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[Scotland]] since [[1988]], and attended by up to 15,000 people. Beltane is a specifically Gaelic holiday, not &quot;[[Celt]]ic&quot;, as other Celtic cultures, such as the [[Culture of Wales|Welsh]], [[Culture of Brittany|Bretons]], and Gauls, do not celebrate it - though many cultures did celebrate a springtime festival known by various names. In [[neopaganism]], the name '''Beltane''' or '''Beltaine''' is used for a [[Sabbat (neopaganism)|sabbat]], one of the eight solar holidays, which is celebrated on this day. Although the holiday uses features of the Gaelic Beltane, such as the [[bonfire|bonfire]], it bears more relation to the Germanic [[May Day]] festival, both in its significance (focusing on fertility) and its rituals (such as [[maypole]] dancing). High Beltaine is celebrated through a reenactment of intercourse between the May Lord and Lady. [[Gerald Gardner]], the principal originator of the [[Wicca|Wiccan]] religion, referred to the holiday as May Eve. Among the neopagan sabbats, Beltane is a [[cross-quarter day]]; it is celebrated in the northern hemisphere on [[May 1]] and in the southern hemisphere on [[November 1]]. Beltane follows [[Ostara]] and precedes [[Midsummer]] (see the [[Wheel of the Year]]). ==See also== *[[Midsummer]]/[[summer solstice]], [[Lughnasadh]], [[Mabon]]/[[autumn equinox]], [[Samhain]], [[Yule]]/[[winter solstice]], [[Imbolc]] and [[Ostara]]/[[spring equinox]]. *[[Walpurgis Night]]. ==External links== * [http://www.beltane.org/ Edinburgh's Beltane Fire Society] * [http://users.compaqnet.be/cn111132/Frazer/155.html Extract on The Beltane Fires from Sir James George Frazer's book The Golden Bough - 1922] * [http://www.witchvox.com/holidays/xbeltaine.html Beltane on WitchVox] * [http://paganwiccan.about.com/od/beltane/ Beltane on About.com] [[Category:Neopagan holidays]] [[bg:Белтейн]] [[de:Beltane]] [[eo:Belteno]] [[fr:Beltaine]] [[it:Beltane]] [[pt:Beltane]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Boston, Massachusetts</title> <id>4309</id> <revision> <id>42048968</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:11:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Uris</username> <id>174426</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Demographics */ This is [[original research]] that assumes other cities wouldn't also revert to their all-time highs.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}} {{Infobox City | official_name = Boston, Massachusetts | image_skyline = Boston - Charles River View 2006.jpg | nickname = City on a Hill, Beantown, The Hub (of the [[Solar System]]), [[Athens, Greece|Athens]] of America | image_flag = Us-ma-bo.png | image_seal = boston_city_seal.png | image_map = Boston_ma_highlight.png | map_caption = Location in [[Massachusetts]] | subdivision_type = [[Counties of the United States|Counties]] | subdivision_name = [[Suffolk County, Massachusetts|Suffolk County]]| leader_title = [[Mayor]] | leader_name = [[Thomas Menino]] ([[United States Democratic Party|Dem]])| area_magnitude = 1 E8 | area_total = 89.6 mi&amp;sup2; / 232.1 | area_land = 48.4 mi&amp;sup2; / 125.4 | area_water = 41.2 mi&amp;sup2; / 106.7 | population_as_of = 2000 | population_metro = 5.8 million | population_total = 589,141 | population_density = 4,696.9 | timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]] | utc_offset = -5 | timezone_DST = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]] | utc_offset_DST = -4 | latd=42 |latm=21 |lats=0 |latNS=N | longd=71 |longm=4 |longs=60 |longEW=W | website = [http://www.cityofboston.gov www.cityofboston.gov] | footnotes = }} {{redirect|Boston}} '''Boston''' is the [[capital]] and largest city in the [[Massachusetts|Commonwealth of Massachusetts]] in the [[United States]]. It is the unofficial capital of the region known as [[New England]], and one of the oldest, wealthiest, and most culturally significant large cities in the United States. Its economy is based on education, health care, finance, and technology. Boston has many nicknames. ''The City on a Hill'' came from the original Massachusetts Bay Colony's governor [[John Winthrop]]'s goal to create the biblical &quot;City on a Hill.&quot; It also refers to Boston's original three hills. ''Beantown'' refers to early Bostonian merchants' habit for making baked beans with imported molasses. ''The Hub'' is a shortened form of writer [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]]'s phrase ''The Hub of the Solar System'', now more commonly referred to as ''The Hub of the Universe''. [[William Tudor (1779-1830)|William Tudor]], co-founder of the ''[[North American Review]]'', christened the city ''The Athens of America'' for its great cultural and intellectual influence. Boston is sometimes called ''Puritan City'' because its founders were [[Puritans]]. The city is also sometimes called ''The Cradle of Liberty'' for its role in instigating the [[American Revolution]]. Citizens of Boston and the surrounding area are called ''[[Bostonian|Bostonians]]''. The city lies at the center of the Boston CMSA (Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area), the seventh largest in the United States. The area encompasses parts of the states of New Hampshire, Maine, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. The city also lies at the center of [[Greater Boston]], which also includes the cities of [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]], [[Quincy, Massachusetts|Quincy]], [[Newton, Massachusetts|Newton]], and many suburban communities farther from Boston. ==History== [[Image:Boston_Old_State_House-200px.jpg|thumb|200px|The 18th century [[Old State House (Boston)|Old State House]] in Boston is surrounded by tall buildings of the [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century|20th centuries]].]] {{main|History of Boston, Massachusetts}} Boston was founded on [[September 17]], [[1630]], on a [[peninsula]] called ''[[Shawmut]]'' by its original [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] inhabitants. The peninsula was connected to the mainland by a narrow [[isthmus]], and surrounded by the waters of [[Massachusetts Bay]] and the marshes at the mouth of the [[Charles River]]. Boston's early European settlers first called the area ''Trimountaine''. They later renamed the town for [[Boston, Lincolnshire|Boston]], [[England]], in [[Lincolnshire]], from which several prominent [[Pilgrims|&quot;pilgrim&quot;]] colonists emigrated. A majority of Boston's early citizens were [[Puritans]]. [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]]'s original governor, [[John Winthrop]], gave a famous sermon entitled &quot;a [[City upon a Hill]],&quot; which captured the idea that Boston had a special covenant with God. Puritan ethics molded an extremely stable and well-structured society in Boston. For example, shortly after Boston's settlement, Puritans founded America's first school, [[Boston Latin School]] (1635), and America's first college, [[Harvard College]] (1636). Hard work, moral uprightness, and an emphasis on education remain part of Boston's culture. During the early 1770s, British attempts to exert control on the [[Thirteen Colonies|thirteen colonies]], primarily via taxation, prompted Bostonians to initiate the [[American Revolution]]. The [[Boston Massacre]], the [[Boston Tea Party]], and several early battles occurred in or near the city, including the [[Battle of Lexington and Concord]], [[Battle of Bunker Hill]], and the [[Siege of Boston]]. During this period, [[Paul Revere]] made his famous midnight ride. After the Revolution, Boston became one of the world's wealthiest international trading ports — major exports were rum, fish, salt, and tobacco. During this era, descendants of old Boston families became regarded, in the American popular mind, as the nation's social and cultural elites; they were later dubbed the ''[[Boston Brahmins]]''. In 1822, Boston was chartered as a city. By the mid-1800s, the city's industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance. Until the early 1900s, Boston remained one of the nation's largest manufacturing centers, and was notable for its [[Clothing|garment]] production, [[leather]] goods, and machinery industries. From the mid-to-late-nineteenth century, Boston flourished culturally — it became renowned for its rarefied literary culture and lavish artistic patronage. It also became a center of the [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]] movement. In the 1820s, Boston's ethnic composition began to change dramatically; groups like the Irish and Italians moved into the city and brought with them [[Roman Catholicism]]. Currently, Catholics make up Boston's largest religious community. The Irish played a major role in Boston politics — prominent figures include the [[Kennedy family|Kennedys]] and [[John F. Fitzgerald]]. [[Image:Boston 1772.gif|thumb|left|200px|Boston in 1772 and 1880. The original area of the Shawmut Peninsula was substantially expanded by landfill.]] Between 1630 and 1890, the city tripled its physical size by [[land reclamation]], specifically by filling in marshes and mud flats and by filling gaps between wharves along the waterfront,{{ref|landfillfoot}} a process [[Walter Muir Whitehill]] called &quot;cutting down the hills to fill the coves.&quot; The most intense reclamation efforts were in the [[1800s]]. Beginning in 1807, the crown of Beacon Hill was used to fill in a 50-[[acre]] (20 [[hectare]]s) mill pond that later became the Bulfinch Triangle (just south of today's North Station area). The present-day [[Massachusetts State House|State House]] sits atop this shortened Beacon Hill. Reclamation projects in the middle of the century created significant parts of the areas now known as the South End, West End, Financial District, and Chinatown. After [[Great Boston Fire of 1872|The Great Boston Fire of 1872]], building rubble was used as landfill along the downtown waterfront. The most dramatic reclamation project was the filling in of the Back Bay in the mid
ny titles traditionally bestowed on Roman emperors, the most important was that of ''[[Augustus]]'' and therefore only the two senior emperors took this title, with the junior emperors receiving the lesser title of ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]''. Diocletian intended that when the senior emperor retired or died, the Caesar would take his place and choose a new junior emperor Caesar, thus solving the problem of succession. By [[292]] Diocletian had the system in place and choose the Eastern Empire for himself and gave [[Maximian]] the Western Empire. The imperial power was now divided between two people. The two men established separate capitals, neither of which was at Rome. The ancient capital was too far removed from the places where the empire's fate was decided by force of arms. While improving the ability of the two emperors to rule the empire, the division of power further marginalized the Senate, which remained in Rome. In [[293]], Diocletian and Maximian each appointed a Caesar ([[Galerius]] and [[Constantius Chlorus|Constantius]], respectively), formally adopting them as their heirs. However, these were not merely successors - each was given authority over roughly a quarter of the Empire. Considering that during the half-century preceding Diocletian's ascension the Empire had been in a constant state of simmering civil war, it is remarkable that the Tetrarchy did not immediately fall apart due to the greed of any one of the four emperors. However, the opportunistic nature of Roman Imperial politics soon brought about the disintegration of the Tetrarchy and the reinstitution of one-man rule. When in 305, Diocletian retired (and his western counterpart was persuaded to do the same), the two Caesars became the senior emperors as designed, but when it came time to choose new Caesars, the military and Senate intervened and brought forward their own candidates. In 306 [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] started a civil war in the west, which he won in 312, and took the eastern half by 324, thus ruling as a united Empire until his death in 337. However, by 395 the division occurred again and the two halves would never be united again. === Economic reforms === Economically Diocletian made reforms as well. When Diocletian accended to the throne, the Roman economy had been long-since exhausted. The cost of supporting constant warfare, both external and internal, drove their economy into ruin. The fact that they had to support a very large conscript army seriously deprived their workforce of manpower. The empire extended over an area of land unprecedented in ancient times. The machinery of the empire that was used to support this vast presence was built on that of the old Republic. The machinery of that Republic had been built to rule a small city-state in the middle of Italy. The empire became too overextended for its economy to handle. In addition, Plagues and pandemics were common, further straining the economy. This resulted in extreme [[hyperinflation]], and a severe devaluation of the coinage. This lead to wide-spread bartering. In [[301]], Diocletian attempted to curb the rampant [[inflation]], and issued his [[Edict on Maximum Prices]]. This Edict fixed prices for over a thousand goods, fixed wages, and threatened the [[death penalty]] to merchants who overcharged. Diocletian was forced to increase tax collection, and likewise the size of the Roman civil service. The Romans lived in a time before any understanding of the science of economics, and as a result of this, Diocletian's reforms probably made the situation worse. He was unable to stop the inflation, and many of his economic reforms were eventually ignored. === Military reforms === Militarily Diocletian expanded the army from around 400,000 to over 450,000 and divided it into two major portions: The frontier troops (''[[limitanei]]'' or ''ripenses'') and mobile field forces (''[[comitatenses]]'') to provide a reserve. About two-thirds of the army's strength was frontier forces. The remainder were in the mobile units which the Augusti and Caesars kept centrally located in their territories. Since they were closer to the centers of power, and therefore more politically dangerous, the mobile troops were better paid than the frontier forces. This proved a cause for resentment and, later on, trouble. The experience with the ''[[vexillatio]]'' system led Diocletian to reduce the [[Roman legion|legions]] of the field forces to about 1,000 men each, to assure greater [[strategic]] and [[tactical]] flexibility without the need for detachments. The legions of the frontier were kept at full strength (4,000-6,000 men). Auxiliary units in both mobile and frontier forces were usually 1,000 men each. Also under Diocletian, the post of [[Praetorian prefect]] was greatly reduced in power. Instead, each [[Augustus]] and [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] had two major military commanders: a ''[[Magister militum]]'' (master of soldiers) and a ''[[Magister Equitum]]'' (master of [[cavalry]]). This not only divided military responsibilities, thus reducing political dangers, but it also acknowledged the increased importance of cavalry in the [[Roman army]]. Many of the military reforms started by Diocletian were continued by his successors and largely completed under [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]], who abolished the Praetorian Guard, replacing it with a smaller, more controllable personal bodyguard (the [[Scholae]] ) of about 4,000 men. ==Persecution of Christians== In 303, the last and greatest [[persecution of Christians]] by the Roman Empire began. In the earlier part of Diocletian's reign, [[Galerius]] was more the instigator of such persecution than Diocletian himself. However, in the later part of Diocletian's reign, Diocletian embraced the policy of persecution with unequivocal zeal in his first &quot;Edict against the Christians&quot; (February 24, 303). First Christian soldiers had to leave the army, later the Church's property was confiscated and Christian books were destroyed. After two fires in Diocletian's palace he took harder measures against Christians: they had either to apostatize or they were sentenced to death. This wave of persecution lasted intermitently until 313 with the issue of the [[Edict of Milan]] by Constantine. The persecution made such an impression on Christians that the Alexandrian church used the start of Diocletian's reign (284) as the [[epoch]] for their [[Era of Martyrs]]. Among the recorded martyrs, there are [[Pope Marcellinus]], [[Philomena]], [[Saint Afra|Afra]], [[Saint Lucy|Lucy]], [[Erasmus of Formiae]], [[Saint Florian|Florian]], [[Saint George|George]], [[Saint Agnes|Agnes]], and others ending with [[Peter of Alexandria]] (311). Another effect of the persecution was the escape of one Marinus the Dalmatian to [[Mount Titano]], forming what [[History of San Marino|eventually became the Republic of San Marino]]. == Retirement and death == [[Image:SPLIT-Hebrard_overall_color_restitution.jpg|thumb|right|Palace of the Roman Emperor Diocletian, around which the Croatian city of Split emerged]] In [[305]], at the age of fifty-nine, after almost dying from a sickness, Diocletian retired to his palace near the administrative center of [[Salona]] on the [[Adriatic Sea]], taking up his beloved hobby of growing [[cabbage]]s. When solicited at a later date to resume the honours which he had voluntarily resigned, his reply was, &quot;Would but you could see the vegetables planted by my hands at Salona, you would then never think of urging such an attempt.&quot; He was the only Roman Emperor to voluntarily remove himself from office; all of the others either died of natural causes or were removed by force. [[Diocletian's Palace]] later became the seed of modern [[Split]], [[Croatia]]. == Legacy == Overall Diocletian's reforms--in particular those of the military, civil administration, and Roman bureaucracy--were sound and would help extend the life of the empire for centuries longer. However, his Tetrarchy would prove a formula for civil war, as he would see before his death. The Tetrarchy only worked when he was directly involved with it. Once he gave up the Imperial Purple to grow vegetables on the Adriatic shores, the Tetrarch system soon collapsed upon itself, with a new, single strong ruler eventually emgering triumphant. The division of the empire into western and eastern halves, would eventually result in a permanent split, with the eastern half becoming the Byzantine Empire. While the western empire would last only another couple of centuries, the Byzantine Empire, partly through Diocletian's own reforms, would continue in various forms for another one-thousand years. The persecutions by him and his colleagues of Christians and others they considered dangerous sects, only ended up making them more visible and thus influential than they would otherwise have been. This, together with the new theocratic trappings Diocletian brought to the emperorship, would set the stage for the rise of Constantine and Christianity. Although his reign and achievements have been largely overshadowed by Constantine's, it marks an important turning point in Roman history. Diocletian, himself, remains one of the more enigmatic and contradictory personalities of history. He would strip away much of what remained of the Republic, yet would end up in later life acting much as [[Cincinnatus]] had, in giving up power for farming. == Dioceses of Diocletian == {| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |- ! ''Diocesis'' ! ''Territories'' |- | colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | EAST |- | Oriens || Libya, Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and Cilicia |- | [[Pontus]] || Cappadocia, Armenia Minor, Galatia, Bithynia |- | Asia (Asiana) || Asia, Phrygia, Pisidia, Lycia, Lydia, Caria |- | Thrace Moesiae ||
work to air via satellite. In 1977, HBO launched ''[[Inside the NFL]]'', the channel's longest-running program. In 1978, HBO began airing coverage of Wimbledon and did so until 1998. Coverage has since moved to sister network [[TNT]] and later to [[NBC]]. HBO launched ''[[Boxing After Dark]]'' in 1997, showcasing some of boxing's newest talents. HBO currently operates [[HBO PPV]] (formally TVKO) to broadcast boxing matches to [[pay-per-view]] subscribers. == Documentaries == In 2004, guided by human rights activist [http://www.ansarburney.org/chairman.html Ansar Burney], a HBO team used a hidden camera to document slavery and torture in secret desert camps where boys under the age of five were trained to race camels, a national sport in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). This half-hour investigative report exposed a carefully hidden child slavery ring that bought or kidnapped hundreds of young boys in Pakistan and Bangladesh. These boys were then forced to become camel jockeys in the UAE. The report also questioned the sincerity of U.S. diplomacy in pressuring an ally, the UAE, to comply with its own stated policy of banning the use of children under 15 from camel racing. The documentary won a Sports Emmy Award in 2004 for &quot;Outstanding Sports Journalism&quot; and the 2006 Alfred I. DuPont-Columbia University Award for outstanding broadcast journalism. It also brought world attention to the plight of child camel jockeys in the Middle East and helped [http://www.ansarburney.org/ Ansar Burney Trust] to convince the governments of Qatar and the UAE to end the use of children in this sport == See also == * [[HBO Feature Presentation]] ==External links== * [http://www.hbo.com/ Official Site] *[http://www.hbo.com/hbohd/?ntrack_para1=leftnav_other1_4 HBO HD] * [http://www.signaltonoise.net/library/captmidn.htm The Story of Captain Midnight] * [http://www.macdougallelect.com/bio.html Captain Midnight on the web] {{Time Warner}} [[Category:1972 establishments]] [[Category:HBO television network| ]] [[Category:HD channels]] [[de:Home Box Office]] [[es:Home Box Office]] [[fi:HBO]] [[fr:Home Box Office]] [[he:HBO]] [[it:Home Box Office]] [[nl:Home Box Office]] [[no:Home Box Office]] [[pl:HBO]] [[pt:HBO]] [[sv:Home Box Office]] [[zh:HBO]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Henry IV</title> <id>13947</id> <revision> <id>42118209</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:08:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Caljess</username> <id>1008433</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>made mention of Enrico IV a live link to this entry</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Henry IV''' can refer to * [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor]] * [[Henry IV of England]] * [[Henry IV of France]] * [[Henry IV of Castile]] * [[Henry IV, Duke of Breslau]] or plays by [[William Shakespeare]]: * [[Henry IV, part 1]] * [[Henry IV, part 2]] or a play by [[Luigi Pirandello]]: *[[Enrico IV]] {{disambig}} [[es:Enrique IV]] [[fr:Henri IV]] [[it:Enrico IV]] [[nl:Hendrik IV]] [[pl:Henryk IV]] [[ru:Генрих IV]] [[fi:Henrik IV]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Head end</title> <id>13948</id> <revision> <id>15911532</id> <timestamp>2003-11-08T11:40:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>67.75.225.140</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cable television headend]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Headend</title> <id>13949</id> <revision> <id>15911533</id> <timestamp>2003-11-09T05:43:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Minesweeper</username> <id>7279</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cable television headend]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Home computer</title> <id>13950</id> <revision> <id>41529710</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:41:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Frecklefoot</username> <id>4259</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Notable game consoles */ people, these are only consoles for the HOME COMPUTER era--removed post-HC era consoles</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:TRS-80 Color Computer II.jpg|thumb|320px|TRS-80 Color Computer II]] The '''home computer''' is a consumer-friendly word for the second generation of [[microcomputer]]s (the technical term that was previously used), entering the market in 1977 and becoming common during the 1980s. The home computer became affordable for the general public due to the mass production of the silicon chip based [[microprocessor]] and as the name indicates, tended to be used in the home rather than in business/industrial contexts (the name also marks the difference from the [[:Category:Early microcomputers|first generation]] of microcomputers (from 1974/75 onwards) which catered mostly to engineers and hobbyists with good [[soldering]] skills, as they were often sold as kits to be assembled by the customer). The home computer largely died out at the end of the decade (in the [[United States|U.S.]]) or in the early 1990s (in [[Europe]]) due to the rise of the [[IBM PC compatible]] [[personal computer]] (the IBM PC and its clones are not covered in this article). ==Concise history== In a manner resembling the expansion of new animal forms in the [[Cambrian]] period, large numbers of new machines of all types, including such exotica as the [[Forth programming language|Forth]]-based [[Jupiter Ace|Jupiter ACE]] appeared on the market, and disappeared again. A few types remained for much longer, such as the [[BBC Micro]] and [[Commodore 64]] which still have a devoted following. However by the end of the decade most were squeezed out between the [[IBM PC compatible|IBM compatible Personal Computer]] and the newer generations of [[video game console]]s because they each used their own incompatible formats. The PC revolution was initiated by the August 1981 release of the [[IBM PC]] (its original designation actually being the quite anonymous, classic IBM-nomenclature, &quot;IBM 5150&quot;). Many home computers were superficially similar, some having a very [[chiclet keyboard|cheap-to-manufacture keyboard]] integrated into the processor unit and displaying 20&amp;ndash;40 column text output on a home [[television]]. Many used ordinary and widely available [[compact audio cassette]]s as a (notoriously slow and sometimes unreliable) storage mechanism since [[floppy disk]] drives were very expensive at the time, especially in Europe (often a disk drive would be priced higher than the computer itself due to its more complicated mechanical construction, and thus, manufacturing cost). All in all, cheapness was the order of the day for most of these machines, in order to get the prices low enough to encourage ordinary-income people to buy. A prime buyer segment were families with school-age children. All modern desktop computers employ an [[operating system]] (OS) which acts as an interface between the operator and the computer's internal hardware ([[random access memory|memory]], [[central processing unit|CPU]], etc). Home computers most often had their OS, of which one part was usually a [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreter]], stored in one or more [[Read-only memory|ROM]] chips. The term [[software]] commonly denoted application programs sitting 'above' the OS to perform a specific task, e.g. [[wordprocessor|wordprocessors]] or [[computer games|games]]. As many older computers have become obsolete it has become popular amongst enthusiasts to enable one type of computer to emulate another via the use of [[Emulator|emulation software]]. Thus, many of the operating environments for the computers listed below can be recreated on a modern PC. Home computers were mostly based on [[8-bit]] [[microprocessor]] technology, typically the [[MOS Technology]] [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] or the [[Zilog Z80]]. A large variety of 8-bit home computers were designed and marketed during the early to mid-1980s. A notable exception was the TI-99 series, released in 1979 with a 16 bit [[TMS9900]] CPU. These were then gradually supplanted by the PC (mostly the PC compatibles&amp;mdash;clones&amp;mdash;costing significantly less than the IBM PC) and the PC's competing [[Motorola 68000]]-based home/personal computers appearing from 1984 onwards. Some vendors attempted to prolong the market life of their 8-bit computers by price cuts and other means (see, for example, [[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]]), but their era had ended. See the [[list of home computers by category]] for a comprehensive listing of most well-known home computers, divided by wordlength (8, 16-bit) and CPU architecture. ==Notable home computers== The list below shows the '''most popular and/or historically significant home computers''' of the 1980s, their initial year of release, and their region/country of origin. A plethora of home computers came out during this period, but most failed to have a significant impact on the market or the history of home computing and as such are not mentioned (this includes machines not sold/known outside its home market). Different models in a line of compatible computers are listed as a whole, such as the Apple II and TRS-80 families. (For a comprehensive overview of home computers, i.e. not just the most notable ones given below, see the [[List of home computers]].) * [[Apple II family|Apple II]] (June 1977, North America) (color graphics, eight expansion slots) * [[TRS-80|Tandy Radio Shack TRS-80]] (August 1977, N. Am.) (first home computer for less than US$600) * [[Commodore PET]] (December 1977, N. Am.) (first all-in-one computer: keyboard/screen/tape storage) * [[Atari 8-bit family#Original 400/800 series|Atari 400/800]] ([[1979]], N. Am.) (first computer with custom chip set) * [[Commodore
as also been a belief shared, sometimes theorized, by [[philosophers]]. [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] has been one of the most famous eschatological thinkers, followed by [[Hegel]]'s [[philosophy of history]], and, some have argued [[Marxist]]s &amp;ndash; as a [[secular]] religion. [[Theodicy]] has gathered together most [[Enlightenment]] thinkers, among whom are [[Kant]] and [[Rousseau]]. ==See also== * [[Ancient Aztec eschatology]] * [[Ancient Egyptian eschatology]] * [[Ancient Greek eschatology]] * [[Ancient Roman eschatology]] * [[Rastafarian eschatology]] * [[2012]] * [[2012 Apocalyptic theories]] * [[Apocalypse]] * [[Apocalypticism]] (Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Rastafari Movement; comprehensive &quot;see also&quot; links) * [[Armageddon]], [[End times]] * [[Human evolution]] * [[Immanentize the eschaton]] * [[Judgement day]] * [[Millennialism]] * [[Millenarianism]] * [[Messianism]] and [[Messiah]] * [[The Pocket Guide to the Apocalypse]] * [[Six Ages of the World]] * [[History of unfulfilled prophecy by Christians]] * [[Ultimate fate of the universe]] ==External links== *[http://alexm.here.ru/mirrors/www.enteract.com/jwalz/Eliade/eschat.html Death, Afterlife and Eschatology] *[http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/topic/eschatology.html Reformed Eschatology] *[http://www.solagratia.org/covenant.cfm Reformed Eschatology] *[http://www.solagratia.org/dispensational.cfm Dispensational Eschatology] *[http://www.biblicaladvancedbasics.com/MidActs.pdf Mid-Acts Dispensational Eschatology] *[http://www.fourthhorseman.com/Revelation/ Revelation] The magazine of apocalyptic art and literature *[http://www.xs4all.nl/~mke/exitmundi.htm Exit Mundi] A collection of end-of-world scenarios *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/briefhistory.shtml ''A Brief History of the End of Everything'', a BBC 4 Radio series] *[http://www.endofworld.net End of the World - Flash Parody] *[http://www.armageddononline.org/ Armageddon Online - End of the World Scnearios &amp; Extinction Events] *[http://www.religioustolerance.org/end_wrl1.htm Religious Tolerance - End of the World Prophecies] *[http://www.jesus2006.org Signs of the End: A Discovery of Biblical Timelines] *[http://www.geocities.com/douglas36601/KYMAK.html Visions of Heaven on Earth] *[http://www.bible.ca/pre-date-setters.htm 220 Dates for the End of the world] * [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=108400 What is the Jewish Belief About ‘The End of Days’?] chabad.org * [http://endtimepilgrim.org The End Time Pilgrim] - A guide into the final seven years of this age. {{Philosophy portal}} &lt;!-- geo is not a valid language code. Ideas anyone? [[geo:ესქატოლოგია (eskatologia)]] --&gt; [[Category:Eschatology|*]] [[Category:Theology]] [[Category:Christian theology]] [[Category:Prophecy]] [[Category:Philosophy]] [[Category:Metaphysics]] [[Category:Philosophical terminology]] [[Category:Ethics]] [[cs:Eschatologie]] [[de:Eschatologie]] [[el:Εσχατολογία]] [[es:Escatología (religión)]] [[fr:Eschatologie]] [[he:אסכטולוגיה]] [[nl:Eschatologie]] [[ja:終末論]] [[pl:Eschatologia]] [[ru:Эсхатология]] [[fi:Eskatologia]] [[sv:Eskatologi]] [[tr:Eskatoloji]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ecumenical council</title> <id>9762</id> <revision> <id>42160099</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:28:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hayabusa future</username> <id>93303</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */ [[id:Konsili Ekumene]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">: ''See also [[General Council (disambiguation)]]'' {{Christianity}} In [[Catholicism]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], an '''[[ecumenical]] council''' or '''general council''' is a meeting of the bishops of the whole church convened to discuss and settle matters of Church doctrine and practice. The word is from [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#927;&amp;#953;&amp;#954;&amp;#959;&amp;#965;&amp;#956;&amp;#941;&amp;#957;&amp;#951; (oikumene), which literally means &quot;inhabited&quot;, and was originally a figure of speech referring to the territory of the Roman Empire since the earliest councils were all convoked by Roman emperors. In later usage it was applied in a more general way to mean all places that are inhabited by human beings, therefore &quot;World-wide&quot; or &quot;General&quot;. &quot;The whole church&quot; is construed by most Eastern Orthodox Christians as including all Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions in [[full communion]] with each other. This does not include the [[Roman Catholic Church]] or her [[Eastern Rite]] adherents. While a few Orthodox would see a council as fully ecumenical only if it included all the ancient patriarchates, including Rome, this is not mainstream Orthodox opinion. Similarly, Roman Catholics take the ''whole church'' to mean &quot;only&quot; those in [[full communion]] with the (Roman) Catholic church. Again, some Catholics would see it necessary to include the Eastern Churches in an ecumenical council, in the full and proper sense. As [[Pope John Paul II]] often put it, the Church needs to breathe &quot;with its two lungs&quot; (he was however referring to the Eastern Rite churches in full communion with Rome) More local meetings are sometimes called &quot;[[synod]]s&quot;, but the distinction between a synod and a council is not hard and fast. However, both churches do recognize the validity of all of the early councils before the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]], with the exception of the [[Fourth Council of Constantinople]], which Catholics hold to be the council of 869&amp;ndash;870 and Orthodox the subsequent council of 879&amp;ndash;880. The Greek word &quot;synod&quot; (&amp;#963;&amp;#973;&amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#948;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;) derives from &quot;syn&quot; (together) and &quot;odos&quot; (road, way), therefore a synod is the coming together of several people sharing a common element, in this case the Christian bishops. == Council documents == Church councils were, from the beginning, bureaucratic exercises. Written documents were circulated, speeches made and responded to, votes taken, and final documents published and distributed. A large part of what we know about the beliefs of [[Heresy|heresies]] comes from the documents quoted in councils in order to be refuted, or indeed only from the deductions based on the refutations. For all councils '''Canons''' (Greek &amp;#954;&amp;#945;&amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#957;&amp;#949;&amp;#962; (kanones), &quot;rules&quot; or &quot;rulings&quot;) were published and survive. In some cases other documentation survives as well. Study of the canons of church councils is the foundation of the development of [[canon law]], especially the reconciling of seemingly contradictory canons or the determination of priority between them. Canons consist of doctrinal statements and disciplinary measures &amp;mdash; most Church councils and local synods dealt with immediate disciplinary concerns as well as major difficulties of doctrine. [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] typically views the purely doctrinal canons as dogmatic and applicable to the entire church at all times, while the disciplinary canons are the application of those dogmas in a particular time and place; these canons may or may not be applicable in other situations. == List of ecumenical councils == === Councils #1 to #7 === * 1. [[First Council of Nicaea]], ([[325]]); repudiated [[Arianism]], adopted the [[Nicene Creed]]. This and all subsequent councils are not recognized by [[Nontrinitarianism|nontrinitarian]] churches: [[Arianism|Arian]]s, [[Unitarian]]s, and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] et al. * 2. [[First Council of Constantinople]], ([[381]]); revised the [[Nicene Creed]] into present form used in the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches and prohibited any further alteration of the Creed without the assent of an Ecumenical Council. * 3. [[Council of Ephesus]], ([[431]]); repudiated [[Nestorianism]], proclaimed the Virgin Mary as the Mother of God (Greek, [[Theotokos|&amp;#919; &amp;#920;&amp;#949;&amp;#959;&amp;#964;&amp;#972;&amp;#954;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;;]]). This and all following councils are not recognized by [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian]] Church. * 4. [[Council of Chalcedon]], ([[451]]); repudiated the [[Eutyches|Eutychian]] doctrine of [[monophysitism]], described and delineated the two natures of Christ, human and divine; adopted the [[Chalcedonian Creed]]. This and all following councils are not recognized by [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Communion]]. * 5. [[Second Council of Constantinople]], ([[553]]); reaffirmed decisions and doctrines explicated by previous Councils, condemned new Arian, Nestorian, and Monophysite writings. * 6. [[Third Council of Constantinople]], ([[680]]&amp;ndash;[[681]]); repudiated [[Monothelitism]], affirmed that Christ had both human and Divine wills. **[[Quinisext Council]] (= Fifth and Sixth) or Council in Trullo, ([[692]]); mostly an administrative council that raised some local canons to ecumenical status and established principles of clerical discipline. It is not considered to be a full-fledged council in its own right because it did not determine matters of doctrine. This council is accepted by the Eastern Orthodox Church as a part of VI ecumenical council, but that is rejected by Roman Catholics. * 7. [[Second Council of Nicaea]], ([[787]]); restoration of the veneration of [[Icon|Icons]] and end of the first [[Iconoclasm]] (Rejected by many Protestant denominations, who instead prefer the Council of Constantinople of 754, which condemned the veneration of icons.) === Councils #8 and #9 === ==== #8 and #9 for Catholics ==== * 8 (cor). [[Fourth Council of Constantinople]], ([[869]]&amp;ndash;[[870]]) Deposed Patriarch Photios of Constantinople (who was later made a saint by the Orthodox Church) because of certain irregularities involved in his assumption of the patriarchal throne, su
luid]] for [[metalworking]]. In butter and margarine, a continuous lipid phase surrounds droplets of water (water-in-oil emulsion). '''Emulsification''' is the process by which emulsions are prepared. Emulsions tend to have a cloudy appearance, because the many phase interfaces (the boundary between oil and water is called the interface) scatter light that passes through the emulsion. Emulsions can be stable or unstable. Homemade oil and vinegar [[salad dressing]] is an unstable emulsion that will quickly separate unless shaken continuously. This phenomenon is called [[coalescence (meteorology)|coalescence]], and happens when small droplets recombine to form bigger ones. Fluid emulsions can also suffer from [[creaming]], the migration of one of the substances to the top of the emulsion under the influence of [[buoyancy]] or [[centripetal force]] when a [[centrifuge]] is used. Emulsions are part of a more general class of two-phase systems of matter called [[colloid]]s. Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion tends to imply that both the dispersed and the continuous phase are [[liquid]]. ==Emulsifier== An '''emulsifier''' (also known as a '''[[surfactant]]''' from ''surface active material'' or '''emulgent''') is a substance which stabilizes an emulsion. Examples of food emulsifiers are egg yolk (where the main emulsifying chemical is the [[phospholipid]] [[lecithin]]), and mustard, where a variety of chemicals in the mucilage surrounding the seed hull act as emulsifiers; [[protein]]s and low-molecular weight emulsifiers are common as well. In some cases, particles can stabilise emulsions as well through a mechanism called [[Pickering stabilization]]. Both [[mayonnaise]] and [[Hollandaise sauce]] are oil-in-water emulsions stabilized with egg yolk lecithin. [[Detergent]]s are another class of surfactant, and will chemically interact with both [[Cooking oil|oil]] and [[water]], thus stabilising the interface between oil or water droplets in suspension. This principle is exploited in [[soap]] to remove [[Yellow grease|grease]] for the purpose of [[cleaning]]. A wide variety of emulsifiers are used in [[pharmacy]] to prepare emulsions such as [[cream (pharmaceutical)|creams]] and [[lotion]]s. [[Image:propofol.jpg|left|thumb|20 ml ampule of 1% [[propofol]] emulsion suitable for [[intravenous]] injection. The manufacturers emulsify the lipid soluble propofol in a mixture water, soy oil and egg [[lecithin]].]] Whether an emulsion turns into a water-in-oil emulsion or an oil-in-water emulsion depends of the volume fraction of both phases and on the type of emulsifier. Generally, the [[Bancroft rule]] applies: emulsifiers and emulsifying particles tend to promote dispersion of the phase in which they do not dissolve very well; for example, proteins dissolve better in water than in oil and so tend to form oil-in-water emulsions (that is they promote the dispersion of oil droplets throughout a continuous phase of water). [[Category:Colloidal chemistry]] [[Category:Food science]] [[Category:Soft matter]] [[Category:Matter]] [[de:Emulsion]] [[et:Emulsioon]] [[es:Emulsión]] [[fr:Émulsion]] [[it:Emulsione]] [[he:חומר מתחלב]] [[nl:Emulsie]] [[ja:エマルション]] [[pl:Emulsja]] [[pt:Emulsão]] [[ru:Эмульсия]] [[fi:Emulsio]] [[sv:Emulsion]] [[vi:Nhũ tương]] [[zh:乳剂]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Estonia ship</title> <id>10291</id> <revision> <id>15908112</id> <timestamp>2004-03-13T13:50:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mic</username> <id>6273</id> </contributor> <comment>Redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[M/S Estonia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma</title> <id>10292</id> <revision> <id>42077092</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:44:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>195.92.67.70</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Death */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)|Admiral of the Fleet]] '''Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma''', [[Knight of the Garter|KG]], [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Order of Merit|OM]], [[Order of the Star of India|GCSI]], [[Order of the Indian Empire|GCIE]], [[Royal Victorian Order|GCVO]], [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]] ([[25 June]] [[1900]] &amp;ndash; [[27 August]] [[1979]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[admiral]] and [[statesman]] and an uncle of [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]]. He was the last [[Viceroy]] and first [[Governor-General]] of independent [[India]], and [[First Sea Lord]], as was his father, [[Prince Louis of Battenberg]]. He was assassinated by the [[provisional IRA]], who planted a bomb in his boat in [[Donegal Bay]] in the [[Republic of Ireland]]. [[Image:mountbatten.jpg|thumb|Viceroy Mountbatten of India (1947)]] ==Ancestry== Mountbatten was born in [[Frogmore House]], Windsor, in [[England]], as ''His Serene Highness Prince Louis of Battenberg'', although his [[German Empire|German]] [[Royal and noble styles|styles and titles]] were dropped in [[1917]]. He was the youngest child and the second son of [[Prince Louis of Battenberg]] and his wife [[Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine]]. His maternal grandparents were [[Ludwig IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine]] and [[Princess Alice of the United Kingdom]], daughter of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom]] and [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]]. His siblings were [[Princess Alice of Battenberg|Princess Alice]], (mother of [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]]), [[Louise Mountbatten|Queen Louise of Sweden]], and [[George Mountbatten, 2nd Marquess of Milford Haven]]. His father was [[First Sea Lord]] at the outbreak of the [[World War I|First World War]], but the prevailing extreme anti-German feelings obliged him to resign. In [[1917]], when the Royal Family stopped using their German names and titles, [[Prince Louis of Battenberg]] became Louis Mountbatten, and was created [[Marquess of Milford Haven]]. His second son acquired the [[courtesy title|courtesy]] style '''Lord Louis Mountbatten''' and was known as '''Lord Louis''' informally until his death notwithstanding his being granted a viscountcy in recognition of his wartime service in the Far East and an earldom for his role in the transition of India from British dependency to sovereign state. In childhood he visited the Imperial Court of Russia at St Petersburg and became intimate with the doomed Imperial Family; in later life he was called upon authoritatively to rebut claims by pretenders to be the supposedly surviving Grand Duchess Anastasia. ==Career== ===Early career=== Mountbatten served in the [[Royal Navy]] during the [[World War I|First World War]]. He accompanied [[Edward, Prince of Wales]] on a 1922 royal tour of India (where he met Edwina Ashley) and consolidated a firm friendship with the Prince which cooled substantially during the Abdication Crisis of 1936, when Mountbatten's loyalties as between the wider Royal Family and the throne, on the one hand, and the then-King, on the other, were tested, with Mountbatten coming down firmly on the side of Prince Albert who was to assume the throne in his brother's place. ===Second World War=== In the [[World War II|Second World War]] he commanded the 5th [[Destroyer]] [[Flotilla]]. His ship, the destroyer [[HMS Kelly|HMS ''Kelly'']], was famous for many daring exploits. In early May [[1940]], Mountbatten led a British convoy in through the fog to evacuate the Allied forces participating in the [[Namsos campaign]]. His ship was sunk during the [[Crete]] Campaign. In [[1940]] he invented the [[Mountbatten Pink]] naval camouflage pigment. Mountbatten was a favourite of [[Winston Churchill]] &amp;mdash; Churchill was famously annoyed with Mountbatten's later role in the independence of India &amp;mdash; and in [[1941]] he replaced [[Roger Keyes]] as Chief of [[Combined Operations]]. He personally pushed through the disastrous [[Dieppe Raid]] ([[19 August]] [[1942]]) (which certain elements of the Allied military, notably [[Bernard Montgomery|Field Marshal Montgomery]], felt was misconceived from the start). The raid on Dieppe was widely considered to be a disaster, with casualties (including those injured and/or taken prisoner) numbering in the thousands, the great majority of them Canadians. As a result, at one time Mountbatten was a rather controversial figure in Canada, with the Royal Canadian Legion taking some pains to distance itself from him during his visits there during his later career. The effluxion of time and Mountbatten's later fame in connection with India, particularly towards the end of his life, served to mute these feelings. Nevertheless, the perceived callousness of Mountbatten and other prominent figures towards Canadian forces felt by some served to encourage Canada's increasing distancing of itself from Britain in the postwar years. In late 1942, Mountbatten proposed [[Project Habbakuk]] to Churchill; the [[Pycrete]] [[supercarrier]] project was never completed. In October 1943, Churchill appointed Mountbatten the Supreme Allied Commander [[South-East Asian Theatre of World War II|South East Asia Theatre]], a post he held until [[South East Asia Command]] (SEAC) was disbanded in 1946. During his time as Supreme Allied Commander of the South-East Asia Theatre his command oversaw the recapture of Burma from the Japanese by General [[William Slim]]. His diplomatic handling of [[Joseph Stilwell|General &quot;Vinegar Joe&quot; Stilwell]], his deputy - and also the officer commanding the American [[China Burma India Theater of World War II|China Burma India Theater]] - and Generalissimo [[Chiang Kai-shek]], leader of the Chinese Nationalist forces, was as gifted as that of General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] with
ne's death) *putting oneself in harm's way, or in situations where there is a danger of being killed If you are feeling suicidal or know someone who is: *call a doctor, emergency room, or the [[emergency telephone number]] right away to get immediate help *make sure you, or the suicidal person, are not left alone *make sure that access is prevented to large amounts of medication, weapons, or other items that could be used for self-harm ==Epidemiology== The lifetime prevalence rate of Bipolar Disorder I and II is thought to be between 0.6 and 2% of the population{{ref|prevalence}}. Bipolar I disorder is gender-neutral, affecting both women and men equally, according to the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM]]. Bipolar II is found more frequently in women{{ref|bipolar2women}}. No publication to date has suggested that there is a difference between races in the prevalence of bipolar disorder. Most frequently, the disorder starts with a depression, and [[mania]] or [[hypomania]] follows. In the vast majority of cases, the symptoms begin in early adulthood, and continue over the course of the lifespan. There are some occurrences of a single manic episode followed by full recovery with no recurrence; however, these cases are rare enough to suggest some other confounding factors. For many years it was believed that the bipolar profile emerged in late adolescence and/or young adulthood. Recent research by the [[National Institute of Mental Health]] suggests that even young children can suffer from bipolar symptoms or precursors.{{ref| NIMH Roundtable}} These precursors can include acute [[anxiety]] or [[panic attack]]s. Although there is no specific official diagnostic category for this pre-adolescent patient profile, it is often called &quot;[[pediatric bipolar disorder]]&quot;. ==Etiology== There are many theories regarding the development of bipolar disorder. Multiple factors may be involved, such as stressful events or major life transitions, conditions in the womb, past or present drug use (which may complicate diagnoses if present and may lead to misdiagnoses), sleep deprivation, or a family history of bipolar disorder, [[clinical depression]], or [[schizophrenia]]. This type of family history creates a genetic vulnerability which can significantly increase the likelihood of developing the disorder {{ref| Genetic Likelihood}}. The &quot;kindling&quot; theory {{ref|kindling}} asserts that people who are genetically predisposed toward bipolar disorder experience a series of stressful events, each of which lowers the threshold at which mood changes occur. Eventually, the mood episode itself is sufficient to trigger recurring difficulties. As with nearly all psychiatric or psychological phenomena, the etiology of bipolar disorder is thought to include a complex interplay between environmental stimuli (stressful life events, drug use, etc.) and genetic vulnerability. While bipolar disorder has a strong genetic component, the concordance rate between MZ (identical) twins, who share 100% of their DNA, is not 100%. Therefore, environmental and genetic factors must be at play. Many drugs, legal and illegal, may initiate a manic episode. The mania induced by such drugs, including antidepressant medications and stimulants (e.g. Adderall or methamphetamines), may or may not resolve when the medication is discontinued. When a patient with a history of manic episodes requires an antidepressant because of a serious depression, a doctor typically will tread carefully, prescribing a low dose and, ideally, closely monitoring the patient for any signs of an excessive mood shift toward the manic side of the spectrum. ==Comorbid conditions== Several disorders may occur simultaneously with bipolar I and II disorders. As these disorders are not all episodic, they may present themselves during the course of both mood mood stability. Further, the medications used to manage the symptoms of bipolar disorders may be ineffective against the symptoms of comorbid disorders, and, in some cases, are contraindicated because they aggravate other conditions. [[Anxiety disorders]] or [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]] (mild or severe) may occur in conjunction with bipolar disorder. Other co-occurring symptomologies may include panic disorder, social phobia, [[suicide|suicidal ideation]], [[substance dependence]], and [[Somatization disorder|somatization disorders]]. Another comorbid condition that often confuses the diagnosis in the juvenile population is ADHD. ADHD and bipolar disorder co-occur frequently, perhaps due to their overlapping symptom profiles or to the prescription of stimulant medications to juveniles with ADHD {{ref|Comorbidities}}. ==Cycles in bipolar disorder== The cycles of bipolar disorder may be long or short, and the ups and downs may be of different magnitudes: for instance, a person suffering from bipolar disorder may suffer a protracted mild depression followed by a shorter and intense mania. The depressed periods may seem much worse following a manic period from the point of view of the patient. Severe depression or mania may be accompanied by symptoms of [[psychosis]]. These symptoms include [[hallucination]]s (hearing, seeing, or otherwise sensing the presence of stimuli that are not there) and [[delusion]]s (false personal beliefs that are not subject to reason or contradictory evidence and are not explained by a person's cultural concepts). Paranoid (see [[paranoia]]) thoughts, which cause the patient to believe that he or she is being persecuted or monitored by some powerful entity such as the government or a hostile force, may be present. Intense and unusual religious beliefs may also be present, such as patients' strong insistance that they have a God-given role to play in the world, a great and historic mission to accomplish, or even that they possess supernatural powers. Delusions in a depression may be far more distressing, sometimes taking the form of intense guilt for supposed wrongs that the patient believes he or she has inflicted on others. ==Domains of bipolar disorder== ===Mania=== Researchers at [[Duke University]] have refined Kraepelin’s four classes of mania to include hypomania (featuring mainly [[euphoria]]), severe mania (including euphoria, [[grandiosity]], high levels of [[Libido|sexual drive]], [[irritability]], [[volatility]], [[psychosis]], [[paranoia]], and [[aggression]]), extreme mania (most of the displeasures, hardly any of the pleasures) a.k.a. dysphoric mania, and two forms of mixed mania (where depressive and manic symptoms collide)[http://www.mcmanweb.com/article-5.htm]. ===[[Hypomania]]=== Hypomania is a less severe form of [[mania]] without progression to [[psychosis]]. Many of the symptoms of mania are present, but to a lesser degree than in overt mania. People with hypomania are generally perceived as being energetic, euphoric, overflowing with new ideas, and sometimes highly confident and charismatic, yet they are sufficiently capable of coherent thought and action to participate in everyday life. It is questionable whether hypomania occurs without being part of a cycle of mania or depression. Patients rarely, if ever, seek out a psychiatrist complaining of hypomania. Johns Hopkins psychologist John Gartner in ''The Hypomanic Edge'' contends that many famous people – including [[Christopher Columbus]], [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[Andrew Carnegie]], [[Louis B. Mayer|Louis B Mayer]], and [[Craig Venter]] (who mapped the human [[genome]]) - owed their ideas and drive (and eccentricities) to their hypomanic temperaments. The creativity and risky behavior associated with hypomania (and bipolar disorder in general) may suggest why it has survived evolutionary pressures. Although hypomania sounds in many ways like a desirable condition, it can have significant downsides. Many of the negative symptoms of mania can be present; the primary differentiating factor is the absence of [[psychosis]]. Many hypomanic patients have symptoms of disrupted sleep patterns, irritability, racing thoughts, obsessional traits, and poor judgment. Hypomania, like mania, can be associated with recklessness, excessive spending, risky hypersexual activity, general lack of judgment and out-of-character behaviour that the patient may later regret and may cause significant social, interpersonal, career and financial problems. Hypomania can also signal the beginning of a more severe manic episode, and in people who know that they suffer from bipolar disorder, can be viewed as a warning sign that a manic episode is on the way, allowing them to seek medical treatment while they are still sufficiently self-aware before full-blown mania occurs. ===Bipolar depression=== People with bipolar disorder, generally speaking, are depressed far more often than they are manic. According to the [[Stanley Foundation Bipolar Network]], bipolar patients spend three times more days in depression than they do in mania{{citeneeded}}, however, there are cases of Bipolar I in which patients are primarily manic. For bipolar II patients, a study by Hagop Akiskal &lt;!--MD--&gt; of the [[University of California, San Diego]] revealed this population was depressed 37 times more than they were hypomanic{{citeneeded}}. A 2003 study by Robert Hirschfeld &lt;!--MD--&gt; of the [[University of Texas Medical Branch|University of Texas, Galveston]] found bipolar patients fared worse in their depressions than unipolar patients. (See [http://www.mcmanweb.com/article-221.htm Bipolar Depression].) ===Cognition=== Numerous studies show that bipolar disorder affects a patient's ability to think and perform mental tasks, even in states of remission{{ref|Pettigrew}}. Deborah Yurgelun-Todd &lt;!--PhD--&gt; of [[McLean Hospital]] in [[Belmont, Massachusetts|Belmont]], [[Massachusetts]] has argued these deficits should be included as a core feature of bipolar disorder. By the same token, research by [[Kay R
[Latin Empire]] in Constantinople, while the descendents of the Byzantine Empire went to [[Asia Minor]] and established two smaller empires: the [[Empire of Nicaea]] and the [[Empire of Trebizond]]. These &quot;empires&quot; were short lived and the region was finally conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire]] in [[1453]]. It would not be until [[Peter the Great]]'s crowning in [[St. Petersburg]] as [[Tsar of Russia]] that Eastern Imperialism would resurface. Likewise, upon the fall of the Holy Roman Empire after the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the [[Austrian Empire]], later reshaped as [[Austria-Hungary]], inherited western imperialism. There were two attempts by [[Napoleon I]] and [[Napoleon III]] to seize the Western Imperial claim for [[France]]. Western Imperialism would also be usurped in the period of [[1878]]&amp;ndash;[[1918]] by the [[German Empire]]. Over time, other monarchies which viewed themselves as greater in size and power than mere [[monarch|kingdom]]s used the name or its translation. In [[1056]], King [[Ferdinand I of Leon]], proclaimed himself &quot;Emperor of Spain&quot;, beginning the ''[[Reconquista]]''. [[Bulgaria]] furnishes another example. Europeans came to apply the term &quot;empire&quot; to large non-European [[Monarchy|monarchies]], such as the [[Chinese Empire|Empire of China]] or the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal Empire]], and to extend it to past policies. The word eventually came to apply loosely to any entity meeting the criteria, whether kings governed or not, even whether a monarchy or not. In some cases synonyms of ''empire'' such as ''[[tsar]]dom'', ''[[realm]]'' or ''[[reich]]'' occur. Empires can accrete around different types of [[state]]. They have traditionally originated as powerful [[Monarchy|monarchies]] under the [[leadership|rule]] of a hereditary (or in some cases, self-appointed) [[emperor]], but the so-called empires of [[Athens]], Britain and the [[United States of America|United States]] developed under [[democracy|democratic]] auspices. [[Brazil]] leapt from colonial to self-declared empire status in 1822. France has twice made the transition from [[French Republic|republic]] to [[French Empire|empire]]. Historically, most empires came into being as the result of a militarily strong state conquering other states and incorporating them into a larger political union. Typically, a monarchy or an [[oligarchy]] rooted in the original core territory would continue to dominate this union. Many ancient empires maintained control of their subject peoples by controlling the supply of a vital resource, usually water; historians refer to such régimes as &quot;[[hydraulic empire]]s&quot;. The introduction of a common [[religion]] also often strengthened empires, as occurred (''pace'' [[Edward Gibbon]]) with the adoption of [[Christianity]] under [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire]]. And cultural influence played a large part in the survival of the [[Chinese empire]] and of its semi-imperial [[sphere of influence]]. An empire can mutate into some other form of [[polity]]. Thus the [[Bern]]ese empire of conquest no longer appears so imperial, but its territories have become absorbed into the [[canton of Bern]] or become cantons or parts of cantons elsewhere in the [[Switzerland|Swiss Confederation]]. The [[Holy Roman Empire]], itself in a sense a re-constitution of the [[Roman Empire]], underwent many transformations in its long history, fissuring extensively, experimenting with federalism and re-constituting itself as the [[Austrian Empire]] - vastly different in nature and in territory. The former second [[British Empire]] has spawned a loose multi-national [[Commonwealth of Nations]], and the old [[French colonial empire]] has also left traces of its existence in cultural networks and associations. The [[Soviet Empire]] leaves behind it the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS). An Emperor-based empire can readily become (say) a [[republic]] by means of a [[coup]] ([[Brazil]], 1889; [[Central African Empire]], 1979); or it can become a republic with its dominions reduced to a core territory ([[Germany]], 1918&amp;ndash;1919), [[Ottoman Empire]] (1918&amp;ndash;1923)). The breakup of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] in 1918 provides an example of a multi-ethnic [[superstate]] fissuring into multiple constituent or new parts: the republics, kingdoms or provinces of [[Austria]], [[Hungary]], [[Transylvania]], [[Croatia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Ruthenia]], [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]]&amp;hellip; The world's largest contiguous land empire was the [[Mongol Empire]], created by [[Genghis Khan]] in [[1206]]. It encompassed huge portion of [[Eurasia]] under [[Mongol]] rule. The Mongol Empire was governed by specific written code by Genghis Khan called [[Yasa]]. The Mongol Empire was governed by [[kurultai]], and there was [[freedom of religion]], tax exemption and extensive trade routes that were nurtured by the Khan. For example, the Mongol Empire provided political stability to the [[Silk Road]]. Other famous empires include the [[Persian empire]]. The Persians had numerous great empires, and are not usually known for a particular one, both pre and post islamic Persia had powerful empires. The [[Macedon|Macedonians]] had one great empire, led by [[Alexander the Great]]. ==Imperialism== The discovery of the [[New World]] provided an opportunity for many [[Europe]]an states to embark upon programs of [[imperialism]] on a different model, [[colony|colonization]]. Under this model (previously trialled in the Old World in the [[Canary Islands]] and in [[Ireland]]), subject states became ''[[de jure]]'' subordinate to the imperial state, rather than ''[[de facto]]'' as in earlier empires. This led to a good deal of resentment in the client states, and therefore probably to the demise of this system by the early- to mid-twentieth century. The heyday of imperialism, the 19th century, coincided with a boom in the setting up of empires: from Haiti, France and Austria through Mexico to India and Germany. In contrast, the 20th century saw many empires demolished or dismembered: for example those of Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy, France, Britain and the Central African Empire.시빠빠 One might describe one problem with the European imperial model as [[gerrymandering]]. In the interest of expediency, an imperial power tended to carve out a client state based solely on convenience of geography, while ignoring extreme cultural differences in the resulting area. An example of the attendant problems occurred in the [[India]]n sub-continent. Formerly part of the [[British Empire]], when the sub-continent gained its independence it split along cultural/religious lines producing modern India and the two-part country of [[Pakistan]], which later split yet again resulting in the independence of [[Bangladesh]]. ==Modern &quot;empires&quot;== The concept of &quot;empire&quot; in the modern world, while still present politically, has begun to lose cohesion semantically. The only remaining country nominally ruled by an Emperor, [[Japan]], comprises a [[constitutional monarchy]] with a population of approximately 99% ethnic Japanese. Just as [[monarchy|monarchies]] (as opposed to constitutional monarchies) have largely fallen out of favor in modern times, the term &quot;empire&quot; itself may now become somewhat of an [[anachronism]]. The former [[Soviet Union]] had many of the criteria of an empire, but nevertheless did not claim to be one, nor was it ruled by a traditional hereditary &quot;emperor&quot; (see [[Soviet Empire]]). Nevertheless, historians still occasionally classify it as an empire, if only because of its similarities to empires of the past and its sway over a large multi-ethnic bloc of [[Eurasia]]. Most modern multi-ethnic states see themselves as voluntary federations ([[Switzerland]], for example, or [[Belgium]]) or as unions ([[United Kingdom]], [[Spain]]), and not as empires. Most have democratic structures, and operate under systems which share [[power (sociology)|power]] through multiple levels of government that differentiate between areas of federal and provincial/state jurisdiction. Where separatist groups exist, internal and external observers may disagree on whether state action against them represents legitimate [[law enforcement|law-enforcement]] against a violent or non-violent fringe group, or state violence to control a broadly unwilling population. A list of multi-ethnic states with ongoing violence by and against separatists might swamp this article, although [[China]], [[Russia]], [[Indonesia]] and [[India]] distinguish themselves by sheer size. The [[United States|United States of America]], widely categorized as a federation, offers another example. The North used coercion to keep the Union together during the [[American Civil War]], which made this characterization more ambiguous in the minds of many. In the aftermath of the [[Cold War]], the United States has emerged as an unrivaled [[superpower]], and although the country has not engaged in formal territorial expansion since the acquisitions of [[Hawaii]], of Puerto Rico, of the [[Philippines]] and of the [[U.S. Virgin Islands|Virgin Islands]], many suggest its powerful military and economic influences allow it to exert a sort of informal [[New Imperialism|neo-imperial]] hegemony on much of the modern world (see [[American Empire]], [[corporate colonialism]]). ==Historical empires (with approximate dates)== * [[History of Ethiopia|Abyssinian Empire]] (&amp;ndash;1974) * [[Achaemenid Empire]] (commonly known as the '''Persian Empire''') (c. 550&amp;ndash;330 BC) * [[Akkadian Empire]] (c. 2350&amp;ndash;2150 BC &amp;mdash; the first historical empire ever) * [[Assyrian Empire]] (c. 900&amp;ndash;612 BC) * [[Athenian empire|Athenian Empire]] (c. 477&amp;ndash;404 BC) * [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]] (1867&amp;ndash;1918) * [[Austrian Empire]]
laimed this was impossible because such established truths would require other truths to back them up—first principles cannot be reached. Based on this, Pascal argued that the procedure used in geometry was as perfect as possible, with certain principles assumed and other propositions developed from them. Nevertheless, there was no way to know the assumed principles to be true. In ''De l'Art de persuader'', Pascal looked deeper into geometry's [[axiomatic method]], specifically the question of how people come to be convinced of the axioms upon which later conclusions are based. Pascal agreed with [[Montaigne]] that achieving certainty in these axioms and conclusions through human methods is impossible. He asserted that these principles can only be grasped through intuition, and that this fact underscored the necessity for submission to God in searching out truths. Pascal also used ''De l'Esprit géométrique'' to develop a theory of [[definition]]. He distinguished between definitions which are conventional labels defined by the writer and definitions which are within the language and understood by everyone because they naturally designate their referent. The second type would be characteristic of the philosophy of [[essentialism]]. Pascal claimed that only definitions of the first type were important to science and mathematics, arguing that those fields should adopt the philosophy of [[formalism]] as formulated by [[Descartes]]. ===Contributions to the physical sciences=== Pascal's work in the fields of the study of fluids ([[hydrodynamics]] and [[hydrostatics]]) centered on the principles of [[hydraulic fluid|hydraulic fluids]]. His inventions include the hydraulic press (using hydraulic pressure to multiply force) and the [[syringe]]. By 1646 Pascal had learned of [[Evangelista Torricelli]]'s experimentation with [[barometer]]s. Having replicated an experiment which involved placing a tube filled with mercury upside down in a bowl of mercury, Pascal questioned what force kept some mercury in the tube and what filled the space above the mercury in the tube. At the time, most scientists contended that some invisible matter was present there—not a [[vacuum]]. Following more experimentation in this vein, in 1647 Pascal produced ''Experiences nouvelles touchant le vide'', which detailed basic rules describing to what degree various liquids could be supported by air pressure. It also provided reasons why it was indeed a vacuum above the column of liquid in a barometer tube. In 1648 Pascal continued his experiments by having his brother-in-law carry a barometer to higher elevation, confirming that the level of mercury would change, a result which Pascal replicated by carrying a barometer up and down a church tower in Paris. The experiment was hailed throughout Europe as finally establishing the principle and value of the barometer. In the face of criticism that some invisible matter existed in Pascal's empty space, Pascal delivered in his reply to [[Estienne Noel]] one of the seventeenth century's major statements on the [[scientific method]]: &quot;In order to show that a hypothesis is evident, it does not suffice that all the phenomena follow from it; instead, if it leads to something contrary to a single one of the phenomena, that suffices to establish its falsity.&quot; His insistence on the existence of the vacuum also led to conflict with a number of other prominent scientists, including [[Descartes]]. ==Mature life, religion, philosophy, and literature== [[Image:ph-objects-pascal-1.jpg|300px|left|thumb|Pascal's statue at the [[Louvre]].]] ===Religious conversion=== Biographically, we can say that two basic influences led him to his conversion: sickness and [[Jansenism]]. As early as his eighteenth year he suffered from a nervous ailment that left him hardly a day without pain. In 1647 a paralytic attack so disabled him that he could not move without crutches. His head ached, his bowels burned, his legs and feet were continually cold, and required wearisome aids to circulation of the blood; he wore stockings steeped in brandy to warm his feet. Partly to get better medical treatment, he moved to Paris with his sister Jacqueline. His health improved, but his nervous system had been permanently damaged. Henceforth he was subject to deepening [[hypochondria]], which affected his character and his philosophy. He became irritable, subject to fits of proud and imperious anger, and he seldom smiled. {{ref|sickness}} In 1645, Pascal's father was wounded in the thigh and was consequently looked after by a [[Jansenist]] physician. Blaise spoke with the doctor frequently, and upon his successful treatment of Étienne, borrowed works by Jansenist authors through him. In this period, Pascal experienced a sort of &quot;first conversion&quot; and began in the course of the following year to write on theological subjects. Pascal fell away from this initial religious engagement and experienced a few years of what he called a &quot;worldly period&quot; (1648–54). His father died in 1651, and Pascal gained control over both his inheritance and that of his sister Jacqueline. In the same year Jacqueline moved to become a nun at [[Port-Royal]], despite her brother's opposition. When the time came for her to make her ultimate vows, he refused to return to her enough of her inheritance to pay her dowry as a bride of Christ; without money she would attain a less desirable position in the convent hierarchy. Eventually, however, he relented on this point. {{ref|M93}} When this was settled, Pascal found himself both rich and free. He took a sumptuously furnished home, staffed it with many servants, and drove about Paris in a coach behind four or six horses. His leisure was spent in the company of wits, women, and gamblers (as evidenced by his work on probability). For an exciting while he pursued in Auvergne a lady of beauty and learning, whom he referred to as the &quot;[[Sappho]] of the countryside.&quot; {{ref|Sappho}} About this time he wrote a ''Discours sur les passions de l'amour'', and apparently he contemplated marriage—which he was later to describe as &quot;the lowest of the conditions of life permitted to a Christian.&quot; {{ref|marriage}} Jacqueline reproached him for his frivolity and prayed for his reform. During visits to his sister at Port-Royal in 1654, he displayed contempt for affairs of the world but was not drawn to God. {{ref|EP52}} Until... ===Upon brink of death=== In late 1654 he was involved in an accident at the [[Neuilly]] bridge where the horses plunged over the parapet and the carriage nearly followed them. Fortunately, the reins broke and the coach hung half over the edge. Pascal and his friends emerged, but the sensitive philosopher, terrified by the nearness of death, fainted away, and remained unconscious for some time. Upon recovering fifteen days later, on [[November 23]], [[1654]], between ten thirty and twelve thirty at night, Pascal had an intense religious vision and immediately recorded the experience in a brief note to himself, which began: &quot;Fire. God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob, not of the philosophers and the scholars…&quot; and concluded by quoting Psalm 119:16: &quot;I will not forget thy word. Amen.&quot; He seems carefully to have sewn this document into his coat and always transferred it when he changed clothes; a servant discovered it only by chance after his death.{{ref|OC618}} During his lifetime, Pascal was often mistakenly thought to be a [[libertine]], and was later dismissed as an individual who had only a deathbed conversion. His belief and religious commitment revitalized, Pascal visited the older of two convents at Port-Royal for a two-week retreat in January 1655. For the next four years, he regularly traveled between Port-Royal and Paris. It was at this point immediately after his conversion when he began writing his first major literary work on religion, the ''Provincial Letters''. ===The ''Provincial Letters''=== {{main|Lettres provinciales}} {{French literature (small)}} Beginning in 1656, Pascal published his memorable attack on [[casuistry]], a popular [[ethics|ethical]] method used by [[Catholicism|Catholic]] thinkers in the early modern period (especially the [[Jesuits]]). Pascal denounced casuistry as the mere use of complex reasoning to justify moral laxity. His method of framing his arguments was clever: the ''Provincial Letters'' pretended to be the report of a Parisian to a friend in the provinces on the moral and theological issues then exciting the intellectual and religious circles in the capital. Pascal, combining the fervor of a convert with the wit and polish of a man of the world, reached a new level of style in French prose. The 18-letter series was published between 1656 and 1657 under the pseudonym Louis de Montalte and incensed [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], who ordered in 1660 that the book be shredded and burnt. In 1661, the Jansenist school at Port-Royal was condemned and closed down; those involved in it had to sign a 1656 [[papal bull]] condemning the teachings of Jansen as heretical. The final letter defied the Pope himself, provoking [[Alexander VII]] to condemn the letters (September 6, 1657). But that didn't stop all of educated France from reading them. Even Pope Alexander, while publicly opposing them, nonetheless was persuaded by Pascal's arguments. He condemned &quot;laxism&quot; in the church and ordered a revision of casuistical texts just a few years later (1665–66). Aside from their religious influence, the ''Lettres provinciales'' were popular as a literary work. Pascal's use of humor, mockery, and vicious [[satire]] in his arguments made the letters ripe for public consumption, and influenced the prose of later French writers like [[Voltaire]] and [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]. The first few letters promote major principles of [[Jansenist]] teaching, for instance the dogma
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NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Southern and Eastern Europe&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,918,982&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,670,927&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,500,932&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,674,648&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;728,851&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;248,620&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;93,824&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;32,312&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,672&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;31&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;32&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Southern Europe&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,133,092&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,939,600&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,544,149&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;539,968&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;216,387&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;66,249&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;30,416&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;21,726&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,152&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;32&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;/TR&gt; &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;33&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Greece&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;174,526&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;175,976&lt;/TD&gt;
