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and His Oracles''. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002.
* Coote, Robert B. ''Amos Among the Prophets: Composition and Theology''. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1981.
* Haynes, John H. ''Amos the Eighth Century Prophet: His Times and His Preaching''. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1988.
* Hasel, Gerhard F. ''Understanding the Book of Amos: Basic Issues in Current Interpretations''. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1991.
==External links==
Online translations of ''Book of Amos'':
* [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/30_amos.htm ''Amos'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
* {{biblegateway||Amos}}
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Amos ''Amos'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
Related articles:
* [http://explorers.whyte.com/Bible/amos.htm Nicholas Whyte on Amos]
* [http://www.bible.gen.nz/ ''Amos'' Hypertext Bible Commentary]
----
''Prepared in 2005 for the course BIBL5023 at [[Acadia Divinity College]]''
[[Category:Nevi'im|Amos]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Amos]]
[[cs:Kniha Ámos]]
[[de:Amos (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre d'Amos]]
[[pl:Księga Amosa]]
[[fi:Aamoksen kirja]]
[[zh:阿摩司書]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amphipolis</title>
<id>1727</id>
<revision>
<id>41392175</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T00:56:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.12.116.70</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amphipolis location.jpg|right|300px|]]
'''Amphipolis''' (modern Greek: '''Amfipoli'''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]), was an ancient city of [[Macedon]]ia, on the east bank of the river [[Strymon]], where it emerges from Lake Cercinitis, about 3 m. from the sea.
Originally a [[Thracian]] town, known as ''Ennea Odoi'' ("Nine Roads"), it was [[colonized]] by Athenians with other Greeks under [[Hagnon]] in [[437 BC]], previous attempts--in [[497 BC|497]], [[476 BC|476]] (Schol. [[Aeschines|Aesch.]] ''De fals. leg.'' 31) and [[465 BC|465]]--having been unsuccessful.
In [[424 BC]] it surrendered to the Spartan [[Brasidas]] without resistance, owing to the gross negligence of the historian [[Thucydides]], who was with the fleet at [[Thasos]]. In [[422 BC]] [[Cleon]] led an unsuccessful expedition to recover it, in which both he and Brasidas were slain (see [[Battle of Amphipolis]]).
The importance of Amphipolis in ancient times was due to the fact that it commanded the bridge over the Strymon, and consequently the route from northern [[Greece]] to the [[Hellespont]]; it was important also as a depot for the gold and silver mines of the district, and for timber, which was largely used in shipbuilding. This importance is shown by the fact that, in the [[peace of Nicias]] ([[421 BC]]), its restoration to [[Athens]] is made the subject of a special provision, and that about [[417 BC|417]], this provision not having been observed, at least one expedition was made by Nicias with a view to its recovery.
[[Philip of Macedon]] made a special point of occupying it ([[357 BC|357]]), and under the early empire it became the headquarters of the Roman propraetor, though it was recognized as independent.
Many inscriptions, coins, etc., have been found here, and traces of the ancient fortifications and of a [[Roman aqueduct]] are visible.
==Amphipolis in other media==
[[Xena]], the main fictional character in the [[TV]] series ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]'', was of Amphipolis.
==External links==
*[http://www.livius.org Livius], [http://www.livius.org/am-ao/amphipolis/amphipolis.html Amphipolis (Ennea Hodoi)] by Jona Lendering
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Ancient Greek cities]]
[[Category:Athenian colonies]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Greece]]
[[de:Amphipolis]]
[[fa:آمفیپولیس]]
[[fr:Amphipolis]]
[[la:Amphipolis]]
[[nl:Amphipolis]]
[[pl:Amfipolis]]
{{Link FA|fr}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amram</title>
<id>1728</id>
<revision>
<id>39187631</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T08:55:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.176.153.107</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Amram means "people are exalted"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|[[Amram Gaon]] was a Jewish Babylonian sage who lived in the 9th century.}}
'''Amram''' ('''&#1506;&#1463;&#1502;&#1456;&#1512;&#1464;&#1501;''' "Friend of the most high ([[Elohim|God]]"), or "People are Exalted" [[Standard Hebrew]] '''&#703;Amram''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#703;Amr&#257;m''') is a [[Levite]], a son of [[Kohath]], the husband of [[Jochebed]] (Ex 6,20 and Num 26,59) and father of [[Aaron]], [[Miriam]] and [[Moses]]. He is mentioned in the [[Book of Exodus]].
According to the [[Talmud]], Amram promulgated the laws of [[marriage]] and [[divorce]] amongst the Jews in Egypt.
The Arabic version refers to the father of Moses as Imran - and the Israeli/Jewish people are referred to as "Aale Imran" (Children of Imran) in the [[Qur'an]], the third [[Surah]] of which is titled ''The House of Imran''. "Imran" is also the name attributed by Muslims to the father of the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] (he is not named in the Bible, but called "Joachim" in Catholic and Orthodox Tradition).
The Testament of Amram ([[2nd century BC]]) is the name assigned to one of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] (4Q535, Manuscript B). It is related to the [[Watchers]]:
''[[Enoch]]: "I saw Watchers in my vision, the dream-vision. Two men were fighting over me ... holding a great contest over me. I asked them, 'Who are you, that you are thus empowered over me?' They answered, 'We have been empowered and rule over all mankind.' They said to me, 'Which of us do you choose to rule you?' I raised my eyes and looked. One of them was terrifying in his appearance, like a serpent, his cloak, many-colored yet very dark. ... And I looked again, and in his appearance, his visage like a [[viper]]. ... I replied to him, 'This Watcher, who is he?' He answered, 'This Watcher ... his three names are [[Belial]] and [[Prince of Darkness]] and [[King of Evil]].' I said (to the other Watcher), 'My lord, what dominion (have you?)' He answered, 'You saw (the viper), and he is empowered over all Darkness, while I (am empowered over all Light.) ... My three names are [[Michael]], [[Prince of Light]] and [[King of Righteousness]].'"'' (translation Prof. Robert Eisenman)
[[Category:Torah people]]
[[de:Amram]]
[[fr:Imran]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amyntas I of Macedon</title>
<id>1729</id>
<revision>
<id>36832661</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T19:56:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>168.233.1.6</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Amyntas I''', king of [[Macedon]] (c. [[540 BC|540]]-[[498 BC]]), was a
tributary vassal of [[Darius Hystaspes]] of [[Iran|Persia]]. With him the history of Macedon may be said to begin. He was the first of its rulers to have relations with other countries; he entered into an alliance with the [[Pisistratus|Peisistratidae]] of [[Athens]], and when [[Hippias (son of Pisistratus)|Hippias]] was driven out of Athens he offered him the territory of [[Anthemus]] on the [[Thermaic Gulf]], with the object of turning the [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] party feuds to his own advantage.
'''Ancient sources:''' ([[Herodotus]] v. 17, 94; [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]] vii. 2; [[Thucydides]] ii. 100; [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] ix. 40).
{{1911}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
title=[[Kings of Macedon|King of Macedon]] |
before=[[Alcetas I of Macedon|Alcetas I]] |
after=[[Alexander I of Macedon|Alexander I]] |
years=547 BC&ndash;498 BC
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:498 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Macedonian monarchs]]
[[Category:Ancient Greece]]
[[de:Amyntas I.]]
[[fr:Amyntas Ier]]
[[no:Amyntas I av Makedonia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amyntas III of Macedon</title>
<id>1730</id>
<revision>
<id>32160863</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-20T22:48:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>YurikBot</username>
<id>271058</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amyntas III-161113.jpg|thumb|Amyntas III, stater]]
'''Amyntas III''' (or '''II'''), son of Arrhidaeus, grandfather of [[Alexander the Great]], was king of [[Macedon]] from [[393 BC|393]] (or 389) to [[369 BC]].
He came to the throne after the ten years of confusion which followed the death of [[Archelaus II of Macedon|Archelaus II]], the patron of art and literature. But he had many enemies at home; in [[383 BC|383]] he was driven out by the [[Illyria]]ns, but in the following year, with the aid of the [[Thessalia]]ns, he recovered his kingdom.
He concluded a treaty with the [[Sparta]]ns, who assisted him to reduce [[Olynthus]] ([[379 BC|379]]). He also entered into a league with [[Jason of Pherae]], and assiduously cultivated the friendship of [[Athens]].
By his wife, [[Eurydice II of Macedon|Eurydice]], he had three sons, the youngest of whom was the famous [[Philip II of Macedon]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
title=[[Kings of Macedon|King of Macedon]] |
before=[[Argaeus II of Macedon|Argaeus II]] |
after=[[Alexander II of Macedon|Alexander II]] |
years=393 BC&ndash;369 BC
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:369 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Macedonian monarchs]]
[[de:Amyntas III.]]
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[[pl:Amyntas III Macedoński]]
[[fi:Amyntas III]]
[[sv:Amyntas III]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Anabaptists</title>
<id>1731</id>
<revision>
<id>15900196</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
< |
g is used in 43 of the 191 countries in the [[United Nations]] for either local or national elections. In particular, plurality voting is particularly prevalent in the United Kingdom and former British colonies, including the United States and Canada. {{ref|brit}}
==Voting==
In single winner plurality voting, each voter is allowed to vote for one candidate, and the winner of the election is whichever candidate represents a [[plurality]] of voters, that is, whoever received the largest number of votes. This makes the plurality voting system among the simplest of all voting systems. <!-- contrast with [[bloc voting]] and [[single non-transferable vote]] and [[cumulative voting]] here -->
In an election for a legislative body, each voter in a given geographically-defined [[Constituency|electoral district]] votes for one candidate from a list of candidates competing to represent that district. Under the plurality system, the winner of the election acts as representative of the entire electoral district, and serves with representatives of other electoral districts.
In an election for a single seat, such as [[president]] in a [[presidential system]], the same style of ballot is used and the candidate who receives the largest number of votes represents the entire population.
===Ballot types===
Generally, plurality ballots can be categorized into two forms. The simplest form is a blank ballot where the name of a candidate is written in by hand. A more structured ballot will list all the candidates and allow a mark to be made by a single candidate, however a structured ballot can also include space for a [[write-in candidate]] as well.
Plurality voting is based on minimal information- a person's vote can be entirely represented by a binary choice, so anything can be used to signify a vote- the ancient [[Greeks]] would vote on [[Ostracism|ostracizing]] someone with pebbles. Votes cast as physical objects can also create a realistic display of the election results, such as an array of candidates with jars filled with differently colored beans, with the winner being the most-filled.
===Examples of plurality voting===
====Simple example====
For an example, consider the election for the president of a school class. Each class has a president, who sits on a school council. Further assume that, in this imaginary school, male and female students disagree with each other on most issues, and students prefer to vote for others of the same sex as themselves.
In this example, the class members (the "electors") only vote once, and their votes help to choose both a class president and a member of the school council (the same person).
In our hypothetical election, there are three candidates: Amy, Brian and Chloe. Each class member gets a ballot, with these three names on it. Each voter must put a mark by one of the names on their ballot. After the election finishes, the papers are sorted into three piles&mdash;one for votes for Amy, one for votes for Brian, and one for votes for Chloe.
The largest pile decides the winner. If Amy's pile has 11 votes, Brian's has 16, and Chloe's has 13, Brian would win, even though he only won 40% of the total votes.
====More complex example====
{{Tenn voting example}}
If voting follows sincere preferences, Memphis is selected with the most votes. Note that this system does not require that the winner have a [[Simple majority|majority]], but only a [[plurality]]. That is, Memphis wins because it has the most votes, even though more than half of the voters preferred another option and preferred Memphis least.
==Advantages==
===Simplicity===
Plurality may well be the simplest of all voting systems. This implies specific advantages. It is likely to be quicker, and easier to administer; this may also imply that an election costs less to run. It may also have an effect on voters, because it is easy to explain and understand. Alternative voting systems may alienate some voters who find the systems hard to understand, and who therefore feel detached from the direct effect of their own vote.
In addition, not all voters see party politics or policies as a major issue. Some voters see an election primarily as a form of recruitment for an individual representative, a point of contact between the state and themselves. FPTP gives such voters a direct choice of single candidate, with no extra votes to be shared or balanced between parties. This may be especially important to voters who want to vote for individuals based on particular ethical frameworks that are not party aligned, and who do not want their vote to have a "side effect" of electing others they may not approve of.
===Each representative must be a winner===
Sometimes, the voters are in favor of a political party, but do not like specific candidates. An example was the premier of [[Alberta]], [[Don Getty]]. His government was re-elected in 1989, but because of voter dissatisfaction with the way the government was led, Getty, the leader of the [[Alberta Progressive Conservatives|Alberta Progressive Conservative Party]], was not re-elected by voters from his electoral district.
However this can also have the opposite effect. A candidate who is very popular among the electorate in general may lose if the candidate or the candidate's party is unpopular or has caused dissatisfaction in his or her seat. An example was how [[Winston Churchill]] lost the 1945 UK Parliamentary elections. Churchill had over a 90% approval rating, but the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] won overall defeating Churchill's [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] and making [[Clement Attlee]] the Prime Minister.
Similarly, in the 1999 [[Ontario]] provincial election, [[Mike Harris]] and his [[Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario|Progressive Conservative]] party was re-elected to a majority government, but symbolic of the growing discontent among voters about cuts to education, his education minister and strong ally was resoundingly defeated by the opposition candidate.
It is often claimed that because each electoral district votes for its own representative, the elected candidate is held accountable to his own voters, thereby helping to prevent incompetent, fraudulent or corrupt behavior by elected candidates. The voters in the electoral district can easily replace him since they have full power over who they want to represent them. In the absence of effective recall legislation, however, the electors must wait until the end of the representative's term. Moreover, it is possible for a winning candidate or government to increase support from one election to the next, but lose the election, or vice-versa. Also, it is generally possible for candidates to be elected if the party regards them as important even if they are fairly unpopular, by moving the candidate to a safe seat which the party is unlikely to lose or by getting a candidate in a safe seat to step down.
===Preservation of One Person One Vote principle===
The arguments for a plurality voting system rely heavily on the preservation of the [[OMOV | one person one vote principle (OMOV)]], as cited by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], wherein each voter is only able to cast one vote in a given election, where that vote can only go to one candidate. Plurality voting systems elect the candidate who is preferred first by the largest number of voters. Other voting systems, such as [[Instant-runoff voting]] or [[Single Transferable Vote]] also preserve [[OMOV]], but rely on lower voter preference to arrive at a candidate earning either [[absolute majority]] or [[Droop Quota|droop quota]], respectively.
===Regionalism===
FPTP also encourages regional parties which can be very popular in one geographical region but have little or no support in other parts of the electorate.
A good example of this is Canada, where, in 1993, the separatist [[Bloc Québécois]] formed the opposition, despite getting only 13% of the vote.
{{sect-stub}}
==Disadvantages==
===Tactical voting===
To a much greater extent than many other electoral methods, plurality electoral systems encourage [[tactical voting]] techniques, like "compromising". Voters are pressured to vote for one of the two candidates they predict are most likely to win, even if their true preference is neither, because a vote for any other candidate will be likely to be wasted and have no impact on the final result.
In the example above, Chloe's voters would have done much better to have voted for Amy instead of Chloe; that way, Amy would have beaten Brian by 8 votes. They would not have gotten their most desirable person elected, but rather their second choice; in this case plurality voting led to the paradoxical result that attempting to get their 1st most desired person elected led to their 3rd most desired person being elected instead. Likewise, in the Tennessee example, if all the voters for Chattanooga and Knoxville had instead voted for Nashville, then Nashville would have won (with 58% of the vote); this would only have been the 3rd choice for those voters, but voting for their respective 1st choices (their own cities) actually results in their 4th choice (Memphis) being elected.
The difficulty is sometimes summed up, in an extreme form, as "All votes for anyone other than the second place are votes for the winner", because by voting for other candidates, they have denied those votes to the second place candidate who could have won had they received them. It is often claimed by [[United States]] [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] that the liberal [[Al Gore]] lost the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 Presidential Election]] to the conservative [[George W. Bush]] because some voters on the far left voted for [[Ralph Nader]] of the [[Green Party (United States)|Green Party]], who presumably would have preferred Gore to Bush.
Such a mentality is reflected by |
umb|250px|1970 [[Ford Cortina]] Mark 2]]
At first, Ford in Germany and the United Kingdom built different models from one another until the late 1960s, with the [[Ford Escort]] and then the [[Ford Capri]] being common to both companies. Later on, the [[Ford Taunus]] and [[Ford Cortina]] became identical, produced in [[left hand drive]] and right hand drive respectively. Rationalisation of model ranges meant that production of many models in the UK switched to elsewhere in Europe, including [[Belgium]] and [[Spain]] as well as Germany. The [[Ford Sierra]] replaced the Taunus and Cortina in 1982, drawing criticism for its radical aerodynamic styling, which was soon given nicknames such as "Jellymould" and "The Salesman's Spaceship".
Increasingly, Ford Motor Company has looked to Ford of Europe for its "world cars," such as the Mondeo, [[Ford Focus|Focus]], and [[Ford Fiesta|Fiesta]], although sales of European-sourced Fords in the U.S. have been disappointing. In [[Asia]], models from Europe are not as competitively priced as Japanese-built rivals, nor are they perceived as reliable. The Focus has been one exception to this, which has become America's best selling compact car since its launch in 2000.
In 2001, Ford ended car production in the UK. It was the first time in more than eighty years that Ford cars had not been made in Britain, although production of the [[Ford Transit|Transit]] van continues at the company's Southampton facility, engines at [[Bridgend]] and [[Dagenham]], and transmissions at [[Halewood]]. Development of European Ford is broadly split between [[Dunton]] in Essex (powertrain, Fiesta/Ka and commercial vehicles) and [[Cologne]] (body, chassis, electrical, Focus, Mondeo) in Germany. Ford also produced the [[Thames Trader|Thames]] range of commercial vehicles although the use of this brand name was discontinued circa 1965. It owns the Jaguar, Land Rover, and Aston Martin car plants in Britain which are still operational. Ford's Halewood Assembly Plant was converted to Jaguar production.
Elsewhere in continental Europe, Ford assembles the [[Ford Mondeo|Mondeo]] range in [[Genk]] ([[Belgium]]), Fiesta in [[Valencia]] ([[Spain]]) and [[Cologne]] ([[Germany]]), Ka in Valencia and Focus in Valencia, [[Saarlouis]] (Germany) and [[St. Petersberg]] ([[Russia]]). Transit production is in [[Kocaeli]] ([[Turkey]]), [[Southampton]] (UK), and Transit Connect in [[Kocaeli]].
Ford also owns a joint venture production plant in [[Turkey]]. Ford-Otosan, established in the 1970s, manufactures the [[Transit Connect]] compact panel van as well as the "Jumbo" and long wheelbase versions of the full-size Transit. This new production facility was set up near [[Kocaeli]] in 2002, and its opening marked the end of Transit assembly in Genk. Another joint venture plant near [[Setubal]] in [[Portugal]], set up in collaboration with [[Volkswagen]], assembles the [[Ford Galaxy|Galaxy]] people carrier as well as its sister ship, the [[VW Sharan]].
===Asia Pacific===
[[Image:Ford Falcon XR6 Turbo.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Ford XR6 Turbo Falcon]]
In [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], the popular [[Ford Falcon]] is considered the typical (if not particularly economical) family car, though it is considerably larger than the Mondeo sold in Europe. Between 1960 and 1972, the Falcon was based on a U.S. Ford of that name, but since then has been entirely designed and manufactured locally. Like its [[General Motors]] rival, the [[Holden Commodore]], the 4.0 liter Falcon retains rear wheel drive. High performance variants of the Falcon running locally-built engines produce up to 390bhp. A [[ute]] (short for "utility," known in the US as [[pickup truck]]) version is also available with a similar range of drivetrains. In addition, Ford Australia sells highly-tuned Falcon sedans and utes through its performance car division, [[Ford Performance Vehicles]]. These cars produce over 400bhp and are built in small numbers to increase their value as collectors' cars.
In both Australia and New Zealand, the Commodore and Falcon outsell all other cars. In Australia they comprise over 20% of the new car market.
Ford's presence in Asia has traditionally been much smaller. However, with the acquisition of a stake in Japanese manufacturer [[Mazda]] in 1979, Ford began selling Mazda's Familia and Capella (also known as the [[Mazda 323|323]] and [[Mazda 626|626]]) as the [[Ford Laser]] and [[Ford Telstar|Telstar]]. The Laser was one of the most successful models sold by Ford in Australia, and outsold the Mazda 323, despite being almost identical to it. The Laser was also built in Mexico and sold in the U.S. as the Mercury Tracer, while the 1989 American Ford Escort was based on the Laser/Mazda 323. The smaller [[Mazda 121]] was also sold in the U.S. and Asia as the Ford Festiva.
Through its relationship with Mazda, Ford also acquired a stake in [[South Korea]]n manufacturer [[Kia]], which later built the [[Ford Aspire]] for export to the United States, but later sold the company to [[Hyundai Motor Company|Hyundai]]. Ironically, Hyundai also manufactured the Ford Cortina until the 1980s. Ford also has a joint venture with Lio Ho in [[Taiwan]], which assembled Ford models locally since the 1970s.
Ford came to [[India]] in 1998 with its [[Ford Escort]] model, which was later replaced by locally produced [[Ford Ikon]] in 2001. It has since added Fusion, Fiesta, Mondeo and Endeavour to its product line.
===South America===
In [[South America]], Ford has had to face protectionist government measures in each country, with the result that it built different models in different countries, without particular regard to rationalisation or economy of scale inherent to producing and sharing similar vehicles between the nations. In many cases, new vehicles in a country were based on those of the other manufacturers it had entered into production agreements with, or whose factories it had acquired. For example, the [[Ford Corcel|Corcel]] and [[Ford Del Rey|Del Rey]] in Brazil were originally based on [[Renault]] vehicles.
In the 1980s, Ford merged its operations in Brazil and Argentina with those of [[Volkswagen]] to form a company called [[Autolatina]], with which it shared models. Sales figures and profitability were disappointing, and Autolatina was dissolved in the 1990s. With the advent of [[Mercosur]], the regional common market, Ford was finally able to rationalise its product line-ups in those countries. Consequently, the [[Ford Fiesta]] is only built in [[Brazil]], and the [[Ford Focus]] only built in Argentina, with each plant exporting in large volumes to the neighbouring country. Models like the [[Ford Mondeo]] from Europe could now be imported completely built up. Ford in Brazil produces a pick-up truck version of the Fiesta, which is also produced in South Africa as the [[Ford Bantam]] in [[Side of the road (traffic)#Steering wheel placement|right hand drive]] versions.
===Africa and Middle East===
In [[Africa]] and the [[Middle East]], Ford's market presence has traditionally been strongest in [[South Africa]] and neighbouring countries, with only trucks being sold elsewhere on the continent. Ford in South Africa began by importing kits from Canada to be assembled at its Port Elizabeth facility. Later Ford sourced its models from the UK and Australia, with local versions of the Ford Cortina including the XR6, with a 3.0 V6 engine, and a Cortina 'bakkie' or pick-up, which was exported to the UK. In the mid-1980s Ford merged with a rival company, owned by [[Anglo American plc|Anglo American]], to form the South African Motor Corporation (Samcor).
Following international condemnation of [[apartheid]], Ford divested from South Africa in 1988, and sold its stake in Samcor, although it licensed the use of its brand name to the company. Samcor began to assemble Mazdas as well, which affected its product line-up, which saw the European Fords like the Escort and Sierra replaced by the [[Mazda]]-based Laser and [[Telstar]]. Ford bought a 45 per cent stake in [[Samcor]] following the demise of apartheid in 1994, and this later became, once again, a wholly owned subsidiary, the Ford Motor Company of Southern Africa. Ford now sells a local sedan version of the Fiesta (also built in India and Mexico), and the Focus and Mondeo Europe. The Falcon model from Australia was also sold in South Africa, but was dropped in 2003.
Ford's market presence in the [[Middle East]] has traditionally been even smaller, partly due to previous [[Arab]] boycotts of companies dealing with [[Israel]]. Ford and Lincoln vehicles are currently marketed in ten countries in the region. [http://www.ford.com/en/company/about/countrySites/default.htm] [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Kuwait]], and the [[UAE]] are the biggest markets. [http://www.autoemirates.com/SpecialReports/0216Industry-Leaders.asp] Ford's distributor in Saudi Arabia announced in February 2003 that it had sold 100,000 Ford and Lincoln vehicles since commencing sales in November 1986. Half of the Ford/Lincoln vehicles sold in that country were [[Ford Crown Victoria]]s. [http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=14319] In 2004, Ford sold 30,000 units in the region, falling far short of [[General Motors]]' 88,852 units and [[Nissan Motors]]' 75,000 units. [http://www.autoemirates.com/SpecialReports/0216Industry-Leaders.asp]
==Alternate fuel vehicles==
[[Image:Ford escape hybrid.jpg|thumb|right|225px|[[Ford Escape Hybrid]]]]
Bill Ford was one of the first top industry executives to make regular use of an [[battery electric vehicle]], a [[Ford Ranger EV]], while the company contracted with the [[United States Postal Service]] to deliver electric postal vans based on the Ranger EV platform. Many Ford vehicles now sport an emblem &mdash; a green leaf springing from a curving road-like twig &mdash; symbolic of the new "green" commitment to preser |
y that the very fair and loyal archbishop would do such a thing behind the king's back. Moreover, it is unlikely that the pope would send such a banner, given the fact that they already had one, namely the banner of the [[Knights Hospitaller]] (Danish: "Johanitterne").
===Theories of the origin of the flag, #4===
A theory brought forth by the Danish historian [[Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen]] in [[1875]] in his book "''Danebroges Oprindelse''" is that the Danish flag ''is'' the banner of the [[Knights Hospitaller]]. He supports his theory with that the order came to Denmark in the latter half of the [[12th century]] and during the next centuries spread to major cities, like [[Odense]], [[Viborg]], [[Horsens]], [[Ribe]] and their headquarters in [[Slagelse]], so by the time of the [[Northern Crusades|Baltic crusade]], the symbol was already a known symbol in Denmark.
Furthermore he claims that [[Bishop Theodorik]], already a part initiator of the order in [[Livonia]], the [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]], had the idea of starting a similar order in Estonia and that he was the original instigator of Bishop [[Albert of Buxhoeveden]] inquiry to King [[Valdemar II of Denmark|Valdemar II]] in 1218, that set the whole Danish participation in the Baltic crusades in motion.
In the contemporary writing of the priest [[Henry of Livonia]] from [[Riga]] it is said that Bishop Theodorik was killed during the 1219 battle, as the enemy stormed his tent, thinking it was the King's tent. Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen explains that it was Bishop Theodorik who carried the flag, well planted outside his tent, thus as an already well-known Knights Hospitaller symbol in Livonia, the enemy thought this was the King's symbol and mistakenly stormed Bishop Theodorik tent. He claims that the origin of the legend of the falling flag comes from this confusion in the battle.
Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen does not give an explanation how the white [[Maltese cross]] on red of the Knights Hospitaller, found its way to the Danish flag of 1219, given the fact that in that time it was a white cross on black. The Knights Hospitaller is a monk-order and used black dresses. The white on red warrior-cloak cannot be traced until later.
===Theories of the origin of the flag, #5===
The Danish church-historian [[L. P. Fabricius]] put up yet another theory. It is explained in his study of [[1934]], titled "''Sagnet om Dannebrog og de ældste Forbindelser med Estland''". In this study he put the location to 1208 Fellin and not the Battle of Lyndanisse in 1219, based on the earliest source available about the story.
He says in this theory that it might have been Archbishop [[Andreas Sunesøn]]'s personal ecclestical banner or perhaps even the flag of Archbishop [[Absalon]]. That is based on his tireless efforts to expand [[Christianity]] to the Baltic countries and that under his initiative and supervision several smaller crusades had already been conducted in Estonia. The banner would then already be known in Estonia. He repeats the story about the flag being planted in front of Bishop Theodorik's tent which the enemy mistakenly attacks believing it to be the tent of the King.
All these theories centre on two battles in Estonia, whether it is in Fellin (1208) or Lyndanisse (1219), and thus try to explain the origin in relation to the tale brought forth over 300 years after the event.
===Theories of the origin of the flag, #6===
A much different theory is briefly discussed by ''Fabricius'' and elaborated more by [[Helga Bruhn]] in her book "''Dannebrog''" from [[1949]]. She claims that it is neither the battle nor the banner that is central to the tale, but rather the [[cross]] in the sky. Similar tales of appearances in the sky at critical moments, particularly of crosses, can be found all over Europe.
Bruhn mentions a battle (also mentioned by ''Fabricius'') taking place on September 10, [[1217]] between Christian knights and [[Moors|Moor]] warriors on the [[Iberian Peninsula]] near the castle [[Alcazar]], where it is said that a golden cross on white appeared in the sky, to bring victory to the Christians.
Likewise an almost identical [[Sweden|Swedish]] tale from the [[18th century]] about a yellow cross on blue appearing in [[1157]] during a Swedish battle in [[Finland]]. Probably a later invention to counter the legendary origins of the Danish flags, but never the less of the same nature.
The [[Flag of England|English flag]], the [[Saint George]]'s Cross is also claimed to have appeared in the sky during a critical battle, in this case in [[Jerusalem]] during the crusades.
The similarities to the legends is obvious. In Spain, the colours of the Pope appears in the sky, in Finland the Swedish colours. In Estonia it is the Danish colours, and in Jerusalem the English colours. Basically, these are all variations of the same legend.
Since King [[Valdemar II of Denmark|Valdamar II]] was married to the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] princess, [[Berengária of Portugal|Berengaria]], it is not unthinkable that the origin of the story, if not the flag, was the Spanish tale or a similar tale, which again might have been inspired by an even older legend.
==Earliest recorded use of the flag==
[[Image:Erik VII seal 1398.jpg|thumb|150px|left|One of the seals of [[Eric of Pomerania|Erik VII]], [[1398]]. Note the ''Dannebrog'' banner in the coat of arms]]
Danish literature of the 13th and 14th centuries remains suspiciously quiet about the national flag. Whether the flag has its origins in a divine sign, a banner of a military order, an ecclesiastical banner, or perhaps something entirely different, Danish literature is no help before the early [[15th century]].
However, several coins, seals and images exist, both foreign and domestic, from the 13th to 15th centuries and even earlier, showing flags similar to the Dannebrog. In the 19th and early 20th century, these images were used by many Danish historians, with a good flair of [[nationalism]], trying to date the origins of the flag to 1219. However, if one examines the few existing foreign sources about Denmark from the 13th to 15th centuries, it is apparent that, at least from foreign point of view; the national symbol of Denmark was not a red-and-white banner but the royal coat of arms (three blue lions of a golden shield.) This [[Coat of Arms of Denmark|coat of arms]] remains in use to this day.
An obvious place to look for documentation is in the Estonian city of Tallinn, the site of the legendary battle. In Tallinn, a coat-of-arms resembling the flag is found on several buildings and can be traced back to the middle of the [[15th century]] where it appears in the coat-of-arms of the "Die Grosse Gilde", a sort of merchant consortium which greatly influenced the city's development. The symbol later became the coat-of-arms of the city. Efforts to trace it from Estonia back to Denmark have, however, been in vain.
The national [[Coat of Arms of Estonia]], three blue lions on a golden shield, is almost identical to the [[Coat of Arms of Denmark]], and its origin can be traced directly back to King [[Valdemar II]] and Danish rule in [[Estonia]] [[1219]]-[[1346]].
===Earliest undisputed link===
[[Image:55verso Dannebrog 1370.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Page 55 verso in the Dutch book [[Wapenboek Gelre]]. Displaying the earliest known undisputed colourized image of Dannebrog]]
The earliest source that indisputably links the red flag with a white cross to a Danish King, and to the realm itself, is found in a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] register of coats-of-arms “[[Wapenboek Gelre]]”, written between [[1340]] and [[1370]] (some sources say [[1378]] or [[1386]]). Most historians claim that the book was written by [[Geldre Claes Heinen]]. The book displays some 1700 coats-of-arms from all over Europe, in colour. It is now located on the Royal Library of Brussels (the "[[Bibliothèque royale Albert Ier]]").
On page 55 verso we find the Danish coat-of-arms with a helmet on top with horns. On the right horn is a Danish banner. The text left of the coat of arms says “die coninc van denmarke” (''The King of Denmark''). This is the earliest known undisputed colour rendering of the Dannebrog.
This image has been used to acknowledge a previously disputed theory that the cross found in [[Valdemar IV of Denmark|Valdemar Atterdag]]'s coats of arms located in his Danælog seal ("''Rettertingsseglet''") from [[1356]] is indeed the cross from the Danish flag.
This image from "''Wapenboek Gelre''" is near identical found in an old coats of arms book from the [[15th century]] now located in the National Archives of Sweden, ("''Riksarkivet''")
From Queen [[Margaret I of Denmark|Margaret I]] and King [[Eric of Pomerania|Erik VII]] time we also have a case that undisputedly links Dannebrog to Denmark. The royal seal of King ''Erik VII'' from [[1398]] - the first combined coat of arms found in Denmark - shows the flag twice; the cross that separates the four coats-of-arms is the cross of the Dannebrog and the coat of arms representing Denmark show the three lions holding a Dannebrog banner.
==Laws and flag variations==
Denmark does not have a specified flag law, but various regulations and rules spread out over many documents, from King [[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV]]'s time till today, can be found.
The quest to unite them into a specified flag law have been brought forth many times, especially in the 20th century, but it never amounted to anything.
===National flag===
The size and shape of the [[coufhordie]] flag ("''Koffardiflaget''") for merchant ships is given in the regulation of [[June 11]], [[1748]], which says: ''A red flag with a white cross with no split end. The white cross must be 1/7 of the flags height. The two first fields must be square in form and the two outer fields most be 6/4 lengths of those''.
The proportions are thus: 3:1:3 verti |
rld and given India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing elaborate rituals.
===Tantra===
{{main|Tantra}}
Tantra is one of the least understood areas of Hinduism — often perceived as free sex associated with religion. A tantra literally means an act. A mantra is a hymn or sacred words associated with a deity. A mantra is associated with an Yantra, which is a mystical diagram. All acts of worship which include Mantras, Yantras are called Tantras.
Tantras can be divided into two paths - The right hand path (also known as samayachara or Dakshinachara) and the Left hand path (Vamachara).
Extolled as a short-cut to self-realization and spiritual enlightenment by some, left-hand tantric rites are often rejected as dangerous by most orthodox Hindus.
:''For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given'', said Shiva on the Kaula school of Tantrism.
The word "[[tantra]]" also means "treatise" or "continuum", and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as those regarded as "tantric". Most tantras were written in the [[Middle Ages]] and sprang from Hindu cosmology and [[Yoga]].
== Important themes and symbols in Hinduism==
[[Image:YoungBrahminBoy.jpg|thumb|175px|right|This young [[India]]n brahmachari bears on his forehead the distinctive triple-line [[tilaka]] (made out of ash, referred to as ''vibhuti'') and on his chest a [[rudraksha]] (eye of [[Rudra]]) and [[mala]] (rosary), both symbols of Lord [[Shiva]]]]
=== Tilaka (symbol on forehead or between eyebrows) ===
{{main|Tilaka}}
The ''tilaka'' (or ''tilak'') is a tattoo worn on the forehead and other parts of the body for spiritual reasons. It is believed to symbolize the need to cultivate supramental consciousness, which is achieved by opening the mystic ''third eye''. Although traditionally adorned, in one form or the other, by Brahmins (to denote the priestly class in Hindu society) and married women (to denote marriage and auspiciousness), in the modern context, it is most commonly seen as a decorative dot (or ''Bindi'') worn by women on the forehead.
Hindus stress meditation to acquire knowledge beyond the mind and body, a trait that is often associated with the ascetic deity [[Shiva]]. Men, too, will bear on their foreheads the equivalent ''Tika'' ([[tilaka]]) mark, usually on religious occasions, its shape often representing particular devotion to a certain main deity: a 'U' shape stands for [[Vishnu]], a group of three horizontal lines for [[Shiva]]. It is not uncommon for some to meld both in an amalgam marker signifying ''Hari-Hara'' (Vishnu-Shiva indissoluble).
=== Ahimsa (non-violence), vegetarian diet and the cow ===
{{main articles|[[Ahimsa]], [[Sacred cow]], and [[Vegetarianism]]}}
Ahimsa is a concept that advocates non-violence and a respect for all forms of life — human as well as animal. The term ''ahimsa'' first appears in the [[Upanishad]]s, and is the first of the five ''Yamas'', or eternal vows/restraints in [[Raja Yoga]].
A large section of Hindus embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a dogma or requirement, it is recommended as a [[sattwa|sattwic]] (purifying) lifestyle. About 30% of today's [[Hindu]] population, especially in orthodox communities in [[South India]], states like Gujarat, which has had significant [[Jain]] influence, and in many [[Brahmin]] and [[Marwari]] enclaves around the subcontinent, are lacto-vegetarian. Some avoid even [[onion]] and [[garlic]], as they are regarded as [[rajasic]]/tamasic.
Those [[Hindus]] who do eat meat (usually chicken, goat and fish) predominantly abstain from [[beef]]. Some even avoid the use of cow's leather products. This is possibly because the largely pastoral Vedic people, and subsequent generations, relied so heavily on the cow for milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertilizer, that its status as a 'caretaker' led to identifying it as an almost maternal figure (hence the term ''gau mata'', or ''Cow Mother''). While most Hindus do not actually worship the cow (though many [[veneration|venerate]] her), it still holds an honored place in Hindu society — as the best representative of the benevolence of all animals on man. It is believed that [[Krishna]] is both [[Govinda]] (herder of cows) and Gopala (protector of cows), and [[Shiva]]'s attendant is [[Nandi Bull|Nandi]], the bull. With the stress on vegetarianism (usually followed even by meat-eating Hindus on religious days) and the [[Sacred cow|sacred nature of the cow]], most of the Hindu holy cities have a ban on selling beef — and a legal ban exists on cow-slaughter in almost all states of India.
=== Hindu symbolism ===
Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, three are quintessentially a part of its culture, and representative of its general ethos:
[[Image:Om2.jpg|right|left|thumb|165px|[[Aum]] ([[Om]])]]
[[Image:Hindu_swastika.png|right|thumb|165px|[[Swastika]]]]
[[Image:Jain Cosmology0007small.JPG|right|thumb|165px|Diagram showing the two mystic syllables Om and [[Hrim]]]]
[[Aum|'''''Aum''''']] (or Om, '''ॐ''') is the sacred symbol of Hinduism, and is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Hindu [[mantra]]s and prayers. It contains a deep symbolic message of the divine primordial vibration of the Universe, representing all existence, encompassing all of nature into the ''One Ultimate Reality''. This symbol is commonly found on necklaces worn by Hindus.
'''[[Swastika]]''' ('''卐''') is an [[Arya]], or ''noble and auspicious'' symbol. It stands for [[satya]], truth, and stability within the power of [[Brahma (god)|Brahma]] or, alternatively, of [[Surya]], the sun. Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions, the four Vedas and their harmonious whole. It has been used predominantly in Hinduism since the early [[Vedic civilization|Vedic culture]], and is still widespread in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Many other cultures continue to hold it as auspicious, in spite of the recent association with [[Nazism]], which used a modified version of this symbol.
The '''[[Mandala]]''' of the hexagram, somewhat resembling the [[Star of David]], is an archetypal symbol for the sacred union of opposite energies. Formed by the intertwining of the "fire" and "water" triangles (the male "blade" and the female "chalice") this symbol represents the masculine and feminine principles in perfect union. In [[India]] the symbol represents the "cosmic dance" of [[Shiva]] and [[Shakti]]. The Star symbol has been found on temples in India from almost 10,000 years ago. In addition to the balance between man and woman, the Star symbolizes the [[Nara-Narayana]], or perfect meditative balancing state achieved between Man and God, and if maintained, results in "[[Moksha]]", or "[[Nirvana]]", i.e., release from the bounds of the earthly world and its material trappings.
===Murtis (icons)===
{{main|Murti}}
[[Image:Nataraja.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The dancing posture of Lord [[Siva]], known as the [[Nataraja]], is often said to be the supreme statement of Hindu art]]
Whether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman, without attributes) or as a personal God (saguna Brahman, with attributes), Hindus understand that the one truth may be seen as different to different people. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks contact with the personal source of Brahman, which explains the proliferation of so many Gods and Goddesses (sic) in India, often reflecting the singular inclinations of small regions or groups of people.
Worship of God is often represented symbolically through the aid of icons (''murti'') which are conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human mind that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the power and grandeur of [[God]]. They are symbols of the greater principle and according to the understanding of the worshipper, the concept or entity is sometimes presumed to be present in them (in monotheistic doctrines) and sometimes not (in monistic doctrines).
In a [[Mandir|Hindu Temple]], the divine spirit/energy is commonly invoked into the Murtis at the time of their consecration. [[Veneration]] of such Murtis is done everyday in a [[Mandir|temple]]. Most practicing Hindus also maintain a Puja room like a [[Mandir|temple]] in their homes for worship and meditation. The icons could be two-dimensional paintings or three-dimensional statues. It bears mention that ''Shiva'' is almost always worshipped as a pillar-like stone called ''[[Lingam]]''. Some interpret the term ''lingam'' as a [[Phallus]] due to its shape and certain Puranic stories, but actually, this Sanskrit word means ''any'' sign, symbol, mark or badge in general. Others interpret it as a mystic column (''stambha'') trying to represent the infiniteness of ''Shiva''.
Some of deities worshipped are [[Vishnu]] (as [[Krishna]] or [[Rama]]), [[Swaminarayan]], [[Shiva]], [[Devi]] (the Mother as many female deities, such as [[Lakshmi]], [[Saraswati]], [[Kali]] and [[Durga]]), [[Ganesha]], [[Agni]], [[Skanda]] and [[Hanuman]]. Also, the [[Puranas]] list twenty-five avatars of [[Vishnu]] : [[Caturasana]], [[Narad]], [[Varaha]], [[Matsya]], [[Yajna]], [[Nara-Narayana]], [[Kapila]], [[Dattatreya]], [[Hayasirsa]], [[Hamsa (purana)|Hamsa]], [[Prsnigarbha]], [[Rsabha]], [[Prithu]], [[Narasimha]] , [[Kurma]], [[Dhanvantari]], [[Mohini]], [[Vamana]], [[Parasurama]], [[Raghavendra]], [[Vyasa]], [[Balarama]], [[Krishna]] and [[Kalki]].
===Sanskrit===
{{main|Sanskrit}}
[[Sanskrit]] is mostly used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals in the forms of [[hymns]] and [[mantras]]. Its pre-classical form of [[Vedic]] Sanskrit, the liturgical language of the Vedic r |
ction, 1980|1980 Canadian election]].
*[[1981]] - General [[Wojciech Jaruzelski]] declares [[martial law in Poland|martial law]] in [[Poland]] to prevent dismantling of the communist system by ''[[Solidarity]]''.
*[[1989]] - The last issue of ''Gnistan'' (The Spark), the organ of the [[KFML|Solidaritetspartiet]], is published in [[Sweden]].
*[[1996]] - [[Kofi Annan]] is elected as [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]].
*[[2000]] - The "[[Texas 7]]" escape from the [[John Connally Unit]] near [[Kenedy, Texas]] and go on a robbery spree, during which police officer [[Aubrey Hawkins]] is shot and killed.
* 2000 - [[Vice President of the United States|American Vice President]] [[Al Gore]] delivers his concession speech ending his hopes of becoming the 43rd [[President of the United States]].
*[[2001]] - the [[Indian Parliament]] Sansad is attacked by Terrorists, killing 15 people, including all the terrorists. Tensions escalate in [[South Asia]], with nuclear war likelihoods.
*[[2002]] - [[Enlargement of the European Union]]: The [[European Union]] announces that [[Cyprus]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Estonia]], [[Hungary]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Malta]], [[Poland]], [[Slovakia]], and [[Slovenia]] will become members from [[May 1]], [[2004]].
*[[2003]] - Former [[Iraq]]i President [[Saddam Hussein]] is captured near his home town of [[Tikrit]] (see [[Operation Red Dawn]]).
* 2003 - In the most-attended [[basketball]] game in history, 78,129 watch [[Michigan State University]] lose 79-74 to the [[University of Kentucky]] at [[Ford Field]].
*[[2004]] - Former [[Chile|Chilean]] [[dictator]], General [[Pinochet|Augusto Pinochet]] is put under house arrest, after being sued under accusations over 9 kidnapping actions and manslaughter. The house arrest is lifted the same day on appeal.
==Births==
*[[1521]] - [[Pope Sixtus V]] (d. [[1590]])
*[[1533]] - King [[Eric XIV of Sweden]] (d. [[1577]])
*[[1553]] - King [[Henry IV of France]] (d. [[1610]])
*[[1585]] - [[William Drummond of Hawthornden]], Scottish poet (d. [[1649]])
*[[1640]] - [[Robert Plot]], English naturalist (d. [[1696]])
*[[1662]] - [[Francesco Bianchini]], Italian philosopher and scientist (d. [[1729]])
*[[1678]] - [[Yongzheng Emperor]] of China (d. [[1735]])
*[[1724]] - [[Franz Aepinus]], German scientist (d. [[1802]])
*[[1784]] - [[Archduke Louis of Austria]] (d. 1864)
*[[1797]] - [[Heinrich Heine]], German poet (d. [[1856]])
*[[1804]] - [[Joseph Howe]], Canadian politician (d. [[1873]])
*[[1813]] - [[David Spangler Kaufman]], American politician (d. [[1851]])
*[[1816]] - [[Ernst Werner von Siemens]], German engineer, inventor, and industrialist (d. [[1892]])
*[[1818]] - [[Mary Todd Lincoln]], [[First Lady of the United States]] (d. [[1882]])
*[[1836]] - [[Franz von Lenbach]], German painter (d. [[1904]])
*[[1854]] - [[Thomas Watson (inventor)|Thomas Watson]], American assistant to [[Alexander Graham Bell]] (d. [[1934]])
*[[1856]] - [[Svetozar Boroević]], Austro-Hungarian field marshal (d. [[1920]])
*[[1864]] - [[Emil Seidel]], Mayor of Milwaukee (d. [[1947]])
*[[1867]] - [[Kristian Birkeland]], Norwegian explorer and scientist (d. [[1917]])
*[[1874]] - [[Josef Lhévinne]], Russian-born pianist (d. [[1944]])
*[[1883]] - [[Belle da Costa Greene]], American librarian, bibliographer and archivist (d. [[1950]])
*[[1887]] - [[George Polya]], Hungarian-born mathematician (d. [[1985]])
*1887 - [[Alvin York]], American soldier (d. [[1964]])
*[[1897]] - [[Drew Pearson (journalist)|Drew Pearson]], American journalist (d. [[1969]])
*[[1903]] - [[Carlos Montoya]], Spanish guitarist (d. [[1993]])
*[[1906]] - [[Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark|Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent]] (d. [[1968]])
*1906 - Sir [[Laurens van der Post]], Afrikaner-born South African author (d. [[1996]])
*[[1910]] - [[Van Heflin]], American actor (d. [[1971]])
*[[1911]] - [[Trygve Haavelmo]], Norwegian economist and [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1999]])
*1911 - [[Kenneth Patchen]], American poet and painter (d. [[1972]])
*[[1913]] - [[Archie Moore]], American boxer and World [[Light-Heavyweight]] Champion (d. [[1998]])
*[[1915]] - [[Curd Jurgens|Curd Jürgens]], German actor (d. [[1982]])
*1915 - [[Ross Macdonald]], American-born author (d. [[1983]])
*[[1923]] - [[Philip Warren Anderson]], American physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1923 - [[Larry Doby]], American baseball player (d. [[2003]])
*[[1925]] - [[Dick Van Dyke]], American actor and comedian
*[[1926]] - [[George Rhoden]], Jamaican athlete and Olympic gold medalist
*[[1927]] - [[Christopher Plummer]], Canadian actor
*[[1934]] - [[Richard D. Zanuck]], American film producer
*[[1936]] - [[Aga Khan IV|His Highness Prince Karim Aga Khan]] (Prince Karim El Husseni)
*[[1943]] - [[Ferguson Jenkins]], Canadian baseball player
*[[1948]] - [[Ted Nugent]], American guitarist
*1948 - [[Brian Wilson (politician)|Brian Wilson]], British politician
*[[1950]] - [[Tom Vilsack]], Governor of Iowa
*[[1953]] - [[Ben Bernanke]], American economist
*1953 - [[Bob Gainey]], Canadian hockey player
*[[1954]] - [[John Anderson (musician)|John Anderson]], American country musician
*[[1957]] - [[Steve Buscemi]], American actor
*1957 - [[Morris Day]], American singer ([[The Time (band)|The Time]])
*1957 - [[Jean-Marie Messier]], French businessman
*[[1958]] - [[Lynn-Holly Johnson]], American figure skater and actress
*[[1959]] - [[Nadia Russ]], Soviet-born artist
*[[1961]] - [[Harry Gregson-Williams]], British composer
*[[1963]] - [[Jake White]], South African rugby union coach
*[[1964]] - [[hide (musician)|hide]], Japanese musician ([[X Japan]]) (d. [[1998]])
*[[1965]] - [[Marko Mäetamm]], Estonian artist
*[[1967]] - [[Jamie Foxx]], American actor
*[[1969]] - [[Sergei Fedorov]], Russian hockey player
*[[1973]] - [[Christie Clark]], American actress
*[[1974]] - [[Nicholas McCarthy]], British-born guitarist ([[Franz Ferdinand (band)|Franz Ferdinand]])
*[[1975]] - [[Tom Delonge]], American guitarist ([[Blink-182]])
*[[1976]] - [[Josh Fogg]], American baseball player
*[[1981]] - [[Amy Lee]], American singer ([[Evanescence]])
*[[1983]] - [[Otylia Jedrzejczak|Otylia J&#281;drzejczak]], Polish swimmer, FINA World Champion and Olympic gold medalist
==Deaths==
*[[1048]] - [[Al-Biruni]], Persian mathematician (b. [[973]])
*[[1124]] - [[Pope Callixtus II]]
*[[1204]] - [[Maimonides]], Spanish rabbi and philosopher (b. [[1135]])
*[[1250]] - [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1194]])
*[[1404]] - [[Albert, Count of Holland]] (b. [[1336]])
*[[1466]] - [[Donatello]] (Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi), Florentine artist and sculptor (b. [[1386]])
*[[1516]] - [[Johannes Trithemius]], German cryptographer (b. [[1462]])
*[[1521]] - King [[Manuel I of Portugal]] (b. [[1469]])
*[[1557]] - [[Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia]], Italian mathematician
*[[1565]] - [[Conrad Gessner]], Swiss naturalist (b. [[1516]])
*[[1603]] - [[François Viète]], French mathematician (b. [[1540]])
*[[1621]] - [[Katarina Stenbock]], Queen of [[Gustav I of Sweden]] (b. [[1535]])
*[[1716]] - [[Charles de La Fosse]], French painter (b. [[1640]])
*[[1721]] - [[Alexander Selkirk]], Scottish sailor and castaway (b. [[1676]])
*[[1729]] - [[Anthony Collins]], English philosopher (b. [[1676]])
*[[1754]] - [[Mahmud I]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1696]])
*[[1769]] - [[Christian Fürchtegott Gellert]], German poet (b. [[1715]])
*[[1783]] - [[Pehr Wilhelm Wargentin]], Swedish astronomer (b. [[1717]])
*[[1784]] - [[Samuel Johnson]], British writer and lexicographer (b. [[1709]])
*[[1814]] - [[Charles Joseph, Prince de Ligne]], Belgian-born Austrian field marshal (b. [[1735]])
*[[1837]] - [[Herman of Alaska]], [[Russian Orthodox]] hermit (b. [[1756]])
*[[1863]] - [[Christian Friedrich Hebbel]], German writer (b. [[1813]])
*[[1868]] - [[Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius]], German botanist (b. [[1794]])
*[[1881]] - [[August Senoa]], Croatian writer (b. [[1838]])
*[[1883]] - [[Victor de Laprade]], French poet and critic (b. [[1812]])
*[[1895]] - [[Anyos Jedlík]], Hungarian physicist (b. [[1800]])
*[[1919]] - [[Woldemar Voigt]], German physicist (b. [[1850]])
*[[1930]] - [[Fritz Pregl]], Austrian chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1869]])
*[[1931]] - [[Gustave le Bon]], French psychologist (b. [[1840]])
*[[1935]] - [[Victor Grignard]], French chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1871]])
*[[1940]] - [[Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval]], French physicist (b. [[1851]])
*[[1944]] - [[Wassily Kandinsky]], Russian-born French artist (b. [[1866]])
*[[1947]] - [[Nicholas Roerich]], Russian-born painter (b. [[1874]])
*[[1955]] - [[Egas Moniz]], Portuguese physician and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1874]])
*[[1961]] - [[Grandma Moses]], American painter (b. [[1860]])
*[[1983]] - [[Alexander Schmemann]], Orthodox Christian priest and theologian (b. [[1921]])
*1983 - [[Nichita Stanescu]], Romanian poet (b.[[1933]])
*[[1993]] - [[Vanessa Duriès]], French novelist (b. [[1972]])
*[[2001]] - [[Chuck Schuldiner]], American guitarist, singer and songwriter ([[Death (band)|Death]]) (b. [[1967]])
*[[2002]] - [[Zal Yanofsky]], American guitarist and singer ([[The Lovin' Spoonful]]) (b. [[1945]])
*[[2003]] - [[William V. Roth, Jr.]], U.S. Senator (b. [[1921]])
*[[2004]] - [[Andre Rodgers]], Bahamian baseball player (b. [[1934]])
*2004 - [[David Wheeler]], British computer scientist (b. [[1927]])
*[[2005]] - [[Stanley Williams]] (Stanley Tookie Williams III), Founder of the [[Crips]] street gang, convicted murderer and anti-gang activist (b. [[1953]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Roman festivals]] - [[Tellus]] was worshipped in the district ''Carinae'' at the [[Esquiline Hill]], and a ''lectisternium'' or table was spread for Ceres.
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - memorial of [[Saint Lucy]]
* Also see [[December 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
* |
ingu River|Xingu]], [[Brazil]]
# 1,900 km - [[Tapajós]], [[Brazil]]
# 1,749 km - [[Guaporé]], [[Brazil]] / [[Bolivia]] (tributary of Madeira)
# 1,575 km - [[Içá River|Içá (Putumayo)]], [[South America]]
# 1,415 km - [[Marañón River|Marañón]], [[Peru]]
# 1,300 km - [[Iriri River|Iriri]], [[Brazil]] (tributary of Xingu)
# 1,240 km - [[Juruena]], [[Brazil]] (tributary of Tapajós)
# 1,200 km - [[Tapajós]], [[Brazil]]
# 1,130 km - [[Madre de Dios River|Madre de Dios]], [[Peru]] / [[Bolivia]] (tributary of Madeira)
# 1,100 km - [[Huallaga River|Huallaga]], [[Peru]] (tributary of Marañón)
==External links==
{{Commons|Amazon river}}
*[http://www.destination360.com/south-america/brazil/amazon.php Amazon River and Amazon Rainforest virtual tour]
*[http://www.extremescience.com/AmazonRiver.htm Information on the Amazon from Extreme Science]
*[http://mitosyfraudes.8k.com/photoEng-2.html Map of South America]
*[http://www.underwatercolours.com/amazon/ss07.html Pictures of the Amazon River]
*[http://www.junglephotos.com Amazon River and rainforest photos and information]
*[http://www.amazon-rainforest.org Amazon River and Amazon rainforest information]
*[http://www.mbarron.net/Amazon An Amazon River web site]
*[http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_detail_static.cfm?map_select=410&theme=2 Information and a map of the Amazon's watershed]
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Rivers of Brazil]]
[[Category:Rivers of Colombia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Peru]]
[[ar:أمازون]]
[[an:Río Amazonas]]
[[bg:Амазонка]]
[[ca:Riu Amazones]]
[[cs:Amazonka]]
[[da:Amazonfloden]]
[[de:Amazonas]]
[[et:Amazonas]]
[[es:Río Amazonas]]
[[eo:Amazono (rivero)]]
[[fa:رودخانه آمازون]]
[[fr:Amazone (fleuve)]]
[[gl:Río Amazonas]]
[[ko:아마존 강]]
[[io:Amazon]]
[[id:Sungai Amazon]]
[[is:Amasónfljót]]
[[it:Rio delle Amazzoni]]
[[he:אמזונאס (נהר)]]
[[lt:Amazonė (upė)]]
[[lb:Amazonas]]
[[hu:Amazonas]]
[[nl:Amazone (rivier)]]
[[ja:アマゾン川]]
[[no:Amazonaselva]]
[[nn:Amazonaselva]]
[[pl:Amazonka (rzeka)]]
[[pt:Rio Amazonas]]
[[ro:Amazon (fluviu)]]
[[ru:Амазонка (река)]]
[[simple:Amazon River]]
[[sl:Amazonka]]
[[sr:Амазон]]
[[fi:Amazon (joki)]]
[[sv:Amazonfloden]]
[[ta:அமேசான் ஆறு]]
[[th:แม่น้ำแอมะซอน]]
[[zh:亚马逊河]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alured of Beverley</title>
<id>1702</id>
<revision>
<id>15900167</id>
<timestamp>2005-01-06T14:00:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stbalbach</username>
<id>87883</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">Alredus, or '''Alfred of Beverley''', [[English historians in the Middle Ages|English chronicler]], was [[sacristan]] of the church of [[Beverley]] in the first half of the 12th century.
He wrote, apparently about the year 1143, a [[chronicle]] entitled ''Annales sive Historia de gestis regum Britanniae'', which begins with [[Brutus of Britain|Brutus]] and carries the history of [[England]] down to 1129.
[[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] and [[Simeon of Durham]] are Alured's chief sources.
----
{{1911}}
[[Category:Medieval historians]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alphonso VII</title>
<id>1703</id>
<revision>
<id>15900168</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-29T07:43:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Montrealais</username>
<id>3378</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfonso VII of Castile]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alphonso VIII</title>
<id>1704</id>
<revision>
<id>15900169</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-29T07:32:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Montrealais</username>
<id>3378</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfonso VIII of Castile]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alphonso IX</title>
<id>1705</id>
<revision>
<id>15900170</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-06T23:34:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfonso IX of Leon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alphonso X</title>
<id>1706</id>
<revision>
<id>15900171</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-29T07:57:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Montrealais</username>
<id>3378</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfonso X of Castile]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alphonso XI</title>
<id>1707</id>
<revision>
<id>15900172</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-29T16:00:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Montrealais</username>
<id>3378</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfonso XI of Castile]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alphonso XII</title>
<id>1708</id>
<revision>
<id>15900173</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-29T16:21:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Montrealais</username>
<id>3378</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfonso XII of Spain]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alphonso XIII</title>
<id>1709</id>
<revision>
<id>15900174</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-29T16:30:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Montrealais</username>
<id>3378</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfonso XIII of Spain]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 22</title>
<id>1710</id>
<revision>
<id>41602295</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T12:41:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>86.131.6.251</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ rm graffito</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=22}}
|}
'''[[April 22]]''' is the 112th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (113th in [[leap year]]s). There are 253 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1500]] - [[Portugal|Portuguese]] navigator [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] becomes the first European to sight [[Brazil]].
*[[1509]] - [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] ascends the throne of [[England]] after the death of his father.
*[[1529]] - [[Treaty of Saragossa]] divides the eastern hemisphere between [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] along a line 297.5 leagues or 17° east of the [[Moluccas]].
*[[1836]] - [[Texas Revolution]]: A day after the [[Battle of San Jacinto]] forces under [[Republic of Texas|Texas]] General [[Sam Houston]] capture [[Mexico|Mexican]] General [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]].
*[[1863]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Grierson's Raid]] begins &ndash; troops under [[United States|Union]] Colonel [[Benjamin Grierson]] attack central [[Mississippi]].
*[[1864]] - The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes the [[Coinage Act (1864)|Coinage Act]] which mandates that the inscription "In God We Trust" be placed on all coins minted as [[United States currency]].
*[[1889]] - [[Oklahoma land rush]]: President [[Benjamin Harrison]] opens the [[Unassigned_Lands|Unassigned Lands]] in what is now central [[Oklahoma]] to white settlement.
*[[1898]] - [[Spanish-American War]]: The [[United States Navy]] begins a [[blockade]] of [[Cuba]]n ports and the [[USS Nashville]] captures a [[Spain|Spanish]] merchant ship.
*[[1913]] - ''[[Pravda]],'' the "voice" of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], begins publications in [[Saint Petersburg]].
*[[1914]] - [[Babe Ruth]], age 19, pitches his first professional game for the minor league [[Baltimore Orioles (minor league)|Baltimore Orioles]].
*[[1915]] - The [[use of poison gas in World War I]] escalates when [[chlorine|chlorine gas]] is released as a [[chemical warfare|chemical weapon]] in the [[Second Battle of Ypres]].
*[[1930]] - The [[United Kingdom]], [[Japan]] and the [[United States]] sign the [[London Naval Treaty]] regulating [[submarine]] warfare and limiting [[shipbuilding]].
*[[1943]] - [[Albert Hofmann]] writes his first report about the hallucinogenic properties of [[LSD]].
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Persecution]] initiated &ndash; [[Allies|Allied]] forces land in the Hollandia area of [[New Guinea]].
*[[1945]] - World War II: After learning that [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] forces have taken [[Eberswalde]] without a fight, [[Adolf Hitler]] admits defeat in his underground [[bunker]] and states that [[suicide]] is his only recourse.
*[[1946]] - The first installment of the popular [[Japan]]ese comic strip, ''[[Sazae-san]]'', is published in the [[Fukunichi Shimbun]].
*[[1954]] - [[Red Scare]]: [[Army-McCarthy Hearings]] begin.
*[[1964]] - The [[1964 New York World's Fair|1964-1965 New York World's Fair]] opens for its first season.
*[[1970]] - First [[Earth Day]] celebrated.
*[[1971]] - [[John Kerry]], dressed in combat fatigues, testifies on his views of the [[Vietnam War]] before the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|United States Senate Foreign Relations Committee]]
*[[1972]] - [[Vietnam War]]: Increased [[United States|American]] bombing in [[Vietnam]] prompts antiwar protests in [[New York City]], [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], and [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]].
*[[1975]] - [[Barbara Walters]] signs a five-year $5 million contract with the American Broadcasting Corporation (ABC), becoming the highest paid [[television]] newsperson.
*[[1978]] - [[The Blues Brothers]] make their first appearance on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''.
*[[1979]] - [[Brent Mydland]] performs his first show with the [[Grateful Dead]] at [[Spartan Stadium, San Jose|Spartan Stadium]], [[San Jose, California]].
*[[1993]] - In |
When only a few women in the West wore trousers, women in trousers were considered to be cross-dressing. As more women began to wear trousers, the style gained mainstream social acceptance. Trousers are now no longer considered for men only. This broadening of clothing types considered "normal" for women has made cross-dressing behavior in women more difficult to identify. A woman might wear men's shirts, trousers, and underwear without anyone recognizing that she is cross-dressing, as very similar clothing items are produced for women.
===The classic psychoanalytic view===
Classic psychoanalytic views of cross-dressing emphasized the role of [[taboo]] in the behavior. Only items that were proscribed to a gender would be appropriated, and therefore it is not the general association of an item with one sex or the other but the prohibitions against the item that give satisfaction to those with a [[fetish]] attachment to cross-dressing. According to this theory, as articles become acceptable for ordinary wear (e.g. a man's [[necktie]] on a woman, which passed from taboo to fashion in the [[1970s]]) they will cease to be sought by cross-dressers.
===The problem of attributing motives for cross-dressing===
When speaking of historical figures, when cross-dressing is not clearly related to specific events (like an escape or disguise) it is usually impossible to state clearly what the motives for cross-dressing were. This information was rarely recorded or preserved. Documents on the subject are often either [[court]] records (where the cross-dressing person may have said whatever they thought would minimize their punishment) or accounts by other people who might not understand the motivations correctly. Furthermore, historic figures were often unable to identify themselves as homosexual, transgender, [[transsexual]], or transvestite because these classifications simply had no names or social recognition in their era.
It can be equally difficult to be certain of the motives of modern day people who cross-dress. The only real proof of motive is that person's own statement. Yet even this is not always certain, as there are examples of people attributing their cross-dressing behaviour to one motive only to later realize that they may have had another reason. The classical example of this would be a transsexual person who initially attributed cross-dressing behaviour to transvestic fetishism (for transwomen) or the utilitarian practicality of male clothing (for transmen).
==Some famous examples of cross-dressing==
[[Image:Thor and loki in drag.jpg|right|thumb|[[Thor]] and [[Loki]] in drag]]
===In Greek mythology===
* [[Achilles]], dressed in women's clothing at the court of [[Lycomedes]]
===In Norse mythology===
*[[Thor]] dressed as [[Freya]] in order to get [[Mjölnir]] back in [[Thrymskvida]].
*[[Hagbard]] in the Scandinavian legend of [[Hagbard and Signy]] (the [[Romeo and Juliet]] of the [[Viking]]s). After having slain Signy's brothers and suitors, Hagbard was no longer welcome in the hall of Signy's father [[Sigar]]. Hagbard then dressed up as one of his brother [[Haki]]'s [[shieldmaiden]]s in order to have access to the chambers of his beloved. When the handmaidens washed his legs, they asked him why they were so furry and why his hands were so callous. Because of this, he invented a clever verse to explain his strange appearance. Signy, however, who understood that it was Hagbard who had come to see her, explained to the maidens that his verse was truthful. Hagbard was, however, deceived by the handmaidens and he was arrested by Sigar's warriors. Hagbard was hanged and Signy committed suicide as Hagbard watched from the gallows.
*[[Hervor]] from [[Hervarar saga]]. When Hervor learnt that her father had been the infamous Swedish beserker [[Arngrim]], she dressed as a man, called herself Hjörvard and lived for a long time as a Viking.
===Famous historical examples of cross-dressing people===
Famous historical examples of cross-dressing people include:
[[Image:Dorothy.Lawrence.soldier.jpg|right|thumb|[[World War I|First World War]] photograph of English war reporter [[Dorothy Lawrence]] who secretly posed as a man to become a soldier.]]
*The [[legend]] of [[Pope Joan]] alleges that she was a promiscuous female [[pope]] who dressed like a man and reigned from [[855]] to [[858]]. Modern [[historian|historians]] regard her as a [[urban legend|myth]]ical figure who originated from [[13th century]] anti-papal [[satire]].
*[[Joan of Arc]] was a [[15th century]] [[France|French]] peasant girl who joined French armies against [[England|English]] forces fighting in France during the latter part of the [[Hundred Years' War]]. She is a French national heroine and a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[saint]]. After being captured by the English, she was burned at the stake upon being convicted by a religious court, with the act of dressing in male clothing being cited as one of the principal reasons for her [[execution (legal)|execution]]. A number of witnesses, however, testified that she had said she wore male clothing (consisting of two layers of pants attached to the doublet with twenty fasteners) because she feared the guards would rape her at night.[http://archive.joan-of-arc.org/joanofarc_male_clothing.html]
*[[Pope Paul II]], Catholic pope known to have worn women's clothes and was nicknamed "Our Lady of Pity"
*[[Anne Bonny]] and [[Mary Read]] were late [[17th century]] [[pirate]]s. Bonny in particular gained significant notoriety, but both were eventually captured. Unlike the rest of the male crew, Bonny and Read were not immediately executed because Read was [[pregnant]] and Bonny claimed to be [[pregnant]] as well.
*Charles-Geneviève-Louis-Auguste-André-Timothée Éon de Beaumont ([[1728]]-[[1810]]), usually known as the [[Chevalier d'Eon]], was a French [[diplomat]] and [[soldier]] who lived the first half of his life as a man and the second half as a woman. In [[1771]] he claimed that physically he was not a man, but a woman, having been brought up as a man only. From then on s/he lived as a woman. On her/his [[death]] it was discovered that her/his body was anatomically male.
*[[George Sand]] is the [[pseudonym]] of Amandine-Aurore-Lucile Dupin, an early [[19th century]] French [[novelist]] who preferred to wear men's [[clothing]] exclusively. In her [[autobiography]], she explains in length the various aspects of how she experienced cross-dressing.
*[[Dorothy Lawrence]] was an [[England|English]] [[War correspondent|war reporter]] who [[disguise]]d herself as a man so she could become a [[soldier]] in [[World War I]].
*[[Rrose Sélavy]], the feminine alter-ego of the late French artist, [[Marcel Duchamp]], remains one of the most complex and pervasive pieces in the enigmatic puzzle of the artist's oeuvre. She first emerged in portraits made by the photographer [[Man Ray]] in New York in the early 1920s, when Duchamp and Man Ray were collaborating on a number of conceptual photographic works. Rrose Sélavy lived on as the person to whom Duchamp attributed specific works of art, [[Readymade|Readymades]], puns, and writings throughout his career. By creating for himself this female persona whose attributes are beauty and eroticism, he deliberately and characteristically complicated the understanding of his ideas and motives.
*[[Billy Tipton]] was a notable jazz pianist and saxophonist in the United States during the [[Great Depression]]. He was born Dorothy Lucille Tipton in [[1914]], but began living as a man in the 1930s. He was married five times to women, and adopted three boys. He led a full career as a musician and, in later life, as an entertainment agent. Other than his birth family, no one knew of his birth sex or cross-living until after his death in [[1989]].
*[[Willmer "Little Ax" Broadnax]] was a lead singer in several important [[gospel]] quartets, most famously the [[Spirit of Memphis Quartet]]. When he died in 1994, it was discovered that he was female bodied.
* Because female enlistment was barred, many women fought for both the Union and the Confederacy during the [[American Civil War]] while dressed as men.
* [[Edward Hyde, 3rd Earl of Clarendon]], colonial governor of [[New York]] and [[New Jersey]] in the early [[1700s]] is reported to have enjoyed going out wearing his wife's clothing, but this is disputed. [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/020125.html]
* The Chinese legend of [[Hua Mulan]], and the Disney movie [[Mulan]] derived from it, feature a cross-dressing heroine.
=== Cultural examples of cross-dressing ===
Cross-dressing is the subject of many works of [[literature]] and plays a significant role in [[popular culture]]. References to cross-dressing are frequently used for comic effect.
====Film and television====
{{main|Cross-dressing in film and television}}
====Internet====
The explosion of the [[Internet]] and the [[World Wide Web]] has provided new opportunities for cross-dressing people to express themselves. Numerous websites cater to cross-dressing men by providing dresses, shoes, and other feminine accessories in larger men's sizes. In addition, the Internet has given many cross-dressers a safe forum for sharing photos and stories (see [[Fictionmania]]).
====Animation====
[[Bugs Bunny]] occasionally engages in cross-dressing, usually to confound a foe. His transformation is typically so effective that his adversaries (especially one [[Elmer Fudd]]), who moments earlier had been trying to kill him, are smitten by his "feminine charm."
The film [[Revolutionary Girl Utena]] (also known as &#23569;&#22899;&#38761;&#21629;&#12454;&#12486;&#12490;&#12288;''Sh&#333;jo Kakumei Utena'') is perhaps one of the best-known examples of [[Japan|Japanese]] [[animation]] involving cross-dressing. The female protagonist, Utena Tenjou, cross-dresses as a result of her desire to be a her |
[[plant]]s, or various [[Microorganism|microscopic organism]]s altered for the purposes of genetic research or for the production of [[pharmaceutical]]s.
The term "genetically modified organism" does not necessarily imply, but does include, transgenic substitution of genes from another [[species]], although [[research]] is actively being conducted in this field. For example, genes for [[fluorescence|fluorescent]] proteins can be co-expressed with complex proteins in cultured cells to facilitate study by [[biologist]]s, and modified organisms are used in researching the mechanisms of [[cancer]] and other [[diseases]].
==History==
The first GMO was created in 1973 by [[Stanley N. Cohen]] and [[Herbert Boyer]] [http://home.hawaii.rr.com/johns/history.htm#BM1973]. In mid-1974, very soon after the first GMO was created, scientists called for and observed a voluntary moratorium on certain recombinant DNA [[scientific experiment|experiment]]s. One goal of the moratorium was to provide time for a conference that would evaluate the state of the new technology and the risks, if any, associated with it. That conference concluded that recombinant DNA research should proceed but under strict guidelines. Such guidelines were subsequently promulgated by the [[National Institutes of Health]] in the [[United States]] and by comparable bodies in other countries. These guidelines form the basis upon which GMOs are regulated to this day. [http://nobelprize.org/chemistry/articles/berg/]
The first transgenic animals were mice created by [[Rudolf Jaenisch]] in 1974. Jaenish successfully managed to insert foreign DNA into the early-stage [[mouse]] [[embryos]]; the resulting mice carried the modified gene in all their [[biological tissue|tissues]]. Subsequent experiments, injecting [[leukemia]] genes to early mouse embryos using a [[retrovirus]] vector, proved the genes integrated not only to the mice themselves, but also to their progeny.
==Methods of genetic modification==
[[Image:ADN animation.gif|thumb|right|250px|The double-helix structure of DNA allows modification of plasmids to take place.]]
Genetic modification involves [[genetic engineering]], also known as ''gene splicing'', a technique to splice together DNA fragments from more than one organism and thus preparing a "recombinant" DNA molecule in a test tube, producing a single piece of genetic material containing the original information from multiple fragments which can then be inserted into another organism. This is achieved by cutting up DNA molecules with [[restriction enzymes]] and splicing these fragments together using [[DNA ligase]]. A ''transgenic'' organism that contains such DNA sequences from a foreign organism integrated into its own genome, the term "transgenic" literally means ''across gene''. An example of a transgenic organism is an animal that is not a jelly fish that expresses the green [[fluorescence]] protein, such as [[mice]] or [[fish]]. The gene coding for the protein originated from jelly fish.
With current technology, transgenic organisms can be produced with only a very small proportion of extraneous DNA. For example, the [[genome]] of most mammals contains three billion basepairs of DNA, while it becomes relatively difficult to insert more than 10,000 to 20,000 basepairs of foreign DNA. More sophisticated techniques using [[yeast artificial chromosome|yeast artificial chromosomes]] and [[bacterial artificial chromosome|bacterial artificial chromosomes]] allow insertions of up to 320,000 basepairs [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11884478&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_DocSum] - approximately 0.01% of the total genome. In concept, multiple rounds of transgenesis or interbreeding of transgenics could lead to organisms with a higher proportion of foreign DNA, but cost and time considerations prevent this.
In order to introduce new DNA into the receiving host, ''vectors'' are used. Vectors range from small circular pieces of DNA such as [[plasmids]], to various [[virus]]es that can carry and transmit genetic information. Three processes are known by which the genetic composition of [[bacterium|bacteria]] can be altered.
[[Transformation (genetics)|Transformation]] is a process by which some bacteria are naturally capable of taking up [[DNA]] to acquire new genetic traits. This phenomenon was discovered by [[Frederick Griffith]] in [[1928]], although the fact that it was specifically DNA molecules that carried the genetic information was not proven until [[1944]]. Bacteria that are competent to undergo transformation are frequently used in [[molecular biology]]. The foreign DNA uptake is facilitated by the presence of certain [[ion|cations]], such as [[calcium|Ca]]<sup>2+</sup>, or by the use of electric current ([[electroporation]]). Transformation does not normally integrate new DNA into the bacterial [[chromosome]]. Instead, it remains on a [[plasmid]].
In conjugation, DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another via a temporary connecting tube of protein called a ''pilus'' (a process analogous to but biologically distinct from mating). Conjugation is not widely used for the artificial genetic modification of bacteria.
[[Transduction (genetics)|Transduction]] refers to the introduction of new DNA into a bacterial cell by a [[bacteriophage]], a [[virus]] that infects bacteria.
Often in order to gain knowledge about a particular gene's function, ''knock out'' organisms are organisms used by researchers. These organisms have a specific gene has been functionally destroyed or "knocked out." They are used extensively in disease research with model organisms. For example, when investigating the cause of cystic fibrosis, researchers identified the [[CFTR (gene)|CFTR gene]] as a very likely candidate for the disease, found the mouse equivalent, bred a mouse with this gene "knocked out", and noted that the knockout mouse also had cystic fibrosis.
==Genetic modification of plants==
{{main|Transgenic plants}}
The principal technique for the genetic modification of [[plant]]s is based on a natural ability of the bacterium ''[[Agrobacterium tumefaciens]]''. This bacterium infects plants and causes a tumor-like growth termed a [[crown gall]]. ''A. tumefaciens'' contains a [[plasmid]] (a circular piece of [[DNA]]) that transfers from the bacteria into the infected plant and integrates into the plant's [[genome]]. The transferred genes cause the plant to form the gall, which houses the bacteria and produces nutrients that support the bacteria's growth. A number of scientists contributed to this discovery throughout the late [[1960s]] and the [[1970s]], with key discoveries by [[Jeff Schell]], [[Marc Van Montagu]], [[Georges Morel]], [[Mary-Dell Chilton]] and [[Jacques Tempé]]. By [[1983]] [[biotechnology]] had reached the point where it was possible to insert additional genes of interest into ''A. tumefaciens'' and thus transfer those genes into plants. This process is commonly used to create [[transgenic plants|transgenic crop plants]] for agricultural purposes.
Another widely used process to create transgenic crops is biolistic method ([[gene gun]]). Biolistic method was also used for the creation of two most common transgenic crops - RoundUp ready soybean and [[Transgenic maize|Bt-corn]].
Biolistic techniques are generally more suited to [[monocots]], whereas agrobacteria are used primarily with [[dicots]]. However, newer techniques and strains of ''A. tumefaciens'' have also found utility in the transformation of monocots.
==Genetic modification of animals==
Like bacteria and plants, animals can be genetically modified by viral infection. However, the genetic modification occurs only in those cells that become infected, and in most cases these cells are eventually eliminated by the [[immune system]]. In some cases it is possible to use the gene-transferring ability of viruses for [[gene therapy]], i.e. to correct diseases caused by a defective gene by supplying a normal copy of the gene. Permanent genetic modification of entire animals can be accomplished in [[mouse|mice]]. The process begins by first genetically modifying a mouse [[embryonic stem cell]]. This is normally done by physically introducing into the cell a plasmid that can integrate into the genome by a process known as transfection [http://www.yotor.com/wiki/en/tr/Transfection.htm]. During transfection the DNA integrates into the animal genome via non-homologous recombination. This altered cell is implanted into a [[blastocyst]] (an early embryo), which is then implanted into the uterus of a [[female]] mouse. A pup born from this blastocyst will be a [[Chimera (genetics)|chimera]] containing some cells derived from the unmodified cells of the blastocyst and some derived from the modified stem cell. By selecting mice whose germ cells (sperm- or egg-producing cells) developed from the modified cell and interbreeding them, pups that contain the genetic modification in all of their cells will be born.
There has also been the genetically manipulated bull Herman with 55 offspring. A human gene was built into his genetic code while in an early embryonic stage in 1990. As a result, milk from his female descendants contained the human protein lactoferrine, that can be used as medicine, but it was present at such low levels that it was not profitable to extract them.
[[Insect]]s can be genetically modified by injecting them with artificial [[transposon]]s and a source of the enzyme [[transposase]]. The transposon, which can include new genes, is then integrated into the genome. Such insertions are unstable and can 'jump-out' in the presence of transposase.
==Controversies over genetic modification==
''See also [[Genetically modified food]] and [[Transgenic plants]]''
Genetic modification (GM) is the subject of controversy in its own right |
] from PBS
*http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/samson/climate_patterns/
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<title>Irving Langmuir</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Langmuir.jpg|right|right|thumb|Irving Langmuir -- chemist and physicist]]
'''Irving Langmuir''' ([[January 31]], [[1881]] in [[Brooklyn, New York]] - [[August 16]], [[1957]] in [[Woods Hole, Massachusetts]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[chemistry|chemist]] and [[physics|physicist]]. While at G.E., from 1909-1950, Langmuir advanced several basic fields of [[physics]] and [[chemistry]], invented the gas filled [[incandescent lamp]], the hydrogen welding technique, and was awarded the 1932 [[Nobel Prize/Chemistry|Nobel Prize for Chemistry]] for his work in [[surface chemistry]].
==Early years==
Irving Langmuir was born in [[Brooklyn]], [[New York]] on January 31, 1881. He was the third child (out of four) of Charles Langmuir and Sadie, née Comings. During his childhood, Langmuir's parents actively encouraged him to carefully observe nature and to keep a detailed record of his various observations. When Irving was eleven, it was discovered that he had rather poor eyesight. When this problem was corrected, details and observations that had previously eluded him were revealed. Because of this, his interest in nature and the various complications of nature was heightened.
During his childhood, Langmuir was greatly influenced by his older brother Arthur Langmuir. Arthur was a research chemist who also encouraged Irving to be curious about nature and how things work. Arthur helped Irving set up his first chemistry lab in the corner of his bedroom and he was always there to answer the myriad of questions that Irving would pose to him (which most of the time were on rather trivial matters).
He attended his early education at various schools and institutes in the US and in Paris (1892-1895).
[[Image:Tycho-supernova-xray.jpg|right|right|thumb|'''Tycho's Supernova Remnant''' (a huge ball of exploding [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]) Langmuir coined the name ''plasma'' because of its similarity to blood plasma, and [[Hannes Alfvén]] noted its cellular nature.]]
He graduated with a B.S. from the [[Columbia University]] [[Columbia University School of Mines|School of Mines]] in 1903 and did postgraduate work in chemistry under Nobel laureate [[Walther Nernst]] in [[Göttingen]] and earned his Ph.D. degree in 1906. Langmuir then taught at [[Stevens Institute of Technology]] in [[Hoboken, New Jersey]], until 1909, when he began working at the [[General Electric]] research laboratory ([[Schenectady, New York]]).
Langmuir married Marion Mersereau in 1912. They had a son, Kenneth, and a daughter, Barbara.
His initial contributions to science came from his study of light bulbs (which was a continuation of his Ph.D. work). First, his improvement of vacuum techniques led to the invention of the high-[[vacuum tube]]. A year later he and colleague [[Lewi Tonks]] discovered that the lifetime of a [[tungsten]] filament was greatly lengthened by filling the bulb with an inert gas, such as [[argon]], which is an important part of the modern day [[incandescent light bulb]].
As he continued to study filaments in vacuum and different gas environments he began to study the emission of charged particles from hot filaments ([[thermionic emission]]). He was one of the first scientists to work with [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]s and was the first to call these ionized gases by that name, because they reminded him of blood plasma [http://www.plasmacoalition.org/what.htm Ref].
He introduced the concept of [[Plasma (physics)#Temperatures|electron temperature]] and in [[1924]] invented the diagnostic method for measuring both temperature and [[Plasma (physics)#Densities|density]] with an electrostatic probe, now called a [[Langmuir probe]] and commonly used in plasma physics. The current of a biased probe tip is measured as a function of bias voltage to determine the local plasma temperature and density.
He also discovered atomic [[hydrogen]], which he put to use by inventing the atomic hydrogen welding process.
==Later years==
[[Image:Langmuirtime.jpeg|thumb|''[[Time Magazine]]'', [[August 28]], [[1950]]]]
Following [[World War I]] Langmuir contributed to atomic theory and the understanding of atomic structure by defining the modern concept of [[valence shells]] and [[isotope]]s.
He joined [[Katherine Blodgett]] to study thin films and surface adsorption. They introduced the concept of a [[monolayer]] (a layer of material one molecule thick) and the two dimensional physics which describes such a surface. In 1932 he received the [[Nobel Prize/Chemistry|Nobel Prize for Chemistry]] "for his discoveries and investigations in [[surface chemistry]]."
In 1938, Langmuir refuted the claim of entomologist [[Charles H. T. Townsend]] that the [[deer botfly]] flew at speeds in excess of 800 miles per hour. Langmuir estimated the fly's true speed at 25 miles per hour.
During [[World War II]] Langmuir worked to develop protective smoke screens and methods for de-icing aircraft wings. This research led him to discover that the introduction of [[dry ice]] and [[iodide]] into a sufficiently moist cloud of low temperature could induce precipitation ([[cloud seeding]]), allowing some degree of [[weather control]].
In 1953 Langmuir presented a colloquium of [[Pathological science]].
==Patents==
* Langmuir, {{US patent|1244217}}, "''Electron-discharge apparatus and method of operating the same''"
* Langmuir, {{US patent|1251388}}, "''Method of and apparatus for controlling x-ray tubes''"
==External links and references==
* [http://pubs3.acs.org/journals/langd5/index.html Langmuir Journal] ACS Chemistry Journal of Surfaces and Colloids
* "''[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0767167.html Langmuir, Irving]''" Infoplease.com.
* "'' [http://www.amasci.com/freenrg/balllg1.html Irving Langmuir's Ball Lightning Tube]''". Ball Lightning Page. [http://www.amasci.com/ Science Hobbyist].
* [http://www.aip.org/history/esva/catalog/esva/Coolidge_David.html William David Coolidge, Irving Langmuir, Joseph John Thomson] ([http://store.aip.org/OA_MEDIA/esva/langmuir_c4.jpg Photo] ([[JPG]])) [aip.org].
* "''[http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/unitarians/images/WHITNEY6.JPG Irving Langmuir] shows Whitney one of his inventions, the Pliotron tube. ca. 1920.''". [http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/unitarians/whitney.html Willis Rodney whitney]: the "Father of basic research in industry".
*[http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~ken/Langmuir/langmuir.htm "Pathological Science"] - "famous" lecture of [[1953]] [[December 18]] at GE Labs
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<title>Iron age</title>
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<page>
<title>International Association of Travel Agents Network</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-18T23:07:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Grutness</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''IATAN''' stands for the '''International Association of Travel Agents Network'''. They are an industry association designed to represent the interests of their member companies.
In addition, they (along with the [[IATA]]) are the body responsible for the standard international codes for airlines, airports, hotels, cities, and car rental firms (for example, the three-digit codes that designate [[London Heathrow Airport]] as LHR).
{{org-stub}}
==See also==
* [[IATA airport code]]
* [[list of airports]]
* [[travel agent]]
==External links==
* [http://www.iatan.org/ Official web site]
[[Category:Industry trade groups]]</text>
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<title>Inheritance tax</title>
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<ip>216.170.39.146</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''I |
52px|Erwin Schrödinger, as depicted on the former [[Austria]]n 1000 [[Schilling]] [[bank note]].]]
[[Image:Erwin Schrodinger at U Vienna.JPG|thumb|152px|Bust of Schrödinger, in the courtyard arcade of the main building, [[University of Vienna]], Austria.]]
'''Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger''' ([[August 12]], [[1887]] &ndash; [[January 4]], [[1961]]), an [[Austria]]n [[physicist]], achieved fame for his contributions to [[quantum mechanics]], especially the [[Schrödinger equation]], for which he won the [[Nobel Prize]] in 1933. He proposed the [[Schrödinger's cat]] [[thought experiment]].
==Biography==
===Early years===
In [[1887]] Schrödinger was born in Erdberg, Vienna to Rudolf Schrödinger (cerecloth producer, botanist) and Georgine Emilia Brenda (daughter of Alexander Bauer, Professor of Chemistry, [[k.u.k.]] [[Technische Hochschule]] [[Vienna]]). His father was a Catholic and his mother was a Lutheran. In [[1898]] he attended the Akademisches Gymnasium. Between [[1906]] and [[1910]] Schrödinger studied in Vienna under [[Franz Serafin Exner]] ([[1849]] - [[1926]]) and [[Friedrich Hasenöhrl]] ([[1874]] - [[1915]]). He also conducted experimental work in [[Kohlrausch]]. In [[1911]], Schrödinger became an assistant to Exner.
===Middle years===
In [[1914]] Erwin Schrödinger achieved [[Habilitation]] (''venia legendi''). Between [[1914]] and [[1918]] he participated in war work as a commissioned officer in the Austrian fortress artillery (Görz, Duino, Sistiana, Prosecco, Vienna). On [[April 6]] [[1920]] Schrödinger married Annemarie Bertel. In [[1920]], he became the assistant to [[Max Wien]], in [[Jena]]. In September [[1920]] he attained the position of a. o. Prof. (''Ausserordentlicher Professor''), roughly equivalent to Reader (UK) or associate professor (US)), in [[Stuttgart]]. In [[1921]], he became o. Prof. (''Ordentlicher Professor'', i.e. full professor), in Breslau (now [[Wrocław]], Poland).
In [[1922]], he went to [[University of Zurich | University of Zürich]]. In January [[1926]], Schrödinger published in the ''Annalen der Physik'' the paper "''Quantisierung als Eigenwertproblem''" [''tr''. Quantisation as an [[eigenvalue|Eigenvalue]] Problem] on wave mechanics and what is now known as the [[Schrödinger equation]]. In this paper he gave a "derivation" of the wave equation for time independent systems, and showed that it gave the correct energy eigenvalues for the [[hydrogen-like atom]]. This paper has been universally celebrated as one of the most important achievements of the twentieth century, and created a revolution in quantum mechanics, and indeed of all physics and chemistry. A second paper was submitted just four weeks later that solved the [[quantum harmonic oscillator]], the [[rigid rotor]] and the diatomic molecule, and gives a new derivation of the Schrödinger equation. A third paper in May showed the equivalence of his approach to that of Heisenberg and gave the treatment of the [[Stark effect]]. A fourth paper in this most remarkable series showed how to treat problems in which the system changes with time, as in [[scattering]] problems. These papers were the central achievement of his career and were at once recognized as having great significance by the physics community.
In [[1927]], he joined [[Max Planck]] at the [[Humboldt University of Berlin | Friedrich Wilhelm University]] in [[Berlin]]. In [[1933]], however, Schrödinger decided to leave Germany; he disliked the Nazis' [[anti-semitism]]. He became a Fellow of [[Magdalen College, Oxford | Magdalen College]] at the [[University of Oxford]]. Soon after he arrived, he received the [[Nobel Prize]] together with [[Paul Dirac|Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac]]. His position at Oxford did not work out; his unconventional personal life (Schrödinger lived with two women) did not meet with acceptance. In [[1934]], Schrödinger lectured at [[Princeton University]]; he was offered a permanent position there, but did not accept it. Again, his wish to set up house with his wife and his mistress may have posed a problem. He had the prospect of a position at the [[University of Edinburgh]] but visa delays occurred, and in the end he took up a position at the [[University of Graz]] in [[Austria]] in [[1936]].
{{Template:Single strand DNA discovery}}
===Later years===
In [[1938]], after Hitler occupied Austria, Schrödinger had problems because of his flight from Germany in [[1933]] and his known opposition to [[Nazism]]. He issued a statement recanting this opposition (he later regretted doing so, and he personally apologized to [[Albert Einstein | Einstein]]). However, this did not fully appease the new dispensation and the university dismissed him from his job for political unreliability. He suffered harassment and received instructions not to leave the country, but he and his wife fled to Italy. From there he went to visiting positions in [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[Ghent University|Ghent]] Universities.
In 1940 he received an invitation to help establish an [[Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|Institute for Advanced Studies]] in [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]]. He became the Director of the School for Theoretical Physics and remained there for 17 happy years, during which time he became a naturalised Irish citizen. He wrote about 50 further publications on various topics. These attempted to approach a [[unified field theory]].
In [[1944]], he wrote "''[[What is Life? (Schrödinger)|What is Life?]]''" (which contains [[Negentropy]], concepts for genetic code). According to [[James D. Watson]]'s memoir, ''DNA, The Secret of Life'', Schrödinger's 1944 book ''What is Life?'' gave Watson the inspiration to research the [[gene]], which led to the discovery of the [[DNA]] double helix structure. Similarly, [[Francis Crick]], in his autobiographical book ''What Mad Pursuit'', described how he was influenced by Schrödinger's speculations about how genetic information might be stored in molecules. Schrödinger stayed in Dublin until retiring in 1955. During this time he remained committed to his particular passion; scandalous involvements with students occurred and he fathered two children by two different Irish women. He had a life-long interest in [[Vedanta]].
In [[1956]], he returned to Vienna (chair ''ad personam'').
At an important lecture during the World Energy Conference he refused to speak on nuclear energy because of his skepticism about it and gave a philosophical lecture instead. During this period Schrödinger turned from mainstream quantum mechanics' definition of wave-particle duality and promoted the wave idea alone causing much controversy.
===Death and afterwards===
In [[1961]], Schrödinger died in [[Vienna]] of [[tuberculosis]] at the age of 73. He left a widow,
Anny. He was buried in [[Alpbach]] ([[Austria]]).
After his death, the huge [[Schrödinger (crater)|Schrödinger crater]] on the [[Far side (Moon)|far side]] of the [[Moon]] was named for him by the [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]].
==References==
* Moore, Walter "Schrödinger: Life and Thought" University of Cambridge (1989) ISBN 0521437679.
==Books by Erwin Schrödinger==
*"Nature and the Greeks" and "Science and Humanism" Cambridge University Press (1996) ISBN 0521575508.
*"Statistical Thermodynamics" Dover Publications (1989) ISBN 0486661016.
*"Space-Time Structure" Cambridge University Press (1985) ISBN 0521315204.
*"My View of the World" Ox Bow Press (1983) ISBN 0918024307.
*"What is Life?" Macmillan (1946).
==See also==
*[[Schrödinger's cat]]
*[[Schrödinger method]]
*[[Schrödinger equation]]
*[[Schrödinger functional]]
*[[Schrödinger semigroup]]
*[[List of Austrian scientists]]
*[[List of Austrians]]
== External links ==
{{commons|Erwin Schrödinger}}
* [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Schrodinger.html O'Connor, Robertson, "<nowiki>MacTutor</nowiki> biography of Erwin Schrödinger"]
* "''[http://www.zbp.univie.ac.at/schrodinger/bio/bio1.htm biographie]''" (in German) or
* "''[http://www.zbp.univie.ac.at/schrodinger/ebio/bio1.htm Biography from the Austrian Central Library for Physics]''" (in English)
* [[Nobel Lecture]]s, [[Physics]] [[1922]]-[[1941]], "''[http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1933/schrodinger-bio.html Erwin Schrödinger Biography]''" from NobelPrize.org
* Vallabhan, C. P. Girija, "''[http://www.photonics.cusat.edu/article2.html Indian influences on Quantum Dynamics]''" [''ed.'' Schrödinger's interest in [[Vedanta]]]
* [http://www.nobel-winners.com/Physics/erwin_schrodinger.html Biography from Nobel Winners]
* [http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/watoc Schrödinger Medal] of the World Association of Theoretically Oriented Chemists ([[WATOC]])
* [http://holiker.narod.ru/four/schrodinger-speech.html ''The Discovery of New Productive Forms of Atomic Theory'' Nobel Banquet speech] (in German)
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in [[1936]]. There, Benoît was introduced to mathematics by his two uncles.
Mandelbrot attended the Lycée Rolin in Paris until the start of [[World War II]], when his family moved to [[Tulle]]. In [[1944]] he returned to Paris to attend the [[École Polytechnique]], where he studied under [[Gaston Julia]] and [[Paul Lévy]]. He graduated from the École Polytechnique in [[1947]], and spent two years at the [[California Institute of Technology]] where he studied aeronautics. Back in France, he studied for a Ph.D. in Mathematical Sciences at the [[University of Paris]], graduating in [[1952]].
From [[1949]] to [[1957]] Mandelbrot was a staff member at the [[Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique]]. During this time he spent a year at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in [[Princeton Township, New Jersey|Princeton]] where he was sponsored by [[John von Neumann]]. In [[1955]] he married Aliette Kagan and moved to [[Geneva]].
In [[1958]] the couple moved to the United States where Mandelbrot joined the research staff at the [[International Business Machines|IBM]] [[Thomas J. Watson Research Center]] in [[Yorktown Heights, New York|Yorktown Heights]], [[New York]]. He remained at IBM for the rest of his working life, becoming an [[IBM Fellow]], and later Fellow [[Emeritus]].
==Later years==
From 1955 onwards Mandelbrot worked on problems and published papers in fields as diverse as [[information theory]], [[economics]] and [[fluid dynamics]]. He became convinced that a common theme of [[self-similar]] structures ran through all of these real-world problems. In [[1975]] Mandelbrot coined the term ''[[fractal]]'' to describe these structures, and published his ideas in ''Les objets fractals, forme, hasard et dimension'' (translated into English as ''Fractals: form, chance and dimension'') in [[1977]].
In [[1979]], while on secondment as Visiting Professor of Mathematics at [[Harvard University]], Mandelbrot began to study fractals called [[Julia set]]s that were invariant under certain transformations of the [[complex plane]]. Building on previous work by [[Gaston Julia]] and [[Pierre Fatou]], Mandelbrot used a computer to plot images of the Julia sets of the formula ''z''<sup>2</sup> - μ. While investigating how the topology of these Julia sets depended on the complex parameter μ he discovered the [[Mandelbrot set]] fractal that is now named after him (note that the Mandelbrot set is now usually defined in terms of the formula ''z''<sup>2</sup> + ''c'', so Mandelbrot's early plots in terms of his parameter μ are left-right mirror images of more recent plots in terms of the parameter ''c'') .
In [[1982]] Mandelbrot published an expanded and updated version of his ideas in ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature''. This influential work brought fractals into the mainstream of both professional and popular mathematics.
On his retirement from IBM in [[1987]], Mandelbrot joined the faculty of [[Yale University|Yale]] as Sterling Professor of Mathematical Sciences. He was awarded the [[Lewis Fry Richardson]] prize of the European Geophysical Society in 2000. Mandelbrot was awarded the prestigious [[Japan Prize]] in 2003. The [[asteroid]] [[27500 Mandelbrot]] was named in his honour.
==Mandelbrot and fractals==
[[image:Mandelpart2.jpg|thumb|right|Benoît Mandelbrot was the first to use a computer to plot the [[Mandelbrot set]].]]
Although Mandelbrot invented the word ''fractal'', many of the objects featured in ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature'' had been previously described by other mathematicians (the [[Mandelbrot set]] being a notable exception). However, they had been regarded as isolated curiosities with unnatural and non-intuitive properties. Mandelbrot brought these objects together for the first time and highlighted their common properties, such as self-similarity (sometimes partial or statistical), [[scale invariance]] and (usually) non-integer [[Hausdorff dimension]].
He also emphasized the use of fractals as realistic and useful models of many natural phenomena, including the shape of [[coastline]]s and river basins; the structure of plants, [[blood vessel]]s and [[lung]]s; the clustering of [[galaxy|galaxies]]; [[Brownian motion]]; and [[stock market]] prices. Far from being unnatural, Mandelbrot held the view that fractals were, in many ways, more intuitive and natural than the artificially smooth objects of traditional [[Euclidean geometry]]. As he says in the Introduction to ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature'':
:''Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, coastlines are not circles, and bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight line.''
Mandelbrot's informal and passionate style of writing and his emphasis on visual and geometric intuition (supported by the inclusion of numerous illustrations) made ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature'' accessible to non-specialists. It sparked a widespread popular interest in fractals as well as contributing to new fields of science such as [[chaos theory]].
==Pronunciation==
The pronunciation of the name "Mandelbrot", which is a [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[German language|German]] word meaning "almond bread", is given variously in dictionaries. The ''Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary'' and the ''Longman Pronouncing Dictionary'' give {{IPA|[ˈmæn.dəlˌbɹoʊt]}} (first syllable sounds like "man"; last syllable rhymes with "boat"); the ''Bollard Pronouncing Dictionary of Proper Names'' gives {{IPA|[ˈmæn.dəlˌbɹɔː]}} (last syllable rhymes with "draw"); the ''American Heritage Dictionary'' gives {{IPA|[ˈmɑːn.dəlˌbɹɑt]}} (first syllable has the vowel sound of the 'a' in "father"; last syllable rhymes with "pot").
==See also==
* [[How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension]]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.math.yale.edu/mandelbrot/ Mandelbrot's page at Yale]
* [http://www.yaleeconomicreview.com/fall2005/fractalfinance.php Yale Economic Review - Review of The (mis)Behavior of Markets]
* [http://www.polytechnique.edu/interview.php?id=12 Interview of the École Polytechnique site]
* [http://www.bookrags.com/biography/benoit-b-mandelbrot/ Biography of Mandelbrot]
* [http://mitworld.mit.edu/play/52/ Video stream of Mandelbrot lecturing at MIT]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Mandelbrot}}
== Suggested reading ==
* ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature'', by Benoît Mandelbrot; W H Freeman & Co, 1982; ISBN 0716711869
* ''The (Mis)Behavior of Markets: A Fractal View of Risk, Ruin, and Reward'', by Benoit Mandelbrot and Richard L. Hudson; Basic Books, 2004; ISBN 0-465-04355-0
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[[af:Benoit Mandelbrot]]
[[bg:Беноа Манделброт]]
[[de:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
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[[fa:بنویت مندلبروت]]
[[fr:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[ko:브누아 만델브로]]
[[hr:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[io:Benoit Mandelbrot]]
[[is:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[it:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[he:בנואה מנדלברוט]]
[[hu:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[nl:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[ja:ブノワ・マンデルブロ]]
[[no:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[pl:Benoit Mandelbrot]]
[[pt:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[ru:Мандельброт, Бенуа]]
[[sk:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[sl:Benoit Mandelbrot]]
[[fi:Benoit Mandelbrot]]
[[sv:Benoît B. Mandelbrot]]
[[zh:曼德勃罗]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benedict of Nursia</title>
<id>4001</id>
<revision>
<id>41846562</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:01:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kripkenstein</username>
<id>911653</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Removed unnecessary boldface</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other Saint Benedicts see [[Saint Benedict (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Benedict.jpg|right]]
[[Saint]] '''Benedict of Nursia''' (c. [[480]] &ndash; [[547]]), born at Nursia ([[Norcia]]), [[Italy]], was the founder of western [[monasticism]]. Many of those monastic men and women belong to a [[Christian]] [[religious order]] named in his honor, the [[Order of Saint Benedict]].
He was canonized in 1220. The only authentic life of Benedict of Nursia is that contained in the second book of [[Pope Gregory I|St. Gregory]]'s ''Dialogues''. It is more of a character sketch than a biography and consists, for the most part, of a number of miraculous incidents, which, although they illustrate the life of the saint, give little help towards a chronological account of his career. St. Gregory's authorities for all that he relates were the saint's own disciples, viz. [[Constantinus]], who succeeded him as [[Abbot]] of [[Monte Cassino]]; and Honoratus, who was Abbot of [[Subiaco, Italy|Subiaco]] when St. Gregory wrote his ''Dialogues''.
==Biography==
Benedict was the son of a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] noble of Nursia, and a tradition, which [[St. Bede]] accepts, makes him a twin with his sister [[Scholastica]]. St. Gregory's narrative makes it impossible to suppose him younger than nineteen or twenty. He was old enough to be in the midst of his literary studies, to understand the real meaning and worth of the dissolute and licentious lives of his companions, and to have been deeply affected himself by the love of a woman (Ibid. II, 2). He was capable of weighing all these things in comparison with the life taught in the [[Gospels]], and chose the latter. He was at the beginning of life, and he had at his dispo |
nasty.
The [[Flag of Israel|Israeli flag]] is rooted in Jewish tradition. The white background symbolizes purity. The symbols on the flag are two stripes—one on the top and one on the bottom—and the [[Star of David]] emblem adorning the center. The stripes and blue color are inspired by the [[tallit]] (a Jewish prayer shawl).
== History ==
{{main|History of Israel}}
=== Historical roots ===
{{see also|Kingdom of Israel}}
The earliest known mention of the name 'Israel', probably refering to a group of people rather than to a place, is the Egyptian [[Merneptah Stele]] dated to about 1210 [[Common Era|BCE]].[http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism/otarch2.html#merneptah] For over 3,000 years, [[Jew]]s have held the [[Land of Israel]] to be their homeland, both as a [[Holy Land]] and as a [[Promised Land]]. The Land of Israel holds a special place in Jewish religious obligations, encompassing Judaism's most important sites — including the remains of the [[Solomon's Temple|First]] and [[Second Temple]], as well as the rites concerning those temples. [http://www.jewfaq.org/israel.htm] Starting around 1200 [[Common Era|BCE]], a series of [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|Jewish kingdoms and states]] existed intermittently in the region for over a [[millennium]]. [http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/m/mckenzie-david.html]
Under [[Babylonia]]n, [[Ancient Greece|Greek]], [[Roman Empire|Roman]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], and (briefly) [[Sassanian]] rule, Jewish presence in the province dwindled due to mass expulsions. In particular, the failure of the [[Simon bar Kokhba | Bar Kochba Revolt]] against the [[Roman Empire]] resulted in [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|widescale expulsion of Jews]]. It was during this time that the Romans gave the name [[Syria Palaestina]] to the geographic area, in an attempt to erase Jewish ties to the land. The [[Mishnah]] and [[Jerusalem Talmud]], two of Judaism's most important religious texts, were composed in the region during this period. The [[Arab]]s conquered the land from the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] in 638 [[Common Era|CE]]. The area was ruled by various Arab states (interrupted by the rule of the [[Crusader states|Crusaders]]) before becoming part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in [[1517]].
=== Zionism and Aliyah ===
{{Israelis}}
{{main articles|[[Zionism]] and [[Aliyah]]}}
The first wave of Jewish immigration to Israel, or ''Aliyah'' (עלייה) started in [[1881]] as Jews fled persecution, or followed [[Socialist]] [[Zionism|Zionist]] ideas of [[Moses Hess]] and others of "redemption of the soil". Jews bought land from Ottoman and individual Arab landholders. After Jews established agricultural settlements, tensions erupted between the Jews and Arabs.
