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and increase the overall energy stored by the bow. Most compound designs use cams on the ends of the limbs to optimise the leverage exerted by the archer and reduce the holding force of the bow at full draw while maintaining the force through the draw.
The archer usually uses a release aid to hold the string steadily and release it precisely. This attaches to the bowstring at a point and permits the archer to release the string with a pull of a trigger. With less force required to hold a compound bow at draw, the muscles take longer to fatigue, thus giving a compound archer more time to aim. For these reasons, the compound bow is sometimes derogatorily referred to as a "training-wheel bow." In general, good recurve technique usually makes good compound technique. A compound bow must be adjusted so that its draw length is correct for the archer. The draw length is determined largely by the archer's arm length and shoulder width.
==Hunting==
In [[North America]], as with other hunting methods, bowhunting is regulated on a state-by-state basis. Regulations often address issues such as where (hunting unit), when (season), and what type (male/female) of individual animal species may be taken. In many cases, a special archery season is set aside to minimize interference from rifle hunters. In addition, in an effort to maximize game recovery and shot lethality, there are often technical regulations such as a minimum draw weight for the hunting of big game species.
In contrast to a rifle hunter, who may shoot effectively from ranges in excess of 200 yards (~180m), a responsible archer will usually restrict shots to 30 yards (~25m) or less depending on factors such as individual ability, the target animal, draw weight, etc. Because archers must be much closer to their target animal, the bow hunter often claims a more intimate hunting experience and must pay special attention to the animal’s sense of smell, hearing, and sight. This limit on effective range is one of the primary challenges that makes the sport of archery hunting attractive.
Game hunted by archers includes all of the North American big game species. Visit <http://www.pope-young.org> for current archery world records. People also occasionally fish with modified bows, a practice called '''bowfishing'''.
Today, compound bows are usually preferred for hunting, although recurve bows are not uncommon and usually legal. Longbows are often used by those who want to make the hunting experience as traditional as possible, but much more skill is needed to get a clean hit from a longbow than from other bows. Crossbows are generally permitted for disabled hunters, and in 2005 many states allowed able-bodied hunters to use crossbows, a move that has been somewhat controversial among bow hunters.
As with any weapon, proper practice and practical training will increase the odds that an animal can be taken successfully and humanely, and in fact, an experienced archery hunter can place a kill shot as effectively as a rifle hunter. However, some European countries consider bowhunting unnecessarily cruel to animals and prohibit the sport. Bowhunting, like target archery, was revived in Britain during the Victorian era, but became outlawed when the Wildlife and Countryside Act of 1963 excluded bows and crossbows from its list of permitted hunting weapons. Since 2003, Scotland has been considering the reintroduction of bowhunting as a means of controlling its deer population. France, Lithuania and Finland have reintroduced bowhunting since 2000. Several other European countries are considering its reintroduction.
==Modern competitive archery==
[[Image:Archery competition.jpg|thumb|left|Outdoor archery competition.]]
Competitive archery involves shooting arrows at a target for accuracy from a set distance or distances. This is the most popular form of archery and is called 'Target Archery'.
While people have no doubt been competing with bows for millennia, the first recorded archery competitions began around [[1583]] in [[England]]. Archery has been an [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] sport since [[1900]], with some interruptions. Recently the Koreans have dominated the event, especially the women's divisions. At the Sydney 2000 games, the Korean women won bronze, silver and gold in the individual competition and won gold in the team event. The Korean men have not fared so well in Olympic competition but still produce good results. As of October 2004, every record in the men's and women's open divisions are held by Korea. It should be noted that the Koreans stick primarily to outdoor competition, particularly the 70&nbsp;m Olympic distance. Indoor distances tend to be dominated by European and American archers.
Modern competitive archery is governed by the [http://www.archery.org/ International Archery Association], abbreviated FITA (Fédération Internationale de Tir à l'Arc). Olympic rules are derived from FITA rules.
===Rules===
Archery competitions may be held indoors or outdoors. Indoor distances are 18&nbsp;m and 25&nbsp;m. Outdoor distances range from 30&nbsp;m to 90&nbsp;m (for senior archers, juniors can shoot closer distances), with 70&nbsp;m being used in the Olympic Games. Most outdoor competitions consist of several distances.
Competition is divided into ''ends.'' An archer shoots either 3 or 6 arrows per end, depending on the type of round. After each end, the competitors walk to the target to score and retrieve their arrows. There are 20 ends of 3 arrows in a round of indoor competition. Outdoor competition varies, but outdoor rounds generally involve more arrows being shot. All competitors must wait for the command to shoot and retrieve.
Archers have a set time limit in which to shoot their arrows. For indoor competition, this is 2 minutes. Signalling devices such as lights and flags inform the archers when time is up. Since archery involves the use of potentially lethal weapons, much attention is paid to order and safety.
===Scoring===
Targets are marked with 10 evenly spaced concentric rings, which have score values from 1 through 10 assigned to them. In addition, there is an inner 10 ring, sometimes called the X ring. This becomes the 10 ring at indoor compound competitions. Outdoors, it serves as a tiebreaker with the archer scoring the most number of X's winning. In FITA archery, targets are coloured as follows:
*1 ring & 2 ring - white
*3 ring & 4 ring - black
*5 ring & 6 ring - blue
*7 ring & 8 ring - red
*9 ring & 10 ring - gold
Archers score each end by summing the scores for their arrows. Line cutters are awarded the higher score. Values scored by each arrow are recorded on a score sheet and must be written in descending order (e.g. if an archer scores 5, 7, 6, 10, 9, 8, this must be recorded as 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5.).
However, in the imperial method of scoring, the coloured bands are counted 1, 3, 5, 7, 9. The lowest score is for all the white on the target face and the 9 for any gold. Arrows are shot in 'ends' of three with six arrows being released before each count. When a dozen arrows have been shot, the scorer will add up the miss rates, the number of golds and the total score. This will then be repeated a certain number of times depending on the tournament type.
During competition, there are usually at least two archers per target. This is to allow for "double scoring", a system where two archers will record and sum all scores on individual sheets. This is done to prevent any errors. During and before scoring no one is allowed to touch the arrows. After scoring, each hole is marked before arrows are retrieved. In the event of a "pass through" (the arrow passes straight through the target) or "bouncer" (arrow hits the target and bounces out), points may be awarded to an unmarked hole.
Different rounds and distances use different size target faces. Common sizes (and example rounds they are used in) are:
*40 cm (18m FITA Indoor)
*60 cm (25m FITA Indoor)
*80 cm (30m and 50m FITA)
*122 cm (70m and 90m FITA)
122 cm faces are used in Olympic competition. There are also versions of the 40cm and 60cm targets known as the "3 Spot". The targets contain 3 instances of the inner 5 rings of the 40cm and 60cm faces arranged in a line or an equilateral triangle.
===Other competition===
'''[[Field Archery]]''' involves shooting at targets of varying and unmarked distance, often in rough terrain. 3D archery focuses on shooting at life-size models of game, and is popular with hunters.
'''Clout Archery (G.N.A.S. rules in the United Kingdom)'''
Similar to target archery, except that the archer attempts to drop arrows at long range (180 yards for the men and 140 yards for women; there are shorter distances for juniors depending on age) into a group of concentric circular scoring zones on the ground surrounding a marker flag. The flag is 12 inches square and is fixed to a stick. The flag should be as near to the ground as is practicable. Archers shoot 'ends' of six arrows then, when given the signal to do so, archers proceed to the target area. A Clout round usually consists of 36 arrows. Clout tournaments are usually a 'Double Clout' round (36 arrows shot twice). They can be shot in one direction (one way) or both directions (two way). All bow types may compete (longbows, recurve, barebow and compound).
* '''Scoring.''' A 'rope' with a loop on the end is placed over the flag stick. This rope is divided into the scoring zones of the target: Gold (5 points), Red (4 points), Blue (3 points), Black (2 points) and White (1 point). The rope is 'walked' around the target area and arrows falling within a particular scoring zone are withdrawn and,on completion of the full circle, are laid out on the rope on the corresponding colours. The designated scorer would then call out the archers' names and the archers would (in turn) call out their scores as |
ook. Iverson received the [[Turing Award]] in [[1979]] for his work. As with all programming languages that have had several decades of continual use, APL has changed significantly from the notation described by Iverson in his book. One thing that has remained constant is that APL is [[interpreted programming language|interpretive]] and [[interactive]], features much appreciated by its users. Conversely, its initial lack of support for both [[structured programming|structured]] and [[modular programming|modular]] programming has been solved by all the modern APL incarnations. One much criticized aspect still remains, though: the use of a special character set (see [[APL programming language#Character set|Character set]] below.) These characters have all been incorporated into Unicode, which is now the base character set of several APL products. There is also a pure ASCII reworking of APL called [[J programming language|J]], with greatly increased expressive power.
{{SpecialCharsNote}}
==Overview==
Over a very wide set of problem domains (math, science, engineering, computer design, robotics, data visualization, actuarial science, traditional DP, etc.) APL is an extremely powerful, expressive and concise programming language, typically set in an interactive environment. It was originally created as a way to describe computers, by expressing [[mathematical notation]] in a rigorous way that could be interpreted by a computer. It is easy to learn but APL programs can take some time to understand. Unlike traditional structured programming languages, code in APL is typically structured as chains of [[monadic]] or [[dyadic]] [[function (programming)|function]]s and [[operator]]s acting on [[array]]s. Because APL has so many nonstandard ''primitives'' (functions, operators, or features built into the language and indicated by a single symbol or a combination of a few symbols), APL does not have function or [[operator precedence]]. The original APL did not have [[control flow|control structure]]s (loops, if-then-else), but the array operations it included could simulate [[structured programming]] constructs. For example, the iota function (which yields an array from 1 to N) can simulate for-loop [[iteration]]. More recent implementations of APL generally include explicit control structures, so that data structure and control-flow structure can be more clearly separated.
The APL environment is called a ''workspace''. In a workspace the user can define programs and data, i.e. the data values exist also outside the programs, and the user can manipulate the data without the necessity to define a program, for example:
:<math>N \leftarrow 4\ 5\ 6\ 7</math>
Assign the [[coordinate vector|vector]] values 4 5 6 7 to N.
:<math>N+4\,\!</math>
Add 4 to all values (giving 8 9 10 11) and Print them (absence of the assignment arrow means "show").
:<math>+/N\,\!</math>
Print the sum of N, i.e. 22.
The user can save the workspace with all values, programs and execution status. In any case, the programs are usually not [[compiled language|compiled]] but [[interpreted language|interpreted]]. A commercial compiler was brought to market by STSC (now Manugistics).
APL is well-known for its use of a set of non-[[ASCII]] symbols that are an extension of traditional arithmetic and algebraic notation. These cryptic symbols, some have joked, make it possible to construct an entire [[air traffic control]] system in two lines of code. Indeed, in some versions of APL, it is theoretically possible to express any computable function in one expression, that is in one line of code. You can use the other line for I/O, or constructing a GUI. Because of its condensed nature and non-standard characters, APL has sometimes been termed a "[[write-only language]]", and reading an APL program can at first feel like decoding an alien tongue. Because of the unusual [[character set]], many programmers used special APL [[computer keyboard|keyboard]]s in the production of APL code. Nowadays there are various ways to write APL code using only ASCII characters. Indeed most if not all modern implementations use the standard keyboard, displaying APL symbols by use of a particular font.
Advocates of APL claim that the examples of "write-only" code are almost invariably examples of poor programming practice or novice mistakes, which can occur in any language. However, when implementing an APL module to be run using an interpreter (as was usual), a common tactic was to initially implement the module as separate, mostly understandable lines. Once the logic was verified, the lines would then be merged into one line for optimal processing in the interpreter. These APL one-liners, as they were called, were incomprehensible when viewed even a short time later. The accomplished APL programmer would document the function of the module in comments- if it had to be changed, the code would be discarded and re-implemented.
APL has perhaps had an unusually high percentage of users who are subject-matter experts who know some APL, rather than professional programmers who know something about a subject.
Iverson designed a successor to APL called [[J programming language|J]] which
uses ASCII "natively". So far there is only a single source of J implementations: http://www.jsoftware.com/ Other programming languages offer functionality similar to APL. [http://www.aplusdev.org/ A+] is an [[open source]] programming language with many commands identical to APL.
==Examples==
Here's how you would write a program that would [[sorting|sort]] a word list stored in matrix X according to word length:
X[⍋X+.≠' ';]
Here's a program that finds all [[prime number]]s from 1 to R:
:<math>\left(\sim R \in R \circ . \times R\right)/R \leftarrow 1 \downarrow \iota R</math>
Here's how to read it, from right to left:
#<math>\iota\,\!</math> creates a vector containing [[integer]]s from 1 to R (if R = 6 at the beginning of the program, <math>\iota R\,\!</math> is 1 2 3 4 5 6)
#Drop first element of this vector (<math>\downarrow</math> function), i.e. 1. So <math>1 \downarrow \iota R</math> is 2 3 4 5 6
#Set R to the vector (<math>\leftarrow</math>, assignment primitive)
#Generate outer product of R multiplied by R, i.e. a matrix which is the ''[[multiplication table]]'' of R by R (<math>\circ . \times</math>function)
#Build a vector the same length as R with 1 in each place where the corresponding number in R is in the outer product matrix (<math>\in</math>, set inclusion function), i.e. 0 0 1 0 1
#Logically negate the values in the vector (change zeros to ones and ones to zeros) (<math>\sim</math>, negation function), i.e. 1 1 0 1 0
#Select the items in R for which the corresponding element is 1 (<math>/\,\!</math> function), i.e. 2 3 5
==Calculation==
APL was unique in the speed with which it could perform complex matrix operations. For example, a very large matrix multiplication would take only a few seconds on a machine which was much less powerful than those today. There were some technical and other economic reasons for this advantage:
* Commercial interpreters delivered highly-tuned linear algebra library routines.
* Very low interpretive overhead was incurred per-array&mdash;not per-element.
* APL response time compared favorably to the runtimes of early optimizing compilers.
A widely cited paper "The APL Machine" perpetuated the myth that APL made pervasive use of [[lazy evaluation]] where calculations would not actually be performed until the results were needed and then only those calculations strictly required. Although this technique was used by just a few implementations, it embodies the language's best survival mechanism: not specifying the order of scalar operations. Even as eventually standardized by X3J10, APL is so highly data-parallel, it gives language implementers immense freedom to schedule operations as efficiently as possible. As computer innovations such as [[cache memory]], and [[SIMD]] execution became commercially available, APL programs ported with little extra effort spent re-optimizing low-level details.
==Terminology==
APL makes a clear distinction between ''functions'' and ''operators''. Functions take values (variables or constants or expressions) as arguments, and return values as results. Operators take functions as arguments, and return related, derived, functions as results. For example the "sum" function is derived by applying the "reduction" operator to the "addition" function. Applying the same reduction operator to the "ceiling" function (which returns the larger of two values) creates a derived "maximum" function, which returns the largest of a group (vector) of values. In the J language, Iverson substituted the terms 'verb' and 'adverb' for 'function' and 'operator'.
APL also identifies those features built into the language, and represented by a symbol, or a fixed combination of symbols, as ''primitives''. Most primitives are either functions or operators. Coding APL is largely a process of writing non-primitive functions and (in some dialects of APL) operators. However a few primitives are considered to be neither functions nor operators, most noticeably assignment.
==Character set==
APL has always been criticized for its choice of a unique, non-standard character set. The fact that those who learn it usually become ardent adherents shows that there is some weight behind Iverson's idea that the notation used does make a difference. In the beginning, there were few terminal devices which could reproduce the APL character set &mdash; the most popular ones employing the [[IBM]] [[Selectric]] print mechanism along with a custom type element. With the populariz |
Stevens]]. The Protocols (TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1). Addison-Wesley Professional; 1st edition (December 31, 1993). ISBN 0201633469
[[Category:Internet|Internet protocol suite]]
[[Category:Internet protocols| ]]
[[ar:حزمة بروتوكولات الإنترنت]]
[[ca:TCP/IP]]
[[cs:Sada protokolů Internetu]]
[[da:TCP/IP]]
[[de:Internetprotokollfamilie]]
[[es:Familia de protocolos de Internet]]
[[eo:TCP-IP]]
[[fr:Suite des protocoles internet]]
[[gl:Protocolo internet]]
[[it:Suite di protocolli Internet]]
[[ku:TCP/IP]]
[[lv:TCP/IP]]
[[hu:TCPIP]]
[[nl:TCP/IP]]
[[ja:TCP/IP]]
[[no:TCP/IP]]
[[pl:TCP/IP]]
[[pt:TCP/IP]]
[[ru:Стек протоколов TCP/IP]]
[[sk:Balík internetových protokolov]]
[[sl:TCP/IP]]
[[fi:TCP/IP]]
[[th:ทีซีพี/ไอพี]]
[[tr:İnternet protokol takımı]]
[[zh:TCP/IP协议]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi</title>
<id>15477</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
'''Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi''' ('''ابن الشیخ اللبّی''') was a [[Libya|Libyan]] paramilitary trainer for [[Al-Qaeda]]. After being captured and interrogated by American forces, the information he gave under interrogation was cited by the [[George W. Bush Administration|Bush Administration]] in the months preceding the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] as evidence of a connection between [[Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda]]. That information was frequently repeated by members of the Bush Administration even though then-classified reports from both the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] strongly questioned its credibility, suggesting that al-Libi was "intentionally misleading" interrogators.
Al-Libi led the [[Al Khaldan training camp]] in [[Afghanistan]], the facility where [[Zacarias Moussaoui]] and [[Ahmed Ressam]] trained. An associate of [[Abu Zubaydah]], al-Libi was on the [[September 26]], [[2002]] list of [[terrorists]] released by the U.S. government following the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]]. The list detailed individuals and organizations whose assets were to be immediately frozen. He was captured by Pakistani officials at the end of 2001 or beginning of 2002 as he attempted to flee [[Afghanistan]] following the collapse of the [[Taliban]] ensuing the [[2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan]].
He was then turned over to [[United States|U.S.]] officials and held at a detention center at the [[Kandahar]] airport. In the second week of January 2002, he was flown to the [[USS Bataan|USS ''Bataan'']] in the northern [[Arabian Sea]], the ship which is being used to hold eight other important prisoners, including [[John Walker Lindh]]. His capture was first reported by [[NBC News]] in the evening of [[January 4]], [[2002]].
Al-Libi has been identified as the source of misinformation regarding the connection between Iraq and al Qaeda that the Bush Administration used to justify the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq]]. Specifically, he told interrogators that Iraq provided training to al-Qaeda in the area of weapons of mass destruction. In Cincinnati in October 2002, Bush informed the public:
:"Iraq has trained Al Qaeda members in bomb making and poisons and gases."
This claim was repeated several times in the run-up to the war, including in Colin Powell's speech to the U.N Security Council on [[5 February]] [[2003]], which concluded with a long recitation of the information provided al-Libi. Powell's speech came less than a month after a then-classified CIA report concluding that the information provided by al-Libi was unreliable and about a year after a DIA report concluded the same thing.
Libi recanted these claims in January 2004, and his recantation is backed up by evidence from the interrogation of other top al Qaeda officials. The DIA concluded in February 2002 that Libi deliberately misled interrogators. Some speculate that his reason for giving disinformation was in order to draw the U.S. into an attack on Iraq, which al Qaeda believes will lead to a global [[jihad]]. Others suggest that al-Libi gave false information because of the use of excessively harsh interrogation methods. Al-Libi is believed to have been one of the high value detainees who prompted the Bush administration to initiate interrogation methods of questionable morality and legality. These critics suggest it wasn't hard for al-Libi to figure out what his interrogators were sure he knew, and that they wouldn't stop, until he told them what they wanted to hear.
An article published in the [[November 5]], [[2005]] [[New York Times]] quoted two paragraphs of a [[DIA]] report declassified upon request by [[US Senator|Senator]] [[Carl Levin]], that expressed doubts about the results of al-Libi's interrogation in February 2002. The declassified paragraphs are:
:''This is the first report from Ibn al-Shaykh in which he claims Iraq assisted al-Qaida's CBRN efforts. However, he lacks specific details on the Iraqi's [stet] involved, the CBRN materials associated with the assistance, and the location where training occurred. It is possible he does not know any further details; it is more likely this individual is intentionally misleading the debriefers. Ibn al-Shaykh has been undergoing debriefs for several weeks and may describing [stet] scenarios to the debriefers that he knows will retain their interest.
:''Saddam's regime is intensely secular and is wary of Islamic revolutionary movements. Moreover, Baghdad is unlikely to provide assistance to a group it cannot control.''
This report was followed in January 2003 by a CIA report coming to the same conclusion, noting that al-Libi was "not in a position to know if any training had taken place."
----
==External links and references==
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/01/06/international/asia/06DETA.html U.S. Captures a Top Trainer for Al Qaeda], The ''[[New York Times]]'', [[January 5]], [[2002]]
* [http://light.afgha.com/article.php?sid=11198 Al Qaeda Trainer in U.S. Hands], reprinted from ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[January 5]], [[2002]]
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A30909-2004Jul31.html Al Qaeda-Iraq Link Recanted: Captured Libyan Reverses Previous Statement to CIA, Officials Say], ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[August 1]], [[2004]]
* [http://levin.senate.gov/newsroom/supporting/2005/DIAletter.102605.pdf Letter from DIA declassifying two paragraphs of DITSUM # 044-02], [[October 26]], [[2005]]
* [http://www.mediainfo.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001434737 Smoking Gun on Manipulation of Iraq Intelligence? 'NY Times' Cites New Document Today], ''[[Editor and Publisher]]'', [[November 5]], [[2005]]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/06/politics/06intel.html Report Warned Bush Team About Intelligence Suspicions], ''[[New York Times]]'', [[November 5]], [[2005]]
* [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/9991919/site/newsweek/ Al-Libi's Tall Tales], ''[[Newsweek]]'', [[10 November]] [[2005]].
* Kurt Nimmo. [http://kurtnimmo.com/?p=168 CIA Patsy Spins Fairy Tale Plot to Assassinate Bush], ''Another Day in the Empire'', December 23, 2005.
[[Category:Al-Qaeda members|Libi, Ibn al-Shaykh]]</text>
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<title>IDF</title>
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<contributor>
<username>Crzrussian</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''IDF''' or '''idf''' may refer to:
* the [[International Diabetes Federation]]
* the [[Israel Defense Forces]]
* the [[AIDC Ching-kuo]] '''I'''ndigenous '''D'''efence '''F'''ighter of [[Taiwan]].
* [[Intel Developer Forum]]
* [[Icelandic Defense Force]]
* [[Île-de-France (région)]] of [[France]].
* [[Île-de-France (province)]] (historical) of France
* Inverse Document Frequency
* an abbreviation for "identify" or "identifier"
* [[Intermediate distribution frame]] (in telephony)
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:IDF]]
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[[nl:IDF]]
[[ja:IDF]]</text>
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<title>Israeli Army</title>
<id>15480</id>
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<timestamp>2004-03-23T02:53:34Z</timestamp>
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<username>Kent Wang</username>
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<title>Israeli Defence Force</title>
<id>15482</id>
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<timestamp>2004-03-23T02:53:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kent Wang</username>
<id>34477</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Israel Defense Forces]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research</title>
<id>15486</id>
<revision>
<id>37349244</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T12:06:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>150.163.35.22</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Iai_logo_transparent.jpg]]
The '''Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research''' is an intergovernmental organization supported by 19 countries in the Americas dedicated to pursuing the principles of scientific excellence, sharing of [[natural environment|environment]]al scientific [[research]], international cooperation, and the open exchange of scientific information to increase |
1660]] &ndash; [[October 24]], [[1725]]) was a [[Baroque music|Baroque]] [[composer]] especially famous for his [[opera]]s and chamber [[cantata]]s. He is considered the founder of the [[Neapolitan]] school of opera. He was the father of two other Baroque composers, [[Domenico Scarlatti]] and [[Pietro Filippo Scarlatti]].
==Life==
Scarlatti was born in Sicily, either in [[Trapani]] or [[Palermo]]. He is generally said to have been a pupil of [[Giacomo Carissimi]] in [[Rome]], and there is reason to suppose that he had some connection with northern Italy, since his early works show the influence of [[Alessandro Stradella|Stradella]] and [[Giovanni Legrenzi|Legrenzi]]. The production at Rome of his opera ''Gli Equivoci nell&rsquo;amore'' ([[1679]]) gained him the protection of Queen [[Christina of Sweden]] (who at the time was living in Rome), and he became her ''maestro di cappella''. In February [[1684]] he became ''maestro di cappella'' to the [[viceroy]] of [[Naples]], through the influence of his sister, an opera singer, who was the mistress of an influential Neapolitan noble. Here he produced a long series of [[opera]]s, remarkable chiefly for their fluency and expressiveness, as well as other music for state occasions.
In [[1702]] Scarlatti left Naples and did not return until the Spanish domination had been superseded by that of the Austrians. In the interval he enjoyed the patronage of [[Ferdinand III of Tuscany]], for whose private theatre near [[Florence]] he composed operas, and of [[Cardinal Ottoboni]], who made him his ''maestro di cappella'', and procured him a similar post at the [[Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore]] in Rome in [[1703]].
After visiting [[Venice]] and [[Urbino]] in [[1707]], Scarlatti took up his duties at Naples again in [[1708]], and remained there until [[1717]]. By this time Naples seems to have become tired of his music; the Romans, however, appreciated it better, and it was at the [[Teatro Capranica]] in Rome that he produced some of his finest operas (''Telemaco'', [[1718]]; ''Marco Attilio Regolò'', [[1719]]; ''[[Griselda]]'', [[1721]]), as well as some noble specimens of church music, including a [[mass (music)|mass]] for chorus and orchestra, composed in honor of [[Saint Cecilia]] for [[Cardinal Acquaviva]] in 1721. His last work on a large scale appears to have been the unfinished [[serenata]] for the marriage of the prince of [[Stigliano]] in [[1723]]. Scarlatti died in Naples.
==Scarlatti's music==
Scarlatti's music forms an important link between the early [[Baroque music|Baroque]] Italian vocal styles of the [[17th century]], with their centers in [[Florence]], [[Venice]] and [[Rome]], and the classical school of the [[18th century]], which culminated in [[Mozart]]. His early operas (''Gli Equivoci nel sembiante'' [[1679]]; ''L&rsquo;Honestà negli amori'' [[1680]], containing the famous aria "Già il sole dal Gange"; ''Pompeo'' [[1683]], containing the well-known airs "O cessate di piagarmi" and "Toglietemi la vita ancor," and others down to about [[1685]]) retain the older cadences in their [[recitatives]], and a considerable variety of neatly constructed forms in their charming little arias, accompanied sometimes by the string quartet, treated with careful elaboration, sometimes by the harpsichord alone. By [[1686]] he had definitely established the "Italian overture" form (second edition of ''Dal male il bene''), and had abandoned the [[ground bass]] and the [[Binary (music)|binary form]] air in two stanzas in favour of the [[ternary form]] or [[da capo]] type of air. His best operas of this period are ''La Rosaura'' ([[1690]], printed by the [[Gesellschaft für Musikforschung]]), and ''Pirro e Demetrio'' ([[1694]]), in which occur the arias "Rugiadose, odorose", and "Ben ti sta, traditor".
From about [[1697]] onwards (''La Caduta del decemviri''), influenced partly perhaps by the style of [[Giovanni Bononcini]] and probably more by the taste of the viceregal court, his opera arias become more conventional and commonplace in rhythm, while his scoring is hasty and crude, yet not without brilliance (''Eracles'', [[1700]]), the [[Oboe|oboes]] and [[Trumpet|trumpets]] being frequently used, and the [[Violin|violins]] often playing in unison. The operas composed for [[Ferdinand de' Medici]] are lost; they might have given a more favourable idea of his style as his correspondence with the prince shows that they were composed with a very sincere sense of inspiration.
''Mitridate Eupatore'', accounted his masterpiece, composed for Venice in [[1707]], contains music far in advance of anything that Scarlatti had written for Naples, both in technique and in intellectual power. The later Neapolitan operas (''L'Amor volubile e tiranno'' [[1700]]; ''La Principessa fedele'' [[1712]]; ''Tigrane'', [[1715]], &c.) are showy and effective rather than profoundly emotional; the instrumentation marks a great advance on previous work, since the main duty of accompanying the voice is thrown upon the string quartet, the harpsichord being reserved exclusively for the noisy instrumental [[ritornelli]]. In his opera ''Teodora'' ([[1697]]) he originated the use of the orchestral ''ritornello''.
His last group of operas, composed for Rome, exhibit a deeper poetic feeling, a broad and dignified style of melody, a strong dramatic sense, especially in accompanied recitatives, a device which he himself had been the first to use as early as [[1686]] (''Olimpia vendicata'') and a much more modern style of orchestration, the horns appearing for the first time, and being treated with striking effect.
Besides the operas, [[oratorio]]s (''Agar et Ismaele esiliati'', [[1684]]; ''Christmas Oratorio'', c. [[1705]]; ''S. Filippo Neri'', [[1714]]; and others) and [[serenata]]s, which all exhibit a similar style, Scarlatti composed upwards of five hundred chamber-cantatas for solo voice. These represent the most intellectual type of chamber-music of their period, and it is to be regretted that they have remained almost entirely in manuscript, since a careful study of them is indispensable to anyone who wishes to form an adequate idea of Scarlatti's development.
His few remaining masses (the story of his having composed two hundred is hardly credible) and church music in general are comparatively unimportant, except the great ''St Cecilia Mass'' ([[1721]]), which is one of the first attempts at the style which reached its height in the great masses of [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] and [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]. His instrumental music, though not without interest, is curiously antiquated as compared with his vocal works.
==Recordings==
* Accademia Bizantina. (2004). ''Il Giardino di Rose''. [[Decca]]: 470 650-2 DSA.
* Seattle Baroque. (2001). ''Agar et Ismaele Esiliati''. Centaur: CRC 2664
* I Musici. (1991). ''Concerto Grosso''. Philips Classics Productions: 434 160-2
{{commons|Alessandro Scarlatti}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome</title>
<id>2367</id>
<revision>
<id>15900788</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AIDS]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</title>
<id>2368</id>
<revision>
<id>38866011</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T03:43:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Banana04131</username>
<id>379197</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removing a link to a deleated article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''''' is a collection of annals narrating the history of the [[Anglo-Saxons]] and their settlement in [[Britain]]. Much of the information in these documents consists of rumours of events that happened elsewhere and so may be unreliable. However for some periods and places, the chronicle is the only substantial surviving source of information. The manuscripts were produced in different places, and each manuscript represents the biases of its scribes. The chronicle has entries spanning [[1|AD 1]] to [[1154]], and two manuscripts have an entry - misdated - for [[60 BC]], recording [[Julius Caesar|Julius Caesar's]] invasion of Britain. The term Anglo-Saxon appears to be a later addition, as the first printed edition (1692) was called "Chronicum saxonicum."
After the original chronicle was compiled, copies were kept at various [[Monastery|monasteries]] and were updated independently. Sometimes items important to the locals, such as the fertility of the harvest or the paucity of bees, would be eagerly recorded, whereas distant political events could be overlooked. A combination of the individual annals allows us to develop an overall picture, a document that was the first continuous history written by Europeans in their own language. Thus the various versions of the chronicle are an important development in [[historiography]] as well as a useful historical documents in their own right.
T |
hing Society") of the NSDAP
*''Beauftragter der NSDAP für alle Volkstumsfragen'' (Nazi Party Commissioner for All Racial Matters)
*''Generalbevollmächtigter für die Verwaltung'' ([[Plenipotentiary]] General for Administration) of Germany ([[August]] [[1943]]-[[1945]])
|}
'''{{Audio|de-Heinrich Himmler.ogg|Heinrich Luitpold Himmler}}''' ([[October 7]], [[1900]] &ndash; [[May 23]], [[1945]]) was the commander of the German ''[[Schutzstaffel]]'' ([[SS]]) and one of the most powerful men in [[Nazi Germany]]. As [[Reichsführer-SS]], he controlled the SS and the [[Gestapo]]. He also became a leading organizer of [[the Holocaust]]. As founder and officer-in-charge of the [[Nazi concentration camps]] and the ''[[Einsatzgruppen]]'' [[death squad]]s, Himmler was responsible for implementing the industrial scale extermination of between six and twelve million people. Among the victims were [[Jew]]s, [[Gypsy|Gypsies]], [[Homosexuality|homosexuals]], [[Communism|Communists]], [[Blacks]], [[Catholics|Catholics]] and [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]].
== Early Nazi Party activity ==
[[Image:Freikorpshimmler.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Himmler (third from left, holding a flag) during the Beer Hall Putsch 1923]]
In [[1923]] Himmler was a ''[[Feldwebel]]'' ([[Sergeant]]) in the ''Reichkriegsflagge,'' carrying the Imperial German Battle Ensign in the so-called [[Beer Hall Putsch]], the Nazi Party's failed attempt at a [[revolution]] in overthrowing the government of [[Bavaria]].
Between 1923 and [[1925]], with the Nazi party seemingly a failed cause, Himmler devoted himself to other interests, putting his [[agricultural]] [[diploma]] to work by becoming a [[poultry]] farmer. His time as a chicken farmer was unsuccessful, however, and he returned to the Nazi Party in late [[1926]]. In [[1927]] he married Margaret Boden.
The Nazi Party quickly put Himmler to work as the Vice District Leader and Deputy ''[[Gauleiter]]'' of Upper-Bavaria and also as [[secretary]] to ''[[Oberste SA-Führer]]'' [[Franz Pfeffer von Salomon]]. Himmler was subsequently commissioned as an SA-''[[Sturmführer]]'' in 1926, and later that year he was appointed an ''[[Oberführer]]'', becoming SS-Gauführer (District Leader) in a small SA sub-unit known as the ''[[Schutzstaffel]]'' or SS. In 1927, Himmler became the vice commander of the SS when he accepted the assignment as Deputy [[Reichsführer-SS]].
== Rise in the SS ==
[[Image:HimmlerOberfhr.jpg|thumb|left|Heinrich Himmler as an SA-Oberführer and Reichsführer-SS]]
Between 1927 and [[1929]], Himmler devoted himself increasingly to his duties as Deputy [[Reichsführer-SS]]. Upon the [[resignation]] of SS Commander [[Erhard Heiden]], Himmler was appointed as the new [[Reichsführer-SS]] in January 1929. At the time Himmler was appointed to lead the SS, it numbered only 280 members and was considered a mere [[battalion]] of the much larger SA. Himmler himself was considered only an SA-Oberführer, but after 1929 he simply referred to himself as the "Reichsführer-SS".
By [[1933]], when the Nazi Party rose to power in Germany, Himmler's SS numbered 52,000 members, and the organization had developed strict membership requirements ensuring all members were of [[Adolf Hitler]]'s "[[Aryan]] [[Herrenvolk]]" ("Aryan master race"). Now a ''[[Gruppenführer]]'' in the SA, Himmler next began a massive effort to separate the SS from SA control; he introduced black [[SS uniform]]s to replace the SA brown shirts in the fall of 1933. Shortly thereafter, he was promoted to ''SS-[[Obergruppenführer]] und Reichsführer-SS'' and became an equal to the senior SA commanders, who by this time loathed the SS and the power it held.
[[Image:Heinrich_Himmler.jpg|thumb|Heinrich Himmler in 1933, wearing the new black [[SS uniform|uniform of the SS]]]]
Himmler and another of Hitler's right hand men, [[Hermann Göring]], agreed that the SA and its leader [[Ernst Röhm]] were beginning to pose a real threat to the German Army and the Nazi leadership of Germany. Röhm had strong [[socialism|socialist]] views and believed that, although Hitler had successfully gained power in Germany, the "real" [[revolution]] had not yet begun, leaving some Nazi leaders believing Röhm was intent on using the SA to administer a [[coup]].
With some persuasion from Himmler and Göring, Hitler began to feel threatened by this prospect and agreed that Röhm had to die. He delegated the task of Röhm's demise to Himmler and Göring who, along with [[Reinhard Heydrich]], [[Kurt Daluege]] and [[Walter Schellenberg]], carried out the [[execution]] of Röhm and numerous other senior SA officials on [[June 30]][[1934]], in what became known as "The [[Night of the Long Knives]]". The next day Himmler's title of Reichsführer-SS became a rank to which he was appointed and the SS became an independent organization of the Nazi Party.
===Consolidation of power===
In [[1936]] Himmler gained further authority as the SS absorbed all of Germany's local [[law enforcement]] agencies into the new ''[[Ordnungspolizei]]'', considered a headquarters branch of the SS. Germany's secret police forces were also under Himmler's authority in the form of the ''[[Sicherheitspolizei]]'', which would in 1939 expand into the much larger [[RSHA|''Reichsicherheitshauptamt'']]. The SS was also developing its military branch, known as the ''[[SS-Verfügungstruppe]]'', which would later become known as the [[Waffen-SS]].
== Himmler and the Holocaust ==
[[Image:Himmler visits Dachau 1936.jpg|right|thumb|SS Chief Heinrich Himmler (front right, facing prisoner) on a personal visit to the [[Dachau concentration camp]] in 1936]]
After the Night of the Long Knives, the ''SS-[[Totenkopfverbände]]'' was given the task of organizing and administering Germany's [[regime]] of [[concentration camp]]s and, after [[1941]], the [[extermination camp]]s in occupied [[Poland]]. The SS, through its intelligence arm the ''[[Sicherheitsdienst]]'' (SD), was charged with finding [[Jew]]s, [[Roma (people)|Roma]], [[priest]]s, [[homosexuality|homosexuals]], [[communists]] and those persons of any other cultural, [[racial]], political or [[religious]] affiliation deemed by the Nazis to be either ''[[Untermenschen]]'' (''sub-human'') or in opposition to the regime, and placing them in concentration camps. Himmler opened the first of these camps near [[Dachau]] (see picture) on March 22nd, 1933. He became one of the main architects of [[the Holocaust]], using elements of [[mysticism]] and a fanatical belief in the [[racism|racist]] Nazi [[ideology]] to justify the [[mass murder]] and [[genocide]] of millions of victims.
=== [[Posen speech|Poznań speech]] ===
On 4 October [[1943]], Himmler referred explicitly to the extermination of the Jewish people during a secret [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] meeting in the [[Poland|Polish]] city of [[Poznań]] (named [[Posen]] by the Germans). The following are excerpts from a transcription of an [http://www.holocaust-history.org/himmler-poznan/ audio recording] that exists of the speech:
:''I also want to mention a very difficult subject before you here, completely openly.
:''It should be discussed amongst us, and yet, nevertheless, we will never speak about it in public.... ''
:''I am talking about the “Jewish evacuation”: the extermination of the Jewish people.
:''It is one of those things that is easily said. "The Jewish people is being exterminated,” every Party
:''member will tell you, 'perfectly clear, it's part of our plans, we're eliminating the Jews, exterminating
:''them, ha!, a small matter.…''
== The Second World War ==
[[Image:Hans_Frank.jpg|250px|thumbnail|Nazi governor of Poland [[Hans Frank]] (right) hosts head of SS Heinrich Himmler during a visit to [[Krakow]]]]
Before the [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion of Russia]] in [[1941]], Himmler began preparing his SS for a war of extermination against the forces of "Judeo-Bolshevism". Himmler, always glad to make parallels between Nazi Germany and the [[Middle Age]]s, compared the invasion to the [[Crusade]]s. Himmler collected volunteers from all over Europe, including [[Denmark|Danes]], [[Norway|Norwegians]], [[Sweden|Swedes]], [[Netherlands|Dutch]], [[Belgium|Belgians]], [[France|French]], [[Spain|Spaniards]], and, after the invasion, [[Ukraine|Ukrainians]], [[Latvia]]ns, [[Lithuania]]ns, and [[Estonia]]ns. Himmler attracted the non-Germanic volunteers by declaring a pan-European crusade to defend the traditional values of Old Europe from the "Godless Bolshevik Hordes".
In [[1944]], Himmler was granted still further power as the result of a bitter rivalry between the ''[[Sicherheitsdienst]]'' (SD) and the ''[[Abwehr]]'', the [[Military intelligence|intelligence]] arm of the ''[[Wehrmacht]]''.
The involvement in the [[July 20 Plot|July 20, 1944, plot]] against Hitler of many of the ''Abwehr'' leaders, including its head, [[Wilhelm Canaris|Admiral Canaris]], prompted Hitler to disband the ''Abwehr'' and make the SD the sole intelligence service of the [[Third Reich]]. This increased Himmler's already considerable personal power.
In late 1944, Himmler became commander of army group ''Vistula'' (''Upper [[Rhine]]''), which was fighting the oncoming [[United States]] [[U.S. Seventh Army|7th Army]] and [[France|French]] 1st Army in the [[Alsace]] region on the west bank of the Rhine. Himmler held this post until early [[1945]] when he was switched to command an [[army group]] facing the [[Red Army]] to the East. As Himmler had no practical military experience as a field commander, he was quickly relieved of his field commands and appointed Commander of the [[Volkssturm#Origins|Home Army]]. At the same time, he was appointed as the German [[Interior Minister]] and was considered by many to be a candidate to succeed Hitler as the [[Führer]] of Germany. However, it became known after the war that Hitler never really considered Himmler as a successor even before hi |
gon]]
=== Precession ===
* [8] [http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/teaching/dynamics/p0.html Cavendish Laboratory] briefly about Hipparchus' [[celestial dynamics]] and generally about the precession of the Earth's main axis
* [9] [http://www.well.com/user/davidu/appendix4.html David Ulansey about Hipparchus's understanding of the precession]
=== Celestial bodies ===
* [10] M44 Praesepe at SEDS ([[University of Arizona]]): http://www.seds.org/messier/m/m044.html
=== Star catalogue ===
* [2] [http://ottawa.rasc.ca/astronomy/astro_facts/hipparcus.html A brief view by Carmen Rush on Hipparchus' stellar catalogue]
* [11] [http://www.phys.lsu.edu/farnese/ Schaefer's site on the] [[Farnese Atlas]]
[[Category:190 BC births]]
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[[ca:Hiparc]]
[[de:Hipparchos (Astronom)]]
[[es:Hiparco de Nicea]]
[[eo:Hiparko]]
[[fr:Hipparque (astronome)]]
[[gl:Hiparco]]
[[hr:Hiparh]]
[[it:Ipparco di Nicea]]
[[nl:Hipparchus (astronoom)]]
[[ja:ヒッパルコス]]
[[no:Hipparkos (astronom)]]
[[pl:Hipparchos z Nikei]]
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[[zh:喜帕恰斯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hebrew</title>
<id>13601</id>
<revision>
<id>40783644</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T00:09:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nicetomeetyou</username>
<id>856487</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''''Hebrew''''' most likely means "to cross over", referring to the [[Semitic]] people crossing over the [[Euphrates River]]. ''Hebrew'' can variously refer to:
* Any descendant of [[Eber]], the great, great grandson of [[Noah]] of whom Abraham was also a descendant.
* [[Hebrew languages]], a set of [[Semitic languages]] spoken mainly in [[Israel]], including:
:* [[Biblical Hebrew language]], the ancient language used in the [[Tanakh]]
:* [[Hebrew language]], the modern, spoken form of Hebrew
* [[Hebrew alphabet]], used to write Hebrew and various other [[Jewish languages]]
* [[Hebrews]], an ancient people of the [[Levant]] region, or their descendants, the [[Jew]]s
* [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], a book of the [[New Testament]]
The term ''Hebrew'' is sometimes used by certain [[Christianity|Christian]] groups to distinguish the Jews living prior to the birth of [[Jesus]] from those who have lived since that time. This distinction is not strictly observed by most, but the word is still used more commonly to refer to ancient Jews rather than modern ones.
The Jewish people are referred to by many names including [[Semites]], Hebrews, [[Israelites]], and [[Jews]]. As noted above, a Hebrew is technically a person descended from Eber, whereas a Semite is any person descended from Shem, the son of Noah. Therefore, a Hebrew is also a Semite but a Semite is not necessarily a Hebrew. The same is true of the terms "Israelite" and "Jew." All of these are Hebrews, though Hebrews are not necessarily any of these.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Hebräisch]]
[[es:Hebreo]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Huldrych Zwingli</title>
<id>13602</id>
<revision>
<id>41703086</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T04:07:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aeryth</username>
<id>344195</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Zwingli's successor */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><table align="right" width="250" spacing="4"><tr><td>[[image:Ulrich_Zwingli.jpg|right|Huldrych Zwingli]]</td></tr><tr><td>
<table width="250" bgcolor="#eeeeee" align="right" valign="top">
<tr><th>Timeline<tr><td padding="4"><font size="-1">
*Zwingli's birth - 1484
*Zwingli priest in [[Glarus]] - 1506
*Zwingli as chaplain in [[Marignano]]- 1515
*Luther's [[95 theses]] - 1517
*[[Emperor Charles V|Charles V]] becomes Holy Roman emperor - 1519
*Zwingli priest in the cathedral of Zürich - 1519
*Pope bans [[Luther]] - 1521
*[[New Testament]] translated to German - 1522
*[[Pope Adrian VI|Adrian VI]] new pope - 1522
*Zwingli [[Clerical celibacy|marries]] - 1522
*'''''Zwingli publishes his first reformatory tract'''''
*Reformation wins in Zürich - 1523
*[[Pope Clement VII|Clement VII]] new pope - 1523
*Peasant [[Peasants' War|rebellion]] in [[Germany]] - 1524
*[[Anabaptist]] movement in Switzerland - 1525
*Luther marries [[Katharina von Bora]] - 1525
*Zwingli publishes his tract "On the true & false Religion" - 1525
*Charles V; military conquest of Rome
*Reformation wins in [[Berne]] - 1528
*Zwingli and Luther meet in [[Marburg Colloquy|Marburg]] - 1529
*[[Augsburg confession|Confessio Augustana]] - 1530
*The league of [[Schmalkaldic League|Schmalkalden]] - 1531
*'''Zwingli falls in [[Kappeler Kriege|combat]] - 1531'''
*[[John Calvin|Calvin]] becomes a protestant - 1533
*Calvin in [[Geneva]] - 1536
*[[Confessio Helvetia]] prior - 1536 </font></table></td></tr>
<tr height="20"><td></td></tr>
</table>
'''Huldrych''' (or '''Ulrich''') '''Zwingli''' ([[January 1]], [[1484]] &ndash; [[October 11]], [[1531]]) was the leader of the Protestant [[Reformation in Switzerland]], and founder of the [[Reformed_churches#Continental_Reformed_churches|Swiss Reformed Churches]]. Independent from [[Luther]], who was ''[[doctor biblicus]]'', Zwingli arrived at similar conclusions, by studying the Scriptures from the point of view of a [[Humanism|humanist]] scholar.
Zwingli was born in [[Wildhaus]], [[Canton of St. Gallen|St. Gall]], [[Switzerland]] to a prominent family of the middle classes. He was the seventh of eight sons. His father Ulrich was the chief [[magistrate]] in town, and his uncle Bartolomeus the [[vicar]].
Zwingli's Reformation was supported by the magistrate and population of [[Zürich]], and led to significant changes in civil life, and state matters in Zürich. In particular, this movement was known for mercilessly persecuting Anabaptists and other followers of Christ who maintained a nonresistant stance. The reformation was spread from Zürich to five other [[cantons of Switzerland|canton]]s of Switzerland, while the remaining five sternly held on to the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] view of the faith.
Zwingli was killed at [[Kappel am Albis]], in a battle against the Catholic cantons.
==Zwingli's contribution to Reformation==
===Background===
While a wealth of information related to the theology of [[Martin Luther]], [[John Calvin]], and others exist, relatively much less, or little, is available with relation to Huldrych Zwingli. Because Zwingli's life-time coincided with that of Luther's, and because Zwingli's renunciation of the Catholic priesthood came only a few years after that of Luther's, Zwingli may have been over-shadowed by Luther's and Calvin's contributions to the Reformation.
Another reason for Zwingli's less noticeable career may have been caused by his own theological differences with respect to that of Luther's. Some believe that because of these differences, historical writers and religious zealots, who were more sympathetic to Luther's doctrinal views, may have aided in suppressing Zwingli's doctrinal views. They hold that "the side who wins in history, is the side who writes the history"; the "other side of the story" is either forgotten, or suppressed.
===Theology: sacraments and covenants===
{{merge|Theology of Zwingli}}
One major difference in theological opinion between Zwingli and Luther is that of grace versus works as it relates to the Christian sacraments. Many consider Luther to have been the originator of the belief that God's covenants to man are unconditional; Zwingli, on the other hand, proposed that God's covenants were just that--spritually binding contracts between God and man that were vulnerable to man's relapse into the sinful life that could eventually lead to an anullment of God's part in the contract.
E. Brooks Holifield states in "The Covenant Sealed: The Development of Puritan Sacramental Theology in Old and New Testaments" (1570-1720, New Haven, Conn.: Yale University press, 1974, 6) that "When Luther called the sacrament a covenental seal, he meant that baptism visibly ratified and guaranteed God's promises, as a royal seal authenticated a government document on which it was inscribed. Only secondarily was baptism a pledge of obedience by men. For Zwingli, however, the sacrament was primarily 'a covenant sign which indicates that all those who receive it are willing to amend their lives to follow Christ."
<!--
This section on Luther and Zwingli's views of baptism is badly in error. Basically, it reverses their positions. See, for example, these two links:
http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/catechism/web/cat-13.html
http://faculty.occ.edu/markmoore/Zwingli.htm
If the original author of this section does not wish to fix this, I'll be happy to take a stab at it. -CP
You should put this on the talk page, not here! --Flex
-->
For both Luther and Zwingli, the sacrament of baptism was a sign or symbol of God's new Gospel covenant. Their theological differences arise in the relationship between baptism and mankind. While Luther believed that God's grace was sufficient for man's salvation thereby defining baptism simply as a sign of having received a divine guarantee of this grace, Zwingli taught that God's grace in addition to man's work was necessary for salvation thereby defining baptism as a covenant between God and man. This covenant/contract involved two parties wherein both were gi |
vastly outnumber the rich ones. The standard anti-communist reply to the latter argument is pointing out the examples of former Third World countries that have successfully escaped out of poverty in the recent decades under the capitalist system, most notably the [[Asian Tigers]]. Anti-communists also cite numerous examples of Third World Communist regimes that failed to achieve development and economic growth and in many cases led their peoples into an even worse misery, for example the [[Mengistu]] regime in [[Ethiopia]] or the [[North Korean]] [[totalitarian]] government. Supporters of Mengistu or Kim typically attribute the shortcomings in their societies to "imperialist" Western meddling. Other communists, such as the [[Trotskyism|Trotskyists]], while agreeing that imperialism harmed these countries, also say that Ethiopia and North Korea were never communist--they were [[Stalinist]], meaning that they were ruled by a clique of bureaucrats who claimed to be acting in the popular interest but actually betrayed it, being more oppressive to its working class.
Many refer to both communism and [[fascism]] as totalitarianism, seeing similarity between the actions of communist and fascist governments. It should also be noted that many modern left-attributed communists, particularly [[anarcho-communism|anarcho-communists]], use these similarities, and actual sayings from Marx himself, to argue that those self-proclaimed communist regimes were not actually following any sort of communism at all. One such quote by Marx to support this simply says, "''Democracy is the road to socialism''".
Anti-communists also object to the actual practices of communist governments in contrast to the stated promises of communism, questioning whether or not they are truly able to be called "communist". For example, the view of "human nature" usually expounded by anti-communist [[Objectivists]] is that while an egalitarian society could be looked at as ideal, it is virtually impossible to achieve. They state that it is human nature to be motivated by personal incentive, and point out that while several communist leaders have claimed to be working for the common good, many or all of them have been corrupt and totalitarian. Communists retaliate that "human nature" essentially doesn't exist, since human beings are extremely adaptable with inbred logic and have shown themselves to be able to live in a wide variety of social organizations, some similar to communism, throughout history.
===Anticommunist histories===
One of the most influential anti-communist historians was [[Robert Conquest]] who argued in his works that Communism was responsible for tens of millions of deaths during the 20th century.
Communist parties (sometimes combined with left socialist parties as workers' parties) which have come to power have likewise tended to be rigidly intolerant of political opposition. Most communist countries have shown no signs of advancing from Marx's "socialist" stage of economy to an ideal "communist" stage. Rather, communist governments have been accused of creating a new ruling class (called by Russians the ''[[Nomenklatura]]''), with powers and privileges far greater than those previously enjoyed by the upper classes in the pre-revolutionary regimes.
It should be noted, however, that many communists do not support or justify such repressive actions. In particular, [[Trotskyists]] have been virulent critics of the policies carried out by Stalin's Soviet Union and other nations who followed the same model. They refer to these nations as [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] rather than communist, and sometimes call them [[deformed workers state]]s. The anti-communists reply that the repression in the early years of the [[Bolshevik]] regime, while not as extreme as that during Stalin's reign, was still severe by any reasonable standards, citing the examples such as [[Felix Dzerzhinsky]]'s secret police, which eliminated numerous political opponents by extrajudicial executions, and the brutal crushing of the [[Kronstadt rebellion]] and [[Tambov rebellion]]. According to them, [[Trotsky]] could hardly claim any moral high ground, having been one of the top-ranking Bolshevik leaders during these events. Trotsky was later to claim (unconvincingly) that the Kronstadt rebels were early harbingers of the bureaucratisation which he associated with Stalinism.
Anti-communists will likewise argue that the contemporary communist/Marxist claim that any communist regime that perpetuated human rights abuses was not a "true" communist state is merely a convenient excuse that can be evoked to avoid taking responsibility (and thus a version of the [[No true Scotsman]] logical fallacy).
===Economic performance of communist governments===
Communist supporters may point to the fact that those countries were far behind the West to begin with, and they may argue that communist governments have in fact reduced this pre-existing gap. Also, they often point to [[Cuba]], whose economic performance was arguably better than that of the neighboring countries. During the 1990's, however, Cuba suffered a debilitating economic crisis following the loss of her major trading partners (most notably the Soviet Union), and was forced to allow foreign investments in the tourism market as a means of recovery. Critics of the Cuban government under [[Fidel Castro]] argue that the Cuban Cold War trading arrangements with the USSR amounted to little more than a direct Soviet subsidy to the regime, and that prior to the ascension of Castro, Cuba was actually among the "richest" Latin American countries.
In other cases, such as the separated nations, [[West Germany]] and [[East Germany]] and [[North Korea]] and [[South Korea]], the capitalist portion has advanced far ahead of its communist counterpart. In the case of East Germany, communists claim that they received the "raw end of the deal," since all the traditional industrial and commercial centers lay in the capitalist part of the country. In addition, in this case, the [[Soviet Union]] removed plant and other resources, claiming them as [[reparations]]. Similar conditions distinguished North and South Korea, with the former suffering under an American-led bombing campaign between 1950 and 1952 that reduced every industrial center above the 38th parallel to uniform rubble, while the latter was spared devestation to the same extent. Also, the anti-communists cite the example of [[Czechoslovakia]], which was among world's most developed industrial countries prior to [[World War II]], but fell far behind the Western nations under the Communist rule.
The hallmark of some Communist economic policies, [[collective farming]], has sometimes been called economically inefficient and often disastrous, especially in the cases of the former Soviet Union, China, and North Korea.
In general, anti-communist economic criticism centers on the belief that communists ignore the realities of economic life and production in favor of their ideas about how things ought to be done. Anti-communists believe that this leads to economic disruption and poverty and generally see the examples of former Communist nations as supporting the veracity of their views.
===Anarchist anti-Communism===
The anarchist critique of communism comes from a different angle. Anarchists agree with communists that capitalism is a tool for oppression, that it is unjust and that it should be destroyed, one way or another. Anarchists, however, go on to say that ''all'' centralized or coercive power (as opposed to just wealth) is ultimately injurious to the individual. Therefore, the concepts of [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], state ownership of the means of production, and other similar tendencies within Marxist thought are anathema to an anarchist, regardless of whether the state in question is democratic. There are, also, strong anti-anarchist tendencies among Marxists, who have been denounced variously as unscientific, romantic, or bourgeois.
The debates between [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and Karl Marx are well-known. While Bakunin's own philosophy owed much to Marx's critique of capitalism, their views diverged sharply over questions of how a post-capitalistic society should be organized. Bakunin saw the Marxist State as simply another form of oppression: "The question arises, if the proletariat is ruling, over whom will it rule? This means there will remain another proletariat which will be subordinated to this new domination, this new state." He loathed the idea of a vanguard party ruling the masses from above, quipping that "when the people are being beaten with a stick, they are not much happier if it is called 'the People's Stick.'"
[[Image:RCP-burn.jpg|right|thumb|An anarchist-made image depicting a flaming flag representing the [[Revolutionary Communist Party, USA]].]]
Anarchists initially rejoiced over the 1917 revolution as an example of workers taking power for themselves, and indeed played a part in the revolution. It quickly became evident, however, that the communists and the anarchists had very different ideas regarding the kind of society they wanted to build there. Anarchist [[Emma Goldman]] went to Russia enthusiastic about the revolution, but left sorely disappointed, and began to write her book ''[[My Disillusionment in Russia]]''. Anarchist [[Victor Serge]], in response to the pro-Leninist sentiment in the global Left, said, "All right, I can see the broken eggs. Now where's this omelette of yours?"
Anarchists often cite the crushing of the [[Kronstadt Rebellion]], in which the Red Army defeated an embryonic anarchist commune, as a specific example of the tyranny they perceived in the Bolshevik government. The [[typhus]] epidemic, and subsequent crushing of [[Nestor Makhno]]'s weakened black army in the [[Ukraine]] was also a specif |
://www.kerasma.com Kerasma], a Greek [[quango]] promoting Greek cuisine.
* [http://www.greek-recipe.com Large Greek recipe collection]
* [http://www.gourmed.gr/dessert-recipes Greek recipes]
[[Category:Greek cuisine|*]]
[[de:Griechische Küche]]
[[fr:Cuisine grecque]]
[[nl:Lijst van Griekse gerechten]]
[[ja:ギリシア料理]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Gigantopithecus blacki</title>
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<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = ''Gigantopthecus blacki''
| fossil_range = [[Pleistocene]] (~100 TYA)
| image = 051107 giant ape 02.jpg
| image_width = 225px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| familia = [[Hominidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Ponginae]]
| genus = ''[[Gigantopithecus]]''
| species = '''''G. blacki'''''
| binomial = ''Gigantopithecus blacki''
| binomial_authority = [[Ralph von Koenigswald|Koenigswald]], [[1935]]
}}
'''''Gigantopithecus blacki''''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin language|Latin]] for "Black's Giant Ape") is an [[extinct]] [[species]] of [[ape]].
==Characteristics==
The only known [[fossil]]s of ''G. blacki'' are a few teeth and mandibles found in cave sites in [[Southeast Asia]]. As the name suggests, these are appreciably larger than those of living gorillas, but the exact size and structure of the rest of the body can only be estimated in the absence of additional findings. Recent research using high-precision absolute-dating methods has shown that after existing for about a million years, ''G. blacki'' died out 100,000 years ago. This means that it coexisted with (anatomically) modern [[human]]s (''Homo sapiens'') for a few dozen thousands of years, and with the most immediate ancestors of ''H. sapiens'' before that.
Based on the fossil evidence, paleontologists speculate that Gigantopithecus had an adult height of over three meters (ten feet) and a weight of 550&nbsp;kg (1200&nbsp;lb), and was thus much larger and heavier than current-day [[gorilla]]s.
The species lived in [[Asia]] and probably inhabited [[bamboo]] forests, since its fossils are often found alongside those of extinct ancestors of the [[panda]]. Most evidence points to Gigantopithecus being a plant-eater. Some believe that being a plant-eating species, ''G. blacki'' was placed at the losing end of the evolutionary competition with humans.
Gigantopithecus's method of locomotion is uncertain, as no pelvis or leg bone has been found. The dominant view is that it walked on all fours like modern gorillas and chimpanzees; however, a minority opinion, most notably championed by the late [[Grover Krantz]], holds that the mandible shape and structure suggests bipedal locomotion.
==Classification==
In the past, it had been thought that ''G. blacki'' was an ancestor of humans, on the basis of molar evidence; this is now regarded a result of [[convergent evolution]]. ''G. blacki'' is now placed in the subfamily [[Ponginae]] along with the [[orangutan]].
==Cryptozoology==
Believers in the existence of the [[Yeti]] or "Abominable Snowman" and [[Bigfoot]] have theorized that these creatures could be present-day specimens of ''G. blacki''. Without additional evidence, this must be regarded as highly speculative.
==See also==
*[[Timeline of human evolution]]
==References==
* {{cite web
| title = Giant ape lived along-side humans
| url = http://www.mcmaster.ca/ua/opr/nms/newsreleases/2005/rink.html
| accessdate = November 15
| accessyear = 2005
}}
== External links ==
*[http://www.uiowa.edu/~nathist/Site/giganto.html University of Iowa Museum of Natural History: How Gigantopithecus was discovered]
*[http://www.wynja.com/arch/gigantopithecus.html From the Teeth of the Dragon: Gigantopithecus Blacki]
*[http://www.kandervision.com/giganto.html A Gigantopithecus sculpture at Hartwick College]
*[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-11/mu-gal111005.php Giant ape lived alongside humans]
[[Category:Prehistoric apes]]
[[Category:Pleistocene mammals]]
[[Category:Pleistocene extinctions]]</text>
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<title>Gospel of mark</title>
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<title>Gospel of matthew</title>
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<title>Gospel of Mark</title>
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<comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
{{Chapters in the Gospel of Mark}}
The '''Gospel of Mark''' is traditionally the second of the [[New Testament]] [[Gospel]]s. It narrates the life of [[Jesus]] from [[Baptism of Jesus|his baptism]] by [[John the Baptist]] to [[Resurrection of Jesus|his resurrection]], but it concentrates particularly on the last week of his life. Usually dated around AD [[65]]-[[80]], it is regarded by most modern scholars as the earliest of the [[canonical]] [[gospel]]s, contrary to the traditional view of the [[Augustinian hypothesis]].
==Authorship and Provenance==
The gospel itself is anonymous, but as early as [[Papias]] in the early [[2nd century]], a text was attributed to [[Mark the Evangelist|Mark]], a disciple of [[Saint Peter|Peter]], who is said to have recorded the Apostle's discourses. Papias' authority in this was [[John the Presbyter]]. While the text of Papias is no longer extant, it was quoted by [[Eusebius of Caesarea]]:
:And the presbyter would say this: Mark, who had indeed been Peter's interpreter, accurately wrote as much as he remembered, yet not in order, about that which was either said or done by the Lord. For he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but later, as I said, Peter, who would make the teachings anecdotally but not exactly an arrangement of the Lord's reports, so that Mark did not fail by writing certain things as he recalled. For he had one purpose, not to omit what he heard or falsify them.
In many older translations, the Greek behind "anecdotally" (''pros tas chreias'') had been rendered "to the necessities (of his hearers)", but contemporary scholars since J. Kürzinger in the 1960s now prefer to understand ''chreias'' in this context as a rhetorical term that means "anecdote."
From the time of [[Clement of Alexandria]], at the end of the 2nd century, to the mid [[20th century]], scholars have generally thought this gospel was first written at [[Rome]], but [[Syria]] is also a viable candidate. The Rome-Peter theory has been questioned in recent decades. It is argued that the [[Latinism]]s in the Greek of ''Mark ''&mdash;once seen as an indication of Roman provenance&mdash;could have stemmed from many places throughout the [[Western Roman empire]]. Furthermore, Papias' comment does not make it clear that the Mark of whom he spoke is the author of the canonical gospel which bears that name. Neither does the comment in [[First Epistle of Peter|1 Peter]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Peter%205:13;&version=31; 5:13] "The chosen one at [[Babylon]] sends you greeting, as does Mark, my son" for Mark was a very common name in the [[first century]]. Some scholars believe that the Gospel of Mark contains mistakes concerning [[Galilean]] topography, supporting that the author, or his sources, were unfamiliar with the actual geography of that area, unlike the historical Peter. Finally, some scholars dispute the connection of the gospel with [[Persecution of Christians|persecution]], identified with persecution at Rome, because persecution was widespread, albeit sporadic beyond the borders of the city of Rome.
As Morna D. Hooker, the Lady Margaret's Professor of Divinity in The University of Cambridge, stated in her commentary on Mark (p. 8): "All we can say with certainty, therefore, is that the gospel was composed somewhere in the Roman Empire—a conclusion that scarsely narrows the field at all!"
A [[Mar Saba letter]] ascribed to Clement of Alexandria, copied into a book at the Mar Saba monastery and published by [[Morton Smith]] in [[1973]], contains references to a previously unknown [[Secret Gospel of Mark]] and provides additional details about Mark's [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] origin. While most Clement scholars agree that the letter sounds authentic, a number of scholars remain unconvinced that an early, "Secret" Mark existed before the canonical gospel, and have asserted that the "Mar Saba letter" is a modern-day [[forgery]].
==Date==
The text of the Gospel itself furnishes us with no clear information as to the time that it was written. It is generally agreed among scholars to be the first gospel written. Comments attributed to [[Jesus]] in Mark [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2013:1-2;&versi |
ssigned a value using a cast, union, or through another corrupt pointer. In general, C is permissive in allowing manipulation of and conversion between pointer types. Other languages attempt to address these problems by using more restrictive [[reference (computer science)|reference]] types.
===Arrays===
Although C has native support for static arrays, it is not required to verify that array indexes are valid ([[bounds checking]]). For example, one can write to the sixth element of an array with five elements, yielding generally undesirable results. This type of bug, called a ''[[buffer overflow]],'' has been notorious as the source of a number of security problems. On the other hand, since [[bounds checking elimination]] technology was largely nonexistent when C was defined, bounds checking came with a severe performance penalty, particularly in numerical computation. It is also, arguably, inconsistent with C's minimalist approach. (Actually, the decision to equate an array with a pointer to its first element, and to use this approach for passing arrays as function parameters -- without bounds information, pretty much ruled out [[bounds checking]] from the beginning.)
Multidimensional arrays are necessary in numerical algorithms (mainly from applied linear algebra) to store matrices. The structure of the C array is very well adapted and fit for this particular task, provided one is prepared to count one's indices from 0 instead of 1. This issue is discussed in the book ''Numerical Recipes in C'', Chap. 1.2, page 20 ff ([http://www.library.cornell.edu/nr/bookcpdf/c1-2.pdf read online]). In that book there is also a solution based on negative addressing which introduces other dangers.
===Variadic functions===
Another source of bugs is [[variadic function]]s, which take a variable number of arguments. Unlike other prototyped C functions, checking the types of arguments to variadic functions at compile-time is impossible in general without additional information. If the wrong type of data is passed, the effect is unpredictable, and often fatal. Variadic functions also handle null pointer constants in a way which is often suprising to those unfamiliar with the language semantics. For example, NULL must be cast to the desired pointer type when passed to a variadic function. The [[printf]] family of functions supplied by the standard library, used to generate formatted text output, has been noted for its error-prone variadic interface, which relies on a format string to specify the number and type of trailing arguments.
Type-checking of variadic functions from the standard library is a quality of implementation issue, however, and many modern compilers do in particular type-check <code>printf</code> calls, producing warnings if the argument list is inconsistent with the format string. However, not all printf calls can be checked statically, since the format string can be built at runtime, and other variadic functions typically remain unchecked.
===Syntax===
Although mimicked by many languages because of its widespread familiarity, C's syntax has been often targeted as one of its weakest points. For example, Kernighan and Ritchie say in the second edition of ''The C Programming Language'', "C, like any other language, has its blemishes. Some of the operators have the wrong precedence; some parts of the syntax could be better."
<!-- Note that these Stroustrup quotes do talk about C++, not C -->
Bjarne Stroustrup said of C++ (which is of course very similar to C): "Within C++, there is a much smaller and cleaner language struggling to get out. [...] the C++ semantics is much cleaner than its syntax." [http://www.research.att.com/~bs/bs_faq.html#really-say-that] Some specific problems worth noting are:
* A function prototype with an empty parameter list allows any set of parameters, a syntax problem introduced for backward compatibility with K&R C, which lacked prototypes.
* Some questionable choices of operator precedence, as mentioned by Kernighan and Ritchie above, such as <code>==</code> binding more tightly than <code>&</code> and <code>|</code> in expressions like <code>x & 1 == 0</code>.
* The use of the <code>=</code> operator, used in mathematics for equality, to indicate assignment, leading to unintended assignments in comparisons and a false impression that assignment is transitive. Having <code>=</code> denote assignment and <code>==</code> equality was a deliberate decision by Ritchie, who noted that assignment occurs much more often than comparisons.
* A lack of [[infix]] operators for complex objects, particularly for string operations, making programs which rely heavily on these operations difficult to read.
* Heavy reliance on punctuation-based symbols even where this is arguably less clear, such as "&&" and "||" instead of "and" and "or" (though "and" and "or" are theoretically available as alternatives with the inclusion of a certain header).
* The un-intuitive declaration syntax, particularly for function pointers. <!-- Note that these Conway quotes do talk about C++, not C --> In the words of language researcher [[Damian Conway]] speaking about the very similar C++ declaration syntax:
::Specifying a type in C++ is made difficult by the fact that some of the components of a declaration (such as the pointer specifier) are prefix operators while others (such as the array specifier) are postfix. These declaration operators are also of varying precedence, necessitating careful bracketing to achieve the desired declaration. Furthermore, if the type ID is to apply to an identifier, this identifier ends up at somewhere between these operators, and is therefore obscured in even moderately complicated examples (see Appendix A for instance). The result is that the clarity of such declarations is greatly diminished.
::''Ben Werther & Damian Conway. [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~damian/papers/HTML/ModestProposal.html#section3.1.1 A Modest Proposal: C++ Resyntaxed]. Section 3.1.1. 1996.''
===Maintenance===
There are other problems in C that don't directly result in bugs or errors, but make it harder for inexperienced programmers to build a robust, maintainable, large-scale system. Examples of these include:
* A fragile system for importing definitions (<code>#include</code>) that relies on literal text inclusion and redundantly keeping prototypes and function definitions in sync, and drastically increases build times.
* A cumbersome compilation model that forces manual dependency tracking and inhibits [[compiler optimization]]s between modules (except by [[link-time optimization]]).
* A weak type system that lets many clearly erroneous programs compile without errors.
===Static-checking tools===
Tools have been created to help C programmers avoid these errors in many cases.
Automated source code checking and auditing is fruitful in any language, and for C many such tools exist such as [[lint programming tool|Lint]]. A common practice is to use Lint to detect questionable code when a program is first written. Once a program passes Lint, it is then compiled using the C compiler.
There are also compilers, libraries and operating system level mechanisms for performing array bounds checking, [[buffer overflow]] detection and [[garbage collection (computer science)|automatic garbage collection]], that are not a standard part of C.
Cproto is a program that will read a C source file and output prototypes of all the functions within the source file. This program can be used in conjuction with the "make" command to create new files containing prototypes each time the source file has been changed. These prototype files can be included by the original source file (e.g., as "filename.p"), which reduces the problems of keeping function definitions and source files in agreement.
It should be recognized that these tools are not a panacea. Because of C's flexibility, some types of errors involving misuse of variadic functions, out-of-bound array indexing, and incorrect memory management cannot be detected on some architectures without incurring a significant performance penalty. However, some common cases can be recognized and accounted for.
==Related languages==
===C++===
The [[C++]] programming language was originally derived from C. However, not every C program is a valid C++ program. As C and C++ have evolved independently, there has been an increase in the number of incompatibilities between the two languages [http://david.tribble.com/text/cdiffs.htm]. The latest revision of C, C99, created a number of additional conflicting features. The differences make it hard to write programs and libraries that are compiled and function correctly as either C or C++ code, and confuse those who program in both languages. The disparity also makes it hard for either language to adopt features from the other one.
[[Bjarne Stroustrup]], the creator of C++, has repeatedly suggested [http://www.research.att.com/~bs/sibling_rivalry.pdf] that the incompatibilities between C and C++ should be reduced as much as possible in order to maximize inter-operability between the two languages. Others have argued that since C and C++ are two different languages, compatibility between them is useful but not vital; according to this camp, efforts to reduce incompatibility should not hinder attempts to improve each language in isolation.
Today, the primary differences (as opposed to the additions of C++, such as classes, templates, namespaces, overloading) between the two languages are:
* <code>'''inline'''</code> — [[inline function]]s are in the global scope in C++, and in the file (so-called "static") scope in C. In simple terms, this means that in C++, any definition |
ites])
* [[Bounded rationality]] (e.g., [[Herbert Simon]])
* [[Conscience]]
* [[Indirect reciprocity]] (e.g., [[reputation]])
* [[Kin selection]] including [[eusociality]] (see also "[[selfish gene]]")
* [[Meme]]s (by influencing behavior to favour their own spread, e.g., [[religion]])
* [[Reciprocal altruism]], mutual aid
* [[Sexual selection]]
* [[Strong reciprocity]]
The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]] which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]]s, such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides''. These protists live as individual [[amoebae]] until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. Social behavior and altruism share many similaraties to the interactions between the many parts (cells, genes) of an organism, but are distinguished by the ability of each individual to reproduce indefinitely without an absolute requirement for its neighbors.
==Altruism in psychology and sociology==
If one performs an act beneficial to others with a view to gaining some personal benefit, then it is not an altruistically motivated act. There are several different perspectives on how "benefit" (or "interest") should be defined. A material gain (e.g. money, a physical reward, etc.) is clearly a form of benefit, while others identify and include both material and immaterial gains (affection, respect, happiness, satisfaction etc.) as being philosophically identical benefits.
According to ''[[psychological egoism]]'', while people can exhibit altruistic ''behavior'', they cannot have altruistic ''motivations''. Psychological egoists would say that while they might very well spend their lives benefitting others with no material benefit (or a material net loss) to themselves, their most basic motive for doing so is always to further their own interests. For example, it would be alleged that the foundational motive behind a person acting this way is to advance their own psychological well-being ("good feeling"). Critics of this theory often reject it on the grounds that it is [[falsifiability|non-falsifiable]]; in other words, it is designed in such a way as to be impossible to prove or disprove - because immaterial gains such as a "good feeling" cannot be measured or proven to exist in all people performing altruistic acts. Psychological egoism has also been accused of using [[circular logic]]: "If a person willingly performs an act, that means he derives personal enjoyment from it; therefore, people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment". This statement is circular because its conclusion is identical to its hypothesis (it assumes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment, and concludes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment).
In contrast to psychological egoism, the ''[[empathy-altruism]]'' hypothesis states that when an individual experiences empathy towards someone in need, the individual will then be altruistically motivated to help that person; that is, the individual will be primarily concerned about that person's welfare, not his or her own.
In common parlance, altruism usually means helping another person without expecting material reward from that or other persons, although it may well entail the "internal" benefit of a "good feeling," sense of satisfaction, self-esteem, fulfillment of duty (whether imposed by a religion or ideology or simply one's conscience), or the like. In this way one need not speculate on the motives of the altruist in question.
Humans are not exclusively altruistic towards family members, previous co-operators or potential future allies, but can be altruistic towards people they don't know and will never meet. For example, humans donate to international [[charity|charities]] and volunteer their time to help [[society]]'s less fortunate.
It strains plausibility to claim that these altruistic deeds are done in the hope of a return favor. The game theory analysis of this 'just in case' strategy, where the principle would be 'always help everyone in case you need to pull in a favor in return', is a decidedly ''non-optimal'' strategy, where the net expenditure of effort (tit) is far greater than the net profit when it occasionally pays off (tat).
According to some, it is difficult to believe that these behaviors are solely explained as indirect selfish [[rationality]], be it conscious or sub-conscious. Mathematical formulations of [[kin selection]], along the lines of the [[prisoner's dilemma]], are helpful as far as they go; but what a [[game theory|game-theoretic]] explanation glosses over is the fact that altruistic behavior can be attributed to that apparently mysterious phenomenon, the [[conscience]]. One recent suggestion, proposed by the philosopher [[Daniel Dennett]], was initially developed when considering the problem of so-called 'free riders' in the [[tragedy of the commons]], a larger-scale version of the [[prisoner's dilemma]].
In [[game theory]] terms, a free rider is an [[agent (grammar)|agent]] who draws benefits from a co-operative society without contributing. In a one-to-one situation, free riding can easily be discouraged by a tit-for-tat strategy. But in a larger-scale society, where contributions and benefits are pooled and shared, they can be incredibly difficult to shake off.
Imagine an elementary society of co-operative organisms. Co-operative agents interact with each other, each contributing resources and each drawing on the common good. Now imagine a [[rogue]] [[free rider]], an agent who draws a favor ("you scratch my back") and later refuses to return it. The problem is that free riding is always going to be beneficial to individuals at cost to society. How can well-behaved co-operative agents avoid being cheated? Over many generations, one obvious solution is for co-operators to evolve the ability to spot potential free riders in advance and refuse to enter into [[reciprocal]] arrangements with them. Then, the canonical free rider response is to evolve a more convincing [[disguise]], fooling co-operators into co-operating after all. This can lead to an evolutionary [[arms race]]s, with ever-more-sophisticated disguises and ever-more-sophisticated detectors.
In this evolutionary arms race, how best might one convince comrades that one ''really is'' a genuine co-operator, not a free rider in disguise? One answer is by ''actually making oneself'' a genuine co-operator, by erecting [[psychological barriers]] to breaking promises, and by advertising this fact to everyone else. In other words, a good solution is for organisms to evolve things that everyone knows will force them to be co-operators - and to make it obvious that they've evolved these things. So evolution will produce organisms who are sincerely moral and who wear their hearts on their sleeves; in short, evolution will give rise to the phenomenon of conscience.
This theory, combined with ideas of [[kin selection]] and the one-to-one sharing of benefits, may explain how a blind and fundamentally selfish process can produce a genuinely non-cynical form of altruism that gives rise to the human conscience.
Critics of such technical game theory analysis point out that it appears to forget that human beings are rational and emotional. To presume an analysis of human behaviour without including human rationale or emotion is necessarily unrealistically narrow, and treats human beings as if they are mere machines, sometimes called [[Homo economicus]]. Another objection is that often people donate anonymously, so that it is impossible to determine if they really did the altruistic act.
Beginning with an understanding that rational human beings benefit from living in a benign universe, logically it follows that particular human beings may gain substantial emotional satisfaction from acts which they perceive to make the world a better place.
== Comparison of Altruism and Tit for Tat ==
Studying the simple strategy "[[Tit for tat]]" in the
[[iterated prisoner's dilemma]] problem, [[game theory|game theorists]] argue that
"Tit for tat" is much more successful in establishing stable [[cooperation]] among
individuals than altruism, defined as ''unconditional'' cooperation, can ever be.
"Tit for tat" starts with cooperation in the first
step (as altruism does) and then just imitates the behaviour of the partner step by step. If the partner
cooperates, then he ''rewards'' him with cooperation, if he doesn't, then he
''punishes'' him by not cooperating in the next step.
Confronted with many strategies that try to exploit or abuse cooperation of others, this
simple strategy surprisingly proved to be the most successful (see [[The Evolution of Cooperation]]).
It was even more successful than these abusing strategies, while unconditional cooperativity (altruism) was
one of the most unsuccessful strategies.
Confronted with altruistic behaviour, Tit for tat is indistinguishable from
pure altruism. [[Robert Axelrod]] and [[Richard Dawkins]] also showed that
altruism may be harmful to society by nourishing exploiters and abusers (and making them more and
more powerful until they can force everyone to cooperate unconditionally), which
is not the case for "Tit for tat". (See also comparison of [[entrepreneur]] and [[entredonneur]])
In the context of [[biology]], the "Tit for tat" strategy is also called [[reciprocal altruism]].
==Altruism in politics==
<table border>
<tr>
<td colspan='2' align='center'>'''There is currently a [[WP:NPOV|POV]] [[WP:DR|dispute]] as to the wordin |
followed in some areas by the [[Pomerania|Pomeranian]] culture.
The ethnic ascriptions of many Iron age cultures has been bitterly contested, as the roots of [[Germanic peoples|Germanii]] and [[Slavs]] were sought in this area.
===Central Europe===
In Central Europe, the Iron Age is generally divided in the early Iron Age [[Hallstatt culture]] (HaC and D, [[800 BC|800]]-[[450 BC|450]]) and the late Iron Age [[La Tène culture]] (beginning in [[450 BC]]). The Iron age ends with the Roman Conquest.
===Mediterranean Europe===
In Italy, the Iron Age was probably introduced by the [[Villanovan culture]] but this culture is otherwise considered a Bronze Age culture, while the following [[Etruscan civilization]] is regarded as part of Iron Age proper. The Etruscan Iron Age was then ended with the rise and conquest of the [[Roman Republic]], which conquered the last Etruscan city of [[Velzna]] in [[265 BC]].
===British Isles===
''For a fuller discussion see the [[British Iron Age]] article.''
In [[Britain]], the Iron Age lasted from about the [[5th century BC]] until the Roman conquest and until the [[5th century|5th century A.D.]] in non-Romanised parts. Defensive structures dating from this time are often impressive, for example the [[Broch|brochs]] of northern [[Scotland]] and the [[hill fort]]s that dotted the rest of the islands.
===Northern Scandinavia and Finland===
Scandinavia (including Finland) and Northern [[Balticum]] shows a small-scaled iron producing very early, but a further dating is currently impossible. The time varies from 3000 BC-1000 A.D. This knowledge is associated to the non-Germanic part of Scandinavia. Metalworking and [[Asbestos-Ceramic]] pottery are somewhat synonymous in Scandinavia due to the latter's capability to resist and preserve heat. The [[iron ore]] used is believed to have been [[iron sand]] (such as [[red soil]]), because its high phosphorus content can be identified in [[slag]]. Together with [[asbestos ware]] axes belonging to the [[Ananjino Culture]] are sometimes found. The Asbestos-Ceramic remains a mystery, because there are other [[adiabatic]] vessels with unknown usage.
===Northern Germany and Southern Scandinavia===
The Iron Age is divided into the [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]] and the [[Roman Iron Age]]. This is followed by the [[Human migration|migration period]]. Northern Germany and Denmark was dominated by the [[Jastorf culture]], whereas the culture of the southern half of the Scandinavia was dominated by the very similar ''Nordic Iron Age''.
==See also==
*[[List of archaeological periods]]
*[[List of archaeological sites]]
*[[Iron#History|History Of Iron]]
{{threeagesystem}}
[[Category:Periods and stages in archaeology]]
[[Category:Iron Age| ]]
[[Category:Prehistory]]
[[ast:Edá del Fierro]]
[[cy:Yr Oes Haearn]]
[[da:Jernalder]]
[[de:Eisenzeit]]
[[et:Rauaaeg]]
[[el:Εποχή του Σιδήρου]]
[[es:Edad de Hierro]]
[[eo:Ferepoko]]
[[fr:Âge du fer]]
[[gl:Idade de Ferro]]
[[ko:철기 시대]]
[[it:Età del ferro]]
[[he:תקופת הברזל]]
[[lv:Dzelzs laikmets]]
[[lt:Geležies amžius]]
[[nl:IJzertijd]]
[[nds:Iesentiet]]
[[ja:鉄器時代]]
[[no:Jernalderen]]
[[pl:Epoka żelaza]]
[[pt:Idade do Ferro]]
[[simple:Iron Age]]
[[sl:Železna doba]]
[[sr:Гвоздено доба]]
[[sv:Järnåldern]]
[[zh:铁器时代]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EFnet</title>
<id>14712</id>
<revision>
<id>42010071</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:56:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.64.98.163</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* EFnet Servers */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{IRC networks}}
'''EFnet''' or '''Eris Free network''' (also written '''EFNet''') is a major [[Internet relay chat|IRC]] network, with over 100,000 users. It is the modern-day descendant of the original IRC network.
Initially, most IRC servers formed a single network, to which new servers could join without restriction, but this was soon abused by people who set up servers to sabotage other users, channels or servers. When, in August 1990, server <code>eris.berkeley.edu</code> remained the only one to allow anyone to connect servers, IRC server operator [[Greg Lindahl]] broke away to start EFnet. The resulting argument split the IRC community of admins into EFnet and [[A-net]], but A-net soon vanished, leaving EFnet as the only IRC network.
Continuing problems with performance and abuse eventually led to the rise of another major IRC network, [[Undernet]], which split off in October 1992.
In July 1996, disagreement on policy caused EFnet to break in two: the slightly larger European half (including Australia and Japan) formed [[IRCnet]], while the American servers continued as EFnet. This was widely known as the [http://www.irc.org/history_docs/TheGreatSplit.html Great Split].
EFnet is probably the least "unified" IRC network, with large variations in server rules and policy between different servers. There are three major regions on EFnet which each have their own policy structure. They are EU, CA, and US. Each region votes on its own server applications. However, central policies are voted upon by the admin community. An archive of previous votes can be found at EFnet's [http://voting.efnet.net voting site].
IRC clients can connect to EFnet via <code>irc.efnet.us</code> or any number of other servers.
In July 2001 a service called [http://www.efnet.org/chanfix/ CHANFIX] (originally named JUPES) was created, which is designed to give back ops to channels which have lost ops or been taken over. In the case of having no ops CHANFIX will automatically join the channel and op people who fit the requirements.
For a takeover, a request must be made for a manual activation of CHANFIX. Once connected to EFnet, a user can find an [[IRC operator]] with the command: <code>/stats p</code>
A vast majority of servers on EFnet run [http://www.ircd-ratbox.com/ ircd-ratbox]. A handful run [http://www.ircd-hybrid.com/ ircd-hybrid], and literally one or two run [http://www.codestud.com/ircd/ csircd].
== EFnet Servers ==
United States of America
* irc.efnet.us - USA Round Robin
* irc.blackened.com - Phoenix, AZ - [http://www.limelightnetworks.com/ Limelight Networks]
* irc.blessed.net - San Jose, CA - [http://www.blessed.net/ Blessed Networks]
* irc.choopa.net - New York, NY - [http://www.choopa.com/ Choopa LLC]
* irc.colosolutions.com - Orlando, FL - [http://www.colosolutions.com/ ColoSolutions]
* irc.desync.com - Tampa, FL - [http://www.powermedium.com/ PowerMedium] - birthplace of wikipedia
* irc.easynews.com - Phoenix, AZ - [http://www.easynews.com/ EasyNews]
* irc.he.net - Fremont, CA - [http://www.he.net/ Hurricane Electric]
* ircd.lagged.org - Ashburn, VA - [http://www.nlayer.net/ nLayer]
* irc.mindspring.com - Atlanta, GA - [http://www.earthlink.com/ Earthlink, Inc]
* irc.mzima.net - Los Angeles, CA - [http://www.mzima.net/ Mzima Networks]
* irc.nac.net - New York, NY - [http://www.nac.net/ Net Access Corporation]
* irc.prison.net - Sunnyvale, CA - [http://www.globalcrossing.com/ Global Crossing]
* irc.ptptech.com - Ashburn, VA - [http://www.pulltheplug.com/ Pull the Plug]
* irc.servercentral.net - Chicago, IL - [http://www.servercentral.net/ ServerCentral]
* irc.umich.edu - Ann Arbor, MI - [http://www.umich.edu/ University of Michigan]
* irc.umn.edu - Minneapolis, MN - [http://www.umn.edu/ University of Minnesota]
* irc.wh.verio.net - Reston, VA - [http://www.verio.com/ NTT/Verio]
* irc.vel.net - Los Angeles, CA - [http://www.vel.net/ Velocity Networks]
Canada
* irc.efnet.ca - CA Round Robin
* irc.arcti.ca - Calgary, Alberta - [http://www.shaw.ca/ Shaw Cable]
* irc.dks.ca - Toronto, Ontario - [http://www.dks.ca/ DKS]
* irc.igs.ca - Toronto, Ontario - [http://www.ott.igs.net/ IGS]
Europe
* irc.eu.efnet.info - EU Round Robin
* efnet.cs.hut.fi - Helsinki, FI - [http://www.hut.fi/ Helsinki University of Technology]
* efnet.demon.co.uk - London, UK - [http://www.demon.net/ Demon Internet]
* efnet.port80.se - Stockholm, SE - [http://www.port80.se/ Port80]
* efnet.xs4all.nl - Amsterdam, NL - [http://www.xs4all.nl/ Xs4All Internet]
* irc.ac.za - Cape Town, South Africa - [http://www.tenet.ac.za/ Tenet]
* irc.dataphone.se - Stockholm, SE - [http://www.dataphone.net/ Dataphone]
* irc.daxnet.no - Oslo, NO - [http://www.tele2.no/ Tele2 Norway]
* irc.dkom.at - Vienna, AT - [http://www.telekom.at/ TeleKom Austria]
* irc.du.se - Borlange, SE - [http://www.du.se/ Dalarnas University]
* irc.efnet.fr - Paris, Fr - [http://www.bsocom.com/ BSO Communications]
* irc.efnet.nl - Ede, NL - [http://www.bit.nl/ Business Internet Trends]
* irc.efnet.no - Oslo, NO - [http://www.banetele.com/ BaneTele AS]
* irc.efnet.pl - Warsaw, PL - [http://www.atm.com.pl/atman ATMAN]
* irc.homelien.no - Oslo, NO - [http://www.powertech.no/ Powertech]
* irc.inet.tele.dk - Aarhus, DK - [http://www.tdc.dk/ Tele Denmark]
* irc.inter.net.il - Tel Aviv, IL - [http://www.inter.net.il/ Internet Zahav]
* irc.pte.hu - Pècs, Hungary - [http://www.pte.hu/ University of Pècs]
Only a handful of servers on EFnet support [[IPv6]]. They are:
* irc.choopa.net
* irc.homelien.no
* efnet.ipv6.xs4all.nl
* irc.efnet.nl
* efnet.ipv6.port80.se
* irc.ptptech.com
* irc.ipv6.inter.net.il
==External links==
*[http://www.efnet.org/ EFnet IRC Network] — Official Website
**[http://www.efnet.org/?module=servers EFnet Server list]
**[http://map.efnet.org/ EFnet Network routing map]
**[http://chat.efnet.org/ EFnet Webchat portal]
**[http://forum.efnet.org/ EFnet Discussion forums]
[[Category:IRC networks]]
[[Category:Virtual communities]]
[[de:EFnet]]
[[fr:EFnet]]
[[sv:EFnet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Undernet</title>
<id>14713</id>
<revision>
<id>39122963</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T21:35:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gavin86</username>
<id>157471</id>
</contributor>
<comment>utilise -> utilize</com |
of an insurgency. Governments in [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Haiti]], [[Mexico]], [[Spain]], and [[Venezuela]] have at various times been considered "democradura" regimes by different critics and opposition groups, not necessarily with an academic or political consensus about the application of the term.
==Dictators in game theory==
In [[game theory]] and [[social choice]] theory, the notion of a dictator is formally defined as a person that can achieve any feasible social outcome he/she wishes. The formal definition yields an interesting distinction between two different types of dictators.
* ''The strong dictator'' has, for any social goal he/she has in mind (e.g. raise taxes, having someone killed, etc.), a definite way of achieving that goal. This can be seen as having explicit absolute power, like [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] in [[Spain]].
* ''The weak dictator'' has, for any social goal he/she has in mind, and for any political scenario, a course of action that would bring about the desired goal. For the ''weak'' dictator, it is usually not enough to "give her orders", rather he/she has to manipulate the political scene appropriately. This means that the ''weak'' dictator might actually be lurking in the shadows, working within a political setup that seems to be non-dictatorial. An example of such a figure is [[Lorenzo de' Medici|Lorenzo the Magnificent]], who controlled Renaissance [[Florence]].
Note that these definitions disregard some alleged dictators, e.g. [[Benito Mussolini]], who are not interested in the actual achieving of social goals, as much as in [[propaganda]] and controlling public opinion. [[Monarch]]s and [[military rule|military dictators]] are also excluded from these definitions, because their rule relies on the consent of other political powers (the [[nobility]] or the [[army]]).
==See also==
* [[The Generals]]
* [[Dictatorship]]
* [[Führer#Equivalent Historic titles]]
* [[Führertum]]'' and ''[[Führerprinzip]]''
* [[Duce]]
* [[List of dictators]]
* [[List of Roman dictators]]
* [[Heads of state timeline]]
* [[Junta]]
* [[Military dictatorship]]
* [[Military rule]]
* [[Rule by decree]]
==Sources and References==
(incomplete)
*[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/ WorldStatesmen]
[[Category:Emergency laws]]
[[Category:Heads of government]]
[[Category:Heads of state]]
[[Category:Law]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[Category:Political science]]
[[Category:Philosophy of law]]
[[Category:Positions of authority]]
[[Category:Fascism]]
[[br:Diktator]]
[[da:Diktator]]
[[de:Diktator]]
[[et:Diktaator]]
[[fa:%D8%AF%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1]]
[[fi:Diktaattori]]
[[fr:Dictateur]]
[[hr:Diktator]]
[[id:Diktator]]
[[it:Dittatore]]
[[nl:Dictator]]
[[ja:&#29420;&#35009;&#32773;]]
[[pl:Dyktator]]
[[pt:Ditador]]
[[simple:Dictator]]
[[sk:Diktátor]]
[[sv:Diktator]]
[[he:%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Decibel</title>
<id>8410</id>
<revision>
<id>42149084</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:33:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Omegatron</username>
<id>18931</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Acoustics */ «"Threshold of human hearing" → "[[Threshold of human hearing]]", +" at 1 kHz"»</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''decibel''' ('''dB''') is a measure of the [[ratio]] between two quantities, and is used in a wide variety of measurements in [[acoustics]], [[physics]] and [[electronics]]. While originally only used for [[power (physics)|power]] and [[intensity]] ratios, it has come to be used more generally in [[engineering]]. The decibel is widely used as a measure of the loudness of [[sound]]. It is a "[[dimensionless unit]]" like [[percent]]. Decibels are useful because they allow even very large or small ratios to be represented with a conveniently small number. This is achieved by using a [[logarithm]].
== Definition ==
An [[intensity]] ''I'' or [[power (physics)|power]] ''P'' can be expressed in decibels with the standard equation
::<math>
I_\mathrm{dB} = 10 \log_{10} \left(\frac{I}{I_0} \right) \quad \mathrm{or} \quad P_\mathrm{dB} = 10 \log_{10} \left(\frac{P}{P_0} \right)\ ,
</math>
where ''I''<sub>0</sub> and ''P''<sub>0</sub> are a specified reference intensity and power.
If ''P''<sub>dB</sub> is 10&nbsp;dB greater than ''P''<sub>dB0</sub> then ''P'' is ten times ''P''<sub>0</sub>. If ''P''<sub>dB</sub> is 3&nbsp;dB greater, the power ratio is very close to a factor of two.
For [[sound intensity]], ''I''<sub>0</sub> is typically chosen to be 10<sup>−12</sup>&nbsp;W/m<sup>2</sup>, which is roughly the [[threshold of hearing]]. When this choice is made, the units are said to be "[[Sound intensity level|dB&nbsp;SIL]]". For sound power, ''P''<sub>0</sub> is typically chosen to be 10<sup>−12</sup>&nbsp;W, and the units are then "[[Sound power level|dB&nbsp;SWL]]".
In engineering, [[voltage]] ''V'' or [[pressure (physics)|pressure]] ''p'' can be expressed in decibels with the standard equation
::<math>
V_\mathrm{dB} = 20 \log_{10} \left (\frac{V_1}{V_0} \right ) \quad \mathrm{or} \quad p_\mathrm{dB} = 20 \log_{10} \left (\frac{p_1}{p_0} \right )\ ,
</math>
where ''V''<sub>0</sub> and ''p''<sub>0</sub> are a specified reference voltage and pressure. Note that in physics, these equations are considered to give ''power'' in decibels, and it is then incorrect to use them if the electrical or acoustic impedance is not the same at the two points where the voltage or pressure are measured. In this formalism, decibels are always a measure of relative power or intensity, and the value is the same regardless whether power or voltage/pressure measurements are used.
If ''V''<sub>dB</sub> is 20&nbsp;dB greater than ''V''<sub>dB0</sub> then ''V'' is ten times ''V''<sub>0</sub>. If ''V''<sub>dB</sub> is 6&nbsp;dB greater, the voltage ratio is very close to a factor of two.
For [[sound pressure]], ''p''<sub>0</sub> is typically chosen to be 2x10<sup>−5</sup>&nbsp;N/m<sup>2</sup>, or pascals (Pa) which is roughly the [[threshold of hearing]]. When this choice is made, the units are said to be "[[Sound pressure level|dB&nbsp;SPL]]".
=== Standards ===
The decibel is not an [[SI]] unit, although the [[Bureau International des Poids et Mesures|International Committee for Weights and Measures]] (BIPM) has recommended its inclusion in the SI system. Following the SI convention, the ''d'' is lowercase, as it is the SI prefix ''deci-'', and the ''B'' is capitalized, as it is an abbreviation of a name-derived unit, the ''bel'', named for [[Alexander Graham Bell]]. Written out it becomes ''decibel''. This is standard [[English language|English]] capitalization.
=== Merits ===
The use of decibels has three different merits:
* It is more convenient to add the decibel values of, for instance, two consecutive [[amplifier]]s rather than to multiply their amplification factors.
* A very large range of ratios can be expressed with decibel values in a range of moderate size, allowing one to clearly visualize huge changes of some quantity.
* In acoustics, the decibel as a [[logarithmic scale|logarithmic measure]] of ratios fits well to the logarithmic dependence of perceived [[loudness]] on sound intensity. In other words, at all levels of loudness, increasing the decibel level by the same amount creates approximately the same increase in perceived loudness — humans perceive the increase from 20 dB to 25 dB as being about the same as the increase from 90 dB to 95 dB, for example. This is known as [[Stevens' power law]].
== History of bels and decibels ==
A '''bel''' (symbol '''B''') is a [[unit]] of measure of [[ratio]]s, such as [[power (physics)|power]] levels and [[voltage]] levels. It is mostly used in [[telecommunication]], [[electronics]], and [[acoustics]]. Invented by engineers of the [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Laboratory]] to quantify the reduction in audio level over a 1 mile length of standard telephone cable, it was originally called the ''transmission unit'' or ''TU'', but was renamed in [[1923]] or [[1924]] in honor of the [[laboratory]]'s founder and telecommunications pioneer [[Alexander Graham Bell]].
The bel was too large for everyday use, so the '''decibel (dB)''', equal to 0.1 '''bel (B)''', became more commonly used. The bel is still used to represent noise power levels in [[hard drive]] specifications.
The [[neper]] is a similar unit which uses the [[natural logarithm]]. The [[Richter scale]] uses numbers expressed in bels as well, though this is implied by definition rather than explicitly stated. In spectrometry and optics, the absorbance unit used to measure [[optical density]] is equivalent to −1&nbsp;B. In astronomy, the [[apparent magnitude]] measures the brightness of stars logarithmically, since just as the ear responds logarithmically to acoustic power, the eye responds logarithmically to brightness.
== Uses ==
=== Acoustics ===
The '''decibel''' unit is often used in acoustics to quantify [[sound]] levels relative to some 0 dB reference. The reference may be defined as a [[sound pressure level]] (SPL), commonly 20 micropascals (20 [[pascal (unit)|μPa]]). To avoid confusion with other decibel measures, the term dB(SPL) is used for this. The reference sound pressure (corresponding to a sound pressure level of 0 dB) can also be defined as the sound pressure at the threshold of [[human]] [[Hearing (sense)|hearing]], which is conventionally taken to be 2×10<s |
<ip>64.47.65.3</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''FM-2030''' was a name adopted by the [[Transhumanism|transhumanist]] [[philosopher]] and [[futurist]] '''Fereidoun M. Esfandiary''' ([[October 15]], [[1930]]&ndash;[[July 8]], [[2000]]?), who professed "a deep [[nostalgia]] for the future." He wrote one of the seminal works in the transhumanist canon, ''[[Are You a Transhuman?]]''. He also wrote a number of works of [[fiction]] under his original name F.M. Esfandiary. The son of an Iranian diplomat, he had lived in 17 countries by the time he turned eleven, and later served on the [[UNSCOP|United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine]] from [[1952]] to [[1954]]. On [[July 8]], [[2000]], FM-2030 succumbed to [[pancreatic cancer]] and entered [[cryonic suspension]] at the [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation]] in [[Scottsdale, Arizona|Scottsdale]], [[Arizona]], where he remains today.
==Adopted name==
F.M. Esfandiary changed his name to FM-2030 to reflect the hope and belief he would live to celebrate his 100th year in 2030. In his own words, "Conventional names define a person's past: ancestry, ethnicity, nationality, religion. I am not who I was ten years ago and certainly not who I will be in twenty years. [...] The name 2030 reflects my conviction that the years around 2030 will be a magical time. In 2030 we will be ageless and everyone will have an excellent chance to live forever. 2030 is a dream and a goal." Sadly, he missed his goal by 30 years.
==Predictions of social change==
Many of FM-2030's predictions about social trends from the 1970's through the early 21st Century proved remarkably prescient. FM-2030 argued that the inherent dynamic of the modern globalizing civilization would bring such changes about despite the best efforts of conservative elites to enforce traditional beliefs.
Unfortunately FM-2030's more envelope-pushing conjectures about future social and psychological changes opened him up to criticism because they come across as a compilation of [[science fiction]] clichés, as if he viewed the scientific "utopia" in [[Aldous Huxley]]'s novel ''[[Brave New World]]'' as a sound plan for organizing the world in the 21st Century. (Curiously, although FM-2030 demonstrated a gift for story-telling in his realistic novels critical of the conditions in Islamic societies, he apparently never tried to show his [[futuristic]] ideas in action through a science fiction novel.) FM-2030's optimism about the potential for human development has not remained as defensible, either. Influenced by [[social progressivism|progressive]] opinion during the mid-20th Century, FM-2030 may have misread the social disruptions he witnessed in developed societies in the late 1960's as evidence of a "permanent" transformation in the human condition, rather than short-term social trends with lasting, but subdued, effects.
==Quote==
:"I am a [[21st century]] person who was accidentally launched in the [[20th century|20th]]. I have a deep nostalgia for the future."
==Fiction books==
*''The Day of Sacrifice'' [[1959]] available as an eBook
*''The Beggar'' [[1965]]
*''Identity Card'' [[1966]] (ISBN 0460038435) available as an eBook
==Non-fiction books==
*''UpWingers: A Futurist Manifesto'' [[1973]] (ISBN 0381982432) (pbk.) Available as an eBook ISBN FW00007527 , Publisher: e-reads, Pub. Date: Jan 1973, File Size: 153K
*''Telespheres'' [[1977]]
*''Optimism one; the emerging radicalism'' [[1970]] (ISBN 0393086119)
*''Are You a Transhuman?: Monitoring and Stimulating Your Personal Rate of Growth in a Rapidly Changing World'' [[1989]] (ISBN 0446388068).
==External links==
*[http://www.imminst.org Immortality Institute]
*[http://www.transhuman.org Transhuman InfoMark]
*[http://www.aleph.se/Trans/index.html Anders Transhuman Page]
*[http://www.betterhumans.com/Errors/index.aspx?aspxerrorpath=/searchEngineLink.article.2002-05-21-2.aspx Betterhumans > Resources > People > FM-2030]
*[http://www.fm2030.com/ FM-2030 - A Futurist Ahead of His Times]
*[http://www.lightmillennium.org/winter01/fm_jboston.html FM & I, by Johnny BOSTON]
*[http://www.positiveliberty.com/2004/06/himself-in-anachron.html Himself In Anachron]
*[http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~porath/NST2/Lecture%2010/Nanononsense.pdf Nano Nonsense and Cryonics, by Michael Shermer]
*[http://www.alcor.org/press2001SciAm.html Cryonics and ''Scientific American'']
*[http://www.context.org/ICLIB/IC10/Esfandry.htm Intimacy in a Fluid World, by F.M. Esfandiary]
*[http://www.quantium.cwc.net/venturist/tv003.pdf FM-2030 SUSPENDED]
*[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1076532 NPR story about FM-2030]
[[Category:1930 births|FM-2030]]
[[Category:2000 deaths|FM-2030]]
[[Category:Iranian Americans]]
[[Category:Transhumanists|FM-2030]]
[[Category:Cryonically preserved people|FM-2030]]
[[fi:FM-2030]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Foetus</title>
<id>10872</id>
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<timestamp>2005-07-08T03:18:16Z</timestamp>
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<username>Stevertigo</username>
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<comment>redirect to Fetus - an obscure industrial band doth not be a reason for a disambiguations making, thanks</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Fetus]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Fetus</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:53:59Z</timestamp>
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<ip>209.7.44.100</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fetus.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fetus at eight weeks]]
:''"Foetus" redirects here. For the musical group Foetus, see [[Foetus (band)]].''
A '''fetus''' is a developing [[mammal]] after the [[embryo|embryonic]] stage and before [[childbirth|birth]]. The plural is '''fetuses''' or very rarely, ''foeti''.
In humans, a fetus develops from the end of the 8th week of [[pregnancy]] (when the major structures have formed), until birth. ''Fetus'', in [[Latin]], literally means "filled with young, pregnant, breeding, with young and/or a bringing forth, bearing, hatching, producing." When speaking in the most literal of terms, a fetus is an organism, as yet undeveloped, in the process of becoming a functional individual of a species.
==Fetal growth==
There is much natural variation in the growth of the fetus.
Approximately 52% of the variation in [[birth weight]] can be accounted for by [[genetics|genetic]] factors, whereas 48% can be accounted for by [[natural environment|environmental]] factors.
Ultimately, the offspring should be able to live up to its term growth potential.
Factors affecting fetal growth can be ''maternal'', ''[[placenta]]l'', or ''fetal''.
'''Maternal''' factors include maternal size, [[weight]], [[weight for height]], [[nutritional state]], [[anemia]], [[cigarette smoking]], [[substance abuse]], or [[uterine blood flow]].
'''Placental''' factors include size, microstructure (densities and architecture), [[umbilical blood flow]], transporters and binding proteins, nutrient utilization and nutrient production.
'''Fetal''' factors include the fetus genome, nutrient production, and [[hormone]] output.
Inappropriate growth can result in low birth weight.
If the [[newborn]] is ''[[small for gestational age]]'', he or she will have an increased risk for perinatal mortality ([[death]] shortly after birth), [[asphyxia]], [[hypothermia]], [[polycythemia]], [[hypocalcemia]], [[immune dysfunction]], [[neurologic]] abnormalities, and other long-term health problems. This can be the result of [[fetal growth restriction]].
==Circulatory system==
The [[circulatory system]] of a human fetus works differently from that of born humans, mainly because the lungs are not in use: the fetus obtains [[oxygen]] and nutrients from the mother through the [[placenta]] and the [[umbilical cord]].
