''compresence'' of properties by asserting that the properties are found together because it is the ''substance'' that has those properties. In substance theory, a ''substance'' is the thing in which properties ''inhere''. For example, redness and juiciness are found on top of the table because redness and juciness ''inhere'' in an apple, making the apple red and juicy. The ''bundle theory of substance'' explains ''compresence''. Specifically, it maintains that properties' compresence itself engenders a ''substance''. Thus, it determines ''substancehood'' empirically by the ''togetherness'' of properties rather than by a ''bare particular'' or by any other non-empirical underlying strata. The ''bundle theory of substance'' thus rejects the substance theories of [[Aristotle]], [[Descartes]], and more recently, [[J.P. Moreland]], [[Quentin Smith]], and others. ===''Language-reality'' objection=== The ''language-reality'' objection to bundle theory relates to the impact language has on understanding reality. The objection maintains that language causes confusion that supports bundle theory. Per the objection, properties are synthetic constructions of language and thinking alone provides reality to the properties of any object. An apple, it claims, does not have a properties ''Red'' or ''Juicy'', but rather observers who already believe in a concept called ''Red'' use that concept to experience an apple as red. Further, the objection maintains that ''Red'' can not be distilled from an apple because ''Red'' is an abstraction from other experiences and not an innate property an apple might contain. Per the objection, it expressions such as, &quot;An apple is red and juicy,&quot; includes at least six concepts and would best be left as dead-end logical propositions. Since the objection regards the words &quot;Red&quot; and &quot;Juicy&quot; as simply abstractions of previous experiences, it contends that they contain only a personal summary concept of one individual. Thus, the experience of an apple is as close to the ''Apple'' concept that one can get. The objection regards any additional analytic work of the mind as a synthesis of other experiences that incapable of logically revealing any true essence of ''Apple''. The ''language-reality'' objection asserts that language encourages the belief that ''synthetic exercises'' distil experiences, yet it rejects the results of such exercises by maintaining that observers actually combine experiences to create each concept of any particular property. It holds that language is a complicated belief system whose only connection to reality is an abstraction of experience. The ''language-reality'' objection may even suggest that ''reality/non-reality'' or ''objective/subjective'' distinctions themselves are merely artefacts of language and therefore are also solely abstractions of experience. ==Bundle Theory and Eastern Philosophy== [[Candrakirti]], the famous [[Madhyamaka]] philosopher used the aggregate nature of objects to demonstrate the lack of [[essence]] in what is known as the sevenfold reasoning. In his work, &quot;Commentary on the 'Middle Way'&quot;, he says: ''A chariot is neither asserted to be other than its parts, nor to be non-other. It does not possess them. It does not depend on the parts, and the parts do not depend on it. It is neither the mere collection of the parts, nor it is their shape.'' He goes on to explain what is meant by each of these seven assertions, but briefly in a subsequent commentary he explains that the conventions of the world do not exist essentially when closely analysed, but exist only through being taken for granted, without being subject to scrutiny that searches for an essence within them. ==See also== *[[Ontology]] *[[Platonic realism]] *[[Substance theory]] ==References== *''[[A Treatise of Human Nature]]'': Being an Attempt to introduce the experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects. ([[1739]]–1740) *[[Derek Parfit]], ''[[Reasons and Persons]]'' [[Category:Ontology| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bare particular</title> <id>3871</id> <revision> <id>32418477</id> <timestamp>2005-12-22T23:20:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rodasmith</username> <id>291611</id> </contributor> <comment>{{mergeto|Substance theory}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Substance theory}} In [[metaphysics]], '''Bare particular''' is what a [[substance]] is called when considered independently of its properties. It seems that substance theories are committed to the existence of bare particulars. But, the critic maintains, the very notion of a thing with no properties is absurd. We just cannot conceive of a thing without any properties. John Locke is famous for describing a substance as &quot;a something, I know not what.&quot; It seems that as soon as we get the fuzziest notion of a thing in mind, we are thinking of ''some property'' or other. The problem is not just that it is physically impossible that we might stumble across a bare particular, or a propertyless thing on our strolls about town. The point is that the very ''notion'' of a propertyless thing is strange: we just have no such notion, and perhaps cannot have such a notion. That at least is what the [[bundle theory]]'s advocate might say. Indeed, we might say that this argument ''against'' the substance theory is one main argument ''for'' the bundle theory; so see also [[bundle theory]], where this article is developed further. ''The above paragraphs are also found at [[substance theory]]. Please keep these two articles consistent.'' [[Category:Metaphysics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein</title> <id>3873</id> <revision> <id>41846461</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:00:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dabbler</username> <id>139032</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Later life */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bernard Law Montgomery.jpg|thumbnail|250px|Bernard Law Montgomery]] [[Field Marshal]] [[The Right Honourable]] '''Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein''', [[Order of the Garter|KG]], [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]] ([[17 November]] [[1887]]&amp;ndash;[[24 March]] [[1976]]) was a [[British Army]] officer, often referred to as &quot;Monty&quot;. He won the [[Second Battle of El Alamein|Battle of El Alamein]], a major turning point in [[World War II]], and was largely responsible for the expulsion of the [[axis]] forces from North Africa. He was later a prominent commander in Italy, France (where he was in command of all allied ground forces), and northern Europe. ==Early life and World War I service== Montgomery was born in [[London]] in 1887, the fourth child of nine to an Irish [[bishop]]. After graduating from [[St Paul's School]] and the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]], he joined the 1st Battalion, [[The Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|The Royal Warwickshire Regiment]] in [[1908]], first seeing service in [[British India|India]]. The [[First World War]] began in August [[1914]] and he moved to France with his regiment that month. He saw service during the retreat from [[Battle of Mons|Mons]] and was severely wounded during the [[First Battle of Ypres]] on [[13 October]] 1914 while taking part in an attack against the German-held village of [[Meteren]]. He was awarded the [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]] for his actions. After recovering in early [[1915]], he was promoted to Brigade Major and returned to the Western Front in early [[1916]], taking part in, among others, the [[Battle of the Somme (1916)|Battle of the Somme]]. He participated in a number of other engagements throughout the war, eventually finishing the war, after a number of other appointments, as [[General Staff Officer 1]], ranked as a [[colonel]], in the [[British 47th (2nd London) Division|47th (2nd London) Division]]. In [[1921]] Montgomery was appointed as a staff officer to a brigade stationed in [[County Cork|Cork]], the most bitterly contested region in the [[Anglo-Irish War]]. A cousin of Montgomery's had been killed by the [[Irish_Republican_Army#The_Old_IRA|IRA]] in [[1920]] and his family property was in [[County Donegal]], an area also affected by the conflict. He did not try and arrange a transfer to [[Ulster]] to exact revenge, however, and his methods were never as brutal as those of his contemporary in [[Cork]], [[Arthur Percival]]. On his arrival in Cork he urged units of his brigade that their &quot;behaviour must be beyond reproach&quot; although later, a
on with the [[revolution]]ary but &quot;[[bourgeois]]&quot; [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|Provisional Government]] under [[Aleksandr Kerensky]] in [[Saint Petersburg]]. The Senate's view was that the [[personal union]] with Russia ended when the [[Tsar]] was dethroned. They expected the Tsar's authority to be transferred to Finland's Parliament, which the Provisional Government of Russia could not accept. The non-Socialists in the Senate were less than enthusiastic about the Senate's bill (the so-called &quot;Power Act&quot;) enacted by the Parliament in July [[1917]], (particularly with regard to its content on [[Parliamentarism]], on which the Social Democrats had insisted), deeming it both too far-reaching and provocative for Saint Petersburg, but also too radical and dangerous for Finland. The bill restricted Russia's influence on domestic Finnish matters, but didn't touch the Russian government's power on matters of defence and foreign affairs. For the [[Russian Provisional Government]] this was, as expected, far too radical. The Parliament was dissolved, and new elections were announced. Thus it turned out, that from the point of view of the poorest Finns, Oskari Tokoi's Senate's attempt was as much of a failure as universal suffrage had been. Large numbers starved, and [[unemployment]] was bad and getting worse. [[Democracy]] didn't seem to offer a solution to these problems. Political violence increased during the following election campaign conducted by what their adversaries labeled &quot;Rogue Reds&quot; and &quot;White Butchers&quot; respectively. Subsequently the Left lost their [[absolute majority]] in the Parliament. Finland's autonomy had been restored by the Provisional Government of Russia, but in the process the [[police]] force in Finland was virtually abolished. In this situation some of the old &quot;fire-brigades&quot; were revived, simply as an answer to insecurity and lawlessness. General fear was widespread, but the relations between Reds and Whites were still reasonable in many places in Finland. [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guards]] were organized by leaders of the local societies, usually Conservative academics and industrialists, while the Reds were often collectively invited through their employers or their local labor union. === The October Revolution (1917) === [[Lenin]]'s [[Bolshevism|Bolshevist]] [[October Revolution]] ignited hopes also in the Grand Duchy. The polarization and mutual fear between the Left wing and the Right wing had increased dramatically. About 30 political [[assassination]]s were reported. After the general elections a purely non-Socialist cabinet was appointed, which felt squeezed between increasingly revolutionary [[Socialist]]s at home and aggressive [[Bolsheviks]] in [[Petrograd]] who were close to Finland's border in the southeast. Numerous Russian troops stationed in Finland made a bad situation worse, as they too were excited by the revolutionary frenzy, which they called their ''&quot;svoboda&quot;'' ('freedom'). Aggravating all of this was another [[general strike]] in Finland. The ''svoboda'' appeared to the Finns as merely the Russian military going out of control. They often looted, were frequently intoxicated, generally acted violently and occasionally executed their own officers. In the virtual absence of police forces or militarily trained Finnish troops, the ''svoboda'' prompted the revival and creation of numerous [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guards]]. These Guards were local units, set up by local initiative. Some had roots in the &quot;Security Guards&quot; established during the General Strike of 1905, but it was the ''svoboda'' of the Russian troops which prompted the establishment of the majority of the White Guard. After the October Revolution the roles of Finland's two major political forces were reversed. Now it was the non-Socialists who were eager for maximal autonomy (or [[independence]] from Russia) and the Social Democrats who believed the Bolshevists to be possible allies against the &quot;[[capitalist]] oppressors.&quot; The Senate, led by the Finnish national hero [[Pehr Evind Svinhufvud]], proposed a [[Finland's declaration of independence|Declaration of Independence]], which the Parliament adopted on [[December 6]]th, [[1917]]. === The Social Democrats and the revolution === The strained political situation deteroriated during 1917. Finland saw agricultural strikes, skirmishes over food and inflation, local strikes intended to support or influence local government, and finally the aformentioned [[general strike]] in November. The leadership of the Social Democratic Party could not control this increasingly violent mass movement, and popular support swung between parliamentary and extra-parliamentary action. Ever since [[1906]], the parliamentary road had proved disappointing, and after the October Revolution the Russian revolutionary leadership pressed the Finnish Social Democrats to seize power. The Social Democratic party was accused of ineffectiveness within Finland and from Saint Petersburg. On [[November 16]], during the general strike, the newly formed ''Workers' Revolutionary Central Council'' voted to seize power by a narrow majority, but the supreme revolutionary organ, the [[executive committee]], could not recruit qualified members, and the [[revolution]] had to be called off. The organization of ''Red Guards'' surged, although the enthusiasm soon waned as the general strike and the revolution came to nothing. The initiative was seized by the Revolutionary Central Council, which comprised the trade unions and the Social Democratic Party; though, by this time the party leadership had lost much of their credibility and authority &amp;mdash; initially due to the party's failure to gain any political advantage from their majority in parliament. ''White Guards'' had been organized throughout the year of 1917, and in December numbered nearly 40,000. In response, the organization of ''Red Guards'' was stepped up in November, and numbered nearly 30,000 at the end of the year. After [[Finland's declaration of independence]] the parliament empowered the [[Senate of Finland|Senate]] on [[January 12]], [[1918]] to create a &quot;strong police authority.&quot; Soon it became obvious that this was a move towards legalising the White Guards while excluding the ''Red Guards'' and others that sympathized with the Social Democrats (who now constituted the opposition in parliament with almost 50% of the votes and seats). On [[January 25]], the Senate decreed the ''White Guards'' to be troops of Finland's government, and the point of no return was passed. Many leading Social Democrats joined in when the war broke out independently in three different towns, but formally the rebellion was not supported by the executive organs of the party. The [[Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic]]'s programme and draft constitution, written by [[Otto Ville Kuusinen]], was heavily influenced by the Social Democrats; it was also inspired by the generally [[Liberalism|liberal]] ideas of the [[United States Declaration of Independence]], and the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] cantonal system. The main goal was social reform, and the declared means to achieve this was [[parliamentarism|parliamentary democracy]] based on the principle of [[sovereignty]] of the people and of [[national self-determination]]. Bolshevist thoughts such as [[dictatorship of the proletariat|proletarian dictatorship]] and massive [[socialization]] were not parts of their programme. The rebellion in Finland thus differed from the October Revolution and from the various uprisings on the European continent that followed [[World War I|the world war]], e.g., [[Béla Kun]]'s revolt in Hungary, the [[Spartacists]] in Berlin, and the &quot;[[Bavarian Soviet Republic]].&quot; == Conflict == [[Image:Suojeluskunta.jpg|thumb|220px|'''White Guard in Nummi'''. White Guards became the white army through a senate decision on 25.01.1918. The red leadership ordered the mobilization of Red Guards on 27.01.1918.]] The Reds were alarmed by the government's decision to employ the [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guards]] as the nucleus of a national army and to use &quot;the Butchers&quot; -- as the Left described them -- to disarm the 40,000 Russian troops that remained in Finland, since the Left believed that Red Finns would also be targeted. The first serious battles were on the night of [[January 19]], followed by the Senate's declaration on [[January 25]] transforming the White Guards into the Army of Finland, and on [[January 26]] the order of rebellion was issued. [[Bolshevist Russia]] had already declared its intention to support the new [[Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic]]. The Reds seized control of the capital, [[Helsinki]], in the early hours of [[January 28]], and members of the [[Senate of Finland]] were relocated to the city of [[Vaasa]] on the Finnish west coast, where the [[White Guard]]s had a strong position and the contacts to the west were good. Vaasa acted as the capital of (white) Finland from [[29 January]] to [[3 May]]. It is often pointed out that leaders of the White and the Red sides acted independently of each other in these final days, and that, in a way, it was coincidental that the White Army was formally established on the very same day that the Red rebellion commenced. It is also obvious that the leaders acted without any formal democratic authorization, but on the other hand, their judgement was generally respected within their respective factions and met with no articulated opposition from within them. In other words, the process leading to the Civil War was more of a general distrust between Reds and Whites, and less dependent on the particular events at the end of January 1918. The last stages of [[World War I]] were still being fought in central Europe at the time, and both Bolshevist Russia and [[Imperial Germany]] had their own interests in
Port Said]], and [[Damietta]] on the Mediterranean, and [[Suez]] and [[Safaga]] on the Red Sea. ==Highways== ''total:'' 64,000 km ''paved:'' 49,984 km ''unpaved:'' 14,016 km (1996 est.) == Waterways == 3,500 km (including the [[Nile]], [[Lake Nasser]], Alexandria-Cairo Waterway, and numerous smaller canals in the delta). &lt;BR&gt; [[Suez Canal]], 193.5 km (including approaches), used by oceangoing vessels drawing up to 16.1 m of water.&lt;BR&gt; ==Pipelines== crude oil 1,171 km; petroleum products 596 km; natural gas 460 km ==Ports and harbors== &lt;sup&gt;http://www.emdb.gov.eg/english_v/ports_e/index_ports_e.htm&lt;/sup&gt; === Mediterranean Sea === * [[Alexandria Port]] - Port Authority * [[Port Said Port]] - Port Authority * [[Damietta Port]] - Port Authority * [[Marsa Matruh]] === Red Sea === *[[Red Seas Ports]] - Ports Authority *[[Suez Port]] *[[Petroleum Dock Port]] *[[Adabieh Port]] *[[Sokhna Port]] *[[Hurghada Port]] - Al Ghardaqah *[[Safaga Port]] - Bur Safajah *[[Noueibah Port]] *[[Al-Tour Port]] *[[Sharm El-Sheikh Port]] === Nile River === * [[Aswan]] * [[Asyut]] ==Merchant marine== ''total:'' 180 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,348,148 GRT/2,014,483 DWT ===Ships by type=== *bulk: 25 *cargo: 63 *container: 1 *liquified gas: 1 *passenger: 57 *petroleum tanker: 14 *roll-on/roll-off: 16 *short-sea passenger: 3 (1999 est.) ==Airports== 90 (1999 est.) ===Airports with paved runways=== ''total:'' 71 ''over 3,047 m:'' 12 ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 36 ''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 16 ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 3 ''under 914 m:'' 4 (1999 est.) ===Airports with unpaved runways=== ''total:'' 19 ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 2 ''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 2 ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 6 ''under 914 m:'' 9 (1999 est.) ==Heliports== 2 (1999 est.) ==External links== *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/egypt_pol97.jpg Map] ==See also== * [[Egypt]] {{CIAfb}} {{Africa in topic|Transport in}} [[Category:Transportation in Egypt| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of Egypt</title> <id>9354</id> <revision> <id>41000465</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T11:21:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Leithp</username> <id>225576</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style=&quot;float:right;:1em&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2 align=center&gt;[[Image:Flag_of_the_Arab_Republic_of_Egypt_1984.png|110px]] &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=red&gt;'''Military of Egypt''' &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2 align=center&gt;'''Military manpower''' &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Military age&lt;td&gt; 18 years of age for conscript military service; 3-year service obligation ([[2001]]) &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Availability&lt;td&gt;males age 18-49: 18,347,560 ([[2005]]) &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fit for military service&lt;td&gt;males age 18-49: 15,540,234([[2005]]) &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Reaching military age annually&lt;td&gt; males: 802,920 ([[2005]]) &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Active troops&lt;td&gt; 450,000 ([[List of countries by number of active troops|Ranked 12th]]) &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2 align=center&gt;'''Military expenditures''' &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Dollar figure&lt;td&gt; $2.44 billion ([[2003]]) &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Percent of GDP&lt;td&gt; 3.4% ([[2004]]) &lt;/table&gt; The '''armed forces of [[Egypt]]''' is among the largest in the region, it consists of the [[Egyptian Army]], [[Egyptian Navy]], [[Egyptian Air Force]] and [[Egyptian Air Defense Command]].&lt;BR&gt; Egypt maintains a large paramilitary force under the control of the Ministry of Interior. They number around 250,000 strong and are known as the [[Central Security Forces]]. The government also has a relatively strong National Guard and Border Security Forces however they unlike the [[Central Security Forces]] come under the control of the Ministry of Defence and are reported to be number 60,000 and 20,000 respectively.&lt;BR&gt; &lt;BR&gt; The Commander-in-Chief is [[Field Marshal]] [[Mohamed Hussein Tantawi]]. The Chief of Staff is Lt. Gen. [[Sami Hafez Enan]]. The armed forces inventory includes equipment from the [[United States]], [[France]], [[Italy]], the [[United Kingdom]], the former [[Soviet Union]], and the [[People's Republic of China]]. Equipment from the former Soviet Union is being progressively replaced by more modern American, French, and British equipment, a significant portion of which is built under license in Egypt. To bolster stability and moderation in the region, Egypt has provided military assistance and training to a number of [[Africa]]n and [[Arab]] states. Egypt remains a strong military and strategic partner of [[NATO]]. Egypt is the strongest military power in Africa, and the second largest in the [[Middle East]], after [[Israel]]. (Source Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies' annual Middle East Strategic Balance). The Egyptian military can only be understood by relative comparison to a nation it has fought nearly all of its wars with, Israel. The comparative military capabilities of two nations where one is developing and the other is developed is not as simple as glancing towards the military budget expressed in U.S. dollars. If for e.g. two nations have the same defence budget and spend it totally on foreign arms purchases they will both purchase exactly the same quantity. The complicating factor is that for a developing country the cost to purchase labour is usually much lower than it is in a developed country. Therefore if Egypt and Israel spent the same amount on defence which is used totally on recruiting soldiers, Egypt would field a bigger army than Israel. In essence money spent for foreign purchases are equal, but money spent on local arms and recruitment favour the country of lower cost of purchases. Therefore Egypt finds it comparatively cheaper to field a larger army than purchasing foreign equipment. A major reason Egypt does not have a superior military force than Israel is that they spend only $2.5 billion U.S.D. as opposed to $10 billion spent by Israel. The lower recruitment cost advantage of the Egyptians is simply insufficient to overcome the much greater expenditure by Israel. == Air Force == ''Main article: [[Egyptian Air Force]]''&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt; The '''Egyptian Air Force''' or '''EAF''' ([[Arabic]]: القوات الجوية المصرية''Al Quwwat Al Jawwiya Il Misriya'') is the aviation branch of the [[Military of Egypt|Egyptian Armed Forces]]. Currently, the backbone of the EAF is the [[F-16]]. The [[Mirage 2000]] is the other modern interceptor used by the EAF. It has over 579 Combat Aircraft and 121 Armed Helicopters as it continues to fly [[MiG-21]]s, [[F-7 Skybolt]]s, [[F-4 Phantom]], [[Il-28]], [[Dassault Mirage V]]s, and [[C-130 Hercules]] among other planes. == Air Defense Command == ''Main article: [[Egyptian Air Defense Command]]''&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt; The '''Air Defense Force '''or '''ADF''' is the command responsible for the protection of the Egyptian air spaces. The ADF had an estimated 80,000 ground and air personnel, including 50,000 conscripts. Responsibility had previously been divided among several commands. Egypt patterned its new Air Defense Force (ADF) after the Soviet Air Defense Command, which integrated all its air defense capabilities--antiaircraft guns, rocket and missile units, interceptor planes, and radar and warning installations. == Army == ''Main article: [[Egyptian Army]]''&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt; The '''Egyptian Army''' is the largest service within the military establishment of Egypt. It is estimated to number around 320,000. However, since Egypt has been under going a modernisation plan it may see a cut of up to 25 percent of its personnel. Many believe such a large cut will not take place due to the need to reduce unemployment, and it would reduce the need for officers which are already in excess. == Navy == ''Main article: [[Egyptian Navy]]''&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt; Although the '''Egyptian Navy''' is the smallest branch of the military, it is large by Middle Eastern standards. It has a total of 20,000 personels.&lt;BR&gt; Some fleet units were stationed in the Red Sea, but the bulk of the force remained in the Mediterranean. Navy headquarters and the main operational and training base were located at Ras at Tin near Alexandria. ''See [[list of naval ships of Egypt]] for a list of vessels in service.'' == Paramilitary Forces == The '''Paramilitary force''' numbered around 330,000 and they consist of the '''Central Security Forces''', the '''National Guard''', the '''Border Guard Forces''' and the '''Coast Guard'''. === Central Security Forces === Under the control of Egypt's ministry of Interior, it is the law enforcement authority in the country. The '''Central Security Forces''' (CSF), has a total of around 250,000 personels. === National Guard === Under the control of Egypt's ministry of Defense and numbered 60,000. === Border Guard Forces === Under the control of Egypt's ministry of Defense and numbered 20,000. === Coast Guard === The Coast Guard was responsible for the onshore protection of public installations near the coast and the patrol of coastal waters to prevent smuggling. With a force of 2,000, it has an inventory consisting of about thirty large patrol craft (each between twenty and thirty meters in length) and twenty smaller Bertram-class coastal patrol craft built in the United States. == Military Schools == There is a undergraduate military school for each branch of the Egyptian Military establishment, and they include: * [[Air Defenses Academy]] * [[Egyptian Air Academy]] * [[Egyptian Military Academy|Military Academy]] * [[Military Technical College]] * [[Egyptian Naval Academy|Naval Academy]] * [[Nasser Academy]] * [[Technical Institute]] == See also == *[[Flags of the Egyptian Armed Forces]] *[[Egyptian Military Industry]] ==References== *[http://www.m
est Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery]]. [[Robert A. Heinlein]], who [[The Door into Summer | wrote enthusiastically]] of the concept, was cremated and his ashes distributed over the [[Pacific Ocean]]. [[Timothy Leary]] was a long-time cryonics advocate, and signed up with a major cryonics provider. He changed his mind, however, shortly before his death, and so was not cryopreserved. ==Obstacles to success== ===Damage from ice formation and ischemia=== Cryonics has traditionally been dismissed by mainstream [[cryobiology]], of which it is arguably a part. The reason generally given for this dismissal is that the [[freezing]] process creates [[ice]] crystals, which some scientists have claimed damage cells and cellular structures so as to render any future repair impossible. Cryonicists have long argued, however, that the extent of this damage was greatly exaggerated by the critics, presuming that some reasonable attempt is made to perfuse the body with [[cryoprotectant]] chemicals (traditionally [[glycerol]]) that inhibit ice crystal formation. According to cryonicists, the ice crystal damage objection became moot around the turn of the millennium, when cryobiologists [[Greg Fahy]] and [[Brian Wowk]], of [[Twenty-First Century Medicine]], developed major improvements in cryopreservation technology, including new [[cryoprotectant]]s and new cryoprotectant mixtures, greatly improving the feasibility of [[vitrification]], and resulting in the near-elimination of ice crystal formation in the brain. [[Vitrification]] preserves tissue in a glassy rather than frozen state. In [[glass]], molecules do not rearrange themselves into grainy crystals as they are cooled, but instead become locked together while still randomly arranged as in a fluid, forming a &quot;solid liquid&quot; as the temperature falls below the glass transition temperature. [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation]], the world's largest cryonics provider, has since been using these cryoprotectants, along with a new, faster cooling method, to vitrify whole human brains ([[neurovitrification]]). The second-largest cryonics provider in the world, the [[Cryonics Institute]] (CI), uses a vitrification solution developed by its in-house [[cryobiology|cryobiologist]], Dr. Yuri Pichugin. CI has developed computer-controlled cooling boxes to ensure that cooling is rapid above T&lt;SUB&gt;g&lt;/SUB&gt; ([[glass transition temperature]], solidification temperature) and slow below T&lt;SUB&gt;g&lt;/SUB&gt; (to reduce fracturing due to thermal [[stress (physics)|stress]]). Current solutions being used for [[vitrification]] are stable enough to avoid crystallization even when a vitrified [[human brain|brain]] is warmed up. This has recently allowed brains to be vitrified, warmed back up, and examined for ice damage using light and [[electron microscope|electron microscopy]]. No ice crystal damage was found. However, if the circulation of the brain is compromised, protective chemicals may not be able to reach all parts of the brain, and [[freezing]] may occur either during cooling or during rewarming. Cryonicists argue, however, that injury caused during cooling might, in the future, be repairable before the vitrified brain is warmed back up, and that damage during rewarming might be prevented by adding more [[cryoprotectant]] in the solid state, or by improving rewarming methods. But even given the best vitrification that current technology allows, rewarming still does not allow revival, even if crystallization is avoided, due to the toxic effects of the cryoprotectants. Again, however, cryonicists counter that future technology might be able to overcome this difficulty, and find a way to combat the toxicity after rewarming. If, for example, the [[toxicity]] is due to [[denaturation (biochemistry)|denatured]] [[protein]]s, those proteins could be repaired or replaced. Some critics have speculated that because a cryonics patient has been declared legally dead, their organs must be dead, and thus unable to allow [[cryoprotectant]]s to reach the majority of cells. Cryonicists respond that it has been empirically demonstrated that, so long as the [[cryopreservation]] process begins immediately after legal death is declared, the individual organs (and perhaps even the patient as a whole) remain biologically alive, and vitrification (particularly of the brain) is quite feasible. This same principle is what allows organs, such as hearts, to be transplanted, even though they come from dead donors. Cryonics rescue procedures cannot begin until legal pronouncement of [[death]] has occurred, and pronouncement is usually based on cessation of [[heart|heartbeat]] (only very rarely on brain activity measurements). When the heart stops beating and [[blood]] flow ceases, [[ischemia|ischemic]] damage begins. Deprived of [[oxygen]] and [[nutrient]], [[cell (biology)| cell]]s, [[biological tissue|tissue]]s and [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s begin to deteriorate. If the heart is restarted after too many minutes have passed, the reintroduced oxygen can cause even more damage due to [[oxidative stress]], a phenomenon known as reperfusion injury. Cryonicists try to minimize ischemic and reperfusion injury by beginning cardio-pulmonary support (much like [[CPR]]) and cooling as soon as possible after pronouncement of death. Anti-[[coagulation|clotting]] agents like [[heparin]] and [[antioxidant]]s may be administered. Suspended Animation, Inc is a [[Florida]] company that specializes in research into, and implementation of, optimal procedures for minimizing [[ischemia|ischemic]] injury in cryonics rescue. ===Revival process=== Critics have often quipped that it is easier to revive a corpse than a cryonically frozen body. Many cryonicists might actually agree with this, provided that the &quot;corpse&quot; were fresh, but they would argue that such a &quot;corpse&quot; may actually be biologically alive, under optimal conditions. A declaration of legal death does not mean that life has suddenly ended&amp;mdash;death is a gradual process, not a sudden event. Rather, legal death is a declaration by medical personnel that there is nothing more they can do to save the patient. But if the body is clearly biologically dead, having been sitting at room temperature for a period of time, or having been traditionally embalmed, then cryonicists would hold that such a body is far less revivable than a cryonically preserved patient, because any process of resuscitation will depend on the quality of the structural and molecular preservation of the [[human brain|brain]]. Cryonicists would also point out that the definitions of &quot;death&quot; and &quot;corpse&quot; currently in use may change with future medical advances, just as they have changed in the past (after, for example, the invention of [[defibrillation]]), and so they generally reject the idea that they are trying to &quot;raise the dead,&quot; viewing their procedures instead as highly experimental medical procedures, whose efficacy is yet to be either demonstrated or refuted. Some also suggest that if technology is developed that allows [[mind transfer]], revival of the frozen brain might not even be required; the mind of the patient could instead be &quot;[[mind transfer|uploaded]]&quot; into an entirely new substrate. ===Financial issues=== The biggest drawback to current [[vitrification]] practice is a cost issue. Because the most cost-effective means of storing a cryopreserved person is in liquid nitrogen, fracturing of the brain occurs, a result of thermal stresses that develop when cooling from &amp;minus;130°C to &amp;minus;196°C (the temperature of liquid nitrogen). Fracture-free vitrification would require inexpensive storage at a temperature significantly below the glass transition temperature of about &amp;minus;125°C, but high enough to avoid fracturing (&amp;minus;130°C is about right). [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation|Alcor]] is currently developing such a storage system. Alcor believes, however, that even before such a storage system is developed, the current vitrification method is far superior to traditional glycerol-based freezing. The fractures are very clean breaks that occur even with traditional glycerol cryoprotection, and the loss of neurological structure is much less than that caused by ice formation, by orders of magnitude. [[Cryopreservation]] arrangements can be expensive, currently ranging from $28,000 at the [[Cryonics Institute]] to $150,000 at [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation|Alcor]] and the [[American Cryonics Society]]. Most cryonicists fund the costs by making cryonics organizations the beneficiaries of [[life insurance]] policies. The elderly, and others who may be uninsurable for health reasons, will often pay for the procedure through their estate. Others simply invest their money over a period of years, accepting the risk that they might die in the meantime. All in all, cryonics is actually quite affordable for the vast majority of those in the industrialized world who really want it, especially if they make arrangements while still young. Even assuming perfect [[cryopreservation]] techniques, many cryonicists would still regard eventual revival as a long shot. In addition to the many technical hurdles that remain, the likelihood of obtaining a good cryopreservation is not very high because of logistical problems. The likelihood of the continuity of cryonics organizations as businesses, and the threat of legislative interference in the practice, don't help the odds either. Most cryonicists, therefore, regard their cryopreservation arrangements as a kind of medical insurance&amp;mdash;not certain to keep them alive, but better than no chance at all and still a rational gamble to take. ==Head (&quot;neuro&quot;) vs. whole-body cryopreservation== During the [[1980s]], the problems associated with crystallization were becoming better appreciated, but the publication of the book [[Engines o