[[Theodor Herzl]] (1860–1904), an [[Austria]]n Jew, founded the [[Zionist movement]]. In [[1896]], he published ''[[Der Judenstaat]]'' (''The Jewish State''), in which he called for the establishment of a national Jewish state. The following year he helped convene the first [[World Zionist Congress]].
The establishment of Zionism led to the [[Aliyah#Second Aliyah (1904-1914)|Second Aliyah (1904–1914)]] with the influx of around 40,000 Jews. In [[1917]], the British Foreign Secretary [[Arthur Balfour|Arthur J. Balfour]] issued the [[Balfour Declaration, 1917|Balfour Declaration]] that "view[ed] with favour the establishment in [[Palestine]] of a national home for the Jewish people". In [[1920]], Palestine became a [[League of Nations]] [[British Mandate of Palestine|mandate administered by Britain]].
Jewish immigration resumed in [[Aliyah#Third Aliyah (1919-1923)|third (1919–1923)]] and [[Aliyah#Fourth Aliyah (1924-1929)|fourth (1924–1929)]] waves after [[World War I]]. Arab [[riots in Palestine of 1929]] killed 133 Jews, including 67 in [[Hebron]].
The rise of [[Nazism]] in [[1933]] led to a [[Aliyah#Fifth Aliyah (1929-1939)|fifth wave of Aliyah]]. The Jews in the region increased from 11% of the population in 1922 to 30% by 1940. The subsequent [[Holocaust]] in Europe led to [[Aliyah#Aliyah Bet: Illegal immigration (1933-1948)|additional immigration]] from other parts of Europe. By the end of [[World War II]], the number of Jews in Palestine was approximately 600,000.
In [[1939]], the British abandoned the idea of a Jewish national home, and abandoned partition and negotiations in favour of the [[White Paper of 1939]], which limited Jewish immigration and restricted purchase of land by Jews. Its other stated policy was to establish a system under which both Jews and Arabs were to share one government. The plan was never fully implemented because of a combination of resistance from the Jews and Arabs and Britain's pre-occupation with Europe and World War II. However, the White Paper guided British policy until the end of the term of their Mandate. As a result, many Jews fleeing to Palestine to avoid Nazi persecution and the [[holocaust]] were intercepted and returned to Europe. Two specific examples of this policy involved the ships ''[[Struma]]'' and ''[[Exodus (ship)|Exodus]]''[http://www.israeltoday.co.il/Default.aspx?tabid=139&view=item&idx=726]. These attempts by Jews to circumvent the blockade and flee Europe became known as [[Aliya Beth]].
{{See also|Jewish refugees|1922 Text: League of Nations Palestine Mandate}}
=== Establishment of the State ===
[[Image:Declaration of State of Israel 1948.jpg|left|thumb|200px|[[David Ben Gurion|Ben Gurion]] pronounces the [[Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, May 14, 1948|Declaration of the State of Israel]] on [[May 14]] [[1948]] in [[Tel Aviv]].]]
{{main|Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel}}
In [[1947]], following increasing levels of violence by militant groups together with unsuccessful efforts to reconcile the Jewish and Arab populations, the British government decided to withdraw from the [[Palestine Mandate]]. The [[UN General Assembly]] approved the [[1947 UN Partition Plan]] dividing the territory into two states, Jewish and Arab, giving about half the land area to each state. [[Jerusalem]] was planned to be an international region administered by the UN to avoid conflict over its status.
Immediately following the adoption of the Partition Plan by the UN General Assembly (on [[November 29]], [[1947]]), the Arab leadership rejected the plan and launched a guerilla war that included attacks on Jewish civilians. The [[Irgun|Irgun Tsvai Leumi]] retaliated with attacks on Arabs, including Arab civilians.
On [[May 14]] [[1948]], before the expiry of the British Mandate of Palestine at [[midnight]] of [[May 15]] [[1948]], the State of Israel was proclaimed.
=== War of Independence and migration===
{{main|1948 Arab-Israeli War}}
The surrounding Arab states supported the Palestinian Arabs in rejecting both the Partition Plan and the establishment of Israel, and the armies of six Arab nations attacked the newly formed State of Israel. Over the next 15 months, Israelis captured and annexed an additional 26% of the Mandate territory west of the [[Jordan river]]. Most of the Arab population fled or were expelled during the war. (Estimates of the final refugee count range from 600,000 to 900,000 with the official United Nations count at 726,000. According to official estimates at the time of the British Mandate, the total count of the non-Jewish population in 1945 was about 1,211,000, so there might be some inconsistency between the estimates.) The continuing conflict between Israel and the Arab world resulted in a lasting displacement that persists to this day.
<br clear="left"/>
Immigration of Holocaust survivors and Jewish refugees from Arab lands doubled Israel's population within a year of independence. Over the following decade approximately 600,000 [[Mizrahi Jew]]s, who [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands|fled or were expelled from surrounding Arab countries]] and Iran, migrated to Israel (with another 300,000 or so settling in [[France]] and [[North America]], leaving only a tiny remnant, mostly in [[Morocco]] and [[Tunisia]]). Israel's Jewish population continued to grow at a very high rate for some years, and was fed by further waves of [[Aliyah|Jewish immigration]] following the collapse of the [[USSR]].
{{see also|Jewish refugees|Palestinian refugee|Palestinian exodus}}
=== Subsequent wars, negotiations and agreements ===
[[Image:Stamp Golda Meir.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Golda Meir was Premier in the [[War of Attrition]] and [[Yom Kippur War]].]]
{{Main|Arab-Israeli conflict}}
After 1948, conflict between Israel and its Arab neighbors continued, sometimes escalating to full-scale wars. Israel and its neighboring countries fought out the [[1956 Suez War]], [[1967 Six Day War]], [[1970 War of Attrition]], and [[1973 Yom Kippur War]]. The state of war between Egypt and Israel ended with the signing of the [[Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty]] on [[March 26]], [[1979]]. The state of war with [[Jordan]] officially ended with the signing of the [[Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace]] on [[October 26]] [[1994]]. Sporadic negotiations with [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]] have not as yet resulted in peace treaties. On [[May 25]] [[2000]], Israel withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it had occupied since 1982.
[[Image:Campdavid.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Celebrating the signing of the Camp David Accords in the [[White House Rose Garden]]: [[Menachem Begin]] (right), [[Jimmy Carter]] (center), [[Anwar Sadat]] (left)]]
Israel is currently also embroiled in an [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict|ongoing conflict]] with [[Palestinians]] in the territories controlled since the [[Six Day War]] in [[1967]], despite the signing of the [[Oslo Accords]] on [[September 13]] [[1993]], and the ongoing efforts of Israeli, Palestinian and global peacemakers. Israel and Palestinian officials signed on [[September 13]] [[1993]] a Declaration of Principles (also known as the "Oslo accords") guiding an interim |
ilms ==
For a list of all Bogart's films see ''[[Humphrey Bogart filmography]]''.
== See also==
[[Bogart-Bacall Syndrome]]
==References==
*''Halliwell's Film, Video and DVD Guide'' (2004), Lesley Halliwell, HarperCollins Entertainment, ISBN 0007190816
*''"Time Out" Film Guide'' (2004), John Pym (ed), Time Out Group Ltd, ISBN 1904978215
==Further reading==
*''The Secret Life of Humphrey Bogart: The Early Years (1899-1931)'' (2003), Darwin Porter, Georgia Literary Association, ISBN 0966803051
*''Bogart: A Life in Hollywood'' (1997), Jeffrey Meyers, Andre Deutsch Ltd, ISBN 0233991441
==External links==
{{commons|Humphrey Bogart}}
* {{imdb name|id=0000007|name=Humphrey Bogart}}
* [http://fan.obsidian-rhapsody.com/bogie The TFL-approved Humphrey Bogart fanlisting]
* [http://www.twoop.com/people/archives/2005/10/humphrey_bogart.html Humphrey Bogart] - A Timeline
* [http://www.thegoldenyears.org/bogart.html Classic Movies (1939 - 1969): Humphrey Bogart]
* [http://www.promikatur.de/tv-und_film-stars/humphrey_bogart_karikatur.html caricature of Humphrey Bogart]
*{{ibdb name|id=32377|name=Humphrey Bogart}}
<!-- The African Queen -->
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[[Category:1899 births|Bogart, Humphrey]]
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[[Category:Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery|Bogart, Humphrey]]
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[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 50s|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category:People from New York City|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category: Phillips Academy alumni|Bogart, Humphrey]]
{{featured article}}
[[ar:همفري بوجارت]]
[[ast:Humphrey Bogart]]
[[bg:Хъмфри Богарт]]
[[bs:Humphrey Bogart]]
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[[eo:Humphrey BOGART]]
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[[he:המפרי בוגרט]]
[[lb:Humphrey Bogart]]
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[[ja:ハンフリー・ボガート]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Homicidal government</title>
<id>14047</id>
<revision>
<id>15911625</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Democide]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History painting</title>
<id>14051</id>
<revision>
<id>36653226</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T15:52:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.38.190.215</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:LastdayofPompeii.jpg|thumb|300px|''[[The Last Day of Pompeii]]'' (1833) is a quintessential history painting.]]
'''History painting''', as formulated in [[1667]] by [[André Félibien]], a historiographer, architect and theoretician of French [[classicism]], was in the [[hierarchy of genres]] considered to be the ''grand genre''.
History paintings included paintings with [[religion|religious]], [[mythology|mythological]], [[history|historical]], [[literature|literary]], or [[allegory|allegorical]] subjects--they embodied some interpretation of life or conveyed a moral or intellectual message.
The gods and goddesses from the ancient mythologies represented different aspects of the human [[psyche]], figures from religions represented different [[idea|ideas]], and history, like the other sources, represented a dialectic or play of ideas. For a long time, especially during the [[French Revolution]], history painting often focused on depiction of the heroic male nude; though this waned into the [[19th century]].
In the mid-nineteenth-century there arose a style known as [[historicism]], which marked a formal imitation of historical styles and/or artists.
:''See also'': [[Hierarchy of genres]]
[[de:Historienmalerei]]
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[[Category:Art history]]
[[Category:Art genres]]
[[Category:History artists| History painting]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hyperbola</title>
<id>14052</id>
<revision>
<id>38153318</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T15:28:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deror avi</username>
<id>152386</id>
</contributor>
<comment>interwiki</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For hyperbole, the figure of speech, see [[hyperbole]].''
[[Image:hyperbola.png|frame|A graph of a hyperbola, where h = k = 0 and a = b = 2.]]
In [[mathematics]], a '''hyperbola''' is a type of [[conic section]] ([[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|ὑπερβολή}} literally 'overshooting' or 'excess') defined as the intersection between a right circular [[conical surface]] and a [[plane (mathematics)|plane]] which cuts through both halves of the cone.
It may also be defined as the [[set]] of all [[point (geometry)|points]] for which the difference in the [[distance]] to two fixed points (called the [[focus (geometry)|foci]]) is constant.
For a simple geometric proof that the two characterizations above are equivalent to each other, see [[Dandelin spheres]].
Algebraically, a hyperbola is a curve in the [[Cartesian plane]] defined by
an equation of the form
:<math>A x^2 + B xy + C y^2 + D x + E y + F = 0</math>
such that <math>B^2 > 4 AC</math>, where all of the coefficients are real, and where more than one solution, defining a pair of points (x, y) on the hyperbola, exists.
==Definitions==
*It can also be defined as the [[locus (mathematics)|locus]] of points for which the [[ratio]] of the distances to one focus and to a [[line (mathematics)|line]] (called the directrix) is a [[constant]] larger than 1. This constant is the [[eccentricity (mathematics)|eccentricity]] of the hyperbola. These foci lie on the [[transverse axis]] and their midpoint is called the center.
A hyperbola comprises two disconnected [[curves]] called its '''arms''' which separate the foci.
At large distances from the foci the hyperbola begins to approximate two lines, known as [[asymptote]]s.
A hyperbola has the property that a [[ray]] originating at one of the foci is [[Reflection (mathematics)|reflected]] in such a way as to appear to have originated at the other focus.
An '''ambigenal hyperbola''' is one of the triple hyperbolas of the second order, having one of its infinite legs falling within an angle formed by the asymptotes, and the other without. {{ref label|1828|1|a}}
[[Image:Drini-conjugatehyperbolas.png|thumb|350px|Conjugate unit rectangular hyperbolas]]A special case of the hyperbola is the '''equilateral''' or '''rectangular hyperbola''', in which the asymptotes intersect at right [[angle]]s. The rectangular hyperbola with the coordinate axes as its asymptotes is given by the equation ''xy=c'', where ''c'' is a constant.
Just as the [[sine]] and [[cosine]] functions give a [[parametric equation]] for the [[ellipse]], so the [[hyperbolic function|hyperbolic sine]] and [[hyperbolic function|hyperbolic cosine]] give a parametric equation for the hyperbola.
If on the hyperbola equation one switches ''x'' and ''y'', the [[conjugate hyperbola]] is obtained. A hyperbola and its conjugate have the same asymptotes.
==Equations==
===Cartesian===
(center (''h'', ''k'') )
:<math>\frac{\left( x-h \right)^2}{a^2} - \frac{\left( y-k \right)^2}{b^2} = 1</math>
:<math>\frac{\left( y-k \right)^2}{a^2} - \frac{\left( x-h \right)^2}{b^2} = 1</math>
In both formulas a is called the [[semi-major axis]]; it is half the distance between the two branches; b is called the [[semi-minor axis]]. Note that b can be larger than a! The reason for this is because the values of a and b do not dictate which way the hyperbola opens. It is the order in which y and x are subtracted. If y is positive, then the hyperbola opens up and down. If x is positive, then the hyperbola opens left and right.
The [[eccentricity (mathematics)|eccentricity]] is given by
:<math>e = \sqrt{1+\frac{b^2}{a^2}}</math>
For rectangular hyperbolas with the coordinate axes parallel to their asymptotes:
:<math>(x-h)(y-k) = c \,</math>
===Polar===
:<math>r^2 =\ \ \, a\,\sec 2t</math>
:<math>r^2 = -a\,\sec 2t</math>
:<math>r^2 =\ \ \, a\,\csc 2t</math>
:<math>r^2 = -a\,\csc 2t</math>
===Parametric===
:<math>x = a\,\cosh \theta;\; y = b\,\sinh \theta</math>
:<math>x = a\,\tan \theta;\ \ y = b\,\sec \theta</math>
==See also==
*[[Ellipse]]
*[[parabola]]
*[[conic section]]
*[[Dandelin spheres]]
*[[hyperbolic sector]]
*[[hyperbolic angle]]
*[[hyperbolic function]]
*[[hyperbolic trajectory]]
*[[hyperbolic structure]]
*[[Multilateration]]
==References==
#{{note label|1828|1|a}}1828 [[Webster's Dictionary]], public domain.
==External links==
* {{planetmath reference|id=5996|title=Unit hyperbola}}
* {{planetmath reference|id=3584|title=Conic section}}
* {{planetmath reference|id=6241|title=Conjugate hyperbola}}
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Hyperbola.html Mathworld - Hyperbola]
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[ |
ny to be the definitive [[Kung Fu]] film, and was the first to ever be made by a [[Hollywood]] studio. It has one of the most influential martial arts scenes ever made - the ''[[Nunchaku]]'' scene.
Although they had acted in films and Peking opera decades before, the [[Seven Little Fortunes]], including Jackie Chan and Sammo Hung, had cameo appearances, and appearances as extras. This was arguably instrumental in Jackie Chan's further association with [[Golden Harvest]] studios, which later launched his international career.
The finished version of the film was significantly different from the original drafts. Bruce Lee was ultimately successful in using the film as a vehicle for expressing what he saw as the beauty of his culture, rather than just another action movie.
The Warner Brothers Special Edition video includes footage from the only live interview of Bruce Lee, as well as a few minutes of movie footage, philosophical in tone, cut from the original theatrical release.
The film is set in [[Hong Kong]] (''see [[Hong Kong in films]]'').
==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
"Enter the Dragon" follows three international martial artists during their participation in a fighting tournament. Mister Lee (played by Bruce Lee), Mister Roper (John Saxon) and Mister Williams (Jim Kelly) each have their own reasons for entering the tournament initially, though they all find themselves at odds with their host, the mysterious Han (played by Kien Shih). For Lee, an intelligence agency recruits him to investigate Han's operations using his participation in the tournament as cover and since Han forbids firearms on the island, Lee's [[martial art]]s skill would be vital in case of trouble.
In the course of the tournament, the protagonists discover that Han uses his untouchable island and the tournament as a front to recruit new talent for his drug running operation. For Lee, however, this tends to be a bit more personal, as Han fled in disgrace from Lee's Shaolin temple and some of Han's thugs were responsible for the death of Lee's sister.
==On Set Incidents==
Bruce was also bit by a cobra during filming of the scene in which he infiltrates Han's base.
According to Bob Wall and John Saxon, Bruce Lee beat up an actor as he was being taunted by him , but on the Enter The Dragon dvd Linda plays this down. Bruce Lee was said to have been challenged by actors/stunt men many times and being asked to prove himself.
During the fight scene with Bob Wall, Bruce Lee cut himself on the glass bottles as they weren't breakaway props.
During the making of Enter The Dragon it is said that Bob Wall never quite got along with Bruce Lee and at the fight on the parade ground where he smashed the bottles the attack at Lee was more then just a managed fight. Wall and others however, deny these allegations stating the whole event was blown out of proportion.
==Additional Information==
In a list of channel four's top 100 movies compiled by critics in the UK, Enter The Dragon charted at No 85.
On the ''Your Movie Database'' website it is ranked at 60.
It is often regarded as one of the most influential films of all time, kick starting the kung fu movie genre during the 70's in the West and establishing Bruce Lee as a popular culture icon.
In October 1973, Enter The Dragon was the box office No 1 in the United States.
The film grossed $100 million in the United States alone and became Warner Brother's highest grossing film in 1973.
By 1977, Enter the Dragon was listed as one of the twenty most profitable movies in the history of cinema.
==Enter The Dragon in popular culture==
Many of the moves performed by Bruce Lee in this film are used as moves for the characters Marshall and Forest Law in the best selling videogame series [[Tekken]].
The driving and haunting score by [[Lalo Schifrin]] is also used on [[Takeshi's Castle]] screened by UK cable channel [[Challenge TV]] during the Honey Comb maze.
Some parts of the music during the walls of mirrors climax is used in the Bollywood hit [[Sholay]].
In [[Aaliyah]]'s video of ''[[Try Again]]'' which features martial art's actor [[Jet Li]], there is a similar mirror scene set used, like the climax at the end of Enter The Dragon.
Liu Kang, from the ''[[Mortal Kombat]]'' series, seems to be based mostly on Bruce Lee's character, Lee. This is evident do to the fact that both are former shaolin monks who are trying to restore honor in a corrupted tournament. Also, in the ''[[Mortal Kombat (film)]]'', Liu Kang seeks to avenge the death of a family member, his brother, just as Lee seeks to avenge the death of his sister.
[[Rush Hour 2]] seems to reference Enter The Dragon during the scene where [[Chris Tucker]]'s character is in the massage parlour and he begin's selecting the women he'd like to be massaged by. Jim Kelly's character also does this.
== Famous Dialogue ==
''You have offended my family...and you have offended the shaolin temple'' '''Lee'''
''It is like a finger pointing away to the moon. Don't concentrate on the finger or you will miss all that heavenly glory...you understand?'' - '''Lee'''
''Boards...dont hit back'' - '''Lee'''
''Man...You come right out of a comic book'' - '''Williams'''
''There is a point where I won't go beyond'' - '''Roper'''
''Gentlemen, we will have our tournament...'' - '''Han'''
''Bolo!''- '''Han'''
(to which '''Bolo''' responds to with) ''DA!''
''Corruption is highly profitable'' -'''Han'''
''Remember, the enemy only has images and illusions behind which he hides his true motives...destroy the image and you will break the enemy'' - '''Monk'''
== Further Reading/Sources ==
http://www.channel4.com/film/newsfeatures/microsites/G/greatest/results/control.jsp?resultspage=81
http://www.bbc.co.uk/films/2001/10/09/enter_the_dragon_1973_review.shtml#rating#rating
==Cast includes==
{| width=100%
| valign=top width=50% |
* [[Bruce Lee]]
* [[John Saxon (actor)|John Saxon]]
* [[Shih Kien|Kien Shih]]
* Ahna Capri
* Angela Mao
* [[Jim Kelly (martial artist)|Jim Kelly]]
* [[Robert Wall]]
* [[Bolo Yeung]]
* Betty Chung
* Geoffrey Weeks
* [[Peter Archer]]
* Ho Lee Yan
* Marlene Clark
* Allan Kent
* William Keller
* Mickey Caruso
* Pat E. Johnson
| valign=top width=50% |
* Darnell Garcia
* Mike Bissell
* [[Jackie Chan]] (stuntman, uncredited)
* Roy Chiao (uncredited)
* Paul M. Heller (uncredited)
* [[Sammo Hung]] (martial artist, uncredited)
* [[Lam Ching Ying]] (uncredited)
* Tony Liu (uncredited)
* [[Keye Luke]] (voice, uncredited)
* [[Chuck Norris]] (uncredited)
* Hidy Ochiai (uncredited)
* Steve Sanders (uncredited)
* Wei Tung (uncredited)
* Donnie Williams (uncredited)
* [[Yuen Biao]] (uncredited)
* [[Yuen Wah]] (uncredited)
|}
[[Category:1973 films]]
[[Category:Blaxploitation films]]
[[Category:Bruce Lee films]]
[[Category:Kung fu films]]
[[Category:United States National Film Registry]]
[[de:Der Mann mit der Todeskralle]]
[[ja:燃えよドラゴン]]
[[zh:&#40845;&#29229;&#34382;&#39717;]]
{{HK-film-stub}}
{{martialart-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Explosive</title>
<id>10200</id>
<revision>
<id>15908029</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Explosive material]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Exothermic</title>
<id>10201</id>
<revision>
<id>42009071</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:47:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Isopropyl</username>
<id>34650</id>
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<comment>merged in exothermic reaction</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Exothermic''' means to release heat. Its etymology stems from the Greek suffix ''–thermic'', meaning “to heat”, and the Greek prefix ''exo-,'' meaning “outside”. It refers to a transformation in which a system gives heat to the surroundings: ''Q < 0''. When the transformation occurs at constant pressure: ''∆H < 0''; and constant volume: ''∆U < 0''. If the system undergoes a transformation which is both exothermic and adiabatic, its temperature increases.
In [[chemistry]], an '''exothermic reaction''' is one that releases [[heat]]. It is the opposite of an [[endothermic reaction]]. Expressed in a [[chemical equation]]:
:Reactants &rarr; Product + Heat
When using a [[calorimeter]], the change in heat of the calorimeter is equal to the opposite of the change in heat of the system. This means that when the [[solution]] in which the reaction is taking place gains heat, the reaction is exothermic.
In an exothermic reaction the total energy absorbed in bond breaking is less than the total energy released in bond making.
The absolute amount of energy in a chemical system is extremely difficult to measure or calculate. The [[enthalpy]] change, &Delta;H, of a chemical reaction is much easier to measure and calculate. A [[bomb calorimeter]] is very suitable for measuring the energy change, &Delta;H, of a [[combustion]] reaction. Measured and calculated &Delta;H values are related to bond energies by:
:&Delta;H = energy used in bond breaking reactions - energy released in bond making products.
For an exothermic reaction, this gives a negative value for &Delta;H as a larger value is subtracted from a smaller value. For example, when hydrogen combusts,
:2H<sub>2</sub>([[gas|g]]) + O<sub>2</sub>([[gas|g]]) &rarr; 2 H<sub>2</sub>O([[gas|g]])
:&Delta;H = &minus;483.6 kJ/mol of O<sub>2</sub>
== See also ==
*[[Endergonic]]
*[[Exergonic]]
*[[Endothermic]]
==External links==
*[http://www.gcsescience.com/rc24.htm GCSE Science: Reactions]
[[Category:Thermodynamics]]
[[Category:Chemical reactions]]
[[ar:تفاعل طارد للحرارة]]
[[da:Exoterm]]
[[de:Exotherme Reaktion]]
|
ormation is largely provided by a cadre of volunteers with expertise in various areas of film history, with the actual staff largely used to screen and edit the voluminous amount of material submitted daily, and to track information from industry resources on current and planned projects and contemporary personalities only.
The IMDb also offers ancillary material such as daily movie and TV news, and running special features about various movie events such as the [[Academy Award|Academy Awards]]. IMDb also has an active message board system: there are message boards for each database entry, which can be found at the bottom of the relevant page, as well as general discussion boards on various topics.
IMDb is a free site, which requires only registration to access its complete range of data and activities. Any person with an [[e-mail]] account and a [[web browser]] that accepts [[HTTP cookie|cookies]] can set up an account with IMDb, then research covered product, submit information and engage in other site activities. (Site visitors not wishing to provide registration information can, however, search and view the database.) For automated queries, most of the database can be downloaded as ([[data compression|compressed]]) [[binary and text files|plain text]] files and the information can be extracted using the tools provided (typically using a [[command line interface]]). See: [http://imdb.com/interfaces IMDb interfaces]
It has also in 2003 spun off a private, subscription-funded site, [[IMDbPro]], offering the entire IMDb contents plus additional information for business professionals, such as personnel contact details, movie event calendars, and a greater range of industry news.
===Statistics===
[[February 28]] [[2006]]:
*Titles: 486,991
*People: 1,994,222
See: [http://www.imdb.com/database_statistics IMDb Statistics]
==History==
===In rec.arts.movies===
The database originated from two lists started as independent projects in early [[1989]] by participants in the [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]] rec.arts.movies. In each case, a single maintainer recorded items [[email]]ed by newsgroup readers, and posted updated versions of his list from time to time.
It began with a posting titled '''Those Eyes''', on the subject of [[actress]]es with beautiful eyes. [[Hank Driskill]] began to collect a list of sexy actresses and what movies they had appeared in, and as the size of the repeated posting grew far beyond a normal newsgroup article, it soon became known simply as '''THE LIST'''. {{ref|THE_LIST}}.
The other project, started by [[Chuck Musciano]], was briefly called the '''Movie Ratings List''' and soon became the '''Movie Ratings Report'''. Musciano simply asked readers to rate movies on a scale of 1 to 10, and reported on the votes {{ref|MRR}}. He soon began posting "ballots" with lists of movies for people to rate, so his list also grew quickly.
In [[1990]] [[Col Needham]] collated the two lists and produced a '''Combined LIST & Movie Ratings Report''' {{ref|Combined}}, and at this point the ball really started rolling. Needham soon found himself starting a (male) '''[[Actor]]s List''', while [[Dave Knight]] began a '''[[film director|Directors]] List''', and [[Andy Krieg]] took over THE LIST, which would later be renamed as the '''Actress List'''. Both this and the Actors List had been restricted to people who were still alive and working, but retired people began to be added, and Needham also started what was then (but did not remain) a separate '''Dead Actors/Actresses List'''. The goal now was to make the lists as inclusive as the maintainers could manage.
In late [[1990]], the lists included almost 10,000 [[movies]] and [[television series]]. On [[October 17]], [[1990 in film|1990]], Needham posted a collection of [[Unix]] [[shell script]]s which could be used to search the four lists, and the database that would become the IMDb was born. At the time, it was known as the '''rec.arts.movies movie database'''.
===On the Web===
By [[1993 in film|1993]], the database had been expanded to include additional categories of filmmakers and other demographic material, as well as [[trivia]], [[biographies]], and [[plot|plot summaries]]; the movie ratings had been properly integrated with the list data; and a centralised email interface for querying the database had been created. Later in the year, it moved onto to the [[World Wide Web]] (a network in its infancy back then) under the name of ''Cardiff Internet Movie Database''. The database resided on the [[servers]] of the computer science department of [[Cardiff University]] in [[Wales]]. [[Rob Hartill]] was the original web interface author. In [[1994 in film|1994]], the email interface was revised to accept the submission of all information, meaning that people no longer had to email the specific list maintainer with their updates. However, the structure remained that information received on a single film was divided among multiple section managers, the sections being defined and determined by categories of film personnel and the individual filmographies contained therein. Its management also continued to be in the hands of a small contingent of underpaid or volunteer "section managers" who were receiving ever-growing quantities of information on films from around the world and across time from contributors of widely varying level of expertise and informational resources. Despite the annual claims of Needham, in a year-end report newsletter to the Top 50 contributors, that "fewer holes" must now remain for the coming year, the amount of information still missing from the database was vastly underestimated. Over the next few years, the database was run on a network of [[mirror (computing)|mirrors]] across the world with donated bandwidth.
===As an independent company===
In [[1995]], it became obvious to the principal site managers that the project had become too large to maintain merely through donations and in their spare time. The decision was made to become a commercial venture and in [[1996]], IMDb was incorporated in the [[United Kingdom]], becoming the Internet Movie Database Ltd, with [[Col Needham]] the primary owner as well as identifed figurehead. The remaining shareholders were the people maintaining the database. Revenue was generated through advertising, licensing and partnerships.
This state of affairs continued until [[1998]]. The database was growing every day, and it was again reaching a critical point. Most revenues were being spent on equipment, and shareholders were finding it difficult to reconcile the fact that for all their hard work they themselves were getting very little income. Many, by this time, had families to support and interact with, and could not hold regular paying jobs and meet the increasing needs of the database. The company's ability to add and upgrade equipment was dwindling, while the number of new informational submissions, as well as fan text, were increasing incrementally. The system was suffering noticeable slowdowns both in accessing the site and in having new data posted. Offers were solicited and received from major businesses to purchase the database; however, the shareholders were unwilling to sell if it could not be guaranteed that the information would be accessible to the internet community for free.
===As a subsidiary company===
In 1999, [[Jeff Bezos]], founder, owner and CEO of [[Amazon.com]] struck a deal with Col Needham and other principal shareholders, to buy IMDb outright and attach it to his corporate empire as a subsidiary, private company. This gave IMDb the ability to pay the shareholders salaries for their work, while Amazon.com would be able to use the IMDb as an advertising resource for selling [[DVD]]s and [[videotape]]s. Volunteer contributors were not advised in advance of even the possibility of IMDb - and their contributions along with it - being sold to a private business, which created some initial discord and defection of regulars. Promises to recompense all major contributors in some unspecified way for their prior services were issued by Col Needham in announcing the sale, but did not materialize.
IMDb continues to expand its functionality. In [[2002]], it added a subscription service known as '''IMDbPro''' aimed at entertainment professionals. It provides a variety of services including [[film_production|production]] and [[box office]] details, as well as a company directory. Subscriptions are priced at $12.95 per month, or $99.95 per year (as of April, 2005). Most information contained in the IMDb database proper continues to come from volunteer researchers, whose only incentive, since 2003, is that if they are identified as being one of "the top 100 contributors" in terms of amounts of hard data submitted, they receive complimentary free access to IMDbPro for the following calendar year.
==The database==
On [[26 January]] [[2006]], the long-awaited "Full Episode Support" came online, meaning the database now supports separate cast and crew listings for every episode of every TV series. This was described by Col Needham as "the largest change we've ever made to our data model", and increased the number of titles in the database from 485,000 to nearly 750,000.
At present, the database entries for TV series are in a state of flux, as listings are migrated from series titles to individual episodes. The maintainers anticipate that it will take a couple of months for data to settle down and bugs to be ironed out.
{{sect-stub}}
==Ancillary features==
===User voting===
[[Image:IMDB top 250.svg|thumb|250px|IMDb top 250 films, plotted by year and the sum of the ratings for movies from that year.]]
As one adjunct to data, the IMDb offers a weighted voting system for aggregating the subjective reactions of viewers to a movie as a numerical rating; current plans in development will also allow this rat |
t to preserve what they saw as being a minimum orthodoxy, a ''fundamental Christianity'', over against the liberals' abandonment of such basic features of a traditional understanding of the faith as, the inerrancy of the Bible, the virgin birth of Christ, the bodily resurrection of Jesus, the authenticity of his miracles, and the belief that his death on the cross takes away sins. This defense of fundamental Christian tradition was called ''Fundamentalism'', though in fact it was little more than orthodoxy as found in the official statements of faith of Protestant denominations.
Some Fundamentalists strongly advocated separation from those denominations and institutions in which modernism was dominant. Many of these identified the Fundamentalist cause with certain specific doctrines, approaches to culture, and styles of worship, preaching, or plans of church governance, which were not shared by their fellows - some of which, in fact, had only arisen in the previous century. Others strongly reacted against separatism and exclusiveness. They sought to distinguish their agenda to defend the fundamental orthodoxy familiar to their forebears, from the Fundamentalists who sought to establish a new orthodoxy. Some of the leaders of this broader party called themselves 'neo-evangelicals'.
====Renewed Evangelicalism: ''Neo-evangelicalism''====
{{main|Neo-evangelicalism}}
The '''Neo-Evangelical''' movement was a response among traditionally orthodox [[Protestantism|Protestants]] to [[Fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist Christianity's]] [[Separatism#Religious_separatism|separatism]], beginning in the 1920s and 1930s.
Neo-evangelicals held the view that the modernist and liberal parties in the Protestant churches had surrendered their heritage as evangelicals by accommodating the views and values of the world. However they saw the Fundamentalists' separatism and rejection of the [[Social gospel]] as an over-reaction. They charged the modernists with having lost their identity as evangelicals, and attacked the Fundamentalists as having lost the Christ-like heart of evangelicalism. They argued that the Gospel needed to be reasserted to distinguish it from the innovations of the liberals and the Fundamentalists; thus they coined the term, 'Neo-' (new or renewed) 'evangelicalism'.
They sought to engage the modern world and the liberals in a positive way, remaining separate from worldliness but not from the world &mdash; a middle way, between modernism and the separating variety of Fundamentalism. They sought allies in denominational churches and liturgical traditions, among non-[[Dispensationalism|dispensationalists]], and trinitarian varieties of [[Pentecostalism]]. They believed that in doing so, they were simply re-acquainting Protestantism with its own recent tradition. The movement's aim at the outset was to reclaim the evangelical heritage in their respective churches, not to begin something new; and for this reason, following their separation from Fundamentalists, the same movement has been better known as merely, "evangelicalism". By the end of the 20th century, this was the most influential development in American Protestant Christianity.
The term ''neo-evangelicalism'' no longer has any reliable meaning except for historical purposes. It is still self-descriptive of the movement to which it used to apply, to distinguish the parties in the developing fundamentalist split prior to the 1950s. The term is now used almost exclusively by conservative critics to distinguish their idea of evangelicalism from this movement. Some liberal writers, speaking critically, might refer to ''neo-evangelicalism'', or ''neo-fundamentalism'', with comparably variable meanings.
==== Evangelical politics in the United States ====
{{main articles|[[Christian right]] and [[Evangelical left]]}}
Evangelicalism in the United States was prominently active in political movements which are now popularly considered to be important social advancements, such as Women's Rights and Suffrage, and [[Abolitionism]]. Evangelical influence was also evident in past movements which are now unpopular, such as [[prohibition]] and [[anti-immigration]]. But [[Roe v Wade]], the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] decision rendered in [[1973]] preventing states from making laws that prohibit [[abortion]], is the most prominent landmark of a new era of conservative evangelical political action, unprecedented in its intensity and coordination.
In the U.S. the [[Religious Right]] is influential especially in the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], and is often popularly perceived to be the political wing of the conservative Evangelical movement. The [[Bush Administration]] is guided by the President's values which often reflect core evangelical beliefs. The current president of the U.S., George W. Bush, is identified by the media as a born again Christian. Consequently, criticism of controversial conservative political stances frequently falls on the evangelical movement as a whole, in the USA at least.
The mass-appeal of the Christian right in the so-called [[red states]], and its success in rallying resistance to certain social agendas, is sometimes characterized by an otherwise unwilling, and secular, society as an attempt to impose [[theocracy]] on the country. While most who consider themselves evangelical oppose theocracy, there are indications that the belief is widespread among conservative evangelicals in the USA that Christianity should enjoy a privileged place in American public life according its importance in American life and history. Accordingly, those evangelicals often strenuously oppose the expression of other faiths in schools or in the course of civic functions. For example, when Venkatachalapathi Samuldrala became the first Hindu priest to offer an invocation before Congress in 2000, the September 21 edition of the online publication operated by the [[Family Research Council]], "Culture Facts", raised objection:
:While it is true that the United States of America was founded on the sacred principle of religious freedom for all, that liberty was never intended to exalt other religions to the level that Christianity holds in our country's heritage. The USA's founders expected that Christianity--and no other religion--would receive support from the government as long as that support did not violate peoples' consciences and their right to worship. They would have found utterly incredible the idea that all religions, including paganism, be treated with equal deference.
===Parachurch organizations===
{{Main|Parachurch organizations}}
Parachurch organizations are a vehicle by which evangelical [[Christianity|Christians]] work collaboratively both outside their and across their [[Christian denominations|denominations]] to engage with the world in [[mission (Christian)|mission]], [[social welfare]] and evangelism.
Through many decentralized organizations, parachurch organizations function to bridge the gap between the church and culture. These are organizations "alongside" (Grk: para-) church structures, and often seek to be less [[institution]]al, however over time, with growth and success, and in response to environmental pressures they can become more institutional.
====Roles and organizations====
{{main articles|[[List of parachurch organisations]] and [[:Category:Evangelical parachurch organisations]]}}
Roles undertaken by parachurch organizations include:
*evangelistic crusade associations (patterned after the [[Billy Graham]] Association)
*evangelistic and [[disciple]]ship ministries (such as The Navigators, [[Campus Crusade for Christ]])
*music and print [[publisher]]s, radio and television stations, film studios, online ministries
*study centers and institutes, [[school]]s, [[college]]s and [[university|universities]]
*political and social [[activist]] groups
*[[social welfare|welfare]] and social services, including, [[homeless shelters]], [[child care]], and [[domestic violence]], [[disaster relief]] programs, and food pantries and clothing closets, and emergency aid centers
*[[self-help]] groups
*[[Bible]] study groups
*[[house church]]es
==Globally==
Globally, evangelicalism and [[Pentecostalism]] are among the most influential and fastest growing Christian movements. Growth in [[Africa]] and [[Latin America]] is especially rapid, and because it is not dependent on European and North American evangelical sources allowing greater diversity. An example of this can be seen in the [[List of Christian denominations#African Independent Churches|African Independent Churches]].
===World Evangelical Alliance===
The '''World Evangelical Alliance''' is now
:a network of churches in 121 nations that have each formed an evangelical alliance and over 100 international organizations joining together to give a worldwide identity, voice and platform to more than 335 million Christians[http://www.worldevangelical.org/wefinfo.html].
===United States===
[[George Barna|Barna Research Group]] [http://www.barna.org/FlexPage.aspx?Page=Topic&TopicID=17] surveyed Christians in the United States in 2004 and asked nine questions to determine whether the respondent was an evangelical Christian. Seven of the questions asked were:
#Are you a born again Christian?
#Is your faith very important in your life today?
#Do you believe you have a personal responsibility to share your religious beliefs about Christ with non-Christians?
#Do you believe that Satan exists?
#Do you believe that eternal salvation is possible only through grace, not works?
#Do you believe that Jesus Christ lived a sinless life on earth?
#Do you believe that God is the all-knowing, all-powerful, perfect deity who created the universe and still rules it today?
The survey methodology was not given on this website. The questions asked by the group do not necessarily represent all the characteristics of ev |
bout 2 feet. Vertebrates include many [[Temnospondyli|Temnospondyl]], [[Anthracosauria|Anthrachosaur]], and [[Lepospondyli|Lepospondyl]] amphibians and early [[Anapsida|anapsid]] and [[Synapsida|synapsid]] (e.g. ''[[Edaphosaurus]]'') reptiles.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 256 MYA
| ''[[Diictodon]]'', ''[[Cistecephalus]]'', ''[[Dicynodon]]'', ''[[Lycaenops]]'', ''[[Dinogorgon]]'' and ''[[Procynosuchus]]'', are a few of the many [[Therapsida|mammal-like reptiles]] known from South Africa and Russia. [[Pareiasaur]]s were large clumsy herbivores. The first [[Archosauriformes]].
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 250 MYA
| The [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]] wipes out about 90% of all animal species; this fourth extinction event is the most severe [[Extinction event|mass extinction]] known.
''[[Lystrosaurus]]'' is a common herbivore that survives the extinction. The [[Archosauria|archosaurs]] split from other reptiles. [[Teleostei|Teleosts]] evolve from among the [[Actinopterygii]] (ray-finned fish), and eventually become the dominant fish group. Atmospheric oxygen, at 10%, is one third of its former level, so animals with air sac breathing systems will do well (present-day [[Bird#Respiration|bird respiration]] exemplifies the air sac system). Some spores of bacteria Bacillus strain 2-9-3 (''Sali bacillus marismortui'') are trapped in salt crystals known as halite in New Mexico. They are re-animated in AD 2000 and have multiplied rapidly. Currently the world oldest living organism.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 220 MYA
| The [[climate]] is very dry, and dry-adapted organisms are favored: the [[Archosauria|archosaurs]] and the [[Gymnosperm]]s. [[Archosauria|Archosaurs]] diversify into [[crocodilia|crocodilians]], [[dinosaur]]s, and [[pterosaur]]s.
From [[synapsid]]s come the first [[mammal]] precursors, [[therapsid]]s, and more specifically the [[eucynodonts]]. Initially, they stay small and shrew-like. All mammals have milk glands for their young, and they keep a constant body temperature. Also, one of a pair of [[autosomes]] acquires gene [[SRY]] (derived from the SOX3 gene of the [[X chromosome]]) to become the [[Y chromosome]], which has been decreasing in length since.
Gymnosperms (mostly [[conifer]]s) are the dominant land plants. Plant eaters will grow to huge sizes during the dominance of the gymnosperms to have space for large guts to digest the poor food offered by gymnosperms.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 208-144 MYA
| Second major spread of [[sharks]]<ref>"<cite>The second major radiation of sharks occurred during the Jurassic Period, 208 to 144 million years ago. At this time, pterosaurs ruled the skies and the first birds were taking to the air.</cite>" [http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/origin_modern.htm The Origin of Modern Sharks] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])</ref>.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 200 MYA
| [[Triassic-Jurassic extinction event|Fifth mass extinction event]] occurs at the Triassic-Jurassic transition.
Marine reptiles include [[Ichthyosaur]]s and [[Plesiosaur]]s. [[Ammonite]]s and [[belemnite]]s flourish. Dinosaurs survive the extinction and grow to large size, but the [[thecodont]]s, or "socket-toothed" reptiles, die out. Modern amphibians evolve: the [[Lissamphibia]]; including [[Anura]] (frogs), [[Urodela]] (salamanders), and [[Caecilian|Caecilia]]. [[Geminiviridae]], a diverse group of [[virus]]es, are traceable to this epoch or earlier<ref>"<cite>Viruses of nearly all the major classes of organisms&mdash;animals, plants, fungi and bacteria/archaea&mdash;probably evolved with their hosts in the seas, given that most of the evolution of life on this planet has occurred there. This means that viruses also probably emerged from the waters with their different hosts, during the successive waves of colonisation of the terrestrial environment.</cite>" [http://www.mcb.uct.ac.za/tutorial/virorig.html Origins of Viruses] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])</ref>.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 180 MYA
| The supercontinent [[Pangea]] begins to break up into several land masses. The largest is [[Gondwana]], made up of the land masses which are now [[Antarctica]], [[Australia]], [[South America]], [[Africa]], and [[India]]. Antarctica is still a land of forests. [[North America]] and [[Eurasia]] are still joined, forming the Northern supercontinent, [[Laurasia]].
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 164 MYA
|The oldest swimming mammal, [[Castorocauda lutrasimilis]], is the immediate predecessor of modern mammals such as the [[platypus]] and [[echidna]].
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 160 MYA
| 3 metres long, ''[[Guanlong wucaii]]'' - meaning ''crested dragon from the five colours'', Xinjiang province in northwestern China, is the oldest Tyrannosaur.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 150 MYA
| Giant [[dinosaur]]s are common and diverse - ''[[Brachiosaurus]]'', ''[[Apatosaurus]]'', ''[[Stegosaurus]]'', ''[[Allosaurus]]'', along with smaller forms like ''[[Ornitholestes]]'' and ''[[Othneilia]]''. [[bird|Birds]] evolve from [[Theropoda|theropod]] dinosaurs. ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' is an ancestor of birds, with claws, feathers but no beak.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 135 MYA
| New dinosaurs ''[[Iguanodon]]'', ''[[Hylaeosaurus]]'', etc., appear after extinction of Jurassic forms. ''[[Microraptor|Microraptor gui]]'', a 77 cm long dinosaur in Liaoning, Northeast China, has bird-like feathered wings on 4 limbs.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 133 MYA
| ''[[Jeholornis prima]]'', primitive bird in the Jiufotang Formation of north-eastern China eats seeds. The bird has large, strong wings, and also had a long, bony tail, like many dinosaurs.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 130 MYA
| [[Angiosperm]] plants evolve [[flower]]s, structures that attract insects and other animals to spread [[pollen]]. This innovation of the angiosperms causes a major burst of animal evolution and [[co-evolution]].
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 128 MYA
| One early [[tyrannosaur]] is ''[[Dilong paradoxus]]'' in Lioning Province of China. Has feathers and a small body of 5 feet (1.5 m) long.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 125 MYA
| ''[[Eomaia scansoria]]'', a [[eutheria]]n mammal, which leads to the formation of modern placental mammals. It looks like a modern dormouse, climbing small shrubs in [[Liaoning]], [[China]]. The parrot-beaked ''[[Psittacosaurus]]'' is the ancestor of the later horned dinosaurs.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 123 MYA
| ''[[Sinornithosaurus|Sinornithosaurus millenii]]'' is a dinosaur in Liaoning, China that has primitive feathers not used for flight. Other dinosaurs with feathers are ''[[Sinosauropteryx]]'' (most primitive feathers, simplest tubular structures) and ''[[Changchanornis]]''. Have common ancestor with ''[[Archaeopteryx]]''. Other dinosaurs include ''[[Polacanthus]]'' (armoured herbivore) and ''[[Eotyrannus]]'' (early [[tyrannosaur]]).
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 110 MYA
| ''[[Sarcosuchus|Sarcosuchus imperator]]'', eight metric tons, 12 m long, head 2 m long, largest crocodile. Carnivorous dinosaurs included the "[[Dromaeosauridae|raptor]]" ''[[Deinonychus]]'' and sail-backed semi-aquatic [[Spinosauridae|spinosaurs]], herbivores include the tallest known sauropod ''[[Sauroposeidon|Sauroposeidon proteles]]'', as well as the bulbous-nosed iguanodont ''[[Altirhinus]]'' (ancestral to duck-bills) and the [[Nodosauridae|armoured]] ''[[Sauropelta]]''.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 100 MYA
| The giant theropod dinosaurs ''[[Carcharodontosaurus]]'' and ''[[Giganotosaurus]]'' are even bigger than ''[[Tyrannosaurus]]''.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 88 MYA
| Breakup of [[Indo-Malagasy]] land mass.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 80 MYA
| Many kinds of [[Titanosauridae|sauropod]], [[Hadrosauridae|duck billed]], [[Ceratopsidae|horned]] and [[Theropod|meat-eating]] dinosaurs; half of all known dinosaur species are from the last 30 MY of the [[Mesozoic]], after the rise of the angiosperms. [[India]] starts moving to [[Eurasia]].
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 75 MYA
| Last common ancestor of humans and mice <ref>"<cite>A comparison of the two genomes reveals that both have about 30,000 genes, and they share the bulk of them&mdash;the human genome shares 99% of its genes with mice. Humans and mice diverged about 75 million years ago, too little time for many evolutionary differences to accumulate.</cite>" [http://www.txtwriter.com/Backgrounders/Compgenomes/compgenomes1.html Comparing genomes] <br /> "<cite> Their conclusion: although the mouse and human genomes are very similar, genome rearrangements occurred more commonly than previously believed, accounting for the evolutionary distance between human and mouse from a common ancestor 75 million years ago.</cite>" [http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/seta/2002/12/19/stories/2002121900070200.htm The Hindu]<br/>"<cite>Mice have many more olfactory genes compared to the human. Smell matters for mice, especially for sex and mating; they also have more genes involved in reproduction (such as [[aphrodisin]], which stimulates mating behaviour in males) and immunity</cite>" [http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2002/12/05/MN153329.DTL&type=s |
uences infused with [[African]] elements inherited from [[Slavery|slave]] ancestors. Ecuador's [[indigenous]] communities are largely integrated into that mainstream culture to varying degrees, but some may also practise their own autochthonous cultures, particularly the more remote indigenous communities of the [[Amazon basin]].
Famous people born in Ecuador include painters [[Tábara]], [[Guayasamín]], [[Kingman]], [[Arauz]], [[Constanté]], [[Viteri]], [[Molinari]], [[Villacís]], [[Egas]], [[Villafuerte]] and [[Mena Franco]]; animator [[Mike Judge]]; poet and statesman [[José Joaquín de Olmedo]], scholar [[Benjamín Urrutia]], tennis player [[Pancho Segura]], speed-walker and Olympic gold medalist [[Jefferson Pérez]] and Singer [[Christina Aguilera]]
== Ecuador in Film ==
The [[Waorani]] tribe (located in Ecuador) will be heavily portrayed in the 2006 theatrical release of "The [[End of the Spear]]," the story about five missionaries speared to death, as told through the eyes of a Waorani tribesman.
The film ''[[Proof of Life]]'' (2000), starring [[Meg Ryan]] and [[Russell Crowe]], was filmed in Ecuador. The film, nontheless, takes place in a fictitious South American country named 'Tecala'. The guerrilla movement depicted in the film is reminiscent of [[Peru]]'s [[Shining Path]] or [[Colombia]]'s [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia|FARC]].
The 2005 film ''Crónicas'', starring [[John Leguizamo]] in his Spanish-language debut, is set and filmed entirely in Ecuador.
The 1980s film ''[[Vibes]]'', starring [[Cyndi Lauper]] and [[Jeff Goldblum]], was also shot in Ecuador. The Andean cities served as a backdrop for the film.
== See also ==
* [[Communications in Ecuador]]
* [[Ecuadorian-United States relations]]
* [[Foreign relations of Ecuador]]
* [[History of the Ecuadorian-Peruvian territorial dispute]]
* [[List of Ecuadorians]]
* [[List of Latin American artists]]
* [[Military of Ecuador]]
* [[Music of Ecuador]]
* [[Public holidays in Ecuador]]
* [[Reporters without borders]] world-wide press freedom index 2002: Rank 20 out of 139 countries
* [[Transportation in Ecuador]]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Ecuador}}
'''Government'''
*[http://www.presidencia.gov.ec Presidencia de la República], official government site
*[http://www.supertel.gov.ec Superintendence of Telecommunications], Control telecommunications services
'''General information'''
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ec.html CIA - The World Factbook - Ecuador]
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ectoc.html Country Studies - Federal Research Division, Library of Congress - Ecuador] 1989 report
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Ecuador Open Directory Project - Ecuador] directory category
*[http://lanic.utexas.edu/la/ecuador/ LANIC] Ecuador page of the Latin American Network Information Center
*[http://schema-root.org/region/americas/south_america/ecuador/ Schema-root.org: Ecuador ] twenty two Ecuador topics, each with a current news feed
'''Tourism'''
*[http://www.darwinadventure.com Galapagos Islands] travel guide
*[http://www.galapagosmap.com Galapagos map] map and travel guide
*[http://www.ecuador.us About Ecuador] guide
*[http://www.anytravels.com/south_america/ecuador/ Ecuador AnyTravels Overview] travel guide
*[http://www.exploringecuador.com Exploring Ecuador] Ecuador and Galapagos Travel Guide and map center
*[http://www.ecuaworld.com Ecuador and Galapagos Travel Guide]
*[http://www.destination360.com/south-america/ecuador/index.php Ecuador and Galapagos Islands Virtual Tours]
'''Other'''
*[http://www.google.com.ec Google Ecuador]
*[http://www.nic.ec/nicec.htm Registro de Dominios .EC del Ecuador], [[ccTLD]] [[Network Information Centre]]
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<page>
<title>History of Ecuador</title>
<id>9335</id>
<revision>
<id>40363071</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is the '''[[history]] of [[Ecuador]]'''. See also the [[history of South America]] and the [[history of present-day nations and states]].
==Pre-Columbian times and colonization==
It is believed that Native Americans originated in Asia and that they entered the Western hemisphere via the Bering Strait approximately 50,000 years ago. Their descendants dispersed south and in time formed diverse civilizations.
16,000 to 18,000 years ago, the first Native Americans arrived to what is now Ecuadorian territory. The best-known ancient cultures of the Costa are: Las Vegas, Chorrera, Machalilla, Valdivia, Jambelí, Guangala, Bahía, Jama-Coaque, and La Tolita; of the Sierra: El Angel, Tuncahuán, Chaullabamba, Narrio, Cotocollao, and Carchi. In the period of "Integration," many of these cultures unite and new ones form. In the Costa the following cultures develop: Milagro-Quevedo, Atacames, Manteña, Huancavilca, Jama-Coaque II, and Chirije. In the Sierra the following cultures develop: Palta, Cañari, Puruha, Cayambe, Panzaleo, Caranqui, Otavalo, Pastos, and Quillacinga. In the Oriente the following cultures develop: Napo and Cotococha.
The political history of the natives of Ecuador before the Spanish conquest is based in large part on speculation. The natives had no written languages. Their history was passed on orally to their descendants. Except for the two or three generations before the arrival of the Spanish, the accounts narrated by the natives cannot be recognized as true. What has been proven is that indigenous tribes had a politcal-military order under the command of the cacique. For the most part, it can be said that various "kingdoms" existed,and that the cacique was the equivalent of a "king." One of the tribes organized in that way is what can be categorized as the "Kingdom of Quito." The "Shyris" of Quito never integrated their "kingdom" to other tribes that now constute Ecuador. Only to defend their territory did they confederate to other tribes.
The population of the territory that is now Ecuador was from 300,000 to 350,000 inhabitants when the Spanish arrived. The diseases (smallpox, measles, and influenza) brought by the Europeans, and the physical abuse exercised by them, enormously reduced the indigenous population. Until the mid-fifteenth century, the number of inhabitants decreased even with the immigration of Europeans and the importation of African slaves. The introduction of horses, cattle, sheep, domestic birds, European fruit plants, and technology like the wheel, the plough, and iron tools, helped much to sustain the inhabitants.
In 1531, the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[conquistadors]] under [[Francisco Pizarro]] arrived and defeated the Inca Emperor [[Atahualpa]] and his army during the [[Battle of Cajamarca]] in [[1532]]. In subsequent years the Spanish colonists became the new elite. The indigenous population was decimated by disease in the first decades of Spanish rule; a time when the natives also were forced into the "[[encomienda]]" labor system for Spanish landlords. In [[1563]], [[Quito]] became the seat of a royal ''audiencia'' (administrative district) of Spain.
==Independence==
On [[August 10]], [[1809]], after nearly 300 years of Spanish colonization, there took place in [[Quito]], which at the time had a population of about 10,000, the first serious revolt against established rule, when a group of nobles and landholders set up a ''Junta'', refusing to recognize the colonial authorities, claiming [[Ferdinand VII]] was the legitimate King of [[Spain]]. Historians debate whether this was a true attempt at obtaining ''independence'' from Spain. Be that as it may, the members of the Junta found little support, either in other cities of the [[Real Audiencia de Quito]], or even among the lower classes in Quito, and were soon arrested by colonial troops sent from [[Lima]].
After the Patriotic armies led by Venezuelan-born General [[Antonio Jose de Sucre]] defeated the royalist forces in the [[Battle of Pichincha]] (May 24, [[1822]]), the provinces of the former Audiencia de Quito joined [[Simon Bolivar]]'s Republic of [[Colombia]], but on [[May 13]], [[1830]], they seceded from Colombia and established a new nation, the Republic of Ecuador.
==Ecuador in the 19th and 20th centuries==
The [[19th century]] was marked by instability, with a rapid succession of rulers. The conservative [[Gabriel Garcia Moreno]] unified the country in the [[1860]]s with the support of the Catholic Church. In the late 19th century, world demand for [[cocoa]] and [[rubber]] tied the economy to commodity exports and led to migrations from the highlands to the agricultural frontier on the coast, while fostering a [[slavery]]-based economy of rubber extraction in the Oriente.
A coastal-based liberal [[revolution]] in [[1895]] under [[Eloy A |
nds, however, were still flourishing until the arrival of the Spanish [[Conquistador]] [[Pedro de Alvarado]], who brutally subjegated the native states in [[1523]]&ndash;[[1527]].
Native peoples of the Guatemala highlands, such as the [[Cachiquel]], [[Mam language|Mam]], [[Quiché]], and [[Tz'utujil]], still make up a sizable portion of Guatemala's population.
== The Era of Spanish Rule ==
During Spanish colonial rule, most of [[Central America]] came under the control of the [[Captaincy General of Guatemala]].
The first colonial capital of Guatemala, now called Ciudad Vieja, was ruined by floods and an earthquake in [[1542]]. Survivors founded a second city of Guatemala, now known as La Antigua, in [[1543]]. In the [[17th century]], [[Antigua Guatemala]] became one of the richest capitals in the [[New World]]. Always vulnerable to volcanic eruptions, floods from "The Volcan of Agua", and earthquakes, Antigua was destroyed by two earthquakes in [[1773]], but the remnants of its Spanish colonial architecture have been preserved as a national monument. The third capital, modern [[Guatemala City]], was founded in [[1776]], after which Antigua was ordered to be abandoned.
== The 19th Century ==
Guatemala gained independence from [[Spain]] on [[September 15]], [[1821]]; it briefly became part of the Mexican Empire and then for a period belonged to a federation called The [[United Provinces of Central America]], until the federation broke up in civil war in [[1838]]&ndash;[[1840]] (''See:'' [[History of Central America]]). Guatemala's [[Rafael Carrera]] was instrumental in leading the revolt against the federal government and breaking apart the Union. Carrera dominated Guatemalan politics until [[1865]], backed by conservatives, large land owners and the church.
[[Image:AlcaldesGuatemala1891.jpg|thumbnail|300px|right|Town [[alcalde]]s of Highland Guatemala in traditional dress, 1891]]
Guatemala's "Liberal Revolution" came in [[1871]] under the leadership of [[Justo Rufino Barrios]], who worked to modernize the country, improve trade, and introduce new crops and manufacturing. During this era [[coffee]] became an important crop for Guatemala. Barrios had ambitions of reuniting Central America and took the country to war in an unsuccessful attempt to attain this; he died on the battlefield in [[1885]].
== The Early 20th Century ==
The U.S.-based multinational [[United Fruit Company]](UFC) started becoming a major force in Guatemala in [[1901]], during the long presidencies of [[Manuel José Estrada Cabrera]] and General [[Jorge Ubico]]. During the latter's dictatorship in the 1930's, Guatemala was further opened up to foreign investment, with special favours being made from Ubico to the United Fruit Company in particular. The UFC responded by pouring investment capital into the country, buying controlling shares of the railroad, electric utility, and telegraph, while also winning control of over 40% of the country's best land and de facto control over its only port facility. As a result, Government was often subservient to Company interests. While the company helped with building some schools, it also opposed building highways because this would compete with its railroad monopoly
== The "Ten Years of Spring" ==
In [[1944]], General [[Jorge Ubico]]'s dictatorship was overthrown by the "October Revolutionaries", a group of dissident military officers, students, and liberal professionals who were empowered by the wave of revolutions that swept up old, unpopular dictatorships in [[Venezuela]], [[Cuba]], and [[El Salvador]] around the same time. The social unrest preceding the coup culminated in the killing of a schoolteacher by an Army soldier, which sparked a broad [[general strike]] that paralyzed the country and forced Ubico to surrender power to his generals. Further unrest prompted two young officers at the time, [[Jacobo Arbenz]] and [[Francisco Javier Arana]], to lead a final coup and unseat the dictatorship.
In a highly popular move, the pair of officers then stepped aside and made way for a general election. This started what is called '''The Ten Years of Spring''', a period of free speech and political activity, proposed [[land reform]], and a perception that great progress could be made in Guatemala. A civilian president, [[Juan José Arévalo]], was elected in [[1945]] and held the presidency until 1951. A former professor, he brought about social reforms, allowing new political parties and [[trade union|union]]s (with some restrictions), which placated the public.
Arana and Arbenz, still both highly regarded at the time, anticipated to soon succeed Arèvelo. Arana tried to prematurely hasten the process of Arévalo's descent in a failed coup which brought about Arana's death in a controversial arrest-gone-wrong. This cleared the way for Arbenz to secure power; as he did in a landslide general election in [[1951]]. Arbenz together with Arévalo further promoted the progressive social change that characterized the latter's presidency, clearing much of the old restrictions on political parties and labour unions, while also purging the army brass of its remaining pro-Arana officers -- one of whom was Colonel [[Carlos Castillo Armas]]; a man who would play a major role in Guatemalan politics in the coming years. Arbenz also permitted the Communist [[Guatemalan Party of Labour]] to achieve legal status in [[1952]]. The party subsequently gained a noticeable role in the government decision-making process that it had not had before.
===Operation PBSUCCESS===
:''Main article [[Operation PBSUCCESS]]''
Arbenz proceeded to nationalize un-utilized land owned by the [[United Fruit Company]], which had a practical monopoly on Guatemalan fruit production and some industry and subsequently lobbied the [[Dwight Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] administration to remove Arbenz. Of still greater importance, though, was the widespread American concern about the possibility of a so-called "[[Soviet Union|Soviet]] beachhead"<sup id="fn_1_back">[[#fn_1|1]]</sup> opening up in the Western Hemisphere. Arbenz's sudden legalization of the Communist party and importing of arms from then Soviet-[[satellite state]] of [[Czechoslovakia]]<sup id="fn_3_back">[[#fn_3|3]]</sup>, among other events, convinced major policy makers in the [[White House]] and [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] to try for Arbenz's forced removal. This led to a CIA-orchestrated coup, known as [[Operation PBSUCCESS]], which saw Arbenz toppled and forced into exile by Colonel [[Carlos Castillo Armas]]. Internal CIA documents released during the CIA's brief "openness" initiative in the [[1990s]] suggest that the United Fruit Company played less of a role in the coup than previously thought, and that [[Cold War]] strategy was the more pressing concern in Washington. Despite most Guatemalans' attachment to the original ideals of the 1944 uprising, some private sector leaders and the military began to believe that Arbenz represented a Communist threat and supported his overthrow.
==Civil war==
:''Main article [[Guatemalan Civil War]]''
In response to the increasingly autocratic rule of Gen. [[José Miguel Ramón Ydígoras Fuentes|Ydígoras Fuentes]], who took power in 1958 following the murder of Col. Castillo Armas, a group of junior military officers revolted in 1960. When they failed, several went into hiding and established close ties with [[Cuba]]. This group became the nucleus of the forces that were in armed insurrection against the government for the next 36 years.
Four principal left-wing [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] groups &mdash; the Guerrilla Army of the Poor (EGP), the Revolutionary Organization of Armed People (ORPA), the Rebel Armed Forces (FAR), and the Guatemalan Labor Party (PGT) &mdash; conducted economic sabotage and targeted government installations and members of government security forces in armed attacks. These organizations combined to form the [[Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity]] (URNG) in [[1982]]. At the same time, extreme right-wing groups of self-appointed vigilantes, including the Secret Anti-Communist Army (ESA) and the White Hand, tortured and murdered students, professionals, and peasants suspected of involvement in leftist activities.
Shortly after President [[Julio César Méndez Montenegro]] took office in 1966, the army launched a major counterinsurgency campaign that largely broke up the guerrilla movement in the countryside. The guerrillas then concentrated their attacks in Guatemala City, where they assassinated many leading figures, including U.S. Ambassador [[John Gordon Mein]] in 1968. Between 1966 and 1982, there were a series of military or military-dominated governments.
On [[March 23]], [[1982]], army troops commanded by junior officers staged a [[coup d'état]] to prevent the assumption of power by General [[Ángel Aníbal Guevara]], the hand-picked candidate of outgoing President and General [[Romeo Lucas García]]. They denounced Guevara's electoral victory as fraudulent. The coup leaders asked retired Gen. [[Efraín Ríos Montt]] to negotiate the departure of Lucas and Guevara. Ríos Montt had been the candidate of the [[Guatemalan Christian Democracy|Christian Democracy Party]] in the 1974 presidential elections and was widely regarded as having been denied his own victory through fraud.
Ríos Montt was by this time a lay pastor in the evangelical protestant [[Church of the Word]]. In his inaugural address, he stated that his presidency resulted from the will of [[God]]. He was widely perceived as having strong backing from the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration in the United States. He formed a three-member [[Military dictatorship|military junta]] that annulled the 1965 constitution, dissolved [[Congress of Guatemala|Congress]], suspended political parties and cancelled the electoral l |
[agonist]]. It acts on [[endogenous]] &#956;-[[opioid receptor]]s that are spread in discrete packets throughout the [[brain]], [[spinal cord]] and [[gut]] in almost all [[mammal]]s. Heroin, along with other opioids, are [[agonists]] to four endogenous [[neurotransmitters]]. They are [[Beta-endorphin|β-endorphin]], [[dynorphin]], [[leu-enkephalin]], and [[met-enkephalin]]. The body responds to heroin in the brain by reducing (and sometimes stopping) production of the endogenous opioids when heroin is present. Endorphins are regularly released in the brain and nerves and attenuate pain. Their other functions are still obscure, but are probably related to the effects produced by heroin besides analgesia ([[antitussin]], [[anti-diarrheal]]). The reduced endorphin production in heroin users creates a dependence on the heroin, and the cessation of heroin results in the extreme symptoms including pain (even in the absence of physical trauma). This set of symptoms is called [[withdrawal]] syndrome. It has an onset 6 to 8 hours after the last dose of heroin.
==Production and trafficking==
[[Image:HeroinWorld.png|thumb|250px|left|Primary worldwide producers of heroin.]]
===Manufacturing===
Heroin is produced for the black market through [[opium]] refinement processes. Unlike drugs such as [[LSD]], the production of which requires considerable expertise in [[chemistry]] and access to constituents which are now tightly controlled, the refinement of heroin from opium is a relatively simple process requiring only moderate technical know-how and common chemicals.
First [[morphine]] is isolated from the crude opium and then reacted with [[acetic anhydride]], a chemical also used in the production of [[aspirin]]. The purity of the extracted morphine determines in large part the quality of the resulting heroin. Most [[black market]] heroin is highly impure due to contaminants left after refinement of opium into morphine which then remain in the final product.
===History===
The origins of the present international illegal heroin trade can be traced back to the forcible imposition of the [[opium]] trade on [[China]] by [[Britain]] in the late 1700s. The opium trade sparked the two [[Opium Wars]] that resulted in a series of [[Unequal Treaties]] that ceded [[Hong Kong]] to Britain in mid 19th century. Later in the 20th century, Chinese [[triad]] gangs would eventually come to play a major role in the heroin trade, most of which are based in Hong Kong and Southern China.
Although it remained legal in some countries until after World War II, the anti-drug activism of the United States led most western countries to declare heroin a controlled substance in the latter half of the 20th century.
Prior to the 1970s, much of the world's opium was grown in [[Turkey]], but in the late Sixties, under pressure from the U.S. and the [[United Nations]], Turkey agreed to eliminate its opium production, leading to the development of a major new cultivation and refining base in the so-called "[[Golden Triangle]]" region in South East Asia in the late 1960s.
Heroin use first appeared as a sub-cultural addiction problem in several countries in the early 20th century, but like the opium trade from which it developed, it was mainly restricted to small and fairly well-defined groups, such as Chinese migrants in western cities.
Although it was beginning to become more prevalent by the 1930s, Asian historian and drug traffic expert [[Dr Alfred W. McCoy]] reports that heroin trafficking was virtually eliminated in the U.S. during [[World War II]]. But, McCoy contends, the Mafia was able to gain control of the heroin trade thanks in large measure to a covert deal between top Mafia leader [[Lucky Luciano]] and American military intelligence.
McCoy claims that Luciano was asked to provide Mafia assistance in rooting out communist and/or Nazi influence on the waterfronts, and that the Army wanted Luciano to provide their forces with local Mafia assistance during America's planned invasions of Sicily and Italy; in return the jailed mobster was allowed to run his operations unhindered from his cell, and he was deported back to Sicily after the war, where he oversaw a massive expansion in his organisation's drug operations before his death.
Luciano, who visited Vietnam, forged an alliance between his American Mafia family and the tough Corsican Mafia, establishing a wide-ranging heroin shipping, refining and distribution network based in the port town of [[Marseilles]] in France. He allegedly masterminded the network that was portrayed (semi-fictionally) in the film ''[[The French Connection]]''.
Thanks to Corsican Mafia connections in the former French colony of Vietnam, the operation was able to forge new alliances with underworld forces there, and with triad gangs and organised crime figures in [[Hong Kong]], [[Shanghai]], [[New York City]] and [[Sydney]]. As opium production in Turkey waned, the Mafia established a lucrative new source of supply in the [[Golden Triangle]] region and funnelled the production out via South Vietnam. McCoy's most controversial assertion is that the C.I.A. pursued a policy, which he describes as "radical pragmatism", and that in the name of the fight against Communism, the Agency was covertly making expedient alliances with local warlords, Mafiosi and corrupt South Vietnamese officials.
The battalions of American servicemen in Vietnam provided a perfect test market for the Asian syndicates, and heroin use among soldiers rapidly reached near-epidemic proportions in 1970-71, with some unit medical officers reporting that as many as 15% percent of G.I.s in some units were regular users.
In 1971 the first large consignments of South East Asian heroin were intercepted in Europe and America, and by the mid-1970s heroin addiction fulfilled its promise as a serious social problem in the United States (where it had already been growing in street traffic throughout the late 1950s and 1960s), Australia, Great Britain and many other nations, notably among youth and particularly in the African-American population in the U.S. Based on the success of this network, organised crime groups began to establish illegal trades in other highly addictive drugs, notably [[cocaine]].
===Trafficking===
[[Image:Heroin asian.jpg|thumb|right|Asian heroin]]
[[Illegal drug trade|Traffic]] is heavy worldwide, with the biggest producer being [[Afghanistan]], which after years of war and poverty is now an area ripe for opium growing. A ''[[60 Minutes]]'' report claims that 87 percent of the world's heroin supply comes from Afghanistan.
[[Image:Balininelawrenceevidence.jpg|280px|thumb|left|Heroin concealed under the clothes of a drug smuggler.]]
Some observers, particularly political [[conservative]]s in the [[United States]], have accused [[People's Republic of China|China]] of being a leading producer of heroin, but evidence in support of this is questionable. Conversely, some radical critics have pointed the finger at the United States, citing the work of [[Dr Alfred W. McCoy]], who alleges that the C.I.A. secretly collaborated with drug syndicates and was complicit in the expansion of the global heroin trade in the late 20th century, even though he has no evidence to back up his accusations. The "[[French Connection]]" and [[Lucky Luciano]]'s role are cited as examples. Reporter [[Gary Webb]], who was found dead in [[2004]], maintained that the [[crack]] epidemic was related to U.S. governmental agencies.
In the [[1980]]'s, the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] led to a [[1988]] report from the Subcommittee on terrorism, narcotics and international operations, led by Sen. [[John Kerry]], which proved contra-drugs links, including
what he deemed "one of the most serious foreign policy failures for the United States", [[Manuel Noriega]]'s U.S. support. "Narcotic law enforcement has often taken a back seat to other diplomatic and national security archives. The war on drugs must not in the future be sacrificed to other foreign policy considerations," stated the report [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB113/north06.pdf].
Heroin is one of the most profitable illicit drugs since it is compact and easily concealed. At present, opium poppies are mostly grown in the [[Middle East]], [[India]], and [[Afghanistan]], and in [[Asia]], especially in the region known as the [[Golden Triangle]] straddling [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]] and [[Yunnan]] province in [[China]]. There is also cultivation of opium poppies in the [[Sinaloa]] region of [[Mexico]] and in [[Colombia]]. The majority of the heroin consumed in the United States comes from Mexico and Colombia. Up until 2004, [[Pakistan]] was considered as one of the biggest opium-growing countries. However, the efforts of Pakistan's [[Anti-Narcotics Force]] have since reduced the opium growing area by 59% [[as of 2001]].
Conviction for trafficking in heroin in many countries, including [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Thailand]] and [[Singapore]], carries the [[Use of death penalty worldwide|death penalty]]. The penalty applies even to citizens of countries where the penalty is not in place, sometimes causing controversy when foreign visitors are arrested for trafficking, for example the arrest of [[Bali Nine|nine Australians in Bali]] or the hanging of [[Australia]]n citizen [[Van Tuong Nguyen]] in [[Singapore]], both in [[2005]].
==Risks of non-medical abuse of heroin==
* [[Overdose]], sometimes fatal
* For intravenous abusers (people who inject) of heroin, the use of non-sterile needles and syringes and other materials leads to the risk of contracting blood-borne [[pathogens]] such as [[HIV]] and/or [[hepatitis]] infections as well as the risk of contracting bacterial or fungal [[endocarditis]]
* Poisoning from [[contaminants]] added to "[[Adulterant|cut]]" or [[dilute]] heroin
Many countries and local governments |
* ''[[The Artificial Kid]]'' (1980) - about a young street fighter who continuously films himself using remote controlled cameras
* ''[[Schismatrix]]'' (1985) - The [[23rd century]] solar system is divided among two human factions: the "Shapers" who are employing genetics and psychology, and the "Mechanists" who use computers and body prosthetics. The novel is narrated from the viewpoint of ''Abelard Lindsay'', a brilliant [[diplomacy|diplomat]] who makes history many times throughout the story.
* ''[[Islands in the Net]]'' (1988) - a view of an early [[21st century]] world apparently peaceful with delocalised, networking [[corporation]]s. The protagonist, swept up in events beyond her control, finds herself in the places off the net, from a datahaven in [[Grenada]], to a [[Singapore]] under [[terrorism|terrorist]] attack, and the poorest and most disaster-struck part of [[Africa]].
* ''[[The Difference Engine]]'' (1990) (with [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]]) - [[steampunk]]
* ''[[Heavy Weather]]'' (1994) - about hi-tech [[storm chaser]]s in a midwest where [[greenhouse warming]] has made [[tornado]]es far more energetic that the present day.
* ''[[Holy Fire (book)|Holy Fire]]'' (1996) - about a world of steadily increasing longevity, the marginalised [[subculture]] of young [[artist]]s, and the nature of the posthuman mind.
* ''[[Distraction_book|Distraction]]'' (1998) - a master political strategist and a genius genetic researcher find love as they fight an insane [[Louisiana]] governor for control of a high-tech scientific facility in a post-collapse [[United States]]. Winner of the [[2000]] [[Arthur C. Clarke Award]]. US editions: ISBN 0553104845 (hardcover), ISBN 0553576399 (paperback)
* ''[[Zeitgeist (novel)|Zeitgeist]]'' (2000) - A [[girl group]] ala the [[Spice Girls]] tours the [[Middle East]]under the direction of [[trickster]] [[Leggy Starlitz]]. Introduces the concept of [[Major consensus narrative]].
* ''[[The Zenith Angle]]'' (2004) - a non-SF techno-thriller (or very near-future SF, looking at some of the gimmicks) about a cyber-security expert who goes to work for the US government fighting terrorism after 9/11.
==Short story collections ==
* ''[[Mirrorshades (book)|Mirrorshades]]: A Cyberpunk Anthology'' (1986) - defining cyberpunk short story collection, edited by Bruce Sterling
* ''Crystal Express'' (1989) - a collection of short stories, including several set in the [[Shaper/Mechanist]] universe
* ''Globalhead'' (1992, paperback 1994); ISBN 0-553-56281-9.
** "[[Hackers (short stories)#Our Neural Chernobyl|Our Neural Chernobyl]]"
** "Storming the Cosmos"
** "The Compassionate, the Digital"
** "Jim and Irene"
** "The Sword of Damocles"
** "The Gulf Wars"
** "The Shores of Bohemia"
** "The Moral Bullet"
** "The Unthinkable"
** "We See Things Differently"
** "Hollywood Kremlin"
** "Are You for 86?"
** "Dori Bangs"
* ''A Good Old-fashioned Future'' (1999)
**"Maneki Neko"
**"Big Jelly" (with [[Rudy Rucker]])
**"The Littlest Jackal"
**"Sacred Cow"
**"Deep Eddy"
**"Bicycle Repairman"
**"[[Taklamakan]]"
* ''Visionary in Residence'' (2006, forthcoming); ISBN 1-56025-841-1
==Non-fiction==
* ''[[The Hacker Crackdown|The Hacker Crackdown: Law and Disorder on the Electronic Frontier]]'' ([[1992]]) - about the panic of law enforcers in the late [[1980s]] about '[[hacker]]s' and the raid on [[Steve Jackson Games]] as part of [[Operation Sun Devil]]. Spectra Books, ISBN 055356370X. Reasoning that the book had a naturally time-limited commercial life, he has made the [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/101 text of the book freely available] via [[Project Gutenberg]] ([http://stuff.mit.edu/hacker/hacker.html HTML version]).
* ''Tomorrow Now: Envisioning the next fifty years'' ([[2002]]) - a popular science approach on [[futurology]], reflecting [[technology]], [[politics]] and [[culture]] of the next 50 years. Readers of Sterling will recognize many issues from books like ''Zeitgeist'', ''Distraction'' or ''Holy Fire''.
* ''Shaping Things'' ([[2005]]) is a "book about created objects", i.e. a lengthy essay about design, things and how we will move from the age of [[product]]s and [[gizmo]]s to the age of [[spime]]s (a Sterling neologism). The 150-pages book covers issues like "intelligent things" (spiked with [[RFID]]-tags), [[sustainability]] and [[fabbing]]. [[MIT Press]], ISBN 0262693267.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://blog.wired.com/sterling/ "Beyond the Beyond"] Bruce Sterling's current weblog
*[http://www.ballardian.com/sterling-on-ballard-part-1/ "Child of the Diaspora: Bruce Sterling on JG Ballard"] Bruce Sterling waxes lyrical on JG Ballard, a key influence on the cyberpunk movement
*[http://www.infinitematrix.net/archive/archive.html#sterling/ "Schism Matrix"] Bruce Sterling's previous weblog (August 2001 to August 2003)
* {{gutenberg author| id=Bruce+Sterling | name=Bruce Sterling}}
*[http://artcast.twoday.net/stories/1143418/ Listen to the Bruce Sterling interview at Tweakfest] (November 2005 in Zurich, Switzerland)
*[http://www.radiophiles.org Listen to the Bruce Sterling interview on Radiophiles.org]
*[http://www.well.com/conf/mirrorshades/ Bruce Sterling's ''unofficial'' homepage]
*[http://www.worldchanging.com/archives/002847.html Bruce Sterling's 2005 South by Southwest keynote]
* {{isfdb name|id=Bruce_Sterling|name=Bruce Sterling}}
*[http://www.reason.com/0401/fe.mg.cybergreen.shtml Cybergreen]; Sterling interviewed by Mike Godwin; [[6 January]] [[2004]].
*[http://www.egs.edu/faculty/sterling.html "Bruce Sterling's faculty site at EGS"]
*[http://www.brianstorms.com/archives/000359.html "Sterling Commentary"] -- a report from a Bruce Sterling book signing, [[19 May]] [[2004]]
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/10.04/sdi.html ''Peace Is War'' April 2002 Wired magazine article by Bruce Sterling]
*[http://news.com.com/2008-1082_3-1010864.html News.com: 'Bruce Sterling' is a Pseudonym]
*[http://seminars.moose.cc/salt-0200406-sterling/ ''The Singularity: Your Future as a Black Hole'' MP3 and Ogg Vorbis talk from the Long Now Foundation]
* [http://viridiandesign.org Bruce Sterling's ''Viridian Design'' web site]
* [http://user.well.com/iengaged.cgi?c=inkwell.vue&f=0&t=234&q=0- 2005 interview] on the WELL, led by [[Jon Lebkowsky]]
* [https://user.well.com/engaged/engaged.cgi?c=inkwell.vue&f=0&t=204&q=0- 2004 interview] on the WELL
* [https://user.well.com/engaged/engaged.cgi?c=inkwell.vue&f=0&t=171&q=0- 2003 interview] on the WELL
* [https://user.well.com/engaged/engaged.cgi?c=inkwell.vue&f=0&t=100&q=0- 2001 interview] on the WELL
* [http://www.blather.net/articles/it_sterling_furoshiki.htm Bruce Sterling: Furoshiki Revisited]
* [http://www.blather.net/articles/it_sterling_work.htm Sterling Work - interview about the Dead Media Project]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/smygo/ Smygo] News & Views for Anarchists & Activists. (Bruce Sterling belongs to the list.)
[[Category:1954 births|Sterling, Bruce]]
[[Category:Living people|Sterling, Bruce]]
[[Category:American writers|Sterling, Bruce]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Sterling, Bruce]]
[[Category:Texas writers|Sterling, Bruce]]
[[Category:People from Texas|Sterling, Bruce]]
[[Category:Bloggers|Sterling, Bruce]]
[[Category:Cyberpunk|Sterling, Bruce]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Sterling, Bruce]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brain abscess</title>
<id>3840</id>
<revision>
<id>37694673</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T16:48:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>148.85.1.102</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Pathophysiology */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Brain abscess''' (or cerebral abscess) is an [[abscess]] caused by inflammation and collection of infected material coming from local (ear infection, infection of paranasal [[sinus]]es, infection of the [[mastoid]] air cells of the temporal bone, [[epidural abscess]]) or remote ([[lung]], [[heart]], [[kidney]] etc.) infectious sources within the [[human brain|brain]] tissue. The infection may also be introduced through a skull fracture following a [[head trauma]] or surgical procedures. Brain abscess is usually associated with [[congenital heart disease]] in young children. It may occur at any age but is most frequent in the third decade of life.
==Features==
The symptoms of brain abscess are caused by a combination of increased [[intracranial pressure]] due to a space-occupying lesion (headache, vomiting, confusion, [[coma]]), infection (fever, fatigue etc.) and focal neurologic brain tissue damage ([[hemiparesis]], [[aphasia]] etc.). The most frequent presenting symptoms are headache, drowsiness, [[mental confusion|confusion]], [[seizure|seizures]], [[hemiparesis]] or speech difficulties together with fever with a rapidly progressive course. The symptoms and findings depend largely on the specific location of the abscess in the brain. An abscess in the cerebellum, for instance, may cause additional complaints as a result of [[brain stem]] compression and [[hydrocephalus]]. Neurologic examination may reveal a stiff neck in occasional cases (erroneously suggesting meningitis). The famous triad of fever, headache and focal neurologic findings are highly suggestive of brain abscess but are observed only in a minority of the patients.
==Pathophysiology==
Brain abscesses are usually polymicrobial in nature.
The most common or |
r| יִתְבַּטֵּל ||align=center| תִּתְבַּטֵּל ||align=center| נִתְבַּטֵּל ||align=center| תִּתְבַּטְּלוּ ||align=center| יִתְבַּטְּלוּ
|-
| align=center| b-t-l ||align=center| etbatel ||align=center| titbatel ||align=center| titbatli ||align=center| yitbatel ||align=center| titbatel ||align=center| nitbatel ||align=center| titbatlu ||align=center| yitbatlu
|-
|+ Example conjugations in the future tense.
|}
Like the past tense, personal pronouns are not strictly necessary in the future tense, as the verb forms are sufficient to identify the subject, but colloquially they are frequently used.
===Imperative===
Except for the strictly passive binyanim (''pu'al'' and ''huf'al''), each binyan has distinct imperative forms in the second person. This imperative form is only used for affirmative commands. ''Pa'al'', ''nif'al'', ''pi'el'', and ''hif'il'' form their imperatives by dropping the initial ת of the future-tense form (e.g., ''tiftakh'' (singular, masc.) &rarr; ''ptakh!'' "open!", ''tishm'ri'' (singular, fem.) &rarr; ''shimri!'' "guard!"); the fifth, ''hitpa'el'', forms its imperative by replacing this initial ת with ה (''titbatel'' &rarr; ''hitbatel'' "do nothing!").
Negative commands use the particle אל ''al'' followed by the future-tense form. For example, ''al tid'ag'' means "don't worry" (masculine, singular).
The future tense is commonly used for affirmative commands when making requests, so that for example, ''tiftakh'' can mean either "you will open" or "open" (masculine, singular).
The infinitive can be used as a "general imperative" when addressing nobody in particular (e.g. on signs, or when giving general instructions to children or large groups), so that for example, ''lo liftoakh'' can mean either "not to open" or "no opening," "no one open."
===Participles ===
Present participles are identical to present tense forms: ''nerot bo'arim'' (burning candles), ''ha-yalda hi maksima'' (the girl is charming).
Only the pa'al binyan has a true past participle: from k-t-v we have ''katuv'', (written). This gives Hebrew a limited ability to distinguish between a completed action, e.g.:
*''ha-sfarim ketuvim'' (the books have been written)
And, using the present tense of nif'al, which is often the passive of pa'al, a continuing action:
*''ha-sfarim nikhtavim'' (the books are being written)
The passive participle is commonly used as an adjective, as in ''ha-p'kuda ha-katuva'' (the written order).
The present tense of the pu'al and huf'al are used as passive participles for the pi'el and hif'il respectively, e.g. from hif'il ''he'ir'' (light up) we get ''kheder mu'ar'' (illuminated room).
===Infinitives===
Infinitives (''shem hapo'al'') in Hebrew are primarily formed by adding the letter lamed (ל) to the front of the word. The vowels change systematically according to the binyan.
*כתב ''katav'' (wrote, pa'al) &rarr; לכתוב ''likhtov'' (to write)
*מדבר ''m'daber'' (speak, pi'el) &rarr; לדבר ''l'daber'' (to speak)
*התחיל ''hitkhil'' (start, hif'il) &rarr; להתחיל ''l'hatkhil'' (to start)
*התפלל ''hitpalel'' (pray, hit'pael) &rarr; להתפלל ''l'hitpalel'' (to pray)
*נפגש ''nifgash'' (meet with, nif'al) &rarr; להיפגש ''l'hipagesh'' (to meet with)
There is no infinitive for Pu'al or Huf'al verbs.
===Gerunds ===
Gerunds (''shmot pe'ula'') are nouns expressing an action. Gerunds are created in Hebrew by putting the root of a verb in a "mishkal" (which will be explained more thoroughly in the "Nouns" later on). Four of the binyanim have gerunds: pa'al, pi'el, hif'il, and hitpa'el. For example:
*שמר ''shamar'' (guarded &mdash; pa'al) &rarr; שמירה ''sh'mira'' (guarding)
**שב ''shav'' (returned &mdash; hollow pa'al) &rarr; שיבה ''shiva'' (a return)
**שתה ''shata'' (drank &mdash; weak pa'al) &rarr; שתייה ''sh'tiya'' (drinking)
*ביקר ''biker'' (visited &mdash; pi'el) &rarr; ביקור ''bikur'' (a visit)
*הפתיע ''hiftia'' (surprised &mdash; hif'il) &rarr; הפתעה ''hafta'a'' (a surprise)
*התחמם ''hitkhamem'' (warmed up &mdash; hitpa'el) &rarr; התחממות ''hitkham'mut'' (warming)
==Nouns==
The Hebrew word for "noun" is שם עצם ''shem etsem''.
Hebrew nouns are inflected by gender, number (and sometimes by possession) but not by [[grammatical case|case]]. Nouns are generally correlated to verbs (by shared roots), but their forming is not as systematic, often due to [[loanword|loanwords]] from foreign languages.
===Gender===
Hebrew distinguishes between masculine nouns&mdash;such as ספר ''sefer'' (book)&mdash;and feminine nouns&mdash;such as דלת ''delet'' (door).
Feminine nouns can generally be identified by the characteristic endings -a, or -t. There are a large number of nouns, especially ancient ones, that are in some way irregular in their gender. For example, זית ''zayit'' (olive) has a feminine ending, but is masculine and has a masculine plural. עיר ''ir'' (city) has a masculine ending and a masculine plural, but is feminine and takes feminine adjectives.
===Number===
Generally, Hebrew distinguishes between singular and plural forms of a noun.
Masculine nouns generally form their plural by adding ''-im'':
*מחשב ''makhshev'' (computer) &rarr; מחשבים ''makhshevim''
The addition of the extra syllable often causes the vowel in the first syllable to shorten:
*דבר ''davar'' (thing) &rarr; דברים ''d'varim''
Many common two-syllable masculine nouns, called ''segolates'' because most (but not all) of them have the vowel ''segol'' (''-e-'') in both syllables, undergo more drastic characteristic vowel changes in the plural:
*ילד ''yeled'' (boy) &rarr; ילדים ''y'ladim''
*בוקר ''boker'' (morning) &rarr; בקרים ''b'karim''
*חדר ''kheder'' (room) &rarr; חדרים ''khadarim''
Feminine nouns ending in ''-a'' or ''-at'' generally drop this ending and add ''-ot'', usually without any vowel changes:
*מיטה ''mita'' (bed) &rarr; מיטות ''mitot''
*מסעדה ''mis'ada'' (restaurant) &rarr; מסעדות ''mis'adot''
*צלחת ''tsalakhat'' (plate) &rarr; צלחות ''tsalakhot''
Nouns ending in ''-et'' also replace this ending with ''-ot'', with an ''-e-'' in the preceding syllable usually changing to ''-a'':
*מחברת ''makhberet'' (notebook) &rarr; מחברות ''makhbarot''
Nouns ending in ''-ut'' replace this ending with ''-uyot'':
*חנות ''khanut'' (store) &rarr; חנויות ''khanuyot''
Similarly, nouns ending in ''-it'' replace this ending with ''-iyot'':
*אשכולית ''eshkolit'' (grapefruit) &rarr; אשכוליות ''eshkoliyot''
====Plural exceptions====
A large number of masculine nouns take the "feminine" ending ''-ot'' in the plural:
*מקום ''makom'' (place) &rarr; מקומות ''m'komot''
*חלון ''khalon'' (window) &rarr; חלונות ''khalonot''
A small number of feminine nouns take the "masculine" ending ''-im'':
*מילה ''mila'' (word) &rarr; מילים ''milim''
*שנה ''shana'' (year) &rarr; שנים ''shanim''
Many plurals simply cannot be predicted from the singular at all and must be separately memorized:
*עיר ''ir'' (city) &rarr; ערים ''arim''
*עפרון ''iparon'' (pencil) &rarr; עפרונות ''efronot''
*איש ''ish'' (man/person) &rarr; אנשים ''anashim''
====Dual====
Hebrew also has a dual number, expressed in the ending ''-ayim'', but even in ancient times its use was very restricted. In modern times it is used in expressions of time and number. These nouns have plurals as well, which are used for numbers higher than two, for example:
{|
! Singular || Double || Triple
|-
| פעם אחת ''pa'am akhat'' (once)
| פעמיים ''pa'amayim'' (twice)
| שלוש פעמים ''shalosh pa'amim'' (thrice)
|-
| שבוע אחד ''shavua ekhad'' (one week)
| שבועיים ''shavuayim'' (two weeks)
| שלושה שבועות ''shalosha shavuot'' (three weeks)
|-
| מאה ''mei'a'' (one hundred)
| מאתיים ''ma'atayim'' (two hundred)
| שלוש מאות ''shalosh me'ot'' (three hundred)
|}
The dual is also used for some body parts, for instance:
*רגל ''regel'' (leg) &rarr; רגליים ''raglayim'' (legs)
*אוזן ''ozen'' (ear) &rarr; אוזניים ''oznayim'' (ears)
In this case, even if there are more than two, the dual is still used, for instance לכלב יש ארבע רגליים ''l'kelev yeish arba raglayim'' (a dog has four legs).
The dual is also used for certain objects that are "inherently" dual. These words have no singular, for instance משקפיים ''mishkafayim'' (eyeglasses) and מספריים ''misparayim'' (scissors). As in the English "two pairs of pants", the plural of these words uses the word זוג ''zug'' (pair), e.g. שני זוגות מספריים ''shnai zugot misparayim'' (two pairs of scissors).
===Noun construct===
Hebrew's [[genitive case]] is achieved by placing two nouns next to each other. This is called a noun construct, or סמיכות ''s'mikhut''. The second noun can be viewed as an adjective modifying the first noun.
The first noun in a noun construct must be in its ''construct form''. The construct form can generally be derived easily:
*The masculine plural ending ים- ''-im'' changes to י- ''-ei''
*The feminine singular ending ה- ''-a'' changes to ת- ''-'at''
There are many words (usually ancient ones) that have other changes in vocalization in the construct form. For example, the construct form of בית ''bayit'' (house) is ''beit''.
In addition, the definite article is placed on the second word.
*בית ספר ''beit sefer'' (a school) literally, "house of book" or "book house"
*בית הספר ''beit ha-sefer'' (the school)
*בתי חולים ''b'tei kholim'' (hospitals) literally, "houses of sick people" or "sick people houses"
*עוגת השוקולד ''ugat ha-shokolad'' (the chocolate cake)
*דואר אוויר ''do'ar avir'' (air mail)
*כלב רחוב ''kelev r'khov'' (a street dog)
*בקבוק החלב ''bakbuk ha-khalav'' (the bottle of milk)
===Possession===
Possession is generally indicated by conjugating the p |
ategory:Companies listed on NASDAQ]]
[[Category:Computer companies of the United States]]
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[[Category:Type foundries]]
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[[cs:Adobe Systems]]
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[[he:אדובי מערכות]]
[[it:Adobe Systems]]
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[[zh:Adobe系统公司]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander Technique</title>
<id>1957</id>
<revision>
<id>39982003</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T06:42:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AED</username>
<id>232796</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{verify}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{verify}}
The '''Alexander Technique''' teaches how to recognize and overcome habituated limitations within a person's manner of movement. The Alexander Technique is usually learned from an ''Alexander teacher'' in one-to-one sessions by an ''Alexander student,'' using specialized hand contact and verbal instructions. The name denotes both the educational methods taught by ''Alexander teachers'' and the individual method practiced by teachers and students of the technique.
It takes its name from [[F. Matthias Alexander]] ([[1869]]&ndash;[[1955]]), a former Shakespearean recitalist, who first observed and formulated its principles during [[1890]] &ndash; [[1900]]. Alexander regarded the empirical scientific method to be the foundation of his work. He used self-observation and reasoning to make effortless the physical acts of every-day movement: sitting, standing, breathing, working with the hands and speaking. He designed his methods to make experimentation and training deliberately repeatable, and to learn in a way that would allow continuing improvement from any starting point.
F.M. Alexander trained teachers of his technique from [[1931]] until [[1955]] in London, UK and from [[1941]] to [[1943]] in Massachusetts, USA, together with his brother, A.R. Alexander ([[1874]]&ndash;[[1947]]), who continued with the training of teachers in the USA until [[1945]]. During his lifetime, F.M. Alexander gained considerable support for his work, including [[John Dewey]], [[Aldous Huxley]], [[George Bernard Shaw]], and scientists [[Raymond Dart]], [[George E. Coghill]], [[Charles Sherrington]], and [[Nikolaas Tinbergen]].
= History =
'''F.M. Alexander''' was a Shakespearean orator who developed problems with his voice. Careful observation with multiple mirrors revealed that he needlessly stiffened his whole body in a particular habitual pattern in preparation to recite or speak. It took ten years of self-observation to successfully apply his original discoveries to solve his voice problem. Eventually, he fashioned a "Technique" to teach others to pass on his experience. His work continues today, extending in a lineage that has expanded from many lifetime dedications.
=The Technique=
==Basic Premises==
The Alexander Technique educates the student's sense of [[kinesthesia]] or [[proprioception]]. This sense is used to internally calibrate one's own bodily location, weight and to judge the effort necessary for moving.
Alexander Technique teachers believe that humans have a built-in proprioceptive blind spot; people become habituated to whatever they repeat. Repetitious circumstances lead people to create habits as they adapt and learn. These habits are both deliberate and non-deliberate responses that include physical movement patterns, coping and learning strategies. The advantage of adapting is that behavior and learning becomes simplified; it becomes possible to meet a given stimulus or interpretation of circumstances with a ready-made reaction. As a person adds one habit onto another, the disadvantage is they may train themselves to also repeat unintentional side effects - the tension, over-compensation and cumulative stress that the Alexander Technique addresses.
Adapting has a further serious drawback: ''habits disappear sensation.'' Using the habit decreases the importance of paying attention to perceptual differences. Also, sensory systems can flood from accommodating too many contradicting habits and intentions. From disuse or flooding, perceptual sensitivity shuts down and eventually become dull and untrustworthy, just as skin becomes numb if the same spot is rubbed for too long. Loss of perceptual awareness encourages mistaken interpretations for the need to choose a particular response. In a panic, all opposing habits can fire off at once, pulling in all directions, sometimes without the person noticing it has happened.
Because habits are designed to become innate, people will commonly experience no sensation of ''doing'' a successfully automated habit. Forgetting what they have trained themselves to now do without thinking, this drawback encourages people to feel convinced that whatever effort or ways they now use to move to respond is customary and necessary, even when it is far from normal.
How our kinesthetic sense becomes untrustworthy from adapting to needless overcompensating is built into many innocent situations. For instance, if a person often carries a bag on their forearm, he will later find himself holding up his arm when the bag is not on it. Misunderstanding a teacher's directions, a student may repeat what the teacher knows is unnecessary, but the teacher forgivingly allows the mistake to go by when he should not. A self-taught student may unknowingly adopt useless and later problematic mannerisms. If someone is afraid while learning, adapting can mean he will most likely continue doing the skill fearfully. If someone has healed from a temporary injury, a subtle wincing in anticipation of pain can be automatically continued indefinitely, even though pain has healed. Also due to rapid growth, teenagers often move their own bodies based on inaccurate assumptions of their size and structure.
According to Alexander teachers, few adults in Western culture retain their ability to move freely without needless self-imposed interference. Teachers find that most people assume that they "must" move in the only way they assume is possible. Given an unceasing cumulative demand that unnecessarily stresses the body’s structural design, the price as adults grow older can range from feelings of stress and resignation to very real physical problems, due to movement limitations that could be changed. According to those who teach Alexander Technique, most of the time, giving up a certain activity isn't necessary if a learner is ready to free specific habits that work against the body's structural design.
==Benefits==
As a technique addressing the entirety of a person's activity, the Alexander Technique aims to benefit people of all sorts. Its proponents, including many well known actors, musicians and educators believe that its practice results in improved awareness, objectivity and the connection between body and mind, ease of movement, improved balance, stamina and less muscular tension. Additionally, those who practice it often report that it gives them an enhanced ability to clarify their thinking, observations and the ability to choose new responses.
Proponents further see the technique as a way to use less effort for movement and thus perform more efficiently, feel easier, look more graceful and free themselves from unintentional self-imposed limitations.
It is applied both remedially and in the areas of performing arts and sports. It is taught in performance schools of dance, acting, circus, music, voice and some Olympic sports. Since Alexander Technique is suitable for those at any fitness level, it is also used as remedial movement education to complete recovery and provide pain management. Alexander Technique is a first-hand experience of the reality of body/mind unity. Its principles apply to psychology, creative thinking, learning theory and styles of coaching, training and effective communication for teachers and directors.
Although the Alexander Technique is considered by those in its field to be primarily educational, taught in a student/teacher relationship as compared to being a treatment regimen between client and practitioner, it is regarded by the [[National Health Service|United Kingdom National Health Service]] to offer an alternative and complementary management for many medical complaints. A partial list is: back problems, unlearning and avoiding [[Repetitive Strain Injury]], improving ergonomics, stuttering, speech training and voice loss, mobility for those with [[Parkinson's disease]], posture or balance problems, or to complete recovery from injury as an adjunct to [[Physical therapy]]. It is also been known to help performers with getting past the ''plateau'' effect (despite trying, no improvement,) performance anxiety, getting beyond a supposed "lack of talent" and to sharpen discrimination and description ability. It has also helped people control unwanted reactions, phobias and depression.
Of course, applications are very subjective and personal by nature; many testimonies exist on the Internet. See STAT link below for scientific studies. Note that Alexander Technique is regarded to be a helpful adjunct to traditional medical treatment regimens and not as a substitution for them.
==Reported Effects==
Students often describe the immediate effect of an ''Alexander lesson'' as both being unusual, and also strangely familiar. During hands-on lessons, pupils have reported an immediate feeling of a "state of grace," despite their inability to evoke or sustain this state by themselves. Other reported experiences include hearing their own voice sounding different, feeling lighter or having a temporary disorientation of where their body is located spatially.
Though most s |
entirely serious about the gender-political point (male domination of history), which she communicated all the more effectively because of her good-humoured etymological fake. The term womanipulate for manipulate as man-ipulate (actually Latin manipulare, “to handle”, from manus, “hand”) was created in the same way.
== References ==
{{unreferenced}}
==See also==
* [[History of feminism]]
* [[Women in Cuba (Herstory)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Cuba#Women_in_Cuba_.28Herstory.29]
{{fem-stub}}
[[Category:Feminism]]
[[Category:Historiography]]
[[de:Frauengeschichte]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>House of Cards</title>
<id>14017</id>
<revision>
<id>42056432</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:29:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
<id>603177</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/85.12.65.33|85.12.65.33]] to last version by EdC</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = House of Cards |
image = HouseofCards.jpg |
imdb_id = 0098825 |
director = [[Paul Seed]] |
writer = [[Andrew Davies]]<br>[[Michael Dobbs]] |
starring = [[Ian Richardson]]<br>[[Susannah Harker]] |
producer = [[Ken Riddington]] |
distributor = [[BBC]] |
released = [[November 18]], [[1990]] |
runtime = 204 minutes |
language = [[English Language|English]] |
music = [[Jim Parker]] |
budget = Unknown |
}}
'''''House of Cards''''' was a highly political television drama serial, made by the [[BBC]], which ran in [[1990]] at the end of [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s tenure as British [[Prime Minister]]. (House of Cards was also the name of an [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0107148/ ''American movie (external link)''] starring [[Kathleen Turner]] and [[Tommy Lee Jones]].) The story was adapted by [[Andrew Davies (writer)|Andrew Davies]] from a [[novel]] by [[Michael Dobbs]]. Dobbs's novel was dramatised for radio for BBC World Service in 1996, by Neville Teller.
In it, the fictional [[Chief Whip]], Francis Urquhart (the initials, "F.U.", were deliberately chosen), played on TV by [[Ian Richardson]], is seen engaging in all the skulduggery of power politics, including murder, in his efforts to become Prime Minister. [[Susannah Harker]] plays Mattie Storin, the journalist who tries to uncover his misdeeds. There were two sequels: ''[[To Play the King]]'' in 1994 and ''[[The Final Cut (1995)|The Final Cut]]'' in 1995.
Frequently during the drama Urquhart talks through the camera to the audience, breaking the '[[fourth wall]]'. The drama also introduced the phrase "[[YMSTICPC|You Might Say That, I Couldn't Possibly Comment]]" which was frequently used by Urquhart whenever he was asked a question to which he wanted to reply "Yes" but could not be quoted on. House of Cards draws heavily from [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] [[Macbeth]] and [[Richard III (play)|Richard III]], both of which examine issues of power, unbridled ambition and corruption.
{{spoiler}}
The House of Cards starts with Francis Urquhart sitting at a desk, commenting that 'even the most glittering reign must come to an end'. He is referring to Margaret Thatcher, who in the House of Cards universe has just left office. This then requires that the Tories (whom Urquhart is an MP and [[Chief Whip]] for) elect a new leader. This new leader is Henry ('Hal') Collingridge, a man who Urquhart is secretly contemptuous of ('no backbone and no bottom').
Their leader chosen, the Tories then face the next election. They win by a narrow majority of around 24 seats and Urquhart expects to be given a senior position in the Cabinet afterwards, and refers to a promise of just that by Collingridge. However, the newly elected PM does not give Urquhart a senior post, wanting him to remain Chief Whip. This antagonises Urquhart, who then resolves to get rid of Collingridge. To do this, he enlists the services of one of the Tories' PR consultants, Roger O'Neill, who has a cocaine habit that had been funded by his Tory expense account. Urquhart, as Chief Whip, threatens to expose this unless O'Neill does as he says.
O'Neill then works to undermine Collingridge, two examples of this being that he gives an opposition MP information that would make the prime minister look bad at [[Question Time]] and also setting the scene for Urquhart himself to pose as Collingridge's brother, Charles, so that he can trade in Mendox Chemicals, a company about to benefit from the government. As a result of the latter, Collingridge becomes accused of insider trading and this, combined with his eroding image and his bad showing at the Brighton Party Conference, which is covered in the series, eventually force him to resign.
The second half of House of Cards then deals with the way Urquhart gets himself chosen as Leader of the Tories and Prime Minister. At first pretending to be unwilling to stand, he eventually announces his intention to run and goes about making sure his competitors can't win, with the help of his friend and underling, the weasel-ish Tim Stamper (played by [[Colin Jeavons]]). His rivals are eliminated as follows:
*Harold Earle &mdash; Education. Blackmailed into withdrawing by pictures involving him, a [[rentboy]] and an act of [[Fellatio]].