many fans to this day. The film had its roots in earlier concepts for a new Kong feature put out by [[Willis O'Brien]] in his search to fund another film starring the famous ape. In O'Brien's original proposed treatment, the gorilla King Kong fought against a giant version of the [[Frankenstein]] creature. After American producer [[John Beck]] sold the concept to [[Toho Studios]] (much to O'Brien's dismay), the Japanese executives replaced the Frankenstein monster with their own flagship giant monster, Godzilla. This was the first color feature for either monster. ==Trivia== *In Japan, this film had the highest [[box office]] attendance figures of all of the Godzilla series to date. *Not only was this the first Godzilla and King Kong movie in &quot;Scope&quot; ratio (2.35:1), but also their first appearances in color. *While many fans of [[King Kong]] hated the ape's portrayal in this film, it was said that [[Eiji Tsuburaya]] deliberately made Kong comical as to not frighten young children, and make the audience root more for Kong than the frightening Godzilla. *The [[Davy Crockett (nuclear device)|Davy Crockett]], a portable rocket system for launching a small nuclear or conventional warhead, appears in the movie while still classified. *This movie is discussed by [[Donkey Kong]] and [[Diddy Kong]] in the ''[[Donkey Kong Country (animated series)|Donkey Kong Country]]'' episode &quot;From Zero to Hero&quot;, though it is not mentioned by name. *The picture of Kong on the US-release poster was a cropped still from the original 1933 production (during his fight with the pterodactyl), rather than as he actually appears in this film... perhaps wisely. *The bigger draw of the 2 monsters in Japan was King Kong, who at the time was far more popular there than their own Godzilla. ==Dual ending myth== There has been something of an [[urban legend]] about the possiblity of a dual ending, a victory for Kong in the American version, a victory for Godzilla in the Japanese one. [http://www.snopes.com/movies/films/godzilla.htm] This is false. *Both versions end with the monsters toppling into the sea, then Kong emerging and swimming away. **The Japanese version ends with Godzilla's roar, and then Kong's. This was the offscreen equivalent of the monsters &quot;taking a bow.&quot; (Though why Godzilla's and Kong's roars came in that respective order is ambiguous.) **The American version ends with just Kong's roar rather than from both monsters. Either way, Toho has officially confirmed that it is Kong who was meant to be the victor. Though, one must consider that Kong swims on the surface of the ocean and Godzilla swims submerged. Furthermore, up until [[1964]]'s ''[[Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster]]'', Godzilla was still the villain, his attacks in the previous two films strongly evoking memories of US nuclear strikes on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and was thus destined to lose. But to this day, this film's ending has become a very heated debate especially among fans of both monsters. ==Credits== ===Staff=== *Producer: [[Tomoyuki Tanaka]] *Director: [[Ishiro Honda]] *Special Effects: [[Eiji Tsuburaya]] *Music: [[Akira Ifukube]] (Japanese version only) ==External links== * {{imdb title|id=0056142|title=Kingu Kongu tai Gojira (King Kong vs. Godzilla)}} {{Template:Godzilla}} [[Category:1962 films]] [[Category:King Kong]] [[Category:Horror films|King Kong vs. Godzilla]] [[Category:Universal films]] [[Category:Godzilla films]] [[Category:Fictional crossovers]] [[Category:Sequel films]] [[ja:キングコング対ゴジラ]] [[ru:Кинг-Конг против Годзиллы (фильм)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Godzilla vs The Thing</title> <id>11989</id> <revision> <id>27134403</id> <timestamp>2005-11-02T03:58:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Apostrophe</username> <id>110322</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mothra vs. Godzilla]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ghidorah the Three Headed Monster</title> <id>11990</id> <revision> <id>15909699</id> <timestamp>2004-11-04T01:15:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>ContiE</username> <id>11061</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>made this a redirect, as this is just a copy of the other article.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Monster Zero</title> <id>11991</id> <revision> <id>19970117</id> <timestamp>2005-07-31T07:41:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mrbrown</username> <id>55405</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Invasion of Astro-Monster]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster</title> <id>11992</id> <revision> <id>39095853</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T18:11:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dr Debug</username> <id>326391</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */ rm linkspam</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film | name = Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster| image = | imdb_id = 0060464| writer = Shinichi Sekizawa&lt;br/&gt;Peter Fernandez (English dubbing)| starring = Akira Takarada&lt;br/&gt;Kumi Mizuno| director = Jun Fukuda| producer = Tomoyuki Tanaka| movie_music = Masaru Satô| distributor = [[Continental Distributing Inc.]] and [[Columbia Tri-Star Home Video]]| released = [[1966]]| runtime = 87 min. (83 min. dubbed)| language = Japanese| music = | awards = | budget = ''unknown''| }} '''''Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster''''' (&amp;#12468;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12456;&amp;#12499;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12514;&amp;#12473;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12288;&amp;#21335;&amp;#28023;&amp;#12398;&amp;#22823;&amp;#27770;&amp;#38360; - ''Gojira, Ebira, Mosura: Nankai no Daikettô'' - translated as ''[[Godzilla]], Ebirah, Mothra: Great Duel in the South Seas'') is a [[1966 in film|1966]] [[tokusatsu]] film, directed by [[Jun Fukuda]], and was released by [[Toho]] studios. The movie is also known by its International English title, ''Ebirah, Horror of the Deep''. The special effects were by [[Eiji Tsuburaya]] (although his direct involvement was limited) and [[Sadamasa Arikawa]]. It also features supporting monsters [[Mothra]] and [[Ebirah]]. It was the first Godzilla film since ''[[Godzilla Raids Again]]'' not directed by [[Ishiro Honda]] and shows a turn toward a more action-adventure approach to the Godzilla films instead of Honda's customary [[science-fiction]] approach. Set mostly on a tropical island, the film also required fewer miniatures and therefore had a lower budget than the previous Godzilla films. The concept was originally intended for [[King Kong]] under the title ''Operation Robinson Crusoe: King Kong Vs. Ebirah'' (ロビンソン・クルーソー作戦　キングコング対エビラ - ''Robinson Kurûsô Sakusen: Kingu Kongu tai Ebira'') The film was planned as a co-production with the American production company [[Rankin-Bass]] to coincide with their animated series ''[[The King Kong Show]]''. However, Rankin-Bass rejected this script. The King Kong project was eventually made from a different script as ''[[King Kong Escapes]]'', but Toho salvaged ''Operation Robinson Crusoe'' by re-writing it to feature Godzilla instead of King Kong. Some of Godzilla's unusual behavior in the film, such as living in a cave, receiving power from [[electricity]], throwing rocks at Ebirah, and taking notice of a beautiful native girl, reveal the script's origin as a King Kong vehicle. ''Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster'' was released directly to U.S. television [[television syndication|syndication]] through the [[Walter Reade Organization]]. It was the first Godzilla film to forgo a theatrical release in the United States. For the television version, the film's title was written as ''Godzilla versus the Sea Monster.'' ==Synopsis== After his brother Yata is lost at sea, young Ryota steals a yacht with his two friends and a bank robber. This motley crew runs afoul of sea monster Ebirah, and washes up on the shore of an island, where a terrorist organization manufactures heavy water for their nefarious purposes, as well as a chemical that keeps Ebirah at bay. The organization, Red Bamboo, has enslaved a native population to help them, but the natives hope to awaken a dormant Mothra to rescue them. In their efforts to avoid capture, Ryota and his friends, aided by a native girl, stumble across Godzilla asleep inside a cavern. In a desperate bid to defeat the Red Bamboo and escape from the Island, they plan to wake Godzilla. ==Trivia== *The U.S. television version and early [[video]] versions have a different opening to the film. The opening scenes of Ryota at the Maritime Safety Agency searching for news of his brother have been replaced with a scene supposedly showing Ebirah destorying Yata's boat. This sequence was created by editing a later scene in the movie. The current [[DVD]] version of the film restores the Japanese cut. *The Japanese singing duo Pair Bambi play the tiny twin Mothra priestesses known as the [[Mothra#Shobijin|shobijin]] (&quot;little beauties&quot;). In earlier movies, these characters were played by twin sisters Emi and Yûmi Ito of [[The Peanuts]], another Japanese singing duo. *In the scene right after he destroys the Giant Condor, Godzilla rubs his nose. This was a reference to [[Toho]]'s popular [[Young Guy|Wakadaisho/Young Guy]] movie series, in which the titular character, [[Yuichi Tanuma]] (played by [[Yuzo Kayama]]), was known for doing the same thing. *The name ''Ebirah'' is derived from the Japanese word for [[shrimp]], ''ebi''. *''Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster'' was one of the two Godzilla fil
ble for hosts; routers must be configured manually or by other means. ===Multicast=== [[Multicast]] (both on the local link and across routers) is part of the base protocol suite in IPv6. This is in opposition to IPv4, where multicast is optional and only rarely deployed across routers. IPv6 does not have a link-local broadcast facility; the same effect can be achieved by multicasting to the all-hosts group with a hop count of one. ===Jumbograms=== In IPv4, packets are limited to 64KB of payload. When used over suitable link layers, IPv6 has support for packets over this limit, affectionately known as ''jumbograms''. Use of jumbograms might improve performance over high-throughput networks. For example, on [[Myrinet]] the MTU is effectively unlimited and IPv6-over-Myrinet could use Jumbograms to send very large payloads. ===Faster routing=== By using a simpler and more systematic header structure, IPv6 was supposed to improve the performance of routing. Recent advances in router technology, however, may have made this improvement obsolete. ===Network-layer security=== [[IPsec]] — the protocol for IP network-layer encryption and authentication — is an integral part of the base protocol suite in IPv6. It is, however, not yet deployed widely except for securing BGP traffic between IPv6 routers. ==Addressing== ===128-bit length=== &lt;!--IPv4 supports 4,294,967,296 address --&gt; The primary change from IPv4 to IPv6 is the length of network addresses. IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long (as defined by [[Request for Comments|RFC 2373]] and [[Request for Comments|RFC 2374]]). IPv6 addresses are typically composed of two logical parts: a 64-bit network prefix, and a 64-bit host part, which is either automatically generated from the interface's [[MAC address]] or assigned sequentially. ===Notation=== IPv6 addresses are normally written as eight groups of four [[hexadecimal]] digits. For example, &lt;small&gt;2001:0db8:85a3:08d3:1319:8a2e:0370:7334&lt;/small&gt; is a valid IPv6 address. If a four-digit group is 0000, the zeros may be omitted. For example, &lt;small&gt;2001:0db8:85a3:0000:1319:8a2e:0370:7344&lt;/small&gt; can be shortened as &lt;small&gt;2001:0db8:85a3::1319:8a2e:0370:7344&lt;/small&gt;. Following this rule, any group of consecutive 0000 groups may be reduced to two colons, as long as there is only one double colon used in an address. Thus, the lines below are all valid and equivalent. 2001:0DB8:0000:0000:0000:0000:1428:57ab 2001:0DB8:0000:0000:0000::1428:57ab 2001:0DB8:0:0:0:0:1428:57ab 2001:0DB8:0::0:1428:57ab 2001:0DB8::1428:57ab Having more than one double-colon abbreviation in an address is invalid as it would make the notation ambiguous. Leading zeros in a group can be omitted. Thus &lt;small&gt;2001:0DB8:02de::0e13&lt;/small&gt; may be shortened to &lt;small&gt;2001:DB8:2de::e13&lt;/small&gt;. A sequence of 4 bytes at the end of an IPv6 address can also be written in decimal, using dots as separators. This notation is often used with compatibility addresses (see below). Thus, ::ffff:1.2.3.4 is the same address as ::ffff:102:304. Additional information can be found at RFC 3513 - IP Version 6 Addressing Architecture. ===Network notation=== IPv6 networks are written using [[Classless_Inter-Domain_Routing#CIDR_notation|CIDR notation]]. An IPv6 network (or subnet) is a contiguous group of IPv6 addresses the size of which must be a power of two; the initial bits of addresses which are identical for all hosts in the network are called the network's prefix. A network is denoted by the first address in the network and the size in bits of the prefix, separated with a slash. For example, &lt;small&gt;2001:1234:5678:9ABC::/64&lt;/small&gt; stands for the network with addresses &lt;small&gt;2001:1234:5678:9ABC::&lt;/small&gt; through &lt;small&gt;2001:1234:5678:9ABC:FFFF:FFFF:FFFF:FFFF&lt;/small&gt;. Because a single host can be seen as a network with a 128-bit prefix, you will sometimes see host addresses written followed with &lt;small&gt;/128&lt;/small&gt;. ===Special addresses=== There are a number of addresses with special meaning in IPv6: * ::/128 &amp;ndash; the address with all zeroes is used to specify any address, and is only to be used in software. * ::1/128 &amp;ndash; the [[loopback]] address is a localhost address. If an application in an host sends packets to this address, the IPv6 stack will loop these packets back to the same host (corresponding to [[127.0.0.1]] in IPv4). * ::/96 &amp;ndash; the zero prefix was used for [[IPv4-compatible address]]es (see ''Transition mechanisms'' below) * ::ffff:0:0/96 &amp;ndash; this prefix is used for [[IPv4 mapped address]]es (see ''Transition mechanisms'' below) * fc00::/7 &amp;ndash; Unique Local IPv6 Unicast Addresses are only routable within a set of cooperating sites. They were defined in RFC 4193 as a replacement for site-local addresses (see below). The addresses include a 40-bit [[pseudorandom]] number that minimizes the risk of conflicts if sites merge or packets somehow leak out. * fe80::/10 &amp;ndash; The link-local prefix specifies that the address only is valid in the local physical link. This is analogous to the Autoconfiguration IP address 169.254.x.x in v4. * fec0::/10 &amp;ndash; The site-local prefix specifies that the address is only valid inside the local organisation. Its use has been deprecated in September 2004 by RFC 3879 and future systems must not implement any support for this special type of address anymore. * ff00::/8 &amp;ndash; The multicast prefix is used for [[multicast]] addresses. There are no address ranges reserved for broadcast in IPv6 &amp;mdash; applications are supposed to use multicast to the ''all-hosts'' group instead. ==IPv6 packet== [[Image:IPv6 header rv1.png|right|thumb|400px|The structure of an IPv6 packet header.]] The IPv6 packet is composed of two main parts: the header and the payload. The header is in the first 40 octets of the packet and contains both source and destination addresses (128 bits each), as well as the version (4-bit IP version), traffic class (8 bits, Packet Priority), flow label (20 bits, [[Quality of service|QoS]] management), payload length (16 bits), next header (8 bits), and hop limit (8 bits, [[Time to Live|time to live]]). The payload can be up to 64k in size in standard mode, or larger with a &quot;jumbo payload&quot; option. [[IPv4#Fragmentation and reassembly|Fragmentation]] is handled only in the sending host in IPv6: routers never fragment a packet, and hosts are expected to use [[PMTU]] discovery. In IPv6, options move out of the standard header and are specified by the Next Header field, similar in function to IPv4's Protocol field. A [[handwaving]] example: in IPv4 one would add a [[Strict Source and Record Routing]] (SSRR) option to the IPv4 header itself in order to enforce a certain route for the packet, but in IPv6 one would make the Next Header field indicate that a Routing header comes next. The Routing header would then specify the additional routing information for the packet, and then indicate that, for example, the TCP header comes next. This is analogous to the handling of AH and ESP in [[IPsec]] for IPv4 (which applies to IPv6 as well, of course). ==IPv6 and the Domain Name System== IPv6 addresses are represented in the [[Domain Name System]] by ''AAAA records'' (so-called quad-A records) for forward lookups; [[reverse DNS lookup|reverse lookup]]s take place under &lt;tt&gt;ip6[[.arpa]]&lt;/tt&gt; (previously &lt;tt&gt;ip6[[.int]]&lt;/tt&gt;), where address space is delegated on [[nibble]] boundaries. This scheme, which is a straightforward adaptation of the familiar [[A record]] and ''in-addr.arpa'' schemes, is defined in RFC 3596. The AAAA scheme was one of two proposals at the time the IPv6 architecture was being designed. The other proposal would have had ''A6 records'' for the forward lookup and a number of other innovations such as ''bit-string labels'' and ''DNAME records''. It is defined in the experimental RFC 2874 and its references (with further discussion of the pros and cons of both schemes in RFC 3364). ==IPv6 deployment== In February 1999, The IPv6 Forum was founded by the IETF Deployment WG to drive deployment worldwide creating by now over 30 IPv6 Country Fora and IPv6 Task Forces [http://www.ipv6forum.org IPv6 FORUM]. On [[20 July]] [[2004]] [[ICANN]] announced[http://icann.org/announcements/announcement-20jul04.htm] that the root [[DNS]] servers for the Internet had been modified to support both IPv6 and IPv4. A global view into the IPv6 routing tables which displays also which ISP's are already deploying IPv6 can be found by looking at the [http://www.sixxs.net/tools/grh/dfp/all/ SixXS Ghost Router Hunter] pages, these pages display a list of all allocated IPv6 prefixes and giving colors to the ones that are actually being announced in [[Border Gateway Protocol|BGP]]. When a prefix is announced that means that the ISP at least can receive IPv6 packets for their prefix. They might then actually also offer IPv6 services, maybe even to end users/sites directly. ==Transition mechanisms== Until IPv6 completely supplants IPv4, which is not likely to happen in the foreseeable future, a number of so-called ''transition mechanisms'' are needed to enable IPv6-only hosts to reach IPv4 services and to allow isolated IPv6 hosts and networks to reach the IPv6 Internet over the IPv4 infrastructure. ===Dual stack=== Since IPv6 is a conservative extension of IPv4, it is relatively easy to write a network stack that supports both IPv4 and IPv6 while sharing most of the code. Such an implementation is called a ''dual stack'', and a host implementing a dual stack is called a ''dual-stack host''. This approach is described in RFC2893[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2893.txt?number=2893]. Most current implementations of IPv6 use a dual stack. Some early experimental implementations used independent IPv4 and IP
''Illicit drugs:''' transshipment point for [[opiate]]s and [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] from Southwest [[Asia]] and the [[Caucasus]] via Russia, [[cocaine]] from [[Latin America]] to [[Western Europe]] and [[Scandinavia]], and synthetic drugs from Western Europe to Scandinavia; possible precursor manufacturing and/or trafficking {{estonia-stub}} [[Category:Foreign relations of Estonia| ]] [[Category:Wikipedia articles in need of updating]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of Ethiopia</title> <id>9398</id> <revision> <id>42161153</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:39:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Yom</username> <id>713855</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Earliest History */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Ethiopia]]''' is the oldest independent country in [[Africa]] and one of the oldest in the world. It has long been an intersection between the civilizations of [[North Africa]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]. ==Earliest History== Ethiopia has seen human habitation for longer than almost anywhere else in the world, with modern [[homo sapiens]] perhaps evolving there. There is some confusion over the usage of the word Ethiopia in ancient times and the modern country. The [[ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] used the word (&amp;#913;&amp;#953;&amp;#952;&amp;#953;&amp;#959;&amp;#960;&amp;#943;&amp;#945;) to refer to the peoples living immediately to the south of [[ancient Egypt]], specifically the area now known as [[Nubia]]; modern usage has transferred this name further south to the land and peoples known in the late 19th and early 20th century as [[Abyssinia]]. As a result, the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] states the connection between [[Egypt]] and Ethiopia is at least as early as the [[Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt]] was very intimate, and beginning with [[Piye]], a ruler of the [[Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-fifth dynasty]], occasionally the two countries were under the same ruler; however, the capital of these two dynasties was in the north of modern [[Sudan]], at [[Napata]]. It is now known that in ancient times the name Ethiopia was used to refer to the nation based in the upper Nile valley south of Egypt, also called [[Cush]], which in the 4th century CE was invaded by the Axum from the highlands close to the Red sea. Use of the term to refer to modern Ethiopia, however, has been attested as early as the 4th century CE. The first records of Ethiopia proper come from Egyptian traders from about [[3000 BC]], who refer to lands south of Nubia or Cush as [[Land of Punt|Punt]] and Yam. Detailed information about these two nations is sparse, and there are many theories concerning their locations and the ethnic relationship of their peoples. The state of [[Sheba]] mentioned in the [[Old Testament]] is sometimes believed to have been in Ethiopia, but more often is placed in [[Yemen]]. Others believe it covered parts of both the Yemen and present-day Ethiopia. According to legend, [[Menelik I]], the son of [[King Solomon]] and the Queen of Sheba, founded the Ethiopian Empire. Around [[800 BC]], a civilization known by it's Arabic name, [[D’mt]], arose in Ethiopia, centering around [[Yeha]] (thought to be its capital) in northern Ehiopia. The kingdom developed irrigation schemes, used plows, grew millet, and even made iron tools and weapons. Remains of a large stone temple dating to about [[500 BC]] still survive at [[Yeha]], near [[Axum]]. In [[Ancient Greece]] the Ethiopians were viewed as a sacred people that was mostly loved by the Gods. [[Memnon]] was regarded as one of the noblest heros that participated in the [[Trojan war]] and as the handsomest man of his time, bested in battle only by [[Achilles]]. According to a version of the myth, the Gods admired him so much that after his death from the sword of Achilles they decided to grant him immortality. According to [[Greek Mythology]] Ethiopians acquired their dark colour when the sun came once very close to their country. During the Persian expedition against Ethiopia, [[Herodotus]] describes Ethiopians as the tallest, handsomest and strongest people of the earth. According to his historical accounts, the Ethiopian King gave his huge bow as a gift to the Persian King and advised him to reorganise an attack against the Ethiopian realm only after he has managed to draw it (Histories - 3.22.1). == The Axumite Kingdom == ''Main article: [[Kingdom of Aksum]]'' The first verifiable kingdom of great power to rise in Ethiopia was that of Axum in the first century CE. The [[Sassanid dynasty|Persia]]n religious figure [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] listed Axum with [[Roman Empire|Rome]], Persia, and [[China]] as one of the four great powers of his time. The origins of the Axumite Kingdom are unclear, although experts have offered their speculations about it. Even whom should be considered the earliest known king is contested: although C. Conti Rossini proposed that [[Zoskales]], mentioned in the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'', should be identified with one Za Haqle mentioned in the Ethiopian King Lists (a view embraced by later historians of Ethiopia such as Yuri M. Kobishchanov&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; and Segrew Hable Sellasie), G.W.B. Huntingford argued that Zoskales was only a sub-king whose authority was limited to [[Adulis]], and that Conti Rossini's identification can not be substantiated.&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|2]]&lt;/sup&gt; Inscriptions have been found in southern [[Arabia]] celebrating victories over one GDRT, described as &quot;nagashi of Habashat [= Abyssinia] and of Axum.&quot; Other dated inscriptions are used to determine a ''floruit'' for [[GDRT]] (interpreted as representing a [[Ge'ez]] name such as Gedur, Gadurat or Gedara) around the beginning of the [[3rd century]]. A bronze sceptre or wand has been discovered at [[Atsbi Dera]] with in inscription mentioning &quot;GDR of Axum&quot;. Coins showing the royal portrait began to be minted under King [[Endubis]] toward the end of the Third Century. Christianity was introduced into the country by [[Frumentius]], who was consecrated first bishop of Ethiopia by [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Saint Athanasius of Alexandria]] about 330. Frumentius converted [[Ezana]], who has left several inscriptions detailing his reign both before and after his conversion. One inscription found at [[Axum]], states that he conquered the nation of the [[Bogos]], and returned thanks to his father, the god Mars, for his victory. Later inscriptions show Ezana's growing attachment to Christianity, and Ezana's coins bear this out, shifting from a design with disc and crescent to a design with a cross. From the scanty evidence available it would appear that the new religion at first made little progress. Towards the close of the 5th century a great company of monks known as the [[Nine Saints]] are believed to have established themselves in the country. Since that time [[monasticism]] has been a power among the people and not without its influence on the course of events. The Axumite Kingdom is recorded once again as controlling part -- if not all -- of [[Yemen]] in the [[6th century]]. [[Kaleb of Axum|Kaleb]] invaded Yemen about [[520]] in order to depose the [[Jew]]ish king [[Dhu Nuwas]], and appoint [[Sumuafa' Ashawa']] as his viceroy. [[Procopius]] records that after about five years, [[Abraha]] deposed the viceroy and made himself king (''Histories'' 1.20). Despite several attempted invasions across the [[Red Sea]], Kaleb was unable to dislodge Abreha, and acquiesed to the change; this was the last time Ethiopian armies left Africa until the 20th century when several units participated in the [[Korean War]]. Eventually Kaleb abdicated in favor of his son [[W`ZB|Wa'zeb]] and retired to a monastery where he ended his days. Despite this reverse, under Ezana and Kaleb the kingdom was at its height, benefitting from a large trade, which extended as far as [[India]] and Ceylon, and were in constant communication with the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Details of the Axumite Kingdom, never abundant, become even more sketchy after this point. The last king known to mint coins is [[Armah]], whose coinage refers to the Persian conquest of [[Jerusalem]] in [[614]]. An early [[Muslim]] tradition is that the negus [[Ashama ibn Abjar]] offered asylum to a group of Muslims fleeing persecution during [[Muhammad]]'s life (615), but Stuart Munro-Hay believes that Axum had been abandoned as the capital by then&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|3]]&lt;/sup&gt; -- although Kobishchanov states that Ethiopian raiders plagued the Red Sea, preying on Arabian ports at least as late as [[702]].&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|4]]&lt;/sup&gt; The end of the Axumite Kingdom is as much of a mystery as its beginning. Lacking a detailed history, the kingdom's fall has been attributed to a persistent drought, overgrazing, deforestation, plague, a shift in trade routes that reduced the importance of the Red Sea -- or a combination of these factors. Munro-Hay cites the Arab historian [[Abu Ja'far al-Khuwarizani]] (who wrote before 833) as stating that the capital of &quot;the kingdom of Habash&quot; was [[Jarma]]. Unless Jarma is a nickname for Axum (hypothetically from Ge'ez ''girma'', &quot;remarkable, revered&quot;), the capital had moved from Axum to a new site, yet undiscovered.&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|5]]&lt;/sup&gt; ==The Ethiopian Dark Ages== About [[1000]] (presumably c 960), a non-[[Christian]] princess, [[Gudit|Yodit]] (Judith, also called Gudit, a play on Yodit meaning evil), conceived the design of murdering all the members of the royal family, and of establishing herself in their stead. According to legends, during the execution of the royals, an infant heir of the Axumite monarch was carted off by some faithful adherents, and conveyed to [[Shewa]], where his authority was acknowledged, while Yodit reign
he bodies of ghosts and spirits and heard their voices, how can we say that they do not exist? If none have heard them and none have seen them, then how can we say they do? But those who deny the existence of the spirits say: &quot;Many in the world have heard and seen something of ghosts and spirits. Since they vary in testimony, who are to be accepted as really having heard and seen them? Mo Tzu said: As we are to rely on what many have jointly seen and what many have jointly heard, the case of Tu Po is to be accepted. (note: King Hsuan (827-783 BC executed his minister, Tu Po, on false charges even after being warned that Tu Po's ghost would seek revenge. Three years later, according to historical chronicles, Tu's ghost shot and killed Hsuan with a bow and arrow before an assembly of feudal lords)''... Taken from Chapter 31, translated by Yi-pao Mei ==Famous ghosts== It seems likely that the building with the most distinguished ghosts as rumored tenants is the [[Tower of London]], which is reported to be haunted by: * The headless ghost of [[Anne Boleyn]]; * The ghost of [[Thomas Becket]], which allegedly appeared during the construction of the Traitor's Gate; * The ghosts of King [[Edward V of England]] and [[Richard, Duke of York (Prince in the Tower)|Richard, Duke of York]], the &quot;[[Princes in the Tower]]&quot;; * The ghost of [[Lady Jane Grey]]; * The ghost of Sir [[Walter Raleigh]]; * A troupe of ghosts who allegedly reenact the execution of [[Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury]]; *Barquest, a giant spectral dog believed by the French to haunt graveyards *Norman Leslie, a fallen [[World War 1]] soldier who appeared when his great niece was looking for a missing document that proved that Castle Leslie belonged to her family Several other ghosts are said to make the Tower their home; phantom troops of soldiers reportedly appear there, as well as a lady in [[mourning]] with no face. The cities of [[York]] and [[Derby]] in England are also reputed to be a center of ghostly manifestations; consequently, they both thrive on hugely successful ghost tour industries. Indeed, the presence of many centuries-old buildings has given England the reputation of the most haunted country in the world. The [[White House]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], is said to be haunted by the ghost of [[Abraham Lincoln]] and by several lesser spectres. The ghost of the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Caligula]] was said to haunt the Lamian Gardens of [[Rome]], where his body had been hastily and unceremoniously [[burial|buried]] after his [[assassination]]. In the [[Bible|Biblical]] account of the [[Witch of Endor]], King [[Saul the King|Saul]] of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] has the witch conjure up the ghost of the prophet [[Samuel]] to consult him on his precarious situation. The prophet's spirit gives the king no assistance, but rebukes him and foretells his doom instead. The former prison island of [[Alcatraz]] off the coast of [[San Francisco]] is said to be home to a number of ghosts of prisoners that died there. The city of [[New Orleans]] is sometimes called 'America's most haunted city' with numerous ghost reports, especially in the [[French Quarter]] which remained largely undamaged by [[Hurricane Katrina]]. New Orleans' ghosts include pirates from the 18th century, through to 20th century spectres. The Museum of Natural Science in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada is said to be haunted by the ghost of the Canadian Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier, whose body laid there in state after his death in 1919. Many workers in the museum have noted the prescene there of a spirit after the museum is closed for the day. The [[Kuchisake-onna]] was said to have caused [[mass hysteria]] throughout [[Japan]] during the spring and summer of 1979. {{seealso|Stigmatized property}} ==Ghosts in fiction== ===Ghost messengers=== A popular [[genre]] of literature from the early [[Renaissance]] to the early twentieth century was the ''Dialogues of the Dead''. These were based upon the Witch of Endor story and the visions of [[Hades]] found in both [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'' and [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]''. In ''Odyssey'', [[Odysseus]] travels to Hades and sees the shades of his former colleagues, including some he did not know were dead, and pours out fresh blood, which the dead hunger for, until he can find [[Tiresias]] and get guidance on his voyages. In the ''Dialogues of the Dead'' genre, authors would somehow contrive a device for summoning the dead to a character who would then speak with them and ask them questions about [[philosophy]] or current events. These &quot;ghosts&quot; were under control of a great sorcerer or otherwise compelled to speak. The genre was most popular in the 18th century, and examples were written by many. [[Jonathan Swift]] satirized the genre in the third book of ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'' by having Gulliver summon the ghosts of former kings and great conquerors and finding, instead of nobility, petty, childish, and stupid people who possessed no wisdom and who accomplished their great deeds for mean and selfish reasons. Further, he finds that the ancestors of many great lords and ladies of his day were stable boys, servants, etc. In each of these cases, the fictional ghost offers counsel to the living and thus acts as a messenger from the implicitly greater world beyond. However, the ghost messenger can also act as a way reminiscent of the [[guardian angel]] in fiction. In some fictions, a departed relative (usually) or friend guides the living to either a moral or material benefit. Such ghosts can either act as a ''[[deus ex machina]]'' by resolving plot points with supernatural power or as a [[mentor]] who offers sagacity to the characters with a limited [[point of view]]. Finally, the ghost messenger features in fiction as a ghost in disguise. A character otherwise regarded as living turns out, in the fiction's [[denouement]], to be a supernatural agent. In [[folk music]], there are songs featuring lovers and objects of affection who must leave before dawn (a variant on the [[Cupid and Psyche]] story) because they are ghosts. Additionally, some [[urban legends]], such as the &quot;Hitchhiking ghost,&quot; turn upon an anonymous stranger (or [[Elvis Presley]] in a common variant) who is revealed to be a ghost in the clinch of the story. Such a ghost in disguise usually, in fiction, offers statements or visions that are relevant to the plot, but not in a way comprehensible to the characters. Such gnomic or [[oracle|oracular]] statements reward the reader with knowledge greater than the fiction's participants. ===Ghost stories=== {{main|Ghost story}} The malign ghost whose intent is either to set right an injustice or to be avenged upon the living, either in general or on a specific person, features in many fictions. In the Elizabethan and Jacobean stage, the vengeful ghost is a commonplace who sets plots in motion. However, the haunting and mystery/adversarial acts of the ghost appears later in the &quot;ghost story.&quot; Hauntings feature in ''[[Eyrbyggja Saga]]'' for a section of the work, but the &quot;[[Gothic novel]]&quot; and later &quot;Gothic fiction&quot; introduced the use of ghosts for fear to literature. [[Horace Walpole]]'s [[1764]] ''[[The Castle of Otranto]]'' was among the first to set up the rational but malign actions of a ghost to create an atmosphere of foreboding, mystery, and fear. After [[Edgar Allan Poe]], the &quot;ghost story&quot; began an independent generic history, and today the genre of Horror continues the use of ghosts as villains in fiction. (See [[Horror fiction]] for more on the haunted/ghost-driven fiction.) ===Other uses of ghosts in fiction=== In many stories, ghosts are often depicted as haunting the living until a certain desire is met or some grievance was settled by the haunted. In the fictional [[Harry Potter]], there are a number of ghosts including [[Hogwarts ghosts#Nearly Headless Nick|Nearly Headless Nick]], [[Hogwarts ghosts#The Bloody Baron|The Bloody Baron]], [[Hogwarts ghosts#The Fat Friar|The Fat Friar]] and the Grey Lady, who might be based on Lady [[Jane Grey]]. Ghosts in the novel are also keen on having a [[Deathday Party]] on the anniversaries of their deaths. In [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] play ''[[Hamlet]]'', a ghost taking the form of Hamlet's recently deceased father appears to Prince Hamlet one night. The ghost says that he was in fact murdered by his brother Claudius, who now (by virtue of having married Hamlet's mother Gertrude) occupies the throne. The ghost exhorts Hamlet to take revenge on Claudius. When Hamlet sees the ghost, he is not sure if it is in fact his father's spirit or a [[demon]] whose aim is to deceive him. [[Julius Caesar]]'s ghost appears to [[Brutus]] in Shakespeare's ''[[Julius Caesar (play)|Julius Caesar]]'' to warn Brutus of his impending defeat. In Shakespeare's ''[[Macbeth]]'', the title character believes he sees the &quot;blood-bolter'd&quot; ghost of his former friend [[Banquo]] sitting in his chair during a feast. Finally, in the play ''[[Richard III (play)|Richard III]]'', the title character is visited by the angry ghosts of those he has killed, foretelling his doom and blessing his opponent, Richmond, later to become [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]. [[Casper the Friendly Ghost]] is a cartoon character from [[Harvey Comics]]. Despite his ghostliness, the good-natured Casper tries to befriend people rather than scare them. There are ghost [[superhero]]es who fight for justice, such as [[DC Comics]]' [[The Spectre]] and [[Deadman]], as well as [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]]'s [[Danny Phantom]]. In the film ''[[The Sixth Sense]]'', actor [[Bruce Willis]] plays a child psychologist working with a young boy ([[Haley Joel Osment]]) who believes he can see the spirits of the [[dead]] among the living. In the film ''[[The Ghost Goes West]]'' (1935
on. The remaining 25% to 30% are loanwords from a number of languages, as well as derivations of such words. The languages which have contributed most to Bulgarian are [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] (mostly international terminology), and to a lesser extent [[French language|French]] and [[Russian language|Russian]]. The numerous loanwords from [[Turkish language|Turkish]] (and, via Turkish, from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]]) which were adopted into Bulgarian during the long period of [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]] rule have, to a great extent, been substituted with native terms or borrowings from other languages. As in much of the rest of the world, [[English language|English]] has had the greatest influence over Bulgarian over recent decades. ==Syntax== Colloquial Bulgarian employs [[clitic doubling]], mostly for emphatic purposes. For example: :Аз го дадох подаръка на майка ми : (lit. &quot;I gave ''it'' the present to my mother&quot;) :Аз й го дадох подаръка на майка ми : (lit. &quot;I gave ''her it'' the present to my mother&quot;) The phenomenon is practically obligatory in the case of inversion signalling information structure: :Подаръка (й) го дадох на майка ми : (lit. &quot;The present (to her) ''it'' I-gave to my mother&quot;) :На майка ми й (го) дадох подаръка : (lit. &quot;To my mother ''to her'' (it) I-gave the present&quot;). In a formal context, however, no clitic doubling is allowed. Bulgarian grammars usually do not treat this phenomenon extensively. {{sect-stub}} == Common Bulgarian expressions == *Здравей (zdravéi) — Hello *Здрасти (zdrásti) — Hi *Добро утро (dobró útro) — Good morning *Добър ден (dóbər dén) — Good day *Добър вечер (dóbər vécher) — Good evening *Лека нощ (léka nósht) — Good night *Довиждане (dovízhdane) — Good-bye *Чао (chao) ''(informal)'' - Bye *Как си? (kák si) ''(informal)'' — How are you? *Как сте? (kák sté) ''(formal, and also plural form)'' - How are you? *Да (dá) - Yes *Не (né) - No *Може би (mózhé bí) - Maybe *Какво правиш? (kakvó právish) ''(informal)'' — What are you doing? *Какво правите? (kakvó právite) ''(formal, and also plural form)'' - What are you doing? *Добре съм (dobré səm) — I’m fine *Всичко най-хубаво (vsíchko nai-húbavo) — All the best *Поздрави (pózdravi) — Regards *Благодаря (blagodaryə́) ''(formal and informal)'' — Thank you *Мерси (mersi) ''(informal)'' - Thank you *Моля (mólia) — Please *Моля (mólia) — You're welcome *Извинете! (izvinéte) ''(formal)'' — Excuse me! *Извинявай! (izviniávai) ''(informal)'' — Sorry! *Колко е часът? (kólko e chasə́t) — What’s the time? *Говорите ли ...? (govórite li...) — Do you speak ...? :...английски (anglíski) — English :...български (bə́lgarski) — Bulgarian :...китайски (kitáiski) — Chinese :...френски (frénski) — French :...немски (némski) — German :...гръцки (grə́tski) — Greek :...италиански (italiánski) — Italian :...японски (iapónski) — Japanese :...корейски (koréiski) — Korean :...латински (latínski) — Latin :...испански (ispánski) — Spanish *Ще се видим скоро (shté sé vídim skóro) - We'll see each other soon *Ще се видим утре (shté sé vídim útre) - We'll see each other tomorrow == See also == *[[List of common phrases in various languages#Bulgarian (Slavic)|Common phrases in Bulgarian]] *[[Romanization of Bulgarian]] *[[Torlakian dialect]] == References == * Comrie, Bernard and Corbett, Greville G. (1993) ''The Slavonic Languages'', London and New York: Routledge ISBN 0-415-04755-2 * International Phonetic Association (1999) ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' ISBN 0-521-63751-1 == External links == {{InterWiki|code=bg}} {{Wikibookspar||Bulgarian}} * [http://www.easybulgarian.com/ The Bulgarian Language Online Course — Free Samples — audio — includes Romantic Phrases] * [http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/bul.htm Free online resources for learners] * [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=BLG Ethnologue report for Bulgarian] * [http://sa.dir.bg/ Bulgarian-English-Bulgarian dictionary] from [http://sa.dir.bg/sa.htm SA Dictionary] * [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Bulgarian-english/ Bulgarian–English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster’s Online Dictionary] — the Rosetta Edition. * [http://webtrance.skycode.com/online.asp Online English–Bulgarian machine translation] * [http://www.bulgaria-map.com Bulgarian Business information] [[Category:Bulgarian language|*]] [[Category:South Slavic languages]] [[Category:Languages of Bulgaria]] [[af:Bulgaars]] [[ar:لغة بلغارية]] [[ast:Búlgaru]] [[bg:Български език]] [[ca:Búlgar]] [[cs:Bulharština]] [[de:Bulgarische Sprache]] [[el:Βουλγαρική γλώσσα]] [[es:Idioma búlgaro]] [[eo:Bulgara lingvo]] [[fr:Bulgare]] [[ko:불가리아어]] [[hr:Bugarski jezik]] [[id:Bahasa Bulgaria]] [[it:Lingua bulgara]] [[kw:Bulgarek]] [[li:Bölgaars]] [[lv:Bulgāru valoda]] [[hu:Bolgár nyelv]] [[mk:Бугарски јазик]] [[nl:Bulgaars]] [[ja:ブルガリア語]] [[nn:Bulgarsk språk]] [[pl:Język bułgarski]] [[pt:Língua búlgara]] [[ro:Limba bulgară]] [[ru:Болгарский язык]] [[sk:Bulharčina]] [[sl:Bolgarščina]] [[sr:Бугарски језик]] [[fi:Bulgarian kieli]] [[sv:Bulgariska]] [[tl:Wikang Bulgaro]] [[th:ภาษาบัลแกเรีย]] [[tr:Bulgarca]] [[zh:保加利亚语]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brainfuck programming language/Examples</title> <id>4151</id> <revision> <id>15902445</id> <timestamp>2003-03-08T14:04:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MyRedDice</username> <id>5862</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Brainfuck]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Brainfuck]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bipyramid</title> <id>4153</id> <revision> <id>37798492</id> <timestamp>2006-02-02T04:55:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tomruen</username> <id>63601</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:10px&quot; width=&quot;250&quot; !bgcolor=#e7dcc3 colspan=2|Set of bipyramids |- |align=center colspan=2|[[Image:Triangular dipyramid.png|240px|Pentagonal bipyramid]] |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Faces||2n [[triangle]]s |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Edges||3n |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Vertices||n+2 |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Face configuration]]||V4.4.n |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Symmetry group]]||[[Symmetry_group#Three_dimensions|''D''&lt;sub&gt;''nh''&lt;/sub&gt;]] |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Dual polyhedron]]||[[Prism (geometry)|Prisms]] |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Properties||convex, semi-regular (face-uniform) |} [[Image:Pentagonal dipyramid.png|thumb|right|[[Pentagonal dipyramid]] '''J13''']] [[Image:octahedron.jpg|thumb|right|Regular [[octahedron]]]] An ''n''-agonal '''bipyramid''' or '''dipyramid''' is a [[polyhedron]] formed by joining an ''n''-agonal [[Pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] and its [[mirror image]] base-to-base. The referenced n-agon in the name of the bipyramids is not an external face but a internal one, existing on the primary symmetry plane which connects the two pyramid halves. The face-uniform bipyramids are the [[dual polyhedron|dual polyhedra]] of the [[Prism (geometry)|uniform prisms]] and will generally have [[isosceles triangle]] faces. Three bipyramids can be made out of all [[equilateral triangle]]s, the [[octahedron]] (tetragonal bipyramid), which counts among the [[Platonic solid]]s, and the [[triangular dipyramid|triangular]] and [[pentagonal dipyramid|pentagonal]] bipyramids, which count among the [[Johnson solid]]s. A bipyramid can be [[Perspective projection|projected]] on a sphere or [[globe]] as ''n'' equally spaced lines of [[longitude]] going from [[Geographical pole|pole]] to pole, and [[Bisection|bisected]] by a line around the [[equator]]. == Forms == # [[Triangular dipyramid]] - 6 faces - dual [[triangular prism]] # ''Tetragonal dipyramid'' [[octahedron]] - 8 faces - dual [[cube]] # [[Pentagonal dipyramid]] - 10 faces - dual [[pentagonal prism]] # ''Hexagonal dipyramid'' - 12 faces - dual [[hexagonal prism]] # ''Septagonal dipyramid'' - 14 faces - dual ''septagonal prism'' # ''Octagonal dipyramid'' - 16 faces - dual [[octagonal prism]] # ''Enneagonal dipyramid'' - 18 faces - dual ''enneagonal prism'' # ''Decagonal dipyramid'' - 20 faces - dual ''decagonal prism'' * ...'''n-agonal dipyramid''' - 2n faces - dual '''n-agonal [[prism (geometry)|prism]]''' == Symmetry groups == If the base is regular and the line through the apexes intersects the base at its center, the [[List of spherical symmetry groups|symmetry group]] of the ''n''-agonal bipyramid has [[dihedral symmetry]] ''D&lt;sub&gt;nh&lt;/sub&gt;'' of order 4''n'', except in the case of a regular octahedron, which has the larger [[octahedral symmetry]] group '''O&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;''' of order 48, which has three versions of ''D&lt;sub&gt;4h&lt;/sub&gt;'' as subgroups. The [[rotation group]] is ''D&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'' of order 2''n'', except in the case of a regular octahedron, which has the larger symmetry group '''O''' of order 24, which has three versions of ''D&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;'' as subgroups. ==External links== *[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra] *[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra ** [[VRML]] models [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/alphabetic-list.html (George Hart)] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/triangular_dipyramid.wrl &lt;3&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/octahedron.wrl &lt;4&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/pentagonal_dipyramid.wrl &lt;5&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/hexagonal_dipyramid.wrl &lt;6&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/heptagonal_
cement, creating opportunities for [[crime]], including [[vandalism]], [[looting]], [[arson]] and [[violent crime]], even leading to [[civil disorder]], as in the [[New York City blackout of 1977]]. Only very rarely do power outages escalate to disaster proportions, however, they often accompany other types of disasters, such as [[hurricane|hurricanes]] and [[flood|floods]], which hampers relief efforts. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Public relations crisis=== A public relations crisis may threaten the long term survival of an organization. For this reason, many organization's [[business continuity planning]] include PR crisis responses to control the delivery of bad news, the initial statements made to media and thereby control first impressions. A successfully managed PR crisis may actually improve public opinion about an organization. A poorly managed PR crisis may eventually bankrupt an organization. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Radiation Contamination=== Related article: [[Chernobyl accident]]&lt;br&gt; Related article: [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] When nuclear weapons are detonated or nuclear containment systems are otherwise compromised, airborne radioactive particles ([[Nuclear fallout|fallout]]) can scatter and irradiate large areas. Ionizing radiation is hazardous to living things, and in such a case much of the affected area could be unsafe for human habitation. The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] republics of [[Ukraine]] and [[Belarus]] are part of a scenario like this after a reactor at the [[Chernobyl]] nuclear power plant suffered a [[Nuclear meltdown|meltdown]] in [[1986]]. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Space Disasters=== {{main|Space disaster}} {{sect-stub}} ===Telecommunication outage=== [[Image:Phone handset.jpeg|thumb|100px|right|Telecommunications]] A telecommunications outage is not immediately a disaster, however, an extended telecommunications outage can strain a company's ability to stay solvent by cutting them off from their clients, vendors and business partners. For this reason, [[business continuity planning]] normally addresses the possibility of an outage on the organization's core functions. A telecommunication outage at the same time as another disaster may exacerbate the serverity of the incident by hampering disaster response teams. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===Terrorism=== [[Image:WTC1_on_fire.jpg|thumb|100px|right|[[World Trade Center]] on [[September 11|Sep. 11]], [[2001]]]] {{main articles|[[Terrorism]] and [[Asymmetric warfare]]}} Terrorism is a controversial term with multiple definitions. One definition means a violent action targeting civilians exclusively. Another definition is the use or threatened use of violence for the purpose of creating fear in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological goal. Under the second definition, the targets of terrorist acts can be anyone, including civilians, government officials, military personnel, or people serving the interests of governments. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt; ===War=== {{main|War}} War is conflict, between relatively large groups of people, which involves physical force inflicted by the use of weapons. Warfare has destroyed entire cultures, countries, economies and inflicted great suffering on humanity. Other terms for war can include armed conflict, hostilities, and police action. Acts of war are normally excluded from insurance contracts and disaster planning. ==Surviving a disaster== Chances of survival after a disaster are greatly improved when people, local governments and emergency services, businesses and national governments prepare survival plans and assemble survival gear beforehand. What constitutes sufficient preparation is highly dependent on the location and the disasters that are likely to occur in the area. ===Personal and family disaster preparation=== People and families should make an assessment the likely threats in their location and prepare [[emergency supply kit]]s, learn basic [[first aid]] and decide on 'safe' meeting places. Young children should be trained to: * recognize the warning signs for dangerous situations * respond safely to different threats * evacuate to a safe place * know their full name * know their parent's full name * know their telephone number * know their address * know the names of their relatives Emergency supply kits should include the basic items recommended in the links provided below in addition to any special needs like diapers for babies, prescribed medicines or glasses for those who need them. ===Local government and emergency services disaster preparation and management=== Local governments and [[emergency service organizations]] maintain disaster response plans to minimize further [[death]] and property loss with quick and efficient action. A predetermined command structure containing the functions, names, telephone numbers, and addresses needed for a disaster are used to mobilize local police, fire and medical forces (occasionally supported by [[military]] forces). A [[disaster command structure]] attempts to quickly establish control over a disaster scene to [[rescue]] victims, clear casualties and where possible, subdue the threat. Governments may also provide basic [[humanitarian aid|humanitarian assistance]]. ===Business disaster preparation and management=== To minimize losses and the death or injury of staff, businesses can create a [[business continuity planning|business continuity plan]] and restore key business functions quickly. Like local government, business should maintain a predetermined command structure in addition to the steps required to restore data and resume business operations. Businesses also must consider non-traditional threats like liquidity shortages, public relations, power outage and telecommunication outage as a part of their plans. ===National disaster preparation=== National governments maintain disaster response plans to support local governments and to isolate an event's effects to a localized area. Naturally occurring diseases, biological terrorism, and crop blights are examples of events that may be containable to a small area. A predetermined command structure which may include specialized agencies like the [[United States]] [[Federal Emergency Management Agency]] aids disaster relief and support of the local governments and emergency services. Since nations have direct command control over military forces, they may choose to deploy personnel as requested or needed to assist in rescue, treatment of victims, humanitarian aid, and the maintaining of civil order. Generally speaking, national governments can coordinate the deployment of emergency services personnel from unaffected areas to reduce the administrative burden on local command structures. Also, national governments generally have more resources and funds to assist local governments with relief efforts. ===Humanitarian disaster preparation=== For larger disasters that overwhelm the affected governments, international non-governmental humanitarian agencies may mobilize to offer [[water]], [[food]], [[housing]] and [[medicine|medical]] and [[psychology|psychological treatment]] of disaster victims. Humanitarian aid may also include long-term recovery and rebuilding efforts. ===Information security disaster preparation=== Adherence to accepted information security principals require disaster recovery plans. A disaster is the start of a 'crisis' where predefined crisis management plans activate. During the development of the crisis management plan, minimum thresholds are established against which a disaster's effect can be compared. Once a disaster sufficiently interrupts key functions and processes, recovery activities can be initiated to control expectancy loss. ==See also== {{wikibookspar||Historical Disasters and Tragedies}} * [[Car accident]] * [[Civil protection]] * [[Data recovery]] * [[Disaster movie]] * [[Disaster recovery]] * [[Disaster relief]] * [[Disaster tourism]] * [[End of civilization]] * [[Existential risk]] * [[Hypothetical Disaster]] * [[List of disasters]] * [[List of major flops]] * [[Prevention]] * [[Worst natural disasters]] ==References== * [http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/ United States Department of Homeland Security] * [http://www.fema.gov/hazards/ United States Federal Emergency Management Agency] * [http://www.udel.edu/DRC/ University of Delaware Disaster Research Center] * [http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900SID/OCHA-64BLY9?OpenDocument] * Barton A.H. (1969). Communities in Disaster. A Sociological Analysis of Collective Stress Situations. SI: Ward Lock * Quarantelli E.L. (1998). Where We Have Been and Where We Might Go. In: Quarantelli E.L. (ed). What Is A Disaster? London: Routledge. pp146-159 * [http://muweb.millersville.edu/~cdr/CDR_2.1.pdf] * [http://www.word-detective.com/101797.html Word Detective] ==External links== * [http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/ Department of Homeland Security] * [http://www.londonprepared.gov.uk/ London Prepared] * [http://www.disasterpsych.org/ Disaster Psychiatry Outreach] * [http://www.fema.gov/pdf/areyouready/supplies.pdf Preparing an emergency survival kit] * [http://www.citizencorps.gov/ United States Citizen Corp Guide] * [http://www.disasterhelp.gov/ United States DisasterHelp Egov reference] * [http://www.fema.gov/ United States Federal Emergency Management Association] * [http://www.fema.gov/hazards/ United States Federal Emergency Management Association designated hazards] * [http://www.ready.gov/about.html United States Ready Egov reference] * [http://www.em-dat.net/ EM-DAT: The International Disasters Database] includes information on man-made and natural disasters, basic definitions and a database of disasters occurrence and impact from 1900 to today * [http://www.globaled.org.nz/schools/pdfs/factsheets/Disasters.pdf Disasters factsheet] * [http://www.houstonme
caregiver. Child incest victims are often called &quot;secret survivors&quot;, by therapists, because there is often no one to take their side much less listen to their shame and self-loathing as incest is a taboo topic. It is known to therapists, that in many cases of such incest the non-perpetrating parent colludes with or denies the other parent's perpetration so the child does not have the other parent to turn to either. Child victims have been observed to go into disassociated or [[recluse|reclusive]] mental or emotional states due to [[shame]] associated with their parent's predation, which is thought to overwhelm their coping capabilities. Becoming &quot;dead inside&quot; is another tactic children have been observed to use in an attempt to deaden the associated pain. Suppression of emotions, as well as a halt or a severe reduction in personal growth has been observed, similar to the effects studied in the [[psychology of torture]]. In adulthood, chronic, complex, and cyclic [[post traumatic stress]] has been observed in victims of childhood parental incest. [[Shame]], [[suspicion]], and unconscious [[alienation]] is thought by some psychologists to occur in the first stage of trauma transformation as the victim attempts to suppress past pain. [[Rage]], [[terror]], and [[sorrow]] have been observed to surface in the second stage as the victim begins to become conscious of the incest acts. In the last stage of trauma transformation, genuine [[self-esteem]], genuine [[desire]], and, on occasion, genuine [[joy]] have been seen in victims. These stages have been observed to take decades to complete and, in extreme cases, to cycle on until the victim's death. Some victims of parental incest suffer severe [[depression]], and/or have committed [[suicide]], which is thought to be due to the inability accomplish the associated trauma transformations shown above. Some victims also predate against their own children thus resulting in a legacy of incest in following generations, a form of a [[vicious cycle]]. Often, even if trauma transformation was successful, survivors have reported that due to the betrayal of innocence, the incest-associated losses, and the transformation related costs, their lives were much worse off than peers who had not suffered incest by their parents. ==History== ===Ancient Egypt=== Some experts claim that incestuous marriages were widespread at least during part of Egyptian history, such as Naphtali Lewis (''Life in Egypt under Roman Rule'': Oxford, [[1983]]), who claims that numerous [[papyrus|papyri]] attest to many husbands and wives as being brother and sister. :When instances of brother-sister marriages first began to appear in the papyri, they were greeted with great skepticism in some quarters, where doubt was expressed that any society would really have countenanced such common violation of the incest taboo. Such arguments [to otherwise explain the evidence] are ingenious, but they collapse completely in the face of the cumulative evidence of scores of papyri, official as well as private documents, in which the wife is unequivocally identified as the husband's &quot;sister born of the same father and the same mother&quot;. (pp.43f) Joyce Tyldesley (''Ramesses: Egypt's Great Pharaoh'': London, 2000), writing about the pre-Roman Egyptian period, expresses the opposite viewpoint. She states that within the royal family there was a tradition of [[hypergamy]], where a king or his son might marry a commoner, but his daughter could not marry beneath herself, without the act being considered as degrading to herself. As a result, the royal princess often found herself either marrying her royal brother, or living her life without a spouse. Incestuous unions were frowned upon and considered as ''nefas'' (a violation of the natural and social order) in [[Roman Empire|Roman]] times, and were explicitly forbidden by an imperial edict in AD [[295]], which divided the concept of ''incestus'' into two categories of unequal gravity: the ''incestus iuris gentium'', who was applied to both Romans and non-Romans in the Empire, and the ''incestus iuris civilis'' which concerned only the Roman citizens. Therefore, for example, an Egyptian could marry an aunt, but a Roman could not. ===Royal dynasties=== Adult incest has been notable in royal dynasties, probably in order to help concentrate wealth and political influence within the family (historical evidence suggests that this practice actually weakened the genetic makeup of elite society family lines, resulting in abnormally high occurrences of rare genetic defects and diseases). Although the marriage unions were often not consensual, with young adults or children forced to marry close relatives, this does not imply the sex was non-consensual. Best known for this practice, which included brother-sister marriages, are some of the dynasties of Ancient Egypt (as explained above), ancient [[Hawaii]], and the pre-Columbian [[Mixtec]]. Dynasties of the modern era where there was frequent familial intermarriage were the mid-[[Habsburg]]s; one branch ruled over [[Spain]] and the other over [[Austria]]. Spanish princesses, however, did marry [[France|French]] kings, [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]] and [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] who were not [[Habsburg]]s. The Spanish branch died out in [[1700]], but the last Spanish Habsburg king, [[Charles II of Spain|Carlos II]] had been married to María-Luisa of Orléans, grand-daughter of King [[Charles I of England]] and niece to King [[Louis XIV of France]]. However, over the last century, Kings [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]], [[Philip III of Spain|Philip III]], and (for his second time) [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]] all married their Austrian cousins. The Austrian branch continued to rule until [[1918]], and they are still alive and prospering today. Although the ruler of Egypt, [[Cleopatra]], was of Greek origin, she was the daughter of her father's sister, and while reigning she married her brother, [[Ptolemy XIII]]. In Christian society, in which most of the great royal dynasties of the early modern era functioned, incest was a terrible taboo. In [[1536]] [[Anne Boleyn|Queen Anne Boleyn of England]] was falsely accused of incest with [[George Boleyn|her brother]] in order to blacken her name and enable [[Henry VIII of England|her husband]] to execute her and [[Lady Jane Seymour|marry again]]. ==In religious traditions== ===In mythology=== Examples of incest in [[mythology]] are rampant. In [[Greek mythology]] [[Zeus]] and [[Hera]] are brother and sister as well as husband and wife. They were the children of [[Cronus]] and [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]] (also married siblings) and grandchildren of [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]] and [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] (a son who took his mother as consort). Cronus and Rhea's siblings, the other [[Titan (mythology)|Titans]], were also all married brothers and sisters. In [[Norse mythology]], [[Loki]] accuses [[Freyr]] and [[Freya]] of committing incest, in ''[[Lokasenna]]''. Moreover, in the [[Völsunga saga]], the hero [[Sigmund]] and his sister [[Signy]] murdered her children and begat a son, [[Sinfjötli]]. When Sinfjötli had grown up, he and Sigmund murdered Signy's husband [[Siggeir]]. In [[Icelandic folklore]] a common plot involves a brother and sister (illegally) conceiving a child. They subsequently escape justice by moving to a remote valley. There they proceed to have several more children. The man has some magical abilities which he uses to direct travelers to or away from the valley as he chooses. The siblings always have exactly one daughter but any number of sons. Eventually the magician allows a young man (usually searching for sheep) into the valley and asks him to marry the daughter and give himself and his sister a civilized burial upon their deaths. This is subsequently done. Sibling incest forms an important part of the plot in the story of [[Kullervo]] in the [[Finland|Finnish]] national epic, the [[Kalevala]], as also in medieval versions of the [[Britain|British]] legend of [[King Arthur]]. ===In religion=== The [[Bible]] also contains a number of references to incest: see [[Biblical references to incest]]. ==Fiction== {{spoiler}} Incest is a somewhat popular topic in English [[erotic fiction]]; there are entire collections and websites devoted solely to this genre, with an entire genre of pornographic [[pulp fiction]] known as &quot;incest novels&quot;. This is probably because, as with many other fetishes, the taboo nature of the act adds to the titillation. With the advent of the Internet, there is even more of this type of fiction available. Besides this, incest is sometimes mentioned or described in mainstream, non-erotic fiction. Connotations can be negative, very rarely positive, or neutral. For example, in [[Gabriel García Márquez]]'s ''[[One Hundred Years of Solitude]]'' there are several cases of sex between more or less close relatives, the last of which occurs between a nephew and his aunt, resulting in the birth of a child who is born with a pig's tail and precedes the destruction of the whole town of [[Macondo]] by a [[tropical cyclone]]. Other works of literature show consequences not so grave, such as the [[V.C. Andrews]] novel ''[[Flowers in the Attic]]'' and its subsequent sequels, in which brother and sister uphold a loving relationship; [[Arundhati Roy]]'s ''[[The God of Small Things]]'', in which fraternal twins share a cathartic sexual experience; and several of [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s later stories. In [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s ''[[Silmarillion]]'', there are two examples of accidental incest such as when a couple do not realize they are brother and sister. When the relation is discovered, events inevitably end in tragedy. Incest is an&lt;!-- Not small --&gt; element of the [[Sophocles]] play ''[[Oedipus the King]]'', based on the story from [[Greek mythology]], in which the [[title character]] unknowi
t</title> <id>8903</id> <revision> <id>15906838</id> <timestamp>2002-05-15T15:30:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>62.188.202.206</ip> </contributor> <comment>redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[direct connect]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Deque</title> <id>8904</id> <revision> <id>28983957</id> <timestamp>2005-11-22T14:46:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>203.145.163.149</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], a '''deque''' or '''dequeue''' (short for ''double-ended [[queue]]'') is a [[data structure]] for which elements can be added to or removed from the front or back. This differs from a normal [[queue]], where elements can only be added to one end and removed from the other. A deque maintains a slightly modified [[FIFO]] structure, doing so using each end as both left and right. A common implemenation of a deque uses a [[linked list | doubly linked list]]. ''Deque'' is usually pronounced ''deck''. == See also == *[[Data structure]] **Linear data structures ***[[Array]] ***[[Linked list]] ***[[Queue]] ***[[Stack (computing)|Stack]] == References == * [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 1: ''Fundamental Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89683-4. Section 2.2.1: Stacks, Queues, and Deques, pp. 238&amp;ndash;243. {{compu-sci-stub}} [[Category:data structures]] [[de:Deque]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Diene</title> <id>8905</id> <revision> <id>35969167</id> <timestamp>2006-01-20T16:29:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>HenkvD</username> <id>140348</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>intereiki nl:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dienes''' are [[hydrocarbon|hydrocarbons]] which contain two [[covalent bond|double bonds]]. Dienes are intermediate between [[alkene]]s and [[polyene]]s. ==Classes== Dienes can divided into three classes: #'''Unconjugated dienes''' have the double bonds separated by two or more single bonds. #'''Conjugated dienes''' have [[Conjugated system|conjugated]] double bonds separated by one single bond #'''Cumulated dienes''' have the double bonds sharing a common atom as in a group of compounds called [[allene]]s. In [[organic chemistry]] a conjugated diene is also a [[functional group]]. ==Common dienes == The simplest conjugated diene is 1,3-[[butadiene]]. [[Cyclopentadiene]] is another example of a diene. [[image:butadiene.png|right|1,3-butadiene]] == Reactions with dienes == The 1,3 configuration of double bonds found in 1,3-butadiene (conjugated double bonds) make these types of dienes capable of participating in more reaction types than is the case for [[molecule]]s with either just a single [[alkene]] [[functional group]] or with multiple, but non-alternating, alkene groups. One possible reaction for such dienes is the [[Diels-Alder reaction]]. [[Category:functional groups]] [[Category:Hydrocarbons]] [[ar:دايين]] [[de:Polyene]] [[fr:Diène]] [[lv:Alkadiēni]] [[nl:Alkadieen]] [[pl:Dien]] [[ru:&amp;#1044;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1099;]] [[sr:Диен]] [[sv:Dien]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Diatessaron</title> <id>8906</id> <revision> <id>37552683</id> <timestamp>2006-01-31T19:08:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Garzo</username> <id>140345</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.31.169.149|66.31.169.149]] ([[User talk:66.31.169.149|talk]]) to last version by 213.122.19.53</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Diatessaron''' is also an ancient name for the musical interval of a [[perfect fourth]].'' [[Tatian]]'s '''''Diatessaron''''', produced ca. [[175]] AD, was the most prominent of a number of harmonies of the four [[Gospels]], that is, the material of the four distinct Gospels rewritten as a continuous narrative, resolving conflicting statements and removing duplicated text (see [[synoptic problem]]). Only 56 verses in the canonical Gospels do not have a counterpart in the Diatessaron, the bulk of the excluded material comprising the two apparently irreconcilable [[genealogy of Jesus|genealogies of Jesus]] (one in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] and one in the [[Gospel of Luke]]), together with the [[pericope]] of the adulteress (John 7:53 - 8:11). No significant text was added; but, in order to fit all the canonical material in, Tatian felt free to create his own narrative sequence that departed radically from the succession and order of episodes in every one of the four Gospels. The final work is about 72% the length of the four gospels put together (McFall, 1994) [[Tatian]] was a Syrian Christian who was a pupil of [[Justin Martyr]] in Rome. It is generally agreed that Justin already possessed some sort of a [[harmony]] text, but it is unclear how far Tatian may have borrowed his narrative sequence from a previous author. It is equally unclear whether Tatian took the Syriac Gospel text of the Diatessaron from a previous translation, or whether the translation was his own. Tatian most likely did make use of a pre-existing translation of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] Bible into Syriac as the text for those Gospel passages that quote the [[Old Testament]]. Resolution of these scholarly questions has been made more difficult as long as no complete version of ''Diatessaron'' in Syriac or Greek had been recovered; while the medieval translations that did survive - in Arabic and Latin - both relied on texts that had been heavily corrected to conform better with later canonic versions of the separate Gospel texts. There has even been disagreement about what language Tatian used for its original composition, whether [[Syriac language|Syriac]] or [[Greek language|Greek]]. Modern scholarship tends to favour a Syriac origin; but even so, the exercise must have been repeated in Greek very shortly afterwards&amp;mdash;probably by Tatian himself. The ''Diatessaron'' was used as the standard Gospel text in the liturgy of the [[Syriac Christianity|Syrian Church]] for two centuries and was quoted or alluded to by Syrian writers. [[Ephrem the Syrian]] wrote a commentary on it, which was rediscovered in 1957, when a Syriac manuscript acquired by Sir [[Chester Beatty]] from the Coptic monastery of Deir es-Suriani in [[Wadi Natrun]], Egypt (now Chester Beatty Syriac MS 709, Dublin) turned out to contain the text of Ephrem's commentary. The incomplete manuscript has been supplemented by stray folios that have appeared on the European market, so that now approximately eighty per cent of the Syriac original is available (McCarthy 1994); in the form of quotations, it provides for the first time, a dependable witness to Tatian's original [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-10/anf10-06.htm]. How the Gospel text that was the standard in Syriac Christianity for two centuries should have utterly disappeared requires explaining. [[Theodoret]], bishop of Cyrrhus on the Euphrates in upper Syria in 423, suspecting Tatian having been a heretic, sought out and found more than two hundred copies of the ''Diatessaron'', which he [[Book burning|&quot;collected and put away]], and introduced instead of them the Gospels of the four evangelists&quot;. Thus the harmonisation was replaced in the 5th century by the canonical four gospels individually. Gradually, without extant copies to which to refer, it developed a reputation for having been [[heresy|heretical]]. The Syrian Church was unique in utilising a harmonised Gospel text in its [[liturgy]] - if only for two centuries. However, given the inherent tendancy of Christian liturgical texts to ossification, it was not unusual for subsequent Christian generations to seek to provide paraphrased Gospel versions in language closer to the [[vernacular]] of their own day. Frequently such versions have been constructed as Gospel harmonies, sometimes taking the Tatian's Diatessaron as an exemplar; other times proceeding independently. Hence from the Syriac Diatessaron text was derived an 11th Century [[Arabic Language|Arabic]] harmony (the source for the published versions of the Diatessaron in English); and a 13th Century [[Persian Language|Persian]] harmony. The Arabic harmony preserves Tatian's sequence exactly, but with a text corrected to that of the standard Syriac [[Peshitta]] Gospels; the Persian harmony differs greatly in sequence, but translates a Syriac text that is rather closer to that in Ephrem's commentary. An [[Vetus Latina|Old Latin]] version of Tatian's Syriac text appears to have circulated in the West from a relatively early date, but with the gradual adoption of the [[Vulgate]] as the liturgical Gospel text of the Latin Church, the Latin Diatessaron was increasingly modified to conformity with Vulgate readings. In [[546]] Victor of [[Capua]] discovered such a mixed manuscript; and, further corrected by Victor so as to provide a very pure Vulgate text within a modified Diatessaron sequence, this harmony survives in the monastic library at [[Fulda]], where it served as the source text for vernacular harmonies in [[Old High German]], Eastern Frankish and [[Old Saxon]] (the alliterative poem '[[Heliand]]'). The mixed Vulgate/Diatessaron text type also appears to have continued as a distinct tradition, as such texts appear to underly surviving 13th-14th century Gospel harmonies in [[Middle Dutch]], [[Middle High German]], [[Middle French]], [[Middle English]], [[Italian Language|Tuscan]] and [[Italian Language|Venetian]]; although no example of this hypothetical Latin sub-text has ever been identified. This Latin Diatesaron textual tradition has also been suggested as underlying the enigmatic 16th century pro-[[Muslim]] [[Gospel of Barn
=== Criticism === * CMM has failed to take over the world. It's hard to tell exactly how wide spread it is as the SEI only publishes the names and achieved levels of compliance of companies that have requested this information to be listed[http://www.sei.cmu.edu/cmmi/faq/ares-faq.html#RATE03]. The most current Maturity Profile for CMMI is available online[http://www.sei.cmu.edu/appraisal-program/profile/pdf/CMMI/2005marCMMI.pdf ]. * CMM is well suited for bureaucratic organizations such as government agencies, large corporations and regulated monopolies. If the organizations deploying CMM are large enough, they may employ a team of CMM auditors reporting their results directly to the executive level. (A practice encouraged by SEI.) The use of auditors and executive reports may influence the entire IT organization to focus on perfectly completed forms rather than application development, client needs or the marketplace. If the project is driven by a due date, CMMs intensive reliance on process and forms may become a hinderance to meeting the due date in cases where time to market with some kind of product is more important than achieving high quality and functionality of the product. * Suggestions of scientifically managing the software process with metrics only occur beyond the Fourth level. There is little validation of the processes cost savings to business other than a vague reference to empirical evidence. It is expected that a large body of evidence would show that adding all the business overhead demanded by CMM somehow reduces IT headcount, business cost, and time to market without sacrificing client needs. * No external body actually certifies a software development center as being CMM compliant. It is supposed to be an honest self-assessment ([http://www.sei.cmu.edu/cmmi/faq/ares-faq.html#APR04] and [http://www.sei.cmu.edu/cmmi/faq/ares-faq.html#APR05]). * The CMM does not describe how to create an effective software development organization. The CMM contains behaviors or best practices that successful projects have demonstrated. Being CMM compliant is not a guarantee that a project will be successful, however being compliant ''can'' increase a project's chances of being successful. * The CMM can seem to be overly bureaucratic, promoting process over substance. For example, for emphasizing predictability over service provided to end users. More commercially successful methodologies (for example, the [[Rational Unified Process]]) have focused not on the capability of the organization to produce software to satisfy some other organization or a collectively-produced specification, but on the capability of organizations to satisfy specific end user &quot;[[use cases]]&quot; as per the Object Management Group's UML ([[Unified Modeling Language]]) approach[http://www.sei.cmu.edu/publications/documents/93.reports/93.tr.024.html]. * Whilst CMM may have been very positive for the employment of software engineers in emerging or Third World economies - notably in India during the early 2000s - it is regarded as having adversely affected the potential employment opportunities for software engineers in the developed economies - notably the USA and Europe. This outsourcing is a form of labor [[arbitrage]] which is similar to the movement of manufacturing of (for example) fashion clothing or Nike shoes to Third World economies with relatively cheap labor rates. == The most beneficial elements of CMM Level 2 and 3 == * Creation of Software Specifications, stating what it is that is going to be developed, combined with formal sign off, an executive sponsor and approval mechanism. This is NOT a living document, but additions are placed in a deferred or out of scope section for later incorporation into the next cycle of software development. * A Technical Specification, stating how precisely the thing specified in the Software Specifications is to be developed will be used. This is a living document. * Peer Review of Code (Code Review) with metrics that allow developers to walk through an implementation, and to suggest improvements or changes. Note - This is problematic because the code has already been developed and a bad design can not be fixed by &quot;tweaking&quot;, the Code Review gives complete code a formal approval mechanism. * Version Control - a very large number of organizations have no formal revision control mechanism or release mechanism in place. * The idea that there is a &quot;right way&quot; to build software, that it is a scientific process involving engineering design and that groups of developers are not there to simply work on the problem du jour. == References == * [[Mary Beth Chrissis]], [[Mike Konrad]], and [[Sandy Shrum]]. ''CMMI: Guidelines for Process Integration and Product Improvement'', Pearson Education, ISBN 0321154967 * [[Watts Humphrey]]. ''Managing the Software Process'', Addison-Wesley Professional, ISBN 0201180952 * [http://www.tantara.ab.ca/a_isorel.htm History of Process Models] * [http://www.itmweb.com/f051098.htm Process Improvement: The Capability Maturity Model] * [http://www.bcs.org/BCS/Products/publishing/itnow/OnlineArchive/sep05/point.htm ITNOW - September 2005: Capability model mature - or is it?] == External links == * [http://www.sei.cmu.edu/cmmi/ CMMI Official Web Site] * [http://www.sei.cmu.edu/cmmi/adoption/pdf/cmmi-overview05.pdf Capability Maturity Model® Integration (CMMI®) Overview] [PDF] * [http://www.tc.umn.edu/~hause011/article/Capability_maturity_models.html A critical look at implementing CMM Level 2] * [http://www.cio.com/archive/030104/cmm.html CIO Article, Bursting the CMM Hype] [[Category:Software engineering]] [[de:Capability Maturity Model]] [[es:Modelo de Capacidad y Madurez]] [[fr:Capability Maturity Model Integration]] [[no:Capability Maturity Model]] [[pl:CMM]] [[sk:Capability Maturity Model]] [[sv:Capability Maturity Model]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cider</title> <id>7494</id> <revision> <id>41924035</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:29:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>132.170.161.225</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cider-strongbow.jpg|thumb|A [[pint]] of [[Strongbow Cider|Strongbow]] cider.]] '''Cider''' (known in parts of [[North America]] as '''hard cider''', and also spelled '''cyder''') refers to an [[alcoholic beverage]] made from [[apple]]s. In [[Europe]] and [[Oceania]], &quot;cider&quot; refers to [[fermentation|fermented]] apple [[fruit juice|juice]]. In the United States and parts of Canada the same drink is known as &quot;hard cider&quot;, with &quot;cider&quot; referring to an unfermented (non-alcoholic) drink that is a subtype of [[apple juice]]. Cider is often stronger than [[beer]], and is frequently over 6% [[alcohol by volume]] (ABV). The common eating apples are unsuitable for cidermaking, being low in [[tannin]]s; specific apple cultivars bred [[Cider apple|especially for cidermaking]] are preferred. ==Types of cider== Cider comes in a variety of tastes, from sweet to dry. Modern, mass-produced ciders are generally heavily processed and resemble [[sparkling wine]] in appearance. More traditional brands, often known as ''scrumpy'', tend to be darker and more cloudy, as less of the apple is filtered out. They are often stronger than processed varieties. &quot;White cider&quot; is made by processing cider after the traditional brewing process is complete, resulting in a nearly white product. This processing allows the manufacturer to produce strong (typically 7-8% ABV) cider cheaply, quickly, and on an industrial scale, often from poor raw materials. == Cider production== === Scratting and pressing === [[Image:Cider making Jersey.jpg|thumb|Most cider is made industrially nowadays, although traditional methods still survive. In this picture the layers of pomace are wrapped in canvas.]] After the apples are gathered from the trees, they are &quot;scratted&quot; (ground) into what is called pomace or pommage, either by means of a common pressing stone with a circular trough, or by a cider mill, traditionally driven by the hand, water-mill, or horse-power, but these days likely to be electric. When the pulp is thus reduced to a great degree of fineness, it is conveyed to the cider press, where it is formed by pressure into a kind of cake, which is called the cheese. This is effected by placing clear, sweet straw or hair cloths between the layers of pomace, usually alternating with slatted ash-wood racks, until there is a pile of 10 or 12 layers. It is important to minimise the time that the pomace is exposed to air, to reduce oxidation &amp;mdash; and, at the same time, the cheese must be constructed evenly, or the whole pile slithers onto the floor. This pile is then subjected to different degrees of pressure in succession, until all the must or juice is squeezed from the pomace. This juice, after being strained in a coarse hair-sieve, is then put into either open vats or closed casks, and the pressed pulp is either given to farm animals as winter feed (or thrown away) or used to make liqueurs. === Fermentation === Fermentation is best effected at a temperature of 4-16 [[Celsius|°C]] (40-60[[Fahrenheit|°F]]). This is low for most kinds of fermentation, but works for cider as it leads to slower fermentation with less loss of delicate aromas. Shortly before the fermentation consumes all the sugar, the liquor is &quot;racked&quot; into new vats. This leaves dead yeast cells and other undesirable material at the bottom of the old vat. At this point it becomes important to exclude airborne acetic bacteria, so care is taken to fill the vat completely, and the fermenting of the remaining available sugar generates a small amount of carbon dioxide that helps to prevent air seeping in. This also creates a certain amount of sparkle, and sometimes