ly in very small numbers: *''Deep Greens'' follow the [[ascetic]] ethics of [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], [[Mohandas Gandhi]], and [[indigenous peoples]]. They are usually rural people who prefer wild to &quot;tamed&quot; living. ''Cf.'' also the ideology of [[deep ecology]]. *''[[Wild Greens]]'' are a youth movement of [[New Zealand Green Party]], committed to [[direct action]] and taking bodily risks to protect nature. *''[[Viridian Greens]]'' are a more artistic movement in the U.S., originated by science fiction writer [[Bruce Sterling]], and have fewer objections to media or technology. *''Eco-Anarchists'' ([[Eco-anarchism]], [[Green anarchism]]) can also be thought of as greens (but not generally Greens). ==See also== *The article on [[Worldwide green parties]] gives an overview about organized green parties all over the world, their history, their goals, and their cooperation. *The article on the [[Green movement]] describes the broader world-view of &quot;being green&quot; in the sense of a personal political identity. ==External links== * [http://cagreens.org/archives/ California Green Archives] [[de:Die Grünen]] [[eo:Verdaj Partioj]] [[fr:Partis verts à travers le monde]] [[Category:Green politics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ghost in the Shell</title> <id>12914</id> <revision> <id>41837420</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:44:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>129.105.121.190</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the manga. For the films, see [[Ghost in the Shell (film)]] and ''[[Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence]]''. For the TV series, see ''[[Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex]].'' [[Image:Motoko.JPG |right|thumb|[[Motoko Kusanagi]] from the manga Ghost in the Shell.]] '''''Ghost in the Shell''''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 攻殻機動隊, Kōkaku Kidōtai, i.e. ''Mobile Armoured Riot Police''), is a [[Japanese people|Japanese]] [[science fiction]] [[manga]] created by [[Masamune Shirow]]. A [[sequel]], ''[[Ghost in the Shell 2: Man/Machine Interface]]'' appeared in [[2002]]. Two [[anime]] films have been adapted from it, as well as a TV series. == Setting == {{spoiler}} [[Image:Gs026.jpg|thumb|left|Cyborg shell]] ''Ghost in the Shell'' is an [[Existentialism|existentialist]] search for meaning set in the [[21st century]]. Superficially, it is a futuristic [[spy thriller]] dealing with the exploits of [[Motoko Kusanagi]], a member of the covert operations section of the [[National Public Safety Commission (Japan)|Japanese National Public Safety Commission]], [[Section 9]], which specializes in fighting technology-related crime. Although supposedly equal to all other members, Kusanagi fills the leadership role in the team, and is usually referred to as &quot;[[Major]]&quot; due to her past rank in the armed forces. She is capable of superhuman feats, and cybernetically specialized for her job; her body is almost completely mechanized, save her brain and a single spinal cord segment. [[Image:Ghostintheshell.jpg|thumb|right||[[Batou]] from the movie ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'' (1995)]] The setting of ''Ghost in the Shell'' is [[cyberpunk]] or [[postcyberpunk]], similar to that of [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]]'s [[Sprawl trilogy]] and other post/cyberpunk works. However, Shirow's work is focused more tightly on the ethical and philosophical ramifications of the widespread merging of humanity and technology. The development of [[artificial intelligence]] and an omnipresent computer network set the stage for a reevaluation of human identity and uniqueness. More so than the films, the manga tackles these questions head on: Kusanagi and her colleagues face external threats and also suffer internal conflict over their own natures. The overarching story of the manga is of the hunt for a cyber-criminal, the Puppeteer (known as the Puppet Master in the film), whose real identity is unknown. The Puppeteer commits a large number of crimes through a single modus operandi: &quot;ghost hacking&quot;, that is, breaking into and taking control of human minds. As the agents of Section 9 start to unravel the mystery of the Puppeteer, it becomes clear that it is no ordinary criminal, but a unique autonomous artificial intelligence project (Top Secret Project 2501) created by another government agency, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA), also known as Section 6. The Puppeteer escapes Section 6 servers in pursuit of his evolution through merging with Kusanagi. Kusanagi, although initially skeptical, finally agrees to allow the Puppeteer to merge with her own consciousness, sharing her body, in what is no doubt intended to raise even more questions about the nature of human identity in a world where human consciousness is no longer unique. The manga is notable for the proliferance of footnotes and commentary by Shirow himself on both the technology and the socio-political background of the setting (in the complete, [[English language]] [[graphic novel]] edition, these take up more than 30 pages). ==The philosophy of ''Ghost in the Shell''== ==Ghosts== In ''Ghost in the Shell'', the word ''ghost'' is colloquial slang for an individual's mind or essence of being. In the manga's futuristic society, science has redefined the &quot;[[soul]]&quot; or &quot;ghost&quot;, as the thing that differentiates a human being from a biological robot. Regardless of how much biological material is replaced with electronic or mechanical substitutes, as long as an individual retains their ''ghost,'' they retain their humanity and individuality. The concept of the ghost was borrowed by [[Masamune Shirow]] from an essay on [[structuralism]], &quot;[[The Ghost in the Machine]]&quot; by [[Arthur Koestler]]. The title ''The Ghost in the Machine'' itself was originally used by a [[British]] [[philosopher]], [[Gilbert Ryle]] to mock the [[paradox]] of conventional [[Cartesian dualism]] and [[Dualism (philosophy of mind)|Dualism]] in general. Koestler, like Ryle, denies Cartesian dualism and locates the origin of human mind in the physical condition of the brain. He argues that the human [[brain]] has grown and built upon earlier, more primitive brain structures, the &quot;ghost in the machine&quot;, which at times overpower higher logical functions, and are responsible for hate, anger and other such destructive impulses. Shirow denies dualism similarly in his work, but defines the &quot;ghost&quot; more broadly, not only as a physical trait, but as a [[phase]] or phenomenon that appears in a [[system]] at a certain level of complexity. The brain itself is only part of the whole [[neural network]]; if, for example, an organ is removed from a body, the autonomic nerve of the organ and consequently its &quot;ghost&quot; will vanish unless the stimulus of the existence of the organ is perfectly re-produced by a mechanical substitution. This can be compared, by analogy, to a person with innate hearing disability being unable to understand the concept of &quot;hearing&quot; unless taught. In ''Ghost in the Shell'', Kusanagi completely reproduces the stimulus of all of her organs in order to maintain her &quot;ghost&quot;. If a technical error arises during the transfer of a &quot;ghost&quot; from one body to another, the transfer normally results in failure, since the &quot;ghost&quot; tends to deteriorate due to either the difference of system at the material level or the deficiency of the transferring protocol. The Puppeteer manages not to deteriorate its &quot;ghost&quot; when merging with Kusanagi because his system is the body of information itself, thereby avoiding a deterioration due to the deficiency at material level. The [[Ancient Greeks]] had a similar paradox, called the [[Ship of Theseus]]. [[Hegel]]'s concept of ''[[Geist (philosophy)|Geist]]'' may also be related. ===Birth=== Another interpretation of the fusion of Kusanagi and the Puppeteer is analogous to the concept of birth whereby two separate entities create a third entity which is not the same as either of the originating ghosts or [[DNA]] sets but shares common traits. The Puppeteer does not wish to merely save himself from termination: to do so, he could simply ask Kusanagi to give him shared space in her memory cores that she could offload later into another robotic receptacle. He quite specifically asks her to fuse her &quot;ghost&quot; or &quot;soul&quot; with his own, a form of marriage/birth in which the resultant being is neither the Puppeteer nor Kusanagi but a new being entirely. This touches upon concepts of birth, immortality through progeny, and the union of two ghosts/people in the creation of progeny. ===Humanity=== Throughout the story the cyborg characters, being more or less a human brain with a manufactured body, contemplate individually and together what being human really is, and how a soul or ghost is truly defined. The Puppeteer is an AI, yet they recognize traits and personality within his mind structure that are clearly analogous to a human soul or ghost image. They cannot discount this similarity as it is very clearly analyzed by their medical scanning tools when they first captured the Puppeteer. The members of Section 9 must re-evaluate their own tenuous hold on the idea of humanity and &quot;self&quot;, when faced with a being who clearly is self directed and has a ghost but was originated as a complex program not a DNA organism. ===AI as a step in evolution=== A very important concept within ''Ghost in the Shell'' is that evolution is the process of merging two sets of data (DNA) in order to create a third set of data which contains the most vital elements of the original organisms along with some element of chance. The Puppeteer has evolved beyond DNA as a data set and thus to procreate (his true desire and purpose for leaving the net in the first place) this new organism (a soul not born of DNA) a new paradigm of d
es to a fighter aircraft. Whereas fixed-wing aircraft are suited to air-to-air combat and air-to-surface attack, helicopters are used to transport equipment and personnel and can be used in an [[anti-submarine warfare]] role with dipped sonar and missiles. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the UK converted some of its old carriers into Commando Carriers, sea-going helicopter airfields like [[HMS Bulwark (R08)|HMS ''Bulwark'']]. To militate against the expensive connotations of the term &quot;aircraft carrier&quot;, the new [[Invincible class aircraft carriers|''Invincible'' class]] carriers were originally designated &quot;through deck cruisers&quot; and were initially helicopter only craft to operate as escort carriers. The arrival of the Sea Harrier meant they could carry fixed wing aircraft despite their short flight deck. ==Aircraft carriers today== [[Image:FlightOps launch.jpg|thumb|200px|Flight operations on the deck of [[USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72)|USS ''Abraham Lincoln'']].]] Aircraft carriers are generally the largest ships operated by [[Navy|navies]]; a ''Nimitz''-class carrier powered by two [[nuclear reactor]]s and four [[steam turbine]]s is 1092 ft (333 m) long and costs about $10 billion. The United States has the majority of aircraft carriers with a dozen in service, and its aircraft carriers are a cornerstone of American power projection capability. Ten countries maintain aircraft carriers: [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[India]], [[Russia]], [[Spain]], [[Brazil]], [[Italy]] and [[Thailand]]. In addition the [[People's Republic of China]]'s [[People's Liberation Army Navy]] possesses the former [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] aircraft carrier [[Soviet aircraft carrier Varyag|''Varyag'']], but most naval analysts believe that they have no intention to operate it, but instead are using ''Varyag'' to learn about carrier operations for a future Chinese aircraft carrier. Canada, China, Japan, [[Pakistan]], [[Australia]] and [[Chile]] also operate helicopter-carrying vessels. Aircraft carriers are generally accompanied by a number of other ships, to provide protection for the relatively unwieldy carrier, to carry supplies, and to provide additional offensive capabilities. This is often termed a battle group or carrier group, sometimes a carrier battle group. ===Modern carriers=== [[Image:HMS Hermes (R12) (Royal Navy aircraft carrier.jpg|thumb|200px|HMS ''Hermes'']] More modern uses of aircraft carriers include the [[Falklands War]], where the United Kingdom was able to win a conflict 8,000 miles (13,000 km) from home in large part due to the use of the full size carrier HMS ''Hermes'' and the smaller [[HMS Invincible (R05)|HMS ''Invincible'']]. The Falklands showed the value of a [[VSTOL]] aircraft&amp;mdash;the [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]] (the RN Sea Harrier and press-ganged RAF Harriers) in defending the fleet and assault force from shore based aircraft and for attacking the enemy. Helicopters from the carriers were used to deploy troops and pick up the wounded. The US has also made use of carriers in the [[Persian Gulf]], [[Afghanistan]] and to protect its interests in the Pacific. Most recently, the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] featured US aircraft carriers as the primary base of US air power. Even without the ability to place significant numbers of aircraft in Middle Eastern airbases, the United States was capable of carrying out significant air attacks from carrier-based squadrons. In the early 21st century, worldwide aircraft carriers were capable of carrying about 1250 aircraft. US carriers accounted for over 1000 of these; the second leading country, the United Kingdom fielded over 50 aircraft. The United Kingdom and France are both undergoing a major expansion in carrier capability (with a [[Royal Navy CVF programme|common ship class]]), but the United States will still maintain a very large lead. &lt;p clear=&quot;left&quot;&gt; ==Future aircraft carriers== Several nations which currently possess aircraft carriers are in the process of planning new classes, to replace current ones. ===French ''Marine Nationale''=== The [[French Navy]] has set in motion plans for a [[Future French aircraft carrier|second aircraft carrier]], to supplement ''[[FS Charles de Gaulle|Charles de Gaulle]]''. The design is to be much larger, in the range of 50&amp;ndash;60,000 tonnes, and will not be nuclear-powered like Charles de Gaulle. There are plans to adopt the current [[Royal Navy CVF programme|Royal Navy design]] for [[CATOBAR]] operations (the [[Thales Group|Thales]]/[[BAE Systems]] design for the Royal Navy is for a STOVL carrier which is reconfigureable to CATOBAR operations). ===Indian Navy=== &lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Gorshkov-01-model.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A model of [[Admiral Gorshkov]] after reconfiguration.]] --&gt; India started the construction of a 37,500 tonne, 252 metre-long aircraft carrier in April [[2005]]. The new carrier will cost US$762 million and will operate [[Mikoyan MiG-29|MiG 29K 'Fulcrum']] and Sea Harrier aircraft along with Russian- and Indian-made helicopters. The ship will be powered by four turbine engines and when completed will have a range of 7,500 nautical miles, carrying 160 officers, 1400 sailors, and 30 aircraft. The carrier is to be constructed by a state-run shipyard in southern India. In 2004, India also bought [[Soviet aircraft carrier Admiral Gorshkov|''Admiral Gorshkov'']] from [[Russia]] for US$1.5 billion; it is expected to join the [[Indian Navy|Indian Navy]] in 2008 after a refit.{{ref|India}} ===Italian ''Marina Militare''=== The construction of the conventional powered ''[[Marina Militare]]'' V/STOL aircraft carrier [[Cavour (C552)|''Cavour'']] began in 2001. It is being built by [[Fincantieri]] of Italy. After much delay, ''Cavour'' is expected to enter service in 2008 to complement the Marina Militare aircraft carrier [[Italian aircraft carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi|''Giuseppe Garibaldi'']]. A second aircraft carrier in the 25-30,000 ton range is much desired by the Italian Navy, to replace the already decommissioned carrier [[Italian aircraft carrier Vittorio Veneto|''Vittorio Veneto'']], but for budgetary reasons all further development is on hold. ===People's Republic of China=== In June 2005, it was reported by boxun.com that [[China]] would build a US$362 million aircraft carrier with a displacement of 78,000 tons, to be built by the Jiangnan Shipyard in [[Shanghai]]. The report was denied by Chinese defense official ''Zhang Guangqin''. {{ref|China}} Previous attempts to purchase an aircraft carrier from Russia and France did not succeed. ===British Royal Navy=== [[Image:2006 CVF STOVL.jpg|thumb|200px|Royal Navy CVF]] The Royal Navy is currently planning two new larger aircraft carriers (as yet only known as [[Royal Navy CVF programme|CVF]]) to replace the two [[Invincible class aircraft carrier|''Invincible'' class]] carriers currently in service. These two ships are expected to be named [[HMS Queen Elizabeth (2012)|HMS ''Queen Elizabeth'']] and [[HMS Prince of Wales (2015)|HMS ''Prince of Wales'']]. They will be able to operate about 50 aircraft and will have a displacement of around 60,000 tonnes. The two ships are due to enter service in 2012 and 2015 respectively. Their primary aircraft complement will be made up of [[F-35 Joint Strike Fighter]], and their ship's company will number around 1000. The two ships will be the largest warships ever built for the Royal Navy. Initially to be configured for STOVL operations, the carriers are to be adaptable to allow any type of future generation of aircraft to operate from them. ===Russian Federation=== Has one operational aircraft carrier, [[Soviet aircraft carrier Kuznetsov | ''Admiral Kuznetsov'']]. [[Image:Carrier_Admiral_Kuznetsov.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Russian ''Admiral Kuznetsov'']] The Russian Federation is currently developing a new aircraft carrier design. They are starting from scratch to make a modern model, with the newest available materials and electronics. Requirements would be for two aircraft carriers - one for the Russian Baltic Fleet and one for the Russian Pacific Fleet. Construction is set to begin by 2010, and finish in around 6 years. ===Spanish ''Armada Española''=== [[Image:buqueproyeccionestrategica.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Spanish ''Buque de proyección estratégica'']] The project for the 231 meter-long and 25,000-30,000 tons conventional powered ''[[Buque de Proyección Estratégica]]'' (Strategic projection vessel) for the Spanish navy was approved in 2003, and its construction started in August 2005, with the ship-building firm [[Navantia]] in charge of the project. The ''Buque de proyección estratégica'' is a vessel designed to operate both as [[amphibious assault]] vessel and as VSTOL aircraft carrier, depending on the mission assigned. The design was made keeping in mind the low-intensity conflicts in which the Spanish Armada is going to be involved in the future. When it is configured to operate as VSTOL aircraft carrier, the operating range will be about 25,000 tons, and it will operate a maximum of 20 [[AV-8B Harrier II|Matador AV-8B+]], F-35 or a mixed force of both aircraft. The ship is provided with a Sky-Jump and a tri-dimensional radar based combat system, and she will be the second operating aircraft carrier of the Spanish navy after [[Spanish aircraft carrier Principe de Asturias|''Príncipe de Asturias'']]. ===US Navy=== [[Image:Image-CVNX picture.JPG|200px|thumb|right|CVNX/CVN-21]] The current US Fleet of [[Nimitz class aircraft carrier|''Nimitz''-class]] carriers are to be followed into service (and in some cases replaced) by the [[CVN-21]]/CVNX Carrier. It is expected that the ships will be larger and will operate more aircraft than the 80 or so of [[USS Nimitz|''Nimitz'']], and will also be designed for lower detectability by radar. ==Aircraft carriers in fiction== See the article on [[Aircraft
by Christos Tsountas, who investigated burial sites on several islands in 1898-99 and coined the term &quot;Cycladic civilization&quot; Interest lagged, then picked up in the mid-20th century, as collectors competed for the modern-looking figures that seemed so similar to sculpture by [[Jean Arp]] or [[Constantin Brancusi]]. Sites were looted and a brisk trade in forgeries arose. The context for many of these Cycladic Figurines has thus been mostly destroyed; their meaning may never be completely understood. Another intriguing and mysterious object is that of the Cycladic [[frying pans]]. More accurate archaeology has revealed the broad outlines of a farming and seafaring culture that had immigrated from Asia Minor ''ca'' [[5th millennium BCE|5000 BCE]]. Early Cycladic culture evolved in three phases, between ''ca'' [[33rd century BCE|3300]] - [[20th century BCE|2000 BCE]], when it was increasingly swamped in the rising influence of Minoan Crete. The culture of mainland Greece contemporary with Cycladic culture is termed [[Helladic culuture|Helladic]]. In recent decades the Cyclades islands have become extremely popular with [[Europe]]an and other [[tourist]]s, and as a result there have been problems with [[erosion]], [[pollution]], and water shortages. &lt;!-- ==Transportation== *[[Greece Interstate |GR-]] ==Communications== ===[[List of radio stations in Greece|Radio]]=== ===[[List of Greek language television channels|Television]]=== ==Famous inhabitants of the Lesbos prefecture== ==Islands== ==Archaeological sites==--&gt; ==Area codes== :[[Greece dialing code 22810|22810]] - [[Syros]], including [[Kythnos]], [[Serifos]] and [[Syros]] islands :[[Greece dialing code 22820|22820]] - [[Andros]] :[[Greece dialing code 22830|22830]] - [[Tinos]] :[[Greece dialing code 22840|22840]] - [[Paros]] and [[Sifnos]] islands :[[Greece dialing code 22850|22850]] - [[Amorgos]] and [[Naxos, Greece|Naxos]] islands :[[Greece dialing code 22860|22860]] - [[Folegandros]], [[Ios]], [[Santorini]] and [[Sikinos]] islands :[[Greece dialing code 22870|22870]] - [[Kimolos]] and [[Milos]] :[[Greece dialing code 22880|22880]] - [[Kea Island]] :[[Greece dialing code 22890|22890]] - [[Mykonos]] ==Municipalities and communities== {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; ! Municipality !! YPES code !! Seat !! Postal code !! Area code |- | Amorgos || 3101 || [[Amorgos]] || 840 08 || 22850-2 |- | Andros || 3103 || [[Andros]] || 845 00 || 22820-2 |- | Ano Syros || 3105 || [[Ano Syros]] || 841 00 || 22810-8 |- | Drymalia || 3107 || [[Chalkio (Naxos), Greece|Chalkio]] || 843 02 || 22850 |- | Ermoupoli || 3109 || [[Ermoupoli]] || 841 00 || 22810-2 |- | [[Exomvourga]] || 3108 || [[Xinara]] Naxou || 842 00 || 22850-5 |- | Ios || 3112 || [[Ios]] || 840 01 || 22860-9 |- | Kea || 3113 || [[Kea Island|Kea]] || 840 02 || 22880-2 |- | Korthio || 3115 || [[Ormos]] Korthiou || 845 02 || 22820-6 |- | Kythnos || 3117 || [[Kythnos]] || 840 06 || 22810-3 |- | Milos || 3118 || [[Milos]] || 848 00 || 22870-2 |- | Mykonos || 3119 || [[Mykonos]] || 846 00 || 22890-2 |- | Naxos || 3120 || [[Naxos]] || 843 00 || 22850-2 |- | Paros || 3123 || [[Paros]] || 844 00 || 22840-2 |- | Poseidonia || 3124 || [[Episkopi Posidonias]] || 841 00 || 22810-4 |- | Serifos || 3125 || [[Serifos]] || 840 02 || 22810-5 |- | Sifnos || 3127 || [[Sifnos]] || 840 03 || 22840-3 |- | Thira || 3111 || [[Thira]] || 847 00 || 22860-2 |- | Tinos || 3129 || [[Tinos]] || 842 00 || 22830-2 |- | [[Ydrousa]] || 3130 || [[Gavrio]] || 845 01 || 22820-7 |- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; ! Community !! YPES code !! Seat !! Postal code !! Area code |- | Anafi || 3102 || [[Anafi]] || 840 09 || 22860-6 |- | Antiparos || 3104 || [[Antiparos]] || 840 07 || 22840-6 |- | Donoussa || 3106 || [[Donoussa]] || 843 00 || 22850-5 |- | Folegandros || 3131 || [[Folegandros]] || 840 11 || 22860 |- | Heraklia || 3110 || [[Heraklia (Cyclades), Greece|Heraklia]] || 843 00 || 22870-7 |- | Kimolos || 3114 || [[Kimolos]] || 840 04 || 22870-5 |- | Koufonissa || 3116 || [[Koufonissa]] || 843 00 || 22870-7 |- | Oia || 3121 || [[Oia]] || 847 02 || 22860-7 |- | Panormos || 3122 || [[Panormos]] || 842 01 || 22830-3 |- | Schoinoussa || 3128 || [[Schoinoussa]] || 843 00 || 22870-7 |- | Sikinos || 3126 || [[Sikinos]] || 840 10 || 22860-5 |} See also: [[List of settlements in the Cyclades prefecture]] ==Further reading== *J. A. MacGillivray and R. L. N. Barber, editors, ''The Prehistoric Cyclades'' (Edinburgh) 1984. *R. L. N. Barber, ''The Cyclades in the Bronze Age'' (Iowa City) 1987. ==External links== *[http://projectsx.dartmouth.edu/classics/history/bronze_age/index.html Jeremy B. Rutter, &quot;The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean&quot; ]: especially Lessons 2 and 4: chronology, history, bibliography *[http://www.geocities.com/HotSprings/1794/greekgde.html Captain Barefoot's Naturist Guide To The Greek Islands]: this website has extensive accurate up-to-date information on the beaches in the Cyclades, especially where clothing optional sunbathing is commonly practiced. [[Category:The Cyclades|*]] [[Category:Archipelagoes]] [[Category:Islands of Greece]] [[Category:Prefectures of Greece]] [[ca:Cíclades]] [[cs:Kyklady]] [[da:Kykladerne]] [[de:Kykladen]] [[et:Küklaadid]] [[el:Κυκλάδες]] [[es:Cícladas]] [[fr:Cyclades]] [[gl:Cícladas]] [[it:Cicladi]] [[la:Cycladae]] [[nl:Cycladen]] [[pl:Cyklady]] [[pt:Cíclades]] [[ru:Киклады]] [[simple:Cyclades]] [[sk:Kyklady]] [[fi:Kykladit]] [[sv:Kykladerna]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Casimir IV Jagiello</title> <id>6594</id> <revision> <id>32107429</id> <timestamp>2005-12-20T15:19:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Appleseed</username> <id>404133</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kazimierz IV Jagiellon]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Computer Vision</title> <id>6595</id> <revision> <id>15904724</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer vision]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Computer vision</title> <id>6596</id> <revision> <id>41635266</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:06:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KYN</username> <id>505011</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Further reading */ another book</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Computer vision''' is the study and application of methods which allow [[computers]] to &quot;understand&quot; image content or content of multidimensional data in general. The term &quot;understand&quot; means here that specific information is being extracted from the image data for a specific purpose: either for presenting it to a human operator (e. g., if cancerous cells have been detected in a microscopy image), or for controlling some process (e. g., an industry robot or an autonomous vehicle). The image data that is fed into a computer vision system is often a digital gray-scale or colour image, but can also be in the form of two or more such images (e. g., from a stereo camera pair), a video sequence, or a 3D volume (e. g., from a tomography device). In most practical computer vision applications, the computers are pre-programmed to solve a particular task, but methods based on learning are now becoming increasingly common. '''Computer vision''' can also be described as the complement (but not necessary the opposite) of [[biological vision]]. In biological vision and [[visual perception]] ''real'' visual systems of humans and various animals are studied, resulting in models of how these systems are implemented in terms of neural processing at various levels. Computer vision, on the other hand, studies and describes technical system which are implemented in software or hardware, in [[computer|computers]] or in [[DSP|digital signal processors]]. There is some interdisciplinary work between biological and computer vision but, in general, the field of computer vision studies processing of visual data as a purely technical problem. ==State of the art== [[image:CVoverview2.jpg|frame|Relation between Computer vision and various other fields]] The field of computer vision can be characterized as immature and diverse. Even though earlier work exists, it was not until the late 1970's that a more focused study of the field started when computers could manage the processing of large data sets such as images. However, these studies usually originated from various other fields, and consequently there is no standard formulation of the &quot;computer vision problem&quot;. Also, and to an even larger extent, there is no standard formulation of how computer vision problems should be solved. Instead, there exists an abundance of methods for solving various well-defined computer vision tasks, where the methods often are very task specific and seldom can be generalized over a wide range of applications. Many of the methods and applications are still in the state of basic research, but more and more methods have found their way into commercial products, where they often constitute a part of a larger system which can solve complex tasks (e.g., in the area of medical images, or quality control and measurements in industrial processes). Computer vision is by some seen as a subfield of [[artificial intelligence]] where image data is being fed into a system as an alternative to text based input for controlling the behaviour of a system. Some of the learning methods which are used in computer vision are based on learning techniques developed within artificial intelligence. Since a camera can be seen as a light sensor, there are various methods in comput