*Peter MacKenzie &mdash; Health. Hit by bad PR after an incident staged by Urquhart involving his car running over a disabled person, forced to withdraw.
*Patrick Woolton &mdash; Foreign Secretary.Blackmailed into withdrawing by an audio tape of him having sex with one of Roger's aides.
*Michael Samuels &mdash; Enviroment. Has his reputation tarnished when it leaks that he was in favour of Homosexuals, Nuclear Disarmament and Communism in his student days (the old Tory point of view on this &mdash; and, some would argue, the current one &mdash; frowns on these things).
Roger himself becomes increasingly unstable, both due to his cocaine habit and the fact that a journalist, Mattie Storin, who has been following Urquhart (and indeed sleeping with him) is beginning to figure out that all of the events of the story are the work of Urquhart and, by extension, Roger. In the end, Urquhart kills Roger by getting him drunk, then mixing his cocaine with rat poison while Roger sleeps. When Roger wakes up, he leaves the Urquhart residence, takes the cocaine in the lavatory of a motorway rest-stop, and dies.
The House of Cards ends with Mattie Storin looking for Urquhart at the point when it looks like his victory is certain. She eventually finds him in the Roof Garden of the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]], where she confronts him. He admits to what he has done, then asks whether he can trust her. Despite Mattie saying yes, he says he doesn't believe her and throws her off the roof, killing her.
==Trivia==
[[Image:Ian HouseofCards.jpg|thumb|230px|Main character [[Francis Urquhart]] played by [[Ian Richardson]].]]
* There is a roof terrace which is three floors up from the House of Commons. Only those in possession of a full Parliamentary pass can get through the security door leading to it. The terrace overlooks Star Chamber Court where Post Office vans park.
* Ian Richardson said he based his performance of the scheming Francis Urquhart on the way Shakespeare portrayed Richard III.
* By complete chance, the first BBC showing of the series exactly coincided with the real life Tory leadership contest: the dramatic removal from office of Margaret Thatcher.
* It has been said that Richardson agreed to appear in a third series only on the understanding that the character got his come-uppance.
==Notable differences from the book==
In the book:
* Mattie Storin does not have a relationship with Urquhart or even talk with him frequently; she does have a sexual relationship with John Krajewski.
* Urquhart's wife is called "Miranda" and is an extremely minor character, not sharing in his schemes.
* Tim Stamper does not exist.
* Urquhart is much less self-assured and decisive.
* Earle's rent boy appears in person at an important speech of his, distracting him; subsequently, Earle is harassed by reporters who have been told of his indiscretion.
* At the end, Urquhart threatens to kill Mattie Storin by hitting her with a chair, but refrains in a fit of cowardice, and jumps off the roof to his death after she leaves the roof garden.
==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0098825|title=House of Cards}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/cinema/features/house_of_cards.shtml ''House of Cards''] at [[BBC Four]]
*[http://www.action-tv.org.uk/guides/housecards.htm ''House Of Cards''] at Action TV
*[http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/539920/index.html ''House of Cards''] at [[British Film Institute]] Screen Online
[[Category:BBC television programmes]]
[[Category:Television miniseries]]
[[Category:Television programs based on novels]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Helen Gandy</title>
<id>14018</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>40478823</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T21:33:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kmf164</username>
<id>94080</id>
</contributor>
<comment>adjust img size, Hoover-JEdgar-LOC.jpg</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{Infobox Biography|image_name=HelenWGandy.jpg
| subject_name=Helen Gandy
| image_caption=Helen Gandy at her desk at Bureau headquarters in the Department of Justice Building, circa [[1940]].
| date_of_birth=[[April 8]], [[1897]]
| place_of_birth=[[Rockville, New Jersey]]
| date_of_death=[[July 7]], [[1988]]
| place_of_death=(heart attack) [[DeLand, Florida]] (''New York Times'' obituary) [[Orange City, Florida]] (''Post'' obituary)}}
'''Helen W. G |
the National League champion [[Houston Astros]]. The White Sox' appearance in the World Series was bittersweet for longtime franchise star [[Frank Thomas (AL baseball player)|Frank Thomas]]. One of the most popular and productive players in the franchise's long history, Thomas would finally be going to a World Series in his 16th major league season. However, due to injury, Thomas would be unable to participate except as an observer, and his contributions to the White Sox in 2005 were limited.
Game 1 saw Astros' ace [[Roger Clemens]] leave the game with a hamstring injury, and Chicago took advantage of its opponents' weakness, winning 5-3. Joe Crede especially made an impressive showing with his stellar defensive plays at third base. Game 2 of the Series, as in the ALCS, saw the White Sox involved in a controversial play. With the Sox down 4-2 and two men on base, the home plate umpire ruled that [[Jermaine Dye]] had been hit by a pitch when in actuality the ball had hit the bottom of his bat. Dye was given a free pass to first, and the next batter, Paul Konerko, launched a grand slam into left field to give Chicago a 6-4 lead. Houston tied the game by scoring two runs in the eighth, but in the bottom of the ninth, [[Scott Podsednik]] hit a walk-off solo home run to give the Sox a thrilling 7-6 victory and a 2-0 lead in the Series.
The World Series then shifted to Houston for Game 3, in which Astros' starter and NLCS MVP [[Roy Oswalt]] cruised with a 4-0 lead until the wheels totally came off for him with a five-run fifth by the White Sox. The Astros managed to tie the game in the eighth, but repeatedly blew scoring opportunities in the next few innings. Finally, in the top of the 14th, former Astro [[Geoff Blum]] hit the game-winning home run; the Sox took a commanding 3-0 Series lead with a 7-5 victory in the longest World Series game in history (in terms of time). In Game 4, a pitcher's battle between [[Freddy Garcia]] and [[Brandon Backe]], [[Jermaine Dye]] broke a scoreless tie in the eighth by singling to center off of Brad Lidge, the embattled Astros closer who gave up the home run to Podsednik in Game 2, driving in [[Willie Harris]] for what turned out to be the winning run. Game 4 also saw a spectacular defensive play by [[Juan Uribe]], as the Chicago shortstop leapt two rows into the stands in order to retire [[Chris Burke]] for the second out in the bottom of the ninth. Uribe also made the final out of the Series on the next play, as he threw an [[Orlando Palmeiro]] grounder to Konerko at first, narrowly beating Palmeiro to give the White Sox their first World Series crown since [[1917 World Series|1917]] in a four-game sweep. [[Jermaine Dye]] was named the [[World Series MVP Award|World Series MVP]].[[Image:Sox_WS_Champions_2005.gif|frame|Chicago White Sox 2005 World Series Champions uniform patch]]
The White Sox championship run can be considered one for the ages. Apart from a brief shaky stretch in early September, White Sox team displayed sheer dominance as evident by the wire-to-wire first place in American League. Only the 1927 Yankees were able to achieve such a feat. Their 11-1 postseason record was tied with 1999 Yankees as the best single post season mark.(Only Cincinnati Reds in 1976 had a better winning percentage by going 7-0).
On [[November 24]] the White Sox added left-handed slugger [[Jim Thome]] from the Philadelphia Phillies for outfielder [[Aaron Rowand]]. Some fans rued the departure of the popular Rowand, who along with AJ Pierzynski and Joe Crede made up the White Sox' "Three Stooges". There was also some angst regarding the White Sox taking on Thome's contract, which was generally considered to have been a poor signing by the Phillies. However, the White Sox made the move to provide the team with a left-handed slugger to go along with right-handed first baseman [[Paul Konerko]], who re-signed on [[November 30]] after a brief period of free agency. Thome was also familiar with the American League, having been a fixture with the [[Cleveland Indians]] for many years prior to signing with the Phillies.
With the trade and the re-signing of Konerko, [[Frank Thomas]]'s tenure with the White Sox came to a close when he signed with the [[Oakland Athletics]]. Although Thomas was the face of the franchise for the past decade, as well as one of the most feared hitters in the league from 1991 to 1997, he showed signs of physical breakdown in the past two seasons, only playing in 108 out of 324 regular season games. The White Sox could no longer count on Thomas's now fragile body to allow him to provide much needed protection for Konerko in the middle of the lineup.
On December 14, 2005, the already sturdy starting pitching of the White Sox was further fortified in a trade with the [[Arizona Diamondbacks]]. The White Sox acquired 29-year-old starter [[Javier Vazquez]] in exchange for starting pitcher [[Orlando Hernandez]], reliever [[Luis Vizcaino]], and outfield prospect Chris Young. With the additions of Vazquez, Thome, and utilityman Rob Mackowiak (from the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]]), the White Sox look poised to repeat as baseball's champion in 2006.
==History of White Sox uniforms==
Over the years the White Sox have become noted for many of their uniform innovations and changes. In 1960, the White Sox became the first team in the major sports to put players' last names on jerseys.
Although the uniforms in the very early days of the franchise featured a block "C" in red, the uniforms' primary color switched to a navy or midnight blue (on white) after a couple of years. Again, a block "C" was often the only adornment.
[[Image:Im_cws_logo_1912.gif|frame|1912 Chicago White Sox logo]]In 1912, however, the White Sox debuted one of the most enduring and famous logos in baseball -- a large "S" in a Roman-style font, with a small "O" inside the top loop of the "S" and a small "X" inside the bottom loop. This is the logo associated with the 1917 World Series championship team and the 1919 Black Sox. With a couple of brief interruptions, the dark blue logo with the large "S" lasted through 1938 (but continued in a modified block style into the '40s). Through the 1940s, the White Sox team colors were primarily navy blue trimmed with red.
The White Sox logo in the '50s and '60s (actually beginning in the 1949 season) was the word "SOX" in an Old English font, diagonally arranged, with the "S" larger than the other two letters. From 1949 through 1963, the primary color was black (trimmed with red after 1951). The Old English "SOX" in black lettering is the logo associated with the Go-Go Sox era.
In 1964, the primary color went back to navy blue, and the road uniforms changed from gray to pale blue. In 1971, the team's primary color changed from navy blue to red, with the color of their pinstripes and caps changing to red.
In 1976 the team's uniforms changed again. The team's primary color changed back from red to navy. The team based their uniforms on a style worn in the early days of the franchise, with white jerseys worn at home, blue on the road. The team also had the option to wear blue or white pants with either jersey. Additionally the teams "SOX" logo was changed to a modern-looking "SOX" in a bold font, spelled across. Finally the team's logo featured a silhouette of a batter over the words "CHICAGO WHITE SOX", piled on top of each other.
The new uniforms also featured collars and were designed to be worn untucked - both unprecedented wrinkles. Yet by far the most unusual wrinkle was the option to wear shorts, which the White Sox did for one game against the [[Kansas City Royals]] in 1976. After being ridiculed by fans and pundits, and [[George Brett (baseball)|George Brett]] calling the White Sox "the sweetest team we have ever played," the White Sox retired the shorts. The [[Hollywood Stars]] of the [[Pacific Coast League]] had tried the same concept at one time, and it was also poorly received. Apart from aesthetic issues, as a practical matter shorts are not conducive to sliding, due to the likelihood of significant abrasions.
Upon taking over the team in 1980 new owners [[Eddie Einhorn]] and [[Jerry Reinsdorf]] announced a contest where fans were invited to create new uniforms for the White Sox. The winning entry was submitted by a fan where the word "SOX" was written across the front of the jersey, in the same font as a cap, inside of a large blue stripe trimmed with red. The red and blue stripes were also on the sleeves, and the road jerseys were gray to the home whites. It was in those jerseys that the White Sox won 99 games and the AL West championship in 1983 with 99 wins, the best record in the majors.
After five years those uniforms were retired and replaced with a more basic uniform which had "White Sox" written across the front in script, with "Chicago" on the front of the road jersey. The cap logo was also changed to a cursive "C", although the batter logo was retained for several years.
Prior to the closing of original Comiskey Park in 1990, the White Sox switched uniform styles one more time. In September, the old English "SOX" logo (a slightly simplified version of the 1949 logo) was restored, the pinstripes were restored, and the team's primary color changed back to black -- this time with silver trim. With minor modifications (i.e., occasionally wearing vests, black game jerseys) the White Sox have used this style ever since.
==Rivalries and fan base==
The [[Minnesota Twins]] and [[Cleveland Indians]] both have divisional rivalries with the White Sox, and the three teams have recently contended for the AL Central division championship. The [[Detroit Tigers]] and [[Kansas City Royals]] are also central division teams that play |
s|McDuck, Dingus]]
[[Category:Fictional Scots|McDuck, Dingus]]
[[it:Dingo de Paperoni]]</text>
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<title>DSM-IV-TR</title>
<id>9044</id>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]
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<page>
<title>DSM-III</title>
<id>9045</id>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
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<title>DSM-III-R</title>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]
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<page>
<title>Daphne Duck</title>
<id>9047</id>
<revision>
<id>28601338</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-17T16:35:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Supermorff</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Daphne Duck''' is a [[fictional character]], presented in [[Walt Disney]]'s [[comic book]]s. According to [[Keno Don Rosa|Don Rosa]]'s
story "The Sign of The Triple Distelfink", she is the daughter of [[Humperdink Duck]] and [[Elvira Coot]]. On the day of her birth, a traveling worker painted a giant sign of The Triple [[Distelfink]] on her parents' stable. The symbol was supposed to bring the baby luck, and it did: Daphne was always incredibly lucky.
She worked in her parents' farm until at least [[1902]]. Later, she stopped working and started living on the things she won in contests.
She married [[Goosetave Gander]] and on [[1920]] became the mother of [[Gladstone Gander]]. The child was born on her birthday and under the protection of the same symbol as his mother.
It is unknown when excactly Daphne died but presumably before [[1948]].
[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, Daphne]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|Duck, Daphne]]
[[it:Dafne Duck]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dana Plato</title>
<id>9048</id>
<revision>
<id>40767968</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T22:11:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Oanabay04</username>
<id>678376</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dana.jpg|thumb|Plato as she appeared as Kimberly Drummond in the late [[1970s|'70s]] [[sitcom]] ''[[Diff'rent Strokes]]''.]]
'''Dana Michelle Plato''' ([[November 7]], [[1964]] &ndash; [[May 8]], [[1999]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[Actor|actress]] who became famous playing the role of Kimberly Drummond in the U.S. television [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] ''[[Diff'rent Strokes]]''. Plato was born in [[Maywood, California]] and grew up in the [[San Fernando Valley]] in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]].
Plato was dismissed from ''Diff'rent Strokes'' when she became pregnant. Producers felt it would not have suited her character, though Plato returned to the show for several cameo appearances after her pregnancy. Her career slumped after the show, with appearances in low-budget films, including some soft-core [[pornography]], and in some minor roles in made for [[TV movie]]s. She had a starring role in the pioneering and wildly controversial live action [[Computer and video games|video game]] ''[[Night Trap]]'' in [[1992]]. She also had repeated [[drug abuse | drug]] and [[Alcoholism | alcohol]] problems.
Plato appeared partially [[nude]] in ''[[Prime Suspect]]'' ([[1988]]), ''[[Compelling Evidence]]'' ([[1995]]), and ''Different Strokes: The story of Jack and Jill... and Jill'' ([[1998]]), a softcore movie unrelated to her TV series. She was also the feature of a [[Playboy]] pictorial in [[1989]].
Plato's one-year marriage to [[Lanny Lambert]] produced a son, Tyler Lambert (born [[1985]]). She was arrested in [[1991]] for robbing a video store in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]] with a pellet gun, but was placed on [[probation]]. The following year Plato was arrested again, this time for forging a prescription for [[Valium]].
In [[1999]] she and [[Robert Menchaca]], her fiancé, were returning to California following Plato's appearance on the [[Howard Stern]] show, hoping to revive her stagnant career. They stopped at Menchaca's mother's home in [[Moore, Oklahoma]] for a [[Mother's Day]] visit. She died there of an overdose from [[carisoprodol|Vanadom]] and [[hydrocodone|Vicodin]]. Her death was subsequently ruled a [[suicide]]. Plato was just 34 years of age.
==External links==
*{{imdb name | id=0686818 | name=Dana Plato}}
*[http://www.sitcomsonline.com/danaplato.html A Dana Plato memorial site]
*[http://www.franksreelreviews.com/shorttakes/plato.htm Diff'rent Drugs for Diff'rent Folks - Dana Plato]
[[Category:1964 births|Plato, Dana]]
[[Category:1999 deaths|Plato, Dana]]
[[Category:American actors|Plato, Dana]]
[[Category:Child actors|Plato, Dana]]
[[Category:Entertainers who committed suicide in their 30s|Plato, Dana]]
[[Category:LGBT actors|Plato, Dana]]
[[Category:People from the San Fernando Valley|Plato, Dana]]
[[Category:Television actors|Plato, Dana]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Donna Duck</title>
<id>9050</id>
<revision>
<id>36971790</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T18:16:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sagitario</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Donna Duck''' is a fictional [[duck]] who is one of [[Walt Disney]]'s [[animated cartoon]] and [[comic book]] characters. She first appeared in the cartoon "Don Donald" on [[January 9]], [[1937]] as [[Donald Duck]]'s [[Mexico|Mexican]] girlfriend. She never reappeared in cartoons but became a regular in the Disney [[newspaper]] [[comic strips]]. She was replaced by [[Daisy Duck]] as Donald's girlfriend in [[1940]]. Some believe that Donna and Daisy are the same character, but this can't be since both of them appeared as rivals for Donald's affection in a newspaper strip published on [[August 7]], [[1951]]. She had a fiancé, a caricature of Disney cartoonist [[Manuel Gonzales]], in the last strip she appeared in (published [[August 11]] the same year).
Some fans have believed her to be the sister of Daisy and the mother of Daisy's nieces [[April, May, and June Duck]].
[[Category:Donald Duck universe characters|Duck, Donna]]
[[Category:Fictional Mexicans|Duck, Donna]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|Duck, Donna]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Drop kick</title>
<id>9051</id>
<revision>
<id>41172792</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T14:59:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zzuuzz</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Rugby football */ dab rugby</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For a move in [[professional wrestling]], see [[dropkick]].''
A '''drop kick''' involves someone dropping a ball and then [[kick (football) | kick]]ing it when it bounces off the ground. It contrasts to a [[Punt kick|punt]] wherein the dropper kicks the ball without letting it hit the ground first.
== Rugby football ==
Originally in [[Rugby football|Rugby]], a drop-kick was one of only two ways to score points along with the [[place kick]].
Drop kicks have been up to 65-70 metres long in the past in rugby, though being able to perform a 50 metre drop kick is considered adequate in the professional game. Various anecdotes from some of the elder clubs suggest that drop-kicks as far as 75 metres have been successfully, such as a famous early [[St Joseph's College, Hunter's Hill/SJC]] game "where the ball was kicked 80 yards up a significant gradient to win the game", but no such feats have been performed before recorded imagery.
In [[rugby union]] and [[rugby league]], a drop kick is used to restart play and to score a [[field goal|field or drop goal]].
Drop kicks are used in rugby union:
*from the centre spot to start a half
*from the centre spot after points have been scored
*for a 22-metre drop-out when the ball is touched down or made dead in the in-goal area by the defending team, the attacking team having kicked or taken the ball into the in-goal area.
*from a penalty kick to score a penalty goal or after a try to score a conversion, although the option of a place kick is usually taken instead.
In rugby league, a drop-out ensues from underneath the posts on the goal line when:
*the defending team forces the ball in the in-goal area
*the defending team is tackled or knocks on in the in-goal area
*the defending team causes the ball to go dead or into touch-in-goal.
A drop-out from the 20 metre line ensues when:
*an unsuccessful penalty goal attempt goes dead or into touch-in-goal.
In each game, a player may attempt to score a goal from open play by drop kicking the ball over the crossbar and between the posts. A goal scored this way is called a dropped goal, abbreviated to "drop goal" in speech. A dropped goal scores three points in rugby union but only one point in rugby league, where the option is usually only taken late in a tied game.
== American and Canadian football ==
In both [[American football]] and [[Canadian football]], one |
didate is left unmarked, and allow the voter a second chance to confirm the ballot markings are correct.
==See also==
*[[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
*[[Borda count]]
*[[Bucklin voting]]
*[[First Past the Post electoral system]] (also called Plurality or Relative Majority)
*[[Condorcet method]]
*[[Schulze method]]
*[[Instant-runoff voting]]
*[[Majority Choice Approval]]
*[[Range voting]]
*[[Voting system]] - many other ways of voting
==References==
<references/>
==External links==
*[http://approvalvoting.org/ Citizens for Approval Voting]
*[http://approvalvoting.com/ Americans for Approval Voting]
*[http://av.beyondpolitics.org/ Approval Voting Free Association Wiki]
*[http://alum.mit.edu/ne/whatmatters/200211/index.html Approval Voting: A Better Way to Select a Winner] Article by Steven J. Brams.
*[http://pareto.uab.es/wp/2004/61904.pdf Approval Voting on Dichotomous Preferences] Article by Marc Vorsatz.
*[http://pareto.uab.es/wp/2004/61704.pdf Scoring Rules on Dichotomous Preferences] Article by Marc Vorsatz.
*[http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/VPP/VPPpdf_Wshop2/jflkvdscaen.pdf Approval Voting: An Experiment during the French 2002 Presidential Election] Article by Jean-François Laslier and Karine Vander Straeten.
*[http://www.universalworkshop.com/pages/ArithmeticOfVoting.htm The Arithmetic of Voting] article by Guy Ottewell
*[http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/politics/faculty/brams/avcritical.pdf Critical Strategies Under Approval Voting: Who Gets Ruled In And Ruled Out] Article by Steven J. Brams and M. Remzi Sanver.
*[http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/politics/faculty/brams/theory_to_practice.pdf Going from Theory to Practice:The Mixed Success of Approval Voting] Article by Steven J. Brams and Peter C. Fishburn.
*[http://www.vcharite.univ-mrs.fr/idep/document/dt/dt0405.pdf Strategic approval voting in a large electorate] Article by Jean-François Laslier.
*[http://www.williams.edu/Economics/oak/Papers/approval.pdf Approval Voting with Endogenous Candidates] An article by Arnaud Dellis and Mandor P. Oak.
*[http://www.math.hmc.edu/seniorthesis/archives/2003/duminsky/duminsky-2003-thesis.pdf Generalized Spectral Analysis for Large Sets of Approval Voting Data] Article by David Thomas Uminsky.
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/~baron/vote.pdf Approval Voting and Parochialism] Article by Jonathan Baron, Nicole Altman and Stephan Kroll.
*[http://www.gregdennis.com/voting/approval_conversation.html Conversation with an Approval Voting Advocate] Article by Greg Dennis
[[Category:Voting systems]]
[[de:Wahl durch Zustimmung]]
[[eo:Aprobobalotado]]
[[fr:Vote par approbation]]
[[nl:Instemmingsverkiezing]]
[[ja:Approval voting]]
[[pt:Votação por aprovação]]
[[fi:Hyväksymisvaalitapa]]
[[ur:ویکیپیڈیا:ویکیپیڈیا فائونڈیشن کے بورڈ آف ٹروٹیز کے انتخابات]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aromatic compound</title>
<id>1858</id>
<revision>
<id>38069213</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T23:32:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>V8rik</username>
<id>195918</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>revert, historically aroma may be associated with aromatic, in any case deleting this context has implications for disamb status for this page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aromatic compound''' has different meanings depending on the context:
* [[Aroma compound]], a [[chemical compound]] possessing an aroma, fragrance, flavor, smell, or [[odor]].
* [[Aromatic]] compound, an [[Organic chemistry|organic]] [[chemical compound]] that contains [[simple aromatic ring|aromatic rings]] like [[benzene]], [[pyridine]], or [[indole]]. These compounds exhibit an unusual stability known as [[aromaticity]], which can be understood using [[Hückel's rule]]. The term ''aromatic'' in chemistry is no longer associated with ''aroma'', and many aromatic compounds have no smell.
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Organic chemistry]]
[[es:Compuesto aromático]]
[[fr:Composé aromatique]] [[ja:&#33459;&#39321;&#26063;&#21270;&#21512;&#29289;]]
[[vi:Hợp chất thơm]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arizona State University</title>
<id>1859</id>
<revision>
<id>42048404</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:04:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
<id>241538</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Assembly]] to [[Deliberative assembly]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University
|name = Arizona State University
|image = [[Image:asu.jpg]]
|motto =
|established = 1885
|type = [[Public university|Public]]
|president= [[Michael Crow]]
|city = [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]]
|state = [[Arizona|Arizona]]
|country = [[United States|USA]]
|undergrad = 48,955
|postgrad = 12,078
|staff= 2,406
|endowment = US$277.3 million (2005 report)
|campus = [[Urban design|Urban]], 580 acres (2.3 km&sup2;)
|mascot = [[Sparky (Arizona State Mascot)|Sparky]] [[Image:Arizona-state-sund.gif|30px|]]
|free_label = Athletics
|free = 18 varsity teams
|website= [http://www.asu.edu/ www.asu.edu]
}}
'''Arizona State University''' (ASU) is currently (as of Fall 2005) the [[List of largest US universities by enrollment|largest university]], in terms of student enrollment, in the [[United States]], with a main-campus student body of 51,612. Founded in 1885 as a territorial [[normal school]], the institution went through several changes of name and purpose before becoming a state [[university]] in 1958.
ASU's main campus, now called the Tempe campus, is located in [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Arizona]]. Satellite campuses were created in 1984 in [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] ([[ASU West]]) and in 1996 in [[Mesa, Arizona|Mesa]] ([[ASU Polytechnic]], formerly called ASU East). Combined, [[ASU West]] and [[ASU Polytechnic]] enroll around 12,500 students. An additonal satellite campus, [[ASU Downtown Phoenix]], is under development in downtown [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]].
Each year, nearly 10,000 students graduate from the university's three campuses. In 2005, 155 National Merit Scholars chose to attend ASU. Many are part of the Barrett Honors College, which has produced 54 [[Fulbright Program|Fulbright]] scholars, 28 [[Barry Goldwater|Goldwater]] scholars, and 13 [[Harry Truman|Truman]] scholars. Under the [[Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education]] ASU is classified as a Doctoral/Research University&#8211;Extensive.
==Current State of the University==
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Asu_campus.jpg|thumb|right|The campus of Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona, viewed from the air in July 2004. Sun Devil Stadium can be viewed in the bottom-right, Wells Fargo Arena in the center, and Gammage Auditorium, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, in the top-right corner. Photo courtesy of, and obtained from, [http://www.incredibleeagle.com/ Geoff Boeing]] -->'''ASU''' is currently aspiring to climb from its current third tier status in the rankings published by ''[[U.S. News and World Report]]''.
Under the leadership of its 16th president, [[Michael Crow]], several initiatives are being pursued toward this end, the most notable of which is the [[Arizona Biodesign Institute]]. Additionally, a gift of $100 million was given to the College of Engineering, now the [[Ira A. Fulton School of Engineering]], and a $50 million dollar gift to the College of Business, now the [[W.P. Carey School of Business]].
The university was selected to host the third United States Presidential debate on October 13, 2004 at Gammage Auditorium. [[Edward Prescott]] of the [[W.P. Carey School of Business]] was awarded the 2004 [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]] (also known as The Nobel Prize in Economics), a first for an ASU faculty member. At the end of the 2004, [[George Poste]], director of the Arizona Biodesign Institute, was named Scientist of the Year by ''R&D Magazine.''
==Academics==
Many of ASU's departments were ranked in the top 50 by [[US News and World Report]] in 2005.
The College of Education [http://coe.asu.edu] was ranked 35th in the nation in 2005. Its program in counseling was ranked 12th in the nation, and its Education Policy Studies [http://coe.asu.edu/elps/] doctoral program was ranked 15th. Six out of nine of the College's specialty programs were ranked in the top 20.
The following graduate departments in [[engineering]] were listed with their respective rankings (out of 300+ institutions):
*[[Electrical Engineering]]: 29th
*[[Aerospace]]/[[Aeronautical Engineering]]: 25th
*[[Biomedical]]/[[Bioengineering]]: 20th
*[[Chemical Engineering]]: 50th
*[[Civil Engineering]]: 41st
*[[Computer Engineering]]: 34th
*[[Industrial Engineering]]: 15th
*[[Mechanical Engineering]]: 37th
The [[W.P. Carey School of Business]] MBA program was ranked 31st and the undergraduate [[business]] program ranked 25th. Graduate business programs listed are as follows (out of 300+ institutions):
*[[Supply Chain Management]]: 5th
*[[Computer Information systems]]: 18th
*[[Production]]/[[operations]]: 21st
*[[Accounting]]: 26th
*[[Management]]: 28th
The [[College of Architecture and Environmental Design]] is reputedly rigorous and highly ranked. An annual event for the [[Walter Cronkite School of Journalism]] is a visit from [[Walter Cronkite]] himself to award the distinguished Cronkite Award.
==Extracurriculars==
[[Image:198557795wVVdGH ph.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Arizona State University is adorned with towering Mexican Fan Palms along its main walkway, Palm Walk. (Photo taken from the Bateman Physical Sciences Center, looking toward the Student Health Center)]]Arizona State University has an active [[ext |
They have not been expelled or suspended from the ''communion''; indeed, no church ever has. It is unclear how such an expulsion could ever be carried out, since the communion is not a disciplinary entity but a spiritual construct based entirely on the New Testament concept of [[koinonia]].
==Provinces of the Anglican Communion==
The term "province" in this context refers to national churches, many of which themselves contain several provinces in the sense of groups of dioceses presided over by an archbishop. According to the Secretariat of the Anglican Communion, currently the member churches of the Anglican Communion are as follows:
*The [[Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia]]
*The [[Anglican Church of Australia]]
*The [[Church of Bangladesh]]
*The [[Episcopal Anglican Church of Brazil]]
*The [[Anglican Church of Burundi]]
*The [[Anglican Church of Canada]]
*The Church of the Province of Central Africa
*The Anglican Church in the Central Region of America
*The Church of the Province of the Congo
*The [[Church of England]]
*Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui
*The Church of the Province of the Indian Ocean
*The [[Church of Ireland]]
*The Nippon Sei Ko Kai (The Anglican Communion in Japan)
*The [[Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and The Middle East]]
*The [[Anglican Church of Kenya]]
*The Anglican Church of Korea
*The [[Church of the Province of Melanesia]]
*The [[Anglican Church of Mexico]]
*The Church of the Province of Myanmar (Burma)
*The [[Church of Nigeria]]
*The [[Church of North India]]
*The [[Church of Pakistan]]
*The [[Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea]]
*The Episcopal Church in the Philippines
*The Episcopal Church of Rwanda
*The [[Scottish Episcopal Church]]
*Church of the Province of South East Asia
*The [[Church of South India]]
*The [[Church of the Province of Southern Africa]]
*The Anglican Church of the Southern Cone of the Americas
*The Episcopal Church of the Sudan
*The Anglican Church of Tanzania
*The Church of the Province of Uganda
*The [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]]
*The [[Church in Wales]]
*The Church of the Province of West Africa
*The Church in the Province of the West Indies
*The [[Church of Ceylon]] (Extra-Provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury)
*The Episcopal Church of Cuba
*Bermuda (Extra-Provincial to Canterbury)
*The [[Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church]] of [[Portugal]] (Extra-Provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury)
*The Reformed Episcopal Church of Spain (Extra-Provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury)
*Falkland Islands (Extra-Provincial to Canterbury)
==History==
''Main article: see [[History of the Anglican Communion]]''
The Anglican Communion is a relatively recent concept. Ever since the [[Church of England]] (which until the [[20th century]] included the [[Church in Wales]]) broke from [[Roman Catholic Church | Rome]] in the reign of [[Henry VIII of England | Henry VIII]], it has thought of itself not as a new foundation but rather as a reformed continuation of the ancient "English church" and a reassertion of that church's rights. As such it was a distinctly local phenomenon.
Thus the only members of the present Anglican Communion existing by the late 18th century were the Church of England, its closely-linked sister church, the [[Church of Ireland]] (which also broke from Rome under Henry VIII), and the [[Scottish Episcopal Church]], which for parts of the [[17th century | 17th]] and [[18th century | 18th centuries]] was partially underground (it was suspected of [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] sympathies).
However, the enormous expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries of the [[British Empire]] brought the church along with it. At first all these colonial churches were under the jurisdiction of the [[Bishop of London]]. After the [[American Revolution]], the parishes in the newly independent country found it necessary to break formally from a church whose earthly head was (and remains) the [[British monarchy | British monarch]]. Thus they formed their own dioceses and national church, the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], in a mostly amicable separation.
At about the same time, in the colonies which remained linked to the crown, the Church of England began to appoint colonial bishops. In 1787 a bishop of [[Nova Scotia]] was appointed with a jurisdiction over all of British North America; in time several more colleagues were appointed to other cities in present-day [[Canada]]. In [[1814]] a bishop of [[Calcutta]] was made; in [[1824]] the first bishop was sent to the [[West Indies]] and in [[1836]] to [[Australia]]. By 1840 there were still only ten colonial bishops for the Church of England; but even this small beginning greatly facilitated the growth of Anglicanism around the world. In [[1841]] a "Colonial Bishoprics Council" was set up and soon many more dioceses were created.
In time, it became natural to group these into provinces, and a [[metropolitan bishop | metropolitan]] appointed for each province. Although it had at first been somewhat established in many colonies, in [[1861]] it was ruled that, except where specifically established, the Church of England had just the same legal position as any other church. Thus a colonial bishop and colonial diocese was by nature quite a different thing from their counterparts back home. In time bishops came to be appointed locally rather than from England, and eventually national synods began to pass ecclesiastical legislation independent of England.
A crucial step in the development of the modern communion was the idea of the [[Lambeth Conferences]]. In [[1867]], at the suggestion of the Canadian [[synod]], the then Archbishop of Canterbury, [[Charles Thomas Langley]], invited a great conference of bishops to meet with him at [[Lambeth Palace]]. By inviting the bishops of the Churches of England and Ireland, those of the semi-autonomous colonial churches, and those of the fully autonomous [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], he set a precedent that they all could meet together despite the absence of universal legal ties. Some bishops were initially reluctant to attend, fearing that the meeting would declare itself a council with power to legislate for the church; but it agreed to pass only advisory resolutions. These Lambeth Conferences have been held decennially since 1878 (the second such conference), and remain the most visible coming-together of the whole communion.
==Recent controversies==
Recent disagreements over homosexuality have strained the unity of the communion as well as its relationships with other Christian denominations; see [[Anglican views of homosexuality]].
==Relationship with the Roman Catholic Church==
Efforts have been underway at least since 1966 to effect a reconciliation with the [[Roman Catholic Church]], focusing on theological issues [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/angl-comm-docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_19660324_paul-vi-ramsey_en.html] and ways "to further the convergence on authority in the Church. Without agreement in this area we shall not reach the full visible unity to which we are both committed." [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/angl-comm-docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_19961205_jp-ii-carey_en.html]
==See also==
*[[Thirty-Nine Articles]]
*[[Book of Common Prayer]]
*[[Anglican Use]]
*[[Anglican Communion Network]]
*[[Affirming Catholicism]]
*[[Sydney Anglicans]]
==External links==
*[http://www.anglicancommunion.org/ Official website]
*[http://anglican.org/church/NoCentral.html Decentralised nature of worldwide Anglicanism]
*[http://www.gshep.org/information/vocabulary.htm Comprehensive Anglican vocabulary]
*[http://www.anglican.tk/ the conservative ''Classical Anglican Net News'' website]
*[http://www.anglicansonline.org/ Anglicans Online]
*[http://www.anglicancommunion.org/index.cfm Anglican Communion Official Website]
{{Template:Anglican Churches}}
[[Category:Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]
[[de:Anglikanische Kommunion]]
[[fr:Communion anglicane]]
[[he:הכנסייה האנגליקנית]]
[[ja:アングリカン・コミュニオン]]
[[it:Comunione anglicana]]
[[nl:Anglicaanse Kerk]]
[[sh:Anglikanska crkva]]
[[sr:Англиканство]]
[[sv:Anglikanska kyrkogemenskapen]]
[[vi:Anh giáo]]
[[zh:普世聖公宗]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arne Kaijser</title>
<id>910</id>
<revision>
<id>37295775</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T01:57:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Arne Kaijser''' (born [[1950]]) is a professor of History of Technology at the [[Royal Institute of Technology]] in [[Stockholm]], and the head of the university's department of [[History of science and technology]].
Kaijser has published two books in [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''Stadens ljus. Etableringen av de första svenska gasverken'' and ''I fädrens spår. Den svenska infrastrukturens historiska utveckling och framtida utmaningar'', and has co-edited several anthologies. Kaijser is also a member of the editorial board of two scientific journals: ''[[Journal of Urban Technology]]'' and ''[[Centaurus (journal)|Centaurus]]''. Lately, he has been occupied with the history of [[Large Technical System]]s.
== External links ==
* [http://www.indek.kth.se/indek/medarbetare/index.php?module=pnAddressBook&func=viewDetail&id=85&cat_id=16&prfx=0&lname=Kaijser&fname=Arne&sortname=Kaijser%2C+Arne&title=Professor&company=&sortcompany=&img=arnekaijser.jpg&zip=&city=&address1=&address2=&state=&country=&contact_1=&contact_2=&contact_3=&contact_4=&contact_5=&c_label_1=1&c_label_2=2&c_label_3=3&c_label_4=4&c_label_5=5&c_main=0&note=&u |
d the ciudellas of [[Chan Chan]], also in Peru.
==Thermal properties==
Because an adobe wall, either made of bricks or using a [[rammed earth]] technique, is quite massive it will hold heat or cold. A south facing adobe wall may be left uninsulated in order to collect heat during the day. It should be thick enough that it remains cool on the inside during the heat of the day but should be thin enough that the heat can be transferred through the wall by evening. Such a wall can be covered with glass to increase heat collection. Used in a [[passive solar heating|passive solar]] home, such a wall is called a [[Trombe wall]]. Adobe has a large thermal mass, therefore this type of construction is only good in tropical climates. In temperate climates it is almost impossible to heat a home of this type as the heat is leached by the ground and the walls.
==Around the world==
<gallery>
Image:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0003jpg.JPG|Still in production today, Danube Delta
Image:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0002jpg.JPG
Image:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0001jpg.JPG
Image:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0004jpg.JPG
</gallery>
''See also'' [[Hassan Fathy]], [[mudbrick]]
==External links==
*[http://www.eartharchitecture.org Earth Architecture] - A website whose focus is contemporary issues in earth architecture.
*[http://www.buildingwithawareness.com/ '''Building With Awareness''' - A detailed how-to DVD video that shows adobe wall construction and their use as thermal mass walls]
* [http://www.calearth.org '''Cal-Earth''' (The California Institute of Earth Art and Architecture)] has developed a patented system called Superadobe, in which bags filled with stabilized earth are layered with strands of barbed wire to form a structure strong enough to withstand earthquakes, fire and flood.
[[Category:Materials]]
[[Category:Masonry]]
[[:Category:Appropriate technology]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]
[[ar:أدوب (الطوب)]]
[[cs:Adobe (stavebnictví)]]
[[de:Adobe (Ziegel)]]
[[es:Adobe (construcción)]]
[[eo:Adobo]]
[[fr:Adobe (brique)]]
[[hu:Vályog]]
[[pl:Adobe (budownictwo)]]
[[pt:Adobe]]
[[tr:Kerpiç]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adventure</title>
<id>683</id>
<revision>
<id>38395655</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T01:29:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] spelling "occurrence"; see [[WP:Typo]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Adventure (disambiguation)]].''
'''Adventure''' refers to events which happen unexpectedly and involve the chance of danger or loss. Adventures can include daring feats, remarkable occurrences, stirring encounters, and major life undertakings.
Adventurous experiences create psychological and physiological [[arousal]] which can be interpreted as negative (e.g., [[fear]]) or positive (e.g., [[flow]]) (see [[Yerkes-Dodson law]]). For some people, adventure becomes a major pursuit in and of itself, for example see [[Extreme Sports]].
===Applications of Adventure===
Adventure is a term used in many contexts and situations. For example, it is a key component of [[narrative]], [[story-telling]], [[drama]] and [[role-playing]] and the concept is used to structure and interpet [[books]], [[film]]s, music and [[computer games]]. Adventure is also used within [[education]], [[sport]], [[tourism]] and others forms of [[entertainment]]. Examples of these adventure genres and applications include:
* [[Adventure education]] is the use of challenging experiences for learning.
* [[Adventure film]] is a film genre.
* [[Adventure game]] is a computer game genre.
* [[Adventure novel]] is a fiction genre.
* [[Adventure (role-playing games)]] involve acting out a specific storyline or plotline.
* [[Adventure racing]] involves competing in multiple outdoor adventure extreme sports.
* [[Adventure tourism]] offers travellers chances to have exciting travel encounters.
===See also===
* [[Risk]]
{{socio-stub}}
[[de:Abenteuer]]
[[es:Aventura]]
[[fr:Aventure]]
[[sv:Äventyrsspel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Agatho</title>
<id>684</id>
<revision>
<id>15899210</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Agatho]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Agave</title>
<id>685</id>
<revision>
<id>42091317</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:45:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the queen of Greek mythology, see [[Agave (mythology)]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Agave''
| image = Agave americana a-m.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Century plant]]
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Asparagales]]
| familia = [[Agavaceae]]
| genus = '''''Agave'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision =
''[[Agave americana]]''<br />
''[[Agave fourcroydes]]''<br />
''[[Agave sisalana]]''<br />
many others, see text
}}
'''Agaves''' are [[succulent plant|succulent]] [[plant]]s of a large botanical genus of the same name, belonging to the family [[Agavaceae]]. Chiefly [[Mexico|Mexican]], they occur also in the southern and western [[United States]] and in central and tropical [[South America]]. The plants have a large rosette of thick fleshy leaves generally ending in a sharp point and with a spiny margin; the stout stem is usually short, the leaves apparently springing from the root.
Each rosette is [[monocarpic]] and grows slowly to flower but once after a number of years, when a tall stem or "mast" grows from the center of the leaf rosette and bears a large number of shortly tubular flowers. After development of fruit the original plant dies, but suckers are frequently produced from the base of the stem which become new plants.
[[Image:Agaveattenuata1web.jpg|thumb|left|Swan's Neck Agave (''Agave attenuata'')]]
The most familiar species is ''[[Agave americana]]'', a native of tropical America, the so-called [[century plant|Century Plant]] or American [[aloe]] (the [[maguey]] of Mexico). The name refers to the long time the plant takes to flower, although the number of years before flowering occurs depends on the vigor of the individual, the richness of the soil and the climate; during these years the plant is storing in its fleshy leaves the nourishment required for the effort of flowering. During the development of the inflorescence there is a rush of sap to the base of the young flowerstalk. In the case of ''A. americana'' and other species this is used by the Mexicans to make their national beverage, [[pulque]]; the flower shoot is cut out and the sap collected and subsequently fermented. By distillation a spirit called [[mezcal]] is prepared. The leaves of several species yield fiber, as for instance, ''Agave rigida var. sisalana'', [[sisal]] hemp, ''Agave decipiens'', False Sisal Hemp; ''Agave americana'' is the source of pita fiber, and is used as a fiber plant in Mexico, the [[West Indies]] and southern [[Europe]]. The flowering stem of the last named, dried and cut in slices, forms natural razor strops, and the expressed juice of the leaves will lather in water like soap. The Native Americans of Mexico used the agave both to make pens, nails and needles as well as string to sew and make weavings. In [[India]] the plant is extensively used for hedges along railroads.
[[Image:Aloe-flower.jpg|thumb|Agave in bloom in a garden (Roquevaire, Bouches-du-Rhône, France, September 1978)]]
''Agave americana'', century plant, was introduced into Europe about the middle of the [[16th century]] and is now widely cultivated for its handsome appearance; in the variegated forms the leaf has a white or yellow marginal or central stripe from base to apex. As the leaves unfold from the center of the rosette the impression of the marginal spines is very conspicuous on the still erect younger leaves. The tequ plants are usually grown in tubs and put out in the summer months, but in the winter require protection from frost. They mature very slowly and die after flowering, but are easily propagated by the offsets from the base of the stem.
Agave [[nectar (plant)|nectar]] has been used as an alternative to [[sugar]] in cooking.
The juice from many species of agave can cause acute contact [[dermatitis]]. It will produce reddening and blistering lasting one to two weeks. Episodes of itching may recur up to a year thereafter, even though there is no longer a visible rash. Interestingly, dried parts of the plants can be handled with bare hands with little or no effect.
==Taxonomy==
Agaves were once classified in [[Liliaceae]] but most references now include them in their own family, [[Agavaceae]].
Agaves have long presented special difficulties for [[taxonomy]]; variations within a species may be considerable, and a number of named species are of unknown origin, and may just be variants of original wild species.
Spanish and Portuguese explorers probably brought agaves back with them, but really became popular in Europe during the [[19th century]], with many types being imported by collectors. Some of have been continuously propagated by offset since then, and do not consistently resemble any species known in nature, although this may simply be due to the unnatural growing conditions in Europe.
==Species==
*''[[Agave aboriginum]]''
*''[[Agave abortiva]]''
*''[[Agav |
progress in the next life, should they accept religious ordinances done on their behalf. In the last century, the LDS Church engaged in a large-scale program of copying all available records of genealogical value onto [[microfilm]]. The project entailed the compilation of the [[International Genealogical Index]] (IGI). The IGI contains information submitted by Mormon researchers for vicarious ordinances, records obtained from non-Mormon contributors, and data taken from various birth or marriage records that Church members have microfilmed; in all, the IGI contains hundreds of millions of records of individuals who lived between 1500 and 1900, primarily in the United States, Canada and Europe. By making so many resources available, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has helped contribute to the increasing interest in genealogy over the last couple of decades. Information is available free or at a nominal cost through the internet, through the Family History Library in Salt Lake City, Utah, and worldwide at [[Family History Center]]s near local congregations.
===Genetic Analysis===
{{main article|[[Genetic genealogy]]}}
With the discovery that a person's [[DNA]] contains information that has been passed down relatively unchanged from our earliest ancestors, [[Genetic fingerprinting|analysis of DNA]] is just beginning to be used for genealogical research. There are two DNA types of particular interest. One is the [[mitochondrial DNA]] which we all possess and which is passed down with only minor mutations through the female line. The other is the [[Y-chromosome]], present only in males, which is passed down with only minor mutations through the male line.
A [[genealogical DNA test]] allows for two individuals to determine with 99.9% certainty that they are related within a certain time frame, or with 100% certainty that they are not related within a certain time frame.
Individual [[Genealogical DNA test|genetic test results]] are being collected in various databases to match people descended from a relatively recent common ancestor, for example see [http://smgf.org/ Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation]. These tests are limited to either the direct male or the direct female line.
On a much longer time scale, genetic methods are being used to trace human [[human migration|migratory patterns]] and to determine [[Biogeography|biogeographical]] and [[Ethnicity|ethnic]] origin. The results can be used to place people within ancient ancestral groups, for example see [http://www3.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/ Genographic Project]. Participation in all such projects is, of course, voluntary.
In a related development, non-genetic mathematical models of ancestry have been devised to determine the approximate year when the [[most recent common ancestor]] of all living humans existed.
===Sharing data among researchers===
Data sharing among genealogical researchers has grown to be a major use of the [[Internet]]. Most [[#Software|genealogy software]] programs can output information about persons and their relationships in [[GEDCOM]] format, so it can be shared with other genealogists by [[e-mail]] and [[internet forum]]s, added to an online database, or converted into a family [[web site]] using online genealogical tools such as GED2HTML, [[PhpGedView]], and [http://www.phpmyfamily.net Phpmyfamily]. Many genealogical software applications also facilitate the sharing of information on CD-ROMs and DVDs made on personal computers.
One phenomenon over the last few years has been that of large genealogical databases going online and attracting such large [[Flash Crowd|flash crowds]] that the database's host server collapses, causing service to be quickly suspended while hurried upgrades are made to accommodate the traffic load. This happened with [http://www.familysearch.org the Mormons' genealogy database], the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]'s [http://www.cwgc.org/cwgcinternet/search.aspx listing of war graves] and in [[2002#January|January 2002]] with the much-anticipated [http://www.census.pro.gov.uk/ British census for 1901].
===Organizations===
Genealogical and historical societies are a great help to researchers piecing together their family history and placing it within its historical context. Some such societies focus on tracing the lineage of participants in one historical event. Another type of society focuses on a particular geographical area rather than on particular individuals.
===Volunteerism===
[[Volunteerism|Volunteer efforts]] figure prominently in genealogy. These efforts range from the extremely informal to the highly organized.
On the informal side are the many popular and useful [[Internet forum|'''message boards''']] and [[electronic mailing list|'''mailing lists''']] regarding particular surnames, regions, and other topics that are maintained on the internet to facilitate queries and responses. [http://www.RootsWeb.com RootsWeb.com], and [http://www.RootsChat.com RootsChat.com] for example, have hundreds of them. A mailing list subscriber can send a request for help by e-mail to the list address, the mail is immediately distributed to all the subscribers, and anyone who can help will e-mail a reply to the list. On the message boards, this exchange occurs entirely online. Not only can one get an answer very quickly, merely following the conversations is very educational too. These resources are used by experienced and inexperienced researchers alike.
In more organized settings, volunteers serve both as a resource to enrich data sources and as a means to obtain information from geographically remote or otherwise inaccessible sources. For instance, '''Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness (RAOGK)'''{{ref|RAOGK}} is an organization of more than 4500 researchers who share their time through its [http://www.raogk.org/ web site]. The volunteers have each agreed to field one request per month in their geographical area, and that entitles them to draw upon the time of other group members in similar fashion. A request might take the form of "please check to see if my great-grandfather is buried in the cemetery near where you live" or "please check the May 1952 issues of your local newspaper for my grandfather's obituary", for instance. This group is one of many examples of researchers working on unrelated projects volunteering their time to other individuals on request.
Another form of volunteerism is '''records transcription'''. Usually this takes the form of manually transcribing information into electronic format for access online. This may be done from paper documents or other sources, such as tombstone inscriptions. Some organizations do the above and more, sometimes scanning out-of-print books to make them accessible for viewing online. One such group is the [http://www.rootsweb.com/~gagenweb/ GeorgiaGenWeb project]. This group provides records on a county level with links to affiliated projects run by broader archives and repositories, such as [http://wwww.southernfolk.us Southern Folk], and the [http://www.ahgp.org American History and Genealogy Project] which covers all states in the US. The [http://userdb.rootsweb.com/contributors.html User Database listing by Rootsweb] is an example of the broad range of individual volunteer efforts. Among more formal volunteer transcription efforts are the databases of the [http://www.italiangen.org/ Italian Genealogical Group], and the [http://www.us-census.org/ USGenWeb Census Project] which matches volunteers with transcription opportunities.
[http://freebmd.rootsweb.com FreeBMD] is an excellent example of volunteerism. The aim is to transcribe the Civil Registration index of births, marriages and deaths for England and Wales. This information is then provided free of charge. Sister projects include [http://freecen.rootsweb.com FreeCEN] which aims to transcribe all UK census data, and [http://freereg.rootsweb.com FreeREG], which is transcribing parish register data.
==Records in genealogical research==
Records of persons who were neither [[royal family|royalty]] nor [[nobility]] began to be taken by governments in order to keep track of their citizens (In most of Europe, for example, this started to take place in the [[16th century]]). As more of the population began to be recorded, there were sufficient records to follow a family using the paper trail they left behind.
As each person lived his or her life, major events were usually documented with a license, permit or report which was stored at a local, regional or national office or [[archive]]. Genealogists locate these records, wherever they are stored, and extract information to discover family relationships and recreate [[timeline]]s of persons' lives.
Records that are used in genealogy research include:
* [[Vital records]]
** [[Birth certificate|Birth records]]
** [[Death certificate| Death records]]
** [[Marriage license|Marriage]] and [[divorce]] records
* [[Adoption]] records
* [[Baptism]] or christening records
* [[Biographies]] and biographical profiles (as in [[Who's Who]], etc.)
* [[Cemetery]] records and [[tombstone]]s
* [[Census]] records
* City directories and [[telephone directory|telephone directories]]
* [[Daughters of the American Revolution]] records
* [[Diary|Diaries]], personal [[letter]]s and family [[Bible]]s
* [[Emigration]], [[immigration]] and [[naturalization]] records
* [[Real property|Land]] and [[Homestead (law)|homestead]] records, [[deed]]s
* [[Health care|Medical]] records
* [[Armed force|Military]] and [[conscription]] records
* [[Newspaper]] columns
* [[Obituary|Obituaries]]
* [[Occupation|Occupational]] records
* [[Oral history]]
* [[Passport]]s
* [[Photograph]]s
* [[School]] and [[alumni association]] records
* [[Passenger ship|Ship]] passenger lists
* [[Social Security Administration]] records (within the USA)
* [[Tax]] records
* [[Vote]]r registration records
* [[Will (law)|Wills]] and probate record |
s new efficient electrolytic method for the production of aluminium, despite using the -ium spelling in all of his patents filed between 1886 and 1903. It has consequently been suggested that the spelling on the flyer was a simple spelling mistake rather than a deliberate choice to use the -um spelling. Hall's domination of production of the metal ensured that the spelling ''aluminum'' became the standard in North America, even though the ''Webster Unabridged Dictionary'' of 1913 continued to use the -ium version.
In 1926, the [[American Chemical Society]] officially decided to use ''aluminum'' in its publications, and American dictionaries typically label the spelling ''aluminium'' as a British variant.
===Present-day spelling===
In the English-speaking world, the spellings (and associated pronunciations) ''aluminium'' and ''aluminum'' are both in common use in scientific and nonscientific contexts. In the United States, the spelling ''aluminium'' is largely unknown, and the spelling ''aluminum'' predominates. Elsewhere in the English-speaking world the spelling ''aluminium'' predominates, and the spelling ''aluminum'' is largely unknown. However, in Canada both spellings are common, due to the multiple influences on the language of its proximity to the United States, its British colonial past and the large number of native French speakers.
Outside English, the "ium" spelling is widespread: the word is ''aluminium'' in [[French language|French]], ''Aluminium'' in [[German language|German]], and identical or similar forms are used in many other languages. Consequently it is the more common of the two spellings in global terms, even though there may be more users of ''aluminum'' in the English-speaking world.
The [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC) adopted ''aluminium'' as the standard international name for the element in 1990, but three years later recognised ''aluminum'' as an acceptable variant. Hence their periodic table includes both, but places aluminium first [http://www.iupac.org/reports/periodic_table/index.html]. IUPAC officially prefers the use of aluminium in its internal publications, although several IUPAC publications use the spelling ''aluminum.''[http://www.iupac.org/cgi-bin/htsearch?sort=score&restrict=www.iupac.org%2Fpublications%2Fci&config=htdig&restrict=&exclude=www.iupac.org%2Fgoldbook%2F&words=aluminum&submit=]
==Chemistry==
===Oxidation state 1===
*AlH is produced when aluminium is heated at 1500 °C in an atmosphere of [[hydrogen]].
*Al<sub>2</sub>O is made by heating the normal oxide, Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, with [[silicon]] at 1800 °C in a [[vacuum]].
*Al<sub>2</sub>S can be made by heating Al<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub> with aluminium shavings at 1300 °C in a vacuum. It quickly disproportionates to the starting materials. The selenide is made in a parallel manner.
*AlF, AlCl and AlBr exist in the gaseous phase when the tri-halide is heated with aluminium.
===Oxidation state 2===
*Aluminium suboxide, AlO can be shown to be present when aluminium powder burns in oxygen.
===Oxidation state 3===
*[[Fajans rules]] show that the simple trivalent cation Al<sup>3+</sup> is not expected to be found in anhydrous salts or binary compounds such as Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>. The hydroxide is a weak base and aluminium salts of weak bases, such as carbonate, can't be prepared. The salts of strong acids, such as nitrate, are stable and soluble in water, forming hydrates with at least six molecules of [[water of crystallization]].
*Aluminium hydride, (AlH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>n</sub>, can be produced from [[trimethylaluminium]] and an excess of hydrogen. It burns explosively in air. It can also be prepared by the action of [[aluminium chloride]] on lithium hydride in ether solution, but cannot be isolated free from the solvent.
*Aluminium carbide, Al<sub>4</sub>C<sub>3</sub> is made by heating a mixture of the elements above 1000 °C. The pale yellow crystals have a complex lattice structure, and react with water or dilute acids to give [[methane]]. The acetylide, Al<sub>2</sub>(C<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>, is made by passing [[acetylene]] over heated aluminium.
*Aluminium nitride, AlN, can be made from the elements at 800 °C. It is hydrolysed by water to form [[ammonia]] and aluminium hydroxide.
*Aluminium phosphide, AlP, is made similarly, and hydrolyses to give [[phosphine]].
*Aluminium oxide, Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, occurs naturally as [[corundum]], and can be made by burning aluminium in oxygen or by heating the hydroxide, nitrate or sulfate. As a [[gemstone]], its hardness is only exceeded by [[diamond]], [[boron nitride]] and [[carborundum]]. It is almost insoluble in water.
*Aluminium hydroxide may be prepared as a gelatinous precipitate by adding ammonia to an aqueous solution of an aluminium salt. It is [[amphoteric]], being both a very weak acid, and forming aluminates with [[alkali]]s. It exists in various crystalline forms.
*Aluminium sulfide, Al<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>, may be prepared by passing [[hydrogen sulfide]] over aluminium powder. It is [[polymorphic]].
*Aluminium fluoride, AlF<sub>3</sub>, is made by treating the hydroxide with HF, or can be made from the elements. It consists of a giant molecule which sublimes without melting at 1291 °C. It is very inert. The other trihalides are dimeric, having a bridge-like structure.
*Organo-metallic compounds of empirical formula AlR<sub>3</sub> exist and, if not also giant molecules, are at least [[dimer]]s or trimers. They have some uses in [[organic synthesis]], for instance [[trimethylaluminium]].
*Alumino-hydrides of the most electropositive elements are known, the most useful being [[lithium aluminium hydride]], Li[AlH<sub>4</sub>]. It decomposes into lithium hydride, aluminium and hydrogen when heated, and is hydrolysed by water. It has many uses in organic chemistry, particularly as a reducing agent. The aluminohalides have a similar structure.
==Aluminium in popular culture==
* In the film ''[[Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home]]'', [[Montgomery Scott|Scotty]] devises the fictional material [[transparent aluminum]].
==See also==
* [[List of alloys#Alloys of aluminium|Alloys of aluminium]].
==References==
<references/>
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/13.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Aluminum]
*[http://www.worldwidewords.org/articles/aluminium.htm World Wide Words] A history of the spelling of aluminium from a British viewpoint.
*[[Oxford English Dictionary]] Entries "aluminum" and "aluminium", available by subscription. [http://www.oed.com]
==External links==
{{Commons|Aluminium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Al/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Aluminium]
*[http://www.world-aluminium.org/ World Aluminium]
*[http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/aluminum/aluminum_table12.html World production of primary aluminum, by country]
*[http://www.saanet.org/kashipur/docs/seenalum.htm Social and Environmental Impact of the Aluminium Industry]
*[http://sam.davyson.com/as/physics/aluminium/normal/redirect.html Sam's Aluminium Information Site]
*[http://www.world-aluminium.org/history/index.html History of Aluminium]
'''Patents'''
*US[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=400664.WKU.&OS=PN/400664&RS=PN/400664 400664] – ''Process of reducing aluminum from its floride salts by electrolysis'' – C. M. Hall
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Poor metals]]
[[Category:Inorganic pigments]]
[[Category:Pyrotechnic chemicals]]
[[Category:Rocket fuels]]
[[Category:Structural engineering]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[af:Aluminium]]
[[ar:ألمنيوم]]
[[bs:Aluminijum]]
[[ca:Alumini]]
[[cs:Hliník]]
[[cy:Alwminiwm]]
[[da:Aluminium]]
[[de:Aluminium]]
[[et:Alumiinium]]
[[es:Aluminio]]
[[eo:Aluminio]]
[[fr:Aluminium]]
[[gd:Alman]]
[[gl:Aluminio (elemento)]]
[[ko:알루미늄]]
[[hr:Aluminij]]
[[io:Aluminio]]
[[id:Aluminium]]
[[is:Ál]]
[[it:Alluminio]]
[[he:אלומיניום]]
[[ku:Bafûn]]
[[la:Aluminium]]
[[lv:Alumīnijs]]
[[lt:Aliuminis]]
[[lb:Aluminium]]
[[hu:Alumínium]]
[[mi:Konumohe]]
[[nl:Aluminium]]
[[ja:アルミニウム]]
[[no:Aluminium]]
[[nn:Aluminium]]
[[pl:Glin]]
[[pt:Alumínio]]
[[ru:Алюминий]]
[[simple:Aluminium]]
[[sl:Aluminij]]
[[sr:Алуминијум]]
[[fi:Alumiini]]
[[sv:Aluminium]]
[[th:อะลูมิเนียม]]
[[vi:Nhôm]]
[[uk:Алюміній]]
[[zh:铝]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Advanced Chemistry</title>
<id>905</id>
<revision>
<id>40787499</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T00:40:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobby1011</username>
<id>278977</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Discography added.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Advanced Chemistry''' are a German [[hip hop music|hip hop]] [[band (music)|band]] from Heidelberg. Members include [[Toni L]], [[Linguist (rapper)|Linguist]], [[Torch (rapper)|Torch]]; affiliated: [[Boulevard Bou]].
==Discography==
* [[1992]] - Fremd im eigenen Land (12"/MCD, MZEE)
* [[1993]] - Welcher Pfad führt zur Geschichte (12"/MCD, MZEE)
* [[1994]] - Operation § 3 (12"/MCD)
* [[1994]] - Dir fehlt der Funk! (12"/MCD)
* [[1995]] - Advanced Chemistry (2xLP/CD)
{{Germany-band-stub}}
[[Category:Hip hop groups]]
[[Category:German musical groups]]
[[als:Advanced Chemistry]]
[[de:Advanced Chemistry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abdication</title>
<id>906</id>
<revision>
<id>39146722</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T00:34:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>To |
to an estimated 250,000.
There are 90,915 housing units at an average density of 444.6/km&sup2; (1,151.5/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 75.45% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 17.38% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.39% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.56% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.04% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.91% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.26% from two or more races. 5.78% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 83,333 households out of which 31.5% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.9% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 14.6% have a female householder with no husband present, and 39.2% are non-families. 32.6% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.3% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.41 and the average family size is 3.08.
In the city the population is spread out with 27.0% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 30.2% from 25 to 44, 19.7% from 45 to 64, and 12.5% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 33 years. For every 100 females there are 94.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 90.4 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $36,518, and the median income for a family is $45,040. Males have a median income of $34,704 versus $25,062 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $18,517. 12.5% of the population and 9.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 17.5% of those under the age of 18 and 7.6% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
==Media==
===Newspapers===
*''[[Journal Gazette]]'', daily morning newspaper
*''[[The News-Sentinel]]'', daily evening newspaper owned by [[Knight Ridder]]
*''[[Fort Wayne Business Weekly]]'', weekly business news, information & features
*''[[Whatzup]]'', weekly entertainment newspaper
*''Ink'' weekly [[African American]] newspaper
*''[[Frost Illustrated]]'', weekly [[African American]] newspaper
*''Macedonian Tribune'', monthly [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] newspaper.
*''[[Aboite & About]]'', monthly community publication owned by [[Times Group Inc]]
*''[[Dupont Valley Times]]'', monthly community publication owned by [[Times Group Inc]]
*''[[St. Joe Times]]'', monthly community publication owned by [[Times Group Inc]]
*''[[George Town Times]]'', monthly community publication owned by [[Times Group Inc]]
*''[[East Allen County Times]]'', monthly community publication owned by [[Times Group Inc]]
*"[[The Communicator]]", IPFW's weekly student newspaper
===Television===
Fort Wayne is the 106th-largest television market in the United States according to [[Nielsen Media Research]].
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
| rowspan="2"| '''Callsign'''
| colspan="2" | '''Channel'''
|rowspan="2"| '''Network<br>Affiliation'''
|rowspan="2"|'''Callsign<br>Meaning'''
|rowspan="2"| '''Branding'''
|rowspan="2"| '''Owner'''
|rowspan="2"| '''City'''
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
|[[NTSC]] || [[DTV]]
|-
|[[W07CL]] || 7 || || [[UATV]]|| || UATV 7 || [[Raymond S. and Dorothy N. Moore Foundation]] || [[Auburn, Indiana|Auburn]]
|-
|rowspan=3 |[[WANE-TV|WANE]]
||15 ||31.1||[[CBS]]
|rowspan=3| Fort '''WA'''y'''NE'''
|rowspan=3| News Channel 15
|rowspan=3| [[LIN TV]]
|rowspan=3| Fort&nbsp;Wayne
|-
|| ||31.2 || [[UPN]]
|-
|| ||31.3 || [[weather radar]]
|-
|[[WDFM-LP|WDFM]] || 26 || || [[Independent station|Ind.]] || || || [[Clear Channel]] ||[[Defiance, Ohio|Defiance]]
|-
|[[WFFT-TV|WFFT]] || 55 || 36 || [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] || '''W''' '''F'''ifty '''F'''ive '''T'''elevision ||FOX55 || [[Nexstar Broadcasting]] ||Fort&nbsp;Wayne
|-
|rowspan=4|[[WFWA]]
||39 || 40.1 || [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]
|rowspan=4| '''W''' '''F'''ort '''WA'''yne
|rowspan=4| PBS39
|rowspan=4| [[Fort Wayne Public Broadcasting]]
|rowspan=4| Fort&nbsp;Wayne
|-
|| || 40.2 || [[PBS KIDS Sprout|PBS KIDS]]
|-
|| || 40.3 || [[PBS Encore]]
|-
|| || 40.4 || [[PBS YOU]]
|-
|[[WFWC-CA|WFWC]] ||45|| || [[MTV2]] || '''W''' '''F'''ort '''W'''ayne '''C'''hannel || || [[Tran Star]] || Fort&nbsp;Wayne
|-
|[[WINM]] ||63 ||12|| [[Tri-State Christian Television|TCT]] || || || [[Tri-State Christian Television|TCT]] [[O&O]] || [[Angola, Indiana|Angola]]
|-
|rowspan=2|[[WISE-TV|WISE]]
||33 ||19.1 || [[National Broadcasting Company|NBC]] || ||NBC33
|rowspan=2| [[Granite Broadcasting]]
|rowspan=2| Fort&nbsp;Wayne
|-
|| ||19.2|| [[weather radar]] || || Supercell Live Radar
|-
|rowspan=2|[[WPTA]]
||21 ||24.1 || [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] || ||21 Alive
|rowspan=2| [[Malara Broadcasting]]
|rowspan=2| Fort&nbsp;Wayne
|-
|| ||24.2|| [[weather radar]] || || Supercell Live Radar
|}
===Radio===
{|
|
*WAJI-FM 95.1
*WBCL-FM 90.3
*WBNI-FM 88.7
*WBOI-FM 89.1
*WBTU-FM 93.3
*WBYR-FM 98.9
*WCYT-FM 91.1
*WFCV-AM 1090
*WFWI-FM 92.3
*WGL-AM 1250
*WCKZ-FM 94.1
*WXTW-FM 102.3
*WGOM-AM 860
*WGLL-AM 1570
|
*WJFX-FM 107.9
*WJHS-FM 91.5
*WKJG-AM 1380
*WLAB-FM 88.3
*WLDE-FM 101.7
*WLYV-AM 1450
*WMEE-FM 97.3
*WMRI-FM 106.9
*WNHT-FM 96.3
*[[WOWO]]-AM 1190
*WPDJ-AM 1300
*WSHI-FM 106.3
*WQHK-FM 105.1
*WVSH-FM 91.9
*WXKE-FM 102.9
|}
==Sites of interest==
===Architecture of note===
[[Image:Fort-wayne-lincoln-tower.jpg|thumb|[[Lincoln Bank Tower]]]]
* [[Allen County Courthouse]], 700 block of South Clinton Street, government building, by [[Brentwood S. Tolan]], 1897-[[1902]]
* Anthony Wayne Bank Building, 203 East Berry Street, commercial high-rise, [[1960]]
* [[Center School]], 1893 schoolhouse restored to its original state
* Commerce Building, 127 West Berry Street, [[Beaux-Arts architecture]] high rise, [[1923]]
* Crooks House, residence, by [[postmodernism|postmodernist]] architect [[Michael Graves]], [[1976]]
* Fine Arts Center, School and Performing Arts Theater, theatre, by [[L. I. Kahn]], 1966-[[1973]]
* Fort Wayne National Bank Building ([[National City Bank]]), [[skyscraper]], [[1970]]
* [[Fort Wayne Old City Hall Building|Old City Hall]], government building, [[1893]]
* J. B. Franke House, residence, [[1914]]
* Hanselmann House, residence, by [[postmodernism|postmodernist]] architect [[Michael Graves]], [[1967]]
* [[One Summit Square]] ([[J.P. Morgan Chase|Chase Bank]]), skyscraper, [[1981]]
* [[Richardville House]], residence, [[1827]]
* Haus der Schönen Künste - Fine Arts Center, museum, by [[L. I. Kahn]], 1961-[[1964]]
* [[Lincoln Bank Tower]], 116 East Berry Street, skyscraper, by [[Alvin M. Strauss]], [[1929]]
* [[Snyderman House]], residence, by [[postmodernism|postmodernist]] architect [[Michael Graves]], [[1972]]
== Education ==
=== Colleges/universities ===
*[[Concordia Theological Seminary]] of the [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]]
*[[Fort Wayne Center for Medical Education]] (a branch of Indiana University School of Medicine)
*[[Indiana Business College]][http://www.ibcschools.edu/Campuses/fortwayne.asp]
*[[Indiana Institute of Technology]] (IIT)
*[[International Business College]][http://www.ibcfortwayne.edu ]
*[[IPFW|Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne]] (IPFW)
*[[Ivy Tech State College]]
*[[Taylor University]] Fort Wayne
*[[University of Saint Francis (Indiana)|University of Saint Francis]]
===Public school districts===
* [[Southwest Allen County Schools]][http://www.sacs.k12.in.us]
* [[Northwest Allen County Schools]][http://www.nacs.k12.in.us]
* [[East Allen County Schools]][http://www.eacs.k12.in.us]
* [[Fort Wayne Community Schools]][http://www.fwcs.k12.in.us]
== Sports teams ==
{| style="border: 1px solid #ADADAD; margin-bottom: 10px; padding-bottom: 5px;"
|- bgcolor=#ADADAD align=left
! width=150px | Club
! width=100px | Sport
! width=270px | League
! width=120px | Stadium (or Arena)
| width=50px | Logo
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Fever]]
| [[Soccer]]
| [[Premier Development League]]
| [[Hefner Field ]]
| align="center" | [[Image:Fort Wayne Fever logo.png|35px|Fort Wayne Fever logo]]
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Flyers]]
| [[American football|Football]]
| [[Minor League Football Association]]
| [[Dave S. Walter Memorial Stadium]]
| [[Image:Fort Wayne Flyers logo.png|100.png|50px|Fort Wayne Flyers logo]]
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Freedom]]
| [[Arena football]]
| [[United Indoor Football Association]]
| [[Allen County War Memorial Coliseum|Memorial Coliseum]]
| [[Image:Fort Wayne Freedom logo.png|50px|Fort Wayne Freedom logo]]
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Komets]]
| [[Hockey]]
| [[United Hockey League]]
| [[Allen County War Memorial Coliseum|Memorial Coliseum]]
| [[Image:Fort Wayne Komets.gif|50px|Fort Wayne Komets logo]]
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Wizards]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[International League]]
| [[Allen County War Memorial Stadium|Memorial Stadium]]
| align="center" | [[Image:FortWayneWizards.png|40px|Fort Wayne Wizards logo]]
|}
===Former sports teams===
{| style="border: 1px solid #ADADAD; margin-bottom: 10px; padding-bottom: 5px;"
|- bgcolor=#ADADAD align=left
! width=150px | Club
! width=100px | Sport
! width=270px | League
! width=120px | Years
| width=50px | Logo
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Daisies]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[All-American Girls Professional Baseball League]]
| [[1943]] - [[1954]]
| align="center" | [[Image:Fort Wayne Daisies logo.png|40px|Fort Wayne Daisies logo]]
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Flames]]
| [[Soccer]]
| [[American Indoor Soccer Association]]
| [[1986]]
| align="center" | [[Image:Fort Wayne Flames logo.gif|40px|Fort Wayne Flames logo]]
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Friars]]
| [[American football|Football]]
|
| [[1910]] - [[1917]]
|
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Fury]]
| [[Basketball]]
| [[Continental Basketball Association]]
|
| align="center" | [[Image:Fort Wayne Fury logo.gif|40px|Fort Wayne |
tion. Examples include Clay golems (most like the original Jewish golem), Flesh golems (stiched-together abominations reminiscent of [[Frankenstein]]'s creature), Iron golems (animated metal statues), and a host of others including gold golems, stone golems and paper golems.
The second [[Fullmetal Alchemist]] game, ''Curse of the Crimson Elixir'', features golems as enemies. They have magic symbols on their bodies that keep them alive. They were created by an ancient [[alchemy]]-using civilization for use as slaves. These golems have several extra abilities such as the ability to diguise themselves as humans.
The "[[mon (monster)|mon]]" genre of [[video games]] often include a monster named "golem" or having golem-like qualities, usually animated rock or earth in a vaguely [[anthropomorphic]] shape, such as [[Golem (Pokémon)|Golem]], [[Regirock]], [[Regice]] and [[Registeel]] from ''[[Pokémon]]'', [[Golemon]] from ''[[Digimon]]'' and the breed called Golem in [[Monster Rancher]].
==The Golem in the Czech Republic==
The Golem is a popular figure in the [[Czech Republic]]. There are several restaurants and other businesses named after him. [[Strongman (strength athlete)|Strongman]] René Richter goes by the nickname "Golem," and a Czech [[monster truck]] outfit calls itself the "Golem Team."
==Further reading==
* Moshe Idel. ''Golem: Jewish Magical and Mystical Traditions on the Artificial Anthropoid''. State University of New York Press, 1990.
* Gershon Winkler. ''The Golem of Prague: A New Adaptation of the Documented Stories of the Golem of Prague''. Judaica Press, 1980.
* Emily D. Bilski (Ed.) ''Golem! Danger, Deliverance and Art''. The Jewish Museum, 1988.
* Arnold L. Goldsmith. ''The Golem Remembered 1909-1980: Variations of a Jewish Legend.'' Wayne State University Press, 1981.
* Maureen T. Krause. "Introduction: Bereshit bara Elohim, A Survey of the Genesis and Evolution of the Golem." ''Journal of the Fantastic'', 7.2/3, pages 113-36.
* Norma Comrada. "Golem and [[Robot]]: The Search for Connections". ''Journal of the Fantastic'', 7.2/3, pages 244-54.
* Jonathan Stroud. "The Golem's Eye", Corgi, 2004
==External links==
*[http://www.untitledtheater.com/Golem%20Facts.htm Historical Figures from the Golem Legend]
*[http://www.scils.rutgers.edu/~kvander/golem/backgroundgolem.html Background on the Golem Legends]
*[http://www.sff.net/people/d.honigsberg/ravasman.htp Rava's Golem] (essay in the Summer '96 issue of the ''Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts'')
*[http://www.jewishmag.com/26mag/golem/golem.htm The Golem]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Hollywood/6960/golem.htm The Golem in Literature, Film, and Stage]
*[http://www.golemgroup.com/ The Golem Group] (robot builders)
*[http://demo.cs.brandeis.edu/golem The Golem Project - Automatic design and manufacture of robotic lifeforms]
[[Category:Jewish mysticism]]
[[Category:Jewish mythology]]
[[Category:Culture in Prague]]
[[Category:Hebrew words]]
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[[he:גולם (מיסטיקה)]]
[[nl:Golem (legende)]]
[[ja:ゴーレム]]
[[no:Golem]]
[[pl:Golem]]
[[pt:Golem]]
[[sr:Голем]]
[[sv:Golem]]
[[th:โกเลม]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Greek Mythology</title>
<id>11889</id>
<revision>
<id>15909600</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Greek mythology]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Genre Film Theory</title>
<id>11890</id>
<revision>
<id>15909601</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-08T10:54:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cinematic genre]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Orwell</title>
<id>11891</id>
<revision>
<id>42069553</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:37:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cunningham</username>
<id>109703</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Burma and the early novels */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GeorgeOrwell.jpg|thumb|200px|George Orwell on [[Time Magazine]] cover from [[1983]].]]
'''Eric Arthur Blair''' ([[June 25]], [[1903]]&ndash;[[January 21]], [[1950]]), much better known by the [[pen name]] '''George Orwell''', was a [[British literature|British author]] and [[journalist]]. Noted as a political and cultural commentator, as well as an accomplished novelist, Orwell is among the most widely-admired [[English-language]] [[essayist]]s of the [[20th century]]. He is best known for two [[novel]]s written towards the middle and end of his life: ''[[Animal Farm]]'' and ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''.
==Early life==
Eric Blair was born on [[June 25]], [[1903]] in [[Motihari]], [[Bihar]], in [[India]], during the period when India was part of the [[British Empire]] under the [[British Raj]]. There Blair's father, Richard Walmesley Blair, worked for the [[opium]] department of the [[British Civil Service|Civil Service]]. His mother, Ida Mabel Blair, brought him to the [[United Kingdom]] at the age of one. He did not see his father again until [[1907]], when Richard visited England for three months before leaving again. Eric had an older sister named Marjorie, and a younger sister named Avril. He would later describe his family's background as "lower-upper-middle class."
==Education==
At the age of six, Blair was sent to a small [[Anglican]] parish school in [[Henley-on-Thames]], which his sister had attended before him. He never wrote of his recollections of it, but he must have impressed the teachers very favourably, for two years later he was recommended to the headmaster of one of the most successful preparatory schools in England at the time: [[St Cyprian's School]], in [[Eastbourne]], [[Sussex]]. Blair attended St Cyprian's on a scholarship that allowed his parents to pay only half of the usual fees. Many years later, he would recall his time at St Cyprian's with biting resentment in the essay "[[Such, Such Were the Joys]]", describing the stifling limits placed on his development by the Warden. "They [the officials] were my benefactors", writes Orwell, "sacrificing financial gain in order that the cleverest might bring academic accolades to the school". "Our brains were a gold-mine in which he [the Warden] had sunk money, and the dividends must be squeezed out of us". However, in his time at St Cyprians, the young Blair successfully earned scholarships to both [[Wellington College (Berkshire)|Wellington College]] and [[Eton College]].
After some time at [[Wellington College, Berkshire|Wellington]], Blair moved to Eton, where he was a [[King's Scholar]] from [[1917]] to [[1921]]. Later in life he wrote that he had been "relatively happy" at Eton, which allowed its students considerable independence, but also that he ceased doing serious work after arriving there. Reports of his academic performance at Eton vary; some assert that he was a poor student, while others claim the contrary. He was clearly disliked by some of his teachers, who resented what they perceived as disrespect for their authority. During his time at the school, Blair made lifetime friendships with a number of future British intellectuals such as [[Cyril Connolly]], the future editor of the ''Horizon'' magazine, in which many of Orwell's most famous essays were originally published.
==Burma and the early novels==
After Blair finished his studies at Eton, his family could not pay for university and he had no prospect of a scholarship. So in [[1922]] he joined the [[Indian Imperial Police]] in [[Burma]]. He came to hate [[imperialism]], returned to England in [[1927]] and resigned, determined to become a writer. He later used his Burmese experiences for the novel ''[[Burmese Days]]'' ([[1934]]) and in such essays as ''[[A Hanging]]'' ([[1931]]), and ''[[Shooting an Elephant]]'' ([[1936]]).
In [[1928]], he moved to Paris, where his aunt lived, hoping to make a living as a freelance writer. But his lack of success forced him into menial jobs – which he later described in his first book, ''[[Down and Out in Paris and London]]'' (1933), although there is no indication that he had the book in mind at the time.
Ill and broke, he moved back to England in [[1929]], using his parents' house in [[Southwold]], [[Suffolk]], as a base. Writing what became ''Burmese Days'', he made frequent forays into tramping as part of what had by now become a book project on the life of the underclass. Meanwhile, he became a regular contributor to [[John Middleton Murry]]'s ''New Adelphi'' magazine.
Blair completed ''Down and Out'' in [[1932]], and it was published early the next year while he was working briefly as a schoolteacher at a private school in [[Hayes, Hillingdon|Hayes]], [[Middlesex]]. Blair became George Orwell just before ''Down and Out'' was published, adopting the pen-name of George Orwell. It is unknown exactly why he chose this name. He knew and liked the [[River Orwell]] in Suffolk and apparently found the plainness of the first name George attractive. It is believed by some that he chose George by way of [[Saint George]], among other things the patron saint of England.
Orwell drew on his teaching experiences for the novel ''[[A Clergyman's Daughter]]'' ([[1935]]), which he wrote at his parents' place in [[1934]] after ill-health forced him to give up teaching. From late 1934 to early 1936 he worked part-time as an assistant in a second-hand bookshop in [[Hampstead]], an experience later partially recounted in the nove |
i:'' [There are] 300 Million Arabs, while Israel has only the sea behind it.
:- ''Interviewer:'' Minister, how do you see the future of Palestine?
:- ''Kaddoumi:'' At this stage there will be two states. Many years from now there will be only one.
== Fatah armed factions ==
* Quwwat Al-Sa'eqa
* [[Black September (group)|Black September]] (operated mainly in the 1970s)
* [[Hawari Special Operations Group]]
* [[Tanzim]]
* [[Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades]]
* [[Abu Reish Brigades]]
* [[Fatah Hawks]]
* [[Force 17]]
While Quwwat Al-Sa'eqa are the official armed body of Fatah movement, many of the other factions have never been officially recognized by Fatah's major leading bodies: The Revolutionary Council and The Central Committee. At many instances, some of those factions were considered rebellious and outlawed by the Fatah official bodies, especially the [[Black September (group)|Black September]] group.
==See also==
* [[Mahmoud Abbas]]
* [[Farouk Kaddoumi]]
* [[Yasser Arafat]]
* [[Ahmed Qurei]]
* [[Marwan Barghouti]]
* [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
* [[PLO]]
==References==
*Baumgarten, Helga (2005). The three faces/phases of Palestinian nationalism, 1948-2005. ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', 34(4), 25-48.
==External links==
'''Websites by Fatah Offices'''
* [http://www.fateh.net/ Fatah's Intellectual office website]
* [http://www.alkrama.com/ Al-Krama Newspaper (Fatah's PR Office)]
[[Category:Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[Category:Political parties in Palestine]]
[[Category:Socialist International]]
[[Category:Palestinian militant groups]]
[[bg:Фатах]]
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[[de:Al-Fatah]]
[[es:Al Fatah]]
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[[hr:Al Fatah]]
[[id:Fatah]]
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[[nl:Fatah]]
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[[sv:Al-Fatah]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Forteana</title>
<id>11105</id>
<revision>
<id>15908870</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-08T19:39:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>StoatBringer</username>
<id>101833</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Turned into a redirect to Fort, as the content was all redundant and is explained in better detail on the Charles Fort page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charles Fort]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Francesco Boromini</title>
<id>11106</id>
<revision>
<id>15908871</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>151.24.188.90</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Francesco Borromini]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Francesco Borromini]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Food and Agriculture Organization</title>
<id>11107</id>
<revision>
<id>40849339</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T11:53:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kcordina</username>
<id>643099</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/62.253.245.100|62.253.245.100]] to last version by Kcordina</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|FAO}}
[[Image:FAO logo.gif|thumb|250px|FAO emblem]]
With its headquarters in [[Rome]], the '''Food and Agriculture Organization''' (FAO) is a specialized agency of the [[United Nations]] that works to raise levels of [[nutrition]] and [[standard of living|standards of living]]; to improve the production, processing, marketing, and distribution of [[food]] and agricultural products; to promote [[rural]] development; and, by these means, to eliminate [[hunger]]. In the past, the United States and several European nations have contributed to this organization by providing blankets, food, shelter, and mung beans to those in need. Its [[Latin]] motto, ''[[Fiat lux|fiat panis]],'' translates into English as "let there be bread".
The FAO was founded in [[1945]] in [[Quebec City]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]]. In [[1951]] the headquarters were moved from [[Washington, D.C.]], [[United States]], to [[Rome]], [[Italy]]. As of [[November 26]], [[2005]], it had 189 members (188 states and the [[European Community]], [http://www.fao.org/unfao/govbodies/membernations3_en.asp List of FAO members]).
The main activities concentrate on four areas:
# Developing assistance to [[developing countries]].
# Information about nutrition, food, [[agriculture]], [[forestry]] and [[fishery]].
# Advice to governments.
# Neutral forum to discuss and formulate [[policy]] on major food and agriculture issues.
==Specific programmes==
FAO's efforts to eliminate the Mediterranean [[Tephritidae|fruit fly]] from the [[Caribbean Basin]] have benefitted the [[United States|U.S.]] citrus industry. Likewise, U.S. [[cattle]] raisers have a direct stake in FAO efforts to eliminate a [[tick]] found in the Caribbean that carries a threatening cattle disease.
==External links==
*[http://www.fao.org/ Website of the FAO]
*[http://www.fao.org/statistics Website of the FAO Statistics Division]
** [http://www.fao.org/fi/default.asp FAO Fisheries Department] and its [http://www.fao.org/sof/sofia/index_en.htm SOFIA 2004 report]
***[http://www.greenfacts.org/fisheries/index.htm State of World Fisheries ] &ndash; A summary for non-specialists of the above FAO report by [[GreenFacts]].
** [http://www.fao.org/ag/ FAO Agriculture Department] and its [http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5160e/y5160e00.HTM SOFA 2003-2004 report]
*** [http://www.greenfacts.org/gmo/index.htm State of Food and Agriculture - GM Crops] &ndash; A summary for non-specialists of the above FAO report by [[GreenFacts]].
*[http://www.fao.org/faostat Website of the FAO Statistics Division's new FAOSTAT project]
[[Category:United Nations specialized agencies]]
[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Agriculture organizations]]
[[Category:1945 establishments]]
[[cs:Organizace pro výživu a zemědělství]]
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[[es:Organización para la Alimentación y la Agricultura]]
[[eo:Organizaĵo pri Nutrado kaj Agrikulturo]]
[[fr:Organisation des Nations unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture]]
[[id:Organisasi Pangan dan Pertanian]]
[[it:FAO]]
[[nl:Voedsel- en Landbouworganisatie]]
[[ja:国際連合食糧農業機関]]
[[nn:FAO]]
[[pt:Organização das Nações Unidas para a Agricultura e a Alimentação]]
[[ru:Продовольственная и сельскохозяйственная организация ООН]]
[[tr:Gıda ve Tarım Teşkilatı]]
[[zh:联合国粮食及农业组织]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FAO (disambiguation)</title>
<id>11108</id>
<revision>
<id>39375010</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T19:24:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ravn</username>
<id>47881</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[FAO]] to [[FAO (disambiguation)]]: almost all links point to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''FAO''' can mean:
* [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]
* [[Faro Airport (Portugal)]], IATA airport code
* For (The) Attention Of
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Félix Guattari</title>
<id>11109</id>
<revision>
<id>40454667</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T18:00:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bacchiad</username>
<id>53236</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Pierre-Félix Guattari''' ([[1930]] - [[1992]]) was a [[France|French]] pioneer of institutional psychotherapy, as well as the founder of both ''[[Schizoanalysis]]'' and the science of [[Ecosophy]].
==Biography==
=== Clinic of La Borde ===
Not very well known to the general public, Pierre Félix Guattari was in the [[1960s]] to become a central figure defining the events of [[May 1968]] and its aftermath. Born on [[March 30]], [[1930]] in Villeneuve-les-Sablons, Guattari first made his way into the history of Psychiatry, Philosophy, and French Militancy with the meeting of [[Fernand Oury]], a craftsman engaged in the future movement of institutional Pedagogy. Encouraged by the brother of Fernand, [[Jean Oury]], psychiatrist, the young Guattari became impassioned from 1950 towards the practice of psychiatry. Due to his frustrations with the theories and methods of French psychoanalyst [[Jacques Lacan]] -- in relation to whom he was both student and patient (analysand) in the 1950s -- Guattari was further convinced that he needed to continue exploring as vast an array of domains as possible ([[philosophy]], [[ethnology]], [[linguistics]], [[architecture]], etc.,) in order to better define the orientation, delimitation and psychiatric efficacity of the practice. Psychoanalysis was too authoritarian in its insistence that the analyst was somehow closer to the Truth than the patient. Beyond this, as Guattari would later proclaim, psychoanalysis is "the best capitalist drug" because in it desire is confined to a couch: desire, in Lacanian psychoanalysis, is an energy that is contained rather than one that, if freed, could militantly engage itself in something different. He continued this research, collaborating in Jean Oury's private clinic of [[La Borde]] at Court-Cheverny, one of the main centers of institutional psychotherapy at the time. La Borde was a venue for conversation amongst innumerable students of philosophy, psychology, ethnology, and social work. La Borde was Félix Guattari's principal anchoring -- a refusal to be anchored! -- until his death in [[1992]].
=== 1960s to 1970s ===
From 1955 to 1965, Félix Guattari animated the [[trotskyist]] group ''Voie Communiste'' ("Communist Way"). He would then support [[anticolonialist]] struggles as well as the Italian ''[[Autonomists]]''. Guattari also took part in the movement of the psychological G.T., which gathered many psychiatrists at the beginning of the sixties and created |
[iodine]]. Another measure is to cover the nose, mouth and eyes with a piece of cloth and sunglasses to protect against [[alpha particle]]s, which are only an internal hazard.
=== Response ===
Response consists first of warning civilians so they can enter [[blast shelter]]s and protect assets.
Staffing a response is always problematic in a civil defense emergency. After an attack, conventional full-time emergency services are dramatically overloaded, with conventional fire fighting response times often exceeding several days. Some capability is maintained by local and state agencies, and an emergency reserve is provided by specialized [[military]] units, especially [[civil affairs]], [[Military Police]], [[Judge Advocate]]s and [[combat engineer]]s.
However, the traditional response to massed attack on civilian population centers is to maintain a mass-trained force of volunteer emergency workers. Studies in [[World War II]] showed that lightly trained (40 hours or less) civilians in organized teams can perform up to 95% of emergency activities when trained, liaised and supported by local government. In this plan, the populace rescues itself from most situations, and provides information to a central office to prioritize professional emergency services.
In the 1990s, this concept was revived by the [[Los Angeles Fire Department]] to cope with civil emergencies such as [[earthquake]]s. The program was widely adopted, providing standard terms for organization. In the U.S., this is now official federal policy, and it is implemented by [[community emergency response team]]s, under the Department of Homeland Security, which certifies training programs by local governments, and registers "certified disaster service workers" who complete such training.
=== Recovery ===
Recovery consists of rebuilding damaged infrastructure, buildings and production. The recovery phase is the longest and ultimately most expensive phase. Once the immediate "crisis" has passed, cooperation fades away and recovery efforts are often politicized or seen as economic opportunities.
Preparation for recovery can be very helpful. If mitigating resources are dispersed before the attack, cascades of social failures can be prevented. One hedge against bridge damage in riverine cities is to subsidize a "tourist ferry" that performs scenic cruises on the river. When a bridge is down, the ferry takes up the load.
== Implementation ==
Some advocates believe that government should change building codes to require [[autonomous building]]s in order to reduce civil societies' dependence on complex, fragile networks of social services.
An example of a crucial need after a general nuclear attack would be transport fuel to transport every other item for recovery. However, [[oil refinery|oil refineries]] are large, immobile, and probable targets. One proposal is to preposition truck-mounted fuel refineries near oil fields and bulk storage depots. Other critical infrastructure needs would include road and bridge repair, [[L_System|communications]], electric power, food production and potable water.
== History ==
In the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]], as well as the [[Soviet Bloc]], during the [[1950s]] and [[1960s|60s]], many civil defence practices took place to prepare for the aftermath of a [[nuclear war]], which seemed quite likely at that time. However, there was never strong civil defense policy because it fundamentally violates the [[Mutually Assured Destruction]] doctrine by making provisions for survivors. In the M.A.D. doctrine, there are not supposed to be any survivors for a civil defense system to assist (thus the acronym). However M.A.D. was not official government policy, and successive governments in the west sought to implement civil defence measures in the face of popular apathy.
During the [[Cold War]], civil defense was seen largely as defending against and
recovering from an attack involving [[nuclear weapons]]. After the end of the [[Cold War]], the focus moved from defense against nuclear war to defense against a terrorist attack possibly involving [[chemical weapon|chemical]] or [[biological weapon]]s. After the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the concept of civil defense has been revisited under the umbrella term of [[homeland security]]. The old US Civil Defence logo was used in the [[FEMA]] logo until recently and is hinted at in the United States [[Civil Air Patrol]] logo.
==Note==
{{fnb|1}} ''civil defence'' is the Commonwealth spelling, ''civil defense'' is the spelling used in the United States.
== See also ==
{{commonscat|Civil Defense}}
* [[Transarmament]]
* [[Nuclear war]]
* [[Nuclear weapon]]
* [[Blast shelter]]
* [[Fallout shelter]]
* [[Civil defense geiger counters]]
* [[Survivalism]]
* [[Duck and cover]]
* [[Emergency preparedness]]
* [[Weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[Civil protection]]
==External links==
[[Image:EMANZ.gif]] [http://www.emanz.ac.nz Emergency Management Academy of New Zealand] provides Civil Defence training in NZ
*[http://www.oism.org/nwss/ ''Nuclear War Survival Skills''] &ndash; A book from the late-1970s on civil defense in relation to nuclear weapons.
*[http://www.radmeters4u.com Civil Defense Radiation Detection Survey Meters, Geiger Counters and Dosimeters FAQ] &ndash; ''Note:'' This site sells civil defense-related equipment and the FAQ should probably be taken with a grain of salt.
*[http://www.civildefensemuseum.com Cold War Era Civil Defense Museum] &ndash; Features much historical information about Civil Defense history, its equipment and methods, and many historical photographs and posters.
*[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/jimbonet/cd_history.html "Civil Defence"] &ndash; A site with details of the UK's Civil Defence preparations, including those implemented during the Cold War such as the ''Burlington'' Central Government War HQ., at Corsham, Wiltshire.
*[http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=issues/Civil+Defense Annotated bibliography for civil defense from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues]
[[Category:Disaster preparation]]
[[de:Zivilschutz]]
[[es:Protección Civil]]
[[fr:Sécurité civile]]
[[pt:Defesa civil]]
[[ru:Гражданская оборона]]
[[sv:Civilförsvar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chymotrypsin</title>
<id>7060</id>
<revision>
<id>30794066</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-10T04:55:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.106.203.138</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Activation of chymotrypsin */ linked polypeptide to peptide</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chymotrypsin-1AB9.png|thumb|Chymotrypsin]]
'''Chymotrypsin''' (bovine &gamma; chymotrypsin: {{PDB|1AB9}}, {{EC number|3.4.21.1}}) is a digestive enzyme that can perform [[proteolysis]].
==Activation of chymotrypsin==
Chymotrypsin is synthesized by [[protein biosynthesis]] as a [[precursor]] called [[chymotrypsinogen]] that is enzymatically inactive. On cleavage by [[trypsin]] into two parts that are still connected via an S-S bond, cleaved chymotrypsinogen molecules can activate each other by removing two small peptides in a ''trans''-proteolysis. The resulting molecule is active chymotrypsin, a three [[peptide|polypeptide]] molecule interconnected via disulfide bonds.
==Action and Kinetics of chymotrypsin==
In vivo, chymotrypsin is a proteolytic enzyme acting in the digestive systems of mammals and other organisms. It facilitates the cleavage of peptide bonds by a hydrolysis reaction, a process which albeit thermodynamically favourable, occurs extremely slowly in the absence of a catalyst. The main substrates of chymotrypsin include tryptophan, tyrosine, phenylalanine, and methionine, which are cleaved at the carboxyl terminal. Like many proteases, chymotrypsin will also hydrolyse ester bonds in vitro, a virtue that enabled the use of substrate analogs such as N-acetyl-L-phenylalanine p-nitrophenyl ester for enzyme assays.
Chymotrypsin cleaves peptide bonds by attacking the unreactive carbonyl group with a powerful nucleophile, the serine 195 residue located in the active site of the enzyme, which briefly becomes covalently bonded to the substrate, forming an enzyme-substrate intermediate.
These findings rely on inhibition assays and the study of the kinetics of cleavage of the aforementioned substrate, exploiting the fact that the enzyme-substrate intermediate p-nitrophenolate has a yellow colour, enabling us to measure its concentration by measuring light absorbance at A400.
It was found that the reaction of chymotrypsin with its substrate takes place in two stages, an initial “burst” phase at the beginning of the reaction and a steady-state phase following Michaelis-Menten kinetics. The mode of action of chymotrypsin explains this as hydrolysis takes place in two steps. First acylation of the substrate to form an acyl-enzyme intermediate and then deacylation in order to return the enyzme to its original state.
==Reference==
*Stryer et. al. (2002). Biochemistry (5th ed.). New York: Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-4684-0.
[[Category:EC 3.4.21]]
[[de:Chymotrypsin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Community emergency response team</title>
<id>7061</id>
<revision>
<id>41065337</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T21:00:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.171.255.181</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* CERT TEAMS */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In the [[United States]] a '''community emergency response team''' ('''CERT''') is a group of [[volunteer]] [[emergency worker]]s. They are usually neighbors. Under good doctrine, they receive professional mass training and become official auxiliaries to local government [[emergency service]]s in times of [[state of emergency|emergency]].
The theory behind CERT is based on a simple observation: in major emergencies, professional e |
e series, while Bill Dinneen started his fourth game of the series. As he did in Game 2, Dinneen threw a complete game shutout while striking out seven, leading the Boston Americans to victory, while Phillippe, who also threw a respectable game, just couldn't pitch at Dinneen's level due to wearing out his arm in the series (as a result of playing so many games in such a short time span) and gave up three runs in the defeat.
And so, the first baseball World Series had ended, with the fledgling American League's Boston Americans winning over the heavily favored Pittsburgh Pirates of the National League. Honus Wagner, the National League batting champion, ended up going only 6 for 27 at the plate (.222 batting average) in the series.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=425 style="margin-left:3em;"
|- style="text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;"
!align=left width=125|Team
!width=25|1
!width=25|2
!width=25|3
!width=25|4
!width=25|5
!width=25|6
!width=25|7
!width=25|8
!width=25|9
!width=25|R
!width=25|H
!width=25|E
|- style="text-align:center;"
|align=left|Pittsburgh
|0||0||0
|0||0||0
|0||0||0
|'''0'''||'''4'''||'''3'''
|- style="text-align:center;"
|align=left|'''Boston'''
|0||0||0
|2||0||1
|0||0||X
|'''3'''||'''8'''||'''0'''
|- style="text-align:left;"
|colspan=14|<small>'''W:''' [[Bill Dinneen]] (3-1)&nbsp;&nbsp;'''L:''' [[Deacon Phillippe]] (3-2)</small>
|}
[[Image:1903_world_series_crowd.jpg|thumb|450px|Crowd outside the 1903 World Series]]
<br>
==External links==
*The 1903 World Series website by David Southwick contains box scores and articles by contemporary Boston sportswriter [[Tim Murnane]]. [http://www.geocities.com/redsoxfan_02269/]
*[http://baseball-almanac.com/ws/yr1903ws.shtml Baseball Almanac's 1903 World Series page]
*[http://www.retrosheet.org/boxesetc/YPS_1903.htm 1903 World Series box scores, line scores, and play-by-play summaries]
{{WorldSeries}}
[[Category:1903 in baseball|World Series]]
[[Category:Boston Red Sox]]
[[Category:Pittsburgh Pirates]]
[[Category:World Series]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bluetongue disease</title>
<id>3866</id>
<revision>
<id>27259375</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-03T15:24:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Esprit15d</username>
<id>379272</id>
</contributor>
<comment>disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bluetongue disease''' (also called catarrhal fever) is a non-contagious, arthropod-borne viral disease of [[ruminant]]s, mainly [[sheep]] and less frequently of [[cattle]], [[goat]]s, [[Bovinae|buffalo]]es, [[deer]], [[dromedary|dromedaries]] and [[antelope]]s. There are no reports of [[human]] [[transmission (medicine)|transmission]]. The [[pathogen]]ic [[virus (biology)|virus]] is a member of the [[Reoviridae]]. It is transmitted by a [[midge]], [[Culicoides imicola]] and other culicoid [[species]].
Bluetongue has been observed in [[Australia]], the [[United States|USA]], [[Africa]], the [[Middle East]], [[Asia]] and [[Europe]]. Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected [[Mediterranean]] countries, subsiding when temperatures drop. It has been spreading northward since [[1999]].
Major [[sign (medicine)|sign]]s are high [[fever]], excessive [[saliva]]tion, [[edema|swelling]] of the face and tongue and [[cyanosis]] of the tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign is confined to a minority of the animals. Recovery is very slow.
The [[incubation period]] is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within one month. The [[mortality rate]] is normally low, but is high in [[susceptible]] [[breeds]] of sheep. In cattle and wild ruminants [[infection]] is usually [[asymptomatic]] despite high virus levels in blood.
There is no efficient treatment. Prevention is effected via [[quarantine]], [[inoculation]] with live modified virus [[vaccine]] and control of the midge [[Vector (biology)|vector]], including inspection of aircraft.[http://www.ipfsaph.org/servlet/CDSServlet?status=ND1jdGh0dHB3d3dmYW9vcmdhb3NpcGZzYXBoaW5mb3JtYXRpb25zb3VyY2VldS5FVVJMRVgzMjAwMEwwMDc1JjY9ZW4mMzM9Zm9ybWFsX3RleHQmMzc9aW5mbw~~]
Although the tongues of human patients with some types of [[heart disease]] may be blue, this sign is not related to bluetongue disease.
== External links ==
* http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/subjects/en/health/diseases-cards/bluetongue.html
* http://www.oie.int/eng/maladies/fiches/a_A090.htm
[[de:Blauzungenkrankheit]]
[[it:Lingua_blu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bruce Parens</title>
<id>3868</id>
<revision>
<id>15902180</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bruce Perens]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bruce Perens</title>
<id>3869</id>
<revision>
<id>41982798</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:02:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alphax</username>
<id>108048</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>catting: living people</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bruce Perens''' is a prominent figure in the [[open source movement]] and to some extent in the [[free software movement]]. He is a former [[Debian|Debian GNU/Linux]] Project Leader, the primary author of the [[Open Source Definition]], a founder of [[Software in the Public Interest]], founder and first project leader of the [[Linux Standard Base]] project, founder of the [[UserLinux]] project, and co-founder of the [[Open Source Initiative]] (OSI). Perens also has a book series with Prentice Hall PTR called the [[Bruce Perens' Open Source Series]]. He is an avid [[amateur radio]] enthusiast and maintains technocrat.net, which he styles 'a more mature forum than [[Slashdot]]'.
Perens left OSI a year after co-founding it, with reasons explained in an email titled "[http://lists.debian.org/debian-devel/1999/debian-devel-199902/msg01641.html It's Time to Talk About Free Software Again]".
Since [[June 2005]] he is an employee of [[SourceLabs]].
==External links==
*[http://perens.com/ Bruce Perens' homepage]
*[http://lwn.net/1998/0528/a/lsb.html PROJECT PROPOSAL AND CALL FOR PARTICIPATION: THE LINUX STANDARD BASE]
*[http://www.perens.com/Articles/ Perens' Articles]
*[http://lists.debian.org/debian-devel/1999/02/msg01641.html "It's Time to Talk About Free Software Again"]
*[http://www.perens.com/Articles/StandTogether.html Free Software Leaders Stand Together]
*[http://www.perens.com/Articles/JapanJune2003.txt A speech given in Japan, June 2003]
*[http://www.technocrat.net technocrat.net]
{{compu-bio-stub}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|before=[[Ian Murdock]]|after=[[Ian Jackson]]|years=April&nbsp;1996 &ndash; December&nbsp;1997|title=[[Debian Project Leader]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:Free software|Perens, Bruce]]
[[Category:Programmers|Perens, Bruce]]
[[Category:Free Software developers|Perens, Bruce]]
[[Category:Amateur radio people|Perens, Bruce]]
[[Category:Living people|Perens, Bruce]]
[[ca:Bruce Perens]]
[[de:Bruce Perens]]
[[fr:Bruce Perens]]
[[it:Bruce Perens]]
[[ja:ブルース・ペレンズ]]
[[pl:Bruce Perens]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bundle theory</title>
<id>3870</id>
<revision>
<id>41405480</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T02:44:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>132.241.41.137</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Metaphysics]]
'''Bundle theory''' is the [[ontology|ontological]] theory about [[objecthood]] in which an [[object (philosophy)|object]] consists only of a collection (''bundle'') of [[property|properties]], [[relation]]s, or [[Trope#Trope theory in metaphysics|tropes]].
According to bundle theory, an object consists of its properties and nothing more, thus neither can there be an object without properties nor can one even ''conceive'' of such an object.
For example, bundle theory claims that thinking of an apple compels one also to think of its color, its shape, the fact that it is a kind of fruit, its cells, its taste, or at least one other of its properties. Thus, the theory asserts that the apple is no more than the collection of its properties. In particular, there is no ''[[substance theory|substance]]'' in which the properties ''[[inherence relation|inhere]]''.