Blood from the placenta is carried by the [[umbilical vein]]. About half of this enters the ''[[ductus venosus]]'' and is carried to the [[inferior vena cava]], while the other half enters the [[liver]] proper from the inferior border of the liver. The branch of the umbilical vein that supplies the right lobe of the liver first joins with the [[portal vein]]. The blood then moves to the right atrium of the [[heart]]. In the fetus, there is an opening between the right and left atrium (the ''[[foramen ovale (heart)|foramen ovale]]''), and most of the blood flows from the right into the left atrium, then into the left ventricle from where it is pumped through the [[aorta]] into the body. Some of the blood moves from the aorta through the internal iliac arteries to the placental arteries, and re-enters the placenta, where [[carbon dioxide]] and other waste products from the fetus are taken up and enter the mother's circulation.
Some of the blood from the right atrium does not enter the left atrium, but enters the right ventricle and is pumped into the [[pulmonary artery]]. In the fetus, there is a special connection between the pulmonary artery and the aorta, called the ''[[ductus arteriosus]]'', which directs most of this blood away from the lungs (which aren't being used for respiration at this point as the fetus is suspended in amniotic fluid).
===Postnatal development===
''See'' [[Adaptation to extrauterine life]] ''for more details''
With the first breath after birth, the system changes suddenly. The pulmonary resistance is dramatically reduced. More blood moves from the right atrium to the right ventricle and into the pulmonary arteries, and less flows through the ''[[foramen ovale (heart)|foramen ovale]]'' to the left atrium. The blood from the lungs travels through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium, increasing the pressure there. The decreased right atrial pressure and the inc |
last; that is, I have no brother, and besides me there is no God; that is, I have no son'" (Isa. xliv. 6; Ex. R. 29). His comment on Num. xxiii. 19 has a still more polemical tone: "God is not a man that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent. If a man say, 'I am God,' he lieth, and if he say, 'I am the son of man,' he will have to repent, and if he say, 'I shall go up to heaven,' he will not do it, nor achieve what he promises" (Yer. Ta'anit, ii. 65b).
Some of his controversies on Christian theological subjects, as on Adam (Yalḳ., Gen. 47), on Enoch (Gen. R. 25), and on the resurrection (Shab. 152b), are less clear and direct (see Bacher, "Ag. Pal. Amor." ii. 97, 115-118).
Bibliography: Grätz, Gesch. d. Juden, 2d ed., iv., 304, 307-317; Jost, Gesch. des Judenthums und seiner Sekten, ii. 161-164; Frankel, Mebo, pp. 58a-60; Weiss, Dor, iii. 103-105; Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ii. 88-142.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|'Abbahu}}
[[Category:Talmud rabbis]]
{{JewishEncyclopedia}}</text>
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<page>
<title>Abbazia</title>
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<comment>redirect to opatija</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Opatija]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Abbreviator</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abbreviators''', a body of writers in the papal [[chancery]], whose business was to sketch out and prepare in due form the [[papal bull|pope's bulls]], [[Papal brief|brief]]s and [[consistory|consistorial]] decrees before these are written out ''in extenso'' by the ''scriptores''.
They are first mentioned in the [[papal bull]]s ''Extravagantes'' of [[Pope John XXII]] and of [[Pope Benedict XII]]. Their number was fixed at seventy-two by [[Pope Sixtus IV]]. From the time of [[Pope Benedict XII]] ([[1334]]-[[1342]]) they were classed as ''de Parco majori'' or ''Praesidentiae majoris'', and ''de Parco minori''. The name was derived from a space in the chancery, surrounded by a grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower (major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that of the vice-[[chancellor]].
After the [[protonotary|protonotaries]] left the sketching of the minutes to the abbreviators, those ''de Parco majori'', who ranked as [[prelate]]s, were the most important officers of the [[apostolic]] chancery. By the time of [[Pope Martin V]] their signature was made essential to the validity of the acts of the chancery; and they obtained in course of time many important privileges.
They were suppressed in [[1908]] by [[Pope Pius X]] and their duties were transferred to the ''protonotarii apostolici participantes''. (See [[Curia Romana]])
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbreviators}}
{{1911}}
[[it:Abbreviatore]]
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<page>
<title>Abd-el-latif</title>
<id>2674</id>
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<comment>+cats</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abdallatif''', '''Abd-el-latif''' or '''Abd-Ul-Latif''' ([[1162]]-[[1231]]), a celebrated [[physician]] and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers of the East, was born at [[Baghdad]].
An interesting memoir of Abdallatif, written by himself, has been preserved with additions by [[Ibn Abu-Osaiba]] (Ibn abi Usaibia), a contemporary. From that work we learn that the higher education of the youth of Baghdad consisted principally in a minute and careful study of the rules and principles of [[grammar]], and in their committing to memory the whole of the ''[[Qur'an]]'', a treatise or two on [[philology]] and [[jurisprudence]], and the choicest Arabian poetry.
After attaining to great proficiency in that kind of learning, Abdallatif applied himself to natural philosophy and medicine. To enjoy the society of the learned, he went first to [[Mosul]] ([[1189]]), and afterwards to [[Damascus]]. With letters of recommendation from [[Saladin]]'s [[vizier]], he visited [[Egypt]], where he realized his wish to converse with [[Maimonides]], ''the Eagle of the Doctors''.
He afterwards formed one of the circles of learned men whom Saladin gathered around him at [[Jerusalem]]. He taught [[medicine]] and [[philosophy]] at [[Cairo]] and at Damascus for a number of years, and afterwards, for a shorter period, at [[Aleppo]].
His love of travel led him to visit different parts of [[Armenia]] and [[Asia Minor]] in his old age. Also, he was in the process of setting out on a pilgrimage to [[Mecca]] when he died at Baghdad.
Abdallatif was undoubtedly a man of great knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating mind. Of the numerous works (mostly on medicine) which Osaiba ascribes to him, one only, his graphic and detailed ''Account of Egypt'' (in two parts), appears to be known in [[Europe]]. The manuscript, discovered by [[Edward Pococke]] the [[orientalist]], and preserved in the [[Bodleian Library]], contains a vivid description of a [[famine]] caused, during the author's residence in Egypt, by the [[Nile]] failing to overflow its banks. It was translated into [[Latin language|Latin]] by Professor White of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] in [[1800]], and into [[French language|French]], with valuable notes, by [[Silvestre de Sacy]] in [[1810]].
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abdallatif}}
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[[Category:Iraqi people]]
[[Category:1162 births]]
[[Category:1231 deaths]]
[[ru:Абдул-Латиф]]
[[sv:Abd-ul-latif]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Abd-ar-rahman</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abd-ar-rahman''', the name borne by five princes of the Umayyad dynasty, amirs and caliphs of Cordova.
*[[Abd-ar-rahman I]], 756-788
*[[Abd-ar-rahman II]], 822-852
*[[Abd-ar-rahman III]], 912-961
*[[Abd-ar-rahman IV]], 1017
*[[Abd-ar-rahman V]], 1023-1024
{{hndis}}
[[ru:Абдаррахман]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Abd ar-Rahman I</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For indivduals with the same or similar name, see [[Abd-ar-Rahman]]''
'''Abd ar-Rahman I''' (ruled [[756]]-[[788]]) was the founder of a [[Muslim]] dynasty that ruled [[Spain]] for nearly three centuries. He was a grandson of [[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik]], the tenth [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]]. When the [[Umayyads]] were overthrown in the East by the [[Abbasids]] he was a young man of about twenty years of age. Together with his brother Yahya, he took refuge with [[Bedouin]] tribes in the desert. The Abbasids hunted their enemies down without mercy. Their soldiers overtook the brothers; Yahya was slain, and Abd-ar-Rahman saved himself by fleeing first to [[Syria]] and then to northern [[Africa]], the common refuge of all who endeavoured to get beyond the reach of the Abbasids.
In the general confusion of the caliphate produced by the change of dynasty, [[Africa]] had fallen into the hands of local rulers, formerly [[emir]]s or lieutenants of the Umayyad caliphs, but now aiming at independence. After a time Abd ar-Rahman found that his life was threatened, and he fled farther west, taking refuge among the [[Berber]] tribes of [[Mauritania]]. In the midst of all his perils, which read like stories from the ''[[Arabian Nights]]'', Abd-ar-Rahman had been encouraged by reliance on a prophecy of his great-uncle Maslama that he would restore the fortune of the family. He was followed in all his wanderings by a few faithful clients of the Umayyads.
In [[755]] he was in hiding near [[Ceuta]], and from there he sent an agent over to [[Spain]] to ask for the support of other clients of the family, descendants of the conquerors of Spain, who were numerous in the province of Elvira, the modern [[Granada]]. The country was in a state of confusion under the weak rule of the Emir Yusef, a mere puppet in the hands of a faction, and was torn by tribal dissensions among the [[Arab]]s and by race conflicts between the Arabs and Berbers. It offered Abd ar-Rahman the opportunity he had failed to find in Africa. On the invitation of his partisans he landed at [[Almunecar]], to the east of [[Málaga]], in September 755.
For a time Abd ar-Rahman was compelled to submit to be guided by his supporters, who were aware of the risks of their venture. Yusef opened negotiations, and offered to give Abd-ar-Rahman one of his daughters in marriage and a grant of land. This was far less than the prince meant to obtain, but he would probably have been forced to accept the offer for want of a better one if the insolence of one of Yusef's messengers, a Spanish renegade, had not outraged a chief partisan of the Umayyad cause. He taunted this gentleman, Obeidullah by name, with being unable to write good [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. Under this provocation Obeidullah drew his sword.
During [[756]], a campaign was fought in the valley of the [[Guadalquivir]], which ended, on [[May 16]], in the de |
ópið]]: 30 km²
* [[Langisjór]]: 26 km²
''Numbers are from the [http://www.lmi.is/landsurvey.nsf/pages/index.html National Land Survey of Iceland'']
[[Image:Iceland-from-space.png|thumb|right|300px|Iceland, as seen from space.]]
===Deepest lakes===
* [[Öskjuvatn]]: 220 m
* [[Hvalvatn]]: 160 m
* [[Jökulsárlón]] in [[Breiðamerkursandur]]: 150 m
* [[Þingvallavatn]]: 114 m
* [[Þórisvatn]] ([[Reservoir (water)|Reservoir]]): 113 m
* [[Lögurinn]]: 112 m
* [[Kleifarvatn]]: 97 m
* [[Hvítárvatn]]: 84 m
* [[Langisjór]]: 75 m
''Numbers are from the [http://www.lmi.is/landsurvey.nsf/pages/index.html National Land Survey of Iceland'']
===Distance to nearest countries===
[[Image:MidatlanticRidge.jpg|thumb|right|The midatlantic ridge, which runs the length of the Atlantic Ocean, is visible above water in Iceland.]]
* [[Greenland]]: 287 km
* [[Faroe Islands]]: 420 km
* [[Jan Mayen]]: 550 km
* [[Scotland]]: 798 km
* [[Norway]]: 970 km
''Numbers are from the [http://www.lmi.is/landsurvey.nsf/pages/index.html National Land Survey of Iceland'']
===See also===
* [[Fjords of Iceland]]
* [[Lakes of Iceland]]
* [[National parks of Iceland]]
* [[Rivers of Iceland]]
* [[Volcanoes of Iceland]]
* [[Waterfalls of Iceland]]
* [[Iceland plume]]
== Military ==
{{main|Military of Iceland}}
The Republic of Iceland has no regular armed forces. Defense is provided by a predominantly US-manned [[NATO]] base in [[Miðnesheiði]] near [[Keflavík]]. Iceland has a [[Icelandic Coast Guard| Coast Guard]] (''Landhelgisgæslan'') and an [[anti-terrorism]] team (similar to [[SWAT team]]s) named ''Sérsveit Ríkislögreglustjóra'' (English: "The [[Special Operations]] Task Force of the National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police"), commonly referred to as ''Víkingasveitin'' (The Viking Team or Viking squad).
===Landhelgisgæslan===
The [[Icelandic Coast Guard]] originates back to the 1920s. Its main tasks from its initiation have been to protect Iceland's most valuable natural resource—its fishing areas—as well as provide security, search, and rescue services to Iceland's fishing fleet. In 1952, 1958, 1972, and 1975, the government expanded Iceland's exclusive economic zone to 4, 12, 50 and 200 nautical miles respectively. This led to Iceland's conflict with the United Kingdom, known as the "[[Cod War]]s". The Icelandic Coast Guard and the Royal Navy confronted each other on several occasions during these years. Although few rounds were fired, there were many intense moments between the two nations. The Captains of the Icelandic Coast Guard ships were regarded as heroes and earned their names in the history of Iceland as Iceland's bravest men. This attitude of heroism towards the Coast Guard persists in Iceland.
===Sérsveit Ríkislögreglustjóra===
[[Image:Vik.GIF|thumb|right|150px|Special forces exercise in downtown [[Reykjavík]].]]
The Special Operations Unit of the National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police, [[Víkingasveitin]], is similar to Germany's [[GSG 9]] and Britain's [[Special Air Service|SAS]], a small and well trained group of operatives. The unit handles security of the state, anti/counter-terrorism projects, security of foreign dignitaries, as well supporting the police forces in the country when needed. The Viking team has five main squadrons: Bomb Squadron that specializes in explosives; Boat Squadron that specializes in operations on sea and water, diving and underwater warfare, and boat operations; Sniper Squadron that specializes in sniper warfare, entries, and close target reconnaissance; Intelligence Squadron that specializes in anti-terrorism intelligence, surveillance, and infiltration; and Airborne Squadron that specializes in airplane hijacking operations, skydiving and surprise assault operations, and port security. Members of the Viking team were deployed in the Balkans as a part of operations lead by NATO, and some members have been deployed to Afghanistan. The Special Operations Unit used to be under the command of the Reykjavík Chief of Police; however, in 2004, a new law was passed that put the Viking Team directly under the National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police.
== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Iceland}}
Iceland is one of the ten richest countries in the world based on [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita]] at [[purchasing power parity]]. The [[economics|economy]] historically depended heavily on the [[fishing]] industry, which still provides almost 40% of export earnings and employs 8% of the work force. In the absence of other [[natural resources]] (except for abundant [[hydroelectricity|hydro-electric]] and [[geothermal]] power), Iceland's economy is vulnerable to changing world [[fish]] prices. The economy remains sensitive to declining fish stocks as well as to drops in world prices for its main material exports: fish and fish products, [[aluminium]], and [[ferrosilicon]]. Although the Icelandic economy still relies heavily on fishing it is constantly becoming less important as the travel industry and other service industries, the technology industry, energy intensive industries and various other industries grow.
The centre-right government plans to continue its policies of reducing the budget and current account deficits, limiting foreign borrowing, containing inflation, revising agricultural and fishing policies, diversifying the economy, and privatising state-owned industries. The government remains opposed to [[EU]] membership, primarily because of Icelanders' concern about losing control over their fishing resources.
Iceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the last decade, and new developments in [[software]] production, [[biotechnology]], and financial services are taking place. The [[tourism]] sector is also expanding, with the recent trends in [[ecotourism]] and [[whale]]-watching. Growth slowed between 2000 and 2002, but the economy expanded by 4.3% in 2003 and grew by 6.2% in 2004. The unemployment rate of 1.8% (3rd quarter of 2005) is among the lowest in the [[European Economic Area]].
Over 99% of the country's electricity is produced from [[hydropower]] and [[geothermal energy]].
===See also===
* [[Geothermal power in Iceland]]
* [[Hydrogen economy#Examples|Iceland and its future hydrogen economy]]
== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Iceland}}
The original population of Iceland was of Nordic and Celtic origin. This is evident by literal evidence from the settlement period as well as from later scientific studies such as [[blood type]] and [[genetics]] analysis. One such genetics study has indicated that the majority of the male settlers were of Nordic origin while the majority of the women were of Celtic origin (Am. J. Hum. Genet, 2001). The modern population of Iceland is often described as a "homogeneous mixture of descendants of Norse and Celts" (The CIA World Factbook) but several history scholars reject the alleged homogeneity as a myth that fails to take into account the fact that Iceland was never isolated from the rest of Europe and actually has had a lot of contact with traders and fishermen from many nations through the ages.
Iceland has extensive medical and genealogical records about its population dating back to the age of settlement. Although the accuracy of these records is debated, biopharmaceutical companies such as [[deCODE Genetics]] see them as a valuable tool for conducting research on genetic diseases.
The population of the island is believed to have varied from 40,000 to 60,000 in the period from initial settlement until the mid-19th century. During that time, cold winters, ashfall from volcanic eruptions, and plagues adversely affected the population several times. The first census was carried out in 1703 and revealed that the population of the island was then 50,358. Improving living conditions triggered a rapid increase in population from the mid-19th century to the present day - from about 60,000 in 1850 to 300,000 in 2006.
In 2004, 20,669 (7% of the total population) people born abroad were living in Iceland, including children of Icelandic parents living abroad. 10,636 people (3.6% of the total population) had foreign citizenship. The most populous nationalities are [[Poland|Polish]] (1903), [[Denmark|Danish]] (890), [[Yugoslavia|ex-Yugoslavians]] (670), [[Philippines]] (647) and [[Germany|Germans]] (540).
The island's spoken tongue is [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], a [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]] language, and the predominant religion is [[Lutheran Church|Lutheran]].
Important foreign languages include [[Danish language|Danish]] and other Scandinavian languages, [[English language|English]] and [[German language|German]].
== Religion ==
''Main article [[Religion in Iceland]]''
Icelanders enjoy [[freedom of religion]] as stated by the [[constitution of Iceland|constitution]]; however, church and state are not separated and the [[Church of Iceland]], a [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] body, is the [[state church]]. The national registry keeps account of the religious affiliation of every Icelandic citizen and according to it, Icelanders in 2004 divided into religious groups as follows:
* 85.5% members of the Church of Iceland.
* 3.6% members of the [[Free Lutheran Churches of Reykjavík and Hafnarfjörður]].
* 2.4% not members of any religious group.
* 2.0% members of the [[Catholic Church]], which has a [[Diocese of Reykjavik]].
The remaining 6.5% is mostly divided between a number of other [[Christianity|Christian]] denominations and sects, with less than 1% of the population in non-Christian religious organisations including a tiny group of state-sanctioned indigenous [[Ásatrú]] adherents in the [[Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið]]. Most Icelanders are very liberal in their religious beliefs and do not attend church regularly.
== Culture ==
[[Image:IMG 0077.JPG|thumb|right|275px|Cliffs at the island of [[Grímsey]], on the [[Arctic Circle]].]]
{{mai |
the eye that views the subject, rather than the subject, and by creating a welter of techniques and forms, Impressionism became seminal to various movements in painting which would come after, including [[Post-Impressionism]], [[Fauvism]], [[Cubism]] and individual painters that were not part of an exact school, such as [[Paul Gauguin]], [[Vincent van Gogh]] and [[Paul Cezanne]].
[[image:impressionism_renoir.jpg|right|Paintings by Renoir]]
==Beginnings==
In an atmosphere of change as [[Napoleon III of France|Emperor Napoleon III]] rebuilt [[Paris]] and waged war, the [[Académie des beaux-arts]] dominated the French art scene in the middle of the 19th century. Art at the time was considered a conservative enterprise whose innovations fell within the Académie's defined borders. The Académie set the standards for French painting.
In addition to dictating the content of paintings (historical subjects, religious themes, and portraits were valued), the Académie commanded which techniques artists used. They valued somber, conservative colours. Refined images, mirroring reality when closely examined, were esteemed. The Académie encouraged artists to eliminate all traces of brush strokes &mdash; essentially isolating art from the artist's personality, emotions, and working techniques.
The Académie held an annual art show &mdash; [[Salon de Paris]], and artists whose work displayed in the show won prizes and garnered commissions to create more art. Only art selected by the Académie jury was exhibited in the show. The standards of the juries about suitable art for the salon reflected the values of the Académie.
The young artists painted in a lighter and brighter style than most of the generation before them, extending the [[realism (arts)|realism]] style of [[Gustave Courbet]], [[Winslow Homer]] and the [[Barbizon school]]. They submitted their art to the Salon, and the juries rejected the pieces. A core group of them, [[Claude Monet]], [[Pierre Auguste Renoir]] and [[Alfred Sisley]], studied under [[Marc-Charles-Gabriel Gleyre|Charles Gleyre]]. The three of them became friends and often painted together.
In [[1863]], the jury rejected ''[[The Luncheon on the Grass]]'' ''(Le déjeuner sur l'herbe)'' by [[Édouard Manet]] primarily because it depicted a nude woman with two clothed men on a picnic. According to the jury, nudes were acceptable in historical and allegorical paintings, but to show them in common settings was forbidden. Manet felt humiliated by the sharply worded rejection of the jury, which set off a firestorm among many French artists. Although Manet did not consider himself an impressionist, he led discussions at [[Café Guerbois]] where the impressionists gathered, and influenced the explorations of the artistic group.
After seeing the rejected works in 1863, Emperor Napoleon III decreed that the public be allowed to judge the work themselves, and the [[Salon des Refusés]] (Salon of the Refused) was organized.
For years art critics rebuked the Salon des Refusés, and in [[1874]] the impressionists (though not yet known by the name) organized their own exhibition.
After seeing the show, critic [[Louis Leroy]] (an engraver, painter, and successful playwright), wrote a scathing review in the ''Le Charivari'' newspaper. Targeting a painting by a then obscure artist he titled his article, ''The Exhibition of the Impressionists''. Leroy declared that ''[[Impression, Sunrise]]'' ''(Impression, soleil levant)'' by [[Claude Monet]] was at most a sketch and could hardly be termed a finished work.
[[image:impressionism_degas.jpg|right]]
Leroy wrote, in the form of a dialog between viewers,
:''Impression &mdash; I was certain of it. I was just telling myself that, since I was impressed, there had to be some impression in it &hellip; and what freedom, what ease of workmanship! Wallpaper in its embryonic state is more finished than that seascape.''
The term "impressionists" gained favor with the artists, not as a term of derision, but as a badge of honor. The techniques and standards within the movement varied, but the spirit of rebellion and independence bound the movement together.
==Impressionist techniques==
* Short, thick strokes of paint in a sketchy way, allowing the painter to capture and emphasize the essence of the subject rather than its details.
* They left brush strokes on the canvas, adding a new dimension of familiarity with the personality of the artist for the viewer to enjoy.
* Colors with as little pigment mixing as possible, allowing the eye of the viewer to optically mix the colors as they looked at the canvas, and providing a vibrant experience for the viewer.
* Impressionists did not shade (mix with black) their colours in order to obtain darker pigments. Instead, when the artists needed darker shades, they mixed with complementary colours. (Black was used, but only as a colour in its own right.)
* They painted wet paint into the wet paint instead of waiting for successive applications to dry, producing softer edges and intermingling of color.
* Impressionist avoided the use of thin paints to create glazes which earlier artists built up carefully to produce effects. Rather, the impressionists put paint down thickly and did not rely upon layering.
* Impressionists discovered or emphasized aspects of the play of natural light, including an acute awareness of how colours reflect from object to object.
* In outdoor paintings, they boldly painted shadows with the blue of the sky as it reflected onto surfaces, giving a sense of freshness and openness that was not captured in painting previously. (Blue shadows on snow inspired the technique.)
* They worked "[[en plein air]]" (outdoors)
Previous artists occasionally used these techniques, but impressionists employed them constantly. Earlier examples are found in the works of [[Frans Hals]], [[Peter Paul Rubens]], [[John Constable]], [[Theodore Rousseau]], [[Gustave Courbet]], [[Camille Corot]], [[Eugene Boudin]], and [[Eugène Delacroix]].
Impressionists took advantage of the mid-century introduction of premixed paints in tubes (resembling modern toothpaste tubes) which allowed artists to work more spontaneously both outdoors and indoors. Previously, each painter made his or her own paints by grinding and mixing dry pigment powders with linseed oil.
==Content and composition==
Even though, historically, painting was viewed as primarily a way to depict historical and religious subjects in a rather formal manner, painters portrayed everyday subjects. Many 17th century Dutch painters, like [[Jan Steen]], focused on common subjects, but their works showed the influences of traditional composition in arrangement of the scene.
When impressionism began, there was interest among the artists in mundane subject matter, and a new method of capturing images became available. [[Photography]] was gaining popularity, and as cameras became more portable, photographs became more candid. Photography inspired impressionists to capture the moment, not only in the fleeting lights of a landscape, but in the day-to-day lives of people.
Photography and popular Japanese art prints ([[Japonism]]) combined to introduce to impressionists odd "snapshot" angles, and unconventional compositions.
[[Edgar Degas]]' ''The Dance Class'' ''(La classe de danse)'' shows both influences. A dancer is caught in adjusting her costume, and the lower right quadrant of the picture contains empty floor space.
== Post-Impressionism ==
: ''See main article [[Post-impressionism]]''
Post-Impressionism developed from Impressionism. By the 1880s several artists were experimenting with expressive qualities of color, pattern, form and line: [[Vincent Van Gogh]], [[Paul Gauguin]], [[Georges Seurat]] and [[Paul Cezanne]]. This was known as the start of post-impressionism. Sometimes post-impressionist artists are mistakenly considered impressionists or hung together in an 'Impressionist' section of a museum, although technically they belonged to different movements, such as [[fauvism]], etc.
==Painters known as impressionists==
* [[Lucy A. Bacon]]
* [[Frédéric Bazille]]
* [[Jean Beraud]]
* [[Mary Cassatt]]
* [[Gustave Caillebotte]]
* [[Paul Cezanne]] (though he later broke away from the Impressionists)
* [[Lovis Corinth]]
* [[Edgar Degas]]
* [[Paul-Henri DuBerger]]
* [[George Wharton Edwards]]
* [[Frederick Carl Frieseke]]
* [[Eva Gonzalès]]
* [[Armand Guillaumin]]
* [[Nazmi Ziya Güran]]
* [[Childe Hassam]]
* [[Wilson Irvine]]
* [[Johan Jongkind]]
* [[Laura Muntz Lyall]]
* [[Max Liebermann]]
* [[Édouard Manet]] (although he did not regard himself as an Impressionist, he is generally considered one)
* [[Jacob Maris]]
* [[Willem Maris]]
* [[Anton Mauve]]
* [[Willard Metcalf]]
* [[Claude Monet]]
* [[Berthe Morisot]]
* [[William McGregor Paxton]]
* [[Lilla Cabot Perry]]
* [[Camille Pissarro]]
* [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]
* [[Theodore Robinson]]
* [[Zinaida Serebryakova]]
* [[Alfred Sisley]]
* [[John Henry Twachtman]]
* [[J. Alden Weir]]
* [[Konstantin Yuon]]
==See also==
* [[American Impressionism]]
==External links==
* [http://itoors.com/parisart.php A Podcast of impressionists in Paris by iToors.]
* [http://www.impressionism.org Online guided tour through impressionism.]
* [http://www.biography.com/impressionists/index.html "The Impressionists" at biography.com]
* [http://www.artmovements.co.uk/impressionism.htm ''Impressionism'' at Art Industri website]
* Online version of the [http://www.artchive.com/74nadar.htm first impressionist exhibition (1874).] Includes scans of the show catalog and comments by critics.
* [http://www.boheme-magazine.net/php/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=66 ''Bohème Magazine'' "The Great Pictorial Movements: Impressionism"]
* [http://www.hlla.com/reference/1830-69.html Detailed ''Impressionists Chronology'']
* [http://www.museen-sh.de/ml/digicult.php?digiID=601.9&s=2 Museumsportal Sc |
- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- '''Y''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Yale University]]
#[[Yamanashi University]]
#[[Yasuda Women's University]]
#[[Yavapai College]]
#[[Yerevan Physics Institute]]
#[[Yeshiva University]]
#[[Yeungnam University]]
#[[Yildiz Technical University]]
#[[Yokohama National University]]
#[[Yonsei University]]
#[[York College]]
#[[York University]]
#[[Youngstown State University]]
#[[Yuan-Ze Institute of Technology]]
#[[Yuba College]]
#[[Yukon College]]
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|Y]]</text>
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<title>List of colleges and universities starting with Z</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- '''Z'''
----
#[[Zabol University]], [[Iran]]
#[[Zagreb University]]
#[[Zanjan University]], [[Iran]]
#[[Zhejiang Medical University]]
#[[Zhejiang University]]
#[[Zhengzhou Institute of Technology]] (formerly Zhengzhou Grain College)
#[[Zhengzhou University]]
#[[Zhongshan University]]
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|Z]]</text>
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<title>Colleges and universities/OldList</title>
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<title>Columbanus</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Saint Columbanus''' ([[543]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[21 November]] [[615]]; also '''Columban'''), was an [[Ireland|Irish]] [[missionary]] notable for founding a number of [[monastery|monasteries]] on the European continent and therefore as an exemplar of Irish missionary activity in early medieval Europe. He is also one of the earliest identifiable [[Hiberno-Latin]] writers.
Born in [[Leinster]], Ireland, he went to the European continent sometime around [[590]].
Columbanus founded several monasteries in the [[Franks|Frankish]] kingdoms, most notably [[Luxeuil-les-Bains|Luxeuil]] in [[590]], spreading among the Franks a [[Celtic Christianity|Celtic]] monastic rule and Celtic penitential practices for those repenting of sins. These practices emphasized private confession to a priest, followed by penances levied by the priest in reparation for the sin.
Because of political difficulties with bishops and [[Merovingian]] kings, including disagreement over the date for the celebration of [[Easter]], Columbanus moved south into [[Italy]] in about [[612]], where, with the help of the [[Lombards|Lombard]] King [[Agilulf]] and Queen [[Theodelinda]], he established his final and most important monastery at [[Bobbio]] (between [[Milan]] and [[Genoa]]). He died there in 615. (This monastery is in part the model for the great monastery in [[Umberto Eco]]'s novel ''[[The Name of the Rose]]''.)
The main source for Columbanus's life or '''vita''' is recorded by [[Jonas of Bobbio]], a monk who entered the monastery in Bobbio in [[618]], three years after the saint's death. In his vita, Columbanus is reported to have performed a miracle in [[Bregenz]]: The townpeople had placed a large vessel in the town center, filled with beer. They told Columbanus it was intended as a sacrifice to their god [[Wodan]] (''Illi aiunt se Deo suo Vodano nomine''), whom they identified with Roman [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]]. Angrily, Columbanus breathed on the vessel, which broke asunder with a loud noise, spilling the beer.
A number of writings of Columbanus survive, including a monastic rule (the ''Regula monachorum''), a number of letters, and some poetry. These provide some of the earliest evidence for Irish knowledge of Latin.
Columbanus is not to be confused with his near contemporary, Saint [[Columba]], otherwise known as [[Columba|Columcille]].
==External links==
*[http://www.stcolumban.org/church/about-us/stcolumban.html St. Columban, Abbot and Confessor]&nbsp;&ndash; St. Columban Parish, [[Loveland, Ohio]]
*[http://www.knightsofstcolumbanus.ie/ Knights of St. Columbanus]
*[http://www.kykofc.com/kentucky/iack/columbanus.htm About the Knights of St. Columbanus]
[[Category:Irish literature]]
[[Category:Latin literature]]
[[Category:543 births]]
[[Category:615 deaths]]
[[Category:History of Ireland]]
[[Category:Medieval Gaels]]
[[Category:Irish saints]]
[[de:Columban von Luxeuil]]
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[[nl:Columbanus (heilige)]]
[[pt:São Columbano]]</text>
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<title>Clean Air Act (1970)</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Clean Air Act}}
The '''Clean Air Act''' (CAA) of [[1970]] is a [[United States environmental law]] that requires the [[United States]] [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) to develop and enforce regulations to protect the general public from exposure to [[air pollution|airborne contaminants]] that are known to be hazardous to human health.
In accordance with Sections 111 and 112 of the CAA, EPA established [[New Source Performance Standard]]s (NSPS) and [[National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants]] (NESHAP) to protect the public.
The Clean Air Act was made federal law in 1970 and is listed under the 42 U.S.C.A. §§7401. The Clean Air Act is significant in that it was the first major [[environmental law]] in the United States to include a provision for [[citizen suit]]s.
==Enforcement by states==
In the creation of the act the federal government charges the US Environmental Protection Agency with enforcing the CAA in 49 states (California is exempt). However, the EPA has allowed the individual states to elect responsibility for compliance with and regulation of the CAA within their own borders in exchange for funding. The election is not mandatory and in some cases states have chosen to not accept responsibility for enforcement of the act and force the EPA to assume those duties. In order to take over compliance with the CAA the states must write and submit a [[State Implementation Plan]] (SIP) to the EPA for approval. The SIP must meet the minimum criteria established by the EPA. The SIP becomes the state&rsquo;s legal guide for local enforcement of the CAA.
===Example - Rhode Island===
The Rhode Island General Law Title 23 Chapter 23 Section 2 (RIGL 23-23-2) states that it is a state policy requirement to comply with the Federal CAA (42 USC s/s 7401) through the SIP. The state SIP delegates permitting and enforcement responsibility to the state Dept. of Environmental Management (RI-DEM).
In accordance with the requirements of the CAA, RI-DEM issues air release permits to large stationary sources of pollution such as power plants and factories. The permitting process requires a monitoring plan to be created and sets limits on the amounts and types of releases allowed. The information contained in this permit is made available to both the polluter, other agencies, and the public.
These permits are known as &lsquo;part 70&rsquo; permits because they are related to the federal minimums in 40 CFR part 70. These permits are also known as &lsquo;title V&rsquo; permits because they are required by title V of the CAA amendments of 1990. The |
sh point]],<br/>[[RTECS|RTECS number]], etc.
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds
|-
| Related [[Amine]]s
| ''See'' [[Amine]]
|-
| Related [[Hydride]]s
| [[Phosphine]]<br/>[[Arsine]]
|-
| Related compounds
| [[Hydrazine]]<br/>[[Hydrazoic acid]]<br/>[[Hydroxylamine]]<br/>[[Chloramine]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | <small>Except where noted otherwise, data are given for<br> materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)]]<br/>[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]</small>
|-
|}
'''Ammonia''' is a [[chemical compound|compound]] of [[nitrogen]] and [[hydrogen]] with the [[chemical formula|formula]] NH<sub>3</sub>. At [[standard temperature and pressure]] ammonia is a [[gas]]. It is [[toxic]] and [[corrosive]] to some materials, and has a characteristic pungent [[odor]].
An ammonia molecule has a [[Trigonal pyramid (chemistry)|trigonal pyramid]] shape, as would be expected from [[VSEPR theory]]. This shape gives the molecule an overall [[dipole]] moment and makes it [[Polar molecule|polar]] so that ammonia very readily dissolves in [[Water (molecule)|water]]. The nitrogen atom in the molecule has a [[Lone pair|lone electron pair]], and ammonia acts as a [[Base (chemistry)|base]]. That means that, when in aqueous solution, it can take a [[proton]] from water; this produces a [[hydroxide]] [[anion]] and an [[ammonium]] [[cation]] (NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>), which has the shape of a regular tetrahedron. The degree to which ammonia forms the ammonium ion depends on the [[pH]] of the [[solution]]—at "physiological" pH (~7), about 99% of the ammonia molecules are protonated.
The main uses of ammonia are in the production of [[fertilizer]]s, [[explosive]]s and [[polymer]]s. It is also an ingredient in certain household glass cleaners. Ammonia is found in small quantities in the atmosphere, being produced from the [[putrefaction]] of nitrogenous animal and vegetable matter. Ammonia and ammonium salts are also found in small quantities in rainwater, while [[ammonium chloride]] (sal-ammoniac) and ammonium sulfate are found in volcanic districts; crystals of [[ammonium bicarbonate]] have been found in [[Patagonia]]n [[guano]]. Ammonium salts also are found distributed through all fertile soil and in seawater. Substances containing ammonia or that are similar to it are called ammoniacal.
== History ==
Salts of ammonia have been known from very early times; thus the term ''Hammoniacus sal'' appears in the writings of [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], although it is not known whether the term is identical with the more modern ''sal-ammoniac''.
In the form of sal-ammoniac, ammonia was known to the [[alchemy|alchemists]] as early as the [[13th century]], being mentioned by [[Albertus Magnus]]. It was also used by [[dyer]]s in the [[Middle Ages]] in the form of fermented [[urine]] to alter the colour of vegetable dyes. In the [[15th century]], [[Basilius Valentinus]] showed that ammonia could be obtained by the action of alkalis on sal-ammoniac. At a later period, when sal-ammoniac was obtained by distilling the hoofs and horns of oxen and neutralizing the resulting carbonate with [[hydrochloric acid]], the name '''Spirit of hartshorn''' was applied to ammonia.
Gaseous ammonia was first isolated by [[Joseph Priestley]] in [[1774]] and was termed by him ''alkaline air''. In [[1777]] [[Karl Wilhelm Scheele]] showed that it contained [[nitrogen]], and [[Claude Louis Berthollet]], in about [[1785]], ascertained its composition.
The [[Haber process]] to produce ammonia from the nitrogen contained in the air was developed by [[Fritz Haber]] and [[Carl Bosch]] in [[1909]] and patented in [[1910]]. It was first used on an industrial scale by the Germans during [[World War I]]. The ammonia was used to produce explosives to sustain their war effort.
== Synthesis and production ==
Because of its many uses, ammonia is one of the most highly-produced inorganic chemicals.
Today NH<sub>3</sub> is manufactured by the [[Haber process]]. In this process, N<sub>2</sub> and H<sub>2</sub> combine in the presence of an [[iron]] [[catalyst]] at a pressure of 200&nbsp;bar (20&nbsp;MPa, 3000&nbsp;lbf/in²) and a temperature of 500 °C. A molybdenum [[promoter]] may also be used.
::N<sub>2</sub> + 3H<sub>2</sub> → 2 NH<sub>3</sub>
Compared to older methods, the feedstocks of the Haber process are relatively inexpensive&mdash;nitrogen makes up 78% of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], while hydrogen is produced in situ from [[natural gas|CH<sub>4</sub>]]. Thus, the industrial process entails heating air and natural gas, a by-product is CO<sub>2</sub>.
Before the start of WWI most ammonia was obtained by the dry [[distillation]] of nitrogenous vegetable and animal products; by the reduction of [[nitrous acid]] and [[nitrite]]s with [[hydrogen]]; and also by the decomposition of ammonium salts by alkaline hydroxides or by [[calcium oxide|quicklime]], the salt most generally used being the chloride ([[ammonium chloride|sal-ammoniac]]) thus
::2NH<sub>4</sub>Cl + 2CaO → CaCl<sub>2</sub> + Ca(OH)<sub>2</sub> + 2NH<sub>3</sub>
It can also been obtained by the hydrolysis of many metal nitrides, for example,
::Mg<sub>3</sub>N<sub>2</sub> + 6H<sub>2</sub>O → 3Mg(OH)<sub>2</sub> + 2NH<sub>3</sub>
==Biosynthesis==
Ammonia is produced from atmospheric N<sub>2</sub> by enzymes called [[nitrogenase]]s. The overall process is called [[nitrogen fixation]]. Although it is unlikely that biomimetic methods will be developed that are competitive with the [[Haber process]], intense effort has been directed toward understanding the mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation. The scientific interest in this problem is motivated by the unusual structure of the active site of the enzyme, which consists of an Fe<sub>7</sub>MoS<sub>9</sub> ensemble.
Ammonia is also a metabolic product of [[amino acid]] [[deamination]]. In humans, it is quickly converted to [[urea]], which is much less toxic. This urea is a major component of the dry weight of [[urine]].
== Properties ==
Ammonia is a colourless [[gas]] with a characteristic pungent smell; it is [[lighter than air]], its density being 0.589 times that of [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]. It is easily liquefied and the [[liquid]] boils at -33.7 °C, and solidifies at -75 °C to a mass of white crystals. [[Liquid]] ammonia possesses strong [[ion]]izing powers ([[Dielectric constant|ε]] = 22), and [[solution]]s of [[salt]]s in liquid ammonia have been much studied. Liquid ammonia has a very high [[standard enthalpy change of vaporization]] (23.35&nbsp;kJ/mol, ''c.f.'' [[water (molecule)|water]] 40.65&nbsp;kJ/mol, [[methane]] 8.19&nbsp;kJ/mol, [[phosphine]] 14.6&nbsp;kJ/mol) and can therefore be used in laboratories in non-insulated vessels at room temperature, even though it is well above its boiling point.
It is [[miscible]] with water. All the ammonia contained in an aqueous solution of the gas may be expelled by boiling. The [[water|aqueous]] solution of ammonia is [[Base (chemistry)|basic]]. The maximum concentration of ammonia in water (a [[saturation (chemistry)|saturated]] solution) has a [[density]] of 0.880 g cm<sup>-3</sup> and is often known as '.880 Ammonia'.
It does not sustain [[combustion]], and it does not burn readily unless mixed with [[oxygen]], when it burns with a pale yellowish-green flame.
At high temperature and in the presence of a suitable catalyst, ammonia is decomposed into its constituent elements. [[Chlorine]] catches fire when passed into ammonia, forming [[nitrogen]] and [[hydrochloric acid]]; unless the ammonia is present in excess, the highly explosive [[nitrogen trichloride]] (NCl<sub>3</sub>) is also formed.
The ammonia molecule readily undergoes [[nitrogen inversion]] at normal pressures, that is to say that the nitrogen atom passes through the plane of the three hydrogen atoms as if it were an umbrella turning inside out in a strong wind. The energy barrier to this inversion is 24.7&nbsp;kJ/mol in ammonia, and the [[resonance frequency]] is 23.79&nbsp;GHz, corresponding to [[microwave]] radiation of a [[wavelength]] of 1.260&nbsp;cm. The absorption at this frequency was the first [[Microwave spectroscopy|microwave spectrum]] to be observed (C.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;Cleeton&nbsp;& N.&nbsp;H.&nbsp;Williams, [[1934]]).
=== Formation of salts ===
One of the most characteristic properties of ammonia is its power of combining directly with [[acid]]s to form [[salt]]s; thus with [[hydrochloric acid]] it forms [[ammonium chloride]] (sal-ammoniac); with [[nitric acid]], [[ammonium nitrate]], etc. However perfectly dry ammonia will not combine with perfectly dry [[hydrogen chloride]], moisture being necessary to bring about the reaction.{{ref|NH4Cl}}
::NH<sub>3</sub> + [[Hydrochloric acid|HCl]] → [[Ammonium chloride|NH<sub>4</sub>Cl]]
The salts produced by the action of ammonia on acids are known as the [[:Category:Ammonium compounds|ammonium salts]] and all contain the [[ammonium]] [[ion]] (NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>).
=== Acidity ===
Although ammonia is well-known as a base, it can also act as an extremely weak [[acid]]. It is a protic substance, and is capable of dissociation into the '''amide''' (NH<sub>2</sub><sup>&minus;</sup>) ion, for example when solid lithium nitride is added to liquid ammonia, forming a lithium amide solution:
Li<sub>3</sub>N(s)+ 2NH<sub>3</sub>(l) &rarr; 3Li<sup>+</sup> |
ates the [[Bishopsgate]] area of [[City of London]].
*[[1994]] - The world's largest [[lollipop]] weighing 3,011 pounds (1,366 kg) is made in [[Denmark]]
*[[1995]] - The last [[Chevrolet Corvette ZR-1]] rolls off the [[assembly line]].
*[[1996]] - In the [[United States]], the [[Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996]] is introduced.
*[[2004]] - [[United States|US]] lifts [[economic sanctions]] imposed on [[Libya]] 18 years previously as a reward for its cooperation in eliminating [[weapons of mass destruction]].
*[[2005]] - Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger is [[Papal Inauguration|inaugurated]] as the 265th Pope of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] taking the name [[Pope Benedict XVI]].
==Scheduled Events==
*[[2006]] - ''[[Half-Life 2: Episode One]]'', the sequel to the critically-acclaimed ''[[Half Life 2]]'', is due to be released.
==Births==
*[[1533]] - [[William I of Orange]] (d. [[1584]])
*[[1580]] - [[Vincent de Paul]], French saint (d. [[1660]])
*[[1706]] - [[Giovanni Battista Martini]], Italian musician (d. [[1780]])
*[[1718]] - [[Nathaniel Hone]], Irish-born painter (d. [[1784]])
*[[1815]] - [[Anthony Trollope]], English novelist (d. [[1882]])
*[[1845]] - [[Carl Spitteler]], Swiss writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1924]])
*[[1856]] - [[Henri Philippe Pétain]], French soldier and statesman (d. [[1951]])
*[[1876]] - [[Erich Raeder]], German naval commander (d. [[1960]])
*[[1878]] - [[Jean Crotti]], Swiss artist (d. [[1958]])
*[[1882]] - [[Hugh Dowding]], Scottish fighter pilot (d. [[1970]])
*[[1889]] - Sir [[Stafford Cripps]], British politician (d. [[1952]])
*[[1896]] - [[Benjamin Whorf]], American linguist (d. [[1941]])
*[[1897]] - [[Manuel Ávila Camacho]], [[President of Mexico]] (d. [[1955]])
*[[1899]] - [[Oscar Zariski]], Russian-born mathematician (d. [[1986]])
*[[1904]] - [[Willem de Kooning]], Dutch painter (d. [[1997]])
*[[1905]] - [[Robert Penn Warren]], American poet (d. [[1989]])
*[[1906]] - [[William Joyce]], Irish fascist (d. [[1946]])
*[[1907]] - [[William Sargant]], British psychiatrist (d. [[1988]])
*[[1914]] - [[William Castle]], American film director and producer (d. [[1977]])
*[[1916]] - [[Lou Thesz]], American professional wrestler (d. [[2002]])
*[[1922]] - [[J.D. Cannon]], American actor
*[[1924]] - Sir [[Clement Freud]], British writer, radio personality, and politician
*[[1926]] - [[Thorbjörn Fälldin]], [[Prime Minister of Sweden]]
*[[1927]] - [[Alan MacDiarmid]], New Zealand chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1930]] - [[Jerome Callet]], American musician
* 1930 - [[Richard Donner]], American film director and producer
*[[1934]] - [[Shirley MacLaine]], American actress and author
*[[1936]] - [[Jill Ireland]], British actress (d. [[1990]])
*[[1937]] - [[Joe Henderson]] American jazz saxophonist
*[[1940]] - [[Sue Grafton]], American author
*[[1941]] - [[John Williams (guitarist)|John Williams]], Australian guitarist
*[[1942]] - [[Richard M. Daley]], American politician
* 1942 - [[Barbra Streisand]], American singer, actress, and director
*[[1952]] - [[Jean-Paul Gaultier]], French fashion designer
*[[1953]] - [[Eric Bogosian]], American actor and writer
*[[1954]] - [[Mumia Abu-Jamal]], American journalist, political activist, and convicted murderer
*[[1960]] - [[Paula Yates]], British television presenter (d. [[2000]])
*[[1964]] - [[Cedric the Entertainer]], American comedian and actor
* 1964 - [[Djimon Hounsou]], Benin-born actor
*[[1968]] - [[Stacy Haiduk]], American actress
*[[1972]] - [[Chipper Jones]], baseball player
*1972 - [[Jure Košir]], Slovenian skier
*[[1973]] - [[Sachin Tendulkar]], Indian cricketer
*[[1974]] - [[Joseph Bruce]], American rapper ([[Insane Clown Posse]])
*[[1975]] - [[Sam Doumit]], American actress
*[[1976]] - [[Steve Finnan]], Irish footballer
*[[1977]] - [[Eric Balfour]], American actor
*1977 - [[Carlos Beltran]], Puerto Rican [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[1982]] - [[Kelly Clarkson]], American singer
*1982 - [[Shayna Nackoney]], Canadian synchronized swimmer
*[[1984]] - [[Tyson Ritter]], American singer and bassist ([[All-American Rejects]])
==Deaths==
*[[624]] - [[Mellitus]], third [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
*[[1338]] - Marquis [[Theodore I of Montferrat]] (b. [[1291]])
*[[1342]] - [[Pope Benedict XII]] (b. [[1285]])
*[[1656]] - [[Thomas Fincke]], Danish mathematician and physicist (b. [[1561]])
*[[1731]] - [[Daniel Defoe]], English writer (b. [[1660]])
*[[1736]] - [[Eugene of Savoy]], French-born Austrian general (b. [[1663]])
*[[1779]] - [[Eleazar Wheelock]], American founder of Dartmouth College (b. [[1711]])
*[[1852]] - [[Vasily Zhukovsky]], Russian poet (b. [[1783]])
*[[1891]] - [[Helmuth von Moltke the Elder]], Prussian field marshal (b. [[1800]])
*[[1924]] - [[G. Stanley Hall]], American psychologist (b. [[1844]])
*[[1938]] - [[George Grey Barnard]], American sculptor (b. [[1863]])
*[[1942]] - [[Karin Boye]], Swedish author (b. [[1900]])
*1942 - [[Lucy Maude Montgomery]], Canadian author (b. [[1874]])
*[[1947]] - [[Willa Cather]], American writer (b. [[1873]])
*[[1960]] - [[Max von Laue]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1879]])
*[[1964]] - [[Gerhard Domagk]], German bacteriologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (declined) (b. [[1895]])
*[[1965]] - [[Louise Dresser]], American actress (b. [[1878]])
*[[1967]] - [[Vladimir Komarov]], cosmonaut (b. [[1927]])
*[[1974]] - [[Bud Abbott]], American actor and comedian (b. [[1895]])
*[[1980]] - [[Alejo Carpentier]], Cuban writer (b. [[1904]])
*[[1982]] - [[Ville Ritola]], Finnish athlete (b. [[1896]])
*[[1986]] - [[Wallis Simpson]], American wife of [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Edward, Duke of Windsor]] (b. [[1896]])
*[[1993]] - [[Oliver Tambo]], South African activist and politician (b. [[1917]])
*[[1997]] - [[Pat Paulsen]], American comedian and politician (b. [[1927]])
*1997 - [[Eugene Stoner]], American engineer and weapons designer (b. [[1922]])
*[[2001]] - [[Al Hibbler]], American singer (b. [[1915]])
*[[2004]] - [[Estée Lauder (person)|Estée Lauder]], American cosmetics entrepreneur (b. [[1906]])
*[[2005]] - [[Ezer Weizman]], [[President of Israel]] (b. [[1924]])
*2005 - [[Fei Xiaotong]], Chinese sociologist (b. [[1910]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Armenian Genocide]] Remembrance Day
*[[Republic Day]] in [[the Gambia]] ([[1970]])
*[[Newman's Day]]
*The [[feast day]] of the following in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]:
**[[Saint Egbert]] of Northumbria
**[[Fidelis of Sigmaringen]]
**[[Honorius]]
**[[Deodatus]]
**[[Wilfrid]] of York
*[[24-hour comic|24-Hour Comics Day]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/24 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[April 23]] - [[April 25]] - [[March 24]] - [[May 24]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:24 April]]
[[ar:24 إبريل]]
[[an:24 d'abril]]
[[ast:24 d'abril]]
[[bg:24 април]]
[[be:24 красавіка]]
[[bs:24. april]]
[[ca:24 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 24]]
[[cv:Ака, 24]]
[[co:24 d'aprile]]
[[cs:24. duben]]
[[cy:24 Ebrill]]
[[da:24. april]]
[[de:24. April]]
[[et:24. aprill]]
[[el:24 Απριλίου]]
[[es:24 de abril]]
[[eo:24-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 24]]
[[fo:24. apríl]]
[[fr:24 avril]]
[[fy:24 april]]
[[ga:24 Aibreán]]
[[gl:24 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 24일]]
[[hr:24. travnja]]
[[io:24 di aprilo]]
[[id:24 April]]
[[ia:24 de april]]
[[ie:24 april]]
[[is:24. apríl]]
[[it:24 aprile]]
[[he:24 באפריל]]
[[jv:24 April]]
[[ka:24 აპრილი]]
[[csb:24 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:24'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 24]]
[[lb:24. Abrëll]]
[[li:24 april]]
[[hu:Április 24]]
[[mk:24 април]]
[[ms:24 April]]
[[nap:24 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:24 april]]
[[ja:4月24日]]
[[no:24. april]]
[[nn:24. april]]
[[oc:24 d'abril]]
[[pl:24 kwietnia]]
[[pt:24 de Abril]]
[[ro:24 aprilie]]
[[ru:24 апреля]]
[[sco:24 Aprile]]
[[sq:24 Prill]]
[[scn:24 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 24]]
[[sk:24. apríl]]
[[sl:24. april]]
[[sr:24. април]]
[[fi:24. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:24 april]]
[[tl:Abril 24]]
[[tt:24. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 24]]
[[th:24 เมษายน]]
[[vi:24 tháng 4]]
[[tr:24 Nisan]]
[[uk:24 квітня]]
[[ur:24 اپریل]]
[[wa:24 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 24]]
[[zh:4月24日]]
[[pam:Abril 24]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 7</title>
<id>2735</id>
<revision>
<id>41696330</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T03:02:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stapler 9 42</username>
<id>728536</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Births */ Spelling of 'sitar'</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=7}}
|}
'''[[April 7]]''' is the 97th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (98th in [[leap year]]s). There are 268 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[529]] - First draft of [[Corpus Juris Civilis]] (a fundamental work in [[jurisprudence]]) is issued by [[Eastern Roman Emperor]] [[Justinian I]]
*[[1348]] - [[University of Prague|Charles University]] is founded in [[Prague]].
*[[1521]] - [[Ferdinand Magellan]] arrives at [[Cebu]]
*[[1541]] - [[Francis Xavier]] leaves [[Lisbon]] on a mission to the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[East Indies]].
*[[1655]] - Fabio Chigi becomes [[Pope Alexander VII]].
*[[1795]] - [[France]] adopts the [[metre]] as the unit of length.
*[[1798]] - The [[Mississippi Territory]] is organized from territory ceded by [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[South Carolina]] and is later twice expanded to include disputed territory claimed by both the U.S. and Spain.
*[[1805]] - [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]]: The Corps of Discovery breaks camp among the [[Mandan]] tribe and resumes its journey West along the [[Missouri River]].
*1805 - First public performance of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s [[Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven)|Third Symphony]] (Eroica).
*[[1827]] - [[John Walker (inventor)]], an English [[chemist]], invents the [[friction match]].
|
ck market through the same mechanism?
Also, although on one hand there are no laws against insider trading in the commodities markets, on the other many activities such as [[front running]] are illegal. For example, a commodity broker can be charged with fraud if he or she receives a large purchase order from a client (one likely to affect the price of that commodity) and then purchases that commodity before executing the client's order in order to benefit from the anticipated price increase. Likewise, an individual employed by the U.S. Agricultural Department, for example, could be charged with fraud if he or she were to receive a draft of the Department's crop report before it is released to the public and then buy or sell commodities or futures contracts based on this non-public information. (This situation was implicit in the [[Eddie Murphy]] movie [[Trading Places]].)
== Legal differences among jurisdictions ==
The US and the UK vary in the way the law is interpreted and applied with regard to insider trading.
In the UK, the relevant laws are the [[Financial Services Act 1986]] and the [[Financial Services and Markets Act 2000]], which defines an offence of Market Abuse.
It is not illegal to fail to trade based on inside information (whereas without the inside information the trade would have taken place), since from a practical point of view this is too difficult to enforce.
It is often legal to deal ahead of a takeover bid, where a party deliberately buys shares in a company in the knowledge that it will be launching a takeover bid.
Japan enacted its first law against insider trading in 1988. Roderick Seeman says: "Even today many Japanese do not understand why this is illegal. Indeed, previously it was regarded as common sense to make a profit from your knowledge." [http://www.japanlaw.info/law2004/JAPANBIZLAWLITE4GAIJIN_INSIDER_TRADING.html] Insider trading was made illegal in England in 1985. [http://www.cato.org/research/articles/reynolds-021024.html]
== References ==
Stephen M. Bainbridge, Securities Law: Insider Trading (1999)
ISBN: 1566627370
==External links==
=== General Information ===
*[http://www.sec.gov/answers/insider.htm Insider Trading Informational page from the U.S. Security and Exchange Commission (SEC)]
*[http://www.sec.gov/news/speech/speecharchive/1998/spch221.htm Insider Trading – A U.S. Perspective, Speech by SEC Staff at the 16th International Symposium on Economic Crime, Jesus College, Cambridge, England ]
*[http://www.sec.gov/answers/form345.htm SEC Forms 3, 4 and 5]
===Articles and Opinions ===
*[http://www.capmag.com/article.asp?ID=3933 An opinion on Why Insider Trading Should be Legal] [[Larry Elder]] Interviews Henry Manne
*[http://www.mayin.org/ajayshah/MEDIA/1998/insider.html Why forbid insider trading?] by Ajay Shah, consultant to the Ministry of Finance, India
*[http://www.walterblock.com/publications/information_privilege.pdf ''Information, Privilege, Opportunity and Insider Trading] by Robert W. Mcgee and Walter E. Block &#8212; a scholarly work that opposes regulations against insider trading
*[http://www.townhall.com/columnists/thomassowell/ts20040422.shtml Criminalizing business] by [[Thomas Sowell]], argues against making insider trading a crime
*[http://www.secform4.com/training.htm Quick Insider Trading Guide]
*[http://www.investopedia.com/articles/02/061202.asp Uncovering Insider Trading]
*[http://reason.com/hod/bd062502.shtml ''Free Samuel Waksal''] argues that businessman's insider trading should not be considered a crime
*[http://moneycentral.msn.com/content/CNBCTV/Articles/TVReports/P42951.asp CNBC Interview with Milton Friedman] the Nobel prize-winning economist says that insider trading is good
===Data===
*[http://www.insidernewswire.com/company.php Daily Top Ten Companies (by dollar value) traded by insiders]
*[http://www.insidernewswire.com/industry.php Daily Top Ten Industries (by dollar value) traded by insiders]
*[http://www.insidercow.com/ Insidercow.com] Free search insider trading by stock symbol
*[http://www.secform4.com/ Insider Trading Data], a Free Real Time Insider Trading Monitoring System
*[http://insider.thomsonfn.com/tfn/tearsheet/market.asp?linkcode=7rdcg6divt9fsuu5awkj&tfnHeader=insider Tearsheets &#8212; Company]
== See also ==
[[List of insider traders]]
[[Category:Stock market]]
[[Category:Crimes]]
[[de:Insiderhandel]]
[[fr:Délit d'initié]]
[[ja:&#20869;&#37096;&#32773;&#21462;&#24341;]]
[[nl:handel met voorkennis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Brigades</title>
<id>15369</id>
<revision>
<id>42082180</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:29:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mistereamonn</username>
<id>1018666</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The battle of [[Jarama]] */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:International Brigades medal.PNG|thumbnail|150px|right|Blason of the International Brigades]]
:''"Fifteenth International Brigade" redirects here. For the song, see [[Fifteenth International Brigade (song)]]''
The '''International Brigades''' were [[Second Spanish Republic|Republican]] [[military]] units in the [[Spanish Civil War]], formed of many non-state sponsored volunteers of different countries who travelled to [[Spain]], to fight for the legitimate, elected government in the [[Spanish Civil War]] between [[1936]] and [[1939]]. They fought against Spanish [[Nationalist]] forces, who were led by General [[Francisco Franco]] and assisted by [[Nazi]] [[Nazi Germany|German]] and [[fascist]] [[Fascist Italy |Italian]] forces.
The Brigades recruited 40,000 men and women. As many as 10,000 of them never returned. More than 50 nationalities were represented in the Brigades: during the [[Battle of Madrid]] alone, the XIIth Brigade counted representatives from no fewer than 17 nationalities in its ranks.
== Constitution of the Brigades ==
[[Image:International Brigades poster3.jpg|thumbnail|right|Republican propaganda poster featuring the International Brigades. The text reads : "Internationals, united with the Spanish people, we fight the invader". ]]
The idea to use foreign [[Communist party |Communist Parties]] to recruit volunteers (both Communist and non-Communists -- a non-Communist volunteer would first have an interview with an agent of the [[NKVD]]) to come to the aid of the [[Spanish Republic]] was proposed in [[Moscow]] in September 1936 by [[Willi Münzenberg]], who was the chief of [[Comintern]] propaganda for Western Europe (perhaps at the suggestion by [[Maurice Thorez]]). By the end of September, the [[Italy|Italian]] and [[France|French]] Communist Parties had decided to set up a column. [[Luigi Longo]], ex-leader of the Italian [[Communist Youth]], was charged to make the necessary arrangements with the Spanish government. The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Ministry of Defense also helped, since they had experience of dealing with corps of international volunteers (there had been precedents of such corps during the Russian Civil War). At first, the idea was opposed by [[Largo Caballero]], but after the first setbacks of the war, he changed his mind, and finally agreed to the operation on [[22 October]]. However, the [[Soviet Union]] did not withdraw from the [[Non-Intervention Committee]], probably to avoid diplomatic conflict with [[France]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]].
[[Image:International Brigades poster2.jpg|thumbnail|165px|right|Republican propaganda poster. The text reads : "The International Brigades, in the heart of the popular army, help to defend your wealth and land". Notice the arm-band which features the emblem of the International Brigades, a three-pointed red star.]]
The main recruitment centre was in [[Paris]], under the supervision of [[Poland|Polish]] communist colonel [[Karol Swierczewski|Karol "Walter" Swierczewski]]. On [[17 October]] [[1936]], an open letter by [[Stalin]] to [[José Díaz]] was published in ''Mundo Obrero'', arguing that liberation for Spain was a matter not only for Spaniards, but also for the whole of "progressive Humanity"; in a matter of days, support organisations for the Spanish Republic were founded in most countries, all more or less controlled by the [[Comintern]].
Paths were arranged for volunteers: for instance, Josip Broz, who would became famous as Marshal [[Tito]], was in Paris to provide assistance, money and passports for the volunteers from [[Eastern Europe]]. Volunteers were sent by train or ship from France to Spain, and sent to the base at [[Albacete]]. However, many of them also went by themselves to Spain. The volunteers were under no contract, nor defined engagement period, which would later prove a problem.
[[Image:International Brigades training.jpg|thumbnail|250px|left|American Brigadists in training]]
Many Italians, Germans, and people from other countries with repressive governments joined the movement, with the idea that combat in Spain was a first step to restore democracy or advance a revolutionary cause in their own country. There were also many unemployed workers (especially from France), and adventurers. Finally, some 500 Communists who had been exiled to Russia were sent to Spain (among them, experienced military leaders from the [[World War I|First World War]] like [["Kléber" Stern]], [[Wilhelm Zaisser|"Gomez" Zaisser]], [[Mate Zalka|"Lukacs" Zalka]] and "Gal" Galicz, who would prove invaluable in combat).
The operation was met by Communists with enthusiasm, but by [[Anarchist]]s with scepticism, at best. At first, the Anarchists who controlled the borders with France were told to refuse Communist volunteers, and reluctantly allowed their passage after protests.
The first group of 500 men (mainly French, with a few exiled Poles and Germans) arrived in [[Albacete]] on [[14 October]] [[1936]]. |
a]] and [[Free software]] demonstrate, works of authorship can be written without direct financial incentives. Moreover, many important works were created before copyright was invented. One might argue that much more invention occurred after patents came into existence; however, one could also argue that patents were brought into law as the power and influence of industrial interests grew.
The status of intellectual property is disputed by various commentators in [[India]], [[China]] and other [[developing nation]]s. The United States and the United Kingdom are the only two nations who consistently receive net balance of payment benefits from intellectual property, and are amongst the chief supporters of intellectual property systems.
A more recent notion, proposing to expand the scope of exclusive rights to include databases, has been introduced by the EU in 1996. This is the idea of protecting the information contained in a database against re-utilisation and extraction of substantial parts. This would be an additional right predicated on a substantial investment, that would exist alongside the copyright in the database structure. This notion was opposed by the United States Supreme Court in 1991 in the Feist Publication finding, which said that exclusive rights cannot cover the factual elements of any copyrighted work, that copyright does not derive from the effort expended in the production of the work, and that in the case of a collection of information, only the originality that may be found in the selection and arrangement of the information is governed by copyright. This case holds that the purpose of exclusive rights policy is to provide information to the public, and this consideration takes priority over concerns such as investment. A study has found that the introduction of exclusive rights to databases in the EU did not do any good to the economy.
The direct incentive beneficiaries of exclusive rights have an interest in expanding their rights and benefits. Many pool their resources to form organizations that attempt this such as the Business Software Alliance (BSA), which purports to represent the interests of the commercial software industry while the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) represents the interests of the commercial music publishing industry. As policy expands in accordance with the notion of "intellectual property", in the interests of those who benefit directly from its economic incentives, it tends to reduce the rights of its primary beneficiaries, the general public.
Under the notion of "intellectual property" the public is increasingly prevented by law from benefiting from the use of published information without complying with the conditions set by the rightsholder. The cost for this to the public is not easy to quantify. The cost is distributed widely and unequally based on the need for the product. Ironically the direct incentive beneficiary organizations are a good source for these data. The BSA reports a study that claims "while $80 billion in software was installed on computers worldwide last year, only $51 billion was legally purchased" (Source:[http://www.bsa.org/globalstudy/ BSA]). The BSA says "software pirates" avoided a cost of $29 billion while the rest that obey the policy and do not purchase or make use of the work bear a real and substantial [[opportunity cost]] that is yet uncounted. However, it is questionable whether Microsoft would lower their price if it would earn $10 billion more on licensing from countries such as Russia, Thailand, India and China where most of the copyright infringement happens.
But Microsoft is dumping its selling price on competition from [[Linux]], for example with government clients. Because of this competition, Microsoft will also be forced to release an update to [[Internet Explorer]] to the public for its current product which it originally planned to release with its next operating system.
===Alternative systems of protection===
Before intellectual property laws existed in their current form, there were socially-enforced systems for protecting intellectual works, such as the ancient scholarly taboo against [[plagiarism]].
Other informal systems of protection include the customary [[code of non-infringement]] used by [[clown]]s to recognise each [[performance art|performer]]'s exclusive right to their unique style of makeup, costume and persona. The universality of "The Code" supports the belief amongst clowns that this traditional protection is more effective than that provided by trademark and copyright law. Nevertheless, clowns sometimes do seek the protection of "clown material" using intellectual property laws, perhaps against infringement by third parties outside the clown community.
With the advent of valuable [[domain name]]s, and the practice of domain name [[squatting]], the right to use and register certain domain names are often contested, particularly where a domain name consists of or comprises another party's well known trademark. Domain name registries, which are generally non-governmental organisations, utilise dispute resolution systems which operate in parallel with national laws. [[ICANN]] requires that registries for top level domain names (eg. .com and .net) use the [[Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy]] (UDRP), while other registries use systems such as [[Nominet UK]]'s "Dispute Resolution Service" (for the .uk registry), which often adopt or mirror the provisions of the UDRP.
==Valuation of intellectual property==
Little argument over intellectual property (IP) would occur if it did not have a value for the owner. The principle of valuing IP is to determine the future income associated with its ownership ([[Special:Booksources/0471362816|Smith&Parr: ''Valuation of Intellectual Property and Intangible Assets'', 3rd Edition, Wiley 2000]]). Note that the value of IP is independent of its cost. The creation of a musical composition, invention, valuable software may have cost little, and can generate a very high income. Profit margins from IP are typically much higher than profit margins from manufacturing of tangible goods.
Determination of future income requires estimating the income due to the IP in each of all future years over its life; i.e., the amount sold and the net income per unit after routine sales costs are deducted. If the IP is used internally, then the savings due to owning it can be similarly estimated. The risk that intellectual property becomes obsolete is high, and reduces the current value. Without risk, future income is discounted by using a [[risk-free interest rate]]. Risks include unexpected competition, unauthorized copying, patent breaches or invalidation, and loss of trade secrets. With such risks, discount rates increase, based on the expected [[Beta coefficient]]. With high discount rates, sales that occur far in the future have little effect, simplifying the determination of the net current value of the included IP.
When the items being valued contain multiple IP components, then the proportion and life of each component must be determined. That case exists in the small, as for [[software]] that receives updates throughout the future, and in the large, for [[company (law)|companies]] that vend many products. [[Shareholder]]s of public companies in effect estimate the aggregate IP of a company, providing a [[market capitalization]] through the price they are willing to pay for shares, which is in effect the sum of the [[book value]] and the IP owned by the company.
[[U.S. generally accepted accounting principles]] (GAAP) do not allow the listing on corporate books of IP, making it hard for investors to be rational about share prices. IP is generated mainly through research, development, and advertising (IP generating expenses or IGE), making it hard to assess the effectiveness of IGE. Companies participating in the [[knowledge economy]] typically have a [[market capitalization]] which is a large factor greater than their [[book value]], the sum of their tangible assets and cash. Only when a company has been purchased will the purchased IP briefly appear on the books as [[goodwill]].
==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
*The [[Adelphi Charter]] on Creativity, Innovation and Intellectual Property released by the [[Royal Society of Arts]]
*[[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] (TRIPS)
*[[Copynorm]]
*[[The Disneyland Memorial Orgy|Disneyland Memorial Orgy]]
*[[Doha Declaration]]
*[[Directive on the enforcement of intellectual property rights|EU Directive on the enforcement of intellectual property rights]]
*[[Directive on criminal measures aimed at ensuring the enforcement of intellectual property rights|EU Directive on criminal measures aimed at ensuring the enforcement of intellectual property rights]] (''proposed'')
*[[Fair use]]
*[[intangible asset|Intangible Assets]]
*[[Intellectual capital]]
*[[Intellectual Freedom Movement]]
*[[Intellectual property education]]
*[[Intellectual property in Romania]]
*[[Intellectual property in the People's Republic of China]]
*[[Intellectual property organization]]
*[[Intellectual Property Owners Association]] (ipo) [http://www.ipo.org/]
*[[Intellectual rights]]
*[[Intellectual rights to magic methods]]
*[[International Association for the Protection of Industrial Property]] (AIPPI)
*[[International Federation of Intellectual Property Attorneys]] (FICPI)
*[[International Intellectual Property Alliance]] (IIPA)
*[[International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants]] (UPOV)
*[[Legal aspects of computing]]
*[[Licensing (strategic alliance)|Licensing]]
*[[Markman Trial]]
*[[Parallel import]]
*[[Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property]]
*[[Personal property]]
*[[Philosophy of copyright]]
*[[Real property]]
*[[Reverse engineering]]
*[[Software patent]]
*[[World Intellectual Property O |
elections in [[Puerto Rico]] and its three principal voter groups: the [[Puerto Rican Independence Party|Independentistas]] (pro-independence), the [[Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico|Populares]] (pro-commonwealth), and the [[New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico|Estadistas]] (pro-statehood). Historically, there has been a tendency for Independentista voters to elect Popular candidates and policies. This phenomenon is responsible for some Popular victories, even though the Estadistas have the most voters on the island. It is so widely recognized that the Puertoricans sometimes call the Independentistas who vote for the Populares "melons", because the fruit is green on the outside but red on the inside (in reference to the party colors).
Because voters have to predict in advance who the top two candidates will be, this can cause significant perturbation to the system:
*Substantial power is given to the media. Some voters will tend to believe the media's assertions as to who the leading contenders are likely to be in the election. Even voters who distrust the media will know that other voters ''do'' believe the media, and therefore those candidates who receive the most media attention will nonetheless be the most popular and thus most likely to be in one of the top two.
*A newly appointed candidate, who is in fact supported by the majority of voters, may be considered (due to the lack of a track record) to not be likely to become one of the top two candidates; thus, they will receive a reduced number of votes, which will then give them a reputation as a low poller in future elections, compounding the problem.
*The system may promote votes ''against'' more so than votes ''for''. In the UK, entire campaigns have been organized with the aim of voting ''against'' the Labour party by voting for either Conservative or Liberal Democrats based on which is most popular in each constituency, regardless of the voters' opinions of the policies of these parties.
*If enough voters use this tactic, the first-past-the-post system becomes, effectively, [[runoff voting]] - a completely different system - where the first round is held in the court of public opinion.
One often-overlooked flaw in the FPTP system is that invariably, voters can select only one candidate in a single-member district, whilst in multi-member districts they can never select more candidates than the number of seats in the district. Some argue that FPTP would work better if electors could cast votes for as many candidates as they wish. This would allow voters to "vote against" a certain despised candidate if they choose, without being forced to guess who they should vote for to defeat that candidate, thus eliminating the need for tactical voting. Such a system would also serve to reduce the [[spoiler effect]].
===Effect on representation===
[[Image:Charter88 Results 2005 UK Election.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Created by an organization promoting [[proportional representation]], this campaign postcard illustrates that [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] obtained a majority in Parliament despite winning only 35.2% of the national vote in the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 election]].]]
The most commonly expressed disadvantage — perhaps because it is easiest to express and explain — of first-past-the-post is that it frequently produces disproportional results, i.e. results in which a party's share of the seats does not match up with its share of the votes. Thus, substantial bodies of opinion can be rendered irrelevant to the final outcome, and a party can obtain a majority of seats without a majority of the vote. Examples include the recent [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|United Kingdom general election of 2005]] where the new government won a majority of the seats with less than 36% of the national vote. The disproportionate nature of this system also means that whole regions may have MPs from only one party. The British [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] won large majorities of seats in the [[1980s]] on a minority of votes while almost all the Scottish seats were [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]], [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] or [[Scottish National Party|SNP]]; this disparity created tremendous dissatisfaction in [[Scotland]].
A further example of disproportionality arose in the [[Canadian federal election, 1926|Canadian federal election of 1926]] for the province of Manitoba. The province was entitled to 17 seats in that election. The result was very different from how people voted.
{| {{prettytable}}
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
! scope="col" colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" | Political party
! scope="col" | % votes
! scope="col" | Number<br>of seats
! scope="col" | % seats
{{Canadian politics/party colours/Progressive Conservatives/row}}
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 42.2%
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 0
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 0%
{{Canadian politics/party colours/Liberal-Progressive/row}}
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | [[Liberal-Progressive]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 19.5%
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 7
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 41%
{{Canadian politics/party colours/Liberal/row}}
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 18.4%
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 24%
{{Canadian politics/party colours/Progressive/row}}
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | [[Progressive Party of Canada|Progressive]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 11.2%
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 24%
{{Canadian politics/party colours/Labour/row}}
! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | [[Labour Party of Canada|Labour]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 8.7%
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 12%
|}
The Conservatives clearly had the largest number of votes across the province, but received no seats at all.
The usual cause for these disproportionate results is that a party has a large number of votes across the entire territory, but they are spread out across the territory rather than being concentrated in particular constituencies. Parties with less overall support, but where that support is concentrated in particular constituencies, will win plurality in those constituencies over a party with widely distributed support.
This presents a problem because it encourages parties to focus narrowly on the needs and well-being of specific electoral districts where they can be sure to win seats, rather than be sensitive to the sentiments of voters everywhere. A further problem is that the party in power often has the ability to determine where the boundaries of constituencies lie: to secure election results, they may use [[gerrymandering]] — that is, [[redistricting]] to distort election results by enclosing party voters together in one electoral district. Moreover, it can be demonstrated that even the use of non-partisan districting methods - such as computers - to determine constituency boundaries tends to produce results very similar to those produced by a majority party with the power to draw the boundaries in its favour. Also, there are cases where there may be no possible way of drawing continguous boundaries that will allow a minority representation.
It often seems fundamentally unfair that a party should have a substantially greater or lesser share of seats than their share of the vote. A further consequence of the system is that many such elections can be considered won before all votes are tallied, once there are no longer enough uncounted votes to override an established plurality count. Though not necessarily a disadvantage, this can produce a feeling of disenfranchisement among voters when running tallies are reported through the media.
This argument applies to most other [[Voting system#Single-winner systems|single-winner voting systems]].
It also tends to magnify the winning party's victory — that is the winning party tends to get a larger percentage of the seats than of the popular vote, as estimated by the [[cube rule]].
===Effect on political parties===
[[Duverger's law]] is a principle of [[political science]] which predicts that constituencies that use first-past-the-post systems will become [[two-party system]]s, given enough time.
First-past-the-post tends to reduce the number of political parties to a greater extent than most other methods, thus making it more likely that a single party will hold a majority of legislative seats. (In the [[United Kingdom]], 18 out of 22 General Elections since 1922 have produced a majority government.)
Some argue that this is an advantage, in that single party rule enables quicker decision-making with less need for back and forth negotiation.
Multi-party coalitions, on the other hand, require consent among all coalition partners to pass legislation, which some argue gives small parties a disproportionate amount of power. In the UK, arguments for plurality often look to [[Politics of Italy|Italy]] where the frequent government changeovers are presented as undesirable.
FPTP's tendency toward fewer parties and more frequent on |
ftware.
In January [[2000]], a company called [[Transmeta]] took the interesting
step of placing a compiler in the central processing unit, and making the compiler translate from a reference byte code (in their case, [[x86]] instructions) to an internal VLIW instruction set. This approach
combines the hardware simplicity, low power and speed of VLIW RISC with
the compact main memory system and software reverse-compatibility provided
by popular CISC.
[[Intel]] released a chip, called the [[Itanium]], based on what they call an [[Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing]] (EPIC) design. This design supposedly provides the VLIW advantage of increased instruction throughput. However, it avoids some of the issues of scaling and complexity, by explicitly providing in each "bundle" of instructions information concerning their dependencies. This information is calculated by the compiler, as it would be in a VLIW design. The early versions are also backward-compatible with current [[x86]] software by means of an on-chip [[emulation]] mode. Integer performance has been disappointing as have sales in volume markets.
====Multi-threading====
Current designs work best when the computer is running only a single program, however nearly all modern [[operating system]]s allow the user to run multiple programs at the same time. For the CPU to change over and do work on another program requires expensive [[context switching]]. In contrast, multi-threaded CPUs can handle instructions from multiple programs at once.
To do this, such CPUs include several sets of registers. When a context switch occurs, the contents of the "working registers" are simply copied into one of a set of registers for this purpose.
Such designs often include thousands of registers instead of hundreds as in a typical design. On the downside, registers tend to be somewhat expensive in chip space needed to implement them. This chip space might otherwise be used for some other purpose.
====Multi-core====
Multi-core CPUs are typically multiple cpus on the same die possibly sharing the same cache to main memory and sharing the same bus to talk to other devices and to talk to eachother.
====Reconfigurable logic====
Another track of development is to combine reconfigurable logic with a general-purpose CPU. In this scheme, a special computer language compiles fast-running subroutines into a bit-mask to configure the logic. Slower, or less-critical parts of the program can be run by sharing their time on the CPU. This process has the capability to create devices such as software [[radio]]s, by using digital signal processing to perform functions usually performed by analog [[electronics]].
====Public domain processors====
As the lines between hardware and software increasingly blur due to progress in design methodology and availability of chips such as [[FPGA]]s and cheaper production processes, even [[open source hardware]] has begun to appear. Loosely-knit communities like [[OpenCores]] have recently announced completely open CPU architectures such as the [[OpenRISC]] which can be readily implemented on FPGAs or in custom produced chips, by anyone, without paying license fees.
====High-end processor economics====
Developing new, high-end CPUs is a '''very''' expensive proposition. Both the logical complexity (needing very large logic design and logic verification teams and simulation farms with perhaps thousands of computers) and the high operating frequencies (needing large circuit design teams and access to the state-of-the-art fabrication process) account for the high cost of design for this type of chip. The design cost of a high-end CPU will be on the order of US $100 million. Since the design of such high-end chips nominally take about five years to complete, to stay competitive a company has to fund at least two of these large design teams to release products at the rate of 2.5 years per product generation. Only the personal computer mass market (with production rates in the hundreds of millions, producing billions of dollars in revenue) can support such economics. As of 2004, only four companies are actively designing and fabricating state of the art general purpose computing CPU chips: [[Intel]], [[AMD]], [[IBM]] and [[Fujitsu]]. [[Motorola]] has spun off its semiconductor division as [[Freescale]] as that division was dragging down profit margins for the rest of the company. [[Texas Instruments]], [[TSMC]] and [[Toshiba]] are a few examples of a companies doing manufacturing for another company's CPU chip design.
== Embedded design ==
The majority of computer systems in use today are embedded in other machinery, such as telephones, clocks, appliances, vehicles, and infrastructure. An [[embedded system]] usually has minimal requirements for memory and program length and may require simple but unusual input/output systems. For example, most embedded systems lack keyboards, screens, disks, printers, or other recognizable I/O devices of a personal computer. They may control electric motors, relays or voltages, and reed switches, variable resistors or other electronic devices. Often, the only I/O device readable by a human is a single light-emitting diode, and severe cost or power constraints can even eliminate that.
In contrast to general-purpose computers, embedded systems often seek to minimize [[interrupt latency]] over instruction throughput.
When an electronic device causes an interrupt, the intermediate results, the registers, have to be saved before the software responsible for handling the interrupt can run, and then must be put back after it is finished. If there are more registers, this saving and restoring process takes more time, increasing the latency.
Low-latency CPUs generally have relatively few registers in their central processing units, or they have "shadow registers" that are only used by the interrupt software.
=== Other design issues ===
==== Optical communication ====
<!-- [[virtual memory]] moved to [[Computer architecture]] -->
One interesting near-term possibility would be to eliminate the [[front side bus]]. Modern vertical [[laser diode]]s enable this change. In theory, an optical computer's components could directly connect through a holographic or phased open-air switching system. This would provide a large increase in effective speed and design flexibility, and a large reduction in cost. Since a computer's connectors are also its most likely failure point, a busless system might be more reliable, as well.
==== Optical processors ====
Another farther-term possibility is to use light instead of electricity for the digital logic itself.
In theory, this could run about 30% faster and use less power, as well as permit a direct interface with quantum computational devices.
The chief problem with this approach is that for the foreseeable future, electronic devices are faster, smaller (i.e. cheaper) and more reliable.
An important theoretical problem is that electronic computational elements are already smaller than some wavelengths of light, and therefore even wave-guide based optical logic may be uneconomic compared to electronic logic.
The majority of development effort, [[as of 2006]] is focused on electronic circuitry.
See also [[optical computing]].
==== Clockless CPUs ====
<!--
Should I move this "clockless" stuff to
[[asynchronous circuit]],
leaving only a couple of sentences of summary and a link to that article
?
Or is this big enough to fork off its own article,
[[clockless CPU]]s ?
-->
Yet another possibility is the "clockless CPU" (asynchronous CPU). Unlike conventional processors, clockless processors have no central clock to coordinate the progress of data through the pipeline.
Instead, stages of the CPU are coordinated using logic devices called "pipe line controls" or "FIFO sequencers." Basically, the pipeline controller clocks the next stage of logic when the existing stage is complete. In this way, a central clock is unnecessary. There are two advantages to clockless CPUs over clocked CPUs:
* components can run at different speeds in the clockless CPU. In a clocked CPU, no component can run faster than the clock rate.
* In a clocked CPU, the clock can go no faster than the worst-case performance of the slowest stage. In a clockless CPU, when a stage finishes quicker than normal, the next stage can immediately take the results rather than waiting for the next clock tick. A stage might finish quicker than normal because of the particular data inputs (multiplication can be very fast if it is multiplying by 0 or 1), or because it is running at a higher voltage or lower temperature than normal.
Two examples of asynchronous CPUs are the [[ARM_architecture|ARM]]-implementing [[AMULET_microprocessor|AMULET]] and the asynchronous implementation of [[MIPS_architecture|MIPS]] R3000, dubbed [http://www.async.caltech.edu/mips.html MiniMIPS].
The biggest disadvantage of the clockless CPU is that most CPU design tools assume a clocked CPU (a [[synchronous circuit]]), so making a clockless CPU (designing an [[asynchronous circuit]]) involves modifying the design tools to handle clockless logic and doing extra testing to ensure the design avoids [[Metastability in electronics|metastable]] problems. For example, the group that designs the aforementioned AMULET developed a tool called [http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/apt/projects/tools/lard/ LARD] to cope with the complex design of AMULET3.
==== Soft microprocessors ====
''See article [[Soft microprocessor]]''
==Design concepts==
In general, all processors, micro or otherwise, run the same sort of task over and over:
#read an instruction and decode it
#find any associated data that is needed to process the instruction
#process the instruction
#write the results out
Complicating this simple-looking series of events is the fact that [[main memory]] has |
="135px" | [[Image:Flag of Ecuador.svg|125px|]]
| align="center" width="135px" | [[Image:Ecuador COA.jpg|90px|Ecuador COA]]
|-
| align="center" width="135px" | ([[Flag of Ecuador|In Detail]])
| align="center" width="135px" | ([[Coat of Arms of Ecuador|In Detail]])
|}
|-
| align="center" colspan=2 | [[List of state mottos|Motto]]: ''El Ecuador ha sido, es y será país Amazónico''<br>([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: Ecuador has been, is, and will always be an Amazonian country)
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[image:LocationEcuador.png]]
|-
| '''[[Official language]]'''
|Spanish<sup>1<sup>
|-
| '''[[Capital]]'''
| [[Quito, Ecuador|Quito]]
|-
| '''Largest City'''
| [[Guayaquil, Ecuador|Guayaquil]]
|-
| '''[[List of Presidents of Ecuador|President]]'''
| [[Alfredo Palacio]]
|-
|-
| '''[[List of Presidents of Ecuador|Vice-President]]'''
| [[Alejandro Serrano]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''<br />&nbsp;- Total <br />&nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 71st]] <br /> 199,235 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] <br /> 8.8%
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''<br />&nbsp;- Total (2005) <br />&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 62nd]] <br /> 13,363,593 <br /> 36/[[square kilometre|km&sup2;]]
|-
|'''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' (2003) || 0.759 ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|82nd]]) – <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>
|-
| '''[[Independence]]'''
<br />&nbsp;- Date
| From [[Spain]]
<br />[[24 May]], [[1822]]
|-
| '''[[Currency]]'''
| [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]]<sup>2</sup>
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[UTC]] -5; [[UTC]] -6 ([[Galápagos Islands]])
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]'''
| ''[[Salve, Oh Patria]]''
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]'''
| [[.ec]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]'''
| 593
|-
|colspan="2"| <small><sup>1<sup> [[Quechua language|Quichua]] and other [[Amerindian languages]] spoken by indigenous communities.<br> <sup>2</sup> [[Sucre (currency)|Sucre]] until 2000.</small><br>
|}The '''Republic of Ecuador''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República del Ecuador'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[re'puβlika ðel ekwa'ðoɾ]}}) is a country in northwestern [[South America]], bounded by [[Colombia]] on the north, by [[Peru]] on the east and south, and by the [[Pacific Ocean]] on the west. The country also includes the [[Galápagos Islands]] (Archipelago de Colón) in the Pacific, about 965 km (about 600 mi) west of the mainland. Named after the Spanish word for [[equator]], Ecuador straddles the equator and has an area of 272,045 km² (105,037 mi²). [[Quito]] is the country&#8217;s capital.
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Ecuador]]''
Advanced indigenous cultures flourished in Ecuador long before the area was conquered by the [[Inca empire]] in the 15th century. By marriage, the reign of Quito became part of the inca Empire, Atahuallpa, one of the sons of the Inca emperor was born in Quito, however he wouldn't be granted the crown of the Empire since the Inca had another son born in cuzco, the Capital, his name Huascar. The inca found a solution dividing the empire into two, Atahuallpa would get the north empire, with its capital in Quito, and Huascar would get the south with its capital in Cuzco. In 1531, the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[conquistadors]], under the lead of [[Francisco Pizarro]], arrived and found a civil world in the Inca empire the Spaniers took advantage of the situation and defeated the Inca Emperor [[Atahuallpa]] and his army during the [[Battle of Cajamarca]] in 1532, when returning from Cuzco after killing his step brother Huascar. In subsequent years the Spanish colonists became the new elite centering its power in Peru.
The indigenous population was decimated by disease in the first decades of Spanish rule &mdash; a time when the natives also were forced into the "[[encomienda]]" labor system for Spanish landlords. In 1563, [[Quito]] became the seat of a royal "audiencia" (administrative district) of Spain and part of the Peruvian Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima.
After nearly 300 years of Spanish colonization, Quito was a city of about 10,000 inhabitants, and it was there on [[August 10]], [[1809]], that the first cry for independence was heard. After independence forces defeated the royalist army in 1822, Ecuador joined [[Simon Bolivar]]'s [[Republic of Gran Colombia]], only to become a separate republic in 1830.
The 19th century was marked by instability, with a rapid succession of rulers. The conservative [[Gabriel Garcia Moreno]] unified the country in the 1860s with the support of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. In the late 1800s, world demand for [[cocoa]] tied the economy to commodity exports and led to migrations from the highlands to the agricultural frontier on the coast.
A coastal-based liberal revolution in 1895 under [[Eloy Alfaro]] reduced the power of the clergy and opened the way for capitalist development. The end of the cocoa boom produced renewed political instability and a military coup occurred in 1925. The 1930s and 1940s were marked by populist politicians such as five-time President [[José Velasco Ibarra]].
In 1941, Peru and Ecuador had many military incidents, and Peru invaded Ecuador in July 1941 with more than fifty thousand troops taking fast control on almost 75% of ecuadorean territory including the Amazon region, the highlands, and the coastal region. The Peruvian navy blocked the port of Guayaquil cutting supplies to the ecuadorian troops that were not more than ten thousand, while thousnad of well prepared troops took control of the main cities of ecuador. After a few weeks of the war, Ecuador had to accepted the condition of being defeated and had to sign a treaty that gave Peru more than 150,000 Sq.Km of Amozonic and coastal teritory, basicaly the provinces of Jaen and Maynas.
Recession and popular unrest led to a return to populist politics and domestic military interventions in the 1960s, while foreign companies developed oil resources in the Ecuadorian Amazon. In 1972, a nationalist military regime seized power and used the new oil wealth and foreign borrowing to pay for a program of industrialization, land reform, and subsidies for urban consumers. With the oil boom fading, Ecuador returned to [[democracy]] in 1979, but by 1982, the government faced an economic crisis, characterized by high [[inflation]], budget deficits, a falling currency, mounting debt service, and uncompetitive industries.
Since its return to democracy, Ecuador has been marked by chronic governmental instability. Many years of continuous mismanagement, starting with the mishandling of the country's debt during the 1970's military regime, have left the country essentially ungovernable. By the mid 90's, the government of Ecuador has been characterized by a weak executive branch that struggles to appease the ruling classes, represented in the legislative and judiciary. The last three democratically elected [[List of heads of state of Ecuador|presidents]] have failed to finish their terms during that period.
Among the most relevant factors in the democratic instability is the emergence of indigenous population as an active constituency. As a group, they were pushed into prominence due to government failures to deliver on promises of land reform, lowering unemployment, and their historical exploitation by the land-holding elite.
Their movement, along with the continuing destabilizing efforts by the both the Elite and Leftist movements, have led to a deterioration of the executive office. Today, the notion that presidents are always in danger of being ousted by a majority in congress, a strike movement, or a combination thereof, is widely accepted, leading to deterioration and instability of the Executive Branch. Moreover, massive demonstrations of civil unrest has started a vicious circle in which presidents who are unwilling or unable to make the necessary moves towards popular policies are ousted; with all the economic and governmental fallout that such a drastic change entails.
Ecuadorian presidential elections often run under populist principles, such social empowerment, drastically reducing inequality, and the idea of changing the economic and social status quo. However, the public and the other branches of government give the president very little political capital to work with, as it happened when in April 2005 Ecuador's Congress ousted President [[Lucio Gutiérrez]]. The Vice-President, [[Alfredo Palacio]], took his place and is expected to be in power until the next scheduled election.
Ecuador is home to a large number of important master artists of the last century, which include [[Enrique Tábara]] (b. 1930), [[Oswaldo Guayasamín]] (1919-1999), [[Eduardo Kingman]] (1913-1998), [[Aníbal Villacís]] (b. 1929), [[Félix Arauz]] (b. 1935), [[Manuel Rendón Seminario]] (1894-1982), [[Theo Constanté]] (b.1934), [[Luis Molinari]] (b. 1929), [[Juan Villafuerte]] (1945-1977), [[Oswaldo Viteri]] (b. 1931), [[Camilo Egas]] ([[1889]]-[[1962]]), [[Bolívar Mena Franco]] (1913-1995), [[Estuardo Maldonado]], [[Gonzalo Endara Crow]] and [[Luis Miranda]].
== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of Ecuador]]''
[[Image:Alfredo Palacio.jpg|thumb|150px|Current President of Ecuador, [[Alfredo Palacio]]]]
The [[constitution]] provides for concurrent 4-year terms of office for the president, vice president, and members of [[Congress]]. Presidents may be re-elected after an intervening term, while legislators may be re-elected immediately.
The executive branch includes 15 ministries. Provincial governors and councilors, like mayors and aldermen and parish boards, are |
lm|1998]]) was delayed was because of the Schumacher film. This, they contend, was because the Warner Brothers management knew it was superior to the live-action film and decided to delay it to prevent unfavorable comparisons to a film in which they had greater financial stake. This allegation, and the fact that the scenes that Batman fans generally thought were the best in the film were largely taken from the animated series (the angle of Freeze committing crimes for the sake of saving his wife is straight from [[Paul Dini]] and [[Bruce Timm]]'s show), convinced many Batman fans that the ''Animated Series'' producers should have been responsible for the live action film series.
However, it has since been argued that the film's dismal failure was, in the long run, a boon for comic book films, as the comedic angle taken to the source material by the makers of the film was so unpopular that other filmmakers would be encouraged to treat the source material with more reverence in their own films. This attitude has led to successful and acclaimed film adaptations such as ''[[Blade (movie)|Blade]]'' (1998), ''[[X-Men (film)|X-Men]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]]), ''[[Ghost World (movie)|Ghost World]]'' (2000), ''[[Spider-Man (film)|Spider-Man]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]]) and ''[[Road to Perdition]]'' (2002)
''Batman & Robin'' marked the end of the [[Tim Burton]]/[[Joel Schumacher]] era of movies. Likely due to the film's poor reception, no more Batman movies were made for nearly eight years. A new Batman franchise was relaunched in [[2005 in film|2005]], with ''[[Batman Begins]]'', a much darker and more successful film both critically and financially ($366 million worldwide gross as of [[September 4|09/04]]/[[2005]]), with no continuity to Burton's nor Schumacher's movies. George Clooney obviously did not intervene in the project and was succeeded by the much-younger [[Christian Bale]], who was widely praised for his portrayal of both Bruce Wayne and his alter ego.
On [[October 18]], [[2005]], Warner Bros. released a new deluxe DVD for the movie with commentary by Schumacher. The commentary has gotten attention for Schumacher's candid comments on how he was forced to put in gadgets so the toy companies would have something to make, admits he went too far trying to make the movie kid-friendly and at one point, even flat-out apologizes for the entire film.
==Trivia==
* The Batman costume weighed 14.5 lb.
* The Batgirl costume weighed 12 lb.
* The Robin costume weighed 14 lb.
* The Mr. Freeze costume weighed 75 lb.
* [[Patrick Stewart]] and [[Sylvester Stallone]] were considered for the role of Mr. Freeze.
* A new form of light foam rubber was used to make the superhero costumes. This helped the costumes weigh less than on any other Batman film, but they ripped and tore very easily.
* Batgirl had a full-head costume designed for her much like Batman's (complete with pointy ears) in this movie, but it was rejected in favor of letting Alicia Silverstone's hair flow freely (except in one scene where she wears it as a crash helmet). Batgirl action figures designed for the movie reflect the full-head costume, before the toy makers were informed of the change.
* The sign on a club reads "The Head Room" just before the scene in which Alfred's computer likeness talks to Barbara in a manner resembling [[Max Headroom]].
* Cast member [[John Glover]] also performs the voice of [[The Riddler]] in the animated Batman series.
* The disease "MacGregor Syndrome" was named after producer [[Peter MacGregor-Scott]].
* During the scene where Batman and Robin bid for Poison Ivy, Batman pulls out his credit card. Its expiration date: FOREVER, a reference to Batman Forever (1995).
* Dr. Jason Woodrue appeared in DC Comics as another plant themed super-villain, first as a mad scientist and later as [[The Floronic Man]].
* Dr. Woodrue creates Bane with what he calls his "Super Soldier Serum." This is a reference to the origin of the [[Marvel Comics]] character [[Captain America]]. Created in the early 1940s (under Marvels' previous incarnation as Timely Comics), Captain America was Steve Rogers, a man too frail to enlist to fight in [[World War II]]. He agreed to subject himself to the Super Soldier Serum which heightened every ability and sense to the highest human limits. Of course, as these things go, the doctor who created the formula was promptly killed and Captain America would be the only Super Soldier. Despite Timely/Marvel having been a somewhat popular line at the time, Captain America was wildly successful, rivaling [[Superman]], [[Captain Marvel]], Batman, and [[Wonder Woman]] in popularity.
* Clooney injured his lower leg playing basketball during shooting. Because of this, he needed to cut the boot off of the Bat-suit in order to wear a cast. You can tell when his leg was injured from his limping while inside the freeze rocket.
* Schumacher first realized that Clooney would make a good Batman after drawing the famous cowl over Clooney's face in an advertisement for ''[[From Dusk Till Dawn]]'' ([[1996]]).
* In the original theatrical trailer, Mr. Freeze says the line, "Button up, boys. A storm is coming." That line is not present in the final film.
* [[Julia Roberts]], [[Sharon Stone]], and [[Demi Moore]] were all rumored to be in the running for the part of Poison Ivy, before Uma Thurman was cast.
* Schumacher once said in an interview that if Swartzenegger had not wanted to play Mr. Freeze, Sylvester Stallone was his second choice.
* When Batgirl sneaks off to the motorcycle contest, one of the gangs there are dressed like the main characters in [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]'' ([[1971]]). At the same time, the background song is "Fun for Me," performed by [[Moloko]]. Moloko is Nadsat (Milk, in [[Alex DeLarge]] and his [[droogs]]' language).
* In the evidence room at the prison where Mr. Freeze is held and before Bane breaks in, both the Riddler's and [[Two-Face]]'s outfits can be seen.
* [[Pat Hingle]] ([[James Gordon (comics)|Commissioner Gordon]]) and [[Michael Gough]] ([[Alfred Pennyworth]]) are the only actors to appear every Batman film from ''[[Batman (1989 film)|Batman]]'' to ''Batman & Robin''.
* One of three movies to feature two future United States Governors acting in the same film: [[Jesse Ventura]], elected [[Governor of Minnesota]] in [[1998]], and Swartzenegger, elected [[Governor of California]] in [[2003]]. The other two films were ''[[Predator (movie)|Predator]]'' ([[1987]]), and ''[[The Running Man]]'' ([[1987]]). All three of these movies featured Ventura and Schwarzenegger.
* The computer in Alfred's room is a 20th anniversary [[Macintosh]] built by [[Apple Computers]].
* In an interview, the cast members were asked what item from filming they would like to take home with them. Schwarzenegger said that he would be taking Mr. Freeze's armor, Thurman said that she wanted Ivy's floral throne, [[Elle Macpherson]] said that she just wanted a cap or something with the "Batman & Robin" logo, and Clooney said he wanted Elle Macpherson.
* During shooting, Clooney visited his friends on the set of ''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]'' ([[1994]]) in full costume.
==On DVD==
[[Image:BandR2disc.jpg|right|thumb|128px||Cover of the 2-disc Special Edition DVD]]
''Batman & Robin'' was given a "bare bones" DVD release when the medium was introduced in 1997-98. However, in 2005, the newest feature film, [[Batman Begins]], spawned Warner Bros. to release a Two-Disc Special Edition set of all four Burton-Schumacher films in ''Batman: The Motion Picture Anthology 1989-1997''.
Features of the second Schumacher film include:
*Digitally Remastered Anamorphic Widescreen Transfer
*English Dolby Digital 5.1 Surround Track
*English DTS 5.1 Surround Track
*Audio Commentary with Director Joel Schumacher
*Shadows of the Bat: The Cinematic Saga of the Dark Knight Part 6: Batman Unbound
*Additional Scene: Alfred's Lost Love
*Beyond Batman Documentary Gallery Including:
**Bigger, Bolder, Brighter: The Production Design of Batman & Robin
**Maximum Overdrive: The Vehicles of Batman & Robin
**Dressed to Thrill: The Costumes of Batman & Robin
**Frozen Freaks and Femme Fatales: the Makeup of Batman & Robin
**Freeze Frame: The Visual Effects of Batman & Robin
*"[[The End is the Beginning is the End]]" Music Video by [[The Smashing Pumpkins]]
*"Foolish Games" Music Video by [[Jewel (singer)|Jewel]]
*"Gotham City" Music Video by [[R. Kelly]]
*"Look Into My Eyes" Music Video by [[Bone Thugs-N-Harmony]]
*The Heroes and The Villains Profile Galleries
*Batman & Robin Theatrical Trailer
==References==
# {{note|ReviewsFromCritics}} {{cite web | title=Batman & Robin | work=Metacritic | url=http://www.metacritic.com/video/titles/batmanandrobin | accessdate=June 20 | accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|ProductionBudget}} {{cite web | title=Batman and Robin | work=Box Office Mojo | url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=batmanrobin.htm | accessdate=June 20 | accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|WorldwideBoxOffice}} [[Ibid]].
# {{note|BatmanOnIce-1}} Bond, Jeff. [http://www.filmscoremonthly.com/articles/1997/27_Jun---Batman_on_Ice!.asp Batman on Ice!]. ''Film Score Monthly''. June 27, 1997. Retrieved June 20, 2005.
# {{note|BatmanOnIce-2}} Rainer, Peter. [http://www.dallasobserver.com/issues/1997-06-19/film/film.html Batman on ice]. ''[[Dallas Observer]]''. June 19, 1997. Retrieved June 20, 2005.
# {{note|BatmanOnIce-3}} {{news reference | url = http://www.filmvault.com/filmvault/austin/b/batmanrobin.html | title = Batman & Robin | org = [[Austin Chronicle]] | date = June 20, 1997 | urldate = June 20, 2005 }}
# {{note|Batman}} {{cite web | url = http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/1077027-batman_and_robin/ | publisher = [[Rotten Tomatoes]] | title = Batman & Robin }}
==See also==
* [[Films considered the |
m: 3px solid gray"
| '''[[CAS number]]''' <br/> 463-04-7
| '''[[ATC code]]''' <br/> [[ATC code V03|V03]]AB22
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Chemical formula]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | [[Carbon|C]]<sub>5</sub>[[Hydrogen|H]]<sub>11</sub>[[Nitrogen|N]][[Oxygen|O]]<sub>2</sub>
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Molecular weight]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | 117.15 g/mol
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Bioavailability]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | ?
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | Metabolism
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | ?
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[half life|Elimination half life]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | ?
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Excretion]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | ?
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | ?
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Controlled Substance Act|Legal status]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | [[Schedule VI]]
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | Delivery
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | ?
|-
|}
<!-- (empty table has been hidden) </table><table bgcolor="#ffffff" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="167px" style="border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em">
|-
|'''Indicated for:'''<br/>
*?
'''[[Recreational drug use|Recreational]] uses:'''<br/>
*?
'''[[Ethics|Unethical]] uses:'''<br/>
*?
'''Other uses:'''<br/>
*?
|-
|'''[[Contraindication]]s:'''<br/>
*?
|-
|'''[[adverse medical effect|Side effect]]s:'''
<div style="background: #ffcc99">
'''''{{red|Severe:}}'''''
*?
</div>
'''''Atypical [[sensation]]s:'''''
*?
'''''[[Cardiovascular]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Ear]], [[nose]], and [[throat]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Endocrinal]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Eye]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Gastrointestinal]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Hematological]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Muscle|Musculo]][[skeletal]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Neurological]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Psychological]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Respiration (physiology)|Respiratory]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Skin]]:'''''
*?
'''''[[Urogenital]] and [[reproductive]]:'''''
*?
'''''Miscellaneous:'''''
*?
|}-->
The [[chemical compound]] '''amyl nitrite''' (here referring to '''isoamyl nitrite''') is an [[Alkyl nitrites|alkyl nitrite]].
It has a characteristic penetrating odour, and produces marked effects on the human body when its vapour is inhaled. It acts as a [[vasodilator]] (expanding [[blood vessel]]s and thus lowering [[blood pressure]]) and finds applications in [[medicine]] in the treatment of [[ischaemic heart disease|heart disease]] such as [[angina]]. Amyl nitrite is also used to treat [[cyanide]] poisoning. It induces the formation [[methemoglobin]] which binds cyanide into non-toxic cyanomethemoglobin.
When used recreationally, doses of it are often called '''poppers'''. See the article ''[[alkyl nitrites]]'' for more information on its recreational use as an inhalant. The effects of amyl nitrite are thought to be due to the action of [[nitric oxide]] in the body.
Physical effects include headache, flushing of the face, decrease in blood pressure, increase in pulse, dizziness and relaxation of [[involuntary muscle]]s, especially the [[blood vessel]] walls and the [[anal sphincter]]. There are no [[withdrawal]] symptoms. [[Overdose]] symptoms include [[nausea]], [[vomiting]], badly decreased [[blood pressure]] and [[Breath|respiration]], fainting, cold skin and possible circulatory collapse and death.
'''Nitramyl''' is another name for isoamyl nitrite. The name "amyl nitrite" is actually ambiguous as it can refer not only to 3-methyl-1-nitrosooxybutane, but also its isomers 2-methyl-1-nitrosooxybutane, 3-nitrosooxypentane, 2-nitrosooxypentane, and most commonly 1-nitrosooxypentane - '''n-amyl nitrite'''. Other synonyms for amyl nitrite, which may refer to any isomer, include '''Pentyl Alcohol Nitrite''' and '''Nitrous acid, pentyl ester'''. The name "[[amyl nitrate]]" is commonly mistaken for amyl nitrite; they are two different chemicals.
==Chemistry==
Isoamyl nitrite is a clear liquid of [[specific gravity]] 0.872, boiling at about 95 to 96 degrees [[Celsius]].
It has a [[solubility]] in [[water (molecule)|water]] of about .01 g/100 mL, but dissolves readily in [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[diethyl ether|ether]], glacial [[acetic acid]], [[chloroform]], and [[benzene]].
It is prepared by passing nitrous fumes (from [[starch]] and concentrated [[nitric acid]]) into warm [[isoamyl alcohol]], or by distilling a mixture of 26 parts of [[potassium nitrite]] in 15 parts of water with 30 parts of isoamyl alcohol in 30 parts of [[sulfuric acid]].
On heating with [[methanol]], it is converted into isoamyl alcohol and [[methyl nitrite]]; a similar reaction takes place with [[ethanol]], but the change is less complete.
It is readily decomposed by [[nascent hydrogen]], with the formation of [[ammonia]] and isoamyl alcohol; and in alkaline [[hydrolysis]] it forms isoamyl alcohol.
n-amyl nitrite is a yellow-coloured liquid of specific gravity 0.853, boiling at 104 degrees Celsius. It decomposes in water. When the liquid is dropped onto fused [[potassium hydroxide|caustic potash]] (liquid KOH), it forms [[potassium valerate]].