], which are able to cut DNA at specific sites. Together with [[ligase]], which can join fragments of DNA together, restriction enzymes formed the initial basis of recombinant DNA technology. ==Terminology== &quot;Transgenic organism&quot; is now the preferred term for genetically modified organisms with extra-genome (foreign genetic) information, as opposed to &quot;genetically engineered&quot; or &quot;genetically modified&quot; organisms (which may refer to changes made within the genome such as amplification or deletion of genes). == Applications == One of the best known applications of genetic engineering is that of the creation of [[genetically modified organism]]s (GMOs). There are potentially momentous [[biotechnology|biotechnological]] applications of GM, for example oral [[vaccine]]s produced naturally in fruit, at very low cost. This represents, however, a spread of genetic modification to medical purposes and opens an ethical door to other uses of the technology to directly modify human genomes. These effects are often not traceable back to direct causes in the [[genome]], but rather in the environment or interaction of proteins. The means by which 'genes' (in fact [[DNA]] strands that are assumed to have discrete effects) are detected and inserted are inexact, including such means as coating gold particles with DNA to be inserted and literally firing it at strands of target DNA (see [[gene gun]]), which is guaranteed to cause insertions in at least some random locations, which can on rare occasion cause unplanned characteristics. Similar objections apply to [[protein engineering]] and [[molecular engineering]] for use as drugs. However, a single protein or a molecule is easier to examine for '[[quality control]]' than a complete genome, and there are more limited claims made for the reliability of proteins and molecules, than for the genomes of whole organisms. While protein and molecule engineers often times acknowledge the requirement to test their products in a wide variety of environments to determine if they pose dangers to life, the position of many genetic engineers is that they do not need to do so, since the outputs of their work are 'substantially the same as' the original organism which was produced by the original genome(s). A radical ambition of some groups is [[human enhancement]] via genetics, eventually by [[molecular engineering]]. ''See also:'' [[transhumanism]]. DNA [[sequencing]] is a technique which is used to identify each base in DNA. Although the costs of DNA sequencing has dropped dramatically, the NIH estimates it costs at least $10 million to sequence 3 billion base pairs [http://www.genome.gov/12513210] - the size of the whole [[human genome]]. === Genetic engineering and research === Although there has been a tremendous revolution in the biological sciences in the past twenty years, there is still a great deal that remains to be discovered. The completion of the sequencing of the human genome, as well as the genomes of most agriculturally and scientifically important plants and animals, has increased the possibilities of genetic research immeasurably. Expedient and inexpensive access to comprehensive genetic data has become a reality, with billions of sequenced nucleotides already online and annotated. Now that the rapid sequencing of arbitrarily large genomes has become a simple, if not trivial affair, a much greater challenge will be elucidating function of the extraordinarily complex web of interacting proteins, dubbed the proteome, that constitutes and powers all living things. Genetic engineering has become the gold standard in protein research, and major research progress has been made using a wide variety of techniques, including: * Loss of function, such as in a [[Gene knockout|knockout]] experiment, in which an organism is engineered to lack the activity of one or more genes. This allows the experimenter to analyze the defects caused by this mutation, and can be considerably useful in unearthing the function of a gene. It is used especially frequently in [[developmental biology]]. A knockout experiment involves the creation and manipulation of a DNA construct in vitro, which, in a simple knockout, consists of a copy of the desired gene which has been slightly altered such as to cripple its function. The construct is then taken up by [[embryo]]nic [[stem cells]], where the engineered copy of the gene replaces the organism's own gene. These stem cells are injected into blastocysts, which are implanted into surrogate mothers. Another method, useful in organisms such as Drosophila (fruit fly), is to induce mutations in a large population and then screen the progeny for the desired mutation. A similar process can be used in both plants and prokaryotes. * Gain of function experiments, the logical counterpart of knockouts. These are sometimes performed in conjunction with knockout experiments to more finely establish the function of the desired gene. The process is much the same as that in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the function of the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or attracting more frequent transcription. * 'Tracking' experiments, which seek to gain information about the localization and interaction of the desired protein. One way to do this is to replace the wild-type gene with a 'fusion' gene, which is a juxtaposition of the wild-type gene with a reporting element such as [[Green fluorescent protein|Green Fluorescent Protein]] (GFP) that will allow easy visualization of the products of the genetic modification. While this is a useful technique, the manipulation can destroy the function of the gene, creating secondary effects and possibly calling into question the results of the experiment. More sophisticated techniques are now in development that can track protein products without mitigating their function, such as the addition of small sequences which will serve as binding motifs to monoclonal antibodies. == Ethics == Proponents of genetic engineering argue that the technology is safe, and that it is necessary in order to maintain [[food]] production that will continue to match population growth and help feed millions in [[Third World]] countries more effectively. Others argue that there is more than enough food in the world and that the problem is food distribution, not production, so people should not be forced to eat food that may carry some degree of risk. Others oppose genetic engineering on the grounds that genetic modifications might have unforeseen consequences, both in the initially modified organisms and their environments. For example, certain strains of [[maize]] have been developed that are toxic to plant eating insects (see [[Bt corn]]). It has been alleged those strains cross-pollinated with other varieties of wild and domestic maize and passed on these genes with a putative impact on Maize biodiversity.&lt;ref&gt;Quist D and Chapela IH {{cite journal|title=Transgenic DNA introgressed into traditional maize landraces in Oaxaca, Mexico|id={{doi|10.1038/35107068}}|journal=Nature|volume=414|pages=541-543|year=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; Subsequent to the publication of these results, several scientists pointed out that the conclusions were based on experiments with design flaws. It is well known that the results from the [[Polymerase Chain Reaction]] method of analysing DNA can often be confounded by sample contamination and experimental artifacts. Appropriate controls can be included in experiments to eliminate these as a possible explanation of the results - however these controls were not included in the methods used by Quist and Chapela.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first=Paul|last=Christou|title=No Credible Scientific Evidence is Presented to Support Claims that Transgenic DNA was Introgressed into Traditional Maize Landraces in Oaxaca, Mexico|journal=Transgenic Research|volume=11|issue=1|pages=3-5|year=2002|id={{doi|10.1023/A:1013903300469}}}}&lt;/ref&gt; After this criticism ''Nature'', the scientific journal where this data was originally published &quot;concluded that the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Biodiversity (Communications arising): Suspect evidence of transgenic contamination|journal=Nature|year=2002|volume=416|pages=600-601|id={{doi|10.1038/nature738}}|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6881/abs/nature738_fs.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; More recent attempts to replicate the original studies have concluded that genetically modified corn is absent from southern Mexico in 2003 and 2004 [http://www.technologyreview.com/articles/05/08/ap/ap_081605.asp?trk=top] Also in dispute is the impact on biodiversity of the introgression of transgenes into wild populations [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/extract/102/37/13003]. Unless a transgene offers a massive selective advantage in a wild population, a transgene that enters such a population will be maintained at a low gene frequency. In such situations it can be argued that such an introgression actually ''increases'' biodiversity rather than lowers it. Activists opposed to genetic engineering say that with current recombinant technology there is no way to ensure that [[genetically modified organism]]s will remain under control, and the use of this technology outside secure laboratory environments carries unacceptable risks for the future. Some fear that certain types of genetically engineered crops will further reduce [[biodiversity]] in the cropland; [[herbicide]]-tolerant crops will for example be treated with the relevant herbicide to the extent that there are no wild [[plant]]s ('weeds') able to survive, and plants toxic to insects will mean [[insect]]-free crops. This could result in declines in other wildlife (e.g. [[bird]]s) which depend on weed [[seed]]s and/or insects for food resources. The recent (
efense Initiative]] (better known as &quot;Star Wars&quot;), along with research into various energy-beam weaponry, brought new interest in the area of ABM technologies. SDI was an extremely ambitious program to provide a total shield against a massive Soviet ICBM attack. The initial concept envisioned large sophisticated orbiting laser battle stations, space-based relay mirrors, and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites. Later research indicated that some planned technologies such as X-ray [[Laser]]s were not feasible with then-current technology. As research continued, SDI evolved through various concepts as designers struggled with the difficulty of such a large complex defense system. SDI remained a research program and was never deployed. However several SDI technologies were used in follow on ABM systems. The [[MIM-104 Patriot|Patriot antiaircraft missiles]] was the first deployed tactical ABM system, although it was not designed from the outset for that task and consequently had limitations. It was used in the 1991 Gulf War to attempt to intercept Iraqi [[Scud]] missiles. Post-war analyses show that the Patriot much less effective than initially thought because of its radar and control system's inability to discriminate warheads from other objects when the Scud missiles broke up during reentry. On the other hand, the Scud itself was highly inaccurate and not very reliable. It was more a psychological than real threat to military targets. &lt;!--(See new 1990s section. The arrow system doesn't require hit-to-kill and is non-nuclear which contradicts this section) &lt;!--(You're right, I fixed it.- joema 23-Feb-06)Testing of ABMs and ABM technology continued through the 1990s with mixed success. Use of non-nuclear interceptors requires that the interceptor physically contact the incoming payload -- a much more difficult problem. There are also many unresolved issues with warhead discrimination and decoy deployment. There is little doubt that occasional intercepts are possible. The issue is whether an ABM system is a cost effective deterrent or whether a potential enemy will simply deploy a few more missiles with more warheads.--&gt; ==Post Gulf War ABM developments in the 1990s== ===Tactical ABMs deployed=== [[Image:Navy Theater Ballistic Missile Defense.JPG|thumb|right|230px|Developed in th late 1990s, the Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile (LEAP) attaches to a modified [[Standard missile|SM-2 Block IV missile]] used by the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]]]] &lt;!--[http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/nmd/index.html FAS] also has a time line for ABM/NMB/TBMD starting in [http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/milestone.htm Missie Defense Milestones]--&gt; Testing of ABMs and ABM technology continued through the 1990s with mixed success. However, following the Gulf War, improvements were made to several U.S. air defense systems. [[MIM-104 Patriot| Patriot PAC-3]] was developed and tested following the Gulf War. The PAC-3 is a complete redesign of the system deployed during the war, including a totally new missile. The improved guidance, radar and missile performance improves the probablility of kill over the earlier PAC-2. In operation Iraqi Freedom, the Patriot PAC-3 had a near 100% sucess rate at intercepting short range [[tactical ballistic missile]]s (TBMs). However since no longer range Iraqi [[Scud]] missiles were fired, PAC-3 effectiveness againt those was untested. Also the PAC-3 was involved in two [[fratricide]] incidents: two incidents of Patriot firings at coalition aircraft and one of U.S. aircraft firing on a Patriot battery [http://www.acq.osd.mil/dsb/reports/2005-01-Patriot_Report_Summary.pdf]. From 1992 to 2000 a demonstration system for the US Army [[Terminal High Altitude Area Defense]] was deployed at [[White Sands Missile Range]]. Tests were conducted on a regular basis and resulted in early failures, but successful intercepts occurred in 1999. A new version of the Hawk missile was tested in the early to mid 90's and by the end of 1998 the majority of US Marine Corps [[MIM-23 Hawk|Hawk]] systems were modified to support basic theater anti-ballistic missile capabilities[http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/hawk.htm]. Following the Gulf war, the [[Aegis combat system]] was expanded to include ABM capabilities. The [[Standard missile]] system was also enhanced and tested for ballistic missile interception. In the late 90's SM-2 block IVA missiles were tested in a theater ballistic missile defense role.[http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/sm2.htm] Standard Missile 3 (SM3) systems have also been tested for an ABM role. In 1998, Defense secretary William Cohen proposed spending an additional $6.6 billion on ballistic missile defense programs to build a system to protect against attacks from North Korea or accidental launches from Russia or China[http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/military/jan-june99/nmd_1-28a.html]. The [[Israel]]i [[Arrow missile|Arrow]] system was initially tested in 1990, before the first Gulf War. The Arrow was supported by the United States throughout the nineties. ===Brilliant Pebbles=== Approved for acquisition by the Pentagon in 1991 but never realized, Brilliant Pebbles was a proposed space-based anti-ballistic system that tried to avoid some of the problems of the earlier SDI concepts. Rather than use sophisticated large laser battle stations and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites, Brilliant Pebbles consisted of a thousand very small, highly intelligent orbiting satellites with kinetic warheads. The system relied on advances in computer technology, avoided problems with overly centralized command and control and risky, expensive development of large, complicated space defense satellites. It promised to be much less expensive to develop and have less technical development risk. The name Brilliant Pebbles comes from the small size of the satellite interceptors and great computational power enabling more autonomous targeting. Rather than rely exclusively on ground-based control, the many small interceptors would cooperatively communicate among themselves and target a large swarm of ICBM warheads in space or in the late boost phase. Development was later discontinued in favor of a limited ground-based defense. ===SDI changed to NMD=== In the early 1990s, President G. H. W. Bush called for a more limited version using rocket-launched interceptors based on the ground at a single site. In 1993, SDI was reorganized as the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization. Deployment of the more limited system, called the National Missile Defense (NMD) was planned to protect all 50 states from a rogue missile attack. Research and development of the NMD system continued under the Clinton administration from 1992 to 2000. ==Current ABM developments== A renewed interest in missile defense cooincided with the election of President [[George W. Bush]] in 2000. In several tests, the U.S. military has demonstrated the feasibility of shooting down long and short range ballistic missiles. Combat effectivness of newer systems against tactical ballistic missiles seems very high, as the [[MIM-104 Patriot| Patriot PAC-3]] had a 100% success rate in Operation Iraqi Freedom. However NMD real-world effectiveness against longer range ICBMs is less clear. While the Reagan era Strategic Defense Initiative was intended to shield against a massive Soviet attack, the current [[National Missile Defense]] has the more limited goal of shielding against a limited attack by a [[rogue state]]. The Bush administration has accelerated development and deployment of a system proposed in 1998 by the Clinton administration. The system is a dual purpose test and interception facility in Alaska, and as of 2006 is operational with a few interceptor missiles. The Alaska site provides more protection against North Korean missiles or accidental launches from Russia or China, but is likely less effective against missiles launched from Iran. The Alaska interceptors may be later augmented by the naval [[Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System]], by ground-based missiles in other locations, or by the [[Boeing YAL-1| Boeing Airborne Laser]]. President Bush has referenced the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks]] and the proliferation of ballistic missiles as reasons for missile defense. &lt;!-- (Seems POV and a broad generalization, and I can't find a source for it. Please cite source and uncomment) Often overlooked in the ABM debate in the United States is the resistance of many Pentagon leaders to the construction of a National Missile Defense. Admirals and generals of all services oppose spending huge sums (currently $8bn/yr in 2003) to research, develop, and procure NMD systems. They would prefer to have that money spent on new conventional weapons, training, equipment, or pay. By conventional [[procurement]] methodologies ([[cost-benefit analysis]] and [[cost-utility analysis]]) missile defense would be regarded as a 'bad buy' owing to its very high costs, high level of project risk (it is essentially a research project, not acquisition of proven technologies) and the benefits are disputed. In order to prevent its cancellation by the Pentagon, successive administrations have placed missile defense outside of direct Pentagon control in a separate organisation.--&gt; ===International ABM efforts=== [[Image:Arrow missle.jpg|thumb|right|An Arrow anti-ballistic missile interceptor]] In 1993, a symposium was held by western European nations to explore potential future ballistic missile defense programs. In the end, the council recommended deployment of early warning and surveillance systems as well as regionally controlled defense systems. [http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/europe/weu_93/weu1363tasc.htm] In 1998 the [[Israel]]i military conducted a successful test of their [[Arrow missile|Arrow ABM]], developed in Israel with American assistance. Designed to intercept incoming m
2&quot;| 3; CDR, CM pilot, LM pilot |- !colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Dimensions |- |'''Height:'''|| width=&quot;125&quot;|36.2 ft || width=&quot;125&quot;|11.03 m |- |'''Diameter:'''|| 12.8 ft || 3.9 m |- |'''Volume:'''|| 218 ft&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; || 6.17 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; |- !colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Weights |- |'''Command module:'''|| 12,807 lb || 5,809 kg |- |'''Service module:''' || 54,064 lb || 24,523 kg |- |'''Total:''' || 66,871 lb || 30,332 kg |- !colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Rocket engines |- |'''CM RCS''' (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;/UDMH) x 12:|| 92 [[Pound-force|lbf]] ea || 412 N |- |'''SM RCS''' (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;/UDMH) x 16:|| 100 lbf ea || 441 N |- |'''Service Propulsion System'''&lt;br /&gt; (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;/UDMH) x 1:|| 22,000 lbf ea || 97.86 kN |- !colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Performance |- |''' Endurance:'''|| 14 days || 200 orbits |- |''' Apogee:'''|| 240,000 miles || 386,242 km |- |''' Perigee:'''|| 100 miles || 160 km |- |''' Spacecraft delta v:'''|| 9,200 ft/s &lt;br&gt; (6,272 mi/hr)|| 2,804 m/s &lt;br&gt; (10,094 km/h) |- !colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|''' Apollo CSM diagram''' |- |colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| [[image:Apollo-linedrawing.png|300px|Apollo CSM diagram (NASA)]] &lt;br/&gt;Apollo CSM diagram (NASA) |- !colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|North American Apollo CSM |- |} &lt;!-- When using a spelling checker use &quot;Skip All&quot; with this words, or add them all to a User Word List you use when checking this article, I'm sure all the English words are spelled correctly in this list, but I didn't worry about American, British, etc. spelling, I'm not sure if all the names are spelled correctly: align:center td de:Apollo Projekt fr:Programme ja nl:Apollo zh Image:Apollo insignia.png EOR linedrawing.png Houbolt LOR CSM LEM dockings undockings Image:LEM crewless Apollos cancelled CNC litres IB IVB Soyuz Kranz website align --&gt; [[Image:Apollo program insignia.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Apollo Program insignia]] '''Project Apollo''' was a series of [[human spaceflight]] missions undertaken by the [[United States|United States of America]] using the [[Apollo spacecraft]] and [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn launch vehicle]], conducted during the years 1961–1972. It was devoted to the goal of landing a man on the [[Moon]] and returning him safely to Earth within the decade of the 1960s. This goal was achieved with the ''[[Apollo 11]]'' mission in July 1969. The program continued into the early 1970s to carry out the initial hands-on scientific exploration of the Moon, with a total of six successful landings. As of 2006, there has not been any further human spaceflight beyond [[low earth orbit]]. The later [[Skylab|Skylab program]] and the joint American-Soviet [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]] used equipment originally produced for Apollo, and are often considered to be part of the overall program. The name [[Apollo]], like earlier manned space-flight programs, was named after a god from [[classical civilization]]s, and comes from one of the Greek gods. ==Background== The Apollo Program was originally conceived late in the [[Dwight Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] administration as a follow-on to the [[Mercury program]], doing advanced manned earth-orbital missions. In fact, it became the third program, following [[Gemini program|Gemini]]. The Apollo Program was dramatically reoriented to an aggressive lunar landing goal by President [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy]] with his announcement at a special joint session of Congress on [[May 25]], [[1961]]: :&quot;...I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important in the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish...&quot; (Excerpt from &quot;Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs&quot;.[http://www.jfklibrary.org/j052561.htm]) ==Choosing a mission mode== Having settled upon the Moon as a target, the Apollo mission planners were faced with the challenge of designing a set of flights that would meet Kennedy's stated goal while minimizing risk to human life, cost and demands on technology and astronaut skill. Three possible plans were considered. [[Image:Apollo Direct Ascent.png|thumb|left|225px|Apollo configuration for &lt;br /&gt;Direct Ascent and&lt;br /&gt; Earth Orbit Rendezvous - 1961 (NASA)]] * '''Direct ascent:''' This plan was to boost a spaceship directly to the moon. The entire spacecraft would land on and return from the moon. This would have required a [[Nova rocket]] far more powerful than any in existence at the time. * '''Earth orbit rendezvous:''' This plan, known as Earth orbit rendezvous (EOR), would have required the launch of two [[Saturn V]] rockets, one containing the space ship and one containing fuel. The spaceship would have docked in earth orbit and be fueled with enough fuel to make it to the moon and back. Again, the entire spacecraft would have landed on the moon. * '''Lunar Surface Rendezvous:''' This would have required two spacecraft to be launched - the first one being an automated vehicle carrying propellants would land on the Moon, to be followed some time later by the 'manned' vehicle. Propellant would be transferred from the automated vehicle to the 'manned' vehicle before the 'manned' vehicle could return to Earth. * '''Lunar orbit rendezvous:''' This plan, which was adopted, is credited to [[John Houbolt]] and used the technique of 'Lunar Orbit Rendezvous' (LOR). The spacecraft was modular, composed of a '[[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]]' (CSM) and a '[[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]]' (LM; originally Lunar Excursion Module {LEM}). The CSM contained the life support systems for the three man crew's five day round trip to the moon and the [[heat shield]] for their reentry to Earth's [[earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]. The LM would separate from the CSM in lunar orbit and carry two astronauts for the descent to the lunar surface, then back up to the CSM. In contrast with the other plans, the LOR plan required only a small part of the spacecraft to land on the moon, thereby minimizing the mass to be launched from the moon's surface for the return trip. The mass to be launched was further minimized by leaving part of the LM (that with the descent engine) behind, on the moon. {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:0.5em;&quot; !colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|'''Grumman Apollo LM''' |- |colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Image:Apollo 16 LM.jpg|300px|Apollo LM on lunar surface.]] &lt;br/&gt;Apollo LM on lunar surface. |- !colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Description |- |width=&quot;75&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; |'''Role:'''||width=&quot;200&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| Lunar landing |- |width=&quot;75&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; |'''Crew: '''||width=&quot;250&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| 2; CDR, LM pilot |- !colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Dimensions |- |'''Height:'''|| width=&quot;125&quot;|20.9 ft || width=&quot;125&quot;|6.37 m |- |'''Diameter:'''|| 14 ft || 4.27 m |- |'''Landing gear span:'''|| 29.75 ft || 9.07 m |- |'''Volume:'''|| 235 ft&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; || 6.65 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; |- !colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Weights |- |'''Ascent module:'''|| 10,024 lb || 4,547 kg |- |'''Descent module:''' || 22,375 lb || 10,149 kg |- |'''Total:''' || 32,399 lb || 14,696 kg |- !colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Rocket engines |- |'''LM RCS''' (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;/UDMH) x 16:|| 100 lbf ea || 441 N |- |'''Ascent propulsion system'''&lt;br /&gt;(N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;/[[Aerozine 50]]) x 1:|| 3,500 lbf ea || 15.57 kN |- |'''Descent propulsion system'''&lt;br /&gt; (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;/[[Aerozine 50]]) x 1:|| 9,982 lbf ea || 44.4 kN |- !colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Performance |- |''' Endurance:'''|| 3 days || 72 hours |- |''' Apogee:'''|| 100 miles || 160 km |- |''' Perigee:'''|| surface || surface |- |''' Spacecraft delta v:'''|| 15,387 ft/s &lt;br&gt; (10,491 mi/h) || 4,690 m/s &lt;br&gt; (16,884 km/h) |- !colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|''' Apollo LM diagram''' |- |colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| [[image:LEM-linedrawing.png|300px|Apollo LM diagram (NASA)]] &lt;br/&gt;Apollo LM diagram (NASA) |- !colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Grumman Apollo LM |- |} The [[Lunar Module]] itself was composed of a descent stage and an ascent stage, the former serving as a launch platform for the latter when the lunar exploration party blasted off for lunar orbit where they would dock
ested in Chadic (eg Hausa ''mutu''), Egyptian (''mwt'', ''mt'', Coptic ''mu''), Berber (''mmet'', pr. ''yemmut''), Semitic (*''mwt''), and Cushitic (Proto-Somali *''umaaw''/*''-am-w(t)-'' &quot;die&quot;), also similar to the Latin ''mortis'', indicating a possible vocabulary drift *''s-n'' &quot;know&quot;, attested in Chadic, Berber, and Egyptian; *''l-s'' &quot;tongue&quot; (Ehret: ''*lis' ''&quot;to lick&quot;), attested in Semitic (*''lasaan/lisaan''), Egyptian (''ns'', Coptic ''las''), Berber (''ils''), Chadic (eg Hausa ''harshe''), and possibly Omotic (Dime ''lits'-'' &quot;lick&quot;); *''s-m'' &quot;name&quot; (Ehret: *''s&amp;#365;m'' / *''s&amp;#301;m''), attested in Semitic (*''sm''), Berber (''ism''), Chadic (eg Hausa ''suna''), Cushitic, and Omotic (though the Berber form, ''ism'', and the Omotic form, ''sunts'', are sometimes argued to be Semitic [[loanword]]s.) The Egyptian ''smi'' &quot;report, announce&quot; may also be cognate. * ''d-m'' &quot;blood&quot; (Ehret: *''dîm'' / *''dâm''), attested in Berber (''idammen''), Semitic (*''dam''), Chadic, and arguably Omotic. Cushitic *''dîm''/*''dâm'', &quot;red&quot;, may be cognate. In the verbal system, Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic (including Beja) all provide evidence for a prefix conjugation: {| |- | English || Arabic (Semitic) || Kabyle (Berber) | Saho (Cushitic; verb is &quot;kill&quot;) || Beja (verb is &quot;arrive&quot;) |- | he dies || ''yamuutu'' || ''yemmut'' | ''yagdifé'' || ''iktim'' |- | she dies || ''tamuutu'' || ''temmut'' | ''yagdifé'' || ''tiktim'' |- | they (m.) die || ''yamuutuuna'' || ''mmuten'' | ''yagdifín'' || ''iktimna'' |- | you (m. sg.) die || ''tamuutu'' || ''temmuted&amp;#803;'' | ''tagdifé'' || ''tiktima'' |- | you (m. pl.) die || ''tamuutuuna'' || ''temmutem'' | ''tagdifín'' || ''tiktimna'' |- | I die || ''&amp;#704;amuutu'' || ''mmute&amp;#947;'' | ''agdifé'' || ''aktim'' |- | we die || ''namuutu'' || ''nemmut'' || ''nagdifé'' || ''niktim'' |} A causative affix ''s'' is widespread (found in all its subfamilies), but is also found in other groups, such as the [[Niger-Congo languages]]. The [[possessive pronoun]] suffixes are supported by Semitic, Berber, Cushitic (including Beja), and Chadic. ==Classification history== Medieval scholars sometimes linked two or more branches of Afro-Asiatic together; already in the [[9th century]], the Hebrew grammarian [[Judah ibn Quraysh]] of [[Tiaret]], [[Algeria]] perceived a relationship between Berber and Semitic (the latter being known to him through Arabic, Hebrew, and Aramaic.) In the 1800's, Europeans began suggesting such relationships; thus in [[1844]] Th. Benfey suggested a language family containing Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic (calling the latter &quot;Ethiopic&quot;). In the same year, T. N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and Hausa, but this would long remain a topic of dispute and uncertainty. The traditional &quot;Hamito-Semitic&quot; family was named by [[Friedrich Müller]] in [[1876]] in his ''Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft'', and defined as consisting of a Semitic group plus a &quot;Hamitic&quot; group containing Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic; the Chadic group was not included. These classifications were partly based on non-linguistic anthropological and racial arguments. (See also [[Hamitic hypothesis]].) [[Leo Reinisch]] (1909) proposed to link Cushitic and Chadic, while urging a more distant affinity with Egyptian and Semitic, thus foreshadowing Greenberg; but his suggestion was largely ignored. [[Marcel Cohen]] (1924) rejected the idea of a distinct &quot;Hamitic&quot; subgroup, and included Hausa (a Chadic language) in his comparative Hamito-Semitic vocabulary. [[Joseph Greenberg]] (1950) strongly confirmed Cohen's rejection of &quot;Hamitic&quot;, added (and sub-classified) the Chadic languages, and proposed the new name Afro-Asiatic for the family; his classification of it came to be almost universally accepted. In 1969, [[Harold Fleming]] proposed the recognition of [[Omotic]] as a fifth branch, rather than (as previously believed) a subgroup of Cushitic, and this has become generally accepted. Several scholars, including Harold Fleming and [[Robert Hetzron]], have since questioned the traditional inclusion of Beja in Cushitic, but this view has yet to gain general acceptance. There is little agreement on the subclassification of the five or six branches mentioned; however, [[Christopher Ehret]] (1979), [[Harold Fleming]] (1981), and [[Joseph Greenberg]] (1981) all agree that Omotic was the first branch to split from the rest. Otherwise, *Ehret groups Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic together in a North Afro-Asiatic subgroup; *[[Paul Newman (professor)|Paul Newman]] (1980) groups Berber with Chadic and Egyptian with Semitic, while questioning the inclusion of Omotic; *Fleming (1981) divided non-Omotic Afroasiatic, or &quot;Erythraean&quot;, into three groups, Cushitic, Semitic, and Chadic-Berber-Egyptian; he later added Semitic and Beja to the latter, and proposed [[Ongota language|Ongotá]] as a tentative new third branch of Erythraean; *[[Lionel Bender]] (1997) advocates a &quot;Macro-Cushitic&quot; consisting of Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic, while regarding Chadic and Omotic as the most remote branches; *[[Vladimir Orel]] and [[Olga Stolbova]] (1995) group Berber with Semitic, Chadic with Egyptian, and split Cushitic into five or more independent branches of Afro-Asiatic, seeing Cushitic as a [[Sprachbund]] rather than a valid family; *[[Alexander Militarev]] (2000), on the basis of [[lexicostatistics]], groups Berber with Chadic and both, more distantly, with Semitic, as against Cushitic and Omotic. ==See also== * [[African languages]] ==Etymological bibliography== Some of the main sources for Afro-Asiatic etymologies include: * Marcel Cohen, ''Essai comparatif sur la vocabulaire et la phonétique du chamito-sémitique'', Champion, Paris 1947. * Igor M. Diakonoff et al., &quot;Historical-Comparative Vocabulary of Afrasian&quot;, ''St. Petersburg Journal of African Studies'' Nos. 2-6, 1993-7. * Christopher Ehret. ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary'' (''University of California Publications in Linguistics 126''), California, Berkeley 1996. * Vladimir E. Orel and Olga V. Stolbova, ''Hamito-Semitic [[Etymological Dictionary]]: Materials for a Reconstruction'', Brill, Leiden 1995. ISBN 9004100512. [http://www.ilx.nl/blonline/blonlinesearch2.php?ficheid=101010209591] ==Sources== * Bernd Heine and Derek Nurse, ''African Languages,'' Cambridge University Press, 2000 - Chapter 4 * Merritt Ruhlen, ''A Guide to the World's Languages'', Stanford University Press, Stanford 1991. * Lionel Bender et al., ''Selected Comparative-Historical Afro-Asiatic Studies in Memory of Igor M. Diakonoff'', LINCOM 2003. * [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=89997 Ethnologue] * Russell G. Schuh, ''[http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/schuh/Papers/Chadic_overview.pdf Chadic Overview]''. * [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/roger_blench/Archaeology%20data/Africa%20language%20history%20text.pdf African Language History] (pdf), [[Roger Blench]] ==External links== * [http://www.tufs.ac.jp/ts/personal/ratcliffe/comp%20&amp;%20method-Ratcliffe.pdf A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions] *[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/306/5702/1680c The Origins of Afroasiatic] by Paul Newman (Requires Science Magazine subscription) [[Category:Afro-Asiatic languages| ]] [[af:Afro-Asiaties]] [[ar:أفروآسيوية]] [[bg:Афро-азиатски езици]] [[bs:Afroazijski jezici]] [[ca:Llengües afroasiàtiques]] [[de:Afroasiatische Sprachen]] [[es:Lenguas afroasiáticas]] [[eo:Afrikazia lingvaro]] [[eu:Hizkuntza Afroasiatikoak]] [[fr:Langues afro-asiatiques]] [[ko:아프리카아시아어족]] [[id:Bahasa Afro-Asia]] [[ia:Linguas afro-asiatic]] [[he:שפות אפרו-אסיאתיות]] [[lt:Semitų-chamitų kalbos]] [[hu:Afroázsiai nyelvcsalád]] [[nl:Afro-Aziatische talen]] [[ja:アフロ・アジア語族]] [[nn:Afroasiatiske språk]] [[pt:Línguas afro-asiáticas]] [[sl:Afroazijski jeziki]] [[fi:Afroaasialaiset kielet]] [[sv:Afroasiatiska språk]] [[ta:ஆபிரிக்க-ஆசிய மொழிகள்]] [[zh:闪含语系]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Andorra</title> <id>600</id> <revision> <id>41907777</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:08:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>217.10.60.85</ip> </contributor> <comment>revert vandalism</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{For|the 1961 play by Max Frisch|Andorra (play)}} {| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Principat d'Andorra'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;/font&gt; |- | style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |- | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Andorra.svg|125px|Flag of Andorra]] | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Andorra_coa.png|Andorra's Coat of Arms]] |- | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Flag of Andorra|Flag]]) | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Coat of Arms of Andorra|Coat of Arms]]) |} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''National [[motto]]: Virtus Unita Fortior&lt;br/&gt;([[Latin]]: Virtue united is stronger)''&lt;/small&gt; |- | align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[image:LocationAndorra.png]] |- | '''[[Official language]]''': || [[Catalan language|Catalan]] |- | '''[[Capital]]''':&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Population:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Coordinates]]: || [[Andorra la Vella]]&lt;br&gt;22,035 &lt;small&gt;(1990 est.)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;{{coor dm|42|30|N|1|31|E|type:country}} |- | '''[[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|French Co-Pri