==Arguments for the bundle theory==
The difficulty in conceiving of or describing an object without also conceiving of or describing its properties is a common justification for bundle theory, especially among current philosophers in the Anglo-American tradition.
The inability to comprehend any aspect of the thing other than its properties implies, this argument maintains, that one cannot conceive of a ''bare particular'' (a ''substance'' without properties), an implication that directly opposes [[substance theory]]. The conceptual difficulty of ''bare particulars'' was illustrated by [[John Locke]] when he described a ''substance'' by itself, apart from its properties, as "something, I know not what."
Whether a ''[[relation]]'' of an object is one of its properties may complicate such an argument. However, the argument concludes that the conceptual challenge of ''bare particulars'' leaves a bundle of properties and nothing more as the only possible conception of an object, thus justifying bundle theory.
==Objections to the bundle theory==
Objections to bundle theory concern the nature of the ''bundle of properties'', the properties' ''[[wikt:compresence|compresence]]'' relation (the ''togetherness'' relation between those constituent properties), and the impact of language on understanding reality.
===''Compresence'' objection===
Bundle |
es Stuart, 1st Baron Stuart de Rothesay|Sir Charles Stuart]]|years=1814&ndash;1815}}
{{succession box | before=[[Henry Phipps, 1st Earl of Mulgrave|The Earl of Mulgrave]] | title=[[Master-General of the Ordnance]] | years=1819&ndash;1827 | after=[[Henry William Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey|The Marquess of Anglesey]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[Prince Frederick, Duke of York|HRH The Duke of York]] | title=[[Commander-in-Chief of the Forces]] | years=1827&ndash;1828 | after=[[Rowland Hill, 1st Viscount Hill|The Lord Hill]]}}
{{succession box two to two| before=[[Frederick John Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich|The Viscount Goderich]] | title1=[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] | years1=1828&ndash;1830 | title2=[[Leader of the House of Lords]] | years2=1828&ndash;1830 | after=[[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey|The Earl Grey]]}}
{{succession box one to two | before=None recognized | title1=[[Leaders of the Conservative Party|Leader of the British Conservative Party]] | after1=[[Robert Peel|Sir Robert Peel, Bt]] | years1=1828&ndash;1834 | title2=[[Leaders of the Conservative Party|Conservative Leader in the Lords]] | after2=[[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|The Lord Stanley]] | years2=1828&ndash;1846}}
{{succession box | before=[[Robert Banks Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool|The Earl of Liverpool]] | title=[[Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports]] | years=1829&ndash;1852 | after=[[James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|The Marquess of Dalhousie]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[John William Ponsonby, 4th Earl of Bessborough|Viscount Duncannon]] | title=[[Secretary of State for the Home Department|Home Secretary]] | years=(''pro tempore'')<br>1834 | after=[[Henry Goulburn]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[Thomas Spring Rice, 1st Baron Monteagle|Thomas Spring Rice]] | title=[[Secretary of State for War and the Colonies]] | years=(''pro tempore'')<br>1834 | after=[[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|The Earl of Aberdeen]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne|The Viscount Melbourne]] | title=[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] | years=(''pro tempore'')<br>1834 | after=[[Robert Peel|Sir Robert Peel]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne|The Viscount Melbourne]] | title=[[Leader of the House of Lords]] | years=1834&ndash;1835 | after=[[William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne|The Viscount Melbourne]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|The Viscount Palmerston]] | title=[[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] | years=1834&ndash;1835 | after=[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|The Viscount Palmerston]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne|The Viscount Melbourne]] | title=[[Leader of the House of Lords]] | years=1841&ndash;1846 | after=[[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne|The Marquess of Lansdowne]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[Rowland Hill, 1st Viscount Hill|The Lord Hill]] | title=[[Commander-in-Chief of the Forces]] | years=1842&ndash;1852 | after=[[Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge|The Viscount Hardinge]]}}
{{end box}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Duke of Wellington]] | before=New Creation | after=[[Arthur Richard Wellesley, 2nd Duke of Wellington|Arthur Wellesley]] | years=1814&ndash;1852}}
{{end box}}
{{UKPrimeMinisters}}
{{ConservativePartyLeader}}
[[Category:1769 births|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:1852 deaths|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:British Field Marshals|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:British MPs|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:British Secretaries of State|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Dukes in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Irish people|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Knights of St Patrick|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Leaders of the British Conservative Party|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Lord High Constables|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Napoleonic wars British commanders|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Russian Field Marshals|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:People associated with King's College London|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Old Etonians|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[da:Arthur Wellesley]]
[[de:Arthur Wellesley, 1. Herzog von Wellington]]
[[es:Arthur Wellesley]]
[[eo:Duko de Wellington]]
[[fr:Arthur Wellesley de Wellington]]
[[it:Arthur Wellesley, primo Duca di Wellington]]
[[he:ארתור ולסלי ולינגטון]]
[[nl:Arthur Wellesley]]
[[ja:ウェリントン公アーサー・ウェルズリー]]
[[pl:Arthur Wellesley]]
[[pt:Arthur Wellesley]]
[[ru:Веллингтон, Артур Уэлсли]]
[[sv:Arthur Wellesley Wellington]]
[[zh:阿瑟·韦尔斯利]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Downhill skiing</title>
<id>8475</id>
<revision>
<id>20728132</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-10T22:27:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sarge Baldy</username>
<id>23320</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Downhill]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Disk operating system</title>
<id>8476</id>
<revision>
<id>40550937</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T10:27:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ae-a</username>
<id>163872</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removed {{mergedisputed|DOS}} - nobody has come forward to oppose the removal of the merge notice.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses6|DOS}}
'''Disk Operating System''' (specifically) and '''disk operating system''' (generically), most often abbreviated as '''DOS''' (not to be confused with the [[DOS]] family of disk operating systems for the [[IBM PC compatible]] platform), refer to [[operating system]] software used in most computers that provides the abstraction and management of [[secondary storage]] devices and the information on them (e.g., [[file system]]s for organizing [[file (computing)|file]]s of all sorts). Such software is referred to as a ''disk'' operating system when the storage devices it manages are made of rotating platters (such as [[hard disk]]s or [[floppy disk]]s).
In the early days of [[microcomputer|microcomputing]], [[computer memory|memory]] space was often limited, so the disk operating system was an extension of the operating system. This component was only loaded if it was needed. Otherwise, disk-access would be limited to low-level operations such as reading and writing disks at the [[sector]]-level.
In some cases, the ''disk operating system'' component (or even the operating system) was known as ''DOS''.
Sometimes, a ''disk operating system'' can refer to the entire operating system if it is loaded off a disk and supports the abstraction and management of disk devices. An example is [[DOS/360]]. On the [[PC compatible]] platform, an entire family of operating systems was called ''DOS''.
==History==
In the early days of computers, there were no disk drives; [[delay line]]s, [[punched card]]s, [[paper tape]], [[magnetic tape]], [[magnetic drum]]s, were used instead. And in the early days of microcomputers, paper tape or [[audio cassette tape]] (see [[Kansas City standard]]) or nothing were used instead. In the latter case, program and data entry was done at [[front panel]] switches directly into memory or through a [[computer terminal]] / keyboard, sometimes controlled by a [[read-only memory|ROM]] [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] interpreter; when power was turned off after running the program, the information so entered vanished.
Both [[hard disk]]s and [[floppy disk]] drives require software to manage rapid access to block storage of sequential and other data. When microcomputers rarely had expensive disk drives of any kind, the necessity to have software to manage such devices (ie, the 'disk's) carried much status. To have one or the other was a mark of distinction and prestige, and so was having the Disk sort of an Operating System. As prices for both disk hardware and operating system software decreased, there were many such microcomputer systems.
Mature versions of the [[Commodore 64|Commodore]], [[SWTPC]], [[Atari 8-bit family|Atari]] and [[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[home computer]] systems all featured a disk operating system (actually called 'DOS' in the case of the Commodore 64 (''[[CBM DOS]]''), Atari 800 (''[[Atari DOS]]''), and Apple II machines (''[[Apple DOS]]'')), as did (at the other end of the hardware spectrum, and much earlier) [[International Business Machines|IBM]]'s [[System/360]], [[System/370|370]] and (later) [[System/390|390]] series of [[IBM mainframe|mainframe]]s (e.g., [[DOS/360]]: '''''D'''isk '''O'''perating '''S'''ystem / 360'' and [[VSE|DOS/VSE]]: '''''D'''isk '''O'''perating '''S'''ystem / '''V'''irtual '''S'''torage '''E'''xtended''). Most home com |
]] '''0''' '''1'''
'''0''' 0 1 '''0''' 0 0
'''1''' 1 0 '''1''' 0 1
::::This field has important uses in [[computer science]], especially in [[cryptography]] and [[coding theory]].
*The rational numbers can be extended to the fields of [[p-adic numbers|''p''-adic numbers]] for every prime number ''p''. These fields are very important in both [[number theory]] and [[mathematical analysis]].
*Let ''E'' and ''F'' be two fields with ''F'' a subfield of ''E''. Let ''x'' be an element of ''E'' not in ''F''. Then ''F''(''x'') is defined to be the smallest subfield of ''E'' containing ''F'' and ''x''. We call ''F''(''x'') a ''simple extension'' of ''F''. For instance, '''Q'''(''i'') is the number field of complex numbers '''C''' consisting of all numbers of the form ''a'' + ''bi'' where both ''a'' and ''b'' are rational numbers. In fact, it can be shown that every number field is a simple extension of '''Q'''.
*For a given field ''F'', the set ''F''(''X'') of [[rational function]]s in the variable ''X'' with coefficients in ''F'' is a field; this is defined as the set of quotients of [[polynomial|polynomials]] with coefficients in ''F''. This is the simplest example of a ''transcendental extension''.
*If ''F'' is a field, and ''p''(''X'') is an [[irreducible polynomial]] in the [[polynomial ring]] ''F''[''X''], then the quotient ''F''[''X'']/<''p''(''X'')> is a field with a subfield isomorphic to ''F''. For instance, '''R'''[''X'']/<''X''<sup>2</sup> + 1> is a field (in fact, it is isomorphic to the field of complex numbers). It can be shown that every simple algebraic extension of ''F'' is isomorphic to a field of this form.
*When ''F'' is a field, the set ''F''((''X'')) of [[Laurent series|formal Laurent series]] over ''F'' is a field.
*If ''V'' is an [[algebraic variety]] over ''F'', then the rational functions ''V'' &rarr; ''F'' form a field, the ''function field'' of ''V''.
*If ''S'' is a [[Riemann surface]], then the [[meromorphic function]]s ''S'' &rarr; '''C''' form a field.
*If ''I'' is an index set, ''U'' is an [[ultrafilter]] on ''I'', and ''F''<sub>''i''</sub> is a field for every ''i'' in ''I'', the [[ultraproduct]] of the ''F''<sub>''i''</sub> (using ''U'') is a field.
*[[Hyperreal numbers]] and [[superreal number]]s extend the real numbers with the addition of infinitesimal and infinite numbers.
There are also proper classes with field structure, which are sometimes called '''Fields''', with a capital F:
*The [[surreal number]]s form a Field containing the reals, and would be a field except for the fact that they are a proper class, not a set. The set of all surreal numbers with birthday smaller than some [[inaccessible cardinal]] form a field.
*The [[nimber]]s form a Field. The set of nimbers with birthday smaller than <math>2^{2^n}</math>, the nimbers with birthday smaller than any infinite [[cardinal number|cardinal]] are all examples of fields.
== Some first theorems ==
*The set of non-zero elements of a field ''F'' (typically denoted by ''F''<sup>&times;</sup>) is an [[abelian group]] under multiplication. Every finite subgroup of ''F''<sup>&times;</sup> is [[cyclic group|cyclic]].
*The [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] of any field is zero or a [[prime number]]. (The characteristic is defined as follows: the smallest positive integer ''n'' such that ''n''·1 = 0, or zero if no such ''n'' exists; here ''n''·1 stands for ''n'' summands 1 + 1 + 1 + ... + 1. An equivalent definition is the following: the characteristic of a field ''F'' is the unique non-negative generator of the kernel of the unique ring homomorphism '''Z''' &rarr; ''F'' which sends 1 |-> 1.)
*The number of elements of any [[finite field]] is a prime power.
*As a ring, a field has no [[Ideal (ring theory)|ideal]]s except {0} and itself.
*Assuming the [[axiom of choice]], for every field ''F'', there exists a unique field ''G'' (up to isomorphism) which contains ''F'', is [[algebraic extension|algebraic]] over ''F'', and is [[algebraically closed]]. ''G'' is called the [[algebraic closure]] of ''F''.
==See also==
{{Wikibookspar|Abstract algebra|Fields}}
* [[field theory (mathematics)|field theory]] for some history and other information.
* [[Glossary of field theory]] for more definitions in field theory.
* [[Differential field]], a field equipped with a [[derivation (abstract algebra)|derivation]].
* [[Integral domain]] and its [[Field of fractions]]
[[Category:Field theory]]
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<title>Film Festivals</title>
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<title>FrenchMaterialism</title>
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<title>Factorial</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is not about [[factorial experiment]]s.''
In [[mathematics]], the '''factorial''' of a [[natural number]] ''n'' is the product of all [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] [[integer]]s less than and equal to ''n''. This is written as ''n''! and pronounced "''n'' factorial". The notation ''n''! was introduced by [[Christian Kramp]] in [[1808]].
The [[sequence]] of factorials {{OEIS|id=A000142}} for ''n''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0, 1, 2,... starts:
:1, 1, 2, [[6 (number)|6]], [[24 (number)|24]], [[120 (number)|120]], [[720 (number)|720]], [[5040 (number)|5040]], 40320, 362880, 3628800, 39916800, 479001600, 6227020800, 87178291200, 1307674368000, 20922789888000, 355687428096000, 6402373705728000, 121645100408832000, 2432902008176640000, ...
This shows how quickly factorial numbers grow.
==Definition==
The factorial function is formally defined by
:<math>n!=\prod_{k=1}^n k\qquad\mbox{for all }n \ge 1. \!</math>
For example,
:<math>5! = 1\times 2 \times 3 \times 4 \times 5 = 120.</math>
The fact that
:<math>0! = 1</math>
is an instance of the fact that the [[empty product|product of no numbers at all]] is 1. This fact for factorials is useful, because
* the [[recursion|recursive]] relation (''n'' + 1)! = ''n''! &times; (''n'' + 1) works for ''n'' = 0;
* this definition makes many identities in [[combinatorics]] valid for zero sizes.
==Non-integer factorials==
[[Image:Gamma_plot.svg|thumb|right|325px|The Gamma function, as plotted here along the [[real axis]], extends the factorial to a smooth function defined for all non-integer values.]]
The factorial function can also be defined for non-integer values, but this requires more advanced tools from [[mathematical analysis]]. The function that "fills in" the values of the factorial between the integers is called the [[Gamma function]], denoted <math>\Gamma</math> and for ''z'' > &minus;1 defined by
:<math>\Gamma(z+1)=\int_{0}^{\infty} t^z e^{-t}\, \mathrm{d}t. \!</math>
The Gamma function is related to factorials in that it satisfies a similar recursive relationship:
:<math>n!=n(n-1)! \,</math>
:<math>\Gamma(n+1)=n\Gamma(n) \,</math>
Together with <math>\Gamma(1)=1</math> this yields the equation for any nonnegative integer ''n'':
:<math>\Gamma(n+1)=n!\,\!</math>
Based on the Gamma function's value for 1/2, the specific example of [[half-integer]] factorials is resolved to
:<math>(n+1/2)!=\sqrt{\pi}\times \prod_{k=0}^n {2k + 1 \over 2}.</math>
For example
:<math>3.5! = \sqrt{\pi} \cdot {1\over 2}\cdot{3\over2}\cdot{5\over2}\cdot{7\over2} \approx 11.63.</math>
The Gamma function is in fact defined for all [[complex number|complex numbers]] ''z'' except for the nonpositive integers (''z''&nbsp;=&nbsp;0,&nbsp;&minus;1,&nbsp;&minus;2,&nbsp;&minus;3,&nbsp;...) where it goes to infinity. It is often thought of as a generalization of the factorial function to the complex domain, which is justified for the following reasons:
* Shared meaning. The canonical definition of the factorial function is the mentioned recursive relationship, shared by both.
* Context. The Gamma function is generally used in a context similar to that of the factorials (but, of course, where a more general domain is of interest).
* Uniqueness ([[Bohr–Mollerup theorem]]). The Gamma function is the only function which satisfies the mentioned recursive relationship for the domain of complex numbers and is [[holomorphic]] and whose restriction to the positive real axis is [[lo |
[[Roman Catholic]]ism, which most of the population professes. Some Haitians have converted to [[Protestant]]ism through the work of missionaries active throughout the country. Much of the population also practices [[voodoo]] traditions. Haitians tend to see no conflict in these African-rooted beliefs co-existing with [[Christianity|Christian]] faiths.
Although [[public education]] is free, [[Private school|private]] and [[Parochial school|parochial]] schools provide around 75% of educational programs offered and less than 65% of those eligible for [[primary education]] are actually enrolled. At the [[Secondary education|secondary]] level, the figure drops to 15%. Only 63% of those enrolled will complete primary school. On average it takes 16 years to produce a single [[alumnus/a|graduate]] of the 6-year cycle. Though Haitians place a high value on education, few can afford to send their children to secondary school. [[Remittance]]s sent by Haitians living abroad are important in paying educational costs.
Large-scale [[emigration]], principally to the [[United States]] - but also to [[Canada]], the [[Dominican Republic]], the [[Bahamas]], and other [[Caribbean]] neighbors - has created what Haitians refer to as the Tenth Department or the [[Diaspora]]. About one of every six Haitians live abroad.
In a July 2001 estimate by the Haiti's Institute of Statistics the [[population]] was 8,131,513. Age Structure: 0-14 years age: 3,229,469; 15-64 years: 4,590,596; 65 years and above: 311,448.
----
'''Population:''' 7,527,817 (July 2003 est.)<br>
''Note:'' Estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess [[mortality]] due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected.
'''Age structure:''' (2003 est.)<br>
''0-14 years:'' 42.7% (male 1,637,853; female 1,575,893)<br>
''15-64 years:'' 53.6% (male 1,962,975; female 2,073,353)<br>
''65 years and over:'' 3.7% (male 131,784; female 145,959)
'''Median age:''' (2002)<br>
''Total:'' 17.9 years<br>
''Male:'' 17.4 years<br>
''Female:'' 18.5 years
'''Population growth rate:''' 1.67% (2003 est.)
'''Birth rate:''' 34.06 births/1,000 population (2003 est.)
'''Death rate:''' 13.36 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.)
'''Net migration rate:''' -4.03 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003 est.)
'''Sex ratio:''' (2003 est.)<br>
''At birth:'' 1.05 male(s)/female<br>
''Under 15 years:'' 1.04 male(s)/female<br>
''15-64 years:'' 0.95 male(s)/female<br>
''65 years and over:'' 0.9 male(s)/female<br>
''Total population:'' 0.98 male(s)/female
'''Infant mortality rate:''' (2003 est.)<br>
''Total:'' 76.01 deaths/1,000 live births<br>
''Female:'' 70.15 deaths/1,000 live births<br>
''Male:'' 81.59 deaths/1,000 live births
'''Life expectancy at birth:''' (2003 est.)<br>
''Total population:'' 51.61 years<br>
''Male:'' 50.36 years<br>
''Female:'' 52.92 years
'''Total [[fertility]] rate:''' 4.86 children born/woman (2003 est.)
'''[[HIV]]/[[AIDS]] - adult prevalence rate:''' 6.1% (2001 est.)
'''HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:''' 250,000 (2001 est.)
'''HIV/AIDS - deaths:''' 30,000 (2001 est.)
'''Nationality:'''<br>
''Noun:'' Haitian(s)<br>
''Adjective:'' Haitian<br>
''Ethnic groups:'' Black 95%, Mulatto and White 5%
'''Religions:''' Roman Catholic 80%, Protestant 16% ([[Baptist]] 10%, [[Pentecostal]] 4%, [[Adventist]] 1%, other 1%), none 1%, other 3% (1982)<br>
''Note:'' roughly half of the population also practices Voodoo
'''Languages:''' French (official), Creole (official)
'''Literacy:''' (2003 est.)<br>
''Definition:'' Age 15 and over that can read and write<br>
''Total population:'' 52.9%<br>
''Male:'' 54.8%<br>
''Female:'' 51.2%
==See also==
*[[Haiti]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Haiti]]
[[Category:Haitian society]]
[[es:Demografía de Haití]]
[[pt:Demografia do Haiti]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Politics of Haiti</title>
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<comment>not "alleged forced resignation" because Aristide says he never resigned; updated election info</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Haiti}}
[[Haiti]] is officially a [[President|presidential]] [[republic]], although it is often claimed to be [[authoritarian]] in practice. [[Suffrage]] is [[Universal suffrage|universal]], for adults over 18.
The [[constitution]] was modeled after those of the [[United States]] and of [[France]]. It was approved in March [[1987]], but it was completely suspended from June [[1988]] to March [[1989]] and was only fully reinstated in October [[1994]]. On [[February 29]], [[2004]], a [[2004 Haiti rebellion|rebellion culminated]] in the alleged coup against the popularly elected president, [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]], with the assistance of the French and United States governments. The first elections since the overthrow were held on [[Haitian elections, 2006|February 8, 2006]] to elect a new [[President]]. Rene Preval won that election with over 50 percent of the vote. Elections for legislative seats are scheduled for May.
==Government==
The constitution distributes power between an [[executive branch|executive]], a [[Legislature|legislative]] and a [[judicial branch]].
===Executive branch===
The '''president''' is the [[head of state]] and elected by [[popular vote]] every 5 years. He is assisted by his cabinet which needs to be approved by the National Assembly. [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] had been in office since [[February 7]], [[2001]], having received 92% of votes in the elections of [[2000]]. On [[February 29]], [[2004]], Preisdent Aristide supposedly "voluntarily relinquished" the presidency. However, Aristide claims he was pressured to accept the demands of the rebels by the [[United States]] and [[France]].
The current de-facto interim president is [[Boniface Alexandre]], who, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, was in line to succeed the President in case of death or resignation, according to the 1987 [[Constitution of Haiti]].
''(see also: [[2004 Haiti Rebellion]], [[List of Presidents of Haiti]])''
The '''prime minister''', the [[head of government]], is appointed by the president and ratified by the National Assembly. [[Yvon Neptune]] was appointed Prime Minister on [[March 4]], [[2002]], but following the overthrow of the government in February 2004, he was replaced by an interim Prime Minister, [[Gérard Latortue]]. The constitutional Prime Minister, [[Yvon Neptune]] languished in jail for over a year, accused of a 'massacre' in St. Marc on sketchy evidence, provoking UN officials to ask for his release or at least due process to be followed. So, put in jail in June 2004, Yvon Neptune was formally charged on [[September 20]] [[2005]].
''See [[2005 Haitian Elections]], [[2000 Haitian Elections]], [[1995 Haitian Elections]], and [[1990 Haitian Elections]]''
===Legislative branch===
The bicameral '''National Assembly''' (Assemblée Nationale) consists of the Chamber of Deputies (Chambre des Députés) and the Senate (Sénat).
The '''Chamber of Deputies''' has eighty three members which are elected for four-year terms. The last elections took place in May [[2000]]. Candidates from Aristide's Lavalas Family Party held seventy three of these eighty three seats. Following the overthrow of the government in February [[2004]], the Chamber of Deputies remained empty.
The '''Senate''' consists of twenty seven seats, one third elected every two years. In the popular elections of 2000, twenty six seats were won by Aristide's Lavalas Family Party. The Senate is no longer in session following the overthrow of the government in February 2004. The remaining Senators are not recognised by the interim government. New elections are due in late [[2005]].
===Judicial branch===
The legal system is based on the [[Rome|Roman]] civil law system. Haiti accepts compulsory [[jurisdiction]] of the [[International Court of Justice]].
There is a [[Supreme Court]] (Cour de Cassation), assisted by local and civil courts at a communal level.
===Country name===
*conventional long form: ''Republic of Haiti''
*conventional short form: ''Haiti''
*local long form: ''République d'Haïti'' ([[French language|French]]), ''Repiblik d Ayti'' ([[Haitian Creole|Creole]])
*local short form: ''Haïti'' (French), ''Ayiti'' (Creole)
===Administrative divisions===
Nine '''départments''': [[Artibonite]], Centre, Grand'Anse, Nord, Nord-Est, Nord-Ouest, Ouest, Sud, Sud-Est
===Political parties and elections===
{{elect|List of political parties in Haiti|Elections in Haiti}}
{{Haitian presidential election, 2006}}
====Political parties and leaders====
*Alliance for the Liberation and Advancement of Haiti or ALAH [Reynold GEORGES]
*Assembly of Progressive National Democrats or RDNP [Leslie MANIGAT]
*Convergence (opposition coalition composed of ESPACE, OPL, and MOCHRENA) [Gerard PIERRE-CHARLES, Evans PAUL, Luc MESADIEU, Victor BENOIT]
*Democratic Consultation Group coalition or ESPACE [Evans PAUL, Victor BENOIT] composed of the following parties: National Congress of Democratic Movements or KONAKOM, National Progressive Revolutionary Party or PANPRA, Generation 2004, and Haiti Can
*Haitian Christian Democratic Party or PDCH [Marie-France CLAUDE]
*Haitian Democratic Party or PADEM [Clark PARENT]
*Lavalas Family or FL [Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDE]
*Mobilization for National Development or MDN [Hubert DE RONCERAY]
*Movement for National Reconstruction or MRN [Rene THEODORE]
*Movement for the Installation of Democracy in Haiti or |
lds, G.F., 1998. Mitochondrial DNA phylogeography of the North American brown bear and implications for conservation. ''Conservation Biology'' 12: 408-417.
#[http://www.udap.com/markfullstory.htm Story of a Grizzly Attack], which inspired the victim to create a better bear-repellent pepper spray. Commercial site with very graphic photographs of injury from bear attack.
#[http://www.bears.org/pipermail/bearfolks/2004-May/001298.html Pilkington, R. Communication to Bearfolks internet mailing list, 2004.]
[[Category:Bears]]
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<title>Gaia philosophy</title>
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<comment>Small note about Gaia in fiction</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
{{unsourced}}
'''Gaia philosophy''' (named after [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], the Greek goddess of the [[Earth]]) is a broadly inclusive term for related concepts that living organisms on a [[planet]] will affect the nature of their environment&nbsp;&ndash; to make it more suitable for [[life]]. This set of [[Gaia theory (science)|theories]] holds that all organisms on a planet regulate the [[biosphere]] to the benefit of the whole. The Gaia concept draws a connection between the survivability of a species, (hence its [[evolutionary]] course) and their usefulness to the survival of other species.
While there were a number of precursors to [[Gaia theory (science)|Gaia theory]], the first scientific form of this idea was proposed as the [[Gaia Hypothesis]] by [[James Lovelock]], a UK chemist, in [[1970]]. The Gaia hypothesis deals with the concept of [[homeostasis]], and claim the resident life forms of a host planet coupled with their environment have acted and act as a single, self-regulating system. The system includes the near-surface rocks, the soil, and the atmosphere. While controversial at first, various forms of this idea became accepted to some degree by many within the scientific community.
These theories are also very significant in [[green politics]].
== Predecessors to the Gaia theory ==
There are some mystical, scientific and religious predecessors to the theory, which had a Gaia-like conceptual basis. Many religious mythologies had a view of Earth as being a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts (e.g. some Native American religions).
[[Lewis Thomas]] held that Earth should be viewed as a single cell; he derived this view from [[Johannes Kepler]]'s view of Earth as a single round organism. [[Teilhard de Chardin]], a paleontologist and geologist, believes that evolution unfolded from cell to organism to planet to solar system and ultimately the whole universe, as we humans see it from our limited perspective. De Chardin later influenced [[Thomas Berry]] and many Catholic humanist thinkers of the 20th century. [[Buckminster Fuller]] is generally credited with making the idea respectable in Western scientific circles in the 20th century. Building to some degree on his observations and artifacts, e.g. the [[Dymaxion map]] of the Earth he created, others began to ask if there was a way to make Gaia theory scientifically sound.
None of these ideas are considered scientific hypotheses; by definition a scientific hypothesis must make testable predictions. As the above claims are not testable, they are outsides the bounds of science.
These are conjectures and perhaps can only be considered as social and maybe political philosophy; they may have implications for theology.
== Range of views ==
Gaia theory is a spectrum of hypotheses, ranging from the undeniable to radical. At one end is the undeniable statement that the organisms on the Earth have radically altered its composition. A stronger position is that the Earth's biosphere effectively acts as if it is a self-organizing system which works in such a way as to keep its systems in some kind of equilibrium that is conducive to life. Biologists usually view this activity as an undirected [[emergent property]] of the ecosystem; as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, their combined actions tend to have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Proponents of this view sometimes point to examples of life's actions in the past that have resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one.
An even stronger claim is that all lifeforms are part of a single planetary being, called Gaia. In this view, the atmosphere, the seas, the terrestrial crust would be the result of interventions carried out by Gaia, through the [[coevolution|coevolving]] diversity of living organisms. Most scientists do not hold this view; however, such a view is considered within scientific possibility.
The most extreme form of Gaia theory is that the entire Earth is a single unified organism; in this view the Earth's biosphere is ''consciously'' manipulating the climate in order to make conditions more conducive to life. Scientists contend that there is no evidence at all to support this last point of view, and it has come about because many people do not understand the concept of [[homeostasis]]. Many non-scientists instinctively see homeostatis as an activity that requires conscious control, although this is not so.
The more speculative versions of Gaia, including versions in which it is held that the Earth is actually conscious and highly intelligent, are currently outside the bounds of science.
== Gaia in biology and science ==
''See the main article'' '''''[[Gaia theory (science)]]''''' for more.
[[Buckminster Fuller]] has been credited as the first to incorporate scientific ideas into a Gaia theory, which he did with his [[Dymaxion map of the Earth]].
The first scientifically rigorous theory was the [[Gaia Hypothesis]] by [[James Lovelock]], a UK chemist. While controversial at first, various forms of this idea became accepted to some degree by many scientists.
A variant of this hypothesis was developed by [[Lynn Margulis]], a microbiologist, in [[1979]].
Her version is sometimes called the "Gaia Theory" (note uppercase-T). Her model is more limited in scope than the one that Lovelock proposed.
Whether this sort of system is present on Earth is still open to debate. Some relatively simple homeostatic mechanisms are generally accepted. For example, when [[Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]] [[carbon dioxide]] levels rise, plants are able to grow better and thus remove more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, but the extent to which these mechanisms stabilize and modify the Earth's overall climate are not known.
The Gaia hypothesis is sometimes viewed from significantly different philosophical perspectives. Some environmentalists view it as an almost conscious process, in which the Earth's [[ecosystem]] is literally viewed as a single unified organism. Some evolutionary biologists, on the other hand, view it as an undirected [[emergent property]] of the ecosystem; as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, their combined actions tend to have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Proponents of this view sometimes point to examples of life's actions in the past that have resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one.
Depending on how strongly the case is stated, the hypothesis conflicts with mainstream [[neo-Darwinism]]. Most biologists would accept Daisyworld-style homeostasis as possible, but would not accept the idea that this equates to the whole biosphere acting as one organism.
A very small number of scientists, and a much larger number of environmental activists, claim that Earth's biosphere is ''consciously'' manipulating the climate in order to make conditions more conducive to life. Scientists contend that there is no evidence to support this belief, which has only come about because most people do not understand the concept of [[homeostasis]]: many non-scientists instinctively see homeostasis as an activity that requires conscious control, although this is not so.
This leads to some confusion on both sides, and the labels [[mysticism]] and [[scientism]] are applied to some adherents of the theory.
== Gaia in the social sciences ==
{{sect-stub}}
A [[social science]] view of Gaia theory is the role of humans as a [[keystone species]] who may be able to accomplish global [[homeostasis]].
== Gaia in politics ==
Some radical political environmentalists who accept some form of the Gaia theory call themselves [[Gaian]]s. They actively seek to restore the Earth's homeostasis - whenever they see it out of balance, e.g. to prevent manmade [[climate change]], [[primate extinction]], or [[rainforest loss]]. In effect, they seek to cooperate to 'become' the "system consciously manipulating to make conditions more conducive to life". Such activity 'defines' the homeostasis, but for leverage it relies on deep investigation of the homeorhetic balances, if only to find [[places to intervene in a system]] which is changing in undesirable ways.
Tony Bondhus brings up the point in his book, [http://conceivia.com/store/books/society-of-conceivia/ Society of Conceivia], that if Gaia is alive, than societies are living things as well. This suggests that our understanding of Gaia can be used to create a better society and to design a better political system.
[[Gaians]] are attempting to create a new ideology which fuses conclusions from science and politics; they |
uivalent strength, factoring-based techniques need to use larger keys than elliptic curve techniques. For this reason, public-key cryptosystems based on elliptic curves have become popular in the last 15 years.
While pure cryptanalysis uses weaknesses in the algorithms themselves, other attacks are based upon the [[implementation]], known as ''[[side-channel attack]]s''. If a cryptanalyst has access to, say, the amount of time the algorithm took to encrypt a number of plaintexts, he may be able to use a [[timing attack]] to break a cipher that is otherwise resistant to analysis. An attacker also might consider studying the pattern and length of messages to derive valuable information; this is known as [[traffic analysis]].
===Cryptographic primitives===
{{unsolved|computer science|One-way functions are [[function (mathematics)|functions]] that are easy to compute but hard to invert. '''''Do [[one-way function]]s exist?'''''}}
Much of the theoretical work in cryptography concerns cryptographic ''primitives'' &mdash; algorithms that have basic cryptographic properties &mdash; and their relathionship to other cryptographic problems. For example, a [[one-way function]] is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] that is easy to compute but hard to invert. In order for any cryptographic application to be secure (if based on computational assumptions), one-way functions must exist. However, if one-way functions exist, it implies that [[Complexity classes P and NP|P ǂ NP]]. Since the P versus NP problem is unsolved, we don't know if one-way functions exist. If they do, however, we can build other cryptographic tools from them. For instance, if one-way functions exist, then [[Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator|pseudorandom generators]] and pseudorandom functions exist.
Other cryptographic primitives include [[one-way permutation]]s, [[trapdoor permutation]]s, and [[oblivious transfer]] protocols.
===Cryptographic protocols===
In some cases, cryptographic techniques involve back and forth communication among two or more parties. The term ''cryptographic protocol'' captures this general idea. Cryptographic protocols exist for a wide range of problems, including relatively simple ones like [[interactive proof]]s, [[secret sharing]], and [[zero-knowledge]], and much more complex ones like [[electronic cash]] and [[secure multiparty computation]]. Cryptography can be used to implement [[digital rights management]] which has been used in an attempt to enforce, via cryptographic routines and schemes, a copyright holder's exclusive right to copy and distribute created works, including movies and music recordings.
When the security of a cryptographic system fails, it is rare that a weakness in the cryptographic algorithms is the weakness which was exploited. More often, it is a mistake in the implementation (a program [[bug]]), a failure of the assumptions needed for security, or some other human error. The study of how best to implement and integrate cryptography is a field in itself, see: [[cryptographic engineering]] and [[security engineering]].
==Legal issues==
Because of its potential to disrupt national intelligence-gathering and [[law enforcement]], and because of its impact on [[privacy]], there has been a history of controversial legal issues surrounding cryptography ever since the advent of computers.
One particularly important issue has been the [[export of cryptography]] and cryptographic software and hardware. Because of the importance of cryptanalysis in [[World War II]], many western governments have strictly regulated the export of cryptography because of national security concerns. For instance, after World War II in the US, it was illegal to sell or freely distribute encryption technology overseas; in fact, encryption was classified as a [[munition]]. Until the advent of the [[personal computer]] and the [[internet]], this was not especially problematic. However, as the internet grew, most standard encryption techniques became well-known globally, and these export restrictions became an impediment to research. In the [[1990s]], several challenges were launched against export regulations of cryptography. [[Phil Zimmermann]] distributed the [[PGP]] cryptosystem on the internet in [[1991]]. [[Daniel Bernstein]], a graduate student at [[UC Berkeley]], brought a [[Bernstein v. United States|lawsuit]] against the government challenging the restrictions on free speech grounds in [[1995]]. Cryptography exports are less regulated now than in the past. See [[Export of cryptography]] for more details.
Another contentious issue in cryptography in the United States was the [[National Security Agency]] and its involvement in the development of ciphers. The NSA was involved with the design of [[Data Encryption Standard|DES]], for instance. DES was built to be secure against [[differential cryptanalysis]], a cryptanalytic technique that was known to the NSA but was not known in academic circles at the time. Later, the NSA stirred up further controversy in [[1993]] when it espoused the [[Clipper chip]], an encryption microchip. Clipper was criticized for two reasons: first of all, the cipher itself was classified (the cipher, called [[Skipjack (cipher)|Skipjack]] was declassified in 1998 after the Clipper initiative failed). This led to concerns that the NSA had made the cipher weak on purpose in order to assist its intelligence efforts, and also to criticism of the initiative based on [[Kerchoff's law]]. Second, the chip included a special [[key escrow|escrow key]] held by the government for use in wiretaps. See [[Clipper chip]] for more information.
Cryptography is important in the technological enforcement of [[digital rights management|digital rights]]. In [[1998]], [[Bill Clinton]] signed the [[Digital Millenium Copyright Act]] (DMCA), which criminalized the production and dissemination of certain cryptanalytic techniques and technology, specifically, those that could be used to circumvent DRM (digital rights management) technology. This had a very serious potential impact on the cryptography community: after all, an argument could be made that virtually ''any'' cryptanalytic research violated the DMCA. The [[FBI]] has not enforced the DMCA this rigorously, but nonetheless, it remains a contentious issue in the cryptography community.
The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] is often involved in legal challenges relating to cryptography.
==References==
* [[James Gannon]], ''Stealing Secrets, Telling Lies: How [[Espionage|Spies]] and [[Cryptology|Codebreakers]] Helped Shape the [[Twentieth Century]]'', Washington, D.C., Brassey's, 2001, ISBN 1-57488-367-4.
* [[David Kahn]], [[The Codebreakers]], 1967, ISBN 0684831309.
* A. J. Menezes, P. C. van Oorschot, and S. A. Vanstone, Handbook of Applied Cryptography ISBN 0849385237 [http://cacr.math.uwaterloo.ca/hac/].
* [[Bruce Schneier]], Applied Cryptography, 2nd edition, Wiley, 1996, ISBN 0471117099.
* [[H.X. Mel]] and [[Doris Baker]], Cryptography Decrypted, Addison Wesley, 2001, ISBN 0-201-616475.
* [[Simon Singh]], The Code Book - The Secret History of Codes and Code-Breaking, 1st Edition, Wiley, 2000, ISBN 1-85702-889-9.
==See also==
* [[Topics in cryptography]] &mdash; an analytical list of articles and terms.
* [[Books on cryptography]] &mdash; an annotated list of suggested readings.
* [[List of cryptographers]] &mdash; an annotated list of cryptographers.
* [[List of important publications in computer science#Cryptography|Important publications in cryptography]] &mdash; some cryptography papers in computer science.
* [[List of open problems in computer science#Cryptography|Open problems in cryptography]]
* [[List of cryptography topics]] &mdash; an alphabetical list of cryptography articles.
* [[Export of cryptography]]
* [[History of cryptography]]
* [[International Association for Cryptologic Research]]
==External links==
* [http://homepage.cs.uri.edu/research/cryptography/ Cryptography introduction, with several examples]
* [http://www.iacr.org/ International Association for Cryptologic Research]
* [http://www.cs.ut.ee/~helger/crypto/ Helger Lipmaa's cryptography pointers]
* [http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/faq/index.html RSA Laboratories' FAQ About today's cryptography ] essentially elementary coverage
* [http://www.mindspring.com/~schlafly/crypto/faq.htm sci.crypt mini-FAQ (more recent)]
* [http://www.quadibloc.com/crypto/intro.htm Savard's glossary] an extensive and detailed view of cryptographic history with emphasis on crypto devices
* [http://www.cryptool.org Open source project CrypTool] - Exhaustive educational tool about cryptography and cryptanalysis, freeware.
* [http://www.cryptographyworld.com Cryptography World] - A very basic guide to cryptography and key management.
* [http://www.cacr.math.uwaterloo.ca/hac/ Handbook of Applied Cryptography] (Free to download as .pdf)
* [http://www.techworld.com/security/features/index.cfm?featureid=993 Techworld Elementary Primer: What is Encryption?]
* [http://www.jablon.org/passwordlinks.html Links for password-based cryptography]
* [http://www.elfqrin.com/codecracker.html Code Cracker] Online tool to Crack many classic encryption codes (up to the XIX century)
* [http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/ Crypto Law Survey] Extensive survey of existing and proposed laws and regulations on cryptography by legal expert Dr. Bert-Jaap Koops (Tilburg University)
* [http://www.nsa.gov/kids/ NSA's CryptoKids]
* [http://www.murky.org/archives/cryptography/ Beginners' Guide to Cryptography]
* [http://www.garykessler.net/library/crypto.html An Overview of Cryptography]
* [http://www.hermetic.ch/crypto/intro.htm An Introduction to the Use of Encryption]
[[Category:Applied mathematics]]
[[Category:Cryptography]]
[[Category:Espionage]]
[[Category:Mathematical science occupations]]
[[Category:Military communications]]
[[af:Kriptog |
<math>2 = s^{12}</math>
::<math>s = \sqrt[12]{2}</math>
Therefore, the ratio between two adjacent frequencies is equal to the [[twelfth root of two]] or approximately 1.05946309 to one.
:<math>s = \sqrt[12]{2} \approx 1.05946309</math>
The half tone interval:
:<math> 1 : 2^{1/12}</math>
is also known as 100 ''[[cent (music)|cent]]s''. 1 cent is therefore the ratio between two tone frequencies with an interval of one hundredth of an equal-tempered semitone.
The distance between two notes whose frequencies are ''f''<sub>1</sub> and ''f''<sub>2</sub> is 12 log<sub>2</sub>(''f''<sub>1</sub>/''f''<sub>2</sub>) half tones, that is 1200 log<sub>2</sub>(''f''<sub>1</sub>/''f''<sub>2</sub>) cents.
=== Cent values of equal temperament ===
{| cellpadding="4" border="1" frame="box" rules="all" style="text-align:center" align=center
|- bgcolor=#DDDDFF
! Tone
|C<sup>1</sup>||Db||D||Eb||E||F||F#||G||Ab||A||Bb||B||C<sup>2</sup>
|-
! Cents
|0||100||200||300||400||500||600||700||800||900||1000||1100||1200
|}
The following table shows the values of the intervals of 12 TET, along with one interval from [[just intonation]] that each approximates, and the percentage by which they differ:
{| frame="box" rules="all" cellpadding="4" style="text-align:center" align=center
|- bgcolor=#DDDDFF
!Name
!Exact value in 12-TET
!Decimal value
!Just intonation interval
!Percent difference
|-
|Unison
|&#160;&#160;1
|1.000000
|1 = 1.000000
|0.00%
|-
|Minor second
|<math>\sqrt[12]{2^1} = \sqrt[12]{2}</math>
|1.059463
|16/15 = 1.066667
| -0.68%
|-
|Major second
|<math>\sqrt[12]{2^2} = \sqrt[6]{2}</math>
|1.122462
|9/8 = 1.125000
| -0.23%
|-
|Minor third
|<math>\sqrt[12]{2^3} = \sqrt[12]{8}</math>
|1.189207
|6/5 = 1.200000
| -0.91%
|-
|Major third
|<math>\sqrt[12]{2^4} = \sqrt[3]{2}</math>
|1.259921
|5/4 = 1.250000
| +0.79%
|-
|Perfect fourth
|<math>\sqrt[12]{2^5} = \sqrt[12]{32}</math>
|1.334840
|4/3 = 1.333333
| +0.11%
|-
|Diminished fifth
|<math>\sqrt[12]{2^6} = \sqrt{2}</math>
|1.414214
|7/5 = 1.400000
| +1.02%
|-
|Perfect fifth
|<math>\sqrt[12]{2^7} = \sqrt[12]{128}</math>
|1.498307
|3/2 = 1.500000
| -0.11%
|-
|Minor sixth
|<math>\sqrt[12]{2^8} = \sqrt[3]{4}</math>
|1.587401
|8/5 = 1.600000
| -0.79%
|-
|Major sixth
|<math>\sqrt[12]{2^9} = \sqrt[4]{8}</math>
|1.681793
|5/3 = 1.666667
| +0.90%
|-
|Minor seventh
|<math>\sqrt[12]{2^{10}} = \sqrt[6]{32}</math>
|1.781797
|16/9 = 1.777778
| +0.23%
|-
|Major seventh
|<math>\sqrt[12]{2^{11}} = \sqrt[12]{2048}</math>
|1.887749
|15/8 = 1.875000
| +0.68%
|-
|Octave
|<math>\sqrt[12]{2^{12}} = {2}</math>
|2.000000
|2/1 = 2.000000
|0.00%
|}
These mappings from equal temperament to [[just intonation]] are by no means unique. The minor seventh, for example, can be meaningfully said to approximate both 16/9 and 9/5, depending on context or simultaneously in a chord -- and probably even 7/4.
==Non-12 TET==
Five and seven tone equal temperament, with 240 and 171 cent steps relatively, seem the most common outside of 12-tET. A Thai xylophone measured by Morton (1974) "varied only plus or minus 5 cents," from 7-tET. A Ugandan Chop xylophone measured by Haddon (1952) also tuned to 171 cent steps. [[Gamelan]]s are tuned to 5-tET according to Kunst (1949), but according to Hood (1966) and McPhee (1966) their tuning varies widely and according to Tenzer (2000) contain [[pseudo-octave|stretched octaves]]. It is now well-accepted that of the two primary tuning systems in Gamelan music, Slendro and Pelog, only Slendro somewhat resembles 5-tone equal temperament while Pelog is highly unequal. However, Wachsmann (1950) used a Stroboconn to measure a Ugandan harp and women singing unaccompanied, finding variations of 15 and 5 cents respectively. ( &larr; ''check accuracy of fragment repair'') A South American Indian scale from a preinstrumental culture measured by Boiles (1969) featured 175 cent equal temperament which stretches the octave slightly as with instrumental gamelan music.
The [[quarter tone]] scale or 24-tET is, similarly, based on steps of 50 cents or powers of <math>\sqrt[24]{2}</math>. Other equal divisions of the octave, though, can be better considered temperaments; 24 is usually best considered simply as an equal division (e.g., a bisection of 12-tET). [[19 tone equal temperament|19-tET]] and especially [[31 tone equal temperament|31-tET]] are extended varieties of [[Meantone temperament]] and approximate most [[just intonation]] intervals considerably better than 12-tET. They have been used sporadically since the 16th century, with 31-tET particularly popular in Holland, there advocated by [[Christiaan Huygens]] and [[Adriaan Fokker]]. [[53 tone equal temperament|53-tET]] is much better still at approximating the traditional [[just intonation]] consonances, but has had very little use. It doesn't fit the [[Meantone]] mold that shaped the development of Western harmony and tonality since the Rennaissance, though it does fit [[schismatic temperament]] and the [[Pythagorean tuning]] of medieval music, and is sometimes used in Turkish music theory. In 53-tET, most traditional compositions would necessitate subtle microtonal pitch shifts or a drifting pitch level in order to make use of the tuning's excellent [[just intonation]] [[triad (music)|triads]]. Another tuning which has seen some use in practice and is not a meantone system is [[22 equal temperament|22-tET]]. 55-tET, not as close to [[just intonation]], was a bit closer to common practice. As an excellent representative of the variety of [[meantone temperament]] popular in the 18th century, 55-tET it was considered ideal by [[Georg Philipp Telemann]] and other prominent musicians. [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]]'s surviving violin lessons conform closely to such a model.
In the 20th century, standardized Western pitch and notation practices having been placed on a 12-tET foundation made the [[quarter tone scale]] a much more popular microtonal tuning. A further extension of 12-tET is [[72 tone equal temperament|72-tET]], which though not a [[meantone]] tuning, approximates most [[just intonation]] intervals, including non-traditional ones like 7/4, 9/7, 11/5, 11/6 and 11/7, much better. 72-tET has been taught, written and performed in practice, for example by [[Joe Maneri]] and his students -- whose atonal inclinations typically avoid any reference to [[just intonation]] intervals whatsoever. Still other equal temperaments occupying more than a few musicians include 5-tET, 7-tET, 15-tET, 22-tET, and 48-tET. Theoretically interesting temperaments which have found occasional use include division of the octave into 34, 41, 46, 99 or 171 parts.
More generally, every step in ''n'' tone equal temperament is 1200/n cents. However, if one wishes to create an equal tempered scale that does not repeat at the octave, a scale with ''n'' equal steps in a [[pseudo-octave]] ''p'' is based on the ratio&nbsp;''r''
:<math> r = \sqrt[n]{p} </math>.
This still may be easier to calculate in cents, for instance the pseudo-octave of ratio 2.1:1 is an interval of 1284 cents. Equal tempered scales can also be generated simply by picking the number of cents that each step will consist of.
[[Wendy Carlos]] created two equal tempered scales for the title track of her album ''Beauty In The Beast'', the Alpha and Beta scales. Beta splits a [[perfect fourth]] into two equal parts, which creates a scale where each step is almost 64 cents. Alpha does the same to a [[minor third]] to create a scale of 78 cent steps.
The equal tempered version of the [[Bohlen-Pierce scale]] consists of the ratio 3:1, 1902 cents, conventionally an [[octave]] and a just fifth, used as a [[tritave]], and split into a thirteen tone equal temperament where each step is
:<math> \sqrt[13]{3} </math>
or 146.3 cents. This provides a very close match to [[just intonation|justly tuned]] ratios consisting only of odd numbers.
Australian aboriginal music extensively measured by Ellis (1965) was based on arithmetic scales (the [[harmonic series (music)|harmonic series]] is an arithmetic scale, though presumably the Australian scales began an interval smaller than an octave) with an equal separation ''in [[hertz]]''.
==See also==
* [[Physics of music]]
* [[Mathematics of musical scales]]
* [[quarter tone scale]]
* [[19 tone equal temperament]]
* [[22 tone equal temperament]]
* [[31 tone equal temperament]]
* [[53 tone equal temperament]]
* [[72 tone equal temperament]]
* [[Pythagorean tuning]] | [[just intonation]] | [[meantone temperament]] | [[well temperament]]
==Sources==
*Burns, Edward M. (1999). "Intervals, Scales, and Tuning", ''The Psychology of Music'' second edition. Deutsch, Diana, ed. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0122135644. Cited:
**Ellis, C. (1965). "Pre-instrumental scales", ''Journal of the Acoustical Society of America'', 9, 126-144.
**Morton, D. (1974). "Vocal tones in traditional Thai music", ''Selected reports in ethnomusicology'' (Vol. 2, p.88-99). Los Angeles: Institute for Ethnomusicology, UCLA.
**Haddon, E. (1952). "Possible origin of the Chopi Timbila xylophone", ''African Music Society Newsletter'', 1, 61-67.
**Kunst, J. (1949). ''Music in Java'' (Vol. II). The Hague: Marinus Nijhoff.
**Hood, M. (1966). "Slendro and Pelog redefined", ''Selected Reports in Ethnomusicology, Institute of Ethnomusicology, UCLA'', 1, 36-48.
**Temple, Robert K. G. (1986)."The Genius of China". ISBN 0-671-62028-2
**Tenzer, (2000). ''Gamelan Gong Kebyar: The Art of Twentieth-Century B |
humb|155&nbsp;mm [[howitzer]], [[Troupes de Marine|French marine artillery]].]]
[[Image:Tir.jpg|thumb|Firing of a 18-pound gun, [[Louis-Philippe Crepin]], (1772 &ndash; 1851)]]
[[Image:MuseeMarine-canonBronze-p1000434.jpg|thumb|Naval piece of artillery, early 19th century]]
[[Image:MuseeMarine-canon-1880-p1000439.jpg|thumb|French naval piece of the late 19th Century]]
Cannon operation was still a complex technical task, often undertaken at high-speed and in stressful conditions, where a mistake could easily be lethal. The field carriage eased movement in general, but traverse and elevation were still very limited and slow - the crew ramming levers, handspikes, to force a movement of a few degrees. Larger movements were by brute force shoves of the entire unit, as was repositioning after recoil, an extremely enervating task.
The combining of shot and powder into a single unit, a cartridge, occurred in the 1620s with a simple fabric bag, and was quickly adopted by all nations. It speeded loading and made it safer, but unexpelled bag fragments were an additional fouling in the gun barrel and a new tool - a worm - was introduced to remove them. Shells, explosive-filled fused projectiles, were also developed - problems with the fuses were extremely common.
The development of specialised pieces - shipboard artillery, [[howitzers]] and [[mortars]] - was also begun in this period. More esoteric designs, like the multi-barrel [[ribaudequin]], were also built.
The [[17th century]] book by [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] inventor [[Kazimierz Siemienowicz]] "''Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima''" ("Great Art of Artillery, the First Part". also known as "The Complete Art of Artillery") was one of the most important contemporary publications on the subject of artillery. For over two centuries this work was used in [[Europe]] as a basic artillery manual.
Oddly the development of cannon almost halted until the 19th-century, improvements in metallurgy, chemistry, manufacturing, and so on, did not alter the basic design and operation of a cannon. From the 1860s artillery was forced into a series of rapid technological and operational changes, accelerating through the 1870s and on. The main impetus was the improvements in small arms, which certainly had not spent 200 years in the doldrums. Artillery could no longer be deployed in the battle line, the large crews and stocks of ammunition were vulnerable to rifle fire, but had to either become smaller, lighter, more mobile and stay with the troops or get much further away. The second type, using indirect fire, forced the development of the technologies and doctrines that produced modern artillery.
== Modern artillery ==
[[modern era|Modern]] artillery is distinguished by its large caliber, firing an [[explosive]] [[shell (projectile)|shell]] or [[rocket]], and being of such a size and weight as to require a specialized mount for firing and transport. Weapons covered by this term include "[[cannon]]" artillery such as the [[howitzer]], [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]], and [[field gun]] and "[[rocket]]" artillery. Certain smaller caliber mortars are more properly designated small arms rather than artillery, albeit indirect-fire small arms.
The term "artillery" has traditionally not been used for projectiles with internal [[guidance systems]], even though some artillery units employ surface-to-surface [[missile|missiles]]. Advances in terminal guidance systems for small munitions has allowed large caliber projectiles to be developed, blurring this distinction.
== Types ==
The types of cannon artillery are generally distinguished by the velocity at which they fire projectiles. Naval guns or [[infantry support gun]]s are typically longer-barreled, low-trajectory, high-velocity weapons designed primarily for a direct-fire role. Typically the length of a cannon barrel is greater than 25 times its caliber (inner diameter).
[[Howitzer]]s are relatively shorter. Capable of both high- and low-angle fire, they are most often employed in an [[indirect-fire]] role, capable of operating in [[defilade]]. Typically, the length of a howitzer cannon is between 15 and 25 times its caliber.
[[mortar (weapon)|Mortar]]s are smaller, low-velocity, high-angle weapons capable of only high-trajectory fire at a relatively short range. Typically the length of a mortar barrel is less than 15 times its caliber.
Modern field artillery can also be split into two other categories: towed and self-propelled. As the name implies, towed artillery has a prime mover, usually a [[jeep]] or [[truck]], to move the piece, crew, and ammunition around. Self-propelled howitzers are permanently mounted on a carriage or vehicle with room for the crew and ammunition and capable of moving independently in order to move quickly from one firing position to another - to both support the fluid nature of modern combat and to avoid [[counter-battery fire]]. There are also mortar carrier vehicles, many of which allow the mortar to be removed from the vehicle and be used dismounted, potentially in terrain in whichthe vehicle cannot navigate or in order to avoid detection.
=== Sub-types ===
[[Image:60 pounder Cape Helles June 1915.jpg|thumb|A British 60-pounder (5 inch) gun at full recoil, in action during the [[Battle of Gallipoli]], 1915.]]
Types of artillery:
* [[Field artillery]] - mobile weapons used to support armies in the field. Subcategories include:
** [[infantry support gun]]s - directly support infantry units (mostly obsolete).
** [[mountain gun]]s - lightweight weapons that can be moved through difficult terrain.
** [[howitzer]]s - capable of high angle fire.
** [[gun howitzer]]s - capable of high or low angle fire with a long barrel.
** [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s - lightweight weapons that fire projectiles at an angle of over 45 degrees to the horizontal.
* [[Self-propelled artillery]] - typically guns, mortars or gun howitzers mounted on a vehicle.
* [[Naval artillery]] - cannons mounted on warships and used either against other ships or in support of ground forces. The crowning achievement of naval artillery was the [[battleship]], but the advent of air-power and missiles have rendered this type of artillery largely obsolete.
* [[Coastal artillery]] - Fixed-position weapons dedicated to defense of a particular location, usually a coast (e.g. the [[Atlantic Wall]] in [[World War II|WW II]]) or harbor. Not needing to be mobile, coastal artillery can be much larger than equivalent field artillery pieces, giving them longer range and more destructive power. Since World War II, however, modern weapons and tactics have made them largely obsolete.
* [[Anti-aircraft artillery]] - weapons, usually mobile, dedicated to attacking aircraft from the ground.
=== Projectiles ===
[[Image:16-in Battleship Ammunition.JPG|thumb|Battleship Ammunition: 16" artillery shells aboard one of [[United States|America's]] [[Iowa class battleship|''Iowa''-class battleships]].]]
All forms of artillery require a [[propellant]] to fire the projectile at the target. A number of different configurations have been developed, each with varying characteristics. They include:
* Tube fired - utilise the pressure of burnt propellant inside a barrel to force a projectile out of the mouth of the barrel.
** Spin stabilised - Use helical grooves or ridges on the inside of the barrel to impart a rotation to the projectile as it is travelling in the barrel. (See also [[rifling]])
** Fin stabilised - Use fins at the rear of the projectile in the airflow to maintain correct orientation.
** Inverted tube - Some weapons have been built with the tube built into the projectile and fitted onto a rod fitted to the carriage.
* Recoilless - A tube fired weapon with a breech designed to perforate a bursting disk at firing, and permit a mass of burnt propellant gases with [[momentum]] equal to the projectile to exit from the rear of the barrel, to prevent recoil from affecting the weapon.
* [[Rocket]] propelled - Tube or rail launched - A reaction propulsion system mounted to the projectile provides continuous thrust for an initial period of the flight.
* Rocket assist - A combination of tube fired and rocket propelled - uses a rocket motor in the base of the projectile to extend the range by about 30%.
* [[Base bleed]] - Similar to a rocket assist projectile, uses a small pyrotechnic charge at the base of the projectile. The charge introduces sufficient combustion products into the low-pressure region behind the base of the projectile responsible for a large proportion of the [[Form drag|drag]] to substantially (> 30%) increase range. Like a rocket assist projectile, trajectory is changed to non-ballistic, which may complicate counter-battery location.
=== Ammunition ===
High-explosive; shrapnel, dual purpose improved conventional munitions (DPICM)- bomblet; canister or anti-personnel; illuminating or star-shell; armour-piercing; incendiary (white phosphorus, "Willie Pete"); gas or aerosol, chemical or biological; smoke; nuclear and non-lethal (developing area - includes High Power Microwave HPM, and NL payload carrier shells).
=== [[Fuse (explosives)|Fuzes]] ===
Quick or super-quick; delay; hardened-delay or concrete-piercing; timer; proximity. [[Proximity fuze]]s can be set to detonate at various heights for above ground detonation providing for air-bursts which multiply the round's killing effectiveness. In anti-aircraft fire the proximity fuze can be made to have a premature detonation because of the moisture in heavy rain clouds. The proximity fuze emerged on the battlefields of Europe in 1944, and was signicant in providing a counter to German personnel in open. Proximity fuzes were a big improvement over the mechanical fuze which it replaced.
== Modern artillery operations ==
[[Image:Hirlimann-Le-char-au-garage.jpeg|thumb|An [[AMX_30_AuF1|AuF1]] of the French ar |
1981. During the Iran-Iraq war, Iraq moderated its anti-Israel stance considerably. In August 1982 President Hussein stated to a visiting U.S. Congressman that “a secure state is necessary for both Israel and the Palestinians.” Iraq did not oppose then President Reagan’s [[September 1]], [[1982]] Arab-Israeli peace initiative, and it supported the moderate Arab position at the Fez summit that same month. Iraq repeatedly stated that it would support whatever settlement is found acceptable by the [[Palestinian]]s. However, after the end of the Iran-Iraq war in 1988, Iraq reverted to more stridently anti-Israel statements. During the Gulf War, Iraq fired Scud missiles at Israeli civilian targets in an attempt to divide the U.S. coalition, and, since the end of the Gulf War, Iraq has embraced the most extreme Arab hardline anti-Israel position, including periodically calling for the total elimination of Israel.
Iraq belongs to the following international organizations: UN and some of its specialized agencies, including the [[World Bank]], [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA); [[Nonaligned Movement]]; [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] (OIC); [[Arab League]]; [[Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OPEC); [[Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OAPEC); [[Interpol]]; [[World Health Organization]] (WHO); [[G-19]]; [[G-77]].
'''Disputes - international:'''
Iran and Iraq restored diplomatic relations in 1990 but are still trying to work out written agreements settling outstanding disputes from their eight-year war concerning border demarcation, prisoners-of-war, and freedom of navigation and sovereignty over the Shatt al Arab waterway; in November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait which had been spelled out in Security Council Resolutions 687 (1991), 773 (1993), and 883 (1993); this formally ends earlier claims to Kuwait and to Bubiyan and Warbah islands although the government continues periodic rhetorical challenges; dispute over water development plans by Turkey for the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
===See also===
*[[Iraq]]
*[[2003 invasion of Iraq|U.S. plan to invade Iraq]]
*[[Disarmament of Iraq]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Iraq| ]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Iraq, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ireland/History</title>
<id>14674</id>
<revision>
<id>15912210</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-13T22:44:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Danny</username>
<id>584</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Ireland]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of the Republic of Ireland</title>
<id>14675</id>
<revision>
<id>39079876</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T16:02:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mel Etitis</username>
<id>159495</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>wikilink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Location:'''
[[Western Europe]], occupying five-sixths of the [[Ireland|island of Ireland]] in the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], west of [[Great Britain]]
[[Image:Ei-map.png|right|Map of Ireland]]
'''Geographic coordinates:'''
53° N, 8° W
'''Map references:'''
[[Europe]]
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
[[1 E10 m²|70,280]] [[square kilometre|km²]]
<br>''land:''
68,890 km²
<br>''water:''
1,390 km²
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly larger than West Virginia
'''Land boundaries:'''
<br>''total:''
360 [[kilometre|km]]
<br>''border countries:''
[[United Kingdom]] 360 km
'''Coastline:'''
1,448 km
'''Maritime claims:'''
<br>''continental shelf:''
not specified
<br>''exclusive fishing zone:''
[[1 E5 m|370]] km (200 [[nautical mile|nm]])
<br>''territorial sea:''
[[1 E4 m|22]] km (12 nm)
'''Climate:'''
temperate maritime; modified by [[North Atlantic Current]]; mild winters, cool summers; consistently humid; overcast about half the time
'''Terrain:'''
mostly level to rolling interior plain surrounded by rugged hills and low mountains; sea cliffs on west coast
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br>''lowest point:''
Atlantic Ocean 0 m
<br>''highest point:''
[[Carrauntoohill|Carrauntoohil]] [[1 E3 m|1,041]] m
'''Natural resources:'''
[[zinc]], [[lead]], natural [[gas]], [[barite]], [[copper]], [[gypsum]], [[limestone]], [[dolomite]], [[peat]], [[silver]]
[[image:www.wesleyjohnston.com-users-ireland-maps-island_agriculture.gif]]
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
15.2%
<br>''permanent crops:''
0.03%
<br>''other:''
84.77% (2001 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
NA
'''Natural hazards:'''
NA
'''Environment - current issues:'''
water pollution, especially of lakes, from agricultural runoff
'''Environment - international agreements the Republic of Ireland is party to:'''
Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling
<br>''signed, but not ratified:''
Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Marine Life Conservation, Tropical Timber 94
'''Geography - note:'''
strategic location on major air and sea routes between [[North America]] and northern Europe; over 40% of the population resides within 97 km of [[Dublin]]
==See also==
*[[Irish topics]]
*[[Geology of the Republic of Ireland]]
*[[Geography of Ireland]]
*[[Heritage sites (Republic of Ireland)]]
----
Maps from http://www.irelandstory.com
[[Category:Republic of Ireland|Ireland, Republic of]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Ireland]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of the Republic of Ireland</title>
<id>14676</id>
<revision>
<id>41189959</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T17:43:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.25.218.174</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Religion */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The Irish people are mainly of indigenous and [[Celts|Celtic]] origin, with the country's only significant minorities having descended from the [[Vikings]] and [[Anglo-Normans]]. Some are also of [[England|English]], [[Scotland|Scottish]], and [[Wales|Welsh]] descent.
For centuries a nation of emigrants, Ireland from the 1990s has attracted immigrants from a number of nations both within Europe and elsewhere.
==Language==
The [[official language]]s are [[Irish language|Irish]] ([[Gaeilge]]) and English. However, English is the predominant language used today. People living in Irish-speaking communities are limited to the low hundreds of thousands in isolated pockets largely on the Western seaboard and in Dublin and other urban areas. All schoolchildren are taught the Irish language as a compulsory part of the school curriculum with a relatively small (though growing) number of schools teaching all subjects in Irish. Public signs are usually bilingual and there are both a national Irish language TV ([[TG4]]) and radio channel ([[Raidió na Gaeltachta]]). The [[Shelta language]] is spoken by anywhere between 6000 and 25000 people, but has no official status.
==Religion==
The Republic of Ireland is officially 88.4% Roman Catholic. However there has been a massive decline in adherence to [[Roman Catholicism]] among Irish Catholics. Between 1996 and 2001, regular [[Roman Catholic Mass|Mass]] attendance, already previously in decline, declined from 60% to 48%. (It had been 90%+ in [[1973]].)
All but two of its priest-training seminaries have either closed or are expected to close soon. The Roman Catholic Church was hit in the 1990s by a series of sexual scandals, including the resignation of one bishop who had fathered a child by a divorced cousin and the notorious case of child sexual abuser [[Fr. Brendan Smyth]]. In recent years, another bishop has been forced to resign over his incompetent handling of paedophile priests in his diocese.
The second largest religion, the [[Church of Ireland]] ([[Anglican]]), with a largely elderly membership, had until recently been in decline. It had been forced to close down many of its rural churches, and even some in urban areas. However, recent immigration of thousands of [[African]] Anglicans has buoyed the Church's following. A similar phenomenon is also affecting the very small Jewish community in Ireland, which is ageing and sees many of its younger adherents emigrating to [[Israel]]. The religions showing major growth are [[Islam]] (See [[Islam in Ireland]]) and small [[born-again]] [[Christian]] faiths associated with Ireland's growing immigrant communities.
The country also has a small [[History of the Jews in Ireland|Jewish community]] with 1,790 members, according to the [[census]] of 2002.
'''Population:'''
4,130,700 (April 2005 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
20.6% (male 438,100; female 415,200)
<br>''15-64 years:''
68.14% (male 1,418,600; female 1,398,300)
<br>''65 years and over:''
11.15% (male 202,300; female 258,300) (2005 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
1.16% (2004 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
14.47 births/1,000 population (2004 est.)
'''Death rate:'''
7.91 deaths/1,000 population (2004 est.)
'''Net migration rate:'''
4.99 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2004 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.07 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.07 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
1 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.78 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
0.99 male(s)/female (2004 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
<br>''total:''
5.5 deaths/1,000 live births
<br>''male:''
6.04 deaths/1,000 live births |
is buried, but soon afterward the newspapers report a "bloofer lady" (sometimes explained as "beautiful lady") stalking children in the night. Van Helsing, knowing that this means Lucy has become a vampire, confides in Seward, Arthur, and Morris. The suitors and Van Helsing track her down, and after a disturbing confrontation between her vampiric self and Arthur, they stake her heart and [[decapitation|behead]] her.
Around the same time, Jonathan Harker arrives home from Transylvania (Mina joined him there after his escape from the castle); he and Mina also join the coalition, who now turn their attentions to dealing with Dracula himself.
After Dracula learns of Van Helsing and the others' plot against him, he takes revenge by visiting -- and biting -- Mina at least three times. Dracula also feeds Mina his blood, creating a mind bond between them, and aiming to control her. The only way to forestall this is to kill Dracula first and the rest of the novel deals with the main characters trying to achieve this. Mina slowly succumbs to the blood of the vampire that flows through her veins, switching back and forth from a state of consciousness to a state of semi-trance during which she is telepathically connected with Dracula. Mina uses this connection to track Dracula's movements.
Dracula flees back to his castle in Transylvania, followed by Van Helsing's gang, who manage to track him down just before sundown and kill him by "shearing through the kneck" and stabbing him in the heart with a bowie knife. Dracula crumbles to dust, his spell is lifted and Mina freed from the marks. Quincey Morris is killed in the final battle, and the survivors return to England.
The book closes with a note about Mina's and Jonathan's married life and the birth of their first-born son, whom they name Quincey in remembrance of their American friend.
==Analysis==
The novel is narrated by multiple voices &mdash; Jonathan's journal of his trip to Transylvania, Mina's diary, and Seward's recorded journal, as well as letters and newspaper items. Although somewhat crude and certainly sensational, the novel also does have psychological power, and the sexual longings underlying the vampire attacks are manifest.
Despite its important contributions to vampire fiction, several popular traits of fictional vampires are absent. Count Dracula is killed by knives, not a wooden stake. The destruction of the vampire Lucy is a three-part process (staking, [[decapitation]], and [[garlic]] in the mouth), not the simple stake-only procedure often found in later vampire stories. Dracula has the ability to travel as a mist and to scale the external walls of his castle. One very famous trait Stoker added is the inability to be seen in mirrors, which is not something found in traditional Eastern European [[folklore]].
It is also notable in the novel that Dracula can walk about in the daylight, in bright sunshine, though apparently without the ability to use most of his powers, like turning into mist or a bat. He is still strong and fast enough to struggle with and escape from most of his male pursuers, in a scene in the book. Traditional vampire folklore does not usually hold that sunlight is fatal to vampires though they are [[nocturnal]]. It is only with the film ''[[Nosferatu]]'' that the daylight is first depicted as deadly to vampires.
Modern analysts have detected in ''Dracula'' a strong sexual component. As one critic wrote:
::''What has become clearer and clearer, particularly in the ''fin de siècle'' years of the twentieth century, is that the novel's power has its source in the sexual implications of the blood exchange between the vampire and his victims...''Dracula'' has embedded in it a very disturbing psychosexual allegory whose meaning I am not sure Stoker entirely understood: that there is a demonic force at work in the world whose intent is to eroticize women. In ''Dracula'' we see how that force transforms Lucy Westenra, a beautiful nineteen-year-old virgin, into a shameless slut.'' (Leonard Wolf, "Introduction" to the Signet Classic Edition, 1992).
''Dracula'' may also be viewed as a novel about the struggle between tradition and modernity at the [[fin de siècle]]. Throughout, there are various references to changing [[gender]] roles; Mina Harker is a thoroughly modern woman, as she uses (then) modern technologies such as the [[typewriter]], but she still embodies a traditional gender role as an assistant school mistress.
Stoker's novel also deals in general with the conflict between the world of the past &mdash; full of folklore, myth, legend, and religious piety &mdash; and the emerging modern world of technology, logical positivism, and secularism.
Van Helsing epitomizes this struggle because he uses, at the time, extremely modern technologies like blood transfusions; but he is not so modern as to eschew the idea that a demonic being could be causing Lucy's illness, thus he spreads garlic around the sashes and doors of her room and makes her wear a garlic necklace. After Lucy's death, he receives an indulgence from a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] cleric to use the [[Eucharist]] (held by the Church to be transubstantiated into the body and blood of [[Jesus]]) in his fight against Dracula. In trying to bridge the rational/superstitious conflict within the story, he cites then-new sciences, such as [[hypnotism]], that were only recently considered magical. He also quotes (without attribution) the [[United States|American]] [[psychologist]] [[William James]], whose writings on the power of belief become the only way to deal with this conflict.
Jonathan Harker's character displays the problems of dwelling in a strictly rational modern world. Visiting Count Dracula in Eastern Europe, Jonathan scoffs at the peasants who tell him to delay his visit until after [[Saint George]]'s feast day. As a rational solicitor, Jonathan is concerned “with facts &mdash; bare meagre facts, verified by books and figures, and of which there can be no doubt” (''Dracula''). All of Jonathan’s rationality weakens him to what he witnesses at Castle Dracula. For example, the first time Jonathan witnesses the Count crawling down the castle face down, he is in complete disbelief. Not believing what he sees, he attempts to explain what he saw as a trick of the moon light.
Despite the aforementioned problems of rationality in dealing with vampires, the characters of ''Dracula'' use (then) modern [[technology]] and rationalism to defeat the count. For example, during their pursuit of the vampire, they use [[railroads]] and [[steamships]], not to mention the [[Telegraphy|telegraph]], to keep a step ahead of him (in contrast, the count escapes in a sailboat). Van Helsing uses the aforementioned method of hypnotism to pinpoint Dracula's location. Mina even employs the then-primitive field of [[criminology]] to anticipate the count's actions, and cites both [[Cesare Lombroso]] and [[Max Nordau]], who at the time of the novel were considered experts in this field.
==Dracula in Romania==
After the death of [[Nicolae Ceau&#351;escu]], a tourist industry sprung up in [[Transylvania]] (and, to a lesser extent, in [[Wallachia]]). However, Romanians have mixed feelings about linking one of their national heroes and the vampire monster.
Historical places connected to Vlad &#354;epe&#351; are publicised under a Dracula theme catering largely, but not entirely, to foreign markets. [[Bran Castle]], which has only a very tangential connection with the historical Vlad &#354;epe&#351;, now exaggerates that connection and promotes itself as "Dracula's Castle". [http://www.draculascastle.com/] A dungeon-themed disco, catering to a mostly Romanian crowd and located in the basement of a former inn immediately adjacent to the [[Curtea Veche]] ("Old Court") -- onetime site of Vlad &#354;epe&#351;' castle in [[Bucharest]] -- calls itself by the English-language name "Impaler". The well-preserved medieval town of [[Sighi&#351;oara]], Vlad &#354;epe&#351;'s birthplace, seriously considered building a Dracula [[theme park]] on the edge of town, but in the end it was decided that such a site would cheapen the beauty and history of the medieval city and the plan was blocked. The park was then to have been built close to Bucharest (which is nowhere near Transylvania) but plans have subsequently been scrapped.
==Dracula in the arts==
''See also: [[Vampire fiction]]''
[[Image:DraculaLugosi1931Poster.jpg|thumb|[[1931]] film poster, promoting [[Bela Lugosi]]'s genre-defining turn as Dracula.]]
The character of Count Dracula has remained popular over the years, and many [[film]]s have used the character as a villain, while others have referenced him in movie titles such as ''[[Daughters of Dracula]],'' ''[[Lady Dracula]]'', and ''[[Zoltan, Hound of Dracula (film)|Zoltan, Hound of Dracula]]''. An estimated 160 films ([[as of 2004]]) feature Dracula in a major role, a number second only to [[Sherlock Holmes]]. The total number of films that include a reference to Dracula may reach as high as 649 movies, according to the [[Internet Movie Database]].
Most tellings of the Dracula story include not only the Count, but the rest of the "cast": Jonathan and Mina Harker, Van Helsing, and Renfield. (Notably, the novel roles of characters Jonathan Harker and Renfield are more than occasionally reversed or combined, as are the roles of Mina and Lucy. Quincey Morris is usually omitted entirely.)
One of the first film adaptations of Stoker's story actually caused Stoker's estate to sue for [[copyright infringement]]. In [[1922]], [[silent film]] director [[F.W. Murnau]] made a [[horror film]] called ''[[Nosferatu|Nosferatu: eine Symphonie des Grauens]]'' ('Nosferatu: A Symphony of Horror'), which took the story of Dracula and set it in [[Germany]]<!--i |
d have to distinguish between the act of consciousness and the phenomena at which it is directed (the object-in-itself, transcendent to consciousness). Knowledge of [[essence]]s would only be possible by "bracketing" all assumptions about the existence of an external world. This procedure he called ''epoché''. These new concepts prompted the publication of the ''Ideen'' (Ideas) in [[1913]], in which they were at first incorporated, and a plan for a second edition of the ''Logische Untersuchungen''.
From the ''Ideen'' onward, Husserl concentrated on the ideal, essential structures of consciousness. The metaphysical problem of establishing the material reality of what we perceive was of little interest to Husserl (other than when he had to repeatedly defend his position of transcendental idealism, which did not at any point propose that there were no real material objects). Husserl proposed that the world of objects and ways in which we direct ourselves toward and perceive those objects is normally conceived of in what he called the "natural standpoint", which is characterized by a belief that objects materially exist and exhibit properties that we see as emanating from them. Husserl proposed a radical new phenomenological way of looking at objects by examining how we, in our many ways of being intentionally directed toward them, actually "constitute" them (to be distinguished from materially creating objects or objects merely being figments of the imagination); in the Phenomenological standpoint, the object ceases to be something simply "external" and ceases to be seen as providing indicators about what it is (a way of looking that is most explicitly delineated by the natural sciences), and becomes a grouping of perceptual and functional aspects that imply one another under the idea of a particular object or "type". The notion of objects as real is not expelled by phenomenology, but "bracketed" as a way in which we regard objects instead of a feature that inheres in an object's essence founded in the relation between the object and the perceiver. In order to better understand the world of appearances and objects, [[Phenomenology]] attempts to identify the invariant features of how objects are perceived and pushes attributions of reality into their role as an attribution about the things we perceive (or an assumption underlying how we perceive objects).
In a later period, Husserl began to wrestle with the complicated issues of intersubjectivity (specifically, how communication about an object can be assumed to refer to the same ideal entity) and tries new methods of bringing his readers to understand the importance of [[Phenomenology]] to scientific inquiry (and specifically to [[Psychology]]) and what it means to "bracket" the natural attitude. The Crisis of the European Sciences is Husserl's unfinished work that deals most directly with these issues. In it, Husserl for the first time attempts a historical overview of the development of [[Western philosophy]] and [[science]], emphasizing the challenges presented by their increasingly (one-sidedly) [[empirical]] and [[naturalistic]] orientation. Husserl declares that mental and spiritual reality possess their own reality independent of any physical basis, and that a [[spiritual science | science of the spirit]] ('[[Geisteswissenschaft]]') must be established on as scientific a foundation as the [[natural science]]s have managed.
Professor Husserl was denied the use of the library at Freiburg as a result of the anti-Jewish legislation the National Socialists (Nazis) passed in April 1933. His former pupil and Nazi Party member, [[Martin Heidegger]], informed Husserl that he was discharged. Heidegger (whose philosophy Husserl considered to be the result of a faulty departure from, and grave misunderstanding of Husserl's own teachings and methods) removed the dedication to Husserl from his most widely known work, [[Being and Time]], when it was reissued in [[1941]].
In 1939 Husserl's manuscripts, amounting to approximately 40,000 pages of "''Gabelsberger''" [[stenography]] and his complete research library were smuggled to Belgium and deposited at Leuven to form the ''Husserl-Archives''. Much of the material in his research manuscripts has been published in the [[Husserliana]] critical edition series.
== Bibliography ==
===Works by Husserl===
*1887. ''Über den Begriff der Zahl. Psychologische Analysen''.
*1891. ''Philosophie der Arithmetik. Psychologische und logische Untersuchungen''.
*1900. ''Logische Untersuchungen. Erste Teil: Prolegomena zur reinen Logik''.
*1901. ''Logische Untersuchungen. Zweite Teil: Untersuchungen zur Phänomenologie und Theorie der Erkenntnis''.
*1911. ''Philosophie als strenge Wissenschaft''.
*1913. ''Ideen zu einer reinen Phänomenologie und phänomenologischen Philosophie. Erstes Buch: Allgemeine Einführung in die reine Phänomenologie''.
*1928. ''Vorlesungen zur Phänomenologie des inneren Zeitbewusstseins''.
*1929. ''Formale und transzendentale Logik. Versuch einer Kritik der logischen Vernunft''.
*1931. ''Mèditations cartèsiennes''.
*1936. ''Die Krisis der europäischen Wissenschaften und die transzentale Phänomenologie: Eine Einleitung in die phänomenologische Philosophie''.
===Works about Husserl===
*Derrida, Jacques, 1976 (English). ''Undecidables and old names: Derrida's deconstruction and Introduction to Husserl's'' The Origin of Geometry.
*Derrida, Jacques, 1967 (French), 1973 (English). ''Speech and Phenomena (La Voix et le Phénomène), and other Essays on Husserl's Theory of Signs''. ISBN 0810103974
*Hill, C. O., 1991. ''Word and Object in Husserl, Frege, and Russell: The Roots of Twentieth-Century Philosophy''. Ohio Uni. Press.
*Hill, C. O., and Rosado Haddock, G. E., 2000. ''Husserl or Frege? Meaning, Objectivity, and Mathematics''. Open Court.
*Rollinger, R. D., 1999. ''Husserl&rsquo;s Position in the School of Brentano'' Phaenomenologica 150. Kluwer. ISBN 0792356845
*Schuhmann, K., 1977. ''Husserl &ndash; Chronik (Denk- und Lebensweg Edmund Husserls)''. Number I in ''Husserliana Dokumente''. Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 9024719720
*Simons, Peter, 1987. ''Parts: A Study in Ontology''. Oxford Uni. Press.
*Smith, B. and Woodruff Smith, D., eds., 1995. ''The Cambridge Companion to Husserl''. Cambridge Uni. Press. ISBN 0521436168
== External links ==
===Husserl Archives===
* [http://www.hiw.kuleuven.ac.be/hiw/eng/husserl/ Husserl-Archives Leuven] The main Husserl-Archive in [[Leuven]], International Centre for Phenomenological Research
** [http://www.hiw.kuleuven.be/hiw/eng/husserl/Husserliana.php Husserliana: Edmund Husserl Gesammelte Werke] The ongoing critical edition of Husserl's works
** [http://www.hiw.kuleuven.be/hiw/eng/husserl/Materialien.php Husserliana:Materialien] Edition for lectures and shorter works
** [http://www.hiw.kuleuven.be/hiw/eng/husserl/Collected.php Edmund Husserl Collected Works] English translation of Husserl's works
* [http://www.husserl.uni-koeln.de/ Husserl-Archives Cologne] at the [[University]] of [[Cologne]]
* [http://www.husserlarchiv.uni-freiburg.de/husserl.html Husserl-Archives Freiburg]
* [http://www.newschool.edu/gf/phil/husserl/ Husserl Archives at the New School] ([[New York]])
* [http://www.umr8547.ens.fr/fonds-d'Archives.html Archives Husserl de Paris] at the ''École normale supérieure'', [[Paris]].
===Pages about Husserl===
*[http://www.husserlpage.com/ www.husserlpage.com] "Aim: To provide easy access to those net resources pertaining to the life and work of the 20th century philosopher, Edmund Husserl."
*[http://www.husserl.net Husserl.net] Open Content Project on Husserl.
*[http://www.husserl.info Husserl.info] Articles, Phenomenological [http://www.husserl.info/directory.html Directory] and Bibliographies [http://www.husserl.info/bibliobase.html Database], [http://www.husserl.info/guides.html Guides], [http://www.wesenschau.com Wesenschau] e-Journal for Transcendental Logic and Comparative Philosophy, Phenomenological [http://www.husserl.info/encyclopedia.html Dictionary] and [http://www.wesenschau.com/forums.html Forums]
*[http://www.formalontology.it/husserle.htm Ontology. A resource guide for philosophers] Edmund Husserl's Formal Ontology.
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/husserl/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://www.husserlcircle.org/ The Husserl Circle]
*[http://www.husserlreseach.pbwiki.com Husserlresearch.pbwiki.com] Quotes from Husserl texts.
[[Category:1859 births|Husserl, Edmund]]
[[Category:1938 deaths|Husserl, Edmund]]
[[Category:19th century philosophers|Husserl, Edmund]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Husserl, Edmund]]
[[Category:Continental philosophers|Husserl, Edmund]]
[[Category:Mathematicians|Husserl, Edmund]]
[[Category:Phenomenology|Husserl, Edmund]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Eukaryote</title>
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<revision>
<id>42118003</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:06:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Josh Grosse</username>
<id>517</id>
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{{Taxobox_begin_placement | color = #e0d0b0}}
{{Taxobox_domain_entry | taxon = '''Eukaryota'''}}<br/>{{Taxobox authority | author = [[Robert Whittaker|Whittaker]] &amp; [[Lynn Ma |
lausible explanations of recent climate change that exclude important elements of the given combination of forcings.
Detection does not imply attribution, and is easier than attribution. Unequivocal attribution would require controlled experiments with multiple copies of the climate system, which is not possible. Attribution, as described above, can therefore only be done within some margin of error. For example, in the [[IPCC Third Assessment Report|TAR]], the statement is made that ''most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is '''likely''' to have been due to the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations'' where "likely" is quantified as 66-90% certain.
== Scientific literature and opinion ==
Some examples of published and informal support for the consensus view:
* The attribution of climate change is discussed extensively, with references to peer-reviewed research, in [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/439.htm chapter 12] of the IPCC TAR, which discusses [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/443.htm#1211 The Meaning of Detection and Attribution], [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/456.htm Quantitative Comparison of Observed and Modelled Climate Change], [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/458.htm Pattern Correlation Methods] and [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/460.htm Optimal Fingerprint Methods].
*An essay in [[Science (journal)|Science]] that surveyed [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/306/5702/1686] of [[Abstract (summary)|abstracts]] related to climate change and concluded that most accepted the consensus is discussed further in [[scientific opinion on climate change]].
* A recent paper (Estimation of natural and anthropogenic contributions to twentieth century temperature change, Tett SFB et al., JGR 2002), says "Our analysis suggests that the early twentieth century warming can best be explained by a combination of warming due to increases in greenhouse gases and natural forcing, some cooling due to other anthropogenic forcings, and a substantial, but not implausible, contribution from internal variability. In the second half of the century we find that the warming is largely caused by changes in greenhouse gases, with changes in sulphates and, perhaps, volcanic aerosol offsetting approximately one third of the warming." [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/sci.environment/msg/aa8521b67cd216ac?dmode=source]
* In 1996, in a paper in [[Nature]] entitled "A search for human influences on the thermal structure of the atmosphere", [[Benjamin D. Santer]] et al. wrote: "The observed spatial patterns of temperature change in the free atmosphere from 1963 to 1987 are similar to those predicted by state-of-the-art climate models incorporating various combinations of changes in carbon dioxide, anthropogenic sulphate aerosol and stratospheric ozone concentrations. The degree of pattern similarity between models and observations increases through this period. It is likely that this trend is partially due to human activities, although many uncertainties remain, particularly relating to estimates of natural variability.". This earlier work only addressed the most recent period. Estimates of natural variability matter for assessing the significance of the trend.
* Even some scientists noted for their somewhat doubtful view of global warming accept that recent climate change is mostly anthropogenic. [[John Christy]] said: "...he supports the [http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/policy/climate_change_position.html AGU declaration], and is convinced that human activities are the major cause of the global warming that has been measured..."
[[Willie Soon]] and [[Richard Lindzen]] say that there is insufficient proof for anthropogenic attribution. For more information, see:
** "Modeling climatic effects of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions: unknowns and uncertainties", Soon W et al., 2001, Climate Research 18(3).
** "Climate hypersensitivity to solar forcing?", Soon W et al., 2000, Annales Geophysicae-Atmospheres Hydrospheres and Space Sciences 18(5).
** "Environmental effects of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide", Soon W et al., 1999, Climate Research 13(2).
** "Reconciling observations of global temperature change", Lindzen RS, Giannitsis C, 2002, Geophysical Research Letters 29(12).
** "Can increasing carbon dioxide cause climate change?", Lindzen RS, 1997, PNAS 94(16).
== See also ==
* [[global warming]]
* [[global warming controversy]]
* [[Kyoto protocol]]
* [[Global dimming]]
== References ==
* Le Quéré, ''How much of the recent ''CO<sub>2</sub>'' increase is due to human activities?'', 2005 [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=160]
== External links ==
*[http://www.realclimate.org/ RealClimate] - Blog on current climate change issues by active climatologists
*"The Climate of Man", ''The New Yorker'' (2005): [http://www.newyorker.com/printables/fact/050425fa_fact3 Part 1], [http://www.newyorker.com/printables/fact/050502fa_fact3 Part 2], [http://www.newyorker.com/printables/fact/050509fa_fact3 Part 3]
[[Category:Climate change]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Achduart</title>
<id>3203</id>
<revision>
<id>39677613</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T02:41:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mais oui!</username>
<id>394460</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{Scotland-geo-stub}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Achduart''' is a cluster of five houses too small to be termed a [[village]]. It is found a few miles southeast of [[Achiltibuie]] on the Coigach peninsula of northwestern [[Scotland]], in [[Ross and Cromarty]], [[Highland]]. It has accommodation facilities for tourists, who come for its proximity to the ocean as well as its seclusion and remoteness.
==External links==
*[http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~coigach/index.htm Coigach Genealogy]
*{{gbmapping|NC050038}}
[[Category:Villages in Highland]]
[[Category:Ross and Cromarty]]
{{Scotland-geo-stub}}</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Achiltibuie</title>
<id>3204</id>
<revision>
<id>39677790</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T02:42:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mais oui!</username>
<id>394460</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cat, links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Achiltibuie''' is a long linear village in [[Ross and Cromarty]], [[Highland]], on the [[Coigach]] coast of northwestern [[Scotland]], overlooking [[Loch Broom]] and the [[Summer Isles]] which lie to the west. Located 10 miles northwest of [[Ullapool]], Achiltibuie is home to the Hydroponicum, a garden where plants are grown using a [[hydroponic]] system,in water and without soil. It is the last stop on the road to [[Achduart]].
==External link==
* [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~coigach/index.htm Coigach Genealogy]
* {{gbmapping|NC025085}} Get-a-Map from Ordnance Survey
{{Scotland-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Ross and Cromarty]]
[[Category:Villages in Highland]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Adaptive expectations</title>
<id>3205</id>
<revision>
<id>38192691</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T20:59:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Art Carlson</username>
<id>42188</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{merge|Price/wage spiral}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Price/wage spiral}}
In [[economics]], '''adaptive expectations''' means that people form their expectations about what will happen in the future based on what has happened in the past. For example, if inflation has been high in the past, people would expect it to be high in the future.
In the theory of [[inflation]], [[demand pull inflation]] and [[cost push inflation]] are usually short-lived shocks. However, a series of such shocks may lead people to assume that inflation is a permanent feature of the economy (especially if the shocks are large). In that case they will modify their economic behaviour accordingly, based on their heightened expectation of future inflation rates. For instance, they may begin demanding larger (nominal) pay raises. This in itself acts as a cost push, leading firms to push their prices higher, especially since the firms themselves have similar expectations of inflation. This encourages another round of pay-raises.
This merges with the "[[price/wage spiral]]" to build some inflation directly into the economy. The combination of the price/wage spiral and inflationary expectations reflecting the recent past's experience with inflation gives an economy [[built-in inflation]].
The theory of adaptive expectations was popular in the 1980s, as an explanation of some aspects of the economic crisis that the West went through after the 1970s oil shock. The fact that some countries, particularly the UK, took until the 1990s to achieve stable low inflation rates again suggests there may well be something in the idea.
The theory of adaptive expectations can be stated using the following equation, where '''p<sup>e</sup>''' is the next year's rate of inflation that is currently expected; '''p<sup>e</sup><sub>-1</sub>''' is this year's rate of inflation that was expected last year; '''p''' is this year's actual rate of inflation,
::'''p<sup>e</sup>''' = '''p<sup>e</sup><sub>-1</sub>''' + '''&lambda;'''*('''p''' &ndash; '''p<sup>e</sup><sub>-1</sub>''')
With '''&lambda;''' is between 1 and 0, this says that current expectations of future inflation reflect past expectations and an "error-adjustment" term, in which current expectations are raised (or lowered) according to the gap between actual inflation and previous expectations. This error-adjustm |
Wiles]]
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[[he:אנדרו ויילס]]
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[[ja:アンドリュー・ワイルズ]]
[[pt:Andrew Wiles]]
[[ru:Уайлс, Эндрю Джон]]
[[scn:Andrew Wiles]]
[[sl:Andrew John Wiles]]
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[[zh:安德魯·懷爾斯]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Ambient</title>
<id>2028</id>
<revision>
<id>15900482</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-10T10:04:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Anome</username>
<id>76</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Ambient music]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Anne Brontë</title>
<id>2029</id>
<revision>
<id>41422946</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T05:30:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bronteana</username>
<id>998136</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
|[[Image:Anne_Bronte.jpg|thumb|200px|Anne Brontë, by Charlotte Brontë, 1834]]
|-
|[[Image:Annebronte.jpg|thumb|200px|Anne Brontë's grave at Scarborough]]
|}
'''Anne Brontë''' {{IPA|/b&#633;&#593;nti/}} ([[January 17]], [[1820]] &ndash; [[May 28]], [[1849]]) was a British novelist and poet, the youngest of the [[Brontë]] literary family.
She was born in the village of [[Thornton, Bradford|Thornton]], [[Yorkshire]], [[England]], the last of six siblings. Anne's mother, Maria Branwell Brontë, died of cancer a year later in [[1821]], after the family had moved to [[Haworth]] where her father, [[Patrick Brontë]], was appointed [[vicar|perpetual curate]]. While she was a child her two eldest siblings, Maria and Elizabeth died of tuberculousis and much has been written about the influence of these deaths on her and her siblings and how it may have affected their later writings. Two of her sisters, [[Charlotte Brontë|Charlotte]] and [[Emily Brontë|Emily]], were also authors and poets. Anne's poetry was published, along with that of her sisters, in [[1846]], under the [[pseudonym]] "[[Acton Bell]]".
Shortly after the deaths of her brother [[Branwell Brontë|Branwell]] and sister Emily in the winter of [[1848]], Anne Brontë died at the [[seaside resort]] of [[Scarborough, England]], where she had gone to convalesce after a prolonged illness. She was buried there at Saint Mary's Churchyard.
==Books credited to Acton Bell==
*''[[Agnes Grey]],'' published [[1847]]
*''[[The Tenant of Wildfell Hall]],'' published [[1848]]
==References==
* {{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}}
* ''Anne Bronte'', Winifred Gerin
* ''A Life of Anne Bronte'', Edward Chitham
* ''The Brontes'', Juliet Barker
==External links==
*[http://www.shef.ac.uk/misc/personal/cs1ma/anne/bronte.html Anne Brontë – The Scarborough Connection]
*{{gutenberg author | id=Anne_Brontë | name=Anne Brontë}}
*[http://bronteblog.blogspot.com News and information about the Brontës using a blog format.]
* [http://wildfell.aking-mahal.net/ ''Truth'' – the Tenant of Wildfell Hall fanlisting]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/BronteSistersLinks/ Bronte Sisters Links: the biggest collection of links regarding the Bronte Sisters]
* [http://bronteana.blogspot.com Brontëana: Brontë Studies Weblog]
[[category:Pseudonyms|Bell, Acton]]
[[Category:1820 births|Bronte, Anne]]
[[Category:1849 deaths|Bronte, Anne]]
[[Category:English poets|Bronte, Anne]]
[[Category:English novelists|Bronte, Anne]]
[[Category:Brontë family]]
[[Category:Natives of Yorkshire|Bronte, Anne]]
[[Category:Women of the Victorian era|Brontë, Anne]]
[[Category:Women poets|Brontë, Anne]]
[[Category:Women writers|Brontë, Anne]]
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[[zh:安妮·勃朗特]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Augustine of Hippo</title>
<id>2030</id>
<revision>
<id>42013745</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:34:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stbalbach</username>
<id>87883</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Augustine_of_Hippo.jpg|right|thumb|St. Augustine of Hippo as pictured during the [[Renaissance]]]]
'''Aurelius Augustinus''', '''Augustine of Hippo''' ("The knowledgeable one") ([[November 13]], [[354]]&ndash;[[August 28]], [[430]]) is a [[saint]] and pre-eminent [[Doctor of the Church]] in [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]], and is considered by [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] [[Protestantism|Protestants]] to be, together with the [[Apostle Paul]] and the [[Bible]], one of the theological fountainheads of the [[Reformation]] teaching on [[salvation]] and [[divine grace|grace]]. He was the eldest son of [[Monica of Hippo|Saint Monica]]. Works of Saint Augustine, an [[African]] by birth, (as well as a Bishop in the [[Early African Church]]) a [[Rome|Roman]] by education, a [[Milan]]ese by [[baptism]], still inspire many Christians all over the world. His work ''[[Confessions (St. Augustine)|Confessions]]'' is often attributed as the first Western [[autobiography]].
==Life==
[[Image:Sainte Monique.jpg|thumb|right|"St Augustine and Monica" (1846), by [[Ary Scheffer]].]]
Saint Augustine was born in [[354]] in [[Tagaste]], a provincial Roman city in [[North Africa]]. He was raised and educated in [[Carthage]]. His mother Monica ([[Saint Monica]]) was a devout [[Catholic]]{{fn|1}} and his father [[Patricius]] a [[Paganism|pagan]] but Augustine followed the controversial [[Manichaeism|Manichaean]] religion, much to the horror of his mother. As a youth Augustine lived a hedonistic lifestyle for a time, and in Carthage, he developed a relationship with a young woman who would be his [[concubine]] for over a decade, with whom he had a son. His education and early career was in [[philosophy]] and [[rhetoric]], the art of persuasion and public speaking. He taught in Tagaste and Carthage, but desired to travel to Rome where he believed the best and brightest rhetoricians practiced (he was later to find out that they would simply refuse to pay). However, Augustine grew disappointed with the Roman schools, which he found apathetic. Manichean friends introduced him to the prefect of the City of Rome, [[Symmachus]], who had been asked to provide a professor of rhetoric for the imperial court at [[Milan]].
The young provincial won the job and headed north to take up his position in late [[384]]. At age thirty, Augustine had won the most visible academic chair in the Latin world, at a time when such posts gave ready access to political careers. However, he felt the tensions of life at an imperial court, lamenting one day as he rode in his carriage to deliver a grand speech before the emperor, that a drunken beggar he passed on the street had a less careworn existence than he.
His mother Monica pressured him to become a Catholic, but it was the bishop of Milan, [[Ambrose]], who had most influence over Augustine. Ambrose was a master of rhetoric like Augustine himself, but older and more experienced. Prompted in part by Ambrose's [[sermon]]s, and other studies, including a disappointing meeting with a key exponent of Manichaean theology, Augustine moved away from Manichaeism; but instead of becoming Catholic like Ambrose and Monica, he converted to a pagan [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic]] approach to truth, saying that for a time he had a sense of making real progress in his quest, although he eventually lapsed into skepticism.
Augustine's mother had followed him to Milan and he allowed her to arrange a society marriage, for which he abandoned his concubine (however he had to wait two years until his fiancée came of age; he promptly took up in the meantime with another woman). It was during this period Augustine of Hippo uttered his famous prayer, "Grant me chastity and continence, but not yet" [da mihi castitatem et continentiam, sed noli modo].
In the summer of [[386]], after having read an account of the life of [[Anthony the Great|Saint Anthony of the Desert]] which greatly inspired him, Augustine underwent a profound personal crisis and decided to convert to Christianity, abandon his career in rhetoric, quit his teaching position in Milan, give up any ideas of marriage (much to the horror of his mother), and devote himself entirely to serving [[God]] and the practices of [[priesthood]], which included [[celibacy]]. Key to this conversion/'born again' experience was the voice of a small girl he heard at one point telling him in a sing-song voice to 'Take and read' the Bible, at which point he opened the Bible at random and fell upon a passage from [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]]. He would detail his spiritual journey in his famous ''[[Confessions (St. Augustine)|Confessions]]'', which went on to become a classic of both Christian theology and world literature. Ambrose baptized Augustine on [[Easter]] day in [[387]], and soon thereafter in [[388]] he returned to Africa. On his way back to Africa his mother died, as did his son soon after, leaving him relatively alone in the world without family.
Upon his return to north Africa he created a [[monastic]] foundation at Tagaste for himself and a group of friends. In [[391]] he was [[ordination|ordained]] a [[priest]] in [[Hippo Regius]], (now [[Annaba]], in [[Algeria]]). He became a famous [[preacher]] (more than 350 preserved sermons are believed to be authentic), and was noted for combating the Manichaean heresy.
In [[396]] he was made [[coadjutor bishop]] of Hippo (assistant with the right of succession on the death of the current bishop), |
[[Purim]]. Collectively, the [[Ketuvim]] contain lyrical poetry, philosophical reflections on life, and the stories of the prophets and other Jewish leaders during the Babylonian exile. It ends with the Persian decree allowing Jews to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple.
Ketuvim contains eleven books:
* I. Tehillim ([[Psalms]]) &#1514;&#1492;&#1500;&#1497;&#1501;
* II. Mishlei ([[Book of Proverbs]]) &#1502;&#1513;&#1500;&#1497;
* III. `Iyyov ([[Book of Job]]) &#1488;&#1497;&#1493;&#1489;
* IV. Shir ha-Shirim ([[Song of Songs]]) &#1513;&#1497;&#1512; &#1492;&#1513;&#1497;&#1512;&#1497;&#1501;
* V. Ruth ([[Book of Ruth]]) &#1512;&#1493;&#1514;
* VI. Eikhah ([[Lamentations]]) &#1488;&#1497;&#1499;&#1492; [Also called ''Kinnot'' (קינות) in Hebrew.]
* VII. Kohelet ([[Ecclesiastes]]) &#1511;&#1492;&#1500;&#1514;
* VIII. Esther ([[Book of Esther]]) &#1488;&#1505;&#1514;&#1512;
* IX. Daniel ([[Book of Daniel]]) &#1491;&#1504;&#1497;&#1488;&#1500;
* X. Ezra (often divided into two books, [[Book of Ezra]] and [[Book of Nehemiah]] (עזרא (נחמיה
* XI. Divrei ha-Yamim ([[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]], often divided into two books) &#1491;&#1489;&#1512;&#1497; &#1492;&#1497;&#1502;&#1497;&#1501;
===Translations and editions===
The Tanakh was mainly written in [[Biblical Hebrew]], with some portions (notably in [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]]) in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]].
Some time in the [[3rd century BC]], the Torah was translated into [[Koine Greek]], and over the next century, other books were translated as well. This translation became known as the [[Septuagint]] and was widely used by Greek-speaking [[Jew]]s, and later by [[Christian]]s. It differs somewhat from the Hebrew text as standardized later ([[Masoretic Text]]). This translation was also granted divine authority by way of a Rabbinic legend that 70 seperate translators all produced identical texts, indicating that the translation was divinely inspired.
From the [[800s]] to the [[1400s]], Rabbinic Jewish scholars known as the [[Masoretes]] compared the text of all known Biblical manuscripts in an effort to create a unified, standardized text; a series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as Masoretic Texts (MT). The Masoretes also added [[vowel]] points (called [[niqqud]]) to the text, since the original text only contained [[consonant]]s. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation, since some words differ only in their vowels— their meaning can vary in accordance with the choice of vowels to insert. In antiquity other variant readings existed, some of which have survived in the [[Samaritan Pentateuch]], the [[Dead Sea scrolls]], and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient versions in other languages.
Versions of the Septuagint contain several passages and whole books beyond what was included in the Masoretic texts of the Tanakh. In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or variants not present in the Masoretic texts. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than was once thought. While there are no complete surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew texts on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that they represent a different textual tradition from the one that eventually became the basis for the Masoretic texts.
The Jews also produced nonliteral translations or paraphrases known as [[targum]]s, primarily in Aramaic. They frequently expanded on the text with additional details taken from Rabbinic oral tradition.
See below for a partial list of contemporary English translations.
==The Christian Bible==
{{Christianity}}
[[image:bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A Bible handwritten in Latin, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in 1407, for reading aloud in a monastery.]]
The [[Septuagint]] was generally abandoned in favor of the Masoretic text as the basis for translations into [[Western world|Western]] languages from [[Jerome|Saint Jerome's]] [[Vulgate]] to the present day. In [[Eastern Christianity]] translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. Some modern Western translations make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic text that seem to have suffered corruption in transcription. They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in texts discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls. (For more information, see the entry on [[Bible translations]].)
===The Old Testament===
The collection of books that the majority of [[Christian]]s (including members of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] Churches) call the [[Old Testament]] includes [[deuterocanonical books]] preserved in the [[Greek language|Greek]] of the [[Septuagint]]. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] recognizes seven such books ([[Book of Tobit|Tobit]], [[Book of Judith|Judith]], [[1 Maccabees]], [[2 Maccabees]], [[Wisdom of Solomon]], [[Sirach|Sirach [Ecclesiasticus]]], and [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]), as well as some passages in [[Book of Esther|Esther]] and [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]. Various Orthodox Churches include a few others, typically [[3 Maccabees]], [[Psalm 151]], [[1 Esdras]], [[Odes]], [[Psalms of Solomon]], and occasionally [[4 Maccabees]]. [[Protestantism|Protestants]] in general do not recognize these books as part of the Bible, though they may print them along with the books they do recognize.