==See also==
* [[Alkyl nitrites]]
* [[Butyl nitrite]]
* [[Ethyl nitrite]]
* [[Methyl nitrite]]
* [[Isopropyl nitrite]]
* [[Cyclohexyl nitrite]]
* [[Poppers]]
{{Alkyl nitrites}}
[[Category:Antianginals]]
[[Category:Antidotes]]
[[Category:Alkyl nitrites]]
[[Category:Schedule VI controlled substances]]
[[Category:Muscle relaxants]]
[[de:Amylnitrit]]
[[sv:Amylnitrit]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anomy</title>
<id>3047</id>
<revision>
<id>15901417</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-01T21:33:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eclecticology</username>
<id>372</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Deleted irrelevant nonsense and redirected to more usual spelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[anomie]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Australian Constitutional Crisis of 1975</title>
<id>3048</id>
<revision>
<id>15901418</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-21T21:45:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Autumn</title>
<id>3049</id>
<revision>
<id>42002615</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:50:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brian0918</username>
<id>90640</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{season}}
{{redirect|Fall}}
'''Autumn''' (also '''fall''' in [[North American English]]) is one of the four temperate [[seasons]], the transition from [[summer]] into [[winter]].
In the [[temperate zone]]s, autumn is the season during which most crops are [[harvest]]ed, and [[deciduous]] trees lose their [[leaf|leaves]]. It is also the season in rapidly get shorter and cooler (especially in the northern latitudes), and of gradually increasing precipitation in some parts of the world.
Astronomically, it begins with the [[autumnal equinox]] (around [[September 23]] in the [[Northern hemisphere]], and [[March 21]] in the [[southern hemisphere]]), and ends with the [[winter solstice]] (around [[December 21]] in the Northern hemisphere and [[June 21]] in the Southern hemisphere). However, meteorologists count the entire months of March, April and May in the Southern hemisphere, and September, October and November in the Northern hemisphere as autumn. An exception to these definitions is found in the [[Irish Calendar]] which still follows the Celtic cycle, where Autumn is counted as the whole months of [[August]], [[September]] and [[October]].
Although the days begin to shorten in July or August in the northern latitudes and in January and February in the south, it is usually in September or March where twilight becomes evidently shorter and more abrupt in comparison with the more lingering ones of summer.
[[image:autumn.westonbirt.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|Autumn colours at [[Westonbirt Arboretum]], Gloucestershire, England.]]
Autumn is often defined as the start of the school year in most countries, since they usually begin in early September or early March (depending on the latitude).
Either definition, as with those of the seasons generally, is flawed because it assumes that the seasons are all of the same length, and begin and end at the same time throughout the temperate zone of each hemisphere.
==Historic usage and recognition==
Diverse nations computed the years by autumns, while the [[Anglo-Saxon]]s did so by [[winter]]s. [[Tacitus]] tells us that the ancient Germans were acquainted with all the other seasons of the year, but had no notion of Autumn. Linwood observed of the beginning of the several seasons of the year, that
:"Dat Clemens Hyemem, dat Petrus Ver Cathedratus;
:Aestuat Urbanus, Autumnat Bartholomaeus." {{ref label|1728|1|^}}
In [[alchemy]], Autumn is the time or season when the operation of the [[Philosopher's stone]] is brought to maturity and perfection. {{ref label|1728|1|^}}
==Autumn in popular culture==
[[Image:autumn.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Personification]] of Autumn (Currier & Ives Lithograph, 1871).]]
Autumn's association with the transition from warm to cold weather in the northern hemisphere, and its related status as the season of the primary [[harvest]], has dominated its themes and popular images. In Western cultures, personifications of Aut |
[[cs:Ásatrú]]
[[da:Asetro]]
[[de:Asatru]]
[[el:Αζατρού]]
[[es:Ásatrú (religión)]]
[[fr:Asatru]]
[[nl:Ásatrú]]
[[nn:Åsatru]]
[[pl:Ásatrú]]
[[ro:Asatru]]
[[fi:Ásatrú]]
[[sv:Asatro]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ansible</title>
<id>2106</id>
<revision>
<id>34844400</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-12T02:57:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zack</username>
<id>20740</id>
</contributor>
<comment>put the "could we build one" paragraph mostly back as it was - see talk page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''ansible''' is used in [[science fiction]] literature to describe a hypothetical [[superluminal communication|faster-than-light]] communication device. It was coined by [[Ursula K. Le Guin]] in her [[1966]] novel, ''[[Rocannon's World]]''. She derived the name from "answerable", as the device would allow its users to receive answers to their messages in a reasonable amount of time, even over interstellar distances. Her award-winning [[1974]] novel ''[[The Dispossessed]]'' tells of the invention of the ansible within her [[Ekumen]] milieu.
The name and basic function of the device have since been borrowed by authors such as [[Frank Herbert]], [[Orson Scott Card]], [[Elizabeth Moon]], [[Vernor Vinge]], [[L.A. Graf]], [[Dan Simmons]], and [[Philip Pullman]] (though his was called a "lodestone resonator"). Other science fiction stories have devices with similar effects that are not called ansibles; perhaps the best known is [[Star Trek]]'s "subspace radio". One ansible-like device which predates Le Guin's usage is the "Dirac communicator" in [[James Blish]]'s [[1954]] short story "Beep".
Le Guin's ansible communicated instantaneously, and so do most other authors'. A notable exception is the ansible in the Vinge short story "The Blabber", which merely communicates faster than light &mdash; in a universe where that is believed impossible.
There is no known way to build an ansible. While current theories of physics do not absolutely rule out the possibility, the theory of [[special relativity]] predicts that any such device would allow communication from the future to the past, which raises problems of [[causality]]. For this reason, most physicists believe that they will eventually be proven impossible. [[Quantum entanglement]] is often proposed as a mechanism for superluminal communication, but our current understanding of that phenomenon is that it cannot be used for ''any'' sort of communication, superluminal or otherwise. See [[time travel]] and [[faster-than-light]] for more discussion of these issues.
Orson Scott Card's [[Ender's Game series]] is probably the most widely read work to use an ansible ("The official name is Philotic Parallax Instantaneous Communicator," explains Col. [[Hyrum Graff|Graff]] in ''[[Ender's Game]]'', "but somebody dredged the name ''ansible'' out of an old book somewhere"). His description of ansible functions in ''[[Xenocide]]'' involve a fictional subatomic particle, the [[philote]], and contradicts not only standard physical theory but the results of empirical [[particle accelerator]] experiments. In the "Enderverse", the two [[quark]]s inside a [[pion|pi meson]] can be separated by an arbitrary distance while remaining connected by "philotic rays". In the real world, [[quark confinement]] prevents one from separating quarks by more than microscopic distances. Most writers deliberately avoid explaining how their ansibles work; Card elaborated only because [[philotics]] became important to later volumes of the series.
See also [[tachyon]].
----
'''''Ansible''''' is also a [[science fiction]] [[fanzine]] published by [[Dave Langford]], named after the faster-than-light communicator.
==External links==
*[http://news.ansible.co.uk Ansible Home Page]
*[http://www.jessesword.com/sf/view/16 Science Fiction Citations - Ansible] from the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]
*[http://ansible.org/ Ansible MOO]: A [[MOO]] based on the [[Enderverse]] series by [[Orson_Scott_Card| Orson Scott Card]]
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[Category:Science fiction fanzines]]
[[Category:Faster-than-light communication]]
[[Category:Ekumen]]
[[es:Ansible]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adalbert of Prague</title>
<id>2108</id>
<revision>
<id>42042282</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:50:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.16.1.121</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Religious acts */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Adalbert of Prague.jpg|thumb|right|Adalbert, part of the Wenceslas Monument on the [[Wenceslas Square]] in [[Prague]]]]
'''Adalbert''' ([[Czech language|Czech]]: {{Audio|Cs-svaty_Vojtech.ogg|''Vojtěch''}}, [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Wojciech'', Germanic: ''Adalbert'') (c. [[956]] - [[April 23]], [[997]]) was a bishop of Prague who was martyred in his efforts to convert the Baltic Prussians. He was later made the [[patron saint]] of [[Bohemia]], [[Poland]], [[Hungary]], and [[Prussia (province)|Prussia]].
== Birth and youth ==
Vojtěch was born of a noble family of prince [[Slavnik]] in [[Libice nad Cidlinou]], [[Bohemia]]. His father was a rich and independent ruler of [[Zlicans|Zličan]] princedom that rivaled Prague (see [[Slavník's dynasty]]). According to [[Cosmas of Prague|Cosmas']] chronicle, Slavnik was a happy man all his lifetime. Vojtěch had six brothers: Soběbor (Slavnik's heir), Spytimir, Pobraslav, Porej, Caslav and Radim (Gaudentius). The latter chose clerical path as well as Vojtěch did.
Vojtěch was a well-educated man. He studied for about ten years (970-80) in [[Magdeburg]] under Saint [[Adalbert of Magdeburg|Adalbert]]. When Adalbert died, Vojtěch took on the name Adalbert Vojtěch. His another preceptor was Otterich from st. Maurice school. Being gifted and industrious, Adalbert Vojtěch soon became well-known all over Europe.
== Religious acts ==
[[Image:Bishopcoa.png|170px|right]]
In 980 Adalbert finished his studies at Magdeburg school and returned to Prague where he became a priest.
In 981 his father, prince Slavnik, and both his mentors died.
In [[982]] Adalbert became the [[Bishop of Prague]]. However, he strongly resented the participation of formally Christian inhabitants in the [[slavery|slave]] trade. Although Adalbert descended from a rich family and could afford comfort and luxury, he lived poorly of his own free will. He was noted for charity, austerity, and zealous service to the Church. His duty was hard even in baptized Bohemia, as pagan creed was deeply embedded in peoples' mind. Adalbert complained of poligamy and idolatry that still were not unusual among the Czech.
In 989 he resigned from his bishop's cloth and leaved Prague. He went to Rome and lived as a hermit in st. Alexis benedictine monastery.
Four years later, in 993 the [[Pope]] sent him back to [[Bohemia]]. Adalbert became the Bishop again. That time he founded a monastery in Břevnov, near Prague. This was was the first monastery in Czechia. According to Cosmas' chronicle, high clerical office was a burden to Adalbert, and in 994 he offered it to [[Strachkvas]] who was Přemyslid and Duke Boleslav's brother. Strachkvas, nevertheless, rejected.
In 995 Slavniks' rivalry with Přemyslids resulted in a storm of Libice and a cruel murder of four (or five) Adalbert's brothers. All this was done by will of [[Boleslav II of Bohemia|Boleslav II]], and the key executors were his confederates from a powerful clan of Vrśovci. Thus Zličan princedom became part of Přemyslids' estate.
Adalbert damned Vrśovci in church and predicted that they would be severely persecuted. After the tragedy he could not stay in Bohemia any longer and escaped from Prague, despite the Pope's call for him to return to his episcopal see. Strachkvas was appointed to be his successor. However, when he was going to assume the Bishop office in Prague, he suddenly died during the ceremony itself. Circumstances of his death are still unclear.
As for Adalbert, he went to Hungary and baptized [[Geza of Hungary]] and his son [[Stephen of Hungary|Stephen]]. Then he went to Poland where he was cordially welcomed by [[Bolesław I the Brave]]. After the short visit Adalbert went to Prussia with a Christian mission.
== Mission and martyrdom in Prussia ==
[[Image:Adalb.jpg|right|frame|Saint-Adalbert is being killed by [[Prussians]], part of [[Gniezno Doors]]]]
Adalbert Vojtěch of [[Prague]] had already in [[977]] entertained the idea of becoming a [[missionary]] in [[Prussia (Baltic)|Prussia]]. After he had converted [[Hungary]], he was sent by the [[Pope]] to convert the heathen [[Prussia (Baltic)|Prussians]]. [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boleslaus the Brave]], duke of [[Poland]], sent [[soldiers]] with Adalbert. The bishop and his followers entered [[Prussia (Baltic)|Prussian]] territory near [[Gdańsk]] and went along the [[Baltic Sea]] coast.
It was a standard procedure of Christian missionaries to try to chop down sacred oak trees (see [[Iconoclasm]]), which they had done in many other places, including [[Saxony]]. Because the trees were worshipped and the spirits who were believed to inhabit the trees were feared for their powers, this was done to demonstrate to the non-Christians that no supernatural powers protected the trees from the Christians.
When they did not heed warnings to stay away from the sacred oak groves, Adalbert was [[martyr|martyred]] in April [[997]] on the [[Baltic Sea]] coast near Truso (currently [[Elbląg]]). It is recorded that his body was bought back for its weight in [[gold]] by [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boleslaus the Brave]].
== Canonization and memory ==
A few years later Adalbert was [[canonization|canonized]] as '''Saint Adalbert of Prague.''' His life has been written about in ''Vita Sancti Adalbert |
ncluding the insurance, if not, the insurance is lost and the game continues as normal. A player can only buy insurance if the house open [[card]] is an ace, and only at the beginning of his turn.
According to [[Game Theory]], it is statistically unwise to buy insurance, given that the potential win is not enough to justify the risk of losing (there are 12 different cards, and either 4 or 1 are any good if insurance is possible).
==Glossary==
* 'Combined Ratio' = loss ratio + expense ratio. Loss Ratio is calculated by dividing the amount of losses by the amount of written premium. Expense ratio is calculated by dividing the amount of operational expenses by the amount of earned premium. A lower number indicates a better return on the amount of capital placed at risk by an insurer.
==Quote==
* [[Maurice R. Greenberg|Hank Greenberg]] told his board of directors, "you can't even spell 'insurance'"[http://editor.slate.msn.com/default.aspx/id/2116167/nav/ais/] (hearsay, April 2005)
==See also==
* [[Cindy Ossias]]
* [[False insurance claims]]
* [[Financial services]] (broader industry to which insurance belongs)
* [[Intergovernmental Risk Pool]]
* [[Uberrima fides]]
===Lists===
* [[List of finance topics#insurance|List of insurance topics]]
* [[List of finance topics]]
* [[List of U.S. insurance companies]]
==External links==
*[http://www.internationalinsurance.org/international/rankings Insurance industry statistics in the world.]
*[http://www.iii.org/media/facts/statsbyissue/industry Insurance industry statistics in the U.S.]
*[http://www.eh.net/encyclopedia/?article=murphy.life.insurance.us Life Insurance in the United States through World War I]
*[http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/section/insuranc_TheHistoryofInsurance.asp Columbia Encyclopedia: The History of Insurance]
[[Category:Insurance|*]]
[[Category:Service industries]]
[[be:Страхаваньне]]
[[da:Forsikring]]
[[de:Versicherung]]
[[es:Contrato de Seguro]]
[[fr:Assurance]]
[[io:Asekuro]]
[[id:Asuransi]]
[[it:Assicurazione]]
[[he:ביטוח]]
[[lt:Draudimas]]
[[ms:Insuran]]
[[nl:Verzekering]]
[[ja:保険]]
[[no:Forsikring]]
[[pl:Ubezpieczenie]]
[[fi:Vakuutus]]
[[sv:Försäkring]]
[[zh:保險]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships</title>
<id>15177</id>
<revision>
<id>26819085</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-29T20:44:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mkill</username>
<id>335257</id>
</contributor>
<comment>un-double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[MARPOL 73/78]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International environmental law</title>
<id>15178</id>
<revision>
<id>40784388</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T00:15:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.223.242.199</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''International environmental law''' is the body of [[international law]] that concerns the protection of the global environment.
There have been many [[environmental agreements|legally-binding international agreements]] concerning the protection of the environment, but in this area of international law [[soft law]] is more common than normal.
Some basic principles of international environmental law are:
*the [[precautionary principle]]
*the [[polluter pays principle]]
*the principle of [[sustainable development]]
*environmental procedural rights
Important cases have included the various [[nuclear testing|nuclear testing]] cases such as between [[New Zealand]] and [[France]] before the [[International Court of Justice]].
Groups active in the area include the [http://www.elaw.org/ Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide(E-LAW)] and the[http://www.ciel.org/ Centre for International Environmental Law]
International environmental lawyers often receive specialized training in the form of an LL.M. degree after having a first law degree -- often in another country from where they got their first law degree. Notable programs include the[http://www.law.uoregon.edu/org/llm/ LL.M. in Environmental Law Program at the University of Oregon]
{{law-stub}}
[[Category:Environmental law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indira Gandhi</title>
<id>15179</id>
<revision>
<id>42095749</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:20:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>207.171.180.101</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Operation Blue Star and Assassination */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float: right; clear: right; border: 1px solid; margin-left: 1em"
|+ '''Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi'''
! bgcolor="#efefef" colspan="2" | [[Image:Indira Gandhi.jpg|250px|Indira Gandhi]]
|-
! Date of Birth:
| [[19 November]], [[1917]]
|-
! Date of Assassination:
| [[31 October]], [[1984]]
|-
! Place of Birth:
| [[Allahabad]], [[Uttar Pradesh|UP]], [[India]]
|-
! bgcolor="#efefef" colspan="2" | [[Prime Minister of India]]
|-
! Tenure Order:
| 3rd & 6th Prime Minister&nbsp;
|-
! Political party:
| [[Indian National Congress|Congress (I)]]
|-
! colspan="2" style="border-top: 1px solid" | First Term
|-
! Took Office:
| [[19 January]], [[1966]]
|-
! Left Office:
| [[24 March]], [[1977]]
|-
! Predecessor:
| [[Gulzarilal Nanda]]
|-
! Successor:
| [[Morarji Desai]]
|-
! colspan="2" style="border-top: 1px solid" | Second Term
|-
! Took Office:
| [[15 January]], [[1980]]
|-
! Left Office:
| [[31 October]], [[1984]]
|-
! Predecessor:
| [[Choudhary Charan Singh|Charan Singh]]
|-
! Successor:
| [[Rajiv Gandhi]]
|}
'''Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi (इन्दिरा प्रियदर्शिनी गान्धी)''' ([[19 November]], [[1917]] &ndash; [[31 October]], [[1984]]) was [[Prime Minister of India]] from [[19 January]], [[1966]] to [[24 March]], [[1977]], and again from [[14 January]], [[1980]] until her [[assassination]] on [[31 October]], [[1984]].
The daughter of Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] (and not related to [[Mahatma Gandhi]]), she was one of modern [[India]]'s most notable and politically controversial leaders.
==Early years==
The [[Nehru]] family can trace their ancestry to the [[Brahmin]]s of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Delhi]]. Indira's grandfather [[Motilal Nehru]] was a wealthy barrister of [[Allahabad]] in what is now [[Uttar Pradesh]]. Nehru was one of the most prominent members of the [[Indian National Congress]] in pre-[[Gandhi]] times and would go on to author the [[Nehru Report]], the people's choice for a future Indian system of government as opposed to the British system. Her father [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] was a well-educated lawyer and was a popular leader of the [[Indian Independence Movement]]. Indira was born to his young wife Kamala, at this juncture Nehru entered the independence movement with [[Mahatma Gandhi]].
Growing up in the sole care of her mother, who was sick and alienated from the Nehru household, Indira developed strong protective instincts and a loner personality. Her grandfather and father continually being enmeshed in national politics also made mixing with her peers difficult. She had conflicts with her father's sisters, and these continued into the political world.
Indira created the [[Vanara Sena]] movement for young girls and boys which played a small but notable role in the [[Indian Independence Movement]], conducting protests and flag marches, as well as helping Congress politicians circulate sensitive publications and banned materials. In an often-told story, Indira smuggled out from her father's police-watched house an important document in her schoolbag that outlined plans for a major revolutionary initiative in the early [[1930s]].
In 1936, her mother [[Kamala Nehru]] finally succumbed to [[tuberculosis]] after a long struggle. Indira was 17 at the time and thus never experienced a stable family life during her childhood. Indira attended prominent Indian, European and British schools like [[Santiniketan]] and [[Oxford]], but her weak academic performance prevented her from obtaining a degree. In her years in continental Europe and the U.K., she met [[Feroze Gandhi]], a young [[Parsee]] Congress activist, whom she married in 1942, just before the beginning of the [[Quit India Movement]] - the final, all-out national revolt launched by [[Gandhi]] and the Congress Party. Indira and Feroze were arrested and detained for several months for their involvement in the movement. In 1944, Indira gave birth to [[Rajiv Gandhi]], followed two years later by [[Sanjay Gandhi]].
During the traumatic [[Partition of India]] in 1947, Indira helped organize refugee camps and provide medical care for the millions of refugees from [[Pakistan]]. This was her first exercise in major public service, and a valuable experience for the tumult of the coming years.
==Personal Life==
The couple later settled in [[Allahabad]] where Feroze worked for a Congress Party newspaper and an insurance company. Their marriage started out well, but deteriorated later as Indira moved to [[Delhi]] to be at the side of her father, the Prime Minister, who was living alone in a high-pressure environment. Indira became his constant confidante, secretary and nurse. The boys lived with her, and the separation eventually became permanent.
When India's first general election approached in 1952, Indira managed the campaigns of both Nehru and her husband, who was contesting the constituency of [[Rae Bareilly]]. Feroze had not consulted Nehru on his choice to run, and even though he was elected, he opted to live in a separate house in Delhi. Feroze quickly developed a reputation for being a fighter against [[political corruption|corruption]] by exposing a major scandal in the nationalized insurance industry, resulting in the resignation of the Finance |
7]] - [[Leonhard Euler]], Swiss mathematician (d. [[1783]])
*[[1710]] - [[William Cullen]], Scottish physician and chemist (d. [[1790]])
*[[1721]] - [[Prince William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland]], English military leader (d. [[1765]])
*[[1772]] - [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]], French naturalist (d. [[1844]])
*[[1793]] - [[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]], German astronomer (d. [[1864]])
*[[1794]] - [[Jean Pierre Flourens]], French physiologist (d. [[1867]])
*[[1800]] - [[James Clark Ross]], English explorer (d. [[1862]])
*[[1809]] - [[Hermann Grassmann]], German mathematician and physicist (d. [[1877]])
*[[1832]] - [[Wilhelm Busch]], German poet and artist (d. [[1908]])
*[[1843]] - [[Henry James]], American author (d. [[1916]])
*[[1858]] - [[Émile Durkheim]], French sociologist (d. [[1917]])
*[[1861]] - [[Bliss Carman]], Canadian poet (d. [[1929]])
*[[1874]] - [[Johannes Stark]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1957]])
*[[1878]] - [[Robert Walser (writer)|Robert Walser]], Swiss writer (d. [[1956]])
*[[1879]] - [[Melville Henry Cane]], American lawyer and poet (d. [[1980]])
*[[1883]] - [[Stanley Bruce]], eighth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1967]])
*[[1886]] - [[Nikolay Gumilyov]], Russian poet (d. [[1921]])
*[[1889]] - [[Thomas Hart Benton (painter)|Thomas Hart Benton]], American muralist (d. [[1975]])
* 1889 - [[A. Philip Randolph]], American activist (d. [[1979]])
*[[1894]] - [[Bessie Smith]], American blues singer (d. [[1937]])
*[[1895]] - [[Clark McConachy]], New Zealand billiards and snooker player (d. [[1980]])
*[[1896]] - [[Nikolay Nikolayevich Semyonov]], Russian chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1986]])
*[[1901]] - [[Joe Davis]], English snooker player (d. [[1978]])
*[[1902]] - [[Fernando Pessa]], Portuguese journalist (d. [[2002]])
*[[1907]] - [[Nikolaas Tinbergen]], Dutch ornithologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1988]])
*[[1912]] - [[Kim Il Sung]], [[President of North Korea]] (d. [[1994]])
*[[1916]] - [[Alfred S. Bloomingdale]], American businessman (d. [[1982]])
*[[1917]] - [[Hans Conried]], American actor (d. [[1982]])
*[[1920]] - [[Richard von Weizacker|Richard von Weizäcker]], [[President of Germany]]
*[[1921]] - [[Georgi Beregovoi]], cosmonaut (d. [[1995]])
*[[1922]] - [[Michael Ansara]], Syrian-American actor
* 1922 - [[Harold Washington]], Mayor of Chicago (d. [[1987]])
*[[1924]] - Sir [[Neville Marriner]], English conductor and violinist
*[[1927]] - [[Robert Mills (physicist)|Robert Mills]], American physicist (d. [[1999]])
*[[1930]] - [[Vigdis Finnbogadottir|Vigdís Finnbogadóttir]], [[President of Iceland]]
*[[1933]] - [[Roy Clark]], American musician
* 1933 - [[Elizabeth Montgomery]], American actress (d. [[1995]])
* 1933 - [[Boris and Arkady Strugatsky|Boris Strugatsky]], Russian author
*[[1939]] - [[Claudia Cardinale]], Tunisian-born actress
*[[1940]] - [[Jeffrey Archer, Baron Archer of Weston-super-Mare|Jeffrey Archer]], British author and Member of Parliament
* 1940 - [[Robert Walker Jr.]], American actor
*[[1942]] - [[Francis Xavier Dilorenzo|Francis X. DiLorenzo]], American Catholic prelate
*1942 - [[Walt Hazzard]], American basketball player
*[[1944]] - [[Dzhokhar Dudaev]], Chechen leader (d. [[1996]])
*1944 - [[Dave Edmunds]], Welsh musician
*[[1947]] - [[Lois Chiles]], American actress
*1947 - [[Mike Chapman (record producer)|Mike Chapman]], songwriter (with [[Nicky Chinn]]) and producer ([[Suzi Quatro]], [[Sweet (band)|Sweet]], [[Blondie]])
*[[1948]] - [[Michael Kamen]], American composer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1949]] - [[Tonio K]], American singer
*1949 - [[Alla Pugacheva]], Russian singer
*[[1950]] - [[Amy Wright]], American actress
*[[1951]] - [[Heloise (columnist)|Heloise]], American newspaper columnist
*[[1954]] - [[Seka]], American actress
*[[1955]] - [[Dodi Al-Fayed]], Egyptian businessman (d. [[1997]])
*[[1957]] - [[Evelyn Ashford]], American athlete
*[[1958]] - [[Benjamin Zephaniah]], British writer and musician
*[[1959]] - [[Emma Thompson]], English actress
* 1959 - [[Thomas F. Wilson]], American actor
*[[1960]] - [[Tony Jones]], English snooker player
*[[1962]] - [[Nawal El Moutawakel]], Morrocan hurdler
*[[1963]] - [[Bobby Pepper]], American journalist
*[[1965]] - [[Linda Perry]], American musician
*[[1966]] - [[Samantha Fox]], English singer and model
*[[1967]] - [[Frankie Poullain]], British bassist ([[The Darkness]])
*1967 - [[Dara Torres]], American swimmer
*[[1968]] - [[Ed O'Brien]], British musician ([[Radiohead]])
*1968 - [[Stacey Williams]], American model
*[[1970]] - [[Flex Alexander]], American actor
*[[1972]] - [[Arturo Gatti]], Canadian boxer
*[[1974]] - [[Danny Pino]], American actor
*1974 - [[Josh Todd]], musician and singer ([[Buckcherry]])
*[[1977]] - [[Chandra Levy]], American Congressional intern (d. [[2001]])
*[[1980]] - [[Raúl López]], Spanish basketball player
*[[1981]] - [[Andrés d'Alessandro]], Argentine football player
*[[1983]] - [[Ilya Kovalchuk]], Russian hockey player
*[[1986]] - [[Quincy Owusu-Abeyie]], Dutch footballer
*[[1990]] - [[Emma Watson]], English actress
*[[1992]] - [[Amy Diamond]], Swedish pop singer
==Deaths==
*[[1053]] - [[Godwin, Earl of Wessex]]
*[[1220]] - [[Adolf of Altena]], Archbishop of Cologne
*[[1415]] - [[Manuel Chrysoloras]], Greek humanist
*[[1446]] - [[Filippo Brunelleschi]], Italian architect (b. [[1377]])
*[[1610]] - [[Robert Parsons]], English Jesuit priest (b. [[1546]])
*[[1621]] - [[John Carver]], first governor of Plymouth Colony
*[[1641]] - [[Domenico Zampieri]], Italian painter (b. [[1581]])
*[[1659]] - [[Simon Dach]], German poet (b. [[1605]])
*[[1704]] - [[Johann van Waveren Hudde]], Dutch mathematician (b. [[1628]])
*[[1719]] - [[Françoise d'Aubigné, marquise de Maintenon]], second wife of [[Louis XIV of France]] (b. [[1635]])
*[[1754]] - [[Jacopo Riccati]], Italian mathematician (b. [[1676]])
*[[1761]] - [[Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll]], Scottish politician (b. [[1682]])
*1761 - [[William Oldys]], English antiquarian and bibliographer (b. [[1696]])
*[[1764]] - [[Madame de Pompadour]], mistress of King [[Louis XIV of France]] (b. [[1721]])
*[[1765]] - [[Mikhail Lomonosov]], Russian scientist and writer (b. [[1711]])
*[[1788]] - [[Giuseppe Bonno]], Austrian composer (b. [[1711]])
*[[1793]] - [[Ignacije Szentmartony]], Croatian Jesuit missionary and geographer (b. [[1718]])
*[[1804]] - [[Charles Pichegru]], French general (strangled in prison) (b. [[1761]])
*[[1843]] - [[Noah Webster]], American lexicographer (b. [[1758]])
*[[1854]] - [[Arthur Aikin]], English chemist, mineralogist, and scientific writer (b. [[1773]])
*[[1865]] - [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1809]])
*[[1888]] - [[Matthew Arnold]], English poet (b. [[1822]])
*1888 - [[Father Damien]], Belgian missionary (b. [[1840]])
*[[1898]] - [[Kepa Te Rangihiwinui]], Maori military leader
*[[1912]] - Victims of the [[RMS Titanic|RMS Titanic]]
**[[Edward Smith]], Captain of the Titanic (b. [[1850]])
**[[John Jacob Astor IV]], American businessman (b. [[1864]])
**[[Benjamin Guggenheim]], American businessman (b. [[1865]])
*[[1938]] - [[César Vallejo]], Peruvian poet (b. [[1892]])
*[[1942]] - [[Robert Musil]], German novelist (b. [[1880]])
*[[1949]] - [[Wallace Beery]], American actor (b. [[1885]])
*[[1962]] - [[Clara Blandick]], American actress (b. [[1881]])
*[[1964]] - [[Rachel Carson]], American biologist and author (b. [[1907]])
*[[1969]] - [[Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg]], Queen of Spain (b. [[1887]])
*[[1971]] - [[Dan Reeves (NFL Owner)|Dan Reeves]] - Owner of the [[St. Louis Rams|Cleveland/Los Angeles Rams]] (b. [[1912]])
*[[1974]] - [[Giovanni D'Anzi]], Italian songwriter (b.[[1906]])
*[[1975]] - [[Richard Conte]], American actor (b. [[1910]])
*[[1980]] - [[Raymond Bailey]], American actor (b. [[1904]])
*1980 - [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], French philosopher and writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (declined) (b. [[1905]])
*[[1982]] - [[Arthur Lowe]], British actor (b. [[1915]])
*[[1984]] - [[Tommy Cooper]], Welsh comedy magician (b. [[1921]])
*[[1986]] - [[Jean Genet]], French author (b. [[1910]])
*[[1988]] - [[Kenneth Williams]], English actor and comedian (b. [[1926]])
*1988 - [[Tony Mann]], Australian footballer
*[[1989]] - [[Hu Yaobang]], leader of China (b. [[1915]])
*[[1990]] - [[Greta Garbo]], Swedish actress (b. [[1905]])
*[[1993]] - [[John Tuzo Wilson]], Canadian geologist (b. [[1908]])
*1993 - [[Leslie Charteris]], Singapore-born author (b. [[1907]])
*[[1994]] - [[John Curry]], English figure skater (b. [[1949]])
*[[1998]] - [[Pol Pot]], Cambodian dictator (b. [[1925]])
*[[2000]] - [[Edward Gorey]], American illustrator (b. [[1925]])
*[[2001]] - [[Joey Ramone]], American musician and singer ([[The Ramones]]) (b. [[1951]])
*[[2002]] - [[Damon Knight]], author (b. [[1922]])
*2002 - [[Byron White|Byron "Whizzer" White]], American football player and U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. [[1917]])
*[[2003]] - [[Erin Fleming]], Canadian actress (b. [[1941]])
==Holidays and observances==
*In the United States, today is the official deadline for filing [[tax return]]s: all forms mailed to the [[Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] must be [[postmark]]ed no later than today, so [[post office]]s across the stay open until midnight to accommodate procrastinators (or those who owe tax and want to wait as late as possible to pay). (If this day falls on the weekend, as in 2006, the following Monday becomes the deadline.)
*Ancient [[Latvia]] &mdash; [[Tipsa Diena]] was observed
*[[Arirang Festival]] is held in [[North Korea]] to commemorate [[Kim Il-sung]]'s birth
*[[Father Damien|Father Damien Day]] &mdash; celebrated annually in [[Hawaii|Hawai'i]]
*[[Feast day]] of [[Saint Paternus]]
*[[Roman Empire]] &mdash; the [[Fordicia]] was celebrated in honor of [[Gaia (mythology)|Terra]]
*[[Major League Baseball]] celebrates "[[Jackie Robin |
inning, there were widespread reports of cannibalism throughout Europe. However, many historians have since denied these reports as fanciful and ambiguous.
In the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] ''[[rampjaar]]'' (disaster year) of [[1672]], when [[France]] and [[England]] during the [[Franco-Dutch War]] / [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]] attacked the Republic, [[Johan de Witt]] (a significant [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[political figure]]) was killed by a shot in the neck; his naked body was hanged and mutilated and the heart was carved out to be exhibited. His brother was shot, stabbed, eviscerated alive, hanged naked, brained and partly eaten.
The survivors of the sinking of the French ship [[The_Raft_of_the_Medusa|Medusa]] in 1816 resorted to cannibalism after four days adrift on a raft.
After the sinking of the [[Whaleship Essex| Whaleship ''Essex'']] of [[Nantucket]] by a whale, on [[November 20]], [[1820]], (an important source event for [[Herman Melville]]'s ''[[Moby Dick]]'') the survivors, in three small boats, resorted, by common consent, to cannibalism in order for some to survive [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/alabaster/A671492]. See [[The Custom of the Sea]].
Sir [[John Franklin]]'s lost polar expedition and the [[Donner Party]] are other examples of human cannibalism from the [[1840s]].
In the [[1870s]], in the U.S. state of [[Colorado]], a man named [[Alferd Packer]] was accused of killing and eating his travelling companions. He was later released due to a legal technicality, and maintained that he was innocent of the murders throughout his life. However, modern forensic evidence, unavailable during Packer's lifetime, indicates that he did indeed murder and/or eat several of his companions. The story of Alferd Packer was satirically told in the [[Trey Parker]] comedy/horror/musical film, ''[[Cannibal! The Musical]]'', released in 1996 by [[Troma]] Studios.
The case of ''[[R v. Dudley and Stephens]]'' ([[1884]]) 14 QBD 273 (QB) is an [[England|English]] case which is said to be one of the origins of the defence of [[necessity]] in modern common law. The case dealt with four crewmembers of an English yacht which were cast away in a storm some 1600 miles from the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. After several days one of the crew fell unconscious due to a combination of the famine and drinking sea-water. The others (one objecting) decided then to kill him and eat him. They were picked up four days later. The fact that not everyone had agreed to draw lots contravened [[The Custom of the Sea]] and was held to be murder. At the trial was the first recorded use of the defence of necessity.
During the [[1930s]] anecdotal accounts of cannibalism were reported from the [[Ukraine]] during the [[Holodomor|Ukrainian Genocide]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3229000.stm]
On [[October 13]], [[1972]], an [[Uruguay]]an [[Rugby union|rugby]] team flew across the [[Andes]] to play a game in [[Chile]]. The plane crashed near the border between Chile and [[Argentina]]. After several weeks of [[starvation]] and struggle for [[Survival skills|survival]], the numerous survivors decided to eat the frozen bodies of the deceased in order to survive. They were rescued over two months later. ''See [[Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571]].''
It has been reported by defectors and refugees that, at the height of the famine in the 1990's, cannibalism was sometimes practiced in [[North Korea]].
[[Médecins Sans Frontières]], the international medical charity, supplied photographic and other documentary evidence of ritualised cannibal feasts among the participants in [[Liberia]]'s internecine strife in the 1980s to representatives of [[Amnesty International]] who were on a fact-finding mission to the neighbouring state of [[Guinea]]. However, Amnesty International declined to publicise this material, the Secretary-General of the organization, [[Pierre Sane]], stating at the time in an internal communication that "what they do with the bodies after human rights violations are committed is not part of our mandate or concern". The existence of cannibalism on a wide scale in Liberia and [[Sierra Leone]] was subsequently verified in video documentaries by [[Journeyman Pictures]] of [[London]].
==Cannibalism in war==
Cannibalism is known to have been practiced by the participants of the [[First Crusade]]. Some of the crusaders fed on the bodies of their dead opponents after the capture of the Arab town of [[Ma'arrat al-Numan]]. Many allege that the Crusaders were just being cruel and inhumane, but in reality they did it to survive. It was also practiced by foraging parties on the later stages of the march on Jerusalem.
Some people claim cannibalism took place during the [[World War II|WWII]] [[siege of Leningrad]]. [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/life/story/0,6903,605454,00.html] [http://condor.depaul.edu/~rrotenbe/aeer/aeer13_2/Dickenson.html] [http://www.sovietarmy.com/books/leningrad.html]
Some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indian]] tribes believed that by eating part of your enemy one could gain a particular characteristic of the deceased rival (Ex: Eating the heart of a brave opponent would help you gain more courage). References to cannibalizing the enemy has also been seen in poetry written when China was repressed in the [[Song Dynasty]]. (See ''[[Manjiang Hong]]'')
Documentary and forensic evidence supports eyewitness accounts of cannibalism by Japanese troops during World War II. This practice was resorted to when food ran out, even with Japanese soldiers killing and eating each other when enemy civilians were not available. In other cases, enemy soldiers were executed and then dissected.
Cannibalism was reported by at least one reliable witness, the journalist Neil Davis during the South East Asian wars of the 1960s and 1970s. Davis reported that Khmer (Cambodian) troops ritually ate portions of the slain enemy, typically the liver. However he, and many refugees, also report that cannibalism was practised non-ritually when there was no food to be found. This usually occurred when towns and villages were under [[Khmer Rouge]] control, and food was strictly rationed, leading to widespread starvation. Ironically, any civilian caught participating in cannibalism would have been immediately executed. For details see Davis's biography ''One Crowded Hour'' by Tim Bowden.
Cannibalism has been reported in several recent [[Africa|African]] conflicts, including the [[Second Congo War]], and the civil wars in [[Liberia]] and [[Sierra Leone]]. Typically, this is apparently done in desperation, as during peacetime cannibalism is much less frequent. Even so, it is sometimes directed at certain groups believed to be relatively helpless, such as Congo [[Pygmies]]. It is also reported that [[witch doctor|African traditional healers]] sometimes use the body parts of children in their medicine.
=='Cannibalism' as cultural libel==
Numerous groups, peoples, and cultures are accused of killing and eating human beings.
See [[Blood libel]].
Unsubstantiated reports of cannibalism disproportionately relate cases of cannibalism among cultures that are already otherwise despised, feared, or are little known. In antiquity, Greek reports of ''[[anthropophagy]]'' were related to distant, non-Hellenic [[barbarians]], or else relegated in [[Greek mythology|myth]] to the 'primitive' chthonic world that preceded the coming of the Olympian gods. In 1994, printed booklets reported that in a Yugoslavian [[concentration camp]] of [[Manjaca]] the [[Bosnian refugees]] were forced to eat each other's bodies. The reports were false.
[[William Arens]], author of ''The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy'' (New York : Oxford University Press, 1979; ISBN 0195027930), downplays the truth of reports of cannibalism and argues that the description by one group of people of another people as cannibals is an ideological and rhetorical device to establish moral superiority over them. Arens bases most of his thesis on ridiculing the accuracy of [[Hans Staden]]'s account of being prisoner among the [[Tupi]]. How could Staden have understood the Tupi? The English translation available to Arens was incomplete. In "La Mia Prigionia tra i Cannibali, 1553-1555, (Longanesi & C, Milan, 1970) the text gives the Tupi phrase then the translation as does the original German text. Arens thesis is based on an incomplete text. Staden was a fluent speaker of Tupi and Tupimani. Arens says there is no single eyewitness account of cannibalism.
Arens also writes,
"Anthropologists have made no serious attempt to disabuse the public of the widespread notion of the ubiquity of anthropophagists. &hellip; in the deft hands and fertile imaginations of anthropologists, former or contemporary anthropophagists have multiplied with the advance of civilization and fieldwork in formerly unstudied culture areas. &hellip;The existence of man-eating peoples just beyond the pale of civilization is a common ethnographic suggestion."
Conversely, [[Michel de Montaigne]]'s essay "Of cannibals" introduced a new multicultural note in European civilization. Montaigne wrote that "one calls 'barbarism' whatever he is not accustomed to." By using a title like that and describing a fair indigean society, Montaigne may wished to provoke a surprise in the reader of his ''Essays''.
Similarly, Japanese scholars (e.g. Kuwabara Jitsuzo) branded the Chinese culture as cannibalistic in certain propagandistic works &mdash; which served as ideological justification for the assumed superiority of the Japanese during World War II.
== Sexualized cannibalism (fantasies and real) ==
The wide use of the Internet has highlighted that thousands of people harbor sexualized cannibalistic fantasies. Discussion forums and user groups exist for the exchange of pictures and stories of such fantasies. A good example of such fantasies is provided by t |
gy]]. The important topics in this field were properties of more general figures, such as connectedness and boundaries, rather than properties like straightness, and precise equality of length and angle measurements, which had been the focus of Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry. Topology soon became a separate field of major importance, rather than a sub-field of geometry or analysis.
==The 20th century==
Developments in [[algebraic geometry]] included the study of curves and surfaces over [[finite field]]s, rather than the real or complex numbers. [[Finite geometry]] itself, the study of spaces with only finitely many points, found applications in [[coding theory]] and [[cryptography]]. For some properties of one of the smallest finite spaces, the 3-dimensional projective space over the two-element field, see the [http://diamondtheorem.com diamond theorem].
{{sectstub}}
==See also==
*[[List of geometry topics]]
*[[List of important publications in mathematics#Geometry|Important publications in geometry]].
==External links==
{{book}}
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/WhatIs/WhatIsGeometry.shtml What Is Geometry?] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.elvenkids.com/tools/geometria/Geometria.php Geometria] An online tool to compute lines, surfaces and volumes of the main plane and solid figures, through direct and indirect formulas.
* [http://www.geogebra.at/ Geogebra] A free dynamic geometry tool, useful for exploring geometry.
* [http://agutie.homestead.com Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas] by Antonio Gutierrez.
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/geometry.shtml Geometry] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/art/islamic-geometry-and-floral-patterns.html Islamic Geometry]
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/geometry-finitism/ Finitism in Geometry]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/geometry-19th/ Geometry in the 19th Century]
* [http://www.egwald.com/geometry/index.php Online Interactive Geometric Objects] by Elmer G. Wiens
* [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Arabic_mathematics.html Arabic mathematics : forgotten brilliance?]
[[Category:Geometry]]
{{Mathematics-footer}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>George H. W. Bush</title>
<id>11955</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42138841</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:59:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mhking</username>
<id>262806</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 42100776 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=George Herbert Walker Bush
| image=Georgebush.jpg
| order=41st President
| term_start=[[January 20]], [[1989]]
| term_end=[[January 20]], [[1993]]
| vicepresident=[[Dan Quayle|J. Danforth Quayle]]
| predecessor=[[Ronald Reagan]]
| successor=[[Bill Clinton]]
| birth_date=[[June 12]], [[1924]]
| birth_place=[[Milton, Massachusetts|Milton]], [[Massachusetts]], [[United States|USA]]
| death_date=
| death_place=
| spouse=[[Barbara Pierce Bush]]
| party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
}}
'''George Herbert Walker Bush''', [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], (born [[June 12]], [[1924]]) was the 41st [[President of the United States]] (1989&ndash;1993). Previously, he had served as a [[United States|U.S.]] [[United States House of Representatives|congressman]] from [[Texas]] (1967&ndash;1971), [[ambassador (diplomacy)|ambassador]] to the [[United Nations]] (1971&ndash;1973), [[Republican National Committee]] chairman (1973&ndash;1974), Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the People's Republic of China (1974&ndash;1976), [[Director of the Central Intelligence Agency]] (1976&ndash;1977), Chairman of the First International Bank in Houston (1977&ndash;1980), and the 43rd [[Vice President of the United States]] under President [[Ronald Reagan]] (1981&ndash;1989). He has twice run unsuccessfully for the United States Senate, once for President of the United States, and once for his reelection to that office. A decorated [[naval aviator]] he is the last [[World War II]] veteran to date to have served as President. Bush is the father of the 43rd and current president, [[George W. Bush|George Walker Bush]]. His father, [[Prescott Bush]], was a [[United States Senator]].
From a policy standpoint, Bush pursued moderate policies in both domestic and foreign policy. During the final days of the [[Cold War]], he was responsible for managing US foreign policy during the delicate transition of the Soviet Union and eastern Europe from communism to democracy. He championed the concept of a [[New World Order]] where international law and global consensus would replace military and strategic confrontation as a means of accomplishing diplomatic objectives. This idea was exemplified during the [[Gulf War]], when the US rallied a global coalition to reverse the invasion of [[Kuwait]] by [[Iraq]] under [[Saddam Hussein]]. In domestic policy, Bush's most notable initiative was the [[Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990]], a controversial compromise with congressional Democrats which traded spending controls for tax increases to balance the federal budget.
== Early life ==
George Herbert Walker Bush was born in [[Milton, Massachusetts|Milton]], [[Massachusetts]] to [[Prescott Bush]] and Dorothy Walker. His father served as a U.S. Senator from [[Connecticut]] and was a partner in the prominent investment banking firm [[Brown Brothers Harriman]]. His grandfather, for whom he was named, was [[George Herbert Walker]], a wealthy businessman and important figure in American [[golf]] history
George Bush began his formal education at the [[Greenwich Country Day School]] in [[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]], Connecticut. Bush attended [[Phillips Academy]] in [[Andover, Massachusetts|Andover]], Massachusetts from 1936 to 1942, where he demonstrated early leadership, [[captain (sports)|captaining]] the [[baseball]] team, and was a member of an exclusive fraternity called the A.U.V, or "Auctoritas, Unitas, Veritas" &ndash; Latin for "Authority, Unity, Truth". His roommate at the [[boarding school]] was a young man named [[Edward G. Hooker.]] It was at Phillips Academy that Bush learned of the surprise attack on [[Pearl Harbor]] on [[December 7]], [[1941]].
== World War II: decorated naval aviator ==
[[Image:Bush ruth.jpg|thumb|left|200px|George H. W. Bush met [[Babe Ruth]] as a student at Yale.]]
After graduating from Phillips Academy in June, 1942, he joined the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] on his 18th [[birthday]] to become an [[aviator]]. After completing the 10-month course, he was commissioned as an ensign in the U.S. Naval Reserve on [[June 9]] [[1943]], several days before his 19th birthday, which made him the youngest naval aviator to that date.
After finishing flight training he was assigned to [[Torpedo Squadron]] (VT-51) as photographic officer in September 1943. As part of Air Group 51, his squadron was based on [[USS San Jacinto (CVL-30)|U.S.S. ''San Jacinto'']] in the spring of 1944. ''San Jacinto'' was part of Task Force 58 that participated in operations against [[Minami Torishima|Marcus]] and [[Wake Island|Wake Islands]] in May, and then in the [[Marianas]] during June. On [[June 19]] the task force triumphed in one of the largest air battles of the war. On his return from the mission Bush's aircraft made a forced water landing. A [[submarine]] rescued the young pilot, although the plane was lost as well as the life of his navigator. On [[July 25]] Bush and another pilot received credit for sinking a small cargo ship off [[Palau]].
After Bush's promotion to Lieutenant Junior Grade on [[August 1]], ''San Jacinto'' commenced operations against the Japanese in the [[Ogasawara Islands|Bonin Islands]]. On [[September 2]], 1944, Bush piloted one of four aircraft from VT-51 that attacked the Japanese installations on [[Chichi Jima]]. For this mission his crew included Radioman Second Class John Delaney and Lieutenant Junior Grade William White, who substituted for Bush's regular gunner. During their attack four TBM Avengers from VT-51 encountered intense antiaircraft fire. While starting the attack, Bush's aircraft was hit and his engine caught on fire. He completed his attack and released the bombs over his target, scoring several damaging hits. With his engine on fire, Bush flew several miles from the island, where he and one other crew member on the TBM Avenger bailed out of the aircraft. However, the other man's [[parachute]] did not open, and he fell to his death. It was never determined which man bailed out with Bush. Both Delaney and White were killed in action. While Bush waited four hours in his inflated [[raft]], several fighters circled protectively overhead until he was rescued by the lifeguard [[submarine]] [[USS Finback (SS-230)|U.S.S. ''Finback'']]. For this action Bush received the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (USA)|Distinguished Flying Cross]]. During the mont |
esearch seems to indicate that sociopathy may at least partially be related to a lack of ability to realize the true consequences of one's actions.
==Hacker jargon==
As used by computer [[hacker]]s, the jargon term ''evil'' implies that some system, program, person, or institution is sufficiently maldesigned as to be not worth the bother of dealing with. Unlike the adjectives in the cretinous/losing/[[brain damage]]d series, ''evil'' does not imply incompetence or bad design, but rather a set of goals or design criteria fatally incompatible with the speaker's, and often acts as a synonym for the word ''difficult''. This usage is more an aesthetic and engineering judgment than a moral one in the mainstream sense. ''"We thought about adding a Blue Glue interface but decided it was too evil to deal with,"'' or ''"[[Text Editor and Corrector|TECO]] is neat, but it can be pretty evil if you're prone to typos."'' Often pronounced with the first syllable lengthened, as {{Unicode|/'i:::v&#618;l/.}} Compare to [[evil and rude]].
The usage of evil as a prefix for usernames or email addresses on the [[Internet]] can be traced back to "evilsteven", a founding member of the noend listservs in [[San Francisco]] and [[New York]].
==See also==
{{selfref|In Wikipedia, see [[Wikipedia:Voting is evil]].}}
* [[Axis of Evil]]
* [[Bad]]
* [[Evil empire]]
* [[Goodness and value theory]]
* [[Law]]
* [[Philosophy]]
* [[Religion]]
* [[Problem of evil]]
==References==
* Shermer, M. (2004). ''The Science of Good & Evil.'' New York: Time Books. [ISBN 080507520]
*[[Peter Singer]], (2004). ''The President of Good and Evil: The Ethics of [[George W. Bush]]'', New York: Granta. [ISBN 0525948139]
* Thims, L. (2005). "[http://www.humanthermodynamics.com/JHT-evil-types.html Evil, Stability, and Predisposed Movements]", ''Journal of Human Thermodynamics'', Vol. 1., Issue 1, pgs: 1-12. ([[ISSN|ISSN 1559-386X]])
==External links==
* [http://www.tenbiggestmyths.net/spirituality/original.sin Original Sin: The Origin of Evil]
* [http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?kid=1229 Good and Evil in Judaism] chabad.org
{{Philosophy navigation}}
[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:Social philosophy]]
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<page>
<title>Ethnicity</title>
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<timestamp>2005-04-18T02:01:44Z</timestamp>
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<title>Ethnic nationalism</title>
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<timestamp>2005-09-28T01:58:10Z</timestamp>
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<username>Goodoldpolonius2</username>
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<comment>-rv back to redirect. David, please see my Talk comments, but basically, until the article is rewritten (if possible), the old merged text should not be restored.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Nationalism]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Epistle to the Hebrews</title>
<id>9901</id>
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<id>41966726</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:58:24Z</timestamp>
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<username>Andrew c</username>
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<minor />
<comment>removed editorial comment (its already on the talk page), removed 'two'</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''Epistle to the Hebrews''' (abbreviated '''Heb.''' for [[citation]]s) is one of the most consciously "literary" books in the [[New Testament]]. The purity of its Greek was noted by [[Clement of Alexandria]], according to [[Eusebius]] (''Historia Eccl.'', VI, xiv), and [[Origen]] asserted that that every competent judge must recognize a great difference between this epistle and Paul's (Eusebius, VI, xxv). Although the author is unknown, Hebrews has been dated to shortly after the [[Pauline epistle]]s were collected and began to circulate, circa AD 95.
The letter has carried its traditional title since [[Tertullian]] described it as ''Barnabae titulus ad Hebraeos'' in ''De Pudicitia'' chapter 20.
This letter consists of two strands:
::An expositional or doctrinal strand (1:1-14, 2:5-18, 5:1-14, 6:13-9:28, 13:18-25)
::A hortatory or ethical strand which punctuates the exposition parenthetically at key points as warnings to the readers (2:1-4, 3:1-4:16, 6:1-12, 10:1-13:17)
Hebrews contains many references to the [[Old Testament]]&mdash;specifically to its [[Septuagint]] text&mdash;and references to all but two of the canonical letters of Paul. It has been regarded as a treatise supplementary to the [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] and [[Galatians]], and as a kind of commentary on the book of [[Leviticus]] and [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] worship in general. Its numerous references to Temple worship in the present tense have been used to date the epistle before the destruction of the Temple (AD [[70]]), but the evidence is not conclusive.
==Authorship==
A number of candidates for the authorship of Hebrews have been advanced from earliest times, including the Apostle Paul. However, the epistle makes no internal claim of authorship, which is inconsistent with the rest of Paul's epistles. Also, while many of the letter's ideas are Pauline, the writing style is substantially different from that of Paul's epistles. For example, the ''Epistle'' does not open with the preamble typical of Paul. In particular, Hebrews claims to have been written by a person who received the Christian message from others (see Hebrews 2.4). But Paul in his letter to the Galatians forcefully defends his claim that he received his gospel directly from Jesus.
Other candidates for the authorship of Hebrews include Paul's companion [[Silas]]; [[Pope Clement I]], the traditional author of the ''[[Epistles of Clement|First Epistle of Clement]]''; [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]]; or some unknown Alexandrian Christian. Two leading candidates are [[Barnabas]], first suggested by Tertullian (see above); and [[Apollos]], first suggested by [[Martin Luther]]. Modern scholarship has reached no strong consensus. The letter has, however, always been accepted as part of the New Testament [[Biblical canon|canon]].
This is one of the few Epistles in the Bible that have no distinct author. Yet there is good reason for this. If Paul had written it it was not becoming that he should write, "Paul an Apostle of Jesus Christ.." in the introduction because Jesus Christ is seen as the Apostle in this Epistle. Hebrews 3:1, "Wherefore, holy brethren, partakers of [the] heavenly calling, consider the Apostle and High Priest of our confession, Jesus."
==Place in the New Testament canon==
Hebrews is often erroneously named as one of the General or Catholic epistles. But since it was written to a specific group of Christians, it is not technically a general epistle. Hebrews is placed between Paul's epistles and the General Epistles in modern editions of the New Testament.
==Audience==
Hebrews was written to a specific audience facing very specific circumstances. We can discern various facts about the recipients of Hebrews through a careful mirror reading of the letter:
:*The readers were conversant in the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament, as the author's usage shows.<br>
:*The contrast in 13:14 and the types of sins listed in chapter 13 suggest they lived in a city.<br>
:*They had once faced persecution (10:32-34), but not to the point of shedding blood (12:4). It is possible that 12:1-3 and 13:12-13 imply that they would soon face renewed oppostion.<br>
:*Some had stopped attending the worship services (10:22), and those who remained struggled with apathy and indifference, and ran the risk of abandoning their Christian faith (see the warning sections).<br>
:*Specifically they were Jewish Christians who ran the risk of reverting to a Judaism that rejects Christ. The author warned them that if they reject the sacrifice of Christ's death on the cross, there remains no other sacrifice to which they can turn. The animal sacrifices of first-century Judaism would not be able to help them(10:26). They must follow Christ "outside the camp" (that is, outside Judaism). <br>
:*In 13:14 the author says that those from Italy greet the readers. This could mean that the author is writing from Italy or that the author is writing to recipients in Italy, and that Italians present with the author are greeting those back home.
However, the preceding description of the audience as Jewish Christians is not unanimously received. While this interpretation has been held from as early as the end of the second century to the present (hence its title, "The Epistle to the Hebrews"), Liberal American theologian [[Edgar Goodspeed]] was not of this view; he wrote, "But the writer's Judaism is not actual and objective, but literary and academic, manifestly gained from the reading of the Septuagint Greek version of the Jewish scriptures, and his polished Greek style would be a strange vehicle for a message to Aramaic-speaking Jews or Christians of Jewish blood...."
==Purpose for writing==
The author's intent was to demonstrate a new interpretation of the true end and meaning of Mosaic law and assert its symbolical and transient character. He declares that the Levitical priesthood was a foreshadowing of the mission of [[Jesus]], and that the legal sacrifices prefigured the [[Crucifixion]]. Therefore the gospel was designed not to modify the law of Moses, but to supersede and abolish it. This was writ |
], based on historical sources, in a contemporary style.
* [http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~stephan/Rulers/charlemagne.html House of Pepin]: Genealogy of Charlemagne.
* [http://www.badley.info/history/Charlamagne-I-the-Great-France.biog.html Charlemagne Chronology].
[[Category:740s births]]
[[Category:814 deaths]]
[[Category:Frankish kings]]
[[Category:Holy Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Kings of Burgundy]]
[[Category:Matter of France]]
[[Category:Nine Worthies]]
{{Link FA|sv}}
[[ast:Carlomagno]]
[[bg:Карл Велики]]
[[br:Karl Veur]]
[[ca:Carlemany]]
[[cs:Karel Veliký]]
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[[he:קרל הגדול]]
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[[zh:查理大帝]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Character encodings in HTML</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-12T10:45:34Z</timestamp>
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<ip>219.78.16.104</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Html series}}
[[HTML]] has been in use since [[1991]], but the first standardized version with a reasonably complete treatment of international characters was version 4.0, not published until 1997. Considerable care must be exercised when creating HTML pages with special characters outside the range of seven-bit [[ASCII]] to ensure two goals: the integrity of the information stored in the HTML document, and proper display of the document by the largest possible variety of browsers.
==The document character encoding==
When HTML documents are served to the viewer, there are three ways to tell the browser what specific character encoding is used. First, [[HTTP]] headers can be sent by the server along with each page. A typical header looks like this:
Content-Type: text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1
For [[HTML]] (not usually [[XHTML]]), the other method is for the HTML document to include this information at its top, inside the <code>HEAD</code> element.
&lt;meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=US-ASCII"&gt;
[[XHTML]] documents have a third option: to express the character encoding in the [[XML]] preamble, for example
&lt;?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?&gt;
Each of these method advises the receiver that the file being sent uses the character encoding specified. The character encoding is often referred to as the 'character set' and it indeed does limit the characters in the raw source text. However the HTML standard states that the "charset" is to be treated as an encoding of [[unicode]] characters and provides a way to specify characters that the "charset" does not cover. The term [[Code page]] is also used similarly.
It is a bad idea to send incorrect information about the character encoding in use. For example, a server where multiple users may place files created on different machines cannot promise that all the files it sends will conform (some users may have machines with different character sets). For this reason, many servers simply do not send the information at all, to avoid making any false promises. This however may result in the equally bad situation of the [[user agent]] displaying the document wrongly because it does not know which character encoding to use.
The specification in the HTTP headers ''overrides'' a specification in a meta element in the document itself, which can be a problem if the headers are incorrect and one does not have the access or the knowledge to change them.
Browsers receiving a file with no character encoding information must make a blind assumption. For Western European languages, it is typical and fairly safe to assume [[windows-1252#Windows-1252|windows-1252]] (which is similar to [[ISO-8859-1]] but has printable characters in place of some control codes that are forbidden in HTML anyway), but it is also common for browsers to assume the character set native to the machine on which they are running. The consequence of choosing incorrectly is that characters outside the printable ASCII range (32 to 126) usually appear incorrectly. This presents few problems for English-speaking users, but other languages require characters outside that range for everyday use. In [[CJK]] environments where there are several different multibyte encodings in use, autodetection is often employed.
It is increasingly common for multilingual websites to use one of the [[Unicode]]/[[ISO 10646]] [[unicode transformation format|transformation formats]], as this allows use of the same encoding for all languages. Generally [[UTF-8]] is used rather than [[UTF-16]] or [[UTF-32]] because it is easier to handle in programming languages that assume a byte-oriented ASCII superset encoding, and it is efficient for ASCII-heavy text (which HTML tends to be).
Successful viewing of a page is not necessarily an indication that its encoding is specified correctly. If the creator of a page and the reader are both assuming some machine-specific character encoding, and the server does not send any identifying information, then the reader will nonetheless see the page as the creator intended, but other readers with different native sets will not.
==Character references==
{{main articles|[[character entity reference]] and [[numeric character reference]]}}
In addition to native character encodings, characters can also be encoded as '''character references''', which can be '''numeric character references''' (decimal or hexadecimal) or '''character entity references'''. Character entity references are also sometimes referred to as '''named entities''', or '''HTML entities''' for HTML. Usage of character references derives from [[SGML]].
Character entity references have the format <tt>&amp;''name'';</tt> where "name" is a case-sensitive alphanumeric string. For example, the character '&lambda;' can be encoded as <code>&amp;lambda;</code> in an HTML 4 document. Characters &lt;, &gt;, &quot; and &amp; are used to delimit tags, attribute values, and character references. Character entity references <tt>&amp;lt;</tt>, <tt>&amp;gt;</tt>, <tt>&amp;quot;</tt> and <tt>&amp;amp;</tt>, which are predefined in HTML, XML, and SGML, can be used instead for literal representations of the characters.
Numeric character references can be in decimal format, <tt>&#''DDD'';</tt>, where "DDD" is a variable width string of decimal digits. Similarly there is a hexadecimal format, <tt>&#x''HHH'';</tt>, where "HHH" is a variable width string of hexadecimal digits. Unlike named entities, hexadecimal character references are case-insensitive in HTML. For example, &lambda; can also be represented as <code>&amp;#955;</code>, <tt>&amp;#x3BB;</tt> or <tt>&amp;#X3bb;</tt>.
Numeric references ''always'' refer to [[Unicode]] values, irrespective of page encoding. Using numeric references which lie within the reserved control area of Unicode is therefore illegal. That is, all characters in the ([[hexadecimal|hex]]) ranges 00–1F, 7F, and 80–9F, or &amp;#0; to &amp;#31; and &amp;#127; to &amp;#159;.
Unnecessary use of HTML character references may significantly reduce the readability of HTML. If the character encoding for a web page is chosen appropriately then HTML character references are usually only required for a few special characters.
===XML character entity references===
Unlike traditional HTML with its large range of character entity references, in [[XML]] there are only five predefined character entity references. These are used to escape characters that are markup sensitive in certain contexts:
* &amp;amp; = &amp; (ampersand, U+0026)
* &amp;lt; = &lt; (left angle bracket, less-than sign, U+003C)
* &amp;gt; = &gt; (right angle bracket, greater-than sign, U+003E)
* &amp;quot; = " (quotation mark, U+0022)
* &amp;apos; = ' (apostrophe, U+0027)
All other character entity references have to be defined before they can be used. For example, use of &amp;eacute; (which gives &#233;, Latin small letter E with acute, U+00E9, in HTML) in an XML document will generate an error unless the entity has already been defined. XML also requires that the x in hexadecimal numeric references be in lowercase: for example <tt>&amp;#xA1b</tt> rather than <tt>&amp;#XA1b</tt>.
[[XHTML]], which is an XML application, supports the HTML 4 entity set and XML's &amp;apos; entity, which does not appear in HTML 4.
However, use of &amp;apos; in XHTML should generally be avoided for compatibility reasons.
===HTML character entity references===
For a list of all HTML character entity references, see '''[[List of XML and HTML character entity references]]''' (approx. 250 entries).
For a list of all HTML decimal character references, see '''[[List of HTML decimal character references]]'''. (approx. 10,000 entries).
==External links==
*[http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/sgml/entities.html Character entity references in HTML 4]
*[http://www.fjordaan.uklinux.net/entities/entities_support.html A Simple Character Entity Chart: Browser supp |
bombings]].
Although there have been no identified al-Qaeda attacks within the territory of the United States since the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], numerous al-Qaeda attacks in the Middle East, Far East, Africa and Europe have caused extensive casualties and turmoil. In the aftermath of several [[March 11]], [[2004]] [[March 11, 2004 Madrid attacks|attacks on commuter trains in Madrid]], a [[London]] newspaper reported receiving an email from a group affiliated with al-Qaeda, claiming responsibility and a videotape claiming responsibility was also found. The timing of the attacks with the spanish elections, as well as the lack of proof on the real identity of the perpetrators has shed doubt on the al-Qaeda theory behind these attacks.
It is also believed that al-Qaeda was involved in the [[7 July 2005 London bombings]], a series of attacks against mass transit in London which killed 56 people (see [[Mohammad Sidique Khan]]).A statement from a previously unknown group, "The Secret Organization of al-Qaeda in Europe", claimed responsibility; however, the authenticity of the statement and the group's connection to al-Qaeda has not been independently verified. The suspected perpetrators have not been definitively linked to al-Qaeda, although the contents of a video tape made by one of the bombers [[Mohammad Sidique Khan]] prior to his death and subsequently sent to [[Al Jazeera]] gives strong credence to an al-Qaeda connection. An apparently unconnected group attempted to duplicate the attack later that month, but their bombs failed to detonate.
Al-Qaeda is suspected of being involved with the [[2005 Sharm el-Sheikh attacks]] in Egypt. On [[July 23]], [[2005]], a series of suspected car bombs killed about 90 people and wounded over 150. The attack was the deadliest terrorist action in the history of [[Egypt]].
Al-Qaeda is also suspected in the [[November 9]], [[2005]] [[Amman]], [[Jordan]] attacks in which [[2005 Amman bombings|three simultaneous bombings]] occured at [[United States|American]] owned hotels in Amman. The blast killed at least 57 people and injured 120 people. Most of the injured and killed were attending a wedding at the [[Radisson]] Hotel.
==The chain of command==
Though the current structure of al-Qaeda is unknown, information mostly acquired from the defector [[Jamal al-Fadl]] provided American authorities with a rough picture of how the group was organized. While the veracity of the information provided by al-Fadl and the motivation for his cooperation are both disputed, American authorities base much of their current knowledge of al-Qaeda on his testimony.
Bin Laden is the '''[[emir]]''' of al-Qaeda (although originally this role may have been filled by [[Abu Ayoub al-Iraqi]]), advised by a '''shura council''', which consists of senior al-Qaeda members, estimated by Western officials at about twenty to thirty people.
* The '''Military committee''' is responsible for training, weapons acquisition, and planning attacks.
* The '''Money/Business committee''' runs business operations. The travel office provides air tickets and false [[passport]]s. The payroll office pays al-Qaeda members, and the Management office oversees money-making businesses. In the US 911 Commission Report it is estimated that al-Qaeda requires 30,000,000 USD / year to conduct its operation.
* The '''Law committee''' reviews Islamic law and decides if particular courses of action conform to the law.
* The '''Islamic study/fatwah committee''' issues religious edicts, such as an edict in 1998 telling Muslims to kill Americans.
* In the late 1990s there was a publicly known '''Media committee''', which ran the now-defunct newspaper ''Nashrat al Akhbar (Newscast)'' and did [[public relations]]. It is currently assumed that media operations are now outsourced to internally redundant parts of the organization.
==Political revolt or structured terrorist organization: unknown==
Some organizational specialists have said that Al Qaeda's network structure, as opposed to a [[Hierarchical organization|hierarchical structure]] is its primary strength. The decentralized structure enables Al Qaeda to have a worldwide distributed base while retaining a relatively small core. While an estimated 100,000 Islamist militants are said to have received instruction in Al Qaeda camps since its inception, the group is believed to retain only a small number of militants under direct orders. Estimates seldom peg its manpower higher than 20,000 world wide.
For its most complex operations (such as the 9/11 attacks on the US) all participants, planning and funding are believed to have been directly provided by the core Al Qaeda organisation. But in many attacks around the world where there appears to be an Al Qaeda connection, its precise role has been less easy to define. Rather than handling these operations from conception to delivery, Al Qaeda often appears to act as an international financial and logistical support-network, channelling income obtained from a network of fundraising activities to provide training capital and coordination for local radical groups. In many cases it is these local groups, only loosely affiliated to core Al Qaeda, which actually undertake the attacks.
The [[2002 Bali bombing]] and subsequent bombing of the Marriott Hotel in Jakarta in 2003 provide some insight into Al Qaeda's decentralized method of operations: the attacks showed far greater coordination and effectiveness than might historically have been expected from regional terrorist networks. But police investigations and subsequent trials showed that while Al Qaeda was believed to have provided expertise and coordination, much of the planning and all the personnel who undertook the attacks came from local radical Islamist groups.
Al Qaeda has been known to establish and foster new groups to further the radical Islamic interest in local conflicts. Indeed the Taliban might be deemed to fall into this category, the roots of the organisation formed from radicalised students from the Bin-Laden funded medressas of the Afghan refugee camps at the time of the Russian occupation.
==Is al-Qaeda a global network or a small organization?==
Al-Qaeda has no clear structure, and this permits debate as to how many members make up the organization, whether it is millions scattered across the globe, or whether it is even zero. According to the controversial [[BBC]] documentary ''[[The Power of Nightmares]]'', al-Qaeda is so weakly linked together that it is hard to say it exists ''apart from'' [[Osama bin Laden]] and a small clique of close associates. The lack of any significant numbers of convicted al-Qaeda members despite a large number of arrests on terrorism charges is cited by the documentary as a reason to doubt whether a ''widespread'' entity that meets the description of al-Qaeda exists at all. Still, the extent and nature of al-Qaeda remains a topic of dispute.
The al-Qaeda name itself does not seem to have been used by bin Laden himself to apply to his organization until after the [[September 11 attacks]]. Previous attacks attributed to bin Laden and al-Qaeda were, at the time, claimed by organizations under a variety of names. Bin Laden himself has since attributed the al-Qaeda name to the MAK base in Pakistan, dating from the Afghan war days. Daniel Benjamin in "The Age of Sacred Terror" cites an incident in the early 1990s where a document titled "The Foundation", Arabic "Al-Qa'eda", was found on an associate of Ramzi Youssef <ref>{{cite web | title=The making of the terror myth | work=Guardian Unlimited | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/terrorism/story/0,12780,1327904,00.html | accessdate=October 15 | accessyear=2004}}</ref>. [[Fawaz A. Gerges]] writes that "Although in 1987 sheikh [[Abdullah Azzam]], the spiritual father of the Afghan Arabs, planted the seeds of a transnationalist organization called 'Al Qaeda al-Sulbah' (the Solid Foundation), the bin Laden network saw the light much later, around the mid-1990s."<ref>{{cite book | author=Gereges, Fawaz A. | title=The Far Enemy: Why Jihad Went Global | publisher=Oxford: Cambridge University Press | year=2005 | page=306 | id=ISBN 0521791405}}</ref>
Other alleged al-Qaeda leaders include:
* [[Saif al-Adel]]
* [[Sulaiman Abu Ghaith]]
* [[Abu Hafiza]]
* [[Abu Faraj al-Libbi]] (arrested in Pakistan, 2005)<ref>{{cite web | title= Pakistan 'catches al-Qaeda chief' | work=BBC.com | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4512885.stm | accessdate=May 4 | accessyear=2005}}</ref>
* [[Abu Mohammed al-Masri]]
* [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]] (captured in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, in 2003)<ref>{{cite web | title=How mobile phones and an £18m bribe trapped 9/11 mastermind | work=Guardian Unlimited | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/alqaida/story/0,12469,911860,00.html | accessdate=March 11 | accessyear=2003}}</ref>
* [[Thirwat Salah Shirhata]]
* [[Abu Musab al-Zarqawi]]
* [[Ayman al-Zawahri]]
* [[Abu Zubaydah]] (captured in 2002)
==Internet activities==
In the wake of its evacuation from Afghanistan, al-Qaeda and its successors have migrated online to escape detection in an atmosphere of increased international vigilance. As a result, the organization’s use of the Internet has grown more sophisticated, encompassing financing, recruitment, networking, mobilization, publicity, as well as information dissemination, gathering, and sharing. More than other terrorist organizations, al-Qaeda has embraced the Web for these purposes. For example, [[Abu Musab al-Zarqawi]]’s al-Qaeda movement in [[Iraq]] regularly releases short videos glorifying the activity of jihadist suicide bombers. This growing range of multimedia content includes terrorist training clips, stills of victims about to be murdered, testimonials of suicide bombers, and epic-themed videos with high production values that romanticize participation in jihad through |
ricts or ''[[Ortsbezirke]]'', which each have a district committee and chairperson.
===History of incorporation===
Until the middle of the 19th century, the city territory of Frankfurt consisted of the present-day ''[[Stadtteil]]e'' of [[Altstadt (Frankfurt am Main)|Altstadt]], [[Innenstadt (Frankfurt am Main)|Innenstadt]], [[Bahnhofsviertel (Frankfurt am Main)|Bahnhofsviertel]], [[Gutleutviertel (Frankfurt am Main)|Gutleutviertel]], [[Gallusviertel (Frankfurt am Main)|Gallusviertel]], [[Westend (Frankfurt am Main)|Westend]], [[Nordend (Frankfurt am Main)|Nordend]], [[Ostend (Frankfurt am Main)|Ostend]] and [[Sachsenhausen (Frankfurt am Main)|Sachsenhausen]]. After 1877, a number of previously independent areas were incorporated into the city, see [[Template:Stadtteile of Frankfurt am Main|list of current districts of the city]].
==Sights==
[[Image:Frankfurt cathedral.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Frankfurt Cathedral]]
===Cathedral===
[[Bartholomew|Saint Bartholomeus']] Cathedral (''Dom Sankt Bartholomäus'') is a [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] building, which was constructed in the 14th and 15th centuries on the foundation of an earlier church from the [[Merovingian]] time. It is the main church of Frankfurt. From 1356 onwards, kings of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] were elected in this church, and from 1562 to 1792, emperors were crowned here.
Since the 18th century, Saint Bartholomeus' has been called "the [[cathedral]]" by the people, although it has never been a bishop's seat. In 1867, the cathedral was destroyed by a fire and rebuilt in its present style. The height of the cathedral is 95 m.
===Römer===
[[Image:Römer, Frankfurt.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Römer]]
''For the full article, see [[Römer (Frankfurt am Main)]].''
The name of the town hall means "Roman". In fact, nine houses were acquired by the city council in [[1405]] from a wealthy merchant family. The middle house became the town hall and was later connected with the neighbouring buildings. In the upper floor, there is the ''Kaisersaal'' ("Emperor's Hall") where the newly crowned emperors held their banquets.
The Römer was partially destroyed in World War II, and later rebuilt.
[[Image:Paulskirchefrankfurt.jpg|150px|thumb|left|St. Paul's Church]]
===Saint Paul's Church===
''For the full article, see [[Frankfurter Paulskirche]].''
St. Paul's Church (''Paulskirche'') is a national historic monument in Germany with great political symbolism, because it was the seat of the first democratically elected Parliament in [[1848]]. It was established in [[1789]] as a Protestant church but was not finished until [[1833]]. Its importance has its root in the [[Frankfurt Parliament]], which met in the church during the revolutionary years of 1848/49 in order to write a constitution for a united Germany. The attempt failed because the monarchs of Prussia and Austria did not want to lose power, and in [[1849]] Prussian troops ended the democratic experiment by force of arms and the parliament was dissolved. Afterwards, the building was used for church services again.
St. Paul's was partially destroyed in [[World War II]], particularly the interior of the building, which now has a modern appearance. It was quickly and symbolically rebuilt after the war; today it is not used for religious services, but mainly for exhibitions and events.
===Concert House Old Opera===
[[Image:Frankfurt opera.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Opera House]]
''For the full article, see [[Alte Oper]].''
''Alte Oper'', Frankfurt's famous opera house, was built in [[1880]] by the architect [[Richard Lucae]]. It was one of the major opera houses of Germany, until its was destroyed in World War II. It was not until 1981 that the old opera was fully rebuilt and reopened. Today it functions as a concert hall and operas are performed in the [[Oper Frankfurt]].
The inscription on the [[frieze]] of the Old Opera says: "''Dem Wahren, Schönen, Guten''" ("To the true, the beautiful, the good").
===Frankfurt Opera===
The [[Oper Frankfurt]] is the leading opera company of Germany and one of the most important opera houses in the world.
==20th century architecture in Frankfurt==
* [[IG Farben Building]]
* [[New Frankfurt]], housing estates 1925-1930
* [[Museum für angewandte Kunst]], designed by [[Richard Meier]]
===Skyscrapers===
Frankfurt is unique for its skyscrapers, and it is the only European city to allow skyscrapers within the old central part of town. Along with [[Paris]] and [[London]], it also is one of the few European cities to have a significant numbers of skyscrapers.
The major skyscrapers are:
* [[Commerzbank Tower]] - Europe's tallest building (1997-2005), designed by [[Norman Foster]].
* [[Silver Tower]]
* [[Eurotower]]
* [[MesseTurm]] - Europe's tallest building (1990 – 1997)
* [[Kronenhochhaus]] (DG-Bank) with its "statue of liberty" like roof structure.
* the [[Maintower]] owned by "Landesbank Hessen-Thüringen" (HeLaBa)
* [[Trianon (Frankfurt am Main)]].
* [[DZ Bank Tower]] with its interesting form and corona
===Other structures===
[[Image:German FrankfurtEnMain Scenery.jpg|left|thumb|"Hammering Man" in front of the Messeturm skyscraper]]
;[[Henninger Turm]] :a grain silo owned by [[Henninger|Henninger Brewery]] with observation deck and restaurant, offering a breath-taking view over downtown Frankfurt from its south shore. The tower has been closed to the public since October 31, 2002.
;[[Europaturm]] :a telecommunications tower known as the "Frankfurt TV Tower". Until 1999, it was open to the public, with an entertainment establishment in the revolving top.
==Culture==
===Festivals===
Frankfurt hosts several festivals, fairs, and carnivals throughout the year. The most famous is the [[Rheingau-Music-Festival]] with many (mostly classical) concerts at castles and under the open sky surrounded by vineyards. It takes place each May.
Another major festival, which takes place in Frankfurt, is the "Museumsuferfest"; "Museum-Riverbank-Festival". It is one of the biggest cultural festivals in Germany, which offers the opportunity to see, buy, smell, taste and hear new things from all around the world. The festival takes place yearly at the end of summer and attracts an average of 3 million visitors. The festival goes over a period of 3 days and ends with a spectacular show of fireworks. Frankfurt ist also known for having one of the greatest [[red light district]]s in Germany in vicinity of the main train station.
===Museums===
*[[Städel]]
*[[Senckenberg Natural History Museum]]
*[[The Museum for Modern Art (Frankfurt am Main)]]
*[[Schirn Art Gallery]]
*[[Deutsches Filmmuseum]]
*[[Deutsches Architektur Museum]]
*[[Museum für angewandte Kunst Frankfurt]], Museum of Design
*[[Deutsches Ikonenmuseum]]
*[[Museum für Kommunikation]]
===Culinary specialties===
*[[Frankfurter Sausage]]
*[[Frankfurter Rindswurst]]
*[[Apfelwein]]
*[[Green Sauce|Grüne Soße]]
*[[Bethmännchen]]
*[[Frankfurter Kranz]]
*[[Handkäse|Handkäs mit Musik]]
*[[Frankfurter Rippchen|Rippchen mit Kraut]]
== Sports ==
*[[Eintracht Frankfurt]]
*[[FSV Frankfurt]]
*[http://www.frankfurt-lions.de/sites/home/index.htm Frankfurt Lions]
*[http://www.deutsche-bank-skyliners.de/index_de.html DEUTSCHE BANK Skyliners - Basketball]
==Sister cities==
Frankfurt's [[town twinning|sister cities]] are:
* {{flagicon|Canada}} - [[Toronto]], [[Canada]]
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} - [[Birmingham]], [[Great Britain]], since [[1966]]
* {{flagicon|Hungary}} - [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]], since [[1990]]
* {{flagicon|Poland}} - [[Kraków]], [[Poland]], since [[1991]]
* {{flagicon|Nicaragua}} - [[Granada, Nicaragua|Granada]], [[Nicaragua]], since [[1991]]
* {{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} - [[Guangzhou]], [[China]], since [[1988]]
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Lyon]], [[France]], since [[1960]]
* {{flagicon|Italy}} - [[Milan]], [[Italy]], since [[1971]]
* {{flagicon|Czech Republic}} - [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]], since [[1990]]
==People born in Frankfurt==
* [[Theodor Adorno]]
* [[Bettina von Arnim]]
* [[Cha Du-Ri]]
* [[Charles the Bald]]
* [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]
* [[Otto Hahn]]
* [[Erich Fromm]]
* [[Anne Frank]]
* [[Martin Lawrence]]
* [[Birgit Prinz]]
* [[Mayer Amschel Rothschild]]
* [[Friedrich Karl von Savigny]]
* [[Adolf Schreyer]]
* [[Ruth Westheimer]]
* [[Tre Cool]]
* [[Maria Sibylla Merian ]]
* [[Matthias Röhr]]
==See also==
*[[Frankfurt Trade Fair]]
*[[Frankfurt Transit]]
*[[Frankfurt School]]
*[[List of mayors of Frankfurt]]
==Livecams==
*[http://www.frankfurt.de/sis/Stadtportrait_webcam0_e.html several cams - frankfurt.de]
*[http://www.messefrankfurt.com/corporate/en/gelaende_webcam.html 3 cams - Messe Frankfurt]
*[http://www.eissporthalle-ffm.de/webcam.htm 2 cams - ice-skating-hall - "Frankfurt Lions"]
==External links==
{{commons|Frankfurt am Main, Germany}}
* [http://www.frankfurt.de/sis/English.html City's own website]
* [http://www.inyourpocket.com/germany/frankfurt/en/ In Your Pocket] - the English language city guide to Frankfurt
* [http://www.yeckes.com Travel information for Jews] - Yeckes.com - Your Jewish Gateway to Frankfurt
* [http://www.hot-maps.de/europe/germany/hessen/frankfurt_main/homeen.html Map of Frankfurt/Main]
* [http://www.panorama-cities.net/frankfurt/frankfurt.html Frankfurt City Panoramas] - Panoramic Views and virtual Tours
* [http://germany.archiseek.com/hesse/frankfurt/index.html Architectue of Frankfurt] - Guide to buildings
* [http://www.oopper.de/tn/panorama-frankfurt.htm more Frankfurt Panoramas]
* {{wikitravel|Frankfurt}}
* [http://www.frankfurt360.de/ 360°-Panoramas of Frankfurt] - Indoor and outdoor day- and night-time panoramas, in full screen and with sound
* [http://www.altfrankfurt.com Altfrankfurt] - Gives an impression of the splendour of pre-war Frankfurt and its destruction in World War II
[[Image:frankfurt-main-skyline.jpg|framed|center|Skyline of Frankfurt, |
re, opponents of assassination underline that it is essentially the [[death penalty]] stripped of the normal judicial safeguards that limit its use. Second, opponents of assassination question its effectiveness. Most conventional military and political organizations are robust so that the death of the leader would not cause them to collapse. Furthermore, using assassination against a terrorist or guerrilla organization may result in the complete elimination of the known leaders of that organization, but create a set of unknown leaders who cannot then be located. Finally, assassination makes a negotiation of surrender impossible. Near the end of World War II, for example, Allied forces made specific efforts not to target the political and military leadership of the [[Axis Powers]] specifically so that there would be someone to authorize a surrender.
Supporters of assassination as a policy reply, however, that often the killing of one problematic figure can spare countless lives and years — or even decades — of warfare. An example often cited is the question of what might have come to pass had Adolf [[Hitler]] been assassinated in 1935. Countless millions, the argument goes, would have been spared had only such intervention been taken. However, it could be argued that Adolf Hitler was just one man in a Nazi Party of hundreds, and his successor may be just as brutal (not to mention vengeful). Furthermore, it can be argued that this logic would not only justify killing Hitler in 1935 but also killing Adolf in his crib as an innocent infant.
However, the widespread attention paid to deeds by those branded as "[[dictators]]" such as [[Saddam Hussein]] and [[Idi Amin]] is seen by many as another persuasive argument towards the necessity of eliminating such individuals. The increasing spectre of [[terrorism]], too, often leads many to question why, if it is "kill or be killed", there should be any delay in taking such action (an opponent would likely be quick to reply, however, that such an action alone leads to the loss of moral equivalence, proving their above argument, although a likely counter could be that moral equivalence is of little use to either a terrorist or one of their dead victims).
Others point out that this point of view may create an unwanted [[slippery slope]], since there may be no difference in principle between assassination intended to save millions of lives, and assassination in order to accomplish an insignificant political goal. For a possible example of the latter sort, see [[Pat Robertson]]'s comments concerning his advocacy of the assassination of [[Venezuela]]n president [[Hugo Chávez]].
==Techniques==
It is entirely likely that the first strategy used by a political or religious killer was a remarkably simple one: find the leader and [[stabbing|stab]] or [[bludgeon]] them to death with whatever weapons were available. This would likely have occurred only in close-knit groups where security was not thought needed, such as amongst nomadic or early sedentary peoples in [[Mesopotamia]] where disagreements would be solved with [[vigilante|vigilantism]] (however it is important to note that information from this far back is very sketchy and debatable in nature). As [[civilization]] took root, however, any leaders in groups began to have more and more a position of importance, and they would become more detached from the groups they ruled. For the first time, [[subterfuge]] would become a major factor in engaging in assassination.
From ancient times, then, through to the medieval period, as the rate of technology was slow so, too, would be the changes in assassins' tactics. [[Infiltration]] was now the name of the game, and commonly a would-be killer would attempt to gain access to an official or person's guard or staff and utilize a variety of methods for exterminating them, be it the same close-contact stabbing or [[asphyxia|smothering]] or a more advanced method, such as using [[poison]] to induce death. This, however, must be distinguished from efforts by a person or group to remove a person in order to replace them in the [[power structure]]; for more on this, see [[coup d'état]].
With the advent of [[gunpowder]] and far more effective [[ranged weaponry]], however, bodyguards were no longer enough to hold back determined killers, who no longer needed to directly engage or even subvert the guard to kill the leader in question; it could be done from a great distance in a crowded square or even at a church, as with the [[Pazzi Conspiracy]], for example. Often, [[musket]]s or [[rifle]]s might be used to take down a leader from a rooftop, at greater distance, dramatically increasing the chances for survival of an assassin. Also, [[explosives]] became increasingly en vogue for deeds requiring a larger touch; for an example of this, see the article on the [[Gunpowder Plot]] to blow up [[Parliament]] on the [[State Opening of Parliament|state opening]].
In whatever case, it is interesting to note that just because more modern methods of killing became available does not mean older ones were replaced; indeed, in nations like [[India]] killings by knife or [[sword]] remain quite popular, as they do in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] (for example, with the [[machete]]). In fact, since the development of gunpowder each region of the world seems to have its preferred methods of contract murder; besides those mentioned, explosives are quite popular in not only the Middle East but in most of Europe as well, save [[Northern Europe]] where shootings become more common, whereas in the Americas assassinations are almost exclusively performed by gunshot. One can make various cases for any of these, including range, detectability, concealability, likelihood of kill, etc.
As the Renaissance gave way to the [[Industrial Revolution]], assassination became more and more sophisticated, right up to today. Explosives, especially the [[car bomb]], became far more common, and [[grenade]]s and [[land mine|landmines]] were not unheard of either, especially in the [[Middle East]] and Balkans (the initial attempt on Archduke Franz Ferdinand's life was with a grenade; he was on his way to visit an aide injured in the first attack when his driver stopped to ask directions and he and his wife were shot). Also, [[Rocket propelled grenade]]s (RPGs) became an especially useful tool, given the popularity of armored cars discussed below. Today, any manner of different techniques for the elimination of an enemy - popular or not - might be utilized; the sky, as it were, is the limit. One remarkable recent example involved a political figure who made the mistake of keeping to a regular route and schedule. Assassins were able to plan for his travel, and detonated an explosive charge <em>beside</em> the roadway, which propelled a metal plate through the target's vehicle at lethal speed, killing him.
One option glamorized in the media is using a [[sniper rifle]], such as the [[L96]]. The problem with this method is that using a sniper rifle generally attracts the attention of [[police]] and [[government]] authorities, which every smart bounty-hunter wishes to avoid. A far more useful tool is the [[handgun]]. Deployed correctly and left at the scene of the incident, the completion of the contract can even be portrayed as a [[suicide]].
==Counter-measures==
It would not be a large stretch to say that, in addition to [[terrorism]], political assassination is one of the biggest threats to any modern [[state]] and its [[government]]. As such, the measures to which a leader goes to avoid professional killers ranges from what an average person would consider to be farcical to the paranoid to the downright bizarre. Many would argue, though, that such measures are a lot more effective than they first appear, and that in the world of a new threat seemingly each week, no security is too much.
One of the earliest forms of defense against assassins is without doubt the [[bodyguard]]. Essentially, the bodyguard functions as a counter-assassin, attempting to neutralize the killer before they can make contact with or inflict harm upon the "principal", or protected/targeted official. This function was often executed by the leader's most loyal warriors, and was extremely effective throughout most of early human history, to the point where a direct assassination had to be replaced with carefully-planned [[subterfuge]], such as poison (which was answered by the [[food taster]] such as the [[Beefeater]]s protecting the [[England|English]] monarchs), and even then such methods were often thwarted. Notable examples of bodyguards would include the Roman [[Praetorian Guard]] or the Ottoman [[Janissary|janissaries]] — although, in both cases, it should be noted that the protectors often became assassins themselves, exploiting their power to make the [[head of state]] a virtual hostage at their whim or eliminating threatening leaders altogether. Indeed, assassinations both then and today are most often effective when they have the support, tacit or open, of other powerful figures. This is less a concern in the West, where organizations such as the British [[Special Branch]] and American [[Secret Service]] are noted as well-trained and apolitical protective forces. Disloyal protectors continue to be a problem in developing nations, however; [[Prime Minister of India|Indian Prime Minister]] [[Indira Gandhi]] met such an end in 1984.
The race was on with the Middle Ages between leaders and assassins as gunpowder became predominant, each in turn trying to develop stronger and better checks against the increasing abilities of the other. One of the first reactions was to simply increase the guard, creating what at times might seem a [[brigade|small army]] trailing every leader; another was to begin clearing large areas whenever a leader was present, to the point where entire sections of a city might be shut down. He |
, a reinforced curved pillar and a substantial neck, flanked with thick brass cheek bands. The wire-strung harp was played with the fingernails, and it produced a brilliant ringing sound. This is the style of harp on Irish coins and the Guinness label. Especially popular in 16<sup>th</sup> and 17<sup>th</sup> century English courts, it was played all over Europe and was usually called the ‘Irish’ harp.
By the 18<sup>th</sup> century, harps of any sort had fallen out of use in Scotland and Ireland due to changing social, political and economic conditions. At the same time, new [[Chromatic scale|chromatic]] harps were being created on the Continent for a bourgeois audience; harps with multiple rows of strings and harps with sharping mechanisms for playing the fashionable music of the time. In the mid-19<sup>th</sup> century, a revival of all things Celtic brought attention back to Gaelic culture, sparking interest in native language and music.
''The Irish and Highland Harps'' by Robert Bruce Armstrong is an excellent book describing these ancient harps. There is historical evidence that the types of wire used in these harps are [[iron]], [[brass]], [[silver]], and [[gold]]. Three pre-16<sup>th</sup> century examples survive today; the [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]] [[Trinity College harp|harp]] in [[Ireland]], and the [[Queen Mary harp|Queen Mary]] and [[Lamont harp]]s, both in [[Scotland]].
One of the largest and most complete collections of 17<sup>th</sup> century harp music is the work of [[Turlough O'Carolan]], a blind, itinerant Irish harper and composer. At least 220 of his compositions survive to this day.
[[Edward Bunting]] was commissioned to notate the music played by the harpers at the [[1792 Belfast Harp Festival]]. He published his first volume in 1796. He continued to collect the music of the Clairseach and published his second and third volumes in 1809 and 1840 respectively. A reprint of the 1840 edition is now available from [[Dover Publications]].
[[Dennis Hempson]] (O'Hampsey) was the last of the harpers who played in the old style using the fingernails to pluck while the finger pads are used to damp. He also was one of the last to use the left hand in the treble. He was in his 90s at the 1792 festival and died in the beginning of the 19<sup>th</sup> century. He took the unbroken tradition of wire-strung harping with him to his grave.
Since the 1970s, the tradition has been revived. [[Ann Heymann]] has done the most pioneering work in reviving this tradition by playing the instrument as well as studying Bunting's original manuscripts in the library of Queens University, Belfast. Other notable players include Patrick Ball, Cynthia Cathcart, Alison Kinnaird, Bill Taylor, Siobhán Armstrong and others.
As performers have become interested in the instrument, harp makers ("[[luthiers]]") such as Jay Witcher, David Kortier, Ardival Harps, and others have begun building wire-strung harps. The traditional wire materials are used, however iron has been replaced by steel and the modern phosphor bronze has been added to the list. The phosphor bronze and brass are most commonly used. Steel tends to be very abrasive to the nails. Silver and gold are used to get high density materials into the bass courses of high quality clarsachs to greatly improve their tone quality. In the period, no sharping devices were used. Harpers had to re-tune strings to change keys. This practice is reflected by most of the modern luthiers, yet some allow provisions for either levers or blades.
===Multi-course harps===
A '''multi-course harp''' is a harp with more than one row of strings. A harp with only one row of strings is called a '''single-course harp.'''
[[Image:Double harp.JPG|right|thumb|150px|Double harp]]
A '''double harp''' consists of two rows of [[diatonic]] strings one on either side of the neck. These strings may run parallel to each other or may converge so the bottom ends of the strings are very close together. Either way, the strings that are next to each other are tuned to the same note. Double harps often have levers either on every string or on the most commonly sharped strings, for example C and F. Having two sets of strings allows the harpist's left and right hands to occupy the same range of notes without having both hands attempt to play the same string at the same time. It also allows for special effects such as repeating a note very quickly without stopping the sound from the previous note.
A '''[[triple harp]]''' features three rows of parallel strings, two outer rows of [[Diatonic scale|diatonic]] strings, and a center row of [[Chromatic scale|chromatic]] strings. To play a sharp, the harpist reaches in between the strings in either outer row and plucks the center row string. Like the double harp, the two outer rows of strings are tuned the same, but the triple harp has no levers. This harp originated in [[Italy]] in the 16<sup>th</sup> century as a low headed instrument, and towards the end of 1600s it arrived in [[Wales]] where it developed a high head and larger size. It established itself as part of Welsh tradition and became known as the '''Welsh harp''' (''telyn deires'', "three-row harp"). The traditional design has all of the strings strung from the left side of the neck, but modern neck designs have the two outer rows of strings strung from opposite sides of the neck to greatly reduce the tendency for the neck to roll over to the left.
[[Image:Cross harp.JPG|right|thumb|150px|Cross harp]]
The '''cross harp''' consists of one row of diatonically tuned strings and another row of chromatic notes. These strings cross approximately in the middle of the string without touching. Traditionally the diatonic row runs from the right (as seen by someone sitting at the harp) side of the neck to the left side of the sound board. The chromatic row runs from the left of the neck to the right of the sound board. The diatonic row has the normal string coloration for a harp, but the chromatic row may be black. The chromatic row is not a full set of strings. It is missing the strings between the Es and Fs in the diatonic row and between the Bs and Cs in the diatonic row. In this respect it is much like a [[piano]]. The diatonic row corresponds to the white keys and the chromatic row to the black keys. Playing each string in succession results in a complete chromatic scale.
==Harp technique==
Harp playing uses all of the fingers except for the pinky, which is generally too short and weak to effectively pluck a string. In order to make notation of fingerings easier, each finger is given a number, "1" for the thumb, "2" for the index finger, "3" for the middle finger, and "4" for the ring finger. Most types of harp only require use of the hands. The exception is the pedal (concert) harp, where the harpist pushes the pedals with his or her feet.
There are two main methods of classical harp technique: the French method (associated in the United States with the French-American harpist [[Marcel Grandjany]]) and the Salzedo method, developed by [[Carlos Salzedo]]. Neither method has a definite majority among harpists, but the issue of which is better is sometimes a source of friction and debate. The distinguishing features of the Salzedo method are the encouragement of expressive gestures, elbows remain parallel to the ground, wrists are comparatively still, and neither arm ever touches the soundboard. The French method advocates lowered elbows, fluid wrists, and the right arm resting lightly on the soundboard. In both methods, the shoulders, neck, and back are relaxed. Some harpists combine the two methods into the technique that works best for them.
In addition to those techniques, which are suitable for modern pedal harps with their high string tension, in recent years some harpists have been developing another technique - the "thumb under" technique - which is more suitable for lower string tensions, as found on most historical harps. In the absence of much evidence on historical harp techniques, harpists have taken their lead from baroque performance practices, especially [[lute]] and early [[Musical keyboard|keyboard]] techniques.
As in all baroque instrumental techniques, the underlying principle is that of strong and weak articulation. The player only uses three fingers of each hand, and the thumb moves under the other fingers, rather than being held very high as in modern harp technique. The thumb and third fingers are "strong" fingers and the second finger is a "weak" finger. Scales are fingered with alternating strong and weak fingers - that is, a scale fingering could be either 1 2 1 2 1 2 or 3 2 3 2 3 2. In contrast, classical harp technique uses a fingering of 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 going up and 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 going down. The "thumb under" technique produces a mellow, well articulated sound on harps with low string tension. It also avoids large movements of the wrists and arms, since on low-tension harps, much less force is required than on modern high tension harps.
Another approach to “thumb under” technique as described above is to place the thumb so that it passes over the second finger, rather than under it. There is equal evidence for both thumb over and thumb under playing techniques on historical harps.
In this second approach it is important to note that the fingers are placed on the strings an equal distance up the string from the soundboard. This may be as little as 5-8 inches on very lightly strung harps. If you begin by making a circle with your thumb and second finger, placing both the thumb and the second finger on the same string, open your thumb and place your thumb on the string above, also placing the third (and fou |
his ministers to attack Kalinga for this act of treachery. Ashoka then asked Kalinga's royalty to submit before his supremacy. When they defied this ''[[diktat]]'', Ashoka sent one of his generals to Kalinga to make them submit.
The general and his forces were, however, completely routed through the skilled tactics of Kalinga's commander-in-chief. Ashoka, baffled at this defeat, attacked with the greatest invasion ever recorded in Indian history until then. Kalinga put up a stiff resistance, but they were no match for Ashoka's brutal strength. The whole of Kalinga was plundered and destroyed: Ashoka's later edicts say that about 100,000 people were killed on the Kalinga side and 10,000 from Ashoka's army; thousands of men and women were deported.
==Embrace of Buddhism==
As the legend goes, one day after the war was over, Ashoka ventured out to roam the city and all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses. This sight made him sick and he cried the famous quotation, "What have I done?" The brutality of the conquest led him to adopt [[Buddhism]] and he used his position to propagate the relatively new philosophy to new heights, as far as ancient [[Rome]] and [[Egypt]]. From that point Ashoka, who had been described as "the cruel Ashoka" (''Chandashoka''), started to be described as "the pious Ashoka" (''Dharmashoka''). He propagated the Vibhajjvada school of Buddhism and preached it within his domain and worldwide from about [[250 BC]]. Emperor Ashoka undoubtedly has to be credited with the first serious attempt to develop a Buddhist [[polity]].
[[Image:MauryanCoin.JPG|thumb|300px|Silver punch-mark coins of the '''Mauryan empire''', bear Buddhist symbols such as the [[dharma wheel]], the elephant (previous form of the Buddha), the tree under which enlightenment happened, and the burial mound where the Buddha died (obverse). [[3rd century BC]].]]
Prominent in this cause were his son Venerable [[Mahindra]] and daughter [[Sanghamitra]] (whose name means "friend of the [[Sangha]]"), who established Buddhism in [[Ceylon]] (now [[Sri Lanka]]). He built thousands of [[stupa]]s and [[Vihara]]s for Buddhist followers. The Stupas of [[Sanchi]] are world famous and the stupa named Sanchi Stupa 1 was built by Emperor Ashoka. During the remaining portion of Ashoka's reign, he pursued an official policy of [[nonviolence]] or [[ahimsa]]. Even the unnecessary slaughter or mutilation of animals was immediately abolished. [[Wildlife]] became protected by the king's law against [[sport]] [[hunting]] and [[branding]]. Limited hunting was permitted for consumption reasons but Ashoka also promoted the concept of [[vegetarianism]]. Ashoka also showed mercy to those imprisoned, allowing them outside one day each year. He attempted to raise the professional ambition of the common man by building [[university|universities]] for study and water transit and [[irrigation]] systems for [[trade]] and [[agriculture]]. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics and [[caste]]. The kingdoms surrounding his, so easily overthrown, were instead made to be well-respected allies.
He is acclaimed for constructing [[hospital]]s for animals and renovating major roads throughout [[India]]. Dharmashoka defined the main principles of ''dharma'' (''dharma'' in [[Pāli]]) as nonviolence, [[tolerance]] of all [[sect]]s and opinions, [[obedience]] to parents, [[respect]] for the [[Brahman]]s and other religious teachers and [[priest]]s, [[liberal]] towards friends, humane treatment of [[servant (domestic)|servant]]s, and [[generosity]] towards all. These principles suggest a general ethic of behavior to which no religious or social group could object.
[[Image:AsokaKandahar.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Bilingual edict ([[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Aramaic]]) by king Ashoka, from [[Kandahar]]. [[Kabul]] Museum.]]
Some critics say that Ashoka was afraid of more wars, but among his neighbors, including the [[Seleucid Empire]] and the [[Greco-Bactrian]] kingdom established by [[Diodotus I]], none could match his strength. He was a contemporary of both [[Antiochus I Soter]] and his successor [[Antiochus II Theos]] of the [[Seleucid dynasty]] as well as Diodotus I and his son [[Diodotus II]] of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. If his [[inscription]]s and [[edict]]s are well studied, one finds that he was familiar with the [[Hellenic world]] but never in awe of it. The [[Edicts of Ashoka]], which talk of friendly relations, give the names of both Antiochus of the Seleucid empire and [[Ptolemy III]] of [[Egypt]]. But the fame of the Mauryan empire was widespread from the time that Ashoka's grandfather [[Chandragupta Maurya]] defeated [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus Nicator]], the founder of the [[Seleucid Dynasty]].
The [[Pillars of Ashoka|Ashoka Pillar]] at [[Sarnath]] is the most popular of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of [[sandstone]], this pillar records the visit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the [[3rd century BC]]. It has a [[Lion Capital of Asoka|four-lion capital]] (four lions standing back to back) which was adopted as the [[National emblem|emblem]] of the modern Indian republic. The lion symbolises both Ashoka's imperial rule and the kingship of the Buddha. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire. It is difficult to determine whether certain events ever happened, but the stone etchings depict clearly of how Ashoka wanted to be thought and how he wanted to be remembered.
Ashoka's own words as known from his Edicts are: "All men are my children. I am like a father to them. As every father desires the good and the happiness of his children, I wish that all men should be happy always." Edward D'Cruz interprets the Ashokan ''dharma'' as a "religion to be used as a symbol of a new imperial unity and a cementing force to weld the diverse and heterogeneous elements of the empire".
'''See also''': [[Edicts of Ashoka]]
==Death and legacy==
[[Image:Asoka1.gif|thumb|right|200px|Ashoka's first rock inscription at [[Girnar]]]]
Emperor Ashoka ruled for an estimated forty years, and after his death, the Maurya dynasty lasted just fifty more years. Ashoka had many wives and children, but their names are lost to time. [[Mahindra]] and [[Sanghamitra]] were twins born by his fourth wife, [[Devi]], in the city of [[Ujjain]]. He had entrusted to them the job of making his state religion, Buddhism, more popular across the known and the unknown world. [[Mahindra]] and [[Sanghamitra]] went into [[Sri Lanka]] and converted the King, the Queen and their people to Buddhism. So they were naturally not the ones handling state affairs after him.
In his old age, he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife Tishyarakshita. It is said that she had got his son Kunala, the regent in Takshashila, blinded by a wily stratagem. When Ashoka discovered this he had Kunala's son Samprati declared the successor. But his rule did not last long after Ashoka's death.
[[Image:AshokaCapital.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The [[Emblem of India]] is a replica of [[Ashoka Pillar]]]]
The reign of Emperor Ashoka Maurya could easily have disappeared into history as the ages passed by, and would have, if he had not left behind a record of his trials. The testimony of this wise king was discovered in the form of magnificently sculpted pillars and boulders with a variety of actions and teachings he wished to be published etched into the stone. What Ashoka left behind was the first written language in India since the ancient city of [[Harappa]]. Rather than Sanskrit, the language used for inscription was the current spoken form called [[Prakrit]].
In the year [[185 BC]], about fifty years after Ashoka's death, the last Mauryan ruler, [[Brhadrata]], was brutally murdered by the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, [[Pusyamitra Sunga]], while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga founded the [[Sunga dynasty]] ([[185 BC]]-[[78 BC]]) and ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire.
Not until some 2,000 years later under [[Akbar|Akbar the Great]] and his great-grandson [[Aurangzeb]] would as large a portion of the [[subcontinent]] as that ruled by Ashoka again be united under a single ruler. When India gained independence from the [[British Empire]] it adopted Ashoka's emblem for its own, placing the [[dharma wheel]](The Wheel of Rightious Duty) that crowned his many columns on the [[Flag of India|flag]] of the newly independent state.
Ashoka was ranked #53 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]].
A semi-fictionalized portrayal of Ashoka's life was produced as a motion picture recently under the title [[Asoka (film)|Asoka]].
===Ashoka and Buddhist Kingship===
One of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka Maurya was the model that he provided for the relationship between Buddhism and the state. Throughout Theravada Southeast Asia, the model of rulership embodied by Ashoka replaced the Brahmanist notion of divine kingship that had previously dominated (in the [[Angkor]] kingdom, for instance). Under this model of 'Buddhist kingship', the king sought to legitimize his rule not through descent from a divine source, but by supporting and earning the approval of the Buddhist ''[[sangha]]''. Following Ashoka's example, kings established monasteries, funded the construction of stupas, and supported the ordination of monks in their kingdom. Many rulers also took an active role in resolving disputes over the status and regulation of the sangha, as Ashoka had in calling a conclave to settle a number of contentious issues during his reign. This development ultimately lead to a close association in many Southeast Asian countries between the monarchy and the religious hierarchy, an association that can still be seen today in the state-supported [[Buddhis |
layer scores a point for each pip on each bone still held by each opponent. If no player went out, however, and the win was determined by the lightest hand, the winning player sometimes scores a point for each pip on each bone still held by each opponent, and sometimes only the excess held by opponents. A game is generally played to 100 points, the tally being kept with [[paper]] and [[pencil]] or on a [[cribbage|cribbage board]].
===Muggins (or, All Fives or Five Up)===
Points are earned when a player plays a bone with the result that the ''count'' (the sum of all open ends) is a multiple of five. The points earned are equal to the sum of the ends. Therefore, if in the course of play a player plays a bone that makes the sum of the ends 5, 10, 15 or 20, the player scores that number. All pips on a crosswise doublet are included in the count.