s into Greek Epic'', Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University; * Johansson, Warren. ''Achilles.'' [http://williamapercy.com/pub-EncyHom.htm '''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality.'''] Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), Garland Publishing, 1990. p. 8 ==External links== {{commons|Category:Achilles}} * [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/ The Story of Achilles and Patroclus] * [http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/troy.html Trojan War Resources] [[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]] [[Category:Anti-heroes|Achilles]] [[Category:Pederastic heroes and deities]] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; {{Link FA|fr}} [[ar:أخيل]] [[bg:Ахил]] [[ca:Aquil·les]] [[da:Achilleus]] [[de:Achilleus]] [[et:Achilleus]] [[el:Αχιλλέας]] [[es:Aquiles]] [[eo:Aĥilo]] [[fa:آشیل]] [[fr:Achille]] [[gl:Aquiles]] [[ko:아킬레우스]] [[hr:Ahilej]] [[it:Achille]] [[he:אכילס]] [[la:Achilles]] [[lt:Achilas]] [[lb:Achilleus]] [[hu:Akhilleusz]] [[nl:Achilles]] [[ja:アキレウス]] [[no:Akilles]] [[pl:Achilles (mitologia)]] [[pt:Aquiles]] [[ru:Ахиллес]] [[sk:Achilles]] [[sl:Ahil]] [[fi:Akhilleus]] [[sv:Akilles]] [[uk:Ахіллес]] [[zh:阿基琉斯]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AppliedStatistics</title> <id>306</id> <revision> <id>15899043</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Applied statistics]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abraham Lincoln</title> <id>307</id> <revision> <id>42155236</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:35:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Naconkantari</username> <id>676502</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Bennettsnider|Bennettsnider]] ([[User talk:Bennettsnider|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the name Abraham Lincoln, see [[Abraham Lincoln (disambiguation)]]'' {{Infobox_President | name=Abraham Lincoln | nationality=American | image=Abraham Lincoln head on shoulders photo portrait.jpg | order=16th President | term_start=[[March 4]], [[1861]] | term_end=[[April 15]], [[1865]] | predecessor=[[James Buchanan]] | successor=[[Andrew Johnson]] | birth_date=[[February 12]], [[1809]] | birth_place=[[Hardin County, Kentucky]] (now in [[LaRue County, Kentucky|LaRue County]]) | death_date=[[April 15]], [[1865]] | death_place=[[Washington, D.C.]] | spouse=[[Mary Todd Lincoln]] | party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] | vicepresident=[[Hannibal Hamlin]] (1861 to 1865); [[Andrew Johnson]] (March - April 1865) }} '''Abraham Lincoln''' ([[February 12]], [[1809]] – [[April 15]], [[1865]]), sometimes called '''Abe Lincoln''' and nicknamed '''Honest Abe''', the '''Rail Splitter''', and the '''Great Emancipator''', was the 16th [[President of the United States]] (1861 to 1865), and the first president from the [[History of United States Republican Party|Republican Party]]. Lincoln opposed the expansion of slavery and oversaw the Union war effort during the [[American Civil War]]. He selected the generals and approved their strategy; selected senior civilian officials; supervised diplomacy, patronage and party affairs; rallied public opinion through messages and speeches such as the [[Gettysburg Address]]; and took personal charge of plans for the [[Emancipation Proclamation|abolition of slavery]] and the [[Reconstruction]] of the Union. He was assassinated as the war ended by [[John Wilkes Booth]]. ==Role in history== President Lincoln was opposed to what he saw as the [[Slave Power]] and staunchly opposed its efforts to expand [[history of slavery in the United States|slavery]] into federal territories. His victory in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860 presidential election]] further polarized an already divided nation. Before his inauguration in March of 1861, seven [[Southern United States|Southern]] states [[secession|seceded]] from the [[United States]], formed the [[Confederate States of America]], and took control of U.S. forts and other properties within their boundaries. These events soon led to the [[American Civil War]]. Lincoln is often praised for his work as a wartime leader who proved adept at balancing competing considerations and at getting rival groups to work together toward a common goal. Lincoln had to negotiate between [[Radical Republican|Radical]] and Moderate Republican leaders, who were often far apart on the issues, while attempting to win support from [[War Democrats]] and loyalists in the seceding states. He personally directed the war effort, in close cooperation (1864-65) with General [[Ulysses S. Grant]] which ultimately led the Union forces to victory over the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. His leadership qualities were evident in his diplomatic handling of the border slave states at the beginning of the fighting, in his defeat of a congressional attempt to reorganize his cabinet in 1862, in his many speeches and writings which helped mobilize and inspire the North, and in his defusing of the peace issue in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1864|1864 presidential campaign]]. [[Copperheads (politics)|Copperheads]] vehemently criticized him for violating the Constitution, overstepping the bounds of executive power, refusing to compromise on slavery, declaring [[martial law]], suspending [[habeas corpus]], ordering the arrest of thousands of public officials and a number of newspaper publishers, and killing hundreds of thousands of young men. [[Radical Republicans]] criticized him for going too slow on abolition of slavery, and not being ruthless enough toward the conquered South. Lincoln is most famous for his roles in preserving the Union and ending [[slavery]] in the United States with the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] and the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]]. However, some abolitionists criticized him for only freeing the slaves under the Confederacy in 1863, and waiting until 1865 to free slaves held in the Union. Historians have argued that Lincoln had a lasting influence on U.S. political and social institutions, importantly setting a precedent for greater centralization of powers in the federal government and the weakening of the powers of the individual [[state government]]s. Lincoln spent most of his attention on military matters and politics but with his strong support his administration established the current system of [[national bank]]s with the [[National Bank Act]]. He increased the [[Morrill tariff|tariff]] to raise revenue and encourage factories, imposed the first [[Income tax in the United States|income tax]], issued hundreds of millions of dollars of bonds and Greenbacks, encouraged immigration from Europe, built the [[First Transcontinental Railroad|transcontinental railroad]], set up the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]], encouraged farm ownership with the [[Homestead Act]] of 1862, and set up the modern system of state universities with the [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]]. During the war his Treasury department effectively controlled all cotton trade in the occupied South--the most dramatic incursion of federal controls on the economy. During his administration [[West Virginia]] and [[Nevada]] were admitted as states. Lincoln is usually [[historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|ranked as one of the greatest presidents]]. Because of his roles in destroying slavery, redefining national values, and saving the Union, his [[assassination]] made him a [[martyr]] to millions of Americans. However, others considered him an unconstitutional tyrant for declaring martial law, suspending civil liberties, habeas corpus, and the First Amendment, and ordering the arrest of thousands of public officials and newspaper publishers. ==Early life== Abraham Lincoln was born on [[February 12]], [[1809]], in a one-room [[log cabin]] on the 348 acre (1.4 km&amp;sup2;) Sinking Spring Farm in the Southeast part of [[Hardin County, Kentucky]], then considered the [[frontier]] (now part of [[LaRue County, Kentucky|LaRue Co.]], in Nolin Creek, three miles (5 km) south of [[Hodgenville, Kentucky|Hodgenville]]), to [[Thomas Lincoln]] and [[Nancy Hanks]]. Lincoln was named after his deceased grandfather, who was [[scalping|scalped]] in 1786 in an Indian raid. He had no middle name. Lincoln's parents were uneducated, illiterate farmers. When Lincoln became famous, reporters and storytellers often exaggerated the poverty and obscurity of his birth. However Lincoln's father Thomas was a respected and relatively affluent citizen of the Kentucky backcountry. He had purchased the [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site|Sinking Spring Farm]] in December 1808 for $200 cash and assumption of a debt. His parents belonged to a Baptist church that had pulled away from a larger church because they refused to support slavery. From a very young age, Lincoln was exposed to anti-slavery sentiment. However he never joined his parents' church, or any other church, and as a youth ridiculed religion. Three years after purchasing the property, a prior land claim filed in Hardin Circuit Court forced the Lincolns to move. Thomas continued legal action until he lost the case in 1815. Legal expenses contributed to family difficulties. In 1811, they were able to lease 30 acres (0.1 km&amp;sup2;) of a 230 acre (0.9 km&amp;sup2;) farm on Knob Creek a few miles away, where they then moved. In a valley of the [[Rolling Fork River]], this was some of the best farmland in the area. At this time, Lincoln's father was a respected community member and a successful farmer and carpenter. Lincoln's earliest recollections are from this farm. In 1815, another claimant sought to eject the family from the [[Abraham Linc
ibbean Community]] (CARICOM), excluding its Caribbean (CARICOM) Single Market and Economy; the [[International Criminal Police Organization - Interpol]]; Universal Postal Union (UPU); the IMO (International Maritime Organization); and World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). '''Disputes - international:''' Have not been able to agree on the alignment of a maritime boundary with the United States. &lt;!-- CIA World Factbook --&gt; '''Illicit drugs:''' transshipment point for cocaine and marijuana bound for US and Europe; banking industry vulnerable to money laundering ==Reference== ''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.'' [[Category:Bahamas]] [[Category:Foreign relations by country|Bahamas, Foreign affairs of]] The Bahamas has formal relations with other European countries, including Germany</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bahrain/History</title> <id>3483</id> <revision> <id>15901815</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LA2</username> <id>445</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Bahrain]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bahrain/Geography</title> <id>3484</id> <revision> <id>15901816</id> <timestamp>2005-03-13T00:52:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Caesura</username> <id>134611</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Fix Double Redirect - [[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]].</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bahrain]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bahrain/People</title> <id>3485</id> <revision> <id>15901817</id> <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:37:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Bahrain]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bahrain/Government</title> <id>3486</id> <revision> <id>15901818</id> <timestamp>2002-08-04T12:14:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Politics of Bahrain</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Bahrain]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bahrain/Economy</title> <id>3487</id> <revision> <id>15901819</id> <timestamp>2002-08-04T12:15:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Economy of Bahrain</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Bahrain]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bahrain/Transportation</title> <id>3488</id> <revision> <id>15901820</id> <timestamp>2002-08-22T12:01:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <comment>correct REDIRECT</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Bahrain]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bahrain/Communications</title> <id>3489</id> <revision> <id>15901821</id> <timestamp>2002-08-22T11:59:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Bahrain]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bahrain/Military</title> <id>3490</id> <revision> <id>15901822</id> <timestamp>2002-08-04T12:17:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Military of Bahrain</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Bahrain]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bahrain/Transnational issues</title> <id>3491</id> <revision> <id>15901823</id> <timestamp>2002-08-04T12:17:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move from Bahrain/Transnational issues</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Bahrain]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Baker Island</title> <id>3492</id> <revision> <id>15901824</id> <timestamp>2004-05-12T18:01:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bkonrad</username> <id>44062</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rd --&gt; Baker Island</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baker Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Baker Island</title> <id>3493</id> <revision> <id>15901825</id> <timestamp>2002-10-06T12:34:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Olivier</username> <id>3808</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baker Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Government of Baker Island</title> <id>3494</id> <revision> <id>26642397</id> <timestamp>2005-10-27T19:45:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Joel7687</username> <id>311307</id> </contributor> <comment>added {{CIA}} template and {{factbook}} template</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} Country Name: :conventional long form: none :conventional short form: [[Baker Island]] Dependency status: :unincorporated territory of the US; administered from Washington, DC, by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge system Legal system: :the laws of the US, where applicable, apply Flag description: :the flag of the US is used {{factbook}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transportation in Baker Island</title> <id>3496</id> <revision> <id>15901827</id> <timestamp>2002-10-06T12:37:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Olivier</username> <id>3808</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baker Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Baker Island/History</title> <id>3500</id> <revision> <id>15901828</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T08:45:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Baker Island]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baker Island]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bangladesh/History</title> <id>3501</id> <revision> <id>15901829</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LA2</username> <id>445</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Bangladesh]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bangladesh/Geography</title> <id>3502</id> <revision> <id>15901830</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:14:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Geography of Bangladesh</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Bangladesh]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bangladesh/People</title> <id>3503</id> <revision> <id>15901831</id> <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:37:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Bangladesh]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Government of Bangladesh</title> <id>3504</id> <revision> <id>15901832</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:18:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Politics of Bangladesh</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Bangladesh]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bangladesh/Economy</title> <id>3505</id> <revision> <id>15901833</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:20:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Economy of Bangladesh</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Bangladesh]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bangladesh/Communications</title> <id>3506</id> <revision> <id>15901834</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:21:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Communications in Bangladesh</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Bangladesh]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bangladesh/Transportation</title> <id>3507</id> <revision> <id>15901835</id> <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:22:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>move to Transportation in Bangladesh</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Bangladesh]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bangladesh/Military</title> <id>3508</id> <revision> <id>
mostly used in computer games, art and computer aided design. There have been several attempts at making 3D desktop enviroments, like Sun's [[Project Looking Glass]]. A 3D computing environment could possibly be used for collaborative work, for example scientists may study 3D models of [[molecules]] in a virtual reality environment or engineers may work on assembling a 3D model of an airplane. This is a goal of the [[Croquet project]]&amp;#xA0;[http://mslive.sonicfoundry.com/mslive/Viewer/NoPopupRedirector.aspx?peid=172f6de5-135b-4ba0-9207-ac6d383812c9&amp;shouldResize=False]. 3D is also slowly being introduced in mainstream operating systems like [[Windows Vista]] and [[Mac OS X]], for the moment mainly in the form of [[eye candy]], like Apple's [[Quartz Compositor|Quartz Extreme]], which uses [[OpenGL]] to do fancy rendering. == Individual Elements of User Interfaces == * [[About box]] * [[Dialog box]] * [[Icon]] * [[Balloon help]] * [[Breadcrumb (navigation)]] * [[Button (computing)|Button]] * [[CandyBar]] * [[Check box]] * [[Combo box]] == See also == *[[Fitts' law]] *[[Anti-Mac]] *[[Apple v. Microsoft]] *[[User interface engineering]] *[[Software engineering]] *[[List of software engineering topics]] *[[Human-Machine Interface]] *[[Ergonomics]] *[[GUI Testing]] *[[Inductive reasoning aptitude]] *[[Ajax (programming)]] *[[Rich Internet Applications]] == External links == *[http://www.guidebookgallery.org/ Marcin Wichary's GUIdebook], Graphical User Interface gallery: over 5500 screenshots of UI, application and icon history *[http://www.sitepoint.com/article/real-history-gui The Real History of the GUI], a very interesting article by Mike Tuck *[http://arstechnica.com/articles/paedia/gui.ars A History of the GUI], by Jeremy Reimer of [[Ars Technica]] *[http://linux.oneandoneis2.org/LNW.htm Linux is Not Windows] points out the important design differences which lead to WIMP and CLI (but lacks impartiality) [[Category:User interface]] [[Category:Graphical user interface| ]] [[Category:Software architecture]] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[bs:GUI]] [[cs:GUI]] [[da:Grafisk brugerflade]] [[de:Grafische Benutzeroberfläche]] [[et:GUI]] [[es:Interfaz gráfica de usuario]] [[fr:Environnement graphique]] [[ko:GUI]] [[hr:Grafičko korisničko sučelje]] [[it:Interfaccia grafica]] [[hu:Grafikus felhasználói felület]] [[nl:Grafische gebruikersinterface]] [[nds:Böverflach]] [[ja:グラフィカルユーザインターフェース]] [[no:Grafisk brukergrensesnitt]] [[pl:Interfejs graficzny]] [[pt:Interface gráfica]] [[ru:Графический интерфейс пользователя]] [[sk:GUI]] [[sl:Grafični uporabniški vmesnik]] [[fi:Graafinen käyttöliittymä]] [[sv:Grafiskt användargränssnitt]] [[th:ส่วนประสานงานผู้ใช้แบบกราฟิกส์]] [[vi:GUI]] [[uk:Графічний інтерфейс користувача]] [[zh:图形用户界面]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>George Hamilton Gordon Aberdeen</title> <id>12294</id> <revision> <id>15909994</id> <timestamp>2003-05-25T19:26:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Camembert</username> <id>3113</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gamete</title> <id>12295</id> <revision> <id>40917112</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T21:47:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Haza-w</username> <id>445993</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>etymology</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gametes''', from the [[ancient Greek]] ''γαμετης'' (spouse), are the specialized [[germ cell]]s that come together during [[fertilization]] (conception) in [[organism]]s that reproduce [[sexual reproduction|sexually]]. The creation of gametes is called [[gametogenesis]], in which [[gametocyte]]s divide by [[meiosis]] into various gametes. In those species that produce two morphologically distinct types of gametes, and in which a particular individual produces only one type; &quot;[[female]]s&quot; of the species produce the larger gamete called an '''[[ovum]]''' (or egg) and &quot;[[male]]s&quot; produce the smaller gamete termed (in animals) a '''[[spermatozoon]]''' (or sperm cell). The equivalent &quot;male&quot; structure in higher plants is called a [[pollen|pollen grain]]. Organs that produce gametes are called [[gonad]]s in [[animal]]s, and [[archegonium|archegonia]] or [[antheridium|antheridia]] in [[plant]]s. Gametes are '''[[haploid]]''' cells; that is, they contain one complete set of [[chromosome]]s (the actual number varies from species to species). When two gametes unite (typically in animals, involving a sperm and an egg), they form a ''[[zygote]]'' &amp;mdash; a cell having two complete sets of chromosomes and therefore '''[[diploid]]'''. The zygote cell receives one set of chromosomes from each of the two gametes involved in the union. After fusion of the two gamete [[cell nucleus|nuclei]], and after multiple [[cell division]]s and [[cellular differentiation]], a zygote [[developmental biology|develops]], first into an [[embryo]], and ultimately into a mature individual capable of producing gametes. Gametes from a mature diploid individual will be produced in the gonadal tissue through '''[[meiosis]]'''&amp;mdash;a process of cellular division that reduces the number of sets of chromosomes from two to one (i.e., produces haploid gametes). The diploid [[somatic cell]]s of an individual will contain one copy of the chromosome set from the sperm and one copy of the chromosome set from the egg&amp;mdash;that is, the cells of the offspring will have genes expressing characteristics of both the ''father'' and the ''mother''. A gamete's chromosomes are not exact duplicates of either of the sets of chromosomes carried in the somatic cells of the individual that produced the gametes. They can be ''hybrids'' produced through '''[[Chromosomal crossover|crossover]]''' (a form of [[genetic recombination]]) of chromosomes, something that takes place in meiosis. This hybridization has a random element, and the chromosomes tend to be a little different in every gamete that an individual produces. This recombination and the fact that the two chromosome sets ultimately have come from either a grandmother or a grandfather on each parental side account for the [[genetics|genetic]] dissimilarity of [[Family|sibling]]s. ==Gamete size and evolution== '''Isogamy''' occurs when gametes from both sexes are the same size. '''Anisogamy''' or '''heterogamy''' is the condition wherein females and males produce [[gamete]]s of different sizes. Isogamy is considered to be the ancestral condition, the evolution of gametes of unequal size is a current area of evolutionary research. ==Reference== *Randerson, J.P., and Hurst, L.D. 2001. The uncertain evolution of the sexes. ''Trends in Ecology &amp; Evolution'' 16(10):571-579 ==External links== *[http://www.thedoctorslounge.net/fertilounge/articles/gametogenesis/index.htm Gametogenesis (spermatogenesis, oogenesis) &amp; fertilization] [[Category:Classical genetics]] [[Category:Germ cells]] [[Category:Evolution]] [[Category:Reproductive system]] [[da:Gamet]] [[de:Gamet]] [[es:Gameto]] [[fr:Gamète]] [[lt:Gameta]] [[mk:Гамета]] [[nl:Gameet]] [[ja:配偶子]] [[pl:Gameta]] [[ru:Гаметы]] [[sv:Könscell]] [[he:תא רבייה]] [[zh:生殖细胞]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of German proverbs</title> <id>12296</id> <revision> <id>15909996</id> <timestamp>2004-12-24T14:29:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BrokenSegue</username> <id>101451</id> </contributor> <comment>made a redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Wikiquote:German proverbs]].</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Godiva programming language</title> <id>12298</id> <revision> <id>15909997</id> <timestamp>2005-04-18T14:24:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Korath</username> <id>26939</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rv - still a stub</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Godiva''' ('''GO'''al-'''DI'''rected [[Java programming language|ja'''VA''']]) is an extension to the [[programming language]] supporting [[goal-directed evaluation]] of expressions. ==External links == * [http://www.cs.nmsu.edu/~jeffery/godiva/ Official website] [[Category:Programming languages]] [[Category:Java programming language family]] {{compu-lang-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gary Kasparov</title> <id>12299</id> <revision> <id>15909998</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Garry Kasparov]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>George R. R. Martin</title> <id>12300</id> <revision> <id>41319278</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T15:14:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brendan Moody</username> <id>245620</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Themes */ begin process of adding references</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:George_R._R._Martin_2005.JPG|thumb|200px|George R. R. Martin at [[Worldcon]] [[2005]] in [[Glasgow]]]] [[Image:George R. R. Martin.jpg|thumb|200px|George R. R. Martin, circa 1986]] '''George Raymond Richard Martin''' (sometimes called '''GRRM''' by fans; born [[September 20]], [[1948]] in [[Bayonne, New Jersey]]) is an [[United States|American]] writer of [[science fiction]] and [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]], and also a screenwriter and producer. He has been an instructor in [[journalism]] (in which he holds a [[master's degree]]) and a [[chess]] tournament director. Martin was a prolific author
14561</id> <revision> <id>42094329</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:08:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dismas</username> <id>152983</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>US -&gt; U.S. per MoS#Acronyms and abbreviations</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Irish diaspora''' consists of [[Ireland|Irish]] [[emigrants]] and their descendants in [[Country|countries]] such as the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[South Africa]] and states of the [[Caribbean]] and continental [[Europe]]. The [[diaspora]], maximally interpreted, contains over 80 million people, which is over fourteen times the population of the island of Ireland itself (5.6 million in 2002). There are also large [[Irish ethnicity|Irish]] communities in every [[EU]] member state as well as [[Japan]], [[Argentina]] and [[Brazil]]. The diaspora was caused by a number of factors, including [[politics|political]] and [[penal laws|religious]] oppression, joblessness, and [[An Gorta Mór|hunger]] in a sometimes harsh land. The term Irish diaspora is open to many interpretations. One, preferred by the [[Dáil Éireann |government of Ireland]], is defined in legal terms: the Irish diaspora are those of Irish nationality habitually resident outside of the island of Ireland. This includes Irish citizens who have emigrated abroad, and their children, who are Irish citizens by descent under Irish law. It also includes their grandchildren in cases where the grandchildren were registered as Irish citizens in the Foreign Births Register held in every Irish diplomatic mission. Under this legal definition, the Irish diaspora is considerably smaller than in the popular imagination - some 3.0 million persons, of whom 1.2 million are Irish-born emigrants. This is still an extraordinarily large ratio for any nation. However, to general understanding, the Irish diaspora is not limited by citizenship status, leading to an estimated (and fluctuating) membership of 80 million persons - the second and more emotive definition. The Irish Government acknowledged this interpretation - although it did not acknowledge any legal obligations to it - when Article 2 of Bunreacht na hÉireann (Constitution of Ireland) was amended in 1998 to read ''&quot;[f]urthermore, the Irish nation cherishes its special affinity with people of Irish ancestry living abroad who share its cultural identity and heritage.&quot;'' Added to this are the significant number of &quot;[[Scotch-Irish]]&quot; or, more properly, [[Scots-Irish]] or [[Ulster-Scots]]. This was demonstrated in [[2002]] when a group of Argentineans with Irish great-grandparents attempted to register themselves as Irish citizens. Their applications were rejected because the right to register as an Irish citizen terminates at the third generation. This contrasts with citizenship law in Italy, Germany, Israel, Japan and other countries which make no legal reference to cherishing special affinities with their diasporas but which nonetheless permit legal avenues through which members of the diaspora can register as citizens. The diaspora to America was immortalized in the words of many songs including the famous Irish [[ballad]], ''&quot;The Green Fields of America&quot;'': :''So pack up your sea-stores, consider no longer'', :''Ten dollars a week is not very bad pay'', :''With no taxes or tithes to devour up your wages'', :''When you're on the green fields of America''. ==Britain== {{main|Irish community in Britain}} As late as the early 1990s, the Irish-born in [[Britain]] were still viewed with mixed feelings by a small and very conservative minority, due in part to the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]]'s 20-year bombing campaign on mainland Britain starting in the early 1970s. The Irish have traditionally been involved in the building trade, following an influx of Irish workers, or [[navvies]], who built the canal, road and rail networks in the 19th century. Since the 1950s and 1960s in particular, the Irish have become assimilated into the indigenous population. There are now well in excess of one million Irish born residents, with some estimates putting the total Irish diaspora in Britain at as much as 20 percent of the population, or [[millions|12 million]]. This is largely due to the flow of immigrants from Ireland during the many famines there and particularly 'The Great Famine' of 1845 - 1850. Immigration continued into the next century, when the numbers of immigrants during the 1950's and 1960's began to increase, many settling in the larger cities and towns of Britain. [[London]] once more holds an official [[St. Patrick's Day]] which had previously been cancelled in the 1970s because of terrorist activity. ==Europe== Irish links with the continent go back many centuries. During the early Middle Ages, many Irish religious went abroad to preach and found monasteries. [[Saint Brieuc]] founded the city that bears his name in [[Brittany]], and [[Columbanus|Saint Colmán]] founded the great monastery of [[Bobbio]] in [[northern Italy]]. During the [[Counter-Reformation]], Irish religious and political links with Europe became stronger. [[Louvain]] in Belgium grew into an important centre of learning for Irish priests. The [[Flight of the Earls]] in 1607 led much of the Gaelic nobility to flee the country, and after the wars of the 17th century many others fled to Spain, France, Austria, and other Catholic lands. The lords and their retainers and supporters joined the armies of these countries, and were known as the [[Flight of the Wild Geese|Wild Geese]]. Some of the lords and and their descendents rose to high ranks in their adoptive countries, such as the French royalist [[Patrice MacMahon, duc de Magenta|Patrice de MacMahon]], who became [[president of France]]. During the 20th century, certain Irish intellectuals made their homes in continental Europe, particularly [[James Joyce]], and later [[Samuel Beckett]] (who became a courier for the [[French Resistance]]). [[Eoin O'Duffy]] led a brigade of 700 Irish volunteers to fight for [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] during the [[Spanish Civil War]]. [[William Joyce]] became an English-language propagandist for the [[Third Reich]], known colloquially as [[Lord Haw-Haw]]. ==United States== {{main|Irish Americans}} The classic image of an Irish [[immigrant]] is led occasionally by racist and anti-[[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] stereotypes. In modern times in the [[United States|U.S.]], the Irish are perceived as hard workers. Most notably they are associated with the positions of [[policeman]], fireman, Catholic Church leaders and politicians in the larger Eastern-Seaboard metropolitan areas. [[Irish American]]s number over 44 million, making them the second largest ethnic group in the U.S., after [[German American]]s. The largest Irish American communities are in [[New York]], [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] and [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]. [[New York, New York]] and [[Savannah, Georgia]] hold the first- and second-largest [[Saint Patrick's Day|Patrick's Day]] parades in the [[USA]], respectively. At state level, [[California]] has the largest number of Irish Americans. In percentage terms, Boston is the most [[Irish people|Irish]] city in the U.S., and Massachusetts the most Irish state. Before the [[Great Famine|Potato Famines]] in Ireland, there had been the [[Penal Laws]]. Under these laws, [[non-Conformists]] or non-[[Anglican|Anglicans]] had certain civil rights suppressed by the [[British Crown]], resulting in the massive migration of several hundred thousand people from Ireland - particularly from the province of [[Ulster]]. Because a majority of these were Presbyterians, and many of those had settled in Ulster from Scotland, they became known as the &quot;[[Scotch-Irish]]&quot; in America in a steady stream of [[emigration]] throughout the [[18th Century]]. The more correct term is [[Scots-Irish]] or [[Ulster-Scots]] though. Many settled in the mountains of south-east of the [[USA]] and, due to their affiliation with [[King William III]] of Orange, or &quot;King Billy&quot;, they became known as &quot;Billy-Boys of the Hills&quot; - later [[Hillbillies]]. Some of them wore red or orange neck-scarves to signify that they were signaturees of Ulster's [[Solemn League and Covenant]] and were also known as [[Rednecks]]. There has been some anti-[[Protestant]] sentiment against them, though they are generally less vocal about their [[Irish heritage]], having assimilated more fully into American society. There is some resurgance in interest. [[Dolly Parton]], for example, has recently discovered her Ulster-Scots roots, and [[John Wayne]] was quite proud of his &quot;[[Scotch-Irish]]&quot; heritage. However, several tens of thousands of people also left for other places during this time, including Africa, New Zealand, Canada and Britain. ==Canada== {{main|Irish Canadians}}. ''See also [[Irish Quebecers]], [[Irish Newfoundlanders]].'' ==Latin America== In the 17th century, [[Oliver Cromwell]] sent many Irish rebels into slavery in [[Caribbean]] [[tobacco]] plantations. Many of the [[Flight of the Wild Geese|Wild Geese]] who had gone to [[Spain]] continued on to its colonies in [[South America]]. In the 1820's they helped liberate the continent. [[Bernardo O'Higgins]] was the first president of [[Chile]]. ===Argentina=== In the late 19th century, about 50,000 Irish immigrants were in [[Argentina]]. Distinct Irish communities existed, including Irish schools and a news paper, ''The Southern Cross'', until the Peron era in the 1950s. In the 1880's the Argentine government sought to promote immigration from Ireland and sent two agents to Ireland to recruit young and able-bodied migrants. The agents, however, promised more than they could deliver and when 2,000 Irish arrived aboard the ''City of Dresden'' ship they were plunged