===The New Testament===
The [[New Testament]] is a collection of 27 books with [[Jesus]] as its central figure, written primarily in [[Koine Greek]] in the early [[Christian]] period, that almost all [[Christian]]s recognize as [[Sacred text|Scripture]]. These can be grouped into:
*The [[Synoptic Gospels]]
**the [[Gospel According to Matthew]]
**the [[Gospel According to Mark]]
**the [[Gospel According to Luke]]
<!-- These are fully listed in the general article above
**The [[Gospel of Matthew]] - [[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]], a tax-collector and [[apostle]].
**The [[Gospel of Mark]] - [[Mark the Evangelist|Mark]], a follower of [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and also of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]].
**The [[Gospel of Luke]] - [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]], a follower of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]].
-->
*The [[Gospel of John]]
*The [[Acts of the Apostles]]
*The [[Pauline Epistles]]
<!-- These are fully listed in the general article above
**[[Epistle to the Romans]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] the [[Apostle]]
**[[First Epistle to the Corinthians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[Epistle to the Galatians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[Epistle to the Philippians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[Epistle to Philemon]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[First Epistle to the Thessalonians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], though disputed by many modern scholars
**[[Epistle to the Ephesians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], though disputed by many modern scholars
**[[Epistle to the Colossians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], though disputed by many modern scholars
**The [[Pastoral Epistles]] - traditionally [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], but normally considered by two thirds of modern scholars to be by another (single) author
***[[First Epistle to Timothy]]
***[[Second Epistle to Timothy]]
***[[Epistle to Titus]]
**[[Epistle to the Hebrews]] - Anonymous, but sometimes traditionally attributed to [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], although disputed by even the most conservative of modern scholars.
-->
*The [[General Epistles]]
<!-- These are fully listed in the general article above
**[[Epistle of James]] - [[James the Just|James]], "the brother of the Lord"
**[[First Epistle of Peter]] - [[Saint Peter|Peter]] the [[Apostle]] (considered by many modern scholars to be written by another author)
**[[Second Epistle of Peter]] - [[Saint Peter|Peter]] the [[Apostle]] (considered by many modern scholars to be written by another author)
**[[First Epistle of John]] - [[John the Apostle]] (the [[Authorship of the Johannine works|Johannine]] letters are usually attributed to members of the community of his disciples, though [[First Epistle of John|1 John]] closely resembles the [[Gospel of John]] in style and vocabulary)
**[[Second Epistle of John]] - [[John the Apostle]]
**[[Third Epistle of John]] - [[John the Apostle]]
**[[Epistle of Jude]] - [[Jude]], brother of [[James the Just|James]]
-->
*The [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] of [[John the Divine|John "the divine"]] (traditionally identified as [[John the Apostle]]). <!-- This is the bible article, keep it tight.
There is still debate as to whether this is [[John the Apostle]] or another prophet by the same name. -->
==== Original language ====
Most scholars believe that all of the [[New Testament]] was originally composed in Greek. The three main textual traditions are sometimes called the [[Western text-type]], the [[Alexandrian text-type]], and [[Byzantine text-type]]. Together they compose the majority of New Testament [[manuscript]]s. There are also several ancient versions in other languages, most important of which are the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] (including the [[Peshitta]] and the [[Diatessaron]] gospel harmony) and the [[Latin]] (both the [[Vetus Latina]] and the Vulgate).
A few scholars believe in [[Aramaic primacy]] &mdash; that parts of the Greek New Testament are actually a translation of an Aramaic original, in particular, the [[Gospel of Matthew]]. Of these, a small number accep |
cience San Francisco Chronicle]</ref>.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 65 MYA
| The [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]] (sixth extinction event) wipes out about half of all animal species including all non-avian dinosaurs, probably because of a cooling of the climate precipitated by the giant impact of an asteroid: [[iridium]] powder from the asteroid forms a layer that covers the whole Earth. Creation of the [[Chicxulub Crater]] (170 km across, now half-submerged off the Yucatan peninsula of [[Mexico]]).
Without the presence of the giant and diurnal dinosaurs, [[mammal]]s can increase in diversity and size. Some will later return back to the sea ([[whale]]s, [[sirenia]]ns, [[Seal (mammal)|seals]]) and others will evolve flight ([[bat]]s). A group of small, nocturnal and arboreal, insect-eating mammals called the [[Archonta]] branches into the [[Primate|primates]], tree shrews, and bats. Primates have binocular vision and grasping digits, features that help them to jump from one tree branch to another. One example is ''[[Plesiadapis]]'' which is extinct by 45 million years ago.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 60 MYA
| ''[[Creodont]]'', meat eater, northern hemisphere, extinct by 5.2 million years ago, possible ancestor of [[Miacids]].
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 55 MYA
| [[Australia]] breaks away from [[Antarctica]]. The earliest true primates, called [[euprimates]], first appear in [[North America]], [[Asia]], and [[Europe]]. One example is ''[[Carpolestes simpsoni]]'' at [[Clarks_Fork_Yellowstone_River|Clarks Fork Basin]] of [[Wyoming]]. It has grasping digits but no forward facing eyes. Another (earliest?) euprimate ''[[Teilhardina asiatica]]'' ([[Hunan]], China) is mouse-sized, diurnal, and has small eyes. [[Shortfin_Mako_Shark|Mako Sharks]] are the probable ancestor of the [[Great White Shark]] <ref>"<cite>I also wish to completely dispel the myth that the modern Great White evolved from the megalodon shark. Is the proper way to do this to write this paper, publish it in a scientific journal, and subject it to peer review&mdash;yes? Is that what I am doing&mdash;no.......because I think there is no way to "win" with the opinions on this one as set in stone as they seem to be (on both sides)</cite>" [http://www.megalodonteeth.com/articles/article2.html Origin of the Modern Great White Shark] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])<br /> "<cite>'Most scientists would probably say the Great Whites evolved from the megalodon line, which existed from two million to twenty million years ago. They were huge sharks, approximately the length of a Greyhound bus and possessing teeth that were up to six inches [150 mm] long,' explains Ciampaglio. 'However, our research, which is based on analyzing fossils of several hundred shark teeth, shows that the Great White shares more similarities with the mako shark.'</cite>"[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/05/050502144430.htm Great White Shark Evolution Debate] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])<br /> "<cite>.. most paleontologists agree [..] that Megalodon is not a direct ancestor of the modern White Shark, more like a great uncle or aunt.</cite>" [http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/origin_megalodon.htm The Origin of Megalodon] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])</ref>.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 50 MYA
| The [[evolution of the horse]] starts with [[Hyracotherium]]: the size of a fox with large nails instead of hoofs. Ancestor of [[whales]] (which include [[dolphin]]s), ''[[Ambulocetus|Ambulocetus natans]]'' (Pakistan) probably walks on land like the modern sea lion and swims like modern otters. It has webbed feet that give it added power when swimming, and still hears directly from its ears. ''[[Pezosiren portelli]]'', ancestor of modern [[manatees]], walks like a hippo and swims like an otter. [[Miacid]]s include ''[[Miacis]]'', a five-clawed ancestor of all dogs, cats, bears, raccoon, fox, hyena, jackal, civet; it is a meat-eating, weasel-like tree climber.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 48.5 MYA
| ''[[Gastornis geiselensis]]'' (Europe, USA), 1.75 m tall carnivorous bird, is a top predator
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 46.5 MYA
| ''[[Rodhocetus]]'', ancestor of whale, successor to ''[[Ambulocetus]]'', no longer needs to drink fresh water.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 43 MYA
| Earliest [[elephant]], ''[[Moeritherium]]'' ([[Egypt]]): 1m tall, size of a large [[pig]], eats soft, juicy plants. It has a long nose, but no [[trunk]] nor [[tusk]]s.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 40 MYA
| Primates (order) diverge into suborders [[Strepsirrhini]] (lemurs and lorises) and [[Haplorrhini]] (tarsiers, monkeys and apes); the latter is diurnal and herbivorous.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 37 MYA
| ''[[Basilosaurus]]'', up to 20 m long, snakelike ancestor of [[whale|whales]], has reduced but well-developed hind limbs. Hears from sounds transmitted to middle ears through vibrations from lower jaws. In Egypt's '[[Whale Valley]]', what would later be the Wadi Hitan desert is underwater, teeming with ''Basilosaurus isis'' which had no blowhole but had to raise its head above water to breathe. Early ancestors of [[Strepsirrhini|strepsirrhines]] primate appear in the Egyptian desert, ''[[Biretia fayumensis]]'' and ''[[Biretia megalopsis]]''.<ref>"<cite>Researchers have discovered fossilized remains of two previously unknown primate species that lived 37 million years ago in what is now the Egyptian desert.</cite>" "<cite>The discovery, researchers say, is evidence that the common ancestor of living anthropoids arose in Africa and that anthropoids have been evolving on the now separated Africa-Arabia landmass for at least 45 million years.</cite>" [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/10/1017_051017_egyptprimates.html New Primate Fossils Support "Out of Africa" Theory] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])</ref>.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 35 MYA
| [[Poaceae|Grasses]] evolve from among the [[angiosperm]]s.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 30 MYA
| [[Haplorrhini]] (suborder) splits into infraorders [[Platyrrhini]] (New World monkeys) and [[Catarrhini]] (Old World primates). New World monkeys have [[prehensile tail]]s and migrate to [[South America]]. Catarrhines stay in [[Africa]] as the two continents drift apart. One ancestor of catarrhines might be ''[[Aegyptopithecus]]''. New World monkey males are color blind. Haplorrhines: ''[[Bugtipithecus inexpectans]]'', ''[[Phileosimias kamali]]'' and ''[[Phileosimias brahuiorum]]'', similar to today's lemurs, live in rainforests on [[Bugti Hills]] of central Pakistan. Ancestor of all cats, 9 kg ''[[Proailurus]]'', lives in trees in [[Europe]], goes extinct 20 million years ago.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 27.5 MYA
| ''[[Indricothere]]'', rhino relative, 4.5 m tall, tallest mammal on land, lives in [[Mongolia]].
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 27 MYA
| ''[[Phorusrhacos longissimus]]'' (Terror Bird) 2.5 m tall in the [[Americas]]. Extinct by 15,000 years ago.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 25 MYA
| [[Catarrhini]] males gain color vision but lose the pheromone pathway <ref>"<cite> Once humans could see in color the visual inspection of a potential mate yielded far more useful information and at a greater distance than was the case with scents. As a result of natural selection color-seeing primates came to have neuronal wiring that caused them to place much more importance on appearance in mate choice. In Zhang's view it is therefore not coincidental that around the time human males developed the ability to see color humans also lost the ability to respond to pheromones</cite>" [http://www.futurepundit.com/archives/001412.html Evolution Of Color Eyesight Led To Loss Of Pheromone Response] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])</ref>. Catarrhini splits into 2 superfamilies, Old World monkeys ([[Cercopithecoidea]]) and apes ([[Hominoidea]]). The Old World primates do not have [[prehensile tail]]s (e.g. [[Baboon]]); some do not have tails at all. All hominoids are without tails.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 22 MYA
| India collides with Asia, causing the rise of [[Himalaya]] and the [[Tibetan plateau]]. Cut off from the humidity, [[Central Asia]] becomes a desert. Appearance of ''[[deinotherium]]'', ancient elephant, extinct by 2 million years ago. Evolving from an animal that looks part dog, part bear and part raccoon, the dawn bear (''[[Ursavus elmensis]]'') is the ancestor of all bears living today. It is the size of a fox, hunts in the tree tops, and supplements a diet of meat with plant material and insects. The first group, the ''[[Ailuropodinae]]'', follows a plant-based diet, branches off, and only one member, the giant panda (''[[Ailuropoda melanoleuca]]''), survives today.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 21 MYA
| A [[mongoose]]-like creature floats to Madagascar from Africa on a raft of vegetation. It becomes the ancestor of all carnivorous mammals there.
|- valign="TOP"
| align="RIGHT" nowrap | 20 MYA
| The [[African plate]] collides with [[Asia]]. ''[[Cynodictis]]'', ancestor of dogs, has a shortened fifth claw which foreshadows the [[dewclaw]] (vestigial) of modern dogs. They look like the modern day [[civet]] and have feet and toes suited for running. The two sup |
h (orthography)|digraph]]s and three-letter groups are called [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraph]]s. [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]] uses a tesseragraph (four letters) for one of its phonemes.
* A language may represent the same phoneme with two different letters or combinations of letters.
* A language may spell some words with unpronounced letters that exist for historical or other reasons.
* Pronunciation of individual words may change according to the presence of surrounding words in a sentence.
* Different dialects of a language may use different phonemes for the same word.
* A language may use different sets of symbols or different rules for distinct sets of vocabulary items (such as the Japanese [[hiragana]] and [[katakana]] syllabaries, or the various rules in English for spelling words from Latin and Greek, or the original [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] vocabulary.
National languages generally elect to address the problem of dialects by simply associating the alphabet with the national standard. However, with an international language with wide variations in its dialects, such as [[English language|English]], it would be impossible to represent the language in all its variations with a single phonetic alphabet.
Some national languages like [[Finnish language|Finnish]] have a very regular spelling system with a nearly one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes. The [[Italian language|Italian]] verb corresponding to 'spell', ''compitare'', is unknown to many Italians because the act of spelling itself is almost never needed: each phoneme of Standard Italian is represented in only one way. However, pronunciation cannot always be predicted from spelling because certain letters are pronounced in more than one way. In standard Spanish, it is possible to tell the pronunciation of a word from its spelling, but not vice versa; this is because certain phonemes can be represented in more than one way, but a given letter is consistently pronounced. [[French language|French]], with its [[silent letter]]s and its heavy use of [[nasal vowel]]s and [[elision]], may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, but its rules on pronunciation are actually consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy. At the other extreme, however, are languages such as English and [[Irish language|Irish]], where the spelling of many words simply has to be memorized as they do not correspond to sounds in a consistent way. For English, this is because the [[Great Vowel Shift]] occurred after the orthography was established, and because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times retaining their original spelling at varying levels. However, even English has general rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and these rules are successful most of the time.
The sounds of speech of all languages of the world can be written by a rather small universal phonetic alphabet. A standard for this is the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]].
==Collation==
{{details|Collation}}
An alphabet also serves to establish an ''order'' among letters that can be used for sorting entries in lists, called collating. Note that the order does not have to be constant among different languages using this alphabet; for examples see [[Latin alphabet#Collating in other languages|Latin alphabet: Collating in other languages]].
In recent years the [[Unicode]] initiative has attempted to collate most of the world's known writing systems into a single [[character encoding]]. As well as its primary purpose of standardising computer processing of non-Roman scripts, the Unicode project has provided a focus for script-related scholarship.
==The Alphabet effect==
Some communication theorists (notably those associated with the so-called "Toronto school of communications", such as [[Marshall McLuhan]], [[Harold Innis]] and more recently [[Robert K. Logan]]) have advanced hypotheses to the effect that alphabetic scripts in particular have served to promote and encourage the skills of analysis, coding, decoding, and classification. This set of hypotheses may be known as "the Alphabet effect", after the title of Logan's [[1986]] work.
The theory claims that a greater level of abstraction is required due to the greater economy of symbols in alphabetic systems; and this abstraction needed to interpret phonemic symbols in turn has contributed in some way to the development of the societies which use it. Proponents of this theory hold that the development of alphabetic (as distinct to other types of) writing systems has made a significant impact on "Western" thinking and development because it introduced a new level of abstraction, analysis, and classification. McLuhan and Logan (1977) postulates that, as a result of these skills, the use of the alphabet created an environment conducive to the development of codified law, monotheism, abstract science, deductive logic, objective history, and individualism. According to Logan, "All of these innovations, including the alphabet, arose within the very narrow geographic zone between the Tigris-Euphrates river system and the Aegean Sea, and within the very narrow time frame between 2000 B.C. and 500 B.C." (Logan 2004).
However, many of these abstractions first occurred in societies which did not use an alphabet, such as the codified law of [[Hammurabi]] in [[Babylonia]], which predated similar codes in societies with the alphabet. Since the alphabet quickly spread to become nearly ubiquitous, it is difficult to trace cause and effect in this matter.
== See also ==
* [[Abecedarium]]
* [[Abjad]]
* [[Abugida]]
* [[Akshara]]
* [[Alphabetical order]]
* [[Alphabets derived from the Latin]]
* [[Artificial script]]s
* [[Character set]]
* [[Lipogram]]
* [[List of alphabets]]
* [[Syllabary]]
* [[Transliteration]]
* [[Unicode]]
* [[A]] | [[B]] | [[C]] | [[D]] | [[E]] | [[F]] | [[G]] | [[H]] | [[I]] | [[J]] | [[K]] | [[L]] | [[M]] | [[N]] | [[O]] | [[P]] | [[Q]] | [[R]] | [[S]] | [[T]] | [[U]] | [[V]] | [[W]] | [[X]] | [[Y]] | [[Z]]
== References ==
* {{cite book | author=Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William | title=The World's Writing Systems | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-19-507993-0 }} - Overview of modern and some ancient writing systems.
* {{cite book | author=Driver, G.R. | title=Semetic Writing from Pictograph to Alphabet | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1976 }}
* {{cite book | author=Hoffman, Joel M. | title=In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language | publisher=NYU Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0814736548 }} - Chapter 3 traces and summarizes the invention of alphabetic writing.
* {{cite book | author=Logan, Robert K. | title=The Alphabet Effect: A Media Ecology Understanding of the Making of Western Civilization | publisher=Hampton Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1-57273-522-8}}
* McLuhan, Marshall; Logan, Robert K. (1977). Alphabet, Mother of Invention. Etcetera. Vol. 34, pp. 373-383.
* {{cite book | author=Ouaknin, Marc-Alain; Bacon, Josephine | title=Mysteries of the Alphabet: The Origins of Writing | publisher=Abbeville Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0-7892-0521-1 }}
* {{cite book | author=Sacks, David | title=Letter Perfect: The Marvelous History of Our Alphabet from A to Z | publisher=Broadway Books | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-7679-1173-3}}
* {{cite book | author=Saggs, H.W.F | title=Civilization Before Greece and Rome | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0300050313}} - Chapter 4 traces the invention of writing.
== External links ==
{{wiktionarypar|alphabet}}
* [http://omniglot.com/writing/alphabetic.htm Alphabetic Writing Systems]
* [[Michael Everson]]'s [http://www.evertype.com/alphabets/index.html Alphabets of Europe]
* The [http://www.unicode.org/cldr/data/diff/by_type/characters.html Unicode Consortium]
* [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~rfradkin/alphapage.html Evolution of alphabets] animation by Prof. Robert Fradkin at the University of Maryland
* [http://www.ancientscripts.com/alphabet.html History of alphabet]
* [http://hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/Unit_One/Aleph-Bet/aleph-bet.html The Hebrew Alphabet]
[[Category:Alphabetic writing systems]]
[[Category:Documents]]
[[Category:Writing]]
[[af:Alfabet]]
[[als:Alphabet]]
[[ar:أبجدية]]
[[ast:Alfabetu]]
[[be:Алфавіт]]
[[bg:Азбука]]
[[br:Lizherenneg]]
[[ca:Alfabet]]
[[cv:Алфавит]]
[[cs:Abeceda]]
[[da:Alfabet]]
[[de:Alphabet]]
[[et:Tähestik]]
[[es:Alfabeto]]
[[eo:Alfabetoj]]
[[eu:Alfabeto]]
[[fr:Alphabet]]
[[gl:Alfabeto]]
[[id:Alfabet]]
[[it:Alfabeto]]
[[he:אלפבית]]
[[ka:ანბანი]]
[[ko:음소 문자]]
[[ku:Alfabe]]
[[kw:Lytherennek]]
[[la:abecedarium]]
[[lad:Alefbet]]
[[lv:Alfabēts]]
[[lt:Abėcėlė]]
[[hu:Ábécé]]
[[ms:Aksara]]
[[nl:Alfabet]]
[[ja:アルファベット]]
[[no:Alfabet]]
[[nn:Alfabet]]
[[pl:Alfabet]]
[[pt:Alfabeto]]
[[ro:Alfabet]]
[[ru:Алфавит]]
[[sq:Alfabeti]]
[[simple:Alphabet]]
[[sk:Abeceda]]
[[sl:Abeceda]]
[[fi:Aakkoset]]
[[sv:Alfabet]]
[[tl:Alpabeto]]
[[th:อักษร]]
[[tr:Abece]]
[[uk:Алфавіт]]
[[zh:字母]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atomic number</title>
<id>673</id>
<revision>
<id>42072226</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:03:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vsmith</username>
<id>84417</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.157.119.20|207.157.119.20]] ([[User talk:207.157.119.20|talk]]) to last version by Vsmith</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemistry]] and [[physics]], the '''atomic number''' ('''Z''') is the number of [[proton]]s found in the nucleus of an [[atom]]. In an atom of [[neutral|neutral charge]], the number of [[electrons]] ''also'' equals the atomic number.
The atomic number originally meant the number of an element's place in the [[periodic table]]. When [[Dmitriy Mendeleyev|Mendeleyev]] arranged the known [[chemical element]]s grouped by their |
riction. While this can be beneficial, as in [[polishing]], it is often a problem, as the materials are worn away, and may no longer hold the specified [[tolerance (engineering)|tolerances]].
The work done by friction can translate into deformation and heat that in the long run may affect the surface's specification and the coefficient of friction itself. Friction can in some cases cause solid materials to [[melt]].
Friction may occur between [[solids]], [[gases]] and [[fluids]] or any combination thereof. See [[aerodynamics]] and [[hydrodynamics]].
==Reducing Friction==
===Devices===
Devices, such as [[ball bearing]]s can change sliding friction into the less significant rolling friction.
===Techniques===
One technique used by railroad engineers is to back up the train to create slack in the linkages between cars. This allows the train to pull forward and only take on the [[static friction]] of one car at a time, instead of all cars at once, thus spreading the static frictional force out over time.
Generally, when moving an object over a distance: To minimize work against static friction, the movement is performed in a single interval, if possible. To minimize work against kinetic friction, the movement is performed at the lowest velocity that's practical. This also minimizes frictional stress.
===Lubricants===
A common way to reduce friction is by using a [[lubricant]], such as oil, that is placed between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction. The science of friction and lubrication is called ''[[tribology]]''. Lubricant technology is when lubricants are mixed with the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives.
[[Superlubricity]], a recently-discovered effect, has been observed in [[graphite]]: it is the substantial decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels - a very small amount of frictional energy would be dissipated due to electronic and/or [[Atom vibrations|atomic vibrations]].
Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids such as graphite and [[talc]]; [[acoustic lubrication]] actually uses sound as a lubricant.
==Energy of friction==
According to the law of [[conservation of energy]], no energy should be lost due to friction. The kinetic energy lost is transformed primarily into heat and/or motion of other objects and fluids. An airplane will heat and accelerate the air as it passes. A submarine will do the same to the water. In some cases, the "other object" to be accelerated may be the Earth. A sliding hockey puck will come to rest due to friction both by changing its energy into heat and accelerating the Earth in its direction of travel (by an immeasurable amount). Since heat and fluid motion quickly dissipate and the change in velocity of the Earth can't be seen, many early philosophers such as [[Aristotle]], wrongly concluded that moving objects lose energy without a driving force.
==See also==
* [[Tribology]]
* [[Traction]]
* [[Tire]]
==References==
* {{cite book
| last = Tipler | first = Paul
| title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 1
| edition = 4th ed.
| publisher = W. H. Freeman
| year = 1998
| id = ISBN 1572594926
}}
[[Category:Force]]
[[Category:Introductory_physics]]
{{Link FA|nl}}
[[bg:Триене]]
[[cs:Tření]]
[[da:Friktion]]
[[de:Reibung]]
[[es:Fricción]]
[[fi:Kitka]]
[[fr:Frottement]]
[[he:חיכוך]]
[[id:Gesek]]
[[it:Attrito]]
[[ja:摩擦]]
[[ko:마찰력]]
[[nl:Wrijving]]
[[pl:Tarcie (pojęcie fizyczne)]]
[[pt:Atrito]]
[[ru:Трение]]
[[sl:Trenje]]
[[sv:Friktion]]
[[vi:Ma sát]]
[[zh:摩擦力]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 7</title>
<id>11063</id>
<revision>
<id>42105945</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:39:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.28.178.124</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=7}}
|}
'''February 7''' is the 38th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 327 days remaining (328 in [[leap year]]s).
==Events==
*[[457]] - [[Leo I of the Byzantine Empire|Leo I]] becomes emperor of the [[Byzantine Empire]].
*[[1301]] - Edward of [[Caernarvon]] (later King [[Edward II of England]]) becomes the first [[England|English]] [[Prince of Wales]].
*[[1550]] - [[Pope Julius III|Julius III]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[1613]] - [[Mikhail I of Russia|Mikhail Romanov]] becomes [[Tsar]] of [[Russia]].
*[[1795]] - The [[Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution|11th Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]] is passed.
*[[1807]] - [[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon]]'s [[First French Empire|French Empire]] begin fighting against [[Russia]]n and [[Prussia]]n forces of the [[Fourth Coalition]] at the [[Battle of Eylau]] in Eylau, [[Poland]].
*[[1812]] - The strongest in a series of [[earthquake]]s strikes [[New Madrid, Missouri]].
* [[1842]] - [[Battle of Debre Tabor]]: Ras [[Ali II of Yejju|Ali Alula]], Regent of the [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] defeats warlord [[Wube Haile Maryam]] of [[Semien]].
*[[1856]] - The [[colony|colonial]] [[Tasmania|Tasmanian]] [[Parliament]] passes the first piece of [[legislation]] (the Electoral Act 1856) anywhere in the world providing for [[election|elections]] by way of a [[secret ballot]]. <ref> Terry Newman, 'Tasmania and the Secret Ballot' (2003), 49(1) Aust J Pol & Hist 93 [http://www.enrollingthepeople.com/tasmania/newman_tasmania_and_secret_ballot.pdf], accessed [[February 27]], [[2006]]</ref>
*[[1863]] - [[HMS Orpheus (1861)|''HMS Orpheus'']] sinks off the coast of [[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]], killing 189.
*[[1882]] - The last heavyweight [[boxing]] championship [[bare-knuckle]] fight takes place in [[Mississippi City]], [[Mississippi]].
*[[1898]] - [[Emile Zola]] is brought to trial for [[libel]] for publishing ''[[J'Accuse]]''.
*[[1899]] - Chinese Communist Party member [[Huang Paikai]] is born.
*[[1900]] - The [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] is formed.
*[[1904]] - A fire in [[Baltimore, Maryland]] destroys over 1,500 buildings in 30 hours.
*[[1914]] - [[Charlie Chaplin]] first appears as "[[The Tramp]]", as his first film ''Kid Auto Races at Venice'' is released at [[Keystone Studios]].
*[[1940]] - [[Walt Disney]]'s ''[[Pinocchio (1940 movie)|Pinocchio]]'', an [[animation|animated feature]] based on the [[Carlo Collodi]]'s story ''[[Pinocchio]]'' was first released.
*[[1942]] - In [[Drakulici]], [[Banja Luka]], that night, [[Croatian]] [[nazi]]s killed 2,300 [[Serbian]] civilians, among them 551 children.
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: In [[Anzio]], [[Italy]] [[Nazi]] forces launch a counteroffensive.
*[[1948]] - Gen. [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] resigned as Army chief of staff and was succeeded by Gen. [[Omar Bradley]].
*[[1962]] - The [[United States]] [[Government]] bans all [[Cuba]]n imports and exports.
*[[1964]] - [[The Beatles]] arrive on their first visit to the [[United States]].
*[[1966]] - [[Paul Williams (Crawdaddy! creator)|Paul Williams]] creates the rock music magazine ''[[Crawdaddy!]]''.
*[[1967]] - A fire at a restaurant in [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]], [[Alabama]] kills 25 people.
*[[1971]] - Women gain the right to vote in [[Switzerland]].
*[[1974]] - [[Grenada]] becomes independent from the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1976]] - Future [[Hockey Hall of Fame|Hall of Famer]] [[Darryl Sittler]] of the [[Toronto Maple Leafs]] scores six goals and records four assists in an 11-4 victory over the [[Boston Bruins]], setting a [[National Hockey League|NHL]] record with 10 points in one game. This record still stands.
*[[1977]] - The [[Soviet Union]] launches [[Soyuz 24]].
*[[1979]] - [[Pluto]] moves inside [[Neptune]]'s orbit for the first time since either planet was known to science.
*[[1984]] - [[Astronaut]]s [[Bruce McCandless II]] and [[Robert L. Stewart]] make the first untethered [[space walk]].
*[[1985]] - ''"[[New York, New York (song)|New York, New York]]"'' becomes the official city anthem of [[New York City]].
*[[1986]] - Twenty-eight years of one-family rule end in [[Haiti]], when [[President]] [[Jean-Claude Duvalier]] flees the [[Caribbean]] nation.
*[[1990]] - [[Collapse of the Soviet Union]]: The [[Central Committee]] of the [[Soviet Communist Party]] agrees to give up its monopoly of power.
*[[1991]] - [[Haiti]]'s first democratically-elected president, [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]], is sworn in.
*1991 - The [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] launches a mortar attack on [[10 Downing Street]] during a cabinet meeting.
*[[1992]] - The [[European Union]] is formed.
*[[1995]] - [[Ramzi Yousef]], the alleged mastermind of the [[1993]] [[World Trade Center]] bombing, was arrested in [[Islamabad, Pakistan]].
*[[1998]] - The [[1998 Winter Olympic Games]] open in [[Nagano, Japan]].
*[[1999]] - [[Crown Prince]] [[Abdullah II of Jordan|Abdullah]] becomes the King of [[Jordan]] on the death of his father, King [[Hussein of Jordan|Hussein]].
*[[2000]] - [[Bahria University]] is established through the [[Presidential Ordinance No. V]] of [[2000]] of [[Government]] of [[Pakistan]].
*[[2003]] - Last contact with [[Pioneer 10]].
*[[2006]] - A new [[Super 14 Trophy]] is unveiled in [[Wellington, New Zealand]].
==Births==
*[[1102]] - [[Empress Matilda]], Princess of England and wife of [[Henry V of the Holy Roman Empire ]] (d. [[1169]])
*[[1478]] - Sir [[Thomas More]], English statesman, humanist, and author (d. [[1535]])
*[[1693]] - Empress [[Anna of Russia]] (d. [[1740]])
*[[1812]] - [[Charles Dickens]], English novelist (d. [[1870]])
*[[1842]] - [[Alexandre Ribot]], French statesman (d. [[1923]])
*[[1867]] - [[Laura Ingalls Wilder]], American author (d. [[1957]])
*[[1870]] - [[Alfred Adler]], Austrian psychologist (d. [[1937]])
*[[1877]] - [[Godfrey Harold Hardy]], |
achi Press.
* [http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Aurang2.html Article on Aurganzeb] from MANAS group page, [[UCLA]]
* ''Essays on Islam and Indian History'', Richard M. Eaton. Reprint. New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2002 (ISBN 019566265-2). -- ''Eaton's essay "Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States", which attempts to comprehend Aurangzeb's motivation in destroying temples, has generated much recent debate''
* ''The Peacock Throne'', Waldemar Hansen (Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1972). -- ''a very British accounting of Aurangzeb's reign, but filled with excellent references and source material''
==Commentary by recent historians==
===Wolpert===
[[Stanley Wolpert]] writes in his ''New History of India'' ISBN 0195166779 (Oxford, 2003)
:...Yet the conquest of the Deccan, to which [Aurangzeb] devoted the last 26 years of his life, was in many ways a Pyrrhic victory, costing an estimated hundred thousand lives a year during its last decade of futile chess game warfare...The expense in gold and rupees can hardly be accurately estimated. [Aurangzeb]'s moving capital alone- a city of tents 30 miles in circumference, some 250 bazaars, with a 1/2 million camp followers, 50,000 camels and 30,000 elephants, all of whom had to be fed, stripped peninsular India of any and all of its surplus gain and wealth... Not only famine but bubonic plague arose...Even [Aurangzeb] had ceased to understand the purpose of it all by the time he..was nearing 90... "I came alone and I go as a stranger. I do not know who I am, nor what I have been doing," the dying old man confessed to his son in Feb 1707. "I have sinned terribly, and I do not know what punishment awaits me."
===[http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/index.html Manas] Group, UCLA===
:A year after he assumed power in 1658, Aurangzeb appointed muhtasaibs, or censors of public morals, from the ranks of the ulema or clergy in every large city. He was keen that the sharia or Islamic law be followed everywhere, and that practices abhorrent to Islam, such as the consumption of alcohol and gambling, be disallowed in public...
:It can scarcely be doubted, once the historical evidence is weighed, that the religious policies of Aurangzeb were discriminatory... [L]ittle, if any, evidence has been offered to suggest how far the conversion of Hindus took place, and whether there was any official policy beyond one of mere encouragement that led to the conversion of Hindus. Then, as now, conversion would have been more attractive to the vast number of Hindus living under the tyranny of caste oppression...[T]he kind of inducements that Aurangzeb offered [were not] substantially different from the inducements that modern, purportedly secular, politicians offer...
:Hindus employed...under Aurangzeb's reign rose from 24.5% in the time of his father Shah Jahan to 33% in the fourth decade of his own rule.
==See also==
* [[Mughal empire]]
* [[Emperor of India]]
== External links ==
===Temple destruction===
''[NOTE: Some websites on this controversial subject contain useful reference material, but as their titles often indicate, the information is presented with a non-neutral Point of View]''
*[http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl1725/17250620.htm Temple Desecration in Pre-Modern India] -- ''Eaton's web version of his controversial essay referenced above. Part 1 of 2''
*[http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl1726/17260700.htmTemple Desecration in Indo-Muslim States] -- ''Eaton's web version of his controversial essay referenced above. Part 2 of 2''
*[http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/articles/ayodhya/kashivishvanath.html Why did Aurangzeb Demolish the Kashi Vishvanath?] -- ''Aurangzeb destroyed temple after evidence of crimes''
*[http://www.hindunet.org/alt_hindu/1995_Apr_2/msg00027.html Temple Destruction by Aurangzeb] -- ''Cites multiple edicts issued and Mughal court documents''
*[http://www.sulekha.com/expressions/articledesc.asp?cid=142374 Sanitizing Temple Destruction] -- ''Presents a review of several theories regarding motivation for temple destruction''
*[http://voi.org/books/acat/ch6.htm The details about “Hindu iconoclasm”] -- ''Cites precedents for temple destruction by Hindu rulers''
*[http://www.kashmirherald.com/featuredarticle/aurangzeb.htm Why did Aurangzeb destroy Hindu temples] -- ''Aurangzeb was a [[pir]], motivated by spiritual values, not political or military gain''
===Policies toward non-Muslims===
*[http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Aurang2.html AURANGZEB: RELIGIOUS POLICIES] -- ''Scholarly and neutral review with good source material''
*[http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Aurnag_fatwa.html Aurangzeb's Fatwa on Jizya (Jizyah, or Poll Tax)] -- ''Jizya was not blindly applied -- includes the source document which notes exemptions''
*[http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Aurang3.html Aurangzeb, Akbar, and the Communalization of History]-- ''Suggests that Aurangzeb improved life for non-Muslims''
===Contemporary drama===
* [http://web.nwe.ufl.edu/~esull/restoration/aurengzebe.htm The Tragedy of Aureng-zebe] Text of [[John Dryden]]'s drama, based loosely on Aurangzeb and the Mughal court, [[1675]]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Mughal emperors|Mughal Emperor]]|before=[[Shah Jahan]]|after=[[Bahadur Shah I]]|years=1659&ndash;1707}}
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[[Category:Timurid Monarchs]]
[[Category:Mughal Emperors]]
[[Category:Mughal empire]]
[[Category:1618 births]]
[[Category:1707 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Islamic India]]
[[ur:ابو مظف محی الدین محمد اورنگزیب علام گیر]]
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[[sv:Aurangzeb]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexandrine</title>
<id>2427</id>
<revision>
<id>36913871</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T07:41:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Man vyi</username>
<id>106995</id>
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<comment>fmt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Alternate meaning: [[Alexandrine of Denmark]]''
An '''alexandrine''' is a line of [[Meter (poetry)|poetic meter]]. Alexandrines are common in the [[German literature]] of the [[German literature of the Baroque period|Baroque period]] and in [[List of French language poets|French poetry]] of the early modern and modern periods and much less common in [[English poetry]], which more frequently uses [[iambic pentameter]] or 5-foot verse.
==Syllabic verse==
In [[syllabic verse]], such as that used in [[French literature]], an alexandrine is a line of twelve syllables, often with a [[caesura]] between the sixth and seventh syllables. Alternatively, an alexandrine may be divided into three four-syllable sections by two caesuras.
The dramatic works of [[Pierre Corneille]] and [[Jean Racine]] are typically composed of rhyming alexandrine couplets. (The caesura after the 6th syllable is here marked || )
:Nous partîmes cinq cents ; || mais par un prompt renfort
:Nous nous vîmes trois mille || en arrivant au port
:(Corneille, ''Le Cid'' Act IV , scene 3)
[[Charles Baudelaire|Baudelaire]]'s ''Les Bijoux'' (The Jewels) is a typical example of the use of the alexandrine in 19th century French poetry :
:La très-chère était nue, || et, connaissant mon cœur,
:Elle n'avait gardé || que ses bijoux sonores,
:Dont le riche attirail || lui donnait l'air vainqueur
:Qu'ont dans leurs jours heureux || les esclaves des Mores.
Even a 20th century Surrealist, such as [[Paul Éluard]] used alexandrines on occasion, such as in these lines from ''L'Égalité des sexes'' (in ''Capitale de la douleur'') (note the variation between caesuras after the 6th syllable, and after 4th and 8th):
:Ni connu la beauté || des yeux, beauté des pierres,
:Celle des gouttes d'eau, || des perles en placard,
:Des pierres nues || et sans squelette, || ô ma statue
==Accentual verse==
In [[accentual verse]], it is a line of [[iambic]] [[hexameter]] - a line of six feet or measures ("iambs"), each of which has two syllables with an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. It is also usual for there to be a caesura between the sixth and seventh syllables (as the examples from [[Alexander Pope|Pope]] below illustrate. [[Robert Bridges]] noted that in the lyrical sections of ''[[Samson Agonistes]]'', [[John Milton|Milton]] significantly varied the placement of the caesura.
In [[quantitative meter]]s, an iamb comprises a short syllable followed by a long syllable (as in the word ''delay''), and an alexandrine consists of six such short+long feet.
In the poetry of [[Edmund Spenser]]'s ''[[The Faerie Queene]]'' 8 lines of pentameter are followed by an alexandrine, the 6-foot line slowing the regular rhythm of the 5-foot lines.
Undoubtedly the most famous alexandrine in the English language is a rhyming [[couplet]] of [[Alexander Pope]]'s, in which the first line is in iambic pentameter and the second line is an alexandrine:
:A needless alexandrine ends the song
:that like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along.
A few lines later Pope continues discussing fast lines:
:Not so, when swift Camilla scours the Plain,
:Flies o'er th'unbending corn and skims along the Main.
The second line of the couplet, a very fast line, is remarkably an alexandrine itself, which Pope just claimed made the line excruciatingly slow. As [[Paul Fussell]] has said, "It is the literary equivalent of shouting, 'Look! No hands.'"
Alexandrines are sometimes introduced into predominantly pentameter verse for the sake of variety. The [[Spenserian stanza]], for instance, is eight lines of pentameter followed by an Alexandrine. In the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] and eighteenth century, poetry written in couplets is sometimes varied by the introduction of a triplet in which the third line is an Alexandrine, as in this example from [ |
abs.com Guitar Tabs] Guitar music tabs
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** [http://www.IGDb.co.uk/ Free Online Guitar Lessons] A Guitar Resource Mainly Targeted at Beginners
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** [http://folkguitar.us/ Folk Guitar] How to play backup guitar to old time fiddle tunes.
** [http://www.chrisbsmusic.com/howtotune.html How to Tune] How to tune a guitar.
**[http://www.dolphinstreet.com/guitar_video_lessons Dolphinstreet] Free Guitar Video Lessons
**[http://www.guitar-websites.co.uk Guitar Websites] Human-edited Guitarist's Directory
== Notes, references, and sources ==
*{{note|rhlh}} Unlike most musical instruments, guitars are produced in both right and left-handed models. The explanation above is given from the perspective of the more common right-handed player. Many left-handed players learn to play on right-handed instruments by flipping the guitar upside down and using different chord fingerings. This causes them to play certain notes with their thumb; an appendage that is usually reserved for pushing on the back of the guitar's neck. Some lefties, including [[Jimi Hendrix]], have even restrung a right-handed guitar to serve as a left-handed one.
[[Category:Musical instruments]]
[[Category:Guitars|*]]
[[Category:String instruments]]
<!-- interwiki -->
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[ar:غيتار]]
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[[it:Chitarra]]
[[jbo:jgita]]
[[he:גיטרה]]
[[kn:ಗಿಟಾರ್]]
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[[nl:Gitaar]]
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[[zh:吉他]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GreekMythology</title>
<id>11847</id>
<revision>
<id>15909562</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T16:34:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
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<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Greek mythology]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Greek mythology]]</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>GrouP</title>
<id>11848</id>
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<id>15909563</id>
<timestamp>2002-11-02T21:58:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[group (mathematics)]]</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>GeorgeMasonUniversity</title>
<id>11849</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[George Mason University]]
</text>
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<page>
<title>GeorgeHamiltonGordonAberdeen</title>
<id>11850</id>
<revision>
<id>15909565</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-25T19:22:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
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<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen]]</text>
</revision>
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<title>GeologicTimescale</title>
<id>11853</id>
<revision>
<id>18903330</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-15T17:58:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluemoose</username>
<id>178836</id>
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<comment>double redirect fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geologic time scale]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Give The Author A Chance debate</title>
<id>11854</id>
<revision>
<id>15909567</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-08T20:21:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MyRedDice</username>
<id>5862</id>
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<comment>#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia talk:Patent nonsense]] (merge)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia talk:Patent nonsense]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>God</title>
<id>11855</id>
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<revision>
<id>42131719</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:56:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KHM03</username>
<id>189278</id>
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<comment>/* External links */ rm spam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Creation of the Sun and Moon face detail.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Michelangelo]]'s depiction of God in the painting ''Creation of the Sun and Moon'' in the [[Sistine Chapel]])]]
:''This article discusses the term '''God''' in the context of [[monotheism]] and derived [[henotheism|henotheistic]] forms. See [[deity]], [[god (male deity)]] or [[goddess]]es for details on [[polytheism | polytheistic]] usages. See [[Names of God]] for terms used in other languages or specific faiths. See [[God (disambiguation)]] for non-religious meanings.''
'''God''' denotes a [[deity]] who is believed by [[monotheists]] to be the sole creator and ruler of the [[universe]]. Conceptions of God vary widely, despite the common use of the same term for them all.
[[Theologians]] and [[philosopher]]s have studied countless conceptions of God since the dawn of civilization. The question of the [[existence of God]] classically falls under the branch of [[philosophy]] known as [[metaphysics]], but is also one of the key discussions taking place within the field of the [[philosophy of religion]].
== Etymology ==
[[Image:Gudis Argenteus.jpg|thumb|140px|Earliest attestation of the Germanic word in the [[6th century]] [[Codex Argenteus]] ([[Gospel of Matthew|Mt]] 5:9)]]
The word ''God'' continues [[Old English language|Old English]]/[[Germanic languages|Germanic]] ''god'' (''guþ, gudis'' in [[Gothic language|Gothic]], ''gud'' in modern [[Scandinavian]] and ''Gott'' in modern [[German language|German]]), from [[Proto-Germanic]] ''*{{unicode|ǥuđan}}''. The original meaning and [[etymology]] of the Germanic word ''god'' has been hotly disputed, though most agree to a reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] form ''*khutóm'', which is the neuter passive perfect participle of the root ''*khu-'', which likely meant "[[libation]]", "[[sacrifice]]". Compare:-
* [[Vedic Sanskrit]] ''hu-'' = "to sacrifice".
* [[Greek language|Greek]] ''khu-'', ''kheu-'' = "to pour".
* Common Germanic strong verb ''*geutan'' ([[Anglo-Saxon]] ''gēotan'') = "to pour", English ''[[ingot|in-got]]''.
The connection between these meanings is likely via the meaning "pour a [[libation]]". Another possible meaning of ''*khutóm'' is "invocation", related to [[Sanskrit]] ''hūta''.
The same root appears in the names of three related [[Germanic tribes]], the [[Geat]]s, the [[Goths]] and the [[Gutar]]. These names may be derived from an eponymous chieftain [[Gaut]] who was subsequently deified, who sometimes appears in early Medieval sagas as a name of [[Odin]] or one of his descendants, a former king of the Geats (''Gaut(i)''), an ancestor of the [[Gutar]] (''Guti''), of the Goths (''Gothus'') and of the royal line of [[Wessex]] (''Geats'') and as a previous hero of the [[Goths]] (''Gapt''). The [[Lombardic language|Lombardic]] form of Odin, ''Godan'', may derive from cognate [[Proto-Germanic]] ''*{{unicode|ǥuđánaz}}''.
The word ''God'' was used to represent [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Theos'', [[Latin]] ''Deus'' in [[Bible]] translations, first in the Gothic translation of the [[New Testament]] by [[Ulfilas]]. For the etymology of ''deus'', see *[[dyeus]]. Greek ''theos'' is possibly unrelated, and of uncertain origin. [[Ferdinand de Saussure|De Saussure]] tentatively connected Baltic and Germanic words for "spook", ultimately cognate with Latin ''fumus'' "smoke".
[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06608x.htm Etymology of the Word God] - Catholic Encyclopedia article
===Capitalization===
[[Image:KJV Psalm 23 1 2.jpg|thumb|200px|KJV of 1611 ([[Psalms]] 23:1,2): Occurrence of "<font style="font-variant:small-caps">Lord</font>" (and "God" in the heading)]]
The development of English orthography was dominated by [[Christianity|Christian]] texts. Capitalized "God" was first used to refer to the Judeo-Christian concept, and may now signify any monotheistic conception of God, including the translations of the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''[[Allah|Allāh]]'' and the |
ot completely, absorbed into the Afrikaner designation following the [[Second Boer War|Anglo-Boer War]].
==See also==
*[[Afrikaner]]
*[[Voortrekker]]/[[Great Trek]]
*[[Natalia Republic]]
*[[Orange Free State]]
*[[Transvaal]]
*[[South African Republic]]
*[[Volkstaat]]
*[[South African Farmer Murders]]
==External links==
* [http://www.stopboergenocide.com/29301/32001.html Who Were The Boers of the Anglo-Boer War.] H Labuschagne.
* [http://www.stopboergenocide.com/29301/index.html Boer, Afrikaner or White - Which Are You?]] Adriana Stuijt.
*[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml;jsessionid=VWPBD0WZERADXQFIQMGSM5WAVCBQWJVC?xml=/news/2005/07/03/wsafr03.xml&sSheet=/portal/2005/07/03/ixportal.html Telegraph: Murders foreshadow South African land war] [[3 July]] [[2005]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/this_world/4630665.stm BBC: South Africa's bloody battle for land] [[4 July]] [[2005]]
*[http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=250558&area=/breaking_news/breaking_news__national/# Mail&Guardian: Govt hits out at 'anti-land-reform' farmers] [[10 September]] [[2005]]
{{SouthAfrica-stub}}
[[Category:South African society]]
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[[pt:Bôeres]]
[[zh:布尔人]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bronze Star Medal</title>
<id>4972</id>
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<id>34100945</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-06T11:54:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Binche</username>
<id>600029</id>
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<minor />
<comment>fr link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bronze_Star_Medal_Obverse.PNG|thumb|125px|Bronze Star Medal Obverse]]
[[Image:Bronze_Star_Medal_Reverse.PNG|thumb|125px|Bronze Star Medal Reverse]]
The '''Bronze Star Medal''' is a [[United States Armed Forces]] individual [[Awards and decorations of the United States military|military decoration]] and is the fourth highest award for bravery, heroism or meritorious service.
== General information ==
The medal is awarded to any person who, while serving in any capacity in or with the military of the [[United States]] after [[December 6]], [[1941]], distinguished himself or herself by heroic or meritorious achievement or service, not involving participation in aerial flight, while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States; while engaged in military operations involving conflict with an opposing foreign force; or while serving with friendly foreign forces engaged in an armed conflict against an opposing armed force in which the United States is not a belligerent party.
Awards may be made for acts of heroism, performed under circumstances described above, which are of lesser degree than required for the award of the [[Silver Star]]. Awards may also be made to recognize single acts of merit or meritorious service. The required achievement or service while of lesser degree than that required for the award of the [[Legion of Merit]] must nevertheless have been meritorious and accomplished with distinction.
The Bronze Star Medal is typically referred to by its full name (including the word "Medal") to differentiate the decoration from [[service star|bronze service stars]] which are worn on [[campaign medal]]s and [[service medal|service awards]].
== History ==
General [[George C. Marshall]], in a memorandum to [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] dated [[February 3]], [[1944]], wrote:
: &ldquo;''The fact that the ground troops, [[Infantry]] in particular, lead miserable lives of extreme discomfort and are the ones who must close in [[personal combat]] with the enemy, makes the maintenance of their morale of great importance. The award of the [[Air Medal]] have had an adverse reaction on the ground troops, particularly the [[Infantry Riflemen]] who are now suffering the heaviest losses, air or ground, in the Army, and enduring the greatest hardships.''&rdquo;
The [[Air Medal]] had been adopted two years earlier to raise airmen's morale. President Roosevelt authorized the Bronze Star Medal by [[Executive Order]] 9419 dated [[February 4]], [[1944]], retroactive to [[December 7]], [[1941]]. This authorization was announced in War Department Bulletin No. 3, dated [[February 10]], [[1944]].
The Executive Order was amended by President [[John F. Kennedy]], per Executive Order 11046 dated [[August 24]], [[1962]], to expand the authorization to include those serving with friendly forces. Such an honor has been presented but three times:
#To the 2nd Battalion of [[Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry]] for their fight in the [[Operation Medak pocket|Medak Pocket]] in the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]];
#To the 1st Battalion of the [[Royal 22e Régiment|Royal 22<sup>e</sup> Régiment]] for its defense of the airport at [[Sarajevo]];
#To 26 members of 3rd Battalion, Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry Battle Group, including posthumously to four killed when a U.S. F-16 fighter-bomber mistakenly attacked them as they conducted a night firing exercise on the outskirts of [[Kandahar]], [[Afghanistan]].
==CIB & CMB Conversion==
As a result of a study conducted in [[1947]], the policy was implemented that authorized the retroactive award of the Bronze Star Medal to soldiers who had received the [[Combat Infantryman Badge]] or the [[Combat Medical Badge]] during [[World War II]]. The basis for doing this was that the badges were awarded only to soldiers who had borne the hardships which resulted in General Marshall's support of the Bronze Star Medal. Both badges required a recommendation by the commander and a citation in orders.
==Appearance==
The Bronze Star is a bronze star 1 1/2 inches (38 mm) in circumscribing diameter. In the center thereof is a 3/16 inch (48 mm) diameter superimposed bronze star, the center line of all rays of both stars coinciding. The reverse has the inscription <small>"HEROIC OR MERITORIOUS ACHIEVEMENT"</small> and a space for the name of the recipient to be engraved. The star is suspended from the ribbon by a rectangular shaped metal loop with the corners rounded. The ribbon is 1 3/8 inches (35 mm) wide and consists of the following stripes: 1/32 inch (1 mm) white 67101; 9/16 inch (14 mm) scarlet 67111; 1/32 inch (1 mm) white; center stripe 1/8 inch (3 mm) ultramarine blue 67118; 1/32 inch (1 mm) white; 9/16 inch (14 mm) scarlet; and 1/32 inch (1 mm) white.
==Devices==
Additional awards of the Bronze Star Medal are denoted in the [[United States Army|Army]] and [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] by [[oak leaf clusters]]. The [[United States Navy|Navy]], [[United States Marines|Marines]], and [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] issue [[award stars]] to denote subsequent decorations.
The [[Valor device]] (or ''"V" device'') is authorized by all services and is awarded to represent [[valor]] and does not denote an additional award. Only one may be worn on any ribbon.
[[fr:Bronze Star Medal]]
[[Category:Star symbols]]
[[Category:Awards and decorations of the United States military]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ballarat, Victoria</title>
<id>4973</id>
<revision>
<id>41602433</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T12:43:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ScottDavis</username>
<id>161735</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Famous sons, daughters, and residents */ removed spurious entries</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Australian City|
name = Ballarat |
image_map = Ballaratarms.jpg |
name = Ballarat |
latd=35|latm=18|latNS=S|longd=149|longm=08|longEW=E|
jurisdiction = [[Victoria (Australia)|VIC]] |
area = |
time_zone= [[UTC10|AEST]] |
utc_offset= +10 |
time_zone_DST= [[UTC11|AEDT]] |
utc_offset_DST= +11 |
population_estimate_year = 2004 |
population_estimate = 87,000 |
population_estimate_rank = 20th |
population_density = |
}}
'''Ballarat''' ({{coor dm|37|33|S|143|51|E|type:city(87000)_region:AU-VIC}}) is the largest inland city in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]], approximately 120 kilometres north-west of [[Melbourne, Australia|Melbourne]], with a population of 87,000 people. The city lies at 441 metres (1,447 feet) above sea level and covers an area of approximately 740 square kilometres.
== History ==
The site of the city was originally a stock station established by [[William Cross Yuille]] and [[Henry Anderson]] in [[1838]] and named Ballaarat, which was derived from aboriginal words which mean camping place.
[[Image:BAllarat Hospital.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Ballarat Base Hospital]].]]
It was founded in the early [[1850s]] when [[gold]] was discovered there, and, with a huge influx of population and wealth, was for a time Victoria's largest city. The legacy of the wealth generated is still visible in a large number of fine stone buildings in and around the city, especially in the Lydiard Street area which contains some of Victoria's finest examples of Victorian era buildings many of which are classified by the [[National Trust of Australia]].
Ballarat is notable as the site for Australia's only armed civil uprising, the [[Eureka Stockade]] which took place in [[1854]]. The site contains a historical park and a memorial to commemorate the event.
== Features ==
[[Image:Ballarat location map in Victoria.PNG|thumb|left|200px|Location of Ballarat in Victoria (red).]]
The [[Ballarat Botanical Gardens]] are amongst the finest [[Botanical Gardens]] in Australia.
[[Lake Wendouree]] hosted the rowing for the [[1956]] [[Olympic Games]], and is a large recreational lake created out of former wetlands.
== Industries ==
Today, Ballarat's major industries include [[tourism]], food products, brick and tile manufacture, education and information technology services.
==Media==
Residents have their own independent local newspapers, 'The Courier', and the 'B |
ded in [[1244]]. At the foundation of the new rule, they were called [[Hermit]]s of St Damiano, or Moronites (or Murronites), and did not assume the appellation of Celestines till after the election of their founder to the [[Papacy]] as [[Pope Celestine V|Celestine V]]. The fame of the holy life and the austerities practised by that saintly hermit (as noticed above) in his solitude on the Mountain of Majella, near Sulmona, attracted many visitors, several of whom were moved to remain and share his mode of life. They built, therefore, a small [[convent]] on the spot inhabited by the holy hermit, which very shortly became too small for the accommodation of those who thronged thither to share their life of privations. Peter of Morone, their founder, therefore built a number of other small [[oratory|oratories]] in that neighbourhood.
This happened about the year [[1254]]. A new religious community was thus formed, and Peter of Morone gave them a rule formulated in accordance with his own practices. In [[1264]] the new institution was approved by [[Pope Urban IV|Urban IV]]. But the founder, having heard that it was probable that [[Pope Gregory X]], then holding a council at [[Lyons]], would suppress all such new orders as had been founded since the [[Lateran Council]], having commanded that such institutions should not be further multiplied, betook himself to Lyons, and there succeeded in persuading Gregory to approve his new order, constituting it a branch of the Benedictines with a rule based on that [[Rule of St Benedict|of Saint Benedict]], but adding to it many additional severities and privations. Gregory further took it under the Papal protection, assured to it the possession of all property it might acquire, and endowed it with that great and constant, but most pernicious and fatal object of the ambition of all monastic orders, exemption from the authority of the ordinary. Nothing more was needed to ensure the rapid spread of the new association and Peter the hermit of Morone lived to see himself "Superior-General" to thirty-six [[monastery|monasteries]] and more than six hundred [[monk]]s. Peter, however, cannot be accused of ambition or the lust of power when a monastic superior, any more than when he insisted on divesting himself of the Papacy, to which he was subsequently raised.
As soon as he had seen his new order thus consolidated he gave up the government of it to a certain Robert, and retired once again to a still more remote solitude to give himself up more entirely to solitary penance and prayer. Shortly afterwards, in a chapter of the order held in [[1293]], the original monastery of Majella being judged to be too desolate and exposed to too rigorous a climate, it was decided that the monastery which had been founded in Sulmtona should be the headquarters of the order and the residence of the General-Superior, as it has continued to be to the present day. The next year Peter the hermit of Morone, having been, despite his reluctance, elected Pope by the name of Celestine V., the order he had founded took the name of Celestines. The hermit Pope found time in the few short months of his Papacy to confirm the rule of the order, which be had himself composed, and to confer on the society a variety of special graces and privileges. In the only creation of [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s promoted by him, among the twelve raised to the purple, there were two monks of his order. He found time also to visit personally the great Benedictine monastery on [[Monte Cassino]], where he succeeded in persuading the monks to accept his more rigorous rule. He sent fifty monks of his order to introduce it, who remained, however, for only a few months.
After the death of the founder the order was favoured and privileged by [[Pope Benedict XI|Benedict XI]], and rapidly spread through [[Italy]], [[Germany]], [[Flanders]], and [[France]], where they were received by [[Philip IV of France|Philip the Fair]] in [[1300]]. Subsequently the French Celestines, with the consent of the Italian superiors of the order, and of [[Pope Martin V]] in [[1427]], obtained the privilege of making new constitutions for themselves, which they did in the [[17th century]] in a series of regulations accepted by the provincial chapter in [[1667]]. At that time the French congregation of the order was composed of twenty-one monasteries, the head of which was that of [[Paris]], and was governed by a Provincial with the authority of General. [[Pope Paul V|Paul V]] was a notable benefactor of the order. But in consequence of later political changes and events the order has been dissolved.
According to their special constitutions the Celestines were bound to say [[matins]] in the [[choir]] at two o'clock in the morning, and always to abstain from eating meat, save in illness. The specialities of their rule with regard to [[fasting]] would be long and tedious to recount. It cannot be said that they are more severe than those of sundry other congregations, though much more so than is required by the old Benedictine rule. But in reading their minute directions for divers degrees of abstinence on various days, it is impossible to avoid being struck by the conviction that the great object of the framers of these rules, beyond the general purpose of ensuring an [[asceticism|ascetic]] mode of life, was to create a speciality, to make a distinguishing difference between what "Our" order does and what others do.
The Celestines wore a white [[wool]]len [[cassock]] bound with a [[linen]] band, and a [[leather]]n [[girdle]] of the same colour, with a [[scapulary]] unattached to the body of the dress, and a black [[hood (headgear)|hood]]. It was not permitted to them to wear any shirt save of [[serge]]. Their dress in short was very like that of the [[Cistercians]]. But it is a tradition in the order that in the time of the founder they wore a coarse brown cloth. The church and monastery of St Pietro in Montorio originally belonged to the Celestines in [[Rome]]; but they were turned out of it by [[Pope Sixtus IV|Sixtus IV]] to make way for [[Franciscan]]s, receiving from the Pope in exchange the Church of [[St Eusebius of Vercelli]] with the adjacent mansion for a monastery.
The order of Celestines has had its special [[historian]]s, as Becquet, author of a history of the Celestines of France (Paris, [[1719]]), and in the great collection of the Bollandists, vol. iii., tinder the month of May. But the order does not seem to have been fruitful of men of much mark; nor list it ever attained in the annals of Europe, or even of the church, a position of such importance as most of its rival societies have reached.
== Sources ==
From the 9th edition (1876) of an unnamed encyclopedia.
[[Category:Celestine Order| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CPM operating system</title>
<id>6538</id>
<revision>
<id>15904673</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-26T14:36:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tannin</username>
<id>6169</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[CP/M]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cessna</title>
<id>6539</id>
<revision>
<id>41920093</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:57:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rudi146</username>
<id>964690</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cessna_logo.png|right]]
'''Cessna Aircraft Company''', located in [[Wichita, Kansas|Wichita]], [[Kansas]], is a [[aircraft manufacturer|manufacturer]] of [[general aviation]] [[aircraft]], from small two-seat, single-engine airplanes to business jets.
The company traces its history to June [[1911]], when [[Clyde Cessna]], a farmer in [[Rago, Kansas]], built a wood-and-fabric plane and became the first person to build and fly an aircraft between the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Rocky Mountains]]. Yet it was Clyde's nephew, [[Dwane Wallace]], who was the person most responsible for the company's success.
In [[1924]], Cessna partnered with [[Lloyd C. Stearman]] and [[Walter H. Beech]] to form the [[Travel Air|Travel Air Manufacturing Co.]], Inc., a [[biplane]] manufacturing firm, in Wichita. In [[1927]] he left Travel Air to form his own company, the ''Cessna Aircraft Company'', to build monoplanes.
Cessna Aircraft Company closed its doors from 1932&ndash;1934 due to the state of the economy. In 1934, Dwane Wallace, with the help of his brother Dwight, took control of the company and began the process of building it into a global success.
After [[World War II]], Cessna created the 170, which, along with later models (notably the 172), became the most widely produced light aircraft in history. Cessna's advertising boasts that its aircraft have trained more pilots than those of any other company.
Cessna was bought by [[General Dynamics]] Corporation in [[1985]], and it stopped producing piston-engine airplanes the next year due to concerns over [[product liability]]. In [[1992]], [[Textron]] Inc. bought Cessna and soon resumed producing light aircraft.
==Aircraft==
{| align=right
|[[image:cessna.195.750pix.jpg|right|thumb|250px|1951 Cessna 195]]
|-
|[[Image:cessna.404.titan2.arp.jpg|thumb|250px|right|1977 Cessna 404 Titan II]]
|}
*[[Cessna 120]]
*[[Cessna 140]]
*[[Cessna 150]]
*[[Cessna 152]]
*[[Cessna 170]]
*[[Cessna 172]]
*[[Cessna 175]]
*[[Cessna 177]]
*[[Cessna 180]]
*[[Cessna 182]]
*[[Cessna 185]]
*[[Cessna AgWagon|Cessna 188 AgWagon & AgTruck]]
*[[Cessna 190]]
*[[Cessna 195]]
*[[Cessna 205 | Cessna 205, 206 Stationair and 207]]
*[[Cessna 208 | Cessna 208 Caravan]]
*[[Cessna 210]]
*[[Cessna 303]]
*[[O-1 Bird Dog|Cessna 305 Birddog]]
*[[Cessna 310]]
*[[Cessna 335]]
*[[Cessna 337]], [[O-2 Skymaster]]
*[[Cessna 340]]
*[[Cessna 401]]
*[[Cessna 404]]
*[[Cessna 406 | Cessna 406 Caravan II]]
*[[Cessna 414]]
*[[Cessna 421]]
*[[Cessna 402]]
*[[Cessna |
expect to have me not continue contributing. --KQ
I usually use a static IP, but [[Recent Changes]] (hover over my name) only shows a masked IP, not my domain.
Did you see this on the main Wikipedia, or one of the internationals?
UseModWiki can turn off name lookup, and I'd assumed from the RC display that it was turned off.
You're asking that ''mybox.frobnuts.com'' be masked as ''mybox.'''''xxx.xxx''',
(which is a ''domain name'' rather than an ''ip address'', to be unnecessarily picky)
so that FrobNuts's network (thus their firewall) won't be identifiable?
Even the current method really doesn't provide that level of protection,
or much privacy of any kind beyond a casual glance.
For example, ''111.222.333.444'' would display as "''111.222.333.'''''xxx'''",
and thus "hide" a specific host, but the network can likely still be identified
via a simple whois lookup on "111.222.333". With my usual IP address,
the two leading numbers are sufficient to tell you where I'm logged in from; you don't even
need the third one. In general, only a residential poster would have some anonymity,
simply because the ip address (whether static or dynamic) usually maps
back to the ISP, not a specific business or school.
To achieve the equivalent level of privacy you're asking for, even the ip addresses should be
masked as '''xxx.xxx.xxx'''''.444'' rather than as they are now.
--[[User:hornlo|loh]]
:I second the reverse masking of the IP addresses--it still allows identification, but not by geography, etc. Though you'd probably need more than just the last three to make people in dynamic IP networks id'able. eh. no perfect answer. -- TheCunctator
Interesting. I don't remember if it was on the English wikipedia or the Spanish one; it's been some months past. I had two concerns; one ''was'' indeed not giving the entire IP address (or domain name); the other was not revealing immediately where contributors post from, leaving it instead to their own discretion. I haven't seen it again; but if it was originally from the Spanish wikipedia that would be because I've contributed nearly all I can in Spanish. :-) I expect that I'll try it from another computer to see how it displays and will be using anonymizer or somesuch if it's not to my satisfaction. Thanks..
:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Other feature requests</title>
<id>11134</id>
<revision>
<id>15908899</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-19T07:31:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Guanabot</username>
<id>82928</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Guanaco - robot: converting HTML tags to proper wiki markup and removing excess newlines</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----
<h3>Other feature requests</h3>
* Marking pages with a page type: article, [[talk:Feature_requests|/Talk]], a wikipedians page, pages about wikipedia (policy, requested features, announcements, etc.), redirects, junk, not yet classified. That way we can get a much more accurate count of the number of articles. A link or drop down box at the bottom of a page would allow changes to the page type, which should show up in the revision log. -- [[User:Simon J Kissane]]
* Automate renaming of pages. I'm sick of copying and pasting and putting in #REDIRECTs. There should be a rename command which creates a copy of the page with the new name, and replaces the old page with a #REDIRECT to the new page. And it should be able to move all subpages (e.g. [[talk:Feature_requests|/Talk]] pages) as well. -- [[User:Simon J Kissane]]
* Can we omit [[talk:Feature_requests|/Talk]] pages from those returned by [[Random Page]] (or at least a user option so to do)" -- [[User:GWO]]
**Could we exclude #REDIRECT pages from "Random Page" results--make it, uh, why not "Random article"? (Maybe exclude user pages too?) Or perhaps add that as an option under prefs?[[user:Koyaanis Qatsi|Koyaanis Qatsi]]
* I'm not sure if this is a software feature request or a feature request for the sysadmin, but can we make the description metatag for all Wikipedia pages identical to the first 25-40 words of the page contents?
* Disallow self-referencing wiki links. It is counterproductive to the idea of a cross-linked encyclopedia to link the page the user is currently on to the page the user is currently on. One can easily kill these links when one comes across them, but perhaps it would be easier to simply disallow it in the wiki code?
** I think the idea here is not to ''parse'' a link on the XYZ to the XYZ page as a link.
* There should be a diff between two adjacent changes. The current diff only shows the change from a given version to the latest version. It would be useful to diff version 1 with version 2, version 2 with version 3, ..., version 14 with version 15 etc. Not version 1 to version 15.
* I'd like a more precise "diff" feature. Currently if there's a change in a paragraph you have to scan the entire paragraph to find it. Could we mark the changes themselves in some way?
**I second for this feature. I recently suggested a convention used in entering text on the FAQ page. If each sentence is entered on its own line, the diff will show only the sentence that is changed instead of the whole paragraph. However, if Wikipedia's diff can use color to highlight the changes within the paragraph, then it would work better than what I suggested.
* Let users "subscribe" to a page: every change to that page will then be emailed to them. AxelBoldt
**I like this idea very much, but how about sending a daily/weekly/monthly digest instead of one message per change? This would be '''very''' nice. [[User:sandos]]
* the Wikie (erlang wiki) allows for passworded pages, and append-only pages, as well as marked sections as well. These are rather useful as well. The primary use, in my mind, for this wiki would be quoting material from somewhere else, like the US constitution, the text of a speech, the exact program code to do something...
* Images should automatically be aligned to the left (align="left") so that text wraps around it. Or something. Check out [[Galileo]]. There is a huge white space even on 800x600.
* A standardized method to include grants of permission from sources of copyrighted material, plus a detail on [[fair_use]] implied consent on copyrighted material. A statement that this wikipedia.com is either for commercial or educational purposes might help !
* Tag that would allow Tex Math mode. Like in < formula >F = frac{GMm}{r^2}< / formula >. It would be converted to cached imag/png and img tag with 'alt' set to Tex source, like in < img src="texcache/tex01234567.png" alt="F = frac{GMm}{r^2}" > -- [[User:Taw]]
:This would be really cool. In fact, I'd like to do this on my own site for my own nefarious purposes, so I'm looking into how to pull it off. -- EdwardOConnor
* Keywords for every page, with syntax like: '#KEYWORDS foo,bar,baz'.
** It will help getting high locations in web searchers.
** Some display-all-pages-with-selected-keyword should be provided. It would enhance quality of articles, as an expert on some field could easily see all articles on his field. It would also be good way of checking completeness of article set.
** Most important would be Recent Changes restricted to some set of keywords. That would be very good peer-review mechanism. --[[User:Taw]]
* There should be a way to specify alt= and title= of an inline image for the benefit of the visually impaired, the slowly connected, or anybody else using [[Links]] or another textual web browser. --[[User:Damian Yerrick]]
:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Completed feature requests</title>
<id>11135</id>
<revision>
<id>19583061</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-25T16:52:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jnc</username>
<id>18024</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Completed feature requests */ Page now retrieved to Wikipedia:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----
=== Completed feature requests ===
* [[Wikipedia:Free Links|Free Links]]
* Renaming/deleting function
* BackLinks: see which pages links to the one you're at (Click the title of the current page (at the top of the page)--it will do a search for links to the current page)
* a way to allow non-English characters in article names (in newest version)
:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Really ambitious and fanciful feature requests</title>
<id>11136</id>
<revision>
<id>15908901</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-07T03:50:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.230.173.172</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented |
[B-24 Liberator]] bombers. The population of Ann Arbor exploded with an influx of military personnel, war workers, and their families.
The city gained a reputation as an important center for liberal politics over the course of the 1960s and 1970s. Presidential candidate [[John F. Kennedy]] unveiled his [[Peace Corps]] proposal in 1960 at the University of Michigan, and in 1964 President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] first called for a "[[Great Society]]." The city also became a locus for [[left-wing politics|left-wing]] activism, serving as a hub for the [[American civil rights movement|civil-rights movement]], the [[Opposition to U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War|anti-Vietnam War movement]], and the student movement. The first major meetings of the national left-wing campus group [[Students for a Democratic Society]] took place in Ann Arbor in 1960, and in 1965 the city was home to the first U.S. [[teach-in]] against the [[Vietnam War]]. Over the course of the ensuing fifteen years, a plethora of [[counterculture|countercultural]] and [[New Left]] enterprises sprang up and developed strong constituencies within the city.
These influences washed into municipal politics during the early and mid-1970s when three members of the local, progressive [[Human Rights Party]] (HRP) won city-council seats on the strength of the student vote. During their time on the council, HRP representatives successfully fought for measures ranging from pioneering [[civil rights|antidiscrimination]] ordinances to [[Marijuana laws in Ann Arbor, Michigan|measures decriminalizing marijuana possession]] to a [[rent control|rent-control]] ordinance – many of which remain in effect in modified form today.
Alongside these liberal and left-wing efforts, a small handful of conservative institutions were also born in Ann Arbor. These include [[Word of God (movement)|Word of God]] (established in 1967), a charismatic Catholic movement of national scope; and the [[Thomas More Law Center]] (established in 1999), a leading religious-conservative advocacy group.
The economy of Ann Arbor underwent a gradual shift from a manufacturing base to a service and technology base over the course of the 20th century, a shift which accelerated in the 1970s and 1980s. At the same time, the downtown has transformed from one dominated primarily by retail establishments dealing in staple goods to one comprised mainly of eateries, cafés, bars and clubs, and specialty shops.
Over the past several decades, the city has increasingly found itself grappling with the effects of sharply rising land values and [[gentrification]], as well as [[urban sprawl]] stretching far into the outlying countryside. On [[November 2]], [[2004]], voters approved a [[Greenbelt|greenbelt]] plan under which the city government would buy up the development rights to large swaths of land adjacent to Ann Arbor in order to prevent sprawling development. Since then, a vociferous local debate has hinged on whether, and how, to accommodate and guide development within city limits.
==Geography and climate==
[[Image:NicholsArb.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Thanks to a reforestation campaign beginning in the early 20th century, Ann Arbor has many trees.]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 27.7&nbsp;[[square mile|mi&sup2;]] (71.7&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km&sup2;]]); 27.0&nbsp;mi&sup2; (70.0&nbsp;km&sup2;) of it is land and 0.7 mi&sup2; (1.7&nbsp;km&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 2.42% water, much of it being part of the [[Huron River (Michigan)|Huron River]]. Ann Arbor is approximately 40&nbsp;[[mile]]s (64&nbsp;[[kilometre|km]]) west of [[Detroit]], a 45-minute car ride on [[Interstate 94|I-94]]. [[Ann Arbor Charter Township, Michigan|Ann Arbor Charter Township]] is adjacent, on the city's north and east sides.
Ann Arbor is situated on the [[Huron River (Michigan)|Huron River]], in a productive agricultural and fruit-growing region. The landscape of Ann Arbor consists of rolling hills and [[valley]]s, with the terrain becoming steeper near the Huron River and more level elsewhere. The elevation ranges from about 750&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (230&nbsp;[[metre|m]]) along the Huron River to about 900&nbsp;feet (275&nbsp;m) above sea level in southern and northeastern Ann Arbor.{{ref|terrain}} The elevation is about 839&nbsp;feet (256&nbsp;m) at Ann Arbor Municipal Airport, which is located at {{coor dm|42|13.38|N|83|44.74|W|region:US}}.
===Cityscape===
Ann Arbor's "Tree Town" moniker stems from the dense forestation of its parks and residential areas. The city holds almost as many trees as residents, with more than 50,000 trees sited along city streets and an equal number in city parks.{{ref|trees}} In recent years, the [[emerald ash borer]] has destroyed many of the city’s approximately 10,500 [[ash tree]]s.
The city contains 147 municipal parks, ranging from neighborhood vest-pocket parks to large recreation areas, with several large city parks and a university park bordering sections of the Huron River. The largest are Argo Park, Riverside Park, County Farm Park, and Gallup Park (near the Huron Parkway), while Fuller Recreation Area, near the [[University of Michigan Health System|University Hospital]] complex, contains sports fields, pedestrian and [[bike path]]s, and swimming pools. [[Nichols Arboretum]], which is jointly owned by the City of Ann Arbor and the [[University of Michigan]] (and known locally as "The Arboretum" or just "The Arb"), is a 123-acre (50 hectare) preserve on the east side of the city near downtown. It contains hundreds of plant and tree species and was expressly left to the city and the university for the benefit of the people of Ann Arbor and the children of Ann Arbor's public schools.
The Kerrytown Shops, Main Street Business District, the State Street Business District, and the South University Business District are commercial areas in downtown. Three commercial areas south of downtown include the areas near [[Interstate 94|I-94]] and Ann Arbor-Saline Road, Briarwood Mall, and the South Industrial area. Other commercial areas include the Arborland/Washtenaw Avenue and Packard Road merchants on the east side, the Plymouth Road area in the northeast, and the Westgate/West Stadium areas on the west side. The downtown contains a mix of 19th and early 20th-century structures and modern-style buildings, as well as a [[farmers' market]] in the Kerrytown district. The city’s commercial districts are mostly comprised of two to four-story structures, although the downtown and the area near Briarwood Mall contain a small number of high-rise buildings.
Ann Arbor's residential neighborhoods contain a range of architectural styles, from classic 19th and early 20th-century designs to [[ranch-style house]]s. More contemporary-style houses are located farther from the downtown district. Surrounding the University of Michigan campus are houses and apartment complexes occupied primarily by student renters. The 19th-century buildings and streetscape of the Old West Side neighborhood have been preserved virtually intact; in 1972, the district was listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]], and it is further protected via city ordinances and a nonprofit preservation group.
===Climate===
Ann Arbor has a typically [[Midwestern United States|Midwestern]] [[temperate]] seasonal climate, which is influenced by the [[Great Lakes]]. There are four seasons, with winters being cold with moderate [[snowfall]] while summers can be warm and humid. The area does experience [[lake effect]] primarily in the form of increased cloudiness during late fall and early winter.{{ref|weather1}} The highest average temperature is in July at 83&nbsp;&deg;[[fahrenheit|F]] (28&nbsp;&deg;[[celsius|C]]) while the lowest average temperature is in January at 16&nbsp;&deg;F (&minus;9&nbsp;&deg;C). However, summer temperatures can top 90&nbsp;&deg;F (32&nbsp;&deg;C), and winter temperatures can drop below 0&nbsp;&deg;F (&minus;17&nbsp;&deg;C). Average monthly precipitation ranges from 2 to 4&nbsp;[[inch|inches]] (44 to 92&nbsp;[[millimetre|mm]]), with the heaviest occurring during the summer months. Snowfall, which normally occurs from November to April, ranges from 1 to 10&nbsp;inches (3 to 25&nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]]) per month.{{ref|weather}} The highest recorded temperature was 105&nbsp;&deg;F (40.6&nbsp;&deg;C) on [[July 24]], [[1934]], while the lowest recorded temperature was &minus;22.0&nbsp;&deg;F (&minus;30&nbsp;&deg;C) on [[January 19]], [[1994]].{{ref|weather2}}
==Demographics==
[[Image:SouthU.jpg|thumb|right|200px|South University Avenue caters to young people.]]
As of the [[census]][[Geographic references#2|<sup>2</sup>]] of 2000, there are 114,024 people, 45,693 households, and 21,704 families residing in the city. About 30,000 university students are added to the population each September. The [[population density]] is 4,221.1/mi&sup2; (1,629.9/km&sup2;). There are 47,218 housing units at an average density of 1,748.0/mi&sup2; (675.0/km&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 74.68% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 8.83% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.29% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 11.90% [[Asia]]n, 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 1.21% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 3.05% from two or more races. 3.34% of the population are [[Hispanic American]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 45,693 households out of which 23.0% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.8% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 7.5% |
th-stub}}
[[Category:Celtic gods]]
[[Category:Irish gods]]
[[Category:Death gods]]
[[nl:Donn]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Data compression ratio</title>
<id>8681</id>
<revision>
<id>39851813</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T07:59:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mattopia</username>
<id>252595</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Data compression ratio''' is a computer term used to quantify the reduction in data quantity produced by a [[data compression algorithm]]. A data compression ratio is much like a physical compression ratio used to measure the physical compression of substances. Ratios are generally expressed as <original size>:<compressed size>.
A 10MB file that compresses to 2MB would have a 5:1 compression ratio.
Compression ratios are often given in percents. Percentage of compression is calculated by dividing the difference between size of source data and size of compressed data by size of source data. The 10MB file that compresses to 2 MB would have ((10-2)/10)*100% = 80% compression ratio.
Data compression ratios are also closely related to the concept of '''coding rates''', which express the same concept but relate the ratio to more tangible quantities. For example, the coding rate of an audio stream may be expressed in "bits per second", or still image compression may be expressed in "bits per pixel". In many instances, coding rates can be converted to compression ratios if the physical characterstics of content of the original file are known. In contrast to compression ratios, lower coding rates indicate a higher level of compression.
{{comp-sci-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Decidable language</title>
<id>8682</id>
<revision>
<id>15906647</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-08T23:38:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MathMartin</username>
<id>29707</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved content to [[recursive language]] to make the naming consistent with [[recursively enumerable language]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[recursive language]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Disc jockey</title>
<id>8683</id>
<revision>
<id>42068005</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:21:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.186.242.85</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Techniques */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of '''DJ''', see [[DJ (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Alkivar-003-TWEAKED.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A disc jockey "scratching" a record.]]
A '''disc jockey''' (also called '''DJ''', or '''deejay''') is an individual who selects and plays [[sound recording|prerecorded music]] for an intended audience.
== Origin of term ==
The term was first used to describe radio announcers who would introduce and play popular [[gramophone records]]. These records, also called ''discs'' by those in the industry were ''jockeyed'' by the [[Announcer|radio announcer]]s, hence the name ''disc jockey'' and soon to be known as ''DJs'' or ''deejays''. Today there are a number of factors, including the selected music, the intended audience, the performance setting, the preferred medium, and the development of sound manipulation, that have led to different types of deejays.
== Job description ==
The physical act of selecting and playing sound recordings is called '''deejaying''', or '''DJing''', and ranges in sophistication from simply playing a series of recordings (referred to as programming, or composing a [[playlist]]), to the manipulating of recordings, using techniques such as [[audio mixing]], [[cueing]], [[phrasing (DJ)|phrasing]], [[cutting (music)|cutting]], [[scratching]], and [[beatmatching]], often to the point of creating original [[musical composition]]s. It should be noted that the term "DJ" in Jamaican dancehall culture refers to the performer who inserts live ad lib raps or "toasts" over dub instrumental recordings played by the "selector", here described as a "DJ".
==Equipment==
The most basic equipment that is necessary for a standard disc jockey to perform consists of the following:
1. sound recordings in preferred medium (eg. vinyl records, compact discs, mp3s)
2. at least two devices for playback of sound recordings, for the purpose of alternating back and forth to create continuous playback (eg. record players, compact disc players, mp3 players)
3. a [[sound system]] for amplification of the recordings (eg. portable audio system, radio wave broadcaster)
The addition of a [[mixer]] (used to mix the sound of the two playback devices), a [[microphone]] (used to amplify the human voice), and [[headphone]]s (used to listen to one recording while the other is playing, without outputting the sound to the audience) is strongly recommended, but not required. Other types of equipment can also be added, including [[sampler]]s, [[drum machine]]s, effects processors, [[slipmat]]s, and Computerized Performance Systems.
==Techniques==
There are several techniques that can be applied by the disc jockey as a means to manipulate the prerecorded music. These include [[audio mixing]], [[cueing]], [[slip-cueing]], [[phrasing (DJ)|phrasing]], [[cutting (music)|cutting]], [[beat juggling]], [[scratching]], [[beatmatching]], [[needle drop]]s, [[phase shifting]], and more.
==DJ control and economics==
Throughout the 1950s, [[payola]] was an ongoing problem. Part of the fallout from that payola scandal was tighter control of the music by station management. The [[Top 40]] format also emerged, where popular songs are played repeatedly.
Today, very few DJs in the United States have any control over what is played on the air. Playlists are very tightly regulated, and the DJ is often not allowed to make any changes or additions. The songs to be played are usually determined by [[computer]]ized [[algorithm]]s, and [[automation]] techniques such as [[voice tracking]] have allowed single DJs to send announcements across many stations. Even song requests are sometimes co-opted into this system&mdash;a song might be announced as a request by a DJ even though it was already set to appear in the playlist.
Economically, this formula has been successful across the country. However, music aficionados look upon such practices with disgust and either seek out [[freeform (radio format)|freeform]] stations that put the DJs back in control, or end up dumping terrestrial radio in favor of [[satellite radio]] services or portable music players like [[Apple iPod | iPods]]. [[College radio]] stations and other [[public radio]] outlets are the most common places for freeform playlists in the U.S.
==Types of disc jockeys==
By definition, the role of selecting and playing [[sound recording|prerecorded music]] for an intended audience is the same for every disc jockey. The selected music, the audience, the setting, the preferred medium, and the level of sophistication of sound manipulation are factors that create a number of different types of deejays.
The following is a list of the most common types of disc jockeys, along with notable examples of each, listed in chronological order by birth.
===Radio DJs===
A radio disc jockey is one that selects and plays music that is broadcast across radio waves.
====Notable Radio DJs====
*[[Christopher Stone]] (1882–1965), became the first disc jockey in the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1927]].
*[[Martin Block]] (1901-1967), the first radio disc jockey to become a star, inspired the term "disc jockey".
*[[Alan Freed]] (1922-1965), became internationally known for promoting [[African-American]] [[Rhythm and Blues]] music in the United States and Europe under the name of [[Rock and Roll]].
*[[Murray the K|Murray "The K" Kaufman]] (1922-1982), influential rock and roll disc jockey, for a time was billed as the "Fifth Beatle".
*[[Rog Martin]] (born 1941), First DJ to play Top Forty hits in stereo in 1968. An FM Radio station in Los Angeles was the venue.
*[[Jimmy Savile]] (born 1926), British DJ and television personality, best known for his [[BBC]] television show [[Jim'll Fix It]] where he made the wishes of members of the public (mainly children) come true. In 1947 he was the first ever DJ to use twin turntables for continuous play after he paid a local metal worker to weld two domestic record decks together.
*[[Dick Clark (entertainer)|Dick Clark]] (born 1929), host of ''[[American Bandstand]]'', television's longest-running music/variety program, as well as a number of nationally syndicated radio shows.
*[[Casey Kasem]] (born 1932), disc jockey and music historian, host of the long-running radio series ''[[American Top 40]]''. Also the voice of [[Shaggy]] in the [[Scooby-Doo]] cartoon series.
*[[Wolfman Jack]] (1938-1995), drew upon his love of horror movies and rock and roll to create his raspy-voiced, howling persona, one of radio’s most distinctive voices.
*[[John Peel]] (1939-2004), one of the original DJs of [[UK]]'s [[BBC Radio 1|Radio 1]] in [[1967]], known for the extraordinary range of his taste in music, and for championing unknown musical artists.
*[[Jim Ladd]] (born 1948), the last remaining freeform rock DJ in [[United States]] commercial radio.
''See also: [[:Category:Radio DJs]]''
===Bedroom DJs===
A person who owns DJing equipment (ie. turntables, mixer, CDJ, etc.) and has a passion for music, but doesn't play out to crowds at bars or special events (ie. raves). Instead, they opt to play their music at home for their friends, record mixtapes or over the internet via audio broadcasting software, such as shoutcast.
===Club/Rave DJs===
A club/rave disc jockey is one that selects and plays music in a club setting. The setting can range anywhere from a small club, a neighborhood party, a disco |
life==
Jacques-Louis David was born into a prosperous family in [[Paris]] on [[August 30]], [[1748]]. When he was nine, his father was killed in a duel, and his mother left him with his prosperous architect uncles. They saw to it that he received an excellent education at the [[Collège des Quatre-Nations]], but he was never a good student; he had a tumor that impeded his speech, and he was always too busy drawing. He covered his notebooks with his drawings, and he once said, “I was always hiding behind the instructor’s chair, drawing for the duration of the class.” Soon, he desired to be a painter, but his uncles and mother wanted him to be a soldier. He soon overcame the opposition, and went to learn from [[François Boucher]], the leading painter of the time, who was also a distant relative. Boucher was a [[Rococo]] painter, which was falling out of style and becoming more classical. Boucher decided that instead of taking over David’s tutelage, he would send David to his friend [[Joseph-Marie Vien]], a mediocre painter, but one that embraced the classical reaction to Rococo. There David attended the Royal Academy, based in what is now the [[Louvre]].
David attempted to win the Prix de Rome, an art scholarship to the French Academy in [[Rome]] four times. Once, he lost, according to legend, because he had not consulted Vien, one of the judges. Another time, he lost because a few other students had been competing for years, and Vien felt David’s education could wait for these other mediocre painters. In protest, he attempted to starve himself to death. Finally, in 1774, David won the Prix de Rome. Normally, he would have had to attend another school before attending the Academy in Rome, but Vien’s influence kept him out of it. He went to Italy with Vien in 1775, as Vien had been appointed director of the French Academy at Rome. While in Italy, David observed the Italian masterpieces and the ruins of ancient Rome. David filled sketchbooks with material that he would derive from for the rest of his life. While in Rome, he studied great masters, and came to favor above all others [[Raphael]]. In 1779, David was able to see the ruins of [[Pompeii]], and was filled with wonder. After this, he sought to revolutionize the art world with the "eternal" concepts of classicism.
==Early work==
David's fellow students at the academy found him difficult to get along with, but they recognized his genius. David was allowed to stay at the French Academy in Rome for an extra year, but after 5 years in Rome, he returned to Paris. There, he found people ready to use their influence for him, and he was made a member of the Royal Academy. He sent two paintings to the royal academy, and both were included in the [[Paris Salon|Salon]] of 1781, a high honor. He was praised by his famous contemporary painters, but the administration of the Royal Academy was very hostile to this young upstart. After the Salon, the King granted David lodging in the Louvre, an ancient and much desired privilege of great artists. When the contractor of the King's buildings, M. Pecol, was arranging with David, he asked the artist to marry his daughter, Marguerite Charlotte. This marriage brought him money and eventually four children. David had his own pupils, about 40 to 50, and was commissioned by the government to paint "Horace defended by his Father," but Jacques soon decided, "Only in Rome can I paint Romans." His father in law provided the money he needed for the trip, and David headed for Rome with his wife and his favorite student, the Prix de Rome winner of that year. In Rome, David painted his famous ''[[Oath of the Horatii]]''. "This painting occupies an extremely important place in the body of David’s work and in the history of French painting. The story was taken from [[Livy]]. We are in the period of the wars between Rome and Alba, in 669 B.C. It has been decided that the dispute between the two cities must be settled by an unusual form of combat to be fought by two groups of three champions each. The two groups are the three Horatii brothers and the three Curiatii brothers. The drama lay in the fact that one of the sisters of the Curiatii, Sabina, is married to one of the Horatii, while one of the sisters of the Horatii, Camilla, is betrothed to one of the Curiatii. Despite the ties between the two families, the Horatii's father exhorts his sons to fight the Curiatii and they obey, despite the lamentations of the women."
[[Image:David - Oath of the Horatii.JPG|left|thumb|320px|''[[Oath of the Horatii]]'' ([[1784]])]]
Priests, cardinals, princes and princesses came to see David’s incredible work, eulogies were created for the painting, and even the Pope wanted to see ''The Oath''. David wanted the painting in the Salon, but it arrived late, and was hung in a bad position by people opposed to David at the Academy. Finally, public uproar made it necessary to move the painting to a better position. In 1787, David did not become the Director of the French Academy in Rome, a position he wanted dearly. The Count in charge of the appointments said David was too young, but said he would support Jacques in 6 to 12 years. This situation would be one of many that would cause him to lash out at the Academy in years to come.
For the salon of 1787, David exhibited his famous ''Death of Socrates''. "Condemned to death, Socrates, strong, calm and at peace, discusses the immortality of the soul. Surrounded by Crito, his grieving friends and students, he is teaching, philosophizing, and in fact, thanking the God of Health, Asclepius, for the hemlock brew which will insure a peaceful death… The wife of Socrates can be seen grieving alone outside the chamber, dismissed for her weakness. Plato (not present when Socrates died) is depicted as an old man seated at the end of the bed." Critics compared the Socrates with [[Michelangelo]]’s [[Sistine Chapel|Sistine Ceiling]] and Raphael's Stanze, and one, after ten visits to the Salon, described it as "in every sense perfect". [[Denis Diderot]] said it looked like he copied it from some ancient [[bas-relief]]. The painting was very much in tune with the political climate at the time. For this painting, David was not honored by a royal "works of encouragement".
For his next painting, David painted ''The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons''. The work had tremendous appeal for the time. Before the opening of the Salon, the [[French Revolution]] had begun. The [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]] had been established, and the [[Bastille]] had fallen. The royal court did not want propaganda agitating the people, so all paintings had to be checked before being hung. Some portraits of famous people were banned, like the portrait of a chemist who happened to be a member of an ill-favored party. When the newspapers reported that the government had not allowed the showing of ''The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons'', the people were outraged, and the royals gave in. The painting was hung in the exhibition, protected by art students. The painting depicts [[Lucius Junius Brutus]], the Roman leader, grieving for his sons. Brutus's sons had attempted to overthrow the government and restore the monarchy, so the father ordered their death to maintain the republic. Thus, Brutus was the heroic defender of the republic, at the cost of his own family. On the right, the Mother holds her two daughters, and the grandmother is seen on the far right, in anguish. Brutus sits on the left, alone, brooding, but knowing what he did was best for his country. The whole painting was a Republican symbol, and obviously had immense meaning during these times in France.
==The Revolution==
At the very beginning, David was a supporter of the Revolution, a friend of [[Robespierre]] and a [[Jacobin]]. While others were leaving the country for new and greater opportunities, David stayed to help destroy the old order. It doesn’t make much sense why he did this: there were many more opportunities for him under the King than the new order. Some people suggest David’s love for the classical made him embrace everything about that period, including a republican government.
Others believed that they found the key to the artist’s revolutionary career in his personality. Undoubtedly, David’s artistic sensibility, mercurial temperament, volatile emotions, ardent enthusiasm, and fierce independence might have been expected to help turn him against the established order but they did not fully explain his devotion to the republican regime. Nor did the vague statements of those who insisted upon his “powerful ambition. . . and unusual energy of will” actually account for his revolutionary connections. Those who knew him maintained that “generous ardor,” high-minded idealism and well meaning, though sometimes fanatical, enthusiasm rather than selfishness and jealousy, motivated his activities during this period.”
Soon, David turned his critical sights on Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. This attack was probably caused primarily by hypocrisy of the organization and, and their personal opposition against his work, as seen in previous episodes in David’s life. The Royal Academy was chock full of royalists, and David’s attempt to reform it did not go over well with the members. However, the deck was stacked against this symbol of the old republic, and the National Assembly ordered it to make changes to conform to the new constitution.
David then began work on something that would later hound him: propaganda for the new republic. David’s painting of Brutus was shown during the play ''Brutus'', by the famous Frenchman, [[Voltaire]]. The people responded in an uproar of approval. On [[June 20]] [[1790]], the anniversary of the first act of defiance against the King, the oath of the tenn |
tting theory]] -- [[Content analysis]] -- [[Conversation analysis]] -- [[Critical theory]] -- [[Cultivation theory]] -- [[Cultural studies]] -- [[Cybernetics]] -- [[Diffusion of innovations]] -- [[Elaboration likelihood model]] -- [[Ethnomethodology]] -- [[Excitation transfer theory]] -- [[Framing]] -- [[Hermeneutics]] -- [[Hypodermic needle model]] -- [[Information theory]] --[[Knowledge gap hypothesis]] -- [[Learning theory of language]] -- [[Limited capacity model]] -- [[Media ecology]] -- [[Network analysis]] -- [[Nonviolent Communication]] -- [[Opinion leadership]] -- [[Political economy]] -- [[Priming]] -- [[Scheme]] -- [[Social learning theory]] -- [[Social construction of reality]] -- [[Spiral of silence]] -- [[Structuralism]] -- [[Symbolic interactionism]] -- [[Technology acceptance model]] -- [[Theory of cognitive dissonance]] -- [[Third-person effect]] -- [[Two-step flow of communication]] -- [[Uses and gratifications]] -- [[Uncertainty reduction theory]]
== Issues and Topics ==
[[Cultural imperialism]] -- [[Democracy]] -- [[Digital divide]] -- [[Family communication]] -- [[Hegemony]] -- [[Identity]] -- [[Imagined community]] -- [[Information society]] -- [[Late capitalism]] -- [[Media imperialism]] -- [[Micropolitics]] -- [[Nationalism]] -- [[NetworkAnatomy]] -- [[New world information order]] -- [[Postmodernity]] -- [[Public sphere]] -- [[Self]] -- [[Social capital]] -- [[Social network]] -- [[Stereotyping]] --[[Stigma]]-- [[Universal service]] -- [[Avatar (virtual reality)]]
[[Category:Communication|LIst of basic communication topics]]
[[Category:Lists of basic topics|Communication]]
[[Category:Lists|Communication]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of basic classical topics</title>
<id>6899</id>
<revision>
<id>40672264</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T05:01:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>That Guy, From That Show!</username>
<id>419920</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] format/style fixy</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in the [[classics]]. -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the classical world. For a comprehensive list, see [[List of classical topics]].
==Forebears of the Classical World==
The Classical civilisation did not develop in isolation; the ancient Greeks were indebted to their geographical proximity to the much older, intellectually and technologically sophisticated cultures of the East.
*[[Babylonia]]
*[[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]
*[[Phoenicia]]
==Greece==
===History of Greece===
*[[Aegean civilization|The Minoan civilisation]]
*[[Mycenaean Greece|The Mycenaean civilisation]]
*[[Greek Dark Ages|The Dark Ages]]
*[[Classical Greece]]
*[[Alexander the Great]]
*[[Hellenistic Greece|The Hellenistic period]]
*[[Roman Greece|Roman conquest of Greece]]
*[[Byzantine Empire|The Byzantine (Roman) Empire]]
===Greek philosophy===
*[[Pre-Socratic philosophy|The Prescocratics]]. These are philosophers who worked before Plato.
**The Milesians. These are the earliest Greek philosophers of whom we know. They worked in [[Miletus]] in [[Ionia]] in the [[6th century BC|6th century BCE]].
***[[Thales]]
***[[Anaximander]]
***[[Anaximenes]]
**[[Heraclitus]]
**The Eleatics. These philosophers worked in [[Elea]] in [[Magna Graecia]].
***[[Parmenides]]
***[[Zeno]]
**[[Atomism|The Atomists]]
***[[Leucippus]]
***[[Democritus]]
*[[Pythagoras]]
*[[Socrates]]
*[[Plato]]
*[[Aristotle]]
*[[Epicureanism]]
*[[Stoicism]]
===Greek science===
*[[History of astronomy#Ancient Greece|Greek astronomy]] and [[History of geography#The Greeks, the Romans and the Arabs|geography]]
**[[Ptolemy]]
*[[Greek mathematics]]
**[[Euclid]]
*Greek medicine
**[[Hippocrates]]
**[[Galen]]
===Greek language===
*[[Greek alphabet]]
*[[Ancient Greek]]
**[[Attic dialect]]
**[[Aeolic dialect]]
**[[Doric dialect]]
**[[Ionic dialect]]
**[[Homeric Greek]]
*[[Koine]]
===Greek art===
====Greek literature====
*[[Greek literature]]
*Poets
**[[Homer]]
***''[[The Iliad]]''
***''[[The Odyssey]]''
**[[Hesiod]]
***''[[Theogony]]''
***''[[Works and Days]]''
*Playwrights
**[[Tragedy#Greek tragedy|Tragedians]]
***[[Aeschylus]]
***[[Euripides]]
***[[Sophocles]]
**[[Comedy|Comic playwrights]]
***[[Aristophanes]]
*[[New Testament|The New Testament]]
====Greek architecture====
*The Classical orders
**[[Doric order]]
**[[Ionic order]]
**[[Corinthian order]]
*[[Parthenon|The Parthenon]]
====Greek sculpture====
*[[Phidias]]
===Greek mythology and religion===
*[[Greek mythology]]
*[[Greek religion]]
==Rome==
===History of Rome===
*[[Founding of Rome|The founding of Rome]]
*[[Roman Kingdom]]
*[[Roman Republic]]
*[[Roman Empire]]
*[[Decline of the Roman Empire|The fall of Rome]]
===Latin language===
*[[Latin]]
**[[Classical Latin]]
**[[Vulgar Latin]]
===Roman literature===
*Poets
**[[Virgil]]
***''[[Aeneid|The Aeneid]]''
***''[[Eclogues|The Eclogues]]''
***''[[Georgics|The Georgics]]''
**[[Ovid]]
***''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]''
**[[Lucretius]]
***''[[On the Nature of Things]]''
*Prose writers
**[[Cicero]]
*[[Vulgate|The Vulgate]]
===Roman mythology and religion===
*[[Roman mythology]]
*[[Roman religion]]
*[[Mystery religions]]
*[[Early Christianity]]
==Legacy of the Classical World==
===Languages===
The Classical languages have been immensely influential on all western European languages, bestowing on them an international learned vocabulary. Until the [[17th century]], the Latin language itself was used as the international medium of communication in diplomatic, scientific, philosophical and religious matters.
*[[Romance languages|The Romance languages]]
*The [[Modern Greek]] and [[Griko language|Griko]] languages
*[[Latin influence in English|Latin influence on English]]
*[[English words of Greek origin|Greek influence on English]]
*[[Ecclesiastical Latin]]
===Occidental literature===
*[[The Divine Comedy]]
*[[Paradise Lost]]
===Religion===
*[[Christianity]]
===Philosophy===
*[[Western philosophy]]
===Politics===
*[[Democracy]]
[[To_do, Ancient_Egypt]]
[[Category:Lists of basic topics|Classics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Cooking basic topics</title>
<id>6900</id>
<revision>
<id>28701245</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-18T22:15:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.18.171.99</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[cooking]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>List of basic critical theory topics</title>
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<username>Fplay</username>
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<comment>/* Related schools of thought */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in '''[[critical theory]]''' -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of critical theory. For a comprehensive list, see [[List of critical theory topics]].
==Major concepts, key terms, theories, schools of thought==
[[Reason]], [[Enlightenment (concept)|Enlightenment]], [[Negative dialectic]], [[Communicative action]], [[Public sphere]], [[Civic society]], Constellation, [[Cultural industry]], [[Late capitalism]].
==Major theorists==
[[Fredric Jameson]], [[Herbert Marcuse]], [[Taccheri]], [[Louis Althusser]], [[Jean Baudrillard]], [[Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)|Stuart Hall]], [[Slavoj Zizek]], [[Raymond Williams]], [[Moshe Postone]], [[Julia Kristeva]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[David Harvey (geographer)|David Harvey]], [[Loïc Wacquant]], [[Edward Said]], [[Gayatri Spivak]]. See also [[List of critical theorists]].
===Frankfurt School members and their close colleagues===
[[Theodor Adorno]], [[Max Horkheimer]], [[Jürgen Habermas]], [[Herbert Marcuse]], [[Erich Fromm]], [[Walter Benjamin]], [[Leo Lowenthal]], [[Gyorgy Lukacs]], [[Ernst Bloch]], [[Bertolt Brecht]].
==Major works==
''[[One-Dimensional Man]]'', ''[[Escape from Freedom]]'', ''[[Theory of Communicative Action]]'', ''[[Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere]]'', ''[[Negative Dialectic]]'', ''[[Dialectic of Enlightenment]]'', ''[[Writing and Difference]]'', ''[[Of Grammatology]]''.
==Major historical events==
[[Habermas-Luhmann debate]], [[Habermas-Lyotard debate]], [[Adorno-Popper debate]].
==Related schools of thought==
[[Deconstruction]], [[Neo-Marxism]], [[Post-Marxism]], [[Postcolonialism]], [[Postmodernism]], [[Poststructuralism]].
[[Category:Critical theory]]
[[Category:Lists of basic topics|Critical theory]]
[[Category:Wikipedia missing topics]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Cotswolds</title>
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<comment>/* Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cotswolds''' are a range of hills in central [[England]], sometimes called the "heart of England", a hilly area reaching over 300 m or 1000 feet. The area has been designated as the '''Cotswolds Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty'''. Their highest point is [[Cleeve Hill]] at 330m/1083ft.
The Cotswolds lie within the current [[ceremonial counties of England|ceremonial counties]] of [[Oxfordshire]], [[Gloucestershire]], [[Wiltshire]], [[Somerset]], [[Warwickshire]], and [[Worcestershire]]. The county of Gloucestershire forms the largest area of the Cotswolds.
==Description==
The spine of the Cotswolds runs southwest to northeast through six counties (see note above), particularly [[Gloucestershire]], [[Oxfordshire]], and southern [[Warwickshire]]. The northern and western edges of the Cotswolds are marked by steep escarpments down to the [[River Severn|Severn valley]] and the [[River Avon, Warwickshire|Avon]], the eastern boundary by th |
y a film company for the purpose of producing a [[film]] or motion picture. ''Crew'' are distinguished from ''cast'', the [[actor]]s who appear in front of the [[camera]] or provide voices for characters in the film. ''Crew'' are also separate from ''producers'', those who own a portion of either the film company or the film's [[intellectual property rights]].
A film crew is divided into different departments, each of which specializes in a specific aspect of the production.
== Production ==
*'''[[Production manager]]'''
:The production manager supervises the physical aspects of the production (not the creative aspects), including personnel, technology, budget, and scheduling. It is the production manager's responsibility to make sure the filming stays on schedule and within its budget, and also helps manage the day-to-day budget, managing operating costs such as salaries, production costs, and everyday equipment rental costs. The production manager often works under the supervision of a [[line producer]].
*'''[[Unit manager]]'''
:The unit manager fulfills the same role as the production manager but for secondary "unit" shooting.
*'''[[Production Coordinator]]'''
:The Production Coordinator is an under appreciated but integral part of film making, responsible for organizing all the logistics from hiring crew, renting equipment, booking talent to making sure the star has only green [[M&M's]] in their trailer.
*'''[[Film director|Director]]'''
:The director is resposible for overseeing the creative aspect of a film, including controlling the content and flow of the film's plot, directing the performances of actors, organizing and selecting the locations in which the film will be shot, and managing technical details such as the positioning of cameras, the use of lighting, and the timing and content of the film's soundtrack. Though the director wields a great deal of power, he or she is ultimately subordinate to the film's producer or producers. Some directors, especially more established ones, take on many of the roles of a producer, and the distinction between the two roles is sometimes blurred. In the United States, directors usually belong to the [[Directors Guild of America]]. The Canadian equivalent is the [[Directors Guild of Canada]].