Each player takes five bones (four players) or seven bones (two players). If the leader plays the ''6-4'', ''5-5'', ''5-0'', ''4-1'', or ''3-2'', the count is evenly divisible by five and so the player scores. If, later, the ends before play are ''2'' and ''4'', the next player can play the ''4-4'' crosswise and score 10. Each player must play if holding a matching bone. A player who cannot match must draw until obtaining a playable bone. Scores are called and taken immediately.
The player who goes out wins additional points based on the pips still in other players' hands. Each opponent's hand is rounded to the nearest multiple of five and the result is given the winner. For example, the winner scores 25 for 27 pips in an opponent's hand and 30 for 28 points. If all players are blocked, the lightest hand wins, still earning points based on the pips in opponents' hands.
===All Threes===
All Threes is played in the same manner as Muggins, except that points are earned for multiples of three.
===Fives and Threes===
Fives and Threes is similar to Muggins and All Threes, but points are scored for multiples of five and multiples of three at the open ends. Multiples of five and multiples of three are worth one point each. These can be scored in combination, however. If Player A plays the ''6-5'' and Player B the ''6-1'', then Player B scores 2 points because ''5'' and ''1'' sum to six (two threes). Player A then plays the ''1-5'' and earns 2 points because ''5'' and ''5'' sum to 10 (two fives). If Player B then plays the ''5-5'' crosswise, Player B scores 8 points, 5 for five threes and 3 for three fives.
Fives and Threes can be played with or without a ''sniff'' (see ''Playing a domino piece''). Games are often played to 31, 61, or 121 points using a cribbage board to score.
===Matador===
[[Matador]], meaning "killer" (of the bull in a [[bull fight]]) in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], is a common draw game with the usual object of going out first and collecting points based on the bones still in ones opponents hands. The rules governing play of a bone, however, are different.
New bones are not played matching end to matching end. Instead, bones are played so that the sum of the open end and the new end touching it sum to seven. If one of the open ends is a ''3'', for example, any bone with a ''4'' can be placed abutted with the ''3''. If a ''4-2'' is played, the ''4'' is placed against the ''3'' and the ''2'' becomes the new open end. As Matador is played with bones no higher than six, a blank means the blocking of that end because there is no tile that can sum with zero to seven. No further play can take place at that end excepting by playing a ''matador'', which may be played at any time.
There are four matadors, the ''6-1'', ''5-2'', ''4-3'' and ''0-0''--that is, all the tiles whose two ends sum to 7 and the ''0-0''. It is often better to draw one or more fresh bones than to play one's last matador, as it may save the game at a critical juncture. In playing, a double counts as a single number only, but in scoring the full number of pips is counted. When the game has been definitely blocked the player with the lightest hand scores the number of the combined hands (sometimes only the excess in his opponent's hand), the game being usually 100. Matador can be played by three people, in which case the two having the lowest scores usually combine against the threatening winner; and also by four, either each player against all others or two on a side.
A player who cannot make a seven on either end must draw from the boneyard until securing a playable bone (although two bones must remain in the boneyard). If the boneyard is exhausted, the player must knock. A player may also draw a bone even when holding a playable bone.
==Other games==
There are also a variety of other games played with dominoes. Some are simple memory games like ''Concentration'' (based on the card game of same name), some are complex, and some are simple solitaire games.
===Concentration===
Concentration is generally played by two players. The bones are placed face down on the table, shuffled by one, both, or all players and then arranged in a simple rectangular grid. For double-six dominoes, for example, the 28 bones would be placed in four rows of seven bones each.
The goal of play is to collect pairs of bones. The player who collects the most pairs wins the game. With double-six dominoes, pairs consist of any two bones whose pips sum to 12. For example, the ''3-5'' and the ''0-4'' form a pair. In some variations, doubles can only form pairs with other doubles so that the ''2-2'', for example, can only be paired with the ''4-4''.
Players, in turn, try to collect pairs by turning over and exposing the faces of two bones from the grid. If the four faces of the two bones sum to 12, the player takes the two bones, scores a point (in some rules a point for each bone taken), and plays again. If the tally is any other number, the bones are turned face down again and the player's turn is over.
The first player to accumulate 50 (or 100) points wins the series.
===Chickie Dominos (Chicken Foot)===
Chickie dominos is a low score wins game. Chickie Dominos is played in rounds, one round for each double domino in the set.
====Setup====
For double 6 dominos, there are seven rounds. The score keeper writes 0 through 6 on the top of the score sheet and creates a score column for each player. All dominos are face down in the center. Each player picks 5 dominos at random to make their hand.
[[Image:ChckieFirst.PNG|thumb|The opening play in a game of Chickie Dominos begins with the highest double in the deck. If no player has the highest double in their hand, then the next highest double is played and so on.]]
====The First Round====
The player with the double 6 lays it down in the center of the play field. If no player has the double 6 then the player with the next highest double plays it. The player to the left of the player who lead the double 6 plays any domino in their hand with a 6 on it on one of the four sides of the double 6 with the played domino's 6 against a free side of the double 6. The next player plays another 6 on a remaining side until all four sides are filled. If a player cannot play because they do not have a 6, then the player draws one domino from the bone yard and either plays it because it has a 6 or calls "Pass". No other plays can be made until all four sides of the double are filled. Once all four sides are filled, the player to the left of the last person to fill the 6 can play any domino in their hand that matches an exposed end of a played domino. If a player is unable to match any exposed dominos, they must draw one domino from the bone pile and either play it if possible or call "Pass". If no dominos remain to draw from, the player simply calls "Pass".
[[Image:Chickie4s.PNG|thumb|The result of Chickie Fours shows the double four played against the previously open 6:4, followed by three more fours played on the double four. No other numbers may be played until the required three fours are played.]]
====Chickie====
Any time a player plays a double on an exposed domino where the double is the same number as the exposed domino, the player calls "Chickie (Number)". For example, if a player played a double 5 on the end of a 6/5 domino they would lay it long side against the end with the 5 and call "Chickie Fives". No other dominos can be played until three more 5's are played against the double 5. The three dominos played against the double 5 are played on the long side opposite the side originally played. The end result will look like a chicken foot with the double 5 having one domino laid [[perpendicular]] to one side, and three more dominos on the opposite side, the middle being perpendicular and the other two at 45 degrees to perpendicular. Any player who does not have a 5 must draw a domino from the bone pile and either play it if it has a 5 or call "Pass". Once all three 5's are played, the next player may play any domino in their hand on any exposed end that matches. Play continues until a player is out of dominos or no player can make a legal play.
====Ending a round====
A round is over when either one player plays the last domino in their hand or no players can make a legal play. This situation can occur if someone chickie's a number that no longer has three remaining free dominos to play on it.
At the end of a round, each player adds the spots on the dominos in their hand and adds this to their score. The score keeper crosses out the double that lead the round and the next round begins with the highest double left. When all 7 rounds are played, the player with the lowest score wins.
====Strategy====
Since the object of the game is to have the lowest score, it is in your best interest to get rid of your high value dominos and at the same time, prevent your opponents from playing theirs. To this end, one strategy is to try to keep high value exposed ends covered which prevents opponents from chicki |
use of chiropractic care primarily for treatment of musculoskeletal conditions only.
In Australia, one of the first countries to widely accept chiropractic (since 1905), the deliniation into 'Straight' vs 'Mixer' type is all but relegated to history. The above categories are not commonly cited by the profession or the public.
Most universities teaching chiropractic in Australia, including Palmer in Davenport Iowa, USA, are utilizing rehab methods, exercise and physiological therapeutics and nutrition. The National College (now University) incorporated physical therapy as early as 1912, even before there was a profession bearing its name. The profession here continues to be divided only into specialities. Some do spine-only. Others prefer to do sports and rehabilitation. There are musculoskeletal foci and those who co-manage people with organic problems, MS or cancer along with their regular medical approaches. Spinal and musculoskeletal approaches to health can benefit the WHOLE person, and the general public accepts this. Chiropractic doctors diligently work with other professionals to benefit the patients overall well being.
== Criticism of Chiropractic ==
Some traditional medical practitioners do not believe that chiropractic is science-based.
There are many possible reasons for this. Partially this is due to the beliefs of Chiropractors themselves. University of Saskatchewan sociologist Leslie Biggs surveyed Canadian Chiropractors in 1997 and found that 74.3% of those interviewed (n=600) did not believe that controlled clinical trials were the best way to evaluate Chiropractic methods. The same study revealed that 68.1% believed that most diseases are caused by spinal malalignment. [http://www.jcca-online.org/client/cca/JCCA.nsf/objects/Issue+46_3/$file/Pages173-184.pdf ]
Likewise numerous Chiropractors on the web [http://www.chiroweb.com/find/tellmeabout/colic.html] claim to treat infantile colic. According to a 1999 survey of the Ontario Chiropractic Association (which represents 83% of the Chiropractors in Ontario), 46% treated children for colic.[http://www.ccachiro.org/client/cca/JCCA.nsf/objects/Survey+-March+1999/$file/Pages050-057.pdf] However in 2001 a Norwegian double-blind study demonstrated that Chiropractic manipulation for infantile colic proved no better than the placebo group. [http://adc.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/abstract/84/2/138]
Also spinal manipulation for episodic tension headache has shown no significant value beyond placebo in controlled trials. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9820258&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum]
In 1985, [[The National Council Against Health Fraud]] (NCAHF), a non-profit healthcare watch-dog group, issued a [http://www.ncahf.org/pp/chirop.html Position Paper] critical of chiropractic. A newer [http://www.ncahf.org/articles/c-d/chiro.html Fact Sheet], authored by William Jarvis, Ph.D., has since been issued in 2001.
===Safety===
As with all interventions, risks may be associated with the practice of [[spinal manipulation]]. These risks, although rare, might include vertebrobasilar accidents, [[stroke]]s, disc herniations, [[vertebra]]l [[fracture]], and [[cauda equina syndrome]], according to ''Harrison's''. Most serious complications occur after cervical (neck) manipulation. The practice of greatest concern is the rotary neck movement, sometimes called "Master cervical" or "rotary break", which has led to trauma, paralysis, strokes, and death among patients.
The Chiropractic community maintains that serious complications due to manipulation of the cervical spine are rare, being 1 in 3 or 4 million manipulations or fewer. This is based on an extensive review of spinal manipulation performed by the RAND corporation. However values in other studies vary, Dvorak cites figures of 1 in 400,000. [http://www.chiro.org/chimages/chiropage/cva-1.html].
With studies of this nature it is difficult to determine what percentage of incidents remain unreported. The RAND study, for example, assumed that only 1 in 10 cases would have been reported. Dr. Edzard Ernst surveyed all Neurologists in Britain for cases of serious neurological complication occuring within 24 hours after cervical spinal manipulation during the past year.
35 such cases had been seen by the 24 who responded, and none of those cases had been reported. His survey led him to conclude that underreporting was closer to 100%, rendering estimates "non-sensical." [http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/166/1/40]
A 2001 study in the medical journal ''Stroke'', found that vertebrobasilar accidents (VBAs) are five times more likely to occur in those aged <45 years who have visited a chiropractor within 1 week prior to the VBA, than for controls who have not visited a chiropractor.[http://stroke.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/32/5/1054?ijkey=cdde44d2e78d548e9dc106feaad97fa85e056a62&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha]
Commenting on the safety of chiropractic, the report from the New Zealand Commission reported, "We are satisfied that chiropractic treatment in New Zealand is remarkably safe." (Report of the Commission of Inquiry Into Chiropractic 1979:pg 77)
==References==
* From [http://www.chiroweb.com/ ChiroWeb]:
** {{fnb|1}} Cherkin, Daniel C.; Mootz, Robert D. (1997) ''Chiropractic in the United States: Training, Practice, and Research'', [http://www.chiroweb.com/archives/ahcpr/foreword.htm available online]
** {{fnb|2}} Healey, James W. (1990) ''"It's Where You Put the Period"'', ''Dynamic Chiropractic'', Volume 08, Issue 21 ([[October 10]], 1990) [http://www.chiroweb.com/archives/08/21/13.html available online]
* From the [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]] (NCCAM) ([http://nccam.nih.gov/ nccam.nih.gov]):
** {{fnb|3}} ''More Than One-Third of U.S. Adults Use Complementary and Alternative Medicine, According to New Government Survey'' (Press Release), [[May 27]] 2004, [http://nccam.nih.gov/news/2004/052704.htm available online]
** {{fnb|4}} ''Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among Adults: United States, 2002'' (Report), [[May 27]] 2004, [http://nccam.nih.gov/news/report.pdf available online] ([[PDF]] format)
* {{fnb|5}} National Association for Chiropractic Medicine (NACM) [http://www.chiromed.org]
<references/>
== See also ==
* [[Applied kinesiology]]
* [[Naprapathy]]
* [[Osteopathy]]
* [[Phrenology]]
* [[Reflexology]]
==External links==
=== Advocacy ===
;Chiropractic organizations
*[http://www.amerchiro.org/ American Chiropractic Association (ACA)]
*[http://www.chiropractic-uk.co.uk British Chiropractic Association (BCA)]
*[http://www.ccachiro.org/ Canadian Chiropractic Association (CCA)]
*[http://www.jac-chiro.org/ Japanese Association of Chiropractors (JAC)]
*[http://www.chiropractic.org/ International Chiropractors Association (ICA)]
*[http://www.worldchiropracticalliance.org/ World Chiropractic Alliance (WCA)]
*[http://www.wfc.org/ World Federation of Chiropractic (WFC)]
;Chiropractic colleges
*[http://www.aecc-chiropractic.ac.uk Anglo-European College of Chiropractic]
*[http://www.chirocolleges.org/ Association of Chiropractic Colleges]
*[http://www.cmcc.ca/ Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College]
*[http://www.clevelandchiropractic.edu/ Cleveland Chiropractic College]
*[http://www.lifewest.edu/ Life Chiropractic College West]
*[http://www.life.edu/ Life University School of Chiropractic]
*[http://www.logan.edu/ Logan College of Chiropractic]
*[http://www.mctimoney-college.ac.uk McTimoney Chiropractic College (UK)]
*[http://www.nycc.edu/ New York Chiropractic College]
*[http://www.chiropractic.ac.nz/ New Zealand College of Chiropractic]
*[http://www.palmer.edu/ Palmer Chiropractic College]
*[http://www.parkercc.edu/ Parker College of Chiropractic (Dallas, TX)]
*[http://www.sherman.edu/ Sherman College of Straight Chiropractic (Spartanberg, SC)]
*[http://www.txchiro.edu/ Texas Chiropractic College]
*[http://www.bridgeport.edu/chiro/ University of Bridgeport College of Chiropractic]
*[http://www.wschiro.edu/chiro/ Western States Chiropractic College]
;Descriptions of chiropractic procedures
*[http://www.spine-health.com/topics/conserv/chiro/feature/chirtr01.html Chiropractic treatments for back pain by Spine-health.com]
*[http://www.back4health.com/nervous/index.html Glossary of Chiropractic Terms]
*[http://www.lower-back-pain-answers.com Lower Back Pain Answers]
;Other resources
*[http://www.chiromatrix.com/Chiropractic_Website_Spine_Simulator/nerve_chart/ 3D Spine Simulator] -- Interactive nerve chart, body posture and subluxation / degeneration models
*[http://www.mercola.com/ Mercola] -- alternative health website with many articles about chiropractic treatment
*[http://www.chiro.org/main/ Chiropractic Resource Organization]
*[http://www.chiroweb.com/ Dynamic Chiropractic Online]
*[http://www.planetc1.com/index.shtml Planet Chiropractic]
*[http://www.todayschiropractic.com/ Today's Chiropractic magazine]
=== Critiques ===
*[http://www.pbs.org/saf/1210/index.html ''A Different Way To Heal?''] -- PBS - Scientific American Frontiers, Web Feature
*[http://www.chirobase.org/ Chirobase.org] -- a "Skeptical Guide to Chiropractic History, Theories, and Practices", [[Stephen Barrett]]
<!-- Should be referenced instead of listed here
*[http://www.dynomind.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_n4_v21/ai_19727577 Chiropractic: science and antiscience and pseudoscience side by side] -- Joseph C. Keating, Jr, PhD
-->
*[http://www.ccachiro.org/Client/cca/jcca.nsf/Articles/D6A4CFEBAA9D3D1885256BAE00592C9D?OpenDocument Commentary: The Specter of Dogma] -- Joseph C. Keating, Jr., PhD
*[http://www.sherman.edu/research/rsch510/FaultyLogic-in-Chiro.pdf Faulty Logic and Non-skeptical Arguments in Chiropractic] -- Joseph C. Keating Jr, PhD
*[http://www.chiromed.org/ National Association for Chiropractic Medicine]
[[Cate |
aking the law in his Empire is a religious crime and thus punishable with death, which does not make Duncan feel any better because he realizes that Leto is the leader of a group that is judge, jury, and executioner. At the conclusion of the conversation, Duncan tells Leto that he will not worship him, to which Leto remarks that the Fish Speakers understand that he has special dispensation.
Moneo meets with Leto with news. He first suggests that Anteac is a secret mentat, a skill prohibited in the Empire. Leto agrees, but says that it amuses him. Moneo goes onto say that they have pressured the Bene Tleilaxu into giving him information about Hwi Noree. The Bene Tleilaxu played a role in her birth, by supplying the Ixians with technology to do a cellular restructuring. Leto suggests that it is interesting that Hwi Noree seems the total opposite in character to Malky, the previous Ixian ambassador, with whom Leto once had a close friendship. Malky was crafted by the Ixians as a being of pure cynicism and amorality.
Hwi Noree and Leto talk again. Leto explains the shape of his Empire and what he is trying to produce; he talks about how in human affairs each cycle is a reaction to the previous cycle. He explains what will happen when he goes into the sands and his empire falls apart. Basically, he believes that the process will make humankind more mature, through being confronted by the same desperate experience of the disasters his death will cause. Hwi Noree, unlike Moneo and the Duncans, understands what Leto means, which pleases Leto greatly. At the end of the audience Leto asks her if she has given any thought to his proposal, and she answers that she has chosen to marry him.
Upon leaving Leto, Hwi goes to see Anteac and shares her knowledge of the environment in which she was brought up. Anteac has been conscripted by Leto to lead a Fish Speaker assault on Ix, to wrest the secret of Hwi's origins. Anteac is shocked at the knowledge that Hwi is to marry Leto and at the same time annoyed that her order had allowed such a talented woman to pass through their training programme without turning her into a Bene Gesserit.
Later, the city of Onn rises in rebellion against Leto; Leto is completely surprised, which is interesting in itself. The rebels attack the Ixian embassy, which, because of the threat to Hwi, sends Leto into a rage; he leaps out of his cart, and attacks the rebels. The Fish Speakers, using the confusion and panic his assault causes, wipe out the rebels. Regaining his calm upon discovering Hwi is safe, Leto regrets his intervention because he has created a new dependency among his Fish Speakers; now they know that he awaits in the wings, a seemingly invincible death machine. Leto realizes it will take generations to erase this dependency. Leto also realizes that this attack must have been planned by Malky, hidden away within the Ixian device that protects people from his vision.
The announcement that Leto is marrying Hwi Noree upsets Moneo immensely; he believes the wedding will bring Leto's enemies in alliance against him. Moneo asks Leto for an explanation for why Leto must do this; Leto tells him that it is because of emotions, that Hwi provokes glorious emotions within him that he had long thought he had lost, restoring his sense of humanity. During the conversation we learn more about Moneo's abilities and limits; Leto tries to raise Moneo's level of awareness but ultimately fails. Moneo's idea of himself limits him from being all he could be.
After the frustration of having to deal with Moneo, Leto answers Duncans calls for audience. Duncan, Leto realizes, is suffering from what he call 'Since Syndrome', something which happens to most gholas, but with this one had happened much earlier than ever before. Duncan feels out of sync with this time and place. Duncan is also upset by the news Leto is marrying Hwi, a woman he finds intensely attractive also; Leto orders him not to spend time with her.
Some time later Moneo and Leto discuss Duncan. Leto is irritated that Duncan is courting Hwi Noree. However, Moneo informs him that it is Hwi Noree herself who is initiating the meetings; he says that Hwi feels a great deal of sympathy for Duncan because he is so out of his time and place. But this does not calm Leto because he says Duncan is very clever with women. Leto asks when a new Duncan ghola can be provided by the Tleilaxu; Moneo says that the Tleilaxu claim they are having problems and that it will be a year. In response, Leto orders that his marriage to Hwi be hurried along.
Leto meets with Siona to assess her readiness for the testing. They talk about many subjects, including his worm body, and the state of his Empire. She points out that his position is much weaker now, because of his reaction to the attack on the Ixian embassy, people now realize that he is vulnerable to attacks on the people he loves. She goes on to question his right to rule which is the root of her rebelliousness. His response is that he rules by right of loneliness and sacrifice. This puts Siona on the defensive, because she had never considered that Leto might have any rights as a consequence of his uniqueness.
Moneo and Duncan talk. Moneo tries to get Duncan to call off his pursuit of Hwi Noree. The conversation becomes very heated and Duncan says a number of critical things about the [[Leto II|God Emperor]], within the hearing of Fish Speakers. When Duncan finally returns to his room he finds Hwi waiting for him. She had been told of his latest outbursts by some sympathetic Fish Speakers and had rushed to calm him down. However, things do not get any calmer. Hwi says that she was produced to seduce the God Emperor, to seduce an Atreides, and that he, Duncan, is as much the Atreides ideal as any. In the heat of the emotional interchange, Hwi Noree and Duncan have passionate sex. But to Duncan's great disappointment she tells him afterwards that she's still going to marry the God Emperor. When Duncan asks why, she says it is because he has the greatest needs of the two of them, the greatest need in all the Empire.
Siona is tested in the deep desert by Leto. She is forced to drink Spice Essence from Leto's body which sends her into a spice trance and into [[prescience|prophetic dreaming]]. In her dreams she sees [[Arafel]], she sees the various possibilities in the human future, and more importantly how in all futures visible to prescient vision, humans are hunted and killed to the last person by deadly, evolving [[machine]]s; it is implied later that these machines were built by the [[Ixians]]. The solution, Leto shows her, is that humans need to escape the prescient trap; which is where Siona's own genes (which render her invisible and unpredictable by prescience) come in, and also the no-ships and the repression of peoples in the Old Empire. All these things make up Leto's Golden Path, which she realizes is the only way out.
Duncan and Moneo meet. Duncan wants to know where Leto is, Moneo explains he is in the desert with his daughter. Duncan is also upset when he discovered that the some of the Fish Speakers are [[lesbians]]. Moneo's grows impatient at Duncan's 'puerile' questions and treats him in an offhand way. The conversation goes from bad to worse and he accuses Duncan of not having the courage to fulfill Leto's expectations, Duncan is enraged by Moneo's comments and attempts to strike him a blow; but, to his utter surprise, Moneo not only avoids the blow, but with amazing quickness hurls Idaho to the floor. Idaho looks up in shock, 'How?' is all he can say; and the [[angry]] Moneo utters words he later regrets 'Leto has been breeding us for generations. You're just an older model.' Duncan upset beyond words, retires to his rooms in shock.
After a day of contemplation, Duncan's soul searching is interrupted by a Fish Speaker relaying Moneo's requests for Duncan's presence, Duncan is uninterested until he is told Hwi is there. On his arrival it is clear that they have been discussing him before he arrives. They are both worried by the fact that the warrior Duncan arrives without his knife. Moneo apologises for his actions and words in front of Hwi Noree, Duncan takes this well and apologises himself; Duncan experiences a weird feeling that only Moneo, Hwi, and himself are the only real humans in existence. Duncan asks about Siona's experience in the desert, Moneo explains his experience and explains that the reason he serves Leto so faithfully is that after seeing the prophetic visions he is relieved that he never had to make the decision Leto made to become a worm and is free just to serve. Duncan seems unconvinced by this argument and indeed flies into a rage at the fact that he and Hwi cannot see each other, this exasperates Hwi and Moneo; but as Duncan leaves we realize that for once his actions do not reflect his true feelings, and that he had deliberately made himself pathetic for Hwi's sake, so that she can be happier in her choice to put Leto first.
Duncan and Moneo meet later; and we discover Moneo's relief at his daughter's survival. To Moneo's surprise, Duncan asks a very un-Duncan question: 'What was it the other Duncan Idaho's didn't learn?', Moneo answers him that they did not learn how to trust. Duncan is shocked by this comment in turn, since he has always considers himself to be a man who trusts others; Moneo responds that the circle of his fellowship is too limited &mdash; it includes only fellow warriors and women who complement his sense of himself. After this conversation Moneo decides to try and save Duncan by sending him and Siona away to Tuono Village, for the duration of the wedding.
When Leto learns of this, he is amused that Moneo is attempting to save Idaho and changes the location of his wedding to Tuono. Malky has been captured by the Fish Speakers, though Anteac died capturing him. When Leto moved against Ixians, Bene Gesserit and Bene Tleilaxu |
rts:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[rice]], [[manioc]] ([[tapioca]]), [[sugar]], [[cocoa]], vegetables, [[banana]]s; [[cattle]], [[pig]]s, [[poultry]]
'''Exports:'''
$155 million (f.o.b., 1997)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[shrimp]], timber, [[gold]], [[rum]], [[rosewood]] essence, clothing
'''Exports - partners:'''
[[France]] 62%, [[Switzerland]] 7%, [[United States]] 2% (1997)
'''Imports:'''
$625 million (c.i.f., 1997)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
food (grains, processed meat), machinery and transport equipment, fuels and chemicals
'''Imports - partners:'''
[[France]] 52%, [[United States]] 14%, [[Trinidad and Tobago]] 6% (1997)
'''Debt - external:'''
$1,2 billion (1988)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$NA
'''Currency:'''
1 euro (EUR) = 100 cent
'''Exchange rates:'''
euros per US$1 - 1,3 (January 2005), 0,9867 (January 2000), 0,9386 (1999)
'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year
{{South America in topic|Economy of}}
[[Category:French Guiana]]
[[Category:Economies by country|French Guiana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in French Guiana</title>
<id>10766</id>
<revision>
<id>40448341</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T16:59:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{CIA}}, {{South America in topic|Communications in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
47,000 (1995)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
NA
'''Telephone system:'''
<br>''domestic:''
fair open wire and [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay system
<br>''international:''
[[satellite]] earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 2, FM 14 (including 6 repeaters), shortwave 6 (including 5 repeaters) (1998)
'''Radios:'''
104,000 (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
3 (plus eight low-power repeaters) (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
30,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
NA
'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GF
:''See also :'' [[French Guiana]]
{{South America in topic|Communications in}}
[[Category:Communications by country|French Guiana]]
[[Category:Communications in French Guiana| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in French Guiana</title>
<id>10767</id>
<revision>
<id>40449677</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T17:12:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Railway]]s:'''
0 km (1995)
'''[[Highway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
1,817 km
<br>''paved:''
727 km
<br>''unpaved:''
1,090 km (1995 est.)
'''Waterways:'''
460 km, navigable by small oceangoing vessels and river and coastal steamers; 3,300 km navigable by native craft
'''Ports and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Cayenne, French Guiana|Cayenne]], [[Degrad des Cannes]], [[Saint-Laurent du Maroni]]
'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
none (1999 est.)
'''[[Airport]]s:'''
11 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
4
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
2
<br>''under 914 m:''
1 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
7
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
2
<br>''under 914 m:''
5 (1999 est.)
:''See also :'' [[French Guiana]]
{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}
[[Category:French Guiana]]
[[Category:Transportation in French Guiana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of French Guiana</title>
<id>10768</id>
<revision>
<id>37838734</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T13:17:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{South America in topic|Military of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''Military branches:'''
no regular indigenous military forces; French Forces, Gendarmerie
'''Military manpower - availability:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
50,504 (2002 est.)
'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
32,720 (2002 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$NA
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
NA%
'''Military - note:'''
defense is the responsibility of France
:''See also :'' [[French Guiana]]
{{South America in topic|Military of}}
[[Category:French Guiana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of French Guiana</title>
<id>10769</id>
<revision>
<id>37838516</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T13:15:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Disputes - international:'''
[[Suriname]] claims area between [[Litani River, South America|Litani River]] and [[Marouini River]] (both headwaters of the [[Lawa River, South America|Lawa]])
'''Illicit [[Recreational drug use|drug]]s:'''
small amount of [[marijuana]] grown for local consumption; minor transshipment point to [[Europe]]
==See also==
* [[French Guiana]]
{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}
[[Category:French Guiana]]
{{Poli-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>François Truffaut</title>
<id>10770</id>
<revision>
<id>42046922</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:48:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Al pereira</username>
<id>549899</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rollback</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Truffaut.jpg|thumb|right|François Truffaut]]
'''François Roland Truffaut''' (born in [[Paris]], on [[February 6]], [[1932]]; died in [[Neuilly-sur-Seine]] on [[October 21]], [[1984]]) was one of the founders of the [[French New Wave|French "New Wave"]] in filmmaking, and remains an icon of the [[Cinema of France|French film]] industry. In a a film career lasting just over a quarter of a century, he fulfilled rhe functions of [[screenwriter]], [[film director|director]], [[film producer|produced]] or [[actor|actor]] in over thirty films.
==Life==
Truffaut was born out of wedlock in 1930s [[Paris]], where he was raised by his mother and his adoptive father, Roland Truffaut, both of whom were devout [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]]. He never met his biological father, who was a [[Jewish]] dentist. Truffaut had a difficult childhood that resulted in rebellion against his parents in particular and authority in general. Truffaut reported that his film ''[[The 400 Blows]]'' (1959) was largely autobiographical. His love of films partly came from his elective father, the writer and critic [[André Bazin]].
Truffaut came to filmmaking only after an early career as one of the most outspoken film critics in France, writing for Bazin's ''les [[Cahiers du cinéma]]'' (he became an editor of the review in [[1953]]). The ''Cahiers'' at this time were intensely critical of post-war French cinema; they saw it as overtly literary at the time. As a result of the severity of his critiques, Truffaut was refused a press pass to the [[1958]] [[Cannes Film Festival|Cannes film festival]]). Along with his ''Cahiers'' colleagues, including [[Jean-Luc Godard]] and [[Éric Rohmer]], Truffaut was enamoured with Hollywood filmmakers such as [[Alfred Hitchcock]], [[Nicholas Ray]] and [[Howard Hawks]], then often dismissed as mere genre film makers. In his 1954 article, Truffaut expounded the ''politique des auteurs'', or [[auteur theory|Auteur theory]] of cinema which championed the idea that movies should reflect the personal vision and preoccupations of the director.
On [[October 29]], [[1957]], he married Madeleine Morgenstern at the City Hall in Paris, with whom he had two children, Laura (b. [[January 22]], [[1959]]) and Eva (b. [[June 29]], [[1961]]). His father-in-law, a film producer and distributor, helped to get Truffaut's career off the ground, by financing the making of his first film, the short ''Les Mistons'' (1958). He and Morgenstern divorced in 1965. In 1983, he had a daughter with actress and constant companion, [[Fanny Ardant]], Joséphine Truffaut who was born on [[September 28]], [[1983]], a year before his death.
The dynamics of relationships are a common thread throughout most of his films.
Truffaut was an expert on Sir [[Alfred Hitchcock]], even publishing a book ''Hitchcock'' (1962, also known as ''Hitchcock/Truffaut'') which recorded interviews and conversations with Hitchcock. His last film ''[[Confidentially Yours]]'', a comedy thriller in black and white, could be considered to be a "fake Hitchcock".
Truffaut's 1973 production of ''[[La Nuit américaine]]'' (known in the US as ''[[La Nuit américaine|Day for Night]]'') won the [[Academy Award]] for Best Foreign Film. Also an actor, he sometimes played in his own films, and appeared memorably in [[Steven Spielberg]]'s ''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]''.
Truffaut suffered from a brain tumor which was diagnosed in 1983. He died shortly thereafter in the American Hospital in Neuilly-sur-Seine at the age of 52. He was buried in the [[Cimetière de Montmartre]] in Paris.
==Work==
[[Image:400blows.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[François Truffaut]] film [[The 400 Blows]], with [[Jean-Pierre Léaud]] as [[Antoine Doinel]].]]
Among Truffaut's films one can discern a series featuring the character [[Antoine Doinel]], played by the actor [[Jean-Pierre Léaud]] who began his career in ''[[The 400 Blows]]'' at the age of fourteen, continuing as the favourite actor and "double" of Truffaut himself. The series would continue until ''[[Love on |
l indigenous languages (see summary of main substantive accords).
==Religion==
Roman Catholicism was by far the strongest religion during the colonisation times. However, Protestant denominations have increased markedly, especially under the brutal dictatorship of evangelical pastor General Efrain Rios Montt. Around 1 in 3 Guatemalans are Protestant chiefly [[Evangelical]], and [[Pentecostal]]. The remainder are Roman Catholic.
Practice of traditional Mayan religions is increasing as a result of the cultural protections established in the peace accords. The government has instituted a policy of providing alters at every Mayan ruin found in the country so that traditional ceremonies may be performed there.
The [[Jewish]] population hovers around the 1,000 member mark.
The current Roman-Catholic leader of Guatemala is Mons. Álvaro Leonel Ramazzini Imeri.
== Education ==
The government runs a number of public elementary and secondary-level schools. These schools are theoretically tuition-free. However, the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, and transportation limits their availability to the lower classes. Also, many families of the middle and upper-class send their children to private schools throughout the country. The country also has one public university ([[Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala]]), and 7 private ones (see [[List of universities in Guatemala]]).
== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Guatemala]]''
Influences of the Maya and the Spanish colonists are strong throughout Guatemala. In the cities, European influence (especially [[German culture|German]]) is well evidenced. Much of the [[clothing]] and [[food]] is still made in the traditional Mayan way in small villages in the highlands, and many Mayan ruins can be found. Along the small [[Caribbean]] coast, there are influences of [[Africa]]n culture in the religious ceremonial songs, dances and food.
''See also:'' [[Music of Guatemala]]
== Miscellaneous topics ==
{{sisterlinks|Guatemala}}
*[[Communications in Guatemala]]
*[[Foreign relations of Guatemala]]
*[[List of national parks of Guatemala]]
*[[List of places in Guatemala]]
*[[List of Guatemalans|List of famous Guatemalans]]
*[[Military of Guatemala]]
*[[Plan de Sánchez massacre]]
*[[Transportation in Guatemala]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029394365&a=KCountryProfile&aid=1020262398293 UK Foreign Office Country Profile for Guatemala]
*[http://lakjer.dk/mikkel/spanish.shtml Spanish Schools in Guatemala]
*http://www.casaxelaju.com Volunteer work, internship and Spanish programs
*[http://www.congreso.gob.gt/ Congreso de la República] &ndash; Congress of the Republic of Guatemala (in Spanish)
*[http://www.oj.gob.gt Organismo Judicial de Guatemala] Judicial Branch of Guatemala (in Spanish)
*[http://www.guatemala.gob.gt/ Gobierno de Guatemala] Guatemalan Government Page(in Spanish)
*[http://www.insivumeh.gob.gt/ Instituto de Sismologia, Vulcanologia, Metereologia E Hidrologia] Guatemala's Institute Of Seismology, Vulcanology, Metereology And Hydrology
*[http://www.inguat.gob.gt Guatemala Institute of Tourism].
*[http://earthfromspace.photoglobe.info/spc_guatemala_yucatan.html Guatemala from Space]
*[http://www.mayaspirit.com.gt/ Maya Spirit] &ndash; (in Spanish)
*[http://www.roseeducation.org The Rose Education Foundation]
*[http://web.amnesty.org/report2004/gtm-summary-eng Amnesty International Annual Report 2004 &ndash; Guatemala]
*[http://www.photoglobe.info/bl_guatemala/ PhotoGlobe - Guatemala] - georeferenced photos of Guatemala
*[http://www.nisgua.org] Network in Solidarity with the People of Guatemala
*[http://www.guatemalabelize.com ] News and Project information on Guatemalan-Belizean Confidence-building in language activities, photos, news articles and official country links.
*[http://www.confidence2.org ] FCO News and Reports on UK Confidence-Building Project information for Guatemala and Belize.
{{Central_America}}
[[Category:Central American countries]]
[[Category:Guatemala| ]]
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[[zh:危地马拉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guatemala City</title>
<id>11874</id>
<revision>
<id>40603935</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T19:42:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.230.138.43</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
|[[Image:Guatemala_National_Palace_of_Culture.jpg|thumb|250px|National Palace of Culture]]
|-
|[[Image:GuatCity2.JPG|thumb|right|250px|National Post Office Building]]
|-
|<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Southernguatemalacity.JPG|thumb|right|250px|View of quickly developing residential area in southern Guatemala City.]] -->
|-
|[[Image:teatronacionalguatemala.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Miguel Angel Asturias Cultural Center, also referred to as the National Theatre, located in Guatemala City's Civic Centre.]]
|-
|[[Image:IMGP0490a.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Guatemala City suffers from polution problems. Some say it is more poluted than Mexico City.]]
|}
'''Guatemala City''' (in full, '''La Nueva Guatemala de la Asunci&oacute;n'''; locally known as '''Guatemala''' or, informally, '''Guate''') is the capital and largest city of [[Guatemala]] and in [[Central America]].
Population estimates for Guatemala City range from 2 million to over 3.5 million people. The city is located at {{coor dm|14|38|N|90|33|W|}}, in a mountain valley in the south central part of the country.
== History==
Within the confines of modern Guatemala City is the ancient [[Maya civilization|Maya]] city of [[Kaminaljuyu]]. Kaminaljuyu dates back some 2,000 years and is one of America's greatest archaelogical sites dating from this period. The center of Kaminaljuyu was located a short distance from the older part of Guatemala City. However, in the late [[20th century]] the city grew around the ruins (and in some cases over some of the outlying ruins before they were protected). Most of hundreds of temple mounds have been built over with freeways, shopping centers, commerce, luxury hotels and residential areas. The central ceremonial center of Kaminaljuyu was protected by the Guatemalan government and is now a park within the city.
In Spanish colonial times this was a small town with a monastery called '''El Carmen''', founded in [[1620]]. The capital of Spanish colonial [[Central America]] was moved here after an earthquake destroyed the old capital [[Antigua Guatemala]] in [[1775]], and resulted in a great expansion of the city.
(including some fine collections of [[Pre-Columbian]] art) and continually offers more and more cultural activities. There are 10 universities, Universidad Mariano Gálvez, Universidad Panamericana, Universidad Mesoamericana, Universidad Rafael Landivar, [[Universidad Francisco Marroquin]], Universidad del Valle, Universidad del Istmo, [[Galileo University|Universidad Galileo]], Universidad Rural and [[Universidad de San Carlos]], the third oldest university in the New World.
Guatemala City does not have an efficient public transportation service despite the many proposals and projects for the construction of a mass transportation system. Although the construction of freeways and underpasses by the municipal government, as well as the establishment of the Department of Metropolitan Transit Police PMT, has helped traffic flow in the city, the Guatemalan Metropolitan Area faces a growing transportation problem.
Guatemala City is served by [[La Aurora International Airport]].
Among the most popular areas for Pop Culture and Shopping as well as entertainment we find Majadas, 4º Norte and Pradera Concepción (the biggest mall in Central America).
== Features ==
Guatemala City is the economic, governmental, and cultural capital of the Republic, and functions as the main port of entry into the country with the country's largest international airport, La Aurora. In addition to a wide variety of restaurants, hotels and shops, the city has a wide variety of art galleries and museums
[[ca:Ciutat de Guatemala]]
[[da:Guatemala City]]
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[[it:Città del Guatemala]]
[[he:גואטמלה סיטי]]
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[[nl:Guatemala-stad]]
[[ja:グアテマラシティ]]
[[pl:Gwatemala (miasto)]]
[[pt:Cidade da Guatemala]]
[[sl:Ciudad Guatemala]]
[[fi:Guatemala (kaupunki)]]
[[sv:Guatemala City]]
[[zh:瓜地馬拉市]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNU</title>
<id>11875</id>
<revision>
<id>41214625</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T21:05:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ashawley</username>
<id>617006</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert edit by [[Optichan]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the African animal '''gnu''', see [[wildebeest]].}}
{{Infobox_OS
|name = GNU
|logo = [[Image:Heckert GNU.png|36px]]
|screenshot = [[Image:Gnu-initial-screenshot.png|285px|Screenshot of a GNU-based OS]]
|caption = Screensh |
onductive when molten or in solution, and, in general, tend to exist in a [[crystalline]] form) are on two opposite ends of the spectrum and have different properties. Polar covalent bonds fall in the middle and have properties of both.
== Bond order ==
[[Bond order]] is a term that describes the number of pairs of electrons shared between atoms forming a covalent bond.
'''1)''' The most common type of covalent bond is the '''single bond''', sharing only one pair of electrons between two atoms. It usually consists of one [[sigma bond]].
All bonds with more than one shared pair are called '''multiple covalent bonds'''.
'''2)''' Sharing two pairs is called a '''double bond'''. An example is in [[ethylene]] (between the carbon atoms). It usually consists of one [[sigma bond]] and one [[pi bond]].
'''3)''' Sharing three pairs is called a '''triple bond'''. An example is in [[hydrogen cyanide]] (between C and N). It usually consists of one [[sigma bond]] and two [[pi bond]]s.
'''4)''' [[Quadruple bond]]s, though rare, exist. Both [[carbon]] and [[silicon]] can theoretically form these; however, the formed molecules are explosively unstable. Stable quadruple bonds are observed as transition metal-metal bonds, usually between two transition metal atoms in [[organometallic]] compounds. [[Molybdenum]] and [[Ruthenium]] are the elements most commonly observed with this bonding configuration. An example of a quadruple bond is also found in [[Di-tungsten tetra(hpp)]].
'''5)''' [[Quintuple bond]]s are found to exist in certain [[chromium]] dimers.
'''6)''' Sextuple bonds, of order 6, have also been observed in [[transition metal]]s in the gaseous phase at very low temperatures and are extremely rare.
Other more exotic bonds, such as [[three center bond]]s are known and defy the conventions of bond order. It is also important to note that bond order is an integer value only in the elementary sense and is often fractional in more advanced contexts.
== Coordinate covalent bonds ==
A special case is called a [[dative covalent bond]], also known as a [[coordinate covalent bond]], which occurs when one atom gives both of the electrons in the bond.
== Resonance ==
Some structures can have more than one valid Lewis Dot Structure (for example, [[ozone]], O<sub>3</sub>). In an LDS diagram of O<sub>3</sub>, the center atom will have a single bond with one atom and a double bond with the other. The LDS diagram cannot tell us which atom has the double bond; the first and second adjoining atoms have equal chances of having the double bond. These two possible structures are called [[chemical resonance|resonance structures]]. In reality, the structure of ozone is a '''resonance hybrid''' between its two possible resonance structures. Instead of having one double bond and one single bond, there are actually two 1.5 bonds with approximately three electrons in each at all times.
A special resonance case is exhibited in [[aromatic]] rings of atoms (for example, [[benzene]]). Aromatic rings are composed of atoms arranged in a circle (held together by covalent bonds) that alternate between single and double bonds according to their LDS. In actuality, the electrons tend to be disambiguously and evenly spaced within the ring. Electron sharing in aromatic structures is often represented with a ring inside the circle of atoms.
== Current theory ==
Today the valence bond model has been supplemented with the [[molecular orbital]] model. In this model, as atoms are brought together, the ''atomic'' orbitals interact to form '''hybrid''' ''molecular'' orbitals. These molecular orbitals are a cross between the original atomic orbitals and generally extend between the two bonding atoms.
Using quantum mechanics it is possible to calculate the electronic structure, energy levels, bond angles, bond distances, dipole moments, and frequency spectra of simple molecules with a high degree of accuracy. Currently, bond distances and angles can be calculated as accurately as they can be measured (distances to a few pm and bond angles to a few degrees). For small molecules, energy calculations are sufficiently accurate to be useful for determining thermodynamic heats of formation and kinetic activation energy barriers.
== See also ==
* [[Chemical bond]]
* [[Ionic bond]]
* [[Linear combination of atomic orbitals]]
* [[Metallic bonding]]
== External links ==
* [http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/602/616516/Chapter_07.html Covalent Bonds and Molecular Structure]
[[Category:Chemical bonding]]
<P>
[[ar:رابطة تساهمية]]
[[bg:Ковалентна химична връзка]]
[[ca:Enllaç covalent]]
[[cs:Kovalentní vazba]]
[[da:Kovalent]]
[[de:Atombindung]]
[[et:Kovalentne side]]
[[es:Enlace covalente]]
[[fa:پیوند کووالانسی]]
[[fr:Liaison covalente]]
[[he:קשר קוולנטי]]
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[[nl:Covalente binding]]
[[ja:共有結合]]
[[nn:Kovalent binding]]
[[pl:Wiązanie kowalencyjne]]
[[pt:Ligação covalente]]
[[sk:Kovalentná väzba]]
[[fi:Kovalenttinen sidos]]
[[sv:Kovalent bindning]]
[[th:พันธะโควาเลนต์]]
[[uk:Ковалентний зв'язок]]
[[zh:共价键]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Condensation polymer</title>
<id>6247</id>
<revision>
<id>31491953</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-15T17:46:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rsolimeno</username>
<id>470688</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Condensation polymers''' are any class of polymers formed through a [[condensation reaction]], releasing (or condensing) a small molecule by-product such as water or methanol, as opposed to [[addition polymer]]s which involve the reaction of [[unsaturated monomer]]s. Types of condensation polymers include [[polyamide]]s, [[polyacetal]]s and [[polyester]]s.
Condensation polymerization, a form of [[step-growth polymerization]], is a process by which two molecules join together, with the loss of a small molecule which is often water. The type of end product resulting from a condensation polymerization is dependent on the number of functional end groups of the monomer which can react.
Monomers with only one reactive group terminate a growing chain, and thus give end products with a lower molecular weight. Linear polymers are created using monomers with two reactive end groups and monomers with more than two end groups give three dimensional polymers which are crosslinked.
[[Cross-linking]] often involves joining monomers with an -OH (hydroxyl) group and a freely ionized -H on either end (such as a hydrogen from the -NH<sub>2</sub> in [[nylon]] or [[proteins]]). Normally, two or more different monomers are used in the reaction. The bonds between the hydroxyl group, the hydrogen atom and their respective atoms break forming water from the hydroxyl and hydrogen, and the polymer.
[[Polyester]] is created through [[ester]] linkages between monomers, which involve the functional groups [[carboxyl]] and [[hydroxyl]] (an organic acid and an alcohol monomer).
[[Nylon]] is another common condensation polymer. It can be manufactured by reacting [[amine|di-amines]] with carboxyl derivatives. In this example the derivative is a [[carboxylic acid|di-carboxylic acid]], but [[acyl chloride|di-acyl chlorides]] are also used. Another approach used is the reaction of di-functional monomers, with one amine and one carboxylic acid group on the same molecule:
[[image:con_polymer.png]]
The carboxylic acids and amines link to form [[peptide bond]]s, also known as [[amide]] groups. [[protein|Proteins]] are condensation polymers made from [[amino acid]] monomers. Carbohydrates are also condensation polymers made from sugar monomers such as glucose and galactose.
Condensation polymerization is occasionally used to form simple hydrocarbons. This method, however, is expensive and ineffective, so the [[addition polymer]] of ethene (polyethylene) is generally used.
Condensation Polymers, unlike [[Addition polymer]]s are bio-degradable. The peptide or ester bonds between monomers can be hydrolysed by acid catalysts or bacterial [[enzyme]]s breaking the polymer chain into smaller pieces.
The most commonly known condensation polymers are proteins, fabrics such as nylon, [[silk]], or [[polyester]].
:''See also:'' [[Biopolymer]], [[Polyester]], [[Polyamide]]
[[Category:Polymers]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cosmic rays</title>
<id>6248</id>
<revision>
<id>15904404</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-04T18:17:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Damian Yerrick</username>
<id>1</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>singular, please =&gt; Cosmic ray</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cosmic ray]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Timeline of computing</title>
<id>6249</id>
<revision>
<id>41543598</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T01:29:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>210.8.213.140</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{history of computing}}
This article presents a detailed '''[[timeline]] of events in the history of [[computing]]'''. For a narrative explaining the overall developments, see the related [[History of computing]].
'''Computing timelines''': [[Timeline of computing 2400 BC-1949|2400 BC-1949]], [[Computing timeline 1950-1979|1950-1979]], [[Computing timeline 1980-1989|1980-1989]], [[Computing timeline 1990-forward|1990-present]]
==Resources==
*Stephen White: ''A Brief History of Computing'', http://ox.compsoc.net/~swhite/history.html. An excellent Computer history site; the above is a modified version of his timeline, used with [[History of computing/Permission|permission]].
*''The Computer History in time and space, Graphing Project'' tries to build a graphical image of computer history, in particular [[operating system]]s, http://comp-hist.sourceforge.net/
==See also==
*[[History of computing h |
sle of Skye|Glendale]]
*[[Isleornsay]]
*[[Kilmaluag]], [[Kilmore, Isle of Skye|Kilmore]], [[Kilmuir]], [[Kyleakin]], [[Kylerhea]]
*[[Milovaig]]
*[[Portnalong]], [[Portree]]
*[[Sconser]], [[Skeabost]], [[Sligachan]], [[Staffin]], [[Stein, Isle of Skye|Stein]], [[Struan]]
*[[Talisker, Isle of Skye|Talisker]], [[Tarskavaig]], [[Teangue]], [[Torrin]]
*[[Uig, Skye|Uig]], [[Ullinish]]
==See also==
*[[:Category:Mountains and hills of Skye]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Skye}}
*[http://www.skat.org.uk/ SKAT homepage]
{{Hebrides}}
[[Category:Isle of Skye|*]]
[[da:Skye]]
[[de:Skye]]
[[et:Skye]]
[[fr:Île de Skye]]
[[gd:An t-Eilean Sgitheanach]]
[[nl:Skye]]
[[pl:Skye]]
[[pt:Ilha de Skye]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Islands of the North Atlantic</title>
<id>15260</id>
<revision>
<id>39695073</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T05:07:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Snottygobble</username>
<id>111359</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.254.146.68|203.254.146.68]] ([[User talk:203.254.146.68|talk]]) to last version by Calaschysm</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For an explanation of often confusing terms like ([[Great Britain|Great]]) [[Britain]]'', ''[[United Kingdom]]'' and ''[[England]]'' see also [[British Isles (terminology)]].''
"'''Islands of the North Atlantic'''" ('''IONA''') was suggested by Sir [[John Biggs-Davison]] <!--what year?--> as a less contentious alternative to the term "[[British Isles]]" to refer to [[Britain and Ireland]] and the smaller associated islands. It has been used particularly in the context of the [[Northern Ireland|Northern Irish]] "peace process", during the negotiation of the [[Belfast Agreement]], as a neutral description of those islands. However its use has been mainly limited to this context: [[as of 2004]] (January), the term ''Islands of the North Atlantic'' was not used in any official internet site of the [[British government|British]] or [[Irish government|Irish]] governments, apart from verbatim reports of [[Dáil Éireann|Irish parliamentary]] debates discussing whether it might be used.
The term has been adopted by the Councils of the [[World Universities Debating Championship]] and [[European Universities Debating Championship]] for the purposes of regional elections to the Councils.
One feature of this name is that the [[acronym]] IONA has the same spelling as the island of [[Iona]] which is off the coast of [[Scotland]] but with which Irish people have strong cultural associations. It is therefore a name with which people of both main islands might identify. On the other hand, it can be confusing (a) because of this duplication of the name of the existing Iona and (b) because [[Greenland]], [[Iceland]], and [[Newfoundland]] are also important and rather prominent islands of the North [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], which the term is not intended to include.
"British Isles" remains for now the most widely used term to describe the aforementioned territories, and vastly predates the present matters of controversy. Some, however, seeing in "British" an implication of possession, object, saying that while accurate in describing both the geography and the politics of the islands when Ireland remained part of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] (1801-1922), it has not changed to reflect [[History of the Republic of Ireland|political developments since 1922]].
It remains to be seen whether IONA, which has been used as part of the [[Northern Ireland peace process|Northern Ireland "peace process"]], will become a widely accepted replacement term for the British Isles, whether another term will evolve over time, or whether the ''status quo'' will prevail.
== References ==
[http://www.biipb.org/biipb/summary/sum/doc/8033001/8033012.htm] Denis Canavan MSP, British Irish Inter-Parliamentary Body, Summary of the 15th Plenary Session, 9. The Future of the Body
[http://www.imsgrp.com/greenparty/goodfrid.htm] [[Trevor Sargent]] TD, "The Good Friday Agreement", [[Dáil Éireann]] speech
[http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm199798/cmhansrd/vo980116/debtext/80116-14.htm] Mr. Peter Luff MP, [[British House of Commons]] speech
[http://www.iona.edu/academic/arts_sci/orgs/resiliency/barry.htm] Kevin Barry, "Resiliency, Tolerance and Avoidance in Northern Ireland"
[http://www.irlgov.ie/taoiseach/press/Archives/1999/15-10-99.htm] [[Taoiseach]] Mr [[Bertie Ahern]] TD, "Ireland and Britain A New Relationship for a New Millennium"
[http://www.ciaonet.org/isa/shp01/] Paul Sharp, "When New Meets Old: Irish Diplomacy, Northern Ireland and the Peace Process"
==External links==
*[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/peace/docs/agreement.htm The Good Friday Agreement]
*[http://www.britishirishcouncil.org/ British-Irish Council]
[[Category:North Atlantic Islands]]
[[eo:Insularo de la Norda Atlantiko]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intel 80486DX4</title>
<id>15261</id>
<revision>
<id>33987741</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-05T16:17:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Krash</username>
<id>219529</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dab Megahertz</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[Intel]] '''DX4''' is a clock-tripled [[80486]] [[microprocessor]] chip. Intel named their chip deceptively during [[litigation]] with [[AMD]] over [[trademark]]s. The product was officially named the DX4, but [[original equipment manufacturer|OEM]]s continued using the 486DX4 naming convention.
Intel produced DX4s with two [[clock speed]] steppings: A 75 [[Megahertz|MHz]] version (3x 25 MHz multiplier) and a 100 MHz version (usually 3x 33.3 MHz, but sometimes 2.5x 40 MHz or 2x 50 MHz). [[Intel 80486 OverDrive|OverDrive]] editions of the DX4 had locked multipliers, and therefore can run only at 3x the external clock-speed.
{{Intel_processors}}
[[de:Intel 80486DX4]]
[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 4864]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intel 80486DX</title>
<id>15263</id>
<revision>
<id>38124092</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T09:17:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mjager</username>
<id>109140</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>linking</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Intel 80486DX''' is a [[microprocessor]] made by [[Intel]] [[x86]] family of processors. It is the successor to the [[Intel 80386]] processor line.
[[Image:Intel 80486DX-33.jpg|thumb|An Intel 80486DX-33 microprocessor]]
Differences between the 80386 and 80486DX include:
*Data/Instruction Cache- An 8192-byte (8 kB) SRAM built into the processor core, designed to store the most commonly used instructions. The 386 supported an off-chip cache, but this was much slower.
*Pipelining- This allows the processor to handle a LocateFetchExecute each clock cycle. The pipeline is offset meaning the execute step required information from the previous two clock cycles. A locate would be to feed the next fetch, the fetch would be to feed the next execute. The 386 needs to do each step separately.
*Virtual Memory Handler- [[Hardwired]] programming to handle swapping memory to hard drive.
*Integrated [[FPU]]- Added accelerated high end math functions.
The 486 had a 32 bit data bus. This requires either four matched 30 pin simms or one 72 pin simm.
The 486 has a 32 bit address bus limiting it to a 4 GB of ram.
The Early 486 machines often used [[VESA Local Bus]] for video cards and hard drives. The bus speed matches the motherboard frequency.
''See also'': [[Intel 80486]]
{{Intel_processors}}
[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 4861]]
[[eo:486DX]]
[[fr:Intel 80486DX]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iapetus</title>
<id>15264</id>
<revision>
<id>38193546</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T21:05:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>warnfile Adding: ko</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Iapetus''' may mean:
*[[Iapetus (mythology)]], a Titan in Greek mythology
*[[Iapetus (moon)]], one of the planet Saturn's moons
*[[Iapetus Ocean]], an ancient ocean between present-day Scotland and Scandinavia
{{disambig}}
[[ast:Xapetu]]
[[da:Iapetus]]
[[es:Japeto]]
[[fr:Japet]]
[[ko:이아페투스]]
[[it:Giapeto]]
[[he:יאפטוס]]
[[ja:イアペトゥス]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ignatius Loyola</title>
<id>15265</id>
<revision>
<id>15912748</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-10T18:20:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alfvaen</username>
<id>142109</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Added a space</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ignatius of Loyola]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interactive Fiction Competition</title>
<id>15266</id>
<revision>
<id>40364466</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Interactive Fiction Competition''' is an annual competition for works of [[interactive fiction]] that has been held since [[1995]].
It is intended for fairly short games, as judges are only allowed to spend two hours playing a game before deciding how many points to award it.
The first competition had separate sections for [[Inform]] and [[TADS]] games.
Subsequent competitions have not been divided into sections and are open to games produced by any method, provided that the software used to play |
houghts on Tacitus' Portrayal of Claudius" ''American Journal of Philology'', 92 (1971), 385-409.
</div>
==External links==
{{Commons|Claudius}}
Ancient Sources:
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html Life of Claudius] (Suetonius; English translation and Latin original)
*[http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/tacitus/TacitusAnnals11.html Tacitus on the second half of Claudius' reign, book 11]
*[http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/tacitus/TacitusAnnals12.html Tacitus on Claudius' last years, book 12]
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html Cassius Dio's account of Claudius' reign, part I]
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/61*.html Cassius Dio's account, part II]
*[http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/JOSEPHUS.HTM The works of Josephus]
*[http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/apocolocyntosis.html The Apocolocyntosis of the Divine Claudius]
*[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/claualex.html Claudius' Letter to the Alexandrians]
*[[Lugdunum Tablet|Extract from first half of the Lyons Tablet]]
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/48claudius.html Second half of the Lyons Tablet]
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/tacitus-ann11a.html Tacitus' version of the Lyons Tablet speech]
*[http://www.personal.kent.edu/~bkharvey/roman/texts/citizen.htm Edict confirming the rights of the people of Trent]
Modern Biographies:
*[http://www.roman-emperors.org/claudius.htm Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/7094/claudius.html Claudius Page]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]]|before=[[Caligula]]|after=[[Nero]]|years=41&ndash;54}}
{{succession box|title=[[Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]|before=[[Caligula]]|after=[[Nero]]|years=41&ndash;54}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:10 BC births]]
[[Category:54 deaths]]
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Roman era historians]]
[[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]
[[Category:Romans in Britain]]
[[Category:Murdered Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Poisoned Romans]]
[[Category:Adoptive parents]]
[[Category:Deified Roman Emperors]]
[[bg:Клавдий]]
[[ca:Claudi]]
[[da:Claudius]]
[[de:Claudius]]
[[et:Claudius]]
[[es:Claudio]]
[[eo:Klaŭdio]]
[[fr:Claude Ier]]
[[he:קלאודיוס]]
[[hr:Klaudije]]
[[it:Claudio (imperatore romano)]]
[[ko:클라우디우스]]
[[la:Tib. Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus]]
[[nl:Claudius (keizer)]]
[[no:Claudius]]
[[ja:クラウディウス]]
[[pl:Klaudiusz (cesarz rzymski)]]
[[pt:Cláudio]]
[[ro:Claudius]]
[[ru:Клавдий]]
[[sk:Claudius]]
[[sl:Klavdij I.]]
[[fi:Claudius]]
[[sv:Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus]]
[[zh:克勞狄一世]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cardinal</title>
<id>6141</id>
<revision>
<id>39456474</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T06:15:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.112.183.85</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''''cardinal''''' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[cardo]]'' for "hinge" and usually refers to things of fundamental importance, as in ''[[cardinal rule]]'' or ''[[cardinal sin]]s''.
'''Cardinal''' may refer to:
* [[Cardinal number]], in mathematics
* [[Cardinal directions]]
* [[Cardinal (Catholicism)]], a member of the College of Cardinals of the Catholic Church
* [[Cardinal (color)]], a vivid reddish color
* [[Cardinal (bird)]], a family of passerine birds living in the Americas
* [[Cessna 177]] aircraft
* [[St. Louis Cardinals]], a National League baseball team
* [[Arizona Cardinals]], an American football team
* [[Cardinal (beer)]], a Swiss beer brand.
* [[Cardinal and Hoosier State]] train running between Chicago and St. Louis
* [[Cardinal mark]], a sea mark used in navigation
* [[Cardinal (Amtrak)]], a [[passenger train]] service operated by [[Amtrak]]
People named '''Cardinal''' include:
* [[Douglas J. Cardinal]] (born 1934), a Canadian architect
* [[Harold Cardinal]] (1945-2005), a Cree writer and political leader
There are places that have the name '''Cardinal''' in North America:
* [[Cardinal, Ontario]]
* [[Cardinal, Virginia]], a settlement in [[Mathews County, Virginia]]
{{disambig}}
[[cs:Kardinál (rozcestník)]]
[[da:Kardinal]]
[[fr:Cardinal]]
[[he:קרדינל (פירושונים)]]
[[ja:カージナルス]]
[[nl:Kardinaal]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cardinal numbers</title>
<id>6142</id>
<revision>
<id>15904301</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cardinal number]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cooking/Boiling</title>
<id>6144</id>
<revision>
<id>15904303</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-20T16:15:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting to Boiling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Boiling]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cooking/Hot sand frying</title>
<id>6145</id>
<revision>
<id>15904304</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-22T19:12:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[hot sand frying]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[hot sand frying]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cooking/Hot salt frying</title>
<id>6146</id>
<revision>
<id>15904305</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-22T19:11:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[hot salt frying]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[hot salt frying]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cooking/Double steaming</title>
<id>6147</id>
<revision>
<id>15904306</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-22T19:33:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[double steaming]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[double steaming]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cooking/Broiling</title>
<id>6148</id>
<revision>
<id>15904307</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-22T00:47:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karen Johnson</username>
<id>1300</id>
</contributor>
<comment>-</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Broiling]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cooking/Baking</title>
<id>6149</id>
<revision>
<id>15904308</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-20T16:11:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moving to Baking</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baking]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cooking/Blanching</title>
<id>6150</id>
<revision>
<id>15904309</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-20T16:17:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moving to Blanching</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Blanching]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cooking/Stir frying</title>
<id>6151</id>
<revision>
<id>15904310</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-22T19:38:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[stir frying]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[stir frying]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cooking/Steaming</title>
<id>6152</id>
<revision>
<id>15904311</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-22T19:31:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[steaming]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[steaming]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cooking/Weights and measures</title>
<id>6153</id>
<revision>
<id>15904312</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-22T00:32:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karen Johnson</username>
<id>1300</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cooking weights and measures]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cooking/Sauteeing</title>
<id>6154</id>
<revision>
<id>15904313</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-30T05:54:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chuq</username>
<id>3861</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Sautéing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cooking/Pan frying</title>
<id>6155</id>
<revision>
<id>15904314</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-22T19:13:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[pan frying]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[pan frying]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cooking/Deep frying</title>
<id>6156</id>
<revision>
<id>15904315</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-22T19:09:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[deep frying]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[deep frying]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cooking/Frying</title>
<id>6157</id>
<revis |
p://www.bollywhat.com Bollywhat? - The Guide for Clueless Fans of Bollywood Films]
* [http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Countries/India/ IMDB - A database for International Movies]
* [http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0502/feature3/?fs=www7.nationalgeographic.com An article on Bollywood in National Geographic archives]
* [http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/bollywood.jsp GreenCine primer on Bollywood]
;Plagiarism
* [http://www.itwofs.com/ Inspired Indian Film Songs - Accusations of music plagiarism with sound clips for comparison]
;Songs
* [http://www.giitaayan.com/ Giitaayan - Hindi lyrics archive]
* [http://www.downmelodylane.com/ Down Melody Lane]
* [http://www.geetmanjusha.com/ Geetmanjusha lyrics archive]
{{Life in India}}
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[Category:portmanteaus]]
[[Category:Cinema of India]]
[[Category:Kapoor family of Hindi films]]
[[Category:Mumbai culture]]
[[Category:Film Industries]]
[[Category:Desi culture]]
[[da:Bollywood]]
[[de:Bollywood]]
[[eo:Barata filmo]]
[[fr:Bollywood]]
[[hi:बॉलीवुड]]
[[it:Bollywood]]
[[he:בוליווד]]
[[ko:발리우드]]
[[nl:Bollywood]]
[[pl:Bollywood]]
[[pt:Bollywood]]
[[sq:Bollywood]]
[[fi:Bollywood]]
[[sv:Bollywood]]
[[zh:宝莱坞]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bowls</title>
<id>4248</id>
<revision>
<id>41205234</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T19:50:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cyde</username>
<id>6511</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>MoS</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bowls.jpg|thumb|250px|Men playing bowls]]
{{commons|Category:Bowls}}
{{for|short mat bowls|Short mat bowls}}
'''Bowls''' (also known as '''Lawn Bowls''' or '''Lawn Bowling''') is a [[precision sport]] where the goal is to roll slightly radially asymmetrical [[ball]]s (called bowls) closer to a smaller white ball (the "jack" or "kitty") than one's opponent is able to do. It is related to [[bocce]] and [[pétanque]]. This game is most popular in [[Australia]], [[Canada]], the [[United Kingdom]] and in other UK territories.
==The game==
The game is usually played on a large, rectangular, precisely levelled and manicured [[Lawn|grass]] or synthetic surface known as a [[bowling green]], but an indoor variation on carpet is also played. In the simplest competition, singles, one of the two opponents begins a segment of the competition (in bowling parlance, an "end"), by placing the mat and rolling the jack to the other end of the green as a target. Once it has come to rest, the players take turns to roll their bowls from the mat towards the jack and thereby build up the "head". Bowls reaching the ditch are dead and removed from play, except in the event when one has "touched" the jack on its way. "Touchers" are marked with chalk and remain alive in play even though they are in the ditch. Similarly if the jack is knocked into the ditch it is still alive unless it is out of bounds to the side resulting in a "dead" end which is replayed. After each competitor has delivered all of their bowls (four each in singles), the distance of the closest bowls to the jack is determined (the jack may have been displaced) and points are awarded for each bowl which a competitor has closer than the opponent's nearest to the jack. For instance, if a competitor has bowled two bowls closer to the jack than their competitor's nearest, they are awarded two points. The exercise is then repeated for the next end.
==Scoring==
Scoring systems vary from competition to competition, with some being the first to a specified number of points, say 21, or the highest scorer after say, 21 ends. Some competitions use a "set" scoring system, with the first to seven points awarded a set in a best-of-five set match. As well as singles competition, there can be pairs, triples and four-player teams. In these, teams take turns to bowl, with each player within a team bowling all their bowls, then handing over to the next player. The team captain or "skipper" always plays last and is instrumental in directing his team's shots and tactics.
==Bias of bowls==
Bowls are designed to travel a curved path, referred to as [[bias]], and was originally produced by inserting weights to one side of the bowl. This is no longer permitted by the rules and bias is now produced entirely by the shape of the bowl. A bowler can recognise the bias direction of the bowl in his hand by a dimple or symbol on one side. Regulations determine minimum and maximum curvature characteristics allowed, but within these rules bowlers can and do choose bowls to suit their own preference. They were originally made from [[lignum vitae]], a dense wood giving rise to the term "woods" for bowls, but are now more typically made of a hard plastic composite material. Usually coloured black, bowls are now available in a variety of colours including a range of fluorescent colours. They have unique symbol markings to identify competitors' bowls, and by regulation have a diameter of about 15 centimetres.
When bowling there are several types of delivery. "Draw" shots are those where the bowl is rolled to a specific location without causing too much disturbance of bowls already in the head. For a right-handed bowler, "forehand draw" is initially aimed to the right of the jack, and curves in to the left. The same bowler can deliver a "backhand draw" by turning the bowl over in his hand and curving it the opposite way, from left to right. In both cases, the bowl is rolled as close to the jack as possible, unless tactics demand otherwise. A "drive" involves bowling with considerable force with the aim of knocking either the jack or a specific bowl out of play - and with the drive's speed, there is virtually no noticeable curve on the shot. An "upshot" or "yard on" shot involves delivering the bowl with an extra degree of weight, enough to displace the jack or disturb other bowls in the head without killing the end. The challenge in all these shots is to be able to adjust line and length accordingly, the faster the delivery, the narrower the line or "grass".
==Variations of play==
Particularly in team competition there can be a large number of bowls on the green towards the conclusion of the end, and this gives rise to complex tactics. Teams "holding shot" with the closest bowl will often make their subsequent shots not with the goal of placing the bowl near the jack, but in positions to make it difficult for opponents to get their bowls into the head, or to places where the jack might be deflected to if the opponent attempts to disturb the head.
==Popularity==
Bowls is popular in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Canada]], and parts of the [[United States]]. Because of its relaxed pace and comparatively light physical demands, it is a popular participant sport, particularly for the elderly. However, there is a considerable professional competition dominated by younger men and women.
==World Indoor Singles Champions==
{| border=1
|-
|1979 || David Bryant || England
|-
|1980 || David Bryant || England
|-
|1981 || David Bryant || England
|-
|1982 || John Watson || Scotland
|-
|1983 || Bob Sutherland || Scotland
|-
|1984 || Jim Baker || Ireland
|-
|1985 || Terry Sullivan || Wales
|-
|1986 || Tony Allcock || England
|-
|1987 || Tony Allcock || England
|-
|1988 || Hugh Archibald|| Scotland
|-
|1989 || Richard Corsie || Scotland
|-
|1990 || John Price || Wales
|-
|1991 || Richard Corsie || Scotland
|-
|1992 || Ian Schuback || Australia
|-
|1993 || Richard Corsie || Scotland
|-
|1994 || Andy Thomson || England
|-
|1995 || Andy Thomson || England
|-
|1996 || David Gourlay || Scotland
|-
|1997 || Hugh Duff || Scotland
|-
|1998 || Paul Foster || Scotland
|-
|1999 || Alex Marshall || Scotland
|-
|2000 || Robert Weale || Wales
|-
|2001 || Paul Foster || Scotland
|-
|2002 || Tony Allcock || England
|-
|2003 || Alex Marshall || Scotland
|-
|2004 || Alex Marshall || Scotland
|-
|2005 || Paul Foster || Scotland
|-
|2006 || Mervyn King || England
|-
|}
==Sir Francis Drake==
[[Francis Drake|Sir Francis Drake]] is famous in bowls folklore: he is said to have insisted on completing his game of bowls on [[Plymouth Hoe]] before setting sail to confront the [[Spanish Armada]] in [[1588]].
==Crown green bowls==
'''Crown green bowls''' is a variant of lawn bowls played in the north of [[England]], in [[Wales]], and on the [[Isle of Man]]. It is played on a lawn from 30 to 60 yards (27 to 55 m) square. The centre of the lawn is 8 to 18 inches (200 to 450 mm) higher than its edges.
==External links==
'''World'''
* [http://www.wibc.org.uk/ World Indoor Bowls Council]
* [http://www.bowlspba.com/ Professional Bowls Association]
'''England'''
* [http://www.bowlsengland.com/ English Bowling Association]
* [http://www.eiba.co.uk/ English Indoor Bowling Association]
* [http://www.englishwomensbowling.net/ English Women's Bowling Association]
* [http://www.ewiba.com/ English Women's Indoor Bowling Association]
* [http://www.fedbowls.co.uk/ English Bowling Federation]
* [http://www.deafbowls.org.uk/ English Deaf Lawn Bowls Association]
* [http://www.esmba.org.uk/ English Short Mat Bowling Association]
* [http://www.englishcarpetbowls.com/ English Carpet Bowls Association]
* [http://www.ebua.org.uk/ English Bowls Umpires Association]
* [http://www.englishbowlscoaching.com/ English Bowls Coaching Scheme]
'''Scotland'''
* [http://www.bowls-siba.co.uk/ Scottish Indoor Bowling Association]
'''Wales'''
* [http://www.welshindoorbowls.com/ Welsh Indoor Bowls Association]
* [http://www.welsh-bowling-association.org.uk/ Welsh Bowling Association]
'''Jersey'''
* [http://www.jerseyindoorbowls.co.uk/Jersey Indoor Bowls Association]
'''British'''
* [http://www.biibc.org.uk/ Briti |
the better the caddy, the higher the base pay. In some countries, including the United States, the golfer is also expected to tip, based on how the caddy performed. In the United States base pay can range anywhere from 15 dollars to 75 dollars, and tips can be nonexistent or up to a couple hundred percent of the base. However, on average, a caddy at a local golf club or country club in the U.S. will earn forty to sixty dollars for a day’s work.
== Attire ==
*Collared shirt
*Khaki shorts or pants
*Gym shoes (lots of walking and standing)
*Smock
*Towel
== Alternative names for a caddy ==
*Bagger
*Bag-toter
*Jock
*Looper
*Lugger
*Noonan
[[Category:Golf terminology]]
[[Category:Caddies| ]]
[[Category:Personal care and service occupations]]
[[de:Caddy]]
[[es:Caddy]]
[[sv:Caddie (golf)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Compound turbine</title>
<id>7838</id>
<revision>
<id>15905886</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-05T23:55:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Turbines]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''compound turbine''' is a [[turbine]] in which there are two casings, a high-[[pressure]] casing and a low-pressure casing, operating in concert to extract work from a single source of steam. The steam is partially expanded in the high-pressure casing, then exhausted to the low-pressure casing. The rotor arrangement can be either tandem-compound in which the two axels are joined end to end, or cross-compound in which the two turbines have separate axels. In the cross-compound case two separate [[generator (device)|generator]]s must usually be supplied.
The principal advantages of compound turbines are the reduction in size of any one casing, the confinement of the highest pressure to the smaller casing (which may be made of stronger and more expensive materials) and the possibility of divided flow in the low-pressure casing for the purpose of equalizing end thrusts.
[[Category:Turbines]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Corona</title>
<id>7839</id>
<revision>
<id>40687737</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T08:28:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Palica</username>
<id>188933</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the astronomical term|other uses|Corona (disambiguation)}}
In astronomy, a '''corona''' is the luminous [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] "[[celestial body's atmosphere|atmosphere]]" of the [[Sun]] or other celestial body, extending millions of [[kilometre]]s into space, most easily seen during a total [[solar eclipse]], but also observable in a [[coronagraph]].
[[Image:Solar_eclips_1999_4.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Photo taken during the [[France|French]] [[1999]] eclipse]]
==Physical features==
The Sun's corona is much hotter (by a factor of nearly 200) than the visible surface of the Sun: the [[photosphere]]'s average [[temperature]] is 5800 [[kelvin]]s compared to the corona's one to three million kelvins. The corona is 10<sup>&minus;12</sup> as dense as the photosphere, however, and so produces about one-millionth as much visible light. The corona is separated from the photosphere by the relatively shallow [[chromosphere]]. The exact mechanism by which the corona is heated is still the subject of some debate, but likely possibilities include induction by the Sun's [[magnetic field]] and [[sound|sonic]] pressure waves from below (the latter being less probable now that coronae are known to be present in early-type [[star]]s). The outer edges of the Sun's corona are constantly being lost as [[solar wind]].
The Corona is not always evenly distributed across the surface of the sun. During periods of quiet, the corona is more or less confined to the [[equator]]ial regions, with "coronal holes" covering the [[Geographical pole|polar]] regions. However, during the Sun's active periods, the corona is evenly distributed over the equatorial and polar regions, though it is most prominent in areas with [[sunspot]] activity.
The high temperature of the corona gives it unusual [[spectroscopy|spectral]] features, which led some to suggest, in the [[19th century]], that it contained a previously unknown element, "[[coronium]]"; however these spectral features have since been traced to known elements in high states of ionization.
===Transients===
Generated by [[solar flare]]s or large [[solar prominence]]s, "coronal transients" are sometimes released. These are enormous loops of coronal material traveling outward from the Sun at over a million kilometres per hour, containing roughly 10 times the energy of the solar flare or prominence that triggered them.
==Other stars==
Stars other than the Sun have coronae, which can be detected using [[X-ray]] [[telescope]]s. Some stellar coronae, particularly in young stars, are much more luminous than the Sun's.
== Coronal heating problem ==
The '''coronal heating problem''' in [[astronomy]] and [[astrophysics]] relates to the question of why the temperature of the Sun's corona is millions of kelvins higher than that of the surface. The high temperatures require energy to be carried from the solar interior to the corona by non-thermal processes, because the [[second law of thermodynamics]] prevents heat from flowing directly from the solar photosphere, or surface, at about 5800 kelvins, to the much hotter corona at about 1 to 3 [[SI prefix|MK]] (parts of the corona can even reach 10 MK). The amount of power required to heat the solar corona can easily be calculated. It is about 1 kilowatt for every square metre of surface area on the Sun, or 1/40,000 of the amount of light energy that escapes the Sun.
Two separate theories have emerged to explain why the corona is so hot, ''wave heating'' and ''magnetic reconnection''. Through most of the past 50 years, neither theory has been able to account for the coronal heat. Most [[solar physicists]] now believe that some combination of the two theories can probably explain coronal heating, although the details are not yet complete.
===Wave heating theory===
The ''wave heating'' theory, proposed in [[1949]] by [[Evry Schatzman]], proposes that waves carry energy from the solar interior to the solar chromosphere and corona. The Sun is made of [[Plasma physics|plasma]] rather than ordinary gas, so it supports several types of waves analogous to [[sound waves]] in air. The most important types of wave are [[magneto-acoustic wave]]s and [[Alfvén wave]]s. Magneto-acoustic waves are sound waves that have been modified by the presence of a magnetic field, and Alfvén waves, are similar to [[ULF]] [[radio waves]] that have been modified by interaction with [[matter]] in the plasma. Both types of waves can be launched by the turbulence of [[granulation]] and [[supergranulation]] at the solar photosphere, and both types of waves can carry energy for some distance through the solar atmosphere before turning into [[shock waves]] that dissipate their energy as heat.
One problem with wave heating is delivery of the heat to the appropriate place. Magneto-acoustic waves cannot carry sufficient energy upward through the chromosphere to the corona, both because of the low pressure present in the chromosphere and because they tend to be [[reflected]] back to the photosphere. Alfvén waves can carry enough energy, but do not dissipate that energy rapidly enough once they enter the corona. Waves in plasmas are notoriously difficult to understand and describe analytically, but computer simulations, carried out by [[Thomas Bogdan]] and colleagues in [[2003]], seem to show that Alfvén waves can transmute into other wave modes at the base of the corona, providing a pathway that can carry large amounts of energy from the photosphere into the corona and then dissipate it as heat.
Another problem with wave heating has been the complete absence, until the late [[1990s]], of any direct evidence of waves propagating through the solar corona. The first direct observation of waves propagating into and through the solar corona was made in [[1997]] with the [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]] space-borne solar observatory, the first platform capable of observing the Sun in the [[ultraviolet|extreme ultraviolet]] for long periods of time with stable [[Photometry (astronomy)|photometry]]. Those were magneto-acoustic waves with a frequency of about 1 [[hertz|millihertz]] (mHz, corresponding to a 1,000 second wave period), that carry only about 10% of the energy required to heat the corona. Many observations exist of localized wave phenomena, such as Alfvén waves launched by solar flares, but those events are transient and cannot explain the uniform coronal heat.
It is not yet known exactly how much wave energy is available to heat the corona. Results published in [[2004]] using data from the [[TRACE]] spacecraft seem to indicate that there are waves in the solar atmosphere at frequencies as high as 100 mHz (10 second period). Measurements of the temperature of different [[ions]] in the solar wind with the [[UVCS]] instrument aboard SOHO give strong indirect evidence that there are waves at frequencies as high as 200 Hz, well into the range of human hearing. These waves are very difficult to detect under normal circumstances, but evidence collected during solar eclipses by teams from [[Williams College]] suggest the presences of such waves in the 1-10 Hz range.
===Magnetic reconnection theory===
The [[Magnetic reconnection]] theory relies on the solar magnetic field to induce electric currents in the solar corona. The currents then collapse suddenly, releasing energy as heat and wave energy in the corona. This process is called "reconnection" because of the peculiar way that magnetic fiel |
rg/charts/PDF/U2800.pdf Unicode reference glyphs for Braille patterns] (in [[PDF]] format)
*[http://yudit.org/download/fonts/UBraille/UBraille.ttf Free Unicode Braille TTF font (supports all Braille scripts)]
*[http://www.travelphrases.info/gallery/Fonts_Braille.html Free Unicode fonts which include braille]
*[http://www.nyise.org/blind/irwin2.htm Robert B. Irwin's ''As I Saw It''], 1955, gives a history of the "War of the Dots" that ultimately led to the adoption of the English form of the braille literary code in the United States and the demise of [[American braille]] and [[New York Point]], its main competitors.
*[http://www.nlb-online.org The National Library for the Blind]
*[http://www.iceb.org/ubc.html Unified (English) Braille Code] (including information specific to British braille)
*[http://www.brl.org/ebae/ English Braille: American Edition]
*[http://flaming-shadows.tripod.com/braille.htm Online Braille Generator]
*[http://www.mathsisfun.com/braille-translation.html Online Braille Translation]
*[http://www.brailler.com/braillehx.htm How Braille Began] -- a detailed history of braille's origins and the people who supported and opposed the system.
*[http://www.nbp.org/ic/nbp/braille/index.html?id=PZoXeJDm A braille alphabet card]
{{Link FA|cs}}
[[Category:Braille]]
[[Category:Tactile alphabets]]
[[Category:Assistive technology]]
[[Category:Encodings]]
[[Category:Blindness]]
[[Category:Latin alphabet representations]]
[[ar:كتابة بريل]]
[[cs:Braillovo písmo]]
[[da:Braille-alfabetet]]
[[de:Brailleschrift]]
[[es:Braille]]
[[eo:Brajlo]]
[[fr:Braille]]
[[gl:Braille]]
[[ko:점자]]
[[it:Braille]]
[[he:כתב ברייל]]
[[lt:Aklųjų raštas]]
[[ms:Braille]]
[[nl:Braille]]
[[ja:点字]]
[[pl:Alfabet Braille'a]]
[[pt:Braille]]
[[ro:Alfabetul Braille]]
[[ru:Шрифт Брайля]]
[[sk:Braillovo písmo]]
[[sl:Braillova pisava]]
[[sr:Брајева азбука]]
[[fi:Pistekirjoitus]]
[[sv:Brailleskrift]]
[[th:อักษรเบรลล์]]
[[uk:Брайля шрифт]]
[[zh:盲文]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baby Boom</title>
<id>3934</id>
<revision>
<id>15902245</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-10T06:32:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Siroxo</username>
<id>49312</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[baby boom]] as per vfd</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[baby boom]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BuddHism</title>
<id>3935</id>
<revision>
<id>15902246</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Buddhism]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bastille Day</title>
<id>3936</id>
<revision>
<id>39734292</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T13:58:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* History of the celebration */ Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Champs-Elysees-p1000418-smal.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Champs-Élysées]]'' decorated with flags for the [[14 July]].]]
'''Bastille Day''' is the [[France|French]] [[national holiday]], celebrated on [[14 July]] each year. It is called ''Fête Nationale'' (National Holiday) in France. It commemorates the [[1790]] ''[[Fête de la Fédération]]'', held on the first anniversary of the [[storming of the Bastille]] on [[14 July]] [[1789]]; the ''Fête de la Fédération'' was seen as a symbol of the uprising of the modern French "nation", and of the reconciliation of all the French inside the constitutional monarchy which preceded the [[First Republic (France)|First Republic]], during the [[French Revolution]].
==Current festivities==
[[Image:Chirac July 14 motorcade DSC00776.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jacques Chirac]] reviewing troops on the 2003 Bastille Day parade.]]
[[14 July]] is the French national day, simply called ''Fête nationale'' or ''14 juillet'' (though it is generally referred to as [[Bastille Day]] in English). Many cities hold fireworks during the night. It is also customary that [[firefighter]]s organise dancing parties (''bals du 14 juillet'').
The day officially celebrates the [[1790]] ''[[Fête de la Fédération]]'', though it is often associated, even in France, with the [[Storming of the Bastille]].
Military parades are held on the morning of [[14 July]], the largest of which takes place on the [[Champs-Élysées]] avenue in [[Paris]] in front of the [[President of France|President of the Republic]].
The parade opens with [[cadet]]s from certain schools ([[École Polytechnique]], [[École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr|Saint-Cyr]], [[École Navale]], and so forth), then other [[infantry]] troops, then motorised troops; [[aviation]] of the [[Patrouille de France]] flies above. In recent times, it has become customary to invite units from France's close allies into the parade; for instance, in [[2004]] during the centenary of the [[Entente Cordiale]], [[British Armed Forces|British troops]] (the band of the [[Royal Marines]], the [[Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment]], [[Grenadier Guards]] and [[King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery]]) led the Bastille Day parade in Paris for the first time, with the [[Red Arrows]] flying overhead.[http://www.entente-cordiale.org/en/6a_c.php?id=1].
The parade also involves the [[French Republican Guard]], and occasionally (non-military) [[police]] units; it always ends with the much-cheered and popular [[Paris Fire Brigade]] (which, exceptionally, has military status in France). Traditionally, the students of the École Polytechnique set up some form of joke.
The [[President of the French Republic|president]] then gives an [[interview]] to members of the press, discussing the situation of the country, recent events and projects for the future. He also holds a [[garden party]] at the [[Élysée Palace|Palais de l'Elysée]].
Bastille Day also falls during the running of the [[Tour de France]], and is traditionally the day upon which French riders will make a special effort to take a stage victory for France.
==History of the celebration==
[[Image:Monet-montorgueil.JPG|thumb|[[Claude Monet]], ''Rue Montorgueil, Paris, Festival of [[30 June]] [[1878]]''.]]
On [[30 June]] [[1878]], a feast had been set in Paris by official decision to honour the Republic (the event was immortalised by a painting by [[Claude Monet]]). On the [[14 July]] [[1879]], another feast took place, with a semi-official aspect; the events of the day included a military review in Longchamp, a reception in the Chambre of Deputies, organised and presided by [[Léon Gambetta]], and a Republican Feast in the pré Catelan with [[Louis Blanc]] and [[Victor Hugo]]. All through France, as ''[[Le Figaro]]'' wrote on the 16, "people feasted a lot to honour the Bastille".
On the [[21 May]] [[1880]], [[Benjamin Raspail]] presented a law proposal to have "the Republic choose the [[14 July]] as a yearly national holiday". The Assembly voted the text on [[21 May]] and [[8 June]]. The Senate approved on [[27 June|27]] and [[29 June]], favouring [[14 July]] against [[4 August]] (honouring the [[French_Revolution_from_the_abolition_of_feudalism_to_the_Civil_Constitution_of_the_Clergy#The_abolition_of_feudalism|end of the feudal system]] on [[4 August]] [[1789]]). The law was made official on [[6 July]] [[1880]], and the Ministry of the Interior recommended to the prefects that the day should be "celebrated with all the brilliance that the local resources allow". Indeed, the celebrations of the new holiday in 1880 were particularly magnificent.
===Discourse by Henri Martin to the Senate===
Discourse by [[Henri Martin]], Chairman of the Senate, [[29 June]] [[1880]]
: (...) Do not forget that behind this 14&nbsp;July, where victory of the new era over the ''[[ancien régime]]'' was bought by fighting, do not forget that after the day of 14&nbsp;July 1789, there was the day of 14&nbsp;July 1790.
: This [latter] day cannot be blamed for having shed a drop of blood, for having divided the country. It was the consecration of unity of France. Yes, it consecrated what the old monarchy had prepared.
: The old monarchy had, one could say, been the essence of France, and we did not forget it; Revolution, on this day of the 14&nbsp;July 1790, made, I shall not say the soul of France&mdash;None but God holds the soul of France&mdash;but Revolution gave France the counsciousness of itself. It revealed its own soul to France. Remember then that on this day, the most beautiful and the purest of our history, from one end of the country to the other, from the [[Pyrenees]] to [[Alps]] and [[Rhine]], all the French were holding hands. Remember that, from all parts of the national territory, delegations of the [[French National Guard|National Guard]] and of the Army came to Paris to celebrate the deeds of '89. Remember what was in that Paris: a whole People, without distinctions of age nor sex, of rank not wealth, was associated from all its heart, had participated with its own hands to the fantastic preparations of the ''Fête de la Fédération''; Paris had worked to erect around the [[Champ-de-Mars]] this truly sacred amphitheatre which was razed by the [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]].
: (...)
: If some of you might have scruples against the first 14&nbsp;July, they certainly hold none aginst the second. Whatever difference which might part us, something hovers over them, it is the great images of national unity, which we all desire, for which we would all stand, willing to die if necessary.
==Historical background==
===The Storming of the Bastille===
: ''Main article: [[Storming of the Bastille]]''.
[[Image:Taking of the Bastille.jpg|thumb|''Prise de la Bastille'', by Jean-Pierre- |
s Radio User's Page]''.
*[http://geomag.usgs.gov USGS Geomagnetism Program]
*[http://www.sec.noaa.gov/SWN/ Current Space Weather Conditions]
*[http://www.sec.noaa.gov/rt_plots/xray_1m.html Current Solar X-Ray Flux]
*[http://superdarn.jhuapl.edu/ Super Dual Auroral Radar Network]
*[http://www.eiscat.se/ European Inchorent Scatter radar system]
*[http://www.haystack.mit.edu/mhrobs/introduction.html Millstone Hill radar]
{{earthsatmosphere}}
[[Category:Radio frequency propagation]]
[[Category:Nikola Tesla]]
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Space plasmas]]
[[Category:Plasma physics]]
[[bg:Йоносфера]]
[[cs:Ionosféra]]
[[de:Ionosphäre]]
[[es:Ionosfera]]
[[fr:Ionosphère]]
[[ko:전리층]]
[[nl:Ionosfeer]]
[[ja:電離層]]
[[pl:Jonosfera]]
[[pt:Ionosfera]]
[[sk:Ionosféra]]
[[sv:Jonosfär]]
[[uk:Іоносфера]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ido language</title>
<id>15099</id>
<revision>
<id>15912606</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-27T09:29:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naive cynic</username>
<id>84472</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Ido language moved to Ido</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Ido]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interlingua</title>
<id>15100</id>
<revision>
<id>41681460</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T00:56:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.248.65.105</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* [[International Auxiliary Language Association]] */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article describes the [[international auxiliary language]] created by the International Auxiliary Language Association. For the earlier Interlingua created by [[Giuseppe Peano]], see [[Latino Sine Flexione]]. For other usages of the term interlingua, see [[Interlingua (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Infobox Language
|name=Interlingua
|creator=[[International Auxiliary Language Association]] ([[1951]])
|setting=[[international auxiliary language]], most popular in [[Scandinavia]] and [[North America]]
|speakers=First language: none known<br>Second language: about 1500
|fam2=[[international auxiliary language]]
|posteriori=[[Romance languages|Romance]] and [[Neolatin]]–based
|agency=no regulating body
|iso1=ia|iso2=ina|iso3=ina}}
The [[constructed language]] '''Interlingua''' is an [[international auxiliary language]] (IAL) published in [[1951]] by the [[International Auxiliary Language Association]] (IALA). In appearance, Interlingua combines a Latin-Romance vocabulary with a simplified Romance grammar, and thus it is often referred to as a modernized and simplified [[Latin]]. It is sometimes called ''IALA Interlingua'' to distinguish it from the other uses of ''interlingua''.
== Rationale ==
The expansive movements of science, technology, trade, diplomacy, and the arts, combined with the historical dominance of the Greek and Latin languages, have resulted in a large common vocabulary among Western languages. Interlingua uses an [[algorithm]] to extract and standarize the most widespread word (or, occasionally, words) for a concept found in a set of ''control languages'' (English, French, Italian, and Spanish/Portuguese, with German and Russian as secondary references). The resulting vocabulary corresponds closely with the [[Neolatin]] element in the [[International Scientific Vocabulary]].
Interlingua combines this pre-existing vocabulary with a minimalist grammar based on the control languages. People with a good knowledge of a Romance language, or a smattering of a Romance language plus a good knowledge of the international scientific vocabulary can frequently read it at first sight. Because at-sight comprehensibility was a design criterion, Interlingua retains the traditional spelling and morphology of its Latinate source material. It is for this reason that Interlingua is frequently termed a ''naturalistic'' IAL (as opposed ''schematic'' IALs such as [[Esperanto]] and [[Ido]], which are less closely tied to their source languages).
== History ==
=== [[International Auxiliary Language Association]] ===
Ultimate credit for Interlingua must go to the American heiress Alice [[Vanderbilt]] Morris (1874–1950), who became interested in [[linguistics]] and the [[international auxiliary language]] movement in the early 1920s. In 1923, Morris and her husband, David Hennen Morris, founded the non-profit International Auxiliary Language Association in New York. Their aim was to place the study of IALs on a scientific basis. IALA became a major supporter of mainstream American linguistics, funding, for example, [[Edward Sapir]]'s cross-linguistic semantic studies of totality (1930) and grading phenomena (1944). Morris herself edited Sapir and [[Morris Swadesh]]'s 1932 cross-linguistic study of ending-point phenomena, and [[William Edward Collinson]]'s 1937 study of indication. Although the Morrises provided most of IALA's funding, it also received support from such prestigious groups as the [[Carnegie Corporation]], the [[Ford Foundation]] and the [[Rockefeller Foundation]].
In its early years, IALA concerned itself with three tasks: finding other organizations around the world with similar goals; building a library of books about [[language]]s and [[interlinguistics]]; and comparing extant IALs, including [[Esperanto]], [[Esperanto II]], [[Ido]], [[Latino Sine Flexione]], [[Novial]], and [[Occidental language|Occidental]]. In pursuit of this last goal it arranged conferences with proponents of these IALs, debating features and goals of their representative language. However, with a "concession rule" that required participants to make a certain number of concessions, the debates were forestalled from changing from heated to explosive.
During the Second International Interlanguage Congress in [[Geneva]] in [[1931]], the IALA began to break new ground, as its conference was attended (and its efforts legitimized) by eminent linguists who were <i>not</i> members of the IALA.
[[1933]] was a major year for the IALA. First, Professor [[Herbert H. Shenton]] of [[Syracuse University]] founded an intense study about the problems that had been encountered in interlanguages when used in international conferences. Later, Dr. [[Edward L. Thorndike]] published a paper about the relative learning speeds of "natural" and "modular" constructed languages. Although neither was a member of the IALA, both were major influences on its work from then on.
In [[1937]], the first steps towards the finalization of Interlingua were made, when a committee of 24 linguists from 19 universities around the world published <i>Some Criteria for an International Language and Commentary</i> (English title). However, the intended biannual meetings of the committee was cut short by the outbreak of [[World War II]] in 1939.
===Development of a new language===
From the beginning, the IALA had not set out to create its own language, but rather to identify which international language already extant would be the best suited to the task, and how best to promote it. However, after ten years of research, more and more members of the IALA came to the conclusion that none of the extant interlanguages were up to the task. By [[1937]], the decision to create a new language had been arrived at, a decision that surprised the world's interlanguage community.
Although much of the debate had been to that point evenly balanced over the decision to use naturalistic (e.g., [[Novial]] and [[Occidental]]) or systematic (e.g., [[Esperanto]] and [[Ido]]) words, during the war years, those supporting a naturalistic interlanguage won out. The first support was Dr. Thorndike's paper; the second was the concession by those supporting systematic languages that thousands of words were already extant in many (or even a majority) of the European languages. Their argument was that systematic derivation of words was a [[Procrustes|Procrustian bed]], forcing the learner to unlearn and re-memorize a new derivation scheme when there was already a usable corpus of vocabulary. This finally convinced those who supported systematic languages, and the IALA from that point assumed the position that a naturalistic language would be best.
At the outbreak of the Second World War, IALA's research activities were moved from Liverpool to New York, where E. Clark Stillman established a new research staff. Stillman, with the assistance of Dr. [[Alexander Gode]], developed a ''prototyping'' technique -- an objective methodology for selecting and standardizing vocabulary based on a comparison of ''control languages''.
In [[1943]] Stillman left for war work and Gode became Acting Director of Research. In [[1945]], IALA published a ''General Report'' (largely Morris's work), which presented three models for IALA's language:
* Model P was a naturalistic model that made no attempt to regularize the prototyped vocabulary.
* Model E was lightly schematicized along the lines of [[Occidental]].
* Model K was moderately schematicized along the lines of [[Ido]] (i.e., somewhat less schematicized than [[Esperanto]]).
From [[1946]]–[[1948|48]], the French linguist [[André Martinet]] was Director of Research. During this period IALA continued to develop models and conducted polling to determine the optimal form of the final language. An initial survey gauged reactions to the three models of 1945. In 1946 an extensive survey was sent to more than 3000 language teachers and related professionals on three continents.
Four models were canvassed: Model P and K, plus two new models similar to Model E of 1945.
{| border=0
|- valign=top
| &nbsp; || Model&nbsp;P || &nbsp; || highly&nbsp;naturalistic || &nbsp; || ''Jo habe nascite, o dea cum le oculos azure, de parentes barbare, inter le bone et virtuose Cimmerios''
|- valign=top
| &nbsp; || Model&nbsp;M || &nbsp; || moderate |
any occurrence worthy of notice.
==Afterwards==
When the British had clearly won the battle, Napoleon abandoned his army and left for France, where he forgot about the incidence. Admiral Nelson gained great respect as a strategic leader.
==References==
* {{news reference
| lastname=Smith | firstname=Tannalee
| title=30 Members of British Fleet Reburied
| date= [[April 18]] [[2005]]
| org=Associated Press
}}
* {{cite web
| author=Slope, Nick
| title=Burials on Nelson's Island
| publisher=London: BBC
| year= [[February 5]] [[2004]]
| work=Women in Nelson's Navy
| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/trafalgar_waterloo/women_nelson_navy_05.shtml
| accessdate=August 2 | accessyear=2005
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Naval wars in the Levant 1559–1853
| first = R. C. | last = Anderson
| id = ISBN 0878397990
}}
[[Category:Naval battles|Nile]]
[[Category:Battles of the French Revolutionary Wars|Nile]]
[[Category:1798]]
[[de:Seeschlacht bei Abukir]]
[[eo:Batalo de Abukiro]]
[[es:Batalla del Nilo]]
[[fr:Bataille d'Aboukir (1798)]]
[[it:Battaglia del Nilo]]
[[nl:Slag op de Nijl]]
[[pt:Batalha do Nilo]]
[[sv:Slaget vid Nilen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Barnabas</title>
<id>4607</id>
<revision>
<id>40703258</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T12:29:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cwoyte</username>
<id>73124</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Alleged Writings */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''See separate entry for [[Barnabas (band)]]''.
'''Barnabas''' was an early Christian mentioned in the [[New Testament]]. His [[Hellenistic]] [[Jewish]] parents called him Joseph, but when he sold all his goods and gave the money to the apostles in [[Jerusalem]], they gave him a new name: Barnabas, which means 'son of consolation' or 'man of encouragement.' According to [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 4:36, his original name was Joseph (although the [[Byzantine text-type]] calls him Joses, the [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] version of Joseph); he was surnamed by the [[Twelve apostles|apostle]]s (in Aramaic) ''Barnebhuah,'' which is explained by the Greek ''huios parakleseos'' ("son of exhortation," not "of consolation," see [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 11:23) and connotes a prophet in the primitive Christian sense of the word (see Acts 13:1; 15:32). His feast day is [[June 11]].
In many English translations of the Bible, including the [[New International Version]] (NIV), [[King James Version]] (KJV), and [[New American Standard Bible]] (NASB), Barnabas is called an apostle. In Acts 14:14 of these translations, he is listed ahead of Paul, "Barnabas and Paul," instead of "Paul and Barnabas;" both men being described as apostles. Whether Barnabas was an apostle became an important political issue, which was debated in the [[Middle Ages]] (see below).
==His Life==
Barnabas is one of the first prophets and teachers of the church at [[Antioch]] ([[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 13:1). [[Luke]] speaks of him as a "good man" (11:24). He was born of Jewish parents of the tribe of Levi. His aunt was the mother of [[John, surnamed Mark]] ([[Colossians]] 4:10). He was a native of [[Cyprus]], where he possessed land (Acts 4:36, 37), which he sold, and gave the proceeds to the church in [[Jerusalem]]. When [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] returned to Jerusalem after his conversion, Barnabas took him and introduced him to the apostles (9:27); it is possible that they had been fellow students in the school of [[Gamaliel]].
The prosperity of the church at [[Antioch]] led the apostles and brethren at Jerusalem to send Barnabas there to superintend the movement. He found the work so extensive and weighty that he went to [[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]] in search of Paul to assist him. Paul returned with him to Antioch and labored with him for a whole year (Acts 11:25, 26). At the end of this period, the two were sent up to Jerusalem (AD 44) with the contributions the church at Antioch had made for the poorer members of the Jerusalem church (11:28-30).
Shortly after they returned, bringing John Mark with them, they were appointed as missionaries to [[Asia Minor]], and in this capacity visited [[Cyprus]] and some of the principal cities of [[Pamphylia]], [[Pisidia]], and [[Lycaonia]] (Acts 13:14). With the conversion of [[Sergius Paulus]], Paul begins to gain prominence over Barnabas from the point where the name "Paul" is substituted for "Saul" (13:9); instead of "Barnabas and Saul" as heretofore (11:30; 12:25; 13:2, 7) we now read "Paul and Barnabas" (13:43, 46, 50; 14:20; 15:2, 22, 35); only in 14:14 and 15:12, 25 does Barnabas again occupy the first place, in the first passage with recollection of 14:12, in the last two, because Barnabas stood in closer relation to the Jerusalem church than Paul. Paul appears as the preaching missionary (13:16; 14:8-9, 19-20), whence the Lystrans regarded him as [[Hermes]], Barnabas as [[Zeus]] (14:12). Returning from this first missionary journey to Antioch, they were again sent up to Jerusalem to consult with the church there regarding the relation of Gentiles to the church (Acts 15:2: [[Galatians]] 2:1). According to Gal. 2:9-10, Barnabas was included with Paul in the agreement made between them, on the one hand, and [[James the Just|James]], [[Saint Peter|Peter]], and [[John the Apostle|John]], on the other, that the two former should in the future preach to the pagans, not forgetting the poor at Jerusalem. This matter having been settled, they returned again to Antioch, bringing the agreement of the [[Council of Jerusalem|council]] that [[Gentiles]] were to be admitted into the church.
Having returned to Antioch and spent some time there (15:35), Paul asked Barnabas to accompany him on another journey (15:36). Barnabas wished to take John Mark along, but Paul did not, as he had left them on the former journey (15:37-38). The dispute ended by Paul and Barnabas taking separate routes. Paul took [[Silas]] as his companion, and journeyed through Syria and Cilicia; while Barnabas took his younger cousin, John Mark, to visit Cyprus (15:36-41).
Barnabas is not again mentioned by Luke in the Acts. However, in Gal. 2:13 a little more is learned about him, and his weakness under the taunts of the [[Jewish Christians]] is evident; and from [[1 Corinthians]] 9:6 it may be gathered that he continued to labor as missionary.
=== Other sources ===
Other sources bring Barnabas to [[Rome]] and [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]]. In the [[Clementine literature|"Clementine Recognitions"]] (i, 7) he is depicted as preaching in Rome even during Christ's lifetime, and [[Clement of Alexandria]] (''Stromata'', ii, 20) makes him one of the [[Seventy Apostles|seventy disciples]] that are mentioned in the [[Gospel of Luke]].
Not older than the [[3rd century]] is the tradition of the later activity and martyrdom of Barnabas in Cyprus, where his remains are said to have been discovered under the [[Zeno of the Byzantine Empire|Emperor Zeno]]. The [[Cypriot Orthodox Church|Cypriot church]] claimed Barnabas as its founder in order to rid itself of the supremacy of the [[Patriarch of Antioch|Antiochian bishop]], just as did the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|Milan church]] afterward, to become more independent of Rome. In this connection, the question whether Barnabas was an apostle became important, and was often discussed during the Middle Ages (compare C. J. Hefele, ''Das Sendschreiben des Apostels Barnabas,'' Tübingen, 1840; O. Braunsberger, ''Der Apostel Barnabas,'' Mainz, 1876). The statements as to the year of Barnabas's death are discrepant and untrustworthy.
=== Alleged Writings ===
[[Tertullian]] and other Western writers regard Barnabas as the author of the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]]. This may have been the Roman tradition -- which Tertullian usually follows -- and in Rome the epistle may have had its first readers. But the tradition has weighty considerations against it.
According to [[Photius]] (''Quaest. in Amphil.,'' 123), Barnabas wrote the [[Acts of the Apostles]]. (Current consensus ascribes the book to [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]].)
He is also traditionally assocatiated with the [[Epistle of Barnabas]], although modern scholars think it more likely that that epistle was written in Alexandria in the 130s.
A book named the ''"Gospel of Barnabas"'' is listed in two early catalogs of apocryphal texts {{fact}}.
A different book using that same title, ''[[Gospel of Barnabas]]'' survives in two post-medieval manuscripts in Italian and Spanish (compare T. Zahn, ''Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons,'' ii, 292, Leipsig, 1890). Although the book is ascribed to Barnabas, close examination of its text suggests that the book was written either by a [[14th century]] Italian or a [[16th century]] [[Morisco]]. There is no evidence to suggest that it is the earlier listed ''Gospel of Barnabas''. In accordance with [[Muslim]] belief, rather than other Christian gospels, this later ''[[Gospel of Barnabas]]'' states that Jesus was a prophet, not the son of God, and calls Paul ''"the deceived."'' The book also indicates that Jesus rose alive into heaven without having been crucified, and that [[Judas Iscariot]] was crucified in his place.
{{Eastons}}
{{Schaff-Herzog}}
=== Literature: Epistle of Barnabas ===
*Die Apostolischen Väter. Griechisch-deutsche Parallelausgabe. J.C.B. Mohr Tübingen 1992. ISBN 3-16-145887-7
*Der Barnabasbrief. Übersetzt und erklärt von Ferdinand R. Prostmeier. Series: Kommentar zu den Apostolischen Vätern (KAV, Vol. 8). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: Göttingen 1999. ISBN 3-525-51683-5
===External links===
* [http://www.understanding-islam.org/related/text.asp?type=rarticle&raid=26 Barnabas - His Gospel & its Credibility]
* [http://www.barnabas.net Gospel of Barnabas]
* |
ces]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cornish Nationalist Party</title>
<id>5714</id>
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<username>Benanhalt</username>
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<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]]) - autonomy</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cornish Nationalist Party''' ('''CNP''') was a [[political party]] campaigning for [[self-government]] for [[Cornwall]], that split from [[Mebyon Kernow]] on [[May 28]], [[1975]].