ded fund]] arbitrage - Exchange Traded Funds allow authorized participants to exchange back and forth between shares in underlying securities held by the fund and shares in the fund itself, rather than allowing the buying and selling of shares in the ETF directly with the fund sponsor. ETFs trade in the open market, with prices set by market demand. An ETF may trade at a premium or discount to the value of the underlying assets. When a significant enough premium appears, an arbitrageur will buy the underlying securities, convert them to shares in the ETF, and sell them in the open market. When a discount appears, an abitrageur will do the reverse. In this way, the arbitrageur makes a low-risk profit, while fulfilling a useful function in the ETF marketplace by keeping ETF prices in line with their undelying value. ==Price convergence== Arbitrage has the effect of causing prices in different markets to converge. As a result of arbitrage, the currency [[exchange rate]]s, the price of [[commodities]], and the price of securities in different markets tend to converge to the same prices, in all markets, in each category. The speed at which prices converge is a measure of market efficiency. Arbitrage tends to reduce [[price discrimination]] by encouraging people to buy an item where the price is low and resell it where the price is high, as long as the buyers are not prohibited from reselling and the transactions cost of buying, holding and reselling are small relative to the difference in prices in the different markets. Arbitrage moves different currencies toward [[purchasing power parity]]. As an example, assume that a car purchased in [[United States of America|America]] is cheaper than the same car in Canada. Canadians would buy their cars across the border to exploit the arbitrage condition. At the same time, Americans would buy US cars, transport them across the border, and sell them in Canada. Canadians would have to buy American Dollars to buy the cars, and Americans would have to sell the Canadian dollars they received in exchange for the exported cars. Both actions would increase demand for US Dollars, and supply of Canadian Dollars, and as a result, there would be an appreciation of the US Dollar. Eventually, if unchecked, this would make US cars more expensive for all buyers, and Canadian cars cheaper, until there is no longer an incentive to buy cars in the US and sell them in Canada. More generally, international arbitrage opportunities in [[commodity|commodities]], goods, [[security|securities]] and [[currency|currencies]], on a grand scale, tend to change [[exchange rate]]s until the [[purchasing power]] is equal. In reality, of course, one must consider taxes and the costs of travelling back and forth between the US and Canada. Also, the features built into the cars sold in the US are not exactly the same as the features built into the cars for sale in Canada, due, among other things, to the different emissions and other auto regulations in the two countries. In addition, our example assumes that no duties have to be paid on importing or exporting cars from the USA to Canada. Similarly, most [[asset]]s exhibit (small) differences between countries, and [[transaction cost]]s, taxes, and other costs provide an impediment to this kind of arbitrage. Similarly, arbitrage affects the difference in interest rates paid on government bonds, issued by the various countries, given the expected depreciations in the currencies, relative to each other (see [[Interest Rate Parity]]). == Risks == Arbitrage transactions in modern securities markets involve fairly low risks. Generally it is impossible to close two or three transactions at the same instant; therefore, there is the possibility that when one part of the deal is closed, a quick shift in prices makes it impossible to close the other at a profitable price. There is also counter-party risk, that the other party to one of the deals fails to deliver as agreed; though unlikely, this hazard is serious because of the large quantities one must trade in order to make a profit on small price differences. These risks become magnified when [[Leverage (finance)|leverage]] or borrowed money is used. Another risk occurs if the items being bought and sold are not identical and the arbitrage is conducted under the assumption that the prices of the items are correlated or predictable. In the extreme case this is risk arbitrage, described below. In comparison to the classical quick arbitrage transaction, such an operation can produce disastrous losses. In the [[1980s]], [[risk arbitrage]] became common. In this form of [[speculation]], one trades a security that is clearly undervalued or overvalued, when it is seen that the wrong valuation is about to be corrected by events. The standard example is the stock of a company, undervalued in the stock market, which is about to be the object of a takeover bid; the price of the takeover will more truly reflect the value of the company, giving a large profit to those who bought at the current price&amp;mdash;if the merger goes through as predicted. Traditionally, arbitrage transactions in the securities markets involve high speed and low risk. At some moment a price difference exists, and the problem is to execute two or three balancing transactions while the difference persists (that is, before the other arbitrageurs act). When the transaction involves a delay of weeks or months, as above, it may entail considerable risk if borrowed money is used to magnify the reward through leverage. One way of reducing the risk is through the illegal use of inside information, and in fact risk arbitrage with regard to [[leveraged buyout]]s was associated with some of the famous financial scandals of the 1980s such as those involving [[Michael Milken]] and [[Ivan Boesky]]. === Merger arbitrage === Also called [[risk arbitrage]], merger arbitrage generally consists of buying the stock of a company that is the target of a [[takeover]] while shorting the stock of the acquiring company. Usually the market price of the target company is less than the price offered by the acquiring company. The spread between these two prices depends mainly on the probability and the timing of the takeover being completed. The bet in a merger arbitrage is that such a spread will eventually be zero, if and when the takeover is completed. === Convertible bond arbitrage === A [[convertible bond]] is a [[bond (finance)|bond]] that an investor can return to the issuing company in exchange for a predetermined number of shares in the company. A convertible bond can be thought of as a [[corporate bond]] with a stock [[call option]] attached to it. The price of a convertible bond is sensitive to three major factors: *''[[interest rate]]''. When rates move higher, the price of a bond tends to move lower. *''stock price''. When the price of the stock the bond is convertible into moves higher, the price of the bond tends to rise. *''[[credit spread]]''. If the creditworthiness of the issuer deteriorates (e.g. [[credit rating agency|rating]] downgrade) and its credit spread widens, the bond price tends to move lower. Given the complexity of the calculations involved and the convoluted structure that a convertible bond can have, an arbitrageur often relies on sophisticated quantitative models in order to identify bonds that are trading cheap versus their theoretical value. Convertible arbitrage consists of buying a convertible bond and hedging two of the three factors in order to gain exposure to the third factor at a very attractive price. For instance an arbitrageur would first buy a convertible bond, then sell [[fixed income]] [[securities]] or [[interest rate future]]s (to hedge the interest rate exposure) and buy some [[credit default swap|credit protection]] (to hedge the risk of credit deterioration). Eventually what he'd be left with is something similar to a call option on the underlying stock, acquired at a very low price. He could then make money either selling some of the more expensive options that are openly traded in the market or [[delta hedging]] his exposure to the underlying shares. === Depositary receipts === A [[depositary receipt]] is a security that is offered as a &quot;tracking stock&quot; on another foreign market. For instance a [[China|Chinese]] company wishing to raise more money may issue a depository receipt on the [[New York Stock Exchange]], as the amount of capital on the local exchanges is limited. These securities, known as ADRs or GDRs depending on where they are issued, are typically considered &quot;foreign&quot; and therefore trade at a lower value when first released. However, they are exchangeable into the original security (known as [[fungible|fungibility]]) and actually have the same value. In this case there is a spread between the perceived value and real value, which can be extracted. Since the ADR is trading at a value lower than what it is worth, one can purchase the ADR and expect to make money as its value converges on the original. However there is a chance that the original stock will fall in value too, so by shorting it you can hedge that risk. ===Regulatory arbitrage=== Regulatory arbitrage is where a regulated institution takes advantage of the difference between its real (or economic) [[risk]] and the regulatory position. For example, if a bank, operating under the [[Basel I]] accord, has to hold 8% capital against [[default risk]], but the real risk of default is lower, it is profitable to [[Securitization|securitise]] the loan, removing the low risk loan from its portfolio. On the other hand, if the real risk is higher than the regulatory risk then it is profitable to make that loan and hold on to it, provided it is priced appropriately. This process can increase the overall riskiness of institutions under a risk insensitive regulatory regime, as described by [[Alan Greenspan]] in his [[October]] [[
orchestra, Op.88 (sketches, 1932-34, elaborated by Anthony Payne 1972-1997) *''Piano Concerto'', Op.90 (sketches, elaborated by Robert Walker) ===Works for chorus and orchestra (Cantatas, Oratorios etc.)=== *''The Black Knight'', Symphony/Cantata for chorus and orchestra, Op.25 (1889-92) *''From the Bavarian Highlands'' for chorus and orchestra, Op.27 (1895/1896) *''The Light of Life (Lux Christi)'', Oratorio for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op.29 (1896) *''The Banner of St. George'', Ballad for chorus and orchestra, Op.33 (1897) *''Te Deum &amp; Benedictus'' for chorus and orchestra, Op.34 (1897) *''Caractacus'', Cantata for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op.35 (1897/98) *''[[The Dream of Gerontius]]'', Oratorio for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op.38 (1899/1900) *''Coronation Ode'' for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op.44 (1901/02, rev. 1911) *''[[The Apostles (Elgar)|The Apostles]]'', Oratorio for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op.49 (1902/03) *''The Kingdom'', Oratorio for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op.51 (1901-06) *''The Crown of India'', Imperial Masque for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op.66 (1911/12) *''[[The Music Makers]]'', Ode for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op.69 (1912) *''The Spirit of England'' for soprano/tenor, chorus and orchestra, Op.80 (1915-17) *''The Smoking Cantata'' for baritone soloist and orchestra. Written in 1919, this piece was probably never intended to be performed and was given the absurd opus number of 1001. Its duration is less than a minute. ===Chamber Music=== *Sonata for violin and piano, Op.82 (1918) *String Quartet in E minor, Op.83 (1918) *Piano Quintet in A minor, Op.84 (1918/19) *''Soliloquy'' for solo oboe (1930) ===Works for Solo Piano=== *In Smyrna (1905) ==See also== * [[Dorabella Cipher]] == References and Bibliography == *Michael Kennedy &amp;ndash; ''Portrait of Elgar'' 3rd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987) *Jerrold Northrop Moore &amp;ndash; ''Edward Elgar: a creative life'' (Oxford: OUP, 1984) *William H. Reed &amp;ndash; ''Elgar as I knew him'' (Oxford: OUP, 1989) *Percy Young &amp;ndash; ''Alice Elgar: enigma of a Victorian lady'' (London: Dobson, 1978) *Percy Young &amp;ndash; ''Elgar OM: a study of a musician'' 2nd ed. (London: Purnell, 1973) *James Hamilton-Patterson &amp;ndash; ''Gerontius'' (Soho Press, 1989) is a historical novel that gives an imagined account of a cruise to South America that Elgar took in 1923. ==External links== *[http://www.elgar.org/ The Elgar Society and The Elgar Foundation] *[http://www.elgar.org/3chronol.htm A detailed chronology of Elgar's works with information and articles to all works, by The Elgar Society] *[http://www.geocities.com/hansenk69/elgarpage.html Excellent Page of his life, recordings &amp; more] {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[Master of the Queen's Music|Master of the King's Musick]] | before=[[Walter Parratt]] | after=[[Henry Walford Davies]] | years=1924&amp;ndash;1934 }} {{succession box | title=[[London Symphony Orchestra|Principal Conductors, London Symphony Orchestra]] | before=[[Hans Richter (conductor)|Hans Richter]] | years=1911&amp;ndash;1912 | after=[[Arthur Nikisch]] }} {{end box}} [[Category:1857 births|Elgar, Edward]] [[Category:1934 deaths|Elgar, Edward]] [[Category:20th century classical composers|Elgar, Edward]] [[Category:Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom|Elgar, Edward, 1st Baronet]] [[Category:Natives of Worcestershire|Elgar, Edward]] [[Category:Romantic composers|Elgar, Edward]] [[Category:English composers|Elgar, Edward]] [[Category:Members of the Order of Merit|Elgar, Edward]] [[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order|Elgar, Edward]] [[da:Edward Elgar]] [[de:Edward Elgar]] [[et:Edward Elgar]] [[es:Edward Elgar]] [[eo:Edward ELGAR]] [[fr:Edward Elgar]] [[hu:Edward Elgar]] [[nl:Edward Elgar]] [[ja:エドワード・エルガー]] [[no:Edward Elgar]] [[pl:Edward Elgar]] [[pt:Edward Elgar]] [[sl:Edward Elgar]] [[fi:Edward Elgar]] [[sv:Edward Elgar]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>European Investment Fund</title> <id>10086</id> <revision> <id>41895389</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:57:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.6.106.96</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the European Union}} The '''European Investment Fund''', established in [[1994]], is a [[European Union]] agency for the provision of finance to [[Small and Medium-sized Enterprise|SME]]s (small and medium-sized enterprises) headquartered in [[Luxembourg]]. It does not lend money to SMEs directly; rather it provides finance through private banks. Its main operations are in the areas of [[venture capital]] and guaranteeing loans. Its [[shareholder]]s are: the [[European Investment Bank]] (59.15%); the [[European Communities]], represented by the [[European Commission]] (30.00%); and 34 privately-owned EU financial institutions (10.85%). {{EU-stub}} ==See also== * [[Institutions of the European Union]] ==Sources== * http://www.fei.eu.int/Attachments/pub_corporate/eif_ar2004_en.pdf (1.3Mb) [[Category:Economy of the European Union|European Investment Fund]] [[cs:Evropský investiční fond]] [[es:Fondo Europeo de Inversiones]] [[mk:Европски инвестициски фонд]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>European Currency Unit</title> <id>10087</id> <revision> <id>38800702</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T19:15:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tsca.bot</username> <id>601940</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot adding: pl</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''European Currency Unit''' ('''₠'''; '''ECU''') was a basket of the currencies of the [[European Community]] member states, used as the unit of account of the European Community before being replaced by the [[euro]]. The [[European Exchange Rate Mechanism]] attempted to minimize fluctuations between member state currencies and the ECU. The ECU was also used in some international financial transactions. The ECU was conceived on [[13 March]], [[1979]] as an internal accounting unit. It had the [[ISO 4217|ISO 4217 currency code]] [[XEU]]. On [[January 1]] [[1999]], the [[euro]] (with the code [[Euro|EUR]]) replaced the ECU, at the value EUR 1 = XEU 1. Unlike the ECU, the euro is a real [[currency]], although not all member states participate (for details on Euro membership see [[Eurozone]]). Until [[1999]], all member states that participated in the ERM, also participated in the ECU. Due to the ECU being used in some international financial transactions, there was a concern that foreign courts might not recognize the euro as the legal successor to the ECU. This was unlikely to be a problem, since it is a generally accepted principle of [[private international law]] that states determine their currencies, and that therefore states would accept the [[European Union]] legislation to that effect. However, for abundant caution, several foreign jurisdictions adopted legislation to ensure a smooth transition. Of particular importance here were the [[U.S.]] states of [[Illinois]] and [[New York]], under whose laws a large proportion of international financial contracts are made. Both these states passed legislation to ensure that the euro was recognized as successor to the ECU. Although the acronym ECU is formed from [[English language|English]] words, at the same time the word ''ecu'' was a reference to an ancient [[France|French]] coin of the same name. That was one (perhaps the main) reason that a new name was devised for its successor currency, ''euro'', which was felt to not favour any single language. The currency's symbol, ₠ ([[Unicode|U]]+20A0), comprises an interlaced C and E, which are the initial letters of the phrase '[[European Community]]' in many [[European languages]]. However, this symbol was not widely used: few systems at the time could render it and in any case banks preferred (as with all currencies) to use the ISO code [[XEU]]. {| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; align=center border=1 cellpadding=3 |+ '''National currency weights to the ECU value''' |- ! Currency ! align=left | 13.03.1979-&lt;br&gt;16.09.1984 ! align=left | 17.09.1984-&lt;br&gt;21.09.1989 ! align=left | 21.09.1989-&lt;br&gt;31.12.1999 |- | align=left | [[Belgian Franc|BEF]] || 9.64% || 8.57% || 8.183% |- | align=left | [[Deutsche Mark|DEM]] || 32.98%|| 32.08% || 31.955% |- | align=left | [[Danish Krone|DKK]] || 3.06% || 2.69% || 2.653% |- | align=left | [[Spanish Peseta|ESP]] || - || - || 4.138% |- | align=left | [[French Franc|FRF]] || 19.83% || 19.06%|| 20.316% |- | align=left | [[Pound Sterling|GBP]] || 13.34% || 14.98%|| 12.452% |- | align=left | [[Drachma|GRD]] || - || 1.31% || 0.437% |- | align=left | [[Irish Pound|IEP]] || 1.15% || 1.20% || 1.086% |- | align=left | [[Italian Lira|ITL]] || 9.49% || 9.98% || 7.840% |- | align=left | [[Luxembourg Franc|LUF]] || - || - || 0.322% |- | align=left | [[Guilder|NLG]] || 10.51% || 10.13% || 9.98% |- | align=left | [[Portuguese escudo|PTE]] || - || - || 0.695% |} == See also == * [[Asian Currency Unit]] * [[European Monetary System]] [[Category:Currencies of the Eurozone]] [[Category:Currency]] [[cs:ECU]] [[da:European Currency Unit]] [[de:European Currency Unit]] [[es:ECU]] [[fr:European Currency Unit]] [[hu:Európai Valutaegység]] [[nl:Europese rekeneenheid]] [[no:ECU]] [[pl:ECU]] [[fi:ECU]] [[sv:European Currency Unit]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>East Caribbean dollar</title> <id>10088</id> <revision> <id>40062620</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T21:33:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Thomas Blomberg</username> <id>407237</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:One_east_caribbean_dollar.gif|right|1 East Caribbean Dollar coin]] The '''East Caribbean dollar''' ([[currency code]] '''X
specified (when it is one of several possible, or zero), write it as a Roman numeral (or 0) in parentheses. # Name cation then anion as separate words (if applicable, as in last example) Examples: : [NiCl&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;2-&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;rarr; tetrachloronickelate(II) ion : [CuNH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;Cl&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;3-&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;rarr; amminepentachlorocuprate(II) ion : [Cd(en)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(CN)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;] &amp;rarr; dicyanobis(ethylenediamine)cadmium(II) : [Co(NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;Cl]SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; pentaamminechlorocobalt(III) sulfate While the chemistry of the [[transition metal]]s is awash with coordination complexes, it should be noted that [[lanthanide]]s,. [[actinide]]s, s-block metals ([[alkali metals]] and [[alkaline earth metals]]) and p-block metals (such as [[tin]], [[bismuth]] and [[lead]]) also form a wide range of complexes. To study the activity of complexes in solution, it is possible to record pH spectra which shows the interaction between complexing agent and central ion as a function of the degree of dissociation of their functional groups. == Receptor-ligand complexes == [[Receptor (biochemistry)|Receptors]] are [[protein]]s that bind small [[ligands]]. A typical example of a receptor-ligand complex is a [[neurotransmitter]] bound to a [[neurotransmitter receptor]] in the [[cell membrane]] of the [[synapse]]. The dissociation constant ''K''&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt; is used as an indicator of the [[electron affinity]] of the ligand to the receptor. == See also == * [[Inclusion compound]]s * [[Organometallics]] a special class of coordination compounds where organic fragements are boned to a metal. == References== Zumdahl, Steven S. Chemical Principles, Fifth Edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. 943-946, 957. http://www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~edudev/LabTutorials/naming_coord_comp.html == External links == *[http://www.theoprax-research.com/pool.html Index of pH-spectra]/l *[http://www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~edudev/LabTutorials/naming_coord_comp.html] [[Category:Chemical compounds]] [[de:Komplexchemie]] [[es:Complejo metálico]] [[fr:Complexe (chimie)]] [[ja:錯体]] [[pl:Związek kompleksowy]] [[sr:Комплексно једињење]] [[nl:Coördinatiechemie]] [[zh:配位化合物]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coleco</title> <id>7305</id> <revision> <id>42159119</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:17:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.37.19.65</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Colecologo.png|200px|right]]'''Coleco''' was a company founded in [[1932]] by [[Maurice Greenberg (Coleco founder)|Maurice Greenberg]] as &quot;Connecticut Leather Company&quot; to sell leather supplies to shoemakers. This led to a business in leather craft kits in the [[1950s]] which led to the sale of plastic wading pools in the [[1960s]]. The leather part of the business was then sold off. The company is best known for producing the video game consoles [[Coleco Telstar]] and [[Colecovision]]. Under CEO [[Arnold Greenberg]], the company entered the [[video game console]] business with the Telstar in [[1975]]. Dozens of companies were introducing game systems that year after [[Atari]]'s successful [[Pong]] console. Nearly all of these new games were based on [[General Instrument]]'s &quot;Pong-on-a-chip&quot;. However, General Instrument had underestimated demand, and there were severe shortages; but Coleco had been one of the first to place their order, and as a result was one of the only companies to receive their full order. Though dedicated game consoles did not last long on the market, thanks to their early order Coleco was able to [[breakeven|break even]]. While the dedicated game console market was short lived, Coleco continued to do well in electronics. They transitioned next into handheld electronic games, a market popularized by [[Mattel]]. Coleco produced two very popular lines of games, the &quot;head to head&quot; series of two player sports games, and the mini-arcade series of licensed video arcade titles. Coleco returned to the video game console market in [[1982]] with the launch of the [[Colecovision]]. While the system was quite popular, Coleco hedged their bet on videogames by introducing a line of game cartridges for the [[Atari 2600]] and [[Mattel Intellivision]]. As if that wasn't enough, they even went so far as to introduce the [[Coleco Gemini]], a clone of the popular Atari 2600. When the video game business began to implode in 1983, it seemed clear that video games were being replaced by home computers. So Coleco made the transition by introducing the [[Coleco Adam|Coleco Adam]] home computer. Unfortunately this turned out to be a huge miscalculation. The Adam flopped due to the fact that early Adams were often unreliable. By the end of 1984 Coleco would completely withdraw from electronics as they teetered on the edge of bankruptcy. Also in 1983, Coleco released the [[Cabbage Patch Kids]] series of dolls which were wildly successful. But the staggering success of the dolls wasn't enough to stem the tide of red ink that had begun with the launch of the Adam computer, and the company finally went broke. In [[1989]], the assets of Coleco were purchased by [[Hasbro]]. ==References in popular media== *One episode of [[The Simpsons]] has ever unsuccessful salesman [[List of recurring characters from The Simpsons#Gil|Gil]] trying to unload all his old Coleco Adams on [[Springfield Elementary School]], before exclaiming &quot;''Now, lets talk rust-proofing. The Coleco will rust up on you like that! Shut up, Gil, close the deal!''&quot;. *In the song 'Devil Without a Cause' by [[Kid Rock]], rapper [[Joe C]] says he has &quot;more game than Coleco.&quot; *During one episode of [[South Park]], it's mentioned that Kenny owns a Colecovision, to the puzzlement of his friends. *In the song 'Skew It on the Bar-B' by [[OutKast]], rapper [[André 3000]] says &quot;I'm sorry like Atari who's the cousin to Coleco / Vision caught a Rico, back on the street like Chico.&quot; ==External links== * [http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta4.htm Article at The Dot Eaters], a history of Coleco and the ColecoVision products [[Category:Defunct computer and video game companies]] [[Category:Defunct companies of the United States]] [[Category:Toy companies]] [[de:Coleco]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ColecoVision</title> <id>7306</id> <revision> <id>41909374</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:25:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rx StrangeLove</username> <id>199404</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/168.102.134.58|168.102.134.58]] ([[User talk:168.102.134.58|talk]]) to last version by 83.160.24.25</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Colecovision.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The ColecoVision]] The '''ColecoVision''' is [[Coleco]]'s second generation [[video game console]], released in August [[1982]]. It offered [[Arcade game|arcade]]-like graphics and controllers, and an initial catalog of 12 titles, with 10 more promised titles on the way. All told, approximately 170 titles were released on [[plug-in cartridge]]s during its lifetime. The [[game controller|controller]] was a flat joystick, two side buttons, and a number-pad, which allowed the user to put inserts for customized buttons. The majority of titles in its catalog were conversions from coin-operated arcade games. The ColecoVision introduced two new concepts to the home videogame industry - the ability to expand the hardware system, and the ability to play other video game system games. ==Background== Coleco offered an add-on module that made it compatible with the industry-leading [[Atari 2600]], giving it the largest software library of any console of its day. The module prompted legal action from Atari, but Atari was unable to stop sales of the module due to the fact that the [[Atari 2600]] could be reproduced with off the shelf parts. Coleco was also able to make and sell the [[Coleco Gemini|Gemini game system]] which was an exact clone of an Atari 2600 but with combined joystick/paddle controllers. A second module came with steering wheel and pedal controllers, for use with the games ''[[Turbo (video game)|Turbo]]'' and ''[[Destructor (video game)|Destructor]]''. The third and final module, released in the summer of 1983, expanded it into a full-fledged computer, the [[Coleco Adam]]. Coleco prototyped an expansion module to provide compatibility with the [[Intellivision|Mattel Intellivision]], but never released it. By Christmas of 1982, Coleco had sold 500,000 units, mainly on the strength of its bundled games. While [[Atari]]'s fortune had risen on the popularity of [[Space Invaders]], ColecoVision was the first console to feature the hit ''[[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]'', by [[Nintendo]]. The ColecoVision's main competitor in the next-generation console space was the arguably more advanced but less commercially successful [[Atari 5200]]. Sales quickly passed one million in early [[1983]], before the [[video game crash of 1983]]. The ColecoVision was discontinued in the spring of [[1984]]. Even with its late difficulties, the ColecoVision still sold more than six million units. Today, Coleco emulators and games are widely available as [[abandonware]] on the [[Internet]]. Although the games remain [[copyright]]ed, the holders of ColecoVision games have tended not to enforce their copyrights, in contrast to [[Intellivision]] and some [[Atari]] games. ==Games== Coleco's software approach was to go after licensed arcade games that [[Atari]] had missed and to make cartridges for the 2600 and [[Intellivision]] in addition to its own system. Realizing that Atari had firm support from [[Namco]] (creator
man National Socialism. [[Benito Mussolini]] was able to support the independent aspirations of the Austrian dictatorship until his need for German support in [[Ethiopia]] forced him into a client relationship with Berlin that began with the 1937 [[Axis Powers|Berlin-Rome Axis]]. When Chancellor Dollfuss was assassinated by the illegal [[Austrian National Socialism|Austrian Nazi party]] on [[25 July]] [[1934]] in a failed coup, the second civil war within only one year followed, lasting until August 1934. After the failed Nazi coup, many leading Austrian Nazis fled to [[Germany]] and continued to coordinate their steps from there while the remaining Austrian Nazis started to make use of terrorist attacks against the Austrian governmental institutions (causing a death toll of more than 800 between 1934 and 1938). Dollfuss' successor Schuschnigg, who followed the political course of Dollfuss, took drastic actions against the Nazis, for instance the rounding up of Nazis (but also Social Democrats) in [[internment camps]]. ==The Anschluss of 1938== ===Hitler's first moves=== [[Image:1ajansa.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Alfred Jansa was forced to retire as Chief of Staff in January 1938]] In early 1938 Hitler had consolidated his power in Germany and was ready to reach out to fulfil his long-planned expansion. After a lengthy period of pressure by Germany, Hitler met Schuschnigg on [[12 February]] [[1938]] in [[Berchtesgaden]] ([[Bavaria]]) and instructed him to lift the ban of the Austrian Nazi party, reinstate full party freedoms, release all imprisoned members of the [[Nazi]] party and let them participate in the government. Otherwise he would take military action. Schuschnigg complied with Hitler's demands and appointed [[Arthur Seyss-Inquart]], a Nazi lawyer, as [[Interior Minister]] and another Nazi, [[Edmund Glaise-Horstenau]], as Minister without Portfolio.{{ref|encarta}} Even before the February meeting, Schuschnigg was under considerable pressure from Germany. This may be seen in the demand to remove the chief of staff of the [[Austrian Army]] [[Alfred Jansa]] from his office in January 1938. Jansa and his staff had developed a scenario for Austria's defence against a German attack, a situation Hitler wanted to avoid at all costs. Schuschnigg subsequently complied with the demand.{{ref|wienerzeitung}} During the following weeks Schuschnigg realized that his newly appointed ministers were gradually working on taking over his authority. Schuschnigg tried to gather support throughout Austria and inflame [[patriotism]] among the people. For the first time since [[12 February]] [[1934]] (the time of the [[Austrian Civil War]]), socialists and communists could legally appear in public again. The [[communists]] announced their unconditional support for the Austrian government, understandable in light of Nazi pressure on Austria. The [[socialists]] demanded further concessions from Schuschnigg before they were willing to side with him. ===Schuschnigg announces a referendum=== On [[9 March]], as a last resort to preserve Austria's independence, Schuschnigg scheduled a [[plebiscite]] on the [[independence]] of Austria for [[13 March]]. To secure a large majority in the referendum, Schuschnigg set the minimum voting age at 24 in order to exclude younger voters who largely sympathized with Nazi ideology. Holding a referendum was a highly risky gamble for Schuschnigg, and on the next day it became apparent that Hitler would not simply stand by while Austria declared its independence by public vote. Hitler declared that the plebiscite would be subject to major fraud and that Germany would not accept it. In addition the German Ministry of Propaganda issued press reports that riots had broken out in Austria and that large parts of the Austrian population were calling for German troops to restore order. Schuschnigg immediately publicly replied that the reports of riots were nothing but lies—as they actually were. Hitler sent an [[ultimatum]] to [[Schuschnigg]] on [[11 March]], demanding that he hand over all power to the [[Austrian National Socialism|Austrian National Socialists]] or face an invasion. The ultimatum was set to expire at noon, but was extended by two hours. However, without waiting for an answer, Hitler had already signed the order to send troops into Austria at one o'clock, issuing it to [[Hermann Göring]] only hours later. Schuschnigg desperately sought support for Austrian independence in the hours following the [[ultimatum]], but, realizing that neither [[France]] nor the [[United Kingdom]] were willing to take steps, he resigned as Chancellor that evening. In the radio broadcast in which he announced his [[resignation]], he argued that he accepted the changes and allowed the Nazis to take over the government in order to avoid bloodshed. Meanwhile, Austrian President [[Wilhelm Miklas]] refused to appoint [[Artur Seyss-Inquart|Seyss-Inquart]] Chancellor and asked other Austrian politicians such as Michael Skubl and Sigismund Schilhawsky to assume the office. However, the Nazis were well organised. Within hours they managed to take control of many parts of Vienna, including the Ministry of Internal Affairs (controlling the Police). As Miklas continued to refuse to appoint a Nazi government and Seyss-Inquart still could not send a telegram in the name of the Austrian government demanding German troops to restore order, Hitler became furious. At about 10 pm, well after Hitler had signed and issued the order for the invasion, Göring and Hitler gave up on waiting and published a forged telegram containing a request by the Austrian Government for German troops to enter Austria. Around midnight, after nearly all critical offices and buildings had fallen into Nazi hands in Vienna and the main political party members of the old government had been arrested, Miklas finally conceded to appoint Seyss-Inquart Chancellor.{{ref|wienerzeitung_a}} ===German troops march into Austria=== &lt;!-- [[Image:Stimzettel-Anschluss.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Voting ballot from [[10 April]] [[1938]]. The ballot text reads &quot;Do you agree with the reunification of Austria with the German Empire that was enacted on [[13 March]] [[1938]], and do you vote for the party of our leader Adolf Hitler?,&quot; the large circle is labelled &quot;Yes,&quot; the smaller &quot;No.&quot;]] --&gt; [[Image:Voting-booth-Anschluss-10-April-1938.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Propaganda even in the voting booth on [[10 April]] [[1938]], with a poster instructing voters how to vote &quot;Yes&quot;.]] On the morning of [[12 March]] the 8th Army of the German [[Wehrmacht]] crossed the German-Austrian border. They did not face resistance by the [[Austrian Army]] — on the contrary, the German troops were greeted by cheering Austrians. Although the invading forces were badly organized and coordination between the units was poor, it mattered little because no fighting took place. It did, however, serve as a warning for commanders in future German military operations such as that against [[Czechoslovakia]]. Curiously, the invasion claimed its first fatality within only a few hours: the Nazi [[Heinrich Kurz von Goldstein]] died of a heart attack during the celebrations in [[Salzburg]]. Hitler's car crossed the border in the afternoon at [[Braunau]], his birthplace. In the evening, he arrived at [[Linz]] and was given an enthusiastic welcome in the city hall. The atmosphere was so intense that Göring in a telephone call that evening stated: &quot;There is unbelievable jubilation in Austria. We ourselves did not think that sympathies would be so intense.&quot; Hitler's further travel through Austria changed into a triumphal tour that climaxed in [[Vienna]], when around 200,000 Austrians gathered on the [[Heldenplatz]] (Square of Heroes) to hear Hitler proclaim the Austrian Anschluss ([http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.film.data.film/f107a.mpg Video: Hitler proclaims Austria's inclusion in the Reich (2MB)]). Hitler later commented: &quot;Certain foreign newspapers have said that we fell on Austria with brutal methods. I can only say: even in death they cannot stop lying. I have in the course of my political struggle won much love from my people, but when I crossed the former frontier (into Austria) there met me such a stream of love as I have never experienced. Not as tyrants have we come, but as liberators.&quot;{{ref|hitlerspeech}} The Anschluss was given immediate effect by legislative act on [[13 March]], subject to ratification by a plebiscite. Austria became the [[province]] of [[Ostmark]], and Seyss-Inquart was appointed Governor. The plebiscite was held on [[10 April]] and officially recorded a support of 99.73 % of the voters.{{ref|doew}} While historians concur that the result itself was not manipulated, the voting process was not free or secret. Officials were present directly beside the voting booths and received the voting ballot by hand (in contrast to a secret vote where the voting ballot is inserted into a closed box). In addition, Hitler's brutal methods to emasculate any opposition had been immediately implemented in the weeks preceding the referendum. Even before the first German soldier crossed the border, [[Heinrich Himmler]] and a few [[SS]] officers landed in Vienna to arrest prominent representatives of the First Republic such as [[Richard Schmitz]], [[Leopold Figl]], [[Friedrich Hillegeist]] and [[Franz Olah]]. During the weeks following the Anschluss (and before the plebiscite), Social Democrats, Communists, and other potential political dissenters, as well as Jews, were rounded up and either imprisoned or sent to concentration camps. Within only a few days of [[12 March]], 70,000 people had been arrested. The [[referendum]] itself was subject to large-scale [[propaganda]] and to the abrogation of the voting rights of around 400,000 people (nearly 10 % of the eligible voting population), mainly former members of left-wing parties and Jews.{{ref|doew_