*'''[[Assistant director|First assistant director]]'''
:The first assistant director (1st AD) assists the production manager and director. He or she is in charge of overseeing the day-to-day management of the cast and crew scheduling, equipment, script, and set. A 1st AD may also be responsible for directing background action for major shots or the entirety of relatively minor shots, at the director's discretion.
*'''[[Assistant director|Second assistant director]]'''
:The second assistant director (2nd AD) is the chief assistant of the 1st AD and helps carry out those tasks delegated to the 1st AD. The 2nd AD may also direct background action and [[extra (drama)|extras]] in addition to helping the 1st AD with scheduling, booking, script supervision, etc.
*'''[[Production assistant]]'''
:A production assistant assists the first assistant director with set operations.
*'''[[Script supervisor]]'''
:Also known as the "continuity person", the script supervisor keeps track of what parts of the script have been filmed and makes notes of any deviations between what was actually filmed and what appeared in the script, thereby ensuring that consistency is maintained from shot to shot.
*'''[[Production accountant]]'''
:The production accountant assists the production manager and line producer in keeping track of the film's budget. The production accountant, together with his or her various assistants, are often considered to be a separate department.
*'''[[Location manager]]'''
:The location manager assists the [[film director|Director]] and the [[Production designer]] in finding, securing, and coordinating filming locations. ''Locations'' is often considered to be a separate department.
*'''[[Publicist]]'''
:The publicist handles the [[publicity]] of a film. They promote the film by issuing press releases and overseeing advertisements.
== Art ==
*'''[[Production designer]]'''
:A production designer is responsible for creating the physical, visual appearance of the film - settings, costumes, properties, character makeup, all taken as a unit. The production designer works closely with the director and the cinematographer to achieve the 'look' of the film. The term was created in [[1939]] in respect for the amount and level of design work single-handedly accomplished by [[William Cameron Menzies]] on the film ''[[Gone with the Wind]]''. Previously, and often subsequently, the person(s) with the same responsibility had been called "art directors."
*'''[[Art director]]'''
:The art director reports to the production designer, and more directly oversees artists and craftspeople, such as the set designer and set decorator, who carry out the production design.
*'''[[Set designer]]'''
:The set designer is the draftsman, often an architect, who actually realizes the structures or interior spaces called for by the production designer.
*'''Assistant art director'''
:The first, second and third assistant art directors carry out the instructions of the art director. Their work often involves measuring locations, creating graphics and paper props, collecting information for the production designer and drawing sets. Sometimes a set designer is also the first assistant art director; in this capacity, he or she manages the work flow and acts as the 'foreman' of the drawing office.
*'''[[Set decorator]]'''
:The set decorator is in charge of the decorating of a film set, which includes the furnishings and all the other objects that will be seen in the film. He or she works closely with the production designer and coordinates with the art director. In recognition of the set decorator's importance, the [[Academy Award]] for Art Direction is given jointly to both the production designer and the set decorator.
*'''[[Property master]]'''
:The property master is in charge of finding and managing all the [[prop]]s that appear in the film.
== Hair/makeup ==
*'''[[Makeup artist]]'''
:Makeup artists are beauticians that apply [[makeup]] to anyone appearing on screen. They concentrate on the area above the chest, the face, the top of the head, the fingers, hands, arms, and elbows. Their role is to manipulate an actors on screen appearance whether it makes them look more youthful, larger, older, or in some cases monstrous. There are also body makeup artist who concentrate their abilities on the body rather than the head.
*'''[[Hairdresser]]'''
:The hairdresser (or "hair stylist") is resposible for maintaining and styling the hair of anyone appearing on screen. They work in conjunction with the makeup artist.
== Wardrobe ==
*'''[[Costume designer]]'''
:The costume designer makes all the clothing and costumes worn by all the actors on screen, as well as designing, planning, and organizing the construction of the garments down to the fabric, colors, and sizes.
*'''[[Set costumer]]'''
:The set costumer is the costume designer's assistant. In addition to helping with the design of the costumes, the set costumer is responsible for the storage and maintenance of the costumes, and assists the actors and actresses with them.
== Camera ==
*'''[[Director of photography]]'''
:The director of photography is the chief of the camera and lighting crew of the film. The DoP makes decisions on lighting and framing of scenes in conjuction with the film's director. Typically, the director tells the DoP how he or she wants the film to look, and the DoP then chooses the correct aperature, filter, and lighting to achieve the desired effect.
*'''[[Cinematographer]]'''
:The term cinematographer has been a point of contention for some time now. It is usually synonymous with "director of photography," though some professionals insist that it only applies when the director of photography and camera operator are the same person. In America, cinematographers (and directors of photography, camera operators, camera assistants and still photographers) are represented by the Local 600 International Cinematographers Society, a labor union division of the IATSE ([[International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employes]]). In Canada, they are represented by Locals 667 and 669. An elite collection of American cinematographers are members of the [[American Society of Cinematographers]], a trade orginization that represents the upper echelon of talent in cinematography. Equivalents in other countries include the [[Canadian Society of Cinematographers]], the [[British Society of Cinematographers]] and the [[Australian Cinematographers Society]].
*'''[[Camera operator]]'''
:The camera operator uses the camera at the direction of the cinematographer, director of photography, or the film director to capture the scenes on film. Generally, a cinematographer or director of photography does not operate the camera, but sometimes these jobs may be combined.
*'''[[Focus puller|First assistant camera operator]]''' (focus puller)
:The first assistant camera operator (1AC) is responsible for keeping the camera in focus as it is shooting. Since the 1AC is not looking through the camera and cannot see the results of his or her focusing in realtime, this job is considered to be extremely technically difficult. It is also the 1st AC's responsibility to maintain the camera during the duration of the filming period, apply or remove any necessary or unnecessary acessories (such as matte boxes, lens changes, filters, external viewing monitors, video assist devices, etc.), reload the camera (whether with film or video tape) and oversee the 2nd Assistant camera operator and any other members of the camera assist team (including desiginated loaders and camera production assistants).
*'''[[Clapper |
n the day-to-day administration of Gibraltar, and his role is largely as a ceremonial head of state. The Governor officially appoints the Chief Minister and government ministers after an election. He is responsible for matters of defence, security and the [[Royal Gibraltar Police]].
The Government of Gibraltar is elected for a term of four years. The [[unicameral]] [[Gibraltar House of Assembly|House of Assembly]] consists of fifteen elected members, eight Government members, seven opposition members and two ex-officio members appointed by the Governor, the Financial Development Secretary and the Attorney-General. The speaker is nominated by the Government.
The head of Government is the [[Chief Minister of Gibraltar|Chief Minister]], currently [[Peter Caruana]]. There are three political parties currently represented in the House of Assembly: [[Gibraltar Social Democrats]]; [[Gibraltar Socialist Labour Party]]; and [[Gibraltar Liberal Party]]. [[New Gibraltar Democracy]] has has been formed since the 2003 election.
The [[Reform Party (Gibraltar)|Reform Party]] and [[Gibraltar Labour Party]] having failed to achieve any popular support, ceased operating in [[2005]].
Gibraltar is a part of the [[European Union]], having joined under the British Treaty of Accession, with exemption from some areas such as the [[Customs Union]] and [[Common Agricultural Policy]]. Since [[2004]], the people of Gibraltar have been entitled to vote in elections to the [[European Parliament]] as part of the [[South West England]] region.
As a result of the continued Spanish claim, the issue of [[sovereignty]] features strongly in Gibraltar politics. All local political parties are opposed to any transfer of sovereignty to Spain, instead supporting [[self-determination]] for the Rock. This policy is supported by the main UK opposition parties. In view of the UK Government's repeated commitment to respect the wishes of the people of Gibraltar, as laid out in the Constitution, the proposal for joint sovereignty is now considered dead.
==Geography==
[[Image:Gib_bay.jpg|thumb|300px|The Rock of Gibraltar, West Side town area, 2006]]
The territory covers 6.543&nbsp;km² (2.53 square miles). It shares a 1.2 km land border with [[Spain]] and has 12&nbsp;km of shoreline. There are two coasts (''sides'') of Gibraltar &ndash; the [[Gibraltar east|East Side]] which contains the settlements of [[Sandy Bay]] and [[Catalan Bay]], and the [[Gibraltar west|West Side]] where the vast majority of the population lives.
The climate is [[Mediterranean]] with mild winters and warm summers. Its terrain is a narrow coastal lowland bordering the 426-metre (1.397.6-foot) high [[Rock of Gibraltar]].
It has negligible natural resources and limited natural freshwater resources, until recently using large concrete or natural rock water catchments to collect rain water. It now has a [[desalination]] plant using [[reverse osmosis]] which is built into the rock itself.
Gibraltar is one of the most densely populated territories in the world, with approximately 4,245 people per km² (10,979 per sq mile). The growing demand for space is being increasingly met by [[land reclamation]], which comprises approximately one tenth of the territory's total area.
The Rock itself is made of [[limestone]] and is 426 m (1,396 feet) high. It contains many miles of roads, most of which are closed to the public. Most of its area is covered by a [[nature reserve]], which is home to around 250 [[Barbary Macaque|Barbary Apes]], the only wild [[monkey]]s in Europe. Superstition holds that if ever the Apes leave, so will the British; so they are well looked after by the government (a situation rather analogous to the [[raven]]s of the [[Tower of London]]).
==Subdivisions==
[[Image:Gibraltar sm05.gif|thumb|250px|Map of Gibraltar]]
Gibraltar has no administrative divisions. It is divided into seven Major Residential Areas, which are further divided into Enumeration Areas, which serve statistical purposes. The Major Residential Areas are listed below, with population figures from the Census of 2001:
{| class="wikitable"
! style="background: #f0f0f0;" | !! style="background: #f0f0f0;" | Residential area !! style="background: #f0f0f0;" | Population !! style="background: #f0f0f0;" | %
|-
| align="right" | 1 || East Side || align="right" | 429 || align="right" | 1.54%
|-
| align="right" | 2 || North District || align="right" | 4,116 || align="right" | 14.97%
|-
| align="right" | 3 || Reclamation Areas || align="right" | 9,599 || align="right" | 34.91%
|-
| align="right" | 4 || Sandpits Area || align="right" | 2,207 || align="right" | 8.03%
|-
| align="right" | 5 || South District || align="right" | 4,257 || align="right" | 15.48%
|-
| align="right" | 6 || Town Area || align="right" | 3,588 || align="right" | 13.05%
|-
| align="right" | 7 || Upper Town || align="right" | 2,805 || align="right" | 10.20%
|-
| align="right" | || <b>Gibraltar</b> || align="right" | <b>27,495</b> || align="right" | <b>98.18%</b>
|}
==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Gibraltar}}
[[Image:10 pounds of Gibraltar.jpg|thumb|175px|[[Gibraltar pound|Gibraltar £10 notes]].]]
The British military traditionally dominated the economy of Gibraltar, with the naval dockyard providing the bulk of economic activity. This has however diminished in the last twenty years, and it is estimated to account for only 7% of the local economy, compared with over 60% in [[1984]].
Nowadays Gibraltar has an extensive service-sector-based economy, dominated by [[financial services]] and [[tourism]]. A number of British banks and international banks have operations in Gibraltar. Gibraltar has become an International Finance Centre. There is no tax on capital income and other advantages. Recently many bookmakers and online gaming operators have relocated to Gibraltar, to benefit from operating in a regulated jurisdiction with a favourable corporate tax regime.
Tourism is also a significant industry. Gibraltar is a popular stop for cruise ships; and attracts day visitors from resorts in Spain. The [[Rock of Gibraltar]] is a popular tourist attraction, particularly among British tourists and residents in the southern coast of Spain. It is also a popular shopping destination, and all goods and services are [[value added tax|VAT]] free. Many of the large British high street chains have branches in Gibraltar including [[Marks and Spencer]] [[BHS]] [[Dorothy Perkins]] and
the supermarket [[Morrisons]].
Figures from the [[CIA World Factbook]] show that Gibraltar has a [[GDP]] of over £432 million ($769 million); with a per capita figure of £15,700 ($28,000). The main export markets in 2004 were [[France]] (19.4%), Spain (14.1%), [[Turkmenistan]] (12.1%), [[Switzerland]] (11.7%), [[Germany]] (10.1%), the United Kingdom (9.1%) and [[Greece]] (6.8%).
The unit of currency is the [[Pound Sterling]].
==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Gibraltar}}
Gibraltar has a population of approximately 27,884 as of July 2005. The Gibraltarians' origins are Andalusian Spaniards, British, and settlers from elsewhere in the Mediterranean (mainly [[Genoa|Genoese]] and [[Malta|Maltese]]). The main religion is Christianity, the majority group being the [[Roman Catholic Church]], then the [[Church of England]]. There is a long established [[Jewish]] community, a number of [[Hindu]] Indians and a Moroccan [[Muslim]] population.
The official language is [[English language|English]], which is the main language used for government and business purposes. Many locals also use [[Llanito]], a mixture of English and [[Andalusia]]n Spanish, with some words not native to either.
==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Gibraltar}}
[[Image:Gibraltar-flags-national-pride.jpg|thumb|200px|Tercentenary celebrations in Gibraltar, the Union Flag is used a symbol of Gibraltar's British connections, and is flown throughout the Rock]]
The culture of Gibraltar reflects Gibraltarians' diverse origins. While there are [[Andalusia|Andalusian]] and British influences, the ethnic origins of most Gibraltarians are not confined to British or Andalusian ethnicities. Most ethnicities include Genoese, Maltese, Portuguese, and Germans. A handful of other Gibraltar residents are Jewish of [[Sephardi|Sephardic]] or of [[North Africa]]n origin or even Hindu.
British influence remains strong. Although Gibraltarians often speak to each other in an English-influenced Andalusian dialect called Yanito or [[Llanito]], English is the language of government, commerce, education and the media. Gibraltarians going on to higher education attend university in the UK. Patients requiring medical treatment not available on the Rock receive it there as private patients, paid for by the Gibraltar Government.
Gibraltar celebrates its National Day annually on 10th September, the date chosen to commemorate the 1967 Referendum which was the first act of self-determination of the people of Gibraltar. Despite the political undertones of the day, it is very much a festive occasion, with everyone dressing in red and white and congregating in the main square (Casemates) to celebrate. 30,000 red and white balloons are released followed by music, dancing and other events around Gibraltar.
==Transport==
[[Image:Gib_cc.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Cable Car]]
{{main|Transport in Gibraltar}}
Within Gibraltar, the main form of transport is the car. Motorbikes are popular and there is a good modern bus service. Unlike other British territories, traffic drives on the right, as it shares a lan |
ecause they could use their ancestor's feats as electoral [[propaganda]]. Though political parties weren't established, in the late Republic, factions such as the [[Populares]] and [[Optimates]] were developed. These factions lacked any real structure, just represented groups of individuals that were either favored the [[Roman assemblies|Popular Assemblies]] or the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] as the chief governing body.
To have held each office at the youngest possible age (''in suo anno,'' "in his year") was considered a great political success, since to miss out on a praetorship at 39 meant that one could not become consul at 42. [[Cicero]] expressed extreme pride both in being a ''[[novus homo]]'' ("new man") who became consul though none of his ancestors had ever served as a consul, and in having become consul "in his year".
==Military Tribune==
The ''cursus honorum'' officially began with ten years of military duty in the Roman cavalry (the ''[[equites]]'') or in the staff of a general who was a relative or a friend of the family. [[Nepotism]] was not condemned; it was an integral part of the system. A more prestigious position was that of a [[tribune|military tribune]]. 24 men at the age of around 20 were elected by the [[Roman assemblies|Tribal Assembly]] to serve as a legionary commander in one of the four consular legions, with six to each. These ten years were supposed to be mandatory to qualify for political office, but, in practice, the rule was not rigidly applied.
The following steps of the ''cursus honorum'' were achieved by direct election every year.
==Quaestor==
The first official post was that of ''[[quaestor]]''. Candidates had to be at least 30 years old. However, men of [[patrician]] rank could subtract two years from this and other minimum age requirements. Twenty quaestors served in the financial administration at Rome or as second-in-command to a governor in the provinces. They could also serve as the pay master for a legion. A young man who obtained this job was expected to become a very important official. An additional task of all quaestors was the supervision of public games. Also, election to quaestor brought automatic membership in the [[Roman senate|Senate]] starting from the late republic. As a quaestor, an official was allowed to wear the [[toga|toga praetexta]], but were not escorted by [[lictor]]s, nor did they possess [[imperium]].
==Aediles==
At 36 years of age, former quaestors could stand for election to one of the [[aedile]] positions. Of these aediles, two were plebian and two were patrician, with the patrician aediles called Curule Aediles. The plebeian aediles were elected by the [[Plebeian Council]] and the curule aediles were either elected by the [[Tribal Assembly]] or appointed by the reigning consul. The aediles had administrative responsibilities in Rome. They had to take care of the temples (whence their title, from the Latin ''aedes'', "temple") they organized games and were responsible for the maintenance of the public buildings in Rome. Moreover, they took charge of Rome's water and food supplies; in their capacity as market superintendents, they served sometimes as judges in mercantile affairs.
The Aedile was the supervisor of public works. He oversaw the public works, temples and markets. Therefore the Aediles would have been in some cooperation with the current Censors, who had similar or related duties. Also they oversaw the organization of festivals and games (''ludi''), which made this a very sought after office for a career minded politician of the late republic, as it was a good means of gaining popularity by staging spectacles.
Curule Aediles were added at a later date in the 4th century, and their duties do not differ substantially from plebeian aediles. However, unlike plebeian aediles, curule aediles were allowed certain symbols of rank--the ''[[sella curulis]]'' or 'curule chair,' for example--and only patricians could stand for election to curule aedile.
Each year only two were elected, and they alternated years; two plebeian aediles one year, two curule aediles the next, and so on.
While part of the ''cursus honorum'', this step was optional and not required to hold future offices. Though the office was usually held after the [[quaestor]]ship and before the [[praetor]]ship, there are some cases with former praetors serving as aediles.
==Praetor==
{{main|Praetor}}
After holding either the office of Quaestor or Aedile, a man of 39 years could run for [[Praetor]]. The number of Praetors elected varied through history, generally increasing with time. During the republic, six or eight were generally elected each year to serve judicial functions throughout Rome and other governmental responsibilities. In the absence of the Consuls, a Praetor would be given command of the garrison in Rome or in Italy. Also, a Praetor could exercise the functions of the Consuls throughout Rome, but their main function was that of a judge. They would preside over trials involving criminal acts as well as grant court orders or validate "illegal" acts as acts of administering justice. As a Praetor, a magistrate was escorted by six lictors, own imperium, and would wear the toga praetexta. After a term as Praetor, the magistrate would serve as a provincial governor in the office of Propraetor, owning Propraetor imperium, commanding the province’s legions, and possessed ultimate authority within their province(s).
Of all the Praetors, two were more prestigious then the others. The first was the Praetor Peregrinus, who was the chief judge in trials involving one or more foreigners. The other was the Praetor Urbanus, the chief judicial office in Rome. He had the power to overturn any verdict by any other courts, as well as the judge in cases involving criminal charges against provincial governors. The Praetor Urbanus was not allowed to leave the city for more than ten days. If one of these two Praetors was absent from Rome, the other would perform the duties of both.
==Consul==
{{main|Consul}}
The office of [[consul]] was the most prestigious of all and represented the summit of a successful career. The minimum age was 42 for plebians and 40 for patricians. The names of the two elected consuls identified the year. Consuls were responsible for the city's political agenda, commanded large-scale armies and controlled important provinces. The consuls served for only one year (to prevent corruption) and could only rule when they agreed, because each consul could veto the other one's decision.
The consuls would alternate monthly as the chairmen of the Senate. They also were the supreme commander in the Roman army, with both being granted two legions during their consular year. Consuls also exercised the highest juridical power in the Republic, being the only office with the power to override the decisions of the Praetor Urbanus. Only laws and the decrees of the Senate or the People's assembly limited their powers, and only the veto of a fellow consul or a tribune of the plebs could supersede their decisions.
A consul was escorted by twelve lictors, owned imperium and wore the toga praetexta. Because the consul was the highest executive office within the Republic, they had the power to veto any action or proposal by any other magistrate, save that of the Tribune of the Plebs. After a consulship, a consul was assigned one of more provinces and acted as the governor in the same way that a Propraetor, only owing Proconsular imperium. A second consulship could only be attempted after an interval of 10 years to prevent one man holding too much power.
==Governor==
{{main|Roman Governor}}
Though no part of the Cursus Honorum, upon completing a term as either Praetor or Consul, an officer was required to serve a term as Propraetor and Proconsul, respectively, in one of Rome's many [[Roman province|provinces]]. These Propraetors and Proconsuls held near autocratic authority within their selected province or provinces. Because each governor held equal imperium to the equivalent magistrate, they were escorted by the same number of lictors and could only be vetoed by a reigning Consul or Praetor. Their abilities to govern were only limited by the decrees of the Senate or the [[Roman assemblies|people's assemblies]], and the [[Tribune|Tribune of the Plebs]] were unable to veto their acts as long as the governor remained at least a mile outside of Rome.
==Censor==
After consul, the next step in the Cursus Honorum was the office of [[censor]]. This was the only office in the Roman Republic whose term was a period of 18 months instead of the usual 12. Censors were elected every five years and although the office held no military [[imperium]], it was considered a great honor. The censors took a regular census of the people and then apportioned the citizens into voting classes on the basis of income and tribal affiliation. The censors enrolled new citizens in tribes and voting classes as well. The censors were also in charge of the membership roll of the Senate, every five years adding new senators who had been elected to the requisite offices. Censors could also remove unworthy members from the senate. This ability was lost during the dictatorship of [[Sulla]]. Censors were also responsible for construction of public buildings and the moral status of the city.
Censors also had financial duties, in that they had to put out to tender projects that were to be financed by the state. Also, the censors were in charge of the leasing out of conquered land for public use and auction. Though this office owned no imperium, meaning no lictors for protection, they were allowed to wear the toga praetexta.
==Tribune of the Plebs==
{{main|Tribune of the Plebs}}
Although officially not part of the Cursus Honorum, the office of [[Tribune|Tribune of the Plebs]] was an important step in the political career of [[plebeians]]. The Tribune w |
e Martyrs' Day]]
* [[Language Movement]]
* [[Music of Bangladesh]]
* [[Music of Bengal]]
* [[Bengali cinema]]
* [[List of national languages of India]]
* [[List of Indian languages by total speakers]]
== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=bn}}
* [http://geocities.com/aboltabol_new/overview.htm Bengali Language: A Brief Overview]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=BNG Ethnologue report for Bengali]
* [http://www.i3pep.org/archives/2003/11/03/bengali-language-a-brief-introduction/ Bengali Language: A Brief Introduction]
* [http://www.sylheti.com Link on Sylheti dialect of Bangladesh]
* [http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm Ranking of Languages by Native Speakers]
* [http://www.iit.edu/~laksvij/language/bengali.html Transliterator] Transliterate from Romanised (english alphabets) to Unicode Bengali
* [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/biswas-bengali/ Samsad Bengali-English dictionary. 3rd ed. online]. Requires [[unicode]] enabled browser (such as [[firefox]]).
* [http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/bengali.htm List of online Bengali-related resources]
== Notes ==
<references />
== References ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
<div style="font-size: 85%">
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Alam
| Given1 = M
| Year = 2000
| Title = Bhasha Shourôbh: Bêkorôn O Rôchona (The Fragrance of Language: Grammar and Rhetoric)
| Publisher = S. N. Printers, Dhaka
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Cardona
| Given1 = G
| Surname2 = Jain
| Given2 = D
| Year = 2003
| Title = The Indo-Aryan languages
| Publisher = RoutledgeCurzon, London
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Chatterji
| Given1 = SK
| Year = 1921
| Title = Bengali Phonetics
| Journal = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Chatterji
| Given1 = SK
| Year = 1926
| Title = The Origin and Development of the Bengali Language: Part II
| Publsher = Calcutta Univ. Press
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Ferguson
| Given1 = CA
| Surname2 = Chowdhury
| Given2 = M
| Year = 1960
| Title = The Phonemes of Bengali
| Journal = Language, 36(1), Part 1
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Hayes
| Given1 = B
| Surname2 = Lahiri
| Given2 = A
| Year = 1991
| Title = Bengali intonational phonology
| Journal = Natural Language & Linguistic Theory
| Publisher = Springer Science
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Klaiman
| Given1 = MH
| Year = 1987
| Chapter = Bengali
| Editor = Bernard Comrie
| Title = The World's Major Languages
| Publisher = Croon Helm, London and Sydney
}}.
</div>
{{col-2}}
<div style="font-size: 85%">
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Masica
| Given1 = C
| Year = 1991
| Title = The Indo-Aryan Languages
| Publisher = Cambridge Univ. Press
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Radice
| Given1 = W
| Year = 1994
| Title = Teach Yourself Bengali: A Complete Course for Beginners
| Publisher = Hodder Headlin, London
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Ray
| Given1 = P
| Surname2 = Hai
| Given2 = MA
| Surname3 = Ray
| Given3 = L
| Year = 1966
| Title = Bengali language handbook
| Publisher = Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1 = Sen
| Given1 = D
| Year = 1996
| Title = Bengali Language and Literature
| Publisher = International Centre for Bengal Studies, Calcutta
}}.
</div>
{{col-end}}
[[Category:Indo-Aryan languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Languages of India]]
[[Category:Bengali language|*]]
[[Category:Bengali literature]]
[[ar:لغة بنغالية]]
[[ast:Bengalí]]
[[bg:Бенгалски език]]
[[bn:বাংলা]]
[[ca:Bengalí]]
[[cy:Bengaleg]]
[[da:Bengali]]
[[de:Bengali]]
[[es:Idioma bengalí]]
[[eo:Bengala lingvo]]
[[fr:Bengalî]]
[[id:Bahasa Bengali]]
[[it:Lingua bengalese]]
[[kn:ಬಂಗಾಳಿ]]
[[ka:ბენგალური ენა]]
[[hu:Bengáli nyelv]]
[[ms:Bahasa Bengali]]
[[nl:Bengaals]]
[[ja:ベンガル語]]
[[nn:Bengali]]
[[pl:Język bengalski]]
[[pt:Bengali]]
[[ru:Бенгальский язык]]
[[sa:बाङगला]]
[[sr:Бенгалски језик]]
[[sv:Bengali]]
[[te:బెంగాళీ భాష]]
[[th:ภาษาเบงกาลี]]
[[zh:孟加拉语]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>B-25</title>
<id>4221</id>
<revision>
<id>15902508</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[B-25 Mitchell]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bernthia Perkins</title>
<id>4222</id>
<revision>
<id>15902509</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-05T06:28:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>210.49.193.178</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Berry Berenson]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bobby Moore</title>
<id>4223</id>
<revision>
<id>41748983</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:40:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Slumgum</username>
<id>580636</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Bobby Moore''' is also the original name of former [[American football]] player and current sportscaster [[Ahmad Rashad]].''
'''Robert Frederick Chelsea "Bobby" Moore''', [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] ([[April 12]], [[1941]] - [[February 24]], [[1993]]) was an [[England|English]] [[football (soccer)|footballer]] whose place in footballing history is secure as the captain of [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham]] and the English {{Wc|1966}}-winning team.
Moore joined West Ham as a schoolboy and was a regular in the first team by [[1960]]. A composed central [[defender (football)|defender]], Moore was admired more for his reading of the game and ability to anticipate opposition movements, thereby distancing himself from the image of the hard-tackling, high-jumping defender. Indeed, Moore's ability to head the ball or keep up with the pace was average at best, but the way he marshalled his team and timed his tackles marked him out as world class. In fact, [[Pelé]] used to call Moore the fairest defender he had ever played against.
He was in the [[England national football team|England]] squad for the [[Football World Cup 1962|1962 World Cup]] in [[Chile]], when England reached the quarter finals, and was captain of his country within another two years. In [[1964]], he skippered West Ham United to success in the [[FA Cup]] final at [[Wembley Stadium|Wembley]] where they beat [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]] 3-2, the first of three successive trips to the national stadium in major finals in as many years for Moore, and from which he would emerge undefeated.
In [[1965]], Wembley hosted West Ham's 2-0 victory over [[1860 Munich]] in the [[Cup Winners' Cup|European Cup Winners Cup]], then in [[1966]], Moore was the leader of the side which gave English football its crowning glory and established him as a magnificent player, gentleman and sporting icon. His West Ham team-mate [[Geoff Hurst]] scored an historic [[hat-trick]] in the 4-2 [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] final win over [[Germany national football team|West Germany]], with Moore supplying pinpoint passes for two of his goals. Of many timeless images from that day, one is of Moore gallantly wiping his hands clean of mud on the velvet platform the [[Jules Rimet Trophy]] rested before shaking the hand of Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] as she presented him with the World Cup.
Moore faithfully pursued his West Ham and England career and was once again named as captain when England travelled to [[Mexico]] to defend the World Cup in [[1970]]. There was heavy disruption to preparations, however, when an attempt was made to implicate Moore in the theft of a bracelet from a jeweller in [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]], where England had travelled for some warm-up games in order to get acclimatised with high altitude conditions. The charges were subsequently dropped, Moore was wholly exonerated and he was eventually permitted to rejoin his team-mates in Mexico.
In the group game against favourites [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]], there was a defining moment for Moore when he tackled the great [[Jairzinho]] with such precision and cleanliness that many cite is a tackle which no-one will ever better. Brazil still won the game, but England also progressed through the group.
Defeat after extra time against West Germany saw England bow out in the last eight, and it would be 12 years before England were to return to a World Cup finals again.
Moore ended up with 108 England caps, breaking the record held by his fellow 1966 hero [[Bobby Charlton]] by just two appearances. Only [[Peter Shilton]], with whom Moore also played at international level, has since played more times for his country. Moore's last appearance in an England shirt was in [[1973]].
In 1974 prior to the World Cup in Germany Moore played the first-half in a charity match in the Duesseldorf Rheinstadion before suddenly and mysteriously leaving at half-time without collecting his match fee to catch a plane back to London feigning an "emergency." At full-time many players complained of missing valuables and cash in the team dressing-room and accused Moore of taking them.
A year later, Moore was allowed to leave his beloved West Ham after more than 15 years and joined London rivals [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]], who were in the second division. Somehow, in his first season, they reached |
the [[Fiji election of 2001|last election]], however, only about a tenth of all voters did so. The ballot paper is divided by a thick black line, with boxes above (for the default options) and below (for customized preferences).
The countries mentioned above all use IRV for some or all of their municipal elections. Starting in [[2004]], some municipal areas in [[New Zealand]] also adopted IRV to elect mayors and STV to elect councilors. Political parties, cooperatives and other private groups also use STV and/or IRV.
A voting method similar to IRV, known as [http://mathforum.org/dmpow/solutions/solution.ehtml?puzzle=46]plurality vote with elimination, is used to select the winning bid of both the Summer and Winter Olympics in the [[International Olympic Committee]].
See [[Table of voting systems by nation]]
=== Adoption in the United States ===
Suggested by a recent version of [[Robert's Rules of Order]], instant-runoff voting is used in the United States for some non-governmental elections, including student elections at some major universities, including most notably the [[ASUC]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].
Notable supporters include Republican U.S. Senator [[John McCain]], [[U.S. Democratic Party presidential nomination, 2004|2004 Democratic presidential primary]] election candidates [[Howard Dean]] and [[Dennis Kucinich]], and [[consumer advocacy|consumer advocate]] [[Ralph Nader]]. The system is favored by the [[United States Green Party]] and the [[United States Libertarian Party]], as a solution to the [[spoiler effect|"spoiler" effect]] third-party sympathizers suffer from under plurality voting (i.e., voters are forced to vote tactically to defeat the candidate they most dislike, rather than for their own preferred candidate).
IRV was adopted for mayoral races in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] in [[1975]] after a successful ballot initiative sponsored by the local, left-wing [[Human Rights Party]]; however, the process was used only for the [[1976]] mayoral election.
This issue rose to attention in the [[United States]] in the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 election]]. Supporters of [[Ralph Nader]] who nevertheless preferred [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] [[Al Gore]] to [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] [[George W. Bush]] found themselves caught in a dilemma. They could vote for Nader, and risk Gore losing to Bush, or, they could vote for Gore, just to make sure that Bush is defeated. It has been argued that Bush won solely due to the "spoiler effect" of Nader supporters in either [[Florida]] or in [[New Hampshire]].
In March [[2002]], an initiative backed by the [[Center for Voting and Democracy]] passed by referendum making instant runoff voting the means of electing local candidates in [[San Francisco]]. It was first used in that city in the October 2004 YouthVOTE, an election held throughout San Francisco’s public schools which elected the SF school board's student delegate, [http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0411/S00013.htm] after that it was used in the November 2004 supervisoral races. (Note: The [http://www.ci.sf.ca.us/site/election_page.asp?id=24269 San Francisco Department of Elections] prefers the term "Ranked Choice Voting" because "the word 'instant' might create an expectation that final results will be available immediately after the polls close on election night.") The new system did not work as well as was hoped due to software and logistical difficulties; the results took several days to produce definitive results.
Voters in [[Ferndale, Michigan]] amended the city charter in 2004 to allow for election of the mayor and city council by instant-runoff voting. On [[March 1]], [[2005]], voters in [[Burlington, Vermont]] voted to amend their city charter to use instant-runoff voting.
In September [[2003]], an amendment to the California State Constitution was proposed ([http://info.sen.ca.gov/pub/bill/sen/sb_0001-0050/sca_14_bill_20030912_introduced.html SCA 14]) with wide-ranging goals of [[election reform]], including ranked-choice voting for statewide offices.
In order to increase awareness of the voting method and to demonstrate it in a real-world situation, the [[Independence Party of Minnesota]] tested IRV by using it in a [[straw poll]] during the 2004 [[Minnesota]] [[caucus]]es (results favored [[John Edwards]]). Also, the [[Green Party of Minnesota]] conducts an annual poll of [[Minnesota State Fair]] attendees, where each person ranks their preferences for fair food to better understand how IRV works in a real-world situation.
Activists in the state of Washington have been urging adoption of instant-runoff voting there for several years. An initiative seeking ballot access in 2005 failed to garner enough signatures. The city of [[Vancouver, Washington]] has voted to adopt instant-runoff voting, but the state legislature has yet to enact enabling legislation.
In the November 8, 2005 election, the voters in [[Takoma Park, Maryland]] adopted IRV on a ballot item. It was voted for by 84% of the 1582 voters.
=== Adoption in Canada ===
====Historical use of IRV in British Columbia====
{{sectnpov}}
IRV, under the name preferential ballot or elimination ballot, was applied in British Columbia for the [[British Columbia general election, 1952|1952]] and [[British Columbia general election, 1953|1953]] elections. Brought in by the old guard parties ([[British Columbia Liberal Party|Liberals]] and [[British Columbia Conservative Party|Conservatives)]] to try to foil the possibility of a left-wing government under the [[Co-operative Commonwealth Federation]] or CCF, the predecessor to today's [[New Democratic Party]]. IRV backfired on those who had brought it in, with CCF voters marking an obscure also-ran party's outspoken but otherwise unknown leader, and the fringe Social Credit movement was coalesced into a governing caucus overnight in an uneasy coalition between the [[British Columbia Social Credit Party|Social Credit Party]] and the rumps of the old guard parties. The coalition dissolved within the year and new elections using the IRV system were held that secured Social Credit a comfortable majority. One of the now-secure new [[Premier of British Columbia|Premier]]'s acts after this second election was to return the province to first-past-the-post voting, so as to remove any future risk to his own governance by the unknown factors of the preferential choice ballot.
== How IRV works ==
=== Voting ===
Each voter ranks at least one candidate in [[Preferential_voting|order of preference]]. In most Australian elections, voters are required to rank all candidates. In other elections, votes may be "truncated", for example if the voter only ranks his first five choices. An example of truncated voting occurs in elections for the [[New South Wales Legislative Assembly]]. In these elections, a valid vote requires the voter to choose only one candidate but the voter also has the choice of indicating an order of preference for as many candidates as they like. If a voter's choices are eliminated from the count, the vote is said to be exhausted. This is commonly known as optional preferential voting.
=== Counting the votes ===
First choices are tallied. If no candidate has the support of a majority of voters, the candidate with the least support is eliminated. A second round of counting takes place, with the votes of supporters of the eliminated candidate now counting for their second choice candidate. After a candidate is eliminated, he or she may not receive any more votes.
This process of counting and eliminating is repeated until one candidate has over half the votes. This is equivalent to continuing until there is only one candidate left. However it is possible, with voter truncation, for the process to continue until there is only one candidate left, who does not end up with more than half the votes.
=== An example ===
{{Tenn_voting_example}}
<div class="floatright">
{| border=1
!City
!Round 1
!Round 2
!Round 3
|-
!bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|Memphis
|bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|42
|bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|42
|bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|42
|-
!bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|Nashville
|bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|26
|bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|26
|bgcolor="#e0e0ff"|<strike>26</strike> 0
|-
!bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|Chattanooga
|bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|15
|bgcolor="#e0e0ff"|<strike>15</strike> 0
|bgcolor="#e0e0ff"|0
|-
!bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|Knoxville
|bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|17
|bgcolor="#ffc0c0"|<strike>17</strike> 32
|bgcolor="#ffffc0"|<strike>32</strike> 58
|}
</div>
Chattanooga, having the smallest vote, is eliminated in the first round. All of the votes for Chattanooga have Knoxville as a second choice, so they are transferred to Knoxville. Nashville now has the smallest vote, so it is eliminated. The votes for Nashville have Chattanooga as a second choice, but as Chattanooga has been eliminated, they instead transfer to their third choice, Knoxville. Knoxville now has 58% of the vote, and it is the winner.
In a real election, of course, voters would show greater variation in the rankings they cast, which could influence the result. However, the result of Knoxville winning shows that in this case, '''a capital which is the last choice of 42% of the state's population can win'''; some would say that this is an undesirable result. The reason for this result is that the preferences of those who voted for Memphis are not counted beyond their first choice, because Memphis isn't eliminated until the last "round". In [[Schulze method]], another ranked choice voting method, all preferences are counted, and Nashville, a compromise city toward the geographic center of the state, would win. To voters, both meth |
bert]], for example, have a basso continuo part for an organist to play.
==Figured bass notation==
A part notated with figured bass consists of a bass-line notated with [[note]]s on a [[musical staff]] plus added numbers and [[Accidental (music)|accidental]]s beneath the staff to indicate at what [[interval (music)|interval]]s above the bass notes should be played, and therefore which inversions of which chords are to be played. The phrase ''tasto solo'' indicates that only the bass line (without any upper chords) is to be played for a short period, usually until the next figure is encountered.
Composers were inconsistent in the usages described below. Especially in the 17th century, the numbers were omitted whenever the composer thought the chord was obvious. Early composers such as [[Claudio Monteverdi]] often specified the octave by the use of [[interval (music)|compound intervals]] such as 10, 11, and 15.
===Numbers===
The numbers indicate the number of [[scale]] steps above the given bass-line that a note should be played. For example:
[[Image:C with 64 figured bass.png]]
Here, the bass note is a C, and the numbers 4 and 6 indicate that notes a fourth and a sixth above it should be played, that is an F and an A. In other words, the second inversion of an F major chord is to be played.
In cases where the numbers 3 or 5 would normally be indicated, these are usually (though not always) left out, owing to the frequency these intervals occur. For example:
[[Image:CBG with - 6 7 figured bass.png]]
In this sequence, the first note has no numbers accompanying it - both the 3 and the 5 have been omitted. This means that notes a third above and a fifth above should be played - in other words, a root position chord. The next note has a 6, indicating a note a sixth above it should be played; the 3 has been omitted - in other words, this chord is a first inversion. The note has only a 7 accompanying it; here, as in the first note, both the 3 and the 5 have been omitted - the seven indicates the chord is a seventh chord. The whole sequence is equivalent to:
[[Image:Chords C-B63-G7.png]]
although the performer may choose himself which octave to play the notes in and will often elaborate them in some way rather than play only chords, depending on the [[tempo]] and [[texture (music)|texture]] of the music.
Sometimes, other numbers are omitted: a 2 on its own or 42 indicate 642, for example.
Sometimes the figured bass number changes but the bass note itself does not. In these cases the new figures are written wherever in the bar they are meant to occur. In the following example, the top line is supposed to be a melody instrument and is given merely to indicate the rhythm (it is not part of the figured bass itself):
[[Image:C with 6-5 in figured bass.png]]
When the bass note changes but the notes in the chord above it are to be held, a line is drawn next to the figure or figures to indicate this:
[[Image:C-B with 6-line in figured bas.png]]
The line extends for as long as the chord is to be held.
===Accidentals===
When an accidental is shown on its own without a number, it applies to the third of the chord; otherwise it applies to whichever note it is shown next to. For example, this:
[[Image:E with sharp and C with b6b figured bass.png]]
is equivalent to this:
[[Image:Emaj and Abmaj chords.png]]
Sometimes the accidental is placed after the number rather than before it.
Alternatively, a cross placed next to a number indicates that the pitch of that note should be raised by a [[semitone]] (so that if it is normally a flat it becomes a natural, and if it is normally a natural it becomes a sharp). A different way to indicate this is to draw a bar though the number itself. The following three notations, therefore, all indicate the same thing:
[[Image:Cs with natural6, 6 and barred6.png]]
When sharps or flats are used with [[key signature]]s they may have a slightly different meaning, especially in 17th-century music. A sharp might be used to cancel a flat in the key signature, or vice versa, instead of a natural sign.
==History==
The origins of basso continuo practice are somewhat murky. Improvised organ accompaniments for choral works were common by the late 16th century, and separate organ parts, showing only a bass line, date back to at least 1587. In the mid-16th century, some Italian church composers began to write [[polychoral]] works. These pieces, for two or more choirs, were created in recognition of particularly festal occasions, or else to take advantage of certain architectural properties of the buildings in which they were performed. With eight or more parts to keep track of in performance, works in polychoral style (also known as <em>cori spezzati</em>, since the choirs were structured in sometimes musically independent, sometimes musically interlocking parts, and may sometimes also have been placed in physically different locations) required some sort of instrumental accompaniment. It is important to note that the concept of allowing two or more concurrently performing choirs to be independent structurally would or could almost certainly not have arisen had there not been an already-existing practice of choral accompaniment in church. Financial and administrative records indicate the presence of organs in churches dating back to the 15th century, and though their precise use is not known, it stands to reason that it was to some degree in conjunction with singers. Indeed, there exist many first-person accounts of church services from the 15th and 16th centuries that imply organ accompaniment in some portions of the liturgy, as well as indicating that the <em>a cappella</em>-only practice of the [[Vatican City|Vatican's]] <em>Capella Sistina</em> was somewhat unusual. By early in the 16th century, it seems that accompaniment by organ at least in smaller churches was commonplace, and commentators of the time lamented on occasion the declining quality of church choirs. Even more tellingly, many manuscripts, especially from the middle of the century and later, feature written-out organ accompaniments. It is this last observation which leads directly into the foundations of continuo practice, in a somewhat similar one called <em>basso seguente</em>, "following bass." Written-out accompaniments are found most often in early polychoral works (those composed, obviously, before the onset of [[concertato|concerted]] style and its explicit instrumental lines), and generally consist of a complete reduction (to what would later be called the "grand staff") of one choir’s parts. In addition to this, however, for those parts of the music during which that choir rested was presented a single line consisting of the lowest note being sung at any given time, which could be in any vocal part. Even in early concerted works by the [[Gabrieli]]s, [[Claudio Monteverdi|Monteverdi]], and others, the lowest part, that which modern performers colloquially call "continuo," is actually a basso seguente, though slightly different, since with separate instrumental parts the lowest note of the moment is often lower than any being sung.
The first known instance of a basso seguente in publication was a book of [[Introit]]s and [[Alleluia]]s by the Venetian [[Placido Falconio]] dating from [[1575]]. What is known as the "figured" continuo, which also features a bass line that because of its structural nature may differ from the lowest note in the upper parts, developed over the next quarter-century. The composer [[Lodovico Grossi da Viadana|Lodovico Viadana]] is often credited with the first publication of such a continuo, in a [[1602]] collection of motets that according to his own account had been originally written in [[1594]]. Viadana’s continuo, though, did not actually include figures. The earliest extant part with sharp and flat signs above the staff is a [[motet]] by [[Giovanni Croce]], also from 1594. Following and figured basses developed concurrently in secular music; such madrigal composers as [[Emilio de' Cavalieri|Emilio de'Cavalieri]] and [[Luzzasco Luzzaschi]] began in the late 16th century to write works explicitly for a soloist with accompaniment, following an already standing practice of performing multi-voice madrigals this way, and also responding to the rising influence at certain courts of particularly popular individual singers. This tendency toward solo-with-accompaniment texture in secular vocal music culminated in the genre of [[monody]], just as in sacred vocal music it resulted in the [[sacred concerto]] for various forces including few voices and even solo voices. The use of numerals to indicate accompanying sonorities began with the earliest [[opera]]s, composed by Cavalieri and [[Giulio Caccini|Giulio Caccini]]. These new genres, just as the polychoral one probably was, were indeed made possible by the existence of a semi- or fully independent bass line. In turn, the separate bass line, with figures added above to indicate other chordal notes, shortly became "functional," as the sonorites became "harmonies," (see [[harmony]] and [[tonality]]), and music came to be seen in terms of a melody supported by chord progressions, rather than interlocking, equally important lines as in [[polyphony]]. The figured bass, therefore, was integral to the development of the [[Baroque]], by extension the [[Classical music era|”classical”]], and by further extension most subsequent musical styles.
Many composers and theorists of the 16th and 17th century wrote how-to guides to realizing figured bass, including [[Gregor Aichinger]], [[Telemann|Georg Philipp Telemann]], [[C.P.E. Bach]], and [[Michael Praetorius]].
==Contemporary uses==
It is also sometimes used by classical musicians as a shorthand way of indicating chords (though it is not generally used in modern musical co |
a/n</math>. In the limit of approximating the single large slit with an infinite number of small slits, so that n goes to infinity, the path length difference between the left and right side of the slit must be exactly <math>\lambda</math> to get complete destructive interference and so a dark spot.
=== Fourier transforms ===
The qualitative argument we used to glean some understanding of single slit [[diffraction]] using only Huygens' principle is difficult to apply in general to [[aperture]]s of truly arbitrary shape. The wave that emerges from a point source has amplitude <math>\psi</math> at location r that is given by the solution of the [[wave equation]] for a point source. That's exactly what we mean by the [[Green's function]] for the wave equation, which is in [[spherical coordinates]]
:<math>\psi(r)\propto \frac{e^{ikr}}{r}.</math>
Therefore, if we approximate the amplitude from an aperture as coming from many point sources, we should sum together an infinite number of point sources. But that just describes a [[surface integral]]. Thus,
:<math>\Psi(r)\propto \int_\mathrm{aperture}\frac{e^{ikr}}{r}~da,</math>
which is simply the spatial [[Fourier transform]] of the aperture. Huygens' principle when applied to an aperture simply says that the [[far-field diffraction pattern]] is the Fourier transform of the aperture.
== See also ==
{{Commons|Huygens' principle}}
* [[Near-field diffraction pattern]]
* [[Double-slit experiment]]
* [[Knife-edge effect]]
[[Category:Wave mechanics]]
[[ca:Principi de Huygens]]
[[de:Huygenssches Prinzip]]
[[es:Principio de Huygens]]
[[fr:Principe de Huygens-Fresnel]]
[[ko:하위헌스의 원리]]
[[he:עקרון הויגנס]]
[[ja:ホイヘンスの原理]]
[[fi:Huygensin periaate]]
[[sv:Huygens princip]]
[[th:หลักการของไฮเกนส์]]
[[zh:惠更斯原理]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hanko (stamp)</title>
<id>14360</id>
<revision>
<id>27783277</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-09T03:02:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jiang</username>
<id>10049</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>merging [[Inkan]] with [[Seal (Chinese)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Seal (Chinese)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Honey</title>
<id>14361</id>
<revision>
<id>41911876</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:49:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ricardo Carneiro Pires</username>
<id>218111</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of the word "honey", see [[honey (disambiguation)]].}}
[[Image:runny hunny.jpg|thumb|Honey]]
[[Image:Honey comb.jpg|thumb|honey comb]]
[[Image:Voll Honig.JPG|thumb|A capped frame of honeycomb]]
'''Honey''' is a sweet and viscous fluid produced by [[bee]]s and other [[insect]]s from the [[nectar (plant)|nectar]] of [[flower]]s. "The definition of honey stipulates a pure product that does not allow for the addition of any other substance. This includes, but is not limited to, water or other sweeteners," according to the [[United States]] [http://www.nhb.org/ National Honey Board 2003] and other nations' food regulations.
Honey is significantly [[sweetness|sweeter]] than table sugar and has attractive chemical properties for baking. Honey has a distinctive flavor which leads some people to prefer it over [[sugar]] and other [[sweetener]]s.
Liquid honey does not spoil. Because of its high [[sugar]] concentration, it kills [[bacterium|bacteria]] by [[plasmolysis]]. Natural airborne [[yeast]]s cannot become active in it because the moisture content is too low. Natural, raw honey varies from 14% to 18% moisture content. As long as the moisture content remains under 18%, virtually no organism can successfully multiply to significant amounts in honey.
The study of [[pollen]]s and [[spore]]s in raw honey ([[melissopalynology]]) can determine floral sources of honey. Because bees carry an electrostatic charge, and can attract other particles, the same techniques of melissopalynology can be used in area environmental studies of [[radioactive_decay|radioactive]] particles, [[dust]], or particulate [[pollution]].
A main effect of bees collecting nectar to make honey is [[pollination]], which is crucial for [[flowering plant|flowering plants]].
==Composition of honey==
Honey is a mixture of sugars, water, and other compounds. The specific composition of any batch of honey will depend largely on the mix of flowers consumed by the bees that produced the honey. Honey has a [[density]] of about 1500 [[kilogram|kg]]/[[metre|m<sup>3</sup>]] (50% denser than [[water]]) which means 12-13 pounds per gallon.
;Typical honey analysis
*[[Fructose]]: 38%
*[[Glucose]]: 31%
*[[Sucrose]]: 1%
*[[Water]]: 17%
*[[Sugar|Other sugars]]: 9% ([[maltose]], [[melezitose]])
*[[Ash_analytical_chemistry|Ash]]: 0.17%
:<small>Source: [http://www.sugaralliance.org/desktopdefault.aspx?page_id=97 Sugar Alliance]</small>
The analysis of the sugar content of honey is used for detecting adulteration.
==Types of honey==
{{main|Monofloral honey}}
The flavor and color of the substance is largely determined by the [[nectar source]]. Common flavors of honey include [[Orange (fruit)|orange blossom]] honey, [[tupelo]] honey, [[buckwheat]] honey, [[clover]] honey, [[blackberry]], and [[blueberry]] honey. In [[Australia]], the most common honey is from the [[eucalyptus]] trees, such as redgum, [[yellow gum]] and [[stringybark]]. [[Tasmania]]n [[leatherwood]] honey is considered a [[delicacy]] for its unique flavor.
While it is rare for any honey to be produced exclusively from one floral source, honey will take on the flavor of the dominant flower in the region. Orange blossom, [[tupelo]], and [[sourwood]] are favored types in the United States. [[Greece]] is famous for [[wild thyme]] honey, as is [[France]] for [[lavender]] and [[Black locust|acacia]] honey.
In 2005, [[New Zealand]] had 320,000 [[beehive (beekeeping)|beehives]] that produced an average annual crop of 8,600 tonnes of honey. These honeys cover a huge range of flavour types and properties. From mild to very strong flavoured, light to dark coloured, delicately perfumed to pungent and even honeys with significant antibacterial properties.
Most commercially available honey is blended. Monofloral honeys are especially valuable on the market. New Zealand is a major producer of several of these fine monofloral honeys: [[Manuka]] Honey, [[Viper's Bugloss]] Honey, [[Nodding Thistle]] Honey, [[Kamahi]] Honey, [[Honeydew|Honeydew]] Honey, [[Tawari]] Honey, [[Rewarewa]] Honey or [[Thyme]] Honey. Another is [[Rata]] Honey, considered by many to be the best of New Zealand Honeys. It is very white in colour, has a subtle, mild yet rich and distinctive flavour - not overly sweet, almost salty.
===Honeydew===
Instead of taking nectar, bees can take [[honeydew]], which appears similar to honey and consists of the sweet secretions of [[aphid|aphids]] or other plant sap-sucking insects. Most important of these is the aphid ''[[Marchalina hellenica]]'' which feeds on the sap of the [[Turkish Pine]]. Honeydew from pine forests has a "piney" taste and is prized for medicinal use in [[Europe]] and [[Turkey]]. Bees collecting this resource have to be fed protein supplements, as honeydew lacks the protein-rich pollen accompaniment gathered from flowers.
In New Zealand [[honeydew]] nectar is produced from a small, scale insect (''Ultracoelostoma assimile'') living in the bark of two of New Zealand's beech forests, mostly [[black beech]] (black from the sooty mould growing on the surplus nectar covering the trunks and branches) and to a lesser extent, [[red beech]]. In the early morning sunlight, the droplets of nectar glisten like the morning dew, giving the name honeydew.
[[Germany]]'s "[[Black Forest]]" is a well known source of honeydew produced honeys.
Honeydew honey has full flavour aroma, is heady, almost pungent and malty with a thick red amber color.
Honeydew has strong markets in some areas, but in many areas beekeepers are disappointed with a honeydew crop as they are unable to market the stronger flavored product. Honeydew has a much larger proportion of indigestibles than light honeys, which can cause [[Diseases of the honeybee|dysentery]] resulting in the death of colonies in areas with cold winters. Good beekeeping management requires the removal of honeydew prior to winter in colder areas.
==Use of honey==
The main uses of honey are in [[cooking]], baking, spreading on [[bread]] or toast, and as an addition to various beverages such as [[tea]]. Because honey is [[hygroscopic]] (drawing moisture from the air), a small quantity of honey added to a pastry recipe will retard staling. Raw honey also contains [[enzyme]]s that help in its [[digestion]], several [[vitamins]] and [[antioxidants]].
Honey is the main ingredient in the alcoholic beverage [[mead]], which is also known as ''honey wine'', and methelgin.
Honey is used in traditional [[folk medicine]] and [[apitherapy]], and is an excellent natural [[preservative]].
Most [[vegan]]s consider honey to be an animal product and avoid using it, instead choosing sweetening alternatives such as [[golden syrup]].
Without commercial beekeeping, large-scale [[fruit]] and [[vegetable]] farming and some of the [[seed]] industry would be incapable of sustaining themselves, since many crops are [[pollination|pollinated]] by migratory beekeepers who [[contract]] their bees for that purpose.
In ancient history, the [[Egyptians]] and [[Middle-Eastern]] people also used honey for [[embalming]] the dead. However only rich and powerful people had the luxury of this type of funeral.
==Honey in culture and folklore==
In many cultures, honey has associations that go far beyond its use a |
nd Hunt classes, although these types of events are more normally dominated by [[Thoroughbred]]s and [[Warmblood]] crosses. Also known as "America's Horse", the Quarter Horse is the most popular breed in the United States. They can also boast the largest breed society in the world, with over 4 million Quarter Horses registered worldwide.
==Breed History==
The American colonists began, in the 1690s, to cross imported English horses with Chickasaw Ponies (which originated from Spanish and Barb stock brought over to Americas by the [[conquistadors]]). The resulting horse was small, hardy, and quick, and it was used as a work horse during the week, and a race horse on the weekend. The influence of [[Thoroughbreds]] like Janus and Matchem contributed crucial genes that developed the colonial "Quarter Mile Horse" into a speedy working man's racer.
As flat racing became popular with the colonists, this horse gained even more popularity as a sprinter. Even when matched against a [[Thoroughbred]], the small horse often won in short, quarter-mile races. As the American Thoroughbred breed was established many colonial Quarter Mile mares were included in the original stud books, starting a long association between the Throughbred breed and what would later become officially known as the "Quarter Horse", accentuating distance it excelled in.
In the 1800s, pioneers heading West wanted a hardy, willing horse. As they forged into unsettled territories they found large herds of feral horses that descended from the Spanish stock Hernan Cortes had introduced into the viceroyalty of New Spain (later to be known as Mexico). As the colonial Quarter Mile Horse was crossed with the native horses of Iberian origin, the pioneers found that this cross had innate "cow sense," and its popularity grew with cattlemen on ranches.
Although working cattle was always the main justification of the ranch horse of the American west the sprint races were always a big part of the weekend entertainment on bush tracks around the country. As a result horses with early speed that also offered an advantage in ranching chores like roping, became important contributors to the breed that was taking shape the western territories. Names like Peter McCue, King Plaudit, Blob, Johnny Dial, Top Deck, Vandy, Three Bars and Truckle Feature are just some of the influential names that brought in more speed emphasizing Thoroughbred bloodlines into the American Quarter Horse breed. As a result, the valued attributes of race horse and show horse competitor were added to its aptitudes on the ranch. Even after the invention of the automobile, the Quarter Horse was never stopped being bred for cattle work. Today large purses have given rise to horses and riders with over a million dollar earnings in stock horse events that are open to all breeds but dominated by American Quarter Horse. At the race track the American Quarter Horse offers a wide assortment of parimutial races with purses as high as two million dollars per race.
This has all been made possible because in 1940, the [[American Quarter Horse Association]] (AQHA) was formed to preserve the breed. Before and after the American Quarter Horse formally established itself as a breed it has always benefited from [[Thoroughbred]] bloodlines, so as a result their stud book has always remained open to this breed. This is not unusual in the stock horse industry as the Appaloosa has had an open registry to the [[Thoroughbred]], [[Arabian]] and American Quarter Horse; the [[American Paint Stock Horse]] has had an open registry to the American Quarter Horse; the [[Azteca]] is still a composite of the American Quarter Horse and [[Andalusian]] breeds; the [[Criollo]] has had an open registry to the Chilean Horse. Really the only stock horse breed that has had a closed registry since it was first officially started in 1893 is the [[Chilean Horse]].
Today, Europe has been importing Quarter Horses at nearly the same rate North America imports [[warmblood]]s. Germany and Italy in particular have been drawn to this breed. The horses are not only ideal for ranch and cattle work, barrel racing, and gymkhana events, but have also been trained to international levels of dressage and are generally very good jumpers. In addition, it has also been proven to be a very useful horse in the sport of Bullfighting. In Portugal and Spain, they have been known to mix the breed with Lusitanos, making it an exceptional cross-breed. The combination of the two gives the beauty and bravery of the Lusitano, while the strength & speed is from the AQH.
Although this breed started as America's Horse it is rapidly becoming the World's Horse. The second highest registry of Quarter Horses takes place in Brazil and Australia is not far behind. With the internationalization of the discipline of reining and its acceptance as one of the official seven events on the [[World Equestrian Games]], now there is a growing interest in Quarter Horses the world over. Countries like Japan, Switzerland and Israel that did not have a traditional stock horse industry have been lured to compete on sturdy American Quarter Horses in their own country and abroad.
==Breed Characteristics==
[[Image:Brauner.JPG|right|200px]]
There are as many types of Quarter Horses as there are types of work they do. However, there are two main body types: the stock type and the running type. The stock horse type is shorter, more compact, stocky and very well muscled, yet agile. The running Quarter Horse is lighter, similar to a [[Thoroughbred]], and is built to sprint.
Quarter Horses shown in hand "at halter" have a heavy-bodied appearance due to their incredibly muscular build, and small typey heads that usually have large jowls and refined muzzles. Reiners and cutters are smaller, with cat-like, quick movement and very powerful hindquarters. Western pleasure horses have a more level topline and smooth gaits. Quarter Horse racehorses have long legs and are much leaner than their "stock horse" counterparts. The show hunter type is similar to the running type Quarter Horse although many are even of a taller and thinner phenotype. However, all Quarter Horses have speed, stamina, power, and a great willingness to please.
Quarter Horses come in all colors, except spotted or pinto colors, with sorrel and bay being the most common color. They usually stand 14-16 hands high, although there are exceptions that may be as tall as 17 hands. The breed stipulates registerable height.
The Thoroughbred breed is an accepted outcross for Quarter Horses; the major Quarter Horse breed registry (the largest horse registry in the world), the American Quarter Horse Association, accepts Quarter Horse/Thoroughbred crosses into the registry as "Appendix Quarter Horses." These animals are popular for Quarter Horse Racing and for Jumping and Hunter events. After meeting a series of conformational and performance criteria, these Appendix Quarter Horses can obtain permanent registration numbers. Since American Quarter Horse/Thoroughbred crosses continue to have an opportunity to enter the official registry of the American Quarter Horse breed, this is creating a continual gene flow from the Thoroughbred breed into the American Quarter Horse breed, which has been influential in altering many of the characteristics that typified the breed in the early years of its formation.
==See also==
*[[American Paint Horse]]
One feature of conformation of note that is easily recognizable is the obvious lack of proportion between the front shoulders and the hindquarters. Quarterhorses have big hind ends. One of the fastest ever was named Peter McCue. He was unofficially clocked at 21 seconds flat in a warm up to a race by three people. It was unofficial because it was a warm up run, before dawn, and Peter was running by himself, but it was clocked at 21 seconds by three people.
==External links==
*[http://www.ranchcardoso.biz An AQH @ a California Bloodless Bullfight]
*[http://www.aqha.com American Quarter Horse Association]
*[http://Quarter-Horse-Times.com Quarter Horse Times]
*http://www.american-quarter-horses.org/
*[http://ultimatehorsesite.com/breedsofhorses/americanquarterhorseaqha.html American Quarter Horse Breed Information]
[[Category:Horse breeds]]
[[de:American Quarter Horse]]
[[fr:Quarter Horse]]
[[ja:クォーターホース]]
[[nl:Quarter horse]]
[[pl:Quarter Horse]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abacá</title>
<id>2473</id>
<revision>
<id>41735825</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:01:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eno-ja</username>
<id>395666</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ja</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Abaca
| status = {{StatusSecure}}
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Zingiberales]]
| familia = [[Musaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Musa (Musaceae)|Musa]]''
| species = '''''M. textilis'''''
| binomial = ''Musa textilis''
| binomial_authority = [[Luis Née|Née]]
}}
'''Abacá''', ah buh KAH, (''Musa textilis'') is a species of [[banana]] native to the [[Philippines]], grown widely as well in [[Borneo]] and [[Sumatra]]. The plant is of major economical importance, being harvested for its fibre, called [[Manila hemp]], extracted from the large, oblong [[leaf|leaves]] and stems. On average, the plant grows about 20 feet (6 metres) tall. The fibre is used for making twines and ropes. The plant's name is sometimes spelt '''Abaká'''.
==Composition==
The leaves grow from the trunk of the plant, and the bases of the leaves form a [[sheath|''sheath'']] (covering) around the trunk. These sheaths contain the valuable fibre. The coarse fibres range from 5 to 11 1/2 feet (1.5 to 3.5 metres) in length. They are composed primarily of the plant mater |
pt. of Education
** [http://eric.uoregon.edu/publications/digests/digest151.html Homeschooling, by Patricia M. Lines, 2001]
** [http://www.ericdigests.org/1995-1/home.htm Home Schooling and Socialization of Children]
** [http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-3/home.htm The Scholastic Achievement of Home School Students]
** [http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-1/home.htm Home Schooling]
* [http://geocities.com/nelstomlinson/research.bibliography.html Annotated bibliography of research on homeschooling], hosted on a [[GeoCities]] website
==== Legalities ====
* [http://www.ahsa-usa.org/main.php Association of HomeSchool Attorneys (AHSA)]
* [http://www.nheld.com/ National Home Education Legal Defence (NHELD)]
* [http://www.hslda.org/ The Home School Legal Defense Association] ([[Home School Legal Defense Association|HSLDA]])
==== All-in-one curricula ====
* [http://www.calvertschool.org/ Calvert School], which created the market in 1906
* [http://www.core-curriculum.com/ Core Curriculum of America], customizes complete curriculum packages for homeschooling
* [http://www.k12.com/ K12, Inc.], founded by [[William Bennett]] and popular with parents who want a heavy emphasis on [[Value system|values]]
=== Student-paced learning ===
* [http://www.aop.com/Cultures/en-US/HomeSchooling/HomeSchoolingHomePage.htm?MenuSelection=Homeschooling%20Home/ Alpha Omega]
* [http://www.aceministries.com/ Accelerated Christian Education]
* [http://www.designastudy.com/ Design-A-Study]
* [http://www.landmarkbaptistchurch.org/modules/lfbc/htmls/ Landmark's Freedom Baptist]
* [http://schoolofhope.org/ School of Hope] is one of the largest publically funded asynchrous home school programs in Canada, located in Vermilion, [[Alberta]].
=== National Extracurricular Organizations ===
* [http://www.hspn.net The Homeschool Sports Network] National Homeschool Sports League
* [http://www.ncfca.org National Christian Forensics and Communications Association] Homeschool Speech and Debate League
=== UK ===
* [http://www.home-education.org.uk/ Home Education UK] - Contains links to UK, US, European and Australian home education organisations
* [http://www.diversity-otherwise.tk/ Diversity-Otherwise] - UK multi-cultural home education
* [http://www.hslda.org/hs/international/UnitedKingdom/default.asp HSLDA UK Webpage] - Legal information and links to UK home education organisations.
* [http://www.aspies.co.uk/hediary.html Home Education Diary] - from a family in Scotland, with activities and links to resources.
* [http://www.educationotherwise.com/ Education Otherwise] - a home education charity with around 16,000 members in the UK
* [http://www.christian-education.org/ Christian Education Europe] - Christian Education Europe Ltd. provides Accelerated Christian Education materials and services to schools and home schools in the United Kingdom and Europe
=== France ===
* [http://www.indigoextra.com/ IndigoExtra] - provides information and links on home education in Europe, with a focus on France
* [http://www.lesenfantsdabord.org/ Les Enfants d'Abord] - A home-education organisation with information in English and French.
=== Publications ===
* [http://www.homeedmag.com/ Home Education Magazine] The oldest homeschool magazine in the US. Many articles online
* [http://www.theoldhomeschoolhouse.com/ The Old Schoolhouse Magazine] Large, diverse homeschooling magazine with international distribution.
* [http://www.virtuemag.org/ Virtue Magazine] Online political magazine published bi-weekly by a group of homeschooled students.
[[Category:Educational philosophy]]
[[Category:Homeschooling| ]]
[[Category:School types]]
[[de:Hausunterricht]]
[[eo:Hejminstruo]]
[[nl:Thuisonderwijs]]
[[fr:École à la maison]]
[[pl:edukacja domowa]]
[[ja:&#12507;&#12540;&#12512;&#12473;&#12463;&#12540;&#12522;&#12531;&#12464;]]
[[fi:Kotikoulu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hell</title>
<id>13604</id>
<revision>
<id>42092697</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:56:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.43.1.115</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
[[Image:Hortus Deliciarum - Hell.jpg|thumb|360px|Medieval illustration of Hell in the [[Hortus deliciarum]] manuscript of [[Herrad of Landsberg]] (about 1180)]]
'''Hell''' is, according to many religious beliefs, a place or a state of painful suffering. The [[English language|English]] word 'hell' comes from the [[Germanic languages|Teutonic]] '[[Hel (realm)|Hel]]', which originally meant "to cover" and later referred to the goddess of the Norse underworld, [[Hel (realm)|Hel]]. Compare [[Anglo-Saxon]] ''helan'', Greek ''kalyptein'' and Latin ''celare'' = "to hide, to cover" (all from [[Proto-Indo-European language|IE]] ''[[*kel]]'').
In many religions, after death, evildoers either [[Damnation#Religious|suffer eternally]] or until they have paid for their bad deeds before [[reincarnation]] or [[redemption]]. In [[monotheism|monotheistic]] religions, hell is often ruled by [[demon]]s which torment the ''damned'' or is simply defined by an utter absence of ''God'' or ''redemptive force''. Many monotheists believe in different layers of hell, and that some are sent to [[purgatory]], or otherwise sent to suffer in hell until they repent and seek atonement. Some believe that all sent to hell can accept redemption if they repent and seek atonement, but believe that there will be those who never truly repent in spirit, and even those who reject redemption and ''curse God'' for all eternity in spite of this.
In [[polytheism|polytheistic]] religions, the politics of hell can be as complicated as human politics. Many ''Hellenistic'' [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] believe in [[Tartarus]], which may also be considered a version of Hell.
==Origins==
[[Image:Dore woodcut Divine Comedy 01.jpg|thumb|A vision of hell from [[Dante]]’s ''[[Divine Comedy]]''. Illustration by [[Gustave Doré]].]]
Hell, as it exists in the [[Western countries|Western]] popular imagination, has its origins in [[Hellenic|Hellenized]] [[Christianity]], particularly taken from adaptation of the Hellenistic afterlife known as [[Tartarus]]. [[Judaism]], at least initially, believed in [[Sheol]], a shadowy existence to which all were sent indiscriminately. Sheol may have been little more than a poetic metaphor for death, not really an [[afterlife]] at all: see for example [[Sirach]]. However, by the third to second century [[Anno Domini|B.C.]] the idea had grown to encompass a far more complex concept.
The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Sheol'' was translated in the [[Septuagint]] as '[[Hades]]', the name for the underworld in [[Greek mythology]] and is still considered to be distinct from "Hell" by [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Christians. The ''Lake of Fire'' and realm of ''Eternal Punishment'' in Hellenistic mythology was in fact [[Tartarus]]. [[Hades]] was not ''Hell'' in Hellenistic mythology, but was rather a form of [[limbo]] where the dead went to be judged. The [[New Testament]] uses this word, but it also uses the word '[[Gehenna]]', from the [[valley of Ge-Hinnom|valley of Hinnom]], a valley near [[Jerusalem]] originally used as a location in which human sacrifices were offered to an idol called "Molech" (or [[Moloch]]).
[[2 Kings 23.10]] (on King [[Josiah]]'s reform):
<blockquote>
And he defiled the Tophet, which is in the valley of Ben-hinnom, that no man might make his son or his daughter pass through the fire lmlk.
</blockquote>
[[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 32.35:
<blockquote>
And they built the high places of the Ba‘al, which are in the valley of Ben-hinnom, to cause their sons and their daughters to pass through the fire lmlk; which I did not command them, nor did it come into my mind that they should do this abomination, to cause Judah to sin.
</blockquote>
It was later used as a [[landfill]] in order to emphasize the disgusting nature of its original use. Hebrew landfills were very unsanitary and unpleasant when compared to modern landfills; these places were filled with rotting garbage and the Hebrews would periodically burn them down. However, by that point they were generally so large that they would burn for weeks or even months. In other words they were fiery mountains of garbage. The early Christian teaching was that the damned would be burnt in the valley just as the garbage was. (It is ironic to note that the valley of Hinnom is today, far from being a garbage dump, a public park.) It is argued by theologians opposed to hell but desirous to defend the Bible as a source, that a reference to a place on Earth where rubbish was burnt can not refer to any conscious after-death state.
Punishment for the damned and reward for the saved is a constant theme of early Christianity.
==Religious accounts==
Hell appears in several [[mythology|mythologies]] and [[religion]]s in different guises, and is commonly inhabited by [[demon]]s and the [[soul]]s of dead people.
Some accounts of Hell describe it as a series of numbered layers or levels. What the layers consist of differ from religion to religion, but the descriptions of certain numbered layers often coincide even between different religions. Examples of these coincidences include a layer of intense flames numbered 54 in several religions or a layer where the world looks like earth but is inhabited by demons; the soul experiencing it is never sure enough that it is in Hell to reveal their suspicion for fear of appearing insane, and is numbered 78 in at least 3 distinct religions.
===Rabbinic Judaism===
[[Gehenna]] is fairly well defined in [[rabbi|rabbinic]] literature. It is sometimes translated as "Hell", but this doesn't effectively convey its meaning. In [[Judaism]], Gehenna is not hell, but rather a sort of [[Purgatory]] where one is judged based on their life's deeds. The [[Kabbalah]] describ |
ers|De Vries, Piter]]
[[fr:Piter De Vries]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diffie-Hellman key exchange</title>
<id>7903</id>
<revision>
<id>42075857</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:34:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arvindn</username>
<id>823</id>
</contributor>
<comment>in·se·cure ''adj.'' 2. Inadequately guarded or protected; unsafe: A shortage of military police made the air base insecure.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Diffie-Hellman key exchange''' is a [[cryptographic protocol]] which allows two parties that have no prior knowledge of each other to jointly establish a shared secret [[key (cryptography)|key]] over an insecure [[communication]]s channel. This key can then be used to encrypt subsequent communications using a [[symmetric key]] [[cipher]].
Synonyms of Diffie-Hellman key exchange include:
*'''Diffie-Hellman key agreement'''
*'''Diffie-Hellman key establishment'''
*'''Diffie-Hellman key negotiation'''
*'''exponential key exchange'''
The scheme was first published publicly by [[Whitfield Diffie]] and [[Martin Hellman]] in [[1976]], although it later emerged that it had been discovered a few years earlier within [[GCHQ]], the British signals intelligence agency, by [[Malcolm J. Williamson]] but was kept classified. In [[2002]], Hellman suggested the algorithm be called '''Diffie-Hellman-Merkle key exchange''' in recognition of [[Ralph Merkle]]'s contribution to the invention of [[public-key cryptography]] (Hellman, 2002).
Although Diffie-Hellman key agreement itself is an ''anonymous'' (non-''authenticated'') [[key agreement]] protocol, it provides the basis for a variety of authenticated protocols, and is used to provide [[perfect forward secrecy]] in [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]]'s ephemeral modes.
==History of the protocol==
Diffie-Hellman key agreement was invented in [[1976]] during a collaboration between Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman and was the first practical method for establishing a shared secret over an unprotected communications channel. [[Ralph Merkle]]'s work on public key distribution was an influence. [[John Gill (cryptographer)|John Gill]] suggested application of the [[discrete logarithm]] problem. It had been discovered by Malcolm Williamson of [[GCHQ]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] some years previously, but GCHQ chose not make it public until [[1997]], by which time it had no influence on research in [[academia]].
The method was followed shortly afterwards by [[RSA]], another implementation of public key cryptography using [[Public-key cryptography|asymmetric algorithms]].
In [[2002]], Martin Hellman wrote:
:"''The system...has since become known as Diffie-Hellman key exchange. While that system was first described in a paper by Diffie and me, it is a public key distribution system, a concept developed by Merkle, and hence should be called 'Diffie-Hellman-Merkle key exchange' if names are to be associated with it. I hope this small pulpit might help in that endeavor to recognize Merkle's equal contribution to the invention of public key cryptography.''" [http://www.comsoc.org/livepubs/ci1/public/anniv/pdfs/hellman.pdf]
{{US patent|4,200,770}}, now expired, describes the algorithm and credits Hellman, Diffie, and Merkle as inventors.
==Description==
The simplest, and original, implementation of the protocol uses the [[multiplicative]] [[group (mathematics)|group]] of integers modulo ''p'', where ''p'' is [[prime number|prime]] and ''g'' is [[primitive root modulo n|primitive]] mod ''p''. Modulo (or mod) simply means that the integers between 1 and ''p'' &minus; 1 are used with normal multiplication, exponentiation and division, except that after each operation the result keeps only the remainder after dividing by ''p''. Here is an example of the protocol:
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"
|
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse;"
| align="center" colspan="3" | '''Alice'''
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#D0D0D0" style="font-size: 90%;" | Sec
| align="center" bgcolor="#D0D0D0" |
| align="center" bgcolor="#D0D0D0" style="font-size: 90%;" | Calc
|-
| align="center" |
| align="center" | '''p, g'''
| align="center" |
|-
| align="center" | '''a'''
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|-
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
| align="center" | '''g<sup>a</sup>''' mod p
|-
| align="center" |
| align="center" | …
| align="center" |
|-
| align="center" |
| align="center" | ('''g<sup>b</sup>''' mod p)<sup>'''a'''</sup> mod p
| align="center" |
|}
| valign="bottom" |
{| border="0" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="5"
| align="center" |
|-
| align="center" |
|-
| align="center" |
|-
| align="center" |
|-
| align="center" |
|-
| align="center" | '''<math>\rightarrow</math>'''
|-
| align="center" | '''<math>\leftarrow</math>'''
|-
| align="center" | '''='''
|}
|
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse;"
| align="center" colspan="3" | '''Bob'''
|-
| align="center" bgcolor="#D0D0D0" style="font-size: 90%;" | Calc
| align="center" bgcolor="#D0D0D0" |
| align="center" bgcolor="#D0D0D0" style="font-size: 90%;" | Sec
|-
| align="center" |
| align="center" | '''p, g'''
| align="center" |
|-
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
| align="center" | '''b'''
|-
| align="center" |
| align="center" | …
| align="center" |
|-
| align="center" | '''g<sup>b'''</sup> mod p
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|-
| align="center" |
| align="center" | ('''g<sup>a</sup>''' mod p)<sup>'''b'''</sup> mod p
| align="center" |
|}
|
# [[Alice and Bob]] agree to use a prime number ''p''=23 and base ''g''=5.
# Alice chooses a secret integer ''a''=6, then sends Bob (''g<sup>a</sup>'' mod ''p'')
#*5<sup>6</sup> mod 23 = 8.
# Bob chooses a secret integer ''b''=15, then sends Alice (''g<sup>b</sup>'' mod p)
#*5<sup>15</sup> mod 23 = 19.
# Alice computes (''g<sup>b</sup>'' mod ''p'')<sup>''a''</sup> mod ''p''
#*19<sup>6</sup> mod 23 = 2.
# Bob computes (''g<sup>a</sup>'' mod ''p'')<sup>''b''</sup> mod ''p''
#*8<sup>15</sup> mod 23 = 2.
|}
Both Alice and Bob have arrived at the same value, because ''g<sup>ab</sup>'' and ''g<sup>ba</sup>'' are equal. Note that only ''a'', ''b'' and ''g<sup>ab</sup> = g<sup>ba</sup>'' are kept secret. All the other values are sent in the clear. Once Alice and Bob compute the shared secret they can use it as an encryption key, known only to them, for sending messages across the same open communications channel.
Of course, much larger values of ''a'',''b'', and ''p'' would be needed to make this example secure, since it is easy to try all the possible values of ''g<sup>ab</sup>'' mod 23 (there will be, at most, 22 such values, even if ''a'' and ''b'' are large). If ''p'' was a prime of more than 300 digits, and ''a'' and ''b'' were at least 100 digits long, then even the best known algorithms for finding ''a'' given only ''g'', ''p'', and ''g<sup>a</sup>'' mod ''p'' (known as the [[discrete logarithm problem]]) would take longer than the lifetime of the universe to run. ''g'' need not be large at all, and in practice is usually either 2 or 5.
Here's a more general description of the protocol:
# Alice and Bob agree on a finite [[cyclic group]] ''G'' and a [[Generating set of a group|generating]] element ''g'' in ''G''. (This is usually done long before the rest of the protocol; ''g'' is assumed to be known by all attackers.) We will write the group ''G'' multiplicatively.
# Alice picks a random [[natural number]] ''a'' and sends ''g''<sup>''a''</sup> to Bob.
# Bob picks a random natural number ''b'' and sends ''g''<sup>''b''</sup> to Alice.
# Alice computes (''g''<sup>''b''</sup>)<sup>''a''</sup>.
# Bob computes (''g''<sup>''a''</sup>)<sup>''b''</sup>.
Both Alice and Bob are now in possession of the group element ''g''<sup>''ab''</sup> which can serve as the shared secret key. The values of (''g''<sup>''b''</sup>)<sup>''a''</sup> and (''g''<sup>''a''</sup>)<sup>''b''</sup> are the same because groups are [[Power-associativity|power associative]]. (See also [[exponentiation]].)
===Chart===
Here is a chart to help simplify who knows what. (Eve is an [[eavesdropper]] - she watches what is sent between Alice and Bob, but she does not alter the contents of their communications.)
Let s = shared secret key. s = 2
let a = Alice's private key. a = 6
let b = Bob's private key. b = 15
let g = public base. g=5
let p = public (prime) number. p = 23
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"
| valign="top" |
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" style="border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collaps |
wide, but the country continued to mount a national debt because of an imbalanced budget. The Democrats, under [[Bill Clinton]], took things a little further, balancing the U.S. budget, creating [[NAFTA]], and influencing the birth of the GATT94 [[WTO]], all of which helped usher in a prosperous decade for the United States. The current [[George W. Bush|President Bush]] has been accused of only verbally supporting free and open markets, while continuing to mount public debt and even raising trade barriers to protect the American steel industry. Despite some strides toward liberalism, the changes made have been small, to the point where some argue that neither the Democrats nor the Republicans maintain political platforms that reflect classical liberalism even though segments of both parties argue for less free trade and more managed trade. The [[Libertarian Party]] is an example of a party in the United States that wholeheartedly supports classical liberalism.
Within the United States, classical liberalism is rhetorically confused with conservatism. The [[Cato Institute]], a [[think tank]] known for its advocation of classical liberalism in government, states from its website: [http://www.cato.org/about/about.html]
:''"Only in America do people seem to refer to free-market capitalism--the most progressive, dynamic, and ever-changing system the world has ever known--as conservative. Additionally, many contemporary American conservatives favor state intervention in some areas, most notably in trade and into our private lives."
Many classical liberals argue that modern liberalism, as it is practiced, is mostly rhetorical lip service to liberalism's highest ideals of freedom, rather than a function of its basic assumptions: the free market.
See [[liberalism]] for further understanding.
==Classical liberalism versus 'modern' or social liberalism==
The [[Industrial Revolution]] greatly increased material wealth, but made social problems more visible, such as pollution, child labor, and overcrowding in the cities. Material and scientific progress led to greater longevity and a reduced mortality rate. The population increased dramatically. The downside of this was an oversupply of labor, which led to declining wages. Economic liberals, such as John Locke, Adam Smith, and Wilhelm von Humboldt felt that the problems of an industrial society would correct themselves without government intervention.
In the 19th century, the voting franchise in most liberal democracies was extended, and these newly enfranchised citizens often voted in favor of government solutions to the problems they faced in their everyday lives. A rapid increase in literacy and the spread of knowledge led to social activism in a variety of forms. Social liberals demanded laws against child labor and laws requiring minimum standards of worker safety and a minimum wage. The [[laissez faire]] economic liberals countered that such laws were an unjust imposition on life, liberty, and property, not to mention a hindrance to economic development. Thus began the struggle. On the one hand, economic liberals, who stress economic freedom and desire small governments. On the other hand, social liberals, who stress equality of opportunity, and desire a government large enough to protect citizens from the consequences of economic or natural difficulties that they consider too serious to be overcome without government aid. This 19th century social liberalism was the first significant split from classical liberalism. According to Milton Friedman:
:''"Beginning in the late nineteenth century, and especially after 1930 in the United States, the term liberalism came to be associated with a very different emphasisis, particularly in economic policy. It came to be associated with a readiness to rely primarily on the state rather than on private voluntary arrangements to acheive objectives regarded as desirable. The catchwords became welfare and equality rather than freedom. The nineteenth century liberal regarded an extension of freedom as the most effective way to promote welfare and equality; the tweentieth century liberal regards welfare and equality as either prerequisistes of or alternatives to freedom. In the name of welfare and equality, the twentieth-century liberal has come to favor a revival of the very policies of state intervention and paternalism against which classical liberalism fought. In the very act of turning the clock back to seventeenth-century merchantalism, he is fond of castigating true liberals as reactionary!"
By the end of the 19th century, a growing body of liberal thought asserted that, in order to be free, individuals needed access to the requirements of fulfillment, including protection from exploitation and education. In 1911, [[L.T. Hobhouse]] published ''Liberalism'', which summarized the new liberalism, including qualified acceptance of government intervention in the economy, and the collective right to equality in dealings, what he called "just consent."
Today, so-called "modern liberalism" has been conglomerated with [[socialism]]. Classical liberals believe that liberal philosophy is supposed to support the overall expansion of freedom in all areas, they most especially disagree with modern liberals and their embracing of stances that are inherently about taking away freedoms, such as [[gun control]], [[affirmative action]], high [[taxation]], involuntary [[social security]], [[campaign finance reform]], and opposition to [[school choice]].
In Hayek's book The Constitution of Liberty, in the chapter, "Why I am not a Conservative" Hayek explains to his readers that he was not a conservative because he is a liberal; and had refused to give up that label. In the United States the term liberal had changed meaning, and according to Hayek this was because Franklin D Roosevelt had been labeled a socialist and a leftist because of his New Deal Policies. Fearing the consequences of that label, FDR called himself a Liberal instead. Since that day, Liberal in the United States has had a different meaning from the original, 18th and 19th century meaning of the word. People who stayed close to this original meaning label themselves often "Classic Liberal", "Classical Liberal" or "Libertarian" to avoid confusion (especially in America ).
Discusing the difference between classical liberalism as the original meaning of liberalism and modern liberalism, Joeseph Schumpeter states "As a supreme, if unintended compliment, the enemies of the system of private enterprise have thought it wise to appropriate its label" implying that modern liberals have "stolen" the word and given it a definition opposite of its original meaning.
==Classical Liberalism and Libertarianism==
Libertarians may describe themselves as classical liberals but not all classical liberals will describe themselves as libertarians. Libertarians do share many philisophical, political, and economic undertones with classical liberalism, including the ideas of laissez-faire government, free markets, and individual freedom. Classical liberals understood that in order to protect individual liberty the government must be limited in what it can do. The Libertarian party takes this classical liberal understanding alittle further by arguing for greater restrictions upon the government.
While the Libertarian Party opposes any government funding of education, classical liberals such as [[J.S. Mill]] and [[Milton Friedman]] have favored government-funded vouchers for basic schooling. Where the Libertarians want no subsidies at all for private firms, the eminent classical liberal [[Friedrich Hayek]] acknowledges that some subsidies may be justified for the general good of society (but never for the good of the firm in question, and never merely for the purpose of redistributing income). While the capital-L Libertarians want to leave the provision of minimum sustenance for the poor or disabled entirely to private charity, classical liberals often support residual social welfare benefits. Friedman proposed a negative income tax (which establishes a minimum income) and Hayek favored a government role in ensuring minimum food and shelter for all. Finally, while some Libertarians tend toward a near-absolute sanctity of contract and private property, Hayek was open to the regulation of monopolies in some cases (mainly by requiring them to treat all customers equally) and generally opposed contracts in restraint of trade (including the use of unions as labor cartels).
===Criticism of Libertarian as Classical Liberalism===
The modern traditions of [[Libertarianism|libertarianism]] and [[neoliberalism]] claim the ideological inheritance of classical liberalism. However, many object to this blending of what they see as two separate, opposing philosophies(Katz 2003.) Samuel Freeman states that:
:"that libertarianism’s resemblance to liberalism is superficial; in the end, libertarians reject essential liberal institutions. Correctly understood, libertarianism resembles a view that liberalism historically defined itself against, the doctrine of private political power that underlies feudalism. Like feudalism, libertarianism conceives of justified political power as based in a network of private contracts. It rejects the idea, essential to liberalism, that political power is a public power, to be be impartially exercised for the common good."
Those who emphasize the distinction between classical liberalism and libertarianism argue that libertarianism and liberalism are fundamentally incompatible because the checks and balances provided by liberal institutions conflict with the support by most libertarians of complete economic deregulation (Haworth, 1994, pp. 27).
==See also==
*[[Austrian School]]
*[[Capitalism]]
*[[Chicago school]]
*[[Deregulation]]
*[ |
ed for all sorts of purposes such as pedestrian bridges and railroad bridges.
''Eiffel et Cie.'', Eiffel's consulting and construction firm with the support of Belgian engineer [[Téophile Seyrig]], participated in an international bid to design and build a 160 m long railway bridge over the [[Douro]] river, between [[Porto]] and [[Vila Nova de Gaia]], [[Portugal]]. His proposal was the winner because it was a beautiful, ''transparent'', structure, it was the least expensive and incorporated the use of the ''method of forces'', a then novel technique in structure design developed by [[Maxwell]] in 1864. The ''Ponte Maria Pia'' is conformed by a double hinged arch that supports a single lane railway plate through pillars that reinforced the whole of the bridge. The construction proceeded rapidly and the bridge was constructed in less than two years ([[5 January]], [[1876]] to [[4 November]], [[1877]]). It was inaugurated by the king D. [[Luís]] and the queen D. [[Maria Pia]], after whom it was named. The bridge was in use until 1991 (114 years) and was replaced by the S. John Bridge, designed by engineer [[Edgar Cardoso]]. <sup>[1], [2]</sup>
Gustave Eiffel also designed [[La Ruche]] in Paris, that, like the Eiffel Tower, became a city landmark. A three-storey circular structure that looked more like a large beehive, it was created as a temporary structure for use as a wine rotunda at the Great Exposition of 1900. He also constructed the [[Garabit viaduct]], a [[railroad]] [[bridge]] near [[Ruynes en Margeride]] in the [[Cantal]] département.
Eiffel's reputation suffered a severe setback when he was implicated in the financial scandals surrounding [[Ferdinand de Lesseps]] and the entrepreneurs backing the failed French [[Panama Canal]] project. Eiffel himself had no connection with the finances, and his guilty judgment was later reversed.
In his later years Eiffel began to study [[aerodynamics]].
Eiffel died on December 27, 1923 in his mansion on Rue Rabelais in Paris where he was interred in the Cimetière de Levallois-Perret.
The structures that Eiffel designed had great social, economical, and political impacts on the world. These structures included bridges, the Eiffel Tower, the Panama Canal, and the Statue of Liberty.
The bridges that he designed were constructed all over the world. The bridges allowed for easier and faster travel and trade in the geographical area in which the bridge was constructed. Many of Eiffel's bridges did not require skilled workers for assembly, which made his bridges a great economical choice.
The Eiffel Tower had a huge impact on France. The tower was the focal point of the International Exposition in 1889 and drew millions of people to Paris. Nearly two million people visited the Eiffel Tower in 1889 alone. The tower quickly became a tourist attraction and brought large amounts of money into France's economy. After originally being thought of as an eye sore on Paris, the tower quickly became a national symbol of France and brought a sense of pride to the people who live there.
Eiffel's greatest impact on the world came through his work on the Panama Canal. The original idea of a canal at sea level did not work and it was decided that a system of locks must be used. Eiffel designed the large locks and allowed the project to carry on. The canal had a major economical impact on the world immediately upon completion. The Panama Canal saved ships many miles of travel, which allowed for goods to be transported faster and cheaper.
The Statue of Liberty was a gift from France to the United States. Eiffel's design for the interior structural elements of the statue allowed for the statue to become a reality. The statue showed the friendship and respect that was shared between France and the United States. The Statue of Liberty quickly became a national symbol of freedom in the United States and gave citizens a sense of pride. The statue became a great tourist attraction and brought many people to New York, boosting their economy.
===Famous buildings===
*[[Eiffel Tower]]
*[[Statue of Liberty]]
*[[Nice Observatory]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Gustave Eiffel}}
*[http://www.structurae.de/en/persons/data/d000009/index.cfm Structurae: Gustave Alexandre Eiffel]
*<sup>[1]</sup> [http://www.portoturismo.pt/en/a_cidade/cidade_pontes/ Porto, city of bridges]
*<sup>[2]</sup> [http://www.civilium.net/infocil/dmaria.shtml Ponte Maria Pia]
*<sup>[D]</sup> [http://www.civilium.net/infocil/dmaria.shtml Ponte Maria Pia]
[[Category:1832 births|Eiffel, Gustave]]
[[Category:1923 deaths|Eiffel, Gustave]]
[[Category:French architects|Eiffel, Gustave]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Eiffel, Gustave]]
[[ar:غوستاف إيفل]]
[[be:Аляксандар Эйфэль]]
[[da:Gustave Eiffel]]
[[de:Gustave Eiffel]]
[[es:Alexandre Gustave Eiffel]]
[[eo:Gustave EIFFEL]]
[[fr:Gustave Eiffel]]
[[gl:Gustave Eiffel]]
[[hr:Gustave Eiffel]]
[[io:Gustave Eiffel]]
[[it:Gustave Eiffel]]
[[nl:Gustave Eiffel]]
[[ja:ギュスターヴ・エッフェル]]
[[no:Gustave Eiffel]]
[[pl:Gustave Eiffel]]
[[pt:Gustave Eiffel]]
[[ru:Эйфель, Густав Александр]]
[[fi:Gustave Eiffel]]
[[sv:Gustave Eiffel]]
[[th:กุสตาฟ ไอเฟล]]
[[zh:居斯塔夫·埃菲尔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Greenpeace</title>
<id>12233</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42100800</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:02:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.215.237.112</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>mispelled organization</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company | company_name = Greenpeace
| company_logo = [[Image:Greenpeacelogo1.png|centre|300px]]
| company_type = [[Charitable trust|Charity]]
| company_slogan = n/a.
| foundation = 1971
| location = [[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands|Netherlands, The]]
| key_people = [[Paul Cote]]<br>[[Jim Bohlen]] and [[Marie Bohlen]]<br>[[Irving and Dorothy Stowe]]<br>[[Patrick Moore (environmentalist)|Patrick Moore]]<br>[[Bill Darnell]]<br>[[Ben and Dorothy Metcalfe]]<br>[[Robert Hunter (journalist)|Robert Hunter]]<br>[[Paul Watson]]<br>[[Manuel Rivas]]
| industry = [[Natural environment|Environmentalism]]
| products = Lobbying, research, consultancy, sustainable technolgy.
| revenue = [[Dollar|$]]360 Million [[United States Dollar|USD]] ([[2005]])
| num_employees = <i>Unknown</i>
| homepage = [http://www.greenpeace.org/international www.greenpeace.org/international]
}}
'''Greenpeace''' is an international [[environmental organization]] founded in [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]] in [[1971]].
Greenpeace is known for its use of [[nonviolence|nonviolent direct action]] campaigns to stop atmospheric and underground [[nuclear testing]] as well as bring an end to high seas [[whaling]]. In later years, the focus of the organisation turned to other environmental issues, including [[bottom trawling]], [[global warming]] and [[genetic engineering]]. Greenpeace has national and regional offices in 41 countries worldwide, all of which have affiliation with the [[Amsterdam]]-based Greenpeace International. The global organisation receives its income through the individual contributions of an estimated 2.8 million financial supporters, as well as from grants from [[charity|charitable foundations]], but does not accept funding from governments or corporations.
Greenpeace's official mission statement describes the organisation and its aims thus:
:''Greenpeace is an independent, campaigning organisation which uses non-violent, creative confrontation to expose global environmental problems, and to force solutions for a green and peaceful future. Greenpeace's goal is to ensure the ability of the earth to nurture life in all its diversity.''
== Early history ==
The origins of Greenpeace lie in the formation of the ''[[Don't Make A Wave Committee]]'' by an assortment of [[Canadian]] and [[United States of America|American]] expatriate [[peace]] [[activism|activists]] in [[Vancouver]] in [[1970]]. Taking its name from a slogan used during protests against [[United States]] [[nuclear testing]] in late [[1969]], the Committee came together with the objective of stopping a second underground nuclear bomb test codenamed [[Amchitka|Cannikin]] by the [[United States military]] beneath the island of [[Amchitka]], [[Alaska]]. The first ship expedition was called the ''Greenpeace I'', and the second relief expedition the ''Greenpeace Too!''. The test was not stopped, but the organization of the committee laid the groundwork for Greenpeace's later activities.
[[Image:Greenpeace-Brasília.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Greenpeace protest in [[Brasília]], [[Brazil]].]]
Bill Darnell has received the credit for combining the words ‘green’ and ‘peace’, thereby giving the organization its future name.
On [[4 May]] [[1972]], following Dorothy Stowe's departure from the chairmanship of the ''Don't Make A Wave Committee'', the fledgling environmental group officially changed its name to the "Greenpeace Foundation".
===Greenpeace===
By the late [[1970s]], spurred by the global reach of what Robert Hunter called "[[mind bombs]]", in which images of confrontation on the high seas converted diffuse and complex issues into considerably more media-friendly David versus Goliath-style narratives, more than 20 groups across [http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/ North America], [http://www.greenpeace.org/international Europe], [http://www.greenpeace.org.nz New Zealand] and [http://www.greenpeace.org.au Australia] had adopted the name "Greenpeace".
In [[1979]], however, the original Vancouver-based Greenpeace Foundation had encountered financial difficulties, and disputes between offices over fund-raising and organizational direction split the global movement. [[David McTaggart]] lobbied the Canadian Greenpeace |
rary]] opened in 1979 as Kennedy's official [[presidential library]].
*[[John F. Kennedy University]] opened in [[Pleasant Hill, California]] in 1964 as a school for adult education.
*[[John F. Kennedy National Historic Site]] preserves his home in [[Brookline, Massachusetts]].
*The [[John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts]] opened in 1971 in Washington, DC as a living memorial to him.
*A British memorial at [[Runnymede]], England, as well as a memorial bust near Regent's Park in London.
*A memorial on the harbor at Hyannis Port, Massachusetts.
[[Cape Canaveral]] was renamed Cape Kennedy in 1963, but reverted to its original name in 1973.
Hundreds of schools across the U.S were also renamed in his honor.
Posthumously awarded the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] in 1963, Kennedy's portrait now appears on the [[United States half dollar coin]].
==Criticism==
[[Image:wanted for treason.jpg|thumb|230px|A famous handbill circulated on November 21, 1963
In Dallas, Texas. One day before the [[assassination of John F. Kennedy]].]]
Kennedy is among the most popular former presidents of the United States; however, a number of critics argue that his reputation is largely undeserved. Although he was young and charismatic, he had little chance to achieve much during his presidency. Under this reasoning, his immense popularity results from the fact that his short time in office was marked by the optimistic beginnings of many programs declared to be of great benefit to the United States, its people, and various global issues. Unlike the tenures of other U.S. presidents, Kennedy's time in office, generally speaking, thereby lacked the scandals and controversies seen in the terms of many other presidents who served longer. The [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|Civil Rights Act]] that he sent to Congress in June of 1963 was, at least in part, conceived by his brother and Attorney General [[Robert F. Kennedy]], and it was signed into law by his successor, Lyndon Johnson, in 1964.
Kennedy and his vice president Lyndon B. Johnson are primarily blamed for sending the first combat troops into the largely unpopular Vietnam War. Kennedy is also blamed by millions of Cubans for the Bay of Pigs slaughter, in which thousands of Cubans were killed, even after being promised protection from the United States. This promise was broken when Kennedy backed out at the last moment. Many Cuban refugees felt betrayed by the Kennedy adminstration and became Republicans. Many of them served in public office in the state of Florida and in other parts of the nation.
In 2000, The Wall Street Journal joined with the Federalist Society to sponsor a rating of former presidents by a panel of 78 academics, carefully chosen for political balance. The rankings and impressive commentary can be found as "Hail to the Chief." Going up just in time to be swamped by the Florida election contest, the project has not received the attention it deserves. No fewer than 43 raters, an outright majority of the panel, considered President John F. Kennedy overrated. An essay by Akhil Reed Amar of Yale Law School faults JFK for appeasing Southern Democrats by stocking the lower federal bench with "notorious segregationists"; the best civil rights judges were Eisenhower appointees. And with the appointment of his brother as attorney general, he tried to found a political dynasty, abhorred by the Founding Fathers. "The metaphor of Camelot, after all, is ultimately un-American and undemocratic, conjuring up images of crowns and dashing young princes and noble birth."
Kennedy's personal life has also attracted the ire of critics, some of whom argue that lapses in judgment in his personal life impacted his professional life. Among the critics' charges are: that the Kennedy family concealed from the public his serious, potentially life-threatening health issues (e.g., he suffered from [[Addison's disease]]) and his heavy medication regimen; that he had a long history of extramarital affairs; and that he had alleged, circuitous links to [[organized crime]] figures. Seymour Hersh's ''The Dark Side of Camelot'' (1998) presents such a critical argument. Robert Dallek's ''An Unfinished Life'' (2003) is a more balanced biography, but contains much detail on Kennedy's health issues.
Another of Kennedy's critics is U.S. intellectual [[Noam Chomsky]], whose book ''Rethinking Camelot: JFK, the Vietnam War, and US Political Culture'' (1993) presents an image of the Kennedy administration opposite to the one that lingers in mainstream memory. The book is a criticism of policy rather than his personal life, and explores information not usually presented about the 35th president. In particular, Chomsky and many other critics highlight the ill-planned increased U.S. involvement in the [[Vietnam War|Vietnam conflict]] during Kennedy's administration.
==Trivia==
*JFK was the first president born in the 20th century.
*Because of his early death at the age of 46, he was outlived by three of his predecessors, [[Herbert Hoover]] (1874-1964), [[Harry S. Truman]] (1884-1972) and [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] (1890-1969), and four of his successors who were actually older than he, [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (1908-1973), [[Richard Nixon]] (1913-1994), [[Gerald Ford]] (b. 1913) and [[Ronald Reagan]] (1911-2004).
==Kennedy in the movies==
* ''[[PT 109 (film)|PT 109]]'' (1963): played by [[Cliff Robertson]]
* ''[[The Missiles of October]]'' (1974, TV): played by [[William Devane]]
* ''[[The Private Files of J. Edgar Hoover]]'' (1977): played by [[William Jordan]]
* ''[[Johnny, We Hardly Knew Ye]]'' (1977, TV): played by [[Paul Rudd]]
* ''[[Young Joe, the Forgotten Kennedy]]'' (1977, TV): played by [[Sam Chew Jr.]]
* ''[[King (TV miniseries)|King]]'' (1978, TV): played by William Jordan
* ''[[Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy (TV movie)|Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy]]'' (1981, TV): played by [[James Franciscus]]
* ''[[Blood Feud (TV movie)|Blood Feud]]'' (1983, TV): played by [[Sam Groom]]
* ''[[Kennedy (TV miniseries)|Kennedy]]'' (1983, TV): played by [[Martin Sheen]]
* ''[[Prince Jack]]'' (1985): played by [[Robert Hogan]]
* ''[[Robert Kennedy & His Times]]'' (1985, TV): played by [[Cliff De Young]]
* ''[[J. Edgar Hoover (TV movie)|J. Edgar Hoover]]'' (1987, TV): played by [[Art Hindle]]
* ''[[LBJ: The Early Years]]'' (1987, TV): played by [[Charles Frank]]
* ''[[Onassis: The Richest Man in the World]]'' (1988, TV): played by [[David Gillum]]
* ''[[The Kennedys of Massachusetts]]'' (1990, TV): played by [[Steven Weber (actor)|Steven Weber]]
* ''[[Malcolm X (film)|Malcolm X]]'' (1992): played by [[Steve Reed (actor)|Steve Reed]]
* ''[[Ruby (film)|Ruby]]'' (1992): played by [[Gérard David]] and [[Kevin Wiggins]]
* ''[[Sinatra (TV movie)|Sinatra]]'' (1992, TV): played by [[James F. Kelly]]
* ''[[J.F.K.: Reckless Youth]]'' (1993, TV): played by [[Patrick Dempsey]]
* ''[[Forrest Gump]]'' (1994): played by [[Jed Gillin]]
* ''[[Norma Jean & Marilyn]]'' (1996, TV): played by [[Perry Stephens]]
* ''[[The Rat Pack (TV movie)|The Rat Pack]]'' (1998, TV): played by [[William L. Petersen]]
* ''[[Bonanno: A Godfather's Story]]'' (1999, TV): played by [[Matt Norklun]]
* ''[[Thirteen Days]]'' (2000): played by [[Bruce Greenwood]]
* ''[[Jackie Bouvier Kennedy Onassis]]'' (2000, TV): played by [[Tim Matheson]]
* ''[[Jackie, Ethel, Joan: The Women of Camelot]]'' (2001, TV): played by [[Daniel Hugh Kelly]]
* ''[[Power and Beauty]]'' (2002, TV): played by [[Kevin Anderson (actor)|Kevin Anderson]]
* ''[[RFK (film)|RFK]]'' (2002, TV): played by [[Martin Donovan]]
* ''[[America's Prince: The John F. Kennedy Jr. Story]]'' (2003, TV): played by [[Randy Triggs]]
==See also==
* [[John F. Kennedy assassination]]
* [[Kennedy assassination theories]]
* [[John F. Kennedy, Jr.]]
* [[Robert F. Kennedy assassination]]
* [[State funeral of John F. Kennedy]]
* [[Kennedy Compound]]
* [[John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts]]
* [[John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library]] in Boston, Massachusetts
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1960]]
* [[History of the United States (1945-1964)|History of the United States (1945&ndash;1964)]]
* [[Jesuit Ivy]]
* [[Peace Corps]]
* [[John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame]]
* [[Runnymede|John F. Kennedy Memorial]] at Runnymede, England
* [[Kennedy Memorial Trust]]
* [[Five cents John Kennedy]], postage stamp
* [[Whiz Kids]]
* [[Evelyn Lincoln]], personal secretary to the President
* [[Kennedy Doctrine]]
* [[Lincoln/Kennedy Coincidences]]
* [[Coincidence theory]]
* [[Kennedy curse]]
* [[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]
==References==
===Secondary sources===
* Brauer, Carl. ''John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction'' (1977)
* Burner, David. ''John F. Kennedy and a New Generation'' (1988)
*{{cite book | author=Dallek, Robert | title=An Unfinished Life : John F. Kennedy, 1917 1963 | publisher=Brown, Little | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0316172383}}
*Freedman, Lawrence. ''Kennedy's Wars: Berlin, Cuba, Laos, and Vietnam (2000)
* Fursenko, Aleksandr and Timothy Naftali. ''One Hell of a Gamble: Khrushchev, Castro, and Kennedy, 1958-1964'' (1997)
* Giglio, James. ''The Presidency of John F. Kennedy'' (1991), standard scholarly overview.