The split was down to the same debate that was occurring in most of the political parties campaigning for [[self-governance|autonomy]] from the United Kingdom at the time (for example the [[Scottish National Party]] and [[Plaid Cymru]]), whether to be a [[centre-left]] party appealing to the electorate on a [[social-democratic]] line, or whether to appeal emotionally on a [[centre-right]] cultural line. Another subject of the split was whether to embrace [[devolution]] as a first step to full [[independence]] (or as the sole step if this was what the electorate wished) or for it to be "all or nothing"). The CNP essentially represented the party's right wing, who were not willing to accept that economic arguments were more likely to win votes than cultural.
The CNP worked to preserve the identity of [[Cornwall]] and improve its economy, and encouraged links with Cornish people overseas and with other regions which have distinct identities. It also gave support to [[Cornish language|Unified Cornish]], the language of the Cornish revival in modern times, and commemorated [[Thomas Flamank]], a leader of the [[Cornish Rebellion of 1497|Cornish Rebellion]] in [[1497]], at an annual ceremony at [[Bodmin]] on [[June 27|27th June]] each year.
The CNP published a quarterly journal, The Cornish Banner (''An Baner Kernewek'').
[[Category:Defunct political parties in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Cornish politics]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Cryptanalysis</title>
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<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
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<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cryptanalysis''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''kryptós'', "hidden", and ''analýein'', "to loosen" or "to untie") is the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of [[encrypt|encrypted]] information, without access to the [[secret]] information which is normally required to do so. Typically, this involves finding the [[secret key]]. In non-technical language, this is the practice of '''codebreaking''' or '''cracking the code''', although these phrases also have a specialised technical meaning (see [[code (cryptography)|code]]).
"Cryptanalysis" is also used to refer to any attempt to circumvent the [[security]] of other types of [[cryptographic]] [[algorithm|algorithms]] and [[cryptographic protocol|protocols]] in general, and not just [[encryption]]. However, cryptanalysis usually excludes attacks that do not primarily target weaknesses in the actual [[cryptography]]; methods such as [[bribery]], [[rubber-hose cryptanalysis|physical coercion]], [[burglary]], [[keylogging]], and so forth, although these latter types of attack are an important concern in [[computer security]], and are increasingly becoming more effective than traditional cryptanalysis.
Even though the goal has been the same, the methods and techniques of cryptanalysis have changed drastically through the history of cryptography, adapting to increasing cryptographic complexity, ranging from the pen-and-paper methods of the past, through machines like [[Enigma machine|Enigma]] in [[World War II]], to the computer-based schemes of the present. The results of cryptanalysis have also changed &mdash; it is no longer possible to have unlimited success in codebreaking, and there is a hierarchical classification of what constitutes a rare practical attack. In the mid-[[1970]]s, a new class of cryptography was introduced: [[asymmetric cryptography]]. Methods for breaking these [[cryptosystem]]s are typically radically different from before, and usually involve solving a carefully-constructed problem in [[pure mathematics]], the best-known being [[integer factorization]].
==History of cryptanalysis==
:''Main article: [[History of cryptography]].''
Cryptanalysis has [[coevolution|coevolved]] together with cryptography, and the contest can be traced through the [[history of cryptography]] &mdash; new [[cipher|ciphers]] being designed to replace old broken designs, and new cryptanalytic techniques invented to crack the improved schemes. In practice, they are viewed as two sides of the same coin: in order to create secure cryptography, you have to design against possible cryptanalysis.
===Classical cryptanalysis===
[[Image:Al-kindi-cryptanalysis.png|thumb|right|First page of [[Al-Kindi]]'s 9th century ''Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages'']]
Although the actual word "''cryptanalysis''" is relatively recent (it was coined by [[William Friedman]] in [[1920]]), methods for breaking [[code (cryptography)|codes]] and [[cipher|ciphers]] are much older. The first known recorded explanation of cryptanalysis was given by [[9th century]] [[Arab|Arabic]] [[polymath]] [[Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Sabbah Al-Kindi]] in ''A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages''. This treatise includes a description of the method of [[frequency analysis]] (Ibraham, 1992).
[[Frequency analysis]] is the basic tool for breaking [[classical cipher]]s. In natural languages, certain letters of the [[alphabet]] appear more frequently than others; in [[English language|English]], "[[E]]" is likely to be the most common letter in any given sample of text. Similarly, the [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] "TH" is the most likely pair of letters, and so on. Frequency analysis relies on a cipher failing to hide these [[statistics]]. For example, in a [[simple substitution cipher]] (where each letter is simply replaced with another), the most frequent letter in the ciphertext would be a likely candidate for "E".
Frequency analysis relies as much on [[linguistic]] knowledge as it does on [[statistics]], but as ciphers became more complex, [[mathematics]] gradually became the predominant approach to cryptanalysis. This change was particularly evident during [[World War II]], where efforts to crack [[Axis Powers|Axis]] ciphers required new levels of mathematical sophistication. Moreover, automation was for the first time applied to cryptanalysis with the [[Bomba (cryptography)|Bomba]] device and the [[Colossus computer|Colossus]] &mdash; one of the earliest [[computers]].
===Modern cryptanalysis===
[[Image:Bombe-wh.700px.jpg|left|thumb|Replica of a [[Bombe]] device]]
Even though computation was used to great effect in cryptanalysis in World War II, it also made possible new methods of cryptography [[orders of magnitude]] more complex than ever before. Taken as a whole, modern cryptography has become much more impervious to cryptanalysis than the pen-and-paper systems of the past, and now seems to have the upper hand against pure cryptanalysis. The historian [[David Kahn]] notes, ''"Many are the cryptosystems offered by the hundreds of commercial vendors today that cannot be broken by any known methods of cryptanalysis. Indeed, in such systems even a chosen plaintext attack, in which a selected plaintext is matched against its ciphertext, cannot yield the key that unlock other messages. In a sense, then, cryptanalysis is dead. But that is not the end of the story. Cryptanalysis may be dead, but there is - to mix my metaphors - more than one way to skin a cat."'' (Remarks on the 50th Anniversary of the [[National Security Agency]], [[1 November]], [[2002]]). Kahn goes on to mention increased opportunities for interception, [[bugging]], [[side channel attack]]s and [[quantum cryptography|quantum computers]] as replacements for the traditional means of cryptanalysis [http://www.fas.org/irp/eprint/kahn.html].
Kahn may have been premature in his cryptanalysis postmortem; weak ciphers are not yet extinct. In [[academia]], new designs are regularly presented, and are also frequently broken: the [[1984]] [[block cipher]] [[Madryga]] was found to be susceptible to [[ciphertext-only attack]]s in [[1998]]; [[FEAL|FEAL-4]], proposed as a replacement for the [[Data Encryption Standard|DES]] standard encryption algorithm, was demolished by a spate of attacks from the academic community, many of which are entirely practical. In [[industry]], too, ciphers are not free from flaws: for example, the [[A5/1]], [[A5/2]] and [[CMEA (cipher)|CMEA]] algorithms, used in [[mobile phone]] technology, can all be broken in hours, minutes or even in real-time using widely-available computing equipment. In 2001, [[Wired Equivalent Privacy]] (WEP), a protocol used to secure [[Wi-Fi]] [[wireless network]]s, was shown to be susceptible to a practical [[related-key attack]].
===The results of cryptanalysis===
[[Image:Zimmermann-telegramm-offen.jpg|thumb|right|The decrypted [[Zimmermann Telegram]].]]
Successful cryptanalysis has undoubtedly influenced history; the ability to read the presumed-secret thoughts and plans of others can be a decisive advantage, and never more so than during wartime. For example, in [[World War I]], the breaking of the [[Zimmermann telegram]] was instrumental |
Eitzen & Takafuji, 1997'')''
== Biological weapons characteristics ==
Ideal characteristics of biological weapons are high infectivity, high potency, availability of vaccines, and delivery as an aerosol.
Diseases most likely to be considered for use as biological weapons are contenders because of their lethality (if delivered efficiently), and robustness (making [[Particulate|aerosol]] delivery feasible).
The biological agents used in biological weapons can often be manufactured quickly and easily. The primary difficulty is not the production of the biological agent but delivery in an infective form to a vulnerable target.
For example, anthrax is considered an excellent agent. We use it here for discussion because it is historically important, and enough information is public that this discussion can't be used as a manual. First, it forms hardy spores, perfect for dispersal aerosols. Second, pneumonic (lung) infections of anthrax usually do not cause secondary infections in other people. Thus, the effect of the agent is usually confined to the target. A pneumonic anthrax infection starts with ordinary "cold" symptoms and quickly becomes lethal, with a fatality rate that is 80% or higher. Finally, friendly personnel can be protected with suitable antibiotics.
A mass attack using anthrax would require the creation of aerosol particles of 1.5 to 5 micrometres. Too large and the aerosol would be filtered out by the respiratory system. Too small and the aerosol would be inhaled and exhaled. Also, at this size, nonconductive powders tend to clump and cling because of electrostatic charges. This hinders dispersion. So, the material must be treated with silica to insulate and discharge the charges. The aerosol must be delivered so that rain and sun does not rot it, and yet the human lung can be infected. There are other technological difficulties as well.
Diseases considered for weaponization, or known to be weaponized include [[Anthrax disease|anthrax]], [[Ebola]], [[Bubonic Plague]], [[Cholera]], [[Tularemia]], [[Brucellosis]], [[Q fever]], [[Machupo]], [[Coccidioides mycosis]], [[Glanders]], [[Melioidosis]], [[Shigella]], [[Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever]], [[Typhus]], [[Psisticosis]], [[Yellow Fever]], [[Japanese B Encephalitis]], [[Rift Valley Fever]], and [[Smallpox]]. Naturally-occurring toxins that can be used as weapons include [[Ricin]], [[SEB (virus)|SEB]], [[Botulism toxin]], [[Saxitoxin]], and many [[Mycotoxin]]s.
==Attacking crops and animals==
Biological warfare can also specifically target plants to destroy crops or defoliate vegetation. The United States and Britain discovered plant growth regulators (i.e., [[herbicides]]) during the Second World War, and initiated a [[Herbicidal Warfare]] program that was eventually used in Malaya and Vietnam in counter insurgency. Though [[herbicides]] are chemicals, they are often grouped with biological warfare as bioregulators in a similar manner as biotoxins.
The United States developed an anti-crop capability during the Cold War that used plant diseases ([[bioherbicide]]s, or [[mycoherbicide]]s) for destroying enemy agriculture. It was believed that destruction of enemy agriculture on a strategic scale could thwart Sino-Soviet aggression in a general war. Diseases such as [[wheat blast]] and [[rice blast]] were weaponized in aerial spray tanks and cluster bombs for delivery to enemy water sheds in agricultural regions to initiate epiphytotics (epidemics among plants). When the United States renounced its offensive biological warfare program in 1969 and 1970, the vast majority of its biological arsenal was composed of these plant diseases.
Attacking animals is another area of biological warfare intended to eliminate animal resources for transportation and food. In the First World War German agents were arrested attempting to inoculate draft animals with anthrax, and believed responsible for outbreaks of glanders in horses and mules. The British tainted small feed cakes with anthrax in the Second World War as a potential means of attacking German cattle for food denial, but never employed the weapon. In the 1950's the United States had a field trial with Hog Cholera.
==Protective measures==
The primary civil defense against biological weaponry is to [[hand washing|wash one's hands]] whenever one moves to a different building or set of people, and avoid touching door knobs, walls, the ground and one's mouth and nose. Washing literally sends the germs down the drain.
More exotic methods include decontamination, usually done with household chlorine bleach (5% solution of [[sodium hypochlorite]]). One useful decontamination is to leave shoes in an entranceway and make people wade and handwash in a footbath of bleach. Another useful technique is to periodically decontaminate floors and door knobs.
Medical methods of civil defense include stockpiles of antibiotics and vaccines, and training for quick, accurate diagnoses and treatment. Many weaponized diseases are unfamiliar to general practitioners.
Positive pressure shelters are possible but not cost-effective except for the most important installations. This is because in most attacks, the agent will disperse in a long narrow ellipse downwind from the release point. Persons outside the ellipse will not be affected except by secondary infection. Persons within the release ellipse cannot be helped by civil defense measures. They need medical diagnosis and treatment as soon as possible.
New wound dressings such as the [[biodressing]] are aiding the treatment possibilites of persons who sustain injury in areas contaminated by biological weaponry.
==The role of public health departments and disease surveillance==
It is important to note that all of the classical and modern biological weapons organisms are animal diseases, the only exception being smallpox. Thus, in any use of biological weapons, it is highly likely that animals will become ill either simultaneously with, or perhaps earlier than humans. Indeed, in the largest biological weapons "accident" known -- the anthrax outbreak in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg) in the Soviet Union in 1979, sheep became ill with anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from the release point of the organism from a military facility in the southeastern portion of the city (known as Compound 15 and still off limits to visitors today).
Thus, a robust surveillance system involving human clinicians and veterinarians may identify a bioweapons attack early in the course of an epidemic, permitting the prophylaxis of disease in the vast majority of people (and/or animals) exposed but not yet ill. For example in the case of anthrax, it is likely that by 24 -36 hours after an attack, some small percentage of individuals (those with compromised immune system or who had received a large dose of the organism due to proximity to the release point) will become ill with classical symptoms and signs (including a virtually unique chest X-ray finding, often recognized by public health officials if they receive timely reports). By making this data available to local public health officials in real-time, most models of anthrax epidemics indicate that more than 80% of an exposed population can receive antibiotic treatment before becoming symptomatic, and thus avoiding the high mortality of the disease.
==See also==
* [[Biodressing]]
* [[Biological Weapons Convention]]
* [[Chemical warfare]]
* [[Asymmetric warfare]]
* [[Biosecurity]]
* [[Biological agent]]
* [[Antibiotic resistance]]
* [[Fort Detrick]]
* [[USAMRIID]]
* [[Unit 731]]
* [[Geneva Protocol]]
* [[Bioherbicide]]
* [[Mycoherbicide]]
* [[Rihab Rashid Taha]]
* [[List of environment topics]]
* [[Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak]]
* [[AIDS conspiracy theories]]
==References==
* {{cite book | author=Orent, Wendy | title=Plague, The Mysterious Past and Terrifying Future of the World's Most Dangerous Disease | publisher=Simon & Schuster, Inc., New York, NY | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-7432-3685-8}}
* {{cite book | author=Zelicoff, Alan and Bellomo, Michael | title=Microbe: Are we Ready for the Next Plague? | publisher=AMACOM Books, New York, NY | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0-8144-0865-6}}
* Eitzen, Edward M., Jr., M.D., M.P.H., FACEP, FAAP; and Takafuji, Ernest T., M.D., M.P.H.; Brigadier General Russ Zajtchuk, MC, U.S. Army. (ed.) (1997). [http://www.nbc-med.org/SiteContent/HomePage/WhatsNew/MedAspects/Ch-18electrv699.pdf Historical Overview of Biological Warfare]. In ''[http://www.nbc-med.org/SiteContent/HomePage/WhatsNew/MedAspects/contents.html Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare]'', pp. 415-423. Office of The Surgeon General, Washington, DC.
* [[Jim Keith|Keith, Jim]] ''Biowarfare In America'', Illuminet Press (1999) ISBN: 1881532216
== External links ==
*[http://www.upmc-biosecurity.org Center for Biosecurity of UPMC]
*[http://www.biodefenseeducation.com BiodefenseEducation.org]
*[http://www.cbwinfo.com Info on chemical and biological weapons for emergency and security personnel]
*[http://www.potomacinstitute.org/pubs/bt1proc.pdf Potomac Institute Course Notes]
*[http://www.sgaus.org/dahlke.htm The Terrorist Threat, Parts I, II & III ]
*[http://www.emergency.com/2001/bio-treatment.htm US Army Treatment Summary Sheet]
*[http://www.who.int/emc/pdfs/BIOWEAPONS_FULL_TEXT2.pdf WHO: Health Aspects of Biological and Chemical Weapons]
*[[Monterey Institute of International Studies]] [http://cns.miis.edu/pubs/week/020805.htm article on the Yellow Rain controversy]
*Lewis, Susan K. "History of Biowarfare." ''NOVA Online'', 2001. [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bioterror/history.html http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bioterror/history.html] (2003&ndash;04&ndash;24)
*[http://deconference.com DECONference: Yearly conference on decontamination, including a decontamination drill]
*[http://www.fda.gov/cder/drugprepare/default.htm Drug Preparedness and Response to Terrorism]
*[http://group |
chool curriculum, but very few people achieve any usable degree of fluency. However, on July 8, 2005, lusophone Brazil considered [[Spanish language|Spanish]] an important communication tool for its MERCOSUR relations; Furthermore, adopting Spanish as a second language. It will be taught in secondary school which will benefit 10 to 12 million students whenever the new bill comes in effect. (http://www.brazzilmag.com/content/view/3122/49)
Many minority languages are spoken daily throughout the vast national territory of Brazil. Half of these languages are spoken by indigenous peoples, mostly in Northern Brazil. The main indigenous languages are: [[Tupi language|Tupi]], [[Guarani language|Guarani]] (also in Paraguay), [[Kaingang language|Kaingang]], [[Nadëb language|Nadëb]], [[Carajá language|Carajá]], [[Caribe language|Caribe]], [[Tucano language|Tucano]], [[Arára language|Arára]], [[Terêna language|Terêna]], [[Borôro language|Borôro]], [[Apalaí language|Apalaí]], [[Canela language|Canela]] and many others.
Still others are spoken by communities of descendants of immigrants, who are for the most part bilingual, in rural areas of Southern Brazil. These communities speak dialects of [[Italian language|Italian]], [[German language|German]], [[Polish language|Polish]] or [[Japanese language|Japanese]] languages. The most dominant spoken Brazilian German dialect is [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch]], a Brazilian variation of the [[Hunsrückisch]]
dialect of German. [[Talian]] is the main spoken [[Italian dialects|Italian dialect]] in Brazil, and is based on the [[Venetian Language]], which has its origin in Northern [[Italy]].
[[German language|German]] is spoken as first language by 1,500,000 people, [[Italian language|Italian]] is spoken by 500,000 [[Japanese language|Japanese]] by 400,000 and [[Korean language]] by 37,000. However, these non-Portuguese speaking immigrants communities in Brazil are in full decline, especially among teenagers, who learn primary [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].
==Religion==
[[Image:NS Aparecida.png|thumb|150px|[[Our Lady of Aparecida]] is the Patroness of Brazil.]]
''Main article: [[Religion in Brazil]]''
About 74% of the population in Brazil are [[Roman Catholic]]. Followers of [[Protestantism]] are rising in number, currently at 15.4%. [[Spiritism]] constitutes 1.3% of the population (about 2,3 million) and is the country with the most adepts of this religion. African traditional religions such as [[Candomblé]], Macumba, and Umbanda are the next largest groups. There are around 120,000 members of the Jewish community (located mostly in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro but also in Brasilia, Curitiba, Porto Alegre and other major towns) while Buddhism, Shinto, and other Asian religions are also sizeable. There are around 28,000 muslims, or 0.01% of the population. Some practice a mixture of different religions, such as Catholicism, Candomble and indigenous American religion combined.
Brazil is the country with the largest [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] population in the world, as well the country with the most members of [[Asia|Asian]] religions in the [[Western world]].
== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Brazil}}
{{see also|List of Brazilian companies|Bovespa}}
Possessing large and well-developed [[agriculture|agricultural]], [[mining]], [[manufacturing]], and [[service sector]]s, as well as a large labor pool, Brazil's GDP (PPP) outweighs that of any other [[Latin America]]n country, and the country is expanding its presence in world markets. Major export products include [[airplanes]], [[coffee]], [[vehicles]], [[soybean]], [[iron ore]], [[orange juice]], [[steel]], [[textiles]], [[footwear]] and [[electrical equipment]].
After forming a fiscal adjustment program and pledging progress on structural reform, Brazil received a US$41.5 billion [[IMF]]-led international support program in November 1998. [http://www.canadianliberty.bc.ca/relatedinfo/BRAZIL'S_IMF_DISASTER.html] During the summer of 1998, investors expressed concerns that a downturn in economic growth was imminent. However, in January 1999, the Brazilian Central Bank announced that the [[Brazilian real|Real]] would no longer be related to the [[US dollar]] value. This devaluation helped moderate the downturn, and the country posted moderate [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] growth.
Economic growth slowed considerably in 2001 &mdash; to less than 2% &mdash; because of a slowdown in major markets, the hiking of interest rates by the Central Bank to reduce [[inflation]]ary pressures, and fears over the economic policies of the new elected government. Investor confidence was strong at the end of 2001, in part because of the strong recovery in the balance of trade. Chronic poverty remains a pressing problem.
After [[Lula da Silva|Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] took office on [[1 January]] [[2003]], there was some fear that his party radicals might provoke an economic about-face, and that Brazil might experience a financial crisis. However, the Brazilian economy seems to have detached itself from politics, and after a GDP increase of 0.5% in 2003, Brazil has allegedly enjoyed a robust growth in 2004. It is estimated that there will be moderate growth in 2005 and 2006. Despite this, Brazil has consistently dropped 11 positions on the [[WEF]] Growth Competitiveness Index ranking from 2003 to 2005 [http://www.weforum.org/pdf/Gcr/Growth_Competitiveness_Index_2003_Comparisons][http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Growth+Competitiveness+Index+rankings+2005+and+2004+comparisons]. However, as of January 10, 2006, the IMF has shown satisfaction[http://www.imf.org/external/np/speeches/2006/011006.htm] with Brazil's economic policies.
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" class="wikitable"
!colspan=4|Brazil Socioeconomic Rankings
|-
!Indicator
!World Rank
!Value
!Comparable countries
|-
|Total Nominal GDP ||14th ||604,855 million USD ||[[Australia]], [[Russia]]
|-
|Total PPP GDP''' ||9th ||1,461,564 million Int. Dollars ||[[Italy]], [[Russia]]
|-
|Per capita Nominal GDP ||74th ||3,325 USD ||[[Romania]], [[Dominica]]
|-
|Per capita PPP GDP ||70th ||8,049 Int. Dollars ||[[Bulgaria]], [[Thailand]]
|-
|[[Gini coefficient]] ||111th ||59.3 ||[[Paraguay]], [[Guatemala]]
|-
|Human Development Index ||63th ||0.792 ||[[Russia]], [[Romania]]
|}
==Poverty, illiteracy and income concentration==
[[Image:RiodeJaneiro-Favela.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Rocinha]], a [[Rio de Janeiro]] favela]]
Brazil currently has 45 million people living in conditions of [[poverty]]. This is a critical issue.
Poverty in Brazil can be seen in the large metropolitan areas (capitals) and in the "pockets of poverty" (upcountry regions with low rates of economic and social development). The [[Northeast]] has chronic problems as a result of its [[dry]] [[climate]], with millions of people suffering [[hunger]] during the dry seasons. President [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] has proposed a program ([[Fome Zero]]) to mitigate this problem but its success is disputed.
About 8% of the Brazilian population is officially considered illiterate (''analfabetos'' in Portuguese) but over 30% of the total population do not have capacity to read and write texts, although a growing percentage show some writing and computing abilities.[http://www.ibge.gov.br/ibgeteen/datas/alfabetizacao/alfabetizacao.html]
==Technology==
Brazil has important technology poles located at [[São José dos Campos]] ([[aerospace]] and [[telecommunications]]) , [[Campinas]] ([[software]], [[computers]]) , [[São Carlos]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Curitiba]], [[Porto Alegre]], [[Belo Horizonte]] and [[São Paulo]].
==International rankings==
[[Image:Amazon Rainforest.jpg|thumb|200px|A river in the Amazon rainforest]]
* [[A.T. Kearney]]/[[Foreign Policy|Foreign Policy Magazine]]: [http://www.atkearney.com/main.taf?p=5,4,1,116 Globalization Index 2005], ranked 57 out of 62 countries
* [[IMD International]]: [http://www01.imd.ch/wcy/ World Competitiveness Yearbook 2005], ranked 51 out of 60 economies (countries and regions)
* [[Reporters without borders]]: [http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=554 Fourth annual worldwide press freedom index (2005)], ranked 63 out of 167 countries
* [[Save the Children]]: [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2005/ State of the World's Mothers 2005], ranked 50 out of 110 countries
* [[The Wall Street Journal]]: [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ 2005] [[Index of Economic Freedom]], ranked 90 out of 155 countries
* [[The Economist]]: [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3372495&d=2005 The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005], ranked 39 out of 111 countries
* [[Transparency International]]: [http://www.transparency.org/pressreleases_archive/2004/2004.10.20.cpi.en.html Corruption Perceptions Index 2004], ranked 59 out of 146 countries
* [[United Nations Development Programme]]: [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/ Human Development Index 2005], ranked 63 out of 177 countries
* [[United Nations Development Programme]]: [http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/indicators.cfm?x=148&y=2&z=1 Inequality measures - GINI Index 2005], ranked 169 out of 177 countries
* [[World Economic Forum]]: [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Global+Competitiveness+Programme%5CGlobal+Competitiveness+Report Global Competitiveness Report 2004-2005 - Growth Competitiveness Index Ranking], ranked 65 out of 104 countries
* [[Yale University|Yale University Center for Environmental Law and Policy]] and [[Columbia University|Columbia University Center for International Earth Science Information Network]]: [http://www.yale.edu/esi/ESI2005_Main_Report.pdf Index of Environmental Sustainability Index], ranked 11 out of 146 countries.
==Culture==
[[Image:CarnavalBrazilRio2005.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Brazilian Carnival]].]]
|
of Basel|coat of arms]].
In [[1543]] [[De humani corporis fabrica]], the first anatomy book was published and printed in Basel by [[Andreas Vesalius]] ([[1514]]&ndash;[[1564]]).
In [[1662]] the [[Amerbaschsches Kabinett]] formed the basis of the world's first public art collection and exposition, forming the core of the museum of art of Basel.
== Quarters ==
Basel is not subdivided into official counties, districts or boroughs, but into unofficial quarters. There are 19 quarters; the municipalities of [[Riehen]] and [[Bettingen]] are not included.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0"
! style="background:#B0C4DE;" width="120"| Quartier
! style="background:#B0C4DE;" width="50"| ha
! style="background:#B0C4DE;" width="20"|
! style="background:#B0C4DE;" width="120"| Quartier
! style="background:#B0C4DE;" width="50"| ha
! width="25"|
|-
| [[Grossbasel central quarter, Basel|Central quarter of Grossbasel]] || align="right" | 37,63 || || [[Kleinbasel central quarter, Basel|Central quarter of Kleinbasel]] || align="right" | 24,21 || ||
|-
| [[Suburbs quarter, Basel|Suburbs]] || align="right" | 89,66 || || [[Claire quarter, Basel|Claire]] || align="right" | 23,66 || ||
|-
| [[Am Ring quarter, Basel|Am Ring]] || align="right" | 90,98 || || [[Wettstein quarter, Basel|Wettstein]] || align="right" | 75,44 || ||
|-
| [[Breite quarter, Basel|Breite]] || align="right" | 68,39 || || [[Hirzbrunnen quarter, Basel|Hirzbrunnen]] || align="right" | 305,32 || ||
|-
| [[Saint Alban quarter, Basel|Saint Alban]] || align="right" | 294,46 || || [[Rosental quarter, Basel|Rosental]] || align="right" | 64,33 || ||
|-
| [[Gundeldingen quarter, Basel|Gundeldingen]] || align="right" | 123,19 || || [[Matthew quarter, Basel|Matthew]] || align="right" | 59,14 || ||
|-
| [[Bruderholz quarter, Basel|Bruderholz]] || align="right" | 259,61 || || [[Klybeck quarter, Basel|Klybeck]] || align="right" | 91,19 || ||
|-
| [[Bachletten quarter, Basel|Bachletten]] || align="right" | 151,39 || || [[Kleinhüningen quarter, Basel|Kleinhüningen]] || align="right" | 136,11 || ||
|-
| [[Gotthelf quarter, Basel|Gotthelf]] || align="right" | 46,62 || || '''City of Basel''' || align="right" | '''2275,05''' || ||
|-
| [[Iselin quarter, Basel|Iselin]] || align="right" | 109,82 || || [[Riehen]] || align="right" | 1086,10 || ||
|-
| [[Saint John quarter, Basel|Saint John]] || align="right" | 223,90 || || [[Bettingen]] || align="right" | 222,69|| ||
|-
| || align="right" | || || '''Canton of Basel-City''' || align="right" | '''3583,84''' || ||
|}
==Architecture==
The Romanesque [[Münster (cathedral)|Münster]], with its two (uneven) towers forms an architectural monument which survived medieval earthquake. The tomb of [[Erasmus]] lies inside the Münster.
Basel is also host to an array of buildings by internationally renowned architects, such as the [[Beyeler Foundation]] by [[Renzo Piano]], or the Vitra complex in nearby Weil am Rhein, comprised of three buildings by [[Zaha Hadid]] (fire station), [[Frank Gehry]] (design museum), [[Tadao Ando]] (conference centre), [[Mario Botta]] (Jean Tinguely Museum and Bank of International settlements)and several buildings by [[Herzog & de Meuron]] (originally from Basel, but otherwise known as the architects of the [[Tate Modern]] in London).
==Education==
Basel hosts Switzerland's oldest university, the [[University of Basel]], dating from [[1459]]. Erasmus, [[Paracelsus]], [[Daniel Bernoulli]], [[Leonhard Euler]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] worked here. More recently, its work in tropical medicine has gained prominence.
Basel is renowned for various scientific societies, as the Entomological Society of Basel (Entomologische Gesellschaft Basel, EGB), which celebrates its 100th anniversary in 2005 .
==Politics==
Geo-politically, the city of Basel functions as the capital of the [[Cantons of Switzerland|Swiss half-canton]] of [[Basel-Stadt]], though several of its [[suburb]]s form part of the half-canton of [[Basel-Landschaft]] or of the canton of [[Aargau]].
==People from Basel==
*[[Karl Barth]], theologian
*[[Black Tiger]], rapper
*[[Lucius Munatius Plancus]], city founder
*[[Jacob Burckhardt]], professor in history, theology, philosophy
*[[Jacob Bernoulli]] (1654&ndash;1705), [[mathematician]]
*[[Johann Bernoulli]] (1667&ndash;1748), [[mathematician]]
*[[Johann Bernoulli (1710-1790)|Johann Bernoulli]] (1710&ndash;1790), [[mathematician]]
*[[Daniel Bernoulli]] (1700&ndash;1782) [[mathematician]]
*[[Leonhard Euler]] (1707&ndash;1783), [[mathematician]]
*[[Arthur Cohn]], film producer (won 6 [[Oscars]])
*[[Jakob Emanuel Handmann]] (1718&ndash;1781), painter
*[[Dani Levy]], film maker
*[[Friedrich Nietzsche]], philosopher
*[[Beat Raaflaub]], conductor
*[[-minu]], columnist
*[[Roger Federer]], tennis player
==Sport==
Basel has a reputation in Switzerland as a successful sporting city. The [[soccer]] club [[FC Basel]] continues to be successful and in recognition of this the city will be one of the venues for the [[2008 European Football Championship|2008 European Championships]], as well as [[Geneva]], [[Zürich]] and [[Bern]]. The championships will be jointly hosted by [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]].
The largest indoor tennis event in Europe occurs in Basel every October. The best [[Association of Tennis Professionals|ATP]]-Professionals play every year at the "Davidoff Swiss Indoors".
In [[2002]], the World [[Judo]] Championships took place in Basel.
Basel features a large soccer [[St. Jakob-Park|stadium]], a modern [[ice hockey]] hall and an admitted sports hall.
==Culture==
Basel has a reputation as one of the most important cultural cities in Europe. In [[1997]], it contended to become the "[[European Capital of Culture]]". In May [[2004]], the fifth [[EJCF]] choir festival opened: this Basel tradition started in [[1992]]. Host of this festival is the local [[Basel Boys Choir]].
The city is also known for "The Basel Elite", the posh and old money social circle that the city can more than cater to. Although Switzerland can technically have no nobility since such a status would depend on the country being a monarchy, which it is not, the Basel Elite would be the closest thing, and are represented as such by their familiarities with present-day nobilities from bordering countries. One such example is the DeBâle family of Allschwil, who have lived in the area for centuries, but have not acknowledged the nobility that has been bestowed upon them from actual monarchies.
The [[carnival]] of the city of Basel (''Basler Fasnacht'') is a major cultural event in the year. The carnival is one of the biggest in Switzerland and attracts large crowds every year, despite the fact that it starts at four in the morning (''Morgestraich'') and lasts for exactly 72 hours, taking in various parades.
For more information see also [http://www.fasnacht.ch/?pm_1=21&mid=21]
''[[Basler Zeitung]]'' is the local newspaper.
===Museums===
*[[Historical Museum Basel]] [http://www.hmb.ch]
*[[Kunstmuseum Basel]] Museum für Gegenwartskunst [http://www.kunstmuseumbasel.ch/en/]
*[[Jean Tinguely|Tinguely]] museum [http://www.tinguely.ch/en/index.html]
*[[Antikenmuseum Basel]] [http://www.antikenmuseumbasel.ch]
*[[Architekturmuseum Basel]] [http://www.architekturmuseum.ch]
*[[Puppenhausmuseum]] [http://www.puppenhausmuseum.ch]
*[[Pharmazie-Historisches Museum Basel]] [http://www.pharmaziemuseum.ch]
*[[Naturhistorisches Museum Basel]] [http://www.nmb.bs.ch]
*[[Fondation Beyeler]] [http://www.beyeler.com/ Beyeler Museum (Fondation Beyeler)]
==Chronological table==
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Event
|- valign=top
|< [[58 BC]]||Rauracian (Celtic) agglomeration on the Rhine
|- valign=top
|[[58 BC]]||Exodus of the Helvetians and Rauracians (Battle of [[Bibracte]])
|- valign=top
|44-[[43 BC]]||[[Lucius Munatius Plancus]] founds the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] colony ''Colonia Raurica'', that will later become ''colonia [[Augusta Raurica]]''
|- valign=top
|[[12 BC]]||The [[oppidum]] of Basel is one of the supporting points for the Roman troops during the campaigns of [[Tiberius]] against the [[Rhaetians]]
|- valign=top
|[[1st century]]||Occupation of the ''[[Agri Decumates]]'' (southern Germany); the Roman fortified place of Basel becomes a ''[[vicus]]''.
|- valign=top
|[[3rd century]]||[[Alemanni]] invasions. The Roman Vicus of Basel becomes again a fortified place
|- valign=top
| ||''To be continued ..''
|}
==External links==
{{commons|Category:Basel|Basel}}
*[http://www.basel.ch/en/basel.html Basel Official Site]
*[http://www.baseltourismus.ch/opencms/opencms/bstour/english/index.html Basel Tourimus]
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.museenbasel.ch/index_e.cfm Museen Basel Online] Overview of museums in Basel
*[http://www.egbasel.ch Entomological Society of Basel (in German)]
[[Category:Cantonal capitals of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Cities in Switzerland]]
[[Category:Cities on the Rhine]]
[[als:Basel]]
[[ar:بازل]]
[[bg:Базел]]
[[ca:Basilea]]
[[da:Basel]]
[[de:Basel]]
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[[eo:Bazelo (urbo)]]
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[[nl:Bazel (Zwitserland)]]
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[[zh:巴塞尔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Black Russian</title>
<id>4913</id>
<revision>
<id>29285346</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-26T14:21:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.54.157.167</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"># |
peration Allied Force]] in 1999, again without the loss of an F-15C.
===One wing is enough?===
On [[May 1]], [[1983]] during an [[Israeli Air Force]] training dogfight, an F-15D collided with an [[A-4 Skyhawk]]. The right wing of the Eagle was torn off roughly two feet (0.6 m) from the body. The pilot, Zivi Nadavi, disobeyed his instructor's command to eject and managed to land the crippled aircraft successfully. The aircraft was able to land because of the large horizontal surface area of the tail and the amount of lift generated by the engine intake and body. [http://www.uss-bennington.org/phz-nowing-f15.html]
===Future===
The F-15C/D model is being replaced by the [[F-22 Raptor]]. The F-15E however will remain in service for years to come because of its different air-to-ground role and the low number of hours on their airframes. Some USAF F-15Cs have been retrofitted with Electronically Scanned Array (ESA) radars and are expected to remain in service with the USAF well past 2020. The Royal Saudi Air Force has purchased several squadrons of long-range F-15S models, the Republic of Korea is purchasing upgraded F-15Ks, and Singapore is purchasing the F-15SG variant.
==Specifications (F-15 Eagle)==
===General characteristics===
[[Image:EG-0033-01.gif|thumb|right|300px|Broad specifications for the F-15 ACTIVE.]]
* '''Crew:''' 1 (A/C), 2 (B/D/E)
* '''Length:''' 63.8 ft (19.44 m)
* '''Wingspan:''' 42.8 ft (13 m)
* '''Height:''' 18.5 ft (5.6 m)
* '''Wing area:''' 608 ft&sup2; (56.5 m&sup2;)
* '''Empty:''' 28,000 lb (12,700 kg)
* '''Loaded (C variant):''' 44,500 lb (20,200 kg)
* '''Maximum takeoff:'''
**'''C/D:''' 68,000 lb (30,844 kg)
**'''E:''' 81,000 lb (36,700 kg)
* '''Powerplant:''' Engines
**'''F-15C/E:''' 2x [[Pratt & Whitney F100]]-229 afterburning turbofans, 29,000 lbf (129 kN) thrust each
*'''Radar:''' [[Raytheon]] [[APG-63 & APG-70 F-15 Radars|AN/APG-63 or AN/APG-70]]
*'''Countermeasures:''' AN/APX-76 IFF interrogator, AN/ALQ-128 radar warning suite, AN/ALR-56 radar warning receiver, ALQ-135 internal countermeasures system, AN/ALE-45 chaff/flare dispensors
*'''Unit cost(FY$98):''' $43 million (F-15C/D), approximately $55 million (F-15E/F)
===Performance===
* '''Maximum speed:''' 1,875 mph (3000 km/h) (Mach 2.5) - other sources say 2,655 km/h
* '''Range:''' 3,450 km ferry range (approx. 2156 miles), approx 5, 500 km with drop tanks
* '''Service ceiling:'''
**'''A/B/C/D:''' 65,000 ft (19,812 m)
**'''E:''' 50,000 ft (15,000 m)
* '''Rate of climb:''' 50,000 ft/min (15,240 m/min)
<!--
* '''Wing loading:''' Unknown lb/ft&sup2; ( Unknown kg/m&sup2;)
* '''Thrust/weight:''' Unknown
-->
===Armament===
*6 wing, 4 fuselage, and 1 centerline hardpoint (The F-15E strike version has 4 additional fuselage hardpoints) for a total of 16,000 lb (7,300 kg) ordinance, including:
**'''Guns:''' 1x [[M61 Vulcan]] 20 mm [[Gatling gun]] with 940 rounds (A/B/C/D), 500 rounds (E)
**'''Missiles:''' Combination of [[AIM-7|AIM-7F Sparrows]], [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]]s, and [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]]s on 4 wing and 4 fuselage pylons, plus a total ordnance load of 16,000 lb (7,300 kg) on two wing stations and one centerline station
**'''Bombs:''' The F-15E model is capable of carrying almost every air to ground bomb in the USAF inventory, including free fall nuclear bombs and the 4,500 lb (2000 kg) [[GBU-28]] bunker penetration bomb.
==External links==
* [http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=101 USAF fact sheet]
* [http://www.f15.com f15.com]
* [http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/military/f15/flash.html F-15 Eagle official website from Boeing]
* http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hangar/2848/f15.htm
* http://www.airtoaircombat.com/background.asp?id=11&bg=21
* http://www.faqs.org/docs/air/avf15_2.html
* http://www.militaryfactory.com/aircraft/detail.asp?aircraft_id=21
==F-15 in Pop Culture==
As an iconic [[heavy fighter]] of modern air power, the F-15 often finds itself fictionalized.
The F-15 was the subject of the [[IMAX]] movie Fighter Pilot: Operation Red Flag, about the [[RED FLAG exercise]]s.
==Related content==
{{Commons|F-15 Eagle}}
'''Comparable aircraft:'''
[[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25|MiG-25]] -
[[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-29|MiG-29]] -
[[Su-27]] -
[[Su-30]]
'''Designation series:'''
[[F-11 Tiger|F-11]] -
[[Lockheed YF-12|YF-12]] -
[[F-14 Tomcat|F-14]] -
'''F-15''' -
[[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]] -
[[YF-17 Cobra|F-17]] -
[[F/A-18 Hornet|F/A-18]]
'''Variants:'''
[[F-15A]] -
[[F-15B]] -
[[F-15C]] -
[[F-15D]] -
[[F-15E Strike Eagle|F-15E]] -
[[F-15I]] -
[[F-15K]] -
[[F-15S]] -
[[F-15SG]] -
[[F-15S/MTD]]
===Other Aircraft named F-15===
During the Second World War, Northrop built an unarmed version of the [[P-61 Black Widow]] called the F-15 Reporter (F under the Army Air Force system in use until the formation of the United States Air Force in 1947 stood for Photo Reconnaissance).
===See also===
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
* [[List of fighter aircraft]]
* [[Comparison of 21st century fighter aircraft]]
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 1970-1979]]
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[[zh:F-15鷹式戰鬥機]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fall of man</title>
<id>11717</id>
<revision>
<id>19052581</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-18T01:39:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GTBacchus</username>
<id>6781</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Fall of Man]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>F-14 Tomcat</title>
<id>11719</id>
<revision>
<id>42164216</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T06:14:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TKE</username>
<id>531146</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 42062282 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:F-14.jpg|right|350px]]
The [[Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation|Grumman]] '''F-14 Tomcat''' is a [[United States Navy]] [[supersonic]], twin-engine, [[Swing-wing|variable sweep wing]], two-seat strike [[fighter jet|fighter]]. The Tomcat's primary missions are [[air superiority]], fleet air defense, and precision strike against ground [[target]]s. The first F-14 flight was in 1970.
The sole foreign customer for the Tomcat was the [[Imperial Iranian Air Force]] (IIAF) during the reign of the [[Shah of Iran]]. A total of 80 [[aircraft]] were ordered, but only 79 were delivered, as the last unit was [[embargo]]ed and turned over to the United States Navy. It has been rumoured that some of the surviving Iranian F-14's are reportedly still operational today, but a lack of spare parts is likely taking a toll on their combat readiness. Also, it should be noted that the amount of real flight time required to maintain any proficiency in the tactical operation of this aircraft is well beyond their ability to retain any real operational effectiveness.
==Development==
The F-14 was developed to take the place of the aborted [[General Dynamics]] [[General Dynamics F-111|F-111B]] (also called the TFX), a navalized version of the [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] tactical strike aircraft. Intended to provide fleet air defense, the F-111B proved unmaneuverable, overweight, and, in general, poorly suited to [[aircraft carrier]] operations. This led to its cancellation in [[1968 in aviation|1968]].
Early in development, the Tomcat was already shown to have advantages over the failing F-111B. It was smaller, lighter, and more fuel-efficient than the TFX. Ironically, much of the F-14's equipment was re-used from the TFX, including the [[AN/AWG-9]] [[radar]], [[AIM-54 Phoenix]] missile, and the [[Pratt & Whitney TF30]] engines.
To facilitate early introduction of the F-14 into service the first version of the aircraft was planned using the engine and weapons system technology from the F-111B, and then progressively introduce new engines and a new weapons system into the new F-14 [[airframe]]. Thus, the designation '''F-14A''' was assigned to the new aircraft equipped with updated TF-30 engines and the AN/AWG-9 weapons system from the [[F-111B]]. The original plan was to only build a few F-14As, as the TF30 was known to be a troublesome engine. In addition, the engine was not designed for fighter-type operations and only put out 74% of the thrust for which the F-14 was designed. An '''F-14B''' would follow using the engine from the advanced technology engine competition. The 'B' would then be followed by the '''F-14C''', with a new weapons system replacing the AN/AWG-9. However, the AN/AWG-9 replacement was delayed. When it finally arrived as the AN/APG-71, the designation assigned to the new aircraft was '''F-14D''': the F-14C was never produced.
The Tomcat was intended as an uncompromising air superiority fighter and interceptor, charged with defending [[carrier battle group]]s against [[Soviet Navy]] aircraft armed with [[cruise missiles]]. It carried the [[Hughes Aircraft|Hughes]] [[AN/AWG-9]] long-range radar originally developed for the F-111B, capable of detecting bomber-sized targets at ranges exceeding 160 km (100 miles), tracking 24 targets and engaging six simultaneously. In a now famous test, an F-14 simultaneously shot down five of six target drones. However it has recently been mentioned that the six drones never attempted to employ defensive maneuvers or jamming and thus didn't simulate realistic targets. Originally, the F-14's primary weapon was the [[AIM-54 Phoenix]] missile, capable of engaging a target at up to 200 km (120 statute mil |
III: Darwin's Watch]]''
===Diaries===
Most years see the release of a '''Discworld Diary''' and '''Calendar''', both usually following a particular theme. The Diaries released so far are:
* ''[[Discworld's Unseen University Diary]]'': 1998; the cover art features the character [[Death (Discworld)|Death]], possibly the character who appeared in the greatest number of Discworld novels.
* ''[[Discworld's Ankh-Morpork City Watch Diary 1999]]'': 1999; the cover art features the character Commander [[Samuel Vimes]] of the [[Ankh-Morpork City Watch|Watch]], His Grace the Duke of Ankh, in his beloved street uniform, in other words, battered Watchman armor.
* ''[[Discworld Assassins' Guild Yearbook and Diary 2000]]'': 2000; the cover art features the character Lord Downey, the [[Ankh-Morpork Assassins' Guild|Assassins' Guild]] leader, with his specialty peppermint (rumored poisoned).
* ''[[Discworld Fools' Guild Yearbook and Diary 2001]]'': 2001; the cover art features Dr Whiteface, the Fools' Guild leader, bursting through a paper hoop.
* ''[[Discworld Thieves' Guild Yearbook and Diary 2002]]'': 2002; the cover art features a "photofit" of Mr Boggis, the [[Ankh-Morpork Thieves' Guild|Thieves' Guild]] leader.
* ''[[Discworld (Reformed) Vampyre's Diary 2003]]'': 2003; the cover art features Mr John Not-A-Vampire-At-All Smith, head of the Ankh-Morpork Mission of the [[Undead (Discworld)#Vampires|Black Ribboners]] with a cup of steaming brown liquid, likely coffee or hot cocoa.
There were no diaries for 2004 - 2006, as Pratchett and [[Stephen Briggs]] were worried about running out of ideas. Having rested the concept, the ''Discworld Post Office Diary 2007'' has been announced.
===Associated publications===
Other Discworldesque publications include:
* ''[[The Discworld Portfolio]]'' (a collection of Paul Kidby's artwork, with notes by Pratchett)
* ''[[The Discworld Companion]]'' (an encyclopedia of Discworld information, compiled by Pratchett and Briggs. An updated version was released in 2003, titled ''The New Discworld Companion''.)
* ''[[Nanny Ogg's Cookbook]]'' (a collection of Discworldly recipes, combined with ettiquette, language of flowers etc., written by Pratchett with Stephen Briggs and [[Tina Hannan]])
* ''[[The Art of Discworld]]'' (another collection of Paul Kidby's art)
* ''[[The Discworld Almanack]]'' (an [[almanac]] for the Discworld year, in the style of the Diaries and the Cookbook, written by Pratchett with [[Bernard Pearson]])
* ''[[Where's My Cow?]]'' (a Discworld picture book referenced in [[Thud!]], written by Pratchett with illustrations by [[Melvyn Grant]])
==Adaptations==
===Stage adaptations===
Stage adaptations of eleven Discworld novels have been published, with proceeds from the rights going to charity. The adaptations are by Stephen Briggs (apart from one, ''Lords and Ladies'', by Irana Brown), and were first produced by the Studio Theatre Club in [[Abingdon, England|Abingdon]], [[Oxfordshire]].
They include adaptations of ''The Truth'', ''Maskerade'', ''Mort'', ''Wyrd Sisters'', and ''Guards! Guards!''.
Stage adaptions of Discworld novels have been performed on every continent in the world, including [[Antarctica]].
===Movie adaptations===
There have been several aborted attempts at bringing stories from the Discworld to the silver screen, including a fan attempt of ''Maskerade'' that failed through lack of funds.
[[Australia]]n group ''[[Snowgum Films]]'' have completed principal photography on the short story ''[[Troll Bridge (movie)|Troll Bridge]]''.
[http://www.snowgumfilms.com/index2.htm]. A fan movie adaptation of ''[[Lords and Ladies (novel)|Lords and Ladies]]'' is currently being produced in [[Germany]]. [http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/%7Ejknoblo2/LnL/index.html] As of January 10, 2006, [[Sam Raimi]] is expected to direct an adaptation of ''[[The Wee Free Men]]'' for [[Sony Pictures]] following his completion of ''[[Spider-Man 3]]''. [http://filmforce.ign.com/articles/680/680582p1.html][http://www.paulkidby.com/news/jan2006.html] In the UK Sky TV have commissioned a £6 million 'made for television' adaptation of The Hogfather with [[David Jason]] playing the role of Albert, to be filmed in 2006.
===Animated adaptations===
[[Animated]] adaptations of ''Soul Music'' and ''Wyrd Sisters'' were produced by [[Cosgrove-Hall]] Productions for [[Channel 4]] in [[1996]]. These are available on DVD and VHS in the US from Acorn Media. The [[soundtrack]] to ''Soul Music'' was also released on CD.
===Radio adaptations===
There have been several [[BBC]] radio adaptations of Discworld stories, including versions of ''[[Wyrd Sisters]]'', ''[[Guards! Guards!]]'' (narrated by [[Martin Jarvis]]), ''The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents,'' and ''Mort''.
===Audio book adaptations===
Most of Pratchett's novels have been released as [[Audio book|audio books]], both abridged (read by [[Tony Robinson]]) and unabridged (read by [[Nigel Planer]] or Celia Imrie in the case of earlier works, or Stephen Briggs in the case of later ones).
==Music==
* [[Dave Greenslade]]: ''Terry Pratchett's From the Discworld'', [[1994]] (Virgin CDV 2738.7243&nbsp;8&nbsp;39512&nbsp;2&nbsp;2). [http://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/B0000070MA/qid%3D1126663627/026-6581723-6274069]
* [[Keith Hopwood]]: ''Soul Music - Terry Pratchett's Discworld'', [[1998]] (Proper Music Distribution / Pluto Music TH 030746), soundtrack to the animated adaptation of ''Soul Music''.
==Spin-off games==
===Role-playing games===
In addition [[Terry Pratchett]] co-authored with [[Phil Masters]] two [[role-playing game]] supplements for Discworld, utilising the [[GURPS]] system:
* [[GURPS Discworld]] (republished as The Discworld Roleplaying Game)
* [[GURPS Discworld Also]]
An unofficial online supplement to this is:
* [http://www.byenighte.com/ GURPS Discworld Bye Nighte]
===Computer games===
Available computer games are:
* ''[[The Colour of Magic (computer game)|The Colour of Magic]]'' ([[ZX Spectrum]], [[Commodore 64]])
* ''[[Discworld (computer game)|Discworld]]'' ([[IBM PC compatible|PC]]/DOS], [[PlayStation]], [[Sega Saturn]])
* ''[[Discworld 2]]: Missing Presumed...!?'' (Europe) / ''Discworld 2: Mortality Bytes!'' (USA) (PC/Windows, PC/DOS, Playstation)
* ''[[Discworld Noir]]'' (PC/Windows, PlayStation)
* [[Discworld MUD]] ([[Internet]])
===Board games===
There is also a Discworld [[board game]], [[Thud]], created by puzzle compiler [[Trevor Truran]].
===Card games===
There is an adaptation of the card game [[Cripple Mr Onion]] from the novel [[Witches Abroad]].
==Merchandise==
Various other types of related merchandise have been produced by [[cottage industry|cottage industries]] with an interest in the books, including [[Stephen Briggs]], [[Bernard Pearson]] and [[Clarecraft]].
==Miscellaneous==
It is even possible to get a character in one of the future Discworld books named after yourself. Usually people appear in the books by bidding for the privilege in charity auctions. The first one of these is Colette in ''Maskerade'', who is briefly commented on by Granny Weatherwax, referring to the interesting earrings she is wearing. This is a reference to a girl Pratchett met at a convention, who was wearing "[[Minor Discworld concepts#Anorankh|Anorankh]]" earrings &ndash; small figurines of an ankh wearing an anorak. The idea has resulted from a bit of confusion on the Pratchett newsgroup, and has become an unofficial symbol for the fanclub; they are made available as merchandise.
==Stealth Philosophy==
Throughout many of his novels, Pratchett employs what has been dubbed "Stealth Philosophy". That is to say, he will subtly (or not-so-subtly) hide philosophical struggles, questions, and arguments within the texts of his books, without (often) overtly stating them. Pratchett is deeply concerned about the [[ethics|philosophy of ethics]], the [[philosophy of religion]], the [[philosophy of mind|mind]] as well as topics related to [[popular science]] - lampooning the usual misunderstandings of things like [[quantum physics]] and [[Theory of Relativity|relativity]].
His [[good witch]], [[Granny Weatherwax]], takes the form of an archetypical evil crone:
:Mrs Earwig would definitely have objected to the cottage. It was out of storybook. The walls leaned against one another for support, the thatched roof was slipping off like a bad wig, and the chimneys were corkscrewed. If you thought a gingerbread house would be too fattening, this was the next worst thing.
:''"In a cottage deep in the forest lived the wicked old witch ..."''
:It was a cottage out of the nastier kind of fairy tale.
:&ndash; ''A Hat Full of Sky''
His good public servant, Lord [[Havelock Vetinari]], is an [[assassin]] and a [[tyrant]].
In general, he presents the notion that to be good quite often results in being perceived as bad or evil by the very people you're doing good for, and in many of his stories image is quite often eventually overcome, without fanfare, by substance.
:<span style="font-variant:small-caps">Some people will do anything for the sheer fascination of doing it,</span> said Death. <span style="font-variant:small-caps">Or for fame. Or because they shouldn't.</span>
:&ndash; ''Hogfather''
In the "elf" books as elsewhere, he presents the notion that our "world" is subjective, and is constructed internally. In particular, that it is constructed out of [[narrative|stories]]. Related to this is the idea that most of our experience is filtered out before it reaches consciousness:
:''You build little worlds, little stories, little shells around your mind and that keeps infinity at bay and allows you to wake up in the morning without screaming!''
:&ndash; ''A Hat Full of Sky''
:"All right," said Susan, "I'm not stupid. You're saying humans need ... ''fantasies'' to make life bearabl |
}}
#{{note|necaxa}} {{cite web
| title = Man Utd's flawed genius?
| work = BBC News, [[7 January]] [[2000]]
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sport/football/593905.stm
| accessdate = October 6
| accessyear = 2005
}}
#{{note|missedtraining}} Quoted in ''The Boss'' 468.
#{{note|scum}} A reference to Brooklyn. {{cite web
| title = Leader — Play games behind closed doors
| work = New Statesman, [[26 June]] [[2000]]
| url = http://www.newstatesman.com/200006260003
| accessdate = October 4
| accessyear = 2005
}}
#{{note|aboutturn}} {{cite web
| title = Media sympathy for Beckham's gesture
| work = BBC News, [[14 June]] [[2000]]
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/euro2000/teams/england/790657.stm
| accessdate = October 4
| accessyear = 2005
}}
#{{note|duscher}} {{cite web
| title = Did 'hatchet man' target Beckham?
| work = ESPN Socernet, [[2 April]] [[2002]]
| url = http://www.soccernet.com/championsleague/news/2002/0402/20020411featwright.html
| accessdate = October 7
| accessyear = 2005
}}
#{{note|lastunitedcontract}} {{cite web
| title = Beckham signs new contract
| work = BBC News, May 2002
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport3/worldcup2002/hi/team_pages/england/newsid_1976000/1976699.stm
| accessdate = October 7
| accessyear = 2005
}}
#{{note|boot}} {{cite web
| title = Will Becks give Man Utd the boot?
| work = BBC News, [[18 February]] [[2003]]
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/m/man_utd/2775269.stm
| accessdate = October 6
| accessyear = 2005
}}
#{{note|obe}} {{cite web
| title = Beckham's pride at OBE
| work = BBC News, [[13 June]] [[2003]]
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/2988104.stm
| accessdate = October 6
| accessyear = 2005
}}
#{{note|loos}} {{cite web
| title = Beckham to stay in Spain
| work = BBC News, [[20 May]] [[2004]]
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/3733607.stm
| accessdate = October 7
| accessyear = 2005
}}
#{{note|intruder}} {{cite web
| title = Intruder alert for Victoria Beckham
| work = Manchester Online, [[20 July]] [[2004]]
| url = http://www.manchesteronline.co.uk/news/s/124/124434_intruder_alert_for_victoria_beckham.html
| accessdate = October 9
| accessyear = 2005
}}
#{{note|walesbooking}} {{cite web
| title = FA wants explanation from Beckham
| work = BBC News, [[14 October]] [[2004]]
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/internationals/3735276.stm
| accessdate = October 6
| accessyear = 2005
}}
#{{note|unicef}} {{cite web
| title = David Beckham, Goodwill Ambassador
| work = UNICEF official website
| url = http://www.unicef.org.uk/celebrity/celebrity_biography.asp?celeb_id=27&nodeid=celeb27&section=2
| accessdate = October 9
| accessyear = 2005
}}
#{{note|100apps}} As of December 2005. The others are [[Paolo Maldini]], [[Gary Neville]] and [[Raúl González|Raúl]].
#{{note|mml137}} ''Managing My Life'' 137.
</div>
==External links==
===Football career profiles===
*[http://www.footballdatabase.com/site/players/index.php?dumpPlayer=103 FootballDatabase provides David Beckham's profile and stats]
*[http://www.thefa.com/England/SeniorTeam/Players/Postings/2004/03/David+Beckham+Real+Madrid.htm David Beckham biography from thefa.com]
*[http://www.realmadrid.com/articulo/rma433.htm David Beckham profile from realmadrid.com]
*[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0065743/bio Biography on the Internet Movie Database]
*[http://www.aceshowbiz.com/celebrity/david_beckham/ Biography on the AceShowBiz Database]
*[http://www.askmen.com/men/sports/30_david_beckham.html David Beckham profile — AskMen.com]
*[http://www.lbwf.gov.uk/index/leisure/places-of-interest/beckham-trail.htm Beckham Trail in Waltham forest] where David was born and raised
*[http://www.davidbeckhamacademy.com/main.html The David Beckham Academy] — opening in London summer 2005 and in Los Angeles in late 2005.
===Fan sites and fanzines===
*[http://www.beckham.com.ar Beckham.com.ar — pictures, profile, biography and titles]
*[http://www.david-beckham.us David Beckham] — unofficial fan website.
*[http://www.ceca-raznatovic.com/David-Beckham/index.html David Beckham Fan Website]
*[http://www.galleryofcelebrities.com/beckham.htm David Beckham Gallery]
*[http://www.manutdzone.com/legends/DavidBeckham.htm Old Trafford Legends: David Beckham]
*[http://www.beckham-magazine.com/ Beckham Magazine] — fanzine with a lot of information and pictures and a very active forum (and a lot of pop-ups).
*[http://www.david-beckham.dk/ David-Beckham.dk] — Danish fansite
===Official commercial websites===
*http://www.coty.com/WebContent.asp?CO=1150&Sec=2&Sub=15&F=David_and_Victoria_Beckham&Item=2
*http://www.19.co.uk/ar.asp?AID=18
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[PFA Young Player of the Year]]|before=[[Robbie Fowler]] |after=[[Michael Owen]]|years=1997}}
{{succession box|title=[[BBC Sports Personality of the Year]]|before=[[Steve Redgrave]] |after=[[Paula Radcliffe]]|years=2001}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:English footballers|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:England footballers|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:England under-21 footballers|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:English Premiership players|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:FIFA 100|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Football (soccer) midfielders|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Free kick specialists|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Gay icons|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Jewish-British people|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Living people|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Londoners|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Manchester United F.C. players|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Preston North End F.C. players|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Real Madrid players|Beckham, David]]
[[bg:Дейвид Бекъм]]
[[cs:David Beckham]]
[[da:David Beckham]]
[[de:David Beckham]]
[[es:David Beckham]]
[[et:David Beckham]]
[[fa:دیوید بکهام]]
[[fi:David Beckham]]
[[fr:David Beckham]]
[[ga:David Beckham]]
[[gl:David Beckham]]
[[he:דייוויד בקהאם]]
[[hu:David Beckham]]
[[id:David Beckham]]
[[it:David Beckham]]
[[ja:デビッド・ベッカム]]
[[ka:ბექჰემი, დევიდ]]
[[ko:데이비드_베컴]]
[[nl:David Beckham]]
[[no:David Beckham]]
[[pl:David Beckham]]
[[pt:David Beckham]]
[[sv:David Beckham]]
[[tpi:David Beckham]]
[[zh:大卫·贝克汉姆]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Death penalty</title>
<id>8619</id>
<revision>
<id>15906592</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Capital punishment]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dianic Wicca</title>
<id>8620</id>
<revision>
<id>40628180</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T22:54:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>63.201.91.33</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Important figures */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}
'''Dianic Wicca''', also known as '''Women's Spirituality''', '''Feminist Spirituality''', '''Feminist Witchcraft''', and '''Feminist Wicca'''.
== Beliefs and practices ==
Dianic Wicca, Dianic Witchcraft, and Feminist Dianic Witchcraft are all common titles for the [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] [[Feminism|Feminist]] [[Dianic tradition]]. While some Dianics self-identify as Wiccans, some prefer the term Witch or priestess of the Goddess. Dianic Wicca can be very similar to traditional [[Wicca]] in practice (see section below for a discussion of their differences), but differs significantly from it in beliefs. Most Dianic Wiccans worship the [[goddess worship|Goddess]] only, acknowledging that She is the source of all living and contains all within Her. There are Dianic witches who practice other forms of paganism (possibly including honoring a male deity or deities) outside of their Dianic practice. Some Dianics are monotheistic, some are polytheistic, some are non-theistic.
Most Dianics worship in female-only circles and covens, but there are mixed-gender Dianic traditions. Eclecticism, appreciation of cultural diversity, ecological concern, and familiarity with sophisticated concepts of psyche and transformation are characteristic. Contrary to some characterizations, the majority of Dianics are heterosexual or bisexual women. A minority are lesbian, and some of these are associated with the position of [[lesbian separatism]].
Many Dianic Wiccans believe that before recorded history there were widespread or universal [[matriarchy]] or matrifocal cultures which worshipped the Goddess, had [[matrilineal]] family structures, had social equality between the sexes, and did not practice war. These cultures were slowly supplanted by violent patriarchal groups; the original myths of the Great Mother and goddesses were subsumed into mythology honoring the conquerors and war gods. Dianics point to the work of influential and controversial archaeologist [[Marija Gimbutas]]. Says Utne: "UCLA archaeologist Marija Gimbutas turned historical scholarship on its head in the '70s and 80s with research that depicted peace-loving, co-operation-based Goddess-worshipping societies in ancient Europe-- which were overrun in the Neolithic era by Indo-Europeans who imposed patriarchal order. Gimbutas' vision of an earth-friendly, feminine-centered spirituality has sparked religious awakening; an estimated 400,000 Americans now declare themselves neopagans, and many more with feminist or environmentalist leanings are helping revive Goddess worship." Some Dianic Witches believe that matrifocal, Goddess-worshipping cultures existed literally, others see them as unproven but inspiring legends.
Political action is very important to many Dianic witches; personal empowerment is important to all. The saying "the personal is political" can be taken to mean that they view their choice to be Goddess worshipers as a political statement as wel |
lish colonial control.
Dutch efforts to reestablish complete control met resistance. At the war's end, a power vacuum arose, and the nationalists often succeeded in seizing the arms of the demoralised Japanese. A period of unrest with city guerrilla warfare called the [[Bersiap]] period ensued. Groups of Indonesian nationalists armed with improvised weapons (like bamboo spears) but also firearms attacked returning Allied troops.3500 Europeans were killed and 20000 were missing, meaning more European deaths in Indonesia after the war than during the war. After returning to Java, Dutch forces quickly re-occupied the colonial capital of Batavia (now [[Jakarta]]), so the city of [[Yogyakarta]] in central Java became the capital of the nationalist forces. Negotiations with the nationalists led to two major truce agreements, but disputes about their implementation, and much mutual provocation, led each time to renewed conflict. Within four years the Dutch had recaptured almost the whole of Indonesia, but guerilla resistance persisted. On [[27 December]], [[1949]], after four years of sporadic warfare and fierce criticism of the Dutch by the [[United Nations]], Queen [[Juliana of the Netherlands]] transferred sovereignty to a federal Indonesian Government. In 1950, Indonesia became the 60th member of the [[United Nations]] .
==Independence era==
[[Image:Indonesiacoatofarms.jpg|thumb|Coat of Arms of the Republic of Indonesia, adopted [[1950]].]] Shortly after hostilities with the Dutch ended in 1949, Indonesia adopted a new constitution providing for a parliamentary system of government in which the executive was chosen by and made responsible to parliament. Parliament was divided among many political parties before and after the country's first nationwide election in 1955, and stable governmental coalitions were difficult to achieve.
The role of Islam in Indonesia became a divisive issue. Sukarno defended a secular state based on [[Pancasila Indonesia|Pancasila]] while some Muslim groups preferred either an Islamic state or a constitution that included preambular provision requiring adherents of Islam to be subject to Islamic law.
Unsuccessful rebellions on Sumatra, [[Sulawesi]], West Java, and other islands beginning in 1958, plus a failure by the [[Constituent Assembly|constituent assembly]] to develop a new constitution, weakened the parliamentary system. Consequently, in 1959, when President [[Sukarno]] unilaterally revived the provisional 1945 constitution, which gave broad presidential powers, he met little resistance.
===Guided Democracy===
From 1959 to 1965, President Sukarno imposed an authoritarian regime under the label of "Guided Democracy." He also moved Indonesia's foreign policy toward nonalignment, a foreign policy stance supported by other prominent leaders of former colonies who rejected formal alliances with either the Western or [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] blocs. Under Sukarno's auspices, these leaders gathered in [[Bandung Conference|Bandung]], West Java, 1955, to lay the groundwork for what became known as the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, President Sukarno moved closer to Asian communist states and toward the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI) in domestic affairs. Though the PKI represented the largest communist party outside the [[Soviet Union]] and [[China]], its mass support base never demonstrated an ideological adherence typical of communist parties in other countries.
===West Irian question===
At the time of independence, the Dutch retained control over the western half of [[New Guinea]], and permitted steps toward their own self-government and declaration of independence [[December 1]], [[1961]].
After negotiations with the Dutch on the incorporation of the territory into Indonesia failed, an Indonesian paratroop invasion [[December 18]] preceded armed clashes between Indonesian and Dutch troops in [[1961]] and [[1962]]. In [[1962]] the United States pressured the Netherlands into secret talks with Indonesia which in August 1962 produced the [[New York Agreement]], and Indonesia assumed administrative responsibility for West Irian on [[May 1]], [[1963]].
===Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation===
''For full coverage, see [[Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation]]''
In [[1961]], the island of Borneo was divided into four separate [[state]]s: [[Kalimantan]], an Indonesian [[province]], was located in the south of the island. In the north were the [[monarchy|sultanate]] of [[Brunei]] (a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[protectorate]]) and two British [[colony|colonies]] &mdash; [[Sarawak]] and [[British North Borneo]] (which was later renamed [[Sabah]]). As a part of its withdrawal from its [[Southeast Asia]]n colonies, the UK moved to combine its colonies on Borneo with those on peninsular Malaya, to form [[Malaysia]].
In Brunei, the Indonesian-backed North Kalimantan National Army (TKNU) revolted on [[December 8]] [[1962]]. They tried to capture the [[Sultan of Brunei]], seize the oil fields and take European hostages. The Sultan escaped and asked for British help. He received British and [[Gurkha]] troops from [[Singapore]]. On [[December 16]], British Far Eastern Command claimed that all major rebel centers had been occupied, and on [[April 17]] [[1963]], the rebel commander was captured and the rebellion ended.
The Philippines and Indonesia formally agreed to accept the formation of Malaysia if a majority in the disputed region voted for it in a referendum organized by the [[United Nations]]. However, on [[September 16]], before the results of the vote were reported, the Malaysian government announced that the federation would be created, depicting the decision as an internal matter, with no need for consultation. The Indonesian government saw this as a broken promise and as evidence of British imperialism.
On [[January 20]], [[1963]], Indonesian Foreign Minister [[Subandrio]] announced that Indonesia would pursue a policy of ''Konfrontasi'' with Malaysia. On [[April 12]], Indonesian volunteers &mdash; allegedly [[Indonesian Army]] personnel &mdash; began to infiltrate Sarawak and Sabah, to engage in raids and sabotage, and spread propaganda. On [[July 27]], Sukarno declared that he was going to "crush Malaysia" or in Indonesian ''"Ganyang Malaysia"''.
Tensions rose on both sides of the [[Strait of Malacca|Straits of Malacca]]. Two days later rioters burned the British embassy in [[Jakarta]]. Several hundred rioters sacked the Singapore embassy in Jakarta and the homes of Singaporean diplomats. In Malaysia, Indonesian agents were captured and crowds attacked the Indonesian embassy in [[Kuala Lumpur]].
When the United Nations accepted Malaysia as a nonpermanent member, Sukarno [[withdrawal from the United Nations|withdrew Indonesia from the UN]] and attempted to form the [[Conference of New Emerging Forces]] ('''Conefo''') as an alternative.
In mid-[[1965]], the Indonesian government began to openly use Indonesian army forces. On [[June 28]], they crossed the border into eastern [[Sebatik Island]] near [[Tawau]], Sabah, and clashed with defenders. The outbreak of an all-out war would only be stopped by the outbreak of civil war in Indonesia.
===Civil War===
''For more details on this topic, see [[Indonesian Civil War]]''
By late [[1965]], the Indonesian Army had fragmented into left-wing and right-wing camps. The former were allied with the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI), which also controlled many of the mass civic and cultural organizations that Sukarno had established to mobilize support for his regime. The latter were courted from abroad by the United States, which trained a number of Army officers and which formed a number of think-tanks. After gaining Sukarno's acquiescence, the PKI began to arm groups of peasants in order to combat the growing power of right-wing military commands in the countryside. Army leaders objected to this campaign.
On [[September 30]], [[1965]] six senior generals within the military and several other officers were murdered by palace guards, alleged to be loyal to the PKI. The guards claimed they were attempting to stop an attempt by the generals to assassinate President Sukarno. After panic spread throughout Indonesia about a communist coup attempt, Major General [[Suharto]], the commander of the Army Strategic Reserve (Kostrad), organized an offensive under the justification of crushing this alleged rebellion. The army is believed killed tens of thousands of alleged communists in rural areas. The number of those murdered by 1966 was at least 500,000. The violence was especially brutal in Java and Bali.
Seeing the nationalist Sukarno as a threat to their interests, the West was keen to exploit the situation to its advantage. Suharto's portrayal of events as 'communist carnage' was the official version promoted in the West. Christopher Koch's popular novel ''[[The Year of Living Dangerously]]'' later helped cement this view. Yet a large body of evidence has since emerged that the killings were encouraged by the US and UK governments. According to a CIA memo, Prime Minister [[Harold Macmillan]] and President [[John F. Kennedy]] had agreed to "liquidate President Sukarno, depending on the situation and available opportunities". In 1990 the American journalist Kathy Kadane revealed the extent of the secret American support of some of the massacres of 1965-66 that allowed Suharto to seize the Presidency. She interviewed many former US officials and CIA members, who spoke of compiled lists of PKI operatives, which the Americans ticked off as the victims were killed or captured. They worked closely with the British who were keen to protect their interests in Malaysia. Sir Andrew Gilchrist cabled the Foreign Office in London saying: "&hellip;a little shooting in Indonesia would be an essential preliminary to effective change". The PKI had won some |
===Auto racing tracks===
*[[Daytona International Speedway]]
*[[Homestead-Miami Speedway]]
*[[Sebring Raceway]]
*[[St. Petersburg Raceway]]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Florida}}
* [http://www.myflorida.com The Official Portal of the State of Florida]
* [http://www.floridamemory.com/ Florida Memory Project] Over 300,000 photographs and documents from the State Library & Archives of Florida
* [http://www.mediatico.com/en/newspapers/northamerica/usa/florida/ Florida Newspapers]
* [http://obit.obitlinkspage.com/fl.htm Florida Obituary Links Page]
* [http://www.dmv.org/fl-florida/department-motor-vehicles.php Florida DMV]
* [http://www.floridarivers.org/ Florida Rivers Discussion Forum]
* [http://www.flsouthern.edu Florida Southern College]
* [http://www.fsu.edu Florida State University]
* [http://ww.unf.edu University of North Florida]
* [http://florida.historical-markers.org Florida's Historical Markers]
* [http://www.genealogybuff.com/fl/ GenealogyBuff.com - Florida Library of Files]
* [http://www.iespana.es/Miami la Voie de Miami News]
* [http://roamingfeet.com/id22.htm Palm trees in Florida]
* [http://www.terragalleria.com/america/florida/ Photos of Florida - Terra Galleria]
* [http://www.anhinga.info/florida/index.html Roundtrips with a lot of pictures]
* [http://www.ufl.edu University of Florida]
* [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/12000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
* [http://www.floridacountiesmap.com/index.html Florida Counties Maps]
* [http://www.blinkbits.com/rssfeeds/wikipedia.php?w=Florida Wikipedia Florida RSS Feed - Externally hosted]
{{United_States}}
{{Florida}}
<!-- interwiki -->
[[Category:Florida|*]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:1845 establishments]]
[[ang:Florida]]
[[ar:فلوريدا]]
[[ast:Florida]]
[[bg:Флорида]]
[[ca:Florida]]
[[cs:Florida]]
[[cy:Fflorida]]
[[da:Florida]]
[[de:Florida]]
[[et:Florida]]
[[el:Φλόριντα]]
[[es:Florida]]
[[eo:Florido]]
[[fa:فلوریدا]]
[[fr:Floride]]
[[ga:Florida]]
[[gd:Florida]]
[[gl:Florida]]
[[ko:플로리다 주]]
[[hr:Florida]]
[[id:Florida]]
[[is:Flórída]]
[[it:Florida]]
[[he:פלורידה]]
[[la:Florida]]
[[lv:Florida]]
[[lt:Florida]]
[[lb:Florida]]
[[hu:Florida]]
[[mk:Флорида]]
[[ms:Florida]]
[[nl:Florida (staat)]]
[[ja:フロリダ州]]
[[no:Florida]]
[[nn:Florida]]
[[os:Флоридæ]]
[[pl:Floryda]]
[[pt:Flórida]]
[[ru:Флорида]]
[[sq:Florida]]
[[scn:Florida]]
[[simple:Florida]]
[[sk:Florida]]
[[sl:Florida]]
[[sr:Флорида]]
[[fi:Florida]]
[[sv:Florida]]
[[th:มลรัฐฟลอริดา]]
[[tr:Florida]]
[[vi:Florida]]
[[uk:Флорида]]
[[zh:佛罗里达州]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Football team</title>
<id>10830</id>
<revision>
<id>41414135</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T04:02:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Snottygobble</username>
<id>111359</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Lists of Australian Rules Football teams */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''football team''' is the collective name given to a number of players who play together in a [[football]] game, be it [[Football (soccer)|Association football (soccer)]], [[Rugby union]], [[Rugby league]], [[Australian football|Australian Rules football]], [[American football]], [[Gaelic football]], or other version of football.
Often used as an alternative to the phrase "football club", the '''team''' can refer to an incorporated club that might have several individual teams in different [[division (sport)|divisions]].
==Lists of association football teams==
*[[List of football clubs]]
*[[List of national football teams]]
*[[List of women's football clubs]]
*[[List of women's national football teams]]
==Lists of American Football teams==
*[[National Football League]]
*[[Super Bowl]]
==Lists of Australian Rules Football teams==
*[[Australian Football League]]
*[[South Australian National Football League]]
*[[Victorian Football League]]
*[[West Australian Football League]]
*[[List of Australian Rules Football Clubs]]
[[Category: football]]
[[lv:Futbola komanda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>F</title>
<id>10831</id>
<revision>
<id>41851605</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:43:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.226.116.167|68.226.116.167]] ([[User talk:68.226.116.167|talk]]) to last version by Zimbabweed</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{AZ|uc=F|lc=f}}
:''Are you looking for the article on the [[F Sharp programming language]]?''
:''You may have made your way to this page due to [[Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_%28technical_restrictions%29|technical limitations]] in Wikipedia.''
The letter '''F''' is the sixth letter in the [[Latin alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language|English]] is ''ef'', spelled ''eff'' when used as a verb.
On [[alphanumeric keyboard]]s using the [[QWERTY]] layout, often the [[F]] and [[J]] keys (or occasionally the [[D]] and [[K]] keys) have a raised dot or bar on their surface, perceptible to the touch, to assist in typing, especially for the blind. All other keys can be found with their relative positions around these two keys as the index finger normally rests on F and J keys (or the middle finger in the case of D and K).
==History==
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;text-align:center;"
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
! Proto-Semitic W
! Phoenician W
! Etruscan W
! Greek W
|-----
|[[Image:Proto-semiticW-01.png]]
|[[Image:PhoenicianW-01.png]]
|[[Image:EtruscanF-01.png]]
|[[Image:GreekDigamma-01.png]]
|}
The origin of F is the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] letter ''wâw'' that represented the sound /w/, and originally probably represented a "hook" or a "club". The Phoenician form of the letter was adopted into Greek as a vowel, ''[[upsilon]]'' (which resembled its descendant, [[Y]], but was also ancestor to our letters [[U]], [[V]], and [[W]]); and with another form, as a consonant, ''[[digamma]]'', which resembled our letter F, but was pronounced /w/, as in Phoenician. (In later Greek, this [[phoneme]] disappeared, resulting in ''digamma'' being used as a numeral only).
In Etruscan, F also stood for /w/; however, they came up with the innovation of using the [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] FH to represent the sound /f/, and the letter acquired this sound on its own when the Romans picked it up (since they had already borrowed U independently from Greek ''upsilon'' to stand for /w/).
The [[minuscule]] ''f'' is not to be confused with ''{{IPA|&#383;}}'', the archaic ''[[long s]]'' (or ''medial s''). For example, "sinfulness" is rendered as "{{IPA|&#383;infulne&#383;s}}" using the ''long s''. The use of the ''long s'' died out by the end of the [[19th century]], largely to prevent confusion with ''f''.
==Phonetic use==
In [[English language|English]], F represents the [[voiceless labiodental fricative]] ({{IPA|[f]}} in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]), although in certain words, such as "of", it can be a [[voiced labiodental fricative]] ({{IPA|[v]}} in IPA). The [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] "ff", pronounced {{IPA|[f]}}, is often used at the end of words (and, in rare personal or placenames, at the beginning). Both initial and final F are commonly used with other discrete consonants.
In other languages, F can take on different values, such as {{IPA|[&#632;]}} ([[voiceless bilabial fricative]]) in Romanized [[Japanese language|Japanese]] or {{IPA|[v]}} in [[Welsh language|Welsh]] (which uses the "ff" digraph for IPA {{IPA|[f]}}). Different digraphs can also be used, such as "pf" in [[German language|German]] for the [[affricate]] formed by {{IPA|[p]}} and {{IPA|[f]}}.
==Codes for computing==
{{Letter
|NATO=Foxtrot
|Morse=··–·
|B1=●
|B2=●
|B3=○
|B4=●
|B5=○
|B6=○
}}
In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] F is codepoint U+0046 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] f is U+0066.
The [[ASCII]] code for capital F is 70 and for lowercase f is 102; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01000110 and 01100110, correspondingly.
The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital F is 198 and for lowercase f is 134.
The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are "<tt>&amp;#70;</tt>" and "<tt>&amp;#102;</tt>" for upper and lower case respectively.
==Ligatures==
[[Image:Ligature_drawing.png|thumb|left|75px|Common f ligatures]]
In formal [[typography]], particularly for [[serif]]ed fonts, [[minuscule]] f is one of the most commonly [[ligature (typography)|ligate]]d letters.
Unicode provides the following ligatures of f, l and i: '''&#64256;''', '''&#64257;''', '''&#64258;''', '''&#64259;''' and '''&#64260;''' (U+fb00 through U+fb04).
<br clear="all" />
==Meanings for F==
* In [[acoustics]], F is the abbreviation for the [[formant]] that ordered with its [[frequency]] from low to high.
* In [[astronomy]],
** F stands for a March 16 through 31 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[D/1993 F2]], Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9) or asteroid (e.g. {{mpl|(3708) 1974 FV|1}}).
* In the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] of [[Earth]], the [[F region|F layer]] is part of the [[ionosphere]].
* In [[biochemistry]], F is the symbol for [[phenylalanine]].
* In [[calendar]]s, F is often an abbreviation for [[Friday]], or for the [[month]] [[February]].
* In [[chemistry]], F is the symbol for [[fluorine]].
* In [[communication]]s, F sometimes stands for [[fax]] number.
* In [[computer science]], the [[F programming language ]] is a subset of Fortran 95, intended for educational and scientific use.
* In [[education]], F is a failing [[Grade (education)|grade]]
* In [[electronics]], an F [[connector]] (i.e. used f |
/~kowalskil/cf/ L. Kowalski's web site] - a collection of commentaries on cold fusion research from a physics teacher
*[http://www.iscmns.org/ International Society for Condensed Matter Nuclear Science] - website of the [[International Society for Condensed Matter Nuclear Science|ISCMNS]]
*[http://jlnlabs.imars.com/cfr/ JL Naudin's web site] - the CFR project, a High Temperature Plasma Electrolysis based on the Tadahiko Mizuno work from the Hokkaido University (Japan)
===News===
'''1980s'''
*[http://www.utoronto.ca/jpolanyi/public_affairs/public_affairs4b.html Elation Should Be Tempered Until Jury Has Examined Experiments] ''The Financial Post'' (May 1989)
*[http://partners.nytimes.com/library/national/science/050399sci-cold-fusion.html "Physicists Debunk Claim Of a New Kind of Fusion"] - ''Science'' (May 1989)
*[http://www-tech.mit.edu/V109/N24/fusion.24n.html "PFC results said to deal blow to fusion claims"] - ''MIT Tech'' (May 1989) - Early cold fusion claims set straight by work in their [[MIT#Other_MIT_labs_and_groups|Plasma Fusion Center]]
'''1990s'''
*[http://www.its.caltech.edu/~dg/fusion_art.html Whatever Happened to Cold Fusion?] ''The American Scholar'' (Late 1994)
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/6.11/coldfusion.html What If Cold Fusion Is Real?] ''Wired'', (November 1998)
*[http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/12/3/8 Whatever happened to cold fusion?] ''Physics World'', (March 1999)
*[http://www.halplotkin.com/SFGate019.htm The War Against Cold Fusion - What's really behind it?] ''SF Gate'' - (May 1999)
'''2000s'''
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/festival_of_science/919953.stm Arthur C Clarke demands cold fusion rethink] ''BBC News'' (September 2000) See also: [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/ClarkeACthecominga.pdf]
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A54964-2004Nov16.html Warming up to Cold Fusion] ''Washington Post Magazine'' (November 2004)
*[http://www.iscmns.org/iccf11/iccf11.htm ICCF-11 Overview With Links to Presentations] ''International Society for Condensed Matter Nuclear Science'' (November 2004)
*[http://www.nature.com/news/2004/041129/full/041129-11.html U.S. review rekindles cold fusion debate] ''Nature'' - (December 2004)
*[http://world.std.com/~mica/colloq.html The 2005 Cold Fusion Colloquium] ''Cold Fusion Times'' (May 2005) - Public gathering of cold fusion researchers at MIT
*[http://www.slweekly.com/editorial/2005/feat_2005-10-20.cfm Cold-Fusion Believers Work On, Even as Mainstream Science Gives Them the Cold Shoulder] ''Salt Lake City Weekly'' (October 2005)
*[http://www.iccf12.org/ ICCF-12 Announcement] ''ICCF'' (November - December 2005) - Shin Yokohama Prince Hotel in Yokohama city, Japan
[[Category:Alternative energy]]
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]
[[Category:Pseudophysics]]
[[de:Kalte Fusion]]
[[es:Fusión fría]]
[[fr:Fusion froide]]
[[it:Fusione fredda]]
[[nl:Koude kernfusie]]
[[ja:常温核融合]]
[[pl:Zimna fuzja]]
[[sk:Studená fúzia]]
[[sl:Hladna fuzija]]
[[fi:Kylmäfuusio]]
[[sv:Kall fusion]]
[[uk:Холодний синтез]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CO</title>
<id>7464</id>
<revision>
<id>15905529</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-27T08:04:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MyRedDice</username>
<id>5862</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Co]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Co]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CO2</title>
<id>7465</id>
<revision>
<id>15905530</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carbon dioxide]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coal tar</title>
<id>7466</id>
<revision>
<id>42000806</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:33:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.165.20.138</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Coal tar''' is the liquid by-product of the [[distillation]] of [[coal]] to make [[coke (fuel)|coke]]. The gaseous by-product produced by this process is commonly known as [[coal-gas|town gas]]. See also [[preservative]] and [[creosote]].
Coal tar is very viscous brown or black liquid, with smell of [[naphthalene]] and [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s. Being flammable, it is sometimes used for heating or to fire boilers. Like most oils, it must be heated before it will flow easily.
It can be made into coal tar [[soap]], and is used in medicated [[shampoo]] to kill and repel [[head lice]] and as a treatment for [[dandruff]] and [[psoriasis]]. When used as a medication, coal tar preparations are considered an OTC ([[Over-the-counter substance]]) pharmaceutical and are subject to regulation by the [[United States Food and Drug Administration]].
According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, coal tar is a [[List_of_IARC_Group_1_carcinogens|Group 1]] [[carcinogen]].
{{chem-stub}}
[[Category:Coal]]
[[Category:Materials]]
[[de:Steinkohlenteer]]
[[ja:コールタール]]
[[zh:煤焦油]]
==External Links==
[http://www.mansfieldking.com Coal Tar OTC Drug Preparations].
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Coal tar is the liquid by-product of the distillation of coal to make coke. The gaseous by-product produced by this process is commonly known as town gas. See also preservative and creosote.
Coal tar is very viscous brown or black liquid, with smell of naphthalene and aromatic hydrocarbons. Being flammable, it is sometimes used for heating or to fire boilers. Like most oils, it must be heated before it will flow easily.
It can be made into coal tar soap, and is used in medicated shampoo to kill and repel head lice and as a treatment for dandruff and psoriasis. When used as a medication, coal tar preparations are considered an OTC (Over-the-counter substance) pharmaceutical and are subject to regulation by the United States Food and Drug Administration.
According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, coal tar is a Group 1 carcinogen.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cobbler</title>
<id>7467</id>
<revision>
<id>40068824</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T22:27:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Evice</username>
<id>90310</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary|cobbler}}
'''Cobbler''' may mean:
*a person who makes and repairs [[shoe]]s and [[boot]]s for a living. A derogatory term in some regions and for some individual shoemakers. See also [[Shoemaking]]
*[[cobbler apron]], an apron of a design that is reminiscient of a garment traditionally worn by cobblers.
*[[The Cobbler]], the common name given to Ben Arthur in [[Scotland]], due to the rocky features at the summit, visible from a distance, which look like a cobbler bending over his [[last]].
*[[cobbler (food)|cobbler]], a kind of pie that lacks a base. Derives its name from the craftsman.
**In the 14th century, the [[tools|instruments]] cobblers used to cut and shape leather were ideal for cooking, and not accessible to most European peasents, so the jobs of cobbler and [[chef]] were combined. The baseless pie was the dessert cobblers specialized in (the crust was made in a very similar way to the body of a shoe), and was called "[[cobbler's dessert]]", Over time this name has been shortened to cobbler.
*Any of several types of fish:
**[[cobbler (fish)|cobbler]] ''Cnidoglanis macrocephalus'', a type of catfish found in Australia
**[[South Australian cobbler]] ''Gymnapistes marmoratus'', a wasp fish of Australia (vernacular)
**any of several species in ''[[Trachinotus]]'' (Caribbean vernacular)
* [[USS Cobbler (SS-344)|USS ''Cobbler'']], a submarine of the US Navy
* Someone who make [[CreaturesWiki:COB|COBs]] (Creatures OBjects) for ''[[Creatures]]'' 1 or 2.
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coming To America</title>
<id>7468</id>
<revision>
<id>15905533</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-01T18:23:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karen Johnson</username>
<id>1300</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coming to America]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CFC</title>
<id>7469</id>
<revision>
<id>35275037</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T15:07:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Edgar181</username>
<id>491706</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[haloalkane]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer Film Company</title>
<id>7470</id>
<revision>
<id>42108029</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:53:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/206.210.134.9|206.210.134.9]] ([[User talk:206.210.134.9|talk]]) to last version by Paranoid</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Computer Film Company''' was one of the first digital film special effects companies. Founded in London in [[1984]], CFC developed its own technology of digital film scanning, [[compositing]] and output devices. The latest generation of the scanning technology is the [[Northlight]] film scanner. [[Theo Wade Brown]] was responsible for the scanner's remarkable physical and mechanical design.
This achievement has been recognized throughout the industry, and has led to CFC being awarded two Scientific and Technical Academy Awards.
CFC merged with [[Framestore]] in 2001, creating [[Framestore CFC]], one of the largest special effects companies in Europe.
Directors who have |
ttp://languagemachine.sourceforge.net The Language Machine] directly implements unrestricted analytic grammars. Substitution rules are used to transform an input to produce outputs and behaviour. The system can also produce [http://languagemachine.sourceforge.net/picturebook.html the lm-diagram] which shows what happens when the rules of an unrestricted analytic grammar are being applied.
* [[Top-down parsing language]] (TDPL): a highly minimalist analytic grammar formalism developed in the early [[1970s]] to study the behavior of [[top-down parser]]s.
* [[Parsing expression grammar]]s (PEGs): a more recent generalization of TDPL designed around the practical [[expressiveness]] needs of [[programming language]] and [[compiler]] writers.
* [[Link grammar]]s: a form of analytic grammar designed for [[linguistics]], which derives syntactic structure by examining the positional relationships between pairs of words.
==See also==
* [[Concrete syntax tree]]
* [[Abstract syntax tree]]
* [[Ambiguous grammar]]
{{Formal languages and grammars}}
[[Category:Formal languages]]
[[cs:Formální gramatika]]
[[de:Formale Grammatik]]
[[es:Gramática formal]]
[[fr:Grammaire formelle]]
[[it:Grammatica formale]]
[[ja:形式文法]]
[[pl:Gramatyka formalna]]
[[zh:形式文法]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>François d'Aguilon</title>
<id>10996</id>
<revision>
<id>36973206</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T18:28:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Julien Tuerlinckx</username>
<id>171729</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rmv 'i' from name</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''François d'Aguilon''' (also d'Aguillon or Aguilonius) ([[1546]] &ndash; [[1617]]) was a [[Belgian]] [[mathematician]] and [[physicist]]. He was born in [[Brussels]], Belgium and became a [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] in [[1586]]. In [[1611]], he started a special school of [[mathematics]], in [[Antwerp]], which intended to perpetuate the mathematical research and study in the Jesuit society. This school produced geometers like [[André Tacquet]] and [[Jean-Charles de la Faille]]. His book, ''Opticorum Libri Sex philosophis juxta ac mathematicis utiles'' (Six Books of Optics, useful for philosophers and mathematicians alike), published in Antwerp in [[1613]], was illustrated by famous painter [[Peter Paul Rubens]]. Furthermore, it inspired the works of [[Girard Desargues|Desargues]] and [[Christiaan Huygens]] and was notable for containing the principles of [[stereographic projection]]. He died in Antwerp.
== References ==
* {{1911}}
* http://www.faculty.fairfield.edu/jmac/sj/scientists/aguilon.htm
{{mathbiostub}}
{{sci-hist-stub}}
[[Category:1546 births|Aguilon, François d']]
[[Category:1617 deaths|Aguilon, François d']]
[[Category:Belgian scientists|Aguilon, François d']]
[[Category:Belgian mathematicians|Aguilon, François d']]
[[Category:16th century mathematicians|Aguilon, François d']]
[[Category:17th century mathematicians|Aguilon, François d']]
[[Category:Jesuits|Aguilon, François d']]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Freenet</title>
<id>10997</id>
<revision>
<id>40678691</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T06:14:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.224.86.96</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Controversy */ i don't see how a category of "drug-related information" could be deemed controversial, especially considering all of the topics that could encompass such as drug abuse recovery</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Freenet (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Freenet_screenshot_the_freedom_engine_jan06.png|thumb|right|250px|Screenshot showing a 'freesite', a freenet-hosted page. The page displayed is an indexing site called "The Freedom Engine".]]
'''Freenet''' is a decentralized [[censorship]]-resistant [[peer-to-peer]] [[distributed data store]] aiming to provide electronic [[freedom of speech]] through strong [[anonymity]]. Freenet works by pooling the contributed [[bandwidth]] and storage space of member computers to allow users to anonymously publish or retrieve various kinds of information. Freenet uses a kind of [[key based routing]] similar to a [[distributed hash table]] to locate peers' data.
Freenet is currently under development, and a ''version 1.0'' has not yet been released. Freenet is considered by many to be fundamentally different from other peer-to-peer networks; it is still somewhat more difficult to use and slower.
Although Freenet does not have integrated search function, several freesites serve as directories listing published freesites. On creating a new freesite, the author can add a listing to the directory allowing others to discover the freesite. The directory owners also periodically spider or automatically attempt to retrieve the freesites they list. One of the most famous directories is the Freedom Engine, shown opposite.
Currently, Freenet cannot be used to create or distribute dynamic content, such as content that utilizes databases and scripting. According to the Freenet Project group, such tradeoffs are expected since Freenet's primary goals are neither ease-of-use nor performance. Unlike other [[peer-to-peer]] networks, Freenet is primarily intended to combat censorship and allow people to communicate freely and with near-total anonymity.
== Purpose ==
Although many nations censor communications to different extents, they all share one commonality in that a body must decide what information to censor and what information to allow. What may be acceptable to one group of people may be considered offensive or even dangerous to another. Freenet is a network which, putatively, removes the possibility of any group imposing their beliefs or values on any other. In essence nobody is allowed to decide what is acceptable for anybody else. Tolerance for each others' values is encouraged and failing that, the user is asked to [[turn a blind eye]] to content which opposes his or her views.
== Technical design ==
The type of [[routing]] protocol Freenet uses is [[key based routing]]. While the idea emerged independently, Freenet's routing algorithm is similar to that employed by [[distributed hash table]]s (DHTs). The main differences are that Freenet nodes do not have fixed specialisations, and the routing algorithm is heuristic in nature. Therefore, it does not guarantee that it will find a given piece of data. Freenet can also be viewed as a [[small world phenomenon|small world network]].
The Freenet [[file sharing]] network is designed to be highly survivable, with all internal processes completely anonymized and decentralized across the network. The system has no central servers, is [[peer-to-peer]], and is not subject to the control of any one individual or organization. Even the designers of Freenet do not have any control over the overall system. The system is designed so that information stored in the system is encrypted and replicated across a large number of continuously-changing anonymized computers around the world. It is extremely difficult for an attacker to find out which participants are hosting a given file, since the contents of each file are encrypted, and can also be broken into sections that are distributed over many different computers. Even the participants themselves don't know what they are storing.
The end goal of the Freenet network is to store documents and allow them to be retrieved later by an associated key, as is now possible with protocols such as [[HyperText Transfer Protocol|HTTP]]. The network is implemented as a number of nodes that pass messages among themselves peer-to-peer. Typically, a host computer on the network will run the software that acts as a node, and it will connect to other hosts running that same software to form a large distributed network of peer nodes. Certain nodes will be end user nodes, from which documents will be requested and presented to the human user. But these nodes communicate with each other and with intermediate routing nodes identically&mdash;there are no dedicated "clients" or "servers" on the network.
The Freenet protocol is intended to be implemented on a network with a complex network topology, such as the Internet ([[Internet Protocol]]). Each node knows only about some number of other nodes that it can reach directly (its conceptual "neighbors"), but any node can be a neighbor to any other; there is no hierarchy or other structure. Each document (or other message such as a document request) in Freenet is routed through the network by passing from neighbor to neighbor until reaching its destination. As each node passes a document to its neighbor, it does not know or care whether its neighbor is just another routing node forwarding information on behalf of another, whether it is the source of the document being passed, or whether it is a user node that will present the document to an end user. This is intentional, so that anonymity of both users and publishers can be protected.
Each node maintains a data store containing documents associated with keys, and a routing table associating nodes with records of their performance in retrieving different keys.
To find a document in the network given a key, a user sends a message to a node (probably one running on the same machine as the client program) requesting the document, providing it with the key. If the document is not found in the local data store, the node then finds the node in its routing table that it thinks will be able to locate the key most quickly, and forwards the request to that node, remembering that it has done so. Note that this is a change from the behavior of earlier versions of Freenet nodes: it represents the "Next Generation Routing" protocol. The old behavior was to remember which keys were retrieved from what nodes, and to route based on which nod |
rogramming]], a declarative programming language
* [[Application service provider]], a business that provides computer-based services to customers over a network
* AppleTalk Session Protocol, a session layer protocol used by the [[AppleTalk]] suite of protocols
* Anti-Shock Protection, a protection of an audio compact disc playback, see [[Electronic Skip Protection]]
* [[Appalachia Service Project]], a Christian volunteer organization operating in Central Appalachia
* [[Aspatria railway station]], the National Rail code for the train station in the United Kingdom
*[[Assistant Superintendent of Police]], a police rank
* [[Association of Shareware Professionals]]
* [[Association of Surfing Professionals]]
* [[Astronaut Support Person]], a NASA astronaut responsible for monitoring Orbiter status as it undergoes testing and maintenance
* [[Average Selling Price]]
* [[Alta Scuola Politecnica]], a school of excellence founded by Politecnico di Milano and Politecnico di Torino
* [[Apple System Profiler]], Apple Computer's system profiler
== See also ==
* [[asp]] for other meanings of the word ''asp''
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:ASP]]
[[es:ASP]]
[[fr:ASP]]
[[nl:ASP]]
[[ja:ASP]]
[[pl:ASP]]
[[pt:ASP (desambiguação)]]
[[ru:ASP]]
[[sv:ASP]]
[[zh:ASP]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Algebraic geometry</title>
<id>1997</id>
<revision>
<id>41119306</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T04:15:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jagged 85</username>
<id>468111</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Notes and history */ added Islamic contribution</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Algebraic geometry''' is a branch of [[mathematics]] which, as the name suggests, combines [[abstract algebra]], especially [[commutative algebra]], with [[geometry]]. It can be seen as the study of [[solution set]]s of systems of '''algebraic equations'''. When there is more than one variable, geometric considerations enter and are important to understand the phenomenon. One can say that the subject starts where [[equation solving]] leaves off, and it becomes at least as important to understand the totality of solutions of a system of equations as to find some solution; this does lead into some of the deepest waters in the whole of mathematics, both conceptually and in terms of technique.
== Zeroes of simultaneous polynomials ==
In classical algebraic geometry, the main objects of interest are the vanishing sets of collections of [[polynomial|polynomials]], meaning the set of all points that simultaneously satisfy one or more polynomial equations. For instance, the two-dimensional [[sphere]] in three-dimensional [[Euclidean space]] <math>\mathbb R^3</math> could be defined as the set of all points <math>(x,y,z)</math> with
:<math>x^2+y^2+z^2-1=0</math>.
A "slanted" circle in <math>\mathbb R^3</math> can be defined as the set of all points <math>(x,y,z)</math> which satisfy the two polynomial equations
:<math>x^2+y^2+z^2-1=0</math>,
:<math>x+y+z=0</math>.
== Affine varieties ==
First we start with a [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''k''. In classical algebraic geometry, this field was always <math>\mathbb C</math>, the complex numbers, but many of the same results are true if we assume only that ''k'' is [[algebraically closed field|algebraically closed]]. We define <math>{\mathbb A}^n_k</math>, called the '''affine n-space over k''', to be ''k<sup>n</sup>''. The purpose of this apparently superfluous notation is to emphasize that one `forgets' the vector space structure that ''k<sup>n</sup>'' carries. Abstractly speaking, <math>{\mathbb A}^n_k</math> is, for the moment, just a collection of points.
Henceforth we will drop the ''k'' in <math>{\mathbb A}^n_k</math> and instead write <math>{\mathbb A}^n</math>.
Define a function
:<math>f:{\mathbb A}^n\to{\mathbb A}^1</math>
to be '''regular''' if it can be written as a polynomial, that is, if there is a polynomial ''p'' in
:''k''[''x''<sub>1</sub>,...,''x''<sub>''n''</sub>]
such that for each point
:(''t''<sub>1</sub>,...,''t''<sub>''n''</sub>)
of <math>{\mathbb A}^n</math>,
:''f''(''t''<sub>1</sub>,...,''t''<sub>''n''</sub>) = ''p''(''t''<sub>1</sub>,...,''t''<sub>''n''</sub>).
Regular functions on affine ''n''-space are thus exactly the same as polynomials over ''k'' in ''n'' variables. We will write the regular functions on <math>{\mathbb A}^n</math> as <math>k[{\mathbb A}^n]</math>.
We say that a polynomial ''vanishes'' at a point if evaluating it at that point gives zero. Let ''S'' be a set of polynomials in <math>k[{\mathbb A}^n]</math>. The ''vanishing set of S'' (or ''vanishing locus'') is the set ''V''(''S'') of all points in <math>\mathbb{A}^n</math> where every polynomial in ''S'' vanishes. In other words,
:''V''(''S'')={(''t''<sub>1</sub>,...,''t''<sub>''n''</sub>) | for all ''p'' in ''S'', ''p''(''t''<sub>1</sub>,...,''t''<sub>''n''</sub>) = 0}.
A subset of <math>{\mathbb A}^n</math> which is ''V''(''S''), for some ''S'', is called an '''algebraic set'''. The ''V'' stands for ''variety'' (a specific type of algebraic set to be defined below).
Given a subset ''V'' of <math>{\mathbb A}^n</math> which is a variety, can one recover the set of polynomials which generate it? If ''V'' is ''any'' subset of <math>{\mathbb A}^n</math>, define ''I''(''V'') to be the set of all polynomials whose vanishing set contains V. The ''I'' stands for [[ideal_(ring_theory)|ideal]]: if two polynomials ''f'' and ''g'' both vanish on ''V'', then ''f''+''g'' vanishes on ''V'', and if ''h'' is any polynomial, then ''hf'' vanishes on ''V'', so ''I''(''V'') is always an ideal of <math>k[{\mathbb A}^n]</math>.
Two natural questions to ask are: given a subset ''V'' of <math>{\mathbb A}^n</math>, when is
:''V'' = ''V''(''I''(''V''))?
Given a set ''S'' of polynomials, when is
:''S'' = ''I''(''V''(''S''))?
The answer to the first question is provided by introducing the [[Zariski topology]], a topology on <math>{\mathbb A}^n</math> which directly reflects the algebraic structure of <math>k[{\mathbb A}^n]</math>. Then ''V'' = ''V''(''I''(''V'')), if and only if ''V'' is a Zariski-closed set. The answer to the second question is given by [[Hilbert's Nullstellensatz]]. In one of its forms, it says that ''I''(''V''(''S'')) is the [[prime radical]] of the ideal generated by ''S''. In more abstract language, there is a [[Galois connection]], giving rise to two [[closure operator]]s; they can be identified, and naturally play a basic role in the theory.
For various reasons we may not always want to work with the entire ideal corresponding to an algebraic set ''V''. [[Hilbert's Basis Theorem]] implies that ideals in <math>k[{\mathbb A}^n]</math> are always finitely generated.
An algebraic set is called '''irreducible''' if it cannot be written as the union of two smaller algebraic sets. An irreducible algebraic set is also called a '''variety'''. It turns out that an algebraic set is a variety if and only if the polynomials defining it generate a [[prime ideal]] of the polynomial ring.
== Regular functions ==
Just as [[continuous function|continuous functions]] are the natural maps on [[topological space|topological spaces]] and [[smooth function|smooth functions]] are the natural maps on [[differentiable manifold|differentiable manifolds]], there is a natural class of functions on an algebraic set, called regular functions. A '''regular function''' on an algebraic set V contained in <math>{\mathbb A}^n</math> is defined to be the restriction of a regular function on <math>{\mathbb A}^n</math>, in the sense we defined above.
It may seem unnaturally restrictive to require that a regular function always extend to the ambient space, but it is very similar to the situation in a [[normal space|normal]] [[topological space]], where the [[Tietze extension theorem]] guarantees that a continuous function on a closed subset always extends to the ambient topological space.
Just as with the regular functions on affine space, the regular functions on V form a ring, which we denote by k[V]. This ring is called the '''coordinate ring of V'''.
Since regular functions on V come from regular functions on <math>{\mathbb A}^n</math>, there should be a relationship between their coordinate rings.
Specifically, to get a function in k[V] we took a function in <math>k[{\mathbb A}^n]</math>, and we said that it was the same as another function if they gave the same values when evaluated on V. This is the same as saying that their difference is zero on V. From this we can see that k[V] is the quotient <math>k[{\mathbb A}^n]/I(V)</math>.
== The category of affine varieties ==
Using regular functions from an affine variety to <math>{\mathbb A}^1</math>, we can define regular functions from one affine variety to another. First we will define a regular function from a variety into affine space: Let V be a variety contained in <math>{\mathbb A}^n</math>. Choose ''m'' regular functions on V, and call them f<sub>1</sub>,...,f<sub>m</sub>. We define a '''regular function''' f from V to <math>{\mathbb A}^m</math> by letting f(t<sub>1</sub>,...,t<sub>n</sub>)=(f<sub>1</sub>,...,f<sub>m</sub>). In other words, each f<sub>i</sub> determines one coordinate of the [[ran |
(U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.88% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 2.82% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.21% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 5.01% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 3.85% from two or more races. 12.01% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 141,516 households out of which 34.0% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.5% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 10.6% have a female householder with no husband present, and 34.2% are non-families. 27.0% of all households are made up of individuals and 6.9% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.50 and the average family size is 3.06.
In the city the population is spread out with 26.5% under the age of 18, 10.3% from 18 to 24, 32.8% from 25 to 44, 20.8% from 45 to 64, and 9.6% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 34 years. For every 100 females there are 97.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 95.2 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $45,081, and the median income for a family is $53,478. Males have a median income of $36,786 versus $26,427 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $22,496. 8.7% of the population and 6.1% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 10.8% of those under the age of 18 and 7.2% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
==Attractions and entertainment==
===Tourism and attractions===
[[Image:Downtown Colorado Springs.jpg|thumb|right|293px|Downtown Colorado Springs.]]