ed States]], with roots in traditional [[folk music]], [[Celtic Music]], [[Blues]], [[Gospel music]], and [[Old-time music]]. However, country music is actually a catch-all category that embraces several different genres of music: [[Nashville sound]] (the pop-like music very popular in the 1960s); [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]], a fast mandolin, banjo and fiddle-based music popularized by [[Bill Monroe]] and by the [[Foggy Mountain Boys]]; [[Western (genre)|Western]] which encompasses traditional Western ballads and Hollywood Cowboy Music, [[Western swing]], a sophisticated dance music popularized by [[Bob Wills]]; [[Bakersfield sound]] (popularized by [[Buck Owens]] and [[Merle Haggard]]); [[Outlaw country]]; [[Cajun]]; [[Zydeco]]; [[gospel]]; [[oldtime]] (generally pre-1930 folk music); [[honky tonk]]; [[Appalachian]]; [[rockabilly]]; [[neotraditional country]] and [[jug band]]. Each style is unique in its execution, its use of rhythms, and its chord structures, though many songs have been adapted to the different country styles. One example is the tune '''Milk Cow Blues''', an early blues tune by [[Kokomo Arnold]] that has been performed in a wide variety of country styles by everyone from [[Aerosmith]] to [[Bob Wills]] to [[Willie Nelson]], [[George Strait]] to [[Ricky Nelson]] and [[Elvis Presley]]. [[Vernon Dalhart]] was the first country singer to have a nationwide hit (May 1924, with &quot;The Wreck of Old '97&quot;) (see External Links below). Other important early recording artists were [[Riley Puckett]], [[Don Richardson]], [[Fiddling John Carson]], [[Ernest Stoneman]], [[Charlie Poole and the North Carolina Ramblers]], and [[The Skillet Lickers]]. Some trace the origins of modern country music to two seminal influences and a remarkable coincidence. [[Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)|Jimmie Rodgers]] and the [[Carter Family]] are widely considered to be the founders of country music, and their songs were first captured at an [[Bristol sessions|historic recording session]] in [[Bristol, Tennessee]] on [[August 1]], [[1927]], where [[Ralph Peer]] was the talent scout and sound recordist. It is possible to categorize many country singers as being either from the Jimmie Rodgers strand or the Carter Family strand of country music. ==Jimmie Rodgers' influence== Jimmie Rodgers' gift to country music was [[country folk]]. Building on the traditional ballads and musical influences of the South, Jimmie wrote and sang songs that ordinary people could relate to. He took the experiences of his own life in the Meridian, Mississippi, area and those of the people he met on the railroad, in bars and on the streets to create his lyrics. He used the musical influences of the traditional ballads and the [[folk music|folk]] to create his tunes. An annual festival has been held in Meridian for over 30 years. Pathos, humor, women, whiskey, murder, death, disease and destitution are all present in his lyrics and these themes have been carried forward and developed by his followers. People like [[Hank Williams]], [[Merle Haggard]], [[Waylon Jennings]], [[George Jones]], [[Townes van Zandt]], [[Kris Kristofferson]] and [[Johnny Cash]] have also suffered, and shared their suffering, bringing added dimensions to those themes. It would be fair to say that Jimmie Rodgers sang about life and death from a male perspective, and this viewpoint has dominated some areas of country music. It would also be fair to credit his influence for the development of [[honky tonk]], [[rockabilly]] and the [[Bakersfield sound]]. ===Hank Williams=== Jimmie Rodgers is a major foundation stone in the structure of country music, but the most influential artist from the Jimmie Rodgers strand is undoubtedly [[Hank Williams|Hank Williams, Sr.]] In his short career (he was only 29 when he died), he dominated the country scene and his songs have been covered by practically every other country artist, male and female. Some have even included him in their compositions (for example, [[Waylon Jennings]] and [[Alan Jackson]]). Hank had two personas: as Hank Williams he was a [[singer-songwriter]] and entertainer; as &quot;[[Luke the Drifter]]&quot;, he was a songwriting crusader. The complexity of his character was reflected in the introspective songs he wrote about heartbreak, happiness and love (e.g., &quot;[[I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry]]&quot;), and the more upbeat numbers about [[Cajun]] food (&quot;[[Jambalaya (song)|Jambalaya]]&quot;) or [[cigar store Indian]]s (&quot;[[Kaw-Liga]]&quot;). He took the music to a different level and a wider audience. Both [[Hank Williams, Jr.]] and his son [[Hank Williams III]] have been innovators within country music as well, Hank Jr. leading towards rock fusion and &quot;[[outlaw country]]&quot;, and Hank III going much further in reaching out to [[death metal]] and [[psychobilly]] soul ==The Carter Family's Influence== The other Ralph Peer discovery, the Carter family, consisted of A.P. Carter, his wife Sara and their sister-in-law Maybelle. They built a long recording career based on the sonorous bass of A.P., the beautiful singing of Sara and the unique guitar playing of Maybelle. A.P.'s main contribution was the collection of songs and ballads that he picked up in his expeditions into the hill country around their home in [[Maces Springs, Virginia]]. In addition, being a man, he made it possible for Sara and Maybelle to perform without stigma at that time. These two women were the musical talent. They arranged the songs that A.P. collected and wrote their own songs. They were the precursors of a line of talented female country singers like [[Kitty Wells]], [[Patsy Cline]], [[Loretta Lynn]], [[Skeeter Davis]], [[Tammy Wynette]], [[Dolly Parton]] and [[June Carter Cash]], the daughter of Maybelle and the wife of [[Johnny Cash]]. ===Bluegrass=== [[Bluegrass music|Bluegrass]] carries on the tradition of the old String Band Music and was invented, in its pure form, by [[Bill Monroe]]. The name &quot;Bluegrass&quot; was simply taken from Monroe's band, the &quot;Bluegrass Boys&quot;. The first recording in the classic line-up was made in 1945: Bill Monroe on Mandolin and Vocals, [[Lester Flatt]] on Guitar and Vocals, [[Earl Scruggs]] on 5-String Banjo, Chubby Wise on Fiddle and Cedric Rainwater on Upright Bass. This band set the standard for all bluegrass bands to follow, most of the famous early Bluegrass musicians were one-time band members of the Bluegrass Boys, like Lester Flatt &amp; Earl Scruggs, [[Jimmy Martin]] and [[Del McCoury]], or played with Monroe occasionally, like [[Sonny Osborne]], [[The Stanley Brothers]] and [[Don Reno]]. Monroe also influenced people like [[Ricky Skaggs]], [[Alison Krauss]] and [[Rhonda Vincent]], who carry on the folk and ballad tradition in the bluegrass style. ==Other influences== Country music has had only a handful of [[Black]] stars [[Charley Pride]] and [[Deford Bailey]] being the most notable. Pride endured much open racism early in his career with some radio programmers refusing to play a &quot;nigger&quot;. Many TV audiences were shocked to realize that the songs they enjoyed were performed by a black man. Pride became the second black member of the [[Grand Ole Opry]] in 1993 (he had declined an invitation to join in 1968). He is considered a major influence on traditionalists today. Country music has also influenced the work of many black musicians such as [[Ray Charles]], [[Keb' Mo']] and [[Cowboy Troy]]. ==The Nashville Sound== During the [[1960s]], country music became a multimillion-dollar industry centered on [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]], [[Tennessee]]. Under the direction of producers such as [[Chet Atkins]], [[Owen Bradley]], and later [[Billy Sherrill]], the ''[[Nashville sound]]'' brought country music to a diverse audience. This sound was notable for borrowing from 1950s pop stylings: a prominent and 'smooth' vocal, backed by an string section and vocal chorus. Instrumental soloing was de-emphasised in favor of trademark 'licks'. Leading artists in this genre included [[Patsy Cline]], [[Jim Reeves]], and later [[Tammy Wynette]] and [[Charlie Rich]]. Although country music has great stylistic diversity, some critics say this diversity was strangled by the formulaic approach of the Nashville Sound producers. Others point to the commercial need to re-invent country in the face of the dominance of '50s [[rock'n'roll]] and subsequent [[British Invasion]]. Even today the variety of country music is not usually well reflected in commercial radio airplay and the popular perception of country music is fraught with [[stereotypes]] of [[Hillbilly]]'s and maudlin ballads. ===Reaction to the Nashville Sound=== The supposedly &quot;vanilla&quot;-flavored sounds that emanated from Nashville led to a reaction among musicians outside Nashville, who saw that there was more to the genre than &quot;the same old tunes, fiddle and guitar...&quot; (Waylon Jennings). [[California]] produced the [[Bakersfield sound]], promoted by [[Buck Owens]] and [[Merle Haggard]] and based on the work of the legendary [[Maddox Brothers and Rose]], whose wild eclectic mix of old time country, hillbilly swing and gospel in the 1940s and 1950s was a feature of honky-tonks and dance halls in the state. [[Texas]] produced rebels like [[Willie Nelson]], [[Waylon Jennings]], [[Jerry Jeff Walker]] and others who bucked the Nashville system and created [[outlaw country]]. Within Nashville in the [[1980]]s, [[Randy Travis]], [[Ricky Skaggs]] and others brought a return to the traditional values. Their musicianship, songwriting and producing skills helped to revive the genre momentarily. However, even they, and such long-time greats as Jones, Cash, and Haggard, fell from popularity as the record companies again imposed their formulas and refused to promote established artists. [[Capitol Records]] made an almost wholesale clearance of their country artists
entific society was founded in 1952 with the object of promoting co-operation in all fields of learning, collecting scientific literature, and publishing the results of research on or carried out in the Faroe Islands. A yearly periodical, ''Fróðskaparrit'', came to be published annually. It was through the work of the society that the Faroese university, [[Fróðskaparsetur Føroya]], came to be founded. === Traditional food === [[Image:Faroese buffet.jpg|thumb|Traditional Faroese food: Dried mutton and whale meat and blubber.]] Traditional Faroese food is mainly based on meat and [[potato]]es and uses few fresh vegetables. [[Mutton]] is the basis of many meals, and one of the most popular treats is ''skerpikjøt'', well aged, wind-dried mutton which is quite chewy. The drying shed, known as a ''hjallur'', is a standard feature in many Faroese homes. Other traditional foods are ''rast kjøt'' (semi-dried mutton) and ''rastan fisk'', matured fish. After the bloody [[grindadráp]], a speciality is ''grind og spik'', [[Pilot whale|whale]] and [[blubber]]. Fresh fish also features strongly in the traditional local diet, as do [[seabirds]], such as [[puffin]], and their eggs. === The Faroe Islands in popular culture === In the book [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]] by [[George Orwell]], a [[Floating Fortess]] has been anchored between the Faroe Islands and Iceland on ca. [[4 April]] [[1984]]. == Miscellaneous topics == {{Faroese topics}} == See also == * [[List of Faroese people|List of Notable Faroese]] * [[Communications in the Faroe Islands]] * [[Faroe Islands national football team|Faroe Islands national football (soccer) team]] * [[Whaling in the Faroe Islands]] * [[Gøtudanskt]] * [[Ólavsøka]] == External links == {{commons|Faroe Islands}} * [http://faroeislands.dk/ Faroeislands.dk] - Is a private page covering all villages on the Faroe Islands * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fo.html Faroe Islands] - ''[[CIA World Factbook]] 2003'' * [http://www.faroeislandssc.org/ Faroe Islands Study Circle (UK)] * [http://www.faroenature.net/ FaroeNature.net] - Forum and gallery covering all nature related subjects * [http://www.uf.fo/?slag=english Faroese News in English] - National Radio Network * [http://www.tinganes.fo/Default.asp?I=1 Prime Minister's Office] - Official site * [http://www.setur.fo/ University of the Faroe Islands] - Official site * [http://www.stamps.fo Postverk Føroya] - Faroe Islands Post Office * [http://www.visit-faroeislands.com/ Visit Faroe Islands] - Official tourist site * [http://heima.olivant.fo/%7Eanfinn/ heima.olivant.fo/~anfinn] - private site with over 100 aerial photos covering all the Faroe Islands * [http://www.art.fo art] - The Faroe Islands National Art Museum * [http://www.faroearts.com faroearts] - shows´n sells the work of Faroese artists on the internet * [http://www.bryggenart.com Bryggenart] - Art from the North Atlantic * [http://www.gudrunoggudrun.com GudrunogGudrun] - Faroese designer wear * [http://www.krea.fo/toeting/ Toeting] - Tøting woolwear since 1962 * [http://www.nlh.fo NLH] - The Faroese Nordic House * [http://www.gfestival.com Gfestival]- The official website of the annual G! Festival! * [http://www.summarfestivalur.fo Summarfestivalur]- The official website of the annual Summerfestival * [http://www.tutl.com Tutl] - Specialist Faroese Record Company {{Islands of the Faroe Islands}} {{Nordic Council}}&lt;br&gt; {{Europe}} [[Category:Archipelagoes]] [[Category:Danish dependencies]] [[Category:European countries]] [[Category:European dependencies]] [[Category:Faroe Islands|*]] [[Category:Former Norwegian colonies]] [[Category:Islands of Denmark]] [[Category:North Atlantic Islands]] [[Category:Special territories of the European Union]] {{Link FA|de}} [[af:Faroëreilande]] [[ast:Islles Feroe]] [[bg:Фарьорски острови]] [[zh-min-nan:Mî-iûⁿ Kûn-tó]] [[be:Фарэрскія выспы]] [[bs:Farska ostrva]] [[br:Inizi Faero]] [[ca:Illes Fèroe]] [[cs:Faerské ostrovy]] [[da:Færøerne]] [[de:Färöer]] [[et:Fääri saared]] [[el:Νήσοι Φερόες]] [[es:Islas Feroe]] [[eo:Ferooj]] [[eu:Faroe uharteak]] [[fo:Føroyar]] [[fr:Îles Féroé]] [[ko:페로 제도]] [[hr:Føroyar]] [[id:Kepulauan Faroe]] [[is:Færeyjar]] [[it:Isole Fær Øer]] [[he:איי פארו]] [[kw:Ynysow Faroe]] [[lt:Farerų salos]] [[li:Faeröer]] [[hu:Feröer]] [[mk:Фарски Острови]] [[nl:Faeröer]] [[ja:フェロー諸島]] [[no:Færøyene]] [[nn:Færøyane]] [[oc:Illas Feroé]] [[pl:Wyspy Owcze]] [[pt:Ilhas Feroé]] [[ro:Insulele Faroe]] [[ru:Фарерские острова]] [[se:Fearsullot]] [[sk:Faerské ostrovy]] [[sl:Ferski otoki]] [[fi:Färsaaret]] [[sv:Färöarna]] [[th:หมู่เกาะฟาโร]] [[tr:Faroe Adaları]] [[zh:法罗群岛]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fixed 3D</title> <id>10644</id> <revision> <id>33207978</id> <timestamp>2005-12-30T03:52:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pagrashtak</username> <id>304316</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>game title fixes</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In techniques for [[computer games]], '''fixed 3D''' is a three-dimensional (3D) representation of the game world with game characters [[render|rendered]] in [[real time]] against a [[prerendered]] environment. Used heavily in the [[survival horror game]] genre, it was first seen in [[Infogrames]]' ''[[Alone in the Dark (series)|Alone in the Dark]]'' series in the early [[1990s]]; it was later revived and bought up to date by [[Capcom]] in the ''[[Resident Evil]]'' series. Other notable examples include * ''[[Final Fantasy VII]]'' ([[Square Co., Ltd.|Squaresoft]]) * ''[[Mario Party]]'' series ([[Nintendo]]) * ''[[Blade Runner (videogame)|Blade Runner]]'' ([[Westwood Studios]]) - apparently the backgrounds are rendered in real time, using millions of polygons, although this is difficult to tell * ''[[Ecstatica]]'' and ''Ecstatica 2'' ([[Andrew Spencer]]/[[Psygnosis]]) - unusual in that the backgrounds and characters are rendered with [[ellipsoid]]s, leading to a very natural looking set of creatures. Like Blade Runner, it again is rendered entirely in real time, although it is difficult to tell at first sight * ''[[The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time]]'' ([[Nintendo]]) - dropped for complete 3D in its successor, ''[[The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask]]'', fixed 3D is used for many of the building interiors and for an entire town. Admittedly, there seems little to separate fixed 3D from its precursor, the graphic [[adventure game]] (''[[Monkey Island]]'', ''[[Sam and Max]]'', etc.), but whereas the latter overlays 2D characters over a 2D background, fixed 3D is at least 3D overlaid on 2D, and often onto 3D. [[Category:Game engines]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Famous Physicists</title> <id>10645</id> <revision> <id>15908444</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T17:07:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[List_of_physicists]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List_of_physicists]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Food</title> <id>10646</id> <revision> <id>42095562</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:19:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jannex</username> <id>160206</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+:fi</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Food''' is any substance that can be consumed, including [[liquid]] [[drink]]s. Food is the main source of [[energy]] and of [[nutrition]] for animals, and is usually of [[animal]] or [[plant]] [[origin]]. Many countries have a recognizable [[cuisine]], a specific set of [[cooking]] traditions and practices. The study of food is called [[food science]]. In [[English language|English]], the term ''food'' is often used [[metaphor]]ically or figuratively, as in ''food for thought''. ==Legal definition== [[Western world|Western]] food law defines four categories of object as food: *any substance or product, whether processed, partially processed or unprocessed, intended to be, or reasonably expected to be ingested by humans whether of nutritional value or not; *[[water]] and other [[drink]]s; *[[chewing gum]]; *articles and substances used as an [[ingredient]] or [[component]] in the preparation of food. Links to official legal definitions of food: *[http://www.fda.gov/opacom/laws/fdcact/fdcact1.htm US federal definition of food] *[http://www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1990/Ukpga_19900016_en_2.htm#mdiv1 UK definition of food] *[http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&amp;lg=EN&amp;numdoc=32002R0178&amp;model=guichett EU definition of food] == Human eating habits == ===Historical development=== [[Human]]s are commonly believed to be [[omnivore|omnivorous]] animals that can consume both plant and animal products. Evidence suggests that early [[human]]s employed [[hunter-gatherer]] techniques as their primary method of food collection. This involves combining stationary plant and fungal food sources (such as fruits, grains, roots, and mushrooms) with mobile animals which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed. Additionally, it is believed that humans have used fire to prepare food prior to eating since their divergence from [[Homo erectus]], possibly even earlier. At least ten thousand years ago, humans developed [[agriculture]], which has [[Timeline of agriculture and food technology|altered the kind of food people eat]]. This led to a variety of important historical consequences, such as increased [[population]], the development of [[cities]], and the wider spread of [[infectious disease]]s. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared, have varied widely by time, location, and culture. ===Meals=== A portion of food or the act of eating a portion of food is considered a [[meal]]. Often named and patterned, mea
e derived from the start symbol. The simplest way is to list the consecutive strings of symbols, beginning with the start symbol and ending with the string, and the rules that have been applied. If we introduce a strategy such as &quot;always replace the left-most nonterminal first&quot; then for context-free grammars the list of applied grammar rules is by itself sufficient. This is called the ''leftmost derivation'' of a string. For example, if we take the following grammar: : (1) S &amp;rarr; S + S : (2) S &amp;rarr; 1 and the string &quot;1 + 1 + 1&quot; then the left derivation of this string is the list [ (1), (1), (2), (2), (2) ]. Analogously the ''rightmost derivation'' is defined as the list that we get if we always replace the rightmost nonterminal first. In this case this would be the list [ (1), (2), (1), (2), (2)]. The distinction between leftmost derivation and rightmost derivation is important because in most [[parser]]s the transformation of the input is defined by giving a piece of code for every grammar rule that is executed whenever the rule is applied. Therefore it is important to know whether the parser determines a leftmost or a rightmost derivation because this determines the order in which the pieces of code will be executed. See for an example [[LL parser]]s and [[LR parser]]s. A derivation also imposes in some sense a hierarchical structure on the string that is derived. For example the structure of the string &quot;1 + 1 + 1&quot; would, according to the leftmost derivation, be: :S&amp;rarr;S+S (1) :S&amp;rarr;S+S+S (1) :S&amp;rarr;1+S+S (2) :S&amp;rarr;1+1+S (2) :S&amp;rarr;1+1+1 (2) : { { { 1 }&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; + { 1 }&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; }&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; + { 1 }&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; }&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; where { ... }&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; indicates a substring recognized as belonging to S. This hierarchy can also be seen as a tree: S /|\ / | \ / | \ S '+' S /|\ | / | \ | S '+' S '1' | | '1' '1' This tree is called a ''concrete syntax tree'' (see also [[abstract syntax tree]]) of the string. In this case the presented leftmost and the rightmost derivation define the same syntax tree, however there is another (leftmost) derivation of the same string possible :S&amp;rarr; S + S (1) :S&amp;rarr; 1 + S (2) :S&amp;rarr; 1 + S + S (1) :S&amp;rarr; 1 + 1 + S (2) :S&amp;rarr; 1 + 1 + 1 (2) and this defines the following syntax tree: S /|\ / | \ / | \ S '+' S | /|\ | / | \ '1' S '+' S | | '1' '1' If for certain strings in the language of the grammar there is more than one parsing tree then the grammar is said to be an ''[[ambiguous grammar]]''. Such grammars are usually hard to parse because the parser cannot always decide which grammar rule it has to apply. == Normal forms == Every context-free grammar that does not generate the empty string can be transformed into an equivalent one in [[Chomsky normal form]] or [[Greibach normal form]]. &quot;Equivalent&quot; here means that the two grammars generate the same language. Because of the especially simple form of production rules in Chomsky Normal Form grammars, this normal form has both theoretical and practical implications. For instance, given a context-free grammar, one can use the Chomsky Normal Form to construct a polynomial-time algorithm which decides whether a given string is in the language represented by that grammar or not (the [[CYK algorithm]]). == Undecidable problems == Although some operations on context-free grammars are decidable due to their limited power, unlike finite automata CFGs do have interesting undecidable problems. One of the simplest and most cited is the problem of deciding whether a CFG accepts the language of all strings. A reduction can be demonstrated to this problem from the well-known undecidable problem of determining whether a [[Turing machine]] accepts a particular input. The reduction uses the concept of a ''[[computation history]]'', a string describing an entire computation of a [[Turing machine]]. We can construct a CFG that generates all strings that are not accepting computation histories for a particular Turing machine on a particular input, and thus it will accept all strings only if the machine does not accept that input. As a consequence of this, it is also undecidable whether two CFGs describe the same language, since we can't even decide whether a CFG is equivalent to the trivial CFG deciding the language of all strings. On the other hand, the problem of determining whether a CFG accepts at least one string is decidable. == Properties of context-free languages == * An alternative and equivalent definition of context-free languages employs non-deterministic [[push-down automaton|push-down automata]]: a language is context-free if and only if it can be accepted by such an automaton. * A language can also be modeled as a set of all sequences of terminals which are accepted by the grammar. This model is helpful in understanding set operations on languages. * The union and concatenation of two context-free languages is context-free; the intersection need not be. * The reverse of a context-free language is context-free, but the complement need not be. * Every [[regular language]] is context-free because it can be described by a [[regular grammar]]. * The intersection of a context-free language and a regular language is always context-free. * There exist [[context-sensitive language]]s which are not context-free. * To prove that a given language is not context-free, one may employ the [[pumping lemma]] for context-free languages. * Another point worth mentioning is that the problem of determining if a [[context-sensitive language|context-sensitive]] grammar describes a context-free language is undecidable. == See also == * [[Parsing]] * [[Formal grammar]] * [[Parsing expression grammar]] == References == * {{cite book|author = [[Michael Sipser]] | year = 1997 | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation | publisher = PWS Publishing | id = ISBN 0-534-94728-X}} Section 2.1: Context-Free Grammars, pp.91–101. Section 4.1.2: Decidable problems concerning context-free languages, pp.156–159. Section 5.1.1: Reductions via computation histories: pp.176–183. {{Formal languages and grammars}} [[Category:Formal languages]] [[cs:Bezkontextová gramatika]] [[de:Kontextfreie Grammatik]] [[es:Gramática libre de contexto]] [[fi:Yhteydetön kielioppi]] [[fr:Grammaire hors-contexte]] [[ja:文脈自由文法]] [[pl:Gramatyka bezkontekstowa]] [[zh:上下文无关文法]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cryonics</title> <id>6760</id> <revision> <id>41183189</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:42:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.126.34.97</ip> </contributor> <comment>rv advertisement</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cryonics''' (often mistakenly called &quot;[[cryogenics]]&quot;) is the practice of [[cryopreservation|cryopreserving]] humans or animals that can no longer be sustained by contemporary [[medicine]] until resuscitation may be possible in the future. The process is not currently reversible, and by law can only be performed on humans after legal death. Cryonics is viewed with [[scientific skepticism|skepticism]] by most scientists and doctors today. However, there is a high representation of scientists among cryonics supporters.{{ref|Note1}} Scientific support for cryonics is based on projections of future technology, especially [[molecular nanotechnology]] and [[nanomedicine]]. Some scientists believe that [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/24thcenturymedicine.html future medicine] will enable [[molecular]]-level repair and regeneration of damaged [[biological tissue|tissue]]s and [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s decades or centuries in the future. [[Disease]] and [[aging]] are also assumed to be reversible. The central premise of cryonics is that [[memory]], personality, and [[personal identity | identity]] are stored in the structure and chemistry of the [[brain]]. While this view is widely accepted in [[medicine]], and [[brain]] activity is known to stop and later resume under certain conditions, it is not generally accepted that current methods preserve the [[brain]] well enough to permit revival in the future. Cryonics advocates point to [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/braincryopreservation1.html studies showing] that high concentrations of [[cryoprotectant]] circulated through the [[brain]] before cooling can mostly prevent freezing injury, preserving the fine [[cell (biology) | cell]] structures of the [[brain]] in which [[memory]] and [[personal identity | identity]] presumably reside. To its detractors, the justification for the actual practice of cryonics is unclear, given present limitations of preservation technology. Currently cells, tissues, blood vessels, and some small animal organs can be reversibly [[cryopreservation | cryopreserved]]. Some [[frog | frogs]] can survive for a few months in a partially frozen state a few degrees below freezing, but this is not true [[cryopreservation]]. Cryonics advocates counter that demonstrably reversible preservation is not necessary to achieve the present-day goal of cryonics, which is preservation of basic [[brain]] information that encodes [[memory]] and [[personal identity]]. Preservation of this information is said to be sufficient to prevent [[information theoretical death | information theoretic death]] until future repairs are possible. Probably the most famous [[:Category:Cryonically preserved people|cryopreserved patient]] is [[Ted Williams]]. The popular [[urban legend]] that [[Walt Disney]] was cryopreserved is false; he was cremated, and interred at [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)|For
In England, British Social Anthropology's paradigm began to fragment as [[Max Gluckman]] and [[Peter Worsley]] experimented with Marxism and authors such as [[Rodney Needham]] and [[Edmund Leach]] incorporated Lévi-Strauss's structuralism into their work. Structuralism also influenced a number of development in 1960s and 1970s, including [[cognitive anthropology]] and componential analysis. Authors such as [[David Schneider]], [[Clifford Geertz]], and [[Marshall Sahlins]] developed a more fleshed-out concept of culture as a web of meaning or signification, which proved very popular within and beyond the discipline. In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the [[Algerian War of Independence]] and opposition to the [[Vietnam War]]; [[Marxism]] became a more and more popular theoretical approach in the discipline. By the 1970s the authors of volumes such as ''Reinventing Anthropology'' worried about anthropology's relevance. In the 1980s issues of power, such as those examined in [[Eric Wolf]]'s ''Europe and the People Without History'' - were central to the discipline. Books like ''Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter'' pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as [[Antonio Gramsci]] and [[Michel Foucault]] moved issues of power and hegemony into the spotlight. Gender and sexuality became a popular topic, as did the relationship between history and anthropology, influenced by [[Marshall Sahlins]] (again) who drew on [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss]] and [[Fernand Braudel]] to examine the relationship between social structure and individual agency. In the late 1980s and 1990s authors such as [[George Marcus]] and [[James Clifford]] pondered ethnographic authority, particularly how and why anthropological knowledge was possible and authoritative. Ethnographies became more reflexive, explicitly addressing the author's methodology and cultural positioning, and its influence on their ethnographic analysis. This was part of a more general trend of [[postmodernism]] that was popular contemporaneously. Currently anthropologists have begun to pay attention to globalization, medicine and biotechnology, indigenous rights, and the anthropology of Europe. ==Politics of anthropology== Anthropology's traditional involvement with nonwestern cultures has involved it in politics in many different ways. Some political problems arise simply because anthropologists usually have more power than the people they study. Some have argued that the discipline is a form of colonialist theft in which the anthropologist gains power at the expense of subjects. The anthropologist, they argue, can gain yet more power by exploiting knowledge and artifacts of the people he studies while the people he studies gain nothing, or even lose, in the exchange. An example of this exploitative relationship can been seen in the collaboration in Africa prior to World War II of British anthropologists (such as Fortes) and colonial forces. More recently, there have been newfound concerns about bioprospecting, along with struggles for self-representation for native peoples and the repatriation of indigenous remains and material culture. Other political controversies come from American anthropology's emphasis on cultural relativism and its long-standing antipathy to the concept of race. The development of [[sociobiology]] in the late 1960s was opposed by cultural anthropologists such as [[Marshall Sahlins]], who argued that these positions were reductive. While authors such John Randal Baker continued to develop the biological concept of race into the 1970s, the rise of genetics has proven to be central to developments on this front. Recently, [[Kevin B. MacDonald]] criticized Boasian anthropology as part of a &quot;Jewish strategy to facilitate mass immigration and to weaken the West&quot; ([[The Culture of Critique]],2002). As genetics continues to advance as a science some anthropologists such as Luca [[Cavalli-Sforza]] have continued to transform and advance notions of race through the use of recent developments in genetics, such as tracing past migrations of peoples through their mitcochondial and Y-chromosomal DNA, and [[ancestry-informative marker]]s. Finally, anthropology has a history of entanglement with government intelligence agencies and anti-war politics. Boas publicly objected to US participation in [[World War I]] and the collaboration of some anthropologists with US intelligence. In contrast, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the war effort in some form, including dozens who served in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the Office of War Information. In the 1950s, the [[American Anthropological Association]] provided the [[CIA]] information on the area specialities of its members, and a number of anthropologists participated in the U.S. government's [[Operation Camelot]] during the war in Vietnam. At the same time, many other anthropologists were active in the antiwar movement and passed resolutions in the [[American Anthropological Association]] (AAA) condemning anthropological involvement in covert operations. Anthropologists were also vocal in their opposition to the war in Iraq, although there was no consensus amongst practitioners of the discipline. Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the [[state]]. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The British Association for Social Anthropology has called certain scholarships ethically dangerous. For example, the British Association for Social Anthropology has condemned the [[CIA]]'s Pat Roberts Intelligence Scholars Program[http://avenue.org/ngic/about_prisp.htm], which funds anthropology students at US universities in preparation for them to spy for the [[United States]] government. The AAA's current 'Statement of Professional Responsibility' clearly states that &quot;in relation with their own government and with host governments... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given.&quot; Anthropology is the study of human diversity--diversity of body and behavior, in the past and present. Anthropology consists of four subfields or subdisciplines: '''Physical anthropology'''--studies the diversity of the human body in the past and present. It includes how we acquired the structure of our body over time, that is human evolution, as well as differences and relationships between human populations today and their adaptations to their local environments. It also sometimes includes the evolution and diversity of our nearest relatives, the primates (apes and monkeys). '''Cultural anthropology'''--studies the diversity of human behavior in the present. This is what most anthropologists do and what most of the public sees when they look at &quot;National Geographic&quot; magazine or the &quot;Discovery&quot; channel on TV. Cultural anthropologists travel to foreign societies (although it is possible to do anthropology on your own society!), live among the people there, and try as much as they can to understand how those people live. '''Archaeology'''--studies the diversity of human behavior in the past. Since it studies how people lived in the past, these people are not available for us to visit and talk to...or at least, not people who are currently living in the same way that their ancestors did in the past. Therefore, archaeologists must depend on the artifacts and features that the people produced in the past and attempt to reconstruct their vanished way of life from the remnants of their culture. '''Linguistic anthropology'''--studies the diversity of human language in the past and present. While language is naturally a part of culture, it is such a huge topic that anthropologists have separated it into its own area of study. Linguistic anthropologists are concerned about the development of languages, perhaps even back to the first forms of language, and how language changes over time. They are also interested in how different contemporary languages differ today, how they are related, and how we can learn about things like migration and diffusion from that data. They also ask how language is related to and reflects on other aspects of culture. Other sciences study humans too, of course. History, economics, psychology, sociology, even biology and chemistry can study humans. How is anthropology different? The answer is the anthropological perspective, that is, the way that anthropology approaches the subject and thinks about or studies humans and their behavior. The anthropological perspective has three components: (1) Cross-cultural or comparative--anthropology investigates humans in every form that they take. We are interested to see the entire spectrum of human bodies and behaviors, trying to learn the range of humanity--all the ways that we can be human. By seeing humans in their every manifestation, and comparing those manifestations to each other, we can ask what is possible for humans and what is necessary for humans. (2) Holistic--anthropology tries to relate every part of culture to every other part. It understands that the various parts of culture are connected to each other and that certain combinations tend to occur or not to occur (for example, there are no hunting and gathering cultures that traditionally lived in cities...that's just impossible!). We are also interested in how a people's cultures is connected to their environment; again, without high technology, you are not going to see farming or cities in the middle of the desert or the arctic. (3) Relativistic--this is the most profound yet controversial part of the anthropological perspective. Relativism means that the rules or norms or values of a culture are relative to that specific culture. In other words
orts:'' 1.5 TWh (2002) *''imports:'' 13.5 TWh (2002) '''Electricity - production by source:''' *''[[fossil fuel power plant|fossil fuel]]:'' 39% *''[[hydroelectricity|hydro]]:'' 18.7% *''[[nuclear power|nuclear]]:'' 30.4% *''other:'' 11.8% (2001) '''Agriculture - products:''' cereals, sugar beets, potatoes; dairy cattle; fish '''Exports:''' €46 378 million (2003) '''Exports - commodities:''' machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals; timber, paper, and pulp '''Exports - partners:''' (EU 53.0%) [[Germany]] 11.8%, [[Sweden]] 9.9%, UK 8.1%, USA 8.1%, [[Russia]] 7.5%, [[France]] 3.7%, [[China]] 2.2% (2003) '''Imports:''' €36 775 Million (2003) '''Imports - commodities:''' foodstuffs, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, transport equipment, iron and steel, machinery, textile yarn and fabrics, fodder grains '''Imports - partners:''' (EU 55.0%) [[Germany]] 15.0%, [[Russia]] 11.9%, [[Sweden]] 11.1%, UK 5.3%, [[France]] 4.8%, USA 4.7%, [[China]] 4.3% (2003) '''Debt:''' €63.8 billion (est. 2004) '''Economic aid - donor:''' ODA, €494 million (2003) '''Currency:''' 1 euro (EUR) = 100 cent '''Exchange rates:''' euros per US$1 - 1.0073 (September 2002), 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); markka (FMk) per US$1 - 5.3441 (1998), 5.1914 (1997), 4.5936 (1996), 4.3667 (1995) &lt;br&gt;''note:'' The euro (EUR) has replaced the local currency markka (FIM) on [[1 January]] [[2002]]. The rate was EUR 1 = FIM 5.94573. '''Fiscal year:''' calendar year ==See also== *[http://www.oecd.org/finland/ OECD's Finland country Web site] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/finland/ OECD Economic Survey of Finland] *[[Finland]] *[[Finnish Maritime Cluster]] *[[Finland and Globalization]] *[[Economy of Europe]] *[[List of Finnish companies]] *[[Commemorative coins of Finland]] *[http://www.tilastokeskus.fi/index_en.html Current statistics] from Statistics Finland {{OECD}} {{WTO}} [[Category:Economy of Finland| ]] [[Category:European Union member economies]] [[es:Economía de Finlandia]] [[he:כלכלת פינלנד]] [[pt:Economia da Finlândia]] [[fr:Économie de la Finlande]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Communications in Finland</title> <id>10713</id> <revision> <id>23512226</id> <timestamp>2005-09-19T07:52:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CalJW</username> <id>233571</id> </contributor> <comment>moved to head of own category</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:''' 2.855 million ([[1998]]) '''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' [[2003]] figures state that 93% of households own at least one mobile phone '''Telephone system:''' modern system with excellent service &lt;br&gt;''domestic:'' cable, microwave radio relay, and an extensive cellular net take provide of domestic needs &lt;br&gt;''international:'' 1 submarine cable; satellite earth stations - access to Intelsat transmission service via a [[Sweden|Swedish]] satellite earth station, 1 [[Inmarsat]] (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions); note - [[Finland]] shares the Inmarsat earth station with the other Nordic countries ([[Denmark]], [[Iceland]], [[Norway]], and [[Sweden]]) '''Radio broadcast stations:''' AM 2, FM 186, shortwave 1 ([[1998]]) '''Radios:''' 8.1 million ([[1999]]) '''Television broadcast stations:''' 130 (plus 385 repeaters) ([[1995]]) '''Televisions:''' 3.3 million ([[1999]]); in [[2003]] 42% of households had either cable-television access or satellite television, 94% had a television and 20% a widescreen television '''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' 36 ([[1999]]); in [[2003]] 45% of households had an active internet connection in use; in [[2005]] there was one [[broadband]] internet connection per five people. '''[[Country code]]:''' FI :''See also :'' [[Finland]] [[Category:Communications by country|Finland]] [[Category:Communications in Finland| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transport in Finland</title> <id>10714</id> <revision> <id>41225861</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T22:32:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ulayiti</username> <id>83902</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Air transport */ +management</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''transport system of [[Finland]]''' is developed. [[As of 2005]], the country's network of main roads has a total length of 13 258 km, and is mainly centred on the capital city of [[Helsinki]]. The total length of all public roads is 78 186 km, of which 50 616 km are paved. The [[motorway]] network is still to a great extent under development, and currently totals 653 km. There are 5 865 km of [[railway]]s in the country. Helsinki has an urban rail network, and [[light rail]] systems are currently being planned in [[Turku]] and [[Tampere]]. Finland has 148 airports, the largest being [[Helsinki-Vantaa Airport]], and a considerable number of large ports. The government ministry responsible for transport in the [[Ministry of Transport and Communications (Finland)|Ministry of Transport and Communications]]. == Roads == [[Road]] transport in Finland is the most popular method of transportation, particularly in rural areas where the railway network does not extend to. There are around 78 000 km of public roads, most of which are paved. The main road network comprises over 13 000 km of road, mostly in the south of the country and along the west coast. 63% of all traffic on public roads takes place on main roads, which are divided into class I (''valtatie'') and class II (''kantatie'') main roads. [[Motorway]]s have been constructed in the country since the [[1970s]], but they are still reasonably rare, as the country's motorway network is still very much under construction. There are 653 km of motorways, and only one route has been finished as a full-length motorway. Speed limits change depending on the time of the year; the maximum speed limit on motorways is 120 km/h (75 mph) in the summer and 100 km/h (62 mph) in the winter. The main roads usually have speed limits of either 100 km/h or 80 km/h (50 mph). Speed limits in urban areas range between 30 km/h (19 mph) and 60 km/h (37 mph). Finland, like most other European countries, has [[Side of the road (traffic)|right-hand traffic]]. There are no [[toll road]]s in Finland. [[As of 2004]], there are 2 727 160 [[car]]s in Finland, giving a total of 521 cars per a thousand inhabitants. Thus, the average citizen is less likely to own a car in Finland than in other European countries. This is despite the fact that Finland has one of the highest average [[Gross Domestic Product|GDPs]] in Europe, and probably results to the high quality of public transport in the country. === Coaches and buses === [[Coach]]es are mainly operated by private companies and provide services widely across the country. There is a large network of [[ExpressBus]] services with connections to all major cities and the most important rural areas. Coach stations are operated by [[Matkahuolto]]. Local bus services inside cities and towns are often tightly regulated by the councils. Many councils also have their own bus operators, such as [[Helsinki City Transport]], which operate some bus lines on a commercial basis in competition with privately owned providers. Regional bus lines are generally less strictly regulated, leading to [[cartel]] situations like [[TLO]] in the [[Turku]] region, but strong regional regulating bodies like the [[Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council]] (YTV) exist as well. == Railways == The Finnish [[railway]] network consists of a total of 5,865 km of railways. Passenger trains are operated by the state-owned [[VR Group]]. They serve all the major cities and many rural areas, though railway connections are available to fewer places than bus connections. Most passenger train services originate or terminate at [[Helsinki Central railway station]], and a large proportion of the passenger rail network radiates out of Helsinki. High-speed [[Pendolino]] services are operated from Helsinki to other major cities, mainly to [[Tampere]] and [[Turku]]. Modern [[InterCity]] services complement the Pendolino network, and the cheaper and older long and short distance trains operate in areas with less passengers. The Helsinki metropolitan area has three [[urban rail]] systems: a [[Helsinki tram|tramway system]], [[Helsinki Metro]], and the [[VR lähiliikenne]] commuter rail system. [[Light rail]] systems are currently being planned for [[Turku]] and [[Tampere]], two of the country's other major urban centres. == Air transport == There are 148 airports, 76 of which have paved runways. By far the largest airport is [[Helsinki-Vantaa Airport]]. Other international airports include [[Turku Airport]] and [[Tampere-Pirkkala Airport]]. The larger airports are managed by the state-owned [[Finavia]] agency (formerly the Finnish Civil Aviation Administration), while the smaller ones are usually managed by municipal authorities. [[Category:Transport in Finland| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Finnish Defence Forces</title> <id>10715</id> <revision> <id>40328041</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T21:16:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.181.218.5</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Military | color=#aaaaff | age=18 years of age for voluntary and compulsory military service (October 2004) | availability=1,226,890 (2004 est.) | service=1,013,961 (2004 est.) | reaching age=32,058 (2004 est.) | active= | amount=$2.6 billion (FY05/06) | percent GDP=1,4% (FY05/06) }} The '''Finnish Defence Forces''' ([[Finnish language|Finnish]] ''Puolustusvoimat''; [[Swedish language|Swedish]] ''Försvarsmakten'') consist of 34,700 people in uniform (27,300 army, 3,000 navy, and 4,400 air force). [[Finland]]'s defence budget equals about 1.4% of the [[Gross_domestic_product|GDP]]. A universal male [[con
<comment>/* CCC projects and life */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{AIDnom}} [[Image:CCC-C&amp;O.jpg|thumb|270px|Civilian Conservation Corps workers restoring the [[Chesapeake and Ohio Canal]].]] The '''Civilian Conservation Corps''' ('''CCC''') was an organization established on [[March 31]], [[1933]], during [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s first month in office. It was part of the social and economic relief program provided under Roosevelt's [[New Deal|First New Deal]] to combat the [[poverty]] and [[unemployment]] of the [[Great Depression]], and was one of the first measures to be introduced during the [[New Deal#The First Hundred Days|first hundred days]]. The CCC came to be seen as a rite of passage by its enrollees, and became one of the most popular New Deal programs among the general public. ==Establishment== Roosevelt proposed the establishment of a civilian conservation corps during the [[U.S. presidential election, 1932|1932 presidential campaign]]. During his first &quot;Hundred Days&quot; in office much of the [[New Deal]] was passed, including Senate Bill 5.598, the [[Emergency Conservation Work Act]]; it was signed into law on March 31, 1933. The [[United States Department of Labor|Labor Department]]'s role was to recruit participants into the program; the actual camps were operated by the Army, using reserve officers. Within a week the Labor Department organized a National Re-Employment Service for CCC recruitment. The usual requirement was that the boy's father had to be registered as unemployed. The first CCC enrollee entered on [[1933-04-07]], just thirty-seven days after Roosevelt's [[inauguration]]. In a short time there were 250,000 enrollees working in CCC camps. Enrollment peaked in September 1935 at about 502,000. By the time the CCC disbanded in 1942, over three million young men had participated. There was serious concern about the CCC from the [[American Federation of Labor]] which feared it would be a job training program. With so many union construction workers unemployed a new job training program would introduce new competition for scarce jobs. Roosevelt promised there would be no skills taught that would compete with established unions, and named a labor leader to run the CCC. ==CCC projects and life== [[Image:ccc we can take it.jpg|200px|thumb|right|&quot;The slogan of the Civilian Conservation Corps is 'We can take it!' Building strong bodies is a major CCC objective. More than half the enrollees who entered CCC the last year were seventeen years of age. Work, calisthenics, marching drill, good food, and medical care feature the CCC health program.&quot;]] The CCC was an interdepartmental work and relief program that sent young, unemployed men from the cities to work on conservation projects in rural areas for $1 per day. The corps took part in many conservation projects, including prevention of [[soil erosion]] and the impounding of [[lake]]s. The CCC constructed many buildings and trails in [[state park|state]] and [[national park]]s that are still used today. Other projects of the CCC included installation of telephone and power lines, construction of logging and fire roads, fence construction, tree-planting, and even [[beekeeping]], [[archeology|archeological]] excavation, and furniture manufacture. The CCC also provided the first truly organized [[wildfire]]-fighting crews and planted an estimated 3 billion trees for government agencies such as the [[United States Forest Service]]. CCC enrollees worked 40 hours a week and were paid $30 a month, with the requirement that $25 of that be sent home to family. Members lived in camps, wore [[uniform]]s, and lived under quasi-[[military discipline]]. The U.S. Army operated the camps, using reserve presonnel called to active duty. The Army thereby gained valuable experience in handling large numbers of young men, but there was no military drill or training in the camps, and the work projects were civilian in nature. Eventually over 4,000 camps were be established in all 48 states and in the Hawaii, Alaska Territory, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. The first camp was at [[George Washington National Forest]] in Virginia. Initially, the CCC was limited to young men age 18 to 25 whose fathers were on relief. Two exceptions to the age limits were [[veterans]], who had a special CCC program and their own camps, and older people with needed skills, hired by the CCC to supervise the young men on the job. These older CCC members were known as &quot;LEMs&quot; (Local Experienced Men). In 1937, Congress changed the age limits to 17 to 23 years old, and dropped the requirement that enrollees be on relief. Members enrolled for six months, with the option of enrolling for another six months. In Roosevelt's second [[fireside chats|fireside chat]] on [[1933-05-07]], he spoke about the CCC in a radio address: :&quot;First, we are giving opportunity of employment to one-quarter of a million of the unemployed, especially the young men who have dependents, to go into the forestry and flood prevention work. This is a big task because it means feeding, clothing and caring for nearly twice as many men as we have in the regular Army itself. In creating this civilian conservation corps we are killing two birds with one stone. We are clearly enhancing the value of our natural resources and second, we are relieving an appreciable amount of actual distress.&quot; ==Disbandment== Despite Roosevelt's desire that the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] make the CCC a permanent agency, Congress failed to do so. Congress did pass several bills extending the life of the CCC. The last extension passed was in 1939, extending the CCC until [[1943-06-30]]. Due to the changing manpower and budgetary needs after U.S. entry into [[World War II]], this was to be the last extension of the Civilian Conservation Corps. After the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] on [[1941-12-07]], all CCC work, except for wildland firefighting, was shifted onto U.S. military bases to help with construction there. The agency disbanded one year earlier than planned, after Congress voted to cut off funding for the CCC entirely after [[1942-06-30]]. Former CCC sites in good condition were reactivated from 1941 to 1947 as [[Civilian Public Service]] camps where [[conscientious objectors]] performed ''work of national importance'' as an alternative to military service. In some cases these camps permitted the original CCC work to continue. After the CCC disbanded, the federal agencies responsible for [[public lands]] administration went on to organize their own seasonal fire crews, roughly modeled after the CCC, which filled the firefighting role formerly filled by the CCC and provided the same sort of outdoor work experience to young people. ==California Conservation Corps== In 1976, the [[Governor of California|Governor]] [[Jerry Brown]] of [[California]] established the [[California Conservation Corps]]. This new program differed drastically from the original CCC as its aim was primarily youth development rather than economic revival. Today it is the largest, oldest and longest-running youth conservation in the world. ==Corps Today== Today, corps are state and local programs that engage primarily youth and young adults (ages 16-25) in full-time community service, training and educational activities. The nation’s 109 corps operate in multiple communities across 37 states and the District of Columbia. In 2004, they enrolled over 23,000 young people. The [[National Association of Service and Conservation Corps - NASCC]] works to expand and enhance the corps movement throughout America. ==External links== *[http://www.cccalumni.org/museum.html CCC Museum in St. Louis, Missouri] *[http://texashistory.unt.edu/young/educators/ccc/index.shtml Life in the Civilian Conservation Corps]Primary Source Adventure, a lesson plan hosted by [http://texashistory.unt.edu/ The Portal to Texas History] [[Category:New Deal Agency]] [[Category:1933 establishments]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Caribbean Sea</title> <id>7822</id> <revision> <id>40304360</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T18:00:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rocastelo</username> <id>163463</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[gl:Mar Caribe]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Central_america.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Map of Central America and the Caribbean]] The '''Caribbean Sea''' is a [[tropics|tropical]] body of water adjacent to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and southeast of the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. It covers most of the [[Caribbean Plate]] and is bounded on the south by [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], and [[Panama]], to the west by [[Costa Rica]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Honduras]], [[Guatemala]], [[Belize]], and the [[Yucatan]] peninsula of [[Mexico]], to the north by the [[Greater Antilles]] islands of [[Cuba]], [[Hispaniola]], [[Jamaica]], and [[Puerto Rico]], and to the east by the [[Lesser Antilles]]. The Caribbean Sea is one of the largest [[sea|salt water seas]] and has an area of about [[1 E12 m²|2,754,000]] km² (1,063,000 square miles). The sea's deepest point is the [[Cayman Trench]], between [[Cuba]] and [[Jamaica]], at [[1 E3 m|7,686]] m (25,220 feet) below sea level. The entire area of the Caribbean Sea, especially the numerous islands, is known as the [[Caribbean]]. ==See also== *[[Antilles]] *[[Caribbean South America]] [[Category:Caribbean]] [[bg:Карибско море]] [[ca:Mar Carib]] [[cs:Karibské moře]] [[da:Caribiske Hav]] [[de:Karibik]] [[el:Καραϊβική Θάλασσα]] [[et:Kariibi meri]] [[es:Mar Caribe]] [[eo:Kariba Maro]] [[fa:دریای کارائیب]] [[fr:Mer des Caraïbes]] [[ga:Muir na Cairibe]] [[gl:Mar Caribe]] [[ko:카리브 해]] [[id:Laut Karibia]] [[ia:Mar Caribe]] [[is:Karíbahaf]] [[it:Mare Caraibico]] [[he:הים הקריבי]] [[la:Mare Caribium]] [[lt
ecretary has the portfolio for External Affairs, and the Cayman Government may negotiate certain bilateral matters directly with foreign governments. The remaining five members of the Executive Council are elected by the Assembly and divide the remaining administrative portfolios. ==Legislative branch== The unicameral [[Legislative Assembly]] is presided over by an independent speaker. The '''Legislative Assembly''' has 18 members, 15 elected members for a four year term in two-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] and 3 members ex officio. Elections are held at the discretion of the governor at least every 4 years. Members of the assembly may introduce bills which, if passed, are then approved, returned, or disallowed by the governor. The U.K. Government also reserves the right to disallow bills approved by the governor. ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in the Cayman Islands|Elections in the Cayman Islands}} {{Cayman_Islands_legislative_election,_2005}} Political parties have operated infrequently in the past, and public officeholders tend to be independents. Since the [[1970s]], groups of candidates have organized themselves into ad hoc coalitions called teams and run on platforms of shared concerns. In November 2000 elections, voters ousted the leader of the government and two other ministers because of legislation enacted to weaken bank secrecy. Seven new members were elected to the Legislative Assembly. In the run up to the November 2004 elections the elected politicians polarized into two groups known as the [[United Democratic Party (Cayman Islands)|United Democratic Party]] (UDP) and the [[People's Progressive Movement (Cayman Islands)|People's Progressive Movement]] (PPM), with a third group of former Members of the Legislative Assembly also active but without a common name to identify them. Current issues being debated include the islands' recovery after Hurricane Ivan, UK-Cayman relations (especially with regards to the new Governor,) and the recently implemented visa requirements Cayman has imposed on Jamaicans and vice versa. Currently, some constituencies have multiple elected representatives depending on the number of registered voters. The recent large number of grants of status, or citizenship, has sparked debate, and the widespread destruction by Hurricane Ivan and the subsequent handling by government has also been criticized. ==Judicial branch== The four-tiered judicial system is based on English common law and colonial and local statutes. The Cayman Islands Court of Appeal is the highest court on the islands, but a final appeal may be heard by Her Majesty's [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] sitting in London. The [[Chief Justice]] has his seat in the [[Grand Court]], below The [[Court of Appeal]]. The current Chief Justice is Hon. [[Anthony Smellie]] QC, JP. ==Administrative divisions== Districts: George Town, Bodden Town, West Bay, North Side, East End and Sister Islands ([[Cayman Brac]] and [[Little Cayman]]) ==International organization participation== [[Caricom]] (associate), [[Caribbean Development Bank|CDB]], [[International Criminal Police Organization - Interpol|Interpol]] (subbureau), [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]] [[Category:Cayman Islands]] [[fr:Histoire des îles Caïmans]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economy of the Cayman Islands</title> <id>5473</id> <revision> <id>41405584</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T02:45:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>216.144.92.214</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} '''Economy - overview:''' With no [[direct taxation]], the [[Cayman Islands]] are a thriving offshore financial center. More than 40,000 companies were registered in the islands as of 2000, including almost 600 [[bank]]s and [[trust company|trust companies]]; banking assets exceed $500 billion. The [[Cayman Islands Stock Exchange]] was opened in 1997. Large corporations based in the Cayman Islands include [[Seagate Technology]], [[Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation]] (SMIC), [[Garmin]] Ltd. and [[Transocean]] Inc. [[Tourism]] is also a mainstay, accounting for about 70% of GDP and 75% of foreign currency earnings. The tourist industry is aimed at the luxury market and caters mainly to visitors from [[North America]]. Unspoiled beaches, [[duty-free]] shopping, [[scuba diving]], and deep-sea fishing draw almost a million visitors to the islands each year. About 90% of the islands' food and consumer goods must be imported. The Caymanians enjoy one of the highest outputs per capita and one of the highest standards of living in the world. From the earliest settlement of the Cayman Islands, economic activity was hindered by isolation and a limited natural resource base. The harvesting of [[sea turtle]]s to resupply passing sailing ships was the first major economic activity on the islands, but local stocks were depleted by the 1790s. Agriculture, while sufficient to support the small early settler population, has always been limited by the scarcity of available land. The advent of modern transportation and telecommunications in the 1950s led to the emergence of what are now considered the Cayman Islands' &quot;twin pillars&quot; of economic development: international finance and tourism. The [[Cayman Islands Investment Bureau]] is a Government agency established with the mandate of promoting investment and economic development in the Cayman Islands. Education is compulsory to the age of 16 and is free to all Caymanian children. Most schools follow the British educational system. Ten primary, one special education, a high school and a middle school ('junior high school') are operated by the government, along with three private high schools. In addition, there is a law school, a university-college and a medical school. '''GDP:''' purchasing power parity - $930 million (1997 est.) '''GDP - real growth rate:''' 5% (1997 est.) '''GDP - per capita:''' purchasing power parity - $24,500 (1997 est.) '''GDP - composition by sector:''' &lt;br&gt;''agriculture:'' 1.4% &lt;br&gt;''industry:'' 3.2% &lt;br&gt;''services:'' 95.4% (1994 est.) '''Population below poverty line:''' NA% '''Household income or consumption by percentage share:''' &lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:'' NA% &lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:'' NA% '''Inflation rate (consumer prices):''' 3% (1998) '''Labor force:''' 19,820 (1995) '''Labor force - by occupation:''' agriculture 1.4%, industry 12.6%, services 86% (1995) '''Unemployment rate:''' 5.1% (1996) '''Budget:''' &lt;br&gt;''revenues:'' $265.2 million &lt;br&gt;''expenditures:'' $248.9 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997) '''Industries:''' tourism, banking, insurance and finance, construction, construction materials, [[furniture]] '''Industrial production growth rate:''' NA% '''Electricity - production:''' 290 GWh (1998) '''Electricity - production by source:''' &lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:'' 100% &lt;br&gt;''hydro:'' 0% &lt;br&gt;''nuclear:'' 0% &lt;br&gt;''other:'' 0% (1998) '''Electricity - consumption:''' 270 GWh (1998) '''Electricity - exports:''' 0 kWh (1998) '''Electricity - imports:''' 0 kWh (1998) '''Agriculture - products:''' [[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]; [[livestock]], [[turtle]] farming '''Exports:''' $2.17 million (1997) '''Exports - commodities:''' turtle products, manufactured consumer goods '''Exports - partners:''' mostly US '''Imports:''' $432 million (1997) '''Imports - commodities:''' foodstuffs, manufactured goods '''Imports - partners:''' US, Trinidad and Tobago, UK, Netherlands Antilles, Japan '''Debt - external:''' $70 million (1996) '''Economic aid - recipient:''' $NA '''Currency:''' 1 Caymanian dollar (CI$) = 100 cents '''Exchange rates:''' Caymanian dollars (CI$) per US$1 - 0.83 ([[3 November]] [[1995]]), 0.85 ([[22 November]] [[1993]]) '''Fiscal year:''' [[1 April]]&amp;ndash;[[31 March]] :''See also :'' [[Cayman Islands]] [[Category:Economy of the Cayman Islands|*]] [[Category:Economies by country|Cayman Islands, the]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Communications on the Cayman Islands</title> <id>5474</id> <revision> <id>29570487</id> <timestamp>2005-11-29T07:22:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Grutness</username> <id>117878</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Telephones - main lines in use:''' 19,000 (1995) '''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' 2,534 (1995) '''Telephone system:''' &lt;br&gt;''domestic:'' [http://www.candw.ky Cable &amp; Wireless] NA &lt;br&gt;''international:'' 1 submarine coaxial cable; satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] (Atlantic Ocean) '''Radio broadcast stations:''' AM 1, FM 5, shortwave 0 (1998) '''Radios:''' 36,000 (1997) '''Television broadcast stations:''' [http://www.cayman27.com.ky Cayman27] '''Televisions:''' 7,000 (1997) '''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):''' 2 (2005) [http://www.candw.ky Cable &amp; Wireless], [http://www.westtel.ky WestTel Ltd.] '''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' KY :''See also :'' [[Cayman Islands]] {{Caymans-stub}} [[Category:Communications by country|Cayman Islands, the]] [[Category:Communications in the Cayman Islands|*]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transportation on the Cayman Islands</title> <id>5475</id> <revision> <id>15903682</id> <timestamp>2005-01-03T16:52:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Chris j wood</username> <id>82307</id> </contributor> <comment>Create [[:Category:Transportation on the Cayman Islands]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Railways:''' 0 km '''Highways:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 785 km &lt;br&gt;''paved:'' 785 km ([[As of 2000|2000]]) '''Ports and harbors:''' [[Cayman Brac]], [[George Town, Cayman Islands|George Town]] '''M
Then, :&lt;math&gt;P_i\propto e^{-\beta E_i}&lt;/math&gt; ==[[Grand canonical ensemble]] derivation== Now assume both energy and matter can be exchanged with the once again very huge environment. Then, using the same arguments, :&lt;math&gt;\ln[W(E_V,N_V)]\approx \ln[W(E,N)]-E_S\left.{\partial \ln W\over \partial E}\right|_{E, N}-\sum_a N_a\left.{\partial \ln[W]\over \partial N_a}\right|_{E,N}&lt;/math&gt; assuming particle number is conserved (otherwise, we would have ergodicity with respect to particle number). Particle numbers are always integral, but it still turns out this approximation is always valid for cases of interest. As before, call &lt;math&gt;\left.{\partial \ln W\over \partial E}\right|_{E, N}&lt;/math&gt; &amp;beta; and &lt;math&gt;N_a\left.{\partial \ln[W]\over \partial N_a}\right|_{E,N}&lt;/math&gt; -&amp;beta;&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; (the [[chemical potential]]) and note these are solely the property of the environment. :&lt;math&gt;P_i\propto e^{-\beta\left(E_i-\sum_a \mu_a N_{ia}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;. Let's get back to the probability distribution of a molecule. As long as it doesn't interact too strongly with the other molecules (i.e. it's in a gas) we can assume the particle is a system and the rest of the gas is the reservoir. This leaves us with the same [[Boltzmann distribution]]. However, even for a nonideal gas, the energy is not simply the sum of the energy of the particle with the energy of the rest of the system because there are interaction terms, rendering the Boltzman distribution incorrect for the particle, even though it still continues to hold for the system as a whole. Actually, the assumption of a very huge reservoir is often overkill as long as the number of molecules in the system is astronomical. It turns out for these systems, the number of states of the system at a given energy varies exponentially with energy and the number of particles. So, the range of values over which P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; has appreciable value is often much smaller than E&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; and N&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; by many orders of magnitude. So, oftentimes, a reservoir much smaller than the system can work. [[Category:Statistical mechanics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Declarative memory</title> <id>8295</id> <revision> <id>40470598</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T20:19:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Srknc</username> <id>964646</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Declarative memory''' is the aspect of [[memory]] that stores [[fact]]s and [[event]]s. It applies to standard [[textbook]] [[learning]] and [[knowledge]], and is contrasted with [[procedural memory]], which applies to skills. Declarative memory is subject to [[forgetting]], but frequently-accessed memories can last indefinitely. Declarative memories are best established by using [[active recall]] combined with [[mnemonic techniques]] and [[spaced repetition]]. Declarative memory can be divided into [[episodic memory]] (knowledge about the event of learning something) and [[semantic memory]] (knowledge independent of context). Declarative memory requires the hippocamous and related areas of the cortex ==See also== * [[Propositional knowledge]] * [[Procedural memory]] [[Category:Memory]] [[fi:Deklaratiivinen muisti]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ordinary differential equation</title> <id>8297</id> <revision> <id>41801497</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:12:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.189.215.184</ip> </contributor> <comment>Minor formatting fix</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''ODE''' redirects here. For the real-time physics engine, see [[open dynamics engine]].'' In [[mathematics]], and particularly in [[mathematical analysis|analysis]], an '''ordinary differential equation''' (or '''ODE''') is a relation that contains functions of only one independent variable, and one or more of its derivatives with respect to that variable. See [[differential calculus]] and [[integral calculus]] for basic calculus background. Many scientific theories can be expressed clearly and concisely in terms of ordinary differential equations. For instance, the law for radioactive decay of a single isotope of an element, states that its rate of loss of mass is proportional to its mass. If ''t'' represents time and ''u(t)'' represents the mass of the isotope at time ''t'', then the law for decay states that :&lt;math&gt;\frac{du}{dt} = -\alpha u\,&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt; is a constant that depends upon the particular isotope. Another example of an ordinary differential equation is Newton's second law of motion of a single particle, which states that ''f = ma'', where ''f'' is an applied force, ''m'' is the mass of the particle, and ''a'' is the acceleration of the particle due to the force. If motion is constrained to a straight line, the coordinate ''t'' measures the time elapsed and the unknown function ''u(t)'' specifies the position of the particle along the line, then the velocity of the particle ''v'' is given by the first derivative of ''u'' with respect to ''t'': :&lt;math&gt;v=\frac{du}{dt}\,&lt;/math&gt;. Similarly, the acceleration of the particle ''a'' is given by the second derivative of ''u'': :&lt;math&gt;a = \frac{dv}{dt} = \frac{d^2 u}{dt^2}\,&lt;/math&gt;. Thus Newton's second law implies the differential equation :&lt;math&gt;m \frac{d^2 u}{dt^2} = f(u)\,&lt;/math&gt;. In general, the force depends upon the position of the particle, and thus the unknown function ''u'' appears on both sides of the differential equation, as is indicated in the notation ''f(u)''. Important theorems in the field of ODEs include broad existence and uniqueness theorems and for ODEs in the plane, the [[Poincaré-Bendixson theorem]]. ==Definition== Let ''y'' represent an unknown function of ''x'', and let :&lt;math&gt;y', y'',\ \dots,\ y^{(n)}&lt;/math&gt; denote the [[derivative]]s :&lt;math&gt;\frac{dy}{dx},\ \frac{d^{2}y}{dx^2},\ \dots,\ \frac{d^{n}y}{dx^{n}}.&lt;/math&gt; An '''ordinary differential equation''' (ODE) is an equation involving :&lt;math&gt;x,\ y,\ y',\ y'',\ \dots .&lt;/math&gt; The '''order''' of a differential equation is the order ''n'' of the highest derivative that appears. If the highest derivative appears only in integer powers, then the '''degree''' of the equation is the highest power of the highest derivative. A '''solution''' of an ODE is a function ''y''(''x'') whose derivatives satisfy the equation. Such a function is not guaranteed to exist and, if it does exist, is usually not unique. A '''general solution''' of an ''n''th-order equation is a solution containing &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; arbitrary variables, corresponding to ''n'' [[constant of integration|constants of integration]]. A '''particular solution''' is derived from the general solution by setting the constants to particular values. A [[singular solution]] is a solution that can't be derived from the general solution. When a differential equation of order ''n'' has the form :&lt;math&gt;F\left(x, y', y'',\ \dots,\ y^{(n)}\right) = 0&lt;/math&gt; it is called an '''implicit''' differential equation whereas the form :&lt;math&gt;F\left(x, y', y'',\ \dots,\ y^{(n-1)}\right) = y^{(n)}&lt;/math&gt; is called an '''explicit''' differential equation. A differential equation not depending on ''x'' is called '''autonomous''', and one with no terms depending ''only'' on ''x'' is called '''homogeneous'''. ==General application== An important special case is when the equations do not involve &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;. These differential equations may be represented as [[vector field]]s. This type of differential equation has the property that space can be divided into [[equivalence class]]es based on whether two points lie on the same solution [[curve]]. Since the laws of physics are believed not to change with time, the physical world is governed by such differential equations. (See also [[symplectic topology]] for abstract discussion.) In the case where the equations are [[linear transformation|linear]], the original equation can be solved by breaking it down into smaller equations, solving those, and then adding the results back together. Unfortunately, many of the interesting differential equations are non-linear, which means that they cannot be broken down in this way. There are also a number of techniques for solving differential equations using a computer (see [[numerical ordinary differential equations]]). Ordinary differential equations are to be distinguished from [[partial differential equation]]s where &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; is a function of several variables, and the differential equation involves [[partial derivative]]s. ==Existence and nature of solutions== The problem of solving a differential equation is to find the function &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; whose derivatives satisfy the equation. For example, the differential equation :&lt;math&gt;y'' + y = 0 \,&lt;/math&gt; has the general solution :&lt;math&gt;y = A \cos{x} + B \sin{x} \,&lt;/math&gt;, where ''A'', ''B'' are constants determined from [[boundary condition]]s. In general, an ''n''-th order equation allows both &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; to be fixed, as well as all the &lt;math&gt;n-1&lt;/math&gt; lower order derivatives of &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;; the remaining equation can be solved (at least conceptionally) for &lt;math&gt;y^{(n)}&lt;/math&gt;. If the equation has finite degree &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt;, then we now have a polynomial equation in &lt;math&gt;y^{(n)}&lt;/math&gt; with at most &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt; roots. Therefore there can be as many as &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt; possible values for &lt;math&gt;y^{