|oneworld]] [[airline alliance]]. == History == ===Formation=== American Airlines developed from a conglomeration of about 82 small airlines through a series of corporate acquisitions and reorganizations: initially, the name '''American Airways''' was used as a common brand by a number of independent air carriers. These included Southern Air Transport in Texas, Southern Air Fast Express (SAFE) in the western US, Universal Aviation in the Midwest (which operated a transcontinental air/rail route in 1929), and Colonial Air Transport in the Northeast. On [[January 25]], [[1930]], American Airways was incorporated as a single company, with routes from [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[New York City|New York]] and [[Chicago, Illinois]] to [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]], and a transcontinental route from Dallas to [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. The airline operated its routes with all-metal [[Fokker Trimotor]]s and [[Ford Trimotor]]s. In 1934 American began flying [[Curtiss Condor]] biplanes fitted with sleeping berths. ===American Airlines before World War II=== In 1934, American Airways Company, in financial straits, was acquired by [[E.L. Cord]], who renamed the company &quot;American Airlines&quot;. Cord hired Texas businessman [[C. R. Smith|C.R. (Cyrus Rowlett) Smith]] to run the company. Early in its history, the company was headquartered at [[Midway Airport]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. American's innovations during this period included the introduction of [[flight attendant]]s. [[Image:American DC-3.jpg|thumb|left|250px|American played a major role in the development of the [[Douglas DC-3]], dubbed &quot;Flagship&quot; in the American fleet]] Smith worked closely with [[Donald Douglas]] to develop the [[Douglas DC-3|DC-3]], which American Airlines started flying in 1936. With the DC-3, American began to brand itself using nautical terms, calling its aircraft &quot;Flagships&quot; and establishing the &quot;Admirals Club,&quot; an honorary club for valued passengers. The DC-3s had a four-star &quot;admiral's pennant&quot; which would fly outside the cockpit window while the aircraft was parked, one of the most well-known images of the airline at the time. American was the first airline to cooperate with [[Fiorello LaGuardia]]'s plans to build an airport in [[New York City]], and partly as a result became the owner of the world's first [[Airport lounge|airline lounge]] at the new [[LaGuardia Airport]], which became known as the &quot;[[Admirals Club]].&quot; Membership was initially by invitation only, but a discrimination suit decades later changed the club into a paid membership club, creating the model for other airline lounges. ===Postwar developments=== After [[World War II]], American launched an international subsidiary, [[American Overseas Airways]] to serve [[Europe]]; however, AOA was sold to rival [[Pan Am]] in 1948. AA launched another subsidiary around the same time, American Airlines de Mexico S.A., to operate flights to [[Mexico]], and built several airports in northern Mexico to serve as diversion points for aircraft bound for [[Mexico City]]. American Airlines introduced the first transcontinental jet service on [[25 January]] [[1959]]. With the introduction of [[Boeing 707|707]] &quot;Astrojet&quot; service in the 1960s, American's focus shifted to nonstop coast-to-coast flights, although it maintained feeder connections to other cities along its old route using smaller [[Convair 990]]s and [[Lockheed L-188 Electra|Lockheed Electras]]. The company also launched the first electronic booking system, named [[Sabre (computer system)|Sabre]], together with [[IBM]]. During the 1970s, American acquired its first [[Boeing 747]]s; depressed passenger numbers at the time led American to fit many of its 747s with [[Wurlitzer]] [[piano]]s in the main cabin. Following the [[Transpacific Route Case]], AA began 747 flights to [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], although it traded these routes to [[Pan Am]] in 1975 in exchange for routes to the Caribbean. The 747s were soon moved to cargo service, and replaced in passenger service with [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]]s. Following a financial slump in the 1970s under the leadership of former [[General Counsel|general counsel]] [[George Spater]], American hired seasoned manager [[Albert Casey]]. Casey decided to move American's corporate headquarters from [[New York City]] to [[Fort Worth, Texas]] in 1979. American opened a new corporate campus on the site of the closed [[Greater Southwest International Airport]], just south of the new [[Dallas Fort Worth International Airport]]. On C.R. Smith's advice, American also hired a young finance executive, [[Robert Crandall]], who had previously worked for [[Bloomingdale's]] and [[TWA]]. Crandall introduced, among other innovations, the world's first frequent flyer miles (AAdvantage) and corporate travel card (AAirpass). After discovering several thousand unused [[cathode ray tube|CRT]] terminals in a Tulsa hangar, Crandall ordered them refurbished and provided to [[travel agent]]s, creating the first airline-owned agent-accessible [[computer reservations system]]. Crandall was named American's President in 1980, and succeeded [[Albert Casey]] as CEO and Chairman in 1985. ===Expansion in 1980s and 1990s=== [[image:americanairlines.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In the 1990s, American switched to an all-twinjet fleet. [[Boeing 767]] aircraft replaced older [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10|DC-10]]s on many transatlantic routes]] American changed its routing to a [[spoke-hub distribution paradigm|hub-and-spoke system]] starting in 1981, opening its first hubs at DFW and Chicago O'Hare. American began flights to [[Europe]] and [[Japan]] from these hubs in the mid-1980s. In the late 1980s, American opened three new hubs for north-south traffic. [[Norman Y. Mineta San José International Airport|San Jose International Airport]] was added as a hub after American purchased [[Air California]]. American also built a new terminal and runway at [[Raleigh-Durham International Airport]] to take advantage of the rapidly-growing [[Research Triangle Park]] nearby, as well as compete with USAir's hub in [[Charlotte Douglas International Airport|Charlotte]]. [[Nashville International Airport|Nashville]] was also chosen as a hub. Lower fuel prices in the era and a favorable management climate at the time led to higher than average airline industry profits that were not necessarily shared by non-stockholding employees. The industry's expansion was not lost on the American Airline's existing employees who on [[February 17]], [[1997]] struck for higher wages. President [[Bill Clinton]] invoked the Taft-Hartley Amendment to the [[Wagner Act]] citing economic impact to the United States a few minutes later quashing the strike.[http://www.iht.com/articles/1997/02/17/fly.t_1.php] Pilots settled for substantially lower wage increases than their demands as a result. The three new hubs were all abandoned in the 1990s: San Jose was sold to [[Reno Air]], and RDU to [[Midway Airlines]]. Midway went out of business in 2001. American purchased Reno Air in February 1999 and fully integrated its operations on [[31 August]] [[1999]], but did not resume hub operations in San Jose. [[Miami International Airport|Miami]] also became a hub after American bought Central and South American routes from [[Eastern Airlines]] in 1990. Through the 1990s, American expanded its route network in Latin America to become the dominant U.S. carrier in the region. On [[15 October]] [[1998]] American Airlines became the first airline to offer electronic ticketing in all 44 countries it serves. ===TWA merger, 9/11, and aftermath=== [[image:american.b777-200er.n780an.arp.jpg|thumb|250px|American Airlines Boeing 777-200ER landing]] Crandall left the company in 1998 and was replaced by [[Donald J. Carty]], who negotiated the purchase of [[Trans World Airlines]] and its hub in St. Louis in April 2001. The merger of the different labor unions was a contentious issue. The TWA pilots belonged to the [[Air Line Pilots Association]] ([[ALPA]]) and the American Airlines pilots belonged to the [[Allied Pilots Association (APA)]]. The pilots of the APA took a position that the TWA pilots could not get something for nothing. Namely, job security and retirement benefits without giving up something -- seniority. The ALPA pilots felt they deserved a more fair distribution within the APA seniority list. As a result, 60 percent of all former TWA pilots were moved to the bottom of the seniority list at American Airlines. For example, the senior-most former TWA captain, hired in 1963 was integrated at the same seniority level as a 1985-hire American captain. To keep some relative seniority, the TWA pilots were given &quot;super-seniority&quot; and a specified ratio of captain's jobs (relative to other domiciles) if they stayed within the St. Louis pilot domicile. If they decided to leave the St. Louis pilot domicile, they would have to compete for jobs on the basis of their integrated seniority number. The result was that most former TWA pilots stayed in the St. Louis domicile and roughly maintained their same relative seniority; albeit stuck within the St. Louis domicile. A few former TWA pilots flew in the co-pilot seat next to AA pilots with significantly less seniority and experience when they decided to transfer to one of the other American Airlines pilot domiciles. Of the appoximately 2300 TWA pilots who were integrated, approximately 400 were slated for mandatory retirement before the integration actually took place. As of [[July 2]], [[2003]], 100% of all former TWA flight attendants were furloughed by American Airlines (approximately 4,200 employees). This was due to the American Airlines flight attendant union putting all the former TWA flight attendants at the bottom of their seniority list. In the wake of the TWA merger and the roughly concurrent [[September 11, 20
The Iranian consulate in Herat closed, as did the Afghan consulate in Mashad. The Iranians complained of periodic border violations following the Soviet invasion. In 1985, they urged feuding Afghan Shi'a resistance groups to unite to oppose the Soviets. Iran supported the cause of the Afghan resistance and provided limited financial and military assistance to rebel leaders who pledged loyalty to the Iranian vision of Islamic revolution. Iran provides refuge to about 2 million Afghans, though it has refused to accept more in recent years and, indeed, tried to force many to repatriate. Following the emergence of the [[Taliban]] and their harsh treatment of Afghanistan's Shi'a minority, Iran stepped up assistance to the [[Northern Alliance]]. Relations with the Taliban deteriorated further in 1998 after Taliban forces seized the Iranian consulate in Mazar-e-Sharif and executed Iranian diplomats. == [[Russia]] == In the 19th century, Afghanistan served as a strategic buffer state between czarist Russia and the British Empire in the subcontinent. Afghanistan's relations with Moscow became more cordial after the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917. The Soviet Union was the first country to establish diplomatic relations with Afghanistan after the Third Anglo-Afghan war and signed an Afghan-Soviet nonaggression pact in 1921, which also provided for Afghan transit rights through the Soviet Union. Early Soviet assistance included financial aid, aircraft and attendant technical personnel, and telegraph operators. The Soviets began a major economic assistance program in Afghanistan in the 1950s. Between 1954 and 1978, Afghanistan received more than $1 billion in Soviet aid, including substantial military assistance. In 1973, the two countries announced a $200-million assistance agreement on gas and oil development, trade, transport, irrigation, and factory construction. Following the 1979 invasion, the Soviets augmented their large aid commitments to shore up the Afghan economy and rebuild the Afghan military. They provided the Karmal regime an unprecedented $800 million. The Soviet Union supported the Najibullah regime even after the withdrawal of Soviet troops in February 1989. Today, unresolved questions concerning Soviet MIA/POWs in Afghanistan remain an issue between Russia and Afghanistan. Tajik rebels based in Afghanistan in July 1993 attacked a Russian border outpost in Tajikistan, killing 25 Russians and prompting Russian retaliatory strikes, which caused extensive damage in northern Afghanistan. Reports of Afghan support for the Tajik rebels led to cool relations between the two countries. Russia became increasingly disenchanted with the Taliban over their support for [[Chechnya|Chechen]] [[rebel]]s and for providing a sanctuary for terrorist groups active in Central Asia and in Russia itself. Russia provided military assistance to the [[Afghan Northern Alliance|Northern Alliance]], who eventually proved a major force in the efforts to overthrow the Taliban regime following [[USA|U.S.]] intervention in [[2001]]. In [[October]] [[2005]], Russian defense officials stated they will be giving helicopters and other military equipment to Afghanistan's army worth $30 million [[USD]].[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20051009/ap_on_re_eu/russia_afghanistan] Over 30,000 U.S. and NATO troops still remain in Afghanistan. == [[Tajikistan]] == Afghanistan's relations with newly independent Tajikistan have been complicated by political upheaval and civil war in Tajikistan, which spurred some 100,000 Tajiks to seek refuge in Afghanistan in late 1992 and early 1993. Tajik rebels seeking to overthrow the regime of Russian-backed former communist [[Emomali Rahmonov]] began operating from Afghan bases and recruiting Tajik refugees into their ranks. These rebels, reportedly aided by Afghans and a number of foreign Islamic extremists, conducted cross-border raids against Russian and Tajik security posts and sought to infiltrate fighters and materiel from Afghanistan into Tajikistan. Also disenchanted by the Taliban's harsh treatment of Afghanistan's Tajik minority, Tajikistan facilitated assistance to the Northern Alliance. In 2001, the [[Taliban]], which controlled most of the country, instituted a number of decrees, or [[fatwa]]s that have greatly concerned the outside world. Among them was the removal or destruction of all religious icons from the country, making the conversion of Muslims to other faiths punishable by death, banning the sale and distribution of opium, and the banning of the [[Internet]] in Afghanistan. == [[United States]] == The first extensive American contact with Afghanistan was made by [[Josiah Harlan]], an adventurer from Pennsylvania who was an adviser in Afghan politics in the 1830s and reputedly inspired Rudyard Kipling's story &quot;The Man Who Would be King.&quot; After the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1934, the U.S. policy of helping developing nations raise their standard of living was an important factor in maintaining and improving U.S.-Afghan ties. From 1950 to 1979, U.S. foreign assistance provided Afghanistan with more than $500 million in loans, grants, and surplus agricultural commodities to develop transportation facilities, increase agricultural production, expand the educational system, stimulate industry, and improve government administration. In the 1950s, the U.S. declined Afghanistan's request for defense cooperation but extended an economic assistance program focused on the development of Afghanistan's physical infrastructure--roads, dams, and power plants. Later, U.S. aid shifted from infrastructure projects to technical assistance programs to help develop the skills needed to build a modern economy. The Peace Corps was active in Afghanistan between 1962 and 1979. After the April 1978 coup, relations deteriorated. In February 1979, U.S. Ambassador Adolph &quot;Spike&quot; Dubs was murdered in Kabul after Afghan security forces burst in on his kidnapers. The U.S. then reduced bilateral assistance and terminated a small military training program. All remaining assistance agreements were ended after the Soviet invasion. Following the Soviet invasion, the United States supported diplomatic efforts to achieve a Soviet withdrawal. In addition, generous U.S. contributions to the refugee program in Pakistan played a major part in efforts to assist Afghans in need. U.S. efforts also included helping Afghans living inside Afghanistan. This cross-border humanitarian assistance program aimed at increasing Afghan self-sufficiency and helping Afghans resist Soviet attempts to drive civilians out of the rebel-dominated countryside. During the period of Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, the U.S. provided about $3 billion in military and economic assistance to Afghans and the resistance movement. The U.S. embassy in Kabul was closed in January 1989 for security reasons, but officially reopened as an embassy on January 17, 2002. Throughout the difficult and turbulent past 20 years, the U.S. has supported the peaceful emergence of a broad-based government representative of all Afghans and has been active in encouraging a UN role in the national reconciliation process in Afghanistan. The U.S. provides financial aid for mine-clearing activities and other humanitarian assistance to Afghans through international organizations. The U.S. is the largest provider of humanitarian assistance to Afghanistan. The aid effort has continued despite a U.S. cruise missile attack on a terrorist camp in Afghanistan associated with Osama bin Laden in 1998, with the military action taken against terrorist and Taliban targets in October 2001 and the ongoing actions of Operation Enduring Freedom. == [[India]] == India has a long history with Afghanistan as it was part of ancient India in the past. India has traditionally enjoyed good relations with the Afghan government. It also supported the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]] &quot;unofficially&quot; against [[Taliban]]. Relations deteriorated after the [[Taliban]] took power. After the fall of the Taliban, India resumed old ties. India has donated buses, aircraft and has imparted training to its fledgling police force. Trade consists of films, dry fruits etc. == [[Germany]] == The German - Afghani relationship is long and has been mostly cordial. Many Afghani academics studied in Germany, many more sought refuge in Germany during the years of civil war. There has been significant cultural exchange over the years. Several of the best secondary schools in Kabul are founded and supported by the German government. Germany remains one of the most significant donors of foreign aid and partners in the rebuilding of Afghanistan. The [[Bonn Agreement (Afghanistan)|Bonn agreement]] for the post Taliban governance of Afghanistan was debated and signed in the former seat of government fo Western Germany. == [[United Nations]] efforts == During the Soviet occupation, the United Nations was highly critical of the U.S.S.R.'s interference in the internal affairs of Afghanistan and was instrumental in obtaining a negotiated Soviet withdrawal under the terms of the Geneva Accords. In the aftermath of the Accords and subsequent Soviet withdrawal, the United Nations has assisted in the repatriation of refugees and has provided humanitarian aid such as health care, educational programs, and food and has supported mine-clearing operations. The UNDP and associated agencies have undertaken a limited number of development projects. However, the UN reduced its role in Afghanistan in 1992 in the wake of fierce factional strife in and around Kabul. The UN Secretary General has designated a personal representative to head the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance to Afghanistan (UNOCHA) and the Special Mission to Afghanistan (UNSMA), both based in Islamabad, Pakistan. Throughout the late 1990s, 2000, and 2001, the UN unsuccessfully strived to promote a peaceful settlem
that only his bones remained. Even after his death, his travels continued: first interred in [[Valladolid]] and then at the monastery of La Cartuja in [[Seville]], by the will of his son Diego, who had been governor of Hispaniola, the remains were transferred to [[Santo Domingo]] in 1542. In 1795, the French took over, and the corpse was removed to [[Havana]]. After Cuba became independent following the [[Spanish-American War]] in 1898, Columbus' remains were moved back to the [[Cathedral of Seville]], where they were placed on an elaborate [[catafalque]]. However, a lead box bearing an inscription identifying &quot;Don Christopher Columbus&quot; and containing fragments of bone and a bullet was discovered at [[Santo Domingo]] in 1877. To lay to rest claims that the wrong relics were moved to Havana and that Columbus is still buried in the cathedral of Santo Domingo, DNA samples were taken in June 2003 (''History Today'' August 2003). == Columbus' national origin == Although the vast majority of historians consider him Italian, various doubts have been expressed regarding Columbus' national origin. Even if he is generally assumed to be Italian (specifically Genoese), his background is clouded in mystery. Very little is really known about Columbus before the mid-1470s. It has been suggested that this might have been because he was hiding something&amp;mdash;an event in his origin or history that he deliberately kept a secret. The issue of Columbus' 'nationality' became an issue after the rise of [[nationalism]]; the issue was scarcely raised until the time of the quadricentenary celebrations in 1892 (see [[World's Columbian Exposition]]), when Columbus' Genoese origins became a point of pride for some [[Italian American]]s. In [[New York City]], rival statues of Columbus were underwritten by the Hispanic and the Italian communities, and honourable positions had to be found for each, at [[Columbus Circle]] and in [[Central Park]]. One hypothesis is that Columbus served under the French [[privateer|corsair]] [[Guillaume Casenove Coulon]] and took his surname, but later tried to hide his piracy. Some Basque historians have claimed that he was [[Basque people|Basque]]. Others have said that he was a ''[[converso]]'' (a [[Sephardi|Spanish Jew]] who publicly converted to Christianity). In Spain, even some converted Jews were forced to leave Spain after much persecution; it is known that many ''conversos'' were still practicing [[Judaism]] in secret. Another theory is that he was from the town [[Calvi]] on the island of [[Corsica]], which at the time was part of the Genoese republic. Because the often subversive elements of the island gave its inhabitants a bad reputation, he would have masked his exact heritage. A few others also claim that Columbus was actually [[Catalonia|Catalan]] (''Colom''). Columbus Historian Manuel Rosa writes in Unmasking Columbus [http://www.unmaskingcolumbus.com/unmasking_columbus/ChristopherColumbus_ch01.htm] that ''Colon'' and ''Colom'' are not the same names nor do they have the same meanings. ''Columbus'' is Latin, ''Colombo'' is Italian, ''Pombo'' is Portuguese, ''Colombe'' is French and ''Colom'' is Catalan and all these translate to ''dove'' or ''pigeon'' but none of these were the name of the discoverer. Since the name ''Colon'' was a stand-in for the Greek ''Kolon'' chosen by Christopher to mean ''member'' none of the above names for ''pigeon'' are correctly applied names. [[Image:Ccsignature.jpg|frame|right|Sanctus, Sanctus, Altissimus, Sanctus, son of Mary &amp; Joseph, Salvador Fernandes Zarco]] Other documents found in the [[Alentejo]] region of Portugal suggest he may have been born there. In accordance with this theory, he named the island of Cuba after the Portuguese town [[Cuba, (Portugal)|Cuba in Alentejo]] &amp;mdash; the town where he, according to Portuguese historians, had been born under the name of Salvador Fernandes Zarco (SFZ), son of Fernando, Duke of Beja, and Isabel Sciarra &amp;mdash; and grandson of Cecília Colonna. The Portuguese-origin thesis has him using Colom as a pseudonym. This is based on interpretation of some facts and documents of his life (as above), but mostly on an analysis of his signature under the Jewish [[Kabbalah]], where he described his family and origin (by Macarenhas Barreto: &quot;Fernandus Ensifer Copiae Pacis Juliae illaqueatus Isabella Sciarra Camara Mea Soboles Cubae.&quot;, or &quot;Ferdinand who holds the sword of power of Beja (Pax Julia in Latin), coupled with Isabel Sciarra Camara, are my generation from Cuba&quot;). Since he never signed his name conventionally, the pseudonymus theory is reinforced, his name meaning in Latin &quot;Bearer of [[Christ]]&quot; (Christo ferens) &quot;and of the [[Holy Spirit]]&quot; (Columbus, [[dove]] in Latin), a reference to the [[Order of Christ]] which succeeded the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Templars]] in Portugal and initiated the [[age of exploration]]. Another strong case that supports this thesis is that over forty toponyms in the Caribbean islands are of Portuguese origin. The corollary of the above is that he was (i) knowingly diverting the Castilian kings from their target &amp;ndash; India and (ii) had all the reasons to hide his identity and origin, as Portugal was the biggest rival of Spain (Castille) in its sea ventures. In sum, he was a &quot;secret agent&quot;. It is also speculated that Columbus may have come from the island of [[Khios]] (or Chios) in Greece. [http://www.grecoreport.com/christopher_columbus.htm] The evidence supporting this theory includes that Columbus never said he was from Genoa but from the ''Republic of Genoa'' (Khios was under Genoese control at the time, and thus part of the Republic of Genoa), and that he kept his journal in Latin and Greek instead of the Italian of Genoa. He also referred to himself as &quot;Columbus de Terra Rubra&quot;(Columbus of the Red Earth), Khios was known for its red soil in the south of the island where grow the mastic trees that the Genoese traded. There is also a village named Pirgi in the island of Khios where to this day many of its inhabitants carry the surname &quot;Colombus.&quot; It has even been suggested that the [[epitaph]] on his tomb, translated as &quot;Let me not be confused forever,&quot; is a veiled hint left by Columbus that his identity was other than he publicly stated during his life. However, the actual phrase, &quot;Non confundar in aeternam&quot; (in Latin), is perhaps more accurately translated &quot;Let me never be confounded,&quot; and is contained in several Psalms. Historian [[Samuel Eliot Morison]], in his book &quot;Admiral of the Ocean Sea&quot;, claims that existing legal documents demonstrate the Genoese origin of Columbus, his father Domenico, and his brothers Bartolomeo and Giacomo (Diego). On page 14, Morison writes: :Besides these documents from which we may glean facts about Christopher's early life, there are others which identify the Discoverer as the son of Domenico the wool weaver, beyond the possibility of doubt. For instance, Domenico had a brother Antonio, like him a respectable member of the lower middle class in Genoa. Antonio had three sons: Matteo, Amigeto and Giovanni, who was generally known as Giannetto, the Genoese equivalent of &quot;Johnny.&quot; Johnny like Christopher gave up a humdrum occupation to follow the sea. In 1496 the three brothers met in a notary's office at Genoa and agreed that Johnny should go to Spain and seek out his first cousin &quot;Don Cristoforo de Colombo, Admiral of the King of Spain,&quot; each contributing one third of the traveling expenses. This quest for a job was highly successful. The Admiral gave Johnny command of a caravel on the Third Voyage to America, and entrusted him with confidential matters as well. It is certain that Columbus taught himself to read and write after arriving in Portugal, learned cutting-edge navigational and trading skills from the Portuguese, was commissioned by Castile, received financial backing from Genoese bankers, and was informed, in his own words, by &quot;wise people, ecclesiastics and laymen, Latins and Greeks, Jews and Moors and with many others of other sects.&quot; He was, in other words, a man of the Mediterranean. ===Columbus' language=== Although Genoese documents have been found about a weaver named Colombo, it has also been noted that, in the preserved documents, Columbus wrote almost exclusively in [[Spanish]], and that he used the language, with Portuguese phonetics, even when writing personal notes to himself, to his brother, Italian friends, and to the Bank of Genoa. There is a small handwritten Genoese gloss in an Italian edition of the ''[[History of Plinius]]'' that he read in his second voyage to America. However, it displays both Spanish and Portuguese influences. Genoese Italian was not a written language in the 15th century, but one would expect a better transliteration into this dialect from a native speaker. However, many people become &quot;tongue-tied&quot; when using what is, to them, an intimate childhood language. There is also a note in non-Genoese Italian in his own ''[[Book of Prophecies]]'' exhibiting, according to historian August Kling, &quot;characteristics of northern Italian [[humanism]] in its calligraphy, syntax, and spelling.&quot; Columbus took great care and pride in writing this form of Italian. Phillips and Phillips point out that five hundred years ago, the Latinate languages had not distanced themselves to the degree they have today. [[Bartolomé de las Casas]] in his ''[[Historia de las Indias]]'' claimed that Columbus did not know Spanish well and that he was not born in Castile. In his letters he refers to himself frequently, if cryptically, as a &quot;foreigner.&quot; [[Ramón Menéndez Pidal]] studied the language of Columbus in 1942, suggesting that while still in Genoa, Columbus learned notions of Portugalized Spanish from tr
Scottish book departed from the English revisions. A completely new revision was finished in [[1929]], and several revisions to the communion service have been prepared since then. ===Papua New Guinea=== The [[Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea]], separated from the ecclesiastical province of Brisbane in 1975 at the time of Papua New Guinea's independence from Australia, contends with the unusual problem that its adherents are largely concentrated in one province, Northern, whose inhabitants are largely Orokaiva speakers, little acquainted with the country's largest lingua franca, New Guinea Pidgin (see [[Tok Pisin]]). However, there are pockets of Anglicans elsewhere in the country including in the New Guinea Highlands and the New Guinea Islands, areas where Pidgin is used, as well as foreigners who use English in the towns. The Anglican Province has settled on a simple-English prayer book along the lines of the ''Good News Bible'', including simple illustrations. == Religious influence == The ''Book of Common Prayer'' has had a great influence on a number of other denominations. While theologically different, the language and flow of the service of many other churches owes a great debt to the prayer book. [[John Wesley]], an Anglican priest whose teachings constitute the foundations of [[Methodism]] said, &quot;I believe there is no Liturgy in the world, either in ancient or modern language, which breathes more of a solid, scriptural, rational piety than the Common Prayer of the Church of England.&quot; Presently, most Methodist churches have a very similar service and theology to those of the Anglican church. The ''[[United Methodist]] Book of Worship'' (1992, ISBN 0687035724) uses the ''Book of Common Prayer'' as its primary model. In the 1960s, when [[Roman Catholicism]] adopted a [[vernacular]] mass, many translations of the English prayers followed the form of Cranmer's translation. Indeed, a number of theologians have suggested that the later English ''[[Alternative Service Book]]'' and [[1979]] American ''Book of Common Prayer'' borrowed from the Roman Catholic vernacular liturgy. ==Copyright status== In most of the world the Book of Common Prayer can be freely reproduced as it is long out of copyright. This is not the case in the [[United Kingdom]] itself. In the United Kingdom, the rights to the Book of Common Prayer are held by the British Crown. The rights fall outside the scope of copyright as defined in [[statute law]]. Instead they fall under the purvue of the [[royal prerogative]] and as such they are perpetual in subsistence. Publishers are licensed to reproduce the Book of Common Prayer under [[letters patent]]. In [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]] the letters patent are held by the [[Queen's Printer]], and in [[Scotland]] by the [[Scottish Bible Board]]. The office of Queen's Printer has been associated with the right to reproduce the Bible for many years, with the earliest known reference coming in 1577. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the Queen's Printer is [[Cambridge University Press]]. CUP inherited the right of being Queen's Printer when they took over the firm of [[Eyre &amp; Spottiswoode]] in the late 20th century. Eyre &amp; Spottiswoode had been Queen's Printer since 1901. Other letters patent of similar antiquity grant Cambridge University Press and [[Oxford University Press]] the right to produce the Book of Common Prayer independently of the Queen's Printer. The terms of the letters patent prohibit those other than the holders, or those authorised by the holders from printing, publishing or importing the Book of Common Prayer into the United Kingdom. The protection that the Book of Common Prayer, and also the [[King James Version of the Bible|Authorised Version]], enjoy is the last remnant of the time when the Crown held a monopoly over all printing and publishing in the United Kingdom. It is common misconception that the [[Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office]] holds letters patent for being Queen's Printer. The Controller of HMSO holds a separate set of letters patent which cover the office Queen's Printer of Acts of Parliament. The [[Scotland Act 1998]] defines the position of Queen's Printer for Scotland as also being held by the Queen's Printer of Acts of Parliament. The position of Government Printer for Northern Ireland is also held by the Controller of HMSO. ==Note== # {{note|titl}} The [[Long title|full name]] of the English ''Book of Common Prayer'' is '''''The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church according to the use of the Church of England together with the Psalter or Psalms of David pointed as they are to be sung or said in churches and the form and manner of making, ordaining, and consecrating of bishops, priests, and deacons'''''. ==See also== * [[Prayer Book Rebellion]] * [[Jenny Geddes]] - a leader of protests against the imposition of a book of common prayer on the [[Church of Scotland]] * [[Thirty-Nine Articles]] * [[Book of Common Order]] * [[Prayer Book Society of Canada]] {{wikisource}} {{wikiquote}} ===References=== * ''History of Book of Common Prayer'' by F Procter, W H Frere ISBN 0333082818 * ''Book of Common Prayer'', 1979 Edition ISBN 0195287134 * ''The Boy King: Edward VI and the Protestant Reformation'' by [[Diarmaid MacCulloch]] ISBN 0312238304 * Forbes, Dennis (1992). Did the Almighty intend His book to be copyrighted?, ''European Christian Bookstore Journal'', April 1992 * ''Prayer Book and People in Elizabethan and Early Stuart England'' by Judith Maltby (1998)ISBN 0521793874 ===External links=== *Official links: **[http://www.cofe.anglican.org/worship/liturgy/bcp/ The Book of Common Prayer]&amp;mdash;Church of England site with the text of the liturgy **[http://uk.cambridge.org/bibles/ Cambridge University Press], one of the official distributors of the Book of Common Prayer. *[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/index.html Collection of BCP resources] *[http://www.vulcanhammer.org/anglican/bcp-1662.php 1662 Book of Common Prayer] *[http://www.vulcanhammer.org/anglican/bcp-1928.php 1928 Book of Common Prayer] *[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/bcp.htm 1979 Book of Common Prayer] *[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/Wales/Wales.htm 1662 Book of Common Prayer in Welsh] *[http://www.oremus.org/liturgy/ 1980 Alternative Service Book] *[http://www.cofe.anglican.org/worship/liturgy/commonworship// 2000 Common Worship] *[http://www.episcopalian.org/pbs1928/ Prayer Book Society of the USA] *[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/luckock_h/studies.html/ Studies in the Book of Common Prayer, by H M Luckock, 1882.] *[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/everyman_history/index.htm Everyman's History of the Book of Common Prayer] [[Category:1549 books]] [[Category:1552 books]] [[Category:1559 books]] [[Category:1662 books]] [[Category:1927 books]] [[Category:Anglicanism]] [[Category:Christian prayer]] [[Category:Christian texts]] [[Category:Non-fictional British literature]] [[Category:Religion in the United Kingdom]] [[Category:Christian liturgy, rites, and worship services]] [[Category:English Reformation]] [[de:Book of Common Prayer]] [[it:Libro della preghiera comune]] [[pt:Livro de Oração Comum]] [[ro:Common Prayer Book]] [[ja:祈祷書]] [[zh:&amp;#20844;&amp;#31153;&amp;#26360;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Battle of Schwetz</title> <id>4954</id> <revision> <id>17776761</id> <timestamp>2005-06-28T18:31:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Naive cynic</username> <id>84472</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Battle of Świecino]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bokken</title> <id>4955</id> <revision> <id>41765189</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:10:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Glowimperial</username> <id>106589</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */ rv commercial linkspam</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:bokken.jpg|thumb|Bokken]] A '''Bokken''' (&amp;#26408;&amp;#21091;, ''bok(u)'', &quot;wood&quot;, and ''ken'', &quot;sword&quot;) is a [[wood]]en [[Japan]]ese [[sword]], usually the size and shape of a ''[[katana]]'',but can be made to replicate any type of [[sword]]. Other common shapes are [[wakizashi]] and [[tanto]]. They are also known as '''bokut&amp;#333;''' (&amp;#26408;&amp;#20992;, &quot;wooden sword&quot;), which is also the usual term in Japan. ==Usage== Bokken is a training sword, used as a relatively safe and inexpensive substitute for a real blade in several [[martial arts]]. They are used in the early stages of ''[[iaido]]'' when a practitioner has not yet reached the level where use of a ''[[iaito]]'' would be safe. The exception would be when a certain kata involving two people is performed. Then the veteran iaidoka will use a bokken for safety reasons. There are also specially designed bokken made for sword drawing only. These are, for the most part, supplied with a plastic or wooden saya and are generally slimmer than a normal bokken and not suited for regular sword techniques. ''[[Kenjutsu]]'' makes heavy use of the regular bokken in various drills, as does the [[Bujinkan]] as well as other [[Ninjutsu]] systems while ''[[aikido]]'', being primarily an empty-handed art, features bokken training on a less extensive basis. The focus of the bokken in some aikido dojo is not that of a weapon, but that of a tool to enchance focus. These wooden swords often have a smooth transition between handle and blade and are not used with a hand guard (tsuba). Other bokken are made to accept a hand guard (tsuba) and have a clearly defined transition between the handle section and the blade. Bokken are used for the practice of ''[[kendo]]''; to learn t