In addition to Pikes Peak, there are many other tourist attractions in the area, including:
<!-- Please keep this list in alphabetical order. Thanks! -->
* [[American Numismatic Association]]
* [[Cave of the Winds (Colorado)|Cave of the Winds]]
* The [[Cheyenne Mountain Zoo]], billed as the nation's only 'mountain zoo,' is situated, essentially, on the side of Cheyenne Mountain.
* [http://www.shopthecitadel.com/ Citadel Mall] and [http://www.chapelhillsmall.com/html/index5.asp Chapel Hills Mall]
* [http://www.flyingw.com/ Flying W Ranch]
* [[Security Service Field]], home of the baseball club Colorado Springs Sky Sox, AAA affiliate of the Colorado Rockies
* [[Focus on the Family]] visitor center and tours of facilities
* [[Garden of the Gods]], a collection of large red [[sandstone]] formations
* [[Glen Eyrie]], home to [[William Jackson Palmer]], the founder of Colorado Springs, now owned by [[The Navigators (organization)|The Navigators]] - tours available
* [[Manitou Cliff Dwellings]]
* [[Michelle's]], a 50+ year old ice cream parlor featured in [[Life Magazine]]
* Old Colorado City district
* [http://www.springsgov.com/SectionIndex.asp?SectionID=9 Pioneer's Museum]
* [[ProRodeo Hall of Fame]] and Museum of the American Cowboy
* [[Seven Falls]]
* [[United States Air Force Academy]]
* [[United States Olympic Training Center]]
According to the Colorado Springs Convention & Visitors Bureau, the area attracts some six million visitors yearly.
Colorado Springs is served by the [[Colorado Springs Airport]].
=== Sports teams ===
*The [[Colorado Springs Sky Sox]] [[baseball]] team, in the Pacific Coast League (AAA classification), a [[Minor league baseball|minor league]] affiliate of the [[Major League Baseball|major league]] [[Colorado Rockies]].
*The [[Colorado Springs Blizzard]] soccer team, in the [[Premier Development League]] a division of the [[United Soccer Leagues]]
*The local colleges feature many sports teams. Notable among them are the following nationally-competitive NCAA [[Division I]] teams: Air Force Academy (Fighting Falcons) Football and Hockey, Colorado College (Tiger) Hockey, and Colorado College (Tiger) Women's Soccer.
* Colorado Springs Cricket Club represents the city in Colorado Cricket League. Formerly called One World Cricket Club, they have won the state championship three times (1999, 2002, 2005) and been in the top four teams in the state for last four consecutive years.
* The [[Pikes Peak International Raceway]] was purchased by competing racing interests and has been shut down.
==Economy, Religious Institutions, and Education==
===Industry and military===
These are some of the larger employers, military facilities, and commercial facilities:
*[[United States Air Force Academy]] - Air Force
*[[Cheyenne Mountain Air Station]] - [[Air Force]]: a major military center, home of NORAD ([[North American Aerospace Defense Command]]), it is housed in [[Cheyenne Mountain]], south of Pikes Peak.
*[[Peterson Air Force Base]] - Air Force
*[[Schriever Air Force Base]] - Air Force
*[[Fort Carson]] - Army
*[[MCI]] - Telecommunications - has a fairly large engineering presence
*[[HP]] - Computing - large sales, support. and [[SAN]] storage engineering center. The location was built by [[Digital Equipment Corporation]], renamed [[Compaq]] in the 1998 acquisition of Digital, and finally renamed [[HP]] after the 2002 merger.
*[[SNIA]] - Computing - home of the [[SNIA]] Technology Center
*[[Agilent]] - Tech manufacturing - [[HP]] operated a large facility in the area that was later renamed Agilent in the spinoff.
*[[Intel]] - Chip fabrication - bought a fabrication plant from Rockwell International in 2000 and now run as Fab 23 making flash memory chips. Intel had plans for building a second location, but abandoned the idea due to the falling economy in 2001.
*[[Atmel]] - Chip Fabrication
===Religious Institutions===
In recent years, Colorado Springs has attracted a large influx of [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical Christians]] and organizations. Evangelical groups with headquarters at Colorado Springs include [[Focus on the Family]] (a Christian organization active on many social and political issues), [[Compassion International]], [[The Navigators (organization)|The Navigators]], [[Youth_with_a_mission|Youth with a Mission]], [[Young Life]] and the [[International Bible Society]], earning the city the tongue-in-cheek nickname "the Protestant Vatican".
At one time Colorado Springs was counted to be the national headquarters for 81 different religious organizations.
The city and surrounding areas also host hundreds of churches and synagogues of many faiths and denominations, including a mosque.
===Education===
Universities, colleges and special schools include:
* The [[Colorado College]], founded in [[1874]]
* The [[Colorado School for the Deaf and the Blind]], also founded in 1874
* The [[United States Air Force Academy]], established upon its present site in [[1958]]
* The [[University of Colorado at Colorado Springs]] (UCCS), established upon its present Cragmor grounds in [[1965]]
* [[Pikes Peak Community College]]
* [[Nazarene Bible College]]
==Trivia==
*''[[Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman]]'', an [[Emmy Award]]-winning dramatic television series starring [[Jane Seymour (actress)|Jane Seymour]], was set in this town. Though there was some historical accuracy, the majority of the events and settings were fictional, and actual filming was done at the Paramount Ranch near [[Agoura Hills, California]].
*[[Kelsey Grammer]]'s sister was murdered after leaving a [[Red Lobster]] in Colorado Springs, Colorado [http://www.crimelibrary.com/notorious_murders/classics/karen_grammer/8.html?sect=13].
*[[Lon Chaney, Sr.|Lon Chaney]] was born in Colorado Springs on [[April 1]] [[1883]]. The [[Lon Chaney Theatre]] is named for him.
*[[Cassandra Peterson]] (a.k.a. [[Elvira]], Mistress of the Night) attended [[Palmer High School]] in downtown Colorado Springs. She graduated in the class of [[1969]].
*[[Leeann Tweeden]] worked briefly as a [[waiter|waitress]] at a local [[Hooters]] in the [[1991]]-[[1992]] timeframe.
*[[Bobby Unser]] was born in Colorado Springs on [[February 20]] [[1934]].
*Actors [[Michael Boatman]] and [[Chase Masterson]] are from Colorado Springs.
*The [[television program|TV series]] ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' has several episodes which at least partially take place in Colorado Springs; additionally SGC is based out of nearby Cheyenne Mountain, and most of the team members are shown to reside in Colorado Springs.
*In the [[Film|movie]] ''[[The Sum Of All Fears]]'' the Russian President asks a military advisor how many people live in Colorado Springs, as he weighs the ramifications in the use of [[nuclear weapons]] against the city. This highlights the strategic importance of the military-centered city.
*The [[Film|movie]] ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'' makes reference to the destruction of [[NORAD]], located in the city.
*Serbian-born American physicist [[Nikola Tesla]] built a laboratory in 1899 for his experiments in the wireless transmission of electrical power. Reportedly he shot lightning from his lab back into the sky during a lightning storm.
*[[Robert A. Heinlein]], noted sci-fi writer during the genre's Golden Age, lived in Colorado Springs during part of his career. His novel ''[[The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress]]'' featured at one point the rebel moon government raining rock-filled grain cannisters down on [[NORAD]]'s headquarters inside Cheyenne Mountain, incidentally destroying Colorado Springs because of the great amount of [[kinetic energy]] released on impact.
*''[[Peanuts]]'' creator [[Charles M. Schulz]] lived briefly in Colorado Springs in 1951. He painted a wall of his home with some ''Peanuts'' characters. The wall was removed from the home in 2001 and donated to the Charles M. Schulz Museum in Santa Rosa, California.
== Sister Cities ==
Sister Cities of Colorado Springs include [[Fujiyoshida, Yamanashi|Fujiyoshida, Japan]] (1962); [[Kaohsiung|Kaohsiung, Taiwan]] (1983); [[Smolensk|Smolensk, Russia]] (1993); [[Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan]] (1994); [[Nuevo Casas Grandes|Nuevo Casas Grandes, Mexico]] (1996); and [[City of Bankstown|Bankstown, Australia]] (1999). Colorado Springs' sister |
ransport|trains]] to heat water into steam to move parts and provide power. Peat and wood are mainly used for domestic and industrial heating, though peat has been used for [[power generation]], and wood-burning steam [[locomotive]]s were common in times past. Steam power is becoming more and more desirable as oil and gas supplies begin to run out, given the wide number of possible things that can [[combustion|burn]] to heat water.
===Liquid and gas fuels===
Non-solid fuels include [[petroleum]] and [[gas]] (both fuel types have myriad varieties including [[petrol]] (gasoline) and [[natural gas]]). The former is widely used in the [[internal combustion engine]] while both are used in power generation.
===Nuclear fuels===
In a [[nuclear reactor|nuclear reaction]] a radioactive fuel will undergo [[nuclear fission|fission]]. This provides a useful source of [[energy]] without combustion. Also, in [[star]]s (and our sun), [[hydrogen]] (a gas) is the fuel for the [[nuclear fusion]].
==Other fuel==
[[Image:hydrogengas.jpg|frame|Hydrogen Gas in a Flask (it is colourless).]]
[[Hydrogen]] also features as an upcoming fuel for automobiles with [[Oxygen]] in the [[Fuel Cell]]. This involves a reaction where the hydrogen and oxygen react to produce water (H<sub>2</sub>O) and electrical energy, however most of the energy comes from turning hydrogen into electrons which is electricity and protons using platinum as a catalyst, which, then can supply an electrical motor in order to run a car (or a variety of other uses). In this reaction the [[chemical energy]] of the chemicals is converted into [[electrical energy]] due to [[redox]].
[[Carbohydrate]]s, [[fat]]s, and [[protein]]s, derived from food, are the fuels for biological systems. For instance, glucose (a simple carbohydrate) combines with oxygen to produce water, carbon-dioxide, and a release of energy. In the bodies of most animals, the released energy is used by the [[muscle]]s.<br><br>
==Fuel values==
''Main article: [[Fuel value]].''
The ''fuel value'' is the quantity of [[potential energy]] in a [[food]] or other substance.
==See also==
*[[List of energy topics]]
*[[Solid fuel]]
*[[Liquid fuels]]
*[[Gas fuel]]
*[[Alcohol fuel]]
*[[Biomass]]
*[[Biofuel]]
*[[Fuel oil]]
*[[Fossil fuel]]
*[[Propellant]]
*[[Combustion]]
*[[Hydrocarbon]]
*[[Oxidation]]
==External links==
* [http://www.southerngrease.com Alternative Fuels - Beginner's tutorial on using alternative fuels in a diesel engine]
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Fuels|*]]
[[Category:Energy development]]
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[[bg:Гориво]]
[[ca:Combustible]]
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[[he:דלק]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Final Fantasy</title>
<id>10974</id>
<revision>
<id>42134265</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:20:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Seancdaug</username>
<id>132265</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Design */ removed last two sentences of first paragraph. See talk page.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- NOTICE:
This article is already very big. If you wish to add a large amount of information please consider adding it to one of the Many Final Fantasy sub-articles instead. Thanks.
-->
:''This article is about the Final Fantasy series. For the first game in the series, see [[Final Fantasy (video game)]]. For the movie, see [[Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]. For the Toronto-based musical project of the same name, see [[Owen Pallett]].''
[[Image:Final Fantasy series logo.svg|256px|right|Japanese series logo, which also appears in the post-16-bit era North American localizations]]
[[Image:Final Fantasy North American logo.png|256px|right|Logo which appeared in the 16-bit era North American localizations]]
'''''Final Fantasy''''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: {{lang|ja|&#12501;&#12449;&#12452;&#12490;&#12523;&#12501;&#12449;&#12531;&#12479;&#12472;&#12540;}} ''Fainaru Fantajī'') is a popular series of [[computer role-playing game|role playing games]] produced by [[Square Enix]] (originally [[Square Co., Ltd.]]). It may be the most widely distributed game series of all time, including both standard [[video game console|console]] games and [[portable|portable game]]s, a [[MMORPG|massively multiplayer online role-playing game]], games for [[mobile phone]]s, three [[anime]] productions, and two full length [[computer-generated imagery|CGI]] [[film]]s.
The first installment of the series premiered in [[Japan]] in 1987, and ''Final Fantasy'' games have subsequently been [[Software localization|localized]] for markets in [[North America]], [[Europe]] and [[Australia]], on several modern [[video game console]]s, including the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]], the [[MSX#MSX 2|MSX 2]], the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System]], the [[PlayStation]], the [[WonderSwan Color]], the [[PlayStation 2]], [[IBM PC compatible]], [[Game Boy Advance]], [[Nintendo GameCube]], and several different models of [[mobile phone]]s. Future installments have been announced to appear on the [[Nintendo DS]], [[Nintendo Revolution]], [[PlayStation Portable]], [[PlayStation 3]] and [[Xbox 360]] game systems. It is Square Enix's most successful franchise, having sold over 60 million units worldwide to date.
As of late 2005, ten games have been released in North America as part of the main (numbered) series, as well as many other spinoffs and related titles. The unreleased third entry in the series is an upcoming Nintendo DS release. North American release details have not been announced.
== Overview ==
Square Co., Ltd. first entered the Japanese [[Computer and video game industry|video game industry]] in the mid 1980s, developing a variety of simple RPGs for [[Nintendo]]'s [[Famicom Disk System]] (FDS), a disk-based [[peripheral]] for the Family Computer (also known as the "Famicom," and known internationally as the ''Nintendo Entertainment System''). By 1987, declining interest in the FDS had placed Square on the verge of [[bankruptcy]]. At approximately the same time, Square designer [[Hironobu Sakaguchi]] began work on an ambitious new fantasy role playing game for the cartridge-based Famicom, inspired in part by [[Enix]]'s popular ''[[Dragon Quest]]'' (known in the [[United States]] as ''Dragon Warrior''). (At the time, Enix and Square were seperate companies; they did not merge until about 17 years later.) Sakaguchi had plans to retire after the completion of the project so he named it ''[[Final Fantasy (video game)|Final Fantasy]]'' because it was his final game, although it was also going to be Square's final game. In fact, it's commonly believed that the game was named ''Final Fantasy'' because of Square and not Sakaguchi, although Sakaguchi himself has confirmed it was named because of his plans for retirement. Either way, ''Final Fantasy'' turned out to be far from being Square's or Sakaguchi's last game. ''Final Fantasy'' reversed Square's lagging fortunes, and became their flagship franchise.
Following the success of the first game, Square quickly began work on a [[sequel]]. Unlike a typical sequel, ''[[Final Fantasy II]]'' featured entirely different characters, with a setting and story bearing only thematic similarities to its predecessor. This unusual approach to sequels has continued throughout the series, with each major ''Final Fantasy'' game introducing a new world, and a new system of [[gameplay]]. Many elements and themes would recur throughout the series, but there would be no direct sequels until the release of ''[[Final Fantasy X-2]]'', in 2003 (after the [[Mergers and acquisitions|merger]] with [[Enix]] however, real game sequels have become increasingly prevalent). In a way, the ''Final Fantasy'' series has been a creative showcase for Square's developers, and many elements originally introduced in the series have made their way into Square's other titles, most notably two of its other major franchises, ''[[SaGa]]'' and ''[[Seiken Densetsu]]''.
== Common themes ==
[[Image:Final Fantasy IV JAP Airship.png|thumb|right|256px|[[Final Fantasy airships|Airships]] have appeared in almost every ''Final Fantasy'' game (''[[Final Fantasy IV]]'' shown).]]
Though each ''Final Fantasy'' story is independent, many themes and elements of gameplay recur throughout the series. Some spin-off titles have cameo appearances of characters from preceeding stories. But in most cases merely the names are reused, so that each game has its own unique collection of characters. From the strong influence of history, literature, human psyche, religion and mythology on the story to the frequent reappearance of certain monsters, characters, and items, these shared elements provide a unifying framework to the series. The exception to this trend is Final Fantasy X-2, which is a continuation of X.
Some key objects and concepts that have appeared in more than one ''Final Fantasy'' game include:
* '''[[Final Fantasy airships|Airships]]''' &mdash; Powerful airborne vessels which usually serve as a primary mode of transportation for the player, enabling fast movement nearly anywhere in the [[overworld]] without the risk of [[random encounter|random encounters]]. In many games, most notably ''[[Final Fantasy IV]]'' and ''[[Final Fantasy IX]]'' , the presence of airships is a key component to the story itself. In most of the titles, airships generally had the appearance of flying sailing ships with a series of propellers instead of sails. However, in some of the later games they look more technological, appearing to be zeppelins or even ornate space ships. In the |
hkar]] who, through the course of a career spanning over six decades, has recorded thousands of songs for Indian movies. Most of the female songs in films from the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s were sung by Lata. The [[composer]]s of film music, known as music directors, are also well-known. Their songs can make or break a film and usually do.
The dancing in Bollywood films, especially older ones, is primarily modeled on Indian dance: classical dance styles, dances of historic northern Indian courtesans ([[tawaif]]), or [[folk dance]]s. In modern films, Indian dance elements often blend with Western dance styles (as seen on [[MTV]] or in Broadway musicals), though it is not unusual to see Western pop ''and'' pure classical dance numbers side by side in the same film. The hero or heroine will often perform with a troupe of supporting dancers, usually of the same sex. If the hero and heroine dance and sing a pas-de-deux (a dance and [[ballet]] term, meaning "dance of two"), it is often staged in beautiful natural surroundings or architecturally grand settings. This staging is referred to as a [[picturisation]]. [[Switzerland]] has become a popular setting for these picturisations, largely because its Alpine valleys are reminiscent of [[Kashmir]]. Though considered by many to be one of India's most beautiful regions, Kashmir has been generally off-limits for quite some time due to violence.
Songs typically comment on the action taking place in the movie, in several ways. Sometimes, a song is worked into the plot, so that a character has a reason to sing; other times, a song is an externalization of a character's thoughts, or presages an event that has not occurred yet in the plot of the movie. In this case, the event is almost always two characters' falling in love.
==Dialogues and lyrics==
The film script (frequently credited as "dialogues") and the song lyrics are often written by different people. The dialogues are mostly written in Hindi, with use of Urdu in situations which require poetic dialogues. Contemporary mainstream movies also make great use of English. Dialogues are often melodramatic and invoke God, family, mother, duty, and self-sacrifice liberally.
As an example, below is a dialogue from the 1975 film ''[[Deewar]]'', between the gangster brother Vijay and his policeman brother Ravi:
::Vijay: ''Hum dono ne ek hi jagah se apni zindagi ki shuruwat ki thi&mdash;aaj main kaha hoon aur tum kahan ho. Mere paas gaadi hai, bungalow hai, daulat hai&mdash;kya hai tumhaarey paas?''
::We both started our lives from the same place&mdash;look where I am today and look where you are. I have cars, bungalows, wealth&mdash;what do ''you'' have?
::<short pause>
::Ravi: ''Bhai, mere paas maa hai''.
::Brother, I have Mom.
Music directors often prefer working with certain lyricists, to the point that the lyricist and composer are seen as a team. This phenomenon is not unlike the pairings of American composers and songwriters that created old-time Broadway musicals (e.g., [[Richard Rodgers]] and [[Oscar Hammerstein II]], or [[Alan Jay Lerner]] and [[Frederick Loewe]]). Song lyrics are usually about love. Bollywood song lyrics, especially in the old movies, frequently use Urdu or Hindustani vocabulary which has many elegant and poetic Arabic and Persian loan-words. Here's a sample from the 1983 film ''Hero'', written by the lyricist [[Anand Bakshi]]:
::''Bichhdey abhi to hum, bas kal parso,''
::''jiyoongi main kaisey, is haal mein barson?''
::''Maut na aayi, teri yaad kyon aayi,''
::''Haaye, lambi judaayi!''
::We have been separated just a day or two,
::How am I going to go on this way for years?
::Death doesn't come; why, instead, do these memories of you?
::Oh, this long separation!
Another source for love lyrics is the long [[Hindu]] tradition of poetry about the mythological amours of [[Krishna]], [[Radha]], and the [[gopi]]s. Many lyrics compare the singer to a devotee and the object of his or her passion to Krishna or Radha.
==Cast and crew==
Bollywood employs people from all parts of India. It attracts thousands of aspiring actors and actresses, all hoping for a break in the industry. Models and beauty contestants, television actors, theatre actors and even common people come to [[Mumbai]] with the hope and dream of becoming a star. Just as in Hollywood, very few succeed.
Stardom in the entertainment industry is very fickle, and Bollywood is no exception. The popularity of the stars can rise and fall rapidly, based on single movies. Very few people become national icons, who are unaffected by success or failure of their movies, like [[Amitabh Bachchan]]. [[Film director|Director]]s compete to hire the most popular stars of the day, who are believed to guarantee the success of a movie (though this belief is not always supported by box-office results). Hence many stars make the most of their fame, once they become popular, by making several movies simultaneously.
Bollywood can be clannish, and the relatives of film-industry insiders have an edge in getting coveted roles. However, industry connections are no guarantee of a long career: competition is brutal and if film industry scions don't succeed at the box office, their careers will falter. Some of the biggest stars, such as [[Dev Anand]], [[Amitabh Bachchan]], and [[Shah Rukh Khan]], have succeeded despite total lack of show biz connections.
Notable film clans:
* [[Kapoor Family (film)|the Kapoors]] ([[Prithviraj Kapoor]], [[Raj Kapoor]], [[Shammi Kapoor]], [[Shashi Kapoor]], [[Randhir Kapoor]], [[Rishi Kapoor]], [[Rajiv Kapoor]], [[Babita Kapoor]], [[Neetu Singh]], [[Karisma Kapoor]], [[Kareena Kapoor]], [[Ranbir Kapoor]], [[Riddhima Kapoor]], [[Shivani Kapoor]])
* the Deols ([[Dharmendra]], [[Hema Malini]], [[Sunny Deol]], [[Bobby Deol]], [[Esha Deol]], [[Abhay Deol]])
* [[Bachchan Family|the Bachchans]] ([[Amitabh Bachchan]], [[Abhishek Bachchan]], [[Jaya Bachchan]])
* the Rajesh Khanna family ([[Rajesh Khanna]], [[Dimple Kapadia]] (his wife), [[Twinkle Khanna]] (his daughter), [[Akshay Kumar]] (his son-in-law) and [[Rinke Khanna]] (his younger daughter))
* the Vinod Khanna family ([[Vinod Khanna]], [[Akshaye Khanna]] and [[Rahul Khanna]] (his sons))
* the Dutts ([[Nargis]] and [[Sunil Dutt]] (wife and husband), [[Sanjay Dutt]] (their son))
* the Hussains ([[Nasir Hussain]], [[Tahir Hussain]], [[Aamir Khan]], [[Mansoor Khan]], [[Faisal Khan]])
* the Khans ([[Salim Khan]], [[Helen]], [[Salman Khan]], [[Arbaaz Khan]], [[Sohail Khan]], [[Malaika Arora]])
* the Mukherjee-Samarth family ([[Shobhana Samarth]], [[Debashree Roy]], [[Sashadhar Mukherjee]], [[Joy Mukherjee]], [[Deb Mukherjee]], [[Sharbani Mukherjee]], [[Nutan]], [[Tanuja]], [[Mohnish Behl]], [[Tanisha]], [[Kajol]], [[Ram Mukherjee]], [[Rani Mukerji]])
* the Pataudis ([[Sharmila Tagore]], [[Saif Ali Khan]] (her son), [[Soha Ali Khan]] (her daughter))
* the Khan-Roshan clan ([[Roshan]], [[Rakesh Roshan]], [[Rajesh Roshan]], [[Hrithik Roshan]], [[Suzanne Khan]] (Hrithik's wife), [[Sanjay Khan]] (Suzanne's father), [[Zayed Khan]], [[Feroz Khan]], [[Fardeen Khan]]).
* the Ganguly brothers ([[Ashok Kumar]], [[Kishore Kumar]], [[Anup Kumar]])
* the Mangeshkar sisters ([[Hridayanath Mangeshkar]], [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Usha Mangeshkar]])
==Finances==
[[Image:Bollywoodlondon.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Bollywood movies are released commercially in the [[United Kingdom]].]]
Bollywood budgets are usually modest by Hollywood standards. [[Set (drama)|Sets]], [[costume]]s, [[special effects]], and [[cinematography]] were less than world-class up until the mid-to-late 1990s. But as Western films and [[television]] gain wider distribution in India itself, there is increasing pressure for Bollywood films to attain the same production levels. Sequences shot overseas have proved a real [[box office]] draw, so Mumbai film crews are increasingly filming in [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[continental Europe]] and elsewhere. Nowadays, Indian producers are drawing in more and more funding for big-budget films shot within India as well, such as ''[[Lagaan]]'', ''[[Devdas (2002 film)|Devdas]]'', and the recent production [[The Rising (Indian film)|''The Rising'']].
Funding for Bollywood films often comes from private distributors and a few large [[Movie studio|studios]]. Indian [[bank]]s and [[financial institutions]] were forbidden from lending money to movie studios. However, this ban has now been lifted [http://www.rediff.com/entertai/2001/mar/31sush.htm]. As finances are not regulated, some funding also comes from illegitimate sources, such as the [[Mumbai underworld]]. The Mumbai underworld has been known to be involved in the production of several films, and are notorious for their patronization of several prominent film personalities; On occasion, they have known to use money and muscle power to get their way in cinematic deals. In January, 2000, Mumbai mafia hitmen shot Rakesh Roshan, film director and father of star [[Hrithik Roshan]]; It had been reported that he had rebuffed mob attempts to meddle with his film distribution. In 2001, the [[Central Bureau of Investigation]] seized all prints of the movie ''[[Chori Chori Chupke Chupke]]'' after the movie was found to be funded by members of the [[Mumbai underworld]].
Another problem facing Bollywood is widespread [[copyright infringement]] of its films. Often, bootleg [[DVD#DVD-Video|DVD]] copies of movies are available before the prints are official released in [[movie theaters]]. Manufacturing of bootleg DVD, VCD, and VHS copies of the latest movie titles is a well established 'small scale industry' in parts of the [[Indian Subcontinent]] and [[South East Asia]]. Besides catering to the homegrown market, demand for these copies is large amongst some sections of the [[Indian diaspora]], too. (In fact, bootleg copies are the only way people in Pakistan can watch Bol |
T05:14:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Snkcube</username>
<id>310452</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Female adult bio
|photo= [[Image:AriaGiovanni.jpg|250px|Aria Giovanni]]
|birth= [[November 3]], [[1977]]
|birthname=
|death=
|location= [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[California]]
|measurements= 34D-25-35
|height= 5'6" / 1.68 m
|weight=124 lbs
|eye color= Brown
|hair color= Brown
|natural bust= Yes
|orientation=
|ethnicity= [[White (people)|White]] ([[Italian people|Italian]]/[[Yugoslavia|Yugoslavian]]/[[French people|French]]/[[Germans|German]])
|alias=
|homepage= http://www.ariagiovanni.com/
|iafd= AriaGiovanni
|imdb= 1020082
}}
'''Aria Giovanni''' (born [[November 3]], [[1977]] in [[Los Angeles, California]]) is the [[stage name]] of a [[model (person)|model]] and a [[pornographic actress|soft pornographic film actress]] who was ''[[Penthouse magazine|Penthouse]]'' [[Penthouse Pet|Pet]] for the month of September 2000.
==Biography==
Although Giovanni was born in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], by high school she was living in nearby [[Orange County, California|Orange County]]. Growing up Aria recounts that she was quite shy, with only one friend in high school, but that she did very well in her classes. According to her website, she did so well that she was able to graduate and head to college by the age of 16.
She attended college for several years, waitressing and tutoring in science and math on the side, when she decided modelling might be an easier way to make good money. She started answering newspaper ads in [[October]], [[1999]], and soon began appearing on various [[amateur pornography]] [[website]]s such as Amateur Pink, Busty Amateurs, and Seductive Amateurs.
In 2000, [[Aimee Sweet]] introduced Giovanni to [[glamour photography|glamour photographer]] [[Suze Randall]], who in late May of that year shot photos of Giovanni which appeared in the September issue of ''Penthouse'' magazine.
At the same time, she also appeared on the web site [[Bomis]], posing clothed for a [[Ferrari]] giveaway contest.
In 2001, she played Monica Snatch in the movie ''Survivors Exposed'', a parody of the ''[[Survivor (TV series)|Survivor]]'' [[television]] series.
Giovanni has also appeared in [[Bondage (BDSM)|bondage]], [[fetish]] and artistic photography. She has gained particular respect for being among relatively few large-chested models working in the field who have not undergone [[cosmetic surgery]].
Giovanni has worked extensively with [[Andrew Blake]], appearing in ''Girlfriends'', ''Aria'', ''Blonds & Brunettes'', ''Justine'', ''Adriana'', and ''Naked Diva''. She has appeared in both softcore and hardcore pornographic movies, although most of her lesbian scenes involve purely implied sexual contact.
She is currently married to [[John5|John Lowery]] (better known as John5), formerly of the band [[Marilyn Manson]].
==Trivia==
*Penthouse Pet of the month (September 2000)
*Posed for the premiere issue of Mystique Magazine
*At sixteen she began dating a man. This lasted for five years; she married him at twenty-one but divorced him five weeks later.
==Quotes==
"In high school I was an ugly duckling. I had big breasts, an exotic voluptuous look and was so pathetically shy I had hardly any friends."
"Finding clothes that would fit me was a real problem, too. Dresses that fitted my breasts hung on the rest of me like an empty sack. My tits burst out of dresses that fitted my waist. At least I didn't have the problem of finding a prom dress — no one asked me!"
==Notable TV guest appearances==
* ''[[Shipmates]]'' playing herself, [[November 16]], [[2001]]
* ''[[Howard Stern]]'' playing herself, [[October 30]] [[2002]]
* ''[[Wild On!]]'' playing herself in episode: "Wild on Hollywood Nights" 2003
* ''[[Rock Theatre Television]]'' playing herself in episode: "DragonCon 2003" (episode # 1.2) [[November 2]], [[2003]]
==See also==
*[[List of Perfect 10 models]]
==External links==
: ''For Aria Giovanni's official website and filmography, please consult the infobox.''
* [http://www.badmouth.net/interview-aria-giovanni/ Interview: Aria Giovanni] (Badmouth.net)
[[Category:1977 births|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[Category:Living people|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[Category:Adult models|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[Category:American models|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[Category:Penthouse Pets|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[Category:People from the Greater Los Angeles Area|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[Category:Bondage models|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[Category:American porn stars|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[de:Aria Giovanni]]
[[es:Aria Giovanni]]
[[fr:Aria Giovanni]]
[[pt:Aria Giovanni]]
[[sv:Aria Giovanni]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Angry Brigade</title>
<id>2751</id>
<revision>
<id>15901144</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Angry Brigade]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aspartame</title>
<id>2752</id>
<revision>
<id>42139702</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:06:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Twoggle</username>
<id>416836</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Discovery and approval */ -- Hayes left the FDA while being investigated for taking bribes ("gratuities"), but unless there is iron-clad posted evidence of Rumsfeld bribing Hayes, I'd remote it.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. -->
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" style="margin-left:1em"
|-
|! colspan="2" align=center bgcolor="#cccccc" | Aspartame
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| align="center" | ''N''-L-a-aspartyl-L-phenylalanine<br>1-methyl ester
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C<sub>14</sub>H<sub>18</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>
|-
| [[Molecular mass]] || 294.30 g/mol
|-
| [[Melting point]] || 246 - 247 °C
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]] || 22839-47-0
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| <small>[NH3+][C@@H](CC([O-])=O)C(N[C@@H]<br>(CC1=CC=CC=C1)C(OC)=O)=O</small>
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" | [[Image:Aspartame_structure.png|Chemical structure of aspartame]]
|}
'''Aspartame''' is the name for an artificial, non-[[carbohydrate]] [[sweetener]], ''aspartyl-phenylalanine-1-methyl ester''; i.e., the methyl [[ester]] of the [[dipeptide]] of the [[amino acid]]s [[aspartic acid]] and [[phenylalanine]]. It is marketed under a number of trademark names, such as '''''[[NutraSweet]]''''', [[Equal (sweetener)|Equal]], and [[Canderel]], and is an ingredient of approximately 5,000 consumer foods and beverages sold worldwide. It is commonly used in diet [[soft drink]]s, and is often provided as a table condiment. It is also used in some brands of chewable vitamin supplements. However, aspartame is not always suitable for baking, because it often breaks down when heated and loses much of its sweetness. In the European Union, it is also known under the [[E number]] (additive code) '''E951'''. Aspartame is also one of the sugar substitutes used by [[diabetes mellitus|diabetics]].
Aspartame has been the subject of a vigorous public controversy regarding its safety and the circumstances around its approval. It is well-known that aspartame contains the naturally-occurring amino acid [[phenylalanine]], which is a health hazard to the few people born with [[phenylketonuria]], a genetic inability to process phenylalanine. A few studies have also recommended further investigation into possible connections between aspartame and diseases such as [[brain tumor]]s, [[lesion|brain lesions]], and [[lymphoma]], but no large-scale studies have been conducted. These possibilities, combined with notable conflicts of interest in the approval process, have engendered vocal activism regarding the legitimate risks of aspartame, as well as some less credible theories.
== Chemistry ==
Aspartame is the [[methyl]] [[ester]] of the [[dipeptide]] of the natural [[amino acid]]s L-[[aspartic acid]] and L-[[phenylalanine]]. Under strongly-[[acid]]ic or -[[Base (chemistry)|alkaline]] conditions, aspartame first generates [[methanol]] by [[hydrolysis]]. Under more severe conditions, the [[peptide bond]]s are also [[hydrolyzed]], resulting in the free amino acids.
== Properties and use ==
Aspartame's attractiveness as a sweetener comes from the fact that it is approximately 180 times sweeter than [[sugar]] in typical concentrations without the high energy value of sugar. While aspartame, like other peptides, has a caloric value of 4 kilocalories (17 kilojoules) per gram, the quantity of aspartame needed to produce a sweet taste is so small that its caloric contribution is negligible, which makes it a popular sweetener for those trying to avoid calories from sugar. The taste of aspartame is not identical to <!--parallelism, PLEASE: we are NOT comparing the taste of aspartame to sugar, but the taste of aspartame to the TASTE of sugar-->that of sugar: aspartame's sweetness has a slower onset and longer duration than sugar's, and some consumers find it unappealing. Blends of aspartame with [[acesulfame potassium]] are purported to have a more sugar-like taste, and to be more potent than either sweetener used alone.
Like many other [[peptide]]s, aspartame may [[hydrolyze]] (break down) into its constituent amino acids under conditions of elevated temperature (in the case of aspartame, 86 °C) or high [[pH]]. This makes aspartame und |
the early 18th century, British [[textile]] [[manufacture]] was based on [[wool]] which was processed by individual [[artisan]]s, doing the [[spinning]] and [[weaving]] on their own premises. This system is called a [[cottage industry]]. [[Flax]] and [[cotton]] were also used for fine materials, but the processing was difficult because of the pre-processing needed, and thus goods in these materials made only a small proportion of the output.
Use of the [[spinning wheel]] and [[loom|hand loom]] restricted the production capacity of the industry, but a number of incremental advances increased productivity to the extent that manufactured cotton goods became the dominant British export by the early decades of the 19th century. [[India]] was displaced as the premier supplier of cotton goods.
Step by step, individual inventors increased the [[efficiency]] of the individual steps of spinning ([[carding]], [[twisting]] and spinning, and subsequently [[rolling]]) so that the supply of [[yarn]] fed a weaving industry that itself was advancing with improvements to [[shuttle]]s and the loom or 'frame'. The output of an individual labourer increased dramatically, with the effect that these new [[machine]]s were seen as a threat to employment, and early innovators were attacked and their inventions were wrecked. The inventors often failed to exploit their inventions, and fell on hard times.
To capitalize upon these advances it took a class of [[entrepreneur]]s, of which the most famous is [[Richard Arkwright]]. He is credited with a list of inventions, but these were actually developed by people such as [[Thomas Highs]] and [[John Kay (Spinning Frame)|John Kay]]; Arkwright nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the machines. He created the [[cotton mill]] which brought the production processes together in a [[factory]], and he developed the use of power &ndash; first [[horse power]], then [[water power]] and finally [[steam power]] &ndash; which made cotton manufacture a mechanized industry.
====Mining====
Coal mining in Britain, particuarly in [[Economy of Wales|South Wales]] is of great age. Before the steam engine, [[open-pit mine|pits]] were often shallow bell pits following a seam of coal along the surface and being abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favourable, the coal was mined by means of an [[adit]] driven into the side of a hill. [[Shaft mining]] was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft by means of a horse gin, or it could be drained by an adit leading to a stream or ditch at lower level where it could flow away by gravity. The introduction of the steam engine enabled shafts to be made deeper, hence increasing output.
====Metallurgy====
{{main|Metallurgy during the Industrial Revolution}}
In the early 18th century, small-scale [[iron]] working and [[extractive metallurgy|extraction]] and processing of other [[metal]]s were carried out where local resources permitted. Fuel was primarily [[wood]] in the form of [[charcoal]], but consumption was starting to be constrained by lack of available timber. At the same time, demand for high-quality iron was dramatically increasing to keep pace with the improvements in [[weapon|military technology]] and the involvement of [[British military history#Early Modern period|Britain in numerous European wars]].
Principal suppliers of high-quality iron goods were [[Sweden]] and [[Russia]], with Russia being able to command increasingly high prices as Britain's need grew.
To fuel the iron [[smelting]] process, people moved from wood to [[coal]] and [[coke (fuel)|coke]]. Production of [[pig iron]], [[cast iron]] and [[wrought iron]] improved through the exchange of ideas (although this was by no means a fast process), with the most well-known name being [[Abraham Darby]]. The first Abraham Darby made great strides with using coke to fuel his [[blast furnace]]s at [[Coalbrookdale]] ([[1709]]), although this was principally due to the nature of the [[coke (fuel)|coke]] he was using, and the scientific reasons for the improvement were only discovered later. His family followed in his footsteps, and iron became a major construction material.
Other improvements followed, with [[Benjamin Huntsman]] developing a [[crucible steel]] technique in the [[1740s]], and [[Henry Cort]]'s [[puddling furnace]] enabling large-scale production of wrought iron to take place.
The reliance on overseas supplies was diminished, and improvements in [[machine tool]]s and the use of iron and steel in the development of the railways further boosted the industrial growth of Great Britain.
====Steam power====
{{main|Steam power during the Industrial Revolution}}
[[Image:Newcomens Dampfmaschine aus Meyers 1890.png|thumb|right|250px|Newcomen's atmospheric steam engine]]
The [[stationary steam engine]] had great influence on the progress of the Industrial Revolution, but for the period of the Industrial Revolution many industries still relied on wind and water power as well as horse and man-power for driving small machines.
The first [[atmospheric engine|steam engine]], invented by [[Thomas Newcomen]] in [[1712]], was used for draining mines or for driving mills by pumping water back to a reservoir that had passed through a water wheel. [[James Watt]]'s [[James Watt#Steam engine|engines]] added many efficiency improvements especially the external [[condenser]] [[1776]], steam under pressure and the centrifugal governor which enabled steam engines to be used to drive a factory or mill directly.
Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, which was built within a stone or brick engine-house but after then various patterns of portable (ie readily removable engines, not on wheels) were developed, such as the [[table engine]].
[[Richard Trevithick]]'s use of high pressure steam [[1799]], improved efficiency still further and made engines compact enough to be used in mobile [[locomotive]]s and [[steamboat|steam boats]].
The development of [[machine tools]] such as the planing and shaping machine enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut.
===Transportation===
{{main|Transport during the Industrial Revolution}}
At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastwise vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Railways or wagon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, and canals were beginning to be cut for moving goods between larger towns and cities.
During the Industrial Revolution, these different methods were improved and developed.
====Navigable rivers====
{{main|Rivers of Great Britain}}
All the major rivers were made navigable to a great or lesser degree. The [[Severn]] in particular was used for the movement of goods to the Midlands which had been imported into [[Bristol]] from abroad, and the export of goods from centres of production in [[Shropshire]] such as iron goods from [[Coalbrookdale]]. Transport was by way of [[Trow]]s - small sailing vessels which could pass the various shallows and bridges in the river. These could navigate the Bristol Channel to the South Wales ports and Somerset ports, such as [[Bridgwater]] and even as far as France.
====Coastal sail====
Sailing vessels had long been used for moving goods round the British coast. The trade transporting coal to London from Newcastle had begun in medieval times. The major international seaports such as London, Bristol and Liverpool were the means by which raw materials such as cotton might be imported and finished goods exported. Transporting goods onwards within Britain by sea was common during the whole of the Industrial Revolution and only fell away with the growth of the railways at the end of the period.
====Canals====
{{main|History of the British canal system}}
Canals began to be built in the late eighteenth century to link the major manufacturing centres in the Midlands and north with seaports and with London, at that time the largest manufacturing centre in the country. Canals were the first technology to allow bulk materials to be easily transported across county. A single canal horse could pull a load dozens of times larger than a cart at a faster pace. By the 1820s, a national network was in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the organisation and methods later used to construct the railways. They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s on.
Britain's canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain.
====Roads====
Much of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local parishes, but from the [[1760s]] [[turnpike]] trusts were set up to charge tolls and maintain some roads. New engineered roads were built by [[John Metcalf (Civil engineer)|John Metcalf]], [[Thomas Telford|Thomas Telford]] and [[John Loudon McAdam|John Macadam]]. The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to reach the rest of the country. Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of slow broad wheeled carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of pack horses. Stage coaches transported rich people. The less wealthy walked or paid to ride on a carriers cart.
====Railways====
{{main|History of rail transport in Great Britain}}
Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century, and were often associatad with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal. These were all horse drawn or relied on gravity, with a stationary steam engine to haul the wagons ba |
ht to the platform and given a standing ovation by the audience.
Shortly after he returned home, Frederick Douglass died of a massive [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] or [[stroke]] in his adopted hometown of [[Washington D.C.]]. He is buried in [[Mount Hope Cemetery]] in [[Rochester, NY]].
In [[1921]], [[Alpha Phi Alpha|Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity]] made a [[pilgrimage]] to Douglass' home in Anacostia and presented a shingle to the ''Frederick Douglass Historical and Memorial Society'' designating Frederick Douglass as an exalted honorary member of [[Omega]] chapter. He holds the distinction of being the only member initiated [[wiktionary:posthumous|posthumously]] [http://www.albany.edu/~aphia/newsite/famousas.html]
The Posthumous Membership Shingle read:
:''This is to certify that the Honorable Frederick Douglass, Ex-Slave, Abolitionist, Orator, Advocate of Women's Suffrage, Editor and Statesman, has been initiated a member of the Omega Chapter of the Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity''.
==See also==
* [[List of African-American abolitionists]]
* [[Slave narrative]]
* [[African American literature]]
* [[Frederick Douglass and Self-Made Men]]
==References==
*{{fnb|1}} His exact birthday was never recorded, but he selected February 14 to celebrate it.
*Parts of this article are drawn from Houston A. Baker, Jr. introduction to the Penguin 1986 edition of ''Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass.''
*''Frederick Douglass'' [videorecording] / produced by Greystone Communications, Inc. for A&E Network ; executive producers, Craig Haffner and Donna E. Lusitana.; 1997
*''Frederick Douglass: when the lion wrote history'' [videorecording] / a co-production of ROJA Productions and WETA-TV ; produced and directed by Orlando Bagwell ; narration written by Steve Fayer.; c1994
*''Frederick Douglass, abolitionist editor'' [videorecording] / a production of Schlessinger Video Productions, a division of Library Video Company ; produced and directed by Rhonda Fabian, Jerry Baber ; script, Amy A. Tiehel
*''Race to freedom'' [videorecording] : the story of the underground railroad / an Atlantis Films Limited production in association with United Image Entertainment; produced in association with the Family Channel (US), Black Entertainment Television and CTV Television Network, Ltd. ; produced with the participation of Telefilm Canada, Ontario Film Development Corporation and with the assistance of Rogers Telefund ; distributed by Xenon Pictures ; executive producers, Seaton McLean, Tim Reid ; co-executive producers, Peter Sussman, Anne Marie La Traverse ; supervising producer, Mary Kahn ; producers, Daphne Ballon, Brian Parker ; directed by Don McBrearty ; teleplay by Diana Braithwaite, Nancy Trites Botkin, Peter Mohan. Publisher Santa Monica, CA : Xenon Pictures, Inc., 2001. Tim Reid as Frederick Douglass.
==Books by Douglass==
* ''[[A Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave]]'' (1845) (Project Gutenberg: [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/23]), (Audio book at FreeAudio.org [http://www.freeaudio.org/])
* ''[[My Bondage and My Freedom]]'' (1855) (Project Gutenberg: [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/202])
* ''Life and Times of Frederick Douglass'' (1892)
* [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/99 Collected Articles Of Frederick Douglass, A Slave] (Project Gutenberg)
* ''Frederick Douglass : Autobiographies'' by Frederick Douglass, [[Henry Louis Gates, Jr.]] Editor. (Omnibus of all three) ISBN 0940450798
==Scholarly books on Douglass==
* ''The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass'' by [[Philip S. Foner]] (1975)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=11107958 Gregory P. Lampe. ''Frederick Douglass: Freedom's Voice, 1818-1845'' (1998)] on his oratory
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=54804308 Robert S. Levine. ''Martin Delany, Frederick Douglass, and the Politics of Representative Identity'' (1997)], cultural history
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98841735 William S. Mcfeely. ''Frederick Douglass'' (1991)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=74019591 Benjamin Quarles, ''Frederick Douglass'' (1948)]
* Wesley, Charles H., ''The History of Alpha Phi Alpha, A Development in College Life'', Chicago, Foundation Publishers, 1981
==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Frederick+Douglass | name=Frederick Douglass}}
*[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/doughtml/doughome.html Frederick Douglass] (American Memory, [[Library of Congress]]) Includes timeline.
*[http://www.math.buffalo.edu/~sww/0history/hwny-douglass-family.html Timeline of Frederick Douglass and family]
*[http://www.iupui.edu/~douglass/FD_Timeline.htm Frederick Douglas Timeline]
*[http://www.history.rochester.edu/class/douglass/home.html Read more about Frederick Douglass]
* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/lookupname?key=Douglass%2c%20Frederick%2c%201818%2d1895 Online Books Page] (University of Pennsylvania)
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h2927t.html Fourth of July Speech]
*[http://www.nps.gov/frdo/fdlife.htm Frederick Douglass NHS - Douglass' Life]
*[http://www.nps.gov/frdo/cedar.htm Frederick Douglass NHS - Cedar Hill] [[National Park Service]] site
*[http://winningthevote.org/FDouglass.html Frederick Douglass] Western New York Suffragists
*[http://www.culturaltourismdc.org/info-url3948/info-url_show.htm?doc_id=204666&attrib_id=7976 Cultural Tourism DC - African American Heritage Trail]
*[http://www.indepthinfo.com/band-of-brothers/frederick-douglass.shtml Frederick Douglass and the term "Band of Brothers"]
*[http://www.fdgardens.org/ Frederick Douglass Gardens at Cedar Hill] Frederick Douglass Gardens development & maintenance organization
*[http://www.gilderlehrman.org/historians/fellowship2.html The Frederick Douglass Prize] A national book prize sponsored by The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History and The Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance and Abolition
*[http://www.mrlincolnandfreedom.org/inside.asp?ID=69&subjectID=4 Mr. Lincoln and Freedom: Frederick Douglass]
*[http://www.mrlincolnswhitehouse.org/inside.asp?ID=38&subjectID=2 Mr. Lincoln's White House: Frederick Douglass]
[[Category:1818 births|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:1895 deaths|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:People from Baltimore|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:People from Maryland|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:African American intellectuals|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:African American writers|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:African Americans' rights activists|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:African-American history|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:Multiracial Americans|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:American abolitionists|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:United States vice-presidential candidates|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:Alpha Phi Alpha brothers|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:Rochesterians|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:Slaves|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:Methodists|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[de:Frederick Douglass]]
[[fr:Frederick Douglass]]
[[he:פרדריק דאגלס]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fluid dynamics</title>
<id>11034</id>
<revision>
<id>41592436</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T10:18:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dinaarzina</username>
<id>789239</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Equations of fluid dynamics */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Fluid dynamics''' is the subdiscipline of [[fluid mechanics]] that studies [[fluid]]s ([[liquid]]s and [[gas]]es) in motion. The discipline has a number of subdisciplines, including [[aerodynamics]] (the study of gases) and [[hydrodynamics]] (the study of liquids). Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including calculating [[force]]s and [[moment (physics)|moment]]s on [[aircraft]], determining the [[mass flow rate]] of [[petroleum]] through pipelines, predicting [[weather]] patterns. Some of its principles are even used in [[transport traffic engineering|traffic engineering]], where traffic is treated as a continuous fluid.
Fluid dynamics offers a mathematical structure, which underlies these practical disciplines, that embraces empirical and semi-empirical laws, derived from [[flow measurement]], used to solve practical problems. The solution of a fluid dynamics problem typically involves calculating for various properties of the fluid, such as [[velocity]], [[pressure]], [[density]], and [[temperature]], as functions of space and time.
==Equations of fluid dynamics==
The foundational axioms of fluid dynamics are the [[conservation law]]s, specifically, [[conservation of mass]], conservation of momentum (also known as [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's second law and third law]]), and [[conservation of energy]]. These are based on [[classical mechanics]] and are modified in [[quantum mechanics]] and [[general relativity]]. They are expressed using the [[Reynolds transport theorem]].
For fluids which are sufficiently dense to be a continuum, do not contain ionized species, and have velocities small in relation to the speed of light, the momentum equations for [[Newtonian fluid]]s are the [[Navier-Stokes equations]], which are [[non-linear]] [[differential equations]] that describe the flow of a fluid whose stress depends linearly on velocity and on pressure. The unsimplified equations do not have a general closed-form solution, so they are only of use in [[computational fluid dynamics]] or when they can be simplified. The equations can be simplified in a number of ways. All of the simplifications make the equations easier to solve. Some of them allow appropriate fluid dynamics problems to be solved in closed form.
In addition to the mass, momentum and energy conservation equations, a thermodynamical equation of state giving the pressure as a function of other thermodynamic variabl |
nd independent candidates. The largest of these groups is ''Môn Ymlaen''/''Anglesey Forward'', with 15 members out of the 40 in total.
==See also==
*[[Ynys Môn (UK Parliament constituency)]]
==External links==
*[http://www.anglesey-history.co.uk Anglesey History]
*[http://www.half-lightmovie.com Half Light]
*[http://www.churchbay.co.uk/journal Anglesey wildlife, weather and other information]
*[http://y2u.co.uk/&002_Images/Parys_Mountain_01.htm Photos of the Parys Mountain Copper Mine near Amlwch, Anglesey ]
*[http://www.anglesey.info/ Anglesey Môn Info Web - An information site about Anglesey.]
*[http://www.anglesey-today.com Anglesey Today]
*[http://www.flickr.com/photos/davellandudno/sets/711635/ Isle of Anglesey Photographs]
*[http://www.angleseymotoring.co.uk AngleseyMotoring - a directory of Motoring Services and Garages on Anglesey]
{{Wales subdivisions}}
{{Wales traditional counties}}
[[Category:Traditional counties of Wales]]
[[Category:Principal areas of Wales]]
[[Category:Anglesey|*]]
[[Category:Geography of Wales]]
[[Category:Islands of Wales]]
[[Category:Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in Wales]]
[[cy:Ynys Môn]]
[[de:Anglesey]]
[[et:Anglesey]]
[[eo:Anglesey]]
[[fr:Anglesey]]
[[gl:Anglesey]]
[[kw:Ynys Mon]]
[[lb:Anglesey]]
[[nl:Anglesey]]
[[no:Anglesey]]
[[pl:Anglesey]]
[[sv:Ynys Môn]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aw</title>
<id>2535</id>
<revision>
<id>15900937</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-02T10:32:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<comment>upd. redir (please don't redirect to user namespace)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AW]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Articolo 31</title>
<id>2536</id>
<revision>
<id>40359981</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:23:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Articolo 31''' is a popular band in [[Italy]], melding [[hip hop music|hip hop]], [[funk]], [[rap music|rap]] and traditional [[Italian]] musical forms. They are one of the most popular [[Europe]]an rap groups. Members are rapper [[J Ax]] and [[DJ Jad]]; their producer is [[Franco Godi]] who produced the music for the ''Signor Rossi'' animated series. They took their name from the [[Irish]] constitutional law guaranteeing freedom of the press. They moved from pure hip hop to hip hop with many influences from rock (sampling [[Bob Dylan]]), [[klezmer]] (sampling the Klezmatics) etc. to a rock/pop-inspired kind of rap. With "Domani smetto" they left the world of hip hop per se, rapping and singing to rock/pop tracks. They worked together with [[Kurtis Blow]] on the album "XChé SI!", which also included an electro track. Their posse, ''Spaghetti Funk'', has other popular members like [[Space One]] and especially pop rappers [[Gemelli DiVersi]].
==External links==
*[http://www.articolo31.com Official website]
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Articolo 31 Discography
|-
| '''Year''' || '''Title''' || '''Label'''
|-
| [[1996]] || ''[[Cosi com'è]]'' || [[Ricordi]]
|-
| [[1997]] || ''[[Messa di vespiri]]'' || Ricordi
|-
| 1997 || ''[[Strade di città]]'' || Ricordi
|-
| [[1998]] || ''[[Nessuno]]'' || Ricordi/[[BMG]]
|-
| [[2001]] || ''[[XChé SI!]]'' || BMG
|-
| [[2002]] || ''[[Domani smetto]]'' || BMG
|-
| [[2003]] || ''[[Italiano Medio]]'' || BMG
|}
{{Italy-band-stub}}
[[Category:Hip hop groups]]
[[Category:Italian musical groups]]
[[als:Articolo 31]]
[[it:Articolo 31]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Analog Science Fiction</title>
<id>2537</id>
<revision>
<id>19450597</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-23T17:02:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Notinasnaid</username>
<id>86195</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Concluding experiment. Back to redirect. Does the category stay</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Astounding (magazine)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aromatherapy</title>
<id>2539</id>
<revision>
<id>39348324</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T15:27:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.234.4.76</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Theory */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aromatherapy''', commonly associated with [[complementary and alternative medicine]] (CAM), is the use of volatile liquid plant materials, known as [[essential oils]] (EOs), and other aromatic compounds from plants to affect someone's mood or health. The word was coined in the [[1920s]] by French chemist René Maurice Gattefossé.
The main branches of aromatherapy include:
* Home aromatherapy (self treatment, perfume & cosmetic use)
* Clinical aromatherapy (as part of [[pharmacology]] and [[pharmacotherapy]])
* [[Aromachology]] (the psychology of odors and their effects on the mind)
== Materials ==
Some of the materials employed include:
* [[Essential oil]]s from [[distillation]] (e.g. [[eucalyptus]] oil) or expression ([[grapefruit]] oil)
* [[Absolutes]], oils extracted by [[solvent]] or [[supercritical fluid]] extraction (e.g. [[rose]] absolute)
* [[Hydrosol]]s, aqueous [[by-product]]s of the distillation process (e.g. [[rosewater]])
* [[Infusion]]s, aqueous solutions of plant material (e.g. infusion of [[chamomile]])
* [[Phytoncide]]s, natural [[volatile organic compound]]s from plants
* [[Carrier oil]]s used to dilute essential oils for use on the skin (e.g. [[almond|sweet almond]] oil)
== Theory ==
When aromatherapy is used for the treatment or prevention of disease, a precise knowledge of the bioactivity and [[synergy]] of the essential oils used, knowledge of the dosage and duration of application, as well as, naturally, a medical diagnosis, are required. In the Anglo-Saxon world, even among "natural" practitioners like herbalists or naturopaths, aromatherapy is regarded more as an art form than a valid healing science. At best, it is viewed as a complementary and seldom the only treatment prescribed. On the continent, especially in France, where it originated, aromatherapy is incorporated into mainstream medicine. There, the use of the anti-septic properties of oils in the control of infections is emphasized over the more "touchy feely" approaches familiar to English speakers. In France some essential oils are regulated as [[prescription drug]]s, and thus administered by a [[physician]]. In many countries they are included in the national [[pharmacopeia]], but up to the present moment aromatherapy as science has never been recognized as a valid branch of medicine in the United States, Russia or Germany.
Essential oils, phytoncides and other natural [[volatile organic compound|VOC]]s work in different ways. At the scent level they activate the limbic system and emotional centers of the brain. When applied to the skin (commonly in form of "massage oils" i.e. 1-10% solutions of EO in carrier oil) they activate thermal receptors, and kill microbes and fungi. Internal application of essential oil preparations (mainly in pharmacological drugs; generally not recommended for home use apart from dilution - 1-5% in fats or mineral oils, or hydrosoles) may stimulate the immune system, urine secretion, may have antiseptic activity etc.
Different essential oils have very different activity; they are studied in [[pharmacology]] and [[aromachology]].
It is significant to note the concept of [[chemotype]] in essential oil chemistry. Eucalyptus, for example, has many species, such as ''Eucalyptus globulus'' (main component is 1,8 cineole), ''Eucalyptus citriodora'' (citral), ''Eucalyptus menthol'', and others. Properties of the essential oils of the same generic (common) name are not all the same; they can differ widely in their chemical components and in their therapeutic actions. Likewise, their chemical makeup depends on the method of extraction (e.g. pressed and distilled bergamot oil have different uses). The practitioner must be aware of these factors.
For medicinal aromatherapy the essential oil specification must meet the following criteria:
* Full botanical name of the plant (e.g. ''[[Wild mint]] oil from Mentha arvensis'')
* Type of extraction method: ''essential oil'', ''absolute'', ''СО2-extract'', ''cold pressing'' (e.g. ''Rose oil—absolute'', or ''Rose—essential oil'')
* Chemotype of the plant—noting the species or cultivar of the raw material (e.g. ''[[Rosemary]] essential oil—[[camphor]] type'')
* Part of the plant used (e.g. ''[[Cinnamon]] essential oil—[[Sri Lanka|Ceylon]] type from leaves'')
* Grade, if manufacturers traditionally use such gradation (e.g. ''[[Ylang-ylang]] essential oil, the premium grade''). Reputable aromatherapists insist on pharmaceutical grade that is a higher grade than oils suitable for perfumery or flavoring or other non-therapeutic use.
* Indication of any additional processing of the oil (e.g. ''[[Lemon]] essential oil, deterpenized'')
* Main chemical component, when standardized (e.g. ''[[Peppermint]] oil, rectific. 30/35''—meaning the menthol content is between 30-35%)
* Country of manufacture—frequently it is possible to deduce from this the composition of the oil (e.g. a batch of ''[[sweet flag|Calamus]] essential oil, [[India]]'' tends to have high [[azaron]] content, while [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] samples of Calamus tend to be lower in azaron content)
== Application ==
While the practice of aromatherapy is sometimes thought to be confined to [[inhalation]], it may include various methods, including:
* Inhalation (directly or diffused into the air)
* Absorption through the skin (baths, massages, compresses)
* Absorption through the mucous membranes (oral rinses and gargles)
* Ingestion (occ |
[[Japan]].]]
[[Saint]] '''[[Francis]] Xavier''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: San Francisco Javier ; [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 聖方濟各&#27801;&#21247;&#30053;) ([[April 7]], [[1506]] - [[December 2]], [[1552]]) was a pioneering [[Christianity|Christian]] [[missionary]] and co-founder of the [[Society of Jesus]] (Jesuit Order). The [[Xaverian Brothers]] are named after him, just as a Dutch student fraternity [[KSV St. Franciscus Xaverius]] in [[Wageningen]]. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] considers him to have converted more people to Christianity than anyone else since [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]].
==Early life==
Xavier was born '''Francisco de Jaso y Azpilcueta''' in the Castle of Xavier (modern [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''Javier'', [[Basque language|Basque]] ''Xabier'', [[Catalan language|Catalan]] ''Xavier'') near [[Sangüesa]] and [[Pamplona]], in [[Navarre]], [[Spain]]. He sprang from an aristocratic [[Basque people|Basque]] family of Navarre. In 1512, [[Castile]] invaded Navarre. Many fortresses were devastated, including the family castle, and land was confiscated. Francis' father died in 1515.
At the age of 19, Francis Xavier went to study at the [[University of Paris]], where he received a ''[[licence ès arts]]'' in 1530. He furthered his studies there in [[theology]], and became acquainted with [[Ignatius Loyola]]. Along with Ignatius, [[Pierre Favre]] and four others, Xavier was one of those who on [[August 15]], [[1534]] bound themselves by a vow at [[Montmartre]] and formed the [[Society of Jesus]].
==Missionary work==
[[Image:Xavier f map of voyages asia.PNG|thumb|250px|Voyages of St. Francis Xavier]]
Francis Xavier devoted much of his life to missions to remote countries. As [[King John III of Portugal]] desired Jesuit missionaries for the Portuguese [[East Indies]], he was ordered there in 1540. He left [[Lisbon]] on [[April 7]], [[1541]], together with two other Jesuits and the new [[viceroy]] [[Martin de Sousa]], on board the ''Santiago''. From August of that year until March 1542, he remained in [[Mozambique]], and reached [[Old Goa|Goa]], [[India]], the capital of the then [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[colonies]], on [[May 6]]. His official role in Goa was [[Apostolic Nuncio]]. He spent the following three years operating out of Goa.
On [[September 20]], 1542, he left for his first missionary activity among the [[Paravas]], pearl-fishers along the east coast of southern India, north of [[Cape Comorin]]. He then exerted himself to convert the king of [[Travancore]] to Christianity, on the west coast, and also visited [[Ceylon]]. Dissatisfied with the results of his activity, he turned eastward in 1545, and planned a missionary journey to [[Macassar]], on the island of [[Celebes]], in today's [[Indonesia]].
After arriving in [[Malacca]] in October of that year and waiting there three months in vain for a ship to Macassar, he gave up the goal of his voyage. He left Malacca on [[January 1]], [[1546]] and landed on [[Ambon Island|Amboyna]], where he stayed until mid-June. He then visited other [[Molucca Islands]], including [[Ternate]] and [[More]]. Shortly after Easter 1546, he returned to Ambon Island, and then Malacca. During this time period, frustrated by the elites in Goa, St. Francis wrote to [[King D. João III]] for an [[Inquisition]] to be installed in Goa. However [[Goa Inquisition|this Inquisition]] did not begin till eight years after his death.Established in 1560, it was aimed primarily at Hindus and wayward new converts and by the time it was suppressed in 1774, the inquisition had had thousands of people executed and tortured.
In December 1547, in Malacca, Francis Xavier met a [[Japan]]ese nobleman from [[Kagoshima]] called Anjiro. Anjiro had heard from Francis in 1545 and had travelled from Kagoshima to Malacca with the purpose of meeting him. Having been charged with murder, Anjiro had fled Japan. He poured his heart out to Francis Xavier, telling him about his former life and the customs and culture of his beloved homeland. Anjiro was a [[samurai]] and as such provided Xavier with a skilled mediator and translator for the mission to Japan that was his inevitable future. “I asked [Anjiro] whether the Japanese would become Christians if I went with him to this country, and he replied that they would not do so immediately, but would first ask me many questions and see what I knew. Above all, they would want to see whether my life corresponded with my teaching…All the Portuguese merchants who have come from Japan assure me that by going there I could render God our Lord much service, and more than among the peoples of India, because the Japanese are a race greatly given to the exercise of [[reason]].” Thus intrigued, Xavier baptized Anjiro—who was now called Paulo de Santa Fe—and began to plan for a mission to this recently discovered land. Anjiro helped Francis Xavier to translate a few paragraphs of Christian [[doctrine]] into phonetic Japanese which Xavier learned by heart.
He returned to India in January 1548. The next 15 months were occupied with various journeys and administrative measures in India.
Then due to displeasure at the unchristian life and manners of the Portuguese, which impeded proselyting work, he went forth once again into the unknown Far East. He left Goa on [[April 15]], [[1549]], stopped at Malacca, and visited [[Guangzhou|Canton]]. He was accompanied by Anjiro, two other Japanese men, the father Cosme de Torrès and Brother Juan Fernandez. He had taken with him presents for the "King of Japan", since he was intending to introduce himself as the Apostolic Nuncio.
Xavier reached Japan on [[July 27]], 1549, but it was not until August 15 that he went ashore at Kagoshima, the principal port of the province of [[Satsuma Province|Satsuma]], on the island of [[Kyushu]]. He was received in a friendly manner and was hosted by Anjiro's family until October 1550. From October to December 1550, he resided in [[Yamaguchi, Yamaguchi|Yamaguchi]]. Shortly before Christmas, he left for [[Kyoto]], but failed to meet with the Emperor. He returned to Yamaguchi in March 1551. There he was permitted to preach by the [[daimyo]], but not knowing the [[Japanese language]] he had to limit himself to reading aloud the translation of a [[catechism]].
Ultimately his sojourn was fruitful, as attested by congregations established in [[Hirado]], Yamaguchi, and [[Bungo]]. Xavier worked for more than two years in Japan and saw his successor-Jesuits established. He then decided to return to India. During his trip, a tempest forced him to stop on an island near [[Guangzhou]], [[China]]. There he saw the rich merchant [[Diégo Pereira]], an old friend from [[Kochi, India|Cochin]], who showed him a letter of Portuguese being held prisoners in Guangzhou asking for a Portuguese ambassador to talk to the Chinese Emperor in their favor. Later, he stopped at Malacca on [[December 27]], 1551 and was back in Goa by January, 1552.
On [[April 17]] he set sail, with Diégo Pereira, leaving Goa on board the ''Santa Cruz'' for China. He introduced himself as Apostolic Nuncio, and Pereira as ambassador of the King of Portugal. Shortly thereafter, he realized that he had forgotten his testimonial letters as an Apostolic Nuncio. Back in Malacca, he was confronted by the ''capitan'' [[Alvaro de Ataide de Gama]], who now had total control over the harbor. The ''capitan'' refused to recognize his title of Nuncio, asked Pereira to resign from his title of ambassador, named a new crew for the ship, and demanded that the gifts for the Emperor be left in Malacca.
In early September 1552, the ''Santa Cruz'' reached the Chinese island of [[Shangchuan]], 14 km away from the southern coast of mainland China, near [[Taishan]], [[Guangdong]], 200 km south-west of what later became [[Hong Kong]]. At this time, he was only accompanied by a Jesuit student, [[Alvaro Ferreira]], a Chinese man called Antonio, and a [[Malabar]] servant called Christopher. Around mid-November he sent a letter saying that a man had agreed to take him to the mainland in exchange for a large sum of money. Having sent back Alvaro Ferreira, he remained alone with Antonio.
==Death==
[[Image:Casket of Saint Francis Xavier.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Casket of Saint Francis Xavier in the Basilica of Bom Jésus in Goa]]
On [[November 21]], he fainted after celebrating [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]]. He died on the island on [[December 2]], [[1552]], at age 46, without having reached mainland China.
He was first buried on a beach of Shangchuan island. His intact body was taken from the island in February 1553. It was temporarily buried in St. Paul's church in [[Malacca]] on [[March 22]], 1553. An open grave in the church now marks the place of Xavier's burial. Pereira came back from Goa, removed the corpse shortly after April 15, 1553, and moved it to his house.
On [[December 11]], 1553, Xavier's body was shipped to Goa. The body, having resisted extensive decay, is now in the [http://www.dommartin.cc/Basilica%20ptgs/Basilica%20ptgs%20index.htm Basilica of Bom Jésus] in Goa, where it was placed into a silver casket on December 2, 1637. The silver casket is lowered for public viewing only during the [http://www.dommartin.cc/Exposition/Exposition.html public exposition] which occurs for a duration of 6 weeks every 10 years, the most recent of which took place in 2004. There is a debate as to how the body could have remained incorrupt for so long. Some say that Francis Xavier was [[mummified]], while others argue that the incorruptible body is evidence of a [[miracle]].
==Legacy==
St.Francis Xavier accomplished a great deal of missionary work, both as organizer and as pioneer. By his compromises in India with the [[Christians of St. Thomas]] he developed the Jesuit missionary methods along lines that subsequently became fateful for his order.
He had high qualifications as missionary: he was animated with glowing zeal; he was |
uffer]]" editions -- were much longer, containing descriptions of what exactly Good Times would do to the computer of someone who opened it, as well as comparisons to other viruses of the time, and references to an [[FCC]] warning.
==Purported effects==
In the longer version of the Good Times warning contained descriptions of what Good Times was capable of doing to computers. In addition to sending itself to every email address in a recipients received or sent mail, the Good Times virus caused a number of other nasty things to happen. If an infected computer contained a hard drive, it would most likely be destroyed. If Goodtimes was not stopped in time, an infected computer would enter an "nth-complexity infinite binary loop," (a meaningless term) damaging the processor. The "ASCII" buffer email described the mechanism of Good Times as a [[buffer overflow]].
==A hoax -- or a "thought virus"?==
The Good Times virus warning was a [[hoax]]; there was never any such virus. Indeed, at the time when the warning first appeared it was not technically feasible to write a virus that could transmit itself automatically via email. At least, not a virus that depended solely upon the computer for transmission—the Good Times virus warning was itself viral, in a sense; it urged the recipient to forward copies of itself to all of his or her acquaintances, preying upon vulnerabilities in the human psyche to replicate itself. Some email servers were actually crashed by the sheer volume of Goodtimes virus warnings being forwarded by users throughout [[1995]].
Some people who were familiar with the hoax also forwarded the e-mail, followed immediately by an empty e-mail with the "Good Times" subject header to fool people further.
==Hoaxes similar to Good Times==
A number of [[List of computer virus hoaxes|computer virus hoaxes]] appeared in the wake of Good Times. These messages were similar in form to Good Times, warning users not to open messages bearing particular subject lines. Subject lines mentioned in these emails include: "Penpal greetings"[http://www.symantec.com/avcenter/venc/data/penpal.html], "Free Money"[http://securityresponse.symantec.com/avcenter/venc/data/freemoney.html], and "Deeyenda"[http://securityresponse.symantec.com/avcenter/venc/data/deeyenda.html].
==Viruses that function like Good Times==
Developments in mail systems, such as [[Microsoft Outlook]], without sufficient thought as to the security implications made viruses that indeed propagate themselves via email possible. Notable examples include the [[Melissa worm]] and the [[Anna Kournikova virus]]. In some cases, a user must open a document or program contained in an email message in order to spread the virus, but in others, merely opening an email message itself will trigger the virus.
==Good Times parody: Bad Times==
The Good Times virus even spawned a humorous [[parody]], the [[Bad times virus|Bad Times virus]]. The Bad Times virus was capable of a number of things far beyond Good Times' wildest dreams. For instance, Bad Times "will leave the toilet seat up and leave your hair dryer plugged in dangerously close to a full bathtub".
==External links==
* Good Times Virus Hoax FAQ [http://www.cityscope.net/hoax1.html]
[[Category:Internet memes]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gary Snyder</title>
<id>12710</id>
<revision>
<id>42157766</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:03:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.237.196.175</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Snyder_riprap_cvr.jpg|frame|Young Gary Snyder, on one of his early book covers]]
'''Gary Snyder''' (born [[May 8]], [[1930]]) is an [[United States poetry|American]] [[poet]], essayist, lecturer, and [[environmentalism|environmental activist]]. As a poet, he has often been associated with the [[Beat Generation]]. Since the 1970s, he has frequently been described as the 'laureate of [[Deep Ecology]]'. His work in these various roles reflects his immersion in both [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] spirituality and nature. Snyder has also translated works into English from ancient Chinese and modern Japanese. As a social critic, Snyder's views share something in common with [[Lewis Mumford]], [[Aldous Huxley]], [[Karl Hess]], [[Aldo Leopold]], and [[Karl Polanyi]]. An award-winning writer, Snyder was for many years in the faculty of the [[University of California]] at Davis, and for a time served on the California Arts Council.
==Early life==
Gary Sherman Snyder was born in [[San Francisco, California]] to Harold and Lois Snyder. His family, impoverished by the [[Great Depression]], moved to [[Kitsap County]] [[Washington]] when he was two, where they tended a small dairy and made cedar-wood shingles, until they moved to [[Portland, Oregon]] ten years later.
At the age of seven, an accident laid the boy up for four months. “So my folks brought me piles of books from the Seattle public library,” Snyder recalled in interview, “and it was then I really learned to read and from that time on was voracious — I figure that accident changed my life. At the end of four months, I had read more than most kids do by the time they're 18. And I didn't stop.”
But as well, during his ten childhood years in Washington, Snyder became aware of the presence of Coast Salish people and developed an interest in American Native peoples in general and their traditional relationship with nature.
Snyder's parents separated and, in adolescence, Gary and his sister were raised by Lois, who worked during this period as a newspaper journalist. One of Gary's boyhood jobs was as a newspaper copy boy. Also during his teen years, he worked as a camp counsellor, and went mountain climbing with the Mazamas youth group. Climbing remained an interest of his, especially during his twenties and thirties.
In 1947, he started attending [[Reed College]] as a scholarship student. Here he met, and for a time roomed with, [[Philip Whalen]] and [[Lew Welch]]. At Reed, Snyder published his first poems in a student journal. He also spent a summer working as a seaman (an experience he was to repeat in the mid 1950s); as much as a way to earn money and experience other cultures in port cities, this work served to put him in more touch with the oceans or aspects of the [[hydrosphere]]. In 1951, he graduated with a [[Bachelor's degree|BA]] in [[Anthropology]] and literature and spent the summer working as a timber scaler in the Warm Springs Indian Reservation, experiences which formed the basis for some of his earliest published poems (including "A Berry Feast"), later collected in the book ''The Back Country''. Snyder worked the next year as a fire lookout for a national-park area. He also encountered the basic ideas of [[Buddhism]] and, through its arts, some of the [[Far East]]'s traditional attitudes toward nature. Going on to [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] to study anthropology (where Snyder also practiced self-taught Zen meditation), he left after a single semester to return to San Francisco and to 'sink or swim as a poet'.
==The Beats==
Back in San Francisco, Snyder lived with Whalen, who shared his growing interest in [[Zen Buddhism]]. Snyder's reading of the writings of [[D.T. Suzuki]] had in fact been a factor in his decision not to continue as a graduate student in anthropology, and in 1953 he enrolled with the [[ University of California, Berkeley]] to study Oriental culture and languages. Snyder continued to spend summers working in the forests and one summer as a trail builder in Yosemite. He spent some months in 1955 living in a cabin in Mill Valley with [[Jack Kerouac]]. It was also at this time that Snyder was an occasional student at the American Academy of Asian Studies, where [[Saburo Hasegawa]] and [[Alan Watts]], among others, were teaching.
Snyder met [[Allen Ginsberg]] when the latter sought Snyder out on the recommendation of [[Kenneth Rexroth]]. This period provided the materials for Kerouac's novel ''[[The Dharma Bums]]''. It is sometimes said, with good reason, that Kerouac portrayed the main characters in his early novels as loving a dionysian life with more chaos in it than the norm of the era. As the large majority of people in the Beat movement had urban backgrounds, writers like Ginsberg and Kerouac found Snyder, with his backcountry and manual-labor experience and interest in things rural, a refreshing and almost exotic individual. [[Lawrence Ferlinghetti]] later referred to Snyder as 'the Thoreau of the Beat Generation'.
Snyder read his poem "A Berry Feast" at the famous [[Six Gallery reading|poetry reading at the Six Gallery]] in San Francisco ([[October 7th]] [[1955]]) that heralded what was to become known as the [[San Francisco Renaissance]]. This also marked Snyder's first involvement with the Beats, although he was not a member of the original New York circle, but rather entered the scene through his association with Kenneth Rexroth.
As recounted in Kerouac's ''Dharma Bums'', even at age 25 Snyder felt he could have a role in the fateful future meeting of West and East. Snyder's first book, ''Riprap'', which drew on his experiences as a forest lookout and on the trail crew in Yosemite, was published in 1959.
==Japan==
Independently, a number of the Beats such as [[Philip Whalen]] had become interested in Zen, but Snyder was one of the more serious scholars of the subject among them. He, in fact, became a trainee, spending most of the period between 1956 and 1968 in Japan, studying Zen first at Shokoku-ji and later in the Daitoku-ji monastery in Kyoto, then finally living for a while with a group of other people on a small, volcanic island. His previous study of written Chinese assisted his immersion in the Zen tradition (with its |
[[continuous uniform distribution|uniform]] [[probability distribution]] on the interval [&minus;1,&nbsp;0] is ''B''<sub>''n''</sub>/''n''.
The following relations, due to [[Ramanujan]], provide a more efficient method for calculating Bernoulli numbers:
:<math>m\equiv 0\,\bmod\,6\qquad {{m+3}\choose{m}}B_m={{m+3}\over3}-\sum_{j=1}^{m/6}{m+3\choose{m-6j}}B_{m-6j}</math>
:<math>m\equiv 2\,\bmod\,6\qquad {{m+3}\choose{m}}B_m={{m+3}\over3}-\sum_{j=1}^{(m-2)/6}{m+3\choose{m-6j}}B_{m-6j}</math>
:<math>m\equiv 4\,\bmod\, 6\qquad{{m+3}\choose{m}}B_m=-{{m+3}\over6}-\sum_{j=1}^{(m-4)/6}{m+3\choose{m-6j}}B_{m-6j}</math>
==Arithmetical properties of the Bernoulli numbers==
The Bernoulli numbers can be expressed in terms of the Riemann zeta function as ''B''<sub>''n''</sub> = &minus; ''n''&zeta;(1 &minus; ''n''), which intimately relates them to the values of the zeta function at negative integers. As such, they could be expected to have and do have deep arithmetical properties, a fact discovered by [[Kummer]] in his work on [[Fermat's last theorem]].
Divisibility properties of the Bernoulli numbers are related to the [[ideal class group]]s of [[cyclotomic field]]s by a theorem of Kummer and its strengthening in the [[Herbrand-Ribet theorem]], and to class numbers of real quadratic fields by [[Ankeny-Artin-Chowla congruence|Ankeny-Artin-Chowla]]. We also have a relationship to [[algebraic K-theory]]; if ''c''<sub>''n''</sub> is the numerator of ''B''<sub>''n''</sub>/2''n'', then the order of <math>K_{4n-2}(\Bbb{Z})</math> is &minus;''c''<sub>2''n''</sub> if ''n'' is even, and 2''c''<sub>2''n''</sub> if ''n'' is odd.
Also related to divisibility is the [[von Staudt-Clausen theorem]] which tells us if we add 1/''p'' to ''B''<sub>''n''</sub> for every prime ''p'' such that ''p'' &minus; 1 divides ''n'', we obtain an integer. This fact immediately allows us to characterize the denominators of the non-zero Bernoulli numbers ''B''<sub>''n''</sub> as the product of all primes ''p'' such that ''p'' &minus; 1 divides ''n''; consequently the denominators are square-free and divisible by 6.
The [[Agoh-Giuga conjecture]] postulates that ''p'' is a prime number if and only if ''pB''<sub>''p''&minus;1</sub> is congruent to &minus;1 mod ''p''.
===''p''-adic continuity===
An especially important congruence property of the Bernoulli numbers can be characterized as a p-adic continuity property. If ''b'', ''m'' and ''n'' are positive integers such that ''m'' and ''n'' are not divisible by ''p''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1 and <math>m \equiv n\, \bmod\,p^{b-1}(p-1)</math>, then
:<math>(1-p^{m-1}){B_m \over m} \equiv (1-p^{n-1}){B_n \over n} \,\bmod\, p^b.</math>
Since <math>B_n = -n\zeta(1-n)</math>, this can also be written
:<math>(1-p^{-u})\zeta(u) \equiv (1-p^{-v})\zeta(v)\, \bmod \,p^b\,,</math>
where ''u'' = 1 &minus; ''m'' and ''v'' = 1 &minus; ''n'', so that ''u'' and ''v'' are nonpositive and not congruent to 1 mod ''p''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1. This tells us that the Riemann zeta function, with <math>1-p^z</math> taken out of the Euler product formula, is continuous in the p-adic numbers on odd negative integers congruent mod ''p''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1 to a particular <math>a \not\equiv 1\, \bmod\, p-1</math>, and so can be extended to a continuous function <math>\zeta_p(z)</math> for all ''p''-adic integers <math>\Bbb{Z}_p,\,</math>
the '''''p''-adic Zeta function'''.
==Geometrical properties of the Bernoulli numbers==
The [[Kervaire-Milnor formula]] for the order of the cyclic group of diffeomorphism classes of [[exotic sphere|exotic (4''n''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1)-spheres]] which bound [[parallelizable manifold]]s for <math>n \ge 2</math> involves Bernoulli numbers; if ''B'' is the numerator of ''B''<sub>4''n''</sub>/''n'', then
:<math>2^{2n-2}(1-2^{2n-1})B</math>
is the number of such exotic spheres. (The formula in the topological literature differs because topologists use a different convention for naming Bernoulli numbers; this article uses the number theorists' convention.)
== Efficient computation of Bernoulli numbers mod ''p'' ==
In some applications it is useful to be able to compute the Bernoulli numbers B<sub>0</sub> through B<sub>''p''-3</sub> modulo ''p'', where ''p'' is a prime; for example to test whether [[Vandiver's conjecture]] holds for ''p'', or even just to determine whether ''p'' is an [[irregular prime]]. It is not feasible to carry out such a computation using the above recursive formulae, since at least (a constant multiple of) ''p''<sup>2</sup> arithmetic operations would be required. Fortunately, faster methods have been developed (see Buhler et al) which require only O(''p'' (log ''p'')<sup>2</sup>) operations (see [[big-O notation]]).
== See also ==
* [[Riemann zeta function]]
* [[poly-Bernoulli numbers]]
==External links==
* [http://www.bernoulli.org The Bernoulli Number Page]
* [http://www.research.att.com/cgi-bin/access.cgi/as/njas/sequences/eisA.cgi?Anum=A047680 Online Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences -- entry on a sequence related to the Bernoulli numbers]
* ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/2586 The first 498 Bernoulli Numbers]'' from [[Project Gutenberg]]
== References ==
* Buhler, J., Crandall, R., Ernvall, R., Metsankyla, T., and Shokrollahi, M. "Irregular Primes and Cyclotomic Invariants to 12 Million." ''J. Symb. Comput.'' '''11''', 1-8, 2000.
[[category: number theory]]
[[category: topology]]
[[Category:Integer sequences]]
[[ar:أعداد بيرنولي]]
[[de:Bernoulli-Zahlen]]
[[es:Número de Bernoulli]]
[[fr:Nombre de Bernoulli]]
[[it:Numeri di Bernoulli]]
[[nl:Bernoulli-getal]]
[[ja:ベルヌーイ数]]
[[pl:Liczby Bernoulliego]]
[[ru:Числа Бернулли]]
[[zh:伯努利数]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bubble Bobble</title>
<id>4965</id>
<revision>
<id>41447855</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T11:01:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>EpiVictor</username>
<id>25132</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Enemies */ Gromit-> Drunk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Arcade Game |title = Bubble Bobble
|image = [[Image:Bublbobl.png|250px|Bubble Bobble screenshot]]
|developer = [[Taito Corporation|Taito]]
|publisher = [[Romstar]]
|designer = Fukio Mitsuji
|release = 1986
|genre = [[Platform game]]
|modes = Up to 2 players simultaneously
|cabinet = Standard
|arcade system =
|monitor = [[Raster graphics|Raster]], standard resolution 256 x 224 (Horizontal) Colors 256
|input = [[Joystick]] (2-way); 2 buttons
|ports = [[Bubble Bobble#Ports|See ports listing.]]
}}
'''''Bubble Bobble''''' is an [[arcade game]] by [[Taito Corporation|Taito]], first released in 1986. It features two cute dragons, '''Bub''' (Japanese "Bubblun"), who is green with yellow spikes and '''Bob''' (Japanese "Bobblun"), who is blue with cyan spikes. They move over a system of platforms, busting and pushing [[bubble]]s, avoiding enemies and collecting a variety of [[power-up]]s.
==Game mechanics==
The original arcade game, despite its release date (1986) and its apparent simplicity, features some rather complicated and convoluted game mechanics, one of the main reasons that most computer or game console ports of the game, even when released several years after the original, seem lacking and incomplete in many aspects.
===Levels===
Each level (or ''round'') consists of exactly one screen, with no [[Scrolling#Video games|scrolling]] or flipping. The dragons can move around the levels by walking on platforms, falling through empty space, jumping through platforms from below and (in some levels) falling through holes at the bottom of the level in order to reappear at the top, or even vice versa (see gameplay techniques below).
Apart from jumping, the characters can blow bubbles. Bubbles also float in from the top or bottom of the screen in many levels. They pop after a certain amount of time, when they hit the dragon's spiked back, if they're squashed against a wall or another dragon or if they're fallen upon. By holding down the jump button, it's possible to bounce on top of bubbles, which is sometimes necessary to reach platforms. The main objective of the game is to trap enemies in bubbles, then burst the bubble, thus destroying the enemy.
Each round also features invisible air currents and custom bubble physics, causing all bubbles to move in predetermined trajectories like converging to a certain point, moving very quickly or very slowly, rising too fast, being pulled down as if by gravity, etc., usually with notable effects on a level's difficulty.
Some levels have very short bubble popping times, meaning that bubbles pop almost as soon as they emerge. This is extreme to the point of only being able to kill monsters by "kissing" them in later levels - which means blowing a bubble in such a way that it's immediately squashed against the dragon causing instant death to an enemy. Very short time limits are also used to make the game more difficult, with two rounds having no time limits and a few of them being almost impossible to finish under certain conditions (single player, lack of certain bonuses etc.). It's important to note that when you run out of time, you do not instantly die, but rather an invincible "Skel" enemy appears (two if there are two dragons playing) - for more information on the Skel enemy, see below.
===Enemies===
There are a variety of enemies that move about in different patterns. Contact with an enemy (or the missiles fired by some) will ki |
d heaven''' can make,
:To herald thee from the womb
::-PERICLES, from [[Pericles Prince of Tyre]]
:The cock, that is the trumpet to the morn,
:Doth with his lofty and shrill-sounding throat
:Awake the god of day; and, at his warning,
:Whether in '''sea or fire, in earth or air''',
:The extravagant and erring spirit hies
:To his confine
::-HORATIO, from [[Hamlet|Hamlet, Prince of Denmark]]
==Astrology and the classical elements==
{{main|astrology and the classical elements}}
[[Astrology]] has used the concept of classical elements from antiquity up until the present. Most modern [[astrologers]] use the four classical elements extensively, and indeed it is still viewed as a critical part of interpreting the [[natal chart|astrological chart]].
==[[Tarot]] and the classical elements==
The [[tarot]] suits of cups, wands, swords and pentacles may be taken as corresponding to water, air, fire, and earth respectively. These correspond in the modern deck of [[playing cards]] to hearts, clubs, spades and diamonds.
==Classical elements in popular culture==
{{main|Classical elements in pop culture}}
The classical elements are often used together thematically in modern [[fantasy]], [[literature]], [[Film|movie]]s, [[television show]]s, and [[comic book]]s. Typically, a magic wielder has the ability to influence one of the elements, or can use the elements to affect the world around him.
==External links==
*[http://www.friesian.com/elements.htm Different versions of the classical elements]
[[Category:Alchemy]]
[[Category:Astrology]]
[[Category:History of physics]]
[[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]]
[[Category:Numerology]]
[[de:Vier-Elemente-Lehre]]
[[eo:Klasikaj elementoj]]
[[fr:Quatre éléments]]
[[io:Klasika elementi]]
[[he:ארבעת היסודות]]
[[nl:Element (oudheid)]]
[[pl:Żywioły]]
[[pt:Quatro elementos]]
[[ru:Стихия (алхимия)]]
[[simple:Classical element]]
[[sv:Klassiska element]]
[[uk:Вогонь (міфологія)]]
[[zh:四元素说]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fire (classical element)</title>
<id>6314</id>
<revision>
<id>40539710</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T07:53:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Samir grover</username>
<id>337225</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Rv vand</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
{{classic element}}
'''Fire''' has been important to all peoples of the earth, and it is rich in spiritual tradition.
== Western concepts of Fire ==
Fire is one of the four [[classical element]]s in ancient [[Greek philosophy]] and science. [[Prometheus]] stole fire from the gods to protect the otherwise helpless humans, and was tortured for his kindness. Fire is considered to be both hot and dry, and according to [[Plato]] is associated with the [[tetrahedron]].
In [[Wicca]]n tradition, it is associated with the South, Summer, and the color red on the physical plane. It is sometimes represented by a red triangle, the athame, blood, candles, the guitar, rubies, and incense. Fire represents energy, inspiration, passion, and masculinity. In rituals, Fire is represented in the forms of burning objects, love spells, baking, and lighting candles and fires.
The manifestations of the Element of Fire are the sun, lightning, fires, volcanoes and lava, all forms of light, and ovens. Cats of all types, especially the lion and tiger, are also thought to personify the element of Fire, as are all predatory creatures, such as the fox. Astral creatures of Fire (elementals) are the Salamander, Phoenix, Drake/Dragon and the Falcon (Although most associate this with Air). Fire’s place on the pentagram is the lower right point. Fire is represented by the Greeks, an apple-bough and in Christian iconography by a lion.
== Non-Western concepts of Fire ==
In China and Japan Fire is represented by a red bird; in the Aztec religion, by a flint; to the Hindus, a lightning bolt; to the Scythians, an axe.
== See also ==
* [[Fire]]
[[Category:Alchemy]]
[[Category:Astrology]]
[[Category:History of physics]]
{{occult-stub}}</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Air (classical element)</title>
<id>6315</id>
<revision>
<id>40540055</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T07:59:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Samir grover</username>
<id>337225</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Rv vand</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
{{classic element}}
'''Air''' is one of the four [[classical element]]s in ancient [[Greek philosophy]] and science. Air is considered to be both hot and wet, and according to Plato is associated with the [[octahedron]]. It is associated with many other concepts, including the [[wand]] suit in the [[tarot]].
In some Wiccan traditions, it is associated with the East, Spring, and the color green on the physical plane. Air is represented by a green circle, the flute, feathers, the wand, breath, the fan, glass, bells and windchimes, diamonds, whistles, and incense. Air represents intelligence, communication, psychic powers, and masculinity. In rituals, Air is represented in the forms of tossing objects into the wind, aromatherapy, songs, and suspending things in high places.
In other Wiccan traditions, Air is associated with the North, Winter, and the color yellow. The other correspondences are generally the same.
The manifestations of the Element of Air are breezes, the sky, windstorms, clouds, and birdsong. Birds, especially the eagle and the hawk, are also thought to personify the element of Air, as are most things that fly, such as butterflies. Astral creatures of Air (elementals) are the Sylph/Zephyr, Faerie, Djinn, and Griffin. Air’s place on the pentagram is the upper left point. In China and Japan Air was represented by a blue dragon; in the Aztec religion, by a rabbit; to the Scythians, a yoke; to the Hindus and Greeks, a sword; and in Christian iconography by an eagle.
An anonymous poem called ''Invoking the Elements'', says:
: This is the Air, my Children; these are the Creatures:
: Far-flying Goose; far-seeing Hawk;
: Owl who knows; Raven who talks;
: Crane who dances; Thrush who sings;
: Quail the humble; Wren the king;
: Lark who revels; Loon who weeps;
: Jay who scatters; Vulture who reaps.
: This is the Air I conjure, and this is the birth of the World.
== See also ==
* [[Air]]
[[Category:Alchemy]]
[[Category:Astrology]]
[[Category:History of physics]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Water (classical element)</title>
<id>6316</id>
<revision>
<id>40540080</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T08:00:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Samir grover</username>
<id>337225</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vand</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
{{original research}}
{{classic element}}
'''Water''' is one of the four [[classical element]]s in ancient [[Greek philosophy]] and science. It is considered to be both cold and wet; according to [[Plato]], it is associated with the [[icosahedron]].
In [[Wicca]]n tradition, it is associated with the West, autumn, and the color blue on the physical plane. It is sometimes represented by a blue crescent, the chalice, the bell, shells, sapphires, lapis lazuli, tears, and the cauldron. Water represents emotions, wisdom, the soul, and femininity. In rituals, it is represented in the forms of pouring water over objects, brew making, healing spells, ritual bathing, and tossing objects into bodies of water.
In Chinese [[Taoism|Taoist]] thought, water is representative of intelligence and wisdom; however, an overabundance of the element is said to cause difficulty in choosing something and sticking to it. The element of water overcomes [[Fire_%28classical_element%29|fire]], and in turn is overcome by [[Earth_%28classical_element%29|earth]]. Water spawns [[Wood_%28classical_element%29|wood]], and is produced by [[Metal_%28classical_element%29|metal]].
The manifestations of the element of water are rivers, oceans, lakes, wells, fog, all drinks, and the rain. Animals, especially the dolphin, seal, turtle, frog, and all types of fish, are also thought to personify the element of water. Astral creatures of water (elementals) are the Undine/Mermaid, Oreade/Naiad, and Sea Serpent/Dragon. Water’s place on the pentagram is the upper right point. In China and Japan, water was represented by a black turtle, known as [[Genbu]] in Japanese; in the Aztec religion, by a cane; to the Hindus, a bowl of blood; to the Greeks, a cup; to the Scythians, a bowl; to the Celts, the cauldron of the [[Dagda]], which was always full; and in Christian iconography by a serpent.
== See also ==
* [[Water]]
[[Category:Alchemy]]
[[Category:Astrology]]
[[Category:History of physics]]
{{occult-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Earth (classical element)</title>
<id>6317</id>
<revision>
<id>40540025</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T07:59:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Samir grover</username>
<id>337225</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Rv vand</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
{{classic element}}
'''Earth''' is one of the four [[classical element]]s in ancient [[Greek philosophy]] and science. Earth is considered to be both cold and dry, and according to [[Plato]] is associated with the [[cube (geometry)|cube]].
In [[Wicca]]n tradition, it is associated with the North, Winter, and the color yellow on the physical plane. It is sometimes represented by a yellow square, the drum, animal fur, coins, the pentacle, milk, the heartbeat, jewelry, bones, and the staff. Earth represents strength, abundance, stability, and femininity. In rituals, Earth is represented in the forms of burying objects in the earth, herbalism, and making images out of wood or stone |
ranted permanent [[Normal Trade Relations|normal trade relations]] with the [[United States]].
*[[2002]] - Two [[car bomb|truck bombs]] kill 72 and wound 200 at the pro-Moscow headquarters of the Chechen government in [[Grozny]], [[Chechnya]].
==Births==
*[[1390]] - [[Anne de Mortimer]], claimant to the English throne (d. [[1411]])
*[[1571]] - [[Johannes Kepler]], German astronomer (d. [[1630]])
*[[1654]] - [[Jacob Bernoulli]], Swiss mathematician (d. [[1705]])
*[[1683]] - [[Conyers Middleton]], English minister (d. [[1750]])
*[[1715]] - [[Philippe de Noailles, duc de Mouchy]], French soldier (d. [[1794]])
*[[1717]] - [[Pope Pius VI]] (d. [[1799]])
*[[1721]] - [[François Hemsterhuis]], Dutch philosopher (d. [[1790]])
*[[1773]] - [[George Cayley]], English scientist, inventor, and politician (d. [[1857]])
*[[1822]] - [[Louis Pasteur]], French scientist (d. [[1895]])
*[[1823]] - Sir [[Mackenzie Bowell]], fifth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (d. [[1896]])
*[[1832]] - [[Pavel Tretyakov]], Russiand businessman and patron of art (d. [[1897]])
*[[1879]] - [[Sydney Greenstreet]], English actor (d. [[1954]])
*[[1888]] - [[Thea von Harbou]], German author and actress (d. [[1954]])
*[[1896]] - [[Carl Zuckmayer]], German author and dramatist (d. [[1977]])
*1896 - [[Louis Bromfield]], American writer (d. [[1956]])
*[[1900]] - [[Hans Stuck]], German race car driver (d. [[1978]])
*[[1901]] - [[Marlene Dietrich]], German actress and singer (d. [[1992]])
*[[1906]] - [[Oscar Levant]], American pianist, composer, and actor (d. [[1972]])
*[[1907]] - [[Sebastian Haffner]], German journalist and writer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1910]] - [[Charles Olson]], American poet (d. [[1970]])
*[[1915]] - [[Masters and Johnson|William Masters]], American gynecologist (d. [[2001]])
*1915 - [[Gyula Zsengellér]], Hungarian footballer
*[[1917]] - [[Onni Palaste]], Finnish writer
*[[1920]] - [[Bruce Hobbs]], American jockey (d. [[2005]])
*[[1925]] - [[Michel Piccoli]], French actor
*[[1927]] - [[Agnes Nixon]], American television producer, director, and writer
*[[1934]] - [[Larisa Latynina]], Russian gymnast
*[[1939]] - [[John Amos]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Michael Pinder]], British musician ([[Moody Blues]])
*[[1943]] - [[Cokie Roberts]], American journalist
*1943 - [[Peter Sinfield]], British lyricist and producer
*1943 - [[Joan Manuel Serrat]], Spanish Musician
*1943 - [[Pete Quaife]], British musician ([[Kinks]])
*[[1944]] - [[Mick Jones (Foreigner)|Mick Jones]], British musician ([[Foreigner]])
*[[1948]] - [[Gérard Depardieu]], French actor
*[[1949]] - [[Carson Kievman]], American composer
*[[1950]] - [[Roberto Bettega]], Italian footballer
*1950 - [[Terry Bozzio]], American drummer ([[Missing Persons]])
*[[1951]] - [[Ernesto Zedillo]], President of Mexico from 1994-2000
*[[1952]] - [[David Knopfler]], British musician ([[Dire Straits]])
*[[1952]] - [[Karla Bonoff]], American singer/songwriter
*[[1959]] - [[Gerina Dunwich]], American author
*1959 - [[Andre Tippett]], American football player
*[[1960]] - [[Maryam d'Abo]], British actress
*[[1962]] - [[Mark Few]], American basketball coach
*[[1965]] - [[Salman Khan]], Indian actor
*[[1966]] - [[Bill Goldberg]], American football player and professional wrestler
*[[1969]] - [[Sarah Vowell]], American author and journalist
*[[1971]] - [[Joanie Laurer]], American professional wrestler
*1971 - [[Duncan Ferguson]], Scottish footballer
*[[1972]] - [[Matt Slocum]], American musician ([[Sixpence None The Richer]])
*[[1973]] - [[Wilson Cruz]], Puerto Rican actor
*[[1975]] - [[Heather O'Rourke]], American actress (d. [[1988]])
*[[1979]] - [[David Dunn]], English footballer
*1979 - [[Carson Palmer]], American football player
*[[1981]] - [[Emilie de Ravin]], Australian actress
==Deaths==
*[[418]] - [[Zosimus]], Greek pope
*[[1076]] - Prince [[Svyatoslav II of Kiev]] (b. [[1027]])
*[[1381]] - [[Edmund de Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March]], English politician
*[[1548]] - [[Francesco Spiera]], Italian protestant jurist (b. [[1502]])
*[[1603]] - [[Thomas Cartwright (churchman)|Thomas Cartwright]], English Puritan clergyman
*[[1707]] - [[Jean Mabillon]], French palaeograopher and diplomat (b. [[1632]])
*[[1737]] - [[William Bowyer (1663-1737)|William Bowyer]], English printer (b. [[1663]])
*[[1743]] - [[Hyacinthe Rigaud]], French painter (b. [[1659]])
*[[1771]] - [[Henri Pitot]], French engineer (b. [[1695]])
*[[1782]] - [[Henry Home, Lord Kames]], Scottish philosopher (b. [[1697]])
*[[1800]] - [[Hugh Blair]], Scottish preacher and man of letters (b. [[1718]])
*[[1812]] - [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]], Lithuanian rabbi and founder of Chabad Hasidism (b. [[1745]])
*[[1836]] - [[Stephen F. Austin]], American pioneer (b. [[1793]])
*[[1858]] - [[Alexandre Pierre François Boëly]], French composer (b. [[1785]])
*[[1896]] - [[John Brown (industrialist)|John Brown]], British manufacturer (b. [[1816]])
*[[1900]] - [[William George Armstrong]], English inventor, industrialist, and engineer (b. [[1810]])
*[[1914]] - [[Charles Martin Hall]], American chemist and inventor (b. [[1863]])
*[[1923]] - [[Gustave Eiffel]], French engineer and architect (b. [[1832]])
*[[1925]] - [[Sergei Yesenin]], Russian poet (b. [[1895]])
*[[1938]] - [[Calvin Bridges]], geneticist (b. [[1889]])
*1938 - [[Osip Mandelstam]], Russian poet (b. [[1891]])
*[[1950]] - [[Max Beckmann]], German painter (b. [[1884]])
*[[1953]] - [[Julian Tuwim]], Polish poet (b. [[1894]])
*[[1955]] - [[Alfred Francis Blakeney Carpenter]], English soldier (b. [[1881]])
*[[1966]] - [[Guillermo Stábile]], Argentine footballer (b. [[1906]])
*[[1972]] - [[Lester B. Pearson]], fourteenth [[Prime Minister of Canada]], recipient of the [[1957]] [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1897]])
*[[1974]] - [[Vladimir Aleksandrovich Fock]], Russian physicist (b. [[1898]])
*[[1978]] - [[Houari Boumédienne]], President of Algeria (b. [[1932]])
*[[1981]] - [[Hoagy Carmichael]], American composer and singer (b. [[1899]])
*[[1988]] - [[Hal Ashby]], American film director (b. [[1929]])
*[[1992]] - [[Kay Boyle]], American writer (b. [[1902]])
*[[1997]] - [[Brendan Gill]], American columnist and humorist (b. [[1914]])
*1997 - [[Billy Wright (terrorist)|Billy Wright]], Irish Protestant paramilitary leader (b. [[1960]])
*[[2002]] - [[George Roy Hill]], American film director (b. [[1922]])
*[[2003]] - [[Alan Bates]], English actor (b. [[1934]])
*2003 - [[Ivan Calderon (baseball player)|Ivan Calderon]], Puerto Rican [[Major League Baseball]] player (murdered) (b. [[1962]]
*[[2004]] - [[Hank Garland]], Nashville studio musician (b. [[1930]])
*[[2005]] - [[C. William Doody|William Doody]], Canadian polititian (b. [[1931]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[John the Apostle]] and Evangelist
* The second [[Twelve days of Christmas|day of Christmas]] in Western [[Christianity]].
* A [[bank holiday]] in Britain and elsewhere if [[25 December]] or [[26 December]] falls in the weekend.
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/27 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/27 Today in History: December 27]
----
[[December 26]] - [[December 28]] - [[November 27]] - [[January 27]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:27 Desember]]
[[ar:27 ديسمبر]]
[[an:27 d'abiento]]
[[ast:27 d'avientu]]
[[bg:27 декември]]
[[be:27 сьнежня]]
[[bs:27. decembar]]
[[ca:27 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 27]]
[[cv:Раштав, 27]]
[[co:27 di decembre]]
[[cs:27. prosinec]]
[[cy:27 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:27. december]]
[[de:27. Dezember]]
[[et:27. detsember]]
[[el:27 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:27 de diciembre]]
[[eo:27-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 27]]
[[fo:27. desember]]
[[fr:27 décembre]]
[[fy:27 desimber]]
[[ga:27 Nollaig]]
[[gl:27 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 27일]]
[[hr:27. prosinca]]
[[io:27 di decembro]]
[[id:27 Desember]]
[[ia:27 de decembre]]
[[is:27. desember]]
[[it:27 dicembre]]
[[he:27 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:27 Desember]]
[[ka:27 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:27 gòdnika]]
[[ku:27'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:27 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 27]]
[[lb:27. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 27]]
[[mk:27 декември]]
[[ms:27 Disember]]
[[nap:27 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:27 december]]
[[ja:12月27日]]
[[no:27. desember]]
[[nn:27. desember]]
[[oc:27 de decembre]]
[[os:27 декабры]]
[[pl:27 grudnia]]
[[pt:27 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:27 decembrie]]
[[ru:27 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 27.]]
[[sco:27 December]]
[[sq:27 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:27 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 27]]
[[sk:27. december]]
[[sl:27. december]]
[[sr:27. децембар]]
[[fi:27. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:27 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 27]]
[[tt:27. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 27]]
[[th:27 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:27 tháng 12]]
[[tr:27 Aralık]]
[[uk:27 грудня]]
[[wa:27 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 27]]
[[zh:12月27日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 27]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dartmoor wildlife</title>
<id>8453</id>
<revision>
<id>29570943</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-29T07:30:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jimfbleak</username>
<id>7872</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>skip redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The remoteness of '''[[Dartmoor]]''' and the fact that a great deal of it is undisturbed for much of the year is an encouragement to the '''wildlife'''.
The more common mammals include: the [[Dartmoor pony]]; [[rabbit]]s; [[fox]]es; [[Eurasian Badger|badger]]s; [[grey squirrel]]s; [[weasel]]s; [[stoat]]s; [[hare]]s; and [[deer]]. Rumours abound of large wild cats such as [[puma]]s roaming wild on the moor, but little evidence has been forthcoming and until anything more substantial is available these reports should be filed under the general heading of [[cryptozoology]].
You will also see herds of [[cattle]] and [[domestic sheep|sheep]] apparently roaming free on the moor. In fact, all are owned by farmers and let out to graze. Each is branded - the sheep with a coloured patch on its coat, unique to its owner. The livestock will naturally remain within the territory in which |
ading==
* Alex Soojung-Kim Pang, [http://instruct1.cit.cornell.edu/courses/sts355/micezen.pdf ''Of Mice and Zen: Product Design and Invisible Innovation''] (''[[Portable Document Format|pdf format]]'')
==External links==
* [http://www.oldmouse.com/mouse/ The Earliest Computer Mouses]
** [http://www.oldmouse.com/mouse/xerox/alto.shtml The Xerox Alto Mouse]
* [http://library.stanford.edu/mac/mouse0.html Primary Material on the Apple Mouse]
* [http://computer.howstuffworks.com/mouse.htm How Computer Mice Work]
* [http://literature.agilent.com/litweb/pdf/5988-4554EN.pdf Optical Mice and how they Work] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
* [http://www.ida.net/users/oe1k/OpticalMouse Optical Mouse technology review: Tech specs on current optical mice]
* [http://www.planetquake.com/mouse/ the House of Mouse (Gaming)]
* [http://www.dvhardware.net/review70_logitech-mx1000.html A review of a modern laser-based mouse: the MX1000]
* [http://www.sri.com/about/timeline/mouse.html SRI mouse]
* [http://sloan.stanford.edu/MouseSite/ MouseSite] including [http://sloan.stanford.edu/MouseSite/1968Demo.html 1968 demonstration]
* [http://www.computer-engineering.org/ps2mouse/ The PS/2 mouse interface] – Detailed description of the data protocol, including the Microsoft Intellimouse wheel-and-five-buttons extensions
* [http://www.win.tue.nl/~aeb/linux/kbd/scancodes-12.html The PS/2 mouse] – a chapter on the PS/2 mouse protocols
* [http://freedos-32.sourceforge.net/showdoc.php?page=sermouse Serial-port mouse protocols]
* [http://users.tkk.fi/~then/mytexts/mouse.html PC mouse information] – some information on mouse interfaces and communication protocols
* [http://www.gyration.com/ Gyration] - a popular Inertial Mouse brand
* [http://www.hardwarebook.net/connector/userinput/atarimousejoy.html HwB: Atari Mouse/Joy Connector]
* [http://sprite.student.utwente.nl/~jeroen/projects/mouseeye/ Using a mouse as a scanner]
* [http://www.logitech.com/ Logitech]
* [http://www.razerzone.com/ Razer]
* [http://www.everglide.com/ Everglide]
=== Multiple cursors ===
* [http://www2.parc.com/istl/projects/MagicLenses/93Siggraph.html Toolglass and Magic Lenses: The See-Through Interface]
* [http://cpnmouse.sourceforge.net/ CPNMouse allows developers to use more than one pointing device in Windows 2000/XP applications, while maintaining backward compability with old applications.]