many of his statues have been taken down; in sharp contrast to his son Ching-kuo and to [[Sun Yat-sen]], his memory is rarely invoked by current political parties, including the Kuomintang. ==Names== Like many other Chinese historical figures, Chiang Kai-shek used several names throughout his life, and he is known under several of these names. The name inscribed in the genealogical records of his family, is '''Jiang Zhoutai''' (蔣周泰). This &quot;register name&quot; (譜名) is the name under which his extended relatives of the family knew him, this is a name that was used in formal occasions, such as when he got married. Traditionally, this name was not used in intercourse with people outside of the family, and inside mainland China or Taiwan few people know that his &quot;real&quot; name (the concept of real or original name is not as clear-cut in China as it is in the Western world) was Jiang Zhoutai (although other historical figures such as [[Mao Zedong]] are known by their &quot;register name&quot;). This name, however, was not the name that he received when he was born. Traditionally, Chinese families would wait a certain number of years before officially naming their offspring. In the meantime, they used so-called &quot;milk names&quot; (乳名) which were given to the infant shortly after his birth, and which were known only by the close family. Thus, the actual name that Chiang Kai-shek received at birth was '''Jiang Ruiyuan''' (蔣瑞元), but again this is a fact rarely known in mainland China or Taiwan, and only his parents would have used the given name Ruiyuan when calling him. In [[1903]], 16-year-old Chiang Kai-shek went to [[Ningbo]] to be a student, and he chose a so-called &quot;school name&quot; (學名). The &quot;school name&quot; was actually the formal name of a person, the name used by older people to call the person, so it was the name that the person would use the most in the first decades of his life (as the person grew older, younger generations would have to use one of the [[courtesy name]]s instead). Colloquially, the &quot;school name&quot; is called &quot;big name&quot; (大名), whereas the &quot;milk name&quot; is known as the &quot;small name&quot; (小名). The &quot;school name&quot; that Chiang Kai-shek chose for himself was Zhiqing (志清 - meaning &quot;purity of intentions&quot;). For the next fifteen years or so, Chiang Kai-shek was known as '''Jiang Zhiqing'''. This is the name under which [[Sun Yat-sen]] knew him when Chiang joined the republicans in [[Guangzhou]] in the 1910s. In [[1912]], when Chiang Kai-shek was in [[Japan]], he started to use the name '''Jiang Jieshi''' (蔣介石) as a pen name for the articles that he published in a Chinese magazine he founded (''Voice of the Army'' - 軍聲). This name Jieshi soon became his [[Chinese courtesy name|courtesy name]] (字). Many interpretations of this name circulate. Some think the name was chosen from the classic Chinese book the ''[[Book of Changes]]'', other note that ''jie'' (介), the first character of his courtesy name, is also the first character of the courtesy name of his brother and other male relatives on the same generation line, while the second character of his courtesy name ''shi'' (石 - meaning &quot;stone&quot;) reminds of the second character of his &quot;register name&quot; ''tai'' (泰 - the famous [[Mount Tai]] of China). Courtesy names in China often tried to bear a connection with the personal name of the person. As the courtesy name is the name used by people of the same generation to call the person, Chiang Kai-shek soon became known under this new name. (''Jieshi'' is the [[pinyin]] romanization of the name, which is based on [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]], but the common romanized rendering of this name is ''Kai-shek'' which is in [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese romanization]]. As the republicans were based in Guangzhou (a Cantonese speaking area), Chiang Kai-shek became known by Westerners under the Cantonese romanization of his courtesy name, but the family name known in English seems to be the Mandarin pronunciation of his Chinese family name, transliterated in [[Wade-Giles]]; the Cantonese pronunciation of his family name is &quot;Cheung&quot;). In mainland China, the name ''Jiang Jieshi'' is the name under which he is commonly known today. Sometime in [[1917]] or [[1918]], as Chiang was coming to the forefront among the republicans and became close to [[Sun Yat-sen]], he changed his name from Jiang Zhiqing to '''Jiang Zhongzheng''' (蔣中正). By adopting the name Zhongzheng (&quot;central uprightness&quot;), he was choosing a name very similar to the name of Sun Yat-sen, who was (and still is) known among Chinese as Zhongshan (中山 - meaning &quot;central mountain&quot;), establishing a close link between the two. The meaning of uprightness, rectitude, or orthodoxy, implied by his name, also positioned him as the legitimate heir of Sun Yat-sen and his ideas. Not surprisingly, the Chinese Communists always rejected the use of this name, and the name is not very well known in [[mainland China]]. However, this name was easily accepted by members of the [[Kuomintang|Nationalist Party]], and this is the name under which Chiang Kai-shek is still officially known in [[Taiwan]]. Often, the name is shortened to Zhongzheng only (Chung-cheng in [[Wade-Giles]]) in the style of typical courtesy names (out of respect). Visitors who arrive at the [[Chiang Kai-shek International Airport]] near [[Taipei]] are greeted by signs in Chinese welcoming them to the &quot;Zhongzheng International Airport.&quot; Similarly, the largest monument in [[Taipei]], the [[Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall]] is officially in Chinese called the &quot;Zhongzheng Memorial Hall.&quot; His name also used to be officially written in Taiwan as &quot;The Late President (space) Lord Chiang&quot; (先總統　蔣公), where the one-character-wide space showed respect; this practice lost its popularity after Taiwan's democratization in the 1990s. However, he is still known as ''Lord Chiang'' (without the title or space), along with the similarly positive name ''Jiang Zhongzheng'', in Taiwan. Chiang was also nicknamed &quot;the Gimo&quot; (short for &quot;Generalissimo&quot;) by some English-speaking foreigners, especially by Americans during the [[World War II|Second World War]]. ==See also== * [[History of the Republic of China]] * [[Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Song]] ==Notes== #While married to Mao, Chiang adopted two [[concubine]]s: he married [[Yao Yecheng]] (姚冶誠, [[1889]]-[[1972]]) in [[1912]] and [[Chen Jieru]] (陳潔如, [[1906]]-[[1971]]) in December [[1921]]. Yao raised the adopted [[Chiang Wei-kuo|Wei-kuo]]. Chen had a daughter in [[1924]], named Yaoguang (瑤光), who later adopted her mother's surname. (It should be noted that Chen's autobiography disclaimed the idea that she was a concubine and claimed that by the time she married Chiang, he had already been divorced from Mao, and that therefore she was a wife.) &lt;gallery&gt; Image:Mao Fumei.jpg|Mao Fumei (毛福梅, 1882-1939) Died in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] during a bombardment. Image:Yao Zhicheng.jpg|Yao Yecheng (姚冶誠, 1889-1972) Fled to [[Taiwan]] and died in [[Taipei]]. Image:Chen Jieru.jpg|Chen Jieru (陳潔如, 1906-1971) Lived in [[Shanghai]]. Moved to [[Hong Kong]] later and died there. &lt;/gallery&gt; ==Further reading== *Crozier, Brian. ''The Man Who Lost China'': ISBN 068414686X *Fenby, Jonathan. ''Generalissimo Chiang Kai-Shek and the China he lost'': 2003, The Free Press, ISBN 0-7432-3144-9 *Seagrave, Sterling. ''The Soong Dynasty'': 1996, Corgi Books, ISBN 0-552-14108-9 ==External links== * [http://www.president.gov.tw/1_roc_intro/e_xpresident/e_b_cha.html ROC Government Biography ] * [http://www.asiawind.com/forums/read.php?f=3&amp;i=138515&amp;t=138515 Adoption of Chiang Kai-Shek (originally surnamed Zheng) into the Chiang Family] * [http://www.taiwandocuments.org/surrender03.htm Order of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek supplementing the Act of Surrender] by Japan on [[September 9]] [[1945]] * [http://www.time.com/time/poy2000/archive/1937.html?cnn=yes 1937 Man and Wife of the Year] * [http://www.xikou114.com/jjs/js1.asp Family tree of his descendants] (in [[Simplified Chinese]]) * [http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/av/sou_sig/sight01_2.htm 1966 GIO Biographical video] * [http://www.cksmh.gov.tw/english/index.htm Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall] * [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWchaing.htm Chiang Kai-shek Biography] From Spartacus Educational * [http://www.warbirdforum.com/avg.htm Annals of the Flying Tigers] &lt;!--Succession boxes--&gt; {{start box}}{{succession box|before=[[Hu Hanmin]] |after=none|title=Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of [[Kuomintang]]|years=[[1931]]&amp;ndash;[[1938]]}} {{succession box|before=none (KMT headed by Committee) |after=[[Chiang Ching-kuo]] (Chairman of the Kuomintang)|title=Director-General of the [[Kuomintang]]|years=[[1938]]&amp;ndash;[[1975]]}} {{succession box|before=[[Tan Yankai]]|after=[[Lin Sen]]|title=Chairman of the [[National Government of the Republic of China|National Government]]|years=[[1928]]&amp;ndash;[[1931]]}} {{succession box|before=[[T.V. Soong]]|after=[[Chen Mingshu]]|title=[[Premier of the Republic of China]]|years=[[1930]]&amp;ndash;[[1931]]}} {{succession box|before=[[Wang Jingwei]]|after=[[H. H. Kung]]|title=[[Premier of the Republic of China]]|years=[[1935]]&amp;ndash;[[1938]]}} {{succession box|before=[[H. H. Kung]]|after=[[Song Ziwen]]|title=[[Premier of the Republic of China]]|years=1939&amp;ndash;1945}} {{succession box|before=[[Lin Sen]]|after=none (National Government abolished)|title=[[Chairman of the National Government]]|years=[[1943]]&amp;ndash;[[1948]]}} {{succession box|title=[[Premier of the Republic of China]]|before=[[Song Ziwen]]|after=[[Zhang Qun]]|years=1947}} {{succession box|before=none (position established)|after=[[Li Tsung-jen]] (acting) |title=[[President of the Republic of China]]|years=[[May 20]], [[1948]]
s involves closing your home board as quick as possible while keeping your opponent on the bar. For example, if your opponent rolls an early 2 and moves one checker from your 1-point to your 3-point and you then roll a 5-5, you can play 6/1 6/1 8/3 8/3. Your opponent is now in serious trouble because they have 2 checkers on the bar and you have closed half your inner board! '''The Backgame''' This is where you have 2 or more ''anchors'' in your opponent's home board. (An anchor is a point occupied by at least 2 of your checkers.) It should be used when you are significantly behind as it much improves your chances. The best places for anchors are towards your opponent's lower point and either on adjacent points or with a single point in between. Timing is crucial for an effective backgame: after all, there's no point having 2 nice anchors and a solid wall in your own home board if you are then forced to dismantle this straight away, while your opponent is getting their checkers home, because you don't have other spare checkers to move! In this case, it's better to have checkers on the bar so that you can preserve your position until your opponent gives you a chance to hit, so it can be a good idea to try and get your opponent to hit them in this case! Some people go for a backgame from the outset, but this is a mistake. The backgame is a losing strategy: it's just that this strategy makes you less likely to lose if you are already losing! ==Sample Game== A few turns from the beginning of a sample game will illustrate the rules of movement. To start the game blue rolls a 4 and green rolls a 1, so blue takes the first turn playing a 4,1. This is an unfavorable opening roll, arguably the worst possible, but blue uses it the best he can. He takes a checker from each of his ''heavy'' points by playing 13-9, 6-5. &lt;center&gt;[[image:bg_sg_w1.png]]&lt;/center&gt; It is seldom useful to have five checkers on the same point, so blue starts to spread his checkers around. He is threatening to build a ''prime'', i.e., a blockade to prevent green's two trailing checkers from getting home. The disadvantage of blue's choice is that it isn't very safe. It leaves two blots which green might hit. Some experts prefer the less aggressive but safer move of 24-23, 13-9. Green rolls a 4, 4. This is an extremely lucky roll. Not only can he hit both of blue's blots with 1-5*-9*, he also has two more fours to play. He may, for example play 19-23(2), moving two checkers from his 6-point to the 2-point. This leaves blue with two checkers on the bar, trying to re-enter against green's home board, which has two points blocked by green. &lt;center&gt;[[image:bg_sg_b1.png]]&lt;/center&gt; Green was wise to hit twice, because it disrupts blue's efforts to build a prime, and it puts blue considerably behind in the race. Those two checkers must come all the way around the board before blue can begin to bear off. In contrast, green's decision to make the 2-point was strategically dubious. Though it may prevent blue from entering with both checkers, and there is some chance green will be able to build a strong home board before blue gets organized, increasing the chances of winning a gammon, the disadvantage is that green will now find it difficult to build a prime. If blue manages to make an advanced ''anchor'', i.e., get two of his back checkers on green's 3-, 4-, or especially the 5- point, then green's blocking game is busted. Green would be in better shape had he played 12-16(2), keeping open the option to block or attack depending on blue's next roll. Blue rolls 5, 2. The only legal move is Bar-20. The two can't be played from the bar because green owns his 2-point, and until blue has played all his checkers off the bar, he can't play anywhere else. Therefore the 2 is forfeited and blue's turn is over. &lt;center&gt;[[image:bg_sg_w2.png]]&lt;/center&gt; Green got what he wanted, in that blue was not able to enter both checkers, but the fight is far from over. Green must hit the blot on his next roll, or else blue has a fifty-fifty chance to cover his blot and take a fairly strong position. Even if green does hit, blue has many rolls to hit back. A war for green's 5-point will shape the character of the game in the near future. ==Backgammon as a Gambling Game== Backgammon is often played for money stakes. The most common ways that gamblers play is to set a wager on which player can be first to reach a certain number of points, achieved over however many games necessary; to assign a dollar value to each point, and to play until a certain number of points is reached or passed; or to assign a dollar value to each point and play games until either player chooses to stop. Backgammon is also available, though not often, at casinos. ===Chouettes=== A Chouette is a complicated, group version of backgammon played for money stakes. Before beginning, a monetary value is agreed upon for the value of each point. One player is the ''box'' player, and plays against all of the other players together, who are led by a captain. The captain has final say over how to play each roll, though the other players may give advice freely. Each player on the group team controls his or her own doubling cube, and may double back and forth with the box player independently of the other players. Whoever wins the largest number of points in a game is promoted: a group player becomes captain, or the captain becomes box player. A loser is demoted: a captain becomes a mere group player, and a box player becomes a captain. ==Backgammon in the Middle East and Central Asia== Backgammon is widely played in the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]], particularly in cafes. There are four main variants played in the Middle East: the European game as described above and known as '''''ifranjiah''''' (meaning ''[[Frankish]]'' in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], &quot;Takhte Nard&quot; is the Iranian version, ''shesh besh'' (Shesh means six in Persian and Besh means five in Turkish) in Azerbaijan, Israel, and Uzbekistan and ''tavla'' in Turkey); '''''mahbusa''''' (meaning 'imprisoned'); and '''''maghribiyya'''''. The most popular of those is probably ''mahbusa''. In this game each player's 15 checkers are all initially positioned on his 24-point. When hit, an isolated checker is not placed on the bar. Rather the hitting piece sits on top of the hit piece forming a block i.e. the same rules apply as if the point was occupied by two or more pieces of the same colour. The checker which has been hit is 'imprisoned' and cannot be moved until the opponent removes his piece: hence the name of the game. Sometimes a further rule requires that a player must bring his first checker to the opponent's home board before moving any other checkers. Whether or not this rule is applied, a rapid advance to the opponent's side of the board is desirable as imprisoning the opponent's checkers on his home table is highly advantageous. An interesting feature of backgammon as played in some Arab countries is that [[Persian language|Persian]] or [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] numbers, rather than Arabic ones, are called out by a player announcing his dice rolls. People in Iranian plateau and Caucasus region, especially in Iran, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia are very fond of playing Narde. In Georgia they play mainly the &quot;short Narde&quot; - a bit simplified version of ''ifranjiah''. In Iran it is called &quot;Takhte Nard&quot;. In Armenia and Azerbaidjan experienced players prefer to play &quot;long Narde&quot; that requires more skill and even &quot;knowledge&quot; of some non-written strategic methods. As in 'mahbusa' all 15 checkers of a player are initially positioned on his 24-point. But there is a principle difference. One is forbidden to put his checker at a point occupied by opponnents checker. So there is no &quot;hitting&quot; and no &quot;imprisonment&quot; in the long Narde game. The main strategy is to secure playing &quot;big pairs&quot; by one's own checkers and prevent as much as possible doing the same by the opponnent. ==Other variants== ===Brädspel=== A [[Sweden|Swedish]] variant of [[backgammon]], also called '''Swedish Tables''' in English. The main difference compared to other backgammon variants is the method of winning. You can win by bearing off, but there are also several other ways to win, such as to arrange all your checkers in certain pre-determined patterns or by hitting so many checkers that your opponent can not bring them in again. Brädspel is played without the doubling cube. ===Gul Bara=== [[Gul bara]] is also called as ‘Rosespring Backgammon’ or ‘Crazy Narde’. ===Old English Rule=== This rule limits the number of checkers to a maximum of five on each point, thus restricting some moves that might otherwise be made. This variation of backgammon is popular in England (as well as other regions), and is viewed as making the gameplay more interesting. ===Runte Rule=== The Runte Rule allows the player to move his checkers both backwards and forwards within his own home board. The player cannot move the checker in such a way that it lands outside of his home board. The rule was created to increase the possibility of scoring backgammons and gammons, because it allows one to trap the opponent for longer. ===Tavli=== In Greece, backgammon is called '''''tavli''''' (related to the word '''tavla''' 'board, table', and cognate to the Latin ''Tabula''). It consists of three main styles, Portes, Plakoto and Fevga. Portes resembles the standard game, with minor variations. Plakoto is very similar to mahbusa or [[Tapa_(game)|Tapa]], while Fevga is similar to [[Narde]] or the Turkish variant Moultezim. The three are normally played consecutively, one after another, in matches of three, five or seven points. ===LongGammon=== LongGammon is a variant of backgammon, the sole difference being that all fifteen of the players' checkers sta
a:ワシントン条約]] [[no:CITES]] [[pl:CITES]] [[pt:CITES]] [[sk:CITES]] [[sv:CITES]] [[tr:Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna]] [[zh:瀕臨絕種野生動植物國際貿易公約]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter</title> <id>6202</id> <revision> <id>32690883</id> <timestamp>2005-12-25T16:58:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bryan Derksen</username> <id>66</id> </contributor> <comment>merging to [[London Convention]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[London Convention]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques</title> <id>6203</id> <revision> <id>34669035</id> <timestamp>2006-01-10T22:19:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Itai</username> <id>17456</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques''' (abbreviated '''ENMOD Convention''') is a [[1976]] international [[treaty]] prohibiting the military or other hostile use of environmental modification techniques. It entered into force on [[October 5]] [[1978]]. ==Parties== ''parties'' - (67) [[Afghanistan]], [[Algeria]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Belarus]], [[Belgium]], [[Benin]], [[Brazil]], [[Brunei]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Canada]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Chile]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Cuba]], [[Cyprus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]], [[Dominica]], [[Egypt]], [[Finland]], [[Germany]], [[Ghana]], [[Greece]], [[Guatemala]], [[Hungary]], [[India]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[North Korea]], [[South Korea]], [[Kuwait]], [[Laos]], [[Malawi]], [[Mauritius]], [[Mongolia]], [[Netherlands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Niger]], [[Norway]], [[Pakistan]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Poland]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], [[Slovakia]], [[Solomon Islands]], [[Spain]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Tunisia]], [[Ukraine]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[Uruguay]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Vietnam]], [[Yemen]] ''countries that have signed, but not yet ratified'' - (17) [[Bolivia]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Holy See]], [[Iceland]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Lebanon]], [[Liberia]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Morocco]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Portugal]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Syria]], [[Turkey]], [[Uganda]] ==See also== * [[Environmental agreements]] * [[Arms control agreements]] * [[Operation Popeye]] ==External links== {{wikisourcepar|Environmental Modification Convention}} * [[US State Department]] page on [http://www.state.gov/t/ac/trt/4783.htm Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques] * [[ICRC]] [http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/57JR8J/$FILE/1976_ENMOD.pdf?OpenElement ENMOD Convention and related international law] * [http://www.unog.ch/frames/disarm/distreat/environ.pdf the text of the agreement (PDF)] * [http://fletcher.tufts.edu/multi/texts/BH700.txt the text of the agreement (ASCII)] [[Category:Arms control]] [[Category:Cold War treaties]] [[Category:Laws of war]] [[Category:Treaties on the environment]] [[Category:1978 in law]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat</title> <id>6204</id> <revision> <id>15904362</id> <timestamp>2003-09-09T22:45:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Docu</username> <id>8029</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>duplicate article: redir (mv txt there)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Ramsar Convention]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chaitin's constant</title> <id>6205</id> <revision> <id>41469408</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:40:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Quarl</username> <id>59118</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */ «+&quot;* [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&amp;colID=1&amp;articleID=00008D35-EDE9-13F5-A75F83414B7FFE9F ''The Limits of Reason''], Gregory Chaitlin, Scientific American, March 2006&quot;»</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[computer science]] subfield of [[algorithmic information theory]] the '''Chaitin constant''' or '''halting probability''' is a construction by [[Gregory Chaitin]] which describes the [[probability]] that a [[random|randomly]] generated program for a given model of computation or [[programming language]] will halt. It is usually denoted with Ω. It is a [[normal number | normal]] and [[transcendental number | transcendental]] number which can be [[definable number|defined]] but cannot be [[computable number|computed]]. This means one can prove that there is no [[algorithm]] which produces the digits of Ω. The proof of the uncomputability of Ω relies on an algorithm, which, given the first ''n'' digits of Ω, solves Turing's [[halting problem]] for programs of length up to ''n''. Since the halting problem is [[undecidable]], Ω can not be computed. As Ω depends on the program encoding used, it should be called '''Chaitin's construction''' instead of '''Chaitin's constant''' when not referring to any specific encoding. ==Definition== To define Ω formally, we first need to fix a (Turing-complete) model of computation, for instance [[Turing machine]]s or [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] or [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] programs. (Here, ''program'' means the concatenation of executable code and input.) We then need to specify an [[Prefix code|instantaneous encoding]] of programs as [[bit]] strings. This encoding has the property that if ''w'' encodes a syntactically correct program, then no proper prefix of ''w'' encodes a syntactically correct program. Given an arbitrary Turing machine ''M'', this can always be achieved by using the following algorithm: # Read a bit of the input ''z''. # Before reading any more, simulate &lt;i&gt;M&lt;/i&gt; on all possible extensions ''y'' (including the empty one) of ''z'' simultaneously until some extension halts, if ever. # If ''y''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''z'', then halt and output ''M''(''y''); otherwise go to step 1. Let ''P'' be the set of all programs which halt. The constant Ω is then defined as: :&lt;math&gt;\Omega = \sum_{p \in P} 2^{-|p|}.&lt;/math&gt; This is an [[series (mathematics)|infinite sum]] which has one summand for every syntactically correct program which halts. |''p''| stands for the length of the bit string of ''p''. The above requirement that programs be prefix-free ensures that this sum converges to a [[real number]] between 0 and 1. ==Notes== It can then be shown that Ω represents the probability that a randomly produced bit string will encode a halting program. This means that if you start flipping coins, always recording a head as a one and a tail as a zero, the probability is Ω that you will eventually reach the encoding of a syntactically correct halting program. If you fix, in addition to the computation model and encoding mentioned above, a specific consistent [[axiomatic system]] for the [[natural numbers]], say [[Peano axioms|Peano's axioms]], then there exists a constant ''N'' such that no bit of Ω after the ''N''-th can be proven to be one or zero within that system. (The constant ''N'' heavily depends on the encoding choices and does not reflect the complexity of the axiomatic system in any way.) This is an incompleteness result akin to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]] and Chaitin's own result mentioned under [[algorithmic information theory]]. Chaitin's constant is [[data compression|uncompressible]] (others may say irreducible, or algorithmically random). This means that in a particular programming language, a program which will write the first ''n'' bits of Ω for that language must be at least ''n'' bits itself, including any input data. ==Calculation of the start of a Chaitin Ω== Cristian S.&amp;nbsp;Calude, Michael J.&amp;nbsp;Dinneen, and Chi-Kou Shu [http://www.expmath.org/expmath/volumes/11/11.3/Calude361_370.pdf] have calculated the first 64 [[bit]]s of a Chaitin Ω&lt;sub&gt;''U''&lt;/sub&gt; for a particular machine: they in fact calculated 84 bits, but only the first 64 are reliable. These are, in [[Binary_numeral_system#Representing_real_numbers|binary notation]] :0.0000001000000100000110001000011010001111110010111011101000010000... or in [[Decimal#Decimal_representation_of_the_real_numbers|decimal notation]] :0.0078749969978123844... However, they also confirm the more important strong result in the opposite direction mentioned above, that in general only a finite number of digits of Ω may be calculated or, equivalently, that from some point in the binary expansion onwards none of the digits of Ω may be calculated. ==External links== * [http://www.plus.maths.org.uk/issue37/features/omega/index.html Omega and why maths has no TOEs] article based on one written by [[Gregory Chaitin]] which appeared in the August 2004 edition of Mathematics Today, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Alan Turing's death. * [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&amp;colID=1&amp;articleID=00008D35-EDE9-13F5-A75F83414B7FFE9F ''The Limits of Reason''], Gregory Chaitlin, Scientific American, March 2006 [[Category:Algorithmic information theory]] [[Category:Theory of computation]] [[Category:Transcendental numbers]] [[de:Chaitinsche Konstante]] [[es:Constante de Chaitin]] [[fr:Oméga de Chaitin]] [[sv:Chaitins konstant]]</text> <
can be found in [[Leadbelly]]'s or [[Henry Thomas (blues musician) |Henry Thomas]]'s recordings. However, the [[twelve bar blues|twelve-]], [[eight-bar blues|eight-]], or [[16 bar blues|sixteen-bar]] structure based on [[tonic chord|tonic]], [[subdominant chord|subdominant]] and [[dominant chord]]s became the most common.{{ref|barschords}} What is now recognizable as the standard 12-bar blues form is documented from [[oral history]] and [[sheet music]] appearing in African American communities throughout the region along the lower [[Mississippi River]] during the first decade of the 1900s (and performed by white bands in [[New Orleans]] at least since 1908). One of these early sites of blues evolution was along [[Beale Street]] in [[Memphis, Tennessee]]. ===Lyrics=== {{sample box start|blues music}} {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item| filename=WhereDidYouSleepLastNight.ogg| title=&quot;Where Did You Sleep Last Night?&quot;| description=Performed by Leadbelly, a folk singer and guitarist; this Southern Appalachian song dates to the 1870s| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item| filename=Crossroads.ogg| title=&quot;Cross Road Blues&quot;| description=Performed in 1937 by Robert Johnson, a Delta blues guitarist| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item| filename=Po'Gal.ogg| title=&quot;Po&amp;rsquo; Gal&quot;| description=East Coast blues, performed by [[Zora Neale Hurston]] in 1939| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item| filename=caldonia.ogg| title=&quot;Caldonia&quot;| description=Jump blues performed by Louis Jordan in 1945| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item| filename=HowlinWolf BackDoorMan.ogg| title=&quot;Back Door Man&quot;| description=Chicago blues performed by Howlin' Wolf in 1960| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen item| filename=Try(JustaLittleBitHarder).ogg| title=&quot;Try (Just a Little Bit Harder)&quot;| description=Blues rock performed by Janis Joplin in 1969| format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} {{sample box end}} Early blues frequently took the form of a loose narrative, often with the singer voicing his or her &quot;personal woes in a world of harsh reality: a lost love, the cruelty of police officers, oppression at the hands of white folk, hard times&quot;.{{ref|lyrics}} Many of the oldest blues records contain gritty, realistic lyrics, in contrast to much of the music being recorded at the time. One of the more extreme examples, &quot;[[Down in the Alley]]&quot; by [[Memphis Minnie]], is about a [[prostitution|prostitute]] having sex with men in an alley. Music such as this was called &quot;gut-bucket&quot; blues. The term refers to a type of homemade bass instrument made from a metal bucket used to clean pig intestines for [[chitterlings]], a [[soul food]] dish associated with slavery and deprivation. &quot;Gut-bucket&quot; described blues that was &quot;low-down&quot; and earthy, that dealt with often rocky or steamy man-woman relationships, hard luck and hard times. Gut-bucket blues and the rowdy juke-joint venues where it often was played, earned blues music an unsavory reputation. Upstanding church-going people shunned it, and some preachers railed against it as sinful. And because it often treated the hardships and injustices of life, the blues gained an association in some quarters with misery and oppression. But the blues was about more than hard times; it could be humorous and raunchy as well: :Rebecca, Rebecca, get your big legs off of me, :Rebecca, Rebecca, get your big legs off of me, :It may be sending you baby, but it's worrying the hell out of me. Author Ed Morales has claimed that [[Yoruba mythology]] played a part in early blues, citing [[Robert Johnson]]'s &quot;[[Cross Road Blues]]&quot; as a &quot;thinly veiled reference to [[Eleggua]], the [[orisha]] in charge of the crossroads&quot;.{{ref|orisha}} However, many seminal blues artists such as [[Josh White |Joshua White]], [[Son House]], [[Skip James]], or [[Reverend Gary Davis]] were influenced by [[Christianity]]. The original lyrical form of the blues was probably a single line, repeated three times. It was only later that the current, most common structure—a line, repeated once and then followed by a single line conclusion—became standard. {{ref|lyricalform}} ===Musical style=== Though during the first decades of the twentieth century blues music was not clearly defined in terms of chords progression, the twelve-bar blues became standard in the '30s. However, in addition to the conventional twelve-bar blues, there are many blues in [[8 bar blues|8-bar]] form, such as &quot;How Long Blues&quot;, &quot;Trouble in Mind&quot;, and [[Big Bill Broonzy]]'s &quot;Key to the Highway&quot;. There are also [[16 bar blues]], as in [[Ray Charles]]'s instrumental &quot;Sweet 16 Bars&quot;. More idiosyncratic numbers of bars are also encountered occasionally, as with the 9 bar progression in [[Howling Wolf]]'s &quot;Sitting on top of the World&quot;. The basic twelve-bar lyric framework of a blues composition is reflected by a standard [[harmonic progression]] of twelve bars, in 4/4 or 2/4 time. The blues [[Chord (music)|chords]] associated to a [[twelve-bar blues]] are typically a set of three different chords played over a twelve-bar scheme: {| border=1 cellspacing=0 |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | I |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | I or IV |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | I |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | I |- |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | IV |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | IV |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | I |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | I |- |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | V |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | IV |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | I |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | I or V |} where the [[Roman number]]s refer to the [[degree (music) |degree]]s of the progression. That would mean, if played in the [[tonality]] of F, the chords would be as follows: {| border=1 cellspacing=0 |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | F |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | F or Bb |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | F |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | F |- |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | Bb |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | Bb |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | F |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | F |- |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | C |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | Bb |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | F |align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | F or C |} In this example, F is the [[tonic chord]], Bb the [[subdominant chord |subdominant]]. Note that much of the time, every chord is played in the [[dominant seventh]] (7th) form. Frequently, the last chord is the dominant (V or in this case C) [[turnaround]] making the transition to the beginning of the next progression. The lyrics generally end on the last beat of the tenth bar or the first beat of the eleventh bar, and the final two bars are given to the instrumentalist as a break; the harmony of this two-bar break, the [[turnaround]], can be extremely complex, sometimes consisting of single notes that defy analysis in terms of chords. The final beat, however, is almost always strongly grounded in the dominant seventh (V7), to provide tension for the next verse. Musicians sometimes refer to twelve-bar blues as &quot;B-flat&quot; blues because it is the traditional pitch of the tenor sax, trumpet/cornet, clarinet and trombone. [[Image:058502r.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sheet music from &quot;[[Saint Louis Blues (music)|St. Louis Blues]]&quot; (1914)]] [[Melody |Melodically]], blues music is marked by the use of the [[flat]]ted [[minor third| third]], [[tritone|fifth]] and [[minor seventh|seventh]] (the so-called [[blue notes|''blue'' or ''bent notes'']]) of the associated [[major scale]].{{ref|bluenotes}} While the twelve-bar harmonic progression had been intermittently used for centuries, the revolutionary aspect of blues was the frequent use of the flatted fourth, flatted seventh, and even flatted fifth in the melody, together with ''crushing''—playing directly adjacent notes at the same time, i.e., diminished second—and ''sliding''—similar to using [[grace note]]s.{{ref|Mozart}} Where a classical musician will generally play a grace note distinctly, a blues singer or harmonica player will [[glissando]]; a pianist or guitarist might crush the two notes and then release the grace note. Blues harmonies also use the subdominant major-minor seventh and the tonic major-minor seventh in place of the tonic. Blues is occasionally played in a [[minor scale |minor key]]. The scale differs little from the traditional minor, except for the occasional use of a flatted fifth in the tonic, often crushed by the singer or lead instrument with the [[perfect fifth]] in the harmony. [[Janis Joplin]]'s rendition of &quot;Ball and Chain&quot;, accompanied by [[Big Brother and the Holding Company]], provides an example of this technique. Also, minor-key blues is most often structured in sixteen bars rather than twelve—e.g., &quot;[[St. James Infirmary Blues]]&quot; and [[Trixie Smith]]'s &quot;My Man Rocks Me&quot;—and was often influenced by evangelical religious music. Blues [[shuffle rhythm|shuffle]]s are also typical of the style. Their use reinforces the rhythm and call-and-response trance, the [[groove (popular music)|groove]]. Their simplest version commonly used in many postwar [[electric blues]], [[rock-and-roll]]s, or early [[bebop]]s is a basic three-note [[riff]] on the bass strings of the guitar. Played in time with the bass and the drums, this technique, similar to the [[walking bass]], produces the groove feel char
the [[United States]] and [[Tel Aviv]] in the decades following its demise, as many of the artists involved fled or were exiled by the Nazi regime. Gropius, Breuer, and Moholy-Nagy re-assembled in England during the mid 1930s to live and work in the [[Isokon]] project before the war caught up to them. In the late 1930s Mies van der Rohe re-settled in Chicago and became one of the pre-eminent architects in the world. Moholy-Nagy also went to Chicago and founded the [[New Bauhaus]] school under the sponsorship of industrialist and philanthropist [[Walter Paepcke]]. Herbert Bayer, also sponsored by Paepcke, moved to [[Aspen, Colorado]] in support of Paepcke's Aspen projects. Both Gropius and Breuer went to teach at the [[Harvard Graduate School of Design]] and worked together before their professional split in 1941. The Harvard School was enormously influential in the late 1940s and early 1950s, producing such students as [[Philip Johnson]], [[I.M. Pei]], [[Lawrence Halprin]] and [[Paul Rudolph (architect)|Paul Rudolph]], among many others. One of the main objectives of the Bauhaus was to unify art, craft, and technology. The machine was considered a positive element, and therefore industrial and product design were important components. '''Vorkurs''' (&quot;initial course&quot;) was taught; this is the modern day '''Basic Design''' course that has become one of the key foundational courses offered in architectural schools across the globe. There was no teaching of history in the school because everything was supposed to be designed and created according to first principles rather than by following precedent. One of the most important contributions of the Bauhaus is in the field of [[furniture design]]. The world famous and ubiquitous [[Cantilever chair]] by Dutch designer [[Mart Stam]], using the tensile properties of steel, and the [[Wassily Chair]] designed by [[Marcel Breuer]] are two examples. The physical plant at Dessau survived the War and was operated as a design school with some architectural facilities by the Communist [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]]. This included live stage productions in the Bauhaus theater under the name of ''Bauhausbühne'' (&quot;Bauhaus Stage&quot;). After [[German reunification]], a reorganized school continued in the same building, with no essential continuity with the Bauhaus under Gropius in the early 1920s [http://www.bauhaus-dessau.de/en/]. In 1999 Bauhaus-Dessau College started to organize postgraduate programs with participants from all over the world. This effort has been supported by the Bauhaus-Dessau Foundation which was founded in 1994 as a public institution. American art schools have also rediscovered the Bauhaus school. The [[Master Craftsman Program]] at [[Florida State University]] bases its artistic philosophy on Bauhaus theory and practice. Many outstanding artists of their time were lecturers at Bauhaus: {| style=&quot;background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}&quot; | width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; | * [[Anni Albers]] * [[Josef Albers]] * [[Marianne Brandt]] * [[Marcel Breuer]] * [[Lyonel Feininger]] * [[Naum Gabo]] * [[Ludwig Hilberseimer]] * [[Johannes Itten]] * [[Wassily Kandinsky]] * [[Paul Klee]] | width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; | * [[Gerhard Marcks]] * [[László Moholy-Nagy]] * [[Georg Muche]] * [[Hinnerk Scheper]] * [[Oskar Schlemmer]] * [[Joost Schmidt]] * [[Lothar Schreyer]] * [[Gunda Stölzl]] |} ==Gallery== &lt;gallery&gt; Image:Bauhaus-Dessau Festsaal.jpg|Stage. Image:Bauhaus-Dessau Festsaal Bühnenbeleuchtung.jpg|Ceiling with light fixtures for stage. Image:Bauhaus-Dessau Wohnheim Balkone.jpg|Studio wing. Image:Bauhaus-Dessau Fensterfront.JPG|Mechanically opened windows. &lt;/gallery&gt; ==References== ''The Letters and Diaries of Oskar Schlemmer''. ISBN 0-8195-4047-1. ==See also== *[[International style (architecture)|International style]] ==External links== {{commons|Bauhaus}} *[http://gilbertwesleypurdy.blogspot.com/2005/05/eye-of-beholder.html &quot;The Eye of the Beholder&quot; by Gilbert Wesley Purdy.] A Book Review/Essay which traces the lineage from the Bauhaus to M.I.T.'s Center for Advanced Visual Studies (CAVS). *[http://www.fontscape.com/explore?7CO Some images of Bauhaus typefaces (fonts)] *[http://www.bauhaus.de/ Bauhaus-archiv in Berlin] *[http://www.bauhaus-dessau.de/ Foundation bauhaus dessau] *[http://www.weissenhofsiedlung.de/ Weissenhof Estate Stuttgart] *[http://www.cosmopolis.ch/travel/berlin/hotel_brandenburger_hof.htm Review of Hotel Brandenburger Hof Berlin with Bauhaus design furniture] {{Westernart}} [[Category:1920s]] [[Category:Architectural styles]] [[Category:Architecture schools]] [[Category:Art schools in Germany]] [[Category:Bauhaus| ]] [[Category:German loanwords]] {{Link FA|pt}} [[af:Bauhaus]] [[ca:Bauhaus]] [[de:Bauhaus]] [[el:Μπαουχάους]] [[es:Escuela de la Bauhaus]] [[eo:Bauhaus]] [[fr:Bauhaus]] [[hr:Bauhaus]] [[id:Bauhaus]] [[it:Bauhaus]] [[he:באוהאוס]] [[hu:Bauhaus]] [[nl:Bauhaus]] [[ja:バウハウス]] [[no:Bauhaus]] [[pl:Bauhaus]] [[pt:Bauhaus]] [[ro:Bauhaus]] [[ru:Баухауз]] [[sr:Баухаус - школа конструкције]] [[fi:Bauhaus]] [[sv:Bauhaus]] [[tr:Bauhaus]] [[zh:包豪斯]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Beowulf</title> <id>3833</id> <revision> <id>41756686</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:54:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Emre D.</username> <id>665265</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Revert to revision 41756502 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg|thumb|right|The first page of Beowulf]] :''This article describes '''''Beowulf''''', the epic poem. For the character '''Beowulf''', see [[Beowulf (hero)]]. For other uses, see [[Beowulf (disambiguation)]]''. '''''Beowulf''''' (c. 700-1000 A.D.), is a traditional heroic [[epic poem]]. 3,182 lines — longer than any other Old English poem — it represents about 10% of the extant corpus of [[Anglo-Saxon literature|Old English poetry]]. The poem is untitled in the manuscript, but has been known as ''Beowulf'' since the early [[19th century]]. == Background and origins == [[Image:180px-Ottar03.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Beowulf meets archaeology. As the barrow in [[Vendel]] (in [[Sweden]]) was indicated as the barrow of [[Ohthere]] by local tradition, an excavation was undertaken in [[1917]]. The dating was consistent with that of Beowulf and the sagas: the early [[6th century]]. Norse sources also relate that a place called Vendel was the place of Ohthere's death]] ''Beowulf'' is one of the oldest surviving epic poems in what is identifiable as an early form of the [[English language]]. In the poem, '''Beowulf''', a hero of a [[Germanic tribe]] from southern [[Sweden]] called the [[Geats]], travels to [[Denmark]] to help defeat a terrible monster. Why was a poem about Danish and Swedish kings and heroes preserved in England? The English people are descendants of Germanic tribes called the [[Angles]], [[Saxons]], and [[Jutes]]. Jutes and northern Saxon tribes came from what is now southern Denmark and northern Germany. Thus, Beowulf tells a story about the old days in their homeland. The poem is a work of [[fiction]], but it mentions a historic event, the raid by king [[Hygelac]] into [[Frisia]], ca [[516]]. Several of the personalities of ''Beowulf'' (e.g., [[Hrothgar]], [[Hrothulf]] and [[Ohthere]]) and some of the events also appear in early Scandinavian sources, such as the ''[[Prose Edda]]'', ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'', the [[fornaldarsaga]]s, etc. In these sources, especially the [[Hrólf Kraki]] tales deal with the same set of people in [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]] (see [[Origins for Beowulf and Hrólf Kraki]]). Consequently, many people and events depicted in the epic were probably real, dating from between [[450]] and [[600]] in [[Denmark]] and southern [[Sweden]] ([[Geats]] and [[Swedes]]). As far as Sweden is concerned this dating has been confirmed by archaeological excavations of the [[barrows]] indicated by [[Snorri Sturluson]] and by Swedish tradition as the graves of [[Eadgils]] and [[Ohthere]] in [[Uppland]]. Like the [[Finnsburg Fragment]] and several shorter surviving poems, ''Beowulf'' has consequently been used as a source of information about Scandinavian personalities such as [[Eadgils]] and [[Hygelac]], and about continental Germanic personalities such as [[Offa of Anglia|Offa]], king of the continental [[Angles]]. [[Image:Eadgil's barrow.PNG|400px|right|thumb|[[Eadgils]] was buried at [[Gamla Uppsala|Uppsala]], according to [[Snorri Sturluson]]. When Eadgils' mound (to the left) was excavated, in [[1874]], the finds supported Beowulf and the sagas. They showed that a powerful man was buried in this large barrow, c [[575]], on a bear skin with two dogs and rich grave offerings. These remains include a Frankish sword adorned with gold and garnets and a [[tafl]] game with Roman pawns of ivory. He was dressed in a costly suit made of Frankish cloth with golden threads, and he wore a belt with a costly buckle. There were four cameos from the Middle East which were probably part of a casket. A burial fitting a king who was famous for his wealth in Old Norse sources. [[Ongentheow]]'s barrow to the right has not been excavated]] The traditions behind the poem would have arrived in England at a time when the Anglo-Saxons were still in close dynastic and personal contacts with their Germanic kinsmen in Scandinavia and northern Germany. It is the only substantial Old English poem to survive that addresses matters [[hero]]ic rather than [[Christian]]. A turning point in Beowulf scholarship came in 1936 with [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s article ''[[Beowulf: the monsters and the critics]]'' when for the first time th
t is ''double relativity'', which posits that the [[Planck length]] is also the same in all reference frames, and is associated with the work of [[Giovanni Amelino-Camelia]] and [[João Magueijo]]. One consequence of this theory is a [[variable speed of light]], where photon speed would vary with energy, and some zero-mass particles might possibly travel faster than ''c''. While recent evidence casts doubt on this theory, some physicists still consider it viable. However, even if this theory is true, it is still very unclear that it would allow information to be communicated, and appears not in any case to allow massive particles to exceed ''c''. There are speculative theories that claim inertia is produced by the combined mass of the universe (e.g., [[Mach%27s principle]]), which implies that the rest frame of the universe might be ''preferred'' by conventional measurements of natural law. If confirmed, this would imply special relativity is an approximation to a more general theory, but since the relevant comparison would (by definition) be outside the observable universe, it is difficult to imagine (much less construct) experiments to test this hypothesis. === Option E: Go somewhere where [[special relativity]] does not apply === A very popular option taken in science fiction novels, movies, television programs, and computer games is to assume the existence of some other realm (typically called [[hyperspace (science fiction)|hyperspace]]) which is accessible from this universe, and which facilitates rapid transport between distant points in this universe. To accomplish rapid transport between points in hyperspace, special relativity is often assumed not to apply in this other realm. An alternative solution sometimes used is to posit that distant points in the mundane universe correspond to points that are close together in hyperspace. This method of faster than light travel does not correspond to anything seriously proposed by mainstream science. == Tachyons == In special relativity, while it is impossible to accelerate an object ''to'' the speed of light, or for a massive object to move ''at'' the speed of light, it is not impossible for an object to exist which always moves faster than light. The hypothetical [[elementary particle]]s that have this property are called [[tachyon]]s. Their existence has neither been proven nor disproven. Tachyons are not structurally stable. The equations of relativity do allow faster than light travel, since the equations are symmetric about the velocity 'c', the speed of light. However, any particle which is moving faster and faster, at velocities less than 'c', ends up with more and more kinetic energy. This is true even in the classical model, but with special relativity, as the velocity approaches 'c', the energy goes to infinity. Once the velocity crosses 'c', the energy has no place to go but down. In other words, a particle with mass moving at any speed above 'c' will lose energy when its velocity goes up even further. Put another way, such a particle will speed up when it loses energy. Everything that moves causes a change in the structure of the fabric of space. This change in the structure of the fabric of space causes the formation of gravitational ripples (waves), which carry away energy. In most cases, the change is negligible. However, for a particle with mass moving above 'c', even a tiny loss of energy is troublesome. As mentioned above, it actually increases the velocity, causing more energy loss, which increases the velocity further. This positive feedback loop causes the particle to soon reach infinite velocity. In effect, the particle vanishes. This structural instability of tachyons is a significant limitation to their practical value, if they do indeed exist. == General relativity == [[General relativity]] was developed after special relativity, to include concepts like [[gravity]]. It maintains the principle that no object can accelerate to the speed of light in its own reference frame. However, it permits distortions in [[spacetime]] that allow an object to move faster than light from the point of view of a distant observer, even though it always moved slower than light in its own reference frame. One such distortion is the [[Alcubierre drive]], which can be thought of as producing a ripple in spacetime that carries an object along with it. Another possible system is the [[wormhole]], which connects two distant locations as though by a shortcut. To date there is no feasible way to construct any such special distortion; they all require unknown [[exotic matter]], enormous (though finite) amounts of energy, or both. General relativity also agrees that any technique for faster than light travel could also be used for [[time travel]]. This raises problems with [[causality]]. Many physicists believe that the above phenomena are in fact impossible, and that future theories of [[gravity]] will prohibit them. One theory states that stable wormholes are possible, but that any attempt to use a network of wormholes to violate causality would result in their decay. == Apparent FTL == === Moving spot of light === Processes which do not transmit information may move faster than light. A good example is a beam of light projected onto a distant surface, such as the Moon. The spot which the beam strikes is not a physical object, just a point of light. Moving it (by reorienting the beam) does not carry information between locations on the surface. To put it another way, the beam can be considered as a stream of photons; where each photon strikes the surface is determined only by the orientation of the beam (assuming that the surface is stationary). If the distance between the beam projector and the surface is sufficiently far, a small change of angle could cause successive photons to strike at widely separated locations, and the spot would appear to move faster than light. If the surface is at the distance of the moon, a light source mounted on a [[phonograph]] is changing angle rapidly enough to create this effect. This effect is believed to be responsible for [[supernova]] ejecta appearing to move faster than light as observed from [[Earth]]. === Relative motion === It is also possible for two objects to move faster than light relative to each other, but only from the point of view of an observer in a third frame of reference, who naively [[Velocity-addition formula|adds velocities]] according to [[Principle of relativity#Galilean relativity|Galilean relativity]]. An observer on either object will see the other object moving slower than light. For example, fast-moving particles on opposite sides of a circular [[particle accelerator]] will appear to be moving at slightly less than twice the speed of light, relative to each other, from the point of view of an observer standing at rest relative to the accelerator, and who naively adds velocities according to [[Principle of relativity#Galilean relativity|Galilean relativity]]. However, if the observer has a good intuition of special relativity, and makes a [[Velocity-addition formula|correct calculation]], and the two particles are moving, for example, at velocities &lt;math&gt;\beta&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;-\beta&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;\beta = v/c \,\!&lt;/math&gt; and :&lt;math&gt;-\beta = -v/c \,\!&lt;/math&gt;, then from the observer's point of view, the relative velocity &amp;Delta;&amp;beta; (again in units of the speed of light ''c'') is :&lt;math&gt;\Delta\beta = { \beta - -\beta \over 1 + \beta ^2 } = { 2\beta \over 1 + \beta^2 }&lt;/math&gt;, which is less than the speed of light. === Phase velocities above c === The [[phase velocity]] of a [[wave]] can easily exceed c, the vacuum velocity of light. In principle, this can occur even for simple mechanical waves, even without any object moving with velocities close to or above c. However, this does not imply the propagation of [[signal (information theory)|signals]] with a velocity above c. === Group velocities above ''c'' === Under certain circumstances, even the [[group velocity]] of a wave (e.g. a light beam) can exceed ''c''. In such cases, which typically at the same time involve rapid attenuation of the intensity, the maximum of a pulse may travel with a velocity above ''c''. However, even this situation does not imply the propagation of [[signal (information theory)|signals]] with a velocity above ''c'', even though one may be tempted to associate pulse maxima with signals. The latter association has been shown to be misleading, basically because the information on the arrival of a pulse can be obtained before the pulse maximum arrives. For example, if some mechanism allows the full transmission of the leading part of a pulse while strongly attenuating the pulse maximum and everything behind, the pulse maximum is effectively shifted forward in time, while the information on the pulse does not come faster than without this effect. === Universal expansion === The expansion of the [[universe]] causes distant galaxies to recede from us faster than the speed of light, if [[Comoving distance]] and cosmological time are used to calculate the speeds of these galaxies. However, in [[general relativity]], velocity is a local notion, so velocity calculated using comoving coordinates does not have any simple relation to velocity calculated locally. === Astronomical observations === Apparent [[superluminal motion]] is observed in many [[Active galaxy|radio galaxies]], [[blazar]]s, [[quasar]]s and recently also in [[microquasar]]s. The effect was predicted before it was observed, and can be explained as an [[optical illusion]] caused by the object moving in the direction of the observer, when the speed calculations assume it does not. The phenomenon does not contradict the theory of special relativity. Interestingly, corrected calculations show these object have velocities close to the speed of light (relative to our
o this group. The simplest glycolipid is [[cerebroside]], in which there is only one sugar residue, either [[glucose|Glc]] or [[galactose|Gal]]. More complex glycolipids, such as [[ganglioside]]s, contain a branched chain of as many as seven sugar residues.&lt;/p&gt; == See also == * [[Membrane protein]] [[Category:Membrane biology| ]] [[Category:Biological matter|membrane]] [[cs:Membrána (buňka)]] [[de:Biomembran]] [[fr:Membrane (biologie)]] [[lb:Biomembran]] [[ja:生体膜]] [[pl:Błona biologiczna]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Balfour Declaration (1926)</title> <id>4818</id> <revision> <id>31390526</id> <timestamp>2005-12-14T23:03:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>SaraVon</username> <id>84545</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Balfour Declaration 1926]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Balfour Declaration 1926</title> <id>4819</id> <revision> <id>40107938</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T04:41:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bryan Derksen</username> <id>66</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[Category:1926 in law]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Balfour Declaration of 1926''' is a report of the October-November [[1926]] [[Imperial Conferences|Imperial Conference]] of [[British Empire]] leaders in [[London]]. It states that the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Dominions]] &quot;are autonomous Communities within the [[British Empire]], equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]]&quot;. It was first introduced by Canada's [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] at that time, [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]]. The report should not be confused with the [[Balfour Declaration, 1917|Balfour Declaration of 1917]] by which the British foreign minister favoured a [[Jew]]ish national home in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. It is named, like the earlier document, after the Earl of Balfour ([[Arthur James Balfour]], 1848-1930), [[Lord President of the Council]] in the British government and chairman of the Conference's inter-Imperial relations committee. The committee drew up the document preparatory to its approval by the Imperial premiers at their sitting of November 15. The Declaration accepted the growing political and diplomatic independence shown particularly by [[Canada]] since [[World War I]]. It also recommended that the [[Governor-General]], the representative of the King, who acted for the crown as head of state in each Dominion, should no longer serve automatically also as the representative of the British government in diplomatic relations between the two countries. In following years [[High Commissioner]]s were gradually appointed, whose duties were soon recognised to be virtually identical to those of an [[ambassador]]. The first such British High Commissioner was appointed to [[Ottawa]] in [[1928]]. The conclusions of the Conference were re-stated by that of 1930 and incorporated in the December [[1931]] [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] by which [[Parliament]] renounced any legislative authority over Dominion affairs except as specifically provided in Dominion law. [[Category:Commonwealth realms]] [[Category:British Empire]] [[Category:Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:History of Canada]] [[Category:History of Ireland]] [[Category:1926 in law]] [[id:Deklarasi Balfour 1926]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Balfour Declaration, 1917</title> <id>4820</id> <revision> <id>41703825</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:14:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>160.39.226.116</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Negotiation */ continuity</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Balfour Declaration''' was a [[letter]] dated [[November 2]], [[1917]] from [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] [[Arthur James Balfour]], to [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Lord Rothschild (Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild)]], a leader of the [[UK|British]] [[Jew|Jewish]] [[community]], for transmission to the [[Zionist Federation]], a private [[Zionist]] [[organization]]. The letter stated the position, agreed to at a [[British Cabinet]] meeting on [[October 31]] [[1917]], that the [[UK|British]] [[government]] supported [[Zionism|Zionist]] plans for a [[Jew]]ish &quot;national home&quot; in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], with the condition that nothing should be done which might prejudice the [[rights]] of existing communities there. At the time, most of the area of Palestine was still under the control of the [[Ottoman Empire]], and the borders of what would become Palestine had been outlined as part of the [[May 16]] [[1916]] [[Sykes-Picot Agreement]] between Britain and [[France]]. Language from the Declaration was later incorporated into the [[Treaty of Sèvres|Sèvres peace treaty]] with [[Turkey]] and the [[British Mandate of Palestine|Mandate for Palestine]]. ==Text of the declaration== The declaration, a typed letter signed in ink by Balfour, reads as follows: &lt;blockquote style=&quot;align: center; background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;&gt; [[Foreign Office]]&lt;br&gt; November&amp;nbsp;2nd, 1917&lt;br&gt; &lt;br&gt; Dear [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Lord Rothschild]],&lt;br&gt; &lt;br&gt; I have much pleasure in conveying to you, on behalf of His Majesty's Government, the following declaration of sympathy with Jewish Zionist aspirations which has been submitted to, and approved by, the Cabinet.&lt;br&gt; &lt;br&gt; &quot;His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.&quot;&lt;br&gt; &lt;br&gt; I should be grateful if you would bring this declaration to the knowledge of the Zionist Federation.&lt;br&gt; &lt;br&gt; Yours sincerely, [[Arthur Balfour|Arthur James Balfour]]&lt;br&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt; {{Israelis}} ==Development and differing views== The record of discussions that led up to the final text of the Balfour Declaration clarifies some details of its wording. The phrase &quot;national home&quot; was intentionally used instead of &quot;state&quot;, and the British devoted some effort over the following decades to denying that a state was the intention, including the [[Churchill White Paper, 1922]]. However, in private, many British officials agreed with the interpretation of the Zionists that a state would be the eventual outcome. An early draft used the word ''that'' in referring to Palestine as a Jewish homeland, which was changed to ''in'' Palestine to avoid committing to it being the whole of Palestine. Similarly, an early draft did not include the commitment to not prejudicing the rights of the non-Jewish communities. These changes came about partly as the result of the urgings of [[Edwin Samuel Montagu]], an influential anti-Zionist Jew and [[Secretary of State for India]], who, among others, was concerned that the declaration without those changes could result in increased anti-Semitic persecution. Like the preceding [[Sykes-Picot Agreement]], the declaration is viewed by many Arabs as a gross betrayal of Britain's undertakings to support Arab independence in the [[Hussein-McMahon Correspondence]] of [[1915]]&amp;ndash;[[1916]]. ==Negotiation== One of the main Jewish figures who negotiated the granting of the declaration was Dr. [[Chaim Weizmann]], the leading spokesman for organized Zionism in Britain. During the first meeting between Chaim Weizmann and Balfour, in [[1906]], the Unionist leader was impressed by Weizman's personality. Balfour asked Weizmann why Palestine&amp;mdash;and Palestine alone&amp;mdash;could be the basis for Zionism. &quot;Anything else would be idolatry&quot;, Weizmann protested, adding: &quot;Mr. Balfour, supposing I were to offer you Paris instead of London, would you take it?&quot; &quot;But Dr. Weizmann&quot;, Balfour retorted, &quot;we have London&quot;, to which Weizmann rejoined, &quot;That is true, but we had Jerusalem when London was a marsh.&quot;{{ref|dugdale_326}} Weizmann was a chemist who managed to synthesize [[acetone]] via [[fermentation]]. Acetone is needed in the production of [[cordite]], a powerful propellant explosive needed to fire ammunition without generating tell-tale smoke. Germany had cornered supplies of a major source of acetone, [[calcium acetate]] and other pre-war processes in Britain were inadequate to meet the increased demand in the [[Great War]]. A shortage of cordite would have severely hampered Britain's war effort. The Minister for Munitions [[David Lloyd-George]], who became Prime Minister shortly after, was grateful to Weizmann and also supported him. Balfour asked what payment he would in return for the use of his process, Weizmann responded, &quot;There is only one thing I want. A national home for my people.&quot; &lt;!-- what is the source of this story?? It is not reported in Dugdale--&gt;He eventually received both payment for his discovery and a role in the history of the origins of the state of Israel. It has been reported that Balfour's sympathy with the plight of the Israelis was influenced by an illicit relationship with the wife of a high-ranking Jewish official.{{ref|macmillan}} ==Contradictory assurances== In his November, 2002 int
h&quot; which literally means ''garden''. In addition, Heaven and Hell are split into many levels depending on the actions taken in life, where punishment is given depending on the level of evil done in life, and good is separated into other levels depending on how well you followed Allah (God) while alive. There is an equal number of mentions of both hell and paradise in the Qur'an. The Qur'an also says that some of those who are damned to hell are not damned forever, but instead for an indefinite period of time. When Judgement Day comes, the formerly damned will be judged as to whether or not they may enter into Paradise. ===Chinese and Japanese religions=== The structure of Hell is remarkably complex in many [[China|Chinese]] and [[Japanese mythology|Japanese]] religions. The ruler of Hell has to deal with politics, just as human rulers do. Hell is the subject of many folk stories and [[manga]]. In many such stories, people in hell are able to die again, but no one seems to care about the apparent contradiction. (Note: the strong influence of [[Buddhism]] (see below) on Chinese and Japanese Hells means that this is not necessarily a contradiction.) See [[Feng Du]] for more information on Chinese Hell. Unlike some opinions on Biblical, Jewish and Islamic Hell, the Chinese depiction of Hell doesn't necessarily mean a long time suffering for those who enter Hell, nor does it mean that person is bad. The Chinese view Hell as similar to a present day [[passport]] or [[immigration]] control station. In a Chinese funeral, they burn many [[Hell Bank Notes]] for the dead. With this Hell money, the dead person can bribe the ruler of Hell, and spend the rest of the money either in Hell or in Heaven. ===Hinduism=== In [[Hinduism]], there are contradictions as to whether or not there is a hell. For some it is a metaphor for a conscience. But in [[Mahabharata]] there is a mention of the [[Pandavas]] and the [[Kauravas]] going to hell. Hells are also described in various [[Purana]]s and other scriptures. It is believed that people who commit 'paap' (sin) go to hell and have to go through the punishments in accordance to the sins they committed. The god [[Yama]], who is also the god of death, is the king of hell. The detailed accounts of all the sins committed by an individual are supposed to be kept by [[Chitragupta]] who is the record keeper in Yama's court. Chitragupta reads out the sins committed and Yama orders the appropriate punishments to be given to the individuals. These punishments include dipping in boiling oil, burning in fire, torture using various weapons etc. in various hells. Individuals who finish their quota of the punishments are reborn according to their [[karma]]. All of the created are imperfect and thus have at least one sin to their record, but if one has led a generally pious life, one ascends to [[Heaven]], or [[Swarga]] after a brief period of expiation in hell. [http://veda.harekrsna.cz/planetarium/index.htm Tour of Vedic universe] ===Buddhism=== As diverse as other religions, there are many beliefs about Hell in [[Buddhism]]. Most of the schools of thought, [[Theravāda]], [[Mahāyāna]], and [[Vajrayāna]] would acknowledge several hells, which are places of great suffering for those who commit evil actions, such as cold hells and hot hells. Like all the different realms within cyclic existence, an existence in hell is temporary for its inhabitants. Those with sufficiently negative [[karma]] are [[rebirth (Buddhism)|reborn]] there, where they stay until their specific negative karma has been used up, at which point they are reborn in another realm, such as that of [[Human realm|humans]], of [[Hungry ghost realm|hungry ghosts]], of [[Animal realm|animals]], of [[Asura realm|asuras]], of [[God realm|devas]], or of [[Hell realm|demons]] all according to the individual's karma. [[Zen]] does not really focus or use the idea of Hell. Rather, consider this [[koan]]: ''A [[roshi]] meets two students in the garden. To them, he asks, &quot;where is Hell?&quot;'' ''&quot;In Heaven,&quot; the first student replies.'' ''The roshi humphs, disappointedly. He then looks at the second.'' ''&quot;In the flower by your foot,&quot; the second replies. He then bends down and kisses it. The first student bows, enlightened.'' ===Bahá'í Faith=== [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]] do not accept Hell as a place, but rather as a state of being. &quot;Heaven is nearness to Me and Hell is separation from Me.&quot; &amp;ndash; [[Bahá'u'lláh]] ===Taoism=== [[Taoism]] has a slightly nebulous version of Hell. Some claim it has no Hell at all, but - particularly in its home country [[China]] - popular belief endows Taoist Hell with many deities and spirits who punish sin in a variety of horrible ways. (See [[Feng Du]].) ==Hell in Literature== Many of the great epics of European literature include episodes that occur in Hell. In the Roman poet [[Virgil]]'s Latin epic, the ''[[Aeneid]]'', Aeneas descends into Dis (the underworld) to visit his father's spirit. The underworld is only vaguely described, with one unexplored path leading to the punishments of Tartarus, while the other leads through Erebus and the Elysian Fields. In his ''[[Divina commedia]]'' ('Divine comedy'; set in the year [[1300]]), [[Dante|Dante Alighieri]] employed the conceit of taking Virgil as his guide through [[Inferno]] (and then, in the second cantiche, up the mountain of [[Purgatory|Purgatorio]]). Virgil himself is not condemned to Hell in Dante's poem but is rather, as a virtuous pagan, confined to [[Limbo]] just outside its gates. The geography of Hell is very elaborately laid out in this work, with nine concentric rings leading deeper into the Earth and deeper into the various punishments of Hell, until, at the center of the world, Dante finds Satan himself trapped in the frozen lake of Cocytus. A small tunnel leads past Satan and out to the other side of the world, at the base of the Mount of Purgatory. [[John Milton]]'s ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' ([[1668]]) opens with the [[fallen angels]], including their leader [[Satan]], waking up in Hell after having been defeated in the [[war in heaven]] and the action returns there at several points throughout the poem. The nature of Hell as a place of punishment, as portrayed by Dante, is not explored here; instead, Hell is the abode of the demons, and the passive prison from which they plot their revenge upon Heaven through the corruption of the human race. [[C.S. Lewis]]'s ''[[The Great Divorce]]'' ([[1945]]) borrowed inspiration from the Divine Comedy as the narrator is likewise guided through Hell and Heaven. Hell is portrayed here as an endless, desolate twilight city upon which night is imperceptibly sinking. The night is actually the [[Apocalypse]], and it heralds the arrival of the demons after their judgement. Before the night comes, anyone can escape Hell if they leave behind their former selves and accept Heaven's offer, and a journey to Heaven reveals that Hell is infinitely small; it is nothing more or less than what happens to a soul that turns away from God and into itself. The idea of hell was highly influential to writers such as [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] who authored the play &quot;[[No Exit]]&quot; about the idea that, &quot;hell is other people&quot;. Although not a religious man, Sartre was fascinated by his interpretation of a hellish state of suffering. 19th century French poet [[Arthur Rimbaud]] alluded to the concept as well in the title and themes of one of his major works, &quot;[[Une Saison en Enfer|A Season In Hell]]&quot;. Rimbaud's poetry portrays his own suffering in a poetic form as well as other themes. ==Hell in entertainment and other popular culture== [[Philip José Farmer]] in his [[Riverworld]] series ([[1971]]) created perhaps the best science fiction depiction of a &quot;man&quot; made hell created with advanced technology that ensures immortality and sustenance but allows suffering. While it is never meant to be hell it quickly becomes hellish because the good and evil are both repeatedly resurrected. Immortal and immoral Dictators end up running many areas. It may be called a humanist model of hell. Yet the author carefully avoids over using the term hell itself in these science fictions. ''[[What Dreams May Come]]'', a 1998 movie that won an Academy Award for its depiction of heaven and hell as the subjective creations of the individual, was an essentially new age model of heaven, hell and reincarnation. The [[BBC Radio 4]] comedy series ''[[Old Harry's Game]]'' is set in Hell. It was written by [[Andy Hamilton]] who also stars as [[Satan]]. In the television show ''[[Futurama]]'', the characters go to [[Robot Hell]] on occasion, where the Robot Devil and other evil robots reside. [[Bender Bending Rodriguez|Bender]] was once put in there to be tormented, just like in Hell, but he escapes. [[Phillip J. Fry|Fry]] and Bender return to make Fry better at the [[holophonor]], and doing so means he needs the Robot Devil's hands. The Robot Devil's little deal actually backfires on him instead of Fry, so he wants his robot hands back. The part with the Robot Devil's hands took place on the last episode of ''Futurama''. In many episodes of the television show [[South Park]], [[Satan]] appears. On many occasions he is accompanied by [[Saddam Hussein]], who ironically seems to be even more malicious than Satan himself. In a deleted scene from the 1999 theatrical theological comedy ''[[Dogma (movie)|Dogma]]'', the ex-[[Muse]] Azrael (played by actor [[Jason Lee (actor)|Jason Lee]]) explains that there have been past and current &quot;versions&quot; of Hell. When Hell was first formed it was meant to hold Lucifer and the rebel angels and was merely a place devoid of the presence of God. To those who had previously been in the presence of God, this was punishment enough. Azrael goes on to say that when humanity was created, Hell was infected with a d