ch as '''Aramec''' and '''Azimech'''. It corresponds to the [[Hindu_calendar|Hindu]] astronomy [[Nakshatra]] of [[Svati|Svātī]]. ==Cultural significance== Prehistoric [[Polynesia|Polynesian]] [[navigation|navigators]] knew Arcturus as '''[[Hokulea|Hokule'a]]''', the &quot;Star of Joy.&quot; Arcturus is the [[Zenith Star]] of the [[Hawaiian Islands]]. Using Hokule'a and other stars, the Polynesians launched their double-hulled [[canoe]]s from [[Tahiti]] and the [[Marquesas Islands]]. Traveling east and north they eventually crossed the [[equator]] and reached the [[latitude]] where Arcturus would appear directly overhead in the summer [[night sky]]. Knowing they had arrived at the exact latitude of the island chain, they sailed due west on the [[trade wind]]s until making landfall. If Hokule'a could be kept directly overhead, they landed on the southeastern shores of the [[Hawaii (island)|Big Island]] of [[Hawaii]]. For a return trip to Tahiti the navigators could use [[Sirius]], the zenith star of that island. The star achieved fame in [[1933]] when its light was used to open the [[World's Fair]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. The star was chosen as that light had started its journey at about the time of the previous Chicago fair in [[1893]]. ===In fiction=== In the [[fiction|fictionalized]] universe of [[Marvel Universe|Marvel]] comics, the Arcturan system is [[binary star|binary]] and has at least four [[planet]]s. It is also an inhabited binary system in the 1920 novel [http://www.litrix.com/arcturus/arctu001.htm ''A Voyage to Arcturus''], by [[David Lindsay (novelist)|David Lindsay]]. In'' [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' there are several references to Arcturan species and things, presumably originating on a planet orbiting Arcturus. Examples include &quot;Arcturan Megadonkey&quot; and &quot;Arcturan Megafreighter&quot;, see [[wikisource:The Ultra-Complete Index to the Hitch Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy|The Ultra-Complete Index]] for a more extensive list. [[Isaac Asimov]]'s [[The Foundation Series]] has [[Arcturus (planet)|Arcturus]] as the capital of the [[Sirius Sector]] in the [[Galactic Empire (Asimov)|Galactic Empire]]. In [[Stargate Atlantis]], [[Project Arcturus]] is a failed [[Ancient (Stargate)|Ancient]] power-source project. [[Arcturus]] is also a [[Korea]]n [[Computer role-playing game|RPG]] game created jointly by [[Gravity Corporation]] and Sonnori. David Linsey has a fantasy or science fiction novel 'A Voyage to Arcturus'. In the [[Starcraft]] series of games, Sons of Korhal leader and later Emperor Arcturus Mengsk is presumably named for this star. There is some ambiguity, however, as the word 'arcturus' occurs in [[Latin]] (as the Future Active Participle of the verb 'arcere') and could provide an alternative source for the name. ===In new-age religion=== Some [[New Age]]rs believe in [[Arcturians]], a supposed highly advanced [[extraterrestrial]] race. ===In the Bible=== In the [[King James Version]] of the [[Bible]], Arcturus is mentioned twice in the [[Book of Job]]: :&quot;Which maketh ''Arcturus'', [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]], and [[Pleiades (astronomy)|Pleiades]], and the chambers of the south.&quot; ::[[wikisource:Bible, English, King James, Job#Chapter 9|''Job 9:9'']] :&quot;Canst thou bring forth [[Mazzaroth]] in his season? :or canst thou guide ''Arcturus'' with his sons?&quot; ::[[wikisource:Bible, English, King James, Job#Chapter 38|''Job 38:32'']] The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word thus translated is עיש ''Ash'' or'' 'Ayish''. Due to the obscurity of ancient terminology, some scholars dispute this identification, instead equating it with [[Aldebaran]], [[Canopus (star)|Canopus]], Ursa Major, or the Pleiades, among other celestial objects{{ref|ash}}. === Occult traditions === In the [[astrology]] of the [[Middle Ages]], Arcturus was one of the 15 [[Behenian fixed stars]], associated with [[jasper]] and the [[plantago|plantain]] herb. [[Cornelius Agrippa]] lists its symbol [[Image:Agrippa1531 Alchameth.png]] under the alternate name '''Alchameth'''. ==References== *{{note|ash}} Hirsch, Emil G. (1906). Constellations. In [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=749&amp;letter=C ''The Jewish Encyclopedia'']. New York: Funk &amp; Wagnall's. Retrieved July 11, 2005. *{{note|astrology}}Wright, Anne (2003). [http://www.winshop.com.au/annew/Arcturus.html &quot;The Fixed Stars: Arcturus&quot;]. Retrieved July 11, 2005. ==External links== * [http://www.geocities.com/glakandar/gotw/arcturus.htm Discussion of Arcturus' role in Marvel comics] * [http://www.solstation.com/stars2/arcturus.htm SolStation.com entry] * [http://www.crystalinks.com/arcturus.html Crystal Links page on the star] [[Category:Bayer objects|Boötis, Alpha]] [[Category:Boötes constellation]] [[Category:Orange giants]] [[Category:Red giant branch stars]] [[Category:Variable stars]] [[ca:Arcturus]] [[de:Arcturus]] [[es:Arturo (estrella)]] [[fr:Arcturus (étoile)]] [[gl:Arcturus]] [[it:Arturo (astronomia)]] [[lt:Arktūras]] [[nl:Arcturus (ster)]] [[ja:アルクトゥルス]] [[pl:Arktur]] [[sk:Arktúr]] [[fi:Arcturus]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Absinthe</title> <id>3073</id> <revision> <id>42128642</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:30:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Discordance</username> <id>762600</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */ +cat Distilled beverages</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pernodad.jpg|right|thumbnail|A vintage absinthe advertisement]] {{wiktionarypar|absinthe}} '''Absinthe''' (from [[French language|French]], from [[Latin]] ''[http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/absinthium absinthium]'', [[ancient Greek]] ''apsinthion'', &quot;[[Artemisia (plant)|wormwood]]&quot;) is a high-[[ethanol|alcohol]] [[anise]]-flavored spirit derived from [[herb]]s including the flowers and leaves of the medicinal plant ''[[Absinth Wormwood|Artemisia absinthium]]'', also called [[wormwood]]. Historically it has been ambiguous whether it is a [[liqueur]] or aromatized spirit&lt;ref name=&quot;britannica&quot;&gt;[http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext95/pge0112.txt 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica] at [[Project Gutenberg]].&lt;/ref&gt; however modern regulations have reclassified it as a spirit due to its low sugar content&lt;ref name=&quot;EEC&quot;&gt;[http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31989R1576:EN:HTML Council Regulation (EEC) No 1576/89 of 29 May 1989 laying down general rules on the definition, description and presentation of spirit drinks] an EEC regulation requires a sugar content of 100g per litre for a drink to be labelled a liqueur.&lt;/ref&gt;. Nicknamed ''la Fée Verte'' (&quot;The Green [[Fairy]]&quot;), absinthe has a taste similar to other anise-flavored liqueurs, with a light bitterness imparted by the use of other herbs, and is traditionally a pale or emerald [[green]] in color. It is especially known for its popularity in [[France]]&amp;mdash;particularly its romantic associations with [[Bohemianism|Parisian]] artists and writers&amp;mdash;in the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]], until its [[prohibition]] in 1915. The most popular brand of absinthe worldwide at the time was [[Pernod Fils]]. At the height of its popularity, absinthe was portrayed as a dangerously [[addictive]], [[psychoactive]] drug and similarly banned in other European countries and in the [[United States]]. In fact, high alcohol content and a suggestive reputation are now considered to be its most active ingredients. A modern-day absinthe revival began in the [[1990s]], as countries in the [[European Union]] began to reauthorize its manufacture and sale. ==Constituents== [[Image:Koehler1887-PimpinellaAnisum.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Anise]] [[Image:Koeh-164.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Grand Wormwood]] In addition to wormwood, absinthe contains [[anise]] (often partially substituted with [[star anise]]), Florence [[fennel]], [[hyssop]], [[Lemon balm|melissa]], and [[Roman wormwood]] (''Artemisia pontica''). Various recipes also include [[angelica]] root, [[sweet flag]], [[dittany]] leaves, [[coriander (spice)|coriander]], [[veronica (plant)|veronica]], [[juniper]], [[nutmeg]], and various mountain herbs. A simple [[maceration]] of wormwood without distillation produces an extremely bitter drink, due to the presence of the water-soluble [[absinthine]], one of the most bitter substances known. Authentic recipes call for [[distill]]ation after the primary maceration and before the secondary or &quot;coloring&quot; maceration. The distillation of wormwood, anise, and Florence fennel first produces a colorless [[alcoholate]] which leaves the [[alembic]] at around 82% [[ethanol|alcohol]]. It can be left clear, called a ''la Bleue'' or ''la Blanche'', or the well-known green color of the beverage can be imparted either artificially or with [[chlorophyll]] by steeping Roman wormwood, hyssop, and melissa in the liquid. After this process, the resulting product is reduced with water to the desired percentage of alcohol. Over time and exposure to light the chlorophyll will break down, causing the drink to go from emerald green to yellow green to brown. Non-traditional varieties are made by cold-mixing herbs, essences or oils in alcohol, with the distillation process omitted. Alcohol makes up the majority of the drink and is extremely high, between 45% and 89.9%[http://www.drinkfinder.co.uk/showdetails.asp?id=2128], though there is no historical evidence that any commercial vintage absinthe was higher than 74%. Given the high strength and low alcohol solubility of many of the herbal components, absinthe is usually not imbibed &quot;straight,&quot; but consumed after a fairly elaborate preparation [[ritual]]. Historically, there were five grades of absinthe: ''ordinaire'', ''demi-fine'', ''fine'', ''supérieure'' and ''Suisse'' (which does
other cities. For instance, the police record all criminal sexual assaults as opposed to only rape, like other police departments do; and aggravated battery is counted along with the standard category of aggravated assault. As a result, Chicago is often omitted from studies like [[Morgan Quitno]]'s annual &quot;Safest/Most Dangerous City&quot; survey. *http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-06-06-crime-drop_x.htm?POE=NEWISVA *http://www.cityofchicago.org/police ==Economy== [[Image:Chicago bot.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Chicago Board of Trade]].]] {{main|Economy of Chicago}} Chicago has been a center for commerce in the United States for most of its modern history. Today, Chicago remains the United States' second financial center with the nation's second largest central business district and third largest gross metropolitan product. In fact, Chicago's gross metropolitan product would rank 18th in the world if it were a nation-state, at approximately $380 billion. Before it was incorporated as a town in 1833, the primary industry was the [[fur trade]]. Chicago's early explosive growth led many land speculators and enterprising individuals to the area. Situated on the [[Great Lakes]] and with so many new people settling the area, Chicago became an ideal location for shipping and receiving goods. With that, many [[railroad]]s started to be built from Chicago to other parts of the country, further aiding the growth of the city. Additionally, the building of the [[Illinois and Michigan Canal]] helped move goods south down the [[Mississippi River]]. In the 1840s, Chicago became the largest [[cereal|grain]] port in the world, shipping food from the [[Mississippi Valley]] region which was also growing into the largest food-producing region in the world. In 1848, Chicago built its first [[grain elevator]], and, in 1858 there were twelve grain elevators dotting the skyline. [[Carl Sandburg]] described Chicago as a &quot;stacker of wheat&quot;, and some would argue that the grain elevators were Chicago's first [[skyscraper]]s. In the 1850s and 1860s Chicago's [[pork]] and [[beef]] industry exploded. Great entrepreneurs such as [[Gustavus Franklin Swift|Gustavus Swift]] and [[Philip Danforth Armour|Philip Armour]] helped the area to become the largest producer of meat products in the world at the time. By 1862, Chicago had displaced [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], as &quot;Porkopolis&quot;. During the 1860s two factors helped this development: first, the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] increased the demand for food products, and Chicago's [[transport]]ation network ensured that goods could be delivered quickly to soldiers all over the northern United States; and second, [[meat packing industry|meat packing]] plants began to utilize ice. Before this time, meat production and distribution facilities, otherwise known as disassembly plants, had to shut down in the hot summer months. More operating months meant hundreds of thousands of new man-hours in which people could work. The efficiency of Chicago's meat packing industry and its disassembly plants inspired others such as [[Henry Ford]] when he developed [[Model-T]] [[assembly line]]s. Today, we consider industries such as steel, oil, and banking to be the great global market segments, but in the 1860s Chicago's pork and beef industry represented the first global industry. As the major meat companies grew in Chicago many, such as [[Armour &amp; Co.|Armour]], created global enterprises and communicated with divisions spread across the globe via [[Telegraphy|telegraph]]. Modern-day futures and commodity trading markets were pioneered in Chicago. A number of events led to this, along with Chicago's transportation systems and geographic proximity to the rest of the country. Massive amounts of goods passed through Chicago from places in the Mississippi Valley such as [[St. Louis, Missouri]]. Grain was stored in Chicago, and people began buying contracts on it. Later, people as far away as New York City began buying contracts by telegraph on the goods that would be stored in Chicago in the future. From this were established the [[Chicago Board of Trade]] (CBOT), the [[Chicago Mercantile Exchange]] (CME), and the modern systems we use today for futures and commodity trading. Chicago, and its surrounding suburbs, are home to the second largest concentration of Fortune 500 companies in the United States. The greater Chicago area hosts 31 members of the Fortune 500. The city of Chicago is home to 11 Fortune 500 companies, while the metropolitan area hosts a total of 21 members of the Fortune 500. Chicago also hosts 12 Fortune Global 500 companies and 17 Financial Times 500 companies. Chicago, and its surrounding metropolitan area, are also home to the second largest labor pool in the United States numbering approximately 4.25 million workers. ===See also=== * [[Chicago Climate Exchange]] * [[List of major companies in Chicagoland]] ==Education== [[Image:UChicago gate.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Entrance to the [[University of Chicago|University of Chicago's]] main quadrangle]] ===Public education=== The [[Chicago Public Schools]] (CPS) is the [[school district]] that controls over 600 public elementary and high schools in Chicago. It is currently the third largest school district in the United States, with more 400,000 students enrolled in the school district and is led by [[CEO]] [[Arne Duncan]]. The CPS also includes a number of selective-admission magnet schools, such as [[Whitney Young Magnet High School]], [[William Jones College Prep]], [[Walter Payton College Prep]] and [[Northside College Preparatory High School]]. Like many urban U.S. school districts, CPS suffered with a number of problems throughout the latter half of the 20th century, including overcrowding, underfunding, mismanagement and a high dropout rate. In 1987, then U.S. Secretary of Education [[William Bennett]] named the Chicago Public Schools as the &quot;worst in the nation.&quot; A number of [[education reform|school reform]] initiatives have since been undertaken to improve the system's performance. Reforms have included a system of Local School Councils, [[Charter School]]s, efforts to end [[social promotion]] and others. ===Higher education=== {{main|Colleges and universities of Chicago}} Chicago is home to two of America's leading universities, the [[University of Chicago]] in [[Hyde Park, Chicago|Hyde Park]] and [[Northwestern University]] in nearby [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]]. Northwestern also maintains a campus in downtown Chicago, near the Magnificent Mile. The [[Illinois Institute of Technology]] in [[Bronzeville]] has notable engineering and architecture programs. The city is also home to several honored [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] universities, including [[Loyola University Chicago|Loyola University]], with campuses in [[Rogers Park, Chicago|Rogers Park]], [[Edgewater (Chicago)|Edgewater]] and [[Chicago Water Tower|Water Tower Place]], and [[DePaul University]] with campuses in [[Lincoln Park, Chicago|Lincoln Park]] and [[Chicago Loop| the Loop]]. The Chicago campus of the [[University of Illinois]] system, the [[University of Illinois at Chicago]], is the city's largest university and one of the nation's largest urban public universities. Other state universities in Chicago include [[Chicago State University]] and [[Northeastern Illinois University]]. A number of smaller colleges are known for [[fine arts]] education, including [[Roosevelt University]], [[Columbia College Chicago]], and [[School of the Art Institute of Chicago|The School of the Art Institute of Chicago]]; annually, the latter ranks alongside the [[Rhode Island School of Design]] and [[Yale University]] as having the best graduate and undergraduate level arts programs in the country. The Chicago region boasts 12 accredited theological schools representing most mainline Protestant traditions, including the city's oldest institution of higher education, the United Church of Christ-related [[Chicago Theological Seminary]], the United Methodist run [[Garrett-Evangelical Theological Seminary]], the Episcopal [[Seabury-Wesleyan]] and multiple Roman Catholic institutions, including [[St. Mary of the Lake Seminary]]; the schools are joined in a consortium known as the [http://campus.northpark.edu/acts/ Association of Chicago Theological Schools (ACTS)]. Another well-known Christian school in downtown Chicago is the [[Moody Bible Institute]]. [[Dominican University]], recognized for its accredited library and information science graduate programs, is located just outside Chicago in River Forest, but many of the library courses are taught at the [[Chicago Public Library]]'s main [[Harold Washington]] building in the Loop. The city also has a [[community college]] system known as the [[City Colleges of Chicago]]. Many of these institutions have downtown campuses as well as suburban locations. ==Sports== [[Image:SoxPark.jpg|right|thumb|300px|New Comiskey Park, now known as U.S. Cellular Field on Chicago's South Side. Home of the [[Chicago White Sox]].]] Chicago is one of two U.S. cities (the other being [[New York City]]) that has not only two [[Major League Baseball]] teams but also [[NFL]] [[football]], [[Major League Soccer]] (Fire), [[NBA]] [[basketball]] (Bulls, WNBA Sky), and [[National Hockey League|NHL]] [[ice hockey|hockey]] (Blackhawks) teams. Chicago also has a minor-league hockey team, the [[Chicago Wolves|Wolves]], and a [[National Lacrosse League]] team, the [[Chicago Machine]], which will begin play in 2006. *The [[Chicago Cubs]] of the National League play in the second-oldest major league stadium, [[Wrigley Field]], located in the north side neighborhood of Lakeview. The Cubs are famous as &quot;loveable losers&quot; whose fans are nevertheless famously dedicated. The Cubs are the oldest team to play continuously in the same city since the formation of the [[National League]] in 1876. *The [[Chic
released. The LP was recorded in such haste that side two consisted of just two songs, one of them a 15 minute jam entitled &quot;''Do What You Like''&quot;. Nevertheless, ''Blind Faith'' did include two classics: Winwood's &quot;''Can't Find My Way Home''&quot; and Clapton's &quot;''Presence of the Lord''&quot;. The album's jacket image of a prepubescent girl was deemed controversial in the U.S. and was replaced by a photograph of the band. Blind Faith dissolved after only a year together, and while Winwood went on to a highly successful solo career, by now Clapton was tired of both the spotlight and the hype that had surrounded Cream and Blind Faith, and wanted to make music that more closely resembled that of [[The Band]]. Clapton decided to step into the background for a time, touring as a sideman with the American group [[Delaney and Bonnie and Friends]]. He moved to [[New York]] in late 1969 and worked with the band through early [[1970]]. He became close friends with [[Delaney Bramlett]], who encouraged him in his singing and writing which would show determined growth in his next effort. Using the Bramletts' backing group and an all-star cast of session players including [[Leon Russell]] and [[Stephen Stills]] whose solo albums Clapton played on, he released his first solo album in 1970 fittingly named [[Eric Clapton (album)|Eric Clapton]], which included the Bramlett composition &quot;''Bottle Of Red Wine''&quot; and one of Clapton's best songs from this period, &quot;''Let It Rain''&quot;. It also yielded an unexpected U.S. #18 hit, the [[J.J. Cale]] cover &quot;''After Midnight''&quot;. Clapton's &quot;between-bands&quot; period from 1969 to 1970 also saw him appear on a large number of other artists' records, ranging from George Harrison's ''[[All Things Must Pass]]'' (for contractual reasons, Clapton's contributions went uncredited for decades) to [[The Plastic Ono Band]]'s ''Sometime in New York City'' and [[Dr John]]'s ''Sun Moon and Herbs''. === Derek and the Dominos === Taking over Delaney &amp; Bonnie's rhythm section &amp;mdash; [[Bobby Whitlock]] (keyboards, vocals), [[Carl Radle]] (bass) and [[Jim Gordon (musician)|Jim Gordon]] (drums) &amp;mdash; Clapton formed a new band which was similarly intended to counteract the 'star' cult that had grown up around him and show Clapton as an equal member of a fully-fledged group. This was made evident in the choice of name [[Derek and the Dominos]], derived from an announcer's mispronunciation of the group's provisional name - &quot;Eric &amp; The Dynamos&quot; - at their first concert appearance. Clapton's close friendship with [[George Harrison]] had brought him into contact with Harrison's wife [[Pattie Boyd|Pattie Boyd-Harrison]], with whom he fell deeply in love. When she turned him down, Clapton's unrequited affections prompted most of the material for the Dominos' album ''[[Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs]]'', most notably the hit single &quot;''[[Layla]]''&quot;, inspired by the [[Persians|Persian]] classical poet [[Nizami Ganjavi]]'s &quot;''[[Layla and Majnun|The Story of Layla and Majnun]]''&quot;, a copy of which a friend had given him; Clapton found a strong similarity between the situation of Layla and Majnun and the one between him and Boyd-Harrison. [[Image:Layla Album.jpg|frame|right|''[[Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs]]'' is considered Clapton’s masterpiece]] Working at [[Criteria Studios]] in Miami with legendary [[Atlantic Records]] producer [[Tom Dowd]], the band recorded a brilliant double-album which is now widely regarded as Clapton's masterpiece. The two parts of &quot;''Layla''&quot;&quot; were recorded in separate sessions: the opening guitar section was recorded first, and for the second section, laid down several months later, drummer Jim Gordon composed and played the elegiac piano part. The Layla LP was actually recorded by a five-piece version of the group, thanks to the unforeseen inclusion of guitarist [[Duane Allman]] of [[The Allman Brothers]] Band. A few days into the Layla sessions, Dowd -- who was also producing the Allmans -- invited Clapton to an Allman Brothers outdoor concert in Miami. The two guitarists &amp;mdash; who previously knew each other only by reputation &amp;mdash; met backstage after the show, and then both bands repaired to the studio to jam (an impromptu session which, happily, was captured on tape). Clapton and Allman fell in love with each other's playing and became instant friends, and Allman was immediately invited to become the fifth member of The Dominos. (These studio jams were eventually released as part of the 3-CD 20th-anniversary edition of the Layla album.) When Allman and Clapton met, The Dominos had already recorded three tracks (&quot;''I Looked Away''&quot;, &quot;''Bell Bottom Blues''&quot; and &quot;''Keep On Growing''&quot;); Allman debuted on the fourth cut, &quot;''Nobody Knows You When You're Down And Out''&quot;, and contributed some of his most sublime slide-guitar playing to the remainder of the LP. The album was heavily blues-influenced and featured a winning combination of the twin guitars of Allman and Clapton, with Allman's incendiary slide-guitar a key ingredient of the sound. It showcased some of Clapton's strongest material to date, as well as arguably some of his best guitar playing, with Whitlock also contributing several superb numbers, and his powerful, soul-influenced voice. Tragedy dogged the group throughout its brief career. During the sessions, Clapton was devastated by news of the death of Jimi Hendrix; eight days previously the band had cut a blistering version of &quot;''Little Wing''&quot; as a tribute to him which was added to the album. One year later, on the eve of the group's first American tour, Duane Allman was killed in a motorcycle accident. Adding to Clapton's woes, the ''Layla'' album received only lukewarm reviews on release; he later commented that the album's initial poor reception had angered and disillusioned him, as he had (perhaps naively) expected it to be assessed on its merits rather than his involvement. The shattered group undertook a US tour. Despite Clapton's later admission that the tour took place amidst a veritable blizzard of drugs and alcohol, it resulted in the surprisingly strong live double album ''In Concert''. But [[Derek and the Dominos]] disintegrated messily in [[London]] just as they commenced recording for their second LP. Although Radle worked with Clapton for several more years, the split between Clapton and Whitlock was apparently a bitter one, and they never worked together again. Another tragic footnote to the Dominos story was the fate of drummer Jim Gordon, who was an undiagnosed [[schizophrenia|schizophrenic]] &amp;mdash; some years later, during a [[psychosis|psychotic]] episode, he murdered his mother with a hammer and was confined to a mental institution, where he remains today. [[Image:Clapton.jpg|thumb|left|210px|Eric Clapton in [[Wetzikon]], [[Zurich]], [[Switzerland]] on [[June 19]] [[1977]]]] ===Full Throttle Solo Career=== Despite his success, Clapton's personal life was in a mess by [[1972]]. In addition to his (temporarily) unrequited and intense romantic longing for Pattie Boyd-Harrison, he withdrew from recording and touring and became addicted to [[heroin]], resulting in a career hiatus interrupted only by the [[Concert for Bangladesh]] (where he passed out on stage, was revived, and continued the show). In [[1973 in music|1973]], the &quot;[[Eric Clapton's Rainbow Concert|Rainbow Concert]]&quot; was organized by [[The Who]]'s [[Pete Townshend]] to help Clapton kick the drug. Clapton returned the favour by playing 'The Preacher' in Ken Russell's film version of The Who's ''[[Tommy]]'' in 1975; his appearance in the film (performing &quot;''Eyesight To The Blind''&quot;) is notable for the fact that he is clearly wearing a fake beard in some shots, the result of deciding to shave off his real beard after the initial takes. Now partnered with Boyd-Harrison (they would not actually marry until 1979) and free of heroin (although starting to drink heavily), Clapton put together a strong new touring band that included Radle, [[Miami]] guitarist [[George Terry]], drummer [[Jamie Oldaker]] and vocalists [[Yvonne Elliman]] and [[Marcy Levy]] (later better known as [[Marcella Detroit]] of [[1980s]] pop duo [[Shakespear's Sister]]). With this band Clapton recorded ''[[461 Ocean Boulevard]]'' ([[1974 in music|1974]]), an album with the emphasis on songs rather than musicianship; the cover-version of &quot;''[[I Shot The Sheriff]]''&quot; was a major hit and was important in bringing [[reggae]] and the music of [[Bob Marley]] to a wider audience. The band toured the world and subsequently released the [[1975 in music|1975]] live LP, ''E.C. Was Here''. The [[1975 in music|1975]] album ''There's One In Every Crowd'' continued the trend of ''461''. Its original intended title ''The World's Greatest Guitar Player (There's One In Every Crowd)'' was altered, as it was felt the ironic intention would be missed. (Clapton's own original cover artwork, a (self-)portrait of a miserable-looking character with a pint glass, was also replaced by a photograph of Clapton's dog Jeep, apparently with its muzzle on a coffin.) Clapton continued to release albums sporadically and toured regularly, but much of his output from this period was deliberately low-key and failed to find the wide acceptance of his earlier work; highlights of the era include ''No Reason to Cry'', whose collaborators included [[Bob Dylan]] and [[Robbie Robertson]], and ''[[Slowhand]]'', which featured &quot;''[[Wonderful Tonight]]''&quot;, another song inspired by Pattie Boyd-Harrison, and a second J.J. Cale cover, &quot;''[[Cocaine (song)|Cocaine]]''&quot;, which has since become a rock staple. === Controversy and comeback === In [[1976]], Clapton was the centre of controversy, and accusations of [[racism]], when he