* [http://www.cs.sfu.ca/people/Faculty/inkpen/Papers/CSCL99/cscl99_inkpen.html Supporting Children’s Synchronous Collaboration]
* [http://www.michaelbuffington.com/archives/2003/07/multiple_mouse.html Multiple Mouse Cursors] — Blog with comments and links
==References==
* Agilent Technologies (2004). [http://cp.literature.agilent.com/litweb/pdf/5988-9774EN.pdf ADNS-2610 Optical Mouse Sensor]. (''[[Portable Document Format|pdf format]]'') Retrieved [[2004]]-[[11-16]].
* Squeak Wiki ([[16 March]], [[2004]]). [http://minnow.cc.gatech.edu/squeak/897.version?id=24 FAQ: Mouse Buttons]. Revision 24. Retrieved [[2004]]-[[11-17]].
* [http://www.freepatentsonline.com/4787051.html Inertial mouse system], United States Patent 4787051
{{Gamepad styles}}
[[Category:Pointing devices]]
[[Category:Input devices]]
[[Category:History of computing]]
[[ar:فأرة]]
[[bg:Мишка (хардуер)]]
[[bs:Miš (hardver)]]
[[ca:Ratolí (ordinador)]]
[[cs:Počítačová myš]]
[[da:Computermus]]
[[de:Maus (EDV)]]
[[et:Arvutihiir]]
[[es:Ratón de ordenador]]
[[eo:Komputila muso]]
[[fa:موشی]]
[[fr:Souris (informatique)]]
[[gl:Rato (informática)]]
[[ko:마우스]]
[[io:Informatik-apuntilo]]
[[id:Tetikus]]
[[it:Mouse]]
[[he:עכבר מחשב]]
[[hu:Egér (számítástechnika)]]
[[ms:Tetikus]]
[[nl:Muis (computer)]]
[[no:Redigerer Mus (styreenhet)]]
[[nds:Muus (Reekner)]]
[[ja:マウス]]
[[pl:Mysz komputerowa]]
[[pt:Rato (informática)]]
[[ro:Maus]]
[[ru:Компьютерная мышь]]
[[sk:Počítačová myš]]
[[sl:Računalniška miška]]
[[sr:Компјутерски миш]]
[[fi:Hiiri (osoitinlaite)]]
[[sv:Datormus]]
[[th:เมาส์]]
[[tr:Fare (bilgisayar)]]
[[uk:Миша комп'ютерна]]
[[zh:鼠标]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cephalic Index</title>
<id>7058</id>
<revision>
<id>15905152</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Damian Yerrick</username>
<id>1</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>=> Cephalic index (small i)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cephalic index]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Civil defense</title>
<id>7059</id>
<revision>
<id>41612368</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:38:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>137.113.103.123</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:civil_defense_logo.gif|framed|The old [[United States Civil Defense]] logo. The triangle emphasised the 3-step Civil Defense philosophy used before the foundation of FEMA and [[Comprehensive Emergency Management.]] ]]
[[Image:Ru mes.gif|thumb|The [[Russia]]n [[Ministry of Extraordinary Situations (Russian Federation)|Ministry of Extraordinary Situations]] flag, repeating the triangle [[Motif (art)|motif]].]]
'''Civil defense'''{{fn|1}} is an effort to prepare [[civilian]]s for military attack. It uses the principles of [[emergency operation]]s: [[prevention]], [[mitigation]], [[preparation]], [[response]], or [[evacuation]], and [[recovery]]. Programs of this sort were initially discussed at least as early as the 1920s but it was only after the threat of [[nuclear weapon]]s became realized that they became widespread. As the intensity of the [[Cold War]] waned emphasis shifted from military attack to emergencies and disasters in general. In the context of [[Civil Defense in the United States]] this eventually led to the replacement of the [[United States Civil Defense]] with the [[Federal Emergency Management Agency]]. In some countries, the all-encompassing nature of civil defense is denoted by using name "[[total defence]]" such as the [[Swedish language|Swedish word]] ''totalförsvar''. The name suggests committing all resources, hence the term total, of the nation to the defence. It can be compared to [[total war]].
== Importance ==
Relatively small investments in preparation can speed up recovery by months or years and thereby prevent millions of deaths by hunger, cold and disease. According to [[human capital]] theory in [[economics]], a country's population is more valuable than all of the land, factories and other assets that it possesses. People are what rebuilds a country after its destruction and it is therefore important for the economic security of a country to protect its people. Also, reducing fear and uncertainty via civil defense helps people's quality of life and has positive economic benefits. According to [[psychology]], it is important for people to feel like they are in control of their own destiny and preparing for uncertainty via civil defense can help in this respect.
== Threat Assessment ==
Some various threats to civilians and civilian life are nuclear, biological, chemical, [[information warfare]] (cyberattacks), etc. Each needs to be looked at and studied so that preventative measures can be built into civilian life.
=== Conventional ===
This would be conventional explosives. Blast sheltering against nuclear blast would pretty much protect against conventional explosives, but not ''vice versa''.
=== Nuclear ===
The biggest threats from a nuclear attack are effects from blast, fires and radiation. There is also the possibility of [[terrorism|terrorists]] employing a radioactive "[[dirty bomb]]".
=== Biological ===
The threat here is primarily from disease-causing microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses.
=== Chemical ===
Various chemical agents are a threat such as [[nerve gas]] (VX, Sarin, etc.).
=== Information Warfare ===
Attacks to a country's information infrastructure are a threat and, since so many facets of modern life are tied into computers and information systems, such attacks could have financial and economic consequences.
=== Other ===
There are many other possible threats besides these.
== Stages ==
=== Mitigation ===
Mitigation is the process of actively preventing the war or the release of [[nuclear weapon]]s. It includes policy analysis, diplomacy, political measures, and more military responses such as a [[National Missile Defense]] and [[air defense artillery]]. In the case of counter-terrorism, mitigation would include [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] gathering and direct action against terrorist groups. Mitigation may also be reflected in long-term planning such as the design of the [[interstate highway]] system and the placement of [[military]] bases further away from populated areas.
=== Preparation ===
Preparation consists of building [[blast shelter]]s, and prepositioning information, supplies and emergency infrastructure. For example, most larger cities in the U.S. now have underground emergency operations centers that can perform civil defense coordination. FEMA also has many underground facilities located near major railheads such as the one in [[Denton, Texas]] and [[Mount Weather|Mount Weather, Virginia]] for the same purpose. Other measures would include continuous government inventories of grain silos, the National Strategic Medical Stockpile, the uncapping of the strategic petroleum reserve, the dispersal of truck-transportable bridges, water purification, mobile refineries, mobile decontamination facilities, mobile general and special purpose disaster mortuary facilities such as [[DMORT]] and [[DMORT-WMD]], and other aids such as temporary housing to speed civil recovery.
On an individual scale, one means of preparation for exposure to [[nuclear fallout]] is to obtain [[potassium iodide]] (KI) tablets as a safety measure to protect the human [[thyroid]] gland from the uptake of dangerous radioactive [ |
s betrayal, believing that the authority that was his as head of the SS had caused him to be so hated that he would be rejected by the Party.
==Peace negotiations, capture and death==
[[Image:Himmler45.jpg|thumb|175px|left|Heinrich Himmler in 1945]]
By 1945, Himmler's [[Waffen-SS]] numbered 800,000 members, with the ''[[Allgemeine-SS]]'' (at least on paper) hosting a membership of nearly two million. However, by the spring of 1945 Himmler had lost faith in German victory, probably partially due to his discussions with his [[masseur]] [[Felix Kersten]] and [[Walter Schellenberg]]{{fn|2}}. He came to the realization that if the Nazi regime was to have any chance of survival, it would need to seek peace with [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and the United States. Toward this end, he contacted [[Count]] [[Folke Bernadotte]] of [[Sweden]] at [[Lübeck]], near the [[Denmark|Danish]] border, and began [[negotiation]]s to surrender in the West. Himmler hoped the British and Americans would fight their [[Soviet]] allies with the remains of the Wehrmacht. When [[Hitler]] discovered this, Himmler was declared a [[treason|traitor]] and stripped of all his titles and ranks the day before [[Hitlers death|Hitler committed suicide]]. At the time of Himmler's denunciation, he held the positions of Reich Leader-SS, Chief of the German Police, Reich Commissioner of German Nationhood, Reich Minister of the Interior, Supreme Commander of the ''[[Volkssturm]]'', and Supreme Commander of the Home Army.
Unfortunately for Himmler, his negotiations with Count Bernadotte failed. Since he could not return to [[Berlin]], he joined [[Grand Admiral]] [[Karl Dönitz]], who by then was commanding all German forces in the West, in nearby [[Plön]]. Somehow, Hitler's orders concerning him never reached Dönitz. After Hitler's death, Himmler joined the short-lived [[Flensburg government]] headed by [[Dönitz]] but was dismissed on May 6, 1945 by its leader in a move he hoped would gain him favour with the Allies.
Himmler next turned to the Americans as a [[defector]], contacting the headquarters of [[Dwight Eisenhower]] and proclaiming he would surrender all of Germany to the Allies if he was spared from [[prosecution]] as a Nazi leader. In an example of Himmler's mental state at this point, he sent a personal application to General [[Eisenhower]] stating he wished to apply for the position of "Minister of Police" in the post-war government of Germany. He also reportedly mused on how to handle his first meeting with the SHAEF commander and whether to give the Nazi salute or shake hands with him. [[Eisenhower]] refused to have anything to do with Himmler and he was subsequently declared a major [[war crimes|war criminal]].
[[Image:Himmler Dead.jpg|thumb|The dead self-poisoned Himmler after capture by Allied troops, 1945]]
Unwanted by his former colleagues and hunted by the Allies, Himmler wandered for several days around [[Flensburg]] near the Danish border, capital of the Dönitz government. Attempting to evade [[arrest]], Himmler disguised himself as a member of the ''[[Gendarmerie]]'' in the hope that he could return to Bavaria. He had equipped himself with a full set of false documents, but someone whose papers were wholly in order was so unusual that it aroused the suspicions of a [[British Army]] unit in [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]], Germany and he was arrested on May 22nd. In captivity he was soon recognized. Himmler was scheduled to stand trial with other German leaders as a major war criminal at [[Nuremberg Trials|Nuremberg]], but committed [[suicide]] in [[Lüneburg]] by swallowing a [[potassium cyanide]] capsule before [[interrogation]] could begin. His last words were, "I am Heinrich Himmler!"
===Conspiracy theories===
There would be later claims that the man who committed suicide in Bremen was not Himmler but a [[political decoy|double]]. Statements allegedly attributed to [[ODESSA]] were said to have asserted Himmler escaped to the tiny and rustic farming village of Strones in the Waldviertel, a hilly forested area in the northwest part of Lower Austria just north of Vienna, birthplace of [[Alois Hitler]], where he was running a reborn SS in [[exile]].
A recently-published book by American author Joseph Bellinger, ''Himmler's Death'', offers another "[[conspiracy theory]]" alternative to Himmler's death, stating that Heinrich Himmler was [[Assassination|assassinated]] by his British interrogators in May 1945 along with other high-ranking officers of the SS and Werewolf Resistance Organization. Bellinger's book was first published in Germany by Arndt Verlag, [[Kiel]]. A similar book, ''Himmler's Secret War'', by Martin Allen makes similar claims: it is apparently based on forged documents smuggled into the (British) [[The National Archives|National Archives]] [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/08/01/nhimm01.xml (link to news report)].
Most historians discount these claims.
==Historical view==
Feared by many, but respected by some of his colleagues{{fn|3}}, several historians have argued Himmler was made more by those who worked under him than by his own designs, although others note how he visited the concentration camps much more frequently than his job would have required, urging the SS men to increase atrocities and personally witnessing many mass shootings unlike [[Hitler]], who is not known to have ever visited one of the camps.
==Surviving family==
He was survived by his wife Marga and natural [[Nazi children|daughter]] Gudrun (Burwitz) (b. [[1929]]), who still resides in Germany and by his illegitimate son Helge (b.1942) and daughter Nanette Doreathea (b.1944) from a relationship with his personal assistant Hedwig Potthast. Catharine Himmler, a second [[niece]] of Heinrich Himmler, is married to an [[Israel]]i, the son of Holocaust survivors who survived the [[Warsaw Ghetto]] [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3168071,00.html].
==Quotes from Himmler==
"Ultimately, our (the Nazis) greatest enemy is the Pope is Rome"
== References ==
{{Commons|Heinrich Himmler}}
*{{fnb|1}} Heinz Höhne, ''The Order of the Death's Head: The Story of Hitler's SS'', London: Pan Books Ltd. 1972 (ISBN 0330029630)
*Crocker, Harry, "Triumph: A 2,000 Year History of the Catholic Church"
*{{fnb|2}} ''ibid.''
*{{fnb|3}} ''ibid.''
{{start box}}
{{succession box|before=[[Erhard Heiden]]|title=[[Reichsführer-SS]]|
years=[[1929]]&ndash;[[1945]]|after=[[Karl Hanke]]}}
{{succession box|before=[[Wilhelm Frick]]|title=[[Interior Minister of Germany]]|years=1943&ndash;1945|after=[[Wilhelm Stuckart]]}}
{{end box}}
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:1900 births|Himmler, Heinrich]]
[[Category:1945 deaths|Himmler, Heinrich]]
[[Category:SS General Officers|Himmler, Heinrich]]
[[Category:Military people who committed suicide|Himmler, Heinrich]]
[[Category:Nazi leaders|Himmler]]
[[Category:War criminals|Himmler, Heinrich]]
[[Category:Natives of Bavaria|Himmler, Heinrich]]
<!--Other languages-->
[[ar:هينريك هيملر]]
[[bg:Хайнрих Химлер]]
[[bs:Heinrich Himmler]]
[[ca:Heinrich Himmler]]
[[da:Heinrich Himmler]]
[[de:Heinrich Himmler]]
[[el:Χάινριχ Χίμλερ]]
[[es:Heinrich Himmler]]
[[eo:Heinrich HIMMLER]]
[[fa:هاینریش هیملر]]
[[fr:Heinrich Himmler]]
[[ko:하인리히 히믈러]]
[[it:Heinrich Himmler]]
[[he:היינריך הימלר]]
[[ka:ჰიმლერი, ჰაინრიხ]]
[[nl:Heinrich Himmler]]
[[ja:ハインリヒ・ヒムラー]]
[[no:Heinrich Himmler]]
[[pl:Heinrich Himmler]]
[[pt:Heinrich Himmler]]
[[ru:Гиммлер, Генрих]]
[[sr:Хајнрих Химлер]]
[[fi:Heinrich Himmler]]
[[sv:Heinrich Himmler]]
[[tr:Heinrich Himmler]]
[[zh:海因里希·希姆莱]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hip Hop</title>
<id>13437</id>
<revision>
<id>36134636</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T22:03:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Freakofnurture</username>
<id>77511</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Hip hop]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hip hop]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hip hop culture</title>
<id>13439</id>
<revision>
<id>42140703</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:15:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.179.36.24|70.179.36.24]] ([[User talk:70.179.36.24|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hip hop.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Breakdancer in [[Ljubljana]]. ]]
'''Hip hop''' is a cultural movement that began among the mostly [[African American]] and [[Latino]] communities in the [[Bronx]] borough of [[New York City]] in the early 1970s. Portions of the culture began spreading into the mainstream during the early [[1980s]], and by the [[1990s]], hip hop culture had spread all over the world. The movement is said to have began with the work of [[Kool DJ Herc|DJ Kool Herc]], while competing DJ [[Afrika Bambaataa]] is often credited with having invented the term "hip hop" to describe the culture.
The four main aspects, or "elements", of hip hop culture are [[MC]]ing ([[rapping]]), [[Disk jockey|DJing]], [[graffiti]], and [[breakdancing]]. Some consider [[beatboxing]] the fifth element of hip hop; others might add political activism, [[hip hop fashion]], [[hip hop slang]], [[double dutching]] (an urban form of [[rope skipping]],) or other elements as important facets of hip hop. In mainstream spheres, the term "hip hop" typically refers only to ''[[hip hop music]]'' (or ''rap music''), the music produced by the MCing and DJing aspects of hip hop culture.
==Influences==
[[Image:U-Roy.jpg|frame|left|[[U-Roy]]]]
:''Main article: [[Roots of hip hop]]''
The various factors that influenced hip hop culture are complex and numerous. Although the majority of influences can be traced to [[African]] culture, the multicultura |
ot practical. It is possible to simply flip the left-to-right display order to a right-to-left display order, but doing this sacrifices the ability to correctly display left-to-right scripts. With bidirectional script support, it is possible to mix scripts from different scripts on the same page, regardless of writing direction.
In particular, the [[Unicode]] standard provides foundations for complete BiDi support, with detailed rules as to how mixtures of left-to-right and right-to-left scripts are to be encoded and displayed. In Unicode encoding, all [[Character (computing)|character]]s are stored in writing order, and software works out which direction on the page or screen the script should be displayed.
See also: [[Internationalization and localization]]
==External links==
*[http://www.unicode.org/reports/tr9/ Unicode Standards Annex #9] The Bidirectional Algorithm
*[http://www.w3.org/TR/i18n-html-tech-bidi/ W3C guidelines on authoring techniques for bi-directional text] - includes examples and good explanations
*[http://fribidi.org/ GNU FriBiDi] An implementation of the Unicode bidirectional algorithm
*[http://icu.sourceforge.net/ ICU] ''International Components for Unicode'' contains an implementation of the bidirectional algorithm &mdash; along with other internationalization services
*[http://crl.nmsu.edu/~mleisher/ucdata.html UCData: "Pretty Good Bidi Algorithm Library"] A small and fast bidirectional reordering algorithm that works pretty good, but not necessarily compliant to the Unicode algorithm
*[http://bidi.info/ Bidirectional Scripts in Desktop Software] Working group for supporting BiDi in [[Free Software]]. Contains several links to readings and implementation regarding BiDi in [[computer]] systems.
*[http://mac.plonter.co.il/plonwiki/BidiWiki Another Wiki about BiDi]
[[Category:Character encoding]]
[[Category:Unicode]]
[[de:Bidirektionaler Text]]
[[es:Texto bidireccional]]
[[eo:Dudirekta teksto]]
[[fr:Texte bi-directionnel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bernoulli's inequality</title>
<id>4734</id>
<revision>
<id>40005831</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T13:00:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Monedula</username>
<id>43000</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>ru:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], '''Bernoulli's inequality''' is an [[inequality]] that approximates [[exponentiation]]s of 1 + <i>x</i>.
The inequality states that
:<math>(1 + x)^r \geq 1 + rx\!</math>
for every [[integer]] <i>r</i> &ge; 0 and every [[real number]] <i>x</i> &ge; &minus;1. If the exponent <i>r</i> is [[even number|even]], then the inequality is valid for ''all'' real numbers <i>x</i>. The strict version of the inequality reads
:<math>(1 + x)^r > 1 + rx\!</math>
for every integer <i>r</i> &ge; 2 and every real number <i>x</i> &ge; &minus;1 with <i>x</i> &ne; 0.
Bernoulli's inequality is often used as the crucial step in the [[proof (math)|proof]] of other inequalities. It can itself be proved using [[mathematical induction]].
The exponent <i>r</i> can be generalized to an arbitrary real number as follows: if <i>x</i> > &minus;1, then
:<math>(1 + x)^r \geq 1 + rx\!</math>
for <i>r</i> &le; 0 or <i>r</i> &ge; 1, and
:<math>(1 + x)^r \leq 1 + rx\!</math>
for 0 &le; <i>r</i> &le; 1.
This generalization can be proved by comparing [[derivative]]s.
Again, the strict versions of these inequalities require <i>x</i> &ne; 0 and <i>r</i> &ne; 0, 1.
== Related inequalities ==
The following inequality estimates the <i>r</i>-th power of 1 + <i>x</i> from the other side. For any real numbers <i>x</i>, <i>r</i> &gt; 0, one has
:<math>(1 + x)^r < e^{rx},\!</math>
where <i>e</i> = [[e (number)|2.718...]].
This may be proved using the inequality (1 + 1/<i>k</i>)<sup><i>k</i></sup> < <i>e</i>.
[[Category:Inequalities]]
[[de:Bernoullische Ungleichung]]
[[fr:Inégalité de Bernoulli]]
[[it:Diseguaglianza di Bernoulli]]
[[pl:Nierówność Bernoulliego]]
[[ru:Неравенство Бернулли]]
[[zh:伯努利不等式]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benjamin Franklin class submarine</title>
<id>4735</id>
<revision>
<id>42118262</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:08:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Longshot14</username>
<id>949952</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>misspelling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><table border=1 align="right" cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=300>
<tr><th colspan=2 style="color: white; background: navy;">''Benjamin Franklin'' class ballistic missile submarine</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" align="center">[[Image:Ssbn640b.gif|300px|USS Benjamin Franklin puts out to sea]]
</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=2 style="color: white; background: navy;">Class Overview</th></tr>
<tr><td>Class Type</td><td>[[Submarine#Ballistic_Missile_Submarines|Ballistic Missile Submarine]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Class Name</td><td>In honor of [[Benjamin Franklin]] </td></tr>
<tr><td>Preceded By</td><td>Chronologically:<br>[[Sturgeon class submarine|''Sturgeon''-class attack submarine]]<br>By Type:<br>[[James Madison class submarine|''James Madison''-class ballistic missile submarine]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Succeeded By</td><td>Chronologically:<br>[[USS Narwhal (SSN-671)|USS ''Narwhal'']]<br>[[USS Glenard P. Lipscomb (SSN-685)|USS ''Glenard P. Lipscomb'']]<br>[[Los Angeles class submarine|''Los Angeles''-class attack submarine]]<br>By Type<br>[[Ohio class submarine|''Ohio''-class ballistic missile submarine]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Ships of the Class:</td><td>See the list below for the ships of the ''Benjamin Franklin'' class</td></tr>
</table>
The '''''Benjamin Franklin'' class''' of submarine was an evolutionary development from the [[James Madison class submarine|''James Madison'' class]] of fleet ballistic missile submarine. Having quieter machinery and other improvements, they are considered a separate class. Together with
the [[George Washington class submarine|''George Washington'']],
the [[Ethan Allen class submarine|''Ethan Allen'']],
the [[Lafayette class submarine|''Lafayette'']], and
the [[James Madison class submarine|''James Madison'']]
classes, they comprised the "41 for Freedom."
The ''Franklin'' class submarines were built with the [[Polaris missile|Polaris A-3]], and later converted to carry the [[Poseidon missile|Poseidon C-3]]. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, select units were further modified to carry [[Trident missile|Trident-I (C-4)]] missiles.
In the early [[1980s]], to make room for the [[Ohio class submarine|''Ohio''-class ballistic missile submarines]] within the limits set by [[SALT II]], the missile tubes of
[[USS Kamehameha (SSBN-642)|''Kamehameha'']] and
[[USS James K. Polk (SSBN-645)|''James K. Polk'']]
were disabled. Those boats were redesignated special operations attack submarines and given SSN [[hull classification symbol]]s.
== Boats ==
(Boats marked with '''*''' indicate C-4 conversions.)
* (SSBN-640) [[USS Benjamin Franklin (SSBN-640)|USS ''Benjamin Franklin'']] '''*'''
* (SSBN-641) [[USS Simon Bolivar (SSBN-641)|USS ''Simon Bolivar'']] '''*'''
* (SSBN/SSN-642) [[USS Kamehameha (SSBN-642)|USS ''Kamehameha'']]
* (SSBN-643) [[USS George Bancroft (SSBN-643)|USS ''George Bancroft'']] '''*'''
* (SSBN-644) [[USS Lewis and Clark (SSBN-644)|USS ''Lewis and Clark'']]
* (SSBN/SSN-645) [[USS James K. Polk (SSBN-645)|USS ''James K. Polk'']]
* (SSBN-654) [[USS George C. Marshall (SSBN-654)|USS ''George C. Marshall'']]
* (SSBN-655) [[USS Henry L. Stimson (SSBN-655)|USS ''Henry L. Stimson'']] '''*'''
* (SSBN-656) [[USS George W. Carver (SSBN-656)|USS ''George W. Carver'']]
* (SSBN-657) [[USS Francis Scott Key (SSBN-657)|USS ''Francis Scott Key'']] '''*'''
* (SSBN-658) [[USS Mariano G. Vallejo (SSBN-658)|USS ''Mariano G. Vallejo'']] '''*'''
* (SSBN-659) [[USS Will Rogers (SSBN-659)|USS ''Will Rogers'']]
{{Benjamin Franklin class submarine}}
[[Category:Submarine classes]]
[[Category:Benjamin Franklin class submarines| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BOFH</title>
<id>4736</id>
<revision>
<id>40787687</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T00:42:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Doco</username>
<id>184778</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>svg instread of jpg</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bofhlogo.svg|right|thumb|Logo]]
The '''Bastard Operator From Hell''' ('''BOFH'''), a fictional character created by [[Simon Travaglia]], is a rogue [[system administrator]] who takes out his anger on [[luser]]s (his colleagues, bosses and anyone who gets in his way).
The BOFH stories were originally posted to [[Usenet]] by Travaglia, with some being reprinted in [[Datamation]]. They were published weekly from [[1995]] to [[1999]] in [[Network Week]] and from [[2000]] they have been published every few weeks in [[The Register]]. They were also published in PC Plus magazine for a short time, and several books of the stories have also been released.
By extension, the term is also used to refer to any [[system administrator]] who displays (or wishes |
he dogs need treatment, particularly when [[anaesthesia]] is required. Greyhounds demonstrate unusual blood chemistry, which can be misread by veterinarians not familiar with the breed; this can result in an incorrect diagnosis. Also, greyhounds have much less fat than other dogs, and therefore cannot metabolize anesthesia as quickly. Female greyhounds are sometimes administered [[hormone]] supplements during their racing career; these can lead to an elevated risk of [[cancer]]. As well, greyhounds have higher levels of [[red blood cell]]s than do other breeds: since red blood cells carry oxygen to the muscles, this helps the breed's speed. Veterinary blood services often use greyhounds as universal [[blood donor]]s.
==Miscellaneous==
===In the media===
;Simpson's Santa's Little Helper:
:The most widely recognized greyhound in popular culture is the fictional character [[Santa's Little Helper]] from the [[Fox Broadcasting Company]]'s animated series, ''[[The Simpsons]]''.
:The character Santa's Little Helper exhibits many of the intellectual and behavioural characteristics of the typical greyhound as a pet. He is portrayed as affectionate, tolerant of other household pets (notably cats), loyal, and not overly active.
;The [[Greyhound Lines]] bus company
:In keeping with their logo, which sports a racing greyhound, Greyhound occasionally airs television commercials starring a talking computer-generated greyhound. The greyhound in these commercial shorts is often noted for his dry, deadpan wit.
===Anatomy===
An additional peculiarity of greyhounds is that they have a hinged spine, which is unique in the animal world. As a result, greyhounds have a small "divot" in their back, set just behind their shoulder blades.
The racing gait of the greyhound is a double suspension gallop, in which all four feet are off the ground twice during each full stride.
===Sports===
*The Greyhound is the mascot of the [[Assumption College]] sports teams.
*The [[Ontario Hockey League|OHL]] hockey team in [[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario]], [[Canada]] is called the [[Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds|Greyhounds]].
*There is an indoor football team based in West Virginia called the Ohio Valley Greyhounds.
===Other===
*Greyhound was the name of several [[roller coaster]]s in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]]. None of these rides operate today.
==See also==
*[[Lure coursing]]
*[[Coursing]]
*[[Greyhound racing]]
*[[Greyhound adoption]]
*Similar breeds:
**[[Italian Greyhound]]
**[[Whippet]]
**[[Galgo Español]] (Spanish Greyhound)
**[[Lurcher]] (Not a breed, but a type of dog with Greyhound ancestry)
==References==
*{{fnb|1}} Mark Derr (May 21, 2004). "Collie or Pug? Study Finds the Genetic Code". ''[[The New York Times]]''. [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/21/science/21dog.html]
*{{fnb|2}} Parker ''et al'' (May 21, 2004). "Genetic Structure of the Purebred Domestic Dog". ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' volume 304, pp. 1160-1164.
*{{fnb|3}} From [http://www.gra-america.org/mediakit.html Greyhound Racing Accociation] ''Please Note: this figure does not include information about unregistered litters, nor outcomes for dogs after they finished as breeding dogs. All figures are disputed by some adoption groups.''
[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Greyhound racing]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[de:Greyhound]]
[[eo:Angla leporhundo]]
[[fr:Lévrier greyhound]]
[[he:&#1490;&#1512;&#1497;&#1497;&#1492;&#1488;&#1493;&#1504;&#1491;]]
[[no:Greyhound]]
[[pl:Greyhound]]
[[simple:Greyhound]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geometric algebra</title>
<id>12939</id>
<revision>
<id>38621191</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T15:15:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm peacock terms</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Geometric algebra''' is a [[Clifford algebra]] with a geometric interpretation. This makes it useful in a range of physics problems, particularly those that involve rotations, phases or imaginary numbers. Proponents of geometric algebra say that it describes classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, electromagnetic theory and relativity more compactly and intuitively than standard methods do. Special modern applications of geometric algebra are computer vision, biomechanics and robotics, and spaceflight dynamics.
In [[mathematics]], a '''geometric algebra''' <math>\mathcal{G}_n(\mathcal{V}_n)</math> is an [[algebra]] constructed over a [[vector space]] <math>\mathcal V_n</math> in which a '''geometric product''' is defined. For all [[multivector]]s (the elements of the algebra) <math>\mathbf{A}, \mathbf{B}, \mathbf{C}</math>, the geometric product has the following properties:
# [[closure (mathematics)|Closure]]
# [[Distributivity]] over the addition of multivectors:
#* <math>\mathbf{A}(\mathbf{B} + \mathbf{C}) = \mathbf{A}\mathbf{B} + \mathbf{A}\mathbf{C}</math>
#* <math>(\mathbf{A} + \mathbf{B})\mathbf{C} = \mathbf{A}\mathbf{C} + \mathbf{B}\mathbf{C}</math>
# [[Associativity]]
# Unit (scalar) element:
#* <math> 1 \, \mathbf A = \mathbf A </math>
# [[Tensor contraction]]: for any "vector" (a grade-one element) <math>\mathbf{a}, \mathbf{a}^2</math> is a [[scalar]] ([[real number]])
# [[Commutativity]] of the product by an scalar:
#* <math> \lambda \mathbf A = \mathbf A \lambda </math>
Note that the first two properties are needed to be an [[algebra]]. Next two make it an [[associative]], [[unital]] algebra.
The distinctive point of this formulation is the natural correspondence between geometric entities and the elements of the [[associative algebra]]. This comes from the fact that the '''geometric product''' is defined in terms of the [[dot product]] and the [[wedge product]] of vectors as
:<math> \mathbf a \, \mathbf b = \mathbf a \cdot \mathbf b + \mathbf a \wedge \mathbf b </math>
The original [[vector space]] <math>\mathcal V</math> is constructed over the [[real number]]s as scalars. From now on, a ''vector'' is something in <math>\mathcal V</math> itself. Vectors will be represented by boldface, small case letters.
:The definition and the associativity of geometric product entails the concept of the inverse of a vector (or division by vector). Thus, one can easily set and solve vector algebra equations that otherwise would be cumbersome to handle. In addition, one gains a geometric meaning that would be difficult to retrieve, for instance, by using matrices. Although not all the elements of the algebra are invertible, the inversion concept can be extended to multivectors. Geometric algebra allows one to deal with subspaces directly, and manipulate them too. Furthermore, geometric algebra is a coordinate-free formalism.
:Geometric objects like <math> \mathbf a \wedge \mathbf b </math> are called ''bivectors''. A bivector can be pictured as a plane segment (a parallelogram, a circle etc.) endowed with orientation. One bivector represents all planar segments with the same magnitude ''and'' direction, no matter where they are in the space that contains them. However, once either the vector <math> \mathbf a </math> or <math> \mathbf b </math> is meant to depart from some preferred point (e.g. in problems of Physics), the oriented plane <math> B=\mathbf a \wedge \mathbf b </math> is determined unambiguously.
:As a meaningful, though simple, example one can consider a fixed non-zero vector <math> \mathbf v </math>, from a point chosen as the origin, in the usual Euclidean space R<sup>3</sup>. The set of all vectors <math> \mathbf x \wedge \mathbf v = B </math> , <math> B </math> denoting a given bivector containing <math> \mathbf v </math>, determines a line <math> l </math> parallel to <math> \mathbf v </math>. Since <math> B </math> is a ''directed'' area, <math> l </math> is uniquely determined with respect to the chosen origin. The set of all vectors <math> \mathbf x \cdot \mathbf v = s </math>, <math> s </math> denoting a given (real) scalar, determines a plane P orthogonal to <math> \mathbf v </math>. Again, P is uniquely determined with respect to the chosen origin. The two information pieces, <math> B </math> and <math> s </math>, can be set independently of one another. Now, what is (if any) the vector <math> \mathbf y </math> that satisfies the system {<math> \mathbf y \wedge \mathbf v = B </math> , <math> \mathbf y \cdot \mathbf v = s </math>} ? Geometrically, the answer is plain: it is the vector that departs from the origin and arrives at the intersection of <math> l </math> and P. By geometric algebra, even the algebraic answer is simple: <math> \mathbf y \mathbf v = s + B => \mathbf y = (s + B)/ \mathbf v = (s + B) \mathbf v </math><sup>-1</sup>, where the inverse of a non-zero vector is expressed by <math> \mathbf z </math><sup>-1</sup> <math> = \mathbf z /(\mathbf z \cdot \mathbf z ) </math>. Note that the division by a vector transforms the multivector <math> s + B </math> into the sum of two vectors. Note also that the structure of the solution does not depend on the chosen origin.
The [[outer product]] (the [[Exterior algebra|exterior product]], or the [[wedge product]]) <math>\wedge</math> is defined such that the [[graded algebra]] ([[exterior algebra]] of [[Hermann Grassmann]]) <math>\wedge^n\mathcal{V}_n</math> of multi |
the time of Vanunu's arrest, ''[[The Times]]'' reported that Israel had material for approximately 20 hydrogen bombs and 200 fission bombs. In [[2000]] Israel put into service 3 advanced [[Dolphin class submarine]]s built in [[Germany]], capable of launching nuclear-armed [[cruise missile]]s [http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/missile/popeye-t.htm].
In the Spring of [[2004]], Vanunu was released from prison, but denied a passport. He was re-arrested in [[November 2004]] and released within days.
Dimona's reactor was defended by batteries of [[Patriot missile]]s in anticipation of strikes from Iraq in [[2002]] to [[2003]].
Recently safety concerns about this 40-year-old reactor have been reported. In 2004 as a preventive measure Israeli authorities distributed [[iodine]] anti-radiation tablets to thousands of residents living nearby.
[http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200408/s1171510.htm]
==Sister cities==
*[[Andernach]], [[Germany]], since [[1975]]: first Israeli-German [[sister cities]]
==See also==
*[[Nuclear proliferation]]
==References==
* Avner Cohen, ''Israel and the Bomb'', University Press of Columbia (1999), ISBN 0231104839
* [[Seymour M. Hersh]], ''The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy'', Random House (1991), hardcover, 354 pages, ISBN 0394570065
==External links==
* [http://www.iaec.gov.il/pages_e/english.asp Israel Atomic Energy Commission (IAEC)]
*[http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/israel.htm Weapons of Mass Destruction in the Middle East]
* [http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/nuke/ FAS's page about the Israeli nuclear program]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/israel/nuke.htm History of Israeli Nuclear Program]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/israel/index.html Israel Special Weapons Guide]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/israel/doctrine.htm Independent Thinktank Analysis of Israeli Nuclear Doctrine]
[[Category:Cities in Israel]]
[[Category:Israeli nuclear development]]
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<title>DC Comics</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dc2005.JPG|right|150px|The current DC Comics logo, adopted in May 2005.]]
'''DC Comics''' is one of the largest [[United States|American]] companies in [[comic book]] and related media publishing. Today a subsidiary of [[Time Warner]], DC is responsible for such famous characters as [[Superman]], [[Batman]], [[Wonder Woman]], and their teammates in the [[Justice League]]. For decades, DC Comics has been one of the two largest American comic book companies (the other being [[Marvel Comics]]). The initials "DC" are an abbreviation for ''[[Detective Comics]]'', after one of the company's flagship titles.
Located in New York City for many years at 575 Lexington Avenue, DC Comics moved to 75 Rockefeller Plaza (which is still Time Warner corporate headquarters) and then to 666 Fifth Avenue. Relocating at 1325 Avenue of the Americas in 1992, DC took over several floors when it moved to 1700 Broadway in the mid-1990s, and ''[[MAD Magazine|Mad]]'' abandoned its 485 Madison Avenue address at that time, relocating under the DC umbrella at 1700 Broadway.
==History==
The corporation was originally three companies: '''National Allied Publications''' (founded by Major [[Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson]] in 1934 to publish the first [[American comic book]] with solely original material rather than [[comic strip]] reprints); '''Detective Comics''' (founded in 1937 by Nicholson, [[Harry Donenfeld]] and [[Jack S. Liebowitz]]); and '''[[All-American Publications]]'''. The first two companies merged in the 1930s to become [[National Publications|National Comics]] (later '''National Periodical Publications''') and the third shared offices until it was bought by the merged company in 1945. At this time "DC" was simply an informal logo regularly used on the cover; the name National Periodical Publications remained the company's official name into the 1970s.
===The Golden Age===
[[Image:Action1.JPG|thumb|left|175px|Cover of ''Action Comics #1'', which featured the debut of Superman, the first superhero.]]
Wheeler-Nicholson's company pioneered the American comic book, publishing the first such periodical consisting solely of original material rather than reprints of [[newspaper]] [[comic strips]], starting with ''[[New Fun Comics|Fun: The Big Comic Magazine]]'' #1 (Feb. 1935), called ''New Fun'' after the first issue. The evolving DC was also the first to feature [[Superhero|superheroes]], beginning with ''[[Action Comics]]'' #1 in 1938. During this period enthusiasts call the [[Golden Age of comic books]], the company introduced such popular characters as [[Superman]], [[Batman]], and [[Wonder Woman]], and the first superhero team, the [[Justice Society of America]].
When the superhero genre faded in the late 1940s, the company focused on other genres, such as [[science fiction]], [[Western movie|Westerns]], [[humor]] and [[romantic fiction|romance]]. They largely avoided the [[Crime fiction|crime]] and [[Horror fiction|horror]] trends of the time, thus avoiding the backlash against crime and horror comics in the 1950s. A handful of the most popular superhero titles (most notably ''[[Action Comics]]'' and ''[[Detective Comics]]'', the medium's two longest-running titles) continued publication.
===The Silver Age===
In the mid-fifties, there came a renewed interest to explore superhero properties. Instead of creating new characters, editor [[Julius Schwartz]] decided to recreate popular older characters starting with the [[Flash (comics)|Flash]]. This heralded the beginning of what is commonly referred to as the [[Silver Age of comic books]]. The Flash's civilian identity, costume, and origin were all changed for a modern audience. The new treatment proved popular enough that it soon led to similar revamping of [[Green Lantern]], and the introduction of a new series featuring a team-up of the company's popular characters, ''[[Justice League|Justice League of America]]'' — a modern-day Justice Society. <!--This sentence is unclear in context. What is it trying to say? That Superman was not revamped? Or that he was?: On the other hand, [[Mort Weisinger]] oversaw the ''Superman'' family of titles that established many of the elements of Superman's supporting characters and villains that still influence the character to this day.-->
In 1967, [[Carmine Infantino]] became the company's [[art director]]. Faced with declining sales, in part because of the growing popularity of [[Marvel Comics]], he attempted to remedy the situation with an infusion of new titles and characters, and recruited major talents such as [[Steve Ditko]] and promising newcomers such as [[Neal Adams]].
[[Image:Green_lantern_76.JPG|right|thumb|175px|''Green Lantern #76'' (April 1970), the first issue of an acclaimed run that delved into [[social commentary]] in the genre. Art by [[Neal Adams]].]]
In the late 1960s, many veteran creators petitioned DC management for health plans, pensions, and similar considerations. DC responded by firing most of the offending staff and replacing them with young people who had largely grown up with the Marvel influence in comics. Yet while the new employees strove for sophisticated storytelling and characters, they had little experience in the industry, and their work's relative lack of professionalism hampered their efforts. Some new talent, however, such as [[Dennis O'Neil]], who worked on ''[[Green Lantern]]'' and ''[[Batman]]'', became industry lights. <!--What is the following sentence saying? That series folded because the creators left? Judging from interviews with Silver Age creators, they say the opposite was true -- series they loved working different sell, so they abandoned them: Nevertheless, the period was plagued by short-lived series that started out strong, but petered out when the creators, not having strong financial reasons to stay, left their creations.-->
[[Image:New_Gods_1971_1.jpg|thumb|175px|left|''New Gods'', flagship title of Jack Kirby's "Fourth World" mythos.]]
In addition, [[Jack Kirby]] defected from Marvel to create his most artistically ambitious creation, [[Jack Kirby's Fourth World|The Fourth World]] titles, in which Kirby attempted to create an original sophisticated sub imprint that could appeal to a loyal fan audience. However, conflicts with management who had little faith in the concept led to the venture's premature cancellation, although the characters and concepts would become integral to the [[Multiverse (DC Comics)|DC Multiverse]].
===Late 1970s and 1980s===
The company was acquired by [[Warner Communications]] (now [[Time Warner]]) in 1976. During this time, DC attempted to compete with Marvel by dramatically increasing its output, a move the company called the "DC Explosion". This included series featuring new characters, such as ''[[Firestorm (comics)|Firestorm]]'' and ''[[Shade, the Changing Man]]'', and several non-superhero titles. This proved unsuccessful in the short term, with many of these series being abruptly cancelled in what industry watchers dubbed "the [[Cancelled Comics Cavalcade|DC Implosion]]".
[[Image:Teentitans2.JPG|160px|thumb|''The New Teen Titans'', the series credited in beginning the revitalization of DC Comics.]]
In the early 1980s, the new management of publisher [[Jenette Kahn]], vice-president [[Paul Levitz]], an |
tm#Crass Crass lyrics and essays]
*[http://www.tartareandesire.com/bands/crass.html Tarten Desire Website - Crass]
*[http://www.punk77.co.uk/groups/crass.htm A critical view of Crass from the 'Punk 77' website]
*[http://www.uncarved.org/music/apunk/crass.html Interview from 'Mucilage' fanzine]
*[http://www.uncarved.org/music/apunk/christ.html A Christian perspective on Crass]
*[http://www.uncarved.org/music/apunk/guardian050101.html 'Dial House under threat'] from UK [[Guardian]] newspaper.
*[http://xray.bmc.uu.se/gerard/dotheyoweus.wav Sample of track "Do They Owe Us A Living?"]
*[http://www.peace-not-war.org/Music/Crass/index.html "The Unelected President"]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cave Tetra</title>
<id>7793</id>
<revision>
<id>15905841</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-17T23:20:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tkinias</username>
<id>9855</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mexican tetra]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Crystallography</title>
<id>7794</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:19:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Walkerma</username>
<id>131355</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Materials science */ +link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Crystallography''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''crystallon'' = cold drop / frozen drop, with its meaning extending to all solids with some degree of transparency, and ''graphein'' = write) is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of [[atom]]s in [[solid]]s. In older usage, it is the scientific study of [[crystal]]s.
Before the development of X-ray diffraction crystallography (see below), the study of crystals was based on the geometry of the crystals. This involves measuring the angles of crystal faces relative to theoretical reference axes ([[crystallographic axes]]), and establishing the [[symmetry]] of the crystal in question. The former is carried out using a [[goniometer]]. The position in 3D space of each crystal face is plotted on a stereographic net, e.g. [[Wolff net]] or [[Lambert net]]. In fact, the [[pole]] to each face is plotted on the net. Each point is labelled with its [[Miller Index]]. The final plot allows the symmetry of the crystal to be established.
Crystallographic methods now rely on the analysis of the [[diffraction]] patterns that emerge from a sample that is targeted by a beam of some type. The beam is not always [[electromagnetic radiation]], even though [[X-ray]]s are the most common choice. For some purposes [[electron]]s or [[neutron]]s are used, which is possible due to the wave properties of the particles. Crystallographers often explicitly state the type of illumination used when referring to a method, as with the terms '''[[X-ray diffraction]],''' '''[[neutron diffraction]]''' and '''[[electron diffraction]].'''
These three types of radiation interact with the specimen in different ways. [[X-ray]]s interact with the spatial distribution of the [[valence electrons]], while [[electron]]s are [[charged particle]]s and therefore feel the total charge distrubution of both the [[atomic nuclei]] and the surrounding electrons. [[Neutron]]s are scattered by the atomic nuclei through the [[strong nuclear force]]s, but in addition, the [[magnetic moment]] of neutrons is non-zero. They are therefore also scattered by [[magnetic field]]s. Because of these different forms of interaction, the three types of radiation are suitable for different crystallographic studies.
== Theory ==
In many cases, an image of a microscopic object is generated by focusing the rays of the [[optical spectrum|visible spectrum ]] using a [[Lens (optics)|lens]] as in light [[microscope|microscopy]]. However, because the wavelength of visible light is long compared to [[chemical bond|atomic bond]] lengths and [[atom]]s themselves, it is necessary to use radiation with shorter wavelengths, such as X-rays. Employing shorter wavelengths implies abandoning microscopy and true imaging, however, because there exists no material from which a lens capable of focusing this type of radiation can be created. (That said, scientists have had some success focusing X-rays with microscopic [[Fresnel zone plate]]s made from gold). Generally, in diffraction-based imaging, the only wavelengths used are those that are too short to be focused. This difficulty is the reason that crystals must be used.
Because of their highly ordered and repetitive structure, crystals are an ideal material for analyzing the structure of solids. To use X-ray diffraction as an example, a single X-ray photon diffracting off of one electron cloud will not generate a strong enough signal for the equipment to detect. However, many X-rays diffracting off many electron clouds in approximately the same relative position and orientation throughout the crystal will result in constructive [[interference]] and hence a detectable signal.
== Notation ==
See [[Miller index]] for a full treatment of this topic.
* Coordinates in ''square [[bracket]]s'' such as '''<nowiki>[100]</nowiki>''' denote a direction (in real space).
* Coordinates in ''angle brackets'' or ''chevrons'' such as '''<100>''' denote a ''family'' of directions which are equivalent due to symmetry operations. If it refers to a cubic system, this example could mean <nowiki>[100], [010], [001]</nowiki> or the negative of any of those directions.
* Coordinates in ''parentheses'' such as '''(100)''' denote a plane, in a cubic system the [[normal]] to the (hkl) plane is the direction [hkl].
* Coordinates in ''curly brackets'' or ''braces'' such as '''<nowiki>{100}</nowiki>''' denote a family of plane normals which are equivalent due to symmetry operations, much the way angle brackets denote a family of directions.
== Technique ==
Some materials studied using crystallography, DNA for example, do not occur naturally as crystals. Typically, such molecules are placed in solution and allowed to crystallize over days, weeks, or months through vapor [[diffusion]]. A drop of solution containing the molecule, buffer, and precipitants is sealed in a container with a reservoir containing a [[hygroscopic]] solution. Water in the drop diffuses to the reservoir, slowly increasing the concentration and allowing a crystal to form. If the concentration were to rise more quickly, the molecule would simply [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitate]] out of solution, resulting in disorderly granules rather than an orderly and hence usable crystal.
Once a crystal is obtained, data can be collected using a beam of radiation. Although many universities that engage in crystallographic research have their own X-ray producing equipment, [[Synchrotron light|Synchrotron]]s are often used as X-ray sources, because of the purer and more complete patterns such sources can generate. Synchrotron sources also have a much higher intensity of x-ray beams, so data collection takes a fraction of the time normally necessary at weaker sources.
Producing an image from a diffraction pattern requires sophisticated [[mathematics]] and often an iterative process of '''modelling and refinement.''' In this process, the mathematically predicted diffraction patterns of an hypothesized or "model" structure are compared to the actual pattern generated by the crystalline sample. Ideally, researchers make several initial guesses, which through refinement all converge on the same answer. Models are refined until their predicted patterns match to as great a degree as can be achieved without radical revision of the model. This is a painstaking process, made much easier today by computers.
The mathematical methods for the analysis of diffraction data only apply to ''patterns,'' which in turn result only when waves diffract from orderly arrays. Hence crystallography applies for the most part only to crystals, or to molecules which can be coaxed to crystalize for the sake of measurement. In spite of this, a certain amount of molecular information can be deduced from the patterns that are generated by fibers and powders, which while not as perfect as a solid crystal, may exhibit a degree of order. This level of order can be sufficient to deduce the structure of simple molecules, or to determine the coarse features of more complicated molecules (the double-helical structure of [[DNA]], for example, was deduced from an X-ray diffraction pattern that had been generated by a fibrous sample).
== Materials science ==
Crystallography is a tool that is often employed by materials scientists. In single crystals, the effects of the crystalline arrangement of atoms is often easy to see macroscopically, because the natural shapes of crystals reflect the atomic structure. In addition, physical properties are often controlled by crystalline defects. The understanding of crystal structures is an important prerequisite for understanding [[crystallographic defect]]s.
A number of other physical properties are linked to crystallography. For example, the minerals in [[clay]] form small, flat, platelike structures. Clay can be easily deformed because the platelike particles can slip along each other in the plane of the plates, yet remain strongly connected in the direction perpendicular to the plates.
In another example, [[iron]] transforms from a [[body-cent |
gling; a post that gave him near total authority for a period of approximately six months.'' “Abandoning”'' says Polybius ''“the system of government by magistrates elected annually, they [the Romans] decide to deal with the present situation more radically, thinking that the state of affairs and the impending peril demand the appointment of a single general with full powers”'' {{ref|Cottrell}}. The man they appointed as sole commander, or “dictator”, was a man named Quintus [[Fabius Maximus]], intelligent and prudent general coined as the ''"Cunctator"'' (akin to the [[English language|English]] [[noun]] ''cunctation''), or the ''"Delayer"'' in [[Latin]]
Departing from Roman military traditions, Fabius adopted the [[Fabian strategy]] of refusing open battle with his opponent while placing several Roman armies in Hannibal’s vicinity limit his movement. While seeking to avoid battle, Fabius instead, sent out small detachments against Hannibal’s foraging parties, and always maneuvered the Roman army in hilly terrain, so as to nullify Hannibal’s decisive superiority in cavalry. Residents of small northern villages were encouraged to post lookouts, so that they could gather their livestock and possessions and take refuge into fortified towns. This, Fabius knew, would wear down the invaders’ endurance and discourage Rome’s allies from going over to the enemy, without having to challenge the Carthaginians to battle.
[[image:Hannibal.gif|thumb|200px|left|Hannibal - Silver double shekel, c. 230 BC, The British Museum]]
Having ravaged Apulia without provoking Fabius to battle, Hannibal decided to march through [[Samnium]] to [[Campania]], one of the richest and most fertile provinces of Italy, hoping that the devastation would draw Fabius into battle. Livy tells us that ''“He [Hannibal] began to provoke and try his temper, by frequently shifting his camp and laying waste the territory of the allies before his eyes; and one while he withdrew out of quick sight and halted suddenly, and concealed himself in some winding of the road, if possible, to entrap [ambush] him on his descending into the plain”'' {{ref|Contrell}}. The dictator closely followed Hannibal’s path of destruction, yet still refused to let himself be drawn into battle, and thus remained on the defensive. While Fabius refrained himself from being drawn into battle, his troops became increasingly irritated by his ''“cowardly and unenterprising spirit”'' {{ref|Hart}}. His inactive policies, while tolerable among wiser minds in the Roman Senate, were deemed unpopular, because the Romans had been long accustomed to facing their enemies in the field. Fabius’s strategy was especially frustrating to the mass of the people, who were eager to see a quick conclusion to the war. Moreover, it was widely believed, that if Hannibal continued plundering Italy unopposed, the terrified allies, believing that Rome was incapable of protecting them, might defect and pledge their allegiance to the Carthaginians.
As the year wore on Hannibal decided that it would be unwise to winter in the already devastated lowlands of Campania but Fabius had ensured that all the passes out of Campania were blocked. Fortunately, the Carthaginian general hit upon a highly imaginative deception scheme. At night, he gathered together all the cattle, and after tying burning torches to their horns, he drove them along a ridge near the pass. To the Romans guarding the pass, this gave the impression that the Carthaginians, aided by torches, were attempting to escape through the woods, and thus left the defile to attack them. After the Romans had chased off after the cattle, Hannibal promptly occupied the passed, and his army made their way through the pass unopposed. Fabius was within striking distance but in this case his caution worked against him. Smelling a stratagem (rightly) he stayed put. For the winter, Hannibal found comfortable quarters in the Apulian plain. What Hannibal achieved in extricating his army was, as [[Adrian Goldsworthy]] puts it, ''"a classic of ancient generalship, finding its way into nearly every historical narrative of the war and being used by later military manuals"''. This was severe blow to Fabius’s prestige, and soon after this, his period of power ended. The rest of autumn season continued that year albeit with frequent skirmishes— and after six months of exercising dictatorial power, Fabius would be removed from his position, in accordance with the Roman law.
===Battle of Cannae===
{{Main|Battle of Cannae}}
In the campaign of [[217 BC]] Hannibal had failed to obtain a following among the Italians; in the following year he had an opportunity to turn the tide in his favor. In the Spring of 216 B.C. Hannibal took the initiative and seized the large supply depot at Cannae in the Apulian plain. Thus, by seizing Cannae, Hannibal had placed himself between the Romans and their crucial source of supply. As Polybius notes the capture of Cannae ''“caused great commotion in the Roman army; for it was not only the loss of the place and the stores in it that distressed them, but the fact that it commanded the surrounding district”''. Once the Roman Senate resumed their Consular elections in 216, they appointed [[Caius Terentius Varro]] and [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus]] as Consuls. In the meantime, the Romans, hoping to gain success through sheer strength in numbers, raised a new army of unprecedented size. ''“They decided”'', [[Polybius]] writes, ''“to bring eight legions into the field, a thing which had never been done before by the Romans, each legion consisting of about five thousand men...Most of their wars are decided by one Consul and two legions, with their quota of allies; and they rarely employ all four at one time and on one service. But on this occasion, so great was the alarm and terror of what would happen, they resolved to bring not only four but eight legions into the field''<sup>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/polybius-cannae.html]<sup>. As each legion was accompanied by an equal number of allied troops, both infantry and cavalry, the total strength of the army which faced Hannibal could not have been much less than 90,000 {{ref||Cottrell}}. Some estimates have the Roman forces as large as 100,000 men, though this figure cannot be completely validated.
[[Image:Battle cannae destruction.gif|right|thumb|330px|Destruction of the Roman army, courtesy of The Department of History, United States Military Academy.]]
The Roman and Allied legions of the Consuls [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus (General)|Aemilius]] and [[Gaius Terentius Varro|Varro]], resolving to confront Hannibal, marched southward to [[Apulia]]. After a two days’ march, they found him on the left bank of the Audifus River, and encamped six miles away. Ordinarily, each of the two Consuls would command their own portion of the army, but since the two armies were combined into one, the Consuls had to alternate their command on a daily basis. The Consul Varro, who was in command on the first day, was a man of reckless and hubris nature, and was determined to defeat Hannibal. Hannibal capitalized on the eagerness of Varro and drew him into a trap by using an envelopment tactic which eliminated the Roman numerical advantage by shrinking the surface area where combat could occur. Hannibal drew up his least reliable infantry in a semicircle in the center with the wings composed of the Gallic and Numidian horse. The Roman legions forced their way through Hannibal's weak center but the Libyan Mercenaries in the wings swung around by the movement, menaced their flanks. The onslaught of Hannibal's cavalry was irresistible, and Hasdrubal, his brother, who commanded the left, pushed in the Roman right and then swept across the rear and attacked Varro's cavalry on the Roman left. Then he attacked the legions from behind. As a result, the Roman army was hemmed in with no means of escape. Due to these brilliant tactics, Hannibal, with much inferior numbers, managed to surround and destroy all but a small remainder of this force. Depending upon the source, it is estimated that 50,000-70,000 Romans were killed or captured at Cannae. Among the dead were the Roman consul [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus]], as well two consuls for the preceding year, two [[quaestor]]s, twenty-nine out of the forty-eight [[military tribune]]s, and an additional eighty senators (at a time when the Roman Senate was comprised of no more than 300 men, this constituted 25%&mdash;30% of the governing body). This makes the [[Battle of Cannae]] one of the most catastrophic defeats in the history of [[Ancient Rome]], and one of the bloodiest battles in all of human history (in terms of the number of lives lost within a single day).
The moral effect of this victory was such that most of southern Italy joined his cause. As Polybius notes, ''“How much more serious was the defeat of Cannae, than those which preceded it can be seen by the behavior of Rome’s allies; before that fateful day, their loyalty remained unshaken, now it began to waver for the simple reason that they despaired of Roman Power.”'' {{ref|Sealy}}. During that same year, the Greek cities in Sicily were induced to revolt against Roman political control, while the Macedonian king, [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip V]] had pledged his support to Hannibal —thus initiating the [[First Macedonian War]] against Rome. Hannibal also secured an alliance with newly appointed King [[Hieronymous]] of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]]. Had Hannibal now received proper material reinforcements from his countrymen at Carthage he might have made a direct attack upon Rome; for the present he had to content himself with subduing the fortresses which still held out against him, and the only other notable event of [[216 BC]] was the defection of [[Capua]], the second largest city of Italy, which Hannibal made his new base. Yet even this defection failed to satisfy him |
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After [[Gabo Reform]] in 1894, [[Joseon Dynasty]] and later [[Korean Empire]] started to write all official documents in Hangul. Under the government's management, proper usage of Hangul, including orthography, was discussed, until Korea was [[Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty|annexed]] by Japan in 1910.
The Japanese [[Government-General of Chosen]] established the writing style of a mixture of Hanja and Hangul, as in the Japanese writing system. The government revised the spelling rules in 1912, 1921 and 1930, which were relatively phonemic.
The [[Hangul Society]], originally founded by [[Ju Si-gyeong]], announced a proposal for a new, strongly morphophonemic orthography in 1933, which became the prototype of the contemporary orthographies in both North and South Korea. After Korea was divided, the North and South revised orthographies separately. The guiding text for Hangul orthography is the called the ''[[Hangeul machumbeop]],'' whose last South Korean revision was published in 1988 by the Ministry of Education.
===Mixed scripts===
During the Japanese colonial era, ''hanja'' were used for lexical (noun and verb) roots, and Hangul for grammatical words and inflections, much as ''kanji'' and ''kana'' are used in Japanese. However, ''hanja'' have been almost entirely phased out of daily use in North Korea, and in South Korea they are now mostly restricted to parenthetical glosses for proper names and for disambiguating homonyms.
Arabic numerals can also be mixed in with hangul, as in 2005년 7월 5일 ([[5 July]], [[2005]]).
The Latin alphabet, and occasionally other alphabets, may be sprinkled within Korean texts for illustrative purposes, or for unassimilated loanwords.
==Style==
Hangul may be written either vertically or horizontally. The traditional direction is the Chinese style of writing top to bottom, right to left. Horizontal writing in the style of the Roman alphabet was promoted by [[Ju Si-gyeong]], and has become overwhelmingly preferred.
In ''[[Hunmin Jeongeum (document)|Hunmin Jeong-eum]]'', Hangul was printed in sans-serif angular lines of even thickness. This style is found in books published before about 1900, and can be found today in stone carvings (on statues, for example).
Over the centuries, an ink-brush style of [[calligraphy]] developed, employing the same style of lines and angles as Chinese calligraphy. This brush style is called ''[[myeongjo]]'' after the Chinese [[Ming Dynasty]] (Chinese ''[[Ming Dynasty|míngcháo]]'', Japanese ''[[minchō]]''), and is used today in books, newspapers, and magazines, and several computer [[typeface|fonts]] (e.&nbsp;g. [[Batang|바탕]]).
A [[sans-serif]] style with lines of equal width has re-emerged with pencil and pen writing, and is often the default typeface of Web browsers. A minor advantage of this style is that it makes it easier to distinguish ''-eung'' from ''-ung'' even in small or untidy print, as the ''jongseong ieung'' (ᆼ) of such fonts (e.&nbsp;g. [[Gulim|굴림]], [[Dotum|돋움]]) usually lacks a [[serif]] that could be mistaken for the ㅜ ''(u) jamo''<nowiki></nowiki>'s short vertical line.
==See also==
* [[Korean language]]
* [[Korean language and computers ]]
* [[List of modern Hangul syllabic blocks]]
* [[alphabet]]
* [[grapheme|character]]
* [[writing system]]
* [[Korean romanization]]
* [[Romaja]]
* [[Languages of China]]
* [[List of Korea-related topics]]
* [[Seong Sam-Mun]]
==External links==
* [http://www.korea.net/korea/kor_loca.asp?code=A020302 The Korean Ministry of Culture and Tourism's article on Hangul]
* [http://www.langintro.com/kintro/toc.htm Hangul lessons]
* [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hangul_syllables List of syllables and Romanization]: [[Wikisource]]
* [http://www.triangletkd.org/students/facts/hangul.html Browser and Hangul]
* [http://english.president.go.kr/warp/en/korea/language/what/ Description of Hangul]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/korean.htm Korean alphabet and pronunciation]
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1100.pdf Jamo in Unicode] (177 KByte [[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UAC00.pdf Hangul syllables] (7 MByte PDF)
* [http://www.korean.go.kr/eng_hangeul/ “Want to know about ''hangeul''?”] – The National Academy of the Korean Language
* <!-- The following seems to be the only commercial link in the list. -->[http://www.declan-software.com/korean/#ReadWriteKorean ReadWrite Korean – Hangul Learning Software]
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<title>Holy book</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Religious text]]</text>
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<title>H.R. Morgenstern</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[William Goldman]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Henry Moseley</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Henry_Moseley.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Henry Moseley]]
'''Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley''' ([[November 23]], [[1887]]-[[August 10]], [[1915]]) was an [[England|English]] [[physics|physicist]]. His main contribution to science, the justification of the concept of [[atomic number]], advanced [[chemistry]].
==Biography==
Moseley was born in [[Weymouth]], England, 1887. In [[1906]] he entered [[Trinity College, Oxford|Trinity College]] of the [[University of Oxford]], and on graduation from that institution went to [[University of Manchester|Manchester University]] to work with [[Ernest Rutherford]]. For his first year at Manchester, he had a full teaching load, but after a year he was relieved of his teaching duties and began full-time research.
In [[1913]], by using [[x-ray]] [[electromagnetic spectrum|spectra]] obtained by [[diffraction]] in [[crystal]]s, he found a systematic relation between [[wavelength]] and [[atomic number]], [[Moseley's law]]. Previous to this, atomic numbers had been thought of as an arbitrary number, based on sequence of [[atomic weight]]s, but altered when necessary (for example, by [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]) to put an [[chemical element|element]] in the appropriate place in the [[periodic table]]. Moseley's discovery showed that atomic numbers were not arbitrary but had an experimentally measurable basis. In addition, Moseley showed that there were gaps in the sequence at numbers 43, 61 and 75 (now known to be radioactive, non-naturally-occurring, [[technetium]] and [[promethium]], and the last discovered naturally-occurring element [[rhenium]], respectively). Mendeleev had previously predicted [[technetium]], and [[Bohuslav Brauner]] had previously predicted promethium; Moseley confirmed their predictions, predicted one additional undiscovered element, and showed there were no other gaps in the periodic table between aluminum and gold.
In [[1914]] he resigned at Manchester to return to Oxford to pursue his research, but when World War I broke out, he turned down a job offer and enlisted in the [[Royal Engineers]]. He fought at [[Battle of Gallipoli|Gallipoli]], where he was killed in action by a sniper in 1915. Many have since speculated that he could have won the Nobel Prize, but was unable to because it is only awarded to the living.
Only twenty-seven years old at death, Moseley could in many scientists' opinions have contributed much to the knowledge of atomic structure had he lived. It is speculated that because of Moseley's death in the War that the British government no longer allowed their scientists to enlist in combat.
==Further reading==
*[[John L. Heilbron]], ''H.G. J. Moseley; the life and letters of an English physicist, 1887-1915'', University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, 1974.
==See also==
* [[Moseley's law]]
==External links==
* [http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Moseley-article.html Moseley's original articles]
* [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Moseley,+Henry Annotated bibliography for Henry Moseley from the Alsos Digital Library]
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<title>Game of Life (Hasbro)</title>
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built a villa in Baracoa, which became the first capital of the island and also in 1518 [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07153b.htm] was technically the seat of the ([[Diocese]]) of the first bishops of Cuba.
At that time Cuba was populated by at least two distinct indigenous peoples: [[Taíno]] and [[Ciboney]] (or Siboney). Both groups were [[prehistoric]] [[neolithic]], perhaps [[copper age]], cultures. Some scholars consider it important to distinguish the Taíno from the [[neo-Taíno nations]] of Cuba, the [[Lucaya]] of the Bahamas, Jamaica, and to a lesser extent from Haiti and Quisqueya (approximately the Dominican Republic), since the neo-Taíno had far more diverse cultural input and a greater societal and ethnic heterogeneity than the true high Taíno of Boriquen (Puerto Rico). Most of pre-Colombian inhabitants of Cuba, including the Siboney, can in first approximation be classified under the general group of neo-Taíno. The Taíno were skilled farmers and the Ciboney were a hunter-gatherer society with supplemental farming. Taínos and Ciboney took part in similar customs and beliefs, one being the sacred ritual practiced using [[tobacco]] called ''cohoba'', known in English as smoking.
The Taínos (Island Arawak) were part of a cultural group commonly called the [[Arawak]], which extends far into South America. Residues of Taíno poetry, songs, sculpture, and art are found today throughout the major [[Antilles]]. It is well known that these neo-Taíno had metallurgical skills, and it has been postulated by some e.g. [[Paul Sidney Martin]] [http://www.fieldmuseum.org/research_collections/anthropology/anthro_sites/paul_martin/martin_web/biostate.html], that the inhabitants of these islands mined and exported metals such as copper (Martin et al. 1947). The Arawak and other such cultural groups are responsible for the flourishing development of perhaps 60% of crops in common use today and some major industrial materials such as rubber. Europeans were shown by the indigenous Cubans how to cultivate tobacco and to smoke it in various ways.
Approximately 16 to 60 thousand, or perhaps many more, indigenous from the Taíno and Ciboney nations inhabited Cuba before colonization. The Indigenous Cuban population, including the Ciboney and the Taíno, were forced into [[encomiendas]] during the Spanish subjugation of the island of Cuba. One famous mainly indigenous town was Guanabacoa, today a suburb of Havana. Others were Jiguani, and Baracoa. Many indigenous Cubans fell victim to the brutality of Spanish conquistadores (as witnessed and lamented by [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]]) and the diseases they brought with them, which were previously unknown to them. Most Conquistadors took Taínas as brides, common law wives or as was more frequent had casual sexual congress with these island women [http://opwest.org/Archive/2003/200303_OriqueThesis/200303_01_oriquethesis.htm] since few Spanish women crossed the Atlantic in those days of conquest. Their children were called mestizo, but the residents called them [[Guajiro]], which originating in a Taino word roughly equivalent to [[squire]] has been translated as "one of us." They became the yeomen of Cuban wars [[neo-Taíno nations]]. Today, Taíno descendants maintain their heritage near [[Baracoa]].
Cuba had first served as base for Spanish conquest of the mainland of the Americas, but the island was almost depopulated in this effort. After the conquest of the Americas the resulting [[treasure]], mined gold and silver, emeralds, chocolate and several then important plant products such as dyes and medicine was transported in the [[Spanish treasure fleet]] from the Americas and later from the Philippines to Spain using Cuban ports as safe harbors along the way. In this period there were further indigenous risings most especially that of [[Guamá]], one of the last Taino leaders to organize resistance to Spanish rule.
But once Taino/Ciboney uprisings were no longer a concern, new ones arose from buccaneers, pirates, and privateers (e.g. Jacques de Sores [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/cuba/colonial.htm]), [[Alexander Exquemelin]] and [[Henry Morgan]]) and invasions as other countries (e.g. England [[Guantánamo Bay]]) tried to take the possessions that the Spanish had gathered for themselves, and their colonial descendants viewed as their own. Attacks on both ships and cities required Spain to respond by organizing convoys to protect the ships and building forts to protect the cities. However, Cuba’s most effective defense was [[yellow fever]] which killed off invading forces.
[[Image:Cuba modis.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Cuba as seen from space]]
Spanish [[mercantilism]] caused Spain to keep Cuba relatively isolated to external influences, but beginning with the year long occupation of Havana by the British in 1762 at the end of the [[Seven Years' War]], Cuba became more open economically to both the importation of slaves and advances in sugar cultivation and processing. The massive [[La Cabaña]] fortress, never taken by assault, which completely dominates Havana Bay was built soon after Havana, exchanged for Florida, was returned to Spain. However, the fortress would later become infamous as a place of execution and imprisonment, not unlike the [[Bastille]] in Paris. Cuban colonial forces participated in Spain's efforts during the American Revolutionary War, helping Spain to gain [[East Florida|East]] and [[West Florida|West]] Florida. Between 1791 to 1804, many French fled to Cuba from the [[Haitian revolution]], bringing with them slaves and expertise in [[sugar]] refining and [[coffee]] growing. As a result Cuba became the world's major sugar producer, but by 1884, slavery was abolished after having been weakened during the struggle to secure independence for Cuba.
The colony's struggle for independence lasted throughout the second half of the 19th century with the first effort with any success being the [[Ten Years' War]] beginning in 1868 . The writer and rebel organizer [[José Martí]] landed in Cuba with rebel exiles in 1895, but little more than a month later was killed in battle. He remains the major hero in Cuba to this day, and his legacy is claimed by both the supporters and opponents of the current government. While he expressed a preference for the U.S. Constitution and enjoyed some popularity in the United States, he was concerned about U.S. expansionism.
It is notable that some Taíno first fought the Mambi and then joined them to comprise the Hatuey Regiment [http://www.kacike.org/Barreiro.html]. Between 1895 and early 1898 revolution controlled most of the countryside and some towns, but the efforts of the Spanish, who held the major cities, to pacify the island did not cease until the United States occupied the island in the [[Spanish-American War]] of 1898. Cuban independence was granted in 1902, though limited by the [[Platt Amendment]], which granted the United States a major influence in Cuban affairs and required Cuba to grant the United States a lease for [[Guantánamo Bay]]. [[Tomás Estrada Palma]] (term 1902-1906) was Cuba's first peacetime and elected president. Using the provisions of the Platt Amendment, U.S. troops occupied Cuba a second time from 1906 to 1909. The Platt Amendment was revoked in 1934, but the lease of Guantánamo Bay was extended against a nominal sum.
[[Fulgencio Batista]], a leader of the 1933 ''Sergeants' Revolt'' that overthrew the transitional government after [[Gerardo Machado]]’s dictatorship collapsed, became first the Army Chief of Staff and eventually the man in charge under a series of presidents. In 1940 he was elected president himself. He had passed a new progressive constitution and in 1944 left office retiring to Florida for a time. However, in 1952 Batista seized power in an almost bloodless coup three months before the planned election and instituted an oppressive dictatorship. As a result many civil and guerrilla groups started opposing him.
[[Image:Cuba yank tank.jpg|thumb|300px|One of many Cuban ''Maquinas'', aka ''Yank tanks'']]
In 1953, [[Fidel Castro]] attacked the [[Moncada barracks]], and was exiled to Mexico. He returned to Cuba on November 1956 with 82 fighters trained by [[Alberto Bayo]] (a former colonel in the Spanish Republican Army), and with the help of popular discontent managed to overthrow Batista. Batista fled the country on [[1 January]] [[1959]]. Castro established a Soviet-leaning one party [[Communist state]], the first in the Western Hemisphere, although Castro did not officially reveal his Marxist-Leninist leanings until 1961.
According to [[Antonio Núñez Jiménez]] at the time when Batista was deposed, 75% of Cuba's prime farm land was owned by foreign individuals or foreign (mostly U.S.) companies. Cuba’s main crop was sugar, for the American and to a lesser extent English market. Most of Cuba's sugar was exported to the United States because Cuba was given a large quota, which was paid above world prices in part to help domestic US industry. After the revolution, [[Che Guevara]], industrial minister at the time, negotiated with the [[USSR]] for the export of Cuban sugar after the US decreased its imports of sugar from Cuba. [http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/cable/cable-3-16-55.htm] The new revolutionary government adopted successive "land reforms" and eventually confiscated almost all private property. At first, Castro was reluctant to discuss his plans for the future, but eventually he declared himself a [[communism|communist]], and with the backing of Che Guevara, explained that he was trying to build [[socialism]] in Cuba, focusing on free [[health care]] and [[education]] for all, and began close political and economic relations with the [[Soviet Union]] and to a lesser extent with [[China]]. The USSR long after the [[Cuban Missile Crisis|Missile Crisis]] had bases in Cuba (e.g. at Bejucal and Bahia Honda), and the Chinese government |
ttp://www.acc.eu.org/ Association for Community Colleges - a new European movement]
* [http://www.league.org/ League for Innovation]
* [http://www.libraryinstruction.com/lrc.html The Instructional Role of the Two-Year College Learning Resources Center]
* [http://www.communitycollegepolicy.org/ Center for Community College Policy]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-3/economic.htm The Economic Outcomes of Community College Attendance]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/building.htm Building an Instructional Framework for Effective Community College Developmental Education]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1992-5/role.htm The Role of Scholarship in the Community College]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9217/college.htm Internationalizing the Community College: Examples of Success]
* [http://www.50states.com/cc/ Community Colleges in the United States]
* [http://www.jjc.edu/admin/ie Institutional Effectiveness at a Community College]
* [http://suburbdad.blogspot.com Confessions of a Community College Dean (Blog)]
* [http://www.nisod.org NISOD (The University of Texas)]
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<page>
<title>Civil Rights Memorial</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Civil Rights Memorial''' in [[Montgomery, Alabama]] is a [[memorial]] to 40 people who died in the struggle for equal and integrated treatment of people of [[Europe|European]] and [[Africa|African]] descent. The memorial is sponsored by the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]].
The names included belong to those who died between 1954 and 1968. Those dates were chosen because in 1954 the [[US Supreme Court]] ruled that [[racial segregation]] in schools was unlawful. 1968 is the year of [[Martin Luther King]]'s [[assassination]]. The monument was created by [[Maya Lin]] who also created the [[Vietnam Veterans Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] The memorial was dedicated in 1989.
The concept of Maya Lin's design is based on the soothing and healing effect of [[water]]. It was inspired by [[Martin Luther King]]'s quotation ''"... we will not be satisfied until justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream. ..."'', from the ''[[I Have a Dream]]'' speech, delivered at the [[National Mall]], [[Washington D.C.]] August 28, 1963. The memorial is a round stone inverted [[Cone (solid)|cone]], which is a [[fountain]]. A film of water flows over the base of the cone, which contains the 40 names. It is possible to touch the smooth film of water and temporarily alter the surface film, which quickly returns to smoothness.
As such, the memorial represents the aspiration of the [[American civil rights movement]] against [[racism]].
[[Category:Alabama landmarks]]
[[Category:History of civil rights in the United States]]
[[Category:Memorials]]
[[Category:Montgomery County, Alabama|*Civil Rights Memorial]]</text>
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<title>Charles Babbage</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:CharlesBabbage.jpg|thumb|Charles Babbage]]
'''Charles Babbage''' ([[26 December]] [[1791]] – [[18 October]] [[1871]]) was an [[United Kingdom|English]] [[mathematician]], analytical philosopher, [[mechanical engineer]] and (proto-) [[computer scientist]] who originated the idea of a ''programmable'' [[computer]]. Parts of his uncompleted mechanisms are on display in the [[London Science Museum]]. In [[1991]], working from Babbage's original plans, a [[difference engine]] was completed, and functioned perfectly. It was built to tolerances achievable in the 19th century, indicating that Babbage's machine would have worked. Nine years later, the Science Museum completed the [[printer]] Babbage had designed for the difference engine; it featured astonishing complexity for a 19th-century device.
==Life==
Charles Babbage was born in [[England]], most likely at 44 Crosby Row, [[Walworth Road]], [[London]]. A [[blue plaque]] on the junction of Larcom Street and Walworth Road commemorates the event. There was a discrepancy regarding the date of Babbage's birth, which was published in ''The Times'' obituary as [[26 December]] [[1792]]. However, days later a nephew of Babbage wrote to say that Babbage was born precisely one year earlier, in [[1791]]. The parish register of [[St. Mary's Newington]], London, shows that Babbage was baptised on [[6 January]] [[1792]] [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Babbage.html].
Babbage's father, [[Benjamin Babbage]], was a banking partner of the Praeds who owned the Bitton Estate in [[Teignmouth]]. His mother was Betsy Plumleigh Babbage. In [[1808]], the Babbage family moved into the old Rowdens house in East [[Teignmouth]], and Benjamin Babbage became a warden of the nearby St. Michael’s Church.
===Education===
His father's money allowed Charles to receive instruction from several schools and tutors during the course of his elementary education. Around age eight he was sent to a country school to recover from a life-threatening fever. His parents ordered that his "brain was not to be taxed too much" and Babbage felt that "this great idleness may have led to some of my childish reasonings." He was sent to King Edward VI Grammar School in [[Totnes]], [[Devon|South Devon]], a thriving comprehensive school still extant today, but his health forced him back to private tutors for a time. He then joined a 30-student academy under Reverend Stephen Freeman. The academy had a well-stocked library that prompted Babbage's love of mathematics. He studied with two more private tutors after leaving the academy. Of the first, a clergyman near Cambridge, Babbage said, "I fear I did not derive from it all the advantages that I might have done." The second was an Oxford tutor from whom Babbage learned enough of the Classics to be accepted to Cambridge.
Babbage arrived at [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]], [[Cambridge]] in October [[1810]]. He had read extensively in [[Leibniz]], [[Lagrange]], [[Thomas Simpson|Simpson]], and [[Lacroix]] and was seriously disappointed in the mathematical instruction available at Cambridge. In response, he, [[John Herschel]], [[George Peacock]], and several other friends formed the [[Analytical Society]].
In [[1812]] Babbage transferred to [[Peterhouse]], [[Cambridge]]. He was the top mathematician at Peterhouse, but failed to graduate with honours. He instead received an honorary degree without examination in 1814.
===Marriage===
On [[25 July]] [[1814]], Babbage married Georgiana Whitmore at St. Michael's Church in [[Teignmouth]], [[Devon]]. His father did not approve of the marriage. The couple lived happily at 5 Devonshire Street, Portland Place, London. They had eight children, but only three lived to adulthood. Charles' father, his wife Georgiana Babbage, and one son all died in [[1827]].
===Children===
*Benjamin Herschel Babbage (born [[6 August]] [[1815]])
*Charles Whitmore Babbage (born [[22 January]] [[1817]])
*Georgiana Whitmore Babbage (born [[17 July]] [[1818]])
*Edward Stewart Babbage (born [[15 December]] [[1819]])
*Francis Moore Babbage (born [[1 June]] [[1821]])
*Dugald Bromheald Babbage (born [[13 March]] [[1823]])
*Henry Prevost Babbage (born [[16 September]] [[1824]])
==Design of computers==
In recognition of the high error rate in the calculation of mathematical tables, Babbage wanted to find a method by which they could be calculated mechanically, removing human sources of error. Three different factors seem to have influenced him: a dislike of untidiness; his experience working on [[logarithm|logarithmic tables]]; and existing work on calculating machines carried out by [[Wilhelm Schickard]], [[Blaise Pascal]], and [[Gottfried Leibniz]]. He first discussed the principles of a calculating engine in a letter to Sir [[Humphrey Davy]] in [[1822]].
[[Image:BabbageDifferenceEngine.jpg|thumb|right|Part of Babbage's difference engine, assembled after his death by Babbage's son, using parts found in his laboratory.]]
Babbage's engines were among the first mechanical computers. His engines were not actually completed, largely because of funding problems and personality issues. Babbage realized that a machine could do the work better and more reliably than a human being. Babbage controlled building of some steam-powered machines that more or less did their job; calculations could be mechanized to an extent. Although Babbage's machines were mechanical monsters their basic architecture was astonishingly similar to a modern computer. The data and program memory were separated, operation was instruction based, control unit could make conditional jumps and the machine had a separate I/O unit. Inventions not talked about here but worth mentioning are: The [[cowcatcher]], [[dynamometer]], [[standard railroad gauge]], uniform [[postal rates]], [[occulting lights]] for lighthouses, [[Greenwich Time signals]], and [[heliograph ophthalmoscope]].
===[[Difference engine]]===
In Babbage’s time numerical tables were calculated by humans called ‘computers’. At Cambridge he saw the high error rate of the people computing the tables and thus started his life’s work in trying to calculate the tables mechanically, removing all human error. He began in 1822 with what he called the difference engine, made to compute values of polynomial f |
the United States fields a basketball team in [[Varsity match|varsity]] competition, and its popularity remains high, both in rural areas where they carry the identification of the entire community, as well as at some larger schools known for their basketball teams where many players go on to participate at higher levels of competition after graduation. In the 2003&ndash;04 season, 1,002,797 boys and girls represented their schools in interscholastic basketball competition, according to the [[National Federation of State High School Associations]]. The states of [[Indiana]] and [[Kentucky]] are particularly well known for their residents' devotion to high school basketball; the critically acclaimed film ''[[Hoosiers]]'' shows high school basketball's depth of meaning to these rural communities.
===National Basketball Association===
[[Image:Logo allen.JPG|thumb|left|200px|The Seattle SuperSonics' Ray Allen]]
In 1946, the [[National Basketball Association]] (NBA) was formed, organizing the top professional teams and leading to greater popularity of the professional game. An upstart organization, the [[American Basketball Association]], emerged in 1967 and briefly threatened the NBA's dominance until the rival leagues merged in 1976.
The NBA has featured many famous players, including [[George Mikan]], the first dominating "big man"; ball-handling wizard [[Bob Cousy]] and defensive genius [[Bill Russell (basketball)|Bill Russell]] of the [[Boston Celtics]]; [[Wilt Chamberlain]] (who originally played for the barnstorming "[[Harlem Globetrotters]]"); all-around stars [[Oscar Robertson]] and [[Jerry West]]; more recent big men [[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar]] and [[Bill Walton]], playmaker [[John Stockton]]; and the three players who many credit with ushering the professional game to its highest level of popularity: [[Larry Bird]], [[Magic Johnson]], and [[Michael Jordan]].
The NBA-backed [[Women's National Basketball Association]] began play in 1997. Though it had an insecure opening season, several marquee players ([[Sheryl Swoopes]], [[Lisa Leslie]], and [[Sue Bird]] among others) have helped the league improve its popularity and level of competition, as in the NBA. Other professional women's basketball leagues in the United States have folded in part because of the presence of the WNBA.
===International basketball===
The [[International Basketball Federation]] was formed in 1932 by eight founding nations: [[Argentina]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Greece]], [[Italy]], [[Latvia]], [[Portugal]], [[Romania]] and [[Switzerland]]. At this time, the organisation only oversaw amateur players. Its acronym, in French, was thus FIBA; the "A" standing for amateur.
Basketball was first included in the [[Olympic Games]] in 1936, although a demonstration tournament was held in 1904. This competition has usually been dominated by the United States, whose team has won all but three titles, the first loss in a controversial final game in [[Munich]] in 1972 against the Soviet Union. In 1950 the first [[Basketball World Championship|World Championships]] for men were held in [[Argentina]]. Three years later, the first World Championships for women were held in [[Chile]]. Women's basketball was added to the Olympics in 1976, with teams such as Brazil and Australia rivaling the American squads.
FIBA dropped the distinction between amateur and professional players in 1989, and in 1992, professional players played for the first time in the Olympic Games. The United States' dominance briefly resurfaced with the introduction of their [[Dream Team (basketball)|Dream Team]]. However, with developing programs elsewhere, other national teams have now caught up with the United States. A team made entirely of NBA players finished sixth in the 2002 World Championships in [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]], behind [[Serbia and Montenegro]], Argentina, [[Germany]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Spain]]. In the [[2004 Summer Olympics|2004 Olympics]], the United States suffered its first Olympic loss while using professional players, falling to the [[Puerto Rican national basketball team]] and eventually came in third after Argentina and [[Italy]].
Worldwide, basketball tournaments are held for boys and girls of all age levels, from five- and six-year-olds (called ''biddy-biddy''), to high school, college, and the professional leagues.
The global popularity of the sport is reflected in the nationalities represented in the NBA. Players from all over the globe can be found in NBA teams. [[Steve Nash]], who won the 2005 [[NBA MVP]] award as the Most Valuable Player in the NBA, is a [[South Africa]]n-born [[Canada|Canadian]] player. [[Dallas Mavericks]] superstar [[Dirk Nowitzki]], is [[Germany|German]]. The [[San Antonio Spurs]] feature three stars from outside the United States in [[Tim Duncan]] of the [[United States Virgin Islands]], [[Manu Ginobili]] of [[Argentina]], and [[Tony Parker]] of [[France]]; however, Duncan competes for the United States internationally.
The all-tournament team at the most recent [[Basketball World Championship|World Basketball Championships]] held in 2002 in [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]] demonstrates the globalization of the game equally dramatically. The team featured Nowitzki, Ginobili, [[Predrag Stojaković|Peja Stojakovic]] of [[Serbia and Montenegro national basketball team|Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Yao Ming]] of [[China national basketball team|China]], and [[Pero Cameron]] of [[Tall Blacks|New Zealand]]; all except Cameron were or became NBA players.
==Rules and regulations==
:''Main article: [[Rules of basketball]]''
<!-- Please be careful not to include too much detail when editing this section; see talk page for more info. -->
Measurements and time limits discussed in this section often vary among tournaments and organizations; international and NBA rules are used in this section.
The object of the game is to outscore one's opponents by throwing the ball through the opponents' basket from above while preventing the opponents from doing so on their own. An attempt to score in this way is called a [[shot]]. A successful shot is worth two points, or [[three-point field goal|three points]] if it is taken from beyond the three-point arc which is 6.25 meters (20 ft 5 in) from the basket in international games and 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m) in NBA games.
===Playing regulations===
<!-- Please be careful not to include too much detail when editing this section; see talk page for more info. -->
Games are played in four quarters of 10 (international) or 12 minutes (NBA). Fifteen minutes are allotted for a half-time break, and two minutes are allowed at the other breaks. Overtime periods are five minutes long. Teams exchange baskets for the second half. The time allotted is actual playing time; the clock is stopped while the play is not active. Therefore, games generally take much longer (about two hours).
There are five players from each team on the court at any time. Teams can have up to seven substitutes. Substitutions are unlimited but can only be done when play is stopped. Teams also have a [[coach]], who oversees the development and strategies of the team, and other team followers such as assistant coaches, managers, statisticians, doctors and trainers.
For both men's and women's teams, a standard uniform consists of a pair of shorts and a sleeveless tank top with a clearly visible number, unique within the team, printed on both the front and back. Players also wear high-top sneakers that provide extra ankle support. Often, team names and players' names and sometimes sponsors are printed on the uniforms, too.
A limited number of time-outs, clock stoppages requested by a coach for a short meeting with the players, are allowed. They generally last no longer than one minute unless, for televised games, a commercial break is needed.
The game is controlled by the officials consisting of the referee, one or two umpires and the table officials. The table officials are responsible for keeping track of each teams scoring, timekeeping, individual and team [[personal foul|fouls]], player substitutions, team [[possession arrow]], and the [[shot clock]].
===Equipment===
<!-- Please be careful not to include too much detail when editing this section; see talk page for more info. -->
[[Image:Basketball.jpeg|thumb|A basketball.]]
[[Image:basketball court dimensions.png|thumb|250px|A diagram of a FIBA basketball court.]]
The only essential equipment in basketball is the ball and the court: a flat, rectangular surface with baskets at opposite ends. Competitive levels require the use of more equipment such as clocks, scoresheets, [[scoreboard]]s, alternating possession arrows, and whistle-operated stop-clock systems.
The men's ball's circumference is about 30 inches (76 cm) and weighs about 1 lb 5 oz (600 g). The women's ball's circumference is about 29 inches (73 cm) and weighs about 1 lb 3 oz (540 g). A regulation [[basketball court]] in international games is 28 by 15 meters (approx. 92 by 49 ft) and in the NBA is 94 by 50 feet (29 by 15 m). Most courts are made of wood.
A cast-iron basket with net and backboard hang over each end of the court. At almost all levels of competition, the top of the rim is exactly 10 feet (3.05 m) above the court and 4 feet (1.2 m) inside the endline. While variation is possible in the dimensions of the court and backboard, it is considered important for the basket to be the correct height; a rim that is off by but a few inches can have an adverse effect on shooting.
===Violations===
<!-- Please be careful not to include too much detail when editing this section; see talk page for more info. -->
The ball may be advanced toward the basket by being shot, passed between players, thrown, tapped, rolled or dribbled (bouncing the ball while running).
The ball must stay within the court; the last team to touch the ball before |
nd's demands, as it was treason to attempt to vary the laws of succession established in 1544. Edward, however, ensured their co-operation by promising a [[pardon]] under the [[Great Seal of the Realm|Great Seal]].
The first draft of the will excluded Mary, Elizabeth, the Duchess of Suffolk and the Lady Jane from the line of succession on the theory that no woman could rule England. The Crown was to be left to the Lady Jane's heirs-male. This plan, however, was not to Northumberland's liking; the draft was changed to leave the Crown to Jane ''and'' her heirs-male. Mary and Elizabeth were excluded because they were officially illegitimate; the Duchess of Suffolk agreed to renounce her own claims.
==Death==
[[Image:Edward6.JPG|right|200px|thumb|Edward VI (detail)]]
Edward VI died in Greenwich on [[6 July]] 1553, either of [[tuberculosis]], [[arsenic|arsenic poisoning]], or [[syphilis]]. As Edward VI lay dying, the Duke of Northumberland (according to legend) symbolically stole the crown from him and gave it to his daughter-in-law, the Lady Jane. Edward VI was buried in [[Henry VII Lady Chapel]] at [[Westminster Abbey]] by [[Thomas Cranmer]] with Protestant rites on [[9 August]], while Mary had Mass said for his soul in the Tower.
Edward VI's death was kept secret for a couple of days so that preparations could be made for Jane's accession. High civic authorities privately swore their allegiance to the new [[queen regnant|Queen]], who was not publicly proclaimed until [[10 July]]. But the people were much more supportive of the rightful heir under the Act of Succession, Mary. On [[19 July]], Mary rode triumphantly into [[London]], and Jane was forced to give up the Crown. Jane's proclamation was revoked as an act done under coercion; her succession was deemed unlawful. Thus, Edward VI's ''de jure'' successor was Mary I (1553&ndash;58), but his ''de facto'' successor was Jane.
The Duke of Northumberland was executed, but the Lady Jane and her father were originally spared. In [[1554]], when Mary faced [[Wyatt's Rebellion]], the Duke of Suffolk once again attempted to put his daughter on the Throne. For this crime, Jane, her husband and the Duke of Suffolk were executed.
After Edward VI's death at the age of fifteen, rumours of his survival persisted. To take advantage of the people's delusions, several impostors were put forward as rightful Kings. These impersonations continued throughout Mary I's reign, and even far into Elizabeth I's reign (1558&ndash;1603). Mistaken identities also feature in the [[United States|America]]n author [[Mark Twain]]'s novel, ''[[The Prince and the Pauper]]'', in which the young Edward VI and a pauper boy of identical appearance accidentally replace each other.
==Style and arms==
Like his father, Edward VI was referred to with the styles "Majesty", "Highness" and "Grace". His official style was of the same form as his father: "Edward the Sixth, by the Grace of [[God]], [[List of monarchs of England |King of England]], [[English Kings of France | France]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland| Ireland]], [[Fidei defensor|Defender of the Faith]] and of the [[Church of England]] and also of [[Church of Ireland | Ireland]] in [[Earth]] Supreme Head".
Edward VI's [[heraldry|arms]] were the same as those used by his predecessors since [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]: ''Quarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lys Or (for [[France]]) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for [[England]])''.
==See also==
*[[List of British monarchs]]
*[[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset]]
*[[John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland]]
==References==
*[http://tudorhistory.org/edward/index.html Eakins, L. E. (2004). "Edward VI".]
*"Edward VI". (1911). ''Encyclopædia Britannica,'' 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.
*[http://lego70.tripod.com/england/executors_of_will_1547.htm Schultz, O. (2002). "England: Minority of Edward VI: 1547".]
==External links==
*[http://www.archsoc.com/games/Mary.html Stevens, Garry. (2004). "Bloody Mary: Further Intrigue in the Tudor Court".]
*[http://www.leonibus.com/ Site of author C.W. Gortner, author of "The Secret Lion"] a novel about the final days of Edward VI's reign.
{{start box}}
{{succession box two to two |
before=[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] |
title1=[[List of British monarchs|King of England]] |
title2=[[King of Ireland]] |
years1=[[28 January]] [[1547]] - [[6 July]] [[1553]] |
years2=[[28 January]] [[1547]] - [[6 July]] [[1553]] |
after=[[Jane of England|Jane]] |
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1537 births|Edward VI of England]]
[[Category:1553 deaths|Edward VI of England]]
[[Category:Londoners]]
[[Category:House of Tudor]]
[[Category:Henry VIII's children]]
[[Category:Dukes in the Peerage of England]]
[[Category:English monarchs]]
{{featured article}}
[[cy:Edward VI o Loegr]]
[[de:Eduard VI. (England)]]
[[et:Edward VI]]
[[es:Eduardo VI de Inglaterra]]
[[fr:Édouard VI d'Angleterre]]
[[io:Edward 6ma]]
[[it:Edoardo VI d'Inghilterra]]
[[he:אדוארד השישי מלך אנגליה]]
[[kw:Edward VI a Bow Sows]]
[[la:Eduardus VI Angliae Rex]]
[[nl:Edward VI van Engeland]]
[[ja:エドワード6世 (イングランド王)]]
[[pl:Edward VI]]
[[pt:Eduardo VI de Inglaterra]]
[[ru:Эдуард VI]]
[[simple:Edward VI of England]]
[[sk:Eduard VI. (Anglicko)]]
[[sr:Едвард VI]]
[[fi:Edvard VI]]
[[sv:Edvard VI av England]]
[[zh:爱德华六世]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Egolessness</title>
<id>10246</id>
<revision>
<id>39651914</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T23:11:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{expand}} to talk page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[psychology]], '''egolessness''' is an [[emotional]] state where one feels no [[ego]] (or [[self (psychology)|self]]); of having no distinct [[being]] apart from the world around oneself. From the view of Western psychoanalysis and therapy, the state of "oneness" can be either positive or negative depending on the patient, and in the context in which these feelings occur in each patient
The described feeling of '''oneness''' (of being inextricably woven to the fabric of one's surroundings or environment) is thought to be akin to egolessness. Lifestyles of [[communal]] ownership (no individual property) and the "[[vow of poverty]]" in many monastic traditions may also be intended to make selflessness easier to maintain; that its practitioners may continuously remain in a meditative state of mind.
In some forms of [[meditation]] in [[Asia]]n [[religion]]s, egolessness is a mental state that is sought after. While at the basic levels, meditation is geared toward [[relaxation]], the practice of advanced meditators may be aimed toward the purpose of dividing one from their awareness of "self," to a certain degree, and for a certain time. The ritual and religious treatment of meditation functions so that the individual learns to take the practice with seriousness; learning to gradually control their degree of relaxation such that undesired and harmful schisms do not occur to the [[psyche]].
Note that the term "selflessness" is similar in literal meaning ("ego" is simply the Latin word for "self") but differs in nuance and usage. One would describe a set of acts as "selfless" ([[Wiktionary:altruistic|altruistic]]) when they are not selfish &mdash; when they benefit others more than oneself. One would say that a person is "egoless" when he or she feels or acts in a way that suggests that the self is irrelevant (regardless of whether the act or attitude had any benefit to self or others). In other words, "selfless" is the opposite of "selfish" while "egoless" is [[orthogonal]] to both. The closest antonyms to "egolessness" are "egotism" (an inflated or disproportionate sense of self worth or one's own important) or possibly [[solipsism]].
The writer [[Aleister Crowley]] distinguished between two main types of [[ego|egolessness]], for which he used the [[Sanskrit]] terms [[Dhyana]] (which means "meditation") and [[Samadhi]] (which he associated with the Nothing, or in Hebrew [[AIN]]). He wrote the following about the relative difficulties of attaining them:
''Now we do know this, that if thought is kept single and steady, Dhyana results. We do not know whether an intensification of this is sufficient to cause Samadhi, or whether some other circumstances are required. One is science, the other empiricism. [http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/aba/aba1.html]
Despite this, Crowley recommended a complex system of practices from Eastern and Western sources to help people attain Samadhi.
==See also==
*[[Anatman]]
*[[Anatta]]
*[[Baqaa]]
*[[Ego]]
*[[Ego reduction]]
*[[Fanaa]]
*[[List of Buddhist topics]]
*[[Mindfulness]]
*[[Shunyata]]
[[Category:Consciousness studies]]
[[Category:Phenomenology]]
[[Category:Philosophy of mind]]
[[Category:Self]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Extrapyramidal</title>
<id>10248</id>
<revision>
<id>15908071</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-05T02:26:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RedWolf</username>
<id>27822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>-> Extrapyramidal system</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Extrapyramidal system]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Extrapyramidal side-effect</title>
<id>10249</id>
<revision>
<id>15908072</id>
<timestamp>2004-02-24T21:04:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Anome</username>
<id>76</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Extrapyramidal system]]</t |
hic novels]]
[[Category:Japanese films]]
[[Category:Manga series]]
[[Category:Science fiction comics]]
[[Category:Japanese television series]]
[[de:Ghost in the Shell]]
[[es:Ghost in the Shell]]
[[fr:Ghost in the Shell]]
[[ko:공각기동대]]
[[it:Ghost in the shell]]
[[nl:Ghost in the Shell]]
[[ja:攻殻機動隊]]
[[pl:Ghost in the Shell]]
[[ru:Ghost in the Shell]]
[[sv:Ghost in the Shell]]
[[th:โกสต์อินเดอะเชลล์]]
[[zh:攻殼機動隊]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guillain-Barre Syndrome</title>
<id>12915</id>
<revision>
<id>15910564</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-28T15:26:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Diberri</username>
<id>35331</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>REDIRECT [[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gauss-Legendre algorithm</title>
<id>12916</id>
<revision>
<id>38061409</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T22:31:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.9.71.250</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Gauss-Legendre algorithm''' is an [[algorithm]] to compute the digits of [[Pi|&pi;]].
The method is based on the individual work of [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] ([[1777]]-[[1855]]) and [[Adrien-Marie Legendre]] ([[1752]]-[[1833]]) combined with modern algorithms for multiplication and square roots. It repeatedly replaces two numbers by their [[arithmetic mean|arithmetic]] and [[geometric mean]], in order to approximate their [[arithmetic-geometric mean]].
The version presented below is also known as the '''Brent-Salamin (or Salamin-Brent) algorithm'''; it was independently discovered in [[1975]] by [[Richard Brent (scientist) | Richard Brent]] and [[Eugene Salamin]]. It was used to compute the first 206,158,430,000 decimal digits of &pi; on September 18 to 20, 1999, and the results were checked with [[Borwein's algorithm]].
1. Initial value setting:
:<math>a_0 = 1\qquad b_0 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\qquad t_0 = \frac{1}{4}\qquad p_0 = 1</math>
2. Repeat the following instructions until the difference of <math>a_n</math> and <math>b_n</math> is within the desired accuracy:
:<math>x_{n+1} = \frac{a_n + b_n}{2} \,</math>
:<math>y_{n+1} = \sqrt{a_n b_n} \,</math>
:<math>t_{n+1} = t_n - p_n(a_n - x_{n+1})^2 \,</math>
:<math>a_{n+1} = x_{n+1} \,</math>
:<math>b_{n+1} = y_{n+1} \,</math>
:<math>p_{n+1} = 2p_n \,</math>
3. &pi; is approximated with <math>a_n</math>, <math>b_n</math> and <math>t_n</math> as:
:<math>\pi \approx \frac{(a_n+b_n)^2}{4t_n} \,</math>
The algorithm has second order convergent nature, which essentially means that the number of correct digits doubles with each step of the algorithm.
==See also==
*[[Borwein's algorithm]]
[[Category:Pi algorithms]]
[[ja:&#12460;&#12454;&#12473;&#65309;&#12523;&#12472;&#12515;&#12531;&#12489;&#12523;&#12398;&#12450;&#12523;&#12468;&#12522;&#12474;&#12512;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search</title>
<id>12917</id>
<revision>
<id>41613864</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:53:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search''', or '''GIMPS''', is a collaborative project of volunteers, who use [[Prime95]] and [[MPrime]], special [[software]] that can be downloaded from the [[Internet]] for free, in order to search for [[Mersenne prime|Mersenne prime numbers]]. The project was founded and the prime testing software was written by [[George Woltman]]. [[Scott Kurowski]] wrote the PrimeNet [[server]] that supports the research to demonstrate [[Entropia]] distributed computing software, a company he founded in 1997.
This project has been rather successful: it has already found a total of nine Mersenne [[prime number|primes]], each of which was the largest known prime at the time of discovery. The largest known prime [[as of 2005|as of December 2005]] is 2<sup>30,402,457</sup>&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1 (or [[Mersenne Prime#List of Mersenne primes|M30402457]] in short). This prime was discovered on [[December 15]], [[2005]]. Refer to the article on [[Mersenne prime]] numbers for the complete list of GIMPS successes.
As of December 2005, GIMPS has a sustained throughput of approximately 18 [[FLOPS|TFLOPS]], earning the GIMPS [[virtual machine|virtual computer]] a firm place among the most powerful [[supercomputer]]s in the world.
Although the GIMPS software has its source code available, technically it is not [[open source]], since it has a restriction which most open source/[[free software]] groups find unacceptable &ndash; users must abide by the prize distribution terms. This restriction will become meaningless when the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation|EFF]] [http://www.eff.org/awards/coop.php prizes] are claimed.
For open source alternatives, [ftp://ftp.oxixares.com/pub/glucas/snapshots Glucas] and [ftp://hogranch.com/pub/mayer/src/C/ Mlucas] are both licensed under the GPL.
==Primes found==
All primes are in the form M''n'', where ''n'' is the exponent. The prime number itself is <math>2^n - 1</math>.
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Discovery date || Prime || Digits
|-
| [[15 December]], 2005 || M30 402 457 || 9152052
|-
| [[18 February]], 2005 || M25 964 951 || 7816230
|-
| [[15 May]], 2004 || M24 036 583 || 7235733
|-
| [[17 November]], 2003 || M20 996 011 || 6320430
|-
| [[14 November]], 2001 || M13 466 917 || 4053946
|-
| [[01 June]], 1999 || M6 972 593 || 2098960
|-
| [[27 January]], 1998 || M3 021 377 || 909526
|-
| [[24 August]], 1997 || M2 976 221 || 895932
|-
| [[13 November]], 1996 || M1 398 269 || 420921
|}
==See also==
* [[George Woltman]]
* [[Scott Kurowski]]
* [[Entropia]]
* [[Mathematics]]
* [[List of distributed computing projects]]
* [[Distributed computing]]
* [[Prime95]]
* [[MPrime]]
==External links==
* [http://www.mersenne.org/ www.mersenne.org] &ndash; GIMPS Home Page
* [http://www.mersenneforum.org/ www.mersenneforum.org] &ndash; GIMPS Forum
* [http://mersenne.org/primenet/ PrimeNet server]
* [http://mersennewiki.org/index.php/Main_Page Mersenne Wiki]
[[Category:Distributed computing]]
[[Category:Prime numbers]]
[[da:Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search]]
[[fr:Great internet Mersenne prime search]]
[[ko:GIMPS]]
[[it:GIMPS]]
[[ja:GIMPS]]
[[pl:Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search]]
[[ru:GIMPS]]
[[sk:GIMPS]]
[[fi:GIMPS]]
[[sv:GIMPS]]
[[zh:GIMPS]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gediminas</title>
<id>12918</id>
<revision>
<id>37104369</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T18:30:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Renata3</username>
<id>320236</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gediminas, Grand Duke of Lithuania]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Game.com</title>
<id>12919</id>
<revision>
<id>42133469</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:12:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nintendude</username>
<id>584148</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system| title = game.com
|logo =
|image = [[Image:Gamecomwithbox.JPG|200px|Tiger's game.com]]
|manufacturer = [[Tiger Electronics]]
|type = [[handheld game console]]
|generation =
|lifespan = [[September 1997]] - [[2000]]
|media = [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]]
|conrollers =
|onlineservice = 14.4 [[kbps]] [[modem]]
|unitssold =
|topgame = ''[[Lights Out (game)|Lights Out]]''
}}
{{lowercase|title=game.com}}
The '''game.com''' (pronounced in TV commercials as "game com", not "game dot com" and not capitalized in marketing material) was a [[handheld game console]] released by [[Tiger Electronics]] in [[September 1997]]. Although aimed at an older [[target audience]], sporting [[Personal Digital Assistant|PDA]]-style features and functions such as a [[touch screen]] and [[Stylus#Modern use|stylus]], Tiger hoped it would challenge [[Nintendo]]'s [[Game Boy]]. Unlike other handheld game consoles, the first game.com consoles included two slots for game [[Cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]]s and could be connected to a 14.4 [[kbps]] [[modem]]. Later models reverted to a single cartridge slot.