nd flexibility quite different from the singing voice of the adult female, but also markedly different from the higher vocal ranges of the uncastrated adult male (see [[soprano]], [[mezzo-soprano]], [[alto (voice)|alto]], [[sopranista]] and [[contralto]]). An exibition documenting the journey of young boys into Castrati and revealing details of the lives of some of the most famous singers is about to open in London [http://www.handelhouse.org/events_exhibitions.shtml Castrati Exhibition]. Probably the most famous castrato was the [[18th century]] singer Carlo Broschi, known as [[Farinelli]]. In [[1994]] a [[film]] was made about him, ''[[Farinelli Il Castrato]]''. In [[1870]] the practice of castrating promising young singers (or castratism) was outlawed in [[Italy]], the last country where it was still in custom. In 1902, Pope Leo XIII pronounced a decree which banned the use of castrati in church music forever. The last of the castrati to leave the Chapel choir after this decree was Alessandro Moreschi, who departed in 1913. The only acknowledged castrato to make [[phonograph]] recordings was [[Alessandro Moreschi]], the last surviving castrato of the [[Pope]]'s choir. Moreschi recorded [[gramophone record]]s for the [[Gramophone &amp; Typewriter Company]] in [[1902]] and again in [[1904]] (the recording is on an external website)[http://www.archive.org/details/AlessandroMoreschi]. Critical opinion is divided about Moreschi's recordings; some say they are of little interest other than the novelty of preserving the voice of a castrato for Moreschi was a mediocre singer, while other critics detect the remains of a quite talented singer who was unfortunately past his prime by the time he recorded. In more modern times, [[Ugo Farell]] has been suspected of being a castrato. There have also been reported cases of so-called &quot;natural castrati&quot; who were born with [[hormone|hormonal]] disorders that reproduce the above &quot;desired&quot; effects of castration without the surgeon's knife. [[Radu Marian]] and [[Jorge Cano]] stand out as extraordinary &quot;natural castrati&quot; gifted talents at present providing us with the opportunity to appreciate the full power of their voices, which incarnate the past castrati. Some uncastrated male singers are able to use their voices up into the soprano register, apparently without the use of the [[falsetto]] voice, and are known as [[sopranista]]s. There are very few such singers performing today. Sopranistas are also able to perform some music which was written for castrati, and composers such as [[Rossini]] wrote parts specifically for sopranista. Castration was by no means a guarantee of a promising career. During the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, only approximately 1% of castrated or partially castrated boys developed into successful singers. == Popular references == * [[Anne Rice]]'s novel ''[[Cry to Heaven]]'', although a [[romantic novel]], is said to be based upon solid research and notwithstanding the novelization, captures a strong sense of the training, and world, of castrati singers in [[18th Century]] [[Venice]] and [[Naples]]. ==Famous castrati== The most celebrated of the castrati singers were (in chronological order): *[[Baldassare Ferri]] ([[1610]]&amp;ndash;[[1680]]) *Antonio Maria [[Bernacchi]] ([[1685]]&amp;ndash;[[1756]]) *Francesco Bernardi [[Senesino]] (c.1685&amp;ndash;c.[[1759]]) *Carlo Broschi [[Farinelli]] ([[1705]]&amp;ndash;[[1782]]) *Gaetano Majorano [[Caffarelli]] ([[1710]]&amp;ndash;[[1783]]) *[[Giovanni Manzuoli]] ([[1720]]&amp;ndash;[[1782]]) *[[Gaetano Guadagni]] ([[1725]]&amp;ndash;[[1792]]) *[[Gasparo Pacchierotti]] ([[1740]]&amp;ndash;[[1821]]) *[[Luigi Marchesi]] ([[1754]]&amp;ndash;[[1829]]) *[[Girolamo Crescentini]] ([[1762]]&amp;ndash;[[1848]]) *[[Giovanni Velluti]] ([[1781]]&amp;ndash;[[1861]]) ==External references== *[http://www.handelhouse.org/events_exhibitions.shtml Castrati Exhibition] *[http://www.archive.org/details/AlessandroMoreschi 1904 Recording of Alessandro Moreschi singing ''[[Ave Maria]]''] *[http://www.cix.co.uk/~velluti/cast.htm All you wanted to know about Castrati] *[http://www.usrf.org/news/010308-castrati.html Castrati of Italy] ==See also== * [[Eunuch]] [[Category:Castrati|*]] [[Category:Opera terminology]] [[da:Kastrat]] [[de:Kastrat]] [[es:Castrato]] [[fr:Castrat]] [[ko:거세가수]] [[nl:Castraat]] [[ja:カストラート]] [[pl:Kastrat]] [[pt:Castrato]] [[sv:Kastratsångare]] [[zh:阉伶]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Counting-out game</title> <id>5743</id> <revision> <id>42106762</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:44:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Miko Stavrev</username> <id>786852</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''counting-out [[game]]''' is a simple game intended to select a person to be &quot;it&quot;, often for the purpose of playing another game. Some counting-out games are * [[Rock, Paper, Scissors]] * [[Odd or Even]] * Coin flipping * Drawing straws - player with the shortest straw loses. * Buzz Many such games involve one person pointing at each participant in a circle of players while reciting a [[rhyme]]. A new person is pointed at as each word is said. The player who is selected at the conclusion of the rhyme is &quot;it&quot; or &quot;out&quot;. In an alternate version, the circle of players may each put two feet in and at the conclusion of the rhyme, that player removes one foot and the rhyme starts over with the next person. In this case, the first player that has both feet removed is &quot;it&quot; or &quot;out&quot;. These are often accepted as [[random]] selections because the number of words has not been calculated beforehand, so the result is unknown right up until someone is selected. ==Some common rhymes== *[[Eeny, meeny, miny, moe]] *[[Tea Cup Saucer Out]] *[[Tinker, Tailor]] - Traditionally played in [[England]]. * [[One potato, two potato]] - players may start with both fists (to resemble potatoes) in, so have to be got twice to be out. :One potato, two potato :Three potato, four, :Five potato, six potato, :Seven potato, more, :One big bad spud. *Ink-a-bink (Last two lines added if the chooser happens to like the person singled out by the &quot;stink&quot;) :Ink-a-bink :A bottle of ink :Cork fell out and you stink :My mother told me to pick the very best one and :You are not it *[[Bubblegum, Bubblegum]] :Bubblegum, bubblegum, :In a dish, :How many pieces, :Do you wish? Whomever the rhyme ends with chooses a number, and that many &quot;pieces&quot; are counted. The person on whom the last number falls is out. *[[Inky Binky Bonky]] :Inky binky bonky, :Daddy had a donkey, :Donkey died, daddy cried, :Inky binky bonky. ==External links== [http://mtcn.free.fr/mtcn-traditional-music-midi-counting-rhyme.php Counting rhymes and other songs for counting in traditional music from county of Nice, France]. [[Category:Folklore]] [[Category:Nursery rhymes]] [[bg:Броенка]] [[de:Abzählreim]] [[fr:Formulette d'élimination]] [[lt:Skaičiuotė]] [[wa:Potaedje (ås djeus d' efants)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cryptography/Hashfunction</title> <id>5746</id> <revision> <id>15903943</id> <timestamp>2002-05-20T21:42:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brion VIBBER</username> <id>51</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Removed article text from redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hash function]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cryptography/Key</title> <id>5747</id> <revision> <id>15903944</id> <timestamp>2004-03-18T13:55:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Matt Crypto</username> <id>50457</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Key (cryptography)]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Key (cryptography)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Key size</title> <id>5749</id> <revision> <id>41362623</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:34:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ian Pitchford</username> <id>230605</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[cryptography]], the '''key size''' (alternatively '''key length''') is a measure of the number of possible [[key (cryptography)|key]]s which can be used in a [[cipher]]. Because modern cryptography uses binary keys, the length is usually specified in [[bit]]s. The length of a key is critical in determining the susceptibility of a [[cipher]] to [[brute force attack|exhaustive search attacks]]. ==Significance== [[Key (cryptography)|Key]]s are used to control the operation of a [[cipher]] so that only the correct key can convert encrypted text ([[ciphertext]]) to [[plaintext]]. Many ciphers are based on publicly known [[algorithm]]s or are [[open source]], and so it is only the difficulty of obtaining the key that determines security of the system, provided that there is no analytic attack (i.e., a 'structural weakness' in the algorithms or protocols used), and assuming that the key is not otherwise available (such as via theft, extortion, or compromise of computer systems). The widely accepted notion that the security of the system should depend on the key alone has been explicitly formulated by [[Auguste Kerckhoffs]] (in the [[1880s]]) and [[Claude Shannon]] (in the [[1940s]]); the statements are known as [[Kerckhoffs' law]] and Shannon's Maxim respectively. A key should therefore be large enough that a [[brute force attack]] (possible against any encryption algorithm) is infeasible &amp;ndash; i.e, would take too long to execute. [[Claude Shannon|Shannon]]'s work on [[information theory]] showed that to achieve perfect secrecy, it is necessary for the key length to be a
* Parmet, Herbert. ''JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy'' (1983) * Patterson, James T''. Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945–1974'' (1996). * Piper, Michael Collins. &quot; Final Judgment&quot; 2004 (sixth edition). American Free Press. * Reeves, Richard. ''President Kennedy: Profile of Power'' (1993) * Reeves, Thomas. ''A Question of Character: A Life of John F. Kennedy'' (1991) negative assessment * Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. ''A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House'' (1965) by a close advisor. * Sorenson, Theodore. ''Kennedy'' (1966) by a close advisor. ===Primary sources=== *Goldzwig, Steven R. and George N. Dionisopoulos, eds. ''In a Perilous Hour: The Public Address of John F. Kennedy'', text and analysis of key speeches (1995) ==Media== {{multi-video start}} {{multi-video item | filename = Kennedy inauguration footage.ogg | title = Kennedy inauguration footage | description = Newsreel footage of the inauguration ceremony and speeches. (18.7 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). | format = [[Theora]] }} {{multi-video end}} ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{Wikisource author}} * [http://www.jfklibrary.org/ John F. Kennedy Library] * [http://www.pophistorynow.com/samples.htm The 1960's Week-By-Week - Follows JFK's run to the White House and his time as President. Very comprehensive and includes a look at First Lady Jackie's influence on pop culture] * [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/jk35.html The White House Biography] * [http://search.yale.edu:8765/query.html?col=ycsg&amp;col=opa&amp;col=yaleuniv&amp;col=dynamic&amp;qt=John+F.+Kennedy&amp;charset=iso-8859-1&amp;qp=%2Burl%3Awww.yale.edu%2Flawweb%2Favalon JFK at the Avalon Project] * [http://www.whitehousetapes.org/pages/tapes_jfk.htm JFK's Secret White House Recordings @ University of Virginia's Miller Center of Public Affairs] *[http://www.heraldrysociety.us/presidents/index.php?page=Kennedy Armigerous American Presidents Series] * [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=KennedyJF Audio clips of Kennedy's speeches and other commentary] * [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/JFKindex.htm Assassination of President Kennedy Encyclopaedia] * [http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/home.htm McAdams website about JFK] * [http://www.csicop.org/si/2005-01/strange-world.html article: Facts and Fiction in the Kennedy Assassination] * [http://www.rootdig.com/john_f_kennedy.html John F. Kennedy in United States Census Records] * [http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g35.htm Medical and Health history of John F. Kennedy] * {{gutenberg author| id=John+F.+Kennedy | name=John F. Kennedy}} * [http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/stjohn.htm St. John the Liberal?] * [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=K000107 Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress] * [http://www.kcur.org/UTDarchive.html Gretchen Rubin radio interview]. [[November 4]], [[2005]] on ''Up To Date''. {{start box}} {{U.S. Representative box | state=Massachusetts | district=11 | district_ord=11th | before=[[James Michael Curley]] | after=[[Thomas P. O'Neill, Jr.]] | years=1947 &amp;ndash; 1953 }} {{U.S. Senator box| state=Massachusetts| class=1| before=[[Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.]]| after=[[Benjamin A. Smith]]| years=[[January 3]] [[1953]] &amp;ndash; [[December 22]] [[1960]]| alongside=[[Leverett Saltonstall]]| }} {{succession box|title=[[List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets|Democratic Party Presidential nominee]]|before=[[Adlai Stevenson]]|after=[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]|years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1960|1960]] (won)}} {{succession box|title=[[President of the United States]]|before=[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]|after=[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]|years=[[January 20]], [[1961]] &amp;ndash; [[November 22]], [[1963]]}} {{end box}} {{USpresidents}} {{USDemPresNominees}} &lt;!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --&gt; {{Persondata |NAME=Kennedy, John Fitzgerald |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Kennedy, Jack |SHORT DESCRIPTION=35th [[President of the United States]] |DATE OF BIRTH=[[May 29]], [[1917]] |PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Brookline, Massachusetts]], [[United States of America]] |DATE OF DEATH=[[November 22]], [[1963]] |PLACE OF DEATH=[[Dallas, Texas]], [[United States of America]] }} [[Category:1917 births|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:1963 deaths|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Alpha Phi Omega honorary brothers|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Alumni of the London School of Economics|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:American World War II veterans|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:American biographers|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:American writers|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Assassinated politicians|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Bostonians|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Democratic Party (United States) presidential nominees|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Elks|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Firearm deaths|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Harvard alumni|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:History of Texas|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Irish-American politicians|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:John F. Kennedy assassination|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Kennedy family|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Knights of Columbus|Kennedy]] [[Category:Phi Kappa Theta brothers|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Presidents of the United States|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Recipients of the Purple Heart medal|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Roman Catholic politicians|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Rotary Club members|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:United States Navy officers|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:United States Senators from Massachusetts|Kennedy, John F.]] [[Category:Vietnam War people|Kennedy, John F.]] {{Link FA|he}} [[ang:John F. Kennedy]] [[ar:جون كينيدي]] [[bg:Джон Ф. Кенеди]] [[ca:John Fitzgerald Kennedy]] [[cs:John Fitzgerald Kennedy]] [[cy:John F. Kennedy]] [[da:John F. Kennedy]] [[de:John F. Kennedy]] [[et:John F. Kennedy]] [[es:John Kennedy]] [[eo:John F. KENNEDY]] [[eu:John Fitzgerald Kennedy]] [[fa:جان اف. کندی]] [[fr:John Fitzgerald Kennedy]] [[ga:John F. Kennedy]] [[gl:John F. Kennedy]] [[ko:존 F. 케네디]] [[hr:John F. Kennedy]] [[id:John F. Kennedy]] [[it:John Fitzgerald Kennedy]] [[he:ג'ון פיצג'רלד קנדי]] [[sw:John F. Kennedy]] [[la:Iohannes F. Kennedy]] [[nl:John F. Kennedy]] [[ja:ジョン・F・ケネディ]] [[no:John F. Kennedy]] [[pl:John Fitzgerald Kennedy]] [[pt:John F. Kennedy]] [[ru:Кеннеди, Джон Фицджеральд]] [[sq:John F. Kennedy]] [[simple:John F. Kennedy]] [[sk:John F. Kennedy]] [[sl:John F. Kennedy]] [[sr:Џон Фицџералд Кенеди]] [[fi:John F. Kennedy]] [[sv:John F. Kennedy]] [[th:จอห์น เอฟ. เคนเนดี]] [[vi:John F. Kennedy]] [[uk:Кеннеді Джон Фітцджеральд]] [[zh:约翰·肯尼迪]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>James Joyce</title> <id>15600</id> <revision> <id>41841611</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:20:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Markalexander100</username> <id>44845</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Biff boffkins|Biff boffkins]] ([[User talk:Biff boffkins|talk]]) to last version by Markalexander100</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |subject_name=James Augustine Aloysius Joyce |image_name=Joyce oconnell dublin.jpg |image_caption=Irish novelist, short-story writer and poet |date_of_birth=[[2 February]] [[1882]] |place_of_birth=[[Rathgar]], [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]] |dead=dead |date_of_death=[[13 January]] [[1941]] |place_of_death=[[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]]}} '''James Augustine Aloysius Joyce''' ([[2 February]] [[1882]] &amp;ndash; [[13 January]] [[1941]]) was an [[expatriate]] [[Ireland|Irish]] writer and poet, widely considered to be one of the most influential writers of the [[20th century]]. He is best known for his short story collection ''[[Dubliners]]'' ([[1914]]), and his novels ''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'' ([[1916]]), ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' ([[1922]]), and ''[[Finnegans Wake]]'' ([[1939]]). Although most of his adult life was spent outside the country, Joyce's Irish experiences are essential to his writings and provide all of the settings for his fiction and much of their subject matter. His fictional universe is firmly rooted in [[Dublin]] and reflects his family life and the events and friends (and enemies) from his school and college days. Due to this, he became both one of the most cosmopolitan and one of the most local of all the great [[English language]] [[modernist literature|modernists]]. ==Life and writings== ===Dublin, 1882-1904=== In 1882, James Augustine Joyce was born into a [[Catholic]] family in the Dublin [[suburb]] of [[Rathgar]]. He was the eldest of ten surviving children; two of his siblings died of typhoid. His father's family, originally from [[Cork]], once owned a small salt and lime works. Both Joyce's paternal grandfather and his father married into wealthy families. In 1887, his father, [[John Joyce|John Stanislaus Joyce]], was appointed rate collector by [[Dublin Corporation]]; the family subsequently moved to the fashionable new suburb of [[Bray]]. Around this time Joyce was attacked by a dog, which added them to his lifelong fear of thunderstorms, a fear that had been inspired by his deeply religious aunt as a sign of God's divine wrath. In [[1891]], James wrote a poem, &quot;Et Tu Healy,&quot; on the death of [[Charles Stewart Parnell]]. His father had it printed and even sent a copy to the [[Vatican Library]]. In November of that same year, John Joyce was entered in ''[[Stubbs Gazette]]'' (an official register of [[bankrupt
enbaum]] == External links == *[http://www.distributedcomputing.info/ distributedcomputing.info] *[http://www.hyper.net/dc-howto.html How-To: Join Distributed Computing projects that benefit humanity] *{{dmoz|Computers/Computer_Science/Distributed_Computing/|Distributed computing}} *[http://www.bacchae.co.uk/docs/dist.html A primer on distributed computing] *[http://dsd.lbl.gov/ Distributed Systems Department] *[http://www.distributed.net/ Distributed.net: Node Zero] *[http://www.infosharkz.com/dc/ Info Sharkz Distributed Computing] *[http://www.clusterbuilder.org/ Cluster Builder] *[http://www.majestic12.co.uk/ Majestic-12 Distributed Search Engine] *[http://www.ceid.upatras.gr/courses/katanemhmena/wiki/index.php Distributed Systems] at the [http://www.ceid.upatras.gr University of Patras] *http://www.climateprediction.net [[Category:Distributed computing| ]] [[Category:Parallel computing]] [[Category:Software architecture]] [[da:Distributed computing]] [[de:Verteiltes Rechnen]] [[el:Κατανεμημένα συστήματα]] [[es:Computación distribuida]] [[fr:Calcul réparti]] [[he:מחשוב מבוזר קהילתי]] [[nl:Distributed computing]] [[id:Komputasi Terdistribusi]] [[ja:分散コンピューティング]] [[pl:Obliczenia rozproszone]] [[pt:Computação distribuída]] [[ru:Распределённые вычисления]] [[zh:分布式计算]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dublin</title> <id>8504</id> <revision> <id>42052342</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:48:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Palx</username> <id>367927</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */ dublin riots</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the city in Ireland. For other uses of the name, see [[Dublin (disambiguation)]].'' {{Ireland_city_infobox | city_name = City of Dublin | crest_image = Image:Dwik.PNG | motto_latin = Obedientia Civium Urbis Felicitas | motto_english = &quot;happy the city where citizens obey&quot; | map_image = Image:Ireland map County Dublin City.png | pin_coords = left: 94px; top: 67px | gps_coords = [[Latitude|Lat.]] 53.3472°N, [[Longitude|Lon.]] 6.2592°W | city_area = 114.99 km&amp;sup2; | city_county = [[County Dublin|''Dublin Region'']] | city_pop = 495,781 (2002) | city_province = [[Leinster]] | }} '''Dublin''' ([[Irish language|Irish]]: ''Baile Átha Cliath''{{fn|1}}) is the [[capital]] and largest city of the [[Republic of Ireland]], located{{fn|2}} near the midpoint of [[Ireland]]'s east coast, at the mouth of the [[River Liffey]] and at the centre of the [[Dublin Region]]{{fn|3}}. The city has been Ireland's capital city since [[Middle Ages|mediæval]] times. It is also the largest city on the island of [[Ireland]]. The term &quot;Dublin Region&quot; has become a substitute for the traditional [[County Dublin]], whilst &quot;[[Greater Dublin Area]]&quot; is accepted as including the city and all of counties [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]], [[Fingal]], [[County Kildare|Kildare]], [[County Meath|Meath]], [[South Dublin]] and [[County Wicklow|Wicklow]]. The limits of the [[commuter belt]] stretch to a much greater distance than either of these areas. The population of the city proper was 495,781 at the census of 2002. Beyond this, at the same census, the city and county population of the [[Dublin Region]] was 1,122,821 whilst the [[Greater Dublin Area]] had a figure of 1,565,446. ==Name== [[Image:Dublin-aerialsmall.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Aerial view of Dublin near [[O'Connell Street]]&lt;/small&gt;]] The name Dublin is an Anglicism of ''Dubh Linn'' (Irish, meaning &quot;Black Pool&quot;), though some doubt this derivation. Historically, in the old script used for the Irish language, 'bh' was written with a dot placed over the 'b' — thus appearing to be Dub Linn or Dublinn. The [[Anglo-Norman language|Norman]]-speaking English who arrived in Old Irish-speaking Ireland starting in 1169 omitted the &quot;dot&quot; (or ''séimhiú'' in Irish), and spelled the town's name as 'Dublin'. Meanwhile, the city's name in Modern Irish — ''Baile Átha Cliath'' (&quot;The Town of the Ford of the Reed Hurdles&quot;) — actually refers to the settlement, founded in 988 by High King Mael Sechnaill II, which adjoined the town of Dubh Linn proper, at the Black Pool. Some have suggested that &quot;Dublin&quot; is of [[Scandinavia]]n origin, cf. [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]: &quot;djúp lind&quot; (&quot;deep pond&quot;). However, the name &quot;Dubh Linn&quot; pre-dates the arrival of the Vikings in Ireland, and the Old Norse name for Dublin is simply the words &quot;Dubh Linn&quot; re-spelled as if they were Old Norse: ''Dyflin'' (correctly pronounced &quot;DUEV-linn&quot; - indeed, the letter 'y' is still pronounced like the vowel in &quot;ewe&quot; in Modern Norwegian, Swedish, etc., just as it was in Old Norse). ==History== {{main|History of Dublin}} The settlement ''Dubh Linn'' dates perhaps as far back as the first century BC; ''Baile Átha Cliath'' or simply ''Áth Cliath'' was founded in 988 near by. The two towns eventually became one. The modern city retains the [[Anglicise]]d Irish name of the former and the original Irish name of the latter. After the [[Norman Ireland|Norman invasion of Ireland]], Dublin replaced the [[Hill of Tara]] as Ireland's capital, with much of the power centring on [[Dublin Castle]] until independence. From the 14th century until the late 16th century, Dublin and the surrounding area -known as the [[Pale]] - was the only area of Ireland under English government control. [[Image:Dcastlefourcourt.jpg|240px|thumb|[[Dublin Castle]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Seat of the [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland|Lord Lieutenant]] and his court until 1922&lt;/small&gt;]] From the [[17th century]] the city expanded rapidly, helped by the [[Wide Streets Commission]]. [[Georgian Dublin]] was, for a time, the second city of the British Empire. Much of Dublin's best architecture dates from this time. The [[Easter Rising]] of 1916 left the capital in an unstable situation and the [[Anglo-Irish War]] and [[Irish Civil War]] left the capital in ruins, with many of its finest buildings destroyed. The [[Irish Free State]] rebuilt much of the city's buildings and moved parliament to [[Leinster House]], but took no bold tasks such as remodelling. After [[The Emergency]] (World War 2) Dublin remained a capital out of time, modernisation was slow and finally the [[1960s]] saw change begin. In recent years the infrastructure of Dublin has changed immensely, with enormous private and state development of housing, transport, and business. (See also [[Development and Preservation in Dublin]]). Since the beginning of [[England|English]] rule in the [[twelfth century]], the city has served as the capital of the island of Ireland in the varying [[geopolitics| geopolitical]] entities: * the [[Lordship of Ireland]] ([[1171]]&amp;ndash;[[1541]]) * the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] ([[1541]]&amp;ndash;[[1800]]) * the island as part of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] ([[1801]]&amp;ndash;[[1922]]) * the [[Irish Republic]] ([[1919]]&amp;ndash;[[1922]]) From 1922, following the partition of Ireland, it served as the capital of the [[Irish Free State]] ([[1922]]&amp;ndash;[[1937]]) and now as the capital of the [[Republic of Ireland]]. (Many of these states co-existed or competed within the same timeframe as rivals within either British or Irish constitutional theory.) ==Culture== [[Image:ClimateDublinIreland.PNG|right|thumb|200px|Average temperature (red) and precipitations (blue) in Dublin]] Dublin is a major cultural centre in Ireland. Dublin is the origin of many prominent artists and writers such as James Joyce, Oscar Wilde, Samuel Beckett, Bram Stoker, and Roddy Doyle. ''[[Dubliners]]'' is a collection of short stories by [[James Joyce]] about incidents and characters typical of residents of the city in the early part of the 20th century. [[Ulysses (novel)|''Ulysses'']], also by James Joyce, a novel set in Dublin, is full of topographical detail and is both acclaimed and controversial. The [[National Print Museum of Ireland]], the [[Irish Museum of Modern Art]], the [[National Gallery of Ireland]], the [[Hugh Lane Municipal Gallery]], the [[Chester Beatty Library]] and three centers of the [[National Museum of Ireland]] are located in Dublin. [[Temple Bar Dublin|Temple Bar]] is an important place for night life and often people from [[Great Britain]] and beyond visit for the weekend. ===Multicultural Dublin=== Dublin has long had a sizeable number of immigrants especially from the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States|U.S.]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and continental [[Europe]]. More recently Dublin has also attracted significant [[Nigerian]], [[Han Chinese|Chinese]], [[Korean people|Korean]], [[India]]n, and [[Eastern European]] populations, largely attracted by Ireland's economic success since the mid-1990's. Old and once run-down streets have rapidly become busy 'ethnic districts', such as Moore Street's transformation into 'Little Africa' and Parnell Street East's into the city's de-facto 'Chinatown' and 'Asian Village'. ===Education=== [[Image:Henriettast.jpg|thumb|220px|Henrietta Street&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;A streetscape in [[Georgian Dublin]]&lt;/small&gt;]] Dublin is the primary centre of education in Ireland, with three universities and several other higher education institutions. The [[University of Dublin]] is the oldest university in Ireland dating from the 16th Century. Its sole constituent college, [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]], was established by [[Royal Charter]] under [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] and closed to Roman Catholics until [[Catholic Emancipation]]. The [[National University of Ireland]] has its seat in Dublin which is also the location of the associated ''constituent university'' of [[University College Dublin]] (UCD), the largest university in Ireland. [[Dublin City Un
[[nominative]]: ''por Johano'' (for John). The only &quot;exception&quot; is when a preposition is ''replaced'' by the accusative. Prepositions should be used with a definite meaning. When no one preposition is clearly correct, the indefinite preposition ''je'' should be used, :''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May: the &quot;on&quot; isn't literally true). Alternatively, the accusative may be used without a preposition, :''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo''. Note that although ''la trian'' (the third) is in the accusative, ''de majo'' (of May) is still a [[prepositional phrase]], and so the noun ''majo'' remains in the nominative case. A frequent use of the accusative is in place of ''al'' (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion ([[allative case]]). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition, :''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' [inside of] the house) :''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house). The accusative/allative may stand in for other prepositions as well, especially when they have vague meanings that don't add much to the clause. Adverbs, with or without the case suffix, are frequently used in place of prepositional phrases, :''li iris '''al''' sia hejmo'' (he went to his home) :''li iris hejme'''n''''' (he went home) Occasionally a new preposition is coined. As a bare [[root (linguistics)|root]] may indicate a preposition or [[interjection]], removing the grammatical suffix from another part of speech can be used to derive a preposition or interjection. For example, from ''fari'' (to do, to make) we get the preposition ''far'' (done by), a more precise substitute for ''de'' (of, by, from). == Verbs == All verbs have regular inflections. Three [[tense]]s together form what is called the [[grammatical mood#indicative mood|indicative mood]]. The other moods are the [[infinitive]], [[conditional mood|conditional]], and [[grammatical mood#jussive mood|jussive]]. No [[Grammatical aspect|aspectual]] distinctions are required by the grammar, but derivational expressions of [[Aktionsart]] are common. Verbs do not change form according to their [[subject (grammar)|subject]]. ''I am'', ''we are,'' and ''he is'' are simply ''mi estas'', ''ni estas'', and ''li estas'', respectively. Impersonal subjects are not used: ''pluvas'' (it is raining); ''estas muso en la domo'' (there's a mouse in the house). ===The verbal paradigm=== The tenses have characteristic vowels. ''A'' indicates the present tense, ''i'' the past, and ''o'' the future. {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; ! ![[grammatical mood#indicative mood|Indicative]] ![[Participle|Active participle]] ![[Participle|Passive participle]] ![[Infinitive]] ![[grammatical mood#jussive mood|Jussive]] ![[conditional mood|Conditional]] |- ![[past tense|Past]] |align=&quot;center&quot;|-is |align=&quot;center&quot;|-inta |align=&quot;center&quot;|-ita |align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|-i |align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|-u |align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|-us |- ![[present tense|Present]] |align=&quot;center&quot;|-as |align=&quot;center&quot;|-anta |align=&quot;center&quot;|-ata |- ![[future tense|Future]] |align=&quot;center&quot;|-os |align=&quot;center&quot;|-onta |align=&quot;center&quot;|-ota |} The verbal forms may be illustrated with the root ''esper-'' (hope): :''esperi'' (to hope) :''esperas'' (hopes, is hoping) :''esperis'' (hoped, was hoping) :''esperos'' (shall hope, will hope) :''esperu'' (hope!) :''esperus'' (were to hope, would hope) A verb can be made emphatic with the particle ''ja'' (indeed): ''mi ja esperas'' (I do hope), ''mi ja esperis'' (I did hope). ===Mood=== The [[conditional mood]] is used for such expressions as ''se mi povus, mi irus'' (if I could, I would go) and ''se mi estus vi, mi irus'' (if I were you, I'd go). The [[grammatical mood#jussive mood|jussive mood]], called the ''volitive'' in Esperanto, is used for wishing and requesting, and serves as the [[imperative]]. It covers some of the uses of the [[subjunctive]] in European languages, :''Iru!'' (Go!) :''Mi petis, ke li venu.'' (I asked him to come.) :''Li parolu.'' (Let him speak.) :''Ni iru.'' (Let's go.) :''Benu tiun domaĉon'' (Bless this mess.) :''Mia filino belu!'' (May my daughter be beautiful!) ===Aspect=== Although verbal [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] is not grammatically required in Esperanto, the Slavic aspectual system survives in two [[Aktionsart]] affixes, [[perfective aspect|perfective]] ''ek-'' and [[imperfective aspect|imperfective]] ''-adi''. Compare, :''Tiu ĉi '''ek'''interesis min kaj montris al mi, ke ...'' (This '''caught''' my interest and showed me that ...) and :''Tiu ĉi interesis min'' (This interested me). Various prepositions may also be used as [[Aktionsart]] prefixes, such as ''el'' (out of), used to indicate that an action is performed to completion or at least to a considerable degree. In, :''Germanan kaj francan lingvojn mi '''el'''lernadis en infaneco'' (I learned French and German in childhood), the verb ''el-lern-ad-is'' is past tense (''-is''), on-going/imperfective (''-ad-''), and performed to significant completion (''el-''). Such distinctions are notoriously difficult to render in English, but perhaps a circumlocution may help: ''In childhood, I spent time soaking up German and French''. Here ''spend time &amp;mdash;ing'' corresponds roughly to ''-adi'', and the ''up'' of ''soak up'' [originally also a preposition] conveys some of the meaning of ''el-''. The participles (see below) may also be used for aspectual distinctions. ===The copula=== The verb ''esti'' (to be) is both the [[copula]] and the existential (&quot;there is&quot;) verb. As a copula linking two [[noun phrase]]s, it does not cause either to take the accusative case. Therefore, unlike the situation with other verbs, word order with ''esti'' can be semantically important: compare ''hundoj estas personoj'' (dogs are people) and ''personoj estas hundoj'' (people are dogs). It is becoming increasingly common to replace ''esti''-plus-adjective with a verb: ''la ĉielo estas blua'' or ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue). This is a stylistic rather than grammatical change in the language, as the more economical verbal forms were always found in poetry. ===Participles=== [[Participle]]s are verbal derivatives. In Esperanto, they retain the tense of the verb in their vowel. They may be [[active]] (performing an action) or [[passive]] (receiving an action). ====Adjectival participles==== The basic principle of the participles may be illustrated with the verb ''fali'' (to fall). Picture [[Wile E. Coyote]] running off a cliff. Before gravity kicks in (after all, this is a cartoon), he is ''fal'''o'''nta'' (about to fall). As he drops, he is ''fal'''a'''nta'' (falling). After he impacts the desert floor, he is ''fal'''i'''nta'' (fallen). Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb ''haki'' (to chop). Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down. He is ''hak'''on'''ta'' (about to chop) and the tree is ''hak'''o'''ta'' (about to be chopped). While swinging the axe, he is ''hak'''an'''ta'' (chopping) and the tree ''hak'''a'''ta'' (being chopped). After the tree has fallen, he is ''hak'''in'''ta'' (having chopped) and the tree ''hak'''i'''ta'' (chopped). ====Compound tense==== Compound tenses are formed with the adjectival participles plus ''esti'' (to be) as the auxiliary verb, *Present [[Continuous aspect|progressive]]: ''mi estas kaptanta'' (I am catching [something]), ''mi estas kaptata'' (I am being caught) *Present [[perfect aspect|perfect]]: ''mi estas kaptinta'' (I have caught [something]), ''mi estas kaptita'' (I have been caught) *Present [[predictive]]: ''mi estas kaptonta'' (I am going to/about to catch), ''mi estas kaptota'' (I am going to be/about to be caught) These are not used as often as their English equivalents. For &quot;I ''am'' go''ing'' to the store&quot;, you would normally use the simple present ''mi iras'' in Esperanto. The tense and mood of ''esti'' can be changed in these compound tenses, :''mi estis kaptinta'' (I had caught) :''mi estus kaptonta'' (I would be about to catch) :''mi estos kaptanta'' (I will be catching). The option of replacing ''esti'' + adjective with a verb holds for adjectival participles, with the verbal suffix reflecting the tense of the auxiliary, :''mi estas kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught) :''mi estis kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught). Adjectival participles agree with nouns, as any other adjectives do, :''ili ŝparis la arbojn '''hakotajn''''' (they spared the trees '''that were to be chopped down'''). ====Nominal participles==== Participles may be turned into adverbs or nouns by replacing the adjectival suffix ''-a'' with ''-e'' or ''-o''. This means that, in Esperanto, some nouns may be inflected for tense. A nominal participle indicates ''one who participates'' in the action specified by the verbal root. For example, ''esperinto'' is a &quot;hoper&quot; (past tense), or ''one who had been hoping''. (In the early years of the language, such forms were assumed to be masculine, but that is no longer the case.) ====Adverbial participles==== [[Adverbial participle]]s are used with subjectless clauses, :''Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen'' (Having caught the ball, he ran for the goal). ====Conditional and tenseless participles (unofficial)==== Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be extended to include conditional participles, with the vowel ''u'' (''-unt-, -ut-''). If, for example, in our tree-chopping example, the woodsman found that the tree had been spiked and so couldn't be cut down after all, he would be ''hakunta'' and the tree ''hakuta''
paradigms, it has the advantage of being constructed by trained linguists for the particular purpose of analyzing and categorizing varieties of speech, and has the additional merit of replacing such [[loaded words]] as &quot;language&quot; and &quot;dialect&quot; with the [[German language|German]] terms of [[Ausbausprache]], [[Abstandsprache]], and [[Dachsprache]], words that are not (yet) loaded with political, cultural, or emotional connotations. It may prove to be a tool helpful for enabling people to see some ancient and poisoned linguistic controversies through a different lens of perception. == Dialects in English == *Northern: - [u] butler, cut, some, pound - /ae/ dance, grass, path - /u:/ cow, down *Southwestern: - s-&gt; z (six) *Welsh: - /a/ tap,bath *Irish: - rhotic 'r' - monophtongal articulation [e:, o:] take, home *Scotish: - rhotic 'r' articulated in all position - nondistinctive length lad/lard, full/ fod, cot/cought ==Selected list of articles on dialects== *[[Varieties of Arabic]] *[[Catalan dialect examples]] *[[List of Chinese dialects]] *[[List of dialects of the English language]] *[[Flemish dialects]] *[[Dialects of the French language]] *[[Cypriot dialect]] *[[Connacht Irish]], [[Munster Irish]], [[Ulster Irish]] *[[Italian dialects]] *[[Sicilian language|Sicilian language]] *[[Japanese dialects]] *[[Korean dialects]] *[[Norwegian dialects]] *[[Gilaki and Mazandarani]] (Persian dialects) *[[Warsaw dialect]] *[[Portuguese dialects]] *[[Dialects in Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia]] *[[Slovenian dialects]] *[[Spanish dialects and varieties]] *[[Swedish dialects in Ostrobothnia]] *[[Bergensk]], used in [[Bergen, Norway]] ==See also== *[[Accent (linguistics)|Accent]] *[[Ethnolect]] *[[Isogloss]] *[[Prestige dialect]] *[[Diglossia]] *[[Programming language dialect]] *[[Dialect continuum]] *[[Sprachbund]] ==External links== * [http://www.terralingua.org/Definitions/DLangDialect.html Language or dialect?] (Terralingua) * [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9215/arts.htm Incorporating Dialect Study into the Language Arts Class] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-4/dialects.htm Vernacular Dialects in U.S. Schools] * [http://www.theverybestofstuff.de/contents/dialectology.html Fishermen's Dialect on the South-East Coast of Scotland.] [[Category:Language varieties and styles]] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[als:Dialekt]] [[bg:Диалект]] [[br:Rannyezh]] [[ca:Dialecte]] [[cv:Диалект]] [[da:Dialekt]] [[de:Dialekt]] [[et:Murre]] [[es:Dialecto]] [[eo:Dialekto]] [[fr:Dialecte]] [[fy:Dialekt]] [[gl:Dialecto]] [[ko:방언]] [[hr:Dijalekt]] [[io:Dialekto]] [[id:Dialek]] [[he:ניב]] [[li:Dialek]] [[hu:Nyelvjárás]] [[nl:Dialect]] [[ja:方言]] [[no:Dialekt]] [[nn:Målføre]] [[pl:Dialekt]] [[pt:Dialeto]] [[ro:Dialect]] [[ru:Диалект]] [[sq:Dialekti]] [[sk:Dialekt]] [[sr:Дијалект]] [[fi:Murre]] [[sv:Dialekt]] [[tt:Söyläm]] [[uk:Діалект]] [[zh:方言]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Digitalis</title> <id>8129</id> <revision> <id>41602102</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T12:38:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Unyoyega</username> <id>460372</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: de, nl</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the medication sometimes called &quot;Digitalis&quot;, see [[Digoxin]].'' {{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = ''Digitalis'' | image = Digitalis purpurea2.jpg | image_width = 240px | image_caption = ''Digitalis purpurea'' (Common Foxglove) | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = [[Lamiales]] | familia = [[Plantaginaceae]] | genus = '''''Digitalis''''' | genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]] | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = About 20 species, including:&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Digitalis ciliata]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Digitalis davisiana]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Digitalis dubia]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Digitalis ferruginea]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Digitalis grandiflora]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Digitalis laevigata]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Digitalis lanata]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Digitalis lutea]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Digitalis obscura]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Digitalis parviflora]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Digitalis purpurea]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Digitalis thapsi]]''&lt;br/&gt; ''[[Digitalis viridiflora]]'' }} '''''Digitalis''''' is a genus of about 20 species of [[herb]]aceous biennials, perennials and shrubs that was traditionally placed in the figwort family [[Scrophulariaceae]]. Due to new genetic research, it has now been placed in the much enlarged family [[Plantaginaceae]]. The term '''digitalis''' is also used for preparations containing [[cardiac glycoside]]s, particularly [[digoxin]], extracted from plants of this genus. ==General description== The members of this genus are known in English as '''foxgloves'''. They are native to [[Europe]], northwest [[Africa]] and west and central [[Asia]]. The scientific name means &quot;finger&quot;, and refers to the ease which a [[flower]] of ''Digitalis purpurea'' can be fitted over a human fingertip. &quot;Foxglove&quot; has a similar origin, seen as a suitable glove for a [[fox]] paw. The flowers are produced on a tall spike, are tubular, and vary in colour with species, from purple to pink, white and yellow. The best-known species is the [[Common Foxglove]], ''Digitalis purpurea''. It is a biennial, often grown as an [[ornamental plant]] due to its [[violet (color)|violet]] [[flower]]s. The first year of growth produces only the long, basal leaves, while in the second year the erect leafy stem 0.5-2.5 m tall develops. The [[larva]]e of the [[Foxglove Pug]] feed on the flowers of ''Digitalis purpurea''. Other [[Lepidoptera]] species feed on the leaves including [[Lesser Yellow Underwing]]. == Medicinal use == The use of ''[[Digitalis purpurea]]'' extract containing [[cardiac glycoside]]s for the treatment of [[heart]] conditions was first described by [[William Withering]]. In contemporary [[medicine]], a purer form of digitalis is used to strengthen cardiac contractility (it is a positive [[inotrope]]) and as an [[antiarrhythmic agent]] to regulate heart rhythm. It is therefore often prescribed for patients in [[heart failure]]. A group of pharmacologically active compounds are extracted mostly from the leaves of the second year's growth, and in pure form are referred to by common chemical names such as '''''[[digitoxin]]''''' or '''''[[digoxin]]''''', or by brand names such as ''Lanoxin'', or ''Purgoxin''. Digitalis works by inhibiting [[sodium-potassium ATPase]], which increases intracellular [[calcium]]. The increased intracellular calcium gives a positive inotropic effect. It also has a vagal effect on the [[parasympathetic nervous system]], and as such is used in reentrant [[cardiac arrhythmia]]s and to slow the ventricular rate during [[atrial fibrillation]]. The dependence on the vagal effect means that digitalis is not effective when a patient has a high [[sympathetic nervous system]] drive, which is the case with acutely ill persons. Digitalis toxicity (''Digitalis intoxication'') results from an overdose of digitalis and can result in jaundiced (yellow) vision and the appearance of blurred outlines (halos), as well as [[bradycardia]] in extreme cases. Because a frequent side effect of digitalis is reduction of appetite, some individuals have abused the drug as a weight loss aid. Digitalis is a classic example of a drug derived from a plant formerly used by folklorists and herbalists: herbalists have largely abandoned its use because of its narrow [[therapeutic index]] and the difficulty of determining the amount of active drug in herbal preparations. Once the usefulness of digitalis in regulating pulse was understood, it was employed for a variety of purposes, including the treatment of [[epilepsy]] and other seizure disorders, now considered inappropriate. ==Media== &lt;gallery&gt; Image:Digitalis ciliata0.jpg|Digitalis ciliata Image:Wasp_and_her_Yellow_Flower.jpg|Digitalis grandiflora Image:Digitalis_lutea_100705.jpg|Digitalis lutea Image:Digitalis_purpurea_Koehler_drawing.jpg|Digitalis purpurea drawings by [[Franz Köhler]] Image:Digitalis_purpurea.jpg|Digitalis purpurea Image:Foxglove2.jpg|Digitalis purpurea Image:Digitalis-stora_hultrum.sweden-22.jpg|Digitalis purpurea Image:Digitalis-stora_hultrum.sweden-21.jpg|''Digitalis purpurea'' var. ''alba'' Image:Wild_Foxglove_Flaam_Norway.jpg|A wild ''Digitalis sp.'' flower spike beside a Norwegian fjord &lt;/gallery&gt; ==External links== * [http://www.bris.ac.uk/Depts/Chemistry/MOTM/digitalis/digtalis.htm Molecule of the Month - Digitalis] * [http://www.emedicine.com/PED/topic590.htm eMedicine link] {{Commons|Digitalis}} [[Category:Antiarrhythmic agents]] [[Category:Medicinal herbs and fungi]] [[Category:Plantaginaceae]] [[de:Fingerhut (Pflanze)]] [[es:Digitalis]] [[eo:Digitalo]] [[fr:Digitale]] [[it:Digitalis]] [[nl:Vingerhoedskruid (geslacht)]] [[ja:ジギタリス]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Digital Video</title> <id>8130</id> <revision> <id>25820865</id> <timestamp>2005-10-18T11:37:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>144.139.87.183</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Digital video]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dendrite</title> <id>8131</id> <revision> <id>41546267</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:50:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CDN99</username> <id>97002</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* See also */ Category:Neurophysiology</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">(''The term '''dendrite''' may also refer to the metallurgical [[dendrite (metal)|dendrite]]''.) ''[http://www.dendrite.com Dendrite]'' ''is also the name of a New Jersey based provider of sales, marketing, clinical and compliance solutions and services for pharmaceutical and life sciences companies.'' I
ring the country's technical and industrial base. He agreed to exempt the [[nobility]] from [[tax]]es and in return they agreed to dissolve the [[The States|Estates-General]]. He also simplified travel in Brandenburg and Ducal Prussia by connecting riverways with [[canal]]s, a system that was expanded by later [[Kingdom of Prussia]]n architects, such as [[Georg Steenke]]; the system is still in use today. On [[7 December]] [[1646]] at [[The Hague]], he married [[Luise Henriette of Nassau]] (1627-1667), daughter of [[Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange|Frederick Henry of Orange-Nassau]] and [[Amalia von Solms|Amalia of Solms-Braunfels]]. Their children were William Henry (1648-1649), Charles (1655-1674), his successor [[Frederick I of Prussia|Frederick]] (1657-1713), Amalie (1656-1664), Henry (1664-1664), and Louis (1666-1687). On [[13 June]] [[1668]] at [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]], he married Sophie Dorothea of [[Holstein-Glücksburg]], daughter of Philipp of [[Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg]] and Sophie Hedwig of [[Saxe-Lauenburg]]. Their children were Philip William (1669-1711), Marie Amalie (1670-1739), Albert Frederick (1672-1731), Charles (1673-1695), Elisabeth Sofie (1674-1748), Dorothea (1675-1676), and Christian Louis (1677-1734). {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[George William of Brandenburg|George William]] | title=[[Elector of Brandenburg]] | years=1640-1688 | after=[[Frederick I of Prussia|Frederick III]] }} {{end box}} [[Category:1620 births]] [[Category:1688 deaths]] [[Category:Electors of Brandenburg]] [[Category:House of Hohenzollern]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter]] [[da:Frederik Vilhelm den store af Brandenburg-Preussen]] [[de:Friedrich Wilhelm (Brandenburg)]] [[fr:Frédéric Guillaume Ier de Brandebourg]] [[nl:Frederik Willem I van Brandenburg]] [[ja:フリードリヒ・ヴィルヘルム (ブランデンブルク選帝侯)]] [[pl:Fryderyk Wilhelm Hohenzollern (Wielki Elektor)]] [[sv:Fredrik Vilhelm av Brandenburg]] [[uk:Фрідріх Вільгельм]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Friedrich II</title> <id>11450</id> <revision> <id>15909195</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>David Parker</username> <id>42</id> </contributor> <comment>Redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frederick II, Margrave of Brandenburg]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Frederick I William of Prussia</title> <id>11451</id> <revision> <id>15909196</id> <timestamp>2004-09-01T00:33:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>John Kenney</username> <id>10512</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frederick I of Prussia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Frederick V</title> <id>11454</id> <revision> <id>22612000</id> <timestamp>2005-09-05T10:11:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Robotje</username> <id>100235</id> </contributor> <comment>+ nl:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">There are many different people who may be referred to as '''Frederick V''' or '''Friedrich V'''. They are listed here in chronological order: *[[Friedrich V, Burggraf of Hohenzollern-Nürnberg]] (before 1333 - 1398) *[[Friedrich V, Count of Leiningen]] (died 1327) *[[Friedrich V of Castell]], (fl. 1364) *Friedrich V, Margrave von Brandenburg-Ansbach-Bayreuth, also known as [[Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach]] ([[May 8]], [[1460]] - [[April 4]], [[1536]]) *[[Friedrich V von Baden-Durlach]] (1594-1659) *[[Friedrich V von der Pfalz]] ([[August 16]], [[1596]] -[[November 29]], [[1632]]), also known as [[Frederick V, Elector Palatine]]. *[[Frederick V of Denmark|Frederik V, King of Denmark and Norway]] (ruled 1746-1766) *[[Friedrich V, Landgraf of Hesse-Homburg]] (1748-1820) *[[Friedrich V of Salm-Kyrburg]] (1823-1887) {{disambig}} [[nl:Frederik V]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Friedrich Wilhelm I</title> <id>11455</id> <revision> <id>15909199</id> <timestamp>2005-03-10T20:28:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>67.182.165.183</ip> </contributor> <comment>clarifying</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Monarchs with this title were: *[[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Brandenburg]], Duke of [[Prussia]] *[[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia]] of Brandenburg-Prussia {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Horn (instrument)</title> <id>11456</id> <revision> <id>42064142</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:41:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Misza13</username> <id>330574</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/167.93.8.250|167.93.8.250]] to last version by Hairy Dude</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Instrument |color1=#FFD700 |color2=#FFEC8B |name=Horn |names=[[English language|en:]]&amp;nbsp;''(french) horn'', [[Italian language|it:]]&amp;nbsp;''corno'', [[spanish language|es:]]&amp;nbsp;''trompa, corno'', [[French language|fr:]]&amp;nbsp;''cor'', [[German Language|de:]] ''horn'' |image=French_horn.jpg |classification= *[[Wind instrument|Wind]] *[[Brass instrument|Brass]] *[[Aerophone]] |range=[[Image:Range_frenchhorn.png|130px|center]]&lt;small&gt;in F: sounds one [[perfect fifth|fifth]] lower&lt;/small&gt; |related=[[Wagner tuba]], [[Kornett (Instrument)|Kornett]], [[Flügelhorn]] |articles=[[List of Horn Players]] &lt;br/&gt; [[List of Horn Makers]] &lt;br/&gt; [[List of Horn Techniques]] &lt;br/&gt; [[List of compositions for horn]] }}&lt;!-- | [[Media:horn.ogg]]--&gt;&lt;!-- removed range as it's in the box above [[Image:Range frenchhorn.png|thumb|200px|Typical playing range of a horn (notes sounding a perfect 5th lower than written) ]] --&gt; The '''horn''' is a [[brass instrument]] that consists of tubing wrapped into a coiled form. The instrument was first developed in France in about 1650 from the ''cor de chasse'' or hunting horn, and has been known as the '''French horn''' since it was refined and improved in England in 1750, although musicians, and particularly players of the instrument, generally refer to it simply as the horn. The horn (like the [[cornet]] and [[Saxhorns]] but unlike the [[trumpet]] and [[trombone]]) has a tapered bore, steadily increasing in diameter along its length. Unlike most other valved brass instruments, which use [[piston valve]]s, the French horn uses [[rotary valve]]s, which take up much less room but are slower in action. Compared to the other brass instruments commonly found in the [[orchestra]], the typical range of the horn is set an octave higher in its [[harmonic series (music)|harmonic series]], facilitated by its small, deep [[mouthpiece]], giving it its characteristic &quot;mellow&quot; tone. The typical [[playing range]] of a horn goes from the written F at the bottom of the staff in [[bass clef]] to the C above the staff in [[treble clef]]. The horn is notoriously difficult to play. Its harmonics are such that notes are unusually close together and it is easy to miss a note. The narrow mouthpipe and backward-facing bell also make it musically inefficient, but attempts to cure these problems have always resulted in a loss of its unique sound. == History == [[Image:French-horn.png|left|250px]] [[Image:How to shout and blow Horns Fac simile of a Miniature in the Manuscript of Phoebus Fifteenth Century.png|thumb|right|&quot;How to shout and blow Horns.&quot;--Facsimile of a miniature in the Manuscript of Phoebus (15th century)]] Early horns were much simpler than those in current use. These early horns were simply brass tubing wound a few times and flared into a larger opening at the end (called the ''bell'' of the horn). They evolved from the early hunting horns and, as such, were meant to be played while riding on a horse. The hornist would grip the horn on the piping near the mouthpiece and rest the body of the horn across his arm so that only one hand was needed to play and the other could be free to guide his steed. The only way to change the pitch was to use the natural [[harmonic]]s of that particular length of tubing by changing the speed at which the lips vibrated against the mouthpiece; but by using a long tube and playing high in the [[harmonic series (music)|harmonic series]], considerable melodic variety was possible. The best-know example from this era is the Quoniam from [[JS Bach]]'s [[Mass in B minor]]. Later, horns caught the interest of composers, and were used to invoke an outdoors feeling and the idea of the chase. Even in the time of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], however, the horn player (now a part of the early orchestra) still had a much simpler version of the horn; he carried with him a set of ''[[crook (music)|crook]]s'', which were curved pieces of tube of different length which could be used to change the length of the horn by removing part of the tubing and inserting a different length piece. The player now held the horn with both hands, holding the tubing near the mouthpiece with one, and putting the other into the bell, which was either rested upon the right knee of the player or the entire horn was lifted into the air. Now the pitch played could be changed in several ways. First the player could change the harmonic series which the instrument as a whole had by removing and inserting different sized crooks into the instrument, changing the length of the horn itself. Less globally, given a particular crook, the vibration of the lips could be varied in speed, thus moving to a different pitch on the given harmonic series. Finally, now that the player had his hand in the bell, the hand became an extension on the length of the horn, and by closing and opening the space available for air to leave the bell, he could bend the pitch to interpolate between the elements of
uth-west. Image:NovyMost.jpg|The [[Novy Most Bratislava|Nový Most]] (New Bridge). Image:Ba-michaelertor.jpeg|[[Michael's Gate]]. Image:Bratislava-Dom-sv-Martina.jpg|[[St. Martin's Cathedral]] - the coronation cathedral. Image:Grasalkovic-palace-garden.jpg|The [[Grassalkovich Palace]] - the seat of the President. &lt;/gallery&gt; == External links== {{Commons|Bratislava|Bratislava}} === City Information === * [http://www.bratislava.sk Official website] * {{wikitravel}} * [http://www.bkis.bratislava.sk/e_index.asp Official Bratislava Tourist Service] * [http://www.spectacularslovakia.sk/ss2002/main_bratislava.html Bratislava in Spectacular Slovakia] * [http://www.bratislava-info.sk/index.php?action=view&amp;class=n2&amp;iid=1&amp;lng=en Bratislava Tourist Service] * [http://www.bratislavaslovakia.com/ Bratislava, Slovakia - city districts] === Public Transport === * [http://public-transport.net/bim/Bratisla.htm Tramway in Bratislava] * [http://www.imhd.sk/ba/?lang=en Public urban transport in Bratislava] === Photo Galleries === * [http://www.angelfire.com/home/vj/bratislava/Downtown.htm Bratislava photo gallery] * [http://www.ron-del.net/ Extensive gallery on Bratislava] * [http://guri.sk/live Bratislava, Racianske myto Live Webcam] * [http://www.phileas-fogg.net/bratislava/ Bratislava, the other capital of the Danube] Pictures and history * [http://www.earthinpictures.com/world/slovakia/bratislava/ Bratislava photo gallery] - Earth in Pictures * [http://www.panoramy.net/index.php?cat=3&amp;lang=english-utf-8 Panoramatic photo gallery of Bratislava] === Maps === * [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=48.141403,17.128029&amp;spn=0.086517,0.124626&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Satellite photo map from Google Maps] [[Category:Capitals in Europe]] [[Category:Cities and towns in Slovakia]] [[Category:Bratislava]] [[Category:Cities on the Danube]] [[ar:براتيسلافا]] [[bg:Братислава]] [[bs:Bratislava]] [[ca:Bratislava]] [[cs:Bratislava]] [[da:Bratislava]] [[de:Bratislava]] [[et:Bratislava]] [[el:Μπρατισλάβα]] [[es:Bratislava]] [[eo:Bratislavo]] [[fr:Bratislava]] [[ko:브라티슬라바]] [[hr:Bratislava]] [[id:Bratislava]] [[it:Bratislava]] [[he:ברטיסלאבה]] [[la:Bratislava]] [[lv:Bratislava]] [[lt:Bratislava]] [[hu:Pozsony]] [[nl:Bratislava]] [[nds:Preßburg]] [[ja:ブラチスラヴァ]] [[no:Bratislava]] [[pl:Bratysława]] [[pt:Bratislava]] [[ro:Bratislava]] [[ru:Братислава]] [[simple:Bratislava]] [[sk:Bratislava]] [[sl:Bratislava]] [[sr:Братислава]] [[fi:Bratislava]] [[sv:Bratislava]] [[th:บราติสลาวา]] [[tr:Bratislava]] [[uk:Братіслава]] [[zh:布拉迪斯拉发]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Black Forest</title> <id>3385</id> <revision> <id>41536956</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:34:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Staffelde</username> <id>385596</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>add cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''There is also a suburb of [[Adelaide]] named [[Black Forest, South Australia]].'' [[Image:BlackForest-Position.png|right|A [[map]] of [[Germany]], showing the Black Forest in [[red]].]] The '''Black Forest''' ([[German language|German]] ''Schwarzwald'') is a [[forest|wooded]] [[mountain range]] in [[Baden-Württemberg]], southwestern [[Germany]]. It is bordered by the [[Rhine]] valley to the west and south. The highest peak is the [[Feldberg]] with an elevation of 1,493 [[metre|meters]] (4,898 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]]). The name Black Forest comes from the general dark color of the numerous [[pine]] trees that grow in this region. The [[Black Forest gateau]] originated from this region. ==Geography== Geologically, the Black Forest consists of a cover of [[sandstone]] on top of a core of [[gneiss]]. During the last ice age, the [[Würm glaciation]], the Black Forest was covered by glaciers; several [[cirque (landform)|cirque]]s such as the [[Mummelsee]] are remains of this period. Rivers originating in the Black Forest include [[Danube]], [[Enz]], [[Kinzig (Baden-Württemberg)]], [[Murg]], [[Neckar]], and [[Rench]]. The Black Forest is part of the [[continental divide]] between the [[Atlantic Ocean]] watershed (drained by the [[Rhine]]) and the [[Black Sea]] watershed (drained by the Danube). Administratively, the Black Forest belongs to the following counties; in the north: [[Enzkreis]], [[Pforzheim]], [[Rastatt (district)|Rastatt]], and [[Calw (district)|Calw]]; in the middle: [[Freudenstadt (district)|Freudenstadt]], [[Ortenaukreis]], and [[Rottweil (district)|Rottweil]]; in the south: [[Emmendingen (district)|Emmendingen]], [[Schwarzwald-Baar]], [[Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald]], [[Lörrach (district)|Lörrach]], and [[Waldshut]]. The forest mostly consists of [[fir]]s; the main industry is [[tourism]]. Dialects spoken are [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] and [[Swabian German|Swabian]]. This forest has suffered serious damage from acid rain and is only a fraction of the size it used to be; however, the storm [[Lothar (storm)|Lothar]] knocked down hundreds of acres of mountaintops in 1999, leaving some of the high peaks and scenic hills bare, with only primary growth shrubs and young fir trees. Many people say that they call it the black forest mountains because when on the mountain, in the wooded areas, is seems dark from the shadows of all the trees. ==Points of interest== [[Image: Windbuchencom.jpg |thumb| Winter on [[Schauinsland]]: famous &quot;Windbuchen&quot; [[Beech]]es bend by the wind]] The cities of [[Freiburg]] and [[Baden-Baden]] are popular tourist destinations on the western edge of the Black Forest; towns in the forest include [[Bad Herrenalb]], [[Baiersbronn]], [[Freudenstadt]], [[Gengenbach]], [[Schramberg]], [[Staufen, Germany|Staufen]], [[Titisee-Neustadt]], and [[Wolfach, Germany|Wolfach]]. Other popular destinations include such mountains as the Feldberg, the [[Belchen]], the [[Kandel, Germany|Kandel]], and the [[Schauinsland]]; the [[Titisee]] and [[Schluchsee]] lakes; the [[All Saints Waterfalls]]; the [[Triberg Waterfalls]], the highest waterfalls in Germany; and the [[gorge]] of the [[Wutach River]]. The [[Vogtsbauernhöfe]] is an open-air museum that shows the life of [[16th century|16th]] or [[17th century]] farmers in the region, featuring a number of reconstructed Black Forest farms. The [[German Clock Museum]] in [[Furtwangen]] shows the history of the [[clock]] industry and of [[watch]]makers. ==Popular culture== The Black Forest is known for its [[cuckoo clock]]s, [[honey]], and for [[Black Forest gateau]]. ==List of highest mountains== * [[Feldberg]] (1,493 m; 4,898 ft.) * [[Herzogenhorn]] (1,415 m; 4,642 ft.) * [[Belchen]] (1,414 m; 4,639 ft.) * [[Schauinsland]] (1,284 m; 4,212 ft.) * [[Kandel]] (1,241 m; 4,072 ft.) * [[Blauen]] (1,165 m; 3,822 ft.) * [[Hornisgrinde]] (1,164 m; 3,819 ft.) ==Images of note== &lt;gallery&gt; Image:titisee.jpg|The region is replete with visually stunning lakes and mountains. Image:Feldberg.JPG|The [[Feldberg]]. Image:Blick über den Mittleren Schwarzwald 2.JPG|A view in the Middle Black Forest. Image:Schwarzwald 1.jpg|The Black Forest. Image:titisee_winter.jpg|The lake Titisee, popular year-round. Image:romantik.jpg|Famous Hotel Romantik next to the Titisee. Image:clock_forest.jpg|The Black Forest is known for its native clock makers. Image:freistadt.jpg|The Münster cathedral of [[Freiburg]], the most important city of the region. &lt;/gallery&gt; ==See also== * [[Hercynian Forest]] ==External links== *[http://www.schwarzwald.de/e_index.html Touristic information at schwarzwald.de] *[http://www.blackforestinfo.com/ Touristic information at blackforestinfo.com] [[Category:Mountain ranges of Germany]] [[Category:Baden-Württemberg]] [[Category:Forests and woodlands of Germany]] [[als:Schwarzwald]] [[ca:Selva Negra]] [[de:Schwarzwald]] [[es:Selva Negra]] [[eo:Nigra Arbaro]] [[fa:جنگل سیاه]] [[fr:Forêt-Noire]] [[it:Foresta Nera]] [[nl:Zwarte Woud]] [[ja:シュヴァルツヴァルト]] [[pl:Schwarzwald]] [[pt:Floresta Negra]] [[ro:Munţii Pădurea Neagră]] [[ru:Шварцвальд]] [[simple:Black Forest]] [[fi:Schwarzwald]] [[sv:Schwarzwald]] [[zh:黑森林]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Black Sea</title> <id>3386</id> <revision> <id>41704730</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:31:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>67.142.130.14</ip> </contributor> <comment>+ka</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:{{otheruses}} [[Image:Black Sea map.png|thumb|Map of the Black Sea.]] [[Image:Ev25334 BlackSea.A2003105.1035.1km.jpg|right|thumb|Satellite view of the Black Sea, taken by [[NASA]] [[MODIS]].]] The '''Black Sea''' ([[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] ''Черно море''; [[Modern Greek language|Modern Greek]] ''Μαύρη Θάλασσα''; [[Romanian language|Romanian]]: ''Marea Neagră''; [[Russian language|Russian]] ''Чёрное мо́ре''; [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ''Karadeniz'') (in antiquity known as the {{polytonic|Εὔξεινος Πόντος}}, [[Latin]] ''Pontus Euxinus'', &quot;Euxine Sea&quot;) is an inland [[sea]] between southeastern [[Europe]] and [[Asia Minor]]. It is connected to the [[Mediterranean Sea]] by the [[Bosporus]] and the [[Sea of Marmara]], and to the [[Sea of Azov]] by the [[Strait of Kerch]]. There is a net inflow of seawater through the Bosporus, 200 km&amp;sup3; per year. There is an inflow of freshwater from the surrounding areas, especially central and middle-eastern Europe, totalling 320 km&amp;sup3; per year. The most important river entering the Black Sea is the [[Danube]]. The Black Sea has an area of [[1 E11 m²|422,000 km²]] and a maximum depth of 2210 m. Countries bordering on the Black Sea are [[Turkey]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], [[Ukraine]], [[Russia]], and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] (including the breakaway region of [[Abkhazia]]). The [[Crimean]] [[peninsula]] is a Ukrainian autonomous republic. Important cities along the coast include: [[Istanbul]] (formerly [[Constantinople]] and [[Byzantium]]), [[Burgas]], [[Varna]], [[Constanta
ing such as [[cognitive apprenticeship]], in which the tacit components of a complex skill are made explicit through conversational interactions occurring between expert and novice in the setting in which the skill is embedded (Collins, Brown &amp; Newman, 1989). ==Motivation== [[Motivation]] is an internal state that arouses, guides and sustains behavior. Educational psychology research on motivation is concerned with the [[Volition (psychology)|volition]] or [[Will (philosophy)|will]] that students bring to a task, their level of interest and [[intrinsic motivation]], the personally held [[Goal setting|goals]] that guide their behavior, and their belief about the causes of their success or failure. A form of [[attribution theory]] developed by [[Bernard Weiner]] describes how students' beliefs about the causes of academic success or failure affect their emotions and motivations (Weiner, 2000). For example, when students attribute failure to lack of ability, and ability is perceived as uncontrollable, they experience the emotions of [[shame]] and [[embarrassment]] and consequently decrease effort and show poorer performance. In contrast, when students attribute failure to lack of effort, and effort is perceived as controllable, they experience the emotion of [[guilt]] and consequently increase effort and show improved performance. Motivational theories also explain how [[Goal Theory|learners' goals]] affect the way that they engage with academic tasks (Elliot, 1999). Those who have ''mastery goals'' strive to increase their ability and knowledge. Those who have ''performance approach goals'' strive for high grades and seek opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. Those who have ''performance avoidance'' goals are driven by fear of failure and avoid situations where their abilities are exposed. Research has found that mastery goals are associated with many positive outcomes such as persistence in the face of failure, preference for challenging tasks, [[creativity]] and [[intrinsic motivation]]. Performance avoidance goals are associated with negative outcomes such as poor [[attention|concentration]] while studying, disorganized studying, less self-regulation, shallow information processing and [[anxiety#Test anxiety|test anxiety]]. Performance approach goals are associated with positive outcomes, and some negative outcomes such as an unwillingness to seek help and shallow information processing. ==Research methods== The research methods used in educational psychology tend to be drawn from psychology and other social sciences. There is also a history of significant methodological innovation by educational psychologists, or psychologists investigating educational problems. Research methods address problems in both [[design of experiments|research design]] and [[data analysis]]. Research design informs the planning of experiments and observational studies to ensure that their results have [[internal validity|internal]], [[external validity|external]] and [[ecological validity|ecological]] validity. Data analysis encompasses methods for processing both quantitive (numerical) and qualitative (non-numerical) research data. Although, historically, the use of quantitative methods was often considered an essential mark of scholarship, modern educational psychology research uses both [[quantitative research|quantitative]] and [[qualitative research|qualitative]] methods. ===Quantitative methods=== [[Image:Normal_distribution_and_scales.gif|right|thumb|250px|Test scores and other educational variables often approximate a [[normal distribution]].]] Perhaps first among the important methodological innovations of educational psychology was the development and application of [[factor analysis]] by [[Charles Spearman]]. Factor analysis is mentioned here as one example of the many [[Multivariate statistics|multivariate statistical methods]] used by educational psychologists. Factor analysis is used to summarize relationships among a large set of variables or test questions, develop theories about mental constructs such as self-efficacy or anxiety, and assess the reliability and validity of test scores (Thompson, 2004). Over one hundred years after its introduction by Spearman, factor analysis has become a research staple figuring prominantly in educational psychology journals. Because educational [[assessment]] is fundamental to most quantitative research in the field, educational psychologists have made significant contributions to the field of [[psychometrics]]. For example, [[Cronbach's alpha|alpha]], the widely used measure of test [[Reliability (statistics)|reliability]] was developed by educational psychologist [[Lee Cronbach]]. The reliability of assessments are routinely reported in quantitative educational research. Although, originally, educational measurement methods were built on [[classical test theory]], [[item response theory]] and [[Rasch model|Rasch models]] are now used extensively in educational measurement worldwide. These models afford advantages over classical test theory, including the capacity to produce standard errors of measurement for each score or pattern of scores on assessments and the capacity to handle missing responses. [[Meta-analysis]], the combination of individual research results to produce a quantitative [[literature review]], is another methodological innovation with a close association to educational psychology. In a meta-analysis, [[effect size]]s that represent, for example, the differences between treatment groups in a set of similar experiments, are averaged to obtain a single aggregate value representing the best [[estimate]] of the effect of treatment (Lipsey &amp; Wilson, 2001). Several decades after [[Karl Pearson|Pearson]]'s work with early versions of meta-analysis, [[Gene V Glass|Glass]] (1976) published the first application of modern meta-analytic techniques and triggered their broad application across the social and biomedical sciences. Today, meta-analysis is among the most common types of literature review found in educational psychology research. ===Qualitative methods=== Qualitative methods are used in educational studies whose purpose is to describe events, processes and situations of theoretical significance. The qualitative methods used in educational psychology often derive from [[psycholinguistics]], [[anthropology]] or [[sociology]]. For example, the anthropological method of [[ethnography]] has been used to describe teaching and learning in classrooms. In studies of this type, the researcher may gather detailed field notes as a [[Participant observation|participant observer]] or passive observer. Later, the notes and other data may be categorized and interpreted by methods such as [[grounded theory]]. [[Triangulation (social science)|Triangulation]], the practice of cross-checking findings with multiple data sources, is highly valued in qualitative research. [[Case study|Case studies]] are forms of qualitative research focusing on a single person, organization, event, or other entity. In one case study (Everall, Bostik &amp; Paulson, 2005), researchers conducted a 150-minute, semi-structured [[interview]] with a 20-year old woman who had a history of [[Teenage suicide|suicidal]] thinking between the ages of 14 to 18. They analyzed an audio-recording of the interview to understand the roles of cognitive development, identify formation and [[Attachment theory|social attachment]] in ending her suicidal thinking. Qualitative analysis is most often applied to verbal data from sources such as conversations, interviews, [[focus group]]s, and personal journals. Qualitative methods are thus, typically, approaches to gathering, processing and reporting verbal data. One of the most commonly used methods for qualitative research in educational psychology is [[protocol analysis]] (Ericsson &amp; Simon, 1993). In this method the research participant is asked to ''think aloud'' while performing a task, such as solving a math problem. In protocol analysis the verbal data is thought to indicate which information the subject is attending to, but is explicitly not interpreted as an explanation or justification for behavior. In contrast, the method of verbal analysis (Chi, 1997) does admit learners' explanations as a way to reveal their [[mental model]] or [[misconception]]s (e.g., of the laws of motion). The most fundamental operations in both protocol and verbal analysis are segmenting (isolating) and categorizing sections of verbal data. [[Conversation analysis]] and [[discourse analysis]], psycholinguistic methods that focus more specifically on the structure of conversational interchange (e.g., between a teacher and student), have been used to assess the process of conceptual change in science learning (Pea, 1993). Qualitative methods are also used to analyse information in a variety of media, such as students' drawings and [[concept maps]], video-recorded interactions, and computer log records. ==Applications in instructional design and technology== [[Image:BloomsCognitiveDomain.PNG|right|thumb|250px|[[Taxonomy of education objectives|Bloom's taxonomy]] of educational objectives: categories in the cognitive domain (Anderson &amp; Krathwohl, 2001)]] [[Instructional design]], the systematic design of materials, activities and interactive environments for learning, is broadly informed by educational psychology theories and research. For example, in defining learning goals or objectives, instructional designers often use a [[Taxonomy of education objectives|taxonomy of educational objectives]] created by [[Benjamin Bloom]] and colleagues (Anderson &amp; Krathwohl, 2001). Bloom also researched [[mastery learning]], an instructional strategy in which learners only advance to a new learning objective after they have mastered its prerequisite objectives. Bloom (1984) discovered that a combination of mastery learning with one-to-one tutoring is highly effective,
enly on the island. Apart from tentative U.S. support for the [[Rafael Leonidas Trujillo|Trujillo]] dictatorship (1930-1961) (though this faded during his final years), the largest example of this was the [[1965]] invasion by American troops in the midst of a Dominican civil war, an uprising that was sparked by an attempt to restore the republic's first democratically-elected president of the 20th century, [[Juan Bosch]], who had been overthrown by a [[right-wing politics|right-wing]] [[coup]] in 1963. Following this civil war, and America's deployment of troops in [[Operation Power Pack]], [[Joaquín Balaguer]] (1966-1978) was democractically elected, winning by 57%. Juan Bosch's constitutional government never returned to power. The [[Lyndon Johnson|Johnson administration]] justified the 1965 intervention by stating that it suspected many of Bosch's supporters were pro-[[Cuba|Cuban]] [[communism|Communists]]. ==Politics== :''Main article: [[Politics of the Dominican Republic]]'' The Dominican Republic is a [[representative democracy]] whose national powers are divided among independent [[Executive (government)|executive]], [[Legislature|legislative]], and [[judicial]] branches. The [[President of the Dominican Republic|president]] appoints the cabinet, executes laws passed by the legislative branch, and is commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president and vice president run for office on the same ticket and are elected by direct vote for four-year terms. Legislative power is exercised by a bicameral [[National Congress of the Dominican Republic|National Congress]] — the [[Senate of the Dominican Republic|Senate]] (32 members), and the [[Chamber of Deputies of the Dominican Republic|Chamber of Deputies]] (150 members). Presidential elections are held in years evenly divisible by four. Congressional and municipal elections are held in even-numbered years not divisible by four. ==Provinces== :''Main article: [[Provinces of the Dominican Republic]]'' ==Geography== [[Image:Isla_Saona.jpg|thumb|400px|A beach on the Saona island]] :''Main article: [[Geography of the Dominican Republic]]'' The capital of the country is the city of [[Santo Domingo ]]-full name Santo Domingo de Guzman, located in the south part of the island. Originally a single city located within the province Distrito Nacional (National District), it has now been divided into a Province of Santo Domingo and the National District. The Province of Santo Domingo is comprised of several municipalities: Santo Domingo Norte (North Santo Domingo), Santo Domingo Este (East Santo Domingo, which is the provincial capital), Santo Domingo Oeste (West Santo Domingo) and Boca Chica. The Ozama River serves a natural border between the National District and the Province of Santo Domingo. Thus the capital city of the Country is the City of Santo Domingo de Guzman, Province of National District. The second largest city is [[Santiago de los Caballeros]], more commonly referred to as simply Santiago. [[Image:IMG_1281.jpg|thumb|300px|Statue of Juan Pablo Duarte in front of La Pelona]] The country has three major mountain ranges: The Central Mountains (Cordillera Central), which originate in Haiti and span the central part of the island, ending up in the south. This mountain range boasts the highest peak in the [[Antilles]], [[Pico Duarte]] (3 087 m above [[sea level]]). The Septentrional Mountains, running parallel to the Central Mountains, separate the Cibao Valley and the Atlantic coastal plains. The highest point here is Pico Diego de Ocampo. The lowest and shortest of the three ranges is the Eastern Mountains, in the eastern part of the country. There are also the Sierra Bahoruco and the Sierra Neyba in the southwest. This is a country of many rivers, including the navigable Soco, Higuamo, Romana, Yaque del Norte, Yaque del Sur, Yuna, Yuma, and Bajajabonicoco. ==Demographics== :''Main article: [[Demographics of the Dominican Republic]]'' The majority of Dominicans are of Mixed African, European and Native American (Taino) Blood. A small presence of [[Asian|Asian]], mostly of [[overseas Chinese|Chinese]] descent, and [[Middle East|Middle Easterners]], mostly [[Lebanese]], can be found. Dominican culture is essentially Latin coated with a elements of [[Spanish]]'s culture, like language and religion. African culture also is a major factor, with elements such as the music and Carnival testimony to the rich slave heritage. It also has many Antilliean, European, and American influences. Since the early [[1960s]], economic problems have led to a vast migration of Dominicans to the U.S., mainly to large east coast cities, and coming on the heels of a similar migration of [[Puerto Ricans]]. [[New York City]]'s [[Washington Heights]] is so densely populated by Dominicans, it is sometimes referred to as '' Quisqueya Heights''. ''Quisqueya'' is a popular name for Hispaniola that many believe derives from the island's original Arawak name, although this is disputed by some historians. Dominicans are now one of the largest [[Latino]] groups in the US; less numerous than the Mexican majority and Puerto Ricans, and about even with Cubans. There are also sizeable Dominican emigre communities in the [[Netherlands]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Spain]], and [[St. Maarten]]. Dominican Republic has a history of race and prejudice issues, mostly of [[blacks]] against [[blacks]]. This phenomenon is common in the island and much more pronounced in Haiti. In recent years, illegal immigration from Haiti has dramatically increased as the Dominican economy improves and the Haitian economy remains virtually moribund. Most Haitian immigrants work at low-paying, unskilled labor jobs, including construction work and household cleaning. The Dominican sentiment towards these immigrants is frequently negative, and at times in its history, including the period during and after Haiti merged the two nations (the [[19th century]] and the reign of [[Rafael Leonidas Trujillo]]), there have been anti-Haitian pogroms, slaughtering 18,000 Haitians at the border [http://haitiforever.com/windowsonhaiti/warwh.shtml]. This also led to Dominican Republic paying Haiti $750,000 to avert war. [http://www.thediamondangle.com/marasco/negleg/trujillo.html] Many foreigners reside in the country for business, religious, and leisure reasons, and there are significant populations of Americans, Canadians, Germans, French, and Koreans in the country. ==Economy== :''Main article: [[Economy of the Dominican Republic]]'' The Dominican Republic is a middle-income developing country primarily dependent on [[agriculture]], [[trade]], and [[services]], especially [[tourism]]. Although the service sector has recently overtaken agriculture as the leading employer of Dominicans (due principally to growth in tourism and [[Free Trade Zones]]), agriculture remains the most important sector in terms of domestic consumption and is in second place (behind [[mining]]) in terms of [[export]] earnings. Tourism accounts for more than $3 billion in annual earnings. [[Free Trade Zone]] earnings and tourism are the fastest-growing export sectors. [[Remittances from overseas|Remittances]] from Dominicans living abroad are estimated to be about $3 billion per year. Following economic turmoil in the late 1980s and 1990, during which the [[GDP]] fell by up to 5% and consumer price [[inflation]] reached an unprecedented 100%, the Dominican Republic entered a period of moderate growth and declining inflation until 2002 after which the economy entered a [[recession]], after the second [[commercial bank]] of the country collapsed, caused by a major [[fraud]]. GDP dropped by 1% in 2003 while inflation ballooned by over 27%. Despite a widening merchandise [[trade deficit]], tourism earnings and remittances have helped build [[foreign exchange reserves]]. The Dominican Republic is current on foreign [[Consumer debt|private debt]], and has agreed to pay arrears of about $130 million to the [[U.S. Department of Agriculture|U.S. Department of Agriculture's]] [[Commodity Credit Corporation]]. ==Peso== :''Main article: [[Dominican Peso]]'' The [[Dominican Peso]] (RD$) is the national currency of the country although the [[US dollar]] is often acceptable in some places, especially tourist oriented shops and hotels. At the beginning the peso was worth about the same as a [[US dollar]]. In [[1993]] the US dollar was worth about RD$14.00, in [[1998]] RD$16.00, in [[2002]] RD$20.00, but in [[2003]] almost RD$55.00, [[2004]] RD$37.00, [[2005]] RD$29.90. The US dollar currently fluctuates on a daily basis, and is usually worth between $-31.90-35.00 pesos. ==Culture== :''Main article: [[Culture of the Dominican Republic]]'' [[Baseball]] is the top national sport in the Dominican Republic and there are many popular Dominicans who play [[Major League Baseball]] in the U.S., including [[Albert Pujols]], [[Sammy Sosa]],[[Rafael Furcal]], [[Pedro Martinez]], [[David Ortiz]], [[Miguel Tejada]], and [[Manny Ramirez]]. The Dominican Republic also has its own baseball league, which many MLB players go to during off-season, and which is also a &quot;training ground&quot; for the MLB. Eighty-nine percent of Dominicans are baptized in the [[Catholic Church in the Dominican Republic|Roman Catholic Church]]. Other substantial religious groups are the Evangelical Christians and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Around one percent of the nation's inhabitants practice pure spiritism, although it is very common for Catholicism and spiritism to be mixed in Santeria's seancees and &quot;saint&quot; parties. The Dominican Republic is known for a form of music called [[merengue (music)|Merengue]], which has been popular since the mid- to late-[[1900s]]. It has sexually charged syncopated beats using Latin percussion, brass instruments, bass and electric guitars. What was considered unpopular to the youth, until today, is a form of folk music called [[Bach