* Harper, Paul, and Joann P. Krieg eds. ''John F. Kennedy: The Promise Revisited'' (1988) scholarly articles on presidency.
* Harris, Seymour E. ''The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy'' (1962)
*Heath, Jim F. ''Decade of Disillusionment: The Kennedy-Johnson Years'' (1976)
*Kunz; Diane B. ''The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s'' (1994)
* O'Brien, Michael. ''John F. Kennedy: A Biography'' (2005)
|
<page>
<title>ASL</title>
<id>2004</id>
<revision>
<id>38143678</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T13:45:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
<id>293907</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] change "a" to "an".</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The acronym '''ASL''' OR '''a.s.l.''' may stand for:
*[[Above mean sea level]], altitude measurement
*[[Action specification language]]
*[[Adobe Source Libraries]], a set of open source software libraries by Adobe
*[[Advanced Squad Leader]], a tactical-level war boardgame
*[[Age sex location]], abbreviation in internet chat jargon
*[[Airway Surface Liquid]]
*[[American School in London]], primary and secondary school
*[[American Sign Language]], dominant sign language in north America
*[[American Soccer League]], professional leagues in the US
*[[Anti-saloon League]]
*[[Apache Software License]], an open-source, copyleft license for software
*[[Application Services Library]], a software development framework
*[[ASL (gene)]], human gene making the protein argininosuccinate lyase
*[[Association for Symbolic Logic]], of academic researchers in symbolic logic
*[[Atlanta Sound & Lights Company]], concert audio and lighting
*[[Australia's Surfing Life]], surf magazine
*[[Arterial Spin Labeling]] functional magnetic resonance imaging technique to measure tissue blood flow
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:ASL]]
[[fr:ASL]]
[[ja:ASL]]
[[nl:ASL]]
[[sv:ASL]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Addictive</title>
<id>2005</id>
<revision>
<id>15900459</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Addiction]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Auschwitz concentration camp</title>
<id>2006</id>
<revision>
<id>42158588</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:12:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Guanaco</username>
<id>47960</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>clean up and bypass unambiguous redirects using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Auschwitz}}
{{The Holocaust}}
'''Auschwitz''' is the name loosely used to identify the largest [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] [[extermination camp]] along with two main [[German concentration camps]] and 45-50 sub-camps. The name is derived from the German name for the nearby [[Poland|Polish]] town of [[Oświęcim]] (pronounced {{IPA|[oʃˈventʃiːm]}}), situated about 60 [[kilometre]]s (37 [[mile|mi]]) southwest of [[Kraków]]. Beginning in 1940, [[Nazi Germany]] built several [[concentration camp]]s and an [[extermination camp]] in the area, which at the time had been [[annexation|annexed]] by Nazi Germany. The camps were a major element in the perpetration of [[the Holocaust]], killing around 1.1-1.6 million people, of whom over 90% were [[Jew]]s.
The three main camps were:
* Auschwitz I, the original concentration camp which served as the administrative centre for the whole complex, and was the site of the deaths of roughly 70,000 people, mostly [[Poles]] and [[Soviet]] [[Prisoners of War]]
* Auschwitz II ([[Birkenau]]), an [[extermination camp]] and the site of the deaths of at least 1.1 million [[Jew]]s, 75,000 [[Poles]], and some 19,000 [[Roma (people)|Roma]]
* Auschwitz III ([[Monowitz]]/[[Monowice]]), which served as a [[labor camp]] for the Buna-Werke factory of the [[IG Farben]] [[concern]].
See [[List of subcamps of Auschwitz]] for others. The exact number of people killed in the camps is not known, but most modern estimates are around 1.1-1.6 million.
Like all Nazi concentration camps, the Auschwitz camps were operated by [[Heinrich Himmler]]'s [[Schutzstaffel|SS]]. The commandants of the camp were the SS-Obersturmbannführers [[Rudolf Höß]] (sometimes transliterated in English as "Hoess") until Summer 1943, and later [[Arthur Liebehenschel]] and [[Richard Baer]]. Höß provided a detailed description of the camp's workings during his interrogations after the war and also in his autobiography. He was hanged in [[1947]] in front of the entrance to the [[crematorium]] of Auschwitz I. Chief of the women's field was handled by [[Johanna Langefeld]], [[Maria Mandel]] and last by [[Elisabeth Volkenrath]].
About 700 prisoners attempted to escape from the Auschwitz camps during the years of their operation, with about 300 attempts successful. A common punishment for escape attempts was death by starvation; the families of successful escapees were sometimes arrested and interned in Auschwitz and prominently displayed to deter others.
== The camp ==
=== Auschwitz I ===
[[Image:Auschwitz gate brama 1940s.jpg|thumb|180px|Entrance to Auschwitz in 1941. The slogan ''[[Arbeit macht frei]]'' over the gate translates as "Work (shall) make (you) free" (or "work liberates")]]
[[image:auschwitz I.jpg|right|thumb|180px|Auschwitz I concentration camp in 2001]]
[[Image:Auschwitz-2.jpg|thumb|180px|View of Auschwitz in the winter(2002)]]
Auschwitz I served as the administrative center for the whole complex. It was founded on [[May 20]], [[1940]], on the basis of an old Polish brick army barracks. A group of 728 [[Poland|Polish]] political prisoners from [[Tarnów]] became the first residents of Auschwitz on [[June 14]]th that year. The camp was initially used for interning Polish intellectuals and resistance movement members, then also for Soviet Prisoners of War. Common German criminals, "anti-social elements" and 48 German [[homosexuality|homosexuals]] were also imprisoned there. [[Jew]]s were sent to the camp as well, beginning with the very first shipment (from Tarnów). At any time, the camp held between 13,000 and 16,000 inmates; in 1942 the number reached 20,000.
The entrance to Auschwitz I was (and still is) marked with the cynical sign "[[Arbeit macht frei]]", "Work (shall) make (you) free" (or "work liberates"). The camp's prisoners who left the camp during the day for construction or farm labour were made to march through the gate at the sounds of an orchestra. Contrary to what is depicted in several films, the majority of the Jews were imprisoned in the Auschwitz II camp, and did not pass under this sign.
The SS selected some prisoners, often German criminals, as specially privileged supervisors of the other inmates (so-called: ''kapo''). The various classes of prisoners were distinguishable by special marks on their clothes; Jews were generally treated the worst. All inmates had to work; except in the associated arms factories, Sundays were reserved for cleaning and showering and there were no work assignments.
The harsh work requirements, combined with poor nutrition and hygiene, led to high death rates among the prisoners.
Block 11 of Auschwitz I was the "prison within the prison", where violations of the numerous rules were punished. Some prisoners had to spend several days in tiny cells too small to sit down. Others were executed by shooting, hanging or starving.
[[image:Auschwitz I Entrance.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Entrance of Auschwitz I]]
In September 1941, the SS conducted poison gas tests in block 11, killing 850 Poles and Russians using [[Hydrogen cyanide|cyanide]]. The first experiment was on 3 September, 1941, and it killed 600 [[Soviet]] POWs. The substance producing the highly-lethal cyanide gas was sold under the trade name [[Zyklon B]], originally for use as a [[pesticide]] used to kill lice. The tests deemed successful, a gas chamber and crematorium were constructed by converting a bunker. This gas chamber operated from 1941 to 1942 and was then converted into an air-raid shelter.
The first women arrived in the camp on [[March 26]], 1942. From April 1943 to May 1944, the gynecologist Prof. Dr. [[Carl Clauberg]] conducted sterilization experiments on Jewish women in block 10 of Auschwitz I, with the aim of developing a simple injection method to be used on the Slavic people. Dr. [[Josef Mengele]] experimented on twins in the same complex. Prisoners in the camp hospital who were not quick to recover were regularly killed by a [[lethal injection]] of [[phenol]].
The camp brothel, established in the summer of 1943 on [[Heinrich Himmler|Himmler]]'s order, was located in block 29 and was used to reward privileged prisoners. It was staffed by women specifically selected for the purpose, and by some volunteers from the female prisoners most of whom were raped by the Nazis.
=== Auschwitz II (Birkenau) ===
[[Image:AuschwitzCampEntrance.jpg|thumb|200px|Entrance to Auschwitz II (Birkenau), the main extermination camp, in 2002]]
[[image:Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Selection at the Birkenau ramp, 1944 &mdash; Birkenau main entrance visible in the background]]
[[image:birkenau.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Birkenau concentration camp in 2001]]
Auschwitz II (Birkenau) is the camp that many people know simply as "Auschwitz". It was the site of the imprisonment of hundreds of thousands, and the killings of over one million people, mainly [[Jew]]s.
The camp is located in [[Brzezinka]] (Birkenau), about 3 kilometres (1.8 mi) from Auschwitz I. The camp was designed, according to the [[Bauhaus]] concept of [[Functionalism (architecture)|functionalism]] and construction started in 1941, as part of the ''[[Final Solution]]'' (''Endlösung''). The camp was about 2.5 kilometres by 2 kilometres (1&frac12;&nbsp;mi by 1&frac14;&nbsp;mi) large and was divided into several sections, each of which was separated into fields. Fields as well as the camp itself were surrounded with barbed, electrified wire (which was used by some of the inmates to commit suicide). The camp |
egateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2026:1;&version=49; 26:1] || March/April 587/586
|-
| Judgment on [[Egypt]] || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2029:1;&version=49; 29:1] || January 587
|-
| Judgment on [[Egypt]] || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2029:17;&version=49; 29:17] || April 571
|-
| Judgment on [[Egypt]] || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2030:20;&version=49; 30:20] || April 587
|-
| Judgment on [[Egypt]] || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2031:1;&version=49; 31:1] || June 587
|-
| Lament over [[Pharaoh]] || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2032:1;&version=49; 32:1] || March 585
|-
| Lament over [[Egypt]] || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2032:17;&version=49; 32:17] || April 586
|-
| Fall of [[Jerusalem]] || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2033:21;&version=49; 33:21] || December/January 586/85
|-
| New Temple Vision || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2040:1;&version=49; 40:1] || April 573
|}
== Ezekiel's hearers ==
The ''Book of Ezekiel'' was written for the Israelites living in exile in [[Babylon]]. Up to now their custom was to [[worship]] their [[God]], in the temple in [[Jerusalem]]. Exile raised important theological questions. How they asked, could they worship Yahweh when they were now in a distant land. Was their God still available to them they asked. Ezekiel speaks to this problem. He first explains that their exile is a punishment for disobedience and he offers hope to the exiles once they return to Yahweh. The Book of Ezekiel is a message of hope to those desperately in need.
The author points to a day when Judah and Israel would once more be restored to their land. Borrowing heavily from earlier [[Prophet|prophets]] and books, [[Ezekiel]] sought to comfort the people with the knowledge of a neverending covenant with Yahweh. He preached to them a new understanding in their time of exile. He shows them that God was still in control of the situation. [[Ezekiel]] used his own life and his relationship with God as an example.
== Content ==
''Ezekiel'' contains three distinct sections.
# Judgment on Israel - Ezekiel makes a series of denunciations against his fellow Judeans ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%203:22-24;&version=49; 3:22-24]), warning them of the certain destruction of [[Jerusalem]], in opposition to the words of the false prophets ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%204:1-3;&version=49; 4:1-3]). The symbolic acts, by which the extremities to which Jerusalem would be reduced are described in [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%204-5;&version=49; Chapters 4 and 5], show his intimate acquaintance with the Levitical legislation. (See, for example, [[Exodus]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus%2022:30;&version=49; 22:30]; [[Deuteronomy]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deut%2014:21;&version=49; 14:21]; [[Leviticus]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Lev%205:2;&version=49; 5:2]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Lev%207:18,24;&version=49; 7:18,24]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Lev%2017:15;&version=49; 17:15]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Lev%2019:7;&version=49; 19:7]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Lev%2022:8;&version=49; 22:8])
# Prophecies against various neighboring nations: against the [[Ammon]]ites ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2025:1-7;&version=49; Ezek. 25:1-7]), the [[Moab]]ites ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%208-11;&version=49; 25:8-11]), the [[Edom]]ites ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2012-14;&version=49; 25:12-14]), the [[Philistines]] ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2015-17;&version=49; 25:15-17]), [[Tyre]] and [[Sidon]] ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2026-28;&version=49; 26-28]), and against [[Egypt]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2029-32;&version=49; 29-32]).
# Prophecies delivered after the destruction of Jerusalem by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]]: the triumphs of Israel and of the kingdom of God on earth ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2033-39;&version=49; Ezek. 33-39] ); Messianic times, and the establishment and prosperity of the kingdom of God ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2040;48;&version=49; 40-48]).
Ezekiel did much of his prophecizing through his actions. Instead of preaching to the people an oral message God instructed him to live out his message in various ways. His actions were interpreted as having unique and specific meanings. For example, he does various things like sketches Jerusalem on a brick ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%204:1-3;&version=49; Ezek. 4:1-3]), Lies on left side for 390 days and right side for 40 ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%204:4-8;&version=49; Ezekiel 4:4-8] ), Shaves his head with a sword, weighs and divides the hair, burning a portion of it, smiting a second portion with a sword and scattering the third portion to the winds ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%205:1-12;&version=49; Ezek. 5:1-12]), Digs his way through a wall and takes an exile's baggage with him ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2012:1-12;&version=49; Ezek. 12:1-12]), Marks out a route for the Babylonian army with a crossroads that forces the king to cast lots to decide which road to take ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2012:18-23;&version=49; Ezek. 21:18-23]), and loses his wife in death ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2025:15-24;&version=49; Ezek. 25:15-24]).
The closing visions of this book are referred to in the book of [[Revelation]]
([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2038;&version=49; Ezek. 38] =
[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Rev%2020:8;&version=49; Rev. 20:8];
[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2047:1-8;&version=49; Ezek. 47:1-8] =
[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Rev%2022:1-2;&version=49; Rev. 22:1,2]).
Other references to this book are also found in the [[New Testament]].
(Compare Epistle to the [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Rom%202:24;Ezek%2036:22;&version=49; Romans 2:24 with Ezek. 36:22]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Rom%2010:5;Gal%203:12;Ezek%2020:11;&version=49; Rom. 10:5, Galatians 3:12 with Ezek. 20:11]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Peter%203:4;Ezek%2012:22;&version=49; 2 Peter 3:4 with Ezek. 12:22].)
According to traditionalists, [[Daniel]], fourteen years after his deportation from Jerusalem, is mentioned by Ezekiel (14:14) along with [[Noah]] and [[Job (person)|Job]] as distinguished for his righteousness, and some five years later he is spoken of as pre-eminent for his wisdom (28:3). However, a "Daniel" also appears in ancient Ugaritic texts, Daniel isn't specifically described as a contemporary (indeed, the phrase "Noah, Daniel and Job" implies otherwise), and the [[Book of Daniel]] is widely regarded by modern scholars as having been written centuries later.
Ezekiel refers to the [[Pentateuch]] (e.g., Ezek. 27; 28:13; 31:8; 36:11, 34; 47:13, etc.) quite often, and shows on a number of occasions that he is familiar with the writings of [[Hosea]] (Ezek. 37:22), [[Isaiah]] (Ezek. 8:12; 29:6), and especially with those of [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]], his older contemporary ([[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 24:7, 9; 48:37).
==Translations and commentaries on the book of Ezekiel==
===On-line translations and commentaries===
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=16098 Yechezkiel - Ezekiel] from Chabad.org
*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel;&version=49; ''Ezekiel'' at BibleGateway.com] (Various translations)
==References==
* ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'', 1897.
* LaSor, William Sanford et al. ''Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
* Allen, Leslie C. ''Word Biblical Commentary Volume 28: Ezekiel 1-20''. Word Books Publisher: Dallas TX, 1990
* Allen, Leslie C. ''Word Biblical Commentary Volume 29: Ezekiel 20-48''. Word Books Publisher: Dallas TX, 1990
==External links==
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=563&letter=E&search=Ezekiel ''Jewish Encyclopedia'']: ''Book of Ezekiel''
* [http://www.kabbalah.info/engkab/shamati_eng/index_shamati_eng.htm ''Shamati''] a book by [[Yehuda Ashlag|Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag]]
*[http://www.sentex.net/~tcc/fezek.html Douglas E. Cox "Ezekiel's firmament" 1996]
[[Category:Nevi'im|Ezekiel]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Ezekiel]]
[[Category:Tanakh prophets|Ezekiel]]
[[cs:Kniha Ezechiel]]
[[de:Ezechiel]]
[[fr:Livre d'Ézéchiel]]
[[ko:에제키엘 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Yehezkiel]]
[[he:ספר יחזקאל]]
[[jv:Yehezkiel]]
[[nl:Ezechiël]]
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[[ja:エゼキエル書]]
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[[fi:Hesekielin kirja]]
[[sv:Hesekiel]]
[[zh:以西結書]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Big Brother (TV series)</title>
<id>4391</id>
<revision>
<id>41604667</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T13:13:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.32.190.2</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Deleted as there has been other couples in BB.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Big Brother''''' is a popular [[reality television]] format, where, over 15 weeks or so, a number of contestants (typically 12) try to avoid periodic publicly-voted evictions f |
179659</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.65.175.31|84.65.175.31]] to last version by 4.226.78.13</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{this article is about|a video game. For other uses, see [[Grand theft auto]]}}
{{Infobox CVG| title = Grand Theft Auto
|image = [[Image:GTA - Box Front.jpg|250px|''Grand Theft Auto'' UK box art, PC version]]
|developer = [[Rockstar North|DMA Design]]
|publisher = [[ASC Games]]
|designer =
|engine =
|released = [[Personal computer|PC]] and [[PlayStation]] [[1998]]/[[1999]]<br/> [[Game Boy Color]] [[1999]]/[[2000]]
|genre = [[Action game|Action]]
|modes = [[Single player]], [[multiplayer]]
|ratings = [[BBFC]]: 18 <br/> [[ESRB]]: Mature (M) <br/> [[ESRB]]: Teen (T) (Game Boy Color version)
|platforms = [[Personal computer|PC]], [[PlayStation]], [[Game Boy Color|GBC]]
|media =
|requirements =
|input =
}}
'''''Grand Theft Auto''''' ('''''GTA''''') is a [[computer and video game]] created by [[DMA Design]] (now [[Rockstar North]]) and published by [[ASC Games]] in [[1998]]. It is part of a series that includes seven standalone games, and one expansion pack for the original. ''See [[Grand Theft Auto (series)]] for more on the series and other games in it.''
The game allows the player to take on the role of a criminal who can roam around the city freely. Various missions are set for completion, such as bank robberies, assassinations, and other crimes.
==Gameplay==
The original ''Grand Theft Auto'' is made up of a series of [[level (computer and video games)|level]]s each set in one of the three [[city|cities]] in the game. In each level, the player has a target number of [[point]]s to achieve, and five [[life|lives]] to attain the score.
The score counter doubles as a money meter; the player can spend this money on paint jobs and various other things. However, any money spent is of course taken away from the score, making the goal that little bit further away.
On obtaining the target number of points, the player must then drive to a certain location to complete the level, which allows progress to the next one.
Apart from that, the player is free to do whatever he wants. The player can just explore the city, cause death and destruction amid the traffic in the city, or steal and sell cars for profit, although completing a level will almost certainly require the completion of missions. Even in missions there is still some freedom, as usually the player is free to choose the route to take, although the destination is usually fixed. This level of freedom is not found in most action-based computer games.
===Earning points===
There are various ways in which to earn the points needed to complete each level.
Some points can be earned by committing various crimes, such as ramming cars (10 points each), and killing policemen (1000 each). The more serious the crime, the more points, but also the more the police will pay attention to the player. Another way to make money is to steal cars, and sell them at the many docks around each city, usually earning several thousand points.
These activities can give the player quite a number of points but they are not sufficient to earn the millions of points needed to complete each level (unless the player has a lot of patience), so it is necessary to take on missions to complete a level. On successful completion of a mission, the player gets 'paid', a large amount of points. A typical payment is in the region of 50,000 points.
Also after completing a mission, the score multiplier is increased by 1. The score multiplier is multiplied by the normal score for something, to get the points actually awarded. For example a multiplier of 3 will mean that the player gets 3 &times; 10 = 30 points for ramming a car, rather than the normal 10 points. This applies for anything points are awarded for, including the payment for completing a mission.
In the Game Boy port, score multipliers are handled differently. The player can collect floating "X"es hidden in each city, that automatically add a multiplier to his score counter. The first time one is picked up it says "&times;2", the second time it says "&times;3", and so on. This only affects points gained after acquiring the multiplier. The points the player already has are unaffected, so it is in the player's best interests to seek the "X"es as soon as possible.
=== Locations ===
[[Image:GTA1 PC in-game screenshot.png|250px|thumb|right|Screenshot of ''Grand Theft Auto'' showing the top down view in Liberty City]]
The three cities in which the game is set are modelled after real cities, in terms of landscape and style. They are [[Liberty City (fictional)|Liberty City]] ([[New York City]]), [[San Andreas (Grand Theft Auto)|San Andreas]] ([[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]), and [[Vice City]] ([[Miami, Florida|Miami]]).
Those three cities later became the settings for the games ''[[Grand Theft Auto III]]'', ''[[Grand Theft Auto: Vice City]]'', ''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]'' and ''[[Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories]]'', although in the second-to-last, San Andreas is expanded from a city to an American state, which contains three cities of its own: Los Santos (based on [[Los Angeles]]), San Fierro (based on [[San Francisco]]), and Las Venturas (based on [[Las Vegas]]).
===The missions===
In most cases, missions are started by answering [[telephone]]s, although some missions are allocated on the spot, or are triggered by entering certain vehicles. Once a phone is touched, the player is stuck doing that mission until he passes or fails it, but with the cars it is different. The player is told "I've got a new job for you, if you want it. Otherwise get the hell out of my car." He then has a few seconds to jump out before that mission begins.
The payphones all stop ringing while a player is on a phone mission, but the mission cars are still available. By accepting a mission car mission the player can override a phone mission (failing it but without a failure notice) and do that mission instead, but a phone mission cannot override a car mission as the phones stop ringing.
At the start of each mission, the player will be given a series of instructions he must follow. The instructions are given in stages, so the objectives can change in a given situation.
Many of the missions involve tasks that can be completed at the player's own pace, so the player can take a leisurely pace, and observe the traffic laws, although there is always a temptation to cut corners. However, sometimes the game imposes time limits on mission completion, or there may be people giving chase, such as enemy [[gangster]]s, or the [[police]], forcing the player to cut corners, to get to the destination on time and/or evade the pursuers. This means running red lights, driving on the sidewalk (risking running over pedestrians), and finding shortcuts.
===The police===
Whilst the cities have other [[emergency services]], as a criminal you are more likely to notice the local cops.
The [[police]] are constantly on the lookout for criminals. The player has a 'wanted' level, which reflects how much attention the police give him. At the start of the game this is at zero and the player is ignored, but when the player commits a serious crime, the police give the player more attention, and the wanted level increases, up to a maximum of four.
At wanted level one, the police tend only to give chase if they are in the area anyway, whereas at four, the police set up roadblocks on major roads, shoot on sight, and send everyone available to the player's location. The more crimes the player commits, the higher the rating goes. Also, sometimes the player automatically gets noticed, if a mission leads to someone calling the police, or in the case of bank robberies that not surprisingly put the police on full alert.
The police's aim is in general to arrest the player, although they will not hesistate in shooting at him or trying to ram him off the road in the desperate attempt to stop the player, and they get more trigger happy the higher the wanted level. On arrest, the player is dropped off at the nearest police station, losing all his weapons and armour and half of his score multiplier, but the wanted level is reset back to zero.
The police are very determined to catch the player, but they can be evaded. Dotted around each city are a number of respray shops, where your vehicle can be resprayed, or have the [[license plate]]s changed, to disguise it. This makes the police think you are someone else, even if they see you enter the shop, although this does cost money (i.e. points). The higher a player's wanted level, the more points it costs him to to have his car re-sprayed or plates changed.
===Pickups===
In the game, there are a number of objects to pickup, that are contained in crates, and in fact this is where all the player's weapons are obtained.
====Weapons====
The '''[[Pistol]]''' is a rather uninspiring weapon, but it is the most readily available. It fires shots one at a time, and whilst it is good enough against individuals, is not very useful in destroying vehicles.
A '''[[Machine gun]]''' is quite a step up from the pistol, allowing rapid firing, and can destroy most cars in seconds. The availability of machine guns is more limited than pistols.
The '''[[Flamethrower]]''' is very destructive, and highly effective, but it only has a short range. If it is used to destroy cars, this short range means that there is more risk of being caught in the explosion. The advantage of the flamethrower is a tripling of the points that would normally be awarded for killing people and destroying cars. With the flamethrower you are able to fire over car wrecks, so you can use a car wreck as a shield against bullets.
The '''[[Rocket launcher]]''' is one of the most destructive weap |
features required for [[VITA]] 1.1-1997(R2002) which is the VME64 Extensions standard as well as [[PICMG]] 2.0 (R3.0) which is the [[CompactPCI]] specification.
The IEEE 1101.11 standard covers rear plug-in units that are also called [[rear transition module]]s or RTMs.
The Eurocard is a mechanical system and does not define the specific connector to be used or the signals that are assigned to connector contacts.
The connector systems that are commonly used with Eurocard architectures include the original [[DIN 41612]] connector that is also standardized as IEC 60603.2. This is the connector that is used for the VMEbus standard which was IEEE 1014. The connector known as the 5-row DIN which is used for the VME64 Extensions standard is IEC 61076-4-113. The VME64 Extension architecture defined by VITA 1.1-1997 (R2002).
Another popular computer architecture that utilizes the 6U-160 Eurocard is CompactPCI and [[CompactPCI Express]]. These are defined by PICMG 2.0R3 and PICMG Exp0 R1 respectively. Other computer architectures that utilize the Eurocard system are [[VXI]], [[PXI]], and [[PXI Express]].
A computer architecture that used the 6U-220 Eurocard format was [[Multibus-II]] which was IEEE 1296.
Because the Eurocard system provided for so many modular card sizes and because connector manufacturers have continued to create new connectors which are compatible with this system, it is a popular mechanical standard which is also used for innumerable "one-off" applications.
Conduction-cooled Eurocards are used in military and aerospace applications. They are defined by the IEEE 1101.2-1992(2001) standard.
[[Category:Electronics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>England/City</title>
<id>9885</id>
<revision>
<id>15907742</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-08T08:33:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jdforrester</username>
<id>8776</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Altered to #REDIRECT[[City status in the United Kingdom]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[City status in the United Kingdom]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>England/County</title>
<id>9886</id>
<revision>
<id>15907743</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-06T05:12:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mic</username>
<id>6273</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguating Counties of England</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Counties of England]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>England/FoodAndDrink</title>
<id>9887</id>
<revision>
<id>15907744</id>
<timestamp>2004-02-20T18:39:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RedWolf</username>
<id>27822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix dr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British cuisine]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>England/Food and Drink</title>
<id>9888</id>
<revision>
<id>15907745</id>
<timestamp>2003-08-18T01:27:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Delirium</username>
<id>6827</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British cuisine]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electron counting</title>
<id>9890</id>
<revision>
<id>41832510</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:03:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>YanA</username>
<id>40074</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Electron counting''' in the [[inorganic chemistry]] and [[organometallic chemistry]] of [[transition metal]]s, is a formalism used for characterizing a compound and for understanding its electronic structure and [[bond]]ing. The [[valence shell]]s of a transition metal are filled when they contain 18 [[electron]]s: 2 each in the 5 ''d'' orbitals, or 10 total; 2 each in the 3 ''p'' orbitals, or 6 total; and finally 2 in the single valence shell ''s'' orbital. The electrons contributed by the metal atom or [[ion]] are summed with the electrons contributed by each [[ligand]] (i.e. those valence electrons of each ligand participating in some way in a bonding interaction with the metal, and not otherwise occupied only in intraligand bonding or in [[lone pair]]s not interacting with the metal center). A compound or ion which satisfies this '''18 electron rule''' is considered to be qualitatively more stable than other configurations or electronic states of the molecule. The "18 electron rule" applies mostly to organometallic complexes, compounds in which there are metal-carbon bonds, such as [[ferrocene]], [[iron pentacarbonyl]], [[chromium carbonyl]] and [[nickel carbonyl]]. Coordination compounds without metal-carbon bonds don't usually obey the "18 electron rule."
Other electron counting rules are the [[octet rule]] for [[carbon]], [[oxygen]] and [[halogen]] compounds and the [[polyhedral skeletal electron pair theory]] or Wade's rule for [[polyhedral]] [[boron]] compounds such as [[borane]]s and [[carborane]]s.
== Counting rules for ligands ==
Add one for every [[halide]] or other anionic ligand which binds to the metal through a sigma bond.
Add two for every lone pair bonding to the metal (e.g. each phosphine ligand can bind with a lone pair)
[[Nitrosyl]] ligands can either donate one or three electrons to a metal centre.
For unsaturated ligands such as alkenes, count the number of carbon atoms binding to the metal. Each carbon atom provides one electron. Some examples:
{| border="1" cellspacing="0"
|-
! Ligand !! Electrons contributed
|-
| [[Ethylene]] || 2
|-
| [[Allyl]] || 3
|-
| [[Butadiene]] || 4
|-
| [[Cyclopentadienyl]] || 5
|-
| [[Benzene]] || 6
|}
== Examples of the 18 VE rule ==
There are two different approaches one can use when counting electrons, each arriving at the same total. The constituents (i.e. metal and ligands) can be regarded as ions, or as neutral species.
Using [[ferrocene]] as an example, and using the neutral approach first, the [[iron]] atom has 8 valence electrons. Each of the two [[cyclopentadiene]] [[radical]]s contributes 5 electrons, totalling 10 electrons from the ligands.
:'''10+8=18'''
Using the ionic approach, iron is taken in its common [[oxidation state]] Fe<sup>2+</sup>, contributing only 6 valence electrons. However, the [[cyclopentadiene]] moieties are counted as aromatic cyclopentadiene [[anion]]s, contributing 6 electrons each as well.
:'''6+6+6=18'''
The utility of electron counting becomes more apparent when one considers what chemical transformations or derivatives might be readily accessible. For example, what [[piano stool compound]] might one be able to create by formally removing one of the cyclopentadienyl ligands from ferrocene and replacing it with some number of [[carbon monoxide]] ligands?
Using the ionic approach, removing one cyclopentadienyl anion yields a [[cationic]] fragment containing one cyclopentadienyl (Cp) fragment and 12 valence shell electrons. Since each carbon monoxide ligand contributes 2
electrons (3 CO ligands give the requisite 6 electrons), it should be possible to create an iron-containing complex cation containing one cyclopentadienyl group, one iron atom, and 3 carbon monoxide ligands:
:CpFe(CO)<sub>3</sub><sup>+</sup>
What one finds is that the iron complex satisfies the 18 electron count another way, by forming a dimer with an Fe-Fe bond. Counting electrons for just one iron center can be done by considering the other iron as contributing 1 electron to the count:
:[CpFe(CO)<sub>2</sub>]<sub>2</sub>
:'''Cp 5''' + '''Fe 8''' + '''CO 4''' + '''Fe 1''' = '''18'''
== Weaknesses of the 18 VE rule ==
Many examples of 16 valence electron compounds exist, for instance [[Vaska's compound]] which was first made by [[Lauri Vaska]] is [IrCl(CO)(PPh<sub>3<sub>)<sub>2<sub>] which has
:'''9+1+2+(2x2)=16 VE'''
Many square plannar d<sup>8</sup> compounds of groups 8, 9 and 10 are 16 VE compounds.
The 18 VE rule applies best to complexes where the metal is in a low oxidation state, and the metal has ligands which have strong ligand fields (e.g. [[alkyl|alkyls]], [[hydrides]] and [[carbonyl|carbonyls]]).
Also for the early transition metals it is the sometimes the case that it is not possible to pack the required number of ligands around a metal centre to attain a 18 VE complex. For instance imagine Ti(CO)<sub>7<sub> or ZrMe<sub>2<sub>(CO)<sub>6<sub>, such compounds are impossible because it not possible to pack the required number of ligands round the metal.
Furthermore, for metals in high oxidation states with weaker field ligands, the rule breaks down. Here the [[Crystal field theory|crystal field]] (or more correctly [[Ligand field theory|ligand field]]) energy effects are more able to influence the structure of the complexes. For instance the hexaaqua cobalt(II) ion is an octahedral complex where the cobalt has
:'''9+(6x2)-2=19 VE'''
While tetrachlorocobalt(II) [CoCl<sub>4</sub>]<sup>2-</sup> has
:'''9+(4x1)+2=15 VE'''
[[Category:Inorganic chemistry]]
[[Category:organometallic chemistry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Entropy</title>
<id>9891</id>
<revision>
<id>42113303</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:30:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.118.191.118</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other senses of the term, see [[entropy (disambiguation)]].''
The '''Thermodynamic entropy''' '''''S''''', often simply called the '''entropy''' in the context of [[thermodynamics]], is a measure of the amount of energy in a physical |
d 3.png|thumb|Watershed of the River Weser]]
'''Bremerhaven''' is a city in the federal state of [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]], [[Germany]]. It is located at the eastern bank of the [[Weser]] river mouth, opposite the town of [[Nordenham]].
==History==
The town was founded in [[1827]], but there were settlements there as early as the [[12th century]]. These tiny villages were built on small islands in the swampy estuary. There were early plans to found a fortified town at the place in order to protect the ships leaving or entering the Weser, and in [[1672]] Swedish colonists tried unsuccessfully to erect a castle (Carlsburg) there.
Finally, in 1827 the city of [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]] bought the territories at the Weser mouth from the kingdom of [[Hanover (state)|Hanover]]. Bremerhaven was born and became a second harbour to Bremen, despite the distance of 50 km between the places. Due to the trade with and the emigration to North America the port and the town grew fast.
The kingdom of Hanover founded a rival town directly beside Bremerhaven and called it '''Geestemünde''' ([[1845]]). Both towns grew and established the three pillars of trade, shipbuilding and fishing. In [[1927]] Geestemünde and some neighbouring municipalities were united to become the new city of '''Wesermünde''', and in [[1939]] Wesermünde and Bremerhaven were merged. Most of the town was destroyed in [[World War II]]; however the most vital parts of the port escaped the war undamaged. In [[1947]] the city became part of the [[Bremen (state)|Bundesland Bremen]]. Today Bremerhaven is therefore, confusingly, part of the ''state'' of Bremen but is a city in its own right, distinct from the ''city'' of Bremen. Adding to the confusion is the fact that the overseas port is not part of the city Bremerhaven but under the direct jurisdiction of the city of Bremen.
==Twin cities==
Bremerhaven's [[Town twinning|twin cities]] include:
{|
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Cherbourg]] ([[France]]), since June 1960
* {{flagicon|UK}} - [[Grimsby]] ([[United Kingdom]]), since February 1963
* {{flagicon|Finland}} - [[Pori]] ([[Finland]]), since May 1969
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|Denmark}} - [[Frederikshavn]] ([[Denmark]]), since June 1979
* {{flagicon|Poland}} - [[Szczecin]] ([[Poland]]), since October 1990
* {{flagicon|Russia}} - [[Kaliningrad]] ([[Russia]]), since April 1992
|}
The three roads connecting the city of Bremerhaven to the [[Bundesautobahn 27|Autobahn 27]] consequently are named after the original three twin cities:
* Cherbourger Straße (AS Bremerhaven-Überseehafen)
* [[Bundesstraße 212|Grimsbystraße]] (AS Bremerhaven-Mitte)
* Poristraße (AS Bremerhaven-Geestemünde)
==Tourist attractions==
[[Image:Blick vom Radarfunkturm2.JPG|thumb|left|View from Radar Tower]]
[[Image:Bremerhaven.JPG|thumb|Columbus Center and the "Seute Deern"]]
[[Image:U boat wilhelm bauer.JPG|thumb|The Wilhelm Bauer at the German Maritime Museum]]
Bremerhaven has only a few historical buildings, and the high street and city centre are almost exclusively post-war. The main attractions for tourists are the [[German Emigration Center]] (since August 8, 2005) and the [[German Maritime Museum]] (''Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum'') in a historical harbour with many [[museum ship]]s such as the [[Type XXI U-boat|Type XXI]] [[U-boat]] [[Wilhelm Bauer (U-boat)|Wilhelm Bauer]], the ''Seute Deern'' (a three-masted sailing vessel), and other interesting ships. At the world-famous [[Lloyd]] wharf, great cruiseliners are built or repaired. As of March 2004, the ''[[SS Norway|Norway]]'' is being overhauled in the port and the ''Oriana'' and the ''[[RMS Queen Elizabeth 2|QE2]]'' are expected. The ''Pride of America'' (80,000 tons) is under construction. The fishing port also houses an aquarium (the Atlanticum). The [[zoo]] reopened on [[27 March]] [[2004]], after a lengthy rehabilitation. It features [[Arctic]] wildlife, both terrestrial and marine. Attractions include the ''Klimahaus,'' simulating travel adventure along the 8th [[latitude|Parallel]].
Many tourists watch the many ships in the busy port. Every five years [[Sail Bremerhaven]] is held, a large marine manifestation that attracts [[tall ship]]s from all over the world. The last time it was held was in [[2005]], to coincide with [[Sail Amsterdam]].
==Trade==
[[Image:Überseehafen3-Bremerhaven.JPG|thumb|Overseas Port of Bremerhaven]]
The port of Bremerhaven is the sixteenth largest container port in the world, with more than 3,500,000 containers shipped every year; the port is still growing fast. In addition, more than 1,350,000 cars are imported or exported every year via Bremerhaven.
The car in- and export of Bremerhaven is the second biggest in Europe after Rotterdam. This and the container business are both very important for the harbor and both are growing.
==Politics==
The Bremerhaven government is a coalition between the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democrats]] and the [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|Christian Democrats]].
==Sport==
Bremerhaven is home to the basketball team Eisbären Bremerhaven who play in the highest German [[Bundesliga (basketball)]].
== External links ==
{{commons|Bremerhaven}}
* [http://www.bremerhaven.de/ Official website of the city]
* [http://www.auswandererhaus.de/english/hauptseite.html Auswandererhaus]
* [http://www.dsm.de/edsm.htm Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum]
[[Category:Bremen]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Cities in Germany]]
[[de:Bremerhaven]]
[[es:Bremerhaven]]
[[fr:Bremerhaven]]
[[ko:브레머하펜]]
[[it:Bremerhaven]]
[[nl:Bremerhaven]]
[[ja:ブレーマーハーフェン]]
[[pl:Bremerhaven]]
[[pt:Bremerhaven]]
[[ru:Бремерхафен]]
[[fi:Bremerhaven]]
[[sv:Bremerhaven]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BMW</title>
<id>3772</id>
<revision>
<id>42050617</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:29:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>172.215.77.80</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Corrected misspelling of Nuremberg</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = Bayerische Motoren Werke AG |
company_logo = [[Image:BMW logo.png|140px|The BMW Company logo]] |
company_type = [[Public company|Public]] ([[Xetra (trading system)|Xetra]]: [http://deutsche-boerse.com/dbag/dispatch/en/isg/gdb_navigation/home?module=InOverview_Equi&wp=DE0005190003&foldertype=_Equi&wplist=DE0005190003&active=overview&wpbpl= BMW]) |
company_slogan = The Ultimate Driving Machine |
foundation = [[1913]] by Karl Friedrich Rapp|
location = [[Munich]], [[Germany]]|
key_people = Helmut Panke, Chairman of the Board of Management|
num_employees = 105,972 ([[2004]]) |
industry = [[Automobile|Automotive]]|
products = [[Automobile]]s<br />[[Motorcycle]]s|
revenue = [[image:green up.png]] [[Euro|€]]44.4 [[billion]] ([[2004]]) |
homepage = [http://www.bmw.com/ www.bmw.com]
}}
'''BMW [[Aktiengesellschaft|AG]]''' (an [[abbreviation]] of '''''Bayerische Motoren Werke AG''''', or in [[English language|English]], '''Bavarian Motor Works'''), is a [[List of German companies|German company]] and manufacturer of [[automobile]]s and [[BMW motorcycles|motorcycles]]. BMW is the world's largest premium carmaker and is the parent company of the [[BMW MINI]] and [[Rolls-Royce]] car brands, and, formerly, [[Rover (car)|Rover]].
In [[German language|German]], the [[acronym]] BMW is pronounced "bay emm vay." In [[North America]] and some other regions (i.e. [[Jamaica]]), BMW cars are referred to as "bimmers," {{ref|bostonbimmer}}while BMW motorcycles are called "beemers".
The company's taglines in English are "The Ultimate Driving Machine" and "Sheer Driving Pleasure." The original German slogan is "Freude am Fahren," which translates to "Joy in Driving" in [[English language|English]].
BMW's main competitors include [[Acura]], [[Audi]], [[Cadillac]], [[Infiniti]], [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar]], [[Lexus]], [[Mercedes-Benz]] and [[Volvo Cars|Volvo]].
==History==
[[image:BMW_building_munich.jpg|thumb|250px|[[BMW Headquarters]] in Munich, Germany.]]
===Pre-WWII===
BMW was founded by [[Karl Friedrich Rapp]] in October [[1913]], originally as an [[aircraft engine]] manufacturer, Bayerische Flugzeug-Werke. The [[Milbertshofen]] district of [[Munich]] location was chosen because it was close to the [[Gustav Otto]] [[Gustav Otto Flugmaschinenfabrik|Flugmaschinenfabrik]] site, a German [[aircraft]] manufacturer. The blue-and-white circular logo BMW still uses (illustrated above right) alludes to the blue and white checkered flag of [[Bavaria]] and also indicates the origin of BMW by symbolizing a spinning white propeller on a blue-sky background.
In [[1916]] the company secured a contract to build [[V12 engine|V12]] engines for [[Austria-Hungary]]. Needing extra financing, Rapp gained the support of [[Camillo Castiglioni]] and [[Max Friz]], the company was reconstituted as the Bayerische Motoren Werke [[Gmbh|GmbH]]. Over-expansion caused difficulties; Rapp left and the company was taken over by the Austrian industrialist [[Franz Josef Popp]] in [[1917]], and named BMW [[Aktiengesellschaft|AG]] in [[1918]].
After [[World War I]], the [[Treaty of Versailles]] ([[1919]]) prohibited the production of aircraft in Germany. [[Gustav Otto|Otto]] closed his factory and BMW switched to manufacturing [[Rail transport|railway]] [[brake]]s.
In [[1919]] BMW designed their first motorcycle engine to be used in a model called the Victoria which was built by a company in [[Nuremberg]].
In [[1923]] BMW built their first model motorcycle, the [[BMW R32|R32]]. This had a 500 cc air-cooled horizontally-opposed engine, a feature that would resonate among their various models for decades to come, albeit with displacement increases and newer technology.
In [[1927]] the tiny [[B |
</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dolny Śląsk Voivodship]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diamagnetism</title>
<id>8315</id>
<revision>
<id>41933445</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:49:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hede2000</username>
<id>284384</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+da:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Diamagnetic graphite levitation.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Levitating [[pyrolytic graphite]]]]
'''Diamagnetism''' is a form of [[magnetism]] which is only exhibited by a substance in the presence of an externally applied [[magnetic field]]. It is the result of changes in the orbital motion of electrons due to the application of an externally applied magnetic field. Applying a magnetic field creates a magnetic force on a moving electron in the form of
'''F''' = ''q'''''v''' × '''B'''. This force changes the centripetal force on the electron, causing it to either speed up or slow down in its orbital motion. This changed electron speed modifies the magnetic moment of the orbital in a direction against the external field.
Consider two electron orbitals; one rotating clockwise and the other counterclockwise. An external magnetic field into the page will make the centripetal force on an electron rotating clockwise increase, which increases its moment out of the page. That field would make the centripetal force on an electron rotating counterclockwise decrease, decreasing its moment into the board. Both changes oppose a magnetic field into the page. The induced magnetic moment is very small in most everyday materials. All materials show a diamagnetic response in an applied magnetic field; however for materials which show some other form of magnetism (such as [[ferromagnetism]] or [[paramagnetism]]), the diamagnetism is completely swamped. Substances which only, or mostly, display diamagnetic behaviour are termed diamagnetic materials, or diamagnets. Materials that are said to be diamagnetic are those which are usually considered by non-physicists as "non magnetic", and include [[water]], [[DNA]], most organic compounds such as oil and plastic, and many metals such as [[gold]] and [[bismuth]].
Diamagnets are repelled by magnetic fields. However, since diamagnetism is such a weak property its effects are not observable in every-day life. For example, the [[magnetic susceptibility]] of diamagnets such as water is χ = −9.05×10<sup>−6</sup>. The most strongly diamagnetic material is [[Bismuth]] χ = −166×10<sup>−6</sup>, although pyrolitic graphite may have a susceptibility of χ = −400×10<sup>−6</sup> in one plane. Nevertheless these values are orders of magnitudes smaller than the magnetism exhibited by paramagnets and ferromagnets. Superconductors may be considered to be perfect diamagnets (χ = −1), since they expel all field from their interior due to the [[Meissner effect]].
== History ==
Brugmans (in 1778) was the first person to observe that certain materials were repelled by magnetic fields. However, the term "''diamagnetism''" was coined by [[Michael Faraday]] in September 1845, when he realised that all materials in nature possessed some form of diamagnetic response to an applied magnetic field.
== Diamagnetic levitation ==
[[Image:Frog diamagnetic levitation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A live frog levitates inside a 32 mm diameter vertical bore of a [[Bitter solenoid]] in a magnetic field of about 16 [[tesla (unit)|teslas]] at the Nijmegen High Field Magnet Laboratory. [http://www.hfml.ru.nl/pics/Movies/frog.mpg Movie] ]]
A particularly fascinating phenomenon involving diamagnets is that they may be levitated in stable equilibrium in a magnetic field, with no power consumption. [[Earnshaw's theorem]] seems to preclude the possibility of static magnetic levitation. However, Earnshaw's theory only applies to objects with permanent moments '''m''', such as ferromagnets, whose magnetic energy is given by '''m'''&middot;'''B'''. Ferromagnets are attracted to field maxima, which do not exist in free space.
Diamagnetism is an induced form of magnetism, thus the magnetic moment is proportional to the applied field '''B'''. This means that the magnetic energy of diamagnets is proportional to '''B'''<sup>2</sup>, the intensity of the magnetic field. Diamagnets are also attracted to field minima, and there can be a minimum in '''B'''<sup>2</sup> in free space (in fact <math>\nabla^2 \mathbf{B}^2\geq 0</math>).
A thin slice of [[pyrolytic graphite]], which is an unusually strongly diamagnetic material, can be stably floated in a magnetic field, such as that from [[rare earth]] permanent magnets. This can be done with all components at room temperature, making a visually effective demonstration of diamagnetism.
The [[Radboud University Nijmegen]] has conducted experiments where they have successfully levitated water and a live frog, amongst other things. [http://www.hfml.sci.kun.nl/froglev.html]
Diamagnetic materials have a relative [[magnetic permeability]] that is less than 1, and a [[magnetic susceptibility]] that is less than 0.
== See also ==
* [[Antiferromagnetism]]
* [[Ferrimagnetism]]
* [[Ferromagnetism]]
* [[Magnetic levitation]]
* [[Paramagnetism]]
* [[Superdiamagnetism]]
{{magnetic states}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.hfml.science.ru.nl/froglev.html Videos of frogs and other diamagnets levitated in a strong magnetic field]
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<page>
<title>Diabetes</title>
<id>8316</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2005-05-04T01:05:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.230.89.17</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[Diabetes mellitus]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Duke of Marlborough</title>
<id>8317</id>
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<id>39201141</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T12:56:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
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<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] change "a" to "an".</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:MarlboroughCoatOfArms.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The coat of arms of the Dukes of Marlborough]]
The '''Dukedom of Marlborough''' (named after [[Marlborough]], pronounced "''Maul''bruh" - {{IPA |/&#712;m&#596;&#720;lb&#633;&#601;/}} in the [[international phonetic alphabet|IPA]]), is an hereditary title of British nobility in the [[Peerage]] of [[Peerage of England|England]]. The first holder of the title was [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough]] (1650&ndash;1722), the noted English general, and indeed an unqualified reference to ''the'' Duke of Marlborough in a historical text will almost certainly be a reference to him.
The Dukedom was created in 1702 by [[Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]]; John Churchill, whose wife was a favorite of the Queen, had earlier been made Earl of Marlborough by [[William III of England|King William III]]. Anne further honoured Churchill, after his leadership of the victories against the French of [[13 August]] [[1704]] near the village of Blenheim (German ''Blindheim'') on the [[Danube River]] ([[Battle of Blenheim]]), by granting him the royal manor of Woodstock, and building him a house at her own expense to be called Blenheim. It was commenced in [[1705]], and was completed in 1722, the year of his death. [[Blenheim Palace]] remains the Marlborough ducal seat.
The first Duke was also honored with [[Holy Roman Empire|Imperial]] titles: [[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Joseph I]] created him a [[Prince of the Holy Roman Empire]] in [[1704]], and in [[1705]], he was created Imperial Prince of [[Mindelheim]] (once the lordship of the noted soldier [[Georg von Frundsberg]]). However, he was obliged to surrender Mindelheim in [[1714]] by the [[Treaty of Utrecht]], which returned it to [[Bavaria]]. According to some sources, he received the principality of [[Mellenburg]] in exchange. Regardless, his Imperial titles passed to his daughters but not to their descendants, and so became extinct in [[1751]] on the death of his daughter [[Lady Mary Churchill]], Duchess of Montagu.
The Duke of Marlborough holds certain subsidiary titles: ''Marquess of Blandford'' (created 1702), ''[[Earl of Sunderland]]'' (1643), ''Earl of Marlborough'' (1689), ''Baron Spencer of Wormleighton'' (1603), ''Baron Churchill of Sandridge'' (1685) and ''Lord Churchill of Eyemouth'' (1682). (''Lord Churchill of Eyemouth'' is in the Scottish [[peerage]], while the rest are in the English peerage.) The title ''Marquess of Blandford'' is used as the [[courtesy title]] for the Duke's eldest son and heir. The Duke's eldest son's eldest son in turn can use the courtesy title ''Earl of Sunderland''.
The later Dukes of Marlborough are descended from the first duke, but not in the male line. Because the first duke had no sons, the title was allowed (by a special [[Act of Parliament]]) to pass to his eldest daughter in her own right. A younger daughter, [[Lady Anne Churchill]], married [[Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland]] (''c.'' 1674&ndash;1722), and from this marriage descend the modern Dukes of Marlborough. They therefore originally bore the [[surname]] ''Spencer''. However, George Spencer, the 5th Duke of Marlborough, obtained a [[Royal Licence]] to assume and bear the additional surname and arms of his famous ancestor, the 1st Duke of Marlborough, and thus became George Spencer-Churchill. This [[dou |
[[Lyceum]] and were either edited by or dedicated to Aristotle's son, [[Nicomachus]].
Aristotle believed that ethical knowledge is not ''certain'' knowledge, like [[metaphysics]] and [[epistemology]], but ''general knowledge''. Also, as it is a practical discipline rather than a [[theory|theoretical]] one, he thought that in order to become "good," one could not simply study what virtue ''is''; one must actually do virtuous deeds.
In order to do this, Aristotle had first to establish what was virtuous. He began by determining that everything was done with some goal in mind and that goal is 'good.' The ultimate goal he called the ''Highest Good''.
Aristotle contested that happiness could not be found only in pleasure or only in fame and honor. He finally finds happiness "by ascertaining the specific function of man." But what is this function that will bring happiness? To determine this, Aristotle analyzed the soul and found it to have three parts: the Nutritive Soul (plants, animals and humans), the Perceptive Soul (animals and humans) and the Rational Soul (humans only). Thus, a human's function is to do what makes it human, to be good at what sets it apart from everything else: the ability to reason or ''Nous''. A person that does this is the happiest because they are fulfilling their purpose or nature as found in the rational soul. Depending on how well they did this, Aristotle said people belonged to one of four categories: the Virtuous, the Continent, the Incontinent and the Vicious.
Aristotle believes that every ethical virtue is an intermediate condition between [[excess]] and [[deficiency]]. This does not mean Aristotle believed in moral relativism, however. He set certain emotions (e.g., hate, envy, jealousy, spite, etc.) and certain actions (e.g., adultery, theft, murder, etc.) as always wrong, regardless of the situation or the circumstances.
===Nicomachean ethics===
{{main|Nicomachean Ethics}}
In ''Nicomachean Ethics'', Aristotle focuses on the importance of continually [[behavior|behaving]] virtuously and developing [[virtue]] rather than committing specific good actions. This can be contrasted with [[Immanuel Kant|Kantian]] ethics, in which the primary focus is on individual action. ''Nicomachean Ethics'' emphasizes the importance of context to ethical behaviour &mdash; what might be right in one situation might be wrong in another. Aristotle believed that [[happiness]] is the end of life and that as long as a person is striving for [[Goodness and value theory|goodness]], good deeds will result from that struggle, making the person virtuous and therefore happy.
== Aristotle's critics ==
[[Image:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|left|[[Plato]] (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of ''[[Raphael Rooms|The School of Athens]]'', a fresco by [[Raphael]]. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, whilst Plato points up to the heavens showing his belief in the ultimate truth.]]
Aristotle has been criticised on several grounds.
* His analysis of procreation is frequently criticised on the grounds that it presupposes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive, lumpen female element; it is on these grounds that some feminist critics refer to Aristotle as a misogynist.
*At times, the objections that Aristotle raises against the arguments of his own teacher, [[Plato]], appear to rely on faulty interpretations of those arguments.
*Although Aristotle advised, against Plato, that knowledge of the world could only be obtained through experience, he frequently failed to take his own advice. Aristotle conducted projects of careful [[empirical]] investigation, but often drifted into [[Abstraction|abstract]] logical reasoning, with the result that his work was littered with conclusions that were not supported by empirical evidence: for example, his assertion that objects of different [[mass]] fall at different speeds under [[gravity]], which was later refuted by [[John Philoponus]] (credit is often given to [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], even though Philopinus lived centuries earlier).
*In the [[Middle Ages]], roughly from the [[12th century]] to the [[15th century]], the philosophy of Aristotle became firmly established [[dogma]]. Although Aristotle himself was far from dogmatic in his approach to philosophical inquiry, two aspects of his philosophy might have assisted its transformation into dogma. His works were wide-ranging and [[systematic]] so that they could give the impression that no significant matter had been left unsettled. He was also much less inclined to employ the [[skeptic]]al methods of his predecessors, Socrates and Plato.
*Some academics have suggested that Aristotle was unaware of much of the current science of his own time.
Aristotle was called not a great philosopher, but "The Philosopher" by [[Scholastic]] thinkers. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods.
== The loss of his works ==
Though we know that Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises ([[Cicero]] described his literary style as "a river of gold"), the originals have been lost in time. All that we have now are the literary notes for his pupils, which are often difficult to read (the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' is a good example). It is now believed that we have about one fifth of his original works.
Aristotle underestimated the importance of his written work for humanity. He thus never published his books, except from his dialogues. The story of the original manuscripts of his treatises is described by [[Strabo]] in his Geography and [[Plutarch]] in his "[[Parallel Lives]], Sulla": The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to [[Theophrastus]], from Theophrastus to [[Neleus of Scepsis]], from Neleus to his heirs. Their descendants sold them to [[Apellicon of Teos]]. When [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]] occupied Athens in [[86 BC]], he carried off the library of Appellicon to [[Rome]], where they were first published in [[60 BC]] from the grammarian [[Tyrranion of Amisus]] and then by philosopher [[Andronicus of Rhodes]].
== Bibliography ==
''Note: [[Bekker numbers]] are often used to uniquely identify passages of Aristotle. They are identified below where available.''
=== Major works ===
The extant works of Aristotle are broken down according to the five categories in the ''[[Corpus Aristotelicum]]''. Not all of these works are considered genuine, but differ with respect to their connection to Aristotle, his associates and his views. Some, such as the ''Athenaion Politeia'' or the fragments of other ''politeia'' are regarded by most scholars as products of Aristotle's "school" and compiled under his direction or supervision. Other works, such ''On Colours'' may have been products of Aristotle's successors at the Lyceum, e.g., [[Theophrastus]] and [[Straton]]. Still others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities in doctrine or content, such as the ''De Plantis,'' possibly by [[Nicolaus of Damascus]]. A final category, omitted here, includes medieval [[palmistries]], [[astrological]] and [[magical]] texts whose connection to Aristotle is purely fanciful and self-promotional. Those that are seriously disputed are marked with an asterisk.
==== Logical writings ====
* [[Organon]] (collected works on logic):
** (1a) [[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]] (or ''Categoriae'')
** (16a) [[On Interpretation]] (or ''De Interpretatione'')
** (24a) [[Prior Analytics]] (or ''Analytica Priora'')
** (71a) [[Posterior Analytics]] (or ''Analytica Posteriora'')
** (100b) [[Topics (Aristotle)|Topics]] (or ''Topica'')
** (164a) [[On Sophistical Refutations]] (or ''De Sophisticis Elenchis'')
==== Physical and scientific writings ====
* (184a) [[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]] (or ''Physica'')
* (268a) [[On the Heavens]] (or ''De Caelo'')
* (314a) [[On Generation and Corruption]] (or ''De Generatione et Corruptione'')
* (338a) [[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]] (or ''Meteorologica'')
* (391a) [[On the Cosmos]] (or ''De Mundo'', or ''On the Universe'') *
* (402a) [[On the Soul]] (or ''De Anima'')
* (436a) [[Little Physical Treatises]] (or ''Parva Naturalia''):
** [[On Sense and the Sensible]] (or ''De Sensu et Sensibilibus'')
** [[On Memory and Reminiscence]] (or ''De Memoria et Reminiscentia'')
** [[On Sleep and Sleeplessness]] (or ''De Somno et Vigilia'')
** [[On Dreams]] (or ''De Insomniis'') *
** [[On Prophesying by Dreams]] (or ''De Divinatione per Somnum'')
** [[On Longevity and Shortness of Life]] (or ''De Longitudine et Brevitate Vitae'')
** [[On Youth and Old Age]] (On Life and Death) (or ''De Juventute et Senectute'', ''De Vita et Morte'')
** [[On Breathing]] (or ''De Respiratione'')
* (481a) [[On Breath]] (or ''De Spiritu'') *
* (486a) [[History of Animals]] (or ''Historia Animalium'', or ''On the History of Animals'', or ''Description of Animals'')
* (639a) [[On the Parts of Animals]] (or ''De Partibus Animalium'')
* (698a) [[On the Gait of Animals]] (or ''De Motu Animalium'', or ''On the Movement of Animals'')
* (704a) [[On the Progression of Animals]] (or ''De Incessu Animalium'')
* (715a) [[On the Generation of Animals]] (or ''De Generatione Animalium'')
* (791a) [[On Colours]] (or ''De Coloribus'') *
* (800a) ''[[De audibilibus]]''
* (805a) [[Physiognomics]] (or ''Physiognomonica'') *
* [[On Plants]] (or ''De Plantis'') *
* (830a) [[On Marvellous Things Heard]] (or ''Mirabilibus Auscultationibus'', or ''On Things Heard'') *
* (847a) [[Mechanical Problems]] (or ''Mechanica'') *
* (859a) [[Problems (Aristotle)|Problems]] (or ''Problemata'') *
* (968a) [[On Indivisible Lines]] (or ''De Lineis I |
escope]] station at the [[Parkes Observatory]] in [[Australia]]. Despite some technical and weather difficulties, ghostly black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and were immediately broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth.
After describing the surface ("very fine grained... almost like a powder"), Armstrong stepped off ''Eagle'''s footpad and into history as the first human to set foot on another world. He reported that moving in the Moon's gravity, one-sixth of Earth's, was "perhaps even easier than the simulations."
In addition to fulfilling President [[John F. Kennedy]]'s mandate to land a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s, ''Apollo 11'' was an engineering test of the Apollo system; therefore, Armstrong snapped photos of the LM so engineers would be able to judge its post-landing condition. He then collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. He removed the TV camera from the MESA, made a panoramic sweep, and mounted it on a tripod 12 m (40 ft) from the LM. The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA.
[[Image:Apollo 11 plaque closeup on Moon.jpg|right|thumb|Photo of the actual plaque left on the moon (attached to the ladder of the LM Descent Stage).]]
Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backwards, but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into ''Eagle'''s shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, though the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow.
[[Image:Apollo 11 launch.jpg|thumb|left|180px|A visible shockwave formed as the [[Saturn V]] encountered Maximum Dynamic Pressure (Max Q) at about 1 minute 20 seconds into the flight (altitude 12.5 km, 4 km downrange, velocity 440m/s).]]
Together the astronauts planted the U.S. flag, then took a phone call from President [[Richard Nixon]].
The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits, the integrated thermal meteoroid garment.
They deployed the EASEP, which included a passive seismograph and a laser ranging retroreflector. Then Armstrong loped about 120 m (400 ft) from the LM to snap photos at the rim of East Crater while Aldrin collected two core tubes. He used the geological hammer to pound in the tubes - the only time the hammer was used on ''Apollo 11''. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documented sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 min.
[[image:as11-40-5886.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Neil Armstrong works at the LM in one of the few photos taken of him from the lunar surface. NASA photo as11-40-5886]]
During this period Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong that his metabolic rates were high and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. Rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, however, so Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension.
===Lunar ascent and return===
Aldrin entered ''Eagle'' first. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing more than 22 kg (48 lb) of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor. Armstrong then jumped to the ladder's third rung and climbed into the LM.
After transferring to LM [[life support]], the explorers lightened the ascent stage for return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, one [[Hasselblad]] camera, and other equipment. Then they lifted off in ''Eagle''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s ascent stage to rejoin CMP Michael Collins aboard ''Columbia'' in lunar orbit. ''Eagle'' was jettisoned and left in lunar orbit. Later NASA reports mentioned that ''Eagle''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s orbit had decayed resulting in it impacting in an "uncertain location" on the lunar surface.
After more than 2&frac12; hours on the lunar surface, they returned to Collins on board ''Columbia'', bringing 20.87 kilograms of lunar samples with them. The two Moon-walkers had left behind scientific instruments such as a [[retroreflector]] array used for the [[Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment]]. They also left an [[Flag of the United States|American flag]] and other mementos, including a [[lunar plaques|plaque]] (mounted on the LM Descent Stage ladder) bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and [[Richard Nixon]]. The inscription read:
:''Here Men From Planet Earth<br>First Set Foot Upon the Moon<br>July 1969 A.D.<br>We Came in Peace For All Mankind.''
The astronauts returned to earth on [[July 24]], welcomed as [[hero]]es. The splashdown point was {{coor dm|13|19|N|169|9|W|}}, 2,660 km (1,440 [[nautical mile|nm]]) east of [[Wake Island]], or 380 km (210 nm) south of [[Johnston Atoll]], and 24 km (15 [[statute mile|mi]]) from the recovery ship, [[USS Hornet (CV-12)|''USS Hornet'']].
The command module is displayed at the [[National Air and Space Museum]], [[Washington, D.C.]]
[[Image:Apollo 11 crew in quarantine.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The crew of Apollo 11 in [[quarantine]] after returing to earth, visited by [[Richard Nixon]].]]
==Contingency television address==
The [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] in Washington, D.C. has a copy of the following contingency memo titled "In Event of Moon Disaster" and dated [[July 18]], [[1969]], which was prepared by [[William Safire]] for President Nixon to read on television, in the event the ''Apollo 11'' astronauts were stranded on the Moon.
:''"Fate has ordained that the men who went to the Moon to explore in peace will stay on the Moon to rest in peace. These brave men, Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, know that there is no hope for their recovery. But they also know that there is hope for mankind in their sacrifice.''
:''These two men are laying down their lives in mankind's most noble goal: the search for truth and understanding. They will be mourned by their families and friends; they will be mourned by their nation; they will be mourned by the people of the world; they will be mourned by a Mother Earth that dared send two of her sons into the unknown.''
:''In their exploration, they stirred the people of the world to feel as one; in their sacrifice, they bind more tightly the brotherhood of man. In ancient days, men looked at stars and saw their heroes in the constellations. In modern times, we do much the same, but our heroes are epic men of flesh and blood.''
:''Others will follow, and surely find their way home. Man's search will not be denied. But these men were the first, and they will remain the foremost in our hearts.''
[[Image:Armstrong_16mm.jpg |thumb|right|250px|Armstrong on lunar surface with gold visor raised. From [[16 mm]] film (NASA).]]
:''For every human being who looks up at the Moon in the nights to come will know that there is some corner of another world that is forever mankind."''
The last line of the statement is reminiscent of a [[Rupert Brooke]] poem called "The Soldier". The poem starts:
:''If I should die, think only this of me:<br>That there's some corner of a foreign field<br>That is forever England.''
Following this address, radio communications with the moon would have been cut off, the astronauts left alone to die, while a clergyman was to commend their souls to "the deepest of the deep" in the fashion of a burial at sea.
==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Apollo11.png|Aldrin stands next to the Passive Seismic Experiment Package with the [[Lunar Module]] in the background.
Image:Aldrin near Module leg.jpg|Aldrin inspects the LM landing gear.
Image:Apollo11.1000.jpg|Aldrin unpacks experiments from the LM.
Image:Buzz Aldrin with U.S. flag.jpg|Aldrin with the U.S. flag
Image:23_A11east.jpg|Panoramic Assembly of East Crater
</gallery>
==Communications link==
Early in the planning of the [[Project Apollo]], NASA decided to combine all communications between spacecraft and Earth into a single multiplexed feed called 'The Unified S-Band System', including audio communications, television images, crew medical telemetry and the spacecraft systems telemetry.
The signal was picked up by three purpose-built stations (Goldstone (California), Honeysuckle Creek (Australia) and Fresnedillas (Spain) and backed-up by deep space network stations (known as 'wing stations') in Australia, Spain and the United States. At first, the signal was routed to Greenbelt, Maryland, by way of submarine telephone cables, using twelve voice circuits. The signal was divided into twelve parts using inverse multiplexing, sent onto the circuits, and reintegrated in Maryland, before being sent on to NASA in Houston.
Intelsat satellites began taking over the trans-oceanic transmissions toward the end of the 1960s, and NASA ended its contracts for the submarine telephone circuits, which were then reallocated by telephone administrations for normal voice use.
On [[14 July]] [[1969]], the Intelsat satellite over the Atlantic failed. A replacement was launched on 16 July, but went into a useless orbit and would not be reoriented in time to be used. The [[Early Bird]] satellite w |
popular third party plug-ins, including tabbed messages and AIM logging. Triton replaces the classic AIM client software.
AOL has also recently released [http://mail.aim.com AIM Mail] with the latest version of the AIM client, offering 2GB @aim.com e-mail accounts for all users. Beyond the account size, AIM Mail boasts both webmail and IMAP interfaces, as well as AIM presence and Single Log-on.
AIM is also notorious for security weaknesses that enable many users to [[exploit]] through third party software to perform a myriad of malicious acts. Although most are harmless and merely annoying, (such as being kicked off the AIM service) some perform other potentially dangerous actions such as harvesting [[ip address | IP addresses]] and sending viruses upon a direct connection.
===AIM terminology===
AIM and AOL use several terms for elements of their instant messaging, which are different than other messengers. These include:
* '''[[Away message]]:''' A function of some instant messaging applications whereby a user may post a message that appears automatically to other users if they attempt to make contact, and he or she is not available. It is analogous to the voice message in an answering machine or voice mail system. However, away messages are often updated much more frequently than messages in answering machines, and thus may serve as a means of instant, limited "publication" or indirect communication. Away messages are stored on the local hard drive, so if there are multiple computers with mulitple instances of AIM, when an away message is added to one instance, AIM does not automatically update the other instances. (Advanced users may want to check out the [http://www.aim.com/help_faq/using/win/away.adp?aolp=#backup FAQs] to see how to export away messages from the registry.)
* '''[[Buddy List]]:''' The centerpiece of AIM, a list containing the status of up to 500 buddies stored on an AIM server so you can access this list from any instance of AIM. The status can be 'online', 'away', 'idle', 'mobile', or 'offline'.
* '''[[Screen name (computing)|Screenname]]:''' Term for [[user name]] with AOL origins. These are available for free along with software downloads from [http://www.aim.com/get_aim/win/latest_win.adp AOL]
* '''[[Messaging spam|Spim]]:''' Spam over Instant messaging. The spam problem in e-mail has the potential to spread to Instant Messaging, in the form of one-line advertisements. As a closed network, AOL has been able to block most SPIM, but some still passes through to users.
* '''Warning:''' If a user feels a received instant message is inappropriate, he or she can "warn" the sender, which increases the sender's warning level. Warning levels reduce the rate at which users can send messages and can eventually cause a given ScreenName to be unable to sign-on for a period of time. The warning system has been controversial, with those opposing it claiming that it can be abused easily, and just as easily avoided by creating a new screenname to continue harassment. The latest changes to AIM resolve some of the abuse.
* '''Direct connection:''' AIM users can connect to each other on port 5190 and send various forms of media. However, this has security issues.
*An '''AIM Closed List''' or '''Buddies Only''' refers to the option on the AOL Instant Messenger client to allow only users on a [[Screenname|screen name]]'s [[buddy list]] to contact him/her. This is to prevent [[harassment]] or [[spam (electronic)|spam]]ming, and is also a secure way to chat with your friends.
==AIM URI Scheme==
AOL Instant Messenger's installation process automatically installs an extra [[URI scheme]] ("protocol") handler into some web browsers, so that URIs beginning "<tt>aim:</tt>" can open a new AIM window with specified parameters. This is similar in function to the <tt>mailto:</tt> URI scheme, which creates a new e-mail message using the system's default mail program. For instance, a web page might include a link like the following in its HTML source to open a window for sending a message to the AIM user ''notarealuser'':
<code>&lt;a href="'''aim:goim?screenname=notarealuser'''"&gt;Send Message&lt;/a&gt;</code>
To specify a message body, the <code>message</code> parameter is used, so that the link location might look like this:
<code>aim:goim?screenname=notarealuser&message=This+is+my+message</code>
==Spyware/Adware/Viruses==
[[Viewpoint Media Player]] is a program that is installed during the installation of AOL Instant Messenger that is a [[plugin]] for displaying graphical content in the software's own proprietary format. According to the software's [[end user license agreement]], Viewpoint Media Player collects usage information and forwards it to Viewpoint servers. Each installation of Viewpoint Media Player contains a unique alphanumeric identification number that can be used to uniquely identify an installation of the software.
A successful attempt to remove Viewpoint Media Player while AOL Instant Messenger is still installed will cause AOL Instant Messenger to reinstall Viewpoint Media Player the next time AOL Instant Messenger is run.
Since the AOL Instant Messenger protocols do not require the AOL Instant Messenger program, users that are concerned about Spyware/Adware are free to check out other client programs and avoid AOL's software altogether. Many full featured instant messenger applications, such as [[Gaim]] and [[Trillian (instant messenger)|Trillian]], offer no-cost (and with Gaim, open source) instant messaging applications and do not contain any advertising or spyware.
However, issues do exist when using alternative clients. Both Gaim and Trillian have trouble transferring files between Linux and Windows.
Recently, AOL Instant Messenger has suffered from an influx of viruses and trojans, which are transmitted when a user clicks a malicious link. When a user is affected, the link may be inserted into the user's profile or away message, with no way in which to remove it. The worst case is when the trojan causes the user to automatically send messages containing the malicious link to people on the user's buddy list in an instant message conversation window. These links are often well disguised as links to pictures of the user (ie: "Click here to see pics of me from vacation!" or "Is this ''you?''") and since the messages are coming from a user's friend, they assume them to be authentic links. Some of these links will automatically download a malicious .com file to the user's computer, thus infecting it.
However, users can avoid these problems by practicing discretion when clicking any links on AOL Instant Messenger, whether in away messages, profiles, or conversations. If a user were to hold his/her cursor over the link for a second or two, the URL of the link would be displayed. Some of these malicious links are obvious just from the URL alone, as some messages claim to show someone pictures of a user, yet do not end with a .jpg, .jpeg, .gif, .png, .html, .htm, etc. extension. To prevent AOL from being liable for such infections, the window of a user's profile now states "Warning: Links may contain viruses or trojans."
==See also==
*[[Adium]] (OS X Client)
*[[AIM+]] (Add-on)
*[[AIMutation]] (Add-on)
*[[AIM Fight]] (Popularity Toy)
*[[DeadAIM]] (Add-on)
*[[Gaim]] (Cross-Platform Client)
*[[iChat]] (OS X Client)
*[[List of instant messengers]]
*[[Messenger:Mate]] (Add-on)
*[[Middle man (AIM plugin)]] (Add-on)
*[[OSCAR protocol]]
*[[TOC2 protocol]]
*[[TerraIM]] (Cross-Platform Client)
*[[Trillian (instant messenger)]] (Windows Client)
==External links==
===Official sites and download locations===
*[http://www.aim.com/ AIM.com]
===Useful Tools===
*[http://jayloden.com/aimfix.htm AIMFix] &mdash; Remove AIM viruses
*[http://doorman.info/index.php?page=info DoorManBot] &mdash; Send Offline Messages
===Online versions of AIM===
*[http://aimexpress.aol.com AIM Express]
*[http://www.webaim.net/ WebAIM.net]
*[http://www.meebo.com/ Meebo]
*[http://www.e-messenger.net// E-messenger]
===Third-party clients===
*[http://bsflite.sourceforge.net/ BSFlite] (Linux/Mac/Windows)
*[http://fire.sourceforge.net/ Fire] (Mac)
*[http://kopete.kde.org/ Kopete] (Linux)
*[http://www.meetro.com/ Meetro] (Windows)
*[http://miniaim.net/ miniaim] (Windows)
*[http://www.miranda-im.org/ Miranda] (Windows)
*[http://site.n.ml.org/info/naim/ naim] (Linux)
*[http://www.defaultware.com/proteus/ Proteus] (Mac)
*[http://tnt.sourceforge.net/ TNT] (Linux - Emacs)
===Third-party services===
====AIM Bot Creation====
*[http://www.ai-buddy.com/ AI-Buddy]
*[http://www.lots-a-bots.com/ Lots-A-Bots]
*[http://www.runabot.com/ Run-A-Bot]
====Profile Tools and Extensions====
* [http://www.buddy4u.com/ Buddy4u.com]
* [http://www.buddyprofile.com/ Buddy Profile]
* [http://www.subprofile.com/ Subprofile.com]
===Other===
* [http://www.aimfilez.com/ AIM Filez] &mdash; various, including secrets and modifications
* [http://www.aimforum.com/ AIMForum.com] &mdash; Unofficial support and discussion about AIM
* [http://www.iconator.com/ Iconator] &mdash; buddy icons and away messages
* [http://journals.aol.com/juberti/runningman/entries/131 AIM URLs] &mdash; Different URLs you can use to launch AIM
{{Time Warner}}
[[Category:AIM clients]]
[[Category:America Online]]
[[Category:Mac OS instant messengers]]
[[Category:Windows instant messengers]]
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[[zh:AIM]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ackermann function</title>
<id>2925</id>
<revision>
<id>41232281</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T23:21:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<usern |
ed and LeafGreen|''Pokémon FireRed'' and ''Pokémon LeafGreen'']]. Because it was released so late in the GBA's life, less than 20 games support this hardware. The adapter's usefulness is most evident in Pokémon; FireRed/LeafGreen feature a "Union Room" where up to forty people can enter to battle or trade Pokémon. The adapter itself was not backward compatible, leading to criticism that this accessory was more novel than useful, only available on a few games. A Game Boy micro version has also been released - it can interact fully with both models of the Wireless Adapter.
'''[[Play-Yan]]''' - The Play-Yan is an MP3/MPEG4 player for the GBA and [[Nintendo DS]]. The cartridge is slightly bigger than normal GBA cartridge and includes a built-in headphone port as well as an [[SD Card]] slot. Music or videos that users have downloaded from the Internet can be transferred onto an SD Card and slotted into the Play-Yan device. Nintendo has released several mini games for the Play-Yan that can be downloaded from their website, although Nintendo later removed all mini-game functionality through a firmware update. The Play-Yan is currently available in [[Japan]] only, but a European release has been confirmed for early 2006. Since Play-Yan did not have a U.S. release to coincide with [[Game Boy micro]] as rumored, an American release has been speculated for 2006 as well.
'''[[e-Reader]]''' - The e-Reader is a rather bulky scanning device that plugs into the game cartridge slot of the Game Boy Advance. Specialized cards with codes along the side and bottom are slid through the slit, scanning the card into the Game Boy Advance. Many ideas for the e-Reader have included cards that scan classic games like ''[[Donkey Kong]]'' and ''[[Excitebike]]'' onto the handheld ready to play, as well as a collaboration with ''[[Super Mario Advance 4]]'' to have cards that unlock content. [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]] games like ''[[Animal Crossing]]'' had cards with unlockable content as well, and the ''[[Pokémon Trading Card Game]]'' playing cards also adopted the e-Reader codes. The e-Reader works with the [[Game Boy Player]] as well as the [[Game Boy Advance SP]], but cannot fit into the [[Nintendo DS]]'s Game Boy slot. It was discontinued in America in early 2004, but is still quite popular in Japan. It was not released in Europe.
'''Game Boy Advance Video''' - These highly popular cartridges contain two episodes of 30 minute cartoon programs. First released in America in May of 2004, they cost $19.99 and included cartoons such as ''[[Pokémon (anime)|Pokémon]]'', ''[[SpongeBob SquarePants]]'', ''[[Sonic X]]'', and ''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]]''. The movies ''[[Shrek]]'', ''[[Shrek 2]]'', and ''[[Shark Tale]]'' are also available for GBA Video and all three movies are in full. Unfortunately, these cartridges display an error when inserted into a GameCube via a Game Boy Player.
=== Unofficial accessories ===
'''[[GBA Movie Player]]''' - The GBAMP is a versatile gaming cartridge that allows people to play [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]]/[[Famicom]] games, watch movies (e.g. MPEGs), see [[.txt]] files, hear sound clips, etc.
'''TV Tuner''' - Not much is known as of yet, but it does what it implies. It will most likely be what is being sold now on the Game Boy Advance, and that is to make the portable system into a portable television.
'''Unofficial [[Game Boy Advance flash cartridges]]''' are also available. While they enable the distribution of [[homebrew]] applications and content, they may also facilitate the illegal distribution of copyrighted games.
==Sales and marketing==
The Game Boy Advance, along with the Game Boy Advance SP and the Game Boy micro, has sold well. As of [[September 2005]], the Game Boy Advance series has sold 70.04 million units worldwide.[http://palgn.com.au/article.php?id=3605&sid=4cea9e5e814470cb7ea6fd462d04a13e]
==Games==
The Game Boy Advance has become the modern flagship of sprite-based games. With hardware superior to the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super NES]] it has proven that sprite-based technology could improve and live side by side with the 3D games of today's consoles. The Game Boy Advance not only has one's typical platformers, but also a huge collection of SNES-style [[Computer role-playing game|RPG]]s. It has also become a popular system for [[old school|old-school]] gamers due to the increasing amount of games ported from various [[8-bit]] and [[16-bit]] systems of the previous era. Through the use of [[Game Boy Advance flash cartridges|flash cartridges]] and [[emulators]] the Game Boy Advance can even play [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] and [[PC Engine]] games, as well as [[Adventure Game Interpreter|AGI]]-based [[Sierra Entertainment|Sierra On-Line]] PC adventure games.
Standout original titles include:
*''[[Advance Wars]]''
*''[[Boktai]]''
*''[[Golden Sun]]''
*''[[Final Fantasy Tactics Advance]]''
*''[[Fire Emblem: Blazing Sword|Fire Emblem]]''
*''[[The Legend of Zelda: The Minish Cap]]''
*''[[Mario & Luigi: Superstar Saga]]''
*''[[Megaman Zero]]''
*''[[Metroid Fusion]]''
*''[[Metroid: Zero Mission]]''
*''[[Mother 3]]''
*''[[Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire|Pokémon Ruby / Sapphire]]''
*''[[WarioWare, Inc.: Mega Microgame$]]''
== Screenshots ==
<center>
<gallery>
Image:GBA_Advance_Wars.png|''[[Advance Wars]]''<br />[[Intelligent Systems]]/Nintendo (2001)
Image:GBA_Golden_Sun.png|''[[Golden Sun]]''<br />Camelot (2001)
Image:GBA_Mario_Kart.png|''[[Mario Kart Super Circuit]]''<br />Nintendo (2001)
Image:GBA_Metroid_Fusion.png|''[[Metroid Fusion]]''<br />Nintendo (2002)
Image:GBA_Castlevania_Aria_of_Sorrow.png|''[[Castlevania: Aria of Sorrow]]''<br />[[Konami]] (2003)
Image:GBA_Fire_Emblem_Fight.png|''[[Fire Emblem]]''<br />Intelligent Systems/Nintendo (2003)
Image:GBA_Pokemon_Ruby.png|''[[Pokémon Ruby]]''<br />Nintendo (2003)
Image:GBA_Wario_Ware_Inc_2.png|''[[WarioWare, Inc.: Mega Microgame$|Wario Ware, Inc.]]''<br />Nintendo (2003)
</gallery>
</center>
==See also==
{{dedicated video game handheld consoles}}
* [[e-Reader]]
* [[List of Game Boy Advance games]]
* [[List of Game Boy colors and styles]]
* [[Nintendo DS]]
==External links==
* [http://www.gameboy.com/choose.jsp GBA Website] - The official website
*[http://www.n-sider.com N-Sider] - Nintendo fansite database
*[http://www.gameboy-advance.net Gameboy-Advance.Net] - Information on GBA Flash Carts and how to emulate other systems on the GBA
*[http://www.nightmode.org/pocket/ PogoShell] - Software to turn the GBA into a PDA system
*[http://www.gba-roms.net/free-gba-roms.htm GBA PD game roms] - homebrew freeware software catalog
*[http://www.bripro.com/gbagi/index.php GBAGI] - Emulator for running AGI base Sierra On-Line games on the GBA
[http://www.gbadev.org/ gameboy advance development] - A homebrew development site
*[http://www.vbalink.info/ VBALink] - Modified version of VBA emulator with link cable multiplayer and LAN support.
*[http://www.pdroms.com/ PDRoms] - Big homebrew software archive and homebrew release news
*[http://www.pocketheaven.com/ PocketHeaven] - A forum and many useful resources about GBA.
*[http://jason.spashett.com/mmegba/index.html GBA MME] - Game Boy Advance port of Microsoft Mobile Explorer
*[http://revo-news.blogspot.com Revo-News] - Up to date Nintendo coverage
{{Nintendo hardware|Game Boy Advance}}
[[Category:Game Boy consoles]]
[[Category:Sixth-generation video game consoles]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Google search</title>
<id>12431</id>
<revision>
<id>39732696</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T13:39:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tawker</username>
<id>212671</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Jackassmaniac|Jackassmaniac]] ([[User talk:Jackassmaniac|Talk]]) to last version by 129.123.122.92</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the search engine. For the corporation, see [[Google|Google, Inc.]]; for the underlying technology, see [[Google platform]]; for other uses see [[Google (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Google_screenshot.png|thumb|300px|Google's main page's unusually spartan design, uncluttered appearance and quick loading time have contributed greatly to the site's mass appeal.]]
'''Google''' is a [[search engine]] owned by [[Google|Google Inc.]] whose [[mission statement]] is to "organize the world's information and make it universally accessible and useful." The largest search engine on the web, Google receives over 200 million queries each day through its various services.
In addition to its tool for searching [[webpage]]s, Google also provides services for searching [[raster graphics|images]], [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]]s, news websites, videos, searching by locality, maps, and items for sale online. As of January [[2006]], Google has indexed 9.7 [[1_E9|billion]] web pages, 1.3 billion images, and over one billion Usenet messages&nbsp;&mdash; in total, approximately 12 billion items. It also [[cache]]s much of the content that it [[web indexing|indexes]]. Google operates other tools and services including [[Google News]], Google Suggest, [[Froogle]], and Google Desktop Search. See [[list of Google services and tools]] for a complete list.
{{wikibookschapter|book=How to search|chapter=Google|name=Google}}
==History==
The Google search engine began as a research project in early [[1996]] by [[Lawrence E. Page|Larry Page]] and [[Sergey Brin]], two [[Stanford University]] graduate students who developed the theory |
emoved: [[Image:Bugatti EB110.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Bugatti EB110|EB110]].]] -->
In [[1987]] [[Romano Artioli]], an [[Italy|Italian]] entrepreneur, acquired the legendary Bugatti name and established '''Bugatti Automobili SpA'''. The new company built a factory designed by the architect [[Giampaolo Benedini]] in [[Campogalliano]], [[Italy]], a town near [[Modena]], home to other performance-car manufacturers [[De Tomaso]], [[Ferrari]], [[Lamborghini]] and [[Maserati]].
By 1989, the plans for the new Bugatti-revival were presented by [[Paolo Stanzani]] and [[Marcello Gandini]], famous designers of the [[Lamborghini Miura]] and [[Lamborghini Countach|Countach]]. The first completed car was labeled the [[Bugatti EB110]] GT, advertised as the most technically advanced [[supercar]] ever produced.
From [[1992]] through [[1994]], famed racing car designer, [[Mauro Forghieri]], was technical director.
On [[August 27]], [[1993]], through his holding company, ACBN Holdings S.A. of [[Luxembourg]], Romano Artioli purchased the [[Lotus Cars|Lotus]] car company from [[General Motors]]. The acquisition brought together two of the greatest names in automotive racing history and plans were made for listing the company's shares for sale on international stock exchanges.
Bugatti also presented in [[1993]] the prototype of a large sedan called the EB 112.
By the time the EB110 came to market the North American and European economies were in recession and operations ceased in September of 1995. A model specific to the [[United States]] market called the "Bugatti America" was in the preparatory stages when the company closed.
==Bugatti Automobiles SAS==
:''See also the main article, [[Bugatti Automobiles SAS]]''
[[Image:Bugatti veyron in Tokyo.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Bugatti Veyron 16.4|Veyron 16.4]].]]
[[Volkswagen AG]] purchased the rights to produce cars under the Bugatti marque in [[1998]]. They commissioned [[ItalDesign]] to produce the [[Bugatti EB 118]] concept, a touring sedan which featured a 555 bhp [[DIN]] (408 kW) output and the first [[W engine|W-configuration]] [[W18|18-cylinder engine]] on any passenger vehicle, at the [[Paris Auto Show]].
In [[1999]] the [[Bugatti EB 218]] concept was introduced at the [[Geneva Auto Show]]; later that year the [[Bugatti 18/3 Chiron]] was introduced at the [[IAA]] in Frankfurt. At the [[Tokyo Motor Show]] the EB 218 reappeared and the [[Bugatti Veyron 16.4|Bugatti EB 16/4 Veyron]] was presented as the first incarnation of what was to be a production road car.
In [[2000]] Volkswagen founded '''Bugatti Automobiles SAS''' and introduced the EB 16/4 Veyron concept, a 16 cylinder car producing 1001 bhp DIN (736 kW), at the [[Paris]], [[Geneva]], and [[Detroit]] auto shows. Development continued throughout [[2001]] and the EB 16/4 Veyron was promoted to "advanced concept" status. In July of [[2005]] Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. announced that the car would officially be called the [[Bugatti Veyron 16.4]]. It was said that the car -built in the historical Bugatti's factory in Molsheim (Alsace) - would be delivered to clients in October 2005, however the Veyron finally entered production in late 2005, delivery will start in early 2006. Maximum speed claims have been met in several high speed tests where the car slightly exceeded its target, reaching 253 mph (407.5 km/h) and holding it for about two minutes. According to [[Car and Driver]], the fuel economy when travelling at 253 mph in the Veyron was 3.0 mpg. Independent Press tests have reported many failures (3 out of 5 cars available for testing in November 2005 were out of service).
It is expected that, following the [[Bugatti Veyron 16.4]], Bugatti will produce a four-seat car with front engine, and its own unique chassis, and based on the Veyron engine and drivetrain.
==Collectors==
Today original Ettore Bugatti cars are amongst the most sought after in the world by collectors, fetching prices as high as US$10 million.
The best-known collectors of Bugatti were Hans and Fritz Schlumpf, two brothers who ran a textiles business in [[Mulhouse]], close to the Bugatti factory. Between 1958 and 1975 (when their business failed) they secretly amassed a remarkable collection of the cars. Now known as the [[Schlumpf Collection]], it has been turned into one of the world's great car museums, the [[Mus%C3%A9e National de l%27Automobile de Mulhouse]].
==See also==
* [[Bugatti Automobiles SAS]]
* [[Ettore Bugatti]]
* [[Jean Bugatti]]
* In Spanish slang, ''buga'' has acquired the meaning of "car", whatever its brand.
==External links==
{{commonscat|Bugatti vehicles}}
* [http://supercarnews.com/cars/bugatti/veyron/Bugatti_Veyron SuperCarNews.com] High Resolution Bugatti Veyron Images
* [http://auto-specs.com/ Car Specifications and Performance Stats]
* Musée Nationale de l'Automobile http://www.collection-schlumpf.com/schlumpf/
* Bugatti official site http://www.bugatti-cars.de/
* Club Bugatti France http://www.club-bugatti-france.net/
* Bugatti Sale http://www.viathema.com/
* Bugatti Trust and Owners Club (UK) http://www.bugatti.co.uk/
* Jacob's Bugatti pages http://homepage.mac.com/bugatti/jacob/
* Bugatti Airplace http://home.uni-one.nl/bugatti/baa/kalempa.htm
* The Bugatti Page http://www.bugattipage.com/
* Bugatti wallpapers on http://www.desktopmachine.com/cars/17-Bugatti%20wallpapers.html
* [http://supercarnews.com/ Bugatti Images and Info]
{{VW}}
[[Category:Bugatti]]
[[Category:Formula One constructors]]
[[Category:Volkswagen]]
[[Category:Grand Prix Teams]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benchmark</title>
<id>4498</id>
<revision>
<id>40172460</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T18:49:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>201.31.8.46</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>pt:Benchmark</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''benchmark''' is a point of reference for a measurement. The term originates from the [[chisel]]ed horizontal marks that [[surveyor]]s made into which an angle-iron could be placed to bracket (''bench'') a levelling rod, thus ensuring that the levelling rod can be repositioned in exactly the same place in the future.
*For the use of benchmarks in surveying (the origin of the term) see [[Benchmark (surveying)]]
*For the use of benchmarks in computing see [[Benchmark (computing)]]
*For the use of benchmarks in management see [[Benchmarking]]
*For the geolocating game similar to geocaching see [[Benchmarking (geolocating)]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Benchmark]]
[[es:Estudio de referencia]]
[[fr:Benchmark]]
[[it:Benchmark]]
[[nl:Benchmark]]
[[pt:Benchmark]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Band</title>
<id>4499</id>
<revision>
<id>39655285</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T23:35:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dharmabum420</username>
<id>658713</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.210.87.180|69.210.87.180]] to last version by Cikicdragan</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|band}}
'''Band''' may mean:
* [[Band (radio)]], a range of frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum
* energy band in semiconductor physics
* [[Band (music)]], a group of musicians
* [[Band (mathematics)]], a [[idempotent]] [[semigroup]]
* [[The Band]], a Canadian-American rock and roll band that started in the late 1960s
* [[Rubber band]], a strip of rubber in a loop
* [[Band society]], a simple form of human society
* The name for a [[First Nations]] community in Canada
* [[Band, Afghanistan]]
* [[bands (neck)]], preaching bands or bands, neckwear for clergy or lawyers
{{disambig}}
[[da:Bånd]]
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[[ko:밴드]]
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[[nl:Band]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baroque music</title>
<id>4500</id>
<revision>
<id>42105259</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:34:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>164.58.68.3</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Late Baroque music (1707&ndash;1760) */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of European art music}}
'''[[Baroque]] music''' describes an era and a set of styles of [[European classical music]] which were in widespread use between approximately 1600 to 1750 (see [[Dates of classical music eras]] for a discussion of the problems inherent in defining the beginning and end points). This era is said to begin in music after the [[Renaissance music|Renaissance]] and to be followed by the [[Classical music era]]. The original meaning of "baroque" is "irregularly shaped pearl", a strikingly fitting characterization of the [[architecture]] and design of this period; later, the name came to be applied also to its music. Baroque music forms a major portion of the classical music canon. It is widely performed, studied and listened to. It is associated with composers such as [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]], [[George Frideric Handel|Georg Friedrich Händel]], [[Antonio Vivaldi]], and [[Claudio Monteverdi]]. During the period, music theory, diatonic tonality, and imitative counterpoint developed. More elaborate musical ornament, as well as changes in musical notation and advances in the way instruments also appeared. Baroque music would see an expansion in the size, range and complexity of performance, as well as the establishment of [[opera]] as a type of musical performance. Many musical terms and concepts still in use date from this era.
==Overview==
===Style and trends===
Music conventionally described as Baroque encompasses a wide range of styles from a wide geographic region, mostly in Europe, composed during a period of approximately 150 years. The term "Baroque", as applied to this period in mu |
. Leibniz's discovery of [[Boolean algebra]] and of [[symbolic logic]] was discussed in the preceding section.
A comprehensive scholarly treatment of Leibniz's mathematical writings has yet to be written, perhaps because Series 7 of the Academy edition is very far from complete.
===The calculus===
Leibniz is credited, along with [[Isaac Newton]], with inventing the [[infinitesimal calculus]]. According to Leibniz's notebooks, a critical breakthrough occurred on [[November 11]], [[1675]], when he employed integral calculus for the first time to find the area under the function ''y&nbsp;=&nbsp;x''. He introduced several notations used to this day, for instance the [[integral sign]] &int; representing an elongated S, from the Latin word ''summa'' and the ''d'' used for [[Differential (mathematics)|differentials]], from the Latin word ''differentia''. Leibniz did not publish any of his results until 1684. For an English translation of this paper, see Struik (1969: 271-84), who also translates parts of two other key papers by Leibniz on the calculus. The [[product rule]] of [[differential calculus]] is still called "Leibniz's rule."
Leibniz's approach to the calculus fell well short of later standards of rigor (the same can be said of Newton's). We now see a Leibniz "proof" as being in truth mostly a [[heuristic]] hodgepodge, mainly grounded in geometric intuition and an intuitive understanding of [[differentials]]. Leibniz also freely invoked mathematical entities he called [[infinitesimal]]s, manipulating them freely in ways suggesting that they had [[paradox]]ical [[algebra]]ic properties. [[George Berkeley]], in a tract called ''The Analyst'' and elsewhere, ridiculed this and other aspects of the early calculus, pointing out that natural science grounded in the calculus required just as big of a leap of [[faith]] as [[theology]] grounded in [[Christianity|Christian]] [[revelation]]. Some of Berkeley's arguments are now seen as well taken.
The calculus as we now know it emerged in the 19th century, thanks to the efforts of [[Cauchy]], [[Riemann]], [[Weierstrass]], and others, who based their work on a rigorous notion of [[limit]] and on a precise understanding of the [[real number]]s. Their work banished infinitesimals into the wilderness of obsolete mathematics (although engineers, physicists, and economists continued to use them). But beginning in 1960, [[Abraham Robinson]] showed how to make sense of Leibniz's infinitesimals, and how to give them algebraic properties free of paradox. The resulting [[nonstandard analysis]] can be seen as a great belated triumph of Leibniz's mathematical and [[ontology|ontological]] intuition.
From 1711 until his death, Leibniz's life was envenomed by a long dispute with John Keill, [[Newton]], and others, over whether Leibniz had invented the calculus independently of Newton, or whether he had merely invented another notation for ideas that were fundamentally Newton's. Hall (1980) gives a thorough scholarly discussion of the [[Newton v. Leibniz calculus controversy|calculus priority dispute]].
===Topology===
Leibniz was the first to employ the term ''analysis situs'' (LL §27), later employed in the 19th century to refer to what is now known as [[topology]]. There are two takes on this situation. On the one hand, Mates (1986: 240), citing a 1954 paper in German by [[Freudenthal]], argues as follows:
<blockquote>"Although for [Leibniz] the situs of a sequence of points is completely determined by the distance between them and is altered if those distances are altered, his admirer [[Euler]], in the famous 1736 paper solving the [[Seven Bridges of Konigsberg|Konigsberg Bridge Problem]] and its generalizations, used the term ''geometria situs'' in such a sense that the situs remains unchanged under topological deformations. He mistakenly credits Leibniz with originating this concept. ...it is sometimes not realized that Leibniz used the term in an entirely different sense and hence can hardly be considered the founder of that part of mathematics."</blockquote>
Hirano (1997) argues differently, quoting Mandelbrot (1977: 419) as follows:
<blockquote>"...To sample Leibniz' scientific works is a sobering experience. Next to calculus, and to other thoughts that have been carried out to completion, the number and variety of premonitory thrusts is overwhelming. We saw examples in 'packing,'... My Leibniz mania is further reinforced by finding that for one moment its hero attached importance to geometric scaling. In "Euclidis Prota"..., which is an attempt to tighten Euclid's axioms, he states,...: 'I have diverse definitions for the straight line. The straight line is a curve, any part of which is similar to the whole, and it alone has this property, not only among curves but among sets.' This claim can be proved today."</blockquote>
Thus Mandelbrot's well-known fractal geometry drew on Leibniz's notions of self-similarity and the principle of continuity: ''natura non facit saltus''. We also see that when Leibniz wrote, in a metaphysical vein, that "the straight line is a curve, any part of which is similar to the whole..." he was anticipating topology by more than two centuries. As for "packing," Leibniz told to his friend and correspondent [[Des Bosses]] to imagine a circle, then to inscribe within it three congruent circles with maximum radius; the latter smaller circles could be filled with three even smaller circles by the same procedure. This process can be continued infinitely, from which arises a good idea of self-similarity. Leibniz's improvement of Euclid's axiom contains the same concept.
==Scientist and engineer==
Leibniz's writings are currently discussed, not only for their anticipations and possible discoveries not yet recognized, but as ways of advancing present knowledge. Much of his writing on physics is included in Gerhardt's ''Mathematical Writings''. His writings on other scientific and technical subjects are mostly scattered and relatively little known, because the Academy edition has yet to publish any volume in its Series ''Scientific, Medical, and Technical Writings'' .
===Physics===
Leibniz contributed a fair amount to the statics and dynamics emerging about him, often disagreeing with [[Descartes]], [[Newton]] and their followers. He devised a new theory of [[motion]] ([[dynamics]]) based on [[kinetic]] and potential energy. While he may have been Newton's peer as co-discoverer of the calculus, he was not in Newton's league as a physicist and may even deserve to be ranked below his mentor Huygens. An important example of Leibniz's mature physical thinking is his ''Specimen Dynamicum'' of 1695. (AG 117, LL §46, W II.5) On Leibniz and physics, see the chapter by Garber in Jolley (1995) and Wilson (1989).
Until the discovery of subatomic particles and the [[quantum mechanics]] governing them, many of Leibniz's speculative ideas about aspects of nature not reducible to statics and dynamics made little sense. For instance, he anticipated [[Einstein]] by arguing, against [[Newton]], that [[space]], [[time]] and [[motion]] are relative, not absolute. [[Leibniz's rule]] in interacting theories plays a role in [[supersymmetry]] and in the lattices of [[quantum mechanics]]. His [[principle of sufficient reason]] has been invoked in recent [[cosmology]], and his [[identity of indiscernibles]] in [[quantum mechanics]], a field some even credit him with having anticipated in some sense. Those who advocate [[digital philosophy]], a recent direction in cosmology, claim Leibniz as a precursor.
====The ''vis viva''====
:''See main article: [[Conservation of energy#Historical development|Conservation of energy: Historical development]].''
Leibniz 's ''vis viva'' (Latin for ''living force'') is an invariant mathematical characteristic of certain mechanical systems (see AG 155-86, LL §§53-55, W II.6-7a). It can be seen as a special case of the [[conservation of energy]]. Here too his thinking gave rise to another regrettable nationalistic dispute. His "vis viva" was seen as rivaling the [[conservation of momentum]] championed by Newton in England and by [[Descartes]] in France; hence [[academics]] in those countries tended to neglect Leibniz's idea. [[Engineer]]s eventually found "vis viva" useful when making certain [[calculation]]s, so that the two approaches eventually were seen as complementary.
===Other natural science===
By proposing that the earth has a molten core, he anticipated modern [[geology]]. In [[embryology]], he was a preformationist, but also proposed that organisms are the outcome of a combination of an infinite number of possible microstructures and of their powers. In the [[life sciences]] and [[paleontology]], he revealed an amazing transformist and intuition, fueled by his study of comparative anatomy and fossils. He worked out a primal organismic theory. On Leibniz and biology, see Loemker (1969a: VIII). In [[medicine]], he exhorted the physicians of his time -- with some results -- to ground their theories in detailed comparative observations and verified experiments, and to distinguish firmly scientific and metaphysical points of view.
===Social science===
In [[psychology]] he anticipated the distinction between [[conscious]] and [[unconscious]] states. On Leibniz and psychology, see Loemker (1969a: IX). In public health, he advocated establishing a medical administrative authority, with powers over [[epidemiology]] and [[veterinary medicine]]. He worked to set up a coherent medical training programme, oriented towards public health and preventive measures. In economic policy, he proposed tax reforms and a national insurance scheme, and discussed the balance of trade. He even proposed something akin to what much later emerged as [[game theory]]. In [[sociology]] he laid the ground for [[communication theory]].
|
n Eighty-Four]], in which certain thoughts were legally punishable crimes. Some Americans feel this to be a direct infringement on [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] rights. Others argue that such legislation provides special status to certain protected groups. They also say that distinguishing a hate crime requires reading the mind of the accused, a dubious prospect at best and perhaps not something that should be considered when deciding on punishments. In short, critics argue that hate crime legislation [[thoughtcrime|criminalizes thought]]. Some American critics believe that it also violates [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|the Fourteenth Amendment]] by denying "[[equal protection]] of the laws". It is said to replaces one kind of inequality with another.
In addition, it is argued that hate crime prosecutions seek to punish an individual for motive rather than intent. For example, the difference between first or second degree murder is intent, not motive. It is one thing to distinguish between different states of [[mens rea]], or guilty mind, such as between knowingly, recklessly, or negligently putting someone at risk. It is another to distinguish whether someone who knowingly attempts to harm another person is motivated by hatred for the particular person or by hatred of a class of persons to which he or she belongs. The law has not traditionally made the latter distinction.
It is also said that hate crime laws are largely unnecessary, as a crime committed solely on the basis of hatred of a group would already be punished harshly by the justice system. If no argument could be made in mitigation, thereby reducing the culpability of the offender or the seriousness of the offence, the offender would be punished to the full extent of the law.
==External links==
*[http://www.asian-nation.org/racism.shtml Asian-Nation: Anti-Asian Racism & Hate Crimes] by C.N. Le, Ph.D.
*[http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/ucr.htm FBI Uniform Crime Reports], which includes hate crimes statistics.
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_hat1.htm Definitions, laws, legislative efforts]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/rcip//sbh.html Survivor bashing - bias motivated hate crimes]
*[http://worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=48898 'Hate crime' victims: Young, poor, white] [[WorldNetDaily]] article.
[[Category:Hate crimes| ]]
[[Category:Crimes]]
[[ja:ヘイトクライム]]
[[sv:Hatbrott]]
[[simple:Hate crime]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Hungary</title>
<id>13548</id>
<revision>
<id>40918126</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T21:54:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jaxl</username>
<id>309415</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.42.214.103|68.42.214.103]] ([[User talk:68.42.214.103|talk]]) to last version by Aetil</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is the '''[[history]] of [[Hungary]]'''. See also the [[history of Europe]], the [[history of present-day nations and states]], [[Hungary before the Magyars]], and [[Hungary]].
==Origins of the Hungarian state==
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Hungarian_horseburial_nearCluj10c.jpg|thumb|200px|Magyar horse burial site in Transylvania]] -->
The commonly accepted view of the origin of the [[Magyars]] (known as Hungarians in most western languages) is that they were a nomadic people, with indeterminate and disputed origin from the Eurasian plains until the end of the 9th century&nbsp;AD. They were a confederacy of seven [[Magyars|Magyar]] and three allied [[Khabar]] tribes; the name Hungary / Hungarian is most probably derived from the Turkish term [[Onogur]] meaning 'Ten Arrows', signifying united military strength in nomadic symbolism. In 896 they settled temporarily around the upper [[Tisza]] river basin, in 901 around the [[Balaton]]. Subsequently they also partly occupied what is today eastern [[Austria]] and southern [[Slovakia]]. After their defeat at the [[Battle of Lechfeld]] in 955, they definitively settled in the [[Carpathian basin]].
[[Árpád]] was the Magyar leader whom later accounts, written by order of the [[Árpáds]], name as the single leader who led the Hungarian tribes conquering the territory in the 9th century. The ruling prince (''fejedelem'') [[Géza]] of the House of Árpád, who was the tribal ruler of basically what is today western Hungary but also nominal overlord of the seven Magyar tribes, intended to integrate Hungary into Christian (Western) Europe, rebuilding the state according to the Western model. He established a dynasty by naming his son Vajk (later called [[Stephen I of Hungary|Stephen]]) as his successor. This was contrary to the then dominant tradition of the succession of the eldest surviving member of the ruling family.