nchorman for football coverage, including their flagship football television programme ''[[Match of the Day]]'', and as a team captain on the comedic sports [[game show]], ''[[They Think It's All Over]]'' from [[1995]] to [[2003]], where he was heavily (though affectionately) ridiculed for being a &quot;goal hanger&quot;. Following the departure of [[Steve Ryder]] from the [[BBC]], Lineker was announced in late [[2005]] as the new presenter for the corporation's [[golf]] coverage. His popularity has enabled him to appear in a light-hearted series of commercials for [[Walkers]] [[crisps]], playing a comical role as an arch-villain which sends up his reputation as a nice guy. In 2001, Gary Lineker was approached by game makers [[Codemasters]] to front the LMA Manager series on Playstation. Lineker would pair up with Alan Hansen, friend and fellow MOTD pundit to voice the post match comments on the game with Barry Davies voicing the commentary. Since then the game has sold millions of copies and in LMA 2006, Gary Lineker voices news items and the cup draws on the game. In 2004 he also choose to front the Codemasters England International Football game with him voicing the team selection and the pre and post match menus. In 2003 Lineker was inducted into the [[English Football Hall of Fame]] in recognition of his talents. In October [[2003]], Lineker announced a £5 million rescue plan for cash-strapped club Leicester City, describing his involvement as charity rather than an ego trip. Lineker said that he would invest a six-figure sum and other members of his consortium would invest a similar amount. Lineker met the fans' group to persuade them to try and raise money to rescue his former club. In [[2005]] Lineker was sued for [[defamation]] by Australian footballer [[Harry Kewell]] over comments Lineker had made writing in his column in the ''[[Sunday Telegraph]]'' about Kewell's transfer from Leeds to Liverpool. However the jury was unable to reach a verdict. It transpired in the case that the article had actually been [[Ghostwriter|ghost-written]] by a journalist at the ''Sunday Telegraph''. {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[FWA Footballer of the Year|Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year]]|before=[[Neville Southall]] |after=[[Clive Allen]]|years=1986}} {{succession box|title=[[PFA Players' Player of the Year]]|before=[[Peter Reid]] |after=[[Clive Allen]]|years=1986}} {{succession box|title=[[FWA Footballer of the Year|Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year]]|before=[[Gordon Strachan]] |after=[[Chris Waddle]]|years=1992}} {{end box}} ==Lincs Trivia== His favourite sitcom is [[Cheers]]. He drives a [[Lexus]]. Shares a birthday with [[Winston Churchill]], hence his middle name of Winston. Once remarked with typical irony &quot;Football is a game with 22 players and in the end the Germans always win&quot; Has never scored at [[Villa Park]], the home of [[Aston Villa]] football club ==External links== *[http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/Hall%20of%20Fame/garylineker.htm English Football Hall of Fame Profile] [[Category:1960 births|Lineker, Gary]] [[Category:Living people|Lineker, Gary]] [[Category:FIFA 100|Lineker, Gary]] [[Category:Leicesterians|Lineker, Gary]] [[Category:English footballers|Lineker, Gary]] [[Category:England footballers|Lineker, Gary]] [[Category:Leicester City F.C. players|Lineker, Gary]] [[Category:Everton F.C. players|Lineker, Gary]] [[Category:FC Barcelona footballers|Lineker, Gary]] [[Category:Tottenham Hotspur F.C. players|Lineker, Gary]] [[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Lineker, Gary]] [[Category:British football broadcasters|Lineker, Gary]] [[Category:British sports broadcasters|Lineker, Gary]] [[de:Gary Lineker]] [[es:Gary Lineker]] [[fr:Gary Lineker]] [[ko:게리 리네커]] [[it:Gary Lineker]] [[he:גארי ליניקר]] [[nl:Gary Lineker]] [[ja:ゲーリー・リネカー]] [[no:Gary Lineker]] [[pl:Gary Lineker]] [[sv:Gary Lineker]] [[zh:加利·連尼加]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Golgi apparatus</title> <id>12584</id> <revision> <id>41336425</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T17:59:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.117.212.65</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[cell biology]], the '''Golgi apparatus''' (also called a '''Golgi body''', '''Golgi complex''', or '''dictyosome''') is an [[organelle]] found in most [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] cells, including those of [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, and [[fungus|fungi]]. The name comes from [[Italy|Italian]] [[anatomy|anatomist]] [[Camillo Golgi]], who identified it in [[1898]]. The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process [[protein]]s targeted to the [[plasma membrane]], [[lysosome]]s or [[endosome]]s, and those that will be formed from the cell, and sort them within [[vesicle (biology)|vesicles]]. Thus, it functions as a central delivery system for the cell. Most of the transport vesicles that leave the [[endoplasmic reticulum]] (ER), specifically ''rough'' ER, [[TRAPP_complex|are transported to the Golgi apparatus]], where they are modified, sorted, and shipped towards their final destination. The Golgi apparatus is present in most [[eukaryote|eukaryotic cell]]s, but tends to be more prominent where there are many substances, such as [[protein]]s, being secreted. For example, [[plasma B cell]]s, the [[antibody]]-secreting cells of the immune system, have prominent Golgi complexes. ==Function== The Golgi apparatus is considered more or less the &quot;[[post office]]&quot; of the cell. It handles all incoming lipids, proteins, etc., and controls their export, as well. The transport vesicles from the [[Endoplasmic Reticulum]] (ER) fuse with the ''cis'' face of the Golgi apparatus (to the cisternae) and empty their [[protein]] content into the Golgi [[lumen]]. The proteins are then transported through the medial region toward the ''trans'' face and are modified on their way. Possible modifications include [[glycosylation]] &lt;!--the logical syntax is &quot;include...AND...&quot; not &quot;include...OR...&quot;; it is understood that both are not mutually-dependent occurrences--&gt;and [[phosphorylation]]. The proteins are also labeled with a sequence of molecules according to their final destination. For example, the Golgi apparatus adds a [[mannose-6-phosphate]] label to proteins destined for lysosomes. The [[TRAPP_complex|transport mechanism]] itself is not yet clear; it could happen by [[cisternae progression]] (the movement of the apparatus itself, building new cisternae at the ''cis'' face and destroying them at the ''trans'' face) or by ''vesicular transport'' (small vesicles transport the proteins from one [[cisterna]] to the next, while the cisternae remain unchanged). It is also proposed that the cisternae are interconnected, and the transport of cargo molecules within the Golgi is due to [[diffusion]], while the localisation of Golgi-resident proteins is achieved by an unknown mechanism. Once the proteins reach the ''trans'' face, they are embedded into coated transport vesicles and brought to their final destinations. The form of the vesicle is determined by the type of protein and the label it acquired. An example of the Golgi complex's functioning is the modification of glycoproteins (used in [[cell membrane]]s). Vesicles from the ER contain simplified glycosylated proteins. In the Golgi complex, carbohydrates are attached and removed from these glycoproteins, creating a diversity of carbohydrate structures on the proteins. After they have been secreted in to the cell the vesicles fuse to the cell membrane and release their contents. Along with protein modification, Golgi apparatus is involved in the transport of [[lipid]]s around the cell, as well, creating [[lysosome]]s, [[organelle]]s involved in [[digestion]]. {{organelles}} [[Category:Organelles]][[Category:Eponymous anatomical structures]] [[cs:Golgiho aparát]] [[da:Golgiapparat]] [[de:Golgi-Apparat]] [[es:Aparato de Golgi]] [[eo:Golĝi-aparato]] [[fr:Appareil de Golgi]] [[ko:골지장치]] [[hr:Golgijev aparat]] [[is:Golgiflétta]] [[it:Apparato del Golgi]] [[he:גולג'י]] [[lt:Goldžio kompleksas]] [[lb:Golgiapparat]] [[mk:Голџиев систем]] [[nl:Golgi-apparaat]] [[ja:ゴルジ体]] [[pl:Aparat Golgiego]] [[pt:Complexo de Golgi]] [[sk:Golgiho aparát]] [[sl:Golgijev aparat]] [[vi:Bộ máy Golgi]] [[tr:Golgi aygıtı]] [[zh:高尔机体]] [[sr:Голџијев апарат]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GFDL (disambiguation)</title> <id>12587</id> <revision> <id>31830725</id> <timestamp>2005-12-18T09:04:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hathawayc</username> <id>221296</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''GFDL''' may stand for: * The [[GNU Free Documentation License]], a [[copyleft]] license * The [[Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory]], a division of [[NOAA]]. {{4LA}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Grace Hopper</title> <id>12590</id> <revision> <id>41651531</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:29:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>168.16.190.72</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* UNIVAC */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GraceHopper.jpg|thumbnail|right|172px|Grace Hopper]] [[Rear Admiral]] '''Grace Murray Hopper''' ([[December 9]], [[1906]] &amp;ndash; [[January 1]], [[1992]]) was an early computer pioneer. She was the first [[programmer]] for the [[Mark I Calculator]] and the developer of the first [[compiler]] for a computer programming language. ==Early life and education== Hopper was born '''Grace Brewster Murray'''. She married Vincent Hopper in 1930 and was divorced in 1945. She graduated [[Phi Beta Kappa Society|Phi Beta Kappa]] from [[Vassar College]] with a bachelor's degree in mathematics and physics in [[1928]] and pursued her graduate education at [[Yale University]], where she received an [[Maste
to operate as usual from the computer's point of view. Depending on the specific computer architecture, drivers can be '''8-bit''', '''16-bit''', '''32-bit''', and more recently, '''64-bit'''. This corresponds directly to the architecture of the [[operating system]] for which those drivers were developed. For example, in 16-bit Windows 3.11, most drivers were 16-bits, while most drivers for 32-bit Windows XP are 32-bit. More recently, specific 64-bit [[Linux]] and Windows versions have required hardware vendors to provide newer 64-bit drivers for their devices. ==Device driver development== Writing a device driver is considered a challenge in most cases, as it requires an in-depth understanding of how a given [[System platform|platform]] functions, both at the hardware and the software level. Because many device drivers execute in [[kernel mode]], software bugs often have much more damaging effects to the system. This is in contrast to most types of user-level software running under modern [[operating system]]s, which can be stopped without greatly affecting the rest of the system. Even drivers executing in [[user mode]] can crash a system if the device being controlled is erroneously programmed. These factors make it more difficult and dangerous to diagnose problems. All of this means that the [[software engineer|engineers]] most likely to write device drivers come from the companies that develop the hardware. This is because they have more complete access to information about the design of their hardware than most outsiders. Moreover, it was traditionally considered in the hardware [[manufacturer]]'s interest to guarantee that their clients would be able to use their hardware in an optimum way. However, in recent years non-vendors too have written numerous device drivers, mainly for use under [[free software|free operating systems]]. In such cases, co-operation on behalf of the vendor is still important, however, as [[reverse engineering]] is much more difficult with hardware than it is with software, meaning it may take a long time to learn to operate hardware that has an unknown interface. ==Device driver applications== Because of the diversity of modern [[hardware]] and operating systems, many ways exist in which drivers can be used. Drivers are used for [[Interface (computer science)|interfacing]] with: * [[Computer_printer|Printer]]s * [[Video adapter]]s * [[Network card]]s * [[Sound card]]s * Local [[computer bus | bus]]es of various sorts - in particular, for [[bus mastering]] on modern systems * Low-[[bandwidth]] [[input/output | I/O]] buses of various sorts (for [[pointing device]]s such as [[computer mouse | mice]], [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]]s, [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]], etc.) * [[computer storage]] device ([[hard disk]], [[CD-ROM]] and [[floppy disk]] buses ([[Advanced Technology Attachment|ATA]], [[SATA]] [[SCSI]]) * Implementing support for different [[file system]]s * Implementing support for [[image scanner]]s and [[digital camera]]s Common levels of abstraction for device drivers are: * On the hardware side: ** Interfacing directly ** Using some higher-level interface (e.g. Video [[BIOS]]) ** Using another lower-level device driver (e.g. file system drivers using disk drivers) ** Simulating work with hardware, while doing something entirely different * On the software side: ** Allowing the operating system direct access to hardware resources ** Implementing only [[primitive (computer science) | primitive]]s ** Implementing an interface for non-driver software (e.g. [[TWAIN]]) ** Implementing a language, sometimes quite high-level, e.g. [[PostScript]] Choosing and installing the correct device drivers for given hardware is often a key component of computer system configuration. ==Virtual device drivers== A particular variant of device drivers are ''virtual device drivers''. They are used in virtualization environments, for example when an [[MS-DOS]] program is run on a [[Microsoft Windows]] computer or when a guest [[operating system]] is run inside eg. [[VMware]]. Instead of enabling the guest operating system to dialog with hardware, virtual device drivers take the opposite role and emulate a piece of hardware, so that the guest operating system and its drivers running inside a [[virtual machine]] can have the illusion of accessing real hardware. Attempts by the guest operating system to access the hardware are routed to the virtual device driver in the host operating system as eg. [[function call]]s. The virtual device driver can also send simulated processor-level events like [[interrupt]]s into the virtual machine. ==Open drivers== * Printers: [[CUPS]]. * Scanners: [[Scanner Access Now Easy|SANE]]. ==See also== *[[Class driver]] *[[Open hardware]] *[[Processor register|Register]] *[[Interrupt]] *[[Port (computing)]] ==External links== *[http://www.driverguide.com Free drivers on DriverGuide] *[http://driversplanet.com Links to driver files on Drivers Planet] *[http://slashdot.org/comments.pl?sid=140815&amp;cid=11796950 A discussion of drivers' future] *[http://www.xml.com/ldd/chapter/book/ Linux Device Drivers] *[http://softwaredriverdownload.com Rare and Popular Hardware Drivers Download] *[http://www.microsoft.com/whdc Microsoft Windows Hardware and Driver Central] [[Category:Device drivers| ]] [[cs:Ovladač]] [[da:Hardwaredriver]] [[de:Gerätetreiber]] [[es:Controlador de dispositivo]] [[fr:Pilote (informatique)]] [[he:מנהל התקן]] [[lt:Draiveris]] [[nl:Stuurprogramma]] [[ja:デバイスドライバ]] [[pl:Sterownik urządzenia]] [[pt:Driver de dispositivo]] [[ro:Driver]] [[ru:Драйвер]] [[sv:Drivrutin]] [[zh:驱动程序]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dimona</title> <id>9103</id> <revision> <id>39703783</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T06:46:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>129.64.165.64</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Dimona Nuclear Reactor */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dimona''' is an [[Israel|Israeli]] city in the [[Negev]] desert, 36 kilometers to the south of [[Beer-Sheva]] and 35 kilometers west of the [[Dead Sea]] in the [[Southern District of Israel]]. Dimona was one among several &quot;development towns&quot; that were created in the [[1950s]] at the initiative of [[David Ben-Gurion]]. Dimona itself was conceived in [[1953]], and settled in [[1955]], mostly by new immigrants from Northern Africa, who also constructed the city's houses. When the [[Israel and weapons of mass destruction|Israeli nuclear program]] started later that decade, a location not so far from the city was chosen due to its relative isolation in the desert and availability of housing. In spite of a gradual decrease during the [[1980s]], the city's population began to grow once again with the beginning of the Russian immigration in the [[1990s]]. Currently, Dimona is the third largest city in the Negev, with the population of 31,200 (1995 estimate). About a third of the city's population works in industrial workplaces (chemical plants near the [[Dead Sea]], [[high-tech]] companies and [[textile]] shops), and another third in the area of services. Due to the introduction of new technologies, many workers have found themselves fired in the recent years, creating a total unemployment rate of about 10%. Dimona is the centre of the [[Black Hebrews]], a small religious community that lives according to their own special rules. == Dimona Nuclear Reactor == [[Image:Kamag.jpg|thumb|199px|right|''Institute 2'', Israel Atomic Energy Commission (IAEC), Dimona, photographed by [[Mordechai Vanunu]]]] An Israeli nuclear installation is located about ten kilometres to the south of Dimona, the Negev Nuclear Research Center. Its construction commenced in [[1958]], with [[France|French]] assistance. The official reason given by the Israeli and French governments was to build a [[nuclear reactor]] to power a &quot;desalination plant&quot;, in order to &quot;green the Negev&quot;. The purpose of Dimona is widely assumed to be the manufacturing of [[nuclear weapon]]s, and the majority of defense experts have concluded that it does in fact do that. However, the Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny this publicly, as part of a [[policy of deliberate ambiguity]]. The Dimona reactor went on-line some time between 1962 and 1964, and with the [[plutonium]] produced there, perhaps together with some [[enriched uranium]] acquired through mysterious means (see [[Plumbat Operation]]), the [[Israel Defence Forces]] most probably had their first nuclear weapons ready before the [[Six-Day War]]. Although the Israeli government has always claimed it has been used for peaceful purposes, the United States has flown over the site with [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] aircraft to sample the air for radioactive by-products. When the [[United States]] intelligence community discovered the purpose of Dimona in the early 1960s, it demanded that Israel agree to international inspections. Israel agreed, but on a condition that US, rather than [[IAEA]], inspectors were used, and that Israel would receive advance notice of all inspections. Some claim that because Israel knew the schedule of the inspectors' visits, it was able to hide the alleged purpose of the site (manufacturing of nuclear weapons) from the inspectors, by installing temporary false walls and other devices before each inspection. The inspectors eventually informed the U.S. government that their inspections were useless, due to Israeli restrictions on what areas of the facility they could inspect. In [[1969]], the United States terminated the inspections. In [[1986]], [[Mordechai Vanunu]], a former technician at Dimona, revealed to the media some evidence of Israel's nuclear program. Israeli agents kidnapped him from Italy, drugged him and transported him to Israel. An Israeli court then tried him in secret on charges of [[treason]] and [[espionage]], and sentenced him to eighteen years imprisonment. At
Swire's exquisitely written Albania: The Rise of a Kingdom. Anton Logoreci's The Albanians: Europe's Forgotten Survivors and Peter R. Prifti's Socialist Albania since 1944: Domestic and Foreign Developments are both solidly grounded surveys of Albania and its trials, especially after World War II. Postwar Albania, especially the last years of Enver Hoxha's regime, is well treated in Elez Biberaj's Albania. ==References== *[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3235.htm 2003 U.S. Department of State Background Note] of Albania *[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/altoc.html Library of Congress Country Study] of Albania *Oxford Encyclopedic World Atlas 5th Edition, Ed. Keith Lyle, Copyright 2000, Printed in Spain ==See also== *[[Albania in the Middle Ages]] *[[Timeline of Albanian history to 1993]] *[[Timeline of Albanian history from 1994]] *[[History of the Balkans]] *[[History of Europe]] *[[History of present-day nations and states]] ==External links== * [http://www.albasoul.com/historia Collection of materials about the history of Albania (mostly in Albanian, partly in English)] * [http://historia.shqiperia.com Comprehensive history of Albania before 1912 (in Albanian)] * [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/durham/albania/albania.html High Albania] book by [[Edith Durham]] about her travels in northern Albania in the early [[1900s]]. * [http://www.richmcclear.com/albanians_&amp;_culture.htm Essay on Albanian Culture] * [http://www.rulers.org/rula1.html#albania Rulers.org — Albania] list of rulers for Albania * [http://www.iue.it/VL/history/europe/albania.html WWW-VL: History: Albania] [[Category:History of Europe|Albania]] [[Category:History of Albania| ]] [[de:Geschichte Albaniens]] [[fr:Histoire de l'Albanie]] [[it:Storia dell'Albania]] [[lt:Albanijos istorija]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van Albanië]] [[pt:História da Albânia]] [[sl:Zgodovina Albanije]] [[sv:Albaniens historia]] [[zh:阿尔巴尼亚历史]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Heimatvertriebenen</title> <id>13906</id> <revision> <id>15911491</id> <timestamp>2004-03-02T14:41:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ywsf</username> <id>48332</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Handfasting</title> <id>13908</id> <revision> <id>41540241</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:02:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Michael Hardy</username> <id>4626</id> </contributor> <comment>This is straight from the second definition of the word &quot;handfasting&quot; in the Oxford English Dictionary as found on the web at www.oed.com . Anyone who disputes this cannot have looked very hard!</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Handfasting''' is an ancient [[Celt]]ic [[wedding]] ritual in which the bride's and groom's hands are tied together &amp;mdash;hence the phrase &quot;tying the knot&quot;. It was a part of the normal marriage ceremony in the time of the [[Roman Empire]]. In the [[16th century]], the English cleric [[Myles Coverdale]] wrote in ''The Christen State of Matrymonye'', that in that day, handfasting was still in use in some places, but was then separate from the Christian wedding rite performed in a church several weeks after the consumation of the marriage, which had already begun with the handfasting ritual. According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], handfasting was then sometimes treated as a probationary form of marriage. See [http://www.medievalscotland.org/history/handfasting.shtml Historical Handfasting] for an introduction to the historical roots of handfasting. One unique tale of a handfasting tradition was that of the Telltown marriages. These took place once per year, on the [[Sabbat]] [[Lughnasadh]], and all unmarried people would get together and be married, usually with no knowledge of to whom they were being married until that day. The marriage would last until the next Lughnasadh. At that time, they were free to leave the union if they desired. These however were not the common practices of handfasting. Couples would choose whom they wanted to marry as in modern-day practice, and have a handfasting with loose wraps and knots to signify that it was only for a year and a day. During this time, the couple would live together as a married couple. After the year and day were over, the couple would then choose to either part ways or make it permanent. If they choose to make it permanent, they would then once again have a ceremony similar to the first with the exception of the wraps and knots being done tight. These ceremonies generally were held on [[Beltane]]. Beltane was chosen out of the other Sabbats because it mirrored the God and Goddess's union. ==Modern usage== In the present day, many [[Neopagan]]s (especially [[Wicca]]ns) practice this ritual. In some cases, it symbolizes the beginning of trial marriage, typically lasting a year and a day; if the proper measures are taken, it can be a legal marriage ceremony. Handfastings can be performed for [[heterosexual]] or [[homosexuality|homosexual]] couples (see also [[same-sex marriage]]), as well as for larger groups in the case of [[polyamory|polyamorous]] relationships. [[Image:Paganavebury.jpg|300px|right]] As with many [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] rituals, the relationship of the current ceremony to historical practices is tenuous. There is no universal procedure for the ceremony, and the elements included are generally up to the couple being handfasted. A [[High Priest]] or [[High Priestess]] may officiate, or the couple may conduct the ceremony themselves. Handfasting usually takes place outside, and, like many Wiccan rituals, may be performed [[skyclad]], or nude. In Wicca, the couple often jumps over a broom or, more commonly, a small bonfire to symbolize entering matrimony. Today, many{{fact}}&lt;!--citation requested 10 Dec 05 --&gt; couples opt for a handfasting ceremony in place of, or incorporated into, their wedding. A corresponding [[divorce]] [[ceremony]] called a [[handparting]] is sometimes practiced. Handpartings are not always performed for the same reasons as mainstream divorce. One unique feature of handfasting as opposed to traditional marriage is that the couple may choose the length of time for which the marriage lasts: either for a year and a day, a lifetime, or for all eternity. In a Wiccan handparting, the couple often jumps backwards over the broom before parting hands. [[Image:HandFastingKnot-1.jpg|frame|An example of a handfasting knot tied by each wedding guest]] ==Rings and handfastings== As with traditional marriages, couples often exchange rings during handfastings, symbolizing the couple's desire to be faithful to each other and to share the rest of their lives together. Many pagan couples choose rings with Celtic designs to resonate with the origins of handfastings, while others choose traditional wedding rings. ==Tying the knot== The term &quot;tying the knot&quot;, which is still used widely today, originates with the practice of handfasting. During the ceremony, the couple's hands are tied together with a red cord or ribbon, symbolizing the desire, passion and vitality of the love the couple have for each other. The cord is often kept by the couple as a reminder of their vows. In a handparting, the cord is tied at the beginning of the ceremony and cut at the end. Other traditions involve each wedding guest tying a ribbon around the couple's hands to symbolize the community's support and recognition of their bond. ==External links== *[http://www.avalonia.co.uk/book_of_shadows/handfasting.htm What is Handfasting &amp; an Example Ceremony from Avalonia] *[http://www.medievalscotland.org/history/handfasting.shtml Historical Handfasting] [[Category:Wicca]] [[Category:Neopaganism]] [[Category:Wedding]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of the Pacific Islands</title> <id>13910</id> <revision> <id>29797917</id> <timestamp>2005-12-01T12:22:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brunnock</username> <id>163933</id> </contributor> <comment>recat from History to History by region</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">History of islands in the [[Pacific Ocean]]. *[[History of Alaska]] *[[History of American Samoa]] *[[History of Australia]] *[[History of Baker Island]] *[[History of Brunei]] *[[History of the Caroline Islands]] *[[History of Easter Island]] *[[History of Fiji]] *[[History of French Polynesia]] *[[History of the Galapagos Islands]] *[[History of Guam]] *[[History of Hawaii]] *[[History of Indonesia]] *[[History of Japan]] *[[History of Kiribati]] *[[History of Malaysia]] *[[History of Marquesas Islands]] *[[History of Melanesia]] *[[History of Micronesia]] *[[History of the Marshall Islands]] *[[History of New Caledonia]] *[[History of New Zealand]] *[[History of Papua New Guinea]] *[[History of the Philippines]] *[[History of Samoa]] *[[History of the Society Islands]] *[[History of the Solomon Islands]] *[[History of Taiwan]] *[[History of Tahiti]] *[[History of Tokelau]] *[[History of Tonga]] *[[History of Tuamotu]] *[[History of Vanuatu]] [[Category:Pacific Ocean]] [[Category:History by region]] [[es:Historia de las Islas Pacíficas]] [[ja:&amp;#22826;&amp;#24179;&amp;#27915;&amp;#23798;&amp;#23996;&amp;#21490;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Harp</title> <id>13911</id> <revision> <id>41931259</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:31:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Craig Stuntz</username> <id>26101</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Wire-strung harps (''clarsach'' or ''clairseach'') */ remove duplicate sentence (see two paragraphs later). Fix wikilinks</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Harp''
† ***********Subclass: Scyphomedusae ************Order: Coronatae ************Order: Semaeostomeae ************Order: Rhizostomeae **********Class: [[Staurozoa]] ************Order: Stauromedusae ************Order: Conulatae † **********Class: [[Cubozoa]] ************Order: Cubomedusae ==External links== {{wikispecies|Cnidaria}} {{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Cnidaria}} {{commonscat|Cnidaria}} * [http://www.ucihs.uci.edu/biochem/steele/default.html A Cnidaria homepage maintained by University of California, Irvine] * [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Cnidaria&amp;contgroup=Animals Cnidaria page at ''Tree of Life''] * [http://www.paleoportal.org/fossil_gallery/taxon.php?taxon_id=55 Fossil Gallery: Cnidarians] * [http://www.oceanicresearch.org/cnidarian.html Wonders of the Seas: Cnidarians] [[Category:venomous animals]] [[Category:Cnidarians|*]] {{Link FA|de}} {{Link FA|uk}} [[bg:Мешести]] [[ca:Cnidaris]] [[cs:Žahavci]] [[da:Nældecelledyr]] [[de:Nesseltiere]] [[es:Cnidaria]] [[eo:Knidulo]] [[fr:Cnidaria]] [[ko:자포동물]] [[io:Knidulo]] [[it:Cnidaria]] [[he:צורבים]] [[la:Cnidaria]] [[lt:Duobagyviai]] [[mk:Жаркари]] [[nl:Neteldieren]] [[nds:Cnidaria]] [[ja:刺胞動物]] [[pl:Parzydełkowce]] [[pt:Cnidaria]] [[sl:Ožigalkarji]] [[sr:Жарњаци]] [[fi:Polttiaiseläimet]] [[sv:Nässeldjur]] [[uk:Кишковопорожнинні]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coelenterates</title> <id>6622</id> <revision> <id>15904748</id> <timestamp>2002-07-26T03:50:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Malcolm Farmer</username> <id>135</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>orphan, redirecting-&gt;cnidaria, which includes the minimal content that was here</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Cnidaria]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Conservative Judaism</title> <id>6623</id> <revision> <id>41835742</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:30:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>146.115.64.163</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Jew}} '''Conservative Judaism''', also known as '''Masorti Judaism''', is a modern denomination of [[Judaism]] that arose in [[United States]] in the early 1900s. Conservative Judaism is characterized by: * A commitment to following [[Halakha|traditional Jewish laws and customs]] * A deliberately non-[[fundamentalist]] teaching of [[Jewish principles of faith]]. * A positive attitude toward modern culture * An acceptance of both traditional rabbinic modes of study and modern scholarship and critical text study when considering Jewish religious texts. Conservative Judaism has its roots in the school of thought known as Positive-Historical Judaism, developed in 1850s [[Germany]] as a reaction to the more liberal religious positions taken by [[Reform Judaism]]. The term ''conservative'' was meant to signify that Jews should attempt to ''conserve'' Jewish tradition, rather than reform or abandon it, and does not imply the movement's adherents are [[conservative (politics)|politically conservative]]. Because of this potential for confusion, a number of Conservative rabbis have proposed renaming the movement, and outside of the [[United States of America]] it is known as ''Masorti'' Judaism (Hebrew for &quot;Traditional&quot;). == History == Like [[Reform Judaism]], the Conservative movement developed in Europe and the United States in the 1800s, as Jews reacted to the changes brought about by the [[The Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and [[Jewish emancipation]]. In Europe the movement was known as Positive-Historical Judaism, and it is still known as &quot;the historical school.&quot; Positive-Historical Judaism, the intellectual forerunner to Conservative Judaism, was developed as a school of thought in 1850s [[Germany]] by a number of thinkers, including [[Rabbi]] [[Zecharias Frankel]]. Frankel rejected the positions taken by [[Reform Judaism]] as a deviation from traditional Judaism. Frankel became the head of the Jewish Theological Seminary of [[Wrocław|Breslau, Germany]]. The seminary taught that [[halakha|Jewish law]] was not static, but rather has always developed in response to changing conditions. He called his approach towards Judaism &quot;Positive-Historical,&quot; which meant that one should have a positive attitude towards accepting Jewish law and tradition as [[normative]], yet one should be open to developing the law in the same fashion that it has always historically developed. Frankel did not attempt to establish a separate movement; he was interested in promoting a school of thought. At the time, he was seen by more religiously liberal Jews as not very different from the neo-Orthodox (later: &quot;[[Modern Orthodox]]&quot;) Jews, but to many in [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodoxy]], Frankel's openness to modern methods of historical scholarship put him beyond the pale of Orthodoxy, and he was thus associated with the more radical [[Reform Judaism|Reform movement]]. In 1902, [[Solomon Schechter]] reorganized the [[Jewish Theological Seminary]] in New York City and made it into a flagship institution of Conservative Judaism. In the USA the movement became known as Conservative Judaism; later it became known as [[Masorti]] (traditional) Judaism outside of the USA. In the 1990s, the University of Judaism in Los Angeles established the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies as an independent rabbinical school. The organizations of Conservative Judaism are linked through the Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism, which meets quarterly. == Beliefs == For much of the movement's history, Conservative Judaism avoided publishing systematic explications of the [[Jewish principles of faith]]. This was a conscious attempt to hold together a wide coalition. This concern largely became a non-issue after the left-wing of the movement seceded in 1968 to form the Reconstructionist movement, and after the right-wing seceded in 1985 to form the [[Union for Traditional Judaism]]. In 1988, the leadership council of Conservative Judaism finally issued an official statement of belief, ''Emet Ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism''. In accord with classical rabbinic Judaism, it agrees that Jews must hold certain beliefs. However, it notes that the Jewish community never developed any one binding catechism. Thus, it is difficult if not impossible to pick out only one person's formal creed and hold it as binding. Instead, ''Emet Ve-Emunah'' allows for a range of Jewish beliefs that Conservative rabbis believe are authentically Jewish and justifiable. Thus, ''Emet Ve-Emunah'' affirms belief in God and in God's revelation of Torah to the Jews; however it also affirms the legitimacy of multiple interpretations of these issues. [[Atheism]], [[Trinity|Trinitarian]] views of God, and [[polytheism]] are all ruled out. Conservative Judaism explicitly rejects [[relativism]], yet also rejects literalism and [[fundamentalism]]. === God === Conservative Judaism affirms [[monotheism]]. Its members have varied beliefs about the nature of [[God]], and no one understanding of God is mandated. Among the beliefs affirmed are: [[Maimonides|Maimonidean rationalism]]; [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic mysticism]]; [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] panentheism (neo-Hasidism, Jewish Renewal); limited theism (as in [[Harold Kushner]]'s &quot;When Bad Things Happen to Good People&quot;); organic thinking in the fashion of Whitehead and Hartshorne, a.k.a. [[process theology]] (such as Rabbis Max Kaddushin and [[William E. Kaufman]]). [[Mordecai Kaplan]]'s religious naturalism ([[Reconstructionist Judaism]]) used to have an influential place in the movement, but since Reconstructionism developed as an independent movement, this influence has waned. Papers from a recent [[Rabbinical Assembly]] conference on theology were recently printed in a special issue of the journal ''Conservative Judaism'' (Winter 1999); the editors note that Kaplan's naturalism seems to have dropped from the movement's radar screen. === Revelation === In agreement with traditional Judaism, Conservative Judaism holds that God inspired [[prophet]]s to write the Torah (five books of Moses) and the Hebrew Bible. However, for theological reasons most Conservative Jews reject the traditional Jewish idea that God dictated the words of the Torah to Moses at Mount Sinai in a verbal [[revelation]]. Divine revelation, however, while held to be real, is generally believed to be non-verbal -- that is, the revelation did not include the particular words of the divine texts. Conservative Judaism allows its adherents to hold to a wide array of views on the subject of revelation. Conservative Jews are comfortable with the findings of [[higher criticism]], including the [[documentary hypothesis]], the idea that the current text of the Torah was redacted together from several earlier sources. They go further, and the movement's rabbinic authorities and official Torah commentary (''Etz Hayim: A Torah Commentary'') affirm that Jews should make use of modern critical literary and historical analysis to understand how the Bible developed. These views are rejected as heretical by most of Orthodox Judaism, but are accepted as valid by all non-Orthodox Jewish movements. Conservative Jews reconcile these beliefs by holding that God, in some way, did reveal his will to Moses and later prophets. However, records of revelation may have been passed down through the centuries in many ways, including written documents, folklores, epic poems, etc. These records were eventually redacted together to form the Torah, and later on, the other books of the Tanakh [Hebrew Bible]. === Jewish law === Conservative Jews view the laws and customs from the various law codes as the basis for [[Halakha|Jewish law]]. However it holds that &quot;however great the literary value of a code may be, it does not invest it with infallibility, nor does it exempt it fr