1988). *''Pourparlers'' (1990). Trans. ''Negotiations''. *''Critique et clinique'' (1993). Trans. ''Essays Critical and Clinical''. *''Pure Immanence'' (2000). *''L'île déserte et autres textes'' (2002). Trans. ''Desert Islands and Other Texts 1953-1974''. *''Deux régimes de fous et autres textes'' (2004). In collaboration with [[Félix Guattari]]: *''Capitalisme et Schizophrénie 1. L'Anti-Œdipe.'' (1972). Trans. ''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' (1977). *''Kafka: Pour une Littérature Mineure.'' (1975). Trans. ''Kafka: Toward a Theory of Minor Literature.'' (1986). *''Rhizome.'' (1976). *''Nomadology: The War Machine.'' (1986). *''Capitalisme et Schizophrénie 2. Mille Plateaux.'' (1980). Trans. ''[[A Thousand Plateaus]]'' (1987). *''Qu'est ce que c'est la philosophie?'' (1991). Trans. ''What Is Philosophy?'' (1996). Most of '''Deleuze's courses''' available [http://www.webdeleuze.com/php/sommaire.html here] (in French, English, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese...) On Gilles Deleuze: * Descombes, Vincent (1979). ''Le Meme et L'Autre''. Minuit. Trans. ''Modern French Philosophy''. Cambridge University Press. * Frank, Manfred (1984). ''Was ist Neostrukturalismus?'' Suhrkamp. Trans. ''What Is Neostructuralism?'' University of Minnesota Press. * Hardt, Michael (1993). ''Gilles Deleuze: An Apprenticeship in Philosophy''. University of Minnesota Press. * Lecercle, Jean-Jacques (1985). ''Philosophy through the Looking-Glass''. Open Court. * May, Todd (2005). ''Gilles Deleuze: An Introduction''. Cambridge University Press. * Williams, James (2003). ''Gilles Deleuze's Difference and Repetition: A Critical Introduction and Guide''. Edinburgh University Press. ===On Deleuze and feminism=== Some [[feminism|feminist]] theorists have sought to criticize and adapt Deleuze's work in the context of contemporary feminist theory. Some such texts include: * Braidotti, Rosi (2002). ''Metamorphoses: Towards a Materialist Theory of Becoming.'' Blackwell. * Braidotti, Rosi (1994). ''Nomadic Subjects: Embodiment and Sexual Difference in Contemporary Feminist Theory.'' Columbia UP. * Braidotti, Rosi (1991). ''Patterns of Dissonance: A Study of Women in Contemporary Philosophy.'' Trans. Elizabeth Guild. Polity Press. * Colebrook, Claire, ed. (2000). ''Deleuze and Feminist Theory.'' Edinburgh UP. * Colebrook, Claire (Spring, 2000). &quot;From Radical Representations to Corporeal Becomings: The Feminist Philosophy of Lloyd, Grosz, and Gatens,&quot; in ''Hypatia'' - Volume 15, Number 2, pp. 76-93. * Gatens, Moira (Spring 2000). &quot;Feminism as 'Password': Rethinking the 'Possible' with Spinoza and Deleuze,&quot; in ''Hypatia'' – Volume 15, Number 2, pp. 59-75 * Goulimari, Pelagia (Spring, 1999). &quot;A Minoritarian Feminism? Things to Do with Deleuze and Guattari,&quot; ''Hypatia'' – Volume 14, Number 2, pp. 97-120. * Grosz, Elisabeth (2005). ''Time Travels. Feminism, Nature, Power.'' Duke UP. * Grosz, Elisabeth (1994). ''Volatile Bodies: Toward a Corporeal Feminism.'' Indiana UP. * Grosz, Elisabeth (1994). &quot;A Thousand Tiny Sexes: Feminism and Rhizomatics,&quot; in ''Deleuze and the Theatre of Philosophy,'' ed. Constantin V. Boundas and Dorothea Olkowski. Routledge, pp. 187-210. * Olkowski, Dorothea (1999). ''Gilles Deleuze and the Ruin of Representation.'' University of California Press. * Olkowski, Dorothea (1994). &quot;Nietzsche’s Dice Throw: Tragedy, Nihilism, and the Body without Organs,&quot; in ''Deleuze and the Theatre of Philosophy,'' ed. Constantin V. Boundas and Dorothea Olkowski. Routledge, pp. 119-140. == See also == *[[affect (philosophy)]] *[[concept]] *[[deterritorialization]] *[[percept]] *[[rhizome]] *[[Gilbert Simondon]]'s theory of psychic and collective [[individuation]] *[[minority (philosophy)]] *[[Schizoanalysis]] *[[Plane of immanence]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *[http://www.webdeleuze.com/php/sommaire.html Webdeleuze - courses &amp; audio put on line by [[Richard Pinhas]], availables in French, English, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, etc.] *[http://www.mythosandlogos.com/Deleuze.html A collection of links] *[http://www.purselipsquarejaw.org/research_design/notes/dandg.html A short summary of vital terms] *[http://www.protevi.com/john/DG/index.html Lectures and notes on work by Deleuze and Guattari] *[http://www.uta.edu/english/apt/d&amp;g/d&amp;gweb.html Deleuze and Guattari on the Web (UT-Arlington)] *[http://www.langlab.wayne.edu/CStivale/D-G/index.html Web resources from Wayne University] *[http://www.driftline.org The Deleuze and Guattari listserv] *[http://www.egs.edu/resources/deleuze.html Biography] *[http://www.revue-chimeres.org Website of the review 'Chimères', founded by Deleuze and Guattari] *[http://www.lichtensteiger.de/methoden.html Das &quot;Anrennen gegen die Grenzen der Sprache&quot; - Methoden des Schreibens und Strategien des Lesens by Ralph Lichtensteiger] (Discussion transcript in German) *For ongoing work influenced by Deleuze see [http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/delanda/ the works of Manuel de Landa]: &quot;Intensive Science &amp; Virtual Philosophy&quot; (found under &quot;2002&quot;), &amp; &quot;1000 Years of Non-Linear History&quot; (&quot;1997&quot;). *{{fr}}{{Citenews | title=Jean Ristat : entretien avec Gilles Deleuze (France-Culture, 2 juillet 1970) | org=L'Humanité | date=February 28, 2006 | url=http://www.humanite.fr/journal/2006-02-28/2006-02-28-825077}} == Endnotes == #{{note|Negotiations}} ''Negotiations'', p. 9. #{{note|Dialogues}} See &quot;The Method of Dramatization&quot; in ''Desert Islands'', and &quot;Actual and Virtual&quot; in ''Dialogues''. #{{note|Desert_Islands}} &quot;Bergson's Conception of Difference&quot; in ''Desert Islands'', p. 36. #{{note|Difference_and_Repetition}} ''[[Difference and Repetition]]'', p. 39 #{{note|A_Thousand_Plateaus}} ''A Thousand Plateaus'', p. 20. #{{note|Desert_Islands_2}} ''Desert Islands'', p. 262. #{{note|Critical_and_Clinical}} ''Essays Critical and Clinical'', p. 135. {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:1925 births|Deleuze, Gilles]] [[Category:1995 deaths|Deleuze, Gilles]] [[Category:20th century philosophers|Deleuze, Gilles]] [[Category:Continental philosophers|Deleuze, Gilles]] [[Category:French philosophers|Deleuze, Gilles]] [[Category:Postmodern theory|Deleuze, Gilles]] [[Category:Poststructuralism|Deleuze, Gilles]] [[Category:Social philosophy]] [[Category:Writers who committed suicide|Deleuze, Gilles]] [[Category:Deleuze-Guattari]] [[ast:Gilles Deleuze]] [[de:Gilles Deleuze]] [[es:Gilles Deleuze]] [[et:Gilles Deleuze]] [[fr:Gilles Deleuze]] [[it:Gilles Deleuze]] [[ja:ジル・ドゥルーズ]] [[nl:Gilles Deleuze]] [[no:Gilles Deleuze]] [[pt:Gilles Deleuze]] [[ru:Делёз, Жиль]] [[sk:Gilles Deleuze]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Galaxy</title> <id>12558</id> <revision> <id>41412332</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:45:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>OrphanBot</username> <id>621721</id> </contributor> <comment>Removing image with no copyright information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} [[Image: NGC_4414_(NASA-med).jpg|right|thumb|280px|'''[[NGC 4414]]''', a typical spiral galaxy in the constellation [[Coma Berenices]], is about 56,000 light years in diameter and approximately 60 million light years distant.]] A '''galaxy''' is a huge [[gravitation|gravitationally bound]] system of [[star]]s, [[interstellar medium|interstellar gas and dust]], [[plasma (physics)|plasma]], and (possibly) unseen [[dark matter]]. Typical galaxies contain 10 million to one trillion (10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; to 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;) stars, all orbiting a common [[center of gravity]]. In addition to single stars and a tenuous interstellar medium, most galaxies contain a large number of [[star system|multiple star systems]] and [[star cluster]]s as well as various types of [[nebula]]e. Most galaxies are several thousand to several hundred thousand [[light year]]s in diameter and are usually separated from one another by distances on the order of millions of light years. Although so-called [[dark matter]] appears to account around 90% of the mass of most galaxies, the nature of this unseen components is not well understood. There is some evidence that [[supermassive black hole]]s may exist at the center of many, if not all, galaxies. [[Intergalactic space]], the space between galaxies, is filled with a tenuous [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] with an average density less than one atom per cubic meter. There are probably more than a hundred billion (10&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;) galaxies in the visible [[universe]]. == Types of galaxies == Galaxies come in three main types: [[elliptical galaxy|ellipticals]], [[spiral galaxy|spirals]], and [[irregular galaxy|irregulars]]. A slightly more extensive description of galaxy types based on their appearance is given by the [[Hubble sequence]]. Since the Hubble sequence is entirely based upon visual morphological type, it may miss certain important characteristics of galaxies such as [[star formation]] rate (in [[starburst galaxy|starburst galaxies]] or activity in the core (in [[active galaxy|active galaxies]]). Our own galaxy, the [[Milky Way]], sometimes simply called ''the Galaxy'' (with uppercase), is a large disk-shaped [[barred spiral galaxy]] about [[1 E20 m|30 kiloparsecs]] or 100,000 [[light year]]s in diameter and 3,000 light years in thickness. It contains about 3&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt; (three hundred billion) stars and has a total mass of about 6&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt; (six hundred billion) times the [[solar mass|mass of the Sun]]. In spiral galaxies, the spiral arms have the shape of approximate [[logarithmic spiral]]s, a pattern that can be theoretically shown to result from a disturbance in a uniformly rotating mass of stars. Like the stars, the spiral arms also rotate
[Israel]], [[Italy]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Thailand]], [[Turkey]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[United States|USA]], former [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]. ===Early development=== Though a [[1931]] Disney publication called ''[[Mickey Mouse Annual]]'' mentioned a character named Donald Duck, the character's first appearance in [[comic strip|comic-strip]] format was a newspaper cartoon that was based on the short ''The Wise Little Hen'' and published in [[1934]]. For the next few years, Donald made a few more appearances in Disney-themed strips, and by [[1936]], he had grown to be one of the most popular characters in the ''[[Silly Symphonies (comic strip)|Silly Symphonies]]'' comic strip. [[Ted Osborne]] was the primary writer of these strips, with [[Al Taliaferro]] as his artist. Osborne and Taliaferro also introduced several members of Donald's supporting cast, including his nephews, [[Huey, Dewey, and Louie]]. In [[1937]], an Italian publisher named [[Mondadori]] created the first Donald Duck story intended specifically for [[comic book]]s. The eighteen-page story, written by [[Federico Pedrocchi]], is the first to feature Donald as an adventurer rather than simply a comedic character. [[Fleetway]] in [[England]] also began publishing comic-book stories featuring the duck. ===Developments under Taliaferro=== A daily ''Donald Duck'' comic strip drawn by Taliaferro and written by [[Bob Karp]] began running in the [[United States]] on [[2 February]] [[1938]]; the Sunday strip began the following year. Taliaferro and Karp created an even larger cast of characters for Donald's world. He got a new [[St. Bernard (dog)|St. Bernard]] named [[Bolivar (dog)|Bolivar]], and [[Duck family|his family]] grew to include cousin [[Gus Goose]] and grandmother [[Elvira Coot]]. Donald's new rival girlfriends were [[Donna Duck|Donna]] and [[Daisy Duck]]. Taliaferro also gave Donald his very own automobile, a [[1934]] [[Belchfire Runabout]], in a [[1938]] story. ===Developments under Barks=== In [[1942]], [[Western Publishing]] began creating original comic-book stories about Donald and other Disney characters. Bob Karp worked on the earliest of these, a story called &quot;[[Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold]]&quot;. The new publisher meant new illustrators, however: [[Carl Barks]] and [[Jack Hannah]]. Barks would later repeat the [[treasure hunt|treasure-hunting]] theme in many more stories. Barks soon took over the major development of the comic-book version of the duck as both writer and illustrator. Under his pen, the comic version of Donald diverged even further from his animated counterpart, becoming more adventurous, less temperamental, and more eloquent. [[Black Pete]] was the only other major character from the ''Mickey Mouse'' comic strip to feature prominently in Barks' new [[Donald Duck universe]]. Barks placed Donald in the city of [[Duckburg]], which Barks populated with a host of supporting players, including [[Gladstone Gander]] ([[1948]]), [[Gyro Gearloose]], and Uncle [[Scrooge McDuck]] ([[1947]]). Many of Taliaferro's characters made the move to Barks' world as well, including Huey, Dewey, and Louie. Barks placed Donald in both domestic and adventure scenarios, and Uncle Scrooge became one of his favorite characters to pair up with Donald. Scrooge's popularity grew, and by [[1952]], the character had a comic book of his own. At this point, Barks concentrated his major efforts on the Scrooge stories, and Donald's appearances became more focused on comedy or he was recast as Scrooge's reluctant helper, following his rich uncle around the globe. ===Further developments=== Dozens of writers continued to utilize Donald in their stories around the world. Italian publisher Mondadori created many of the stories that were published throughout Europe. They also introduced numerous new characters who are today well known in Europe. One example is Donald Duck's alter-ego, a [[superhero]] called [[Paperinik]] in [[Italian language|Italian]], created by [[Guido Martina]] and [[Giovan Battista Carpi]]. == Beyond Disney == [[Image:Oregonfightingducks.jpg|thumb|The University of Oregon used Donald as their mascot.]] Donald Duck is the only popular film and television cartoon character to appear as a mascot for the sports team of a major American university, namely, the [[Oregon Ducks]] at the [[University of Oregon]]. Donald's name and image are also used on numerous commercial products, one example being Donald Duck brand [[orange juice]], introduced by [[Citrus World]] in [[1940]]. Donald's fame has also led Disney to license the character for a number of video games. He plays a major role in the video game series ''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'', for example, where he is depicted as a short-tempered, powerful magician on a quest to find King [[Mickey Mouse]]. == Different appearances == === [[Film|Movies]] === *''[[Saludos Amigos]]'' ([[1942]]) *''[[The Three Caballeros]]'' ([[1944]]) *''[[Fun and Fancy Free]]'' ([[1947]]) *''[[Mickey's Christmas Carol]]'' ([[1983]]) *''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit?]]'' ([[1988]]) *''[[The Prince and the Pauper]]'' ([[1990]]) *''[[A Goofy Movie]]'' ([[1995]]) *''[[Fantasia 2000]]'' ([[1999]]) *''[[Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas]]'' ([[1999]]) *''[[Mickey's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse]]'' ([[2001]]) *''[[Mickey's House of Villains]]'' ([[2003]]) *''[[Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas]]'' ([[2004]]) *''[[Mickey, Goofy, Donald: The Three Musketeers]]'' ([[2004]]) ===[[Television series]]=== [[Image:DonaldOnDuckTales.jpg|thumb|240px|Donald as seen on ''[[DuckTales]]''.]][[image:Quackpack.jpg|thumb|200px|Donald as seen on [[Quack Pack]], with [[Daisy Duck]] and [[Huey, Dewey and Louie]].]] * ''[[DuckTales]]'' (1987-1990) * ''[[Bonkers]]'' (1993-1995) (cameo) * ''[[Quack Pack]]'' (1996-1997) * ''[[Mickey Mouse Works]]'' (1999-2000) * ''[[House of Mouse]]'' (2001-2003) * ''[[Disney's Mickey Mouse Clubhouse]]'' (2006 debut) ===[[Computer and video games|Video games]] === *''[[Donald's Alphabet Chase]]'' ([[1988]]) *''[[Donald Duck's Playground]]'' ([[1988]]) *''[[DuckTales (video game)|Duck Tales : The quest for gold]]'' ([[1989]]) (Donald is only an [[Non-player_character|NPC]]) *''[[Quackshot]]'' ([[1991]]) *''[[The Lucky Dime Caper starring Donald Duck]]'' ([[1991]]) *''[[World of Illusion Starring Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck]]'' ([[1992]]) *''[[DuckTales 2]]'' ([[1993]]) (Donald is only an [[Non-player_character|NPC]]) *''[[Deep Duck Trouble Starring Donald Duck]]'' ([[1993]]) *''[[Maui Mallard in Cold Shadow]]'' ([[1996]]) *''[[Disney's Donald Duck: Goin' Quackers]]'' ([[2000]]) *''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'' ([[2002]]) *''[[Disney Golf]]'' ([[2002]]) *''[[Disney's PK: Out of the Shadows]]'' ([[2002]]) *''[[Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories]]'' ([[2004]]) *''[[Kingdom Hearts II]]'' ([[2006]]) === US [[comic book]]s === *''[[Walt Disney's Comics and Stories]]'' *''Donald Duck'' *''[[Uncle Scrooge]]'' *''[[Uncle Scrooge Adventures]]'' *''Donald Duck Adventures'' *''Mickey and Donald'' *''DuckTales'' *''Donald and Mickey'' *''Donald Duck and Mickey Mouse'' *''Walt Disney Giant'' *''Walt Disney's Comics and Stories Penny Pincher'' *''Uncle Scrooge and Donald Duck'' *''The Adventurous Uncle Scrooge McDuck'' *''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'' - Although technically a ''[[manga]]'' made in Japan adapted by [[Shiro Amano]] *''[[Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories]]'' - Manga made in Japan. === Famous illustrators === *[[Carl Barks]] *[[Luciano Bottaro]] *[[Giovan Battista Carpi]] *[[Giorgio Cavazzano]] *[[William Van Horn]] *[[Daan Jippes]] *[[Don Rosa]] *[[Marco Rota]] *[[Romano Scarpa]] *[[Tony Strobl]] *[[Al Taliaferro]] ==Further reading== * Ariel Dorfman, Armand Mattelart, David Kunzle (trans.), ''How to Read Donald Duck: Imperialist Ideology in the Disney Comic'' ISBN 0884770230 (Anti-Donald Duck Marxist Critique) * Walt Disney Productions, ''Walt Disney's Donald Duck: 50 Years of Happy Frustration'', Courage Books, May 1990 ASIN: 0894715305 ==See also== * List of [[Donald Duck cartoons]] ==External links== * [http://www.donaldduckcomics.com Donald Duck comics] * [http://duckman.pettho.com/characters/characters.html All the Ducks] * [http://goofy313g.free.fr/calisota_online/trees/myducktreebig.html Donald Duck's family tree] * [http://coa.inducks.org/character.php/x/DD Donald's profile in the Inducks] * [http://coa.inducks.org/character.php/x/PK Paperinik's profile in the Inducks] * [http://users.cwnet.com/xephyr/rich/dzone/hoozoo/donald.html Donald's profile in the Disney HooZoo] * [http://www.toonopedia.com/donald.htm Toonopedia: Donald Duck] * [http://disneyshorts.toonzone.net/characters/donald.html Donald Duck shorts film] * [http://www.marklansdown.com/pinbacks/pages/donaldduck.html Donald Duck advertising pinbacks] * [http://ask.yahoo.com/20051005.html Ask Yahoo! - Oct 5, 2005 - Why does Donald Duck never wear pants?] &lt;!-- Interlanguage links --&gt; {{Link FA|sv}} [[Category:Animated film series]] [[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, Donald]] [[Category:Comics characters|Duck, Donald]] [[Category:Disney characters|Duck, Donald]] [[Category:Donald Duck universe characters|Duck, Donald]] [[Category:Donald Duck|*]] [[Category:Famous bow tie wearers|Duck, Donald]] [[Category:Fictional Scots|Duck, Donald]] [[Category:Fictional ducks|Duck, Donald]] [[Category:Kingdom Hearts characters|Duck, Donald]] [[Category:Mascots|Duck, Donald]] [[ca:Ànec Donald]] [[da:Anders And]] [[de:Donald Duck]] [[es:Pato Donald]] [[fr:Donald Duck]] [[fy:Donald Duck]] [[id:Donal Bebek]] [[is:Andrés Önd]] [[it:Paperino]] [[he:דונאלד דאק]] [[lb:Donald Duck]] [[hu:Donald kacsa]] [[nl:Donald Duck (tekenfilm- en stripheld)]] [[ja:ドナルドダック]] [[no:Donald Duck]] [[nn:Donald Duck]] [[pl:Kaczor Donald]] [[pt:Pato Donald]] [[s
archism]] *[[Disestablishmentarianism]] *[[Religion in the United Kingdom]] *[[Welsh Church Act 1914]] [[Category:Political theories]] [[Category:Anglicanism]] [[Category:Long words]] [[Category:Religion and politics]] ==References== *Adrian Hastings, &lt;i&gt;Church and state : the English experience&lt;/i&gt; (Exeter : University of Exeter Press, 1991.) *[http://www.thuto.org/ubh/whist/chhist/ce-est1.htm &quot;Some notes on the Church of England and Establishment&quot;; University of Botswana History Department site] *[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=antidisestablishmentarianism antidisestablishmentarianism in the Online Etymology Dictionary] [[nl:Antidisestablishmentarianisme]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alcoholics Anonymous</title> <id>2047</id> <revision> <id>42146143</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:05:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Samlhall</username> <id>1026418</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>A slightly different perspective: the original phrase &quot;groups that protect the anonymity of members&quot; implies groups are organized to actively do that; rather anonymity is more an essential principal</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alcoholics Anonymous''' (known commonly as &quot;'''A.A.'''&quot; or &quot;'''AA'''&quot;) is a world-wide fellowship of [[alcoholism|alcoholic]]s whose stated primary purpose is to stay sober and to carry the message of recovery from alcoholism through the Twelve Steps. A.A. is the original [[twelve-step program]] and has been the source and model for all subsequent and separate ones, such as [[Gamblers Anonymous]], [[Narcotics Anonymous]], [[Sexaholics Anonymous]], [[Overeaters Anonymous]], and [[Al-Anon/Alateen]]. An earlier group for alcoholics, known as the [[Washingtonian movement|Washingtonians]], fell apart when it tried to branch out to different goals, which A.A. has tried to avoid. Many have claimed A.A. to be the most successful treatment for alcoholism ever devised. Though some take issue with this claim - and A.A. itself makes no such formal claim - the opinion is widely accepted because no other program has attained the same level of prominence. Dissenters have argued that there are no controlled double blind scientific studies to back the claims and that reputable scientific research casts doubts on the effectiveness of [[12 step treatment | such programs]][http://www.unhooked.com/booktalk/hester_miller_handbook.html]. One factor that complicates research into AA effectiveness is the difficulty of gathering statistical information on a membership that stresses anonymity as an essential characteristic of the fellowship. A.A. literature describes a difference between an &quot;alcoholic&quot; and a &quot;hard drinker,&quot; claiming that unlike a hard drinker, who may drink enough alcohol to cause gradual physical and mental impairment but nevertheless retains the ability to stop or moderate his or her drinking, given sufficiently strong reasons (Alcoholics Anonymous, p. 20-21)), an alcoholic has a disease which renders him/her bodily and mentally different from others. A.A. considers alcoholism to be a diagnosis which can only be made by oneself, and has no opinion on abstinence for others. There also exist a number of purely secular non-12 step programs which promote abstinence as a recovery goal, as well as programs which promote a goal of moderation for &quot;problem drinkers&quot; as opposed to &quot;alcoholics.&quot; A listing can be found in the external links section of this article. None has achieved the same wide-spread use and recognition as AA, and none is without its own controversies. Some people object to [[teetotalism|abstinence]] as a goal, preferring other programs which aim for moderation. [http://www.habitsmart.com/cntrldnk.html] Others advocate [[harm reduction]] as the most effective step towards addressing the immediate social problems caused by abuse of alcohol and other drugs. ==History and development== A.A. was started by two alcoholics who first met on [[May 12]], [[1935]]. One was [[William Griffith Wilson|Bill Wilson]] (William Griffith Wilson), a New York stockbroker; the other was Dr. [[Bob Smith (doctor)|Bob Smith]] (Robert Holbrook Smith), a medical doctor and surgeon from [[Akron, Ohio]]. In A.A. circles, the former is known as &quot;Bill W.&quot; and the latter, &quot;Dr. Bob.&quot; [[Image:BILLNBOB.JPG|thumb|none|left|Dr Bob Smith (left) and Bill Wilson (right), the co-founders of A.A.]] Wilson had been sober since December 11th, 1934 (six months) when he met Smith, although he had struggled with sobriety for years. In that time he had made several important discoveries about his own alcoholism. Firstly he had learned from a New York alcoholism specialist, Dr. [[William Duncan Silkworth]], that alcoholism was not simply a moral weakness. Silkworth told Wilson, during one of Wilson's admissions to his drying-out clinic, that alcoholism had a pathological disease-like character. He told Wilson that, in his view, alcoholism was akin to an allergy, in the sense that it produced abnormal reactions to alcohol that were not observed in non-alcoholic drinkers; he called these reactions a &quot;phenomenon of craving&quot; -- once started drinking, the alcoholic finds it very difficult to stop. In addition, Dr. Silkworth told Wilson that alcoholics had a mental obsession that gave them reasons to return to alcohol after periods of sobriety, even knowing that they would then develop overwhelming cravings. This &quot;double whammy&quot; (as he called it) meant that the alcoholic could not stop once started, and could not stop from starting again. This explained the enormous recidivism rate of alcoholics. Wilson also discovered that some alcoholics were able to recover on a [[Spirituality|spiritual]] basis. This approach had been used by one of Wilson's old drinking buddies, Ebby Thacher, to get sober. Thacher had learned about the spiritual approach from Rowland H., an American business executive and alcoholic who had undergone treatment with the famous Swiss analytical psychologist Dr. [[Carl Jung]]. After a prolonged and unsuccessful period of therapy, Jung told Rowland that his case, like that of most alcoholics, was nigh on hopeless. Rowland was horrified and begged Jung to tell him anything that might help. Jung replied there was only one hope: a genuine spiritual conversion experience. History, he said, had recorded isolated examples of recovery from alcoholism that appeared solely attributable to the spiritual conversion of the alcoholic. He told Rowland to seek out a conversion experience. Rowland H. returned to America and found a means to a [[spiritual awakening]] through the [[Oxford Group]], a self-styled first-Century Christian movement that advocated finding god through moral inventory, confession of defects, restitution, reliance upon god, and helping others. It appeared that a spiritual awakening would relieve alcoholics of the mental obsession that kept sending them back to alcoholism after periods of sobriety. Note that Wilson later (''Alcoholics Anonymous comes of age'', New York: Harper; 1957, p. 39) credited A.A.'s ideas of self examination, acknowledgement of character defects, restitution for harm done, and working with others, to the religious influence of Rev. Samuel Moor Shoemaker and the Oxford Group Movement. Following one of Wilson's relapses, he returned to the hospital where he was sedated and detoxified. He prayed in bed during his recovery: &quot;If there be a God, will He show himself! The result was instant, electric, beyond description. The place seemed to light up, blinding white. I knew only ecstasy and seemed on a mountain. A great wind blew, enveloping and penetrating me. To me, it was not of air, but of Spirit. Blazing, there came the tremendous thought. 'You are a free man.' Then the ecstasy subsided. I now found myself in a new world of consciousness which was suffused by a Presence. One with the universe, a great peace stole over me&quot; (Three talks to medical societies by Bill W., co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous. New York; Alcoholics Anonymous World Services; 1973, p.10). Wilson questioned whether he had a genuine [[religious experience]] (see also [[peak experiences]])or was on the verge of madness. Dr. Silkworth advised him that &quot;hopeless alcoholics&quot; sometimes report conversion experiences before being &quot;turned around&quot; toward recovery. He referred Wilson to [[William James]]' ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/621 Varieties of Religious Experience]'' and directed him to Lectures IX and X, dealing with conversion. James states in the first paragraph of Lecture IX, &quot;To be converted, to be regenerated, to receive grace, to experience religion, to gain an assurance, are so many phrases which denote the process, gradual or sudden, by which a self hitherto divided, and consciously wrong, inferior and unhappy, becomes unified and consciously right, superior and happy, in consequence of its firmer hold upon religious realities. This at least is what conversion signifies in general terms, whether or not we believe that a direct divine operation is needed to bring such a moral change about.&quot; Lecture VIII, &quot;The Divided Self&quot; also refers to the condition before conversion. In ''When A.A. Came of Age'', Wilson states that Dr. Silkworth &quot;reminded me of Professor William James's observation that truly transforming spiritual experiences are nearly always founded on calamity and collapse.&quot; James' Lectures IX and X discussed the conversion of &quot;Mr. S. H. Hadley, who after his conversion became an active and useful rescuer of drunkards in New York.&quot; His footnote 104 states &quot;I have abridged Mr. Hadley's account. For other conversions of drunkards, see his pamphlet, Rescue Mission Work, publ
y of the Dead.]] See [[List of hospitals in Egypt]]. === Transport === ''Main Article: [[Transportation in Cairo]]'' *[[Cairo International Airport]] *[[Cairo Metro]] *[[CTA]] === Utilities === to be added ==Cairo in art, literature and music== In the fictional ''[[Star Trek]]'' universe, a starship, the [[MemoryAlpha:USS Cairo|USS ''Cairo'']], was named for the city. In the [[computer game]] ''[[Deus Ex: Invisible War]]'', futuristic Cairo is depicted as an ancient [[medina quarter|medina]] surrounding a [[pyramid]]-shaped [[arcology]]. *[[Naguib Mahfouz]] *[[Cairo Opera House]] [http://www.operahouse.gov.eg/] == Education == Cairo has long been the hub of education and educational services not only for Egypt but also for the [[Arab World]].&lt;BR&gt; Today, Cairo is the center for the government offices governing the [[Education in Egypt|Egyptian educational system]], has the largest number of Educational schools, and [[Egyptian universities|higher learning institutes]] among other cities and governorates of Egypt. Universities in Cairo: * [[Al-Azhar University]] * [[Modern Academy In Maadi]] * [[Ain Shams University]] * [[American University in Cairo]] * [[AlAhram Canadian University (ACU)]] * [[Arab Academy for Sciences &amp; Technology and Maritime Transport]] * [[British University in Egypt]] (BUE) * [[Cairo University]] * [[French University in Egypt]] * [[German University in Cairo]] (GUC) * [[Helwan University]] * [[Misr University for Science and Technology]] (MUST)(opened in 2000) * [[Misr International University]] (MIU) * [[Modern University for Sciences and Technology]] (MSA) * [[Sadat Academy For Management Science]] == Sports == Cairo has a number of sporting teams that compete in national leagues. The best known teams are [[Al-Zamalek]] and [[Al-Ahly]], whose annual football [[Local derby]] is perhaps the most watched sports event in Egypt as well as the [[Arab World]]. Both teams are known as the giants of Egyptian and Arabic football, and are champions in the African continent and the Arab World. Both teams play their home games at [[Cairo International Stadium]], which is Cairo's and Egypt's largest stadium. The [[Cairo International Stadium]] is a multipurpose sports complex that houses the main Soccer stadium, an indoor stadium, several satalite fields that held several regional, continental and global games, including the African Games, Football World Championship for U17 and is one of the stadiums schedualed to host the [[2006 African Nations Cup]] which begins on [[20 January]]. Cairo failed at the applicant stage when bidding for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games, which will be hosted in Beijing China. Egypt was unsuccessful in bidding to host the 2010 Football World Cup, which will be held in South Africa. There are several other sports teams in the city that participate in several sports including [[Al Jazeera Sporting Club]], [[Shooting club]], [[Heliopolis Club]] and several smaller clubs. Most of the sports federations of the country are also located in the city suburbs, including the [[Egyptian Football Association]]. The headquarters of the [[Confederation of African Football]](CAF) was previously located in Cairo, before relocating to its new headquarters in [[6th October City]]. ==Famous Cairenes== *[[Boutros Boutros Ghali]], former [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]] of the [[United Nations]], born in Cairo. *[[Maimonides]], [[Royal court|court]] [[physician]] to [[Saladin]] and [[Talmud]]ic scholar. *[[Omar Sharif]], [[Actor]] *[[Naguib Mahfouz]], [[Nobel Laureate]] and [[novelist]] *[[Mohamed ElBaradei]], [[Nobel Peace Prize Laureate]] *[[Ahmed H. Zewail]], [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry Laureate]] == Districts == {{Template:Districts of Cairo}} ==[[Town twinning]]/[[Sister cities]]== *[[Image:Flag of Germany.svg|25px]] [[Stuttgart]], [[Germany]] (since 1979) *[[Image:Flag of Turkey.svg|25px]] [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]] *[[Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg|25px|]] [[New York City]], [[USA]] ==See also== * [[Capital of Egypt]] * [[Gates of Cairo]] * [[Wagh el Birket]] * [[Smart Village]] * [[Mosque of Ibn Tulun]] ==Further reading== *Artemis Cooper, ''Cairo in the War, 1939-1945'', Hamish Hamilton, 1989 / Penguin Book, 1995. ISBN 0140247815 (Pbk) *André Raymond, ''Cairo'', trans. Willard Wood. Harvard University Press, 2000. *Max Rodenbeck, ''Cairo &amp;ndash; the City Victorious'', Picador, 1998. ISBN 0330337092 (Hbk) ISBN 0330337106 (Pbk) ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Cairo}} *[http://egypt.cities-guide.net/cairo/ Cairo Web Directory] * {{wikitravelpar|Cairo}} *[http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/africa/cairo/ Lonely Planet/Cairo] *[http://st-takla.org/Links/Coptic-Links-02-Churches-a-Egypt.html#Cairo%20&amp;%20Giza: Coptic Churches of Cairo] *[http://www.cairolive.com/ Cairo Live] *[http://www.stayxs.com/egypt/cairo.html Cairo Hotels] *[http://www.cairo.org Cairo.org Photos and General Information] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[Category:Cairo| ]] [[als:Kairo]] [[ar:القاهرة]] [[bg:Кайро]] [[ca:El Caire]] [[cs:Káhira]] [[da:Kairo]] [[de:Kairo]] [[es:El Cairo]] [[eo:Kairo]] [[fr:Le Caire]] [[gl:Cairo - القاهرة]] [[ko:카이로]] [[hr:Kairo]] [[io:Kairo]] [[id:Kairo]] [[is:Kaíró]] [[it:Il Cairo]] [[he:קהיר]] [[jv:Kairo]] [[la:Cairus]] [[lt:Kairas]] [[hu:Kairó]] [[mk:Каиро]] [[ms:Kaherah]] [[nl:Caïro]] [[ja:カイロ (都市)]] [[ka:ქაირო]] [[no:Kairo]] [[nn:Kairo]] [[pl:Kair]] [[pt:Cairo]] [[ro:Cairo]] [[ru:Каир]] [[simple:Cairo]] [[sk:Káhira]] [[sl:Kairo]] [[sr:Каиро]] [[fi:Kairo]] [[sv:Kairo]] [[th:ไคโร]] [[tl:Cairo]] [[tr:Kahire]] [[zh:开罗]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chaos theory</title> <id>6295</id> <revision> <id>42125487</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:05:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Linas</username> <id>159886</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Attractors */ fix broken link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Chaos Theory (disambiguation)]] for other meanings.'' [[Image:Lorenz attractor yb.svg|thumb|right||A plot of the trajectory Lorenz system for values ''r''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;28, &amp;#963;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;10, ''b''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;8/3]] In [[mathematics]] and [[physics]], '''chaos theory''' deals with the behavior of certain [[nonlinearity|nonlinear]] [[dynamical system]]s that under certain conditions exhibit a phenomenon known as '''chaos'''. Among the characteristics of chaotic systems, described below, is a sensitivity to initial conditions (popularly referred to as the [[butterfly effect]]). As a result of this sensitivity, the behavior of systems that exhibit chaos appears to be random, even though the [[Model (abstract)|model]] of the system is [[deterministic system (philosophy)|deterministic]] in the sense that it is well defined and contains no random parameters. Examples of such systems include the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], the [[solar system]], [[plate tectonics]], [[turbulence|turbulent]] fluids, economies, and population growth. Systems that exhibit mathematical chaos are deterministic and thus orderly in some sense; this technical use of the word ''chaos'' is at odds with common parlance, which suggests complete disorder. [See the article on [[chaos (mythology)|mythological chaos]] for a discussion of the origin of the word in mythology, and other uses.] A related field of physics called [[quantum chaos]] theory studies non-deterministic systems that follow the laws of [[quantum mechanics]]. ===Chaotic dynamics=== For a dynamical system to be classified as chaotic, it must have the following properties: * it must be ''sensitive to initial conditions'' * it must be ''[[topological mixing|topologically mixing]]'' * its periodic orbits must be ''[[dense set|dense]]'' &lt;!--brief explanation of dense sets --&gt; ''Sensitivity to initial conditions'' means that two points in such a system may move in vastly different trajectories in their [[phase space]]&lt;!--explain this term--&gt;, even if the difference in their initial configurations is very small. The systems behave identically only if their initial configurations are ''exactly'' the same. Sensitivity to initial conditions is popularly known as the &quot;[[butterfly effect]]&quot;, suggesting that the flapping of a butterfly's wings might create tiny changes in the atmosphere, which could over time cause a [[tornado]] to occur. The flapping wing represents a small change in the initial condition of the system, which causes a chain of events leading to large-scale phenomena. Had the butterfly not flapped its wings, the trajectory of the system might have been vastly different. Sensitivity to initial conditions is often confused with chaos in popular accounts, but in itself is not particular interesting. Consider the dynamical system defined on the real line by mapping ''x'' to ''2x''. This system has sensitive dependence on initial conditions everywhere, but has extremely simple (linear) behavior. ''Topologically mixing'' means that the system will evolve over time so that any given region or [[open set]] of its phase space will eventually overlap with any other given region. Since phase space is of finite size, this usually means that the phase space will become thoroughly [[mixing (physics)|mixed together]] after a fairly short time. Here, &quot;mixing&quot; is really meant to correspond to the standard intuition: the mixing of colored [[dye]]s or fluids is an example of a chaotic system. ===Attractors=== Some dynamical systems are chaotic everywhere (see e.g. [[Anosov diffeomorphism]]s) but in many cases chaotic behavior is found only in a subset of phase space. The cases of most interest arise when the chaotic behavior takes place on an [[attractor]], since then a large set of initial conditions will lead to orbits that converge to this chaotic region. An easy way to visualize a chaotic attractor is to start
[[Necromancy]], [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], *[[Esotericism]], [[Rosicrucianism]], [[Illuminati]] *[[Taoism]] and the [[Five Elements]] *[[Kayaku-Jutsu]] *[[Acupuncture]], [[moxibustion]], [[ayurveda]], [[homeopathy]] *[[Anthroposophy]] *[[Psychology]] and [[Carl Jung]] *[[New Age]] ===Scientific connections=== *[[Chemistry]] *[[Physics]] *[[Scientific method]] *[[Protoscience]], [[Pseudoscience]], and [[Anti-science]] *[[Obsolete scientific theories]] *[[Historicism]] ===Substances of the alchemists=== *[[gold]] &amp;bull; [[silver]] &amp;bull; [[lead]] &amp;bull; [[copper]] &amp;bull; [[zinc]] &amp;bull; [[mercury (element)|mercury]] *[[phosphorus]] &amp;bull; [[sulfur]] &amp;bull; [[arsenic]] &amp;bull; [[antimony]] *[[vitriol]] &amp;bull; [[cinnabar]] &amp;bull; [[pyrites]] &amp;bull; [[orpiment]] &amp;bull; [[galena]] *[[magnesium oxide|magnesia]] &amp;bull; [[calcium oxide|lime]] &amp;bull; [[potash]] &amp;bull; [[natron]] &amp;bull; [[saltpetre]] &amp;bull; [[kohl (cosmetics)|kohl]] *[[ammonia]] &amp;bull; [[ammonium chloride]] &amp;bull; [[alcohol]] &amp;bull; [[camphor]] * Acids: [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] &amp;bull;[[hydrochloric acid|muriatic]] &amp;bull; [[nitric acid|nitric]] &amp;bull; [[acetic acid|acetic]] &amp;bull; [[formic acid|formic]] &amp;bull; [[citric acid|citric]]&amp;bull; [[tartaric acid|tartaric]] *[[aqua regia]] &amp;bull; [[gunpowder]] ===Other resources=== *[[List of alchemists]] *[[List of occultists]] ==External links== Some websites discussing the original notion of alchemical transmutation: * [http://aras.org''Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism'':] A pictorial and written archive of mythological, ritualistic, and symbolic images from all over the world and from all epochs of human history. * [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-04 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Alchemy * [http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/distance/sci122/TVtext/24/MOD24.htm Skeptical Chemists]: from alchemy to chemistry, tracing the contributions of Paracelsus * [http://www.alchemy.cz The Alchemy Museum in Kutna Hora] : World's First Museum Dedicated to Alchemy in All Its Aspects * [http://antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/martinon/index.html A 16th century lab in a 21st century lab] : Analytical study of the archaeological remains of an alchemical laboratory * [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14218 The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings of Chemistry], 1913, from [[Project Gutenberg]] * [http://www.levity.com/alchemy/ The Alchemy Website] : A collection of many alchemical texts and other alchemical information Some websites which appear to espouse modern versions of alchemy: * [http://www.rexresearch.com/ Rex Research] (Robert Nelson). * [http://www.alchemicaltaoism.com/ Alchemical Taoism.com] Eases study of the complex Healing Tao qi gong (chi kung) system. Essays by experienced students and instructors. [[Category:Alchemy]] [[Category:Ancient Egypt]] [[Category:Arabic words]] [[Category:Esoteric schools of thought]] [[Category:Gold]] [[Category:History of ideas]] [[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]] {{Link FA|es}} {{Link FA|pt}} [[af:Alchemie]] [[bg:Алхимия]] [[ca:Alquímia]] [[cs:Alchymie]] [[da:Alkymi]] [[de:Alchemie]] [[eo:Alkemio]] [[es:Alquimia]] [[et:Alkeemia]] [[fi:Alkemia]] [[fr:Alchimie]] [[he:אלכימיה]] [[hr:Alkemija]] [[id:Alkimia]] [[io:Alkemio]] [[it:Alchimia]] [[ja:錬金術]] [[la:Alchemia]] [[lt:Alchemija]] [[nl:Alchemie]] [[nn:Alkymi]] [[pl:Alchemia]] [[pt:Alquimia]] [[ru:Алхимия]] [[sk:Alchýmia]] [[sl:Alkimija]] [[su:Alkémi]] [[sv:Alkemi]] [[th:การเล่นแร่แปรธาตุ]] [[tl:Alkimiya]] [[tr:Simya]] [[uk:Алхімія]] [[zh:炼金术]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast</title> <id>574</id> <revision> <id>39084664</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T16:43:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>195.157.81.101</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast''' (also called '''ADS-B''') is a system by which [[aircraft|airplanes]] constantly broadcast their current position and altitude, category of aircraft, [[airspeed]], [[identification]], and whether the aircraft is turning, climbing or descending over a dedicated radio [[datalink]]. This functionality is known as &quot;ADS-B out&quot; and is the basic level of ADS-B functionality. The ADS-B system was developed in the 1990s. It relies on data from the [[Global Positioning System]], or any navigation system that provides an equivalent or better service. The maximum range of the system is line-of-sight, typically less than 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km). The ADS-B transmissions are received by [[air traffic control]] stations, and all other ADS-B equipped aircraft within reception range. Reception by aircraft of ADS-B data is known as &quot;ADS-B in&quot;. ==Usage== The initial use of ADS-B is expected to be by [[air traffic control]] and for surveillance purposes and for enhancing pilot situational awareness. ADS-B is lower cost than conventional radar and permits higher quality surveillance of airborne and surface movements. ADS-B is effective in remote areas or in mountainous terrain where there is no radar coverage, or where radar coverage is limited. The outback of Australia is one such area where ADS-B will provide surveillance where previously none existed. ADS-B also enhances surveillance on the airport surface, so it can also be used to monitor traffic on the taxiways and runways of an airport. ADS-B equipped aircraft may also have a [[display]] unit in the cockpit picturing surrounding air traffic from ADS-B data (ADS-B in) and TIS-B (Traffic Information Service-Broadcast) data derived from air traffic radar. Both Pilots and [[air traffic controller]]s will then be able to &quot;see&quot; the positions of air traffic in the vicinity of the aircraft, and this may be used to provide an ASAS (Airborne Separation Assurance System). Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems may in the future also make use of &quot;ADS-B in&quot;, supplementing the existing TCAS collision avoidance system by what is called 'hybrid surveillance'. Airbus and Boeing are now expected to include ADS-B out (i.e. the transmitter of information) as standard on new-build aircraft from 2005 onwards. This is in part due to the European requirements for Mode S Elementary Surveillance (which uses 1090MHz Mode S transponder which now is normally capable of ADS-B via Extended Squitter), and some common functionality with ADS-B out. ==Addressed and Broadcast ADS== The Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics’ ([[RTCA]]) Free Flight Selection Committee defines surveillance as “detection, tracking, characterization and observation of aircraft, other vehicles and weather phenomena for the purpose of conducting flight operations in a safe and efficient manner.&quot; Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) is described as the process of creating and sending a message including the sender’s current position and other surveillance information, such as velocity, intent and flight identification. This information supports aircraft separation management by improving surveillance information at increased ranges, situational awareness and decision making. ADS data can be used in cooperation with data from current radar beacon systems, such as Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon Systems (ATCRBS), Mode S, Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS) and primary Air Traffic Control (ATC) radar, and may also be used as a sole means of surveillance. There are two commonly recognized types of ADS for aircraft applications: *ADS-Addressed (ADS-A), also known as ADS-Contract (ADS-C), and *ADS-Broadcast (ADS-B. ADS-A provides a surveillance data report that is sent to a specific addressee. For example, ADS-A reports are employed in the Future Air Navigation System (FANS) using the Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System ([[ACARS]]) as the communication protocol. During transoceanic flight, reports are periodically sent by an aircraft to the controlling air traffic region. When ADS-B is used, aircraft and other vehicles continuously broadcast a message including position, heading, velocity and intent. Other uses may include obstacles transmitting a position message. Aircraft, ground-based stations, and other users monitoring the channels can receive the information and use it in a wide variety of applications. Because of this potential for broad utilization, a system using ADS-B is most often discussed as a replacement for or an augmentation to current methods of monitoring aeronautical traffic. To understand the full capability of ADS-B, consider how the current Air Traffic Control system creates information. The radar measures the range and bearing of an aircraft. Bearing is measured by the position of the rotating radar antenna when it receives a response to its interrogation from the aircraft, and range is measured by the time it takes for the radar to receive the interrogation response. The antenna beam becomes wider as the aircraft get farther away, making the position information less accurate. Additionally, detecting changes in aircraft velocity requires several radar sweeps that are spaced several seconds apart. In contrast, a system using ADS-B creates and listens for periodic position and intent reports from aircraft. These reports are generated and distributed using precise instruments, such as the global positioning system (GPS) and Mode S transponders, meaning integrity of the data is no longer susceptible to the range of the aircraft or the length of time between radar sweeps. The enhanced accuracy of the information will be used to improve safety, support a wide variety of applications and increase airport and airspace capacity. Use of ADS-B for ground-based surveillance requires only ADS-B Out (transmit) capability on the aircraft. With the ad
re still exists a much wider debate, as with [[Ella Fitzgerald]], as to whether Sinatra is a [[jazz]] singer. Certainly he performed with the finest jazz musicians, and largely performed material from the [[Great American Songbook]]. There are very few occasions when Sinatra was recorded [[scat singing]], but minor nuances and slight derivations from the vocal line are a hallmark of the material he recorded, and he is also known for his impeccable jazz timing and phrasing. Indeed, it is impossible to imagine the Sinatra of the great years after 1953 without the influence of jazz. It is no accident that he would be [[Lester Young]]'s ideal singer in the band Young had hoped to lead, nor that [[Miles Davis]] identified Sinatra's phrasing as an influence on his own. The list of Sinatra's jazz admirers is long and stellar, including such figures as [[Count Basie]], [[Stan Getz]], and [[Oscar Peterson]]. The question of his status as a &quot;jazz singer&quot; has never seemed to matter as much to such artists as it has to critics and academicians. [http://www.jazzsingers.com/FrankSinatra/] ===Songs and albums=== Sinatra left a vast legacy of recordings, from his very first sides with the [[Harry James]] orchestra in 1939, the vast catalogs at Columbia in the 1940s, Capitol in the 1950s, and Reprise from the 1960s onwards, up to his 1994 album ''[[Duets II]]''. Some of his best known recorded songs include: *[[Great American Songbook]] entries such as &quot;[[Night and Day (song)|Night and Day]]&quot;, &quot;[[I've Got You Under My Skin]]&quot;, and &quot;[[Fly Me To The Moon]]&quot; *Comic numbers such as &quot;[[Love and Marriage]]&quot; (used as theme for American television comedy ''[[Married... with Children]]'') *[[Torch song]]s such as &quot;[[One for My Baby (and One More for the Road)|One for My Baby]]&quot;, &quot;[[Angel Eyes (song)|Angel Eyes]]&quot;, and &quot;[[Drinking Again]]&quot; *&quot;[[It Was a Very Good Year]]&quot; and &quot;[[Summer Wind]]&quot;, which capture his mid-1960s persona of sentimental nostalgia *&quot;[[That's Life (song)|That's Life]]&quot;, &quot;[[My Way (song)|My Way]]&quot;, and &quot;[[Theme from New York, New York|New York, New York]]&quot;, which convey his late-stage attitude of bombastic defiance. Three of his songs made #1 on the [[Billboard Hot 100]] even after the advent of the rock and roll era: &quot;Learnin' the Blues&quot; (1955), &quot;[[Strangers in the Night]]&quot; (1966), and &quot;[[Somethin' Stupid]]&quot; (1967), the last a duet with daughter Nancy. Of all his many albums, ''[[At the Sands with Count Basie]]'', which was recorded live in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]] in 1966, with Sinatra in his prime, backed by [[Count Basie]]'s big band, remains his most popular and is still a big seller. Whether in nightclubs, casinos, arenas, or stadiums, Sinatra was one of the most mesmeric entertainers of the Twentieth Century, capable of turning the largest venue into a simulacrum of an intimate club. There are, however, few recordings or videos of his concerts. In addition to the Sands performance with Basie, three performances of Sinatra at the very peak of his career were captured: ''[[With Red Norvo Quintet: Live In Australia, 1959]]'', ''Sinatra '57 In Concert'', a performance in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] with an orchestra conducted by [[Nelson Riddle]] and ''Sinatra and Sextet: Live in Paris'', recorded in June of 1962. [[Image:Weesmallhours.jpeg|right|thumb|200px|''In the Wee Small Hours'', 1955 — an early concept album.]] Sinatra is also credited with putting out perhaps the first [[concept album]]s. 1955's ''[[In the Wee Small Hours]]'' is the prime example: a set of songs specifically recorded for the album, using only ballads, organized around a central mood of late-night isolation and aching lost love (supposedly due to his separation from Ava Gardner), with a now-classic album cover reflecting the theme. ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine later named ''In the Wee Small Hours'' as #100 [http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/_/id/6598220] on their list of the 500 best albums of all time. The following year's ''[[Songs For Swingin' Lovers]]'' took an alternate tack, recording existing [[pop standards]] in a hipper, jazzier fashion, revealing an overall exuberance; ''Rolling Stone'' placed it #306 [http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/_/id/6599187] on the above list. It was the advent of the long-playing record that opened the door to these famous concept albums of the 1950s, but Sinatra's first efforts in this direction go back to the Columbia years and ''[[The Voice Of Frank Sinatra|The Voice]]'', when the 78 rpm disc made &quot;album&quot; less of a metaphor than it would become with the single-disc LPs of the 1950s. Other Sinatra milestone albums include 1965's ''[[September of My Years]]'', which according to critic [[Stephen Holden]], &quot;summed up the punchy sentimentality of a whole generation of American men,&quot; 1973's comeback album ''[[Ol' Blue Eyes Is Back]]'', and 1980's ''[[Trilogy: Past Present Future]]'', an ambitious [[triple album]] using three arrangers that attempted to portray the past, present, and future of his career. For many Sinatra admirers, 1981's ''[[She Shot Me Down]]'' is the last great Sinatra album. A collection of what Sinatra called &quot;saloon songs&quot;, it includes [[Alec Wilder]]'s &quot;A Long Night&quot;, in a performance that can stand the test of comparison with the work Sinatra did in his Capitol years. ===Awards and legacy=== Sinatra won ten [[Grammy Award]]s during his career, including [[Grammy Award for Album of the Year|Album of the Year]] for ''[[Come Dance With Me]]'' in 1959, ''[[September of My Years]]'' in 1965, and ''[[A Man and His Music]]'' in 1966, and [[Grammy Award for Record of the Year|Record of the Year]] for &quot;[[Strangers in the Night]]&quot; in 1966. (The Grammy Awards only began in 1958, after two peaks of Sinatra's recording career had already happened.) In addition, Sinatra was named the ''[[Down Beat]]'' readers' poll Male Singer of the Year sixteen times between 1941 and 1966 and the Personality of the Year six times between 1954 and 1959, and was named the ''Down Beat'' critics' poll Male Singer of the Year twice, in 1955 and 1957. Sinatra was also named the ''[[Playboy (magazine)|Playboy]]'' Jazz All-Star Poll Male Vocalist of the Year seven times between 1957 and 1963. [http://www.avalon.net/~bstuder/theman.htm] In 2001 [[BBC Radio 2]] named Sinatra as the &quot;Greatest Voice of the Twentieth Century&quot;. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/1281522.stm] Sinatra was inducted into the [[Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame]] in 1980. Stephen Holden wrote for the 1983 ''[[Rolling Stone Record Guide]]'': :&quot;Frank Sinatra's voice ''is'' pop music history. [...] Like Presley and Dylan—the only other white male American singers since 1940 whose popularity, influence, and mythic force have been comparable—Sinatra will last indefinitely. He virtually invented modern pop song phrasing.&quot; Two decades later, radio personality and musician [[Jonathan Schwartz (radio)|Jonathan Schwartz]]'s assessment in a 2005 book review for the ''[[New York Observer]]'' showed that Sinatra's musical reputation had not diminished: :&quot;I believe, based on a lifetime of consideration, that Frank Sinatra was the greatest interpretive musician this country has ever produced.&quot; ==Discography== *[[Frank Sinatra discography|Chronological list of songs and albums recorded by Frank Sinatra]] *[[Alphabetical list of songs recorded by Frank Sinatra]] ==Filmography== *''Major Bowes Amateur Theatre of the Air'' ([[1935]]) (short subject) *''Las Vegas Nights'' ([[1941]]) *''Ship Ahoy'' ([[1942]]) *''[[Reveille with Beverly]]'' ([[1943]]) *''[[Show Business at War]]'' ([[1943]]) (short subject) *''Upbeat in Music'' ([[1943]]) (short subject) (scenes deleted) *''Higher and Higher'' ([[1944]]) *''Road to Victory'' ([[1944]]) (short subject) *''Step Lively'' ([[1944]]) *''The All-Star Bond Rally'' ([[1945]]) (short subject) *''[[Anchors Aweigh (film)|Anchors Aweigh]]'' ([[1945]]) *''[[The House I Live In]]'' ([[1945]]) (short subject) *''MGM Christmas Trailer'' ([[1945]]) (short subject) *''Till the Clouds Roll By'' ([[1946]]) *''[[It Happened in Brooklyn]]'' ([[1947]]) *''Screen Snapshots: Out-of-This-World Series'' ([[1947]]) (short subject) *''Lucky Strike Salesman's Movie 48-A'' ([[1948]]) (short subject) *''The Miracle of the Bells'' ([[1948]]) *''The Kissing Bandit'' ([[1948]]) *''Take Me Out to the Ball Game'' ([[1949]]) *''[[On the Town]]'' ([[1949]]) *''Double Dynamite'' ([[1951]]) *''Meet Danny Wilson'' ([[1952]]) *''Screen Snapshots: Hollywood Night Life'' ([[1952]]) (short subject) *''[[From Here to Eternity]]'' ([[1953]]) *''[[Suddenly]]'' ([[1954]]) *''[[Young at Heart (movie)|Young at Heart]]'' ([[1954]]) *''[[Not as a Stranger]]'' ([[1955]]) *''[[Finian's Rainbow]]'' ([[1955]]) (animated musical, recorded songs with Louis Armstrong and Ella Fitzgerald, film never completed) *''[[Guys and Dolls]]'' ([[1955]]) *''The Tender Trap'' ([[1955]]) *''[[The Man with the Golden Arm]]'' ([[1955]]) *''[[Carousel]]'' ([[1956]]) (recorded several songs, shot several scenes, walked off set and was replaced by Gordon MacRae) *''Screen Snapshots: Playtime in Hollywood'' ([[1956]]) (short subject) *''Meet Me in Las Vegas'' ([[1956]]) (Cameo) *''[[High Society]]'' ([[1956]]) *''Johnny Concho'' ([[1956]]) *''[[Around the World in Eighty Days]]'' ([[1956]]) *''The Pride and the Passion'' ([[1957]]) *''[[The Joker Is Wild]]'' ([[1957]]) *''[[Pal Joey]]'' ([[1957]]) *''Kings Go Forth'' ([[1958]]) *''[[Some Came Running]]'' ([[1958]]) *''Invitation to Monte Carlo'' ([[1959]]) (documentary) *''A Hole in the Head'' ([[1959]]) *''Premier Khrushchev in the USA'' ([[1959]]) (documentary) *''Never So Few'' ([[1959]]) *''[[Can-Can]]'' ([[1960]]) *''[[Ocean's Eleven (196
petroleum extraction and refining]]; [[manganese]], [[uranium]], and [[gold mining]]; [[chemical industry|chemical production]]; [[ship repair]] '''Industrial production growth rate:''' 2.3% (1995) '''Electricity - production:''' 1.025 TWh (1998) '''Electricity - production by source:''' &lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:'' 27.8% &lt;br&gt;''hydro:'' 72.2% &lt;br&gt;''nuclear:'' 0% &lt;br&gt;''other:'' 0% (1998) '''Electricity - consumption:''' 953 GWh (1998) '''Electricity - exports:''' 0 kWh (1998) '''Electricity - imports:''' 0 kWh (1998) '''Agriculture - products:''' [[cocoa]], [[coffee]], [[sugar]], [[palm oil]], [[rubber]]; [[cattle]]; [[okoume]] (a [[tropical softwood]]); [[fish]] '''Exports:''' $2.4 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) '''Exports - commodities:''' [[crude oil]] 75%, [[timber]], [[manganese]], [[uranium]] (1998) '''Exports - partners:''' [[United States]] 68%, [[China]] 9%, [[France]] 8%, [[Japan]] 3% (1998) '''Imports:''' $1.2 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) '''Imports - commodities:''' [[machinery]] and equipment, [[foodstuff]]s, [[chemical]]s, [[petroleum product]]s, [[construction material]]s '''Imports - partners:''' [[France]] 39%, [[United States]] 6%, [[Cameroon]] 5%, [[Netherlands]] 5%, [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Japan]] (1998) '''Debt - external:''' $4.6 billion (1999 est.) '''Economic aid - recipient:''' $331 million (1995) '''Currency:''' 1 Communauté financière africaine [[franc]] ([[CFAF]]) = 100 [[centime]]s '''Exchange rates:''' Communauté financière africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995) &lt;br&gt;''note:'' since [[1 January]] [[1999]], the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro '''[[Fiscal year]]:''' [[calendar year]] ==See also== *[[Gabon]] *[[Economy of Africa]] {{WTO}} [[Category:WTO members|Gabon]] [[Category:Gabon]] [[Category:Economies by country|Gabon]] [[Category:African Union member economies|Gabon]] [[fr:Économie_du_Gabon]] [[pt:economia do Gabão]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Communications in Gabon</title> <id>12033</id> <revision> <id>29982953</id> <timestamp>2005-12-03T03:51:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RlyehRising</username> <id>472450</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>redo intro</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Communications in Gabon''', a [[West Africa|West African]] nation, consists of a number of methods. ==Land Lines== '''Telephones - main lines in use:''' 32,000 (1995) ==Mobile and Cellular lines== '''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' 4,000 (1995) ==Systems== '''Telephone system:''' &lt;br&gt;''Domestic:'' *Adequate system of [[cable]] *[[Microwave]] [[radio]] relay *[[troposphere|Tropospheric]] scatter *Radiotelephone communication stations *Domestic satellite system with 12 Earth stations &lt;br&gt;''International:'' *Satellite Earth stations - 3 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]]) ==Radio Communication== '''Radio broadcast stations:''' AM 6, FM 7, shortwave 6 (1998) '''Radios:''' 208,000 (1997) ==Television Communication== '''Television broadcast stations:''' 4 (plus five low-power repeaters) (1997) '''Televisions:''' 63,000 (1997) ==Internet Communication== '''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):''' 1 (1999) ==Codes== '''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GA '''Telephone code (when dialing Gabon internationally):''' 241 :''See also :'' [[Gabon]] [[Category:Gabon]] [[Category:Communications by country|Gabon]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transport in Gabon</title> <id>12034</id> <revision> <id>37833152</id> <timestamp>2006-02-02T12:01:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Warofdreams</username> <id>20855</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>moved [[Transportation in Gabon]] to [[Transport in Gabon]]: part of a series</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">== [[Railway]]s == The only railway in the nation is the [[Trans-Gabon Railway]]. &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 649 km ([[Gabon State Railways]] or OCTRA) &lt;br&gt;''standard gauge:'' 649 km 1.435-m gauge; single track (1994) === Railway links with adjacent states === * [[Transportation in Equatorial Guinea|Equatorial Guinea]] - no * [[Transportation in Cameroon|Cameroon]] - no * [[Transportation in the Republic of the Congo|Republic of the Congo]] - no * [[Gulf of Guinea]] == [[Highway]]s == Main article: [[Roads in Gabon]] &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 7,670 km &lt;br&gt;''paved:'' 629 km (including 30 km of expressways) &lt;br&gt;''unpaved:'' 7,041 km (1996 est.) == Waterways == 1,600 km perennially navigable == Pipelines == crude oil 270 km; petroleum products 14 km == [[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s == [[Cap Lopez-Harbour|Cap Lopez]], [[Kango]], [[Lambarene]] (railhead), [[Libreville]], [[Mayumba]], [[Owendo]], [[Port-Gentil]] == [[Merchant marine]] == &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 2,419 GRT/3,205 DWT &lt;br&gt;''ships by type:'' cargo 1 (1999 est.) == [[Airport]]s == 61 (1999 est.) === Airports - with paved runways === &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 11 &lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 8 &lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 1 (1999 est.) === Airports - with unpaved runways === &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 50 &lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 9 &lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 16 &lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:'' 25 (1999 est.) == See also == * [[Gabon]] {{Africa in topic|Transport in}} {{CIAfb}} [[Category:Gabon]] [[Category:Transportation by country|Gabon]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of Gabon</title> <id>12035</id> <revision> <id>40592214</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T18:08:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Edgar181</username> <id>491706</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 15909743 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Gabon has a small, professional military of about 5,000 personnel, divided into army, navy, air force, gendarmerie, and national police. Gabonese forces are oriented to the defense of the country and have not been trained for an offensive role. A well-trained, well-equipped 1,800-member guard provides security for the president. '''Military branches:''' Army, Navy, Air Force, Presidential (Republican) Guard (charged with protecting the president and other senior officials), National Gendarmerie, National Police '''Military manpower - military age:''' 20 years of age '''Military manpower - availability:''' &lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 284,358 (2002 est.) '''Military manpower - fit for military service:''' &lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 146,908 (2002 est.) '''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:''' &lt;br&gt;''males:'' 11,304 (2002 est.) '''Military expenditures - dollar figure:''' $70.8 million (FY01) '''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:''' 2% (FY01) ==References and Links== *[[Gabon]] [[Category:Gabon]] [[Category:Militaries|Gabon]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign relations of Gabon</title> <id>12036</id> <revision> <id>24365174</id> <timestamp>2005-09-30T01:46:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Shimgray</username> <id>126457</id> </contributor> <comment>add an image, for the sake of it</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gabon, Ottawa.jpg|thumb|right|Embassy of Gabon in Ottawa, Canada.]] [[Gabon]] has followed a [[non-aligned]] policy, advocating dialogue in international affairs and recognizing both parts of divided countries. Since [[1973]], the number of countries establishing diplomatic relations with Gabon has doubled. In inter-[[Africa]]n affairs, Gabon espouses development by evolution rather than revolution and favors regulated free enterprise as the system most likely to promote rapid economic growth. Concerned about stability in Central Africa and the potential for intervention, Gabon has been directly involved with mediation efforts in [[Chad]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of Congo|Congo-Brazzaville]], [[Angola]], and former [[Democratic Republic of Congo|Zaire]]. In December [[1999]], through the mediation efforts of President [[Omar Bongo|Bongo]], a peace accord was signed in Congo-Brazzaville between the government and most leaders of an armed rebellion. President Bongo has remained involved in the continuing Congolese peace process. Gabon has been a strong proponent of regional stability, and Gabonese armed forces played an important role in the [[United Nations|UN]] Peacekeeping Mission to the Central African Republic ([[MINURCA]]). Gabon is a member of the UN and some of its specialized and related agencies, including the [[World Bank]]; [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU); [[Central African Customs Union]] (UDEAC/CEMAC); EC association under [[Lome Convention]]; [[Communaute Financiere Africaine]] (CFA); [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] (OIC); [[Nonaligned Movement]]; withdrew from the [[Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OPEC). '''Disputes - international:''' maritime boundary dispute with [[Equatorial Guinea]] because of disputed sovereignty over islands in [[Corisco Bay]] [[Category:Gabon]] [[Category:Foreign relations by country|Gabon, Foreign affairs of]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gambia</title> <id>12037</id> <revision> <id>15909745</id> <timestamp>2003-12-25T00:38:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jiang</username> <id>10049</id> </contributor> <comment>links all refer to country</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[The Gambia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gambia/History</title> <id>12038</id> <
he [[Canary Islands]] to Japan at 2,400 nautical miles (some 4,444 km). There are some documents pre-dating 1492 that make reference to land beyond [[Greenland]] (discovered by the Vikings[http://webexhibits.org/vinland/images/middle-voyages-map-2.jpg]), one of which was found, [[Navigatio Brendani]], in the Royal archives in Lisbon. It has been suggested that Columbus knew of this document, and believed that this land was Asia, thus seeming to confirm the calculations of Pierre d'Ailly and giving Columbus the confidence to go ahead with his voyage. This is speculative, as there is no evidence that Columbus ever saw the document. The problem facing Columbus was that experts did not agree with his estimate of the distance to the Indies. The true circumference of the Earth is some 40,000 km (24,900 statute miles of 5,280 feet each), and the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan is some 10,600 nautical miles (19,600 km). No ship in the fifteenth century could carry enough food or sail fast enough from the Canary Islands to Japan. Most European sailors and navigators concluded, correctly, that sailors undertaking a westward voyage from Europe to Asia would die of starvation or thirst long before reaching their destination. Those experts were right, but Spain, only recently unified through the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, and just Christianized through the expulsion of the Muslims and Jews, was desperate for a competitive edge over other European countries, in trade with the East Indies. Columbus promised them that edge. Columbus was wrong about the circumference of the Earth and the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan. But most Europeans were wrong in thinking that the aquatic expanse between Europe and Asia was uninterrupted. Although Columbus died believing he had opened up a direct nautical route to Asia, in fact, he established a nautical route between Europe and the Americas. It was this route to the Americas, rather than to Japan, that gave Spain the competitive edge it sought in developing a mercantile empire. By his third voyage, in 1498, Columbus had come to the conclusion that the Earth was [[pear-shaped]]: :&quot;I had always read that the world, land and sea, was spherical, and the authority and experience of Ptolemy and all the rest who have written about this place supported and demonstrated this idea, together with eclipses of the moon and other illustrations they make from East to West, such as the elevation of the North Pole in the southern hemisphere; now I have seen so much deformity that I started to think about the world and found that it was not round as they write, but that it is shaped like a pear which is round except where the stalk is, which there is higher...&quot; [http://www.cristobalcolondeibiza.com/2eng/2eng13.htm] ==Columbus' campaign for funding== [[Image:Christopher Columbus - Bronze - Belgrave Square - London.jpg|thumb|right|Columbus sits among the flowers and trees of Belgrave Square, London]] Columbus first presented his plan to the court of Portugal in 1485. The king's experts believed that the route would be longer than Columbus thought (the actual distance is even longer than the Portuguese believed), and they denied Columbus' request. It is probable that he made the same outrageous demands for himself in Portugal that he later made in Spain, where he went next. He tried to get backing from the monarchs Ferdinand of [[Aragon]] and Isabella I of [[Castile]], who, by marrying, had united the largest kingdoms of Spain and were ruling them together. After seven years of lobbying at the Spanish court, where he was kept on a salary to prevent him from taking his ideas elsewhere, he was finally successful in 1492. Ferdinand and Isabella had just conquered [[Granada]], the last Muslim stronghold on the [[Iberian peninsula]], and they received Columbus in Córdoba, in the monarchs' ''[[Alcázar]]'' or castle. Isabella finally turned Columbus down on the advice of her &quot;think tank&quot;, and he was leaving town in despair, when Ferdinand lost his patience. Isabella sent a royal guard to fetch him and Ferdinand later rightfully claimed credit for being &quot;the principal cause why those islands were discovered.&quot; About half of the financing was to come from private Italian investors, whom Columbus had already lined up. Financially broke from the Granada campaign, the monarchs left it to the royal treasurer to shift funds among various royal accounts on behalf of the enterprise. Columbus was to be made &quot;Admiral of the Ocean Sea&quot;, and granted an inheritable governorship to the new territories he would reach, as well as a portion of all profits. The terms were absurd, but his own son later wrote that the monarchs really did not expect him to return. ==Voyages== ===First voyage=== [[Image:Columbus1.PNG|thumb|left|First voyage]] [[Image:Santa-Maria.jpg|thumb|right|A replica of the ''Santa Maria'']] The year [[1492]], on the evening of August 3, Columbus left from [[Palos]] with three ships, the ''[[Santa Maria (ship)|Santa Maria]]'', ''[[Niña]]'' and ''[[Pinta]]''. The ships were property of [[Juan de la Cosa]] and the Pinzón brothers ([[Martin Alonzo Pinzón|Martin]] and [[Vicente Yáñez Pinzón|Vicente Yáñez]]), but the monarchs forced the Palos inhabitants to contribute to the expedition. He first sailed to the [[Canary Islands]], fortunately owned by Castile, where he reprovisioned and made repairs, and on September 6, started what turned out to be a five week voyage across the ocean. A legend is that the crew grew so homesick and fearful that they threatened to sail back to Spain. Although the actual situation is unclear, most likely the sailors' resentments merely amounted to complaints or suggestions. After 29 days out of sight of land, on [[7 October]] [[1493]] as recorded in the ship's log, the crew spotted shore birds flying west and changed direction to make their landfall. A later comparison of dates and migratory patterns leads to the conclusion that the birds were [[Eskimo curlew]]s and [[American golden plover]]. [[Image:Columbus Taking Possession.jpg|thumb|left|Columbus claiming possession of the New World]] Land was sighted at 2 AM on [[12 October]] by a sailor aboard ''Pinta'' named Rodrigo de Triana. Columbus called the island he reached San Salvador, although the natives called it [[Guanahani]]. The [[Indigenous Peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] he encountered, the [[Taíno]] or [[Arawak]], were peaceful and friendly. He wrote with such awe of the friendly innocence and beauty of these Indians that he inadvertently created the enduring myth of the [[Noble Savage]]. &quot;These people have no religious beliefs, nor are they idolaters. They are very gentle and do not know what evil is; nor do they kill others, nor steal; and they are without weapons.&quot;. No blood was shed on this first voyage; he believed conversion to Christianity would be achieved through love, not force. On this first voyage, Columbus also explored the northeast coast of [[Cuba]] (landed on [[28 October]]) and the northern coast of [[Hispaniola]], by [[5 December]]. He believed the peaks of Cuba were the Himalayas of India, which gives one a sense of just how lost he was and how long it took the peoples of the world to map the Earth. (The vast interior of the North and South American mainlands would of course be largely mapped with the leadership of native guides and interpreters.) Here, the ''Santa Maria'' ran aground and had to be abandoned. He was received by the native [[cacique]] [[Guacanagari]], who gave him permission to leave some of his men behind. Columbus founded the settlement ''[[La Navidad]]'' and left 39 men. On [[4 January]], [[1493]], he set sail for home by way of the [[Azores]]. He wrestled his ship against the wind and ran into one of the worst storms of the century. Leaving the island of Santa Maria in the Azores, Columbus headed for Portugal anchoring in Lisbon next to the King's harbour patrol ship on 4 March, 1493, where he was told a fleet of 100 [[caravels]] had been lost in the storm. Astoundingly, both the Niña and the Pinta were spared. Some have speculated that his landing in Portugal was intentional. Relations between Portugal and Castile were poor at the time. Columbus wrote to the [[John II of Portugal|King of Portugal, John II]], and went to meet with him at Vale do Paraíso (north of Lisbon). After spending more than one week in Portugal, he finally set sail for Spain. Word of his finding new lands rapidly spread throughout Europe. He did not reach Spain until [[15 March]], when the story of his journey was already in its third printing. He was received as a hero in Spain: this was his moment in the sun. He displayed several kidnapped natives and what gold he had found to the court, as well as the previously unknown [[tobacco]] plant, the [[pineapple]] fruit, the [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]] and the sailor's first love, the [[hammock]]. Naturally, he did not bring any of the coveted [East] Indies spices, such as the exceedingly expensive [[black pepper]], [[ginger]] or [[clove]]s. In his log, he wrote &quot;there is also plenty of ''ají'', which is their pepper, which is more valuable than black pepper, and all the people eat nothing else, it being very wholesome&quot; (Turner, 2004, P11). The word ''ají'' is still used in South American Spanish for chili peppers. ===Second voyage=== [[Image:Columbus2.PNG|thumb|left|Second voyage]] Admiral Columbus left from [[Cádiz]], Spain for his second voyage (1493-1496) on [[September 24]] [[1493]], with 17 speed boats carrying supplies, and about 1200 men to assist in the subjugation of the Taíno and the colonization of the region. On [[October 13]], the ships left the Canary Islands, following a more southerly course than on the first voyage. On [[November 3]] [[1493]], Columbus sighted a rugged island that he named [[Dominica]]. On the same day, he landed at [[Mar