==History==
[[Image:Tigergamecom.jpg|left|thumb|game.com]]
Titles released at game.com's launch included ''[[Indy 500]]'', ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'' and ''[[Mortal Kombat Trilogy]]'', along with ''[[Lights Out (game)|Lights Out]]'' which came packaged with the system. Tiger also produced equivalents to many Game Boy peripherals, such as the compete.com [[serial]] cable allowing players to connect their consoles to play multiplayer games or exchange high scores. [[Brand]]ed items such as an [[AC adapter]], [[earphones]] and carry-case were also made available.
Unfortunately, many of the game.com's exclusive features had only limited functionality. The touch screen had a fairly low sensor resolution, so was hard to use it for precise input in games and few players made use of the PDA functions to keep phone numbers, addresses or the like. Furthermore, the failure of the built-in backup [[battery (electricity)|battery]] would erase any high scores or information stored on the console.
<!-- Copyedited to here, [[20 November]] [[2005]] -->
Tiger mostly botched the job of marketing the game.com to an ol |
[[GNU Emacs]] and [[XEmacs]] [[text editor]]s (which we will collectively refer to as [[Emacs]] in this article.) It is used for implementing most of the editing functionality built into Emacs, the remainder being written in [[C programming language|C]]. Users of Emacs commonly write Emacs Lisp code to customize and extend Emacs.
Emacs Lisp is sometimes called ''Elisp'', at the risk of confusion with an unrelated Lisp dialect with the same name. In terms of features, it is closely related to the [[Maclisp]] dialect. It supports [[procedural programming|imperative]] and [[functional programming|functional]] programming methods. Lisp was chosen as the extension language for Emacs because of its powerful features, including the ability to treat functions as data.
The Lisp dialect used in Emacs differs substantially from [[Common Lisp]] and [[Scheme]], dialects used for applications programming. Chiefly, Emacs Lisp uses dynamic rather than lexical [[scope (programming)|scope]]. That is, variables bound in a calling function can be referenced from a called function.
Writing Emacs Lisp is not the only method of customizing GNU Emacs. Since version 20, GNU Emacs has included a "Customize" facility which allows users to set common customization variables through a graphical interface. "Customize" works by writing Emacs Lisp code for the user, and is limited to simple customizations. Not every user needs the full degree of extensibility offered by Emacs; those that do must write their own Emacs Lisp code.
==Example==
Here is a simple example of an Emacs extension written in Emacs Lisp. In Emacs, the editing area can be split into separate areas called ''windows'', each displaying a different ''buffer''. A buffer is, roughly speaking, a region of text loaded into Emacs' memory (possibly from a file), which can be saved into a text document.
The user command for opening a new window is "<tt>C-x 2</tt>" (which means to press the '<tt>x</tt>' key while holding down the '<tt>control</tt>' key, and then to press the '<tt>2</tt>' key &mdash; do not type the space character &mdash; it is shown only for readability). This runs the Emacs Lisp function <tt>split-window-vertically</tt>. Normally, when the new window appears, it displays the same buffer as the previous one. Suppose we wish to make it display the next available buffer. In order to do this, the user writes the following Emacs Lisp code, in either an existing Emacs Lisp source file or an empty Emacs buffer:
(defun my-split-window-function ()
(interactive)
(split-window-vertically)
(set-window-buffer (next-window) (other-buffer)))
(global-set-key "\C-x2" 'my-split-window-function)
The first statement, <tt>(defun ...)</tt>, defines a new function, <tt>my-split-window-function</tt>, which calls <tt>split-window-vertically</tt> (the old window-splitting function), then tells the new window to display another buffer. The second statement, <tt>(global-set-key ...)</tt> re-binds the key sequence "C-x 2" to the new function.
However, there is an easier way to write this. Emacs Lisp has a powerful feature called ''advice'', which allows the user to create wrappers around existing functions instead of defining their own. Using advice, the above code can be reimplemented as follows:
(defadvice split-window-vertically
(after my-window-splitting-advice first () activate)
(set-window-buffer (next-window) (other-buffer)))
This instructs <tt>split-window-vertically</tt> to execute the user-supplied code whenever it is called, before executing the rest of the function.
These changes take effect when the code is ''evaluated'', using (for instance) the command "<tt>M-x eval-buffer</tt>". It is not necessary to recompile or even restart Emacs, which makes customizing Emacs very convenient. If the code is saved into the Emacs "init file" (usually a file named "<tt>.emacs</tt>" in the user's [[home directory]]), then Emacs will load the extension the next time it starts. Otherwise, the changes will be lost when the user exits Emacs.
==Source code==
Emacs Lisp code is stored as [[plain text]], with the filename suffix "<tt>.el</tt>" (an exception being the user's init file, which is named "<tt>.emacs</tt>".) When the files are loaded, an [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreter]] component of the Emacs program reads and parses the functions and variables, storing them in memory. They are then available to other editing functions, and to user commands. Functions and variables can be freely modified and re-loaded.
In order to save memory space, much of the functionality of Emacs is not loaded until it is needed. Each set of optional features is implemented by a collection of Emacs code called a "library". For example, there is a library for highlighting keywords in program source code, and a library for playing the game of [[Tetris]]. Each library is implemented using one or more Emacs Lisp source files.
Certain functions are written in C. These are "primitives", also known as "built-in functions" or "subrs". Although primitives can be called from the Lisp code, they can only be modified by editing the C source files and recompiling the editor. Primitives are not available as libraries; they are part of the Emacs executable. Functions are written as primitives because C code is faster than Emacs Lisp code. However, only those few functions that need to run quickly and efficiently are written as primitives, because primitives are not as flexible as Emacs Lisp functions.
===Byte code===
The performance of Emacs Lisp code can be further increased by "byte-compilation". Emacs contains a [[compiler]] which can translate Emacs Lisp source files into a special representation known as [[bytecode]]. Emacs Lisp bytecode files have the filename suffix "<tt>.elc</tt>". Compared to source files, bytecode files load faster, occupy less space on the disk, use less memory when loaded, and run faster.
Bytecode is still slower than primitives, but functions loaded as bytecode can be easily modified and re-loaded. In addition, bytecode files are platform-independent. The standard Emacs Lisp code distributed with Emacs is loaded as bytecode, although the matching source files are usually provided for the user's reference as well. User-supplied extensions are typically not byte-compiled, as they are neither as large nor as computationally intensive.
==Language features==
Emacs Lisp uses dynamic, not static (or lexical), [[scope (programming)|scope]]. If a variable is declared within the scope of a function, it is available to subroutines called from within that function. Originally, this was meant to provide greater flexibility for user customizations. However, dynamic scoping has several disadvantages. Firstly, it can easily lead to bugs in large programs, due to unintended interactions between variables in different function. Secondly, accessing variables under dynamic scoping is generally slower than under lexical scoping. As a result, plans have been made to convert Emacs Lisp to lexical scoping, though this has not yet been done.
Emacs does not optimize [[Tail recursion]], which is done in most other Lisp implementations.
==External links==
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/emacs.html The Emacs page at the Gnu Project]
*R. Chassell, "Programming in Emacs Lisp, an Introduction" http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/emacs-lisp-intro/emacs-lisp-intro.html
*B. Lewis, D. LaLiberte, R. Stallman, "GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual" http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/elisp-manual/elisp.html
*[http://www.emacswiki.org/cgi-bin/wiki The Emacs Wiki]
[[Category:LISP dialects]]
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[[de:Emacs Lisp]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton</title>
<id>10393</id>
<revision>
<id>41644503</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:29:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BillFlis</username>
<id>846916</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Legacy */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edward bulwer-lytton.jpg|thumb|200px|right|'''The Lord Lytton'''<br><small>Novelist and politician</small>]]
'''Edward George Earl Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton''' ([[May 25]], [[1803]]&ndash;[[January 18]], [[1873]]) was an [[England|English ]][[novelist]], [[playwright]], and [[politician]].
He was the youngest son of General William Earle Bulwer of Heydon Hall and Wood Dalling, and Elizabeth Barbara Lytton, daughter of Richard Warburton Lytton of Knebworth, Hertfordshire.
He had two brothers, [[William Bulwer-Lytton|William]] (1799-1877) and [[Henry Bulwer-Lytton|Henry]] (1801-1872), afterwards Lord Dalling. His son [[Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton]] was viceroy of India from 1876 to 1880.
==Life==
Bulwer's father died when he was four years old, after which his mother moved to [[London]]. A delicate and neurotic, but precocious, child, he was sent to various boarding schools, where he was always discontented until a Mr Wallington at Baling encouraged him to publish, at the age of fifteen, an immature work, ''Ishmael and other Poems''.
In [[1822]] he entered [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], but moved shortly afterwards to [[Trinity Hall, Cambridge |Trinity Hall]], and in 1825 won the Chancellor's medal for English verse. In the following year he took his B.A. degree and printed for private circulation a small volume of poems, ''Weeds and Wild Flowers''. He purchased a commission in the army, but sold it again without serving, an |
ans, and central authority is barely felt in the lawless south and south-west” (The Economist, 2005). [http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=4494134]
Expanding poppy cultivation and a growing opium trade is another huge problem for the country. The CIA estimates that one-third of the country's GDP comes from opium export, although the Asian Development Bank states a lower figure, namely $2.5 billion (12% of the GDP). At any rate, this is not only one of Kabul's most serious policy and law-enforcement challenges[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html], but also one of the world's most serious problems.
The problem began with the Soviet invasion in 1979-80. As the government began to lose control of provinces, "warlordism" flourished and with it opium production as regional commanders searched for ways to generate money to purchase weapons, according to the UN. [http://www.irinnews.org/webspecials/opium/Chronology.asp] (At this time the West was pursuing an "arms-length" supporting strategy of the Afghan freedom-fighters or Mujahidin, the main purpose being to cripple the USSR slowly into withdrawal rather than a quick and decisive overthrow).
When the West abandoned Afghanistan after its perceived victory over the Soviet Union as the Red Army was forced to withdraw in 1989, a power vacuum was created. Various Mujahidin factions started fighting against each other for power. With the discontinuation of Western support, they resorted ever more to poppy cultivation to finance their military existence.
The regional mafia, who were looking for a safe operational hub, joined forces with the more fanatic sections of the Mujahidin supported by Arab extremists like Osama bin Laden as well as the Pakistani secret intelligence service [[ISI]] to form the [[Taliban]] movement towards the end of 1994 (Rashid, 2000); [http://www.ahmedrashid.com/] see also BBC report here [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1569826.stm].
The Taliban, having taken control of 90% of the country, actively encouraged poppy cultivation. With this, they not only fulfilled their promises and obligations to their partners - the regional mafia - but also increased their own desperately needed income through taxes. According to the above UN source, Afghanistan saw a bumper opium crop of 4,600 million tonnes in 1999, which was the height of the Taliban rule in Afghanistan. When they came under extreme international diplomatic pressure in 2002, they initiated a ban on poppy cultivation.
Following the US-led coalition war that led to the defeat of the [[Taliban]] in November 2001 which essentially collapsed the economy, the relatively few other sources of revenue forced many of the country's farmers to resort back to growing cash crops for export. A notable example of such a crop is the [[opium poppy]] (1,300 km&sup2; in 2004 according to the [[United Nations]] Office on Drugs and Crime), the cultivation of which has largely increased during the last decade: Afghanistan has become the first illicit opium producer in the world, before [[Burma]] ([[Myanmar]]), part of the so-called "[[Golden Triangle]]".
The main obstacle to eradicating poppy cultivation in Afghanistan is the US forces' need for the warlords and their forces in hunting terrorists. The warlords are the major culprits in poppy cultivation, but are also highly useful to the US forces in scouting, providing local intelligence, keeping their own territories clean from Al-Qaeda and Taliban insurgents, and even taking part in military operations - all for money. This also contributes to the lack of central government's real authority in provinces and discourages farmers from growing grain and fruit as they did for centuries previously.
In short, the Afghan economy is currently (December 2005) going through a hefty change period. On the one hand, there are encouraging signs of positive development and increasing wealth creation and management. But on the other hand, the security situation, the lingering war against terrorism and the opium problem have created tall barriers for Afghanistan to rejoin the international community in prosperity and economic development.
===Economy References===
- Fujimura, Manabu (2004) "Afghan Economy After the Election", Asian Development Bank Institute
- CIA Factbook (2003), Afghanistan Section
- The Economist magazine, UK, October 2005
- UN Office for the Coordination of Human Affairs website
- Rashid, Ahmed (2000) "Taliban - Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia", Yale University Press
- The BBC
==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Afghanistan]]''
The population of Afghanistan is divided into a wide variety of ethnic groups largely composed of [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] and [[Turkic peoples]]. Because a systematic census has not been held in the country in decades, exact figures about the size and composition of the various ethnic groups are not available.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3717092.stm] Therefore most figures are approximations only. According to the CIA World FactBook (updated on [[17 May]] [[2005]]), an approximate ethnic group distribution is as follows:
[[Pashtun]] 30%, [[Tajiks|Tajik]] 29%,, [[Hazara]] 22%, [[Uzbek]] 11%, [[Aimak]] 5%, [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] 3%, [[Baloch]] 2%, other 4% including sikhs.[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/af.html#People]
The CIA factbook on languages in Afghanistan refers to the official languages of Afghanistan as being [[Persian language|Persian]] (local name: [[Dari]]) 50% and [[Pashtu]] 35%. Other languages include [[Turkic language]]s (primarily [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] and [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]) 11%, 30 minor languages (primarily [[Balochi]] and [[Pashai]]) 4%. Bilingualism is common.
Religiously, Afghans are overwhelmingly [[Muslim]] (approximately 80% [[Sunni]] and 19% [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]]). There are also small [[Hindu]] and [[Sikh]] minorities. Afghanistan was once home to a many-centuries-old [[Jew]]ish minority, numbering approximately 5,000 in 1948. Most Jewish families fled the country after the 1979 Soviet invasion, and only one individual remains today, [[Zablon Simintov]]. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39702-2005Jan26.html] With the fall of the Taliban a number of [[Sikhs]] have returned to the [[Ghazni]], [[Nangarhar]], [[Kandahar]] and [[Kabul]] Provinces of Afghanistan.
==Constitution==
''Main article: [[Constitution of Afghanistan]]''
According to the 2004 constitution, Afghanistan is run by a president, who is elected by direct popular vote to a five-year term. The president may only serve two terms. A candidate for president must be at least forty years of age, a Muslim, and a citizen of Afghanistan. The country has two vice-presidents. The president serves as head of state and government, and is commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president makes appointments for his cabinet, as well as posts in the military, police force, and provincial governorships, with the approval of parliament.
The legislative body of Afghanistan is a parliament consisting of two houses: the ''[[Wolesi Jirga]]'' (House of the People) and the ''[[Meshrano Jirga]]'' (House of Elders). The ''Wolesi Jirga'' consists of up to 250 members elected to five-year terms through direct elections in proportion to the population of each province. At least two women must be elected from each province. In the ''Meshrano Jirga'', one-third of the members are elected by provincial councils for four years, one-third are elected by district councils of each province for three years, and one-third are appointed by the president for five years, of whom half must be women.
The judicial system of Afghanistan consists of the ''[[Stera Mahkama]]'' (Supreme Court), appeals courts, and lower district courts designated by law. The ''Stera Mahkama'' is made up of nine judges appointed by the president, with the approval of parliament, to a ten-year term. Judges must be at least forty years of age, not belong to a political party, and have a degree in law or Islamic jurisprudence. The ''Stera Mahkama'' can judge the constitutionality of all laws in the country.
==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Afghanistan]]''
Afghans display pride in their country, ancestry, military prowess, and above all, their independence. Like other highlanders, Afghans are regarded with mingled apprehension and condescension, for their high regard for personal honor, for their clan loyalty and for their readiness to carry and use arms to settle disputes. (Heathcote, 2003). As clan warfare / internecine feuding has been one of their chief occupations since time immemorial, this individualistic trait has made it difficult for foreign invaders to hold the region.
Afghanistan has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. However, many of the country's historic monuments have been damaged in recent wars. The two famous statues of [[Buddhas of Bamiyan|Buddha]] in the [[Bamiyan Province]] were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as [[Idolatry|idolatrous]]. Other famous sites include the very cities of [[Herat]], [[Ghazni]] and [[Balkh]]. The [[Minaret of Jam]], in the [[Hari Rud]] valley, is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage site]].
The people of Afghanistan are prominent horsemen as the national [[sport]] is [[Buzkashi]]. [[Afghan hound]]s (a type of running [[dog]]s) also originated in Afghanistan.
Although literacy levels are very low, classic Persian poetry plays a very important role in Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in both Iran and Afghanistan, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. Private poetry competition events known as “musha’era” are quite common even among ordinary people. Almost every home |
uot;headerless" audio files. The result does not sound very musical, however. This is so because a sensible arrangement of [[bit]]s in one format is almost always nonsensical in another.
== Specifications ==
Many file formats, including some of the most well-known file formats, have a published [[specification]] document (often with a [[reference implementation]]) that describes exactly how the data is to be encoded, and which can be used to determine whether or not a particular [[computer program|program]] treats a particular file format correctly. There are, however, two reasons why this is not always the case. First, some file format developers view their specification documents as [[trade secret]]s, and therefore do not release them to the public. A prominent example of this exists in several formats used by the [[Microsoft Office]] suite of applications. Second, some file format developers never spend time writing a separate specification document; rather, the format is defined only implicitly, through the program(s) that manipulate data in the format.
Note that using file formats without a publicly available specification can be costly. Learning how the format works will require either [[reverse-engineering]] it from a reference implementation or acquiring the specification document for a fee from the format developers. This second approach is possible only when there ''is'' a specification document, and typically requires the signing of a [[non-disclosure agreement]]. Both strategies require significant time, money, or both. Therefore, as a general rule, file formats with publicly available specifications are supported by a large number of programs, while non-public formats are supported by only a few programs.
[[Patent]] law, rather than [[copyright]], is more often used to restrict usage of a file format. Although patents for file formats are not directly permitted under US law, some formats require the encoding of data with patented [[algorithms]]. For example, the GIF file format requires the use of a patented algorithm, and although initially the patent owner did not enforce it, they later began collecting fees for use of the algorithm. This has resulted in a significant decrease in the use of [[GIF]]s, and is partly responsible for the development of the alternative [[PNG]] format. However, the patent expired in the US in mid-[[2003]], worldwide in mid-[[2004]]; algorithms are themselves not currently patentable under European law.
==Identifying the type of a file==
Since files are seen by programs as streams of data, a method is required to determine the format of a particular file within the [[filesystem]]&mdash;an example of [[Metadata (computing)|metadata]]. Different [[operating system]]s have traditionally taken different approaches to this problem, with each approach having its own advantages and disadvantages.
Of course, most modern operating systems, and individual applications, need to use all of these approaches to process various files, at least to be able to read 'foreign' file formats, if not work with them completely.
===Filename extension===
One popular method in use by several operating systems, including [[CP/M]], [[DOS]], and [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], is to determine the format of a file based on the section of its name following the final period. This portion of the filename is known as the [[filename extension]]. For example, HTML documents are identified by names that end with <tt>.html</tt> (or <tt>.htm</tt> on older systems), and GIF images by <tt>.gif</tt>. In the original [[File Allocation Table|FAT]] filesystem, filenames were limited to an eight-character identifier and a three-character extension, which is known as [[8.3 (computing)|8-dot-3]]. Many formats thus still use three-character extensions, even though modern operating systems and application programs no longer have this limitation. Since there is no standard list of extensions, more than one format can use the same extension, which can confuse the operating system and consequently users.
One advantage of this approach is that the system can easily be tricked into treating a file as a different format simply by renaming it&mdash;an HTML file can, for instance, be easily treated as plain text by renaming it from <tt>filename.html</tt> to <tt>filename.txt</tt>. Although this strategy was useful to expert users who could easily understand and manipulate this information, it was frequently confusing to less technical users, who might accidentally make a file unusable (or 'lose' it) by renaming it incorrectly. This led more recent [[operating system shell]]s, such as [[Windows 95]] and [[Mac OS X]], to hide the extension when displaying lists of recognized files. This separates the user from the complete filename, but it makes it more difficult to inadvertently change the filename extension.
===Magic number===
''See [[Magic number (programming)]]''
An alternative method, often associated with [[Unix]] and its derivatives, is to store a "magic number" inside the file itself. Originally, this term was used for a specific set of 2-[[byte]] identifiers at the beginning of a file, but since any undecoded binary sequence can be regarded as a number, any feature of a file format which uniquely distinguishes it can be used for identification. GIF images, for instance, always begin with the [[ASCII]] representation of either <tt>GIF87a</tt> or <tt>GIF89a</tt>, depending upon the standard to which they adhere. Many file types, most especially plain-text files, are harder to spot by this method. HTML files, for example, might begin with the string <tt>&lt;html&gt;</tt> (which is not case sensitive), or an appropriate [[document type definition]] that starts with <tt>&lt;!DOCTYPE</tt>, or, for [[XHTML]], the [[XML]] identifier which begins with <tt>&lt;?xml</tt>. The files could also begin with any random text or several empty lines, but still be usable HTML.
This approach offers better guarantees that the format will be identified correctly, and can often determine more precise information about the file. This is only useful, however, if the interface used to access the files allows the user to easily manipulate any file in a variety of ways&mdash;as opposed to [[double click]]ing automatically doing the "right" thing; it is therefore more often associated with [[command line interface]]s than graphical ones. Since reliable "magic number" tests can be fairly complex, and each file must be tested against every possibility in the "magic file", this approach is also relatively inefficient, especially for displaying large lists of files (in contrast, filename and metadata based methods need check only one piece of data, and match it against a sorted index). And, as with the example of HTML, some filetypes just don't lend themselves to recognition in this way. It is, however, the best way for a program to check if a file it has been told to process is of the correct format: while the file's name or metadata may be altered indepently of its content, failing a well-designed magic number test is a pretty sure sign that the file is either corrupt or of the wrong type.
So-called [[shebang]] lines in [[script (computer programming)|script files]] are a special case of magic numbers. Here, the magic number is human-readable text that identifies a specific [[interpreter (computer software)|command interpreter]] and options to be passed to the command interpreter.
===Explicit metadata===
A final way of storing the format of a file is to explicitly store information about the format in the file system.
This approach keeps the metadata separate from both the main data and the name, but is also less [[portable]] than either file extensions or "magic numbers", since the format has to be converted from filesystem to filesystem. While this is also true to an extent with filename extensions &mdash; for instance, for compatibility with MS-DOS's three character limit &mdash; most forms of storage have a roughly equivalent definition of a file's data and name, but may have varying or no representation of further metadata.
Note that zip files or [[File archiver|archive files]] solve the problem of handling metadata. A utiliy program collects multiple files together along with metadata about each file and the folders/directories they came from all within one new file (e.g. a zip file with extension .zip). The new file is also compressed and possibly encrypted, but now is transmissible as a single ascii/text file across operating systems by ftp systems or attached to email. At the destination, it must be unzipped by a compatible utility to be useful, but the problems of transmission are solved this way.
====Apple Macintosh type-codes====
The [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]'s [[Hierarchical File System]] stores codes for ''[[Creator code|creator]]'' and ''[[Type code|type]]'' as part of the directory entry for each file. These codes are referred to as [[OSType]]s, and for instance an application written by [[Apple Computer|Apple]] would have a ''creator'' of <tt>AAPL</tt> and a ''type'' of <tt>APPL</tt>. [[RISC OS]] uses a similar system, consisting of a 12-[[bit]] number which can be looked up in a table of descriptions &mdash; e.g. the hexadecimal number FF5 is "aliased" to <tt>PoScript</tt>, representing a [[PostScript]] file.
====OS/2 and Windows NT extended attributes====
The [[HPFS]], [[NTFS]], [[File Allocation Table|FAT12 and FAT16]] (but not FAT32) filesystems allow the storage of extended attributes with files. These comprise an arbitrary set of triplets with a name, a coded type for the value and a value, where the names are unique and values can be up t |
dletones'', after the [[Pendleton Woolen Mills|Pendleton woolen shirts]] popular then. Although [[surfing]] motifs were very prominent in their early songs, Dennis was the sole actual surfer in the group. He suggested to his brothers that they do some songs celebrating his hobby and the lifestyle which had developed around it in Southern California.
At first Murry Wilson, by many accounts a hard-driving man, steered The Beach Boys' career, engineering their signing with [[Capitol Records]]. In 1964 Brian Wilson fired his father after a violent confrontation in the studio. Over the next few years they became increasingly estranged; when Murry Wilson died some years later, Brian and Dennis did not attend the funeral.
The Beach Boys' early material focused on the [[California]] youth lifestyle (e.g., "All Summer Long", "[[Fun, Fun, Fun]]"), cars ("[[Little Deuce Coupe (song)|Little Deuce Coupe]]") and of course [[surfing]] ("Surfin' U.S.A.", "Surfin' Safari," and many others). Although their music was bright and accessible, these early works contained remarkably sophisticated musical ideas. During this period, Brian Wilson rapidly progressed to become a melodist, arranger, and producer of world-renowned stature. Their early hits made them major pop stars in America and other countries, although their status as America's top pop group was challenged in 1964 by the emergence of [[The Beatles]], who became The Beach Boys' major creative rival.
Like the Beatles, the Beach Boys showed very fast development during the mid-'60s, drawing upon the innovations of songwriters and producers such as [[Burt Bacharach]] and especially [[Phil Spector]]. They produced the enduring classic "[[California Girls]]" in 1965, a banner year for popular music which also saw similarly advanced singles by the Beatles, [[the Rolling Stones]], [[the Byrds]], and [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]]. But it was the Beach Boys' role to create a myth of American freedom and dreams of adolescence, and increasingly, to articulate a dread of what lay after adolescence.
==Brian's innovations and personal difficulties==
During 1964 Brian Wilson began to suffer [[anxiety]] attacks, and withdrew from touring to concentrate on song writing and record production. [[Bruce Johnston]] subsequently became a full-time member of the band, first replacing Wilson on the road, then contributing his talents in the studio.
Wilson's growing mastery of the recording studio and his increasingly sophisticated songs and complex arrangements reached an early peak with the acclaimed LP ''[[Pet Sounds]]'' ([[1966]]). Classic singles from that album, "[[Wouldn't It Be Nice]]" and "[[God Only Knows]]" (which featured Carl for the third time as sole lead vocalist, after "Pom Pom Play Girl" and "Girl Don't Tell Me"), showed Wilson's growing skill as a composer, [[orchestration|arranger]] and producer. "God Only Knows" is said to have been the first pop song ever released in the U.S. to have the word "God" in the title (because of which many a radio station in the U.S. refused to play it.) "Caroline, No," also taken from ''Pet Sounds'', was issued as a Brian Wilson solo single, the only time Brian was credited as a solo artist during the early Capitol years.
The album's meticulously layered harmonies and inventive instrumentation (performed by the cream of Los Angeles [[session musician]]s known as [[The Wrecking Crew (music)|The Wrecking Crew]]) set a new standard for popular music. It remains one of the more evocative releases of the decade, with a distinctive strain of melancholy and nostalgia for youth. The album is still widely regarded as a classic and [[Paul McCartney]] has named it one of his favorite albums of all time, often saying that it was a major influence on the Beatles' album, ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]''. Despite the critical praise it received, the album was poorly promoted by [[Capitol Records]] and failed to become the major hit Brian had hoped it would be (only reaching #10). Its failure to gain wide recognition hurt him deeply.
Because of his withdrawal from touring, Wilson was able to complete almost all the backing for the album while the Beach Boys were on tour in [[Japan]]. They returned to find a substantially complete album, requiring only their vocals to finish it off. There was some resistance from within the band to this new direction. Lead singer Love is reported to have been strongly opposed to it, partly because he feared the band would lose its audience if they changed their successful formula, and partly because he personally disliked the new material, which he famously criticised as "Brian's [[ego]] music." At Love's insistence, Brian changed the title of one song from "Hang on to Your Ego" to "I Know There's an Answer." Another likely factor in Love's antipathy to ''Pet Sounds'' was that Wilson worked extensively on it with outside lyricist [[Tony Asher]] rather than with him, even while he had written most of the lyrics for their earlier songs and who was the lead vocalist on most of their early hits.
Seeking to expand on the advances made on ''Pet Sounds'', Wilson began an even more ambitious project, originally dubbed ''Dumb Angel''. Its first fruit was "[[Good Vibrations]]," which Brian described as "a pocket [[symphony]]". The song became the Beach Boys' biggest hit to date, and a U.S. and U.K. # 1 single in [[1966]]&mdash;many critics consider it to be one of the best rock singles of all time. In [[1997]] it was named the "Greatest Single of All Time" by Mojo music magazine, in [[2000]], [[VH1]] placed it at number 8 on their "100 Greatest Rock Songs" list, and in late 2004 ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine placed it at number 6 on their "500 Best Songs of All Time" list. It was also one of the more complex pop productions ever undertaken, and was reputed to have been the most expensive American single ever recorded, costing a reported $16,000 -- more than most pop ''albums'' of that time -- with sessions stretching over several months in at least three major studios.
In contrast to his work on ''Pet Sounds'', Wilson adopted a modular approach to "Good Vibrations" &mdash; he broke the song into sections and taped multiple versions of each at different studios to take advantage of the different sound of each facility. He then assembled his favorite sections into a master backing track and added vocals. The song's innovative instrumentation included drums, organ, piano, tack piano, two basses, guitars, [[electro-theremin]], [[harmonica]], and [[cello]]. The group members recall the "Good Vibrations" vocal sessions as among the most demanding of their career.
Even as his personal life deteriorated, Wilson's musical output remained remarkable. The exact nature of his problems was a topic of much speculation. He abused drugs heavily, gained an enormous amount of weight, suffered long bouts of [[depression]], and became [[paranoia|paranoid]]. Several biographies have suggested that his father may have had [[bipolar]] disorder, and after years of suffering, Wilson's own condition was eventually diagnosed as [[schizophrenia]].
==The story behind "Smile"==
Shortly after completing "Good Vibrations," Wilson met session musician and songwriter [[Van Dyke Parks]], and in late 1966 they began an intense collaboration that resulted in a suite of superb new songs for the Beach Boys' next album, which was eventually named ''[[Smile (Brian Wilson album)|Smile]]''. Using the same methods as on "Good Vibrations," recording began in late 1966 and carried on into early 1967. Although the structure of the album and the exact running order of the songs have been subjects of endless speculation, it is apparent that Wilson and Parks intended ''Smile'' to be a continuous suite of songs that were linked both thematically and musically, with the main songs being linked together by small vocal pieces and instrumental segments that elaborated the musical themes of the major songs.
But the other Beach Boys -- especially Love -- found the new music too difficult and too far removed from their established style; another serious concern was that the new music was simply not feasible for live performance by the current Beach Boys lineup. Love was bitterly opposed to ''Smile'' and was particularly critical of Parks's lyrics; he has also since stated that he was becoming deeply concerned about Wilson's escalating drug intake. The problems came to a head during the recording of "Cabinessence," when Love demanded that Parks explain the meaning of the closing refrain of the song, "Over and over the crow cries uncover the cornfield." After a heated argument, Parks walked out and his partnership with Wilson came to an abrupt end.
Many factors combined to focus intense pressure on Wilson as ''Smile'' neared completion, including mental instability, drug use, the pressure to perform against fierce opposition to his new music, the relatively poor response to ''Pet Sounds'', Carl Wilson's [[military draft|draft]] resistance, and a major dispute with Capitol. Matters were complicated by his reliance on both prescription and illegal [[recreational drug use|drugs]], particularly [[marijuana]] and [[Amphetamine|amphetamines]], which only exacerbated his underlying mental health problems.
Just weeks before The Beatles' ''[[Sgt Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' was released, ''Smile'' was shelved. Over the next 30 years the legends surrounding ''Smile'' grew, until it became the most famous unreleased album in the history of popular music. Some of the tracks were salvaged and rerecorded at Brian's new home studio in drastically scaled-down versions. These were rele |
imit]].
** By analogy with this, the late mathematician [[Paul Erdős]] also used the term "epsilons" to refer to children ([[Paul Hoffman|Hoffman]] 1998, p. 4).
* In [[set theory]], the [[limit ordinal]] of the sequence <math>\omega,\omega^{\omega},\omega^{\omega^{\omega}},\dots</math>.
* In computing, the [[precision]] of a numeric data type.
* In [[computer science]], the [[String (computer science)|empty string]].
* In mathematics, the [[Levi-Civita symbol]].
* In mathematics, [[set]] membership (often written &isin; instead of &epsilon;), especially in older texts.
* In physics, the [[permittivity]] of a medium.
* In [[automata theory]], a transition that involves no shifting of an input symbol.
* In [[astronomy]], the fifth brightest (usually) star in a [[constellation]]. ''See'' [[Bayer designation]].
* In phonetics, the open or lax mid-front [[vowel]], as in the English word "pet" (/p&epsilon;t/)
There is a company that has this name:
*[[Epsilon S.A]] - studio company
* In Greek it is used for Epsilon Team
Letters that arose from Epsilon include the Roman [[E]] and Cyrillic [[Ye (Cyrillic)|Ye]].
===Fictional names===
* ''Epsilon in Malaysian Pale'' is the name of the second solo album released by [[Tangerine Dream]] leader [[Edgar Froese]] in [[1975]].
* Epsilon is also an [[Australian]] light-powered female-looking [[robot]] that fought [[Pluto (manga)|Pluto]] in an episode of [[Astro Boy]].
* ''Epsilon Eridani III'' is the planet that the spacestation [[Babylon 5]] orbited in the eponymous [[science fiction|sci-fi]] television series.
* [[E-104 Epsilon]] is also the name of a robot in [[Sonic Adventure]].
* Epsilon Semi-Moron is the lowest and least intelligent caste in Aldous Huxley's dystopic satire [[Brave New World]].
* In Greek it is used for [[Epsilon Team]].
__NOTOC__
[[Category:Greek letters]]
[[als:Ε]]
[[ca:Èpsilon]]
[[da:Epsilon]]
[[de:Epsilon]]
[[el:Έψιλον]]
[[es:Ε]]
[[fr:Epsilon]]
[[ga:Eipsealón]]
[[gl:Epsilon]]
[[ko:Ε]]
[[he:אפסילון]]
[[nl:Epsilon]]
[[ja:Ε]]
[[no:Epsilon]]
[[nn:Epsilon]]
[[pl:Epsilon]]
[[pt:Ε]]
[[ru:Эпсилон (буква)]]
[[sl:Epsilon]]
[[fi:Epsilon]]
[[sv:Epsilon]]
[[zh:Ε]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eta (letter)</title>
<id>9488</id>
<revision>
<id>36389869</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-23T19:06:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ανδρέας</username>
<id>469010</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Pronunciation */ copy edit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Greekletters|letter=eta}}
:''For other uses, see [[Eta]].''
'''Eta''' (upper case Η, lower case η) is the seventh letter of the [[Greek alphabet]]. In the system of [[Greek numerals]] it has a value of 8.
==Pronunciation==
In [[Modern Greek]] letter is pronounced [[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[i]}}]]. In the Classical version of the [[Ancient Greek]] language, it was pronounced as a long {{IPA|[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|open-mid front unrounded vowel, [&#603;&#720;]]}}]. The symbol was initially used to denote the [[rough breathing]], [[Voiceless glottal fricative|{{IPA|[h]}}]]. In the [[Ionic dialect]], where this sound had disappeared by the sixth century BC, the letter was used to represent the long [{{IPA|&#603;&#720;}}]. When the Ionic alphabet was adopted in [[Athens]] in [[403 BC]], [{{IPA|&#603;&#720;}}] (previously written as Ε) was also written as Η there too, hence the modern usage.
==Symbol==
Eta is sometimes used in place of [[eng]] (ŋ) when eng is not available, because of their similar appearance.
The upper-case letter Η is used as a symbol for:
*In [[textual criticism]], the [[Alexandrian text-type]] (from ''Hesychius'', its once-supposed editor).
*In [[chemistry]], [[enthalpy]].
The lower-case letter η is used as a symbol for:
* In [[thermodynamics]], the efficiency of a [[Carnot heat engine]].
* In [[chemistry]], the number of [[electron]]s shared between a [[metal]] center and a ligand in a [[coordination compound]]. For example, an [[allyl group]] can coordinate to [[palladium]] in the η¹ mode or the η³ mode.
*In [[optics]], the [[refractive index]] of an optical medium (although the letter ''n'' is more common).
*In [[particle physics]], to represent the η [[baryon]]s.
* In [[statistics]], ''η''<sup>2</sup> is the "partial regression coefficient".
* In [[astronomy]], the seventh brightest (usually) star in a [[constellation]]. ''See'' [[Bayer designation]].
* In [[experimental particle physics]], η stands for [[pseudorapidity]].
* In mathematics, η-conversion, see [[lambda calculus#η-conversion |lambda calculus]]
* In [[fluid dynamics]], η stands for [[viscosity]].
[[Category:Greek letters]]
[[als:Η]]
[[ca:Eta]]
[[da:Eta]]
[[de:Eta]]
[[el:Ήτα]]
[[es:Η]]
[[fr:Êta]]
[[ga:Éite]]
[[he:אטא]]
[[ko:Η]]
[[nl:Èta]]
[[ja:Η]]
[[no:Eta (bokstav)]]
[[pl:Eta]]
[[pt:Η]]
[[fi:Eeta]]
[[sv:Eta]]
[[zh:Η]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eric Arthur Blair</title>
<id>9489</id>
<revision>
<id>15907378</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-26T12:52:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.253.40.87</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[George Orwell]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[George Orwell]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Environmental organization</title>
<id>9490</id>
<revision>
<id>15907379</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-23T05:25:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DavidLevinson</username>
<id>1689</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[List of environmental organizations]] (merge)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of environmental organizations]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eskimo</title>
<id>9491</id>
<revision>
<id>42163608</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T06:07:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Interiot</username>
<id>122679</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cleaned up image</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the Eskimo people|the album by [[The Residents]]|Eskimo (album)}}
[[Image:Eskimo Family NGM-v31-p564-2.jpg|right|300px]]
'''Eskimos''', or '''Esquimaux''', are terms used to refer to [[people]] who inhabit the [[circumpolar]] region (excluding [[Scandinavia]] and most of [[Russia]], but including the easternmost portions of Siberia). There are two main groups of Eskimos: the [[Inuit]] (in northern [[Alaska]], [[Canada]] and [[Greenland]]) and the [[Yupik]] (of western Alaska and the Russian Far East).
The Eskimos are related to the [[Aleut]]s and the [[Alutiiq]] from the [[Aleutian Islands]] in Alaska as well as the Sug'piak from the [[Kodiak Island]]s and as far as the [[Prince William Sound]] in southcentral Alaska.
Eastern Eskimo people - the Inuit - speak [[Inuktitut]], and western Alaskan Eskimo communities - the Yup'ik - speak [[Yupik language|Yup'ik]]. There is something of a [[dialect continuum]] between the two, and the westernmost [[dialect]]s of Inuktitut could be viewed as forms of Yup'ik. [[Kinship]] culture also differs between east and west, as eastern Inuit lived with [[cousin]]s of both parents, but western Inuit lived in [[paternal kinship]] groups.
== Use and origin of the term ==
The term "Eskimo" is an [[exonym]] that is not generally used by Eskimos themselves. The term "Inuit" is sometimes used instead, but it does not properly include the Yupik.
Some [[Algonquian language]]s call Eskimos by names that mean "eaters of raw meat" or something that sounds similar. The [[Plains Ojibwe]], for example, use the word ''êškipot'' ("one who eats raw," from ''ašk-'', "raw," and ''-po-'', "to eat") to refer to Eskimos. But in the period of the earliest attested French use of the word, the Plains Ojibwe were not in contact with Europeans, nor did they have very much direct contact with the Inuit in pre-colonial times. It is entirely possible that the Ojibwe have adopted words resembling "Eskimo" by borrowing them from French, and the French word merely ''sounds'' like Ojibwe words that can be interpreted as "eaters of raw meat". Furthermore, since Cree people also traditionally consumed raw meat, a pejorative significance based on this etymology seems unlikely.
The [[Montagnais language]], a dialect of [[Cree language|Cree]] which was known to French traders at the time of the earliest attestation of ''esquimaux'', does not have vocabulary fitting this etymological analysis. A variety of competing etymologies have been proposed over the years, but the most likely source is the Montagnais word meaning "snowshoe-netter". Since Montagnais speakers refer to the neighbouring [[Mi'kmaq]] people using words that sound very much like ''eskimo'', many researchers have concluded that this is the more likely origin of the word. (Mailhot, J. ''L'étymologie de «Esquimau» revue et corrigée'' Etudes Inuit/Inuit Studies 2-2:59-70 ''1978''; Goddard 1984 in Campbell 1997.)
The term "Eskimo" is still used in Alaska to refer to the state's Arctic peoples in general, whether or not they are Eskimos culturally or linguistically. For example, while some [[Yupik]] people prefer to be called "Yup'ik", they do not generally object to being called "Eskimo", but they do not consider themselves "Inuit". [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/inuitoreskimo.html]
Among many non-Eskimos, the word "Eskimo" is falling out of use to refer to the Eskimo peoples in favor of the term "Inuit", which leads to much confusion as to the relationship between the Inuit and the Yup'ik. Much of the impetus behind this change probably traces to the books of [[Farley Mowat]], particularly ''[[People of the Deer]]'' |
t is not a highway (and is instead replaced by highway A6).
===Toll===
Toll is charged on all highways, except on the motorway that surrounds the city of [[Zagreb]]. The toll is collected upon leaving the highway system, at all exit toll gates. Normally paid in [[kuna (currency)|kuna]], all major credit cards and [[euro]]s are accepted at all toll gates. Drivers receive a receipt at appropriate machines upon entering the motorway system. This receipt states the point of entry. The receipt must be presented upon leaving the motorway when toll is collected. Toll is being paid according to kilometers. It is not possible to evade this procedure since there are separate service areas in each direction and there is no possibility of return. Additionally, every vehicle is being monitored by video cameras at the toll gates.
Frequent travelers also have the possibility of buying a special [[SmartCard]] with certain included discounts (currently, one SmartCard for vehicle class 1 is 1200 kuna). However, it is not recommendable for less than 10 longer journeys along Croatian motorways per year. It is possible to charge this card with certain desirable amounts.
There are also reduced rates for transport companies, which should prevent heavy traffic along regional roads. The government has introduced discounted tariffs for all classes of vehicles during the 2005-2006 winter months (December 24 until March 1). These discounts, however, apply only to SmartCard users.
===Highway A1===
The 380km long [[highway]] A1 [[Zagreb]] - [[Split]] is the showpiece project of all previous Croatian governments. The A1 connects the continental part of Croatia with Mediterranean [[Dalmatia]]. Its construction finished on [[June 26]], [[2005]]. The highway consists of two lanes in both directions in its full length (except of two tunnels, at Mala Kapela and at Sveti Rok, the second tubes will be opened for traffic when the car traffic frequency reaches adequate levels).
The most important edifice is [[Sveti Rok]] tunnel (5.687&nbsp;m), which goes through the famous [[Velebit]] mountain range barrier. This tunnel actually connects two climatic zones (the mountaineous climate of central Croatia and the Mediterranean climate of Dalmatia). The most modern, and at the same time the longest Croatian tunnel, is also along the A1. It is the tunnel through the [[Mala Kapela]] mountain range (5,780&nbsp;m elevation).
The highway winds itself as a panoramic road through the Croatian hills, goes along the [[Dalmatia]]n coast and passes the world-famous [[Krka National Park]]. There is a service area right beside a beautiful vantage point near to this National Park. The construction of this highway will continue rapidly in direction to the important [[Ploče]] sea port (and further on to [[Dubrovnik]]). The scheduled deadline for constructions up to Ploče is 2008. During this and the following year, numerous service areas and petrol stations will gradually be constructed along all Croatian highways.
===Other highways===
Within the following years, all major routes towards the north (to [[Slovenia]]) will be highway connections. Since June 2005 there are highways from the Slovenian border at [[Umag]] in direction to [[Rovinj]] and from the [[Rupa]] border crossing to [[Rijeka]].
Scheduled for May 2007, the connection [[Zagreb]]&ndash;[[Krapina]]/[[Macelj]] border crossing, southern of [[Maribor]] will be completed.
The eastern and western "wing" of the so-called "Istrian Y" (expressway connection in [[Istria]]) has been opened for traffic since June 2005. About 2006, the last remaining part in direction to [[Pula]] in the south will be constructed. It is also being considered to transform these sections into a highway when a certain traffic limit will be reached.
The last remaining part of the highway connection A6 between [[Rijeka]] and [[Zagreb]] was constructed in spring 2004. An extension of the two-way traffic sections is planned for 2008. Within the following years, a second highway bypass around Rijeka and the highway connection [[Rijeka]]&ndash;[[Senj]]/Žuta Lokva to the existing A1 will be built.
A highway connection of [[Zagreb]] and the important industrial city of [[Sisak]] should be constructed until 2008.
Within the next few years, all parts of Croatia should be easy to reach along modern highways. Highways will soon extend from [[Županja]] (eastern [[Slavonia]]) to [[Serbia]]. Construction works along the European North-South corridor 5C (route E73) between the [[Hungary|Hungarian border]] at [[Beli Manastir]], [[Osijek]] and the [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian border]] in direction to [[Sarajevo]] and further on to the sea port of [[Ploce|Ploče]] will soon begin. (The connection from Zagreb to the Hungarian border at [[Varaždin]] and [[Čakovec]] has already been established.)
Significant tunnel and bridge construction projects in Southern Dalmatia are already being planned, such as the [[Biokovo]] tunnel near [[Makarska]], which will connect the panoramic seashore road with the future A1, and a sea bridge to the [[Peljesac|Pelješac]] peninsula (bridging Bosnian territory).
===Fixed construction deadlines===
*(A9) [[Vodnjan]] - [[Pula]] ([[Istria]]) (15 km): Expressway construction until [[2006]]
*(A3) [[Županja]] - Serbian border (30 km): Completion in [[2006]]
*(A2) Slovenian border - [[Krapina]] (19 km): Completion in May [[2007]]
*(A1) [[Split]] - [[Ploče]] (96 km): Completion up to Šestanovac in June [[2007]] (36 km), up to Ploče [[2008]] (60 km)
*(A5) Bosnian border - [[Osijek]] - Hungarian border (89 km): Completion of the part from the existing motorway at junction Sredanci up to [[Đakovo]] in fall [[2007]] (23 km), up to Osijek in [[2008]] (additional 32 km)
*(A11) [[Zagreb]] - [[Velika Gorica]] - [[Sisak]] (46 km): Completion up to [[Velika Gorica]] (8 km) in fall [[2007]], up to Lekenik in [[2008]] (20 km), up to [[Sisak]] (Mošćenica) after [[2008]]
*Second motorway ring around [[Rijeka]] (28 km): Completion in [[2008]]
*(A6, A1) [[Rijeka]] - [[Zagreb]]: Completion of two-lanes in each direction from [[Kupjak]] to [[Vrbovsko]] (55 km) until [[2008]]
*(A7) Connection [[Rijeka]] - [[Senj]]/Žuta Lokva in direction to the A1 (87 km): deadline not set, but construction is planned
*(A10) [[Ploče]]-border to [[Bosnia and Hercegovina]] (9 km): Start of constructions depends on motorway construction progress in Bosnia and Hercegovina (Croatian border - [[Tuzla]] - [[Sarajevo]] - [[Mostar]] - [[Ploče]]).
===Other major roads===
There are other notable national roads, with designations:
* D1: the road from [[Zagreb]] to Split via [[Lika]] - passes through [[Karlovac]], [[Slunj]], [[Plitvice]], [[Korenica]], [[Knin]], [[Sinj]]
* D2: the road from [[Varaždin]] to [[Osijek]] via [[Podravina]] - passes through [[Koprivnica]], [[Virovitica]], [[Slatina]], [[Našice]]
These roads are monitored by Croatian auto-club and the road authorities because they connect important locations, but are only two-way and don't support larger volumes of traffic.
=== Bus traffic ===
In contrast to the fairly underdeveloped rail traffic, [[bus]]es represent the most-accepted, cheapest and widely-used means of public transport. National bus traffic is very well developed and it is very easy to reach even the remotest parts of Croatia by bus. Almost all buses on national routes are air-conditioned and offer pleasant traveling comfort.
In practice, bus fares are being collected on the bus while traveling, which is sometimes even cheaper than when paying at the ticket office (there is an additional fee for stored luggage).
From Croatia, there are many international bus routes to the neighboring countries ([[Slovenia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], etc.), as well as to [[Austria]], [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]] and to other European countries. International buses correspond to European standards.
[[Zagreb]] has the largest and most modern bus terminal in the country, with specially-designed waiting areas above the bus parking area. The Zagreb bus terminal is not far away from the main train station ''(Glavni kolodvor)'' and it is easy to reach by direct city [[tram]] lines.
== Water transport ==
===Sea transport===
Croatia has several large [[seaport]]s. The largest seaport with the deepest channel to a port in the Adriatic is [[Rijeka]] on the northern Croatian coast, followed by [[Ploče]] in southern Dalmatia. The port of Ploče is of strategic importance for the industries of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. The largest Croatian passenger ports are [[Split]] and [[Zadar]] (capital of [[Dalmatia]]), also called ''gateways to the islands'' (there are more than thousand islands along the Croatian coast).
'''Ports and harbors:'''
* major transport seaports: [[Omisalj|Omišalj]], [[Ploce|Ploče]], [[Rijeka]], [[Sibenik|Šibenik]]
* other seaports: [[Dubrovnik]], [[Dugi Rat]], [[Pula, Croatia|Pula]], [[Split]], [[Zadar]]
* inland waterway ports: [[Vukovar]] (on [[Danube]])
[[Merchant marine]] (as of 2005):
* ''total:'' 73 ships (1,000 [[tonnage|GRT]] or over) totaling 750,579 GRT/1,178,786 [[deadweight ton|DWT]]
* ''ships by type:''
** bulk carrier 25
** cargo 12
** chemical tanker 2
** passenger/cargo 25
** petroleum tanker 4
** refrigerated cargo 1
** roll on/roll off 4
** foreign-owned ships registered here as a flag of convenience: 1
*** [[Denmark]] 1
** registered in other countries: 31
===River transport===
Croatia is also on the important [[Danube]] waterway, which connects Eastern and Central Europe. The major Danube port is [[Vukovar]].
Perennially navigable rivers:
* [[Danube]] (section from Batina to Ilok which is in Croatia)
* [[Sava]] - from [[Sisak]] (until it exits Croatia near Gunja)
Total [[waterway]] length (as of 2004): 785 km
== Pipelines ==
As of 2004:
* [[natural gas|gas]]: 1,340 km
* [[petroleum|oil]]: 583 km
== See also ==
* [[Croatia]]
* [[Croatian car number plates]]
==External links |
Occhio alla penna'', Michele Lupo
*''So Fine'', Andrew Bergman
*''[[White Dog]]'', [[Samuel Fuller]]
'''1982'''
*''Cop Killer'', Roberto Faenza
*''El tesoro de las cuatro coronas'', Ferdinando Baldi
*''Extrasensorial /The Link'', Alberto De Martino
*''Hundra'', Matt Cimber
*''Le ruffian'', Josè Giovanni
*''Nana'', Dan Wolman
*''[[The Thing]]'', [[John Carpenter]]
'''1983'''
*''La chiave'', [[Tinto Brass]]
*''Le marginai'', Jacques Deray
*''Les voleurs de la nuit'', [[Samuel Fuller]]
*''[[Sahara (1983 movie)|Sahara]]'', Andrew V. McLaglen
*''Seven Graves for Rogan'' / ''A Time to Die'', Matt Cimber
'''1984'''
*''Don't Kill God'', Jacqueline Manzano - identity and collocation are doubtful, *as it is doubtful that this is an original collaboration
*''Il pentito'', Pasquale Squitieri
*''La cage aux folles III'', Georges Lautner
*''La gabbia'', Giuseppe Patroni Grifi
*''La Venexiana'', [[Mauro Bolognini]]
*''[[Once Upon a Time in America]]'', [[Sergio Leone]]
'''1985'''
*''[[Red Sonja (1985 film)|Red Sonja]]'', [[Richard Fleischer]]
'''1986'''
*''Mosca addio'', [[Mauro Bolognini]]
*''[[The Mission]]'', [[Roland Joffé]]
'''1987'''
*''Gli occhiali d'oro'', [[Giuliano Montaldo]]
*''Il giorno prima'', [[Giuliano Montaldo]]
*''Il segreto del Sahara'', Alberto Negrin
*''Quartiere'', Silvano Agosti
*''[[The Untouchables]]'', [[Brian De Palma]]
'''1988'''
*''A Time of Destiny'', Gregory Nava
*''[[Frantic]]'', [[Roman Polanski]]
*''[[Nuovo Cinema Paradiso]]'', [[Giuseppe Tornatore]]
'''1989'''
*''[[Casualties of War (movie)|Casualties of War]]'', [[Brian De Palma]]
*''[[Fat Man and Little Boy]]'', [[Roland Joffé]]
*''Tempo di uccidere'', [[Giuliano Montaldo]]
'''1990'''
*''Atame!'' / ''[[Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down!]]'', [[Pedro Almodovar]]
*''Dimenticare Palermo'', Francesco Rosi
*''Hamlet'', [[Franco Zeffirelli]]
*''Mio caro dottor Grasler'', Roberto Faenza
*''Stanno tutti bene'', [[Giuseppe Tornatore]]
*''State of Grace'', Phil Joanou
*''Tre colonne in cronaca'', Carlo Vanzina
'''1991'''
*''[[Bugsy]]'', [[Barry Levinson]]
*''Cacciatori di navi'', Folco Quilici
*''Crossing the Line'', [[David Leland]]
*''La domenica specialmente'' - Episodi di Giuseppe Bertolucci, Marco
*''Tullio'', Giordana e Giuseppe Tornatore
*''La villa del venerdì'', Mauro Bolognini
'''1992'''
*''City of Joy'', Roland Joffé
*''[[Rampage]]'', [[William Friedkin]] - completed in 1987
'''1993'''
*''Il lungo silenzio'', [[Margarethe von Trotta]]
*''[[In the Line of Fire]]'', [[Wolfgang Petersen]]
*''Jona che visse nella balena'', Roberto Faenza
*''La scorta'', Ricky Tognazzi
'''1994&ndash;1998'''
*''[[Love Affair]]'' (1994)
*''[[Disclosure (film)|Disclosure]]'' ([[Barry Levinson]], 1994)
*''Pasolini, un delitto italiano'' (1995)
*''The Night and the Moment'' (1995)
*''Tashunga'' (1996)
*''La sindrome di Stendhal'' (1996)
*''[[Lolita (1997 film)|Lolita]]'' ([[Adrian Lyne]], 1997)
*''Cartoni animati'' (1997)
*''Con rabbia e con amore'' (1997)
*''Naissance des stéréoscopages'' (1997)
*''La leggenda del pianista sull'oceano'' / ''The Legend of 1900'' ([[Giuseppe Tornatore]], 1998)
*''Il fantasma dell'opera'' / ''The Phantom of the Opera'' ([[Dario Argento]], 1998)
*''John Carpenter's The Thing: Terror Takes Shape'' (1998)
*''[[Bulworth]]'', [[Warren Beatty]] (1998)
'''2000&ndash;2004'''
*''[[Malèna]]'' (Giuseppe Tornatore, 2000)
*''Sensitive New-Age Killer'' (Mark Savage, 2000)?
*''[[Mission to Mars]]'' ([[Brian De Palma]], 2000)
*''Vatel'' ([[Roland Joffé]], 2001)
*''Aida degli alberi'' / ''Aida of the Trees'' (2001)
*''Un altro mondo è possibile'' / ''Another World Is Possible'' (2001)
*''Cowboys Don't Kiss In Public'' (2001)
*''La ragion pura'' (2001)
*''Senso `45'' ([[Tinto Brass]], 2002)
*''L'ultimo pistolero'' (2002)
*''La luz prodigiosa'' / ''The End of a Mystery'' (2003)
*''72 metra'' / ''72 meters'' (2004)
*''Sorstalanság'' / ''[[Fateless (film)|Fateless]]'' (Lajos Koltai, 2004)
== TV films & series ==
*''The Virginian'' (TV series, 1962-1970)
*''Lo squarciagola'' (1966)
*''Marco Polo'' ([[Giuliano Montaldo]], TV series, 1982)
*''Gli indifferenti'' ([[Mauro Bolognini]], 1988)
*''In fondo al cuore'' (1997)
*''Nostromo'' (1997) (TV series)
*''Ultimo 2 - La sfida'' (1999)
*''Padre Pio - Tra cielo e terra'' (2001)
*''Musashi'' (TV series, 2002)
*''Charlie Chaplin - Les années suisses'' (2003)
*''Il cuore nel pozzo'' (2005)
*''Karol, un uomo diventato papa'' (2005)
== Films with songs by Morricone ==
*''Gli imbroglioni'' (Lucio Fulci, 1963) the song ''Gokart twist''
*''Prima della rivoluzione'' (Bernardo Bertolucci, 1963) songs of Morricone and Gino Paoli
*''In ginocchio da te'' (Ettore Maria Fizzarotti, 1964)
*''Non son degno di te'' (Ettore Maria Fizzarotti, 1965)
*''Se non avessi più te'' (Ettore Maria Fizzarotti, 1965)
*''Mi vedrai tornare'' (Ettore Maria Fizzarotti, 1966)
*''O.K. Connery (Alberto de Martino, 1966)
*''[[Kill Bill]]'' vol. 2 features the songs ''L'Arena,'' ''Il Tramonto'' and ''A Silhouette of Doom,'' from three of his spaghetti western movies.
?(Al)La scoperta dell'America (Sergio Giordani, 1977)?
See also: [[Morricone, classical compositions|List of classical compositions]]
==References==
*Miceli, Sergio. ''Morricone, la musica, il cinema''. Mucchi/Ricordi, 1994: ISBN 88-7592-398-1
*Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. ''Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 3. Dal 1960 al 1969''. Gremese, 1993: ISBN 88-7605-593-2
*Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. ''Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 4. Dal 1970 al 1979* A/L''. Gremese, 1996: ISBN 88-7605-935-0
*Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. ''Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 4. Dal 1970 al 1979** M/Z''. Gremese, 1996: ISBN 88-7605-969-5
*Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. ''Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 5. Dal 1980 al 1989* A/L''. Gremese, 2000: ISBN 88-7742-423-0
*Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. ''Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 5. Dal 1980 al 1989** M/Z''. Gremese, 2000: ISBN 88-7742-429-X
*Internet Movie Database www.imdb.com
==External links==
*[http://www.soundtrackinfo.com/composer.asp?id=134&s=y Ennio Morricone at the SoundtrackINFO project]
*{{imdb name|id=0001553|name={{PAGENAME}}}}
*[http://www.enniomorricone.it/ Official website]
[[Category:1928 births|Morricone, Ennio]]
[[Category:Natives of Rome|Morricone, Ennio]]
[[Category:Living people|Morricone, Ennio]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Morricone, Ennio]]
[[Category:Italian composers|Morricone, Ennio]]
[[Category:Italian film score composers|Morricone, Ennio]]
[[bg:Енио Мориконе]]
[[de:Ennio Morricone]]
[[es:Ennio Morricone]]
[[eo:Ennio MORRICONE]]
[[fr:Ennio Morricone]]
[[it:Ennio Morricone]]
[[he:אניו מוריקונה]]
[[hu:Ennio Morricone]]
[[nl:Ennio Morricone]]
[[ja:エンニオ・モリコーネ]]
[[pl:Ennio Morricone]]
[[ru:Морриконе, Эннио]]
[[sk:Ennio Morricone]]
[[fi:Ennio Morricone]]
[[sv:Ennio Morricone]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Explosives used during WW II</title>
<id>10278</id>
<revision>
<id>35772741</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T04:12:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shaddack</username>
<id>294325</id>
</contributor>
<comment>wikilinks</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Almost all the common explosives were mixtures of [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]], [[RDX]] or [[PETN]].
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2">
<tr>
<td>'''Name'''</td>
<td>'''Composition'''</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Baronal]]</td>
<td>[[Barium nitrate]], TNT and [[aluminium]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Composition A]]</td>
<td>88.3% RDX and 11.7% [[plasticizer]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Composition B]]</td>
<td>RDX, TNT and [[wax]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[H-6 (explosive)|H-6]]</td>
<td>45% RDX, 30% TNT, 20% aluminium and 5% wax</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Minol-2]]</td>
<td>40% TNT, 40% [[ammonium nitrate]] and 20% aluminium</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Octol]]</td>
<td>75% [[HMX]] (cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine) and 25% TNT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Pentolite]]s</td>
<td>50% PETN and 50% TNT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Picratol]]</td>
<td>52% [[Picric acid]] and 48% TNT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[PIPE (explosive)|PIPE]]</td>
<td>81% PETN and 19% [[petroleum|Oil]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[PTX-1]]</td>
<td>30% RDX, 50% [[tetryl]] and 20% TNT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[PTX-2]]</td>
<td>41-44% RDX, 26-28% PETN and 28-33% TNT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[PVA-4]]</td>
<td>90% RDX, 8% [[polyvinyl alcohol|PVA]] and 2% [[dibutyl phthalate]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[RIPE (explosive)|RIPE]]</td>
<td>85% RDX and 15% Oil</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Tetrytol]]s</td>
<td>70% [[Tetryl]] and 30% TNT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Torpex]]</td>
<td>42% RDX, 40% TNT and 18% aluminium</td>
</tr>
</table>
:''See also :'' [[Explosive material]], [[Little Boy]], [[Fat Man]].
[[Category:Explosives]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Endlosung</title>
<id>10279</id>
<revision>
<id>35314860</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T21:33:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sceptre</username>
<id>274040</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dblredir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Final Solution]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Euclids algorithm</title>
<id>10280</id>
<revision>
<id>15908101</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip |
of Freedom]]'' Classic utilitarian defense of anarchism
*[[Auberon Herbert]], ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/ToC/0146.php The Right and Wrong of Compulsion by the State]''
*[[Albert Jay Nock]], ''[http://www.barefootsworld.net/nockoets0.html Our Enemy the State]'' Oppenheimer's thesis applied to early US history
*Juan Lutero Madrigal, ''[http://www.geocities.com/johnfkosanke/anc_capm.htm anarcho-capitalism: principles of civilization]''
*[[Franz Oppenheimer]], ''[http://www.opp.uni-wuppertal.de/oppenheimer/st/state0.htm The State]'' Analysis of State; political means vs. economic means
*[[Robert Nozick]], ''Anarchy, State, and Utopia'' Academic philosopher on libertarianism
*[[Herbert Spencer]], ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Spencer0236/SocialStatics/0331_Bk.html Social Statics]'' Includes the essay "The Right to Ignore the State"
*Morris & Linda Tannahill, ''The Market for Liberty'' Classic on PDAs (private defense agencies)
===Fiction===
Anarcho-capitalism has been examined in certain works of literature, particularly [[science fiction]]. an example being [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s 1966 novel ''[[The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress]]'', where he explores what he terms "rational anarchism."
==Notes==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
<references/>
</div>
==References==
* [[Bruce Benson|Benson, Bruce]]: ''[[The Enterprise of Law: Justice Without The State]]''
* Hart, David M.: [http://homepage.mac.com/dmhart/Molinari/ Gustave de Molinari and the Anti-Statist Liberal Tradition] Retrieved [[14 September]] [[2005]]
* [[Hans-Hermann Hoppe|Hoppe, Hans-Hermann]]: ''[[A Theory of Socialism and Capitalism]]''
* [[Hans-Hermann Hoppe|Hoppe, Hans-Hermann]]: ''[[Democracy: The God That Failed]]''
* [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray]]: ''[[For a New Liberty]]: The Libertarian Manifesto''
* [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray]]: ''[[The Ethics of Liberty]]''
* [[Lysander Spooner|Spooner, Lysander]]: (1867) [http://www.lysanderspooner.org/notreason.htm ''No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority''] Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]
* Tannehill, Linda and Morris: ''[[The Market For Liberty]]''
* [[Benjamin Tucker|Tucker, Benjamin]]: (1888) [http://praxeology.net/BT-SSA.htm ''State Socialism and Anarchism:How Far They Agree, and Wherein They Differ''] Liberty 5.16, no. 120 ([[10 March]] [[1888]]), pp. 2-3.Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]
* [[Benjamin Tucker|Tucker, Benjamin]]: (1926) [http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/tucker/tucker37.html ''Labor and its Pay''] Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]
* [[Michael van Notten|Van Notten, Michael]]: [http://home.arcor.de/danneskjoeld/X/Som/indenwr1.htm ''The Law of the Somalis''], 2005
==See also==
===Books===
*[[Murray Rothbard]] Father of modern anarcho-capitalism:
**''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/mes.asp Man, Economy, and State]'' The ultimate Austrian economics book,
**''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/mes.asp Power and Market]'' Classification of State economic interventions,
**''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/ethics.asp The Ethics of Liberty]'' Moral justification of a free society
*[[Frederic Bastiat]], ''[http://www.ozarkia.net/bill/anarchism/library/thelaw.html The Law]'' Radical classical liberalism
*Davidson & Rees-Mogg, ''The Sovereign Individual'' Historians look at technology & implications
*[[David Friedman]], ''[[The Machinery of Freedom]]'' Classic utilitarian defense of anarchism
*[[Auberon Herbert]], ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/ToC/0146.php The Right and Wrong of Compulsion by the State]''
*[[Albert Jay Nock]], ''[http://www.barefootsworld.net/nockoets0.html Our Enemy the State]'' Oppenheimer's thesis applied to early US history
*Juan Lutero Madrigal, ''[http://www.geocities.com/johnfkosanke/anc_capm.htm anarcho-capitalism: principles of civilization]''
*[[Franz Oppenheimer]], ''[http://www.opp.uni-wuppertal.de/oppenheimer/st/state0.htm The State]'' Analysis of State; political means vs. economic means
*[[Robert Nozick]], ''Anarchy, State, and Utopia'' Academic philosopher on libertarianism
*[[Herbert Spencer]], ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Spencer0236/SocialStatics/0331_Bk.html Social Statics]'' Includes the essay "The Right to Ignore the State"
*Morris & Linda Tannahill, ''The Market for Liberty'' Classic on PDAs (private defense agencies)
===Related subjects===
* [[Anarcho-capitalist literature]]
* [[Anarcho-capitalist terminology and symbolism]]
* [[Classical liberalism]]
* [[Digital gold bug]]
* [[Crypto-anarchism]]
* [[Free market]]
* [[Liberalism]]
* [[Libertarianism]]
* [[Market liberalism]]
* [[Polycentric law]]
* [[Private currency]]
===General===
* [[Anarchism]]
* [[Anarchist law]]
* [[Libertatia]]
* [[Statism]]
==External links==
===Anarcho-capitalist websites===
* [http://www.anarchism.net/anarchism_anarchismcapitalismandanarchocapitalism.htm ''Anarchism, Capitalism, and Anarcho-Capitalism''] from anarchism.net
* [http://home.arcor.de/danneskjoeld/ Ancapistan Network] comes with an ancap start-up, articles and links
* [http://www.anti-state.com/ anti-state.com], has one of the more active forums and infrequent theoretical and practical articles, and hosts [http://www.anti-state.com/article.php?article_id=375 ''Private Property Anarchists and Anarcho-Socialists: Can We Get Along?''] by Gene Callahan
* [http://lemennicier.bwm-mediasoft.com/index.php?none=1&&limba=en Bertrand Lemennicier], a renowned French anarcho-capitalist economist
* [http://www.cuthhyra.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/ Cuthhyra] is a resource promoting anarcho-capitalism through essays, humour, quotes, links and more.
* [http://www.catallarchy.net/blog Catallarchy]
* Bryan Caplan's [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/anarfaq.htm "Anarchism Theory FAQ"] is written from the perspective of an anarcho-capitalist.
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com/ LewRockwell.com] is a widely read paleolibertarian news site, it also hosts [http://www.lewrockwell.com/kinsella/kinsella15.html ''What It Means To Be an Anarcho-Capitalist''] by Stephan Kinsella and [http://www.lewrockwell.com/block/block26.html "The Non-Aggression Axiom of Libertarianism"] by Walter Block
* [http://www.geocities.com/vonchloride/anarchist-jesus.pdf "Jesus Is an Anarchist (A free-market, libertarian anarchist, that is—otherwise what is called an anarcho-capitalist)" by James Redford, [[November 9]] [[2005]]] (pdf), an article on the congruence of Jesus's biblical teachings and anarcho-capitalism
* [http://praxeology.net/molinari.htm The Molinari Institute]
* [http://www.mises.org/content/mnr.asp A Legacy of Liberty] and [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/newlibertywhole.asp ''For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto''] by Murray N. Rothbard
* [http://www.panarchy.org/ Panarchy], another way of considering things that is considered by some ultimately equivalent to anarcho-capitalism.
* [http://www.liberalia.com/ Liberalia], an anarcho-capitalist site
* [http://www.blackcrayon.com/essays/intro/ A Brief Introduction to Philosophical Anarchism] from the viewpoint of an anarcho-capitalist
* [http://samizdata.net/blog/ Samizdata] is a group blog by "...a varied group [ that includes ] wild-eyed anarcho-capitalists"
* [http://www.sovereignlife.com/kickstart.html Sovereign Life] and [http://www.sovereignlife.com/sovereign-individual.html Sovereign Individual] at Sovereignlife.com
* [http://www.strike-the-root.com/ Strike The Root] is an anarcho-capitalist news site with an atheistic slant.
* [http://www.bureaucrash.com Bureaucrash]
* [http://www.spaz.org/~dan/ias/index.html Individualist Anarchist Society at UC Berkeley]
* [http://members.aol.com/VFTfiles/thesis/summary01.htm ''A Calvinist Defense of Anarcho-capitalism''] Argues that the Christian Bible supports anarcho-capitalism
* [http://anarcap.blogspot.com Anarcho-Capitalism] Lifestyle guide for Anarcho-capitalists
* [http://www.sumitdahiya.com/ Sumit Dahiya] "The home of the Anti-Government Pro-Enterprise Movement of India"
===Criticisms===
* [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secFcon.html Section F - Is "anarcho"-capitalism a type of anarchism?] - "An Anarchist FAQ" from [[Infoshop.org]]
* [http://www.anarchy.no/ai.html The Anarchist International Website] Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]
* [http://members.aol.com/_ht_a/anarchist817/anarcho_capitalism.html#top Anarcho-Capitalism Sucks!] - a collection of links to anti-anarcho-capitalist resources.
* [http://www.spaz.org/~dan/individualist-anarchist/ac-vs-ia.html Anarcho-Capitalism vs. Individualist Anarchism]
* Jeff Draughn's [http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/5065/between.html Between Anarchism and Libertarianism: Defining a New Movement] is a contemporary left anarchist critique of anarcho-capitalism
* [http://anarchism.www7.50megs.com/10.html A critique of anarcho-capitalist claims to anarchist tradition]
* [http://world.std.com/~mhuben/libindex.html The "Critiques Of Libertarianism" website] contains critiques of both libertarianism and anarcho-capitalism.
*[http://directory.google.com/Top/Society/Politics/Liberalism/Libertarianism/Anarcho-Capitalism/Opposing_Views/ Collection of critical articles]
* [http://www.spunk.org/library/otherpol/critique/sp001279.txt Ecology or "anarcho" capitalism] by Ian MacSaorsa
* [http://www.zmag.org/chomsky/interviews/9612-anarchism.html Interview with Noam Chomsky] in which he discusses anarcho-capitalism
* [http://a4a.mahost.org/huckster.html Anarcho-Hucksters]
* [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html The New Right and Anarcho-capitalism] from Chapter 36 of "Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism" by Peter Marshall
===Criticisms by other radical capitalists===
* Robert J. Binidotto's [http://www.vix.com/objectivism/Writing/RobertBidinotto/ContradictionInAnarchism.html The Contradiction in Anarchism]
* Paul Birch's [http://www.paulbirch.net/AnarchoCapit |
Italiana]]''. In 1929, a concordat with the [[Holy See|Vatican]] was signed, the [[Lateran treaties]], by which the Italian state was at last recognized by the [[Roman Catholic Church]], and the independence of [[Vatican City]] was recognized by the Italian state.
Under the dictatorship, the effectiveness of [[parliamentary system]] was virtually abolished though its forms were publicly preserved. The law codes were rewritten. All teachers in schools and universities had to swear an oath to defend the Fascist regime. Newspaper editors were all personally chosen by Mussolini himself, and no one could practice journalism who did not possess a certificate of approval from the Fascist party. These certificates were issued in secret, so the public had no idea of this ever occurring, thus skillfully creating the illusion of a "free press". The trade unions were also deprived of any independence and were integrated into what was called the [[corporate state|"cooperative" system]]. The aim (never completely achieved), inspired by medieval guilds, was to place all Italians in various professional organizations or "corporations", all of them under clandestine governmental control. Another change is that all schools, newspapers etc. etc. had to not write the 13th of June 1933 but instead had to write the 13th of June of the 11th year of Mussolini's power.
Mussolini played up to his financial backers at first by transferring a number of industries from public to private ownership. But by the 1930s he had begun moving back to the opposite extreme of rigid governmental control of industry. A great deal of money was spent on highly visible public works, and on international prestige projects such as the ''[[SS Rex]]'', [[Blue Riband]] ocean liner [http://www.greatoceanliners.net/rex.html], but the economy suffered from his strenuous efforts to make Italy [[autarchy|self-sufficient]]. A concentration on heavy industry proved problematic, because Italy lacked the basic resources.
In foreign policy, Mussolini soon shifted from the pacifist anti-imperialism of his lead-up to power, to an extreme form of aggressive [[nationalism]]. An early example of this was his bombardment of [[Corfu]] in 1923. Soon after this he succeeded in setting up a puppet regime in [[Albania]] and in ruthlessly consolidating Italian power in [[Libya]], loosely a colony since 1912. It was his dream to make the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] ''mare nostrum'' ("our sea" in Latin), and established a large naval base on the Greek Island of [[Leros]] to enforce a strategic hold on the Eastern Mediterranean. In 1935, at the [[Stresa Conference]], he helped create an anti-[[Hitler]] front in order to defend the independence of [[Austria]]. But his successful war against Abyssinia ([[Ethiopia]]) in 1935&ndash;1936 was opposed by the [[League of Nations]], this eventually led to Hitler seeking an alliance with fascist Italy. His active intervention in 1936-1939 on the side of [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] in the [[Spanish Civil War]] ended any possibility of reconciliation with [[France]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. As a result, he had to accept the German annexation of Austria in 1938 and the dismemberment of [[Czechoslovakia]] in 1939. At the [[Munich Conference]] in September 1938 he posed as a moderate working for European peace. But his "axis' with Germany was confirmed when he made the "[[Pact of Steel]]" with Hitler in May 1939. Clearly the subordinate partner, Mussolini followed the [[Nazi]]s in adopting a racial policy that led to persecution of the Jews and the creation of apartheid in the Italian empire. Before this, Jews were not specifically persecuted by Mussolini's government, and were permitted to be high members of the Party. Members of [[TIGR]], a Slovene anti-fascist group, plotted to kill Mussolini in [[Kobarid]] in 1938, but were unsuccessful.
==The Axis of Blood and Steel==
The term "[[Axis Powers]]" was coined by Mussolini, in November 1936, when he spoke of a Rome-Berlin axis in reference to the treaty of friendship signed between Italy and Germany on [[October 25]], 1936. Later, in May 1939, Mussolini would describe the relationship with Germany as a "Pact of Steel", something he had earlier referred to as a "Pact of Blood".
==World War II==
[[Image:Hitlermusso.jpg|frame|left|Benito Mussolini and [[Adolf Hitler]]]]
As [[World War II]] (WWII) approached, Mussolini announced his intention of annexing [[Malta]], [[Corsica]], and [[Tunis]]. He spoke of creating a "[[New Roman Empire]]" that would stretch east to [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and south through [[Libya]] and [[Egypt]] to [[Kenya]]. In April 1939, after a brief war, he annexed [[Albania]], a campaign which strained his military. His armed forces are generally considered to have been unprepared for combat when Hitler's invasion of [[Poland]] led to World War II. Mussolini thus decided to remain 'non-belligerent' until he was quite certain which side would win.
On [[June 10]], [[1940]] Mussolini finally declared war on Britain and France. In October, Mussolini attacked [[Greece]] and, as a result, lost 1/3 of Albania, until Hitler was forced to assist him by attacking Greece as well. In June 1941, Mussolini declared war on the [[Soviet Union]] and in December also declared war on the [[United States]].
Following Italian defeats on all fronts and the [[Allied invasion of Sicily|Anglo-American landing in Sicily]] in 1943, most of Mussolini's colleagues (including Count [[Galeazzo Ciano]], the foreign minister and Mussolini's son-in-law) turned against him at a meeting of the [[Grand Council of Fascism|Fascist Grand Council]] on [[July 25]], [[1943]]. King [[Vittorio Emanuele III]] called Mussolini to his palace and stripped the dictator of his power. Upon leaving the palace, Mussolini was swiftly arrested. He was then sent to [[Gran Sasso]], a mountain resort in central Italy ([[Abruzzo]]), in complete isolation.
Mussolini was replaced by the [[Maresciallo d'Italia]], General [[Pietro Badoglio]], who immediately declared in a famous speech "''La guerra continua a fianco dell'alleato germanico''" ("The war continues at the side of our Germanic allies"), but was instead working to negotiate a surrender; 45 days later ([[September 8|September the 8th]]) Badoglio would sign an armistice with Allied troops. Badoglio and the King, fearing the German retaliation, fled from Rome, leaving the entire Italian Army without orders. Many units simply disbanded, some reached the Allied-controlled zone and surrendered, a few decided to start a partisan war against the Nazis, and a few rejected the switch of sides and remained allied with the Germans.
Rescued a few days later in a [[Unternehmen Eiche|spectacular raid]] planned by Nazi General [[Kurt Student]] and carried out by [[Otto Skorzeny]], Mussolini set up the [[Italian Social Republic]], a Republican Fascist state (RSI, ''Repubblica Sociale Italiana'') in northern Italy. He lived in Gargnano during this period, but was little more than a [[puppet government|puppet]] under the protection of his liberators. In this "[[Republic of Salò]]", Mussolini returned to his earlier ideas of socialism and collectivization. He also executed some of the Fascist leaders who had abandoned him, including his son-in-law, [[Galeazzo Ciano]]. During this period he wrote his [[memoir]]s entitled ''My Rise and Fall.''
==Death==
[[Image:Mussolini hanged by the feet.jpg|thumb|Photo showing Mussolini hanging by his feet after his execution.]]
On [[April 27]], [[1945]], in the afternoon, near the village of [[Dongo]] ([[Lake of Como]]), just before the Allied armies reached [[Milan]], as they headed for [[Chiavenna]] to board a plane to escape to Switzerland, Mussolini and his mistress [[Claretta Petacci]] were caught by [[Italian resistance movement|Italian communist partisans]].
The day after, [[April 28]], they were both executed along with their sixteen-man train, mostly ministers and officials of the Italian Social Republic. The execution took place in the village of [[Giulino di Mezzegra]], and was conducted by "Colonnello Valerio" ([[Walter Audisio]]), the partisan commander entrusted by the CLN (National Liberation Committee) with the execution of the [[death penalty|death sentence]] issued against Mussolini. According to Audisio, the execution of Petacci was incidental and unplanned. Despite having no orders to kill her "she simply wouldn't let go of Il Duce".{{citationneeded}}
The next day the bodies of Mussolini and his mistress were hung upside down in Piazzale Loreto (Milan), along with those of other fascists, to show the population that the dictator was dead. This was both to discourage any fascists to continue the fight and an act of revenge for the hanging of many partisans in the same place by Axis authorities.
Mussolini's body was then buried in an unmarked grave in a Milan [[cemetery]] until the 1950s, when his body was moved back to Predappio. It was actually stolen briefly in the late '50s by [[neo-fascist]]s, then again returned to Predappio. Here he was buried in a [[crypt]] (the only posthumous honor granted to Mussolini; his tomb is flanked by [[marble]] [[fasces]] and a large idealized marble [[bust]] of himself sits above the [[tomb]].)
[[Image:Mussolini wine.jpg|thumb|[[Wine]] with portraits of Mussolini in a present-day Italian shop]]
Mussolini was survived by his wife, [[Donna Rachele Mussolini]], by two sons, Vittorio and [[Romano Mussolini]], and his daughters Edda, the widow of [[Galeazzo Ciano|Count Ciano]] and Anna Maria. A third son, Bruno, had been killed in an air accident while testing a military plane. Mussolini's granddaughter [[Alessandra Mussolini|Alessandra]], daughter of [[Romano Mussolini]], is currently a member of the [[European Parliament] |
some cases they introduced confusing inconsistencies, like the well-known example of the [[English words with uncommon properties#Abnormal pairs or groups of words|many pronunciations of "ough"]] (rough, through, though, trough, plough, etc.). Most of these changes happened before the arrival of printing in England. However, the arrival of the printing press merely froze the current system, rather than providing the impetus for a realignment of spelling with pronunciation. Furthermore, it introduced further inconsistencies, partly because of the use of typesetters trained abroad, particularly in the [[Low Countries]].
By the time [[dictionaries]] were introduced in the mid 1600s, the spelling system of English started to stabilise, and by the 1800s, most words had set spellings.
== Irregularities in the English spelling system ==
The English spelling system is one of the most irregular spelling systems in current use. Although French presents a similar degree of difficulty when ''encoding'' (writing), English is more difficult when ''decoding'' (reading). English has never had any formal regulating authority, like the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] [[Real Academia Española]], [[Italian language|Italian]] [[Accademia della Crusca]] or the [[French language|French]] [[Académie française]], so attempts to regularize or reform the language, including [[Spelling reform#English spelling reforms|spelling reform]], have usually met with failure.
The only significant exceptions were the reforms of [[Noah Webster]] which resulted in many of the [[American and British English spelling differences|differences between British and American spelling]], such as ''center/centre'', and ''dialog/dialogue''. (Other differences, such as ''-ize/-ise'' in ''realize/realise'' etc, [[language change|came about]] separately.)
Besides the quirks the English spelling system has inherited from its past, there are other idiosyncrasies in spelling that make it tricky to learn. English contains 24 separate [[consonant]] [[phoneme]]s and, depending on [[dialect]], anywhere from fourteen to twenty [[vowel]]s. However, there are only 26 letters in the [[Latin alphabet|modern English alphabet]], so there cannot be a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds. Many sounds are spelled using different letters or multiple letters, and for those words whose pronunciation is predictable from the spelling, the sounds denoted by the letters depend on the surrounding letters. For example, the [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] "th" represents two different sounds (the [[voiced interdental fricative]] and the [[voiceless interdental fricative]]) (see [[Pronunciation of English th]]), and the [[voiceless alveolar fricative]] can be represented by the letters "s" and "c".
There was also a period when the spellings of words were altered in what is now regarded as a misguided attempt to make them conform to what were perceived to be the etymological origins of the words. For example, the letter "b" was added to "debt" in an attempt to link it to the Latin ''debitum'', and the letter "s" in "island" is a misplaced attempt to link it to Latin ''insula'' instead of the Norse word ''igland'', which is the true origin of the English word. The letter "p" in "[[ptarmigan]]" has no etymological justification whatsoever.
Furthermore, in most recent [[loanword]]s, English makes no attempt to Anglicise the spellings of these words, and preserves the foreign spellings, even when they employ exotic conventions, like the [[Polish language|Polish]] "cz" in "Czech" or the [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] "fj" in "fjord". In fact, instead of loans being respelled to conform to English spelling standards, sometimes the pronunciation changes as a result of pressure from the spelling. One example of this is the word "[[ski]]", which was adopted from [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] in the mid-18th century, although it didn't become common until 1900. It used to be pronounced "shee", which is similar to the Norwegian pronunciation, but the increasing popularity of the sport after the middle of the 20th century helped the "sk" pronunciation replace it.
The spelling of English continues to evolve. Many loanwords come from languages where the pronunciation of vowels corresponds to the way they were pronounced in Old English, which is similar to the Italian or Spanish pronunciation of the vowels, and is the value the vowel symbols [a], [e], [i], [o], and [u] have in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]. As a result, there is a somewhat regular system of pronouncing "foreign" words in English, and some borrowed words have had their spelling changed to conform to this system. For example, [[Hindu]] used to be spelled "Hindoo", and the name "Maria" used to be pronounced like the name "Mariah", but was changed to conform to this system. It has been argued that this influence probably started with the introduction of many Italian words into English during the [[Renaissance]], in fields like [[music]], from which come the words "andante", "viola", "forte", etc.
Commercial advertisers have also had an effect on English spelling. In attempts to differentiate their products from others, they introduce new or simplified spellings like "lite" instead of "light", "thru" instead of "through", "smokey" instead of "smoky" (for "smokey bacon" flavour crisps), and "rucsac" instead of "rucksack". The spellings of personal names have also been a source of spelling innovations: affectionate versions of women's names that sound the same as men's names have been spelled differently: Nikki and Nicky, Toni and Tony, Jo and Joe.
Many simplifications and abbreviations are made in [[Instant Messaging]] or [[Chatting]], for the sake of speed of messaging - e.g. "night" can be spelled as "nite" and "later" as "l8r".
As examples of the idiosyncratic nature of English spelling, the combination "ou" can be pronounced in at least eleven different ways: "famous", "journey", "cough", "dough", "bought", "loud", "tough", "should", "you", "flour", "tour"; and the vowel sound in "me" can be spelt in at least eleven different ways: "paediatric", "me", "seat", "seem", "ceiling", "people", "chimney", "machine", "siege", "phoenix", "lazy". (These examples assume a more-or-less standard non-regional British English accent. Other accents will vary.)
== The state of English spelling ==
It has been shown that regular alphabetic spelling systems make languages easier to learn. Indeed, the concept of learning "spelling" seems very strange to literate speakers of languages such as [[Finnish language|Finnish]] or [[Spanish language|Spanish]], as those languages' spelling systems are extremely regular. This is also the case with several [[abugida]] alphabets, such as [[Devanagari]], used to write many languages of [[North India]]. [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] used to be written exclusively using [[Chinese character]]s, so that becoming literate in Vietnamese required years of study, and as a result, very few people were literate. However, after the introduction of a modified form of the [[Latin alphabet]] for writing Vietnamese, the writing system could be mastered by a native speaker with only a few hours or days of study, and literacy in Vietnamese is much more widespread now. English, it seems, is somewhere in between: its spelling system is highly irregular, but it is regular to some degree and mastery only requires knowledge of the 26 letters of the alphabet, whereas mastering written [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Japanese language|Japanese]] is much more difficult, requiring the memorization of thousands of different characters. Studies have shown that [[dyslexia]] occurs more often (or at least is more noticeable) among speakers of languages such as English whose orthography differs heavily from the phonology than speakers of languages where the letter-sound correspondence is more regular.
== Spelling Patterns ==
:[æ]=a, au, ai. h'''a'''nd, l'''au'''gh, pl'''ai'''d
:[ei]=a, a-consonant-e, ai, ay, eigh, ea, ei, ey, au. p'''a'''per, r'''a'''t'''e''', r'''ai'''n, p'''ay''', '''eigh'''t, st'''ea'''k, v'''ei'''l, ob'''ey''', g'''au'''ge
:[b]=b, bb. '''b'''it, ra'''bb'''it
:[tʃ]=ch, t, tch, ti, c. '''ch'''in, na'''t'''ure, ba'''tch''', men'''ti'''on, '''c'''ello
:[d]=d,dd,ed. '''d'''ive, la'''dd'''er, fail'''ed'''
:[e]=e, ea, a, ai, ie, eo, u, ae, ay, ei, ue. m'''e'''t, w'''ea'''ther, m'''a'''ny, s'''ai'''d, fr'''ie'''nd, j'''eo'''pardy, b'''u'''ry, '''ae'''sthetic, s'''ay'''s, h'''ei'''fer, g'''ue'''ss
:[i]=e, y, ee, ea, e-consonant-e, i-consonant-e, ie, ei, ey, ae, ay, oe, eo. h'''e''', cit'''y''', b'''ee''', b'''ea'''ch, c'''e'''d'''e''', mach'''i'''n'''e''', f'''ie'''ld, dec'''ei'''ve, k'''ey''', C'''ae'''sar, qu'''ay''', am'''oe'''ba, p'''eo'''ple
:[f]=f, ph, ff, gh. '''f'''ine, '''ph'''ysical, o'''ff''', lau'''gh'''
:[g]=g, gg, gue, gh. '''g'''o, sta'''gg'''er, catalo'''gue''', '''gh'''ost
:[h]=h, wh. '''h'''e, '''wh'''om
:[ʍ]=wh. '''wh'''eel
:[I]= i, i-consonant-e, a-consonant-e, y, ie, ui, ei, ee, e, ia, u, o. b'''i'''t, g'''i'''v'''e''', dam'''a'''g'''e, m'''y'''th, s'''ie'''ve, b'''ui'''ld, counterf'''ei'''t, b'''ee'''n, pr'''e'''tty, carr'''ia'''ge, b'''u'''sy, w'''o'''men
:[ai]= i-consonant-e, i, y, igh, ie, ei, eigh, uy, ai, ey, ye, eye. f'''i'''n'''e''', t'''i'''ger, tr'' |
abril]]
[[bg:8 април]]
[[be:8 красавіка]]
[[bs:8. april]]
[[ca:8 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 8]]
[[cv:Ака, 8]]
[[co:8 d'aprile]]
[[cs:8. duben]]
[[cy:8 Ebrill]]
[[da:8. april]]
[[de:8. April]]
[[et:8. aprill]]
[[el:8 Απριλίου]]
[[es:8 de abril]]
[[eo:8-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 8]]
[[fo:8. apríl]]
[[fr:8 avril]]
[[fy:8 april]]
[[ga:8 Aibreán]]
[[gl:8 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 8일]]
[[hr:8. travnja]]
[[io:8 di aprilo]]
[[id:8 April]]
[[ia:8 de april]]
[[ie:8 april]]
[[is:8. apríl]]
[[it:8 aprile]]
[[he:8 באפריל]]
[[jv:8 April]]
[[ka:8 აპრილი]]
[[csb:8 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:8'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 8]]
[[lb:8. Abrëll]]
[[li:8 april]]
[[hu:Április 8]]
[[mk:8 април]]
[[ms:8 April]]
[[nap:8 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:8 april]]
[[ja:4月8日]]
[[no:8. april]]
[[nn:8. april]]
[[oc:8 d'abril]]
[[pl:8 kwietnia]]
[[pt:8 de Abril]]
[[ro:8 aprilie]]
[[ru:8 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 8.]]
[[sco:8 Aprile]]
[[sq:8 Prill]]
[[scn:8 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 8]]
[[sk:8. apríl]]
[[sl:8. april]]
[[sr:8. април]]
[[fi:8. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:8 april]]
[[tl:Abril 8]]
[[tt:8. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 8]]
[[th:8 เมษายน]]
[[vi:8 tháng 4]]
[[tr:8 Nisan]]
[[uk:8 квітня]]
[[ur:8 اپریل]]
[[wa:8 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 8]]
[[zh:4月8日]]
[[pam:Abril 8]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ad hominem</title>
<id>2226</id>
<revision>
<id>42042010</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:46:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KnightRider</username>
<id>430793</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>warnfile Modifying: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''ad hominem''' argument, also known as '''argumentum ad hominem''' ([[Latin]], literally "argument to the man") or '''attacking the messenger''', is a [[logical fallacy]] that involves replying to an argument or assertion by attacking the person presenting the argument or assertion rather than the argument itself.
The derived [[neologism]] ''ad feminam'' is more specifically used to refer to sexist prejudice directed towards women. (For example, "Their recourse ... to ad feminam attacks evidences the chilly climate for women's leadership on campus.") ''Ad hominem'' does not pertain to the male sex, as ''[[Homo (genus)|homo]]'' in Latin refers to all humans; thus certain usage of "ad feminam" may be considered redundant, or even erroneous:
*"... in which both or multiple parties ... avoid ad hominem and ad feminam judgements ..." (Barbara Levy Simon)
*"Almost any ad hominem (or, in this case, ad feminam) response ..." (Marsha M Linehan)
==''Ad hominem'' as logical fallacy==
A (fallacious) ad hominem argument has the basic form:
#''A'' makes claim ''B'';
#there is something objectionable about ''A'',
#therefore claim ''B'' is false.
The first statement is called a 'factual claim' and is the pivot point of much debate.
The last statement is referred to as an 'inferential claim' and represents the reasoning process. There are two types of inferential claim, explicit and implicit.
Arguments that (fallaciously) rely on the positive aspects of the person for the truth of the conclusion are discussed under ''[[appeal to authority]]''.
Ad hominem is one of the best-known of the logical fallacies usually enumerated in introductory [[logic]] and [[critical thinking]] textbooks. Both the fallacy itself, and accusations of having committed it, are often brandished in actual discourse (see also [[Argument from fallacy]]). As a technique of [[rhetoric]], it is powerful and used often, despite its lack of subtlety.
==Usage==
An ''ad hominem'' fallacy consists of asserting that someone's argument is wrong and/or they are wrong to argue at all ''purely'' because of something discreditable/not-authoritative about the person or those persons cited by them rather than addressing the soundness of the argument itself. The implication is that the person's argument and/or ability to argue correctly lacks authority. Merely insulting another person in the middle of otherwise rational discourse does not necessarily constitute an ad hominem fallacy. It must be clear that the purpose of the characterization is to discredit the person offering the argument, and, specifically, to invite others to discount his arguments. In the past, the term ''ad hominem'' was sometimes used more literally, to describe an argument that was based on an individual, or to describe any personal attack. But this is not how the meaning of the term is typically introduced in modern logic and rhetoric textbooks, and logicians and rhetoricians are widely agreed that this use is incorrect.
'''Examples''':
:"You claim that this man is innocent, but you cannot be trusted since you are a criminal as well."
:"You feel that abortion should be legal, but I disagree because you are uneducated and poor."
Not all ''ad hominem'' attacks are insulting:
'''Example''':
:"Paula says the umpire made the correct call, but this is false because Paula is too important to pay attention to the game."
This is an ''ad hominem'' fallacy, even though it is saying something positive about the person, because it is addressing the person and not the topic in dispute.
Ironically, accusing an opponent of ''ad hominem'' can itself be an example of ''ad hominem'' if it is worded as an insult: "I'm not going to stand here and let him insult me!" or "My opponent is resorting to logical fallacy to win." or "Since he is out of good argument, he's attacking me." (partial [[Argument from silence]])
==Validity==
''Ad hominem'' is fallacious when applied to deduction, and not the evidence (or premise) of an argument. Evidence may be doubted or rejected based on the source for reasons of [[credibility]], but to doubt or reject a [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]] based on the source is the ''ad hominem'' fallacy.
Premises discrediting the person can exist in [[validity|valid]] arguments, when the person being criticized is the sole source for a piece of evidence used in one of his arguments.
#''A'' committed perjury when he said ''Q''
#We should not accept testimony for which perjury was committed
#therefore, ''A'' 's testimony for ''Q'' should be rejected
==Subtypes==
Three traditionally identified varieties are '''ad hominem abusive''', '''ad hominem circumstantial''', and '''ad hominem tu quoque'''.
===Ad hominem abusive===
Ad hominem abusive (also called ''argumentum ad personam'') usually and most notoriously involves insulting one's opponent, but can also involve pointing out factual but damning character flaws or actions. The reason that this is fallacious is that &mdash; usually, anyway &mdash; insults and even damaging facts simply do not undermine what logical support there might be for one's opponent's arguments or assertions; ''argumentum ad personam'' short-circuits these potential arguments from logic in favor of a direct attack on the opponent's authority.
'''Example:'''
:"You can't believe Jack when he says there is no [[god]] ''because'' he doesn't even have a job."
'''Example 2:'''
This can be called the internet example, or the childish example. Somebody disproves a [[internet troll|troll]], or a bully's argument, and they respond with: "Yeah, but you're gay!." The logical fallacy is that because the person is accused of being homosexual, their argument is invalid.
===Ad hominem circumstantial===
Ad hominem circumstantial involves pointing out that someone is in circumstances such that he is disposed to take a particular position. Essentially, circumstantial ad hominem constitutes an attack on the bias of a person. The reason that this is fallacious is that it simply does not make one's opponent's arguments, from a logical point of view, any less credible to point out that one's opponent is disposed to argue that way. Such arguments are not necessarily ''[[Rationality|irrational]]'', but are not correct in strict logic. This illustrates one of the differences between rationality and logic.
'''Examples:'''
:"Tobacco company representatives are wrong when they say smoking doesn't seriously affect your health, ''because'' they're just defending their own multi-million-dollar financial interests."
:"He's physically addicted to nicotine. Of course he defends smoking!”
The [[Mandy Rice-Davies]] ploy, "Well, he would [say that], wouldn't he?" is a superb use of this fallacy.
===Ad hominem tu quoque===
Ad hominem tu quoque (literally, "at the person, you too") could be called the "hypocrisy" argument. It occurs when a person's claim is dismissed or concluded as false either because the claim is about actions the claimant or another individual has engaged in ''too'', or because the claim is inconsistent with other claims that the person has made. The tu quoque fallacy mimics the legitimate use of the principle of ethical symmetry. The error is that while expressing "fair play" sentiments, what the argument is actually advocating is "equal rights for foul play." In "fair play", if one reasoner is not entitled to use a particular appeal, then no other reasoner may use it either. It does not entitle reasoners to use illegitimate appeals because other reasoners have used, possibly without challenge, similar illegitimate appeals. That the illegitimate appeal has been used before does not make it legitimate.
====You-too version====
This form of the argument is as follows:
:''A'' makes criticism ''P''.
:''A'' is also guilty of ''P''.
:Therefore, ''P'' is dismissed.
This is an instance of the [[two wrongs make a right (fallacy)|two wrongs make a right]] fallacy.
Example:
:"''You cannot accuse me of [[libel]] because you yourself have ''also'' been convicted of libel.''"
:"''You cannot complain about my [[Tobacco smoking|smoking]] because you smoke ''too''."
:''[[United States |
he French, he promptly initiated a far-reaching scheme of reform, which replaced the obsolete methods of the [[18th century]], the chief characteristics of the new order being the adoption of the nation in arms principle and of the French war organization and tactics. The new army was surprised in the process of transition by the war of 1809, in which Charles acted as commander in chief, yet even so it proved a far more formidable opponent than the old, and, against the now heterogeneous army of which Napoleon disposed it succumbed only after a desperate struggle.
Its initial successes were neutralized by the reverses of [[Battle of Abensberg|Abensberg]], [[Battle of Landshut|Landshut]] and [[Battle of Eckmuhl|Eckmuhl]] but, after the evacuation of Vienna, the archduke won the great [[Battle of Aspern-Essling]] and soon afterwards fought the still more desperate [[Battle of Wagram]], at the close of which the Austrians were defeated but not routed. They had inflicted upon Napoleon a loss of over 50,000 men in the two battles. At the end of the campaign the archduke gave up all his military offices.
==Later life==
[[Image:archdukecharles2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Archduke Charles with family.]]
Charles spent the rest of his life in retirement, except for a short time in 1815 when he was governor of Mainz. In 1822 he succeeded to the duchy of Saxe-Teschen. Archduke Charles married, in 1815, Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg ([[1797]]&ndash;[[1829]]). He had five sons, the eldest of whom, the [[Archduke Albert (1817-1895)|Archduke Albert]] became one of the most celebrated generals in Europe, and two daughters, the elder of which, Maria Theresa ([[1816]]&ndash;[[1867]]) married Ferdinando II, King of the Two Sicilies. He died at Vienna on [[30 April]] [[1847]]. He is buried in tomb 122 in the [[Imperial Crypt Vaults#The New Vault|New Vault]] of the [[Imperial Crypt]] in Vienna. An equestrian statue was erected to his memory on the [[Heldenplatz]] in Vienna in [[1860]].
==Assessment of his achievements==
The caution which the archduke preached so earnestly in his strategical works, he displayed in practice only when the situation seemed to demand it, though his education certainly prejudiced him in favour of the defensive at all costs. He was at the same time capable of forming and executing the most daring offensive strategy, and his tactical skill in the handling of troops, whether in wide turning movements, as at Würzburg and Zürich, or in masses, as at Aspern and Wagram, was certainly equal to that of any leader of his time, with only a few exceptions.
His campaign of [[1796]] is considered almost faultless. That he sustained defeat in 1809 was due in part to the great numerical superiority of the French and their allies, and in part to the condition of his newly reorganized troops. His six weeks' inaction after the victory of Aspern is, however, open to unfavourable criticism. As a military writer, his position in the evolution of the art of war is very important, and his doctrines had naturally the greatest weight. Nevertheless they cannot but be considered as antiquated even in 1806. Caution and the importance of strategic points are the chief features of his system. The rigidity of his geographical strategy may be gathered from the prescription that this principle is never to be departed from.
Again and again he repeats the advice that nothing should be hazarded unless one's army is completely secure, a rule which he himself neglected with such brilliant results in 1796. Strategic points, he says (not the defeat of the enemy's army), decide the fate of one's own country, and must constantly remain the general's main solicitude, a maxim which was never more remarkably disproved than in the war of 1809. The editor of the archduke's work is able to make but a feeble defence against [[Carl von Clausewitz|Clausewitz]]'s reproach that Charles attached more value to ground than to the annihilation of the foe. In his tactical writings the same spirit is conspicuous. His reserve in battle is designed to cover a retreat.
[[Image:Archduke_Charles_Statue.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Statue of Archduke Charles on the [[Heldenplatz]] in [[Vienna]].]]
The baneful influence of these antiquated principles was clearly shown in the maintenance of Königgratz-Josefstadt in [[1866]] as a strategic point, which was preferred to the defeat of the separated Prussian armies. In the strange plans produced in Vienna for the campaign of 1859, and in the almost unintelligible [[Battle of Montebello (1859)|Battle of Montebello]] in the same year. The theory and the practice of Archduke Charles form one of the most curious contrasts in military history. In the one he is unreal, in the other he displayed, along with the greatest skill, a vivid activity which made him for long the most formidable opponent of Napoleon.
On the battlefield, it is probably fair to say, Charles was comparable in skill and style to Sir [[Arthur Wellesley]] - quite conservative and yet exceedingly competent. That Wellesley emerged with a superior reputation is probably due to the fact that he only once faced Napoleon and even then was only co-commander of an Allied force. By contrast Charles was confronted by Napoleon in battle more times than any other commander. On these occasions the reliable and yet unimaginative tactics Charles was fond of were not sufficient (except on one occasion at Aspern-Essling) to defeat the unpredictable Corsican. Nonetheless Charles is a member of a pantheon of famous Napoleonic figures that includes the Emperor himself, [[Louis Nicolas Davout]], [[Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg|Karl von Schwarzenberg]], [[Alexander Suvorov]], [[Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher]] and the aforementioned Sir Arthur Wellesley.
==Writings and References==
His writings were edited by Archduke Albert and his brother Archduke William in the ''Ausgewählte Schriften weiland Sr. K. Hoheit Erzh. Carl v. Osterreich'' (1862; reprinted 1893, Vienna and Leipzig), which includes the ''Grundsätze der Kriegskunst für die Generale'' (1806), ''Grundsätze der Strategie erläutert durch die Darstellung des Feldzugs 1796'' (1814), ''Geschichte des Feldzugs von 299'' (1819)--the two latter invaluable contributions to the history of the war, and papers on the higher art of war, on practical training in the field, etc.
See, besides the histories of the period,
*Carl Freiherr Binder von Krieglstein: ''Geist und Stoff im Kriege''. Vienna, 1896
*Rudolf von Caemmerer, ''The development of strategical science during the 19th century''. London, 1905 (ch. iv)
*Eduard Duller: ''Erzherzog Karl''. Vienna, 1847
*F.J.A. Schneidawind: ''Carl, Erzherzog von Osterreich und die oesterreichische Armee''. Vienna, 1840
*F.J.A. Schneidawind:''Das Buch vom Erzherzog Carl''. Leipzig, 1847
*Maximilian Friedrich von Thielen: ''Erzherzog Karl von Osterreich''. 1858
*[[Heinrich Ritter von Zeissberg|H. von Zeissberg]]: ''Erzherzog Karl von Osterreich''. Vienna, 1895
*Moriz Edler von Angeli: ''Erzherzog Carl von Österreich als Feldherr und Heeresorganisator''. Leipzig, 1896
*Owen Connelly: ''Blundering to glory: Napoleon's military campaigns''. Rev. ed. Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 1999 ISBN 0-842027-79-3
{{1911}}
[[Category:1771 births|Charles, Archduke of Austria]]
[[Category:1847 deaths|Charles, Archduke of Austria]]
[[Category:Austrian Field Marshals|Charles, Archduke of Austria]]
[[Category:Governors of the Habsburg Netherlands|Charles, Archduke of Austria]]
[[Category:Non-ruling Austrian royalty|Charles, Archduke of Austria]]
[[Category:Habsburg-Lorraine|Charles, Archduke of Austria]]
[[de:Karl von Österreich-Teschen]]
[[es:Carlos de Austria-Teschen]]
[[fr:Charles Louis d'Autriche]]
[[nl:Karel van Oostenrijk-Teschen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adrenaline</title>
<id>2876</id>
<revision>
<id>15901258</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Epinephrine]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Augustine of Canterbury</title>
<id>2877</id>
<revision>
<id>41963617</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:37:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Neddyseagoon</username>
<id>883252</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Augustine of Canterbury''' (birth unknown, died [[May 26]], [[604]]) was the first [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], sent to [[Ethelbert of Kent]], [[Bretwalda]] of England by [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]] in [[597]]. He was accompanied by [[Laurence of Canterbury]], the second [[archbishop]].
In [[596]], Augustine was ''praepositus'' (prior) of the monastery of [[Saint Andrew]], founded by [[Pope Gregory I]], and was sent by Gregory at the head of forty monks to preach to the Anglo-Saxons. They lost heart on the way and Augustine went back to Rome from [[Provence]] and asked that the mission be given up. The pope, however, commanded and encouraged them to proceed, and they landed on the Island of [[Thanet]] in the spring of [[597]].
Ethelbert's wife Bertha, daughter of [[Charibert]], one of the [[Merovingian]] kings of the [[Franks]], had brought a chaplain with her (Liudhard) and either built a church, or restored a church in Canterbury from Roman times, and dedicated it to [[Martin of Tours|St. Martin of Tours]] (either of which is possibly [[Church of St. Martin, Canterbury|St. Martin's]]), a major patronal saint for the Merovingian royal family. Ethelbert himself was a [[Paganism|pagan]], but allowed his wife to worship God her own way. Probably under influence of his wife, Ethelbert asked [[Pope Gregory I]] to send missionaries.
Ethelbert permitted the missionaries to settle and preach in his town of [[Canterbury]] and before the end of the ye |
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