''See also'': [[Hungary before the Magyars]], [[Sources of early Hungarian history]]
== The [[Kingdom of Hungary]] ==
=== High and Late Middle Ages (1000 - 1526) ===
Hungary was established as a Christian kingdom under [[Stephen I of Hungary]], who was crowned in December 1000 AD or January 1001 AD. He was the son of Géza and thus a descendant of Árpád. By 1006, Stephen had solidified his power, eliminating all rivals who either wanted to follow the old pagan traditions or wanted an alliance with the orthodox Christian Byzantine Empire. Then he started sweeping reforms to convert Hungary into a feudal state, complete with forced Christianisation.
Serbian Princess Jelena married to the Hungarian King in the first half of the [[12th century]], and brought her little brother, Beloš, with her. Beloš became ''Duke of Hungary'', as one of the most improtant member of the Court and supreme commander of the Hungarian Army. After the King's death, Queen Jelena acted as a viceroy while their son was too young, and Beloš further expanded his influence over the Kingdom of Hungary. After a failed attempt to install himself in Rascia, Beloš retired as [[Ban (title)|Ban]] of [[Croatia]].
What emerged was a strong kingdom that withstood attacks from German kings and Emperors, passing armies of Crusaders, as well as later nomadic tribes following the Magyars from the East, integrating some of the latter into the population (along with Germans invited to Transylvania and what is now Slovakia, especially after 1242), but also subjugating smaller Slavic kingdoms to the South, among them [[Croatia]], and Slavic territories in present-day central and eastern Slovakia.
In [[1241]]/[[1242]], this kingdom received one major blow in the form of the [[Mongol invasion]] of Europe: after the destruction of the Hungarian army in the Battle of Muhi, [[Béla IV of Hungary|King Béla IV]] fled, and one third of the population died (leading later to the invitation of settlers from neighbours in the West and South) in the ensuing destruction (''Tatárjárás''). Only strongly fortified cities and abbeys could withstand the assault. As a consequence, after the Mongols retreated, King Béla ordered the construction of a line of major border castles (''végvár''). These proved to be most important in the long struggle with the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the following centuries (from the late 14th century onwards), but their cost indebted the King to the major feudal landlords so much that central rule, already diminished by the ''Aranybulla'' (Hungary's version of the [[Magna Carta]], 1222), was critically weakened.
Árpád's descendants ruled the country until 1301. After that, most Hungarian kings were from abroad. Under some of these rulers, the Kingdom of Hungary reached its greatest extent, yet the influence of the major landlords was at most kept in check &ndash; while the Ottoman Turks, confronted ever more often, increased their strength.
The second Hungarian king in the [[Angevin]] line of French origin, [[Louis I of Hungary|Louis I the Great]] (''I.'' or ''Nagy Lajos'', king 1342-1382) extended his rule over territories from the [[Black Sea]] to the [[Adriatic Sea]], and temporarily occupied the [[Two Sicilies]] (after his brother was murdered there by his wife, who was also his cousin). From 1370, the death of [[Casimir III of Poland|Casimir III the Great]], he was also king of Poland. The alliance between Casimir and [[Charles I of Hungary]], the father of Louis, was the start of a still lasting Polish-Hungarian friendship.
Sigismund, a prince from the [[Luxembourg]] line who first married, then succeeded at the throne, then divorced Louis's daughter, Queen Mary, in 1433 even became [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]] &ndash; but his rule was marked by territorial losses in the South (for example to growing Serbia), the 1396 defeat in a late crusade against the Ottoman Turks at [[Nicopolis]], the open dissent of feudal landlords, the [[Hussite]] rebellion in the Czech kingdom (which was also under his rule) and partly in Slovakia, and a major peasant rebellion in Transylvania.
The last strong king was the renaissance king [[Matthias Corvinus of Hungary|Matthias Corvinus]]. He was the son of the feudal landlord and warlord [[John Hunyadi]], who led the Hungarian troops in the 1456 [[Siege of Nándorfehérvár]]. Building on his fathers' vision, the aim of taking on the Ottoman Empire with a strong enough background, Matthias set out to build a great empire, expanding southward and northwest, while he also implemented internal reforms.
But after Matthias's death, the weak king [[Ladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus II]] of the Polish/Lithuanian [[Jagiellon]] line nominally ruled the areas he conquered except Austria, but real power was in the hand of the nobles. In 1514, two years before Ladislaus' death, there was even a major peasant rebellion in the [[Pannonian lowlands]] and parts of Transylvania (called the Dózsa Insurrection [after its Transylvanian leader] or Hungarian Peasant's War), crushed barbarousl |
e ones such as Ancient [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Sanskrit]] have them all.
It should be noted that not all of the moods listed below are clearly conceptually distinct. Individual terminology varies from language to language, and the coverage of (e.g.) the "conditional" mood in one language may largely overlap with that of the "hypothetical" or "potential" mood in another. Even when two different moods exist in the same language, their respective usages may blur, or may be defined by syntactic rather than semantic criteria. For example, the [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] and [[optative mood|optative]] moods in [[Ancient Greek]] alternate syntactically in many subordinate clauses, depending on the tense of the main verb. The usage of the [[indicative]], subjunctive and [[jussive mood]]s in [[Classical Arabic]] is almost completely controlled by syntactic context; the only possible alternation in the same context is between indicative and jussive following the negative particle 'lā'.
==Admirative mood==
{{mergefrom|Renarrative mood}}
The '''admirative mood''' is used to express surprise, but also doubt, irony, sarcasm, etc.
In Indo-European languages, the admirative, unlike the optative, is not one of the original moods, but a later development. Admirative constructs occur in Balkan Slavic (Bulgarian and Macedonian), Albanian, Megleno-Romanian and Ukrainian Tosk Albanian. A form of the admirative, derived from the Albanian pattern, can be found in Frasheriote Arumanian. It seems that the dubitative/inferential patterns of Turkish - a non-Indo-European language - influenced Albanian and Balkan Slavic languages in this regard.
The admirative carries [[evidentiality|evidential]] value. Writing on the [http://www.summerschoolaltconference.it/ALT/Abstracts/Friedman.htm typology of evidentiality] in Balkan languages, [http://humanities.uchicago.edu/depts/slavic/friedman.html Victor Friedman ] says:
"As grammaticalized in the Balkan languages, evidentiality encodes the speaker's evaluation of the narrated event, often, but not always, predicated upon the nature of the available evidence. These evidentials can be of two types: Confirmative (sometimes called 'witnessed') and nonconfirmative (sometimes called 'reported', 'inferential', and/or 'nonwitnessed'). The nonconfirmatives can, in Austin's terms, be felicitous (neutral) or infelicitous. Felicitous nonconfirmatives are used for reports, inferences, etc., for which the speaker chooses not to take responsibility. An infelicitous nonconfirmative expresses either acceptance of a previously unexpected state of affairs (surprise, i.e. something the speaker would not have been willing to confirm prior to discovery, the mirative or admirative) or sarcastic rejection of a previous statement (doubt, irony, etc., the dubitative)."
''Ibid.'', "Illustrative data (relevant forms are in slashes and interlinear glossing is omitted to save space, orthography is simplified for the internet):
[...]
*Toj /bil/ bogat! (Macedonian, nonconfirmative past)
*O zengin/mish/! (Turkish, nonconfirmative past)
*Ai /qenka/ i pasur! (Albanian, nonconfirmative present)
*He is rich! (to my surprise; nonconfirmative refers to discovery of pre-existing state)
*Ku /qenka/ mjeshtri? (Albanian, nonconfirmative present)
*Kade /bil/ majstorot ? (Macedonian, nonconfirmative past)
*Usta neredey/mish/? (Turkish, nonconfirmative past)
*Where is the boss? (I am surprised at his absence; Albanian can have true present meaning, Balkan Slavic/Turkish cannot)"
Present and future tenses also exist for such a mood in the above-mentioned languages, but, with the exception of the Albanian ''true nonconfirmative present'' illustrated above, these "nonconfirmatives, (from perfects), always have a past reference to either a real or a putative narrated event, speech event, or state of mind. They cannot be used with true nonpast reference."
*"Do t'u hapka një universitet privat" (Albanian: A private University will be opened - apparently, i.e. as reported by someone & to my surprise.)
*"Varacak/mish/" (Turkish: He will be arriving - as told by someone)
==Cohortative mood==
The '''[[cohortative mood]]''' is used to express plea, insistence, imploring, self-encouragement, wish, desire, intent, command, purpose or consequence. It does not exist in English, but phrases such as "let us" are often used to denote it.
== Conditional mood ==
The '''[[conditional mood]]''' is used to express a lack of certainty about whether the action ever occurs, particularly, but not exclusively, in conditional clauses. In [[English language|English]], the conditional is manifested by means of the modal auxiliary 'would' added to the bare infinitive, e.g. ''I would buy''. In other languages, such as Spanish, it is expressed by means of morphological marking on the verb. So, the conditional of 'John eats' is, in English, 'John would eat' ('would' + bare infinitive of [[main verb]]) and, in Spanish, 'Juan comería' (infinitive ''comer'' ((to) eat)) + third-singular ''ía'').
Typically, it introduces [[subordinate clause]]s which are headed by a [[phrase]] roughly meaning 'on the condition that', such as 'if', 'as long as', etc., and these phrases can have their meaning intensified by items like 'even', as in 'even if'. A peculiarity in English and several related languages is that the conditional mood occurs only in the main clause: the verb of the subordinate clause is marked for subjunctive modality. This is unusual; in [[Finnish language|Finnish]], for example, the conditional mood is used both in the main and the subordinate clauses. An example in English with a conditional main clause and a subjunctive subordinate clause is: ''I <u>would buy</u> a house if I <u>earned</u> a lot of money'' (I might buy a house, if I earn a lot of money, but I do not and thus earning a lot of money is a condition for buying a house.) Compare Finnish, where the both clauses have a conditional marker (''-isi-''): ''Osta<u>isi</u>n talon, jos ansaits<u>isi</u>n paljon rahaa''.
The conditional mood does not express uncertainty; this is a distinct mood, the potential mood, which is expressed with the words "probably" or "may" in English. The conditional mood is sometimes erroneously called a tense rather than a mood. This practice should be avoided, as tense refers exclusively to temporal location, and therefore in no way does it involve conditions, desires, etc., which are all modal. However, despite this, [[linguistics]] tends to be the only area in which such discrimination takes place &mdash; in foreign language courses, for example, non-temporal distinctions such as the conditional mood may be erroneously called 'tenses'.
==Dubitative mood==
The [[dubitative mood]] is used in [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], and other languages. It expresses the speaker's doubt or uncertainty about the event denoted by the verb. See [[irrealis moods]]. For example, in Ojibwe, ''Baawitigong igo ayaa noongom'' translates as "he is in [[Sault Ste. Marie]] today." When the dubitative suffix ''-dig'' is added, this becomes ''Baawitigong igo ayaa<u>dig</u> noongom'', "I guess he must be in Sault Ste. Marie today." (modified from the example in the Ontario Curriculum Support Document for the Teaching of Language Patterns)
==Energetic mood==
Found in [[Classical Arabic]] and various other [[Semitic languages]], the [[energetic mood]] expresses something which is strongly believed or which the speaker wishes to emphasize, e.g. "Ya-ktub-un". ("He certainly writes.")
==Eventive mood==
The '''eventive mood''' is used in the [[Finnish language|Finnish]] epic poem, [[Kalevala]]. It is a combination of the potential and the conditional. It is also used in dialects of [[Estonian language|Estonian]].
In Finnish, there are theoretically forms like this:
* 'kävelleisin' = 'I probably would walk'
== Generic mood ==
The '''[[generic mood]]''' is used to make generalizations about a particular class of things, e.g. in ''"Rabbits are fast",'' one is speaking about rabbits ''in general'', rather than about particular fast rabbits. [[English language|English]] has no means of [[morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]] distinguishing generic mood from indicative mood, however the distinction can easily be understood in context by surrounding words. Compare, for example: ''rabbits are fast'', versus, ''the rabbits are fast''. Use of the word "the" implies specific, particular rabbits, whereas omitting the word "the" implies the generic mood simply by default.
[[Ancient Greek]] had a species of generic mood (the so-called ''[[gnomic]] utterance''), marked by the [[aorist]] indicative (normally reserved for statements about the past). It was used especially to express philosophical truths about the world.
==Hypothetical mood==
The [[hypothetical mood]], found in [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Lakota]], and other languages, expresses a [[counterfactual]] but possible event or situation.
== Imperative mood ==
The '''imperative mood''' expresses commands, direct requests, and prohibitions. In many circumstances, directly using the imperative mood seems blunt or even rude, so it is often used with care. Example: "Paul, read that book".
Many languages, including English, use the bare verb stem to form the imperative. In English, second-person is implied by the imperative except when first-person plural is specified, as in "Let's go."
== Indicative mood ==
The '''indicative mood''' is used in factual statements. All intentions in speaking that a particular language does not put into another mood use the indicative. It is the most commonly used mood and is found in al |
*Ballerina [[Darcey Bussell]]
*TV motoring correspondent [[Jeremy Clarkson]]
*[[Joan Collins]] and her husband Percy Gibson.
*[[Formula One]] chief [[Bernie Ecclestone]]
*Sir [[David Frost (broadcaster)|David Frost]]
*Stock Exchange chairman [[Chris Gibson-Smith]]
*Actor [[Nigel Havers]]
*Model [[Jodie Kidd]]
*British Airways chairman [[Lord Marshall|Colin Marshall, Baron Marshall of Knightsbridge]]
*Advertising mogul [[Saatchi & Saatchi|Lord Saatchi]]
*[[Piers Morgan]], then editor of the [[Daily Mirror]]
*[[CNN]] anchor [[Richard Quest]]
*The chairmen or chief executives of:
**[[GlaxoSmithKline]]
**[[BAE Systems]]
**[[Merrill Lynch]]
**[[Deutsche Bank]]
**[[P&O]]
**The [[Royal Bank of Scotland]]
*A lucky traveller, who had booked a regular ticket over a year earlier.
*The winner (and guest) of an eBay auction conducted by British Airways.
*The two winners of an [[Australian]] television promotion.
[[Bonhams]] held an [[auction]] of British Airways' Concorde artefacts on [[December 1]] [[2003]] at [[Olympia Exhibition Centre]], in Kensington, London. Items sold included a machmeter, a nose cone, Concorde pilot and passenger seats and even the [[cutlery]], ashtrays and blankets used onboard. About £¾ million was taken, with the first half-million going to "Get Kids Going!", a charity which gives disabled children and young people the opportunity to participate in sport.
==Aircraft histories==
Only 20 Concordes were built, six for development and 14 for commercial service.
These were:
*Two prototypes
*Two pre-production aircraft
*16 production aircraft
**The first two of these did not enter commercial service
**Of the 14 which flew commercially, 12 were still in service in April 2003
All but two of these aircraft - a remarkably high percentage for any commercial fleet - are preserved. The two which are not are F-BVFD (cn 211), which was withdrawn from service in the 1980s and scrapped in 1994; and F-BTSC (cn 203), which crashed in Paris.
{{further|[[Concorde aircraft histories]]}}
==Cultural and political impact==
The aeroplane remains a powerful symbol of ultra-modern technology although 34 years old, and many people appreciate its sculptural shape. It is a symbol of national pride to many in Britain and France; in France it was thought of as a French aircraft, in Britain as British.
The reaction of people to the prospect of severe overflying noise also represented a socially important change. Prior to Concorde's flight trials the developments made by the civil aviation industry were largely accepted by developed democratic governments and their electors. The popular backlash (particularly on the eastern seaboard of the USA) against the noise of Concorde represented a political turning point and thereafter scientists and technologists in many industries began to take environmental and societal impacts more seriously, accepting that engineers, powerful investors and governments could not always dictate the parameters of debate and allow their narrow economic or career interests to prevail. One of the key protesters to the "SST" (Super Sonic Transport - the US term given to the Concorde aircraft), [[Carol Vendi]], ultimately gained political ground over the whole issue and was elected to the [[US Congress]]. Concorde led directly to a general reduction of noise of aircraft flying out of JFK; it was found that Concorde was actually quieter than the other aircraft (due to the pilots temporarily throttling back their engines to reduce noise during overflight of residential areas). This caused the other airliner pilots to have to follow suit.
One great irony in the quashing of the Concorde's mass production was the myth of ozone threat. An anti-SST scientist suggested that the jet would produce exhaust which would cause the destruction of the earth's ozone layer, causing "a massive outbreak of skin cancer" and other effects, and this quickly became an accepted view, contributing greatly to the movement against the SST. But, when actual science was applied to the question, it was found that Concorde exhaust emissions, containing [[NOx]], would actually ''increase'' the ozone layer, to the infinitesimal degree that something so insignificant as a plane would have any effect, either way.
From this perspective, Concorde's great technical leap forward can be viewed as triggering a cultural leap forward and a boost to the public's (and the media's) understanding of conflicts between technology and natural ecosystems that continues to reverberate around the world. Thus, the fact that many larger [[jet airliner]]s now produce fewer harmful emissions and smaller noise footprints than Concorde is, perhaps, part of the Concorde's legacy. In France the use of acoustic fencing alongside [[TGV]] tracks may be another outcome that might not have been achieved without the 1970s furore over aircraft noise. In Britain the [[CPRE]] have issued tranquility maps since 1990 and public agencies are starting to do likewise.
A regular ticket on Concorde was a privilege of the rich, but special circular (non-landing) or one-way (with return by coach or ship) charter flights were arranged to bring a trip within the means of moderately well-off enthusiasts.
An over-flying example was usually referred to by the British as simply "Concorde" and the French as "the Concorde" (rather than "a Concorde"), as if there was only one.
A plane from the BA fleet made occasional flypasts at selected Royal events, major [[airshow]]s and other special occasions, sometimes in formation with the [[Red Arrows]]. On the final day of commercial service, grandstands were erected at London Heathrow for the public to watch the final arrivals, and there was extensive media coverage.
== Dimensions and specifications ==
Of a typical production-type aircraft. There are some variations.
* Overall length: 61.66 m
* Fuselage internal length: 39.32 m
* Fuselage max external width: 2.88 m
* Fuselage max internal width: 2.63 m
* Fuselage max external height: 3.32 m
* Fuselage max internal height: 1.96 m
* Wing span: 25.6 m
* Wing area: 358.25 m²
* Elevon area (each side): 16 m²
* Tail fin area: 33.91 m²
* Rudder area: 10.41 m²
* Powerplant: four [[Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls-Royce]]/[[SNECMA]] [[Rolls-Royce Olympus|Olympus 593]] Mk 610
* Max. thrust with [[Afterburner (engine)|reheat]]: 38,050 [[Pound-force|lbf]] (169 kN) per engine, without: 32,000 [[Pound-force|lbf]] (142 kN)
* Operating weight empty: 78,700 kg
* Max. fuel: 95,680 kg
* Max. taxing weight: 186,880 kg
* Max. takeoff weight: 185,070 kg
* Max. landing weight: 111,130 kg
* Max. landing weight without fuel: 92,080 kg
* Max. operation speed: [[Mach number|Mach]] 2.04 (~2170 km/h, ~1350 mph)
* Max. operating altitude: 18300 m (60,000&nbsp;ft)
* Max. range: 7250 km
* Fuel consumed per kilometre for max. range (Max. fuel/Max. range): 13.2 kg/km
* Max. [[Heat shield|Nose tip temperature]]: 127 °C (Mach was sometimes reduced to keep the temperature within limits)
==Trivia==
* In transatlantic flight, Concorde travelled more than twice as fast as other aircraft, and other aircraft frequently appeared to be flying backwards.
* Concorde had quite small passenger windows. At the extremely high altitude that Concorde flew, a broken window could have led to the passengers and crew passing out before the aircraft could be brought down to a safe altitude. Standard oxygen masks wouldn't have helped. The windows were made smaller to limit the rate that the air could be lost.
* Due to the heat generated by the compression of the air as Concorde traveled supersonically, the fuselage would extend by as much as thirty centimetres, the most obvious manifestation of this being a gap that would open up on the flight deck between the [[flight engineer]]'s console and the bulkhead. On all the Concordes that had a supersonic flight before retirement, the flight engineers placed their hat in the gap before it cooled, where they remain to this day. However in the case of the Seattle museum's Concorde, the protruding cap was cut off by a thief in an apparent attempt to steal it, leaving a part behind. An amnesty led to the severed cap being returned; the museum has been examining options to reattach it in some way.
* During the multi-venue [[Live Aid]] famine relief concerts held on [[July 13]] [[1985]], pop star [[Phil Collins]] flew with Concorde from London so that he could perform at both venues (London and Philadelphia) on the same day.
* The vehicle used [[reheat]] ([[afterburners]]) to quickly get past the high-[[drag]] [[transonic]] regime (i.e. 'go supersonic'). Although the engines were quite capable of pushing the airframe supersonic without reheat, it was discovered operationally that it burnt more fuel that way, since the vehicle took much longer to accelerate through the transonic regime, even though reheat is quite inefficient.
* Concorde burnt a reasonably large amount of fuel, but perhaps not as much might be expected; per passenger it works out at about 14 [[mile]]s to the [[gallon]] (0.17 [[litre]]s per [[kilometre]]).
* Concorde flew fast enough that the weight of everyone onboard was temporarily reduced by about 1% when flying east. This was due to [[centrifugal]] effects since its airspeed added to the rotation speed of the Earth. Flying west this didn't happen to any significant degree, because it was fighting the rotation of the Earth, and the weight ended up almost normal.[http://www.phy6.org/stargaze/Srotfram1.htm]
==Possible replacement==
In November 2003, European aviation company EADS (the company behind [[Airbus]]) announced that it was considering working with Japanese companies to develop a larger, faster replacement for Concorde [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3231354.stm]. However, recent news reports suggest only $1m is being invested every year into research, much less than the $1bn needed for the development of |
s==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{commons|Aircraft}}
'''History'''
*[http://www.nasm.si.edu/ Smithsonian Air and Space Museum] - Excellent online collection with a particular focus on history of aircraft and spacecraft
*[http://invention.psychology.msstate.edu/Tale_of_Airplane/taleplane.html Virtual Museum]
*[http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Prehistory/PH-OV.htm Prehistory of Powered Flight]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-468/contents.htm The Evolution of Modern Aircraft (NASA)]
*[http://www.flightinternational.com/Articles/2005/12/20/203709/Clipped+wings.html On Aircraft never built (Flight Global)]
*[http://www.anythingplanes.net Aircraft community ]
'''Information'''
*[http://www.flightinternational.com Flight International]
*[http://www.aircraft-info.net Aircraft-Info.net]
*[http://www.airliners.net/info/ Airliners.net]
*[http://www.HomebuiltAircraft.com HomebuiltAircraft.com]- Information Portal about Homebuilt Aircraft
* [http://www.DefenceTalk.com Airforces ]
* [http://www.challoner.com/aviation/index.html Series of Photo Essays on British Aviation]
*[http://www.usenet-replayer.com/webrings/aviation.html Pictures of Aircraft] published on [[Usenet]]
* [http://www.sulman4paf.tk PAF Procedures and Information, Wallpapers, Picture Gallery, Updated News]
'''Patents'''
* US[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=821393.WKU.&OS=PN/821393&RS=PN/821393 821393] -- ''Flying machine'' -- O. & W. Wright
{{airlistbox}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aphex Twin</title>
<id>850</id>
<revision>
<id>41236145</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T23:52:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Keenan Pepper</username>
<id>124371</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv POV</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Band |
band_name = Aphex Twin |
years_active = [[1991]] &ndash; present |
origin = [[Cornwall, England |Cornwall]], [[United Kingdom]] |
music_genre = [[Intelligent dance music|IDM]], [[Drum and Bass]], [[Acid (electronic music)|Acid]], [[Ambient music|Ambient]], [[Prepared Piano]], [[Techno]] |
image = [[Image:Afx.jpg|250px]] |
record_label = [[Rephlex Records]] <br /> [[Warp Records]] |
current_members = Richard David James |
}}
{{redirect|Aphex|the audio signal processing equipment company|[[Aphex Systems]]}}
'''Aphex Twin''' (born '''Richard David James''', [[August 18]], [[1971]], [[Ireland]]) is a [[United Kingdom|UK]]-based [[electronic music]] artist, credited with pushing forward the genres of [[techno music|techno]], [[ambient music|ambient]], [[Acid (electronic music)|acid]], and [[drum and bass]]. He has been described as "the most inventive and influential figure in contemporary electronic music" ([http://www.guardian.co.uk/friday_review/story/0,3605,563163,00.html]).
==Biography==
Richard David James was born to [[Wales|Welsh]] parents Lorna and Derek James in [[1971]] in [[Limerick, Ireland]]. James spent his childhood in [[Cornwall, United Kingdom]]. As a teenager, he became a [[DJ]] and [[musician]] on the local [[rave party|rave]] scene, taking on the [[moniker]] "Aphex Twin". James formed the [[Rephlex Records]] label in [[1991]] with his friend [[Grant Wilson-Claridge]] and released his first records on this label, as well as [[Mighty Force]] and [[R&S Records]] of [[Belgium]]. After success with his early work, James relocated to [[London]] and released a slew of albums and [[EP (format)|EPs]] on the [[Warp Records]] label, under a bewildering set of aliases (from AFX and Polygon Window to the lesser known Gak and Power Pill).
In [[1996]], he began releasing more material composed on computers, and embraced a more [[drum and bass]] sound mixed with a nostalgic childhood theme and strange computer generated acid lines. The early adoption of [[Native Instruments]]' softsynthesizers predated the later popularity of using computers to make music. The late 1990s saw his music become more popular and mainstream, as he released two singles, "Come to Daddy", and "Windowlicker", which were shown on [[MTV]] and the covers of music magazines including [[NME]].
[[Image:Aphex Twin logo.png|frame|right|The Aphex Twin Logo, present on most Aphex Twin/AFX releases.]]
In [[2001]] Aphex Twin released his most personal album yet, ''[[drukqs]]'', a 2-CD album which featured [[prepared piano]] songs under the influence of [[Erik Satie]] and [[John Cage]]. Also included were abrasive, fast, and meticulously programmed computer-made songs. The level of detail and artistry was so high, that reviewers and fans complained that the music was less in the style of innovative pop music, and more about detailed beautiful and personal musical art. ''[[drukqs]]'' is perhaps Richard's most controversial album to date; the album lacked the novelty found in his other albums, so reviewers guessed this album was released as a contract breaker with Warp Records - a credible guess, as James' next big release came out on his own Rephlex label. It is also rumored that the album drukqs was released as it was because he had almost all of these songs on a creative jukebox that he forgot and left on a plane, and in fear of all of the tracks being leaked to the internet, its release was rushed as to avoid this.
In late 2004, rumours of James' return to a more [[acid techno]] based sound were realised with the ''[[Analord]]'' series. For these records, James used his extensive collection of [[Roland Corporation|Roland]] [[drum machine]]s which he bought when they were still at bargain prices. Also he used one of the rarest, and most desirable [[synthesizer]]s of his generation, the [http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/feb99/articles/syntonfenix883.htm Synton Fenix], and the notoriously difficult to program [[Roland MC-4]] [[sequencer]] (a sequencer with a reputation for excellent timing), as well as the infamous [[Roland TB-303]] for his trademark acid melodies.
Apart from music, Richard D. James is a talented [[photography|photographer]], having done his own artwork direction for many of his albums. On the "Windowlicker" single, James hid a picture of his face (created most likely with [http://www.uisoftware.com/MetaSynth/index.html Metasynth]) in the second track (commonly referred to as "[Formula]", "[Symbol]", or "[Equation]"), which can be seen in a [http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,52426,00.html spectral] [http://www.bastwood.com/aphex.php analysis] of the track. The picture illustrates his famous toothy, evil grin.
===Aphex Twin's influences===
James has stated in numerous interviews that he has no musical influences other than himself. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/friday_review/story/0,3605,563163,00.html] He claims to have listened rarely to songs on the [[radio]] as a child and that he is unable to read [[Musical notation|sheet music]].
Conversely, James has said that he has listened to many bands and artists for inspiration and sampling (notably [[Pink Floyd]] and [[Led Zeppelin]] for their [[Break (music)|breaks]] (used as break beats), but he has also expressed appreciation for [[The Fall (band)|The Fall]]). He signed fellow musicans and personal friends Tom "[[Squarepusher]]" Jenkinson and Mike Paradinas ([[µ-ziq]]) to his [[Rephlex Records|Rephlex]] record label, as well as [[Luke Vibert]].
Other debated influences include:
<!--Please keep list alphabetical-->
* [[808 State]] for whom he has done remix work.
* [[John Cage]] and his [[prepared piano]] technique (itself inspired by [[Henry Cowell]] and [[Erik Satie]] independently) in the piano pieces on ''Drukqs''
* [[Coil (band)|Coil]]
* [[Tod Dockstader]] An electronic musician who worked with tape, mangling sounds into music of the frequency and dynamics spectrum.
* [[Mike Dred]] Acid Techno pioneer and [[Techno]] [[Electroacoustic]] hybrid pioneer (together with Peter Green) on Dred's "Machine Codes" label. James is quoted as saying that he listened to Dred & Green's ''Virtual Farmer'' LP 21 times in a row when he first heard it.
* [[Brian Eno]] pioneer of ambient music, and for the artwork of his ambient records.
* [[Larry Heard]] (One song on ''Analord 02'' is called Laricheard, an obvious [[pun]] on the names Larry Heard and Richard, as the song resembles Mr. Fingers/Larry Heard track "Amnesia".)
* [[Kraftwerk]] and their electropop styles.
* Kevin 'Master Reese' Saunderson
* [[Derrick May]] Techno pioneer.
* [[Joe Meek]], especially ''I Heard A New World'' album of this pioneering 1960s UK producer.
* [[Erik Satie]] whose melodic style was borrowed on ''Drukqs''.
* [[Squarepusher]] and [[Luke Vibert]] for their extreme versions of drum and bass.
===Influence of Aphex Twin on others===
Fans and journalists coined the genre names [[intelligent dance music|IDM]] and [[drill and bass]] to describe Aphex Twin's novel approach to dance music. Richard's own Rephlex Records label, which he co-owns with [[Grant Wilson-Claridge]] prefers the term "Braindanc |
ded to assure proper review of all changes to the map while not preventing open editing.
==Shorthand for non-wiki sites==
Most InterMap implementations simply substitute the InterWiki prefix with a full URL prefix, so many non-wiki websites can also be referred to using the system. A reference to a definition on the [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]], for instance, could take the form <code><nowiki>[[Foldoc:foo]]</nowiki></code> which would tell the system to append "foo" to "http://www.foldoc.org/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?", and display the link as [[Foldoc:foo]]. This makes it very easy to link to commonly referenced resources from within a wiki page, without the need to even know the form of the URL in question.
The InterWiki concept can equally be applied to links ''from'' non-wiki websites. [[Advogato]], for instance, offers a syntax for creating shorthand links based on a MeatBall-derived InterMap.
==External links==
* [[meta:Interwiki map|Wikimedia's InterWiki map]]
* [[MeatBall:InterMap|Discussion of the InterWiki concept]] at [[MeatballWiki]]
* [[MeatBall:FileReplacement|Discussion of the FileReplacement concept]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Inverse function</title>
<id>14907</id>
<revision>
<id>39111438</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T20:13:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Banus</username>
<id>404904</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''inverse function''' is in simple terms a [[function (mathematics)|function]] which "does the reverse" of a given function. More formally, if ''f'' is a function with domain ''X'', then ''f''<sup> &minus;1</sup> is its inverse function if and only if for every <math>x \in X</math> we have:
: <math>f^{-1}(f(x))=f(f^{-1}(x))=x.\,</math>
For example, if the function ''x'' &rarr; 3''x'' + 2 is given, then its inverse function is ''x'' &rarr; (''x''&minus;2) / 3. This is usually written as:
: <math>f\colon x\to 3x+2</math>
: <math>f^{-1}\colon x\to(x-2)/3</math>
The superscript "&minus;1" is not an exponent. Similarly, as long as we are not in [[trigonometry]], ''f'' <sup> 2</sup>(''x'') means "do ''f'' twice", that is ''f''(''f''(''x'')), not the square of ''f''(''x''). For example, if : ''f'' : ''x'' &rarr; 3''x'' + 2, then ''f'' <sup> 2</sup> : ''x'' = 3&nbsp;((3''x'' + 2)) + 2, or 9''x'' + 8. However, in trigonometry, for historical reasons, sin<sup>2</sup>(''x'') usually ''does'' mean the square of sin(''x''). As such, the prefix ''arc'' is sometimes used to denote [[inverse trigonometric function]]s, e.g. arcsin&nbsp;''x'' for the inverse of sin(''x'').
If a function ''f'' has an inverse then ''f'' is said to be '''invertible'''.
=== Simplifying rule ===
Generally, if ''f''(''x'') is any function, and ''g'' is its inverse, then ''g''(''f''(''x'')) = ''x'' and ''f''(''g''(''x'')) = ''x''. In other words, an inverse function undoes what the original function does. In the above example, we can prove ''f''<sup>&minus;1</sup> is the inverse by substituting (''x''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;2) / 3 into ''f'', so
: 3(''x'' &minus; 2) / 3 + 2 = ''x''.
Similarly this can be shown for substituting ''f'' into ''f''<sup>&minus;1</sup>.
Indeed, an equivalent definition of an inverse function ''g'' of ''f'', is to require that ''g''&nbsp;<small>o</small>&nbsp;''f'' be the [[identity function]] on the [[Domain (mathematics)|domain]] of ''f'', and ''f''&nbsp;<small>o</small>&nbsp;''g'' be the identity function on the [[codomain]] of ''f'', where "<small>o</small>" represents [[function composition]].
=== Existence ===
For a function ''f'' to have a valid inverse, it must be a [[bijection]], that is:
* (''f'' is [[onto]]) each element in the [[codomain]] must be "hit" by ''f'': otherwise there would be no way of defining the inverse of ''f'' for some elements.
* (''f'' is [[one-to-one]]) each element in the codomain must be "hit" by ''f'' only once: otherwise the inverse function would have to send that element back to more than one value.
If ''f'' is a real-valued function, then for ''f'' to have a valid inverse, it must pass the [[horizontal line test]], that is a horizontal line <math>y=k</math> placed on the graph of ''f'' must pass through ''f'' exactly once for all real ''k''.
It is possible to work around this condition, by redefining ''f'''s codomain to be precisely its [[range]], and by admitting a multi-valued function as an inverse.
If one represents the function ''f'' graphically in an ''x''-''y'' [[cartesian coordinate system|coordinate system]], then the graph of ''f''<sup> &minus;1</sup> is the reflection of the graph of ''f'' across the line ''y'' = ''x''.
Algebraically, one computes the inverse function of ''f'' by solving the equation
: <math>y=f(x)</math>
for ''x'', and then exchanging ''y'' and ''x'' to get
:<math>y=f^{-1}(x)</math>
This is not always easy; if the function ''f''(''x'') is [[analytic function|analytic]], the [[Lagrange inversion theorem]] may be used.
The symbol <var>f</var><sup> &minus;1</sup> is also used for the (set valued) function associating to an element or a subset of the codomain, the [[inverse image]] of this subset (or element, seen as a [[singleton (mathematics)|singleton]]).
==See also==
* [[Implicit function theorem]]
* [[Inverse function theorem]]
* [[Image (mathematics)|Inverse image]]
* [[Inverse relation]]
[[Category:Set theory]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Inertia</title>
<id>14909</id>
<revision>
<id>41710764</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T05:38:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Omphaloscope</username>
<id>140999</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Early understanding of motion */ sectioned off theory of impetus</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about inertia as it applies to [[physics]]. You may be looking for the [[psychological]]/[[sociological]] term; see [[social inertia]]. In [[economics]], inertia has two meanings, the tendency of an economy to continue moving in a fixed direction until a sufficient force acts to change that direction, and the "unwillingness to change" at a large firm which may contribute to a [[diseconomy of scale]].''
The principle of '''inertia''' is one of the fundamental [[Law (principle)|laws]] of [[classical physics]] which are used to describe the [[motion]] of [[matter]] and how it is affected by applied [[forces]]. The concept of inertia is today most commonly defined using [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[Newton's laws of motion|First Law of Motion]], which states:
<blockquote>''Every body perseveres in its state of being at rest or of moving uniformly straight ahead, except insofar as it is compelled to change its state by forces impressed.'' [Cohen & Whitman 1999 translation]</blockquote>
The description of inertia presented by Newton's law is still considered the standard for [[classical physics]]. However, it has also been refined and expanded over time to reflect developments in understanding of [[theory of relativity|relativity]] and [[quantum physics]] which have led to somewhat different (and more mathematical) interpretations in some of those fields.
== Common usage of term ==
It should be emphasised that 'inertia' is a scientific [[principle]], and thus not [[quantitative|quantifiable]].
In common usage, people may also use the term "inertia" to refer qualitatively to an object's [[momentum]] or its "amount of resistance to change in velocity" (its [[mass]]), depending on context (e.g. "this object has a lot of inertia"). The term "inertia" is more properly understood as a shorthand for "the principle of inertia as described by Newton in his First Law".
==History and development of the concept==
===Early understanding of motion===
Prior to the [[Renaissance]] in the [[15th century]], the generally accepted theory of motion in western philosophy was that proposed by [[Aristotle]] (around [[335 BC]] to [[322 BC]]), which stated that in the absence of a force, all objects (on earth) would naturally come to rest in a state of no movement, and that moving objects only continue to move so long as there is a force inducing them to do so{{ref|physics}}. This position also presumed that the earth itself was static and did not move, and also implied that there must be different rules for movement on earth (where objects are naturally at rest) and movement in the heavens (which appeared to exhibit perpetual motion).
Despite its remarkable success and general acceptance, this position was disputed on several occasions by notable philosophers over the nearly 2 [[millennia]] of its reign. In the [[6th century]], [[Joannes Philoponus]] first criticised Aristotle's view, proposing instead that motion was maintained by some property of the object, imparted when it was set in moti |
oncurred with the statement that "God created man pretty much in his present form at one time within the last 10,000 years."
In [[1987]], [[Newsweek]] reported: "By one count there are some 700 scientists with respectable academic credentials (out of a total of 480,000 U.S. earth and life scientists) who ascribed to Biblically literal creationism."
In [[2000]], a [[People for the American Way]] poll estimated that:
:20% of Americans believe public schools should teach evolution only;
:17% of Americans believe that only evolution should be taught in science classes &mdash; religious explanations should be taught in another class;
:29% of Americans believe that Creationism should be discussed in science class as a 'belief,' not a scientific theory;
:13% of Americans believe that Creationism and evolution should be taught as 'scientific theories' in science class;
:16% of Americans believe that only Creationism should be taught;
Less-direct [[anecdotal evidence]] of the popularity of creationism is reflected in the response of [[IMAX]] theaters to the availability of ''[[Volcanoes of the Deep Sea]]'', an IMAX film which makes a connection between human [[DNA]] and [[microbe]]s inside undersea [[volcano]]es. The film's distributor reported that the only U.S. states with theaters which chose not to show the film were [[Texas]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[North Carolina]], and [[South Carolina]]:
:We've got to pick a film that's going to sell in our area. If it's not going to sell, we're not going to take it," said the director of an IMAX theater in Charleston that is not showing the movie. "Many people here believe in creationism, not evolution." [http://www.cnn.com/2005/SHOWBIZ/Movies/03/23/volcano.movie.ap/index.html]
===The western world outside the United States===
Most vocal creationists are from the United States, and creationist views are much less common elsewhere in the Western World.
According to a [[PBS]] documentary on evolution, Australian Young Earth Creationists claimed that "five percent of the Australian population now believe that Earth is thousands, rather than billions, of years old." The documentary further states that "Australia is a particular stronghold of the creationist movement." Taking these claims at face value, Young Earth Creationism is very much a minority position in Western countries.
In [[Europe]], creationism is a less well-defined phenomenon, and regular polls are not available. However, evolution is taught as scientific fact in most schools. In countries with a [[Roman Catholic]] majority, [[pope|papal]] acceptance of evolution as worthy of study has essentially ended debate on the matter for many people. Nevertheless, creationist groups such as the German ''[[Studiengemeinschaft Wort und Wissen]] (Study group 'word and knowledge')''[http://www.wort-und-wissen.de/] are actively lobbying in Germany. In the [[United Kingdom]] the [[Emmanuel Schools Foundation]] (previously the Vardy Foundation), which runs three government-funded 13 to 19 schools in the north of England (out of several thousand in the country) and plans to open several more, teaches that creationism and evolution are equally valid "faith positions". In [[Italy]], the prime minister [[Silvio Berlusconi]] wanted to retire evolution from schools in the middle level; after one week of massive protests, he reversed his opinion. [http://www2.onnachrichten.t-online.de/dyn/c/19/01/33/1901336.html]
Of particular note for [[Eastern Europe]], [[Serbia]] suspended the teaching of evolution for one week in [[2004]], under education minister [[Ljiljana Čolić]], only allowing schools to reintroduce evolution into the curriculum if they also taught creationism. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/09/09/wdarw09.xml&sSheet=/news/2004/09/09/ixworld.html]
"After a deluge of protest from scientists, teachers and opposition parties," says the BBC report, Ms Čolić's deputy made the statement, "I have come here to confirm Charles Darwin is still alive," and announced that the decision was reversed.
[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3642460.stm] Ms. Čolić resigned after the government said that she had caused "problems that had started to reflect on the work of the entire government". [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3663196.stm]
==Criticism of creationism==
===Scientific critique of creationism===
All forms of Creationism incorporate some theological content, but they have varied considerably over time in the degree to which they try to incorporate scientific terminology. Since the origins of modern [[geology]] in the 18th and 19th centuries, theories of creationism have become increasingly separated from mainstream science. Many modern forms of creationism, particularly Young Earth Christian creationism, were created to defend the literal interpretation of the [[Creation according to Genesis|biblical account of creation in genesis]], when evolution started to become scientific orthodoxy. Many modern creationists are widely regarded as 'anti evolutionists' rather than as people putting forward an honest alternative to explain the origins of life. Indeed, virtually all creationist arguments take the form of attacks on evolutionary theories.
Creationists sometimes minimize the explanatory power and validity of evolution theory by criticizing it as being "just a theory" implying that the word "theory" is synonymous with "conjecture" or "speculation", instead of the technical, [[scientific method|scientifically]] accepted use of the word "theory" to mean a model of the world (or some portion of it) from which [[falsifiability|falsifiable]] [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] can be generated and verified through empirical observation. In this sense, evolution is an acceptable theory.
Critics charge that Creationism is not a theory that has come about through a similar systematic accumulation of evidence. It is based on a literal interpretation of religious scripture and the emphasis of scripture over other sources of knowledge. Young Earth Creationism also fails the criteria of falsifiability and parsimony. While the hypothesis that the Earth is only a few thousand years old allows many predictions, evidence which refutes these predictions cannot invalidate creationism, because creationism itself is a belief and not a scientific theory. The belief can persist in spite of evidence to the contrary.
There is a fundamental difference between the scientific approach and the approach used by creationist advocates. The scientific approach uses the [[scientific method]] as a means of discovering information about the natural world. Scientists use observations, hypotheses and deductions to propose explanations for natural phenomena in the form of theories. Predictions from these theories are tested by experiment. If a prediction turns out to be correct, the theory survives. This is a [[Meritocracy|meritocratic]] form of systematic enquiry, where the best ideas supported by evidence and positive experimental results survive. Traditional science does not seek answers that fit a certain pre-determined conclusion, but rather works to construct viable, testable, and provable theories based on a solid evidential foundation. The evidential foundation therefore precludes any reference to revelation. Creationism works in the opposite direction: accepting the conclusion first and working backwards to 'discover' supporting evidence. This is fundamentally unscientific, and a hallmark of [[pseudoscience]].
All scientific [[theory|theories]] are falsifiable; that is, if evidence that contradicts any given theory comes to light, or if the theory is proven to no longer fit with the evidence, the theory itself is shown to be invalid and is either modified to be consistent with all the evidence or is discarded. Evolution is a theory that fits in with all known biological evidence, fits in with all known genetic evidence, and is backed up by overwhelming evidence in the [[Fossil|fossil]] record. Contrary to frequent claims by many opponents of the theory of evolution, [[Transitional fossil|transitional fossils]] exist which show a gradual change from one species to another. Moreover, evolutionary selection has been observed in living species (for a macroscopic instance, "tuskless elephants"--''see [[elephant]]'').
In the last ten years, powerful [[DNA]] analysis techniques applied to many organisms have demonstrated the fundamental genetic relationship between all forms of known life (humans share 50% of their DNA with yeast, 96%''[http://www.genome.gov/15515096]'' with chimpanzees). Clearly, even if evolution as biologists currently understand it turned out to be false, this would not imply the truth of special creation (such a binary view being a [[logical fallacy]]). It is exclusively in the public sphere, where [[young Earth creationists]] (especially in the US) have fought for recognition of their [[world view]], that the debate about creationism and evolution rages.
===The Christian critique of creationism===
In "Intelligent Design as a Theological Problem," George Murphy argues against the common view that life on Earth in all its forms is direct evidence of God's act of creation (Murphy quotes Phillip Johnson's claim that he is speaking "of a God who acted openly and left his fingerprints on all the evidence."). Murphy argues that this view of God is incompatible with the Christian understanding of God as "the one revealed in the cross and resurrection of Jesus." The basis of this theology is [[Isaiah]] 45:15, "Truly, thou art a God who hidest thyself, O God of Israel, the Savior." This verse inspired [[Blaise Pascal]] to write, "What meets our eyes denotes neither a total absence nor a manifest pre |
nowning that the processor clones the 8 bit port address to the higher address byte (IN 0x05 would produce the 0x0505 on the 16 bit address bus).
===The internal state word===
For the more complicated system, during one phase of its working loop the processor was setting its "internal state byte" on the data bus. This byte contained flags, informing, if the memory or I/O port is accessed and also was necessary to handle the interrupts.
The interrupt system state (enabled or disabled) was also outputed into separate pin. For the simple systems, where the interrupts were not used, it is possible to find curiosic cases using this pin as an additional single-bit output port (the Russian popular Radio86RK computer, for instance).
===Pin usage===
The address bus had its own 16 pins, and the data bus had 8 pins that were possible to use without any multiplexing. Using the two additional pins (read and write signals), it was possible to assemble simple microprocessor devices very easily. Only the separate IO space, interrupts and DMA required additional chips to decode the processor pin signals. However the processor load capacity was limited, and even simple computers frequently contained the bus amplifiers.
The processor required three power sources (-5, +5 and +12 Volt(V)) and two non-interlacing high-amplitude synchronization signals. However at least the late Soviet version КР580ВМ80А was able to work with the single +5 V power source, +12 V pin being connected to the same +5 V and -5 V pin - to the ground. The processor consumed about 1.3 Watts(W) of power.
The pin usage table was described in the chip accompanying documentation as following:
<table border="1" >
<tr>
<th>Pin number</th>
<th>Signal</th>
<th>Type</th>
<th>Comment</th>
</tr>
<tr> <td>1</td><td>A10</td>
<td>Output</td><td>Address bus 10</td></tr>
<tr> <td>2</td><td>GND</td>
<td>-</td><td>Ground</td></tr>
<tr> <td>3</td><td>D4</td>
<td rowspan="8">Bidirectional</td>
<td rowspan="8">Bidirectional data bus. The processor also transiently sets here the "processor state", providing information that the processor is currently doing:
*D0 reading interrupt comand. In response to the interrupt signal, the processor was reading and executing a single arbitrary command with this flag raised. Normally the supporting chips provided the subroutine call command (CALL or RST), transferring control to the interrupt handling code.
*D1 reading (low level means writing)
*D2 acessing stack (probably the separate stack memory space was initially planned)
*D3 doing nothing, has been halted by the HLT command
*D4 writing data to the output port
*D5 reading the first byte of the executable command
*D6 reading data from the input port
*D7 reading data from memory
</td>
</tr><tr>
<td>4</td><td>D5</td></tr>
<tr> <td>5</td><td>D6</td></tr>
<tr> <td>6</td><td>D7</td></tr>
<tr> <td>7</td><td>D3</td></tr>
<tr> <td>8</td><td>D2</td></tr>
<tr> <td>9</td><td>D1</td></tr>
<tr> <td>10</td><td>D0</td></tr>
<tr> <td>11</td><td>-5 V</td>
<td>-</td><td>The -5 V power supply. This must be the first power source connected and the last disconnected, otherwise the processor will be damaged.</td></tr>
<tr> <td>12</td><td>R</td>
<td>Input</td><td>Reset. The signal forces execution of commands, located at address 0000. The content of other processor registers is not modified. This is an inverting input (the active level being logical 0)</td></tr>
<tr> <td>13</td><td>DMA</td>
<td>Input</td><td>Direct memory access request. The processor is requested to switch the data and address bus to the high impedance ("disconnected") state.</td></tr>
<tr> <td>14</td><td>INT</td>
<td>Input</td><td>Interrupt request</td></tr>
<tr> <td>15</td><td>CLC2
<td>Input</td><td>The second phase of the clock generator signal</td></tr>
<tr> <td>16</td><td>ACK INT</td>
<td>Output</td><td>The processor had two commands for setting the 0 or 1 level on this pin. The pin normally was supposed to be used for the interrupt control. However in the simple computers it was sometimes used just as the single bit output port for various purporses.</td></tr>
<tr> <td>17</td><td>RD</td>
<td>Output</td><td>Read (the processor reads from memory or input port)</td></tr>
<tr> <td>18</td><td>WR</td>
<td>Output</td><td>Write (the processor writes to memory or output port). This is the inverted output, the active level being logical zero.</td></tr>
<tr> <td>19</td><td>S</td>
<td>Output</td><td>The active level indicates that the processor has set the "state word" on the data bus. The various bits of this state word provided the additional information for supporting the separate address and memory spaces, interrupts and direct memory access. This signal required to pass through additional logic before it could be used to write the processor state word from the data bus into some register.</td></tr>
<tr> <td>20</td><td>5 V</td><td>-</td><td>The + 5 V power supply</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"><hr></td></tr>
<tr> <td>21</td><td>ACK DMA</td>
<td>Output</td><td>Direct memory access confirmation. The processor switches data and address pins into the high impedance state, allowing other device to manipulate the bus</td></tr>
<tr> <td>22</td><td>CLC1</td>
<td>Input</td><td>The first phase of the clock generator signal</td></tr>
<tr> <td>23</td><td>RDY</td>
<td>Input</td><td>Wait. With this signal it was possible to suspend processor's work. It was also used to support the hardware-based step-by step debugging mode.</td></tr>
<tr> <td>24</td><td>WAIT</td>
<td>Output</td><td>Wait (indicates that the processor is in the waiting state)</td></tr>
<tr> <td>25</td><td>A0</td>
<td rowspan="3">Output</td>
<td rowspan="3">Address bus</td></tr>
<tr> <td>26</td><td>A1</td></tr>
<tr> <td>27</td><td>A2</td></tr>
<tr> <td>28</td><td>12 V</td>
<td>-</td><td>The +12 V power supply. This must be the ''last'' connected and first disconnected power source.</td></tr>
<tr> <td>29</td><td>A3</td>
<td rowspan="12">Output</td>
<td rowspan="12">The address bus, can switch into high impedance state on demand</td></tr>
<tr> <td>30</td><td>A4</td></tr>
<tr> <td>31</td><td>A5</td></tr>
<tr> <td>32</td><td>A6</td></tr>
<tr> <td>33</td><td>A7</td></tr>
<tr> <td>34</td><td>A8</td></tr>
<tr> <td>35</td><td>A9</td></tr>
<tr> <td>36</td><td>A15</td></tr>
<tr> <td>37</td><td>A12</td></tr>
<tr> <td>38</td><td>A13</td></tr>
<tr> <td>39</td><td>A14</td></tr>
<tr> <td>40</td><td>A11</td></tr>
</table>
Literature, used for this table:
* http://tehno-doc.nm.ru/mikroshem_rus/kr580/kr580vm80a.html
* http://www.radiomaster.ru/stati/radio/k580/14_k580.php
==The industrial impact==
===Applications and successors===
The 8080 was used in many early microcomputers, such as the [[Altair 8800|MITS Altair 8800]] and [[IMSAI 8080]], forming the basis for machines running the [[CP/M operating system]] (the later, fully compatible and more capable, [[Zilog Z80]] processor would capitalize on this, with Z80 & CP/M becoming the dominant CPU & OS combination of the period much like [[x86]] & [[MS-DOS]] for the PC a decade later). The first [[single-board computer|single-board microcomputer]] was based on the 8080.
Shortly after the launch of the 8080, the [[Motorola 6800]] competing design was introduced, and after that, the [[MOS Technology 6502]] variation of the 6800. [[Zilog]] introduced the [[Zilog Z80|Z80]], which had a compatible machine-language instruction set and initially used the same assembly language as the 8080, but for legal reasons, Zilog developed a syntactically-different alternative assembly language for the Z80. At Intel, the 8080 was followed by the compatible and electrically more e |
his polarises the issues, with each competitor acting in its own self-interest, and so presenting the facts and interpretations of the law in a deliberately biased way. The intention is that through a process of argument and counter-argument, examination-in-chief and cross-examination, each side will test the truthfulness, relevancy, and sufficiency of the opponent's evidence and arguments. To maintain [[fairness]], there is a [[presumption of innocence]], and the [[burden of proof]] lies on the prosecution. Critics of the system argue that the desire to win is more important than the search for truth. Further, the results are likely to be affected by structural inequalities. Those [[defendant]]s with resources can afford to hire a the best [[lawyers]], whereas those who are poor are more easily victimised because, even when the state operates a system of financial support for defendants, the quality of legal representation is often inferior to the lawyers acting for the state.
*[[Inquisitorial system|Inquisitorial]]: In the [[civil law (common law)|civil law]] systems, the responsibility for supervising the investigation by the police into whether a crime has been committed falls on an examining magistrate or judge who then conducts the trial. The assumption is that the truth is more likely to emerge from an impartial and exhaustive investigation both before and during the trial itself. The examining magistrate or judge acts as an inquisitor who directs the fact-gathering process by questioning witnesses, interrogating the suspect, and collecting other evidence. The lawyers who represent the interests of the state and the accused have a limited role to offer legal arguments and alternative interpretations to the facts that emerge during the process. All the interested parties are expected to co-operate in the investigation by answering the magistrate or judge's questions and, when asked, supplying all relevant evidence. The trial only takes place after all the evidence has been collected and the investigation is completed. Thus, most of the factual uncertainties will already be resolved, and the examining magistrate or judge will already have resolved that there is ''[[prima facie]]'' of guilt. The trial is no more than the public resolution of the ongoing investigation where the accused has the burden of rebutting the presumption of guilt. Critics argue that the examining magistrate or judge has too much power in that he or she will both investigate and adjudicate on the merits of the case. Although lay assessors do sit as a form of jury to offer advice to the magistrate or judge at the conclusion of the trial, their role is subordinate. Further, because a professional has been in charge of all aspects of the case to the conclusion of the trial, there are fewer opportunities to appeal the conviction alleging some procedural error.
===The function of the trial===
There are two forms of deterrence:
*Specific: The intention underlying the penal system is to deter future wrongdoing by the defendant if convicted. The punishment is supposed to demonstrate the unfortunate consequences that will follow any decision to break the law. If the convicted person considers the possibility of breaking the law again in the future, the assumption is that the individual will choose not to break the law and so avoid further punishment.
*General: The punishment imposed on the particular accused is also a warning to other potential wrongdoers. Thus the function of the trial is to gain the maximum publicity for the crime and its punishment so that others will be deterred from following in the particular accused's footsteps.
==Reasons==
Antisocial behaviour is criminalised and treated as offences against [[society]] which justifies punishment by the government. A series of distinctions are made depending on the passive subject of the crime (the [[victim]]), or on the offended interest(s), in crimes against:
* Personality of the state.
* [[Right]]s of the citizen.
* Public [[administration]].
* Administration of justice.
* [[Religion|Religious]] sentiment and [[faith]].
* [[Public order]].
* Public economy, [[industry]], and [[commerce]].
* Public [[morality]].
* Person and [[honour|honour]].
* [[Patrimony]].
Or they can be distinguished depending on the related punishment with [[sentence (law)|sentencing]] [[tariff]]s prescribed in line with the perceived seriousness of the offence with [[fine]]s and noncustodial sentences for the least serious, and in some states, [[capital punishment]] for the most serious.
==Classification==
In the [[United States]] since 1930, [[Uniform Crime Reports]] (UCR) have been tabulated annually by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] from crime data submitted by [[law enforcement]] agencies across the [[United States]]. This data is compiled at the city, county, and state levels into the [[Uniform crime report]]s (UCR). Violations of laws, which are derived from [[common law]], are classified as Part I (index) crimes in UCR data, and further categorised as violent and property crimes. Part I violent crimes include murder and criminal homicide (voluntary manslaughter), forcible rape, aggravated assault, and robbery, while Part I property crimes include burglary, arson, larceny/theft, and motor vehicle theft. All other crimes are classified as Part II crimes.
Crimes are also grouped by severity, some common categorical terms being: [[felony|felonies]], [[indictable offence]]s, [[misdemeanor]]s, and [[summary offence]]s. For convenience, [[infraction]]s are also usually included in such lists although, in the U.S., they may not be the subject of the criminal law, but rather of the [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]].
The following are crimes in many [[criminal jurisdiction]]s:
{| border=0 cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 align="center" width="80%"
|-
|style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;"|
* [[Arson]] (not in [[English law]])
* [[Assault]]s
* [[Battery (crime)|Battery]]
* [[Blackmail]]
* [[Burglary]]
* [[Child sexual abuse]]
* [[Counterfeiting]]
|style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;"|
* [[Drug possession]]
* [[Embezzlement]]
* [[Espionage]]
* [[Extortion]]
* [[Forgery]]
* [[Fraud]]/[[Deception offences]]
* [[Homicide]]
|style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;"|
* [[Identity theft]]
* [[Gambling|Illegal gambling]]
* [[Inchoate offense]]s
* [[Kidnapping]]
* [[Larceny]]
* [[Looting]]
|style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;"|
* [[Motor vehicle theft]]/[[TWOC]]
* [[Perjury]]
* [[Rape]]
* [[Robbery]]
* [[Sexual assault]]s
* [[Smuggling]]
|style="text-align:left;vertical-align:top;"|
* [[Stalking]]
* [[Tax evasion]]
* [[Theft]]
* [[Treason]]
* [[Trespass]] (not in English law)
* [[Vandalism]] (see [[Criminal Damage Act 1971]] for the codified offence in English law)
* [[Weapon possession]]
|-
|}
== See also ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Actus reus]]
* [[Case law]]
* [[Civil law (private law)|Civil law]]
* [[Crime against humanity]]
* [[Crime index]]
* [[Crime mapping]]
* [[Criminal justice]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Criminal record]]
* [[Death penalty]]
* [[Detective]]
* [[Hate crime]]
* [[Insanity defense]]
* [[International crime]]
* [[Mala in se]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Mala prohibita]]
* [[Mens rea]]
* [[Piracy]]
* [[Prison]]
* [[Racial profiling]]
* [[Sexual crime]]
* [[Social policy]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Strict liability crimes]]
* [[Underground economy]]
* [[Victimology]]
* [[War crime]]
{{col-end}}
== External link ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.nationmaster.com/graph-T/cri_tot_cri Crime incidence by country]
==Bibliography==
*Aquinas, Thomas. (1988). ''On Law, Morality and Politics''. 2nd edition. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co. ISBN 0872206637
*Attenborough, F. L. (ed. and trans.) (1922). ''The Laws of the Earliest English Kings''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Reprint March 2006. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. ISBN 9781584775836
*Blackstone, William. (1765-1769). ''Commentaries on the Law of England: A Facsimile of the First Edition of 1765-1769, Vol. 1''. (1979). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226055388
*Blythe, James M. (1992). ''Ideal Government and the Mixed Constitution in the Middle Ages''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691031673
*Daube, David. (1969). ''Roman Law: Linguistic, Social and Philosophical Aspects''. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0852240511
*Driver, G. R. & Mills, John C. (1952-55). ''The Babylonian Laws''. 2 Vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198251106
*Dworkin, Ronald. (2005). ''Taking Rights Seriously''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674867114
*Gagarin, Michael. (1986). ''Early Greek Law''. Reprint edition (1989). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520066022
*Garner, Richard. (1987). ''Law and Society in Classical Athens''. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0312008562
*Garoupa, Nuno & Klerman, Daniel. (2002). "Optimal Law Enforcement with a Rent-Seeking Government". ''American Law and Economics Review'' Vol. 4, No. 1. pp116-140.
*Guterman, Simeon L. (1990). ''The Principle of the Personality of Law in the Germanic Kingdoms of Western Europe from the Fifth to the Eleventh Century''. New York: P. Lang. ISBN 0820407313
*Hart, H.L.A. (1961). ''The Concept of Law''. 2nd revised edition (1997). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198761236
*Hart, H.L.A. (1972). ''Law, Liberty and Morality''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804701547
*Kern, Fritz. (1948). ''Kingship and Law in the Middle Ages''. Reprint edition (1985), Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
*Kramer, Samuel Noah. (1971). ''The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character''. Chicago: University of Chicago. ISBN 0226452387
*Maine, Henry Sumner. (1861). ''Ancient Law: Its Connection with the Early History of Society, and Its Relation to Modern Ideas''. Reprint edition (1986). Tucson: University of Arizona Press. |
|List of ''Dance Dance Revolution'' games]]
* [[Dancing Stage]] (UK version of ''DDR'')
* [[List of dance games]]
* [[Dance pad]]
* [[Comparison of panel-based music video games]]
* [[Exertainment]]
* [[Flash Flash Revolution]]
* [[Bemani]]
==External links==
*[http://www.konami.co.jp/am/ddr/ Official Konami ''DDR'' arcade website] (in [[Japanese language|Japanese]])
*[http://www.klov.com/game_detail.php?game_id=7489 ''Dance Dance Revolution'' entry] on [[Killer List of Videogames]]
*[http://www.ddr.sh DDRers' Stompin' Ground], a comprehensive resource for features on specific ''DDR'' games (in [[Japanese language|Japanese]])
*[http://www.ddrfreak.com/ DDR Freak], a North American community website
*[http://www.ddrzone.com DDR Zone], getting started with DDR
*[http://www.ddrplace.com DDR Place], Files related to DDR and StepMania
*[http://www.bemanistyle.com Bemanistyle], a news and reference site for music games
*[http://www.ddrmaniax.net DDR ManiaX], a North American community website, also the official forum for the ''[[StepMania]]'' DDR simulator.
*[http://www.ddrforever.hotfire.net DDR Forever], a a DDR forum and Community site
*[http://www.ddruk.com DDR UK], a UK community for players of DDR.
*[http://www.BemaniOnline.com Bemani Online], a community of Bemani Fans located in and around the East Coast.
*[http://www.ddrextreme.co.uk DDRExtreme.co.uk], a UK based site for players of DDR and ''[[StepMania]]''
*[http://www.ddrplanet.it DDR Planet], an Italian community for players of DDR.
*[http://www.tygerstyle.net Tygerstyle.net], a mainly Florida community for players of DDR with videos and forum.
*[http://www.ddrmaniax.net DDRManiaX.net], a website for DDR and ''[[StepMania]]'' players, with a forum and [[Bit Torrent]]-format stepfiles.
*[http://www.mg-addict.be Musical Games Addict], a Belgian community for DDR players.
*[http://www.ddrei.com DDR East Invasion], an Eastern US based DDR site for locations, events and information.
[[http://www.mediafamily.org/press/20051129.shtml]]
{{Dance Dance Revolution games}}
[[Category:Arcade games]]
[[Category:Konami games]]
[[Category:Dance video games]]
[[Category:Dance Dance Revolution series]]
[[Category:Computer and video game franchises]]
[[Category:Fads]]
[[de:Dance Dance Revolution]]
[[es:Dance Dance Revolution]]
[[fr:Dance Dance Revolution]]
[[nl:Dance Dance Revolution]]
[[ja:ダンスダンスレボリューション]]
[[nn:Maskindans]]
[[pl:Dance Dance Revolution]]
[[pt:Dance Dance Revolution]]
[[fi:Dance Dance Revolution]]
[[sv:Dance Dance Revolution]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dual Alliance, 1879</title>
<id>9011</id>
<revision>
<id>28979615</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-22T13:15:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wiki alf</username>
<id>303874</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/198.165.58.254|198.165.58.254]] to last version by YurikBot</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Dual Alliance''' between [[Germany]] and [[Austria-Hungary]] was created by treaty on [[October 7]], [[1879]]. In it, Germany and Austria-Hungary pledged to aid one another in case of an attack by [[Russia]]. Also, each state promised benevolent neutrality to the other if one of them was attacked by another European power (generally taken to be [[France]], especially after the [[Franco-Russian Alliance]] of [[1894]]).
After the formation of the [[German Empire]] in [[1871]], German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]] wanted to portray his nation as a peacemaker and preserver of the European status quo. In [[1877]], [[Russia]] defeated the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the [[Russo-Turkish War]]; the resulting [[Treaty of San Stefano]] gave Russia much influence in the [[Balkans]]. This development outraged Austria-Hungary, who was Russia's chief competitor for influence in the Balkan region (despite being an ally of the Russians and the Germans in the [[Three Emperors' League]]). Hence, in [[1878]], Bismarck called an international conference (the [[Congress of Berlin]]) in order to sort out the problem. The [[Treaty of Berlin, 1878|Treaty of Berlin]] that resulted from the conference reversed Russia's gains from the Treaty of San Stefano and provided the Austrians with compensation for lost territory. Despite Bismarck's attempts to play the role of an "honest broker" at the Congress of Berlin, Russo-German relations deteriorated following the conference. The Three Emperors' League was discontinued, and Germany and Austria-Hungary were free to ally with one another against Russia.
[[Category:Treaties]]
[[de:Zweibund]]
[[it:Duplice Alleanza]]
[[nl:Tweebond]]
[[sl:Dvozveza (1879)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diplomacy game</title>
<id>9013</id>
<revision>
<id>15906941</id>
<timestamp>2003-01-16T06:45:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vera Cruz</username>
<id>5753</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diplomacy (game)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Developmental psychology</title>
<id>9014</id>
<revision>
<id>41443275</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T09:54:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>148.136.141.173</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Added Swedish crosslink ([[User:Ahruman]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Psychology}}
'''Developmental psychology''' is the [[science|scientific]] study of progressive [[psychology|psychological]] changes that occur in [[human]] beings as they age. Originally concerned with [[infants]] and [[children]], and later other periods of great change such as [[adolescence]] and [[aging]], it now encompasses the entire life span. This field examines change across a broad range of topics including [[motor skills]] and other psycho-physiological processes, [[problem solving]] abilities, conceptual understanding, acquisition of [[language]], [[morality|moral understanding]], and [[identity (social science)|identity]] formation.
Developmental psychologists investigates key questions, such as whether children are qualitatively different from adults or simply lack the experience that adults draw upon. Other issues that they deal with is the question of whether development occurs through the gradual accumulation of knowledge or through shifts from one stage of thinking to another; or if children are born with innate knowledge or figure things out through experience; and whether development driven by the [[social context]] or by something inside each child.
Developmental psychology informs several applied fields, including: [[educational psychology|educational psychology]], [[child psychopathology]] and [[developmental forensics]]. Developmental psychology complements several other basic research fields in [[psychology]] including [[social psychology]], [[cognitive psychology]], and [[comparative psychology]].
== Theory ==
Many theoretical perspectives attempt to explain development, among the most prominent are: [[Jean Piaget]]'s [[Theory of cognitive development|Stage Theory]], [[Lev Vygotsky]]'s [[Social Contextualism]] (and its heir, the Development in Context or Human Ecology theory of [[Urie Bronfenbrenner]]), and especially the [[information processing]] framework employed by cognitive psychology.
Historical theories continue to provide a basis for additional research, among them are [[Erik Erikson]]'s eight [[Erikson's stages of psychosocial development|stages of psychosocial development]] and [[John B. Watson]]'s and [[B. F. Skinner]]'s [[Behaviorism]]. Many other theories are prominent for their contributions to particular aspects of development. For example, [[Attachment theory]] describes kinds of interpersonal relationships and [[Lawrence Kohlberg]] describes [[Kohlberg's stages of moral development|stages in moral reasoning]].
=== Role of experience ===
[[Image:Baby thinking Sofia SERRES.jpg|right|thumb|150px|A baby thinking]]
A significant question in developmental psychology is the relation between innateness and environmental influence in regard to any particular aspect of development. This is often referred to as "[[nature versus nurture]]" or [[nativism]] versus [[empiricism]]. A nativist account of development would argue that the processes in question are innate, that is, they are specified by the organism's [[genes]]. An empiricist perspective would argue that those processes are acquired in interaction with the environment. Today developmental psychologists rarely take such extreme positions with regard to most aspects of development; rather they investigate, among many other things, the relationship between innate and environmental influences. One of the ways in which this relationship has been explored in recent years is through the emerging field of [[evolutionary developmental psychology]].
One area where this innateness debate has been prominently portrayed is in research on [[language acquisition]]. A major question in this area is whether or not certain properties of human language are specified genetically or can be acquired through [[learning]]. The nativist position argues that the input from language is too impoverished for infants and children to acquire the structure of language. Linguist [[Noam Chomsky]] asserts that, evidenced by the lack of sufficient information in the language input, there is a [[universal grammar]] that applies to all human languages and is pre-specified. This has led to the idea that there is a special cognitive [[modularity of mind|module]] suited for learning language, often called the [[language acquisition device]].
The empiricist position on the issue of language acqusition suggests that the language input does provide the necessary information required for learning the structure of language and that infants acquire language through a process of [[statistical learn |
e network, desktops, laptops, servers, telephones, video-conferencing, satellite transceivers, and overall management of the intranet.
Following on to the NMCI type of services, EDS in March 2005 won a US$4 billion contract with the U.K. Ministry of Defense to "consolidate numerous existing information networks into a single next-generation infrastructure.... The network will provide seamless interaction between headquarters, battlefield support and the front line, linking about 150,000 desktop terminals and 340,000 users in approximately 2,000 locations...."
Other major clients include [[American Airlines]], [[Department for Work and Pensions]], [[Bank of America]], [http://www.bluecrossma.com/common/en_US/index.jsp Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Massachusetts], [[Commonwealth Bank of Australia]], [[Fonterra]], [[J.Crew]], [[Nextel]], [[Primedia]], [[Rolls-Royce]], [[Sabre Holdings]], [[SKF]], [[Sun Microsystems]], [[Blohm + Voss]], [[Telecom New Zealand]], [[Telefónica]] (Brazil), [[La Caixa]], and [[Xerox]].
==Sponsorships==
EDS is the primary sponsor of the [[PGA Tour]]'s [[EDS Byron Nelson Championship]], played in nearby [[Irving, Texas]].
==External links==
* [http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/41/41915.html Yahoo! - Electronic Data Systems Corporation Company Profile]
* [http://www.eds.com/about/history/timeline.aspx EDS timeline]
* [http://www.eds.com/sites/cs/blogs/eds_next_big_thing_blog/default.aspx EDS Next Big Thing Blog]
* [http://www.medicaid.state.ar.us/InternetSolution/general/anreps/sfy04ar/to-rh2.htm Operation HOTFOOT], about rescue of two of EDS' own employees imprisoned in Iran in the '70s
* [http://flickr.com/photos/extraspecial/tags/eds/ Flickr: extraspecial's photos tagged with eds]
* [http://flickr.com/photos/danielqo/tags/eds/ Flickr: Daniel Quirino Oliveira's photos tagged with eds]
[[Category:Business services companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange]]
[[Category:Computer companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Dallas-Fort Worth Texas based companies]]
[[Category:Forbes 2000]]
[[Category:Internet companies of the United States]]
[[Category:IT consulting firms]]
[[Category:Multinational companies]]
[[de:Electronic Data Systems]]
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[[zh:EDS]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>E2</title>
<id>10053</id>
<revision>
<id>41781742</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:34:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Janeraeman</username>
<id>1012701</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''E2''' or '''E-2''' can refer to:
*'''E2''' is the IATA code for [[Edelweiss Holdings]], an airline
* The [[Everything2]] encyclopedia project
* A type of [[Elimination reaction]] in [[Organic chemistry]]
* An [[EMD E2]] [[diesel locomotive]]
* "[[E² (Enterprise episode)|E²]]", an episode of ''[[Star Trek: Enterprise]]''
* [[HMS E2|HMS ''E2'']], an [[British E class submarine|E-class]] [[submarine]] of the [[Royal Navy]], launched in [[1912]].
* [[E-2 Hawkeye]], a carrier-based [[AWACS]] aircraft of the [[United States Navy]].
*One of the predecessors of [[Honda]]'s [[ASIMO]] [[robot]].
* The [[European walking route E2]]
* [[London E2|E2]], the postcode for [[Bethnal Green]] in [[London]].
* '''E-2''' is the paygrade of the rank [[Private (rank)|Private]] in the [[U.S. Army]]
* Abbreviation of [[Electronic Entertainment NY]].
{{2CC}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Etiology</title>
<id>10055</id>
<revision>
<id>41998285</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:10:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Light current</username>
<id>360593</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+and usage</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Etiology''' (alternately '''aetiology''', '''aitiology''') is the study of [[Causality|causation]].
== Origin and usage of term ==
The term (deriving from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words {{polytonic|αἰτία}} ''aitia'' = cause and {{polytonic|λόγος}} ''logos'' = word/speech) is used in [[philosophy]], [[physics]], [[psychology]], and [[biology]] in reference to the causes of various phenomena. It is generally the study of why things occur, or even the reasons behind the way that things act.
== Explanation ==
In '''[[medicine]]''' in particular, the term means the occurrences, reasons, and variables of [[disease]]s or [[pathology|pathologies]]. On [http://www.widesmiles.org/cleftlinks/WS-364.html The three Cs of etiology] there is an informative text about the etiology of [[cleft lip]]s explaining several methods of the etiological science.
== Historical ==
In Biblical criticism, etiologies give theological explanations for names or occurrences. Example: the story of Lot's wife in Genesis 19 (specifically 26) explains why there are pillars of salt in the area of the [[Dead Sea]]. (see notes in Oxford Annotated Edition, Revised Standard Version of the Bible, 1973)
An '''''aetiological myth''''' is a [[mythology|myth]] intended to explain a name. For example, the name ''[[Delphi|Delphoi]]'' and its associated deity, ''[[Apollo|Apollon Delphinios]]'', are explained in the [[Homeric Hymn]] which tells how Apollo carried [[Crete|Cretans]] over the sea in the shape of a [[dolphin]] to make them his priests. While there is an actual etymological connection between ''Delphoi'' and ''delphis'' (''delphus'' means "womb"), many aetiological myths are based on [[popular etymology]] (the term "[[Amazons|Amazon]]", for example).
An example of the word in use:
:"...there is on the other a tendency to attribute all diseases of unknown aetiology to 'viruses'. In some ways, it is similar to possession by demons in medieval times, and we could make a case for the virus as a 'demon'",
from the Foreword of the book ''Perfumery'', edited by G. H. Dodd and C. Van Toller, 1986.
{{philo-stub}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Ehime-Maru</title>
<id>10057</id>
<revision>
<id>15907897</id>
<timestamp>2003-12-05T08:01:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stan Shebs</username>
<id>7777</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[USS Greeneville (SSN-772)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[USS Greeneville (SSN-772)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epistles</title>
<id>10058</id>
<revision>
<id>40595928</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T18:39:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation: Philemon</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''"[[epistle]]"''' is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''epistolos'' which means a written "[[letter]]" addressed to a recipient or recipients, perhaps part of exchanged correspondence. Today in common usage this somewhat elevated term usually connotes a specific group of books in the [[New Testament]] that either were letters or were written in that [[genre|literary form]], although "epistle" can refer to other written missives as well, such as a bishop's [[open letter]] to the congregants of his see. Calling a letter an "epistle" does not by itself imply that the letter is part of the New Testament, inspired, or even that it is necessarily religious in nature. For instance, an [[epistolary novel]] is told in the form of a series of letters.
==New Testament Epistles==
The epistles of the New Testament are [[Christianity|Christian]] writings of [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] to churches in particular parts of the world. The most prolific apostle to write was [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]].
There are epistles that are written to particular areas, and general epistles that are written to groups. Taking at face value the traditional ascription of epistles to their superscribed authors, Paul wrote more epistles to particular churches, as well as personal letters to [[Timothy]], [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]], and [[Apostle Titus|Titus]]. [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[John the Evangelist|John]], [[James]], [[Jude]], and the writer of [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] wrote general letters to the church in general. Sometimes these epistles are divided into subgroups. For instance, the "prison epistles" are the ones written by Paul while he was in prison, while the "pastoral epistles" are the letters to Timothy and Titus, since they contain advice about providing pastoral care to their churches.
Questions of historical authorship or of date and authenticity are addressed in the entries to individual Epistles. Usually the Epistles of the [[New Testament canon]] are divided as follows:
'''[[Pauline Epistles]]''' as written by Paul:
* [[Epistle to the Romans]]
* [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]]
* [[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]]
* [[Epistle to the Galatians]]
* [[Epistle to the Ephesians]]
* [[Epistle to the Philippians]]
* [[Epistle to the Colossians]]
* [[First Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
* [[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
* [[First Epistle to Timothy]]
* [[Second Epistle to Timothy]]
* [[Epistle to Titus]]
* [[Epistle to Philemon]]<br>
* [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], without secure traditional attribution <br>
'''"Catholic"''' (i.e. "general") epistles
* [[Epistle of James]]
* [[First Epistle of Peter]]
* [[Second Epistle of Peter]]
* [[First Epistle of John]]
* [[Second Epi |
| '''0.'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">032258064516129</font>032258064516129...
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">0478AA093598166B74311B28623A55</font>0478AA...
| align="center" | <font style="color:Red">'''27'''</font>
| align="center" | 1/27
|-
| align="center" | 1/32
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>
| '''0.03125'''
| '''0.046'''
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>
| align="center" | 1/28
|-
| align="center" | 1/33
| align="center" | <font style="color:Red">'''3'''</font>, <font style="color:Red">'''11'''</font>
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">03</font>03030303...
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.0'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">4</font>4444444...
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''3'''</font>, <font style="color:Red">'''B'''</font>
| align="center" | 1/29
|-
| align="center" | 1/34
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>, <font style="color:Red">'''17'''</font>
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.0'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">2941176470588235</font>2941176470588235...
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.0'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">429A708579214B36</font>429A708579214B36...
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>, <font style="color:Red">'''15'''</font>
| align="center" | 1/2A
|-
| align="center" | 1/35
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''5'''</font>, <font style="color:Red">'''7'''</font>
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.0'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">285714</font>285714285714...
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">0414559B3931</font>0414559B3931...
| align="center" | <font style="color:Red">'''5'''</font>, <font style="color:Red">'''7'''</font>
| align="center" | 1/2B
|-
| align="center" | 1/36
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>, <font style="color:Red">'''3'''</font>
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.02'''<font style="text-decoration: overline">7</font>7777777...
| '''0.04'''
| align="center" | <font style="color:Green">'''2'''</font>, <font style="color:Green">'''3'''</font>
| align="center" | 1/30
|}
As for [[irrational number]]s, none of them has a finite representation in ''any'' of the [[rational number|rational]]-based positional number systems (such as the decimal and duodecimal ones); this is because a rational-based positional number system is essentially nothing but a way of expressing quantities as a sum of fractions whose denominators are powers of the base, and by definition no ''finite'' sum of rational numbers can ever result in an irrational number. For example, 123.456 = 1 × 10<sup>3</sup>/10 + 2 × 10<sup>2</sup>/10 + 3 × 10/10 + 4 × 1/10 + 5 × 1/10<sup>2</sup> + 6 × 1/10<sup>3</sup> (this is also the reason why fractions that contain prime factors in their denominator not in common with those of the base do not have a terminating representation in that base). Moreover, the infinite series of digits of an irrational number doesn't exhibit a pattern of recursion; instead, the different digits succeed in a seemingly random fashion. The following chart compares the first few digits of the decimal and duodecimal representation of several of the most important irrational numbers. As can be seen, it is easier to memorize the first nine digits of pi in base twelve than in base ten, while the opposite happens with the first ten digits of the number e:
{|{{prettytable}}
| align="center" | Irrational number
| align="center" | In decimal
| align="center" | '''In duodecimal / dozenal'''
|-
| align="center" | [[Pi|&pi;]] <SMALL>(pi, the ratio of [[circumference]] to [[diameter]])<SMALL>
| 3.141592653589793238462643... (~ 3.1416)
| '''3.18480949'''3B918664573A6211... (~ 3.1848)
|-
| align="center" | [[E (mathematical constant)|e]] <SMALL>(the base of the [[natural logarithm]])</SMALL>
| '''2.718281828'''459... (~ 2.718)
| 2.875236069821... (~ 2.875)
|-
| align="center" | [[Golden ratio|&phi;]] <SMALL>(phi, the golden ratio)</SMALL>
| 1.618033988749... (~ 1.618)
| 1.74BB67728022... (~ 1.75)
|-
| align="center" | [[Square root of two|√2]] <SMALL>(the length of the [[diagonal]] of a unit [[square]])</SMALL>
| 1.414213562373... (~ 1.414)
| 1.4B79170A07B7... (~ 1.5)
|-
| align="center" | [[Square root of three|√3]] <SMALL>(the length of the diagonal of a unit [[cube]], or twice the [[height]] of an [[equilateral triangle]])</SMALL>
| 1.732050807568... (~ 1.732)
| 1.894B97BB967B... (~ 1.895)
|-
| align="center" | [[Square root of five|√5]] <SMALL>(the length of the [[diagonal]] of a 1×2 [[rectangle]])</SMALL>
| 2.236067977499... (~ 2.236)
| 2.29BB13254051... (~ 2.2A)
|}
The first few digits of the decimal and dozenal representation of another important number, the [[Leonhard Euler|Euler]]-[[Lorenzo Mascheroni|Mascheroni]] [[mathematical constant|constant]] (the status of which as a rational or irrational number is not yet known), are:
{|{{prettytable}}
| align="center" | Number
| align="center" | In decimal
| align="center" | '''In duodecimal / dozenal'''
|-
| align="center" | [[Euler-Mascheroni constant|&gamma;]] <SMALL>(the limiting difference between the [[harmonic series (mathematics)|harmonic series]] and the natural logarithm)</SMALL>
| 0.577215664901... (~ 0.577)
| 0.6B15188A6758... (~ 0.7)
|}
==Advocacy and "dozenalism"==
The case for the duodecimal system was put forth at length in F. Emerson Andrews' [[1935]] book, ''New Numbers: How Acceptance of a Duodecimal Base Would Simplify Mathematics''. Emerson noted that, due to the prevalence of factors of twelve in many traditional units of weight and measure, many of the computational advantages claimed for the metric system could be realized ''either'' by the adoption of ten-based weights and measure ''or'' by the adoption of the duodecimal number system. In contrary to the symbols 'A' for ten and 'B' for eleven as used in [[hexadecimal]] notation and [[vigesimal]] notation (or 'T' and 'E' for ten and eleven), he suggested in his book and used a script X and a script E, [[image:Scriptx.png]] and [[image:Scripte.png]], to represent the digits ten and eleven respectively, because, at least on a page of Roman script, these characters were distinct from any existing letters or numerals, yet were readily available in printers' fonts. He chose [[image:Scriptx.png]] for its resemblance to the Roman numeral X, and [[image:Scripte.png]] as the first letter of the word "eleven". Another popular notation, introduced by [[Isaac Pitman]], is to use an inverted 2 to represent ten and an inverted 3 to represent eleven; this is the system commonly employed by the Dozenal Society of Great Britain and has the advantage of being easily recognizable as digits. On the other hand, the Dozenal Society of America adopted for some years the convention of using an [[asterisk]] * for ten and a [[hash]] # for eleven (the reason was they are present in [[telephone]] [[dial]]s); however, critics pointed out these symbols do not look anything like digits.
The Dozenal Society of America and the Dozenal Society of Great Britain promote widespread adoption of the base-twelve system. They use the word '''dozenal''' instead of "duodecimal" because the latter comes from Latin roots that express twelve in base-ten terminology.
==See also==
*[[quinary]]
*[[decimal]]
*[[Vigesimal]]
*[[sexagesimal]]
==External links==
*[http://www3.aa.tufs.ac.jp/~P_aflang/TEXTS/oct98/decimal.html Decimal vs. Duodecimal: An interaction between two systems of numeration] &mdash; duodecimal numerals in languages in Nigerian Middle Belt
*[http://www.kankyok.co.jp/nue/nue11/nue11_01.html The origin of a duodecimal system] (Japanese) &mdash; explains a possible origin of a duodecimal system in a language
*[http://www.dozens.org/ Dozenal Society of America]
*[http://www.dozenalsociety.org.uk/ Dozenal Society of Great Britain website]
[[Category:Positional numeral systems| 12]]
[[da:Duodecimal]]
[[de:Duodezimalsystem]]
[[es:Sistema duodecimal]]
[[fr:Système duodécimal]]
[[ko:십이진법]]
[[ja:十二進記数法]]
[[ru:Двенадцатеричная система счисления]]
[[sl:Dvanajstiški številski sistem]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>David Hayes Agnew</title>
<id>8401</id>
<revision>
<id>35024516</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-13T15:06:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Carie</username>
<id>271372</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''David Hayes Agnew''' ([[November 24]], [[1818]] - [[March 22]], [[1892]]), American [[surgery|surgeon]], was born in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]].
He graduated from the medical department of the
[[University of Pennsylvania]] in 1838, and a few years later set
up in practice at [[Philadelphia]] and became a lecture |
school, and the most critical situation is in the mining zone of Choco, Bolivar, and Sucre.
Economic consequences of privatization and liberal institutions have meant changes in taxation to attract foreign investment. Colombia will lose another $800 million over the next ninety years that [[Glencore International]] operates in El [[Cerrejon]] Zona Media, if the company continues to produce coal at a rate of 5 million tons/year, because of the reduction of the royalty tax from 10-15% to .04%. If the company, as is plausible, doubles or triples its production, the losses will be proportionally greater. The operational losses from the three large mining projects ([[El Cerrejon]], [[La Loma]], operated by Drummond, and [[Montelibano]], which produces [[ferronickel]]) for Colombia to more than 12 billion. Just $10 billion would be enough to provide employment for Colombia's three million unemployed, to save the lives of the up to 160 children who die daily of [[hunger]], [[malnutrition]] and [[curable diseases]], and to have avoided the closing of over 20 hospitals around the country, which has created a [[humanitarian emergency]] in the poorest sectors of the population.
Coal production has grown rapidly, from 22.7 million tons in 1994 to 50.0 million tons in 2003.{{ref|coalprod}} Over 90% of this amount was exported, making Colombia the world's sixth largest coal exporter, behind [[Australia]], [[China]], [[Indonesia]], [[South Africa]] and [[Russia]].{{ref|coalworld}} From the mid-1980s the center of coal production was the [[Cerrejón]] mines in the [[Guajira_Department|Guajira]] department. However, the growth in output at [[La Loma, Cesar|La Loma]] in neighboring [[Cesar_Department|Cesar]] mean that this department has been the leader in coal production since 2004. Production in other departments, including [[Boyacá Department|Boyacá]], [[Cundinamarca]] and [[Norte de Santander]], forms about 13% of the total. The coal industry is largely controlled by international mining companies, including a consortium of [[BHP Billiton]], [[Anglo American]] and [[Glencore International]] at Cerrejón, and [[Drummond Company]] at La Loma, which is undergoing a lawsuit in the U.S. District Court in Alabama for union assassinations and alleged paramilitary links.
While Colombia has vast hydroelectric potential, a prolonged drought in 1992 forced severe electricity rationing throughout the country until mid-1993. The consequences of the drought on electricity-generating capacity caused the government to commission the construction or upgrading of 10 [[thermoelectric]] power plants. Half will be coal-fired, and half will be fired by [[natural gas]]. The government also has begun awarding bids for the construction of a natural gas pipeline system that will extend from the country's extensive gas fields to its major population centers. Plans call for this project to make natural gas available to millions of Colombian households by the middle of the next decade.
As of 2004, Colombia has become a net energy exporter, exporting electricity to [[Ecuador]] and developing connections to [[Perú]], [[Venezuela]] and [[Panama]] to export to those markets as well. A pipeline connecting western Venezuela to Panama through Colombia is also under construction, thanks to cooperation between presidents [[Alvaro Uribe]] of Colombia and [[Hugo Chávez]] of Venezuela.
==Trade==
Colombia's estimated balance of trade showed a surplus $910 million in 1999, up from a $3.8 billion deficit in 1998. Total 1999 imports were $10.6 billion, while exports were $11.5 billion. Estimated 2000 imports were $11.2 billion with $14.0 exports. Colombia's major exports continue to be petroleum, coffee, coal, nickel, gold and nontraditional exports (e.g., cut flowers, semiprecious stones, sugar, and tropical fruits).
The United States remained Colombia's major trading partner in 1999, taking 48.5% of exports and providing 42.1% of imports. The EU and Japan also are important trading partners, as are [[Andean Pact]] countries.
==Foreign Investment==
In 1990, to attract foreign investors and promote trade, an experiment from the [[IMF]] known as "la apertura" was adopted by the government as an open trade strategy. Although the analysis of the results are not clear, the fact is that the agricultural sector was severely impacted by this policy.
In 1991 and 1992, the government passed laws to stimulate foreign investment in nearly all sectors of the economy. The only activities closed to foreign direct investment are defense and national security, disposal of hazardous wastes, and real estate--the last of these restrictions is intended to hinder money laundering. Colombia established a special entity--CoInvertir--to assist foreigners in making investments in the country. Foreign investment flows for 1999 were $4.4 billion, down from $4.8 billion in 1998.
Major foreign investment projects underway include the $6 billion development of the Cusiana and Cupiagua oil fields, development of coal fields in the north of the country, and the recently concluded licensing for establishment of cellular telephone service. The United States accounted for 26.5% of the total $19.4 billion stock of nonpetroleum foreign direct investment in Colombia at the end of 1998.
On [[October 21]] [[1995]], under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), President Clinton signed an Executive Order barring U.S. entities from any commercial or financial transactions with four Colombian drug kingpins and with individuals and companies associated with the traffic in narcotics, as designated by the Secretary of the Treasury in consultation with the Secretary of State and the Attorney General. The list of designated individuals and companies is amended periodically and is maintained by the Office of Foreign Asset Control at the Department of the Treasury, tel. (202) 622-0077 (ask for Document #1900). The document also is available at [http:/www.ustreas.gov the Department of Treasury web site].
Colombia is the United States' fifth-largest export market in Latin America--behind Mexico, Brazil, Venezuela, and Argentina--and the 26th-largest market for U.S. products worldwide. The United States is Colombia's principal trading partner, with two-way trade from November 1999 through November 2000 exceeding $9.5 billion--$3.5 billion U.S. exports and $6.0 billion U.S. imports. Colombia benefits from duty-free entry--for a 10-year period, through 2001--for certain of its exports to the United States under the Andean Trade Preferences Act. Colombia improved protection of intellectual property rights through the adoption of three Andean Pact decisions in 1993 and 1994, but the U.S. remains concerned over deficiencies in licensing, patent regulations, and copyright protection.
The petroleum and natural gas coal mining, chemical, and manufacturing industries attract the greatest U.S. investment interest. U.S. investment accounted for 37.8% ($4.2 billion) of the total $11.2 billion in foreign direct investment at the end of 1997, excluding petroleum and portfolio investment. Worker rights and benefits in the U.S.-dominated sectors are more favorable than general working conditions. Examples include shorter-than-average working hours, higher wages, and compliance with health and safety standards above the national average.
'''Industry and Agriculture'''<br>
The most industrially diverse member of the five-nation Andean Community, Colombia has four major industrial centers--Bogota, Medellin, Cali, and Barranquilla, each located in a distinct geographical region. Colombia's industries include textiles and clothing, leather products, processed foods and beverages, paper and paper products, chemicals and petrochemicals, cement, construction, iron and steel products, and metalworking. Its diverse climate and topography permit the cultivation of a wide variety of crops. In addition, all regions yield forest products, ranging from tropical hardwoods in the hot country to pine and eucalyptus in the colder areas.
[[Cacao]], [[sugarcane]], [[coconut]]s, [[banana]]s, [[plantain]]s, [[rice]], [[cotton]], [[tobacco]], [[cassava]], and most of the nation's beef cattle are produced in the hot regions from sea level to 1,000 meters elevation. The temperate regions -- between 1,000 and 2,000 meters -- are better suited for [[coffee]]; certain flowers; [[maize]] and other vegetables; and fruits such as [[citrus]], [[pear]]s, [[pineapple]]s, and [[tomato]]es. The cooler elevations -- between 2,000 and 3,000 meter -- produce [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[potato]]es, cold-climate vegetables, flowers, [[dairy]] cattle, and [[poultry]].
==Statistics==
'''Economy - overview:'''
Colombia's economy has been on a recovery trend during the past two years despite a serious armed conflict. The economy continues to improve thanks to austere government budgets, focused efforts to reduce public debt levels, and an export-oriented growth focus. Ongoing economic problems facing President Uribe range from reforming the pension system to reducing high unemployment. New exploration is needed to offset declining oil production. On the positive side, several international financial institutions have praised the economic reforms introduced by URIBE, succeeded in reducing the public-sector deficit below 1.5% of GDP. The government's economic policy and democratic security strategy have engendered a growing sense of confidence in the economy, particularly within the business sector. Coffee prices have recovered from previous lows as the Colombian coffee industry pursues greater market shares in developed countries such as the United States.
GDP (purchasing power parity):
$303.1 billion (2005 est.)
GDP (official exchange rate):
$100.9 billion (2005 est.)
GDP - real growth rate:
4.3% (2005 est.)
GDP - per capita:
purchasing power parity - $7,100 (2005 est.)
GDP - composition by sector: |
[[William Howard Russell]], when he referred to ''gossip about ‘the first Lady in the Land’''.
The title first gained nationwide recognition in [[1877]], when newspaper journalist [[Mary Clemmer Ames]] referred to [[Lucy Webb Hayes]] as "the first lady of the land" while reporting on the inauguration of [[Rutherford B. Hayes]]. Hayes was a tremendously popular first lady, and the frequent reporting on her activities helped spread use of the title outside Washington.
A popular [[1911]] comedic play by playwright [[Charles Nirdlinger]] titled ''"The First Lady in the Land"'' cemented use of the title by the general public, and it first entered the dictionary in [[1934]].
Use of the title to refer to the wife or hostess of a chief executive later spread from the United States to other nations, often without translation of "first lady" into the native language of those nations.
In government jargon "First Lady of the United States" is sometimes acronymized as "FLOTUS," similar to the President of the United States being referred to as "POTUS".
==Role of the First Lady==
The first lady is not an elected position, carries no official duties, and brings no salary. Nonetheless, she attends many official ceremonies and functions of state either along with or in place of the president. The first lady also frequently participates in [[humanitarian]] and charitable work. Furthermore, many have taken an active role in campaigning for the president with whom they are associated. Hillary Rodham Clinton took the role one step further when she was, for a time, given a formal job in the Clinton administration to develop reforms to the health care system.
The term is also used to describe the wife of other government chief executives or a woman who has acted as a leading symbol for some activity, for example referring to [[Maria Shriver]] as the "First Lady of California", or [[Mary J Blige]] as the "First Lady of Soul".
The wife of the [[Vice President of the United States]] is sometimes referred to as the [[Second Lady of the United States]], however this title is less common than first lady. In Michigan, the Governor [[Jennifer Granholm]]'s husband is referred to as First Gentleman.
If the United States were to have a female president, there would be no First Lady ''per se.'' It is presumed that the husband of a female President would act as an analogous "First Gentleman." This is the situation portrayed in the fictitious television series ''[[Commander in Chief (television)|Commander In Chief]]'', in which President [[Mackenzie Allen]]'s husband Rod Calloway is titled as "First Gentleman," but President Allen's mother ultimately joins the [[First Family]] and acts as the official hostess at the "White House."
==First Ladies of the United States==
The following women have been recognized by ''The National First Ladies' Library'' as "First Lady":
{| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|-bgcolor=cccccc
! First Lady
! Relation to President
! From
! To
|-
| [[Martha Dandridge Custis Washington]]
| wife of [[George Washington]]
| April 30, 1789
| March 4, 1797
|-
| [[Abigail Smith Adams]]
| wife of [[John Adams]]
| March 4, 1797
| March 4, 1801
|-
| [[Martha Jefferson Randolph]]*
| daughter of widower [[Thomas Jefferson]]
| March 4, 1801
| March 4, 1809
|-
| [[Dolley Madison]]*
| friend of widower [[Thomas Jefferson]]
| March 4, 1801
| March 4, 1809
|-
| [[Dolley Madison]]
| wife of [[James Madison]]
| March 4, 1809
| March 4, 1817
|-
| [[Elizabeth Kortright Monroe]]
| wife of [[James Monroe]]
| March 4, 1817
| March 4, 1825
|-
| [[Louisa Catherine Johnson Adams]]
| wife of [[John Quincy Adams]]
| March 4, 1825
| March 4, 1829
|-
| [[Emily Donelson]]*
| niece of widower [[Andrew Jackson]]
| March 4, 1829
| December 19, 1836
|-
| [[Sarah Yorke Jackson]]*
| daughter-in-law of widower [[Andrew Jackson]]
| November 26, 1834
| March 4, 1837
|-
| [[Angelica Van Buren]]*
| daughter-in-law of widower [[Martin Van Buren]]
| March 4, 1837
| March 4, 1841
|-
| [[Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison]]
| absent wife of [[William Henry Harrison]]
| March 4, 1841
| April 4, 1841
|-
| [[Jane Irwin Harrison]]*
| daughter-in-law of [[William Henry Harrison]]
| March 4, 1841
| April 4, 1841
|-
| [[Letitia Christian Tyler]]
| first wife of [[John Tyler]]
| April 4, 1841
| September 10, 1842
|-
| [[Priscilla Cooper Tyler]]*
| daughter-in-law of widower [[John Tyler]]
| September 10, 1842
| June 26, 1844
|-
| [[Julia Gardiner Tyler]]
| second wife of [[John Tyler]]
| June 26, 1844
| March 4, 1845
|-
| [[Sarah Childress Polk]]
| wife of [[James K. Polk]]
| March 4, 1845
| March 4, 1849
|-
| [[Margaret Mackall Smith Taylor]]
| wife of [[Zachary Taylor]]
| March 4, 1849
| July 9, 1850
|-
| [[Abigail Powers Fillmore]]
| wife of [[Millard Fillmore]]
| July 9, 1850
| March 4, 1853
|-
| [[Jane Means Appleton Pierce]]
| wife of [[Franklin Pierce]]
| March 4, 1853
| March 4, 1857
|-
| [[Harriet Lane]]*
| niece of bachelor [[James Buchanan]]
| March 4, 1857
| March 4, 1861
|-
| [[Mary Todd Lincoln]]
| wife of [[Abraham Lincoln]]
| March 4, 1861
| April 15, 1865
|-
| [[Eliza McCardle Johnson]]
| wife of [[Andrew Johnson]]
| April 15, 1865
| March 4, 1869
|-
| [[Julia Dent Grant]]
| wife of [[Ulysses S. Grant]]
| March 4, 1869
| March 4, 1877
|-
| [[Lucy Ware Webb Hayes]]
| wife of [[Rutherford B. Hayes]]
| March 4, 1877
| March 4, 1881
|-
| [[Lucretia Rudolph Garfield]]
| wife of [[James A. Garfield]]
| March 4, 1881
| September 19, 1881
|-
| [[Mary McElroy]]*
| sister of widower [[Chester A. Arthur]]
| September 19, 1881
| March 4, 1885
|-
| [[Rose Cleveland]]*
| sister of bachelor [[Grover Cleveland]]
| March 4, 1885
| June 2, 1886
|-
| [[Frances Folsom Cleveland]]
| wife of [[Grover Cleveland]]
| June 2, 1886
| March 4, 1889
|-
| [[Caroline Lavinia Scott Harrison]]
| wife of [[Benjamin Harrison]]
| March 4, 1889
| October 25, 1892
|-
| [[Mary Harrison McKee]]*
| daughter of widower [[Benjamin Harrison]]
| October 25, 1892
| March 4, 1893
|-
| [[Frances Folsom Cleveland]]
| wife of [[Grover Cleveland]]
| March 4, 1893
| March 4, 1897
|-
| [[Ida Saxton McKinley]]
| wife of [[William McKinley]]
| March 4, 1897
| September 14, 1901
|-
| [[Edith Kermit Carow Roosevelt]]
| wife of [[Theodore Roosevelt]]
| September 14, 1901
| March 4, 1909
|-
| [[Helen Herron Taft]]
| wife of [[William Howard Taft]]
| March 4, 1909
| March 4, 1913
|-
| [[Ellen Louise Axson Wilson]]
| first wife of [[Woodrow Wilson]]
| March 4, 1913
| August 6, 1914
|-
| [[Edith Bolling Galt Wilson]]
| second wife of [[Woodrow Wilson]]
| December 18, 1915
| March 4, 1921
|-
| [[Florence Kling Harding]]
| wife of [[Warren G. Harding]]
| March 4, 1921
| August 3, 1923
|-
| [[Grace Anna Goodhue Coolidge]]
| wife of [[Calvin Coolidge]]
| August 3, 1923
| March 4, 1929
|-
| [[Lou Henry Hoover]]
| wife of [[Herbert Hoover]]
| March 4, 1929
| March 4, 1933
|-
| [[Anna Eleanor Roosevelt]]
| wife of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]
| March 4, 1933
| April 12, 1945
|-
| [[Elizabeth Virginia Wallace Truman]]
| wife of [[Harry S. Truman]]
| April 12, 1945
| January 20, 1953
|-
| [[Mamie Eisenhower]]
| wife of [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]
| January 20, 1953
| January 20, 1961
|-
| [[Jacqueline Kennedy]]
| wife of [[John F. Kennedy]]
| January 20, 1961
| November 22, 1963
|-
| [[Lady Bird Johnson|Claudia Taylor Johnson]]
| wife of [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
| November 22, 1963
| January 20, 1969
|-
| [[Patricia Ryan Nixon]]
| wife of [[Richard Milhous Nixon]]
| January 20, 1969
| August 9, 1974
|-
| [[Betty Ford]]
| wife of [[Gerald R. Ford]]
| August 9, 1974
| January 20, 1977
|-
| [[Rosalynn Smith Carter]]
| wife of [[Jimmy Carter]]
| January 20, 1977
| January 20, 1981
|-
| [[Nancy Davis Reagan]]
| wife of [[Ronald Reagan]]
| January 20, 1981
| January 20, 1989
|-
| [[Barbara Pierce Bush]]
| wife of [[George H. W. Bush]]
| January 20, 1989
| January 20, 1993
|-
| [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]]
| wife of [[Bill Clinton]]
| [[January 20]][[1993]]
| [[January 20]][[2001]]
|-
| [[Laura Welch Bush]]
| wife of [[George W. Bush]]
| [[January 20]], [[2001]]
| [[Present]]
|-
|}
=== Non-spouse "First Lady" or "White House hostess" ===
The following women are known to have acted as hostess on behalf of the first lady when she was otherwise unable or unwilling:
{| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|-bgcolor=cccccc
! First Lady
! Relation to President
|-
| [[Maria Jefferson Eppes]]
| daughter of widower [[Thomas Jefferson]]
|-
| [[Eliza Monroe Hay]]
| daughter of [[James Monroe]]
|-
| [[Letitia Tyler Semple]]
| daughter of widower [[John Tyler]]
|-
| [[Mary Elizabeth Bliss|Mary Elizabeth Taylor Bliss]]
| daughter of [[Zachary Taylor]]
|-
| [[Mary Abigail Fillmore]]
| daughter of [[Millard Fillmore]]
|-
| [[Abby Kent Means]]
| aunt of [[Jane Means Appleton Pierce]]
|-
| [[Martha Patterson|Martha Johnson Patterson]]
| daughter of [[Andrew Johnson]]
|-
| [[Jennie Hobart]]
| wife of [[William McKinley]]'s vice president, [[Garret Hobart]]
|-
| [[Helen Taft Manning]]
| daughter of [[William Howard Taft]]
|-
| [[Margaret Woodrow Wilson]]
| daughter of widower [[Woodrow Wilson]]
|-
| [[Helen Woodrow Bones]]
| cousin of widower [[Woodrow Wilson]]
|-
| [[Chelsea Clinton|Chelsea Victoria Clinton]]
| daughter of [[Bill Clinton]]
|-
|}
==See also==
* [[First Lady]] - Use of the title outside the United States.
* [[Second Lady of the United States]] - Wife of the Vice President of the United States.
* [[First Ladies National Historic Site]] - In [[Canton, Ohio]].
==External links==
* {{cite web
| title = Office of the First Lady
| url = http://www.whitehouse.gov/firstlady/
| accessdate = October 7
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{cite web
| title = First Lady's Gallery
| work = The White House
| url = http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/
| accessdate = Octob |
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