Moesia Inferior, Thrace |- | [[Moesia]] || Moesia Superior, Dacia, Epirus, Macedonia, Thessaly, Achaea, Dardania |- | colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | WEST |- | [[Africa]] || [[Africa Proconsularis]], [[Byzacena]], [[Tripolitana]], [[Numidia]], part of Mauretania |- | [[Spain|Hispania]] || [[Mauretania Tingitana]], Baetica, Lusitania, Tarraconensis |- | Prov. Viennensis || Narbonensis, Aquitania, Viennensis, Alpes Maritimae |- | [[France|Gallia]] || Lugdunensis, Germania Superior, Germania Inferior, Belgica |- | [[Britannia]] || Britannia, Caesariensis |- | [[Italia (Roman province)|Italia annonaria]]&lt;br&gt;capital [[Milan|Mediolanum]] || Venetia et Histria, Aemilia et Liguria, Flaminia et Picenum, Raetia, Alpes Cottiae |- | [[Italia (Roman province)|Italia suburbicaria]]&lt;br&gt;capital [[Rome]] || Tuscia et Umbria, Valeria, Campania et Samnium, Apulia et Calabria, Sicilia, Sardinia et Corsica |- | [[Pannonia]] || Pannonia Inferior, Pannonia Superior, Noricum, [[Dalmatia]] |} == Diocletian in fiction == *Diocletian is the main character of the novel ''[[Numerius]]'', written by V. Martucci (2005) *The novel ''[[Fabiola, or The Church of the Catacombs]]'', written in 1852 by [[Cardinal Wiseman]], takes place during the reign of Diocletian. == Footnotes == #{{note|Adams1}} Adams, ''For Good and Evil,'' p. 115. (See [[Diocletian#Further_reading|below]] for full citation.) == See also == === Further reading === * Roger Rees, ''Diocletian and the Tetrarchy'', Edinburgh University Press, 2004. ISBN 0748616616 * Pat Southern, ''The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine'', Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0415239443 * Adams, Charles, &quot;Diocletian’s New Order&quot; being Chapter 11 (pp. 111-118) of ''For Good and Evil: The Impact of &lt;u&gt;Taxes&lt;/u&gt; on the Course of Civilization,'' Second Edition, Madison Books, 1999, ISBN 1568331231 === External links === {{Commons|Diocletian}} *[http://www.roman-emperors.org/dioclet.htm Diocletian] by Ralph W. Mathisen, University of South Carolina. *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05007b.htm Diocletian] from the Catholic Encyclopedia. *[http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/ 12 Byzantine Rulers], by Lars Brownworth. 15 minute audio lecture on Diocletian. *[http://www.st.carnet.hr/split/diokl.html Diocletian Palace in Split] *[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/DLDecArts.AdamRuins Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro in Dalmatia, by Adam, Robert] from the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center. {{Roman Emperor | Prev=[[Carinus]] | CoEmperor=with [[Maximian]] &lt;small&gt;(286-305)&lt;/small&gt;| Next=[[Constantius Chlorus]]'''&lt;br /&gt;and '''[[Galerius]]|years=284&amp;ndash;305}} [[Category:245 births]] [[Category:313 deaths]] [[Category:Adoptive parents]] [[Category:Constantine Dynasty]] [[Category:Crisis of the Third Century]] [[Category:Late Antiquity]] [[Category:Roman emperors]] [[bg:Диоклециан]] [[cs:Diocletianus]] [[da:Diocletian]] [[de:Diokletian]] [[eo:Diokleciano]] [[es:Diocleciano]] [[eu:Diokleziano]] [[fi:Diocletianus]] [[fr:Dioclétien]] [[gl:Diocleciano]] [[he:דיוקלטיאנוס]] [[hr:Dioklecijan]] [[it:Diocleziano]] [[ja:ディオクレティアヌス]] [[la:Diocletianus]] [[nl:Diocletianus]] [[no:Diokletian]] [[pl:Dioklecjan]] [[pt:Diocleciano]] [[ru:Диоклетиан]] [[sk:Dioklecián]] [[sl:Dioklecijan]] [[sr:Диоклецијан]] [[sv:Diocletianus]] [[zh:戴克裡先]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Deutsche Reich</title> <id>8581</id> <revision> <id>15906560</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[German Empire]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Deism</title> <id>8582</id> <revision> <id>41964668</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:44:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TTOUSNA</username> <id>856426</id> </contributor> <comment>many consider gw episcopal</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Historical and modern '''deism''' is defined by the view that [[reason]], rather than [[revelation]] or [[tradition]], should be the basis of belief in God. Deists reject both organized and revealed religion and maintain that reason is the essential element in all knowledge. For a &quot;rational basis for religion&quot; they refer to the [[cosmological argument]] (first cause argument), the [[teleological argument]] (argument from design), and other aspects of what was called ''[[natural theology|natural religion]]''. Deism has become identified with the classical belief that God created but does not intervene in the world, though this is not a necessary component of deism. ==Overview== Deism encompasses a range of views on the nature of God, particularly on whether God intervenes in the world. The classical view is that the universe was created by a God who then makes no further intervention in its affairs (the [[clockmaker hypothesis]]). In this view, the reason God does not intervene in the world (via [[miracle]]s) is ''not'' that God does not care, but rather that the best of all possible worlds has already been created and any intervention could not improve it. Historically, many deists adhered to this view; others hold a more [[Pantheism|pantheist]] or [[pandeism|pandeist]] view that in creating the world, God became the world and does not exist as a separate entity from it; while some hold that God intervenes only as a subtle and pervasive force in the universe. &lt;!-- * '''usually synonymous with [[Natural theology|''natural religion'']] in [[18th century]] [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] writings * originated in [[17th century]] [[Europe]], gaining popularity in the 18th century Enlightenment especially in [[France]],''' [[England]], and [[United States|America]] as a modernist movement inspired by the success of the [[scientific method]] --&gt; The classical view of an impersonal and abstract God has caused many to claim that deism is &quot;cold&quot; and amounts to [[atheism]]. Deists maintain that the opposite is true and that this view leads to a feeling of awe and reverence based on the fact that personal growth and a constant search for knowledge is required. This knowledge can be acquired from many sources including historical and modern interpretations found in the many varied fields of science (biology, physics, etc.) and philosophy. Deism, like many religions, seeks to reconcile and unify with science and &quot;modern views.&quot; However, both deism and other religions have differing views with science on evolution, see [[Evolutionary Creationism]]. The term ''deism'' was created by eighteenth century deists to draw attention to their affirmative belief in a God.[http://www.voxapologia.org/blog/deism] The words ''deism'' and ''[[theism]]'' are closely related and this sometimes leads to controversy. The root of the word ''deism'' is from the [[Latin]] ''deus'', while the root of the word ''theism'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''theos'', both meaning ''god'' in [[English language|English]]. However, theism can include faith or [[revelation]] as a basis for belief, while deism includes only belief which can be substantiated through reason. Deism can be considered as the form of theism in opposition to [[fideism]], while other schemes separate deism and theism. A helpful comparison of the common positions regarding belief in divine beings can be found in the [[theism]] article. ===Deism and prayer=== Many deists who do not believe in divine intervention still find value in prayer. They think of it as a form of meditation and self-cleansing, which can improve one's life and lead to one's efforts being more effective. However, many deists consider all prayer an attempt to establish a personal relationship with God, something deists do not believe is possible. ==18th century popularity== Deist thinking has existed since ancient times and can be inferred from [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|pre-Socratic]] philosophers such as [[Heraclitus]]. However, it was not until the [[Modern world|modern era]], during the European [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and [[Scientific Revolution]], with their respective emphases on rigorous [[skepticism]], [[deductive logic]], and [[empiricism]] (experience/[[induction]]), that ''deism'' came into its own as a subject of philosophical discourse, particularly in [[France]] ([[René Descartes|Descartes]], the ''[[Philosophes]]''), [[Germany]] ([[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]&lt;sup&gt;&amp;dagger;&lt;/sup&gt;, [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]]), [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] ([[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], [[David Hume|Hume]]&lt;sup&gt;&amp;Dagger;&lt;/sup&gt;), and the [[United States]] ([[Thomas Paine|Paine]], [[Benjamin Franklin|Franklin]]). [[Image:Thomas Jefferson.jpg|thumb|Thomas Jefferson, Edgehill Portrait of 1805 by [[Gilbert Stuart]]. [[National Portrait Gallery (United States)|National Portrait Gallery]], [[Washington, DC]].]] Deism developed from the expanding influence of [[scientism]] in Europe and European colonial intellectual life. [[Newtonian physics]], the intellectual basis and the aesthetic model for [[Enlightenment (concept)|Enlightenment]] [[scientism]], spread the idea that matter behaves in a mathematically predictable manner that can be understood by postulating laws of nature. Objectivity, natural equality, the prescription to treat like cases similarly are central principles of the Enlightenment mentality, ideas borrowed from Newton's observational/experimental method and put to use in all domains the Enlightenment mind scrutinized; these principles informed the development of the philosophy of deism. Exasperation with the costs of centuries of European religious warfare was a powerful recommendation fo
et spaces. == Literature == Historical monographs in English, French and Polish: *[[Stefan Banach]]: [http://matwbn.icm.edu.pl/kstresc.php?tom=1&amp;wyd=10 Théorie des opérations linéaires]. -- Warszawa 1932. (Monografie Matematyczne; 1) [http://www-irma.u-strasbg.fr/math-cgi-bin/zmen/ZMATH/en/quick.html?format=complete&amp;type=html&amp;an=0005.20901 Zbl 0005.20901] == External links == For historical references see the Banach space entry in *[http://members.aol.com/jeff570/b.html Earliest known uses of some of the words of mathematics: B] [[Category:Banach spaces|*]] [[cs:Banachův prostor]] [[de:Banach-Raum]] [[es:Espacio de Banach]] [[fr:Espace de Banach]] [[ko:바나흐 공간]] [[it:Spazio di Banach]] [[he:מרחב בנך]] [[nl:Banachruimte]] [[ja:バナッハ空間]] [[pl:Przestrzeń Banacha]] [[ru:Банахово пространство]] [[fi:Banach-avaruus]] [[sv:Banachrum]] [[uk:Банахів простір]] [[zh:巴拿赫空间]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brisbane (disambiguation)</title> <id>3990</id> <revision> <id>29668006</id> <timestamp>2005-11-30T05:56:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>SauliH</username> <id>528187</id> </contributor> <comment>/* People */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">This article resolves the various uses of the name '''Brisbane'''. ==Places== In [[Australia]] :* [[Brisbane]] - the state capital of [[Queensland]], [[Australia]] :* [[Brisbane River]] - a river which flows through Brisbane, Queensland, Australia :* [[Mount Brisbane]] - a mountain at the headwaters of the Brisbane River, Queensland, Australia :* [[Brisbane Ranges National Park]] - a NP west of [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], Australia :* [[Brisbane Water National Park]] - a NP north of [[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]], Australia In the [[United States|United States of America]] :* [[Brisbane, California]] - a city in [[California]], [[United States]] In [[Outer space|Outer Space]] :* [[Brisbane (crater)]] - a moon crater ==People== * [[Thomas Brisbane|Sir Thomas Brisbane]] (1773-1860) - Governor of New South Wales from 1821 to 1825 after whom Queensland's eminent city Brisbane is named. * [[Charles Brisbane|Sir Charles Brisbane]] (1769-1829) - Admiral of the Royal Navy {{disambig}} [[bg:Бризбейн (пояснение)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bits</title> <id>3991</id> <revision> <id>25328334</id> <timestamp>2005-10-12T03:15:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Luigizanasi</username> <id>152315</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect to [[Bit]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Bit]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bram Stoker</title> <id>3992</id> <revision> <id>40070234</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T22:40:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Woodstockrocker</username> <id>950892</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Online texts */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abraham &quot;Bram&quot; Stoker''' ([[November 8]], [[1847]]&amp;#8211;[[April 20]], [[1912]]) was an [[Ireland|Irish]] writer, best remembered as the author of the influential horror novel ''[[Dracula]]''. [[Image:Bram_Stoker.jpg|framed|]] ==His life== He was born on [[November 8]], [[1847]] at [[Clontarf, Dublin|Clontarf]] in [[Ireland]], a coastal suburb of [[Dublin]]. Until he was 8 years old, recurring illness ensured that he could neither stand up nor walk on his own. This illness and helplessness was a traumatic experience which is noticeable in his literary work. Everlasting sleep and the [[resurrection]] from the dead, which are the central themes of ''Dracula'' , were of great importance for him, because he was forced to spend much of his life in bed. Not only his illness but also his convalescence were considered miracles by his doctors. After his recovery, he became a normal young man who even became an [[athlete]] and soccer-star at the University of Dublin, where he studied history, literature, mathematics and physics at [[Trinity College Dublin|Trinity College]]. He was also president of the [[University Philosophical Society (Trinity College, Dublin)|University Philosophical Society]], where his first paper was on &quot;Sensationalism in Fiction and Society&quot;, and auditor of the [[College Historical Society (Trinity College, Dublin)|College Historical Society]]. He became a civil servant, a career that didn't satisfy him. So he started to work as a [[journalist]] and as a drama [[critic]] (''The Evening Mail''). His interest in theatre lead to a lifelong friendship with the actor [[Henry Irving]]. Stoker married [[Florence Balcome]], a former girlfriend of [[Oscar Wilde]], in [[1878]]. (This reportedly inspired Wilde to leave Ireland.) Stoker moved with his wife to [[London]], where he became business manager of Irving's [[Lyceum Theatre (London)|Lyceum Theatre]], a post he held for 27 years. The collaboration with Irving was very important for Stoker. Through him he became involved in London's high society, where he met [[James McNeil Whistler]] and [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]]. In the course of Irving's tours he got the chance to travel around the world. ==Dracula== [[Image:Dracula1st.jpeg|thumb|'''Dracula''' by [[Bram Stoker]], 1st edition cover, [[Archibald Constable and Company]], ''1897'']] {{main|Dracula}} He supplemented his income by writing a large number of sensational novels, his most famous being the vampire tale ''[[Dracula]]'' which he published in [[1897]]. Before writing ''Dracula'', Stoker spent eight years researching European folklore and stories of vampires. ''Dracula'' is an [[epistolary novel]], written as collection of diary entries, telegrams, and letters from the characters, as well as fictional clippings from the [[Whitby]] and London newspapers. ''Dracula'' has been the basis for countless [[film]]s and plays. The two that most closely follow the plot of the original novel are ''[[Nosferatu]]'' (1922) and ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' (1992). ''Nosferatu'' was produced while Stoker's widow was still alive, and the filmmakers were forced to change the setting and the names of the characters for copyright reasons. Stoker wrote several other novels dealing with horror and supernatural themes, but none achieved the lasting fame or success of ''Dracula''. His other novels include ''[[The Snake's Pass]]'' ([[1890]]), ''[[The Jewel of Seven Stars]]'' ([[1903]]), and ''[[The Lair of the White Worm]]'' (1911). == Works == ===Novels=== * ''The Primrose Path'' (1875) * ''[[The Snake's Pass]]'' ([[1890]]) * ''The Watter's Mou' '' (1895) * ''The Shoulder of Shasta'' (1895) * ''[[Dracula]]'' ([[1897]]) * ''Miss Betty'' (1898) * ''The Mystery of the Sea'' (1902) * ''[[The Jewel of Seven Stars]]'' ([[1903]]) * ''The Man'' (AKA: ''The Gates of Life'') (1905) * ''Lady Athlyne'' (1908) * ''Snowbound: The Record of a Theatrical Touring Party'' (1908) * ''The Lady of the Shroud'' (1909) * ''[[Lair of the White Worm]]'' ([[1911]]) ===Short Story Collections=== [[Image:Bram_Stoker_Plaque_Whitby_England.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Bram Stoker Commemorative Plaque, Whitby, England (2002)]] * ''Under the Sunset'' (1881) ** ''Under the Sunset'' ** ''The Rose Prince'' ** ''The Invisible Giant'' ** ''The Shadow Builder'' ** ''How 7 Went Mad'' ** ''Lies and Lilies'' ** ''The Castle of the King'' ** ''The Wondrous Child'' * ''Dracula's Guest'' (1914)(Published [[posthumously]] by Florence Stoker) ** ''Dracula's Guest'' ** ''The Judge's House'' ** ''The Gipsy Prophecy'' ** ''The Coming of Abel Behenna'' ** ''The Burial of the Rats'' ** ''A Dream of Red Hands'' ** ''Crooken Sands'' ** ''The Secret of the Growing Gold'' ===Uncollected Stories=== * ''Bridal of Dead'' (alternative ending to ''[[The Jewel of Seven Stars]]'') * ''Buried Treasures'' * ''The Chain of Destiny'' * ''The Crystal Cup'' * ''The Dualitists; or, The Death Doom of the Double Born'' * ''The Fate of Fenella'' * ''The Gombeen Man'' * ''In the Valley of the Shadow'' * ''The Man from Shorrox''' * ''Midnight Tales'' * ''The Red Stockade'' * ''The Seer'' ===Biography=== * ''Personal Reminiscences of Henry Irving'' (Two Volumes) (1906) (This was initially Stoker`s most famous book.) ===Non-Fiction=== * ''The Duties of Clerks of Petty Sessions in Ireland'' (1879) * ''A Glimpse of America'' (1886) * ''Famous Impostors'' (1910) ==References== *[http://Stoker.thefreelibrary.com/ Bram Stoker's brief biography and works] ==See also== * ''[[Blood from the Mummy's Tomb]]'' (film adaptation of ''The Jewel of Seven Stars'') ==External links== *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A588233 h2g2 article on Bram Stoker] ==Online texts== {{wikisource}} * {{gutenberg author| id=Bram+Stoker | name=Bram Stoker}} *[http://www.classic-literature.co.uk/bram-stoker/ Bram Stoker Books] in HTML format. [[Category:1847 births|Stoker, Bram]] [[Category:1912 deaths|Stoker, Bram]] [[Category:Irish novelists|Stoker, Bram]] [[Category:Irish horror writers|Stoker, Bram]] [[Category:Anglicans|Stoker, Bram]] [[Category:People associated with Trinity College, Dublin|Stoker, Bram]] [[Category:Natives of County Dublin|Stoker, Bram]] [[bg:Брам Стокър]] [[cs:Bram Stoker]] [[da:Bram Stoker]] [[de:Bram Stoker]] [[et:Bram Stoker]] [[es:Bram Stoker]] [[eo:Bram STOKER]] [[fr:Bram Stoker]] [[gl:Bram Stoker]] [[it:Bram Stoker]] [[hu:Bram Stoker]] [[nl:Bram Stoker]] [[ja:ブラム・ストーカー]] [[no:Bram Stoker]] [[pl:Bram Stoker]] [[pt:Bram Stoker]] [[sk:Bram Stoker]] [[fi:Bram Stoker]] [[sv:Bram Stoker]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Billion</title> <id>3993</id> <revision> <id>40774067</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T22:55:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Georgia guy</username> <id>161456</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Trivia */ Gender neutrality</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the
ess in some scenarios. The [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] initially opted not to use mid-course update for its [[RAF_Tornado_F3|Tornado F3]] force, only to discover that without it, testing proved the AMRAAM was less effective in BVR engagements than the older [[semi-active radar homing]] [[Skyflash|BAE Skyflash]] weapon--the AIM-120's own radar is necessarily of limited range and power compared to that of the launch aircraft. ===Terminal stage and impact=== Once the missile closes to self-homing distance, it turns on its active radar seeker and searches for the target aircraft. If the target is in or near the expected location, the missile will find it and guide itself to the target from this point. If the missile is fired at short range (typically, visual range), it can use its active seeker just after launch, making the missile truly [[fire-and-forget]]. At the point where an AMRAAM switches to autonomous self-guidance, the NATO brevity word &quot;pitbull&quot; would be called out on the radio to inform other pilots, just as &quot;Fox Three&quot; would be called out upon launch. ==Kill probability and tactics== ===General considerations=== Once in its terminal mode, the missile's advanced electronic-counter-counter-measure ([[ECCM]]) support and good maneuverability mean that the chance of it hitting or exploding close to the target is high (on the order of 90%), as long as it has enough remaining energy to maneuver with the target if it is evasive. The [[probability of kill|kill probability]] (PK) is determined by several factors, including aspect (head-on interception, side-on or tail-chase), altitude, the speed of the missile and the target, how hard the target can turn, etc. Typically, if the missile has a sufficient amount of energy during the terminal phase, which comes from being launched close enough to the target from an aircraft flying high and fast enough, it will have an excellent chance of success. This chance drops as the missile is fired at longer ranges as it runs out of overtake speed at long ranges, and if the target can force the missile to turn it might bleed off enough speed that it can no longer chase the target. ===Lower-capability targets=== This leads to two main engagement scenarios. If the target(s) is/are not armed or not armed with any medium or long-range [[fire-and-forget]] weapons, the aircraft firing the AMRAAM need only to get close enough to the target, depending upon whether the target is heading towards or away from the firing aircraft, and launch the missile(s) to have a reasonable chance of hitting. Especially against low-maneuverability targets, in this situation the missiles are unlikely to miss. If the target aircraft are approaching the launching aircraft, especially if they are moving fast, the missile can be launched at long range since the range will be closing fast. In this situation, even if the target(s) turn around, it is unlikely they can speed up and fly away fast enough to avoid being overtaken and hit by the missile(s) (as long as the missiles are not released too early). It is also unlikely they can outmaneuver the missiles since the closure rate will be so great. In a tail-on engagement, the firing aircraft might have to close to between one-half and one-quarter maximum range (or maybe even more for a very fast target) in order to give the missile sufficient energy to overtake the targets. If the targets are armed with missiles, the [[fire-and-forget]] nature of the AMRAAM is invaluable, enabling the launching aircraft to fire missiles at the target and then turn and run away. Even if the targets have longer-range [[semi-active radar homing]] ([[SARH]]) missiles, they will have to chase the launching aircraft in order for the missiles to track them, effectively flying right into the AMRAAM. If the target aircraft fire missiles and then turn and runs away, their own missiles will not be able to hit. Of course, if the target aircraft have long range missiles, even if they are not [[fire-and-forget]], the fact that they force the launching aircraft to turn and run reduces the kill probability, since it is possible that without the mid-course updates the missiles will not find the target aircraft. However the chance of success is still good and compared to the relative impunity the launching aircraft enjoy, this gives the AMRAAM-equipped aircraft a decisive edge. If one or more missiles fail to hit, the AMRAAM-equipped aircraft can turn and re-engage, although they will be at a disadvantage compared to the chasing aircraft due to the speed they lose in the turn, and would have to be careful that they're not being tracked with [[SARH]] missiles. ===Similarly armed targets=== The other main engagement scenario is against other aircraft with [[fire-and-forget]] missiles like the [[Vympel R-77]] (NATO AA-12 &quot;Adder&quot;) - perhaps [[MiG-29]]s, [[Su-27]]s or similar. In this case engagement is very much down to teamwork and could be described as &quot;a game of chicken.&quot; Both flights of aircraft can fire their missiles at each other beyond visual range (BVR), but then face the problem that if they continue to track the target aircraft in order to provide mid-course updates for the missile's flight, they are also flying into their opponents' missiles. This is why teamwork is so important and advanced missiles with guidance systems with hand-off capability can help overcome this problem. The other main tactic would be to sneak up behind the enemy aircraft and launch missiles without them noticing, giving the launching aircraft sufficient time to leave the danger zone of the enemy after launching. Even if the enemy detects the launch and turns around, the speed and possibly altitude it loses during the turn puts its missiles at an energy disadvantage which may be sufficient for the other aircraft to defeat it successfully. This typically requires excellent [[ground-control intercept]] (GCI) or airborne radar ([[AWACS]] - Airborne Warning and Control System) facilities in order to be successful. ==Variants and upgrades== ===Air-to-air missile versions=== There are currently three variants of AMRAAM, all in service with the [[United States Air Force]] and [[USN]]. The AIM-120A is no longer in production and shares the enlarged wings and fins with the successor AIM-120B currently in production. The AIM-120C has smaller &quot;clipped&quot; aerosurfaces to enable internal carriage on the USAF [[F-22A Raptor]]. AIM-120B deliveries began in [[1994 in aviation|1994]], and AIM-120C deliveries began in [[1996 in aviation|1996]]. The AIM-120C has been steadily upgraded since it was introduced. The AIM-120C-6 contained an improved fuze (Target Detection Device) compared to its predecessor. The AIM-120C-7 development began in [[1998]] and included improvements in homing and greater range (actual amount of improvement unspecified). It was successfully tested in 2003 and is currently being introduced into active service (early 2005). It helps the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] replace the [[F-14 Tomcat]]s which are being retired and replaced with [[F/A-18E/F Super Hornet]]s&amp;mdash;the loss of the [[F-14]]'s long-range [[AIM-54 Phoenix]] missiles (already retired) can be partially offset with a longer-range AMRAAM but note that the AMRAAM does not have a longer range than the Phoenix. The AIM-120D is a planned upgraded version of the AMRAAM with improvements in almost all areas, including 50% greater range (than the already long range AIM-120C-7) and better guidance over its entire flight envelope yielding an improved kill probability ([[Probability of kill|PK]]). There are also plans for [[Raytheon]] to develop a [[Ramjet]]-powered derivative of the AMRAAM, the Future Medium Range Air-Air Missile (FMRAAM). It is not known whether the FMRAAM will be produced since the target market, the British Ministry of Defence has chosen the [[MBDA_Meteor|Meteor missile]] over the FMRAAM for a [[BVR]] missile for the [[Eurofighter Typhoon]] aircraft. ===Ground-launch systems=== [[Raytheon]] successfully tested launching AMRAAM missiles from a five-missile carrier on an [[HMMWV]] (hum-vee). They receive their initial guidance information from a radar not mounted on the vehicle (probably the [[MPQ-64 Sentinel]] radar system or possibly a [[Patriot missile|PATRIOT]] missile battery radar) and help to provide low-level, close-in defence while the PATRIOT system engages targets at higher altitudes and further ranges. The missile's range would be lower when launched from the ground, due to the lack of speed or altitude of the launch vehicle. This system will be known as the '''HUMRAAM''' (a contraction of HUMVEE and AMRAAM). The [[NASAMS|Norwegian Advanced Surface-to-Air Missile System]] (NASAMS), developed by [[Kongsberg Defence &amp; Aerospace]], consists of a number of vehicle-pulled launch batteries (containing six AMRAAMs each) along with separate radar trucks and control station vehicles. == Operators == *{{USA}} [[United States Air Force|Air Force]], [[United States Navy|Navy]], and [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] *{{AUS}}: [[Royal Australian Air Force]] *{{BHR}}: [[Military of Bahrain|Bahrain Defense Forces]] *{{DEU}}: [[Luftwaffe]] *{{NOR}}: [[Royal Norwegian Air Force]] *{{SIN}}: [[Republic of Singapore Air Force]] *{{SWE}}: [[Swedish Air Force]] *{{UK}}: [[Royal Air Force]] and [[Royal Navy]] *{{PRT}}: [[Portuguese Air Force]] ==See also== * [[List of missiles]] * [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] * [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] * [[BVRAAM]] ==External links== * [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/missile/aim-120.htm Federation of American Scientists page] * [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/aim-120.htm GlobalSecurity.org page] * [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/claws.htm#CLAWS GlobalSecurity.org HUMRAAM page] * [http://www.designation-systems.net/dusrm/m-120.html Designation-Systems page] * [http://www.global-defence.com/2000
f [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]] in [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 9:11), also known as the ''Via Recta'', was one of the main streets of Roman Damascus, and extended for over 1500 meters. Today, it consists of the street of Bab Sharqi and the Souk Medhat Pasha, a covered market. The Bab Sharqi street is filled with small shops and leads to the old Christian quarter of Bab Touma (St. Thomas's Gate). Souq Medhat Pasha is also a main market in Damascus and was named after Medhat Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Damascus who renovated the Souq. At the end of the Bab Sharqi street, one reaches the House of [[Ananias]], an underground chapel that was the cellar of Ananias's house. [[Image:Umayyad Mosque-Minaret of the Bride.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Minaret of the Brideg, Omayyad Mosque in old Damascus]] The [[Umayyad Mosque]], also known as the Grand Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest mosques in the world, and one of the oldest sites of continuous prayer since the rise of Islam. A shrine in the mosque is said to contain the head of [[John the Baptist]]. ===The walls and gates of Damascus=== The old city of Damascus is surrounded by ramparts on the northern and eastern sides and part of the southern side. There are 7 extant city gates, the oldest of which dates back to the Roman period. These are, clockwise from the north of the citadel: *Bab al-Faraj (&quot;the gate of deliverance&quot;), *Bab al-Faradis (&quot;the gate of the orchards&quot;) and *Bab al-Salam (&quot;the gate of peace&quot;), all on the north boundary of the old city *Bab Touma (the &quot;Touma&quot; or &quot;Thomas gate&quot;) in the north-east corner, leading into the Christian quarter of the same name, *Bab Sharqi (&quot;eastern gate&quot;) in the east wall, the only one to retain its Roman plan *Bab Kisan in the south-east, from which tradition holds that Saint Paul made his escape from Damascus, lowered from the ramparts in a basket; this gate is now closed and a chapel marking the event has been built into the structure, *al-Bab al-Saghir (the small gate) in the south. In addition, the names of the two former gates in the east, Bab al-Jabiya at the entrance to Souq Midhat Pasha and Bab al-Barid near the entrance to Souq al-Hamidiyya, are still recalled by Damascenes, the former being used commonly to refer to the area at the entrance to the souq. Two other areas outside the walled city also bear the name &quot;gate&quot;: Bab Mousalla and Bab Sreija , both to the south-west of the walled city. ==Born in Damascus== *[[Nicolaus of Damascus]] (historian and philosopher) *[[John of Damascus]] (saint) *[[Ananias]] (disciple) *[[Sophronius]] ([[Patriarch of Jerusalem]]) *[[Damascius]] (Byzantine philosopher) *[[Yasser Seirawan]] (chess player) *[[Ahmed Kuftaro]] (former grand [[mufti]] of Syria) *[[Ikram Antaki]] (Mexican writer) *[[Ghada al-Samman]] (novelist) *[[Nizar Qabbani|Nizar al-Qabbani]] (poet) *[[Yousef Abdelke]] (painter) *[[Michel Aflaq]] (political thinker and co-founder of the [[Ba'th Party]]) *[[Salah al-Din al-Bitar]] (political thinker and co-founder of the [[Ba'th Party]]) *[[Constantin Zureiq]] (academic and Arab nationalist intellectual) == See also == {{commonscat|Damascus}} *[[History of Syria]] *[[Rulers of Damascus]] == External links == *[http://www.damascus-online.com/ Damascus online] *[http://www.ancientroute.com/cities/Damascus.htm Ancient Route history of Damascus] *[http://www.syriantours.net/Maps/Cities/damascus_big.jpg Map of Downtown Damascus] *[http://www.souria.com/ep/index.asp Interactive Map of Damascus] *[http://saroujah.blogspot.com Syria News Wire: daily tales from the streets of Damascus] *[http://www.oldamascus.com/ Oldamascus.com], a web site devoted to the city *[http://www.zeledi.com/public/Photography/SyriaWinter03/Damascus/ A collection of pictures] made in 2003 about Damascus. *[http://www.zeledi.com/gallery/thumbnails.php?album=27 A gallery about a 2005 trip] in Damascus. *[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198202/restoration.of.damascus.htm An article] about a large scale restoration project *[http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Ramad.html Tell Ramad] *[http://www.hernan.ameijeiras.com/damas-damasco.html Images from Damascus] *[http://www.awm.gov.au/units/unit_10555.asp Australian War Memorial] *[http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Senate/3541/diana_bell.html The Ride to Damascus] *[http://www.lancers.org.au/site/Damascus.asp Map showing routes of advance on Damascus 1918] ==Further References== * Yohanan Aharoni &amp; Michael Avi-Yonah, &quot;The MacMillan Bible Atlas&quot;, Revised Edition, (1968 &amp; 1977 by Carta Ltd.). [[Category:Damascus|*]] [[Category:Capitals in Asia]] [[Category:Cities in Syria]] [[Category:History of Syria]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites in Syria]][[Category:Aramaeans]] [[ar:دمشق]] [[bg:Дамаск]] [[ca:Damasc]] [[cs:Damašek]] [[da:Damaskus]] [[de:Damaskus]] [[es:Damasco]] [[eo:Damasko]] [[fr:Damas]] [[ko:다마스쿠스]] [[id:Damaskus]] [[is:Damaskus]] [[it:Damasco]] [[he:דמשק]] [[la:Damascus]] [[lt:Damaskas]] [[nl:Damascus]] [[ja:ダマスカス]] [[no:Damaskus]] [[pl:Damaszek]] [[pt:Damasco (cidade)]] [[ro:Damasc]] [[ru:Дамаск (город)]] [[sk:Damask]] [[sl:Damask]] [[sr:Дамаск]] [[fi:Damaskos]] [[sv:Damaskus]] [[tr:Şam]] [[zh:大馬士革]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Discrete multitone modulation</title> <id>8915</id> <revision> <id>15906849</id> <timestamp>2005-02-27T17:53:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mulad</username> <id>12070</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]] (bypass redirect)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dancing</title> <id>8918</id> <revision> <id>38419582</id> <timestamp>2006-02-06T04:57:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Arm</username> <id>35189</id> </contributor> <comment>rv page blank by 86.134.213.49</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dance]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dogme 95</title> <id>8920</id> <revision> <id>41676091</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T00:14:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fuhghettaboutit</username> <id>665998</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>orignal---&gt;original</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dogme 95''' (in English: '''Dogma 95''') is an avant-garde filmmaking movement started in 1995 by the Danish directors [[Lars von Trier]], [[Thomas Vinterberg]], [[Kristian Levring]], and [[Søren Kragh-Jacobsen]]. This movement is sometimes known as the '''Dogme 95 collective''' or the '''Dogme brethren'''. The Dogme movement was announced on March the 22nd 1995 at the Le cinéma vers son deuxième siècle conference in Paris, where the cinema world’s elite gathered to celebrate the first century of motion pictures and contemplate the uncertain future of commercial cinema. Lars von Trier was called upon to speak about the future of film but instead showered a bemused audience with red pamphlets announcing the Dogme 95 movement. In 1995 cinema was at an uncertain point in its history because it was (and still is) threatened by the impending age of digital film technology. Digital technology means that the cost of film production, exhibition and distribution is reduced, and production processes and distribution systems speeded up. This, in turn, means that non-Hollywood filmmakers can potentially compete with Hollywood in terms of making films and getting them to their audiences. In this industrial climate, then, Dogme hailed itself as 'a rescue action!' The goal of the Dogme collective is to purify filmmaking by refusing expensive and spectacular special effects, postproduction modifications and other gimmicks. The emphasis on purity forces the filmmakers to focus on the actual story and on the actors' performances. the audience may also be more engaged as they do not have overproduction to alienate them from the narrative, themes and mood. To this end, Lars von Trier and Thomas Vinterberg produced ten rules that any Dogme film must conform to. These rules, referred to as the '''Vow of Chastity''', are as follows: # Filming must be done on location. [[Prop]]s and sets must not be brought in (if a particular prop is necessary for the story, a location must be chosen where this prop is to be found). # The sound must never be produced apart from the images or vice versa. (Music must not be used unless it occurs where the scene is being filmed). # The camera must be hand-held. Any movement or immobility attainable in the hand is permitted. (The film must not take place where the camera is standing; filming must take place where the action takes place.) # The film must be in colour. Special lighting is not acceptable. (If there is too little light for exposure the scene must be cut or a single lamp be attached to the camera). # Optical work and filters are forbidden. # The film must not contain superficial action. (Murders, weapons, etc. must not occur.) # Temporal and geographical alienation are forbidden. (That is to say that the film takes place here and now.) # Genre movies are not acceptable. # The final picture must be transferred to the Academy [[35mm film]], with an [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] of 4:3, that is, not [[widescreen]]. (Originally, the requirement was that the film had to be ''filmed'' on Academy 35mm film, but the rule was relaxed to allow low-budget productions.) # The [[Film director|director]] must not be credited. This style of filmmaking is often utilized by film makers without a real budget of any kind. Critics often claim that this style is simply a facade to cover up bad film making or direction. If the film goes well the filmmaker(s) can claim they
sed; and that following the Eightfold Path will lead to the cessation of craving (and suffering). * The [[Noble Eightfold Path]]: right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. * The law of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent causation]]: that events are not [[Predestination|predestined]], nor are they [[random]], but that events are caused by the actions that preceded them. * Rejection of the [[infallibility]] of accepted [[scripture]]: teachings should not be accepted unless they are borne out by our experiences. * [[Anicca]](pronounce as &quot;anatesa&quot;): That all things are impermanent. * [[Anatta]]: That the perception of a constant &quot;[[self]]&quot; is an illusion. ==The Buddha in other religions== ===Hinduism=== [[Image:Avatars.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Some adherents of Hinduism regard Buddha (bottom right) as one of the 10 avatars of [[Lord Vishnu]] (center)]] Some [[Hindu denominations]] regard Buddha as the ninth avatar of Lord Vishnu. Buddhists in general do not consider the Buddha to be [[God]] or an [[avatar]] of any god. The general decline of Buddhism in India has been attributed to the development of [[Vedanta]] philosophy which began challenging Buddhism's philosophically strong image. ===Islam=== Some [[Islam|Muslims]] believe that Siddharta Gautama is the same person who is referred to in the [[Koran]] as ''[[Dhul-Kifl]]'', and that he was therefore a [[prophet of Islam]]. The meaning of ''Dhul-Kifl'' is unclear, but, according to this view, it means &quot;the man from ''Kifl''&quot;, where ''Kifl'' is the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] pronunciation of [[Kapilavastu]], where the Buddha spent thirty years of his life. More common views, however, hold that ''Dhul-Kifl'' was a different person and not a prophet at all, or that he was the prophet called [[Ezekiel]] in the [[Bible]]. ===Christianity=== The legend of &quot;[[Barlaam and Josaphat]]&quot;, written down by [[St. John of Damascus]] some time around the [[7th century]], bears a close resemblance to the story of the Buddha. Barlaam and Josaphat found their way into the Roman Martyrology ([[27 November]]), and into the Greek calendar ([[26 August]]). ===Judaism=== Meditation and teachings of Buddha have been adopted by many Jews in their worship ceremonies. Because Buddhism is centered around a path instead of a God, its teachings are often adopted without having to convert or let go of any beliefs. Jews who follow Buddhist customs are called Jubus or Bujews. ==See also== *[[Iconography of the Buddha]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/buddha.html A sketch of the Buddha's Life] * [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/buddhist.htm Critical Resources: Buddha &amp; Buddhism] * [http://www.azibaza.com/lecture/lectures_emaciated.htm The Emaciated Gandharan Buddha Images: Asceticism, Health, and the Body] * [http://www.borobudur.tv/lalitavistara.htm The Lalitavistara] {{Buddhism2}} [[Category:1029 BC births|Buddha]] [[Category:483 BC deaths|Buddha]] [[Category:563 BC births|Buddha]] [[Category:949 BC deaths|Buddha]] [[Category:Buddhism|Buddha]] [[Category:Buddhist philosophers|Buddha]] [[Category:Indian philosophers]] [[Category:Cat lovers|Buddha]] [[Category:Hindu religious figures|Buddha]] [[Category:Indian religious figures|Buddha]] [[Category:History of Bihar|Buddha]] {{Link FA|ja}} {{Link FA|vi}} [[ca:Siddharta Gautama]] [[cs:Gautama Buddha]] [[da:Siddharta Gautama]] [[de:Siddhartha Gautama]] [[eo:Budho]] [[es:Siddhartha Gautama]] [[et:Siddhartha Gautama]] [[fa:&amp;#1587;&amp;#1740;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1575; &amp;#1711;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1575;]] [[fr:Gautama Bouddha]] [[gl:Siddharta Gautama]] [[he:&amp;#1490;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1489;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1488;]] [[id:Siddhartha Gautama]] [[it:Buddha]] [[ja:&amp;#37320;&amp;#36838;]] [[jbo:sidartas gautamas]] [[ko:&amp;#49437;&amp;#44032;&amp;#47784;&amp;#45768;]] [[lv:Sidhārta Gautama]] [[ms:Gautama Buddha]] [[nl:Gautama Boeddha]] [[no:Siddharta Gautama]] [[pl:Budda Siakjamuni]] [[pt:Siddhartha Gautama]] [[ro:Gautama Siddhartha]] [[ru:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1043;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1072;]] [[scn:Gautama Siddhartha]] [[simple:Gautama Buddha]] [[sv:Buddha]] [[ta:கௌதம புத்தர்]] [[tpi:Sidarta]] [[uk:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1043;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1072;]] [[vi:Thích Ca Mầu Ni]] [[zh:&amp;#37322;&amp;#36838;&amp;#29279;&amp;#23612;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bridge</title> <id>3397</id> <revision> <id>41922370</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:15:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Narsamson</username> <id>350112</id> </contributor> <comment>Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the edifice (it is mostly an index to articles concerning specific bridge types). For other meanings, see [[bridge (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Vallorcine footpath bridge 2003-12-13.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A log bridge]] A '''bridge''' is a structure built to [[span (architecture)|span]] a [[gorge]], [[valley]], [[road]], [[railroad|railroad track]], [[river]], body of [[water]], or any other physical obstacle. Designs may be built higher than otherwise needed in order to allow other traffic (particularly ship traffic) beneath. The purpose of a bridge is to allow easier passage by providing a continuous more uniform more easily navigable route via what would otherwise be an uneven or impossible path for the particular kind of thing travelling or being transported, whether people, vehicles, trains, ships, liquids or whatever else. ==History== The first bridges were spans made of wooden [[logging|log]]s or [[plank]]s and eventually [[rock (geology)|stone]]s, using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement. The [[arch]] was first used by the [[Roman Empire]] for bridges and [[aqueduct]]s, some of which still stand today. The Romans also had [[cement]], which reduced the variation of strength found in natural stone. [[Brick]] and [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] bridges were built after the Roman era, as the technology for cement was lost then later rediscovered. [[Rope bridge]]s, a simple type of suspension bridge, were used by the [[Inca]] civilization in the [[Andes]] mountains of [[South America]], just prior to European colonization in the 1500s. During the 18th century there were many innovations in the [[design]] of [[timber]] bridges by [[Hans Ulrich]], [[Johannes Grubenmann]], and others. The first engineering book on building bridges was written by [[Hubert Gautier]] in 1716. With the rise of the [[Industrial Revolution]] in the 19th century, [[truss]] systems of [[wrought iron]] were developed for larger bridges, but [[iron]] did not have the [[tensile]] strength to support large [[force|load]]s. With the advent of [[steel]], which has a high tensile strength, much larger bridges were built, many using the ideas of [[Gustave Eiffel]]. ==Etymology== The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] traces the origin of the word ''bridge'' to an [[Old Norse]] word ''bryggja'', meaning &quot;landing stage, gangway, or movable pier&quot;. ==Types of bridges== There are four main types of bridges: beam bridges, cantilever bridges, arch bridges and suspension bridges. ===By use=== A bridge is usually designed for [[train]]s, [[pedestrian]] or [[road]] traffic, a [[pipeline transport|pipeline]] or waterway for water transport or barge traffic. In some cases there may be restrictions in use. For example, it may be a bridge carrying a [[highway]] and forbidden for [[pedestrian]]s and [[bicycles]], or a pedestrian bridge, possibly also for bicycles. An [[aqueduct]] is a bridge that carries water, resembling a [[viaduct]]. ===Decorative and ceremonial bridges=== To create a beautiful image, some bridges are built much taller than necessary. This type, often found in east-asian style gardens, is called a [[Moon bridge]], evoking a rising full moon. Other garden bridges may cross only a dry bed of stream washed pebbles, intended only to convey an impression of a stream. Often in palaces a bridge will be built over an artificial waterway as symbolic of a passage to an important place or state of mind. A set of five bridges cross a sinuous waterway in an important courtyard of the [[Forbidden City]] in [[Beijing]], [[China]]. The central bridge was reserved exclusively for the use of the Emperor, Empress, and their attendants. ===Index to types of bridges and bridge related topics=== &lt;gallery&gt; Image:NagasakiMeganebashi.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Arch bridge]]&lt;/center&gt; Image:Pont_du_gard.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Aqueduct]]&lt;/center&gt; Image:Baileycoppename.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Bailey bridge]]&lt;/center&gt; Image:UniversityBridge-1Clip.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Bascule bridge]]&lt;/center&gt; Image:Small footbridge.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Beam bridge]]&lt;/center&gt; Image:Concrete box girder bridge.JPG|&lt;center&gt;[[Box girder bridge]]&lt;/center&gt; Image:ThreeTwrBrCenter.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Cable-stayed bridge]]&lt;/center&gt; Image:CaissonSchematic.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Caisson (engineering)|Caisson]]&lt;/center&gt; Image:ForthBridgeEdinburgh.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Cantilever bridge]]&lt;/center&gt; Image:Puente del Alamillo.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Cantilever spar cable-stayed bridge]]&lt;/center&gt; Image:Tarr steps clapper bridge.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Clapper bridge]]&lt;/center&gt; Image:Australia sydney-404.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Compression arch suspended-deck bridge]]&lt;/center&gt; Image:Guilford vermont covered bridge 20040820.jpg|&lt;center&g
nology increases both performance and fuel economy. Boost lag is reduced as turbo impeller inertia is compensated for. A technique called accelerometer pilot control (APC) uses a sensor called an [[accelerometer]] to provide feedback on the engine's level of noise and vibration and thus instruct the ECU to inject the minimum amount of fuel that will produce quiet combustion and still provide the required power (especially while idling.) The next generation of common rail diesels are expected to use variable injection geometry, which allows the amount of fuel injected to be varied over a wider range, and variable valve timing similar to that on [[gasoline engines]]. At least in the US, diesels will slowly face displacement by tougher emissions regulations. Other methods to achieve even more efficient combustion, such as [[HCCI]] (homogeneous charge compression ignition), are being studied. ==Modern diesel facts== ''(Source: [[Robert Bosch]] GmbH)'' Fuel passes through the injector jets at speeds of nearly 1500 miles per hour (2400 km/h) – as fast as the top speed of a jet plane. Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber in less than 1.5ms – about as long as a camera flash. The smallest quantity of fuel injected is one cubic millimetre – about the same volume as the head of a pin. The largest injection quantity at the moment for automobile diesel engines is around 70 cubic millimetres. If the camshaft of a six-cylinder engine is turning at 4500 rpm, the injection system has to control and deliver 225 injection cycles per second. On a demonstration drive, a Volkswagen 1-liter diesel-powered car used only 0.89 liter of fuel in covering 100 kilometers – making it probably the most fuel-efficient car in the world. Bosch’s high-pressure fuel injection system was one of the main factors behind the prototype’s extremely low fuel consumption. Production record-breakers in fuel economy include the Volkswagen Lupo 3L TDI and the Audi A2 3L 1.2 TDI with standard consumption figures of 3 liters of fuel per 100 kilometers. Their high-pressure diesel injection systems are also supplied by Bosch. In 2001, nearly 36% of newly registered cars in Western Europe had diesel engines. By way of comparison: in 1996, diesel-powered cars made up only 15% of the new car registrations in Germany. Austria leads the league table of registrations of diesel-powered cars with 66%, followed by Belgium with 63% and Luxembourg with 58%. Germany, with 34.6% in 2001, was in the middle of the league table. Sweden is lagging behind, in 2004 only 8% of the new cars had diesel engine. Sweden`s fleet of cars is for the most part made up of old, large and petrol-fitted Volvos and Saabs. In 1998, for the very first time in the history of the legendary 24-hour race at the [[Nürburgring]], a diesel-powered car was the overall winner – the BMW works team 320d, fitted with modern high-pressure diesel injection technology from Bosch. ==Diesel Car History== Some facts about some of the older diesels by [http://www.christiantena.co.uk Philip Christian] The first production diesel car is widely believed to be the Mercedes 260D introduced in 1936, although I believe that Citroen had a small production run at about that time too. The first production turbo diesel car was the Peugeot 604 turbo diesel with a 2.3 litre turbo diesel introduced in 1979. Many Audi enthusiasts claim that the Audi 100 TDI was the first turbo charged direct injection diesel sold in 1989, but actually it isn't true, as the Fiat Croma, and also the Austin Rover Montego were sold with turbo direct injection in 1988. What was pioneering about the Audi 100 however was the use of electronic control of the engine, as the Fiat and Austin had purely mechanically controlled injection. The electronic control of direct injection really made a difference in terms of emissions, refinement and power. It's interesting to see that the big players in the diesel car market are the same ones who pioneered various developments (Mercedes, Peugeot/Citroen, Fiat, VW/Audi) with the sad exception of Austin Rover. ==See also== * [[Napier Deltic]] - A high-speed, lightweight (about 4 [[ton]]s&lt;!--which tons?--&gt;) diesel engine used in fast naval craft and some railway locomotives. * [[Junkers Jumo 205]] - The most successful of the first series of production diesel aircraft engines. * [[Elsbett]] - An improved multi-fuel diesel engine design * [[Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C]] - World's most powerful, most efficient and largest diesel engine. ==External links== * {{US patent|608845}} * [http://auto.howstuffworks.com/diesel.htm/ HowStuffWorks Article] * [http://www.bath.ac.uk/~ccsshb/12cyl/ The Most Powerful Diesel Engine in the World] * [http://www.cumminsracing.com Cummins Racing, home of the world's fastest diesel dragster...] * [http://www.southerngrease.com/learn.htm Alternative Diesel Fuels - A beginner's tutorial on using renewable fuels in diesel engines] * [http://www.kayotix.com/tmp/newsfeeds/18.01.06/vegoiltax/ News story on tax duty irregularities on using alternative vegetable oil to fuel your diesel engine] [[Category:Piston engines]] [[Category:Engine technology]] [[ar:محرك ديزل]] [[da:Dieselmotor]] [[de:Dieselmotor]] [[es:Motor diésel]] [[fr:Moteur Diesel]] [[hu:Diesel-motor]] [[ko:디젤 엔진]] [[id:Mesin diesel]] [[it:Motore Diesel]] [[he:מנוע דיזל]] [[nl:Dieselmotor]] [[ja:ディーゼルエンジン]] [[no:Dieselmotor]] [[pl:Silnik wysokoprężny]] [[pt:Motor a diesel]] [[ru:Дизельный двигатель]] [[sv:Dieselmotor]] [[vi:Động cơ Diesel]] [[tr:Dizel motor]] [[uk:Дизельний двигун]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dark Star</title> <id>8541</id> <revision> <id>36119655</id> <timestamp>2006-01-21T19:48:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.203.58.154</ip> </contributor> <comment>Added Dark Star the metal band</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Dark Star''' may refer to: * [[Dark star]], a star whose gravity is strong enough to trap light. * [[Dark Star (brewery)]], in Sussex, England. * [[Dark Star (horse)]], an American racehorse who won the 1953 Kentucky Derby * [[Dark Star (film)|''Dark Star'' (film)]], a 1973 film * [[Dark Star (band)]], a psychedelic punk band * [[Dark Star (metal band)]], a 80's metal band [http://www.nwobhm.com/dstar.htm] * [[Dark Star (novel)|''Dark Star'' (novel)]], by [[Alan Furst]] * [[Dark Star (song)]], a song by the [[Grateful Dead]] * &quot;Dark Star&quot;, a song by [[Deine Lakaien]] * &quot;Dark Star&quot;, a song on the Crosby, Stills &amp; Nash album ''[[CSN (album)|CSN]]'' * &quot;Dark Star&quot;, the second movement of Mike Oldfield's ''[[Tubular Bells II]]'' '''Dark Star''' may also refer to: * [[RQ-3 Dark Star]], a military drone operated by the United States from 1996 to 1999 * [[The Rappers Rap Group]], a group of rap artists in the 1980s ==See also== * [[Darkstar]], a disambiguation page for the single-word version {{disambig}} [[de:Dark Star]] [[sv:Dark Star]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>District of Columbia</title> <id>8543</id> <revision> <id>28404823</id> <timestamp>2005-11-15T15:34:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eoghanacht</username> <id>203711</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>R with possibilities</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Washington, D.C.]] {{R with possibilities}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Drawing</title> <id>8544</id> <revision> <id>41659671</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:54:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.9.96.118</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Other */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the art form. [[Drawing (manufacturing)|Drawing]] also refers to a method of producing wire, bars, or tubes.'' '''Drawing''' is a means of making an [[image]], using any of a wide variety of tools and techniques. It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface. Common tools are [[graphite]] [[pencil]]s, [[pen and ink]], [[ink]]ed [[brush]]es, wax [[color pencil]]s, [[crayon]]s, [[charcoal]]s, [[pastel]]s, and [[marker pen|marker]]s. Digital tools which simulate the effects of these are also used. The main techniques used in drawing are: line drawing, [[hatching]], crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, [[stippling]], and blending. An artist who excels in drawing is referred to as a ''draftsman'' or ''draughtsman''. [[Image:Beardsley-peacockskirt.PNG|thumb|right|200px|&quot;The peacock skirt,&quot; by [[Aubrey Beardsley]], 1892]] ==Definitions== Drawing is generally considered distinct from [[painting]], in which colored [[pigment]]s are suspended in a liquid [[medium]] and usually applied with a brush. [[Etching]] is similar to drawing but differs in that the tool digs into the surface, which is then used to make prints on a separate surface. One standard for differentiating drawing from painting is that it does not permit the artist to mix colors before applying them; colors can only be blended on the drawing surface, usually by overlaying one upon the other or by putting them close enough together that the eye &quot;mixes&quot; them. These distinctions are somewhat arbitrary and subject to change; some artists refer to fully-rendered pastel and colored-pencil compositions as &quot;paintings&quot;, and in nineteenth century usage &quot;drawing&quot; also encompassed the use of [[watercolor]]s. In digital media, &quot;drawing&quot; often refers to the use of vector-based graphics programs, as distinguished from bitmap-based &quot;painting&quot; software, but this distinction is not universal. ==Subject matter== [[Image:Frans_Koppelaar_-_Mother.jpg|thumb|right|''My mother knitting'', 1993, crayon on paper, by [[Frans Koppelaar]]]] All drawings are represen
tle> <id>3371</id> <revision> <id>40616308</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T21:22:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>129.67.2.244</ip> </contributor> <comment>Changed 'finance man' to 'financier'</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bach''' is the surname of a number of people: {{TOCright}} ==The Johann Sebastian Bach family== ''Main article: [[Bach family]]'' *[[Johann Sebastian Bach]] (1685&amp;ndash;1750), composer and organist, the most well-known of the Bachs *[[Wilhelm Friedemann Bach]] (1710&amp;ndash;1784), composer and organist *[[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach]] (1714&amp;ndash;1788), composer, harpsichordist and pianist *[[Johann Bernhard Bach]] (1676&amp;ndash;1749) composer, harpsichordist and organist *[[Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach]] (1732&amp;ndash;1795), composer *[[Johann Christian Bach]] (1735&amp;ndash;1782), composer *[[Johann Ludwig Bach]] (1677&amp;ndash;1731), composer and violinist *[[Johann Aegidus Bach]] (1645&amp;ndash;1716), organist and conductor *[[Johann Gottfried Bernhard Bach]] (1715&amp;ndash;1739), organist ==Other Bachs== * [[Arthur Bach]] * [[Alexander von Bach]] (1813&amp;ndash;1893), Austrian baron and statesman * [[Barbara Bach]] (born 1947), American actress * [[Edward Bach]] (1886-1936), medical doctor known for his work in alternative medicine * [[Kristina Bach]] (born 1962), German singer * [[P. D. Q. Bach]], fictional composer and alter ego of Peter Schickele * [[Richard Bach]] (born 1936), American novelist * [[Sebastian Bach]] (born 1968), former lead singer of Skid Row, currently performs on Broadway * [[Vincent Bach]], trumpet player and trumpet builder * [[Ole Christian Bach]] (1957&amp;ndash;2005), Norwegian financier ==Other meanings== * [[BACH motif]], a four-note sequence which features in a number of pieces of music, usually in homage to J.S.Bach. * [[1814 Bach]], an asteroid * In New Zealand, a bach is a [[holiday home]], generally a modest one. {{disambig}} [[Category:Lists of ambiguous human names]] [[Category:Lists of ambiguous place names]] [[cs:Bach]] [[da:Bach]] [[de:Bach]] [[et:Bach]] [[es:Bach]] [[fr:Bach]] [[ko:바흐 (동음이의)]] [[it:Bach]] [[hu:Bach]] [[nl:Bach]] [[ja:バッハ (曖昧さ回避)]] [[no:Bach]] [[pl:Bach]] [[ru:Бах]] [[fi:Bach]] [[sv:Bach]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Biology/Additional biology topics and keywords</title> <id>3373</id> <revision> <id>30326391</id> <timestamp>2005-12-06T09:45:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Alan smithee</username> <id>546086</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>double-redirect removal</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of basic biological topics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Blood on the Tracks</title> <id>3374</id> <revision> <id>41869667</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:42:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>JGF Wilks</username> <id>740658</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Writing and recording ''Blood on the Tracks'' */ Changed link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Album infobox | &lt;!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject_Albums --&gt; | Name = Blood on the Tracks | Type = [[Album (music)|Album]] | Artist = [[Bob Dylan]] | Cover = BloodTracksCover.jpg | Background = orange | Released = [[January 17]], [[1975]] | Recorded = September and December 1974 | Genre = [[Rock and roll|Rock]] | Length = 51:41 | Label = [[Columbia Records]] | Producer = [[Bob Dylan]] | Reviews = &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; * ''[[All Music Guide]]'' (5/5) [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=Ahq6gtr79kl3x link] * [[Robert Christgau]] (A) [http://robertchristgau.com/get_artist.php?id=169&amp;name=Bob+Dylan link] * ''[[Q magazine|Q]]'' (5/5) [http://www.buy.com/prod/Blood_On_The_Tracks/q/loc/109/60614085.html#prorev December 1993] | | Last album = ''[[Before the Flood]]''&lt;br /&gt;(1974) | This album = '''''Blood on the Tracks'''''&lt;br /&gt;(1975) | Next album = ''[[The Basement Tapes]]''&lt;br /&gt;(1975) }} '''''Blood on the Tracks''''' is a [[1975]] album by American singer-songwriter [[Bob Dylan]]. In [[September]] [[1974]], Dylan entered the studio with a clutch of newly written songs, many inspired by his recent estrangement from his wife of ten years, [[Sara Lownds | Sara Lownds Dylan]]. All ten songs on the album were originally recorded at [[New York City]] sessions produced by [[Phil Ramone]]. With Columbia set to release the LP, Dylan pulled back at the last minute, and at year's end re-recorded five of the ten songs in [[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]] with a crew of area session musicians assembled by his brother, David Zimmerman. Dylan's fans theorize endlessly about his reasons for revamping the album, but the most likely reason (and the simplest) is that the musical feel of the album was monotonous, with too many songs in the same key and the same languid rhythm. Told of the album's lasting popularity, Dylan was later to say: &quot;A lot of people tell me they enjoy that album. It's hard for me to relate to that. I mean, it, you know, people enjoying the type of pain, you know?&quot; ''Blood on the Tracks'' was a #1 Pop Album on the [[Billboard Music Charts]] and reached #4 in the UK. The single &quot;Tangled up in Blue&quot; peaked at #31 on the Pop singles chart. The album remains one of Dylan's all-time best-selling studio releases, with a double-platinum US certification to date. It is also one of his most critically-lauded. In Dylan's [[2004]] memoir, ''[[Chronicles,_Vol._1|Chronicles, Vol. 1]]'', he claims that although one album of his songs was entirely inspired by short stories by [[Anton Chekhov]], many of his fans and critics treat it as autobiographical. This passage is often cited as a reference to ''Blood On The Tracks''. ==Writing and recording ''Blood on the Tracks''== More than two months after finishing his 1974 American tour with [[The Band]], Dylan travelled back to [[New York City]], where he looked up an art teacher, Norman Raeben. Dylan was working on his skills as a painter, and Raeben was recommended to him by his friends in California. In 1978, Dylan recalled that his friends &quot;were talking about truth and love and beauty, and all these words I had heard for years, and they had 'em all defined...I asked them, 'Where do you come up with all those definitions?' and they told me about [Raeben]. I made a point to look him up the next time I was in New York, which was the spring of 1974. I just dropped [in] to see him one day and I wound up staying there for two months...Five days a week I used to go up there, and I'd just think about it the other two days of the week. I used to be up there from eight o'clock to four. That's all I did for two months.&quot; As biographer Clinton Heylin writes, ''Blood on the Tracks'', ''[[Desire (album)|Desire]]'', and Dylan's film ''[[Renaldo and Clara]]'' (shot in the fall of 1975) &quot;share a fascination with identities that stems as much from Raeben as Dylan.&quot; In 1978, Dylan recalled that his time with Raeben &quot;locked me into the present time more than anything else I ever did...I was constantly being intermingled with myself, and all the different selves that were in there, until this one left, then that one left, and I finally got down to the one that I was familiar with...[Raeben] taught me how to see...in a way that allowed me to do consciously what I unconsciously felt. And I didn't know how to pull it off. I wasn't sure it could be done in songs because I'd never written a song like that. But when I started doing it, the first album I made was ''Blood on the Tracks''. Everybody agrees that that was pretty different, and what's different about it is there's a code in the lyrics, and also there's no sense of time.&quot; After spending two and a half months in New York, Dylan flew to [[Minnesota]]. Ellen Bernstein recalls, &quot;He was at his best there, at his most comfortable, with his brother's house down the road. He had a painting studio out in the field, and the house was far from fancy, out in the middle of nowhere. He was very relaxed, and that's where and when he was writing ''Blood on the Tracks''.&quot; Heylin writes that &quot;only when [Dylan] had a fully formed prototype for the song would he show it to Ellen, and invariably, by then, it had been copied into [his] little red notebook from the scraps of paper on which his initial thoughts had been sketched.&quot; Ellen Bernstein recalls &quot;Dylan would do his writing early in the morning and then kinda materialize around midday, come downstairs and eventually, during the day, share what he had written. It was in the notebook, but he would play it, and ask me what I thought, and it was always different, every time, he would just change it and change it and change it. You definitely had this sense of a mind that never stopped.&quot; Dylan would eventually fill his little red notebook with a total of seventeen complete songs. On July 22nd, Dylan played [[Stephen Stills]] and Tim Drummond at least half a dozen of the new songs composed that spring and summer. Stills and Drummond heard these songs in a room at the [[St. Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul]] Hilton Hotel, after a [[Crosby, Stills and Nash]] concert, and soon after hearing them Drummond would praise them, describing them as &quot;gutsy, bluesy, so authentic...it's the first time I've sat in a room and liked everything I heard.&quot; Dylan began planning his next album, and at one point, he considered hiring guitarist [[Michael Bloomfield]] for the recording sessions. (Bloomfield was a key element on Dylan's ''[[Highway 61 Revisited]]''.) However, Bloomfield recalls, &quot;[Dylan] came over and there was a whole lot of secrecy involved, there couldn't be anybody in the house. I wanted to tape the songs so I could learn them so I wou
; == External links == {{wiktionary|{{PAGENAME}}}} *[http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Anthropology/er_ermazdesn.htm The Aryans in a historical context] *[http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Anthropology/arya.htm ÂRYÂ (ARYAN) Philology of Ethnic Epithet of Iranian Peoples] *[http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Anthropology/aryans.htm Aryans] *[http://kpearson.faculty.tcnj.edu/Dictionary/aryan.htm Etymological study] *[http://www.payvand.com/news/05/dec/1190.html Aryanism in Tajikistan] *[http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/05_01/Indo-European.shtml Genetic evidence suggests European migrants may have influenced the origins of India's caste system] *[http://www.armenianhighland.com/main.html Site arguing that Armenia was the Indo-European homeland.] {{Epochs}} [[Category:Ancient peoples]] [[Category:Indo-Iranian peoples]] [[Category:Eurasian nomads]] [[Category:Esoteric anthropogenesis]] [[ar:&amp;#1570;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1606;]] [[de:Arier]] [[fa:آریایی]] [[fr:Aryens]] [[nl:Ariër]] [[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12450;&amp;#20154;]] [[pl:Ariowie]] [[pt:Ariano]] [[ru:Арийцы]] [[sv:Arier]] [[zh:雅利安人]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Agar</title> <id>3262</id> <revision> <id>41921587</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:09:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>87.74.38.254</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Uses in microbiology */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} '''Agar''' is a [[galactose]] [[polymer]] (or [[agarose]]) obtained from the [[cell wall]]s of some species of [[red alga]]e or [[seaweed]] ([[Sphaerococcus euchema]]) and species of [[Gelidium]] and [[Gracilaria]], chiefly from eastern [[Asia]], [[Chile]] and [[California]]. It is also known as Kanten, Agar-Agar, or Agal-Agal (Ceylon Agar). Chemically, agar is a polymer made up of subunits of the sugar [[galactose]]; it is a component of the algae's cell walls. Dissolved in hot water and cooled, agar becomes [[gelatin]]ous; its chief use is as a culture medium for [[microbiology|microbiological]] work. Other uses are as a [[laxative]], a [[vegetarian]] [[gelatin]] substitute &amp;mdash; a thickener for soups, in [[jelly|jellies]], [[ice cream]] and [[Japan|Japanese]] desserts such as [[anmitsu]], as a clarifying agent in [[brewing]], and for [[sizing|paper sizing]] fabrics. ==Uses in cooking== Agar-agar is typically sold as packaged strips of washed and dried seaweed, or in powdered form. Raw agar is white and semi-translucent. For making jelly, it is boiled in water at a concentration of about 0.7-1% [[Concentrations#Mass-volume_percentage|w/v]] (e.g. a 7 [[gram]] packet of powder into 1 [[litre]] of water would be 0.7%) until the solids dissolve, after which sweeteners, flavouring, colouring, and pieces of fruit may be added. The agar-agar may then be poured into [[molding (process)|molds]] or incorporated into other desserts, such as a jelly layer on a [[cake]]. One of the latest fad diets in Asia is the Kanten Diet. Once ingested, kanten triples in size and absorbs water. This results in the consumer feeling more full. Recently this diet has received some press coverage in the United States as well. The diet has shown promise in obesity studies, but it should be noted that agar/kanten has virtually no nutritional value. It is approximately 80% fiber, so part of the diet's effectiveness may be a result of it working as a laxative. ==Uses in microbiology== :''Main article: [[Agar plate]]'' Nutrient agar is used throughout the world as a medium for the growth of [[bacteria]] and [[fungi]], but not [[virus]]es (however, viruses are often grown in bacteria that are growing on agar). Though less than 1% of all existing bacteria can be grown successfully, the basic agar formula can be used to grow most of the [[microbe]]s, whose needs are known. More specific nutrient agars are available, because microbes can be picky. For example, blood agar, which is generally combined with horse blood, can be used to detect the presence of haemorrhagic micro-organisms such as E.coli O:157 H:7. The bacteria digest the blood, turning the plate clear. Agarose is also used in Agarose [[gel electrophoresis]]. ===Selective Media=== Selective media is agar specially treated to apply a selective pressure to organisms growing on it -- for example, to select for salt-tolerant, gram-positive, or gram-negative bacteria. ===Differential Media=== Differential media includes an indicator that causes visible, easily detectable changes in the appearance of the agar gel or bacterial colonies in a specific group of bacteria. For example, EMB (Eosin Methylene Blue) agar causes E. Coli colonies to have a metallic green sheen, and MSA (Mannitol Salt Agar) turns yellow in the presence of mannitol fermenting bacteria. A famous scientist once used agar in world war II to cure infected wounds in battle. For more information search for &quot;Dorothy Hodgkin&quot; ==Hysteresis== [[Hysteresis]] describes the phenomenon of the differing liquid-solid state [[melting temperature|transition temperatures]] that agar exhibits. Agar melts at 85 °C and solidifies from 32-40 °C. == See also == * [[Agarose]] * [[Agar plate]] * [[Rhodophyta]] * [[Asepsis]] * [[Microbiology]] == External links == * [http://www.sciencebuddies.org/mentoring/project_ideas/MicroBio_Agar.shtml General agar information] [[Category:Edible thickening agents]] [[Category:Organic polymers]] [[ca:Agar]] [[de:Agar]] [[fr:Agar-agar]] [[gl:Ágar-ágar]] [[id:Agar]] [[it:Agar agar]] [[he:אגר]] [[ja:寒天]] [[pl:Agar-agar]] [[fi:Agar]] [[sv:Agar]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Acid rain</title> <id>3263</id> <revision> <id>42058801</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:50:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>85.12.65.33</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Origins.gif|thumb|right|350px|Processes involved in acid deposition (note that only SO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and NO&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt; play a significant role in acid rain).]]'''Acid rain''' is defined as any type of [[precipitation]] with a [[pH]] that is unusually low (Brimblecombe, 1996). Dissolved carbon dioxide dissociates to form weak [[carbonic acid]] giving a pH of approximately 5.6 at typical atmospheric concentrations of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (Seinfeld and Pandis, 1998). Therefore a pH of &lt;5.6 has sometimes been used as a definition of acid rain [http://www.airquality.co.uk/archive/glossary.php]. However, natural sources of acidity mean that in remote areas rain has a pH which is between 4.5 and 5.6 with an average value of 5.0 and so rain with a pH &lt;5 is a more appropriate definition [http://www.enviroliteracy.org/article.php/2.html]. Acid rain is formed by the [[oxidation]] of [[sulfur]] and [[nitrogen]] containing compounds which have emissions of both natural and human origin. This oxidation occurs in both the [[Gas_phase#Example_1:_Solid.2C_liquid.2C_and_gas_phases|gas phase]] and in [[rain]]drops to produce [[sulfuric acid]] and [[nitric acid]]. The resulting increased acidity in [[soil]] and [[waterway]]s has proven to be harmful to [[fish]] and [[vegetation]]. Acid rain also accelerates [[weathering]] in [[carbonate rocks]] and accelerates [[building weathering]]. It also contributes to acidic [[rivers]], [[streams]], and damage to [[trees]] at high elevation. Efforts to combat this phenomenon are ongoing. &quot;Acid rain&quot; is sometimes used more generally to include all forms of acid deposition - both wet deposition, where acidic gases and particles are removed by rain or other [[precipitation]], and the deposition of gases and particles to the Earth's surface in the absence of precipitation. ==History and trends== Acid rain was first reported in [[Manchester]], [[England]], which was an important city during the [[Industrial Revolution]]. In 1852, [[Robert Angus Smith]] found the relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution. The term &quot;acid rain&quot; was used for the first time by him in 1872 (Seinfeld and Pandis, 1998). Though acid rain was discovered in 1852, it wasn't until the late 1960s that scientists began widely observing and studying the phenomenon. Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to research a &quot;dead&quot; lake. Public awareness of acid rain in the U.S increased in the 1990s after the [[New York Times]] promulgated reports from the [[Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest]] in [[New Hampshire]] of the myriad deleterious environmental effects demonstrated to result from it. Evidence for an increase in the levels of acid rain comes from analysing layers of glacial ice. These show a sudden decrease in pH from the start of the industrial revolution of 6 to 4.5 or 4. Other information has been gathered from studying organisms known as [[diatoms]] which inhabit ponds. Over the years these die and are deposited in layers of [[sediment]] on the bottoms of the ponds. Diatoms thrive in certain pHs, so the numbers of diatoms found in layers of increasing depth give an indication of the change in pH over the years. Since the industrial revolution, emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere have increased. Industrial and energy-generating facilities that burn fossil fuels, primarily coal, are the principal sources of increased sulfur oxides. Occasional pH readings of well below 2.4 (the acidity of vinegar) have been reported in industrialized areas. These sources, plus the transportation sector, are the major originators of increased nitrogen oxides. The problem of acid rain not only has increased with population and industrial growth, but has become more widespread. The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local [[pollution]] has contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation. Often deposition occurs a considerable distance from its formation, with mount
&quot;de-Romanization&quot; of the Western Roman Empire in Hispania and a weakening of central authority, throughout the 3rd, 4th and 5th centuries. At the same time, there was a process of &quot;Romanization&quot; of the Germanic and Hunnic tribes settled on both sides of the ''[[limes]]'' (the fortified frontier of the Empire along the [[Rhine]] and [[Danube]] rivers). The Visigoths, for example, were converted to [[Arianism|Arian Christianity]] around 360, even before they were pushed into imperial territory by the expansion of the [[Huns]]. In the winter of [[406]], taking advantage of the frozen Rhine, the ([[Germanic tribes|Germanic]]) [[Vandals]] and [[Sueves]], and the ([[Sarmatian]]) [[Alans]] invaded the empire in force. Three years later they crossed the [[Pyrenees]] into [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] and divided the Western parts, roughly corresponding to modern Portugal and western Spain as far as [[Madrid]], between them. The Visigoths meanwhile, having sacked Rome two years earlier, arrived in the region in [[412]] founding the Visigothic kingdom of [[Toulouse]] (in the south of modern France) and gradually expanded their influence into the Iberian peninsula at the expense of the Vandals and Alans, who moved on into North Africa without leaving much permanent mark on Hispanic culture. The Visigothic kingdom shifted its capital to [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] and reached a high point during the reign of [[Leovigild]], treated in some detail at its own entry. Importantly, Spain never saw a decline in interest in classical culture to the degree observable in Britain, Gaul, Lombardy and Germany. The Visigoths tended to maintain more of the old Roman institutions, and they had a unique respect for legal codes that resulted in continuous frameworks and historical records for most of the period between [[415]], when Visigothic rule in Spain began, and [[711]], when it is traditionally said to end. The proximity of the Visigothic kingdoms to the Mediterranean and the continuity of western Mediterranean trade, though in reduced quantity, supported Visigothic culture. Arian Visigothic nobility kept apart from the local Catholic population. The Visigoth ruling class looked to [[Constantinople]] for style and technology while the rivals of Visigothic power and culture were the Catholic bishops&amp;mdash; and a brief incursion of Byzantine power in Cordoba. The period of Visigothic rule saw the spread of [[Arianism]] briefly in Spain. In [[587]], [[Reccared]], the Visigothic king at Toledo, having been converted to Catholicism put an end to dissension on the question of Arianism and launched a movement in Spain to unify the various religious doctrines that existed in the land. The Council of Lerida in [[546]] constrained the clergy and extended the power of law over them under the blessings of Rome. The Visigoths inherited from Late Antiquity a sort of [[feudal]] system in Spain, based in the south on the Roman [[villa]] system and in the north drawing on their vassals to supply troops in exchange for protection. The bulk of the Visigothic army was composed of slaves, raised from the countryside. The loose council of nobles that advised Spain's Visigothic kings and legitimized their rule was responsible for raising the army, and only upon its consent was the king able to summon soldiers. The impact of Visigothic rule was not widely felt on society at large, and certainly not compared to the vast bureaucracy of the Roman Empire; they tended to rule as barbarians of a mild sort, uninterested in the events of the nation and economy, working for personal benefit, and little literature remains to us from the period. They did not, until the period of Muslim rule, merge with the Spanish population, preferring to remain separate, and indeed the Visigothic language left only the faintest mark on the modern languages of Iberia. The most visible effect was the depopulation of the cities as they moved to the countryside. Even while the country enjoyed a degree of prosperity when compared to the famines of France and Germany in this period, the Visigoths felt little reason to contribute to the welfare, permanency, and infrastructure of their people and state. This contributed to their downfall as they could not count on the loyalty of their subjects, when the Moors arrived in the [[8th century]]. ==Al-Andalus (8th-15th centuries) == {{main|Al Andalus}} In [[711]], [[Arab]]s and [[Berber]]s had converted to [[Islam]], a religion founded in the [[7th century]] by prophet [[Muhammad]] and which by the 8th century dominated all the north of [[Africa]]. A raiding party led by [[Tariq ibn-Ziyad]] was sent to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic kingdoms in Iberia. Crossing the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], it won a decisive victory in the summer of [[711]] when the Visigoth king [[Roderic]] was defeated and killed on [[July 19th]] at the [[Battle of Guadalete]]. Tariq's commander, [[Musa bin Nusair]] quickly crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by [[718]] the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. The advance into Europe was stopped by the [[Franks]] under [[Charles Martel]] at the [[Battle of Tours]] in [[732]]. The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of [[Emir]] by the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] in [[Damascus]]. After the Umayyads were overthrown by the [[Abbasids]], [[Abd-ar-rahman I]] declared Cordoba an independent emirate. Al-Andalus was rife with internal conflict between the Arab Umayyad rulers, the [[Berber]] (North African) commoners and the Visigoth-Roman Christian population. Many of the Berbers, who had been given poor land in the northern parts of the peninsula, soon abandoned their estates and returned to Africa after a number of years with failed harvests. The lands were left unclaimed through disinterest, and this created a power vacuum where Christian kingdoms later would rise. In the [[10th century]] [[Abd-ar-rahman III]] declared the [[Caliphate of Cordoba]], effectively breaking all ties with the Egyptian and Syrian caliphs. The Caliphate was mostly concerned with maintaining its power base in North Africa, but these possessions eventually dwindled to the [[Ceuta]] province. Meanwhile, a slow but steady migration of Christian subjects to the northern kingdoms was slowly increasing the power of the northern kingdoms. Even so, Al-Andalus remained vastly superior to all the northern kingdoms combined in population, economy, culture and military might, and internal conflict between the Christian kingdoms contributed to keep them relatively harmless. Muslim interest in the peninsula returned in force around the year [[1000]]. Under [[Al-Mansur (Abi Amir)|Al-Mansur]] (a.k.a. ''Almanzor''), who sacked Barcelona ([[985]]), and subsequently his son, Christian cities were subjected to numerous raids. After his son's death, the caliphate plunged into a civil war and splintered into the so-called &quot;[[Taifa]] Kingdoms&quot;. The Taifa kings competed against each other not only in war, but also in the protection of the arts, and culture enjoyed a brief upswing. The Taifa kingdoms lost ground to the Christian realms in the north and, after the loss of Toledo in [[1085]], the Muslim rulers reluctantly invited the [[Almoravides]], who invaded Al-Andalus from North Africa and established an empire. In the 12th century the Almoravid empire broke up again, only to be taken over by the [[Almohad]] invasion, who were defeated in the decisive [[battle of Las Navas de Tolosa]] in [[1212]]. By the mid-13th century [[Granada]] was the only independent Muslim realm in Spain, which would last until [[1492]]. [[Cordoba, Spain|Córdoba]] became one of the most beautiful and advanced cities of [[Europe]], and an important scholarly center. (See also [[Abbadides]], [[Almohades]]). ==Reconquista (8th-15th centuries) == {{main|Reconquista}} The [[expulsion]] of the Muslims was reputedly started by the first King of [[Kingdom of Asturias|Asturias]], named [[Pelayo]] ([[718]]-[[737]]), who started his fight against the Moors in the mountains of [[Covadonga]] ([[722]]). Later, his sons and descendants continued with his work until all of the Muslims were expelled. Meanwhile, in the east of the peninsula the [[Franks|Frankish]] emperors established the ''[[Marca Hispanica]]'' across the [[Pyrenees]] in part of what today is [[Catalonia]], reconquering Girona in [[785]] and Barcelona in [[801]]. This formed a buffer zone against Islam. The idea of the ''Reconquista'' as a single process spanning eight centuries is historically inaccurate. The Christian realms in northern Spain warred against each other as much as against the Muslims. The ancient Kingdom of [[Asturias]] clung to the loose mountains of northwestern Spain, with its capital at [[Oviedo]], while the [[Basque people|Basques]] in [[Navarre]] retained sovereignty through the period of Muslim rule. The military decline of the Ummayads in Spain led to the creation in [[913]] of the [[Kingdom of León]]. [[Sancho III of Navarre]] - a man of considerable military skill - placed his son [[Ferdinand I of León|Ferdinand]] on the throne of the county of [[Castile]] in [[1028]], propelling Christian Spain yet further into the south. Ferdinand was a prudent and pious monarch, unifying Navarre, [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], Asturias, and León under his leadership. Because the tradition of [[primogeniture]] did not yet exist in Spain, upon Ferdinand's death in [[1065]] his lands were divided among his sons, [[Alfonso VI of Castille]], [[Sancho II of Castile]], and [[Garcia of Galicia and Portugal]]. Alfonso attempted to take Sancho's land, although the latter apparently inherited more of his father's tact and strategy, and after defeating him sent Alfonso into exile. Garcia never ruled, and was imprisoned for the duration of his short life. Sancho's death in [[1072]] meant that Alfonso VI had the superior claim, and he returned to power, once again in command of all o
ins and other molecules. == See also == * [[List_of_publications_in_chemistry#Analytical chemistry| Important publications in analytical chemistry]] * [[High performance liquid chromatography]] (HPLC) * [[Gas-liquid chromatography]] (GC) * [[Nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) * [[Mass spectrometry]] (MS) {{BranchesofChemistry}} [[Category:Analytical chemistry|*]] [[af:Analitiese chemie]] [[bg:Аналитична химия]] [[ca:Química analítica]] [[cs:Analytická chemie]] [[da:Analytisk kemi]] [[de:Analytische Chemie]] [[el:Αναλυτική χημεία]] [[es:Química analítica]] [[eo:Kemia analizo]] [[fo:Analytisk evnafrøði]] [[fr:Chimie analytique]] [[ko:분석화학]] [[is:Efnagreining]] [[he:כימיה אנליטית]] [[lv:Analītiskā ķīmija]] [[mk:Аналитичка хемија]] [[nl:Analytische scheikunde]] [[ja:分析化学]] [[pl:Chemia analityczna]] [[pt:Química analítica]] [[ru:Аналитическая химия]] [[sr:Аналитичка хемија]] [[su:Kimia analitik]] [[fi:Analyyttinen kemia]] [[sv:Analytisk kemi]] [[th:เคมีวิเคราะห์]] [[vi:Hóa phân tích]] [[tr:Analitik kimya]] [[uk:Аналітична хімія]] [[zh:分析化学]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Agricultural engineering</title> <id>2409</id> <revision> <id>40687932</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T08:31:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>H2O</username> <id>47464</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Areas of interest */ wiki erosion control</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Agricultural engineering''' is the discipline of [[engineering]] in [[Agriculture|agricultural]], [[food]], and [[Biology|biological]] systems. Agricultural engineers [[design]] agricultural [[machinery]] and [[equipment]] and agricultural [[structures]]. Some specialties include [[power systems|power system]] and machinery [[design]]; structures and [[environment]]; and food and [[bioprocess]] engineering. They develop ways to conserve [[soil]] and [[water]] and to improve the [[processing]] of [[agricultural products]]. A large percentage of agricultural engineers work in academia or for government agencies such as the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] or state [[agricultural extension]] services. Agricultural engineers work in production, sales, [[management]], [[research]] and development, or [[applied science]]. ==Areas of interest== *[[Biological engineering|Biosystems engineering]] *[[Ergonomics]], [[Safety]] and [[Health]] *Emerging Areas *Information and Electrical Technologies which includes [[Remote sensing]] *[[Food and Process Engineering]] *[[Forest Engineering]] *Power and Machinery, which includes [[Machine design]] *Soil and water engineering, which includes [[Irrigation]], [[Drainage]], [[Storm water|stormwater]] management and [[erosion control]]. *Structures and environment, which includes designing [[livestock]] housing as well as structures such as [[grain elevator]]s and [[greenhouse]]s ==See also== *[[American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers]] ==External links== *[http://www.asabe.org American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers Official Site] *[http://jobs.strategy-blogs.com/Agricultural-Engineers.html Agricultural Engineering Job Outlook and Salary Information] {{agri-stub}} [[Category:Agriculture]] [[Category:Agronomy]] [[Category:Engineering]] {{Technology-footer}} [[ja:&amp;#36786;&amp;#26989;&amp;#24037;&amp;#23398;]] [[lt:Agrotechnika]] [[th:&amp;#3623;&amp;#3636;&amp;#3624;&amp;#3623;&amp;#3585;&amp;#3619;&amp;#3619;&amp;#3617;&amp;#3648;&amp;#3585;&amp;#3625;&amp;#3605;&amp;#3619;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>A cappella</title> <id>2411</id> <revision> <id>41590626</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:51:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tlusťa</username> <id>649807</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+[[cs:A cappella]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the contemporary Christian singing group named Acappella, see [[Acappella (group)]].'' '''A cappella''' [[music]] is [[vocal music]] or [[singing]] without [[musical instrument|instrumental]] [[accompaniment]], or a piece intended to be performed in this way. ''A cappella'' is [[Italian language|Italian]] for ''like in the chapel (music)''; the term is due to restrictions on the use of instruments in medieval churches. It is often misspelled as ''a capella'', which is derived from the [[Latin]] spelling, or even ''acappella''. == The roots of a cappella music == A cappella music was and is often used in [[church music]]. [[Gregorian chant]] is an example of a cappella singing, as is the majority of sacred vocal music from the [[Renaissance music|Renaissance]]. The [[madrigal (music)|Madrigal]], up until its development in the early [[Baroque music|Baroque]] into an instrumentally-accompanied form, is also usually an a cappella form. The [[Amish]], [[Old Regular Baptist]]s, [[Primitive Baptist]]s, most congregations of the [[Church of Christ]], and the [[Old German Baptist Brethren]], as well as some [[Presbyterian]] churches devoted to exclusive [[Psalmody]], are religious bodies known for conducting their worship services without musical accompaniment. [[Eastern Orthodox]] Christians (especially Russian and other Slavic groups) insist on singing unaccompanied by instruments. Similarly, many [[Muslim]]s have adopted the idiom of a cappella music since mainstream traditional Islam prohibits the use of instruments except for some basic percussion. Muslim a cappella songs are known as [[nasheed]]s. [[Sacred Harp]], a type of religious &quot;folk&quot; music, is an a cappella style of religious singing. It is more often sung at singing conventions than at church services. == Modern a cappella == Many standard choral works are a cappella in that no accompaniment is written in except perhaps for rehearsal purposes. But in the modern parlance, it applies to vocal performers who disdain instrumental accompaniment in all cases. A cappella music attained renewed prominence from the late [[1970s]] onward, spurred by the success of songs by popular recording artists such as [[The Manhattan Transfer]], [[The Bobs]], [[Bobby McFerrin]], [[The Nylons]], [[Flying Pickets]], [[Die Prinzen]], [[Rockapella]], [[Take Six]], [[Wise Guys]] and [[Boyz II Men]]. This prominence in turn led to a resurgence in [[collegiate a cappella]] -- some larger universities now have a dozen groups or more. Some of the major movements within modern a cappella are [[Barbershop music|Barbershop]], [[doo wop]], and [[contemporary a cappella]]. Contemporary a cappella includes many '''vocal bands''' who add [[vocal percussion]] or [[beatboxing]] to create a pop/rock sound. Arrangements of popular music for small a cappella ensembles usually include one voice singing the lead melody, one singing a rhythmic bass line, and the remaining voices contributing chordal or [[Polyphony|polyphonic]] accompaniment . (In Japan, these parts are known as '''vocal''', '''bass''', and '''chorus''', respectively.) A cappella can also describe the practice of using just the vocal track(s) from a [[multitrack]] recording to either [[remix]] or put onto vinyl records for DJ's. Artists will sometimes release the vocal tracks of their popular songs so fans can remix them. == See also == *[[Contemporary a cappella]] *[[Collegiate a cappella]] *[[List of professional a cappella groups]] *[[List of collegiate a cappella groups]] == External links == * [http://www.casa.org/index.php Contemporary A Cappella Society of America (CASA)] * [http://www.rarb.org/ The Recorded A Cappella Review Board (RARB)] * [http://www.acappellaweb.com/ The College A Cappella Web] * [http://www.barbershop.org/ Barbershop Harmony Society] * [http://www.allforacappella.org/ Alliance for A Cappella Initiatives (AACI)] [[Category:Singing]] [[ca:A capella]] [[cs:A cappella]] [[de:A cappella]] [[et:A cappella]] [[es:A capella]] [[fr:A capella]] [[it:A cappella]] [[he:א-קפלה]] [[ka:ა კაპელა]] [[nl:A capella]] [[ja:ア・カペラ]] [[pl:A cappella]] [[ru:А капелла]] [[fi:A cappella]] [[sv:A cappella]] [[zh:無伴奏合唱]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Augmentation</title> <id>2412</id> <revision> <id>15900829</id> <timestamp>2005-04-04T23:37:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gtrmp</username> <id>38984</id> </contributor> <comment>split to [[augmentation (music)]] and [[augmentation (heraldry)]]; redir to disambig</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[augment]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arrangement</title> <id>2414</id> <revision> <id>40129545</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T09:55:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hyacinth</username> <id>17171</id> </contributor> <comment>head arrangement</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[music]], an '''arrangement''' loosely describes rewriting a piece of pre-existing [[music]] for a specific set of instruments or voices, often in harmony or with additional original material. In [[jazz]] or [[Recording studio|studio]] settings, &quot;arranging&quot; is most commonly used to describe the process that is also called [[orchestration]], adaptation, setting, [[Instrumentation (music)|instrumentation]], or a variety of other terms. Orchestration differs in that it is only adapting music for an [[orchestra]] or [[musical ensemble]] while arranging &quot;involves adding compositional techniques, such as new thematic material for introductions, transitions, or modulations, and endings...Arranging is the art of giving an existing melody musical variety&quot; (Corozine 2002, p.3). The [[American Federation of Musicians]] defines '''arranging''' as &quot;the art of preparing and adapting an already written composition for presentation in other than its original form. An arrangement may include reharmonization, paraphrasing, and/o
n 1955'' final document of ''The Conference of Messina'' 1 to [[3 June]] [[1955]] - birth of the European Union] *[http://www.ena.lu European NAvigator] - Thousands of multimedia documents on the history of Europe {{EU countries and candidates}} [[Category:European Union| ]] [[Category:International organizations]] [[Category:Federalism]] {{Link FA|no}} {{Link FA|pt}} {{Link FA|sr}} {{Link FA|sl}} {{Link FA|es}} {{Link FA|hu}} [[af:Europese Unie]] [[ang:Europisc Gesamnung]] [[ar:اتحاد أوروبي]] [[an:Unión Europeya]] [[ast:Xunión Europea]] [[bg:Европейски съюз]] [[zh-min-nan:Europa Liân-bêng]] [[be:Эўрапейскі Зьвяз]] [[bs:Evropska unija]] [[br:Unaniezh Europa]] [[ca:Unió Europea]] [[cs:Evropská unie]] [[cy:Yr Undeb Ewropeaidd]] [[da:EU]] [[de:Europäische Union]] [[et:Euroopa Liit]] [[el:Ευρωπαϊκή Ένωση]] [[es:Unión Europea]] [[eo:Eŭropa Unio]] [[eu:Europar Batasuna]] [[fa:اتحادیه اروپا]] [[fr:Union européenne]] [[fy:Jeropeeske Uny]] [[fur:Union Europeane]] [[ga:An tAontas Eorpach]] [[gd:An t-Aonadh Eorpach]] [[gl:Unión Europea]] [[ko:유럽 연합]] [[hi:यूरोपीय संघ]] [[hr:Europska unija]] [[io:Europana Uniono]] [[id:Uni Eropa]] [[ia:Union Europee]] [[ie:Europan Union]] [[is:Evrópusambandið]] [[it:Unione Europea]] [[he:האיחוד האירופי]] [[jv:Uni Eropah]] [[ka:ევროპის კავშირი]] [[csb:Eùropejskô Ùnijô]] [[kw:Unyans Europek]] [[ku:Yekîtiya Ewropayê]] [[la:Unio Europaea]] [[lv:Eiropas Savienība]] [[lt:Europos Sąjunga]] [[lb:Europäesch Unioun]] [[li:Europese Unie]] [[hu:Európai Unió]] [[mk:Европска Унија]] [[mt:Unjoni Ewropea]] [[ms:Kesatuan Eropah]] [[nl:Europese Unie]] [[nds:Europääsche Union]] [[ja:欧州連合]] [[no:Den europeiske union]] [[nn:Den europeiske unionen]] [[pl:Unia Europejska]] [[pt:União Europeia]] [[ro:Uniunea Europeană]] [[ru:Европейский Союз]] [[sco:European Union]] [[sh:Evropska unija]] [[scn:Unioni Europea]] [[simple:European Union]] [[sk:Európska únia]] [[sl:Evropska unija]] [[sr:Европска унија]] [[sq:Bashkimi Europian]] [[fi:Euroopan unioni]] [[sv:Europeiska unionen]] [[tl:Kaisahang Europeo]] [[ta:ஐரோப்பிய ஒன்றியம்]] [[tt:Awrupı Berlege]] [[th:สหภาพยุโรป]] [[vi:Liên minh châu Âu]] [[tr:Avrupa Birliği]] [[uk:Європейський Союз]] [[ur:اتحدِ یورپ]] [[zh:欧洲联盟]] [[fiu-vro:Õuruupa Liit]] [[vec:Union Eoropea]] {{featured article}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eriocaulales</title> <id>9319</id> <revision> <id>37290007</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:13:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdrbot</username> <id>263608</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Eriocaulales | image = Eriocaulon_decangulare_(1832).jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = ''[[Eriocaulon decangulare]]'' | regnum = [[Plant]]ae | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[monocotyledon|Liliopsida]] | ordo = '''Eriocaulales''' | ordo_authority = Nakai }} The '''Eriocaulales''' are an order of [[monocot]]s, including the tiny [[pipewort]] family, [[Eriocaulaceae]]. The family [[Xyridaceae]], which under the [[Cronquist system]] was placed in the [[Commelinales]], is sometimes included here as well, from which the whole order is sometimes called the ''Xyridales''. Some authors have also placed the [[Restionaceae]] here as well. The Eriocaulales, synonym of [[Xyridales]], are placed by the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|APG II]] in the order [[Poales]]. {{monocot-stub}} [[Category:Liliopsida]] [[fr:Eriocaulales]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ericales</title> <id>9320</id> <revision> <id>37289984</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:13:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gdrbot</username> <id>263608</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = lightgreen | name = Ericales | regnum = [[Plantae]] | divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]] | classis = [[Magnoliopsida]] | ordo = '''Ericales''' &lt;small&gt;Dumort. ([[1829]])&lt;/small&gt; | subdivision_ranks = Families | subdivision = See text. }} The '''Ericales''' are a large and diverse order of [[dicotyledon]]s. The order is represented with many various life forms, starting from [[tree]]s and [[shrub|bush]]es, to [[liana]]s and [[herbaceous]] plants. Together with ordinary [[autophyte|autophytic]] plants, the Ericales include [[chlorophyll]]-deficient [[mycorrhiza|mycotrophic]] plants (e. g. ''Sarcodes sanguinea'') and [[carnivorous plant]]s (e. g. genus ''[[Sarracenia]]''). Many species have five petals, often grown together. [[Mycorrhiza]] is an interesting property, frequently associated with the Ericales. Indeed, the symbiosis with root fungi is quite common among the order representatives, and there are even three kinds of it which can be found exclusively among Ericales (namely, ericoid, arbutoid and monotropoid mycorrhiza). In additional, some families among the order are notable for their exceptional ability to accumulate [[aluminium]] (Jansen et al., 2004). Ericales are a cosmopolitic order. Areas of distribution of families vary largely - while some are restricted to tropics, others exist mainly in arctic or temperate regions. The entire order contains over 8000 species, of which the Ericaceae account for 2000-4000 species (by various estimates). == Economical importance == Without doubt, the most important plant in the order is the [[tea]] (''Camellia sinensis'') from the Theaceae family. The order also includes some edible fruits, namely [[kiwi fruit]] (''Actinidia deliciosa''), [[persimmon]] (genus ''Diospyros'') and some tropical fruits. Many Ericales species are cultivated for their showy flowers. == Classification == The following families are typical of newer classifications: * Family [[Actinidiaceae]] ([[kiwifruit]] family) * Family [[Balsaminaceae]] ([[balsam]] family) * Family [[Clethraceae]] ([[clethra]] family) * Family [[Cyrillaceae]] ([[cyrilla]] family) * Family [[Diapensiaceae]] * Family [[Ebenaceae]] ([[ebony]] family) * Family [[Ericaceae]] ([[Erica|heath]] family) * Family [[Fouquieria]]ceae ([[fouquieria]] family) * Family [[Lecythidaceae]] ([[brazil nut]] family) * Family [[Maesaceae]] * Family [[Marcgraviaceae]] * Family [[Mitrastemonaceae]] * Family [[Myrsinaceae]] * Family [[Pellicieraceae]] * Family [[Pentaphylacaceae]] * Family [[Polemoniaceae]] ([[phlox]] family) * Family [[Primulaceae]] ([[Primula|primrose]] family) * Family [[Roridula]]ceae * Family [[Sapotaceae]] ([[sapodilla]] family) * Family [[Sarraceniaceae]] (American [[pitcher plant]] family) * Family [[Sladeniaceae]] * Family [[Styracaceae]] * Family [[Symplocaceae]] * Family [[Ternstroemiaceae]] * Family [[Tetrameristaceae]] * Family [[Theaceae]] ([[tea]] family) * Family [[Theophrastaceae]] These make up a basal group of [[asterid]]s. Under the older [[Cronquist system]], the Ericales included a smaller group of plants, which were placed among the [[Dileniidae]]: * Family [[Ericaceae]] * Family [[Cyrillaceae]] * Family [[Clethraceae]] * Family [[Grubbiaceae]] * Family [[Empetraceae]] * Family [[Epacridaceae]] * Family [[Pyrolaceae]] * Family [[Monotropaceae]] == References == * [[Barthélemy Charles Joseph du Mortier|B. C. J. du Mortier]] (1829). ''Analyse des Familles de Plantes : avec l'indication des principaux genres qui s'y rattachent'', 28. Imprimerie de J. Casterman, Tournay. * S. Jansen, T. Watanabe, P. Caris, K. Geuten, F. Lens, N. Pyck, E. Smets (2004). The Distribution and Phylogeny of Aluminium Accumulating Plants in the Ericales. ''Plant Biology (Stuttgart)'' '''6''', 498-505. Thieme, Stuttgart. (Available online: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2004-820980 DOI] | [http://www.thieme-connect.com/ejournals/abstract/plantbiology/doi/10.1055/s-2004-820980 Abstract]) * W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002). ''Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition.'' pp. 425-436 (Ericales). Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts. ISBN 0878934030. * E. Smets, N. Pyck (Feb 2003). Ericales (Rhododendron). In: ''Nature Encyclopedia of Life Sciences''. Nature Publishing Group, London. (Available online: [http://www.els.net ELS Site]) [[Category:Ericales]] [[da:Lyng-ordenen]] [[de:Heidekrautartige]] [[es:Ericales]] [[fr:Ericales]] [[ko:진달래목]] [[he:אברשאים]] [[la:Ericales]] [[nl:Ericales]] [[no:Ericales]] [[pl:Wrzosowce]] [[ru:Верескоцветные]] [[fi:Ericales]] [[sv:Ericales]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Edward Sapir</title> <id>9321</id> <revision> <id>40866932</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T15:07:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>61.246.162.106</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Bibliography */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Esapir.JPG|thumb|right|Edward Sapir. Photograph by Florence M. Hendershot, Chicago, Ill.]] '''Edward Sapir''' ([[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|/sʌˈpiɹ/}}), ([[January 26]] [[1884]] &amp;ndash; [[February 4]] [[1939]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[anthropologist]]-[[linguist]], a leader in American [[structuralism|structural linguistics]], and one of the creators of what is now called the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]. He is arguably the most influential figure in American linguistics, influencing even [[Noam Chomsky]]. ==Life and work== Sapir was born in Lauenburg, [[Germany]], now [[Lębork]] in [[Poland]], in 1884. In 1904 he graduated from [[Columbia University]] with a degree in Germanics, but his linguistic interests proved to be much broader. In the next two years he took up projects studying the [[Chinookan|Wishram]] and [[Takelma language|Takelma]] languages in the field. While at Columbia he met his mentor, anthropologist [[Franz Boas]], who was probably the pers
e Cambrian has recently been submitted. The rationale for this precise dating is interesting in itself as an example of [[Paleontology|palaeological]] [[deductive reasoning]]. Exactly at the Cambrian boundary there is a marked fall in the abundance of [[carbon-13]], a 'reverse spike' that [[palaeontologist]]s call an '''excursion'''. It is so widespread that it is the best indicator of the position of the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary in [[stratigraphic sequences]] of roughly this age. One of the places that this well-established carbon-13 excursion occurs is in [[Oman]]. Amthor (2003) describes evidence from Oman that indicates the [[carbon]]-[[isotope]] excursion relates to a mass extinction: the disappearance of distinctive fossils from the pre-Cambrian coincides exactly with the carbon-13 anomaly. Fortunately, in the Oman sequence, so too does a [[volcanic ash]] horizon from which [[zircon]]s provide a very precise age of 542 ± 0.3 Ma (calculated on the decay rate of [[uranium]] to [[lead]]). This new and precise date tallies with the less precise dates for the carbon-13 anomaly, derived from sequences in [[Siberia]] and [[Namibia]]. It is presented here as likely to become accepted as the definitive age for the start of the Phanerozoic eon, and thus the start of the Palaeozoic era and the Cambrian period. ==Cambrian palaeogeography== Cambrian [[continent]]s are thought to have resulted from the breakup of a [[neoproterozoic]] [[supercontinent]] called [[Rodinia]]. The waters of the Cambrian period appear to have been widespread and shallow. It is thought that Cambrian [[climate]]s were significantly warmer than those of preceding times that experienced extensive [[ice age]]s discussed as the [[Cryogenian|Varanger glaciation]]. [[Continental drift]] rates in the Cambrian may have been anomalously high. Because of their complexity, it is difficult to describe continental motions in text. Time-sequenced maps of paleo-continents and other major geologic features are called [[paleomap]]s and are available at several Internet sites (see below). ==Cambrian fauna== [[Image:Trilobite Redlichia.jpg|thumb|Fossil trilobite ''Redlichia chinensis'' from the Cambrian of China]] Aside from a few enigmatic forms that may or may not represent animals, all modern [[animal]] phyla with any fossil record to speak of except [[bryozoa]] appear to have representatives in the Cambrian, and of these most except [[porifera|sponges]] seem to have originated just after or just before the start of the period. However, several modern phyla, primarily those with small and/or soft bodies, have no fossil record, in the Cambrian or otherwise. Many [[Extinction|extinct]] phyla and odd animals that have unclear relationships to other animals also appear in the Cambrian. The apparent &quot;sudden&quot; appearance of very diverse faunas over a period of no more than a few tens of millions of years is referred to as the &quot;[[Cambrian Explosion]]&quot;. The best studied sites where soft parts of organisms have fossilized are in the [[Burgess shale]] of [[British Columbia]]. They represent strata from the middle Cambrian and provide us with a wealth of information on early animal diversity. Similar faunas have subsequently been found in a number of other places -- most importantly in very early Cambrian [[shale]]s in [[China]]'s [[Yunnan]] Province (see [[Maotianshan shales]]). Fairly extensive pre-Cambrian [[Ediacarian]] faunas have been identified in the past 50 years, but their relationships to Cambrian forms are quite obscure. ==External links and references== * [http://www.astrobio.net/news/article251.html Weird Life on the Mats] * {{cite journal | last = Amthor | first = J. E. | coauthors = ''et al.'' | year = 2003 | title= Extinction of ''[[Cloudinia]]'' and ''Namacalathus'' at the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary in Oman | journal = Geology | volume = 31 | pages = pp 431–434 | id = {{doi|&lt;nowiki&gt;10.1130/0091-7613(2003)031&lt;0431:EOCANA&gt;2.0.CO;2 &lt;/nowiki&gt;}} }} * [http://www.earth-pages.com/archive/geobiology.asp Report on the web on Amthor et al. from ''Geology'' vol. 31]. * [http://www.scotese.com/ Paleomap Project]. * {{cite web | title = International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) | url = http://www.stratigraphy.org/ | accessdate = Sept 19 | accessyear = 2005 }} {{Cambrian Footer}} [[Category:Cambrian| ]] [[ca:Càmbric]] [[cy:Cambriaidd]] [[da:Kambrium (jordalder)]] [[de:Kambrium]] [[es:Cámbrico]] [[et:Kambrium]] [[fr:Cambrien]] [[gl:Cambriano]] [[he:קמבריון]] [[it:Cambriano]] [[ja:カンブリア紀]] [[nl:Cambrium]] [[no:Kambrium]] [[pl:Kambr]] [[pt:Cambriano]] [[sl:Kambrij]] [[sv:Kambrium]] [[zh:寒武纪]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Columbia 1</title> <id>5368</id> <revision> <id>15903579</id> <timestamp>2003-02-01T16:51:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hotlorp</username> <id>3071</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect to STS-1</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[STS-1]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Contraception</title> <id>5369</id> <revision> <id>15903580</id> <timestamp>2002-03-15T07:42:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>AxelBoldt</username> <id>2</id> </contributor> <comment>-&amp;gt;[[Birth control]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Birth control]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Category of being</title> <id>5370</id> <revision> <id>36849839</id> <timestamp>2006-01-26T21:59:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>202.36.179.65</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Aristotle's ''Categories'' */ clarify</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[metaphysics]] (in particular, [[ontology]]), the different kinds or ways of [[being]] are called '''categories of being''' or simply ''categories.'' According to the [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] tradition, a being is anything that can be said to ''be'' in the various senses of this word. Hence, to investigate the categories of being is to determine the most fundamental senses in which things can be said to ''be.'' A category, more precisely, is any of the broadest [[class (philosophy)|class]]es of things - 'thing' here meaning anything whatever that can be discussed and cannot be [[reduction|reduced]] to any other class. An exhaustive account of the categories is to be hoped for. Some have desired ontolgical category schemes that were more than exhaustive, by virtue of admitting nonexistent or even logically impossible objects. The category schemes of [[Alexius Meinong]] are a case in point. What it means to take the category [[physical object]] seriously as a category of being is to assert that the concept of physical objecthood cannot be reduced to or explicated in any other terms - not, for example, in terms of [[bundle theory|bundles of properties]]. In this way, as it turns out, many ontological controversies can be understood as controversies about exactly which categories should be seen as fundamental, irreducible, or primitive. ==Aristotle's ''Categories''== ''Category'' came into use with [[Aristotle]]'s essay ''Categories'', in which he named 10 [[Categories (Aristotle)|categories]]. Nowadays, these categories are commonly seen as having a value that is merely historical, in part because Aristotle's notion of [[substance]] is commonly rejected. This rejection often stems from a misunderstanding of his real meaning, which was that substance is that which exists of itself and not in another. Given this understanding, to deny that substance exists amounts to saying that everything exists in another, which in turn implis that nothing exists. But if we assume that things do in fact exist, then at least one substance must be admitted, unless we allow things to nest in other things in either an infinite or a circular fashion. The latter option seems rather implausible, but the former option is conceivable if matter is assumed infinitely divisible, i.e., if atoms are denied. ==Other systems of categories== In his ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'', [[Kant]] proposed the following system: *[[Quantity]] **[[Unity]] **[[Plurality]] **[[Totality]] *[[Quality]] **[[Reality]] **[[Negation]] **[[Limitation]] *[[Relation]] **[[Inherence]] and [[Subsistence]] ([[substance]] and [[accident]]) **[[Causality]] and [[Dependence]] ([[cause]] and [[effect]]) **Community (reciprocity) *[[Modality]] **[[Possibility]] **[[Existence]] **[[Necessity]] [[Charles Peirce]], who had read Kant closely and who also had some knowledge of Aristotle, proposed a system of merely three phenomenological categories: ''Firstness'', ''Secondness'', and ''Thirdness'', which he repeatedly invoked in his subsequent writings. [[Edmund Husserl]] (1962, 2000) wrote extensively about categorial systems as part of his [[phenomenology]]. Contemporary systems of categories have been proposed by [[Wilfrid Sellars]] (1974), Grossman (1983), Johanssen (1989), Hoffman and Rosenkrantz (1994), [[Roderick Chisholm]] (1996), and [[Barry Smith]] (2003). For [[Gilbert Ryle]] (1949), a category (in particular a &quot;category mistake&quot;) is an important semantic concept, but one having only loose affinities to an ontological category. ==Categories of being== Philosophers have many differing views on what the fundamental categories of being are. In no particular order, here are at least ''some'' items that have been regarded as categories of being by someone or other: ===Physical objects=== [[Physical object]]s are beings; certainly they are said to ''be'' in the simple sense that they ''exist'' all around us. So a house is a being, a person's body is a being, a tree is a being, a cloud is a being, and so on. They are beings because, and in the sense that, they are physical objects. One might also call them [[body|bodies]], or physical [[
ective) potential differing from the form 1/''r'' (due to the presence of the inner electrons shielding the nucleus potential). Taking into account the [[spin]] of the electron adds a last quantum number, the projection of the electrons spin along the z axis, which can take on two values. Therefore, any eigenstate of the electron in the hydrogen atom is described fully by four quantum numbers. According to the usual rules of quantum mechanics, the actual state of the electron may be any [[quantum superposition|superposition]] of these states. This explains also why the choice of z-axis for the [[quantization (physics)|quantization]] of angular momentum is immaterial: An orbital of given l and m' obtained for another preferred axis z' can always be represented as a suitable superposition of the various states of different m (but same l) that have been obtained for z. == Mathematical summary of eigenstates of hydrogen atom == {{main|hydrogen-like atom}} The normalized position [[wavefunction]]s, given in [[spherical coordinates]] are: ::&lt;math&gt; \psi_{nlm}(\theta,\phi,r) = \sqrt {{\left ( \frac{2}{n a_0} \right )}^3\frac{(n-l-1)!}{2n[(n+l)!]} } e^{- \rho / 2} \rho^{l} L_{n-l-1}^{2l+1}(\rho) \cdot Y_{l,m}(\theta, \phi ) &lt;/math&gt; where: * &lt;math&gt; \rho = {2r \over {a_0}} &lt;/math&gt; and ''a''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is the [[Bohr radius]]. * &lt;math&gt; L_{n-l-1}^{2l+1}(\rho) &lt;/math&gt; are the [[Generalized Laguerre polynomials]] of degree ''n''&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;. * &lt;math&gt; Y_{l,m}(\theta, \phi ) &lt;/math&gt; is a [[spherical harmonic]]. The [[eigenvalue]]s are: * For [[Angular momentum operator]]: :: &lt;math&gt; L^2 | n, l, m \rang = {\hbar}^2 l(l+1) | n, l, m \rang &lt;/math&gt; :: &lt;math&gt; L_z | n, l, m \rang = \hbar m | n, l, m \rang &lt;/math&gt; * For the [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]]: :: &lt;math&gt; H| n, l, m \rang = E_n | n, l, m \rang &lt;/math&gt; :where :: &lt;math&gt; E_n = -{{m c^2 Z^2 \alpha^2} \over {2 \cdot n^2}} &lt;/math&gt; and &amp;alpha; is the [[fine structure constant]] and in [[hydrogen atom]] ''Z''=1. == Visualizing the hydrogen electron orbitals == [[image:HAtomOrbitals.png|frame|Probability densities for the electron at different quantum numbers (l)]] The image to the right shows the first few hydrogen atom orbitals (energy eigenfunctions). These are cross-sections of the [[probability density]] that are color-coded (black=zero density, white=highest density). The angular momentum quantum number l is denoted in each column, using the usual spectroscopic letter code (&quot;s&quot; means ''l'' = 0; &quot;''p''&quot;: ''l'' = 1; &quot;''d''&quot;: ''l'' = 2). The main quantum number ''n'' (= 1, 2, 3, ...) is marked to the right of each row. For all pictures the magnetic quantum number ''m'' has been set to 0, and the cross-sectional plane is the ''xz''-plane (''z'' is the vertical axis). The probability density in three-dimensional space is obtained by rotating the one shown here around the ''z''-axis. The &quot;[[ground state]]&quot;, i.e. the state of lowest energy, in which the electron is usually found, is the first one, the &quot;1s&quot; state (''n'' = 1, ''l'' = 0). [[media:HAtomOrbitals2.png|An image with more orbitals]] is also available (up to higher numbers ''n'' and l). Note the number of black lines that occur in each but the first orbital. These are &quot;[[nodal line]]s&quot; (which are actually [[nodal surface]]s in three dimensions). Their total number is always equal to ''n'' &amp;minus; 1, which is the sum of the number of radial nodes (equal to ''n'' - ''l'' - 1) and the number of angular nodes (equal to ''l''). == Features going beyond the Schrödinger solution == There are several important effects that are neglected by the Schrödinger equation and which are responsible for certain small but measurable deviations of the real spectral lines from the predicted ones: * Although the effective speed of the electron is only 1/10th of the [[speed of light]] (when ''l'' &gt; 0) there is an increase in the electron's mass, as predicted by [[special relativity]]. For heavier elements, this is more significant (see [http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtut/atomic/qprimer/#Q26]). * The spin of the electron has a [[magnetic moment]] attached to it. Even when there is no external [[magnetic field]], within the [[inertial frame]] of the moving electron the electric field of the nucleus partly acts like a magnetic field. This effect is also explained by special relativity, and it leads to the so-called ''[[spin-orbit coupling]]'', i.e. an influence of the electron's [[orbital motion (quantum)|orbital motion]] around the nucleus onto its [[spin (physics)|spin]]. Both of these features (and more) are incorporated in the relativistic [[Dirac equation]], whose predictions come still closer to experiment. It can still be solved exactly for the hydrogen atom. The resulting states now must be classified by the [[Total angular momentum quantum number|total angular momentum number]] ''j'' (arising through the coupling between [[electron spin]] and [[orbital angular momentum]]). States of the same j and the same n are still degenerate. * There are always [[vacuum fluctuation]]s of the [[electromagnetic field]], according to quantum mechanics. This means in particular that the electron undergoes a kind of &quot;jitter&quot; motion. As a consequence, the degeneracy between states of the same j but different l is lifted. This has been demonstrated in the famous [[Lamb-Rutherford experiment]] and was the starting point for the development of the theory of [[Quantum electrodynamics]] (which is able to deal with these vacuum fluctuations and employs the famous [[Feynman diagram]]s for approximations using [[perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)|perturbation theory]]). This effect is now called [[Lamb shift]] For these developments, it was essential that the solution of the Dirac equation for the hydrogen atom could be worked out exactly, such that any experimentally observed deviation had to be taken seriously as a signal of failure of the theory. {{Isotope|element=[[Hydrogen]] |lighter=(no lighter isotopes) |heavier=[[Hydrogen-2]] |before=See [[proton emission]] |after=Stable }} ==References== *[http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ Nuclear Data Evaluation Lab] In the 1970's a group of scientists showed that many of these effects that were blamed on vacuum fluctuations[like lamb shift,spontaneous emission etc] can also be explained from the notion of radiation reaction. ==External links== *[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/HydrogenAtom.html Physics of hydrogen atom on Scienceworld] *[http://webphysics.davidson.edu/faculty/dmb/hydrogen/ Interactive graphical representation of orbitals] *[http://www.falstad.com/qmatom/ Applet which allows viewing of all sorts of hydrogenic orbitals] [[Category:Atoms]] [[Category:Quantum models]] [[Category:Hydrogen|Atom]] [[ca:Proti]] [[de:Wasserstoffatom]] [[sl:Atom vodika]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Elagabalus</title> <id>14227</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>39991276</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T09:11:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>194.224.227.80</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}} [[Image:Elagabalus.JPG|thumb|right|A bust depicting Elagabalus.]] '''Elagabalus''' or '''Heliogabalus''' (c. [[203]]&amp;ndash;[[March 11]], [[222]]), born '''Varius Avitus Bassus''' and also known as '''Varius Avitus Bassianus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus''', was a [[Roman Emperors|Roman emperor]] of the [[Severan dynasty]] who reigned from [[218]] to 222. Elagabalus was and is one of the most controversial Roman emperors. During his reign he showed a disregard for Roman religious traditions and sexual [[taboo]]s. Elagabalus' name is a Latinized form of the Semitic deity El-Gabal, a manifestation of the Semitic deity [[El (god)|&amp;#274;l]]. He replaced [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]], head of the [[Roman mythology|Roman pantheon]], with a new god, ''[[Sol invictus|Deus Sol Invictus]]'', which in Latin means &quot;the Sun, God Unconquered&quot;. Elagabalus forced leading members of Rome's government to participate in religious rites celebrating Sol invictus which he personally led. He also took a [[Vestal Virgin]] as one of a succession of wives and openly boasted that his sexual interest in men was more than just a casual pastime, as it had been for previous emperors. Elagabalus developed a reputation among his contemporaries for eccentricity, decadence, and zealotry which was likely exaggerated by his successors. This black propaganda was passed on and as such he was one of the most reviled Roman emperors to early [[Christian]] historians and later became a hero to the [[decadence|Decadent]] movement of the late [[19th century]]. ==Family== Elagabalus was the son of [[Sextus Varius Marcellus]] and [[Julia Soaemias|Julia Soaemias Bassiana]]. His father was initially a member of the [[equites]] class but was later elevated to the rank of [[Roman Senate|senator]]. His grandmother [[Julia Maesa]] was the widow of the [[Consul]] [[Julius Avitus]], the sister of [[Julia Domna]], and the sister-in-law of Emperor [[Septimius Severus]]. Julia Soaemias was a cousin of [[Caracalla]]. Other relatives included his aunt [[Julia Avita Mamaea]] and uncle [[Gessius Marcianus]] and their son [[Severus Alexander]]. Elagabalus' family held hereditary rights to the priesthood of the sun god El-Gabal, of whom Elagabalus was the high priest at [[Emesa]] (modern [[Homs]]) in [[Syria]]. The name Elagabalus is a [[Latin]] form of the name of the Semitic god El-Gabal. The name originally referred to the patron deity of the emperor's birthplace, Emesa. [[El (god)|El]] refers to the chief [[Semitic]] deity, while Gabal meaning mountain (compare with the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''gevul'' and [[Arabic language
rg and the Netherlands, to the extent that the objectives of these regional unions are not attained by application of this Treaty.'' This article remained unaltered as art. IV-441 of the [[European Constitution]]. A '''Benelux Parliament''' (originally referred to as ''Interparliamentary Consultative Council'') was created in [[1955]]. This [[Parliamentary_Assembly|parliamentary assembly]] is composed of 21 members of the Dutch parliament, 21 members of the Belgian national and regional parliaments, and 7 members of the Luxembourgian parliament. The treaty establishing the '''Benelux Economic Union''' (''Benelux Economische Unie/Union Économique Benelux'') was signed in [[1958]] and came into force in [[1960]] to promote the free movement of [[worker]]s, [[capital]], [[service]]s, and [[good (economics)|good]]s in the region. Its secretariat-general is located in [[Brussels]]. The unification of the law of the three Benelux countries is mainly achieved by regulations of its Council of Ministers, that only bind the three States, but are not directly applicable in their internal legal orders. There is also a large number of Benelux conventions in a wide range of subject matters. In [[1965]], the treaty establishing a '''Benelux Court of Justice''' was signed. It entered into force in [[1975]]. The Court, composed of judges from the highest courts of the three States, has to guarantee the uniform interpretation of common legal rules. This [[international judicial institution]] is located in Brussels. The Benelux is particularly active in the field of [[intellectual property]]. The three countries established a '''Benelux Trademarks Office''' and a '''Benelux Designs Office''', both situated in [[The Hague]]. In [[2005]] they concluded a treaty establishing a '''Benelux Organisation for Intellectual Property''' which will replace both offices upon its entry into force. The treaty establishing the Benelux Economic Union will expire in [[2010]]. It will probably be replaced by a new legal framework, taking into account the evolutions since the 1950's both within the three member states and concerning European integration. ==External links== *[http://www.benelux.be/en/home_intro.asp Benelux Economic Union] - Official site *[http://www.benelux-parl.org Benelux Parliament] - Official site *[http://www.courbeneluxhof.info Benelux Court of Justice] - Official site *[http://www.bmb-bbm.org Benelux Trademarks Office] - Official site *[http://www.bbtm-bbdm.org Benelux Designs Office] - Official site {{region}} [[Category:Benelux countries]] [[Category:Geographic portmanteaus]] [[Category:International organizations]] [[ar:بنلوكس]] [[bg:Бенелюкс]] [[ca:Benelux]] [[cs:Benelux]] [[cy:Benelwcs]] [[da:Benelux]] [[de:Benelux]] [[el:Μπενελούξ]] [[es:Benelux]] [[eo:Benelukso]] [[fa:بنلوکس]] [[fr:Benelux]] [[gl:Benelux]] [[ko:베네룩스]] [[is:Benelúxlöndin]] [[it:Benelux]] [[he:בנלוקס]] [[lt:Beneliuksas]] [[lb:Benelux]] [[hu:Benelux államok]] [[nl:Benelux]] [[ja:ベネルクス]] [[no:Benelux]] [[pl:Benelux]] [[pt:Benelux]] [[ro:Benelux]] [[ru:Бенилюкс]] [[fi:Benelux]] [[sv:Benelux]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Boston Herald</title> <id>4171</id> <revision> <id>39739073</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T14:52:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>204.14.128.2</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Newspaper | name = [[Image:Boston Herald logo.gif|200px|centre]] | image = [[Image:BostonHeraldfrontpage.jpg|200px|centre]]| type = Daily [[newspaper]] | format = [[tabloid]] | foundation = [[1982]] | owners = [[Herald Media Inc.]] | political = [[Conservative]] | headquarters = One Herald Square,&lt;br&gt; [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts|MA]] 02205 USA | website = [http://www.bostonherald.com/ BostonHerald.com] | }} The '''''Boston Herald''''' is a [[tabloid]] [[newspaper]] (not to be confused with [[tabloid press]] periodicals), the smaller of the two big dailies in [[Boston, Massachusetts]], with a daily circulation of 230,543 in September 2005.[http://www.boston.com/business/articles/2005/11/08/heralds_circulation_declines/] It has a history that can be traced back through two lineages and two media moguls. Its history involves the ''Daily Advertiser'' and the old ''Boston Herald'' and it was owned at one point by [[William Randolph Hearst]] and later by [[Rupert Murdoch]]. ==History== The ''Daily Advertiser'' was established in [[1813]] in Boston by Nathan Hale. The paper grew to prominence through the 19th century taking over other Boston area papers. In [[1904]], William Randolph Hearst began publishing his own newspaper in Boston called ''The American''. Hearst ultimately ended up purchasing the ''Daily Advertiser'' in [[1917]]. By [[1938]], the ''Daily Advertiser'' had changed to the ''Daily Record'', and ''The American'' had become the ''Sunday Advertiser''. A third paper owned by Hearst called the ''Afternoon Record'', which had renamed to ''Evening American'', merged in [[1961]] with the ''Daily Record'' to form the ''Record American''. The ''Sunday Advertiser'' and ''Record American'' would ultimately be merged in [[1972]] into a line of newspapers that stretched back to the old ''Boston Herald''. The old ''Boston Herald'' was founded in [[1846]] by a group of Boston printers jointly under the name of John A. French &amp; Company. The paper was published as a single sheet, two-sided paper that sold for one cent. Its first editor, [[William O. Eaton]], just 22 years old, said &quot;The Herald will be independent in politics and religion; liberal, industrious, enterprising, critically concerned with literacy and dramatic matters, and diligent in its mission to report and analyze the news, local and global.&quot; Even earlier than the ''Herald'', the ''Boston Traveler'' was founded in [[1825]] as a bulletin for [[stagecoach]] listings. In [[1912]], the ''Herald'' acquired the ''Traveler'', and after a newspaper strike in 1967, Herald-Traveler Corp. suspended the afternoon &quot;Traveler&quot; to create the ''Boston Herald Traveler'', in [[1967]]. In [[1946]], the ''Herald Traveler'' organization acquired Boston radio station WHDH. Two years later, WHDH-FM was licensed, and on [[November 26]], [[1957]], WHDH-TV made its début as an [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] affiliate on channel 5. In 1961, WHDH-TV's affiliation switched to [[CBS]]. Herald-Traveler Corp. operated for years under temporary authority from the [[Federal Communications Commission]] stemming from controversy over luncheon meetings the newspaper's chief executive had with an FCC commissioner during the original licensing process. (Some Boston broadcast historians accuse the ''[[Boston Globe]]'' of being covertly behind the proceeding. The ''Herald Traveler'' was Republican in sympathies, and the ''Globe'' was allied with the [[Kennedy political family|Kennedy family]] interests, although at the time of the licensing dispute, the Globe had a firm policy of not endorsing political candidates, and the proceedings regarding the WHDH-TV license were initiated long before John F. Kennedy was elected president.) The FCC ordered a comparative hearing, and in 1969 a competing applicant, [[Boston Broadcasters, Inc.]] was granted a construction permit to replace WHDH-TV on channel 5. The ''Herald Traveler'' fought the decision in court -- by this time, revenues from channel 5 were all but keeping the newspaper afloat -- but its final appeal ran out in [[1972]] and on [[March 19]] WHDH-TV was forced to surrender channel 5 to the new [[WCVB-TV]]. Without a television station to subsidize the newspaper, the ''Herald Traveler'' was no longer able to remain in business, and the newspaper was sold to [[Hearst Corporation|Hearst]] which published the rival all-day newspaper the ''Record American''. The two papers were merged to become an all-day paper called the ''Boston Herald-Traveler and Record American'' in the morning and &quot;Record-American and Boston Herald Traveler&quot; in the afternoon. The PM edition was soon dropped and the unwieldy name shortened to &quot;Boston Herald American.&quot; The paper became a tabloid newspaper in September [[1981]]. On [[December 20]], [[1982]], the paper was purchased by Rupert Murdoch, who changed its name back to the ''Boston Herald''. The ''Herald'' continued to grow over the ensuing decades, expanding its coverage and increasing its circulation until the early 21st century, when circulation and advertising revenue dropped -- part of a phenomenon affecting almost all American newspapers in an expanding age of free media. The paper retrenched into its &quot;Record American&quot; roots and was retooled as a more sensationalist publication on the hope that boosting street sales would keep the paper alive. In February [[1994]], [[News Corporation]] was forced to sell the paper, in order that its subsidiary [[Fox Television Network]] could legally consummate its purchase of [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] affiliate [[WFXT-TV|WFXT]] (Channel 25). [[Patrick Purcell]], who was the publisher of the ''Boston Herald'' and a [[News Corporation]] executive, purchased the ''Herald'' and established it as an independent newspaper. Several years later, Purcell would give the ''Herald'' a suburban presence it never had by purchasing the money-losing [[Community Newspaper Company]] from [[Fidelity Investments]]. Although the companies merged under the banner of [[Herald Media, Inc.]], the suburban papers maintained their distinct editorial and marketing identity. The &quot;Herald&quot; continues to publish an aggressive daily newspaper and offer Boston readers an alternative at a time when many cities have only a single daily newspaper. ==Awards== The ''Herald'''s four [[Pulitzer Prizes]] for editorial writing, in 1924, 1927, 1949 and 1954, are among the most awarded to a single newspaper in the category. ''Herald'' photog
referred to as ''inland seas''. [[Storm]]s and [[reef]]s are a common threat, and many thousands of [[ship]]s have sunk in these waters. It is estimated that between 6,000 and 10,000 ships have sunk or been stranded since the early 1800s, many with partial or total loss of crew. This area is prone to sudden and severe storms, particularly in the autumn from late October until early December. The [[Great Lakes Storm of 1913]] became the worst Great Lakes storm on record: at least 12 ships sank, and 31 more were stranded on rocks and beaches. At least 248 sailors lost their lives over that weekend. The [[SS Edmund Fitzgerald|SS ''Edmund Fitzgerald'']], which sank November 10, 1975, was famously the last major freighter lost on the lakes. The greatest concentration of these wrecks lies near [[Thunder Bay (Michigan)]], beneath Lake Huron, near the point where eastbound and westbound shipping lanes converge. Today there is a U.S. [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] Marine Archeology Research Station located in the [[Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary]]. Here divers can explore more than 200 shipwrecks that form one of the most concentrated and best preserved [[maritime archaeology]] sites in the world. ===Invasive species=== The Great Lakes have been hit economically by various [[invasive species]], two of the most significant being the [[Lamprey|sea lamprey]] and [[zebra mussel]]. The mussel clogs pipes leading to the lake and causes approximately US$1 billion in damages per year while destroying native species. The lamprey feeds on the sport fish of the lake, making it less attractive to fishermen. An electric fence has been set up across the mouth of the Great Lakes in order to keep an invasive species of carp out of the area. ==Political issues== The [[International Joint Commission]] was established in 1909 to help prevent and resolve disputes relating to the use and quality of boundary waters, and to advise Canada and the United States on questions related to water resources. Concerns over diversion of Lake water are of concern to both Americans and Canadians. Some water is diverted through the [[Chicago River]] to operate the [[Illinois Waterway]] but the flow is limited by treaty. Possible schemes for bottled water plants and diversion to dry regions of the continent raise concerns. Under the U.S. &quot;Water Resources Development Act&quot;[http://www.ohiodnr.com/water/planing/greatlksgov/fedstatut.htm], diversions of water from the Great Lakes basin requires the approval of all eight Great Lakes governors, which rarely occurs. International treaties regulate large diversions. In 1998, the Canadian company [[Nova Group]] won approval from the Province of Ontario to withdraw 600,000 m&amp;sup3; (158,000,000 US gal) of Lake Superior water annually to ship by tanker to Asian countries. Public outcry forced the abandonment of the plan before it began. The [[Rush-Bagot Treaty|Rush-Bagot Agreement]] of 1817 limits the number of armed vessels permitted on the Great Lakes. Some are wondering if this agreement will survive the aftermath of [[September 11, 2001]]. [[Lake Champlain]] on the border between upstate [[New York]] and northwestern [[Vermont]] briefly became the sixth &quot;Great Lake of the [[United States]]&quot; on [[March 6]], [[1998]], when [[Bill Clinton|President Clinton]] signed Senate Bill 927. This bill, which reauthorized the [[National Sea Grant Program]], contained a line penned by Senator [[Patrick Leahy]] (D-VT) declaring [[Lake Champlain]] to be a Great Lake. Not coincidentally, this status allows neighboring states to apply for additional federal research and education funds allocated to these national resources. Following a small uproar (and several ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' articles), the Great Lake status was rescinded (although [[Vermont]] universities continue to receive funds to monitor and study the lake). ===Ecological challenges=== The Lakes provided fish to the [[American Indian|Native]] groups who lived near them or upon their shores. Early European settlers were astounded by both the variety and quantity of fish. Historically, fish populations were the early indicator of the condition of the Lakes, and have remained one of the key indicators even in our technological era of sophisticated analyses and measuring instruments. According to the bi-national (U.S. and Canadian) resource book, ''The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book'', &quot;the largest Great Lakes fish harvests were recorded in 1889 and 1899 at some 67,000 tonnes (147 million pounds),&quot; though the beginning of environmental impacts on the fish can be traced back nearly a century prior to those years. By 1801, New York legislators found it necessary to pass regulations curtailing obstructions to the natural migrations of Atlantic salmon from Lake Erie into their spawning channels. In the early nineteenth century, Upper Canada’s government found it necessary to introduce similar legislation prohibiting the use of weirs and nets at the mouths of Lake Ontario’s tributaries. Other protective legislation was passed as well, but enforcement remained difficult and often quite spotty. On both sides of the U.S.-Canada border, the proliferation of dams and impoundments multiplied, necessitating more regulatory efforts. The decline in fish populations was unmistakable by the middle of the nineteenth century. The decline in [[salmon]] was recognized by Canadian officials and reported as virtually a complete absence by the end of the 1860s. The Wisconsin Fisheries Commission noted a reduction of roughly 25 percent in general fish harvests by 1875. Overfishing was cited as responsible for the decline of the population of various [[whitefish]], important due to their culinary desirability and, hence, economic consequence. Moreover, between 1879 and 1899, reported whitefish harvests declined from some 24.3 million pounds (11 million kg) to just over 9 million pounds (4 million kg). Recorded sturgeon catches fell from 7.8 million pounds (1.5 million kg) in 1879 to 1.7 million pounds (770,000 kg) in 1899. There were, however, other factors in the declines besides overfishing and the problems posed by dams and other obstructions. [[Logging]] in the region removed tree cover near stream channels which provide spawning grounds, and this affected necessary shade and temperature-moderating conditions. Removal of tree cover also destabilized soil, allowing soil to be carried in greater quantity into the streambeds, and even brought about more frequent flooding. Running cut logs down the Lakes’ tributary rivers also stirred bottom sediments. In 1884, the New York Fish Commission determined that the dumping of sawmill waste (chips and sawdust) was impacting fish populations. The Great Lakes are international, and in situations that require regulation, a lack of cooperation between the U.S. and Canada might be predicted to have disastrous consequences. In the development of ecological problems in the Great Lakes, it was the influx of parasitic [[lamprey]] populations after the development of the [[Erie Canal]] and the much later [[Welland Canal]] that led to the two federal governments attempting to work together – which proved a very complicated and troubled road. Nevertheless, despite the ever more sophisticated efforts to eliminate or minimize the lamprey, by the mid 1950s Lake Michigan and Huron’s lake trout populations were reduced by about 99%, with the lamprey deemed largely to blame. A result was the bi-national Great Lakes Fishery Commission. Other ecological problems in the Lakes and their surroundings have stemmed from urban sprawl, sewage disposal, and toxic industrial effluent. These, of course, also affect aquatic food chains and fish populations. Some of these glaring problem areas are what attracted the high-level publicity of Great Lakes ecological troubles in the 1960s and 1970s. Evidence of chemical pollution in the Lakes and their tributaries now stretches back for decades. In the late 1960s, the recurrent phenomenon of the surface of river stretches (see Ohio’s [[Cuyahoga River]]) catching fire, due to a combination of oil, chemicals, and combustible materials floating on the water’s surface, came to the attention of a public growing more environmentally aware. Another aspect that caught popular attention was the “toxic blobs” (expanses of lake bed covered by various combinations of such substances as solvents, wood preservatives, coal tar, and metals) found in Lake Superior, the St. Clair River, and other portions of the Great Lakes region. According to the authoritative bi-national source ''The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book'', &quot;Only pockets remain of the once large commercial fishery.&quot; ==Important cities along the lakes== '''Lake Superior''' *[[Duluth, Minnesota]] *[[Thunder Bay, Ontario]] *[[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario]] *[[Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan]] *[[Marquette, Michigan]] *[[Houghton, Michigan]] '''Lake Michigan''' *[[Green Bay, Wisconsin]] *[[Manitowoc, Wisconsin]] *[[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]] *[[Chicago, Illinois]] *[[Gary, Indiana]] *[[Michigan City, Indiana]] *[[Benton Harbor, Michigan]] *[[Holland, Michigan]] *[[Muskegon, Michigan]] *[[Traverse City, Michigan]] *[[Escanaba, Michigan]] '''Lake Erie''' *[[Monroe, Michigan]] *[[Toledo, Ohio]] *[[Sandusky, Ohio]] *[[Cleveland, Ohio]] *[[Erie, Pennsylvania]] *[[Fort Erie, Ontario]] *[[Buffalo, New York]] *[[Detroit, Michigan]] *[[Leamington, Ontario]] *[[Windsor, Ontario]] '''Lake Ontario''' *[[Rochester, New York]] *[[Oswego, New York]] *[[Hamilton, Ontario]] *[[Kingston, Ontario]] *[[Toronto, Ontario]] *[[Oshawa, Ontario]] *[[St. Catharines, Ontario]] '''Lake Huron''' *[[Alpena, Michigan]] *[[Bay City, Michigan]] *[[Port Huron, Michigan]] *[[Sarnia, Ontario]] *[[Owen Sound, Ontario]] *[[Collingwood, Ontario]] ==See also== *
ons team as a &quot;Home Nations&quot; team. Lions selectors can also draft uncapped players available to one of the four home unions, but this [[as of 2006 | now]] rarely occurs. Combined [[Rugby Union]] sides from the then [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] toured in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] from 1888 onwards. The first tour took place as a commercial venture, made without official backing, but the six subsequent visits that took place prior to the [[1910]] [[South Africa]] tour (the first selected by a committee from the four Home Unions) enjoyed a growing degree of support from the authorities, although only one of these included representatives of all four nations. The [[1950s]] proved a golden age for Lions rugby, although only in the 1970s did style begin to match the substance of victory in New Zealand and South Africa. Originally, poorly-organised Lions teams regularly suffered defeat at the hands of their hosts, but by [[1955]] the tourists took the matches seriously enough to obtain a 2-2 draw in South Africa. The [[1970s]] saw a renaissance for the side. The last tour of the amateur age took place in 1993. Three tours have happened since. ==Naming and symbols== The team historically used the name '[[British Isles]]'. On their [[1950 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia|1950 tour]] of [[New Zealand]] and [[Australia]] they also adopted the name 'British Lions' after the [[lion]] emblem on their jerseys. Since the [[2005 British and Irish Lions tour to New Zealand|2005 tour]] of New Zealand they have used the name 'British and '''Irish''' Lions'. The team adopted the new name, in part, to take account of the sensitivities of some people in the [[Republic of Ireland]] and in [[Northern Ireland]] who object to any implication of &quot;Britishness&quot;. Some have criticised this change as exhibiting unnecessary [[political correctness]], as they felt that the geographic term [[British Isles]] carried no political overtones. Most rugby-union fans simply refer to the team as the ''''Lions''''. The Lions do not represent a [[nation-state]], and as such they do not relate to any national flag or other national symbols, and they do not have a [[national anthem]]. For the [[2005]] tour to New Zealand the Lions directorate specially commissioned a song, &quot;[[The Power of Four]]&quot;, although it met with little support amongst Lions fans at the matches, and even the players seemed not to know the words. The status of the song on future tours remains uncertain. ==History== ===1888-1909=== The earliest Lions tours date back to 1888, when a 21-man squad visited [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. The squad drew players from England, Scotland and Wales, though English players predominated in the squad. The 35-match tour of two host nations included no tests, but the side played provincial, city and academic sides, winning 27 matches. The first tour, although unsanctioned by rugby bodies, had established the notion of touring [[North Hemisphere]] sporting sides to [[South Hemisphere]] nations. Three years after the first tour, the [[Western Province union]] invited rugby bodies in Britain to tour South Africa. Some saw the 1891 team — the first sanctioned by the [[Rugby Football Union]] — as the [[England national rugby union team|English rugby team]], though others referred to it (and rightly so) as &quot;the British Isles&quot;. The tourists played a total of twenty matches, three of them tests. The team also played the regional side of South Africa (South Africa did not exist as a political unit in 1891), winning all three matches. In a notable event of the tour, the British side presented the [[Currie Cup]] to [[Griqualand West]], the province they thought produced the best performance on the tour. Five years later a British Isles side returned to South Africa. They played one extra match on this tour, making the total of 21 games, including four tests against South Africa, with the British Isles winning three of them. The squad had a notable Irish orientation, with the Irish national team contributing six players to the 21-man squad. In 1899 the British Isles touring side returning to Australia for the first time since the unofficial tour of 1888. The squad of 231,&lt;!-- perhaps only 23 ...--&gt; for the first time ever had players from each of the home nations. The team again participated in 21 matches, playing state teams as well as northern [[Queensland]] sides and [[Victoria]]n teams. A four-test series took place against [[Australia national rugby union team|Australia]], the tourists winning three out of the four. Four years later, in 1903, the British and Irish team returned to South Africa. The opening performance of the side proved disappointing from the tourists' point of view, with defeats in its opening three matches by Western Province sides in [[Cape Town]]. From then on the team experienced mixed results, though more wins than losses. The side lost the test series to South Africa, drawing twice, but with the South Africans winning the decider 8 to nil. No more than twelve months passed before the British and Irish team ventured to Australia and New Zealand in 1904. The tourists devastated the Australian teams, winning every single game. Australia also lost all three tests to the vistors, even getting held to a stand-still in two of the three games. Though the New Zealand leg of the tour did not take long in comparison to the number of Australian games, the British and Irish experienced considerable difficulty across the Tasman after white-washing the Australians. The team managed two early wins before losing the test to New Zealand and only winning one more game as well as drawing once. Despite their difficulties in New Zealand the tour proved a raging success on-field for the British and Irish. In 1908 another tour took place to [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. In a reversal of previous practice, the planners allocated more matches in New Zealand rather than in Australia: perhaps the strength of the New Zealand teams and the heavy defeats of all Australian teams on the previous tour influenced this decision. Some commentators thought that this tour hoped to reach out to rugby communities in Australia, as rugby league (infamously) started in Australia in [[1908]]. The Anglo-Welsh side (Irish and Scottish unions did not participate) performed well in all the non-test matches, but drew a test against New Zealand and lost the other two. ===1910-1949=== Visits that took place prior to the [[1910]] [[South Africa]] tour (the first selected by a committee from the four Home Unions) had enjoyed a growing degree of support from the authorities, although only one of these included representatives of all four nations. The [[1910]] tour to South Africa marked the official begining of British and Irish rugby tours: the inaugural tour operating under all four unions. The team performed moderately against the non-test parties, claiming victories in just over half their matches. The test series, however, went to South Africa, who won two of the three games. A side managed by [[Oxford University]] — supposedly the [[England national rugby union team|England rugby team]] but actually including three Scottish players — toured [[Argentina]] at the time: the people of Argentina termed it the &quot;Combined British&quot;. A wait of fourteen years would ensue until another British Isles team tour took place, again in South Africa. The team struggled with [[injurie]]s and lost all four tests (a game against the Western Province had test status). This tour may have marked the occasion when the team first became known as &quot;the Lions&quot;. In 1927 a short nine-game series took place in [[Argentina]], with the Lions winning all nine encounters; the tour did however become a financial success for Argentinian rugby. After a seemingly long absence from New Zealand, the Lions returned in [[1930]] to some success. The Lions won all of their games that did not have test status except for the matches against [[Auckland]], [[Wellington]] and [[Canterbury]]; they did however lose all of their test matches against [[All Blacks|New Zealand]]. The side also visited Australia, losing a test but winning five out of the six non-test games. In [[1936]] the Lions visited [[Argentina]], winning all ten of their matches and only conceding nine points in the whole tour. Two years later the Lions toured to South Africa, winning more than half of their normal matches. Despite having lost the test series to South Africa by game three, the Lions won the final test. ===1950-1969=== The first post-war tour went to New Zealand and Australia in [[1950]]. The Lions, sporting a new jersey-design and a fresh style of play, managed to win 22 and draw one of 29 matches over the two nations. The Lions won the opening four fixtures before losing to [[Otago]] and [[Southland]], but succeeded in holding the [[All Blacks]] to a nine-all draw. The Lions performed well in the remaining All Black tests though they lost all three, the team did not lose another non-test in the New Zealand leg of the tour. The Lions won all their games in Australia except for their final fixture against a [[New South Wales]] XV in [[Newcastle, Australia|Newcastle]]. They won both of the two tests against [[Australia national rugby union team|Australia]], in [[Brisbane]] and in [[Sydney]]. The [[1955]] tour to [[South Africa]] proved arguably just as successful — or even more successful — than the previous tour that had taken place five years earlier. The Lions left with another imposing record, one draw and 19 wins from the 25 fixtures. The four-test series against [[South Africa national rugby union team|South Africa]], a thrilling affair, ended in a drawn series. The 1959 tour to Australia and New Zealand marked once again a very successful tour for the Lions, who only lost six of their 35 fixtures. The Lions e
changes its name to [[Burkina Faso]]. *[[1985]] - In one of the most exciting days in sports, [[Tom Seaver]] of the [[Chicago White Sox]] won his [[300 win club|300th game]] and [[Rod Carew]] of the [[California Angels]] picked up his [[3000 hits|3000th hit]]. It marked the only day in which two men reached baseball's three biggest milestones in the same day. *[[1987]] - The [[Federal Communications Commission]] rescinds the [[Fairness Doctrine]] which had required [[radio]] and [[television]] stations to &quot;fairly&quot; present controversial issues. *[[1991]] - The [[Greece|Greek]] cruise ship ''[[Oceanos]]'' sinks off the coast of [[South Africa]]. *[[1993]] - A federal judge sentences [[Los Angeles Police Department|LAPD]] officers [[Stacey Koon]] and [[Laurence Powell]] to 30 months in prison for violating motorist [[Rodney King]]'s [[civil rights]]. *[[1995]] - [[Operation Storm]] begins in Croatia. *[[1997]] - 185,000 [[Teamsters]] union [[United Parcel Service]] drivers walk off the job. *[[2005]] - [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Paul Martin]] announces that [[Michaëlle Jean]] will be Canada's 27th — and first [[Black Canadian|black]] — [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]]. ==Births== *[[1222]] - [[Richard de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford]], English soldier (d. [[1262]]) *[[1290]] - Duke [[Leopold I of Austria (Habsburg)|Leopold I of Austria]] (d. [[1326]]) *[[1521]] - [[Pope Urban VII]], (d. [[1590]]) *[[1604]] - [[François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac]], French writer (d. [[1676]]) *[[1701]] - [[Thomas Blackwell]], Scottish classical scholar (d. [[1757]]) *[[1719]] - [[Johann Gottlob Lehmann]], German minerologist and geologist (d. [[1767]]) *[[1721]] - [[Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford]], English politician (d. [[1803]]) *[[1792]] - [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]], English poet (d. [[1822]]) *[[1805]] - [[William Rowan Hamilton]], Irish mathematician (d. [[1865]]) *[[1834]] - [[John Venn]], English mathematician (d. [[1923]]) *[[1840]] - [[Richard von Krafft-Ebing]], German psychiatrist (d. [[1902]]) *[[1859]] - [[Knut Hamsun]], Norwegian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1952]]) *[[1870]] - Sir [[Harry Lauder]], Scottish entertainer (d. [[1950]]) *[[1899]] - [[Ezra Taft Benson]], president of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (d. [[1994]]) *[[1900]] - [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon]], Queen Mother of the United Kingdom (d. [[2002]]) *[[1901]] - [[Louis Armstrong]], American musician (d. [[1971]]) *[[1904]] - [[Witold Gombrowicz]], Polish novelist and dramatist (d. [[1969]]) *[[1906]] - [[Eugen Schuhmacher]], German zoologist (d. [[1973]]) *[[1908]] - [[Kurt Eichhorn]], German conductor (d. [[1994]]) *[[1909]] - [[Glenn Cunningham (runner)|Glenn Cunningham]], runner (d. [[1988]]) *[[1910]] - [[William Schuman]], American composer (d. [[1992]]) *[[1912]] - [[Aleksandr Danilovich Aleksandrov]], Russian mathematician, physicist, philosopher, and mountaineer (d. [[1999]]) * 1912 - [[Raoul Wallenberg]], Swedish diplomat *[[1913]] - [[Robert Hayden]], American poet (d. [[1980]]) *[[1921]] - [[Maurice Richard]], Canadian hockey player (d. [[2000]]) *[[1923]] - [[Reg Grundy]], Australian media and television mogul *[[1927]] - [[Jess Thomas]], American tenor (d. [[1993]]) *[[1929]] - [[Yasser Arafat]], Palestine leader (d. [[2004]]) * 1929 - [[Kishore Kumar]], Indian singer and actor (d. [[1987]]) *[[1936]] - [[Assia Djebar]], Algerian writer and filmmaker *[[1937]] - [[David Bedford]], English musician *[[1942]] - [[David Lange]], [[Prime Minister of New Zealand]] (d. [[2005]]) *[[1943]] - [[Bjørn Wirkola]], Norwegian ski jumper *[[1944]] - [[Richard Belzer]], American actor and comedian *[[1946]] - [[Maureen Starkey]], one-time wife of Beatle, [[Ringo Starr]] (d. [[1994]]) *[[1947]] - [[Klaus Schulze]], German composer *[[1952]] - [[Gábor Demszky]], Hungarian politician *[[1955]] - [[Billy Bob Thornton]], American actor and writer *[[1957]] - [[John Wark]], Scottish footballer *[[1958]] - [[Mary Decker]], American athlete *[[1960]] - [[Dean Malenko]], American professional wrestler * 1960 - [[José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero]], [[Prime Minister of Spain]] *[[1961]] - [[Barack Obama]], American politician *[[1962]] - [[Roger Clemens]], American baseball player *[[1967]] - [[Mike Marsh]], American athlete *[[1968]] - [[Marcus Schenkenberg]], Swedish model * 1968 - [[Daniel Dae Kim]], American actor *[[1970]] - [[Michael DeLuise]], American actor *[[1971]] - [[Jeff Gordon]], American race car driver *[[1972]] - [[Stefan Brogren]], Canadian actor *[[1974]] - [[Cristian González]], Argentine footballer *[[1977]] - [[Luis Boa Morte]], Portuguese footballer *[[1978]] - [[Kurt Busch]], American race car driver *[[1985]] - [[Ha Seung-Jin]], Korean basketball player *[[1992]] - [[Dylan and Cole Sprouse]], Italian-born American child actors ==Deaths== *[[1060]] - King [[Henry I of France]] (b. [[1008]]) *[[1265]] - Killed in the Battle of Evesham: **[[Hugh le Despencer, 1st Baron le Despencer]] (b. [[1223]]) **[[Henry de Montfort]] (b. [[1238]]) **[[Peter de Montfort]] **[[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester]] (b. [[1208]]) *[[1306]] - King [[Wenceslaus III of Bohemia]] (b. [[1289]]) *[[1338]] - [[Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk]], son of [[Edward I of England]] (b. [[1300]]) *[[1526]] - [[Juan Sebastián Elcano]], Spanish explorer (b. [[1476]]) *[[1578]] - King [[Sebastian of Portugal]] (b. [[1554]]) *1578 - [[Thomas Stucley]], English adventurer *[[1598]] - [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley]], English statesman (b. [[1520]]) *[[1612]] - [[Hugh Broughton]], English scholar (b. [[1549]]) *[[1639]] - [[Juan Ruiz de Alarcón]], Mexican dramatist *[[1727]] - [[Victor-Maurice, comte de Broglie]], French general (b. [[1647]]) *[[1741]] - [[Andrew Hamilton (lawyer)|Andrew Hamilton]], American lawyer *[[1784]] - [[Giovanni Battista Martini]], Italian musician (b. [[1706]]) *[[1792]] - [[John Burgoyne]], British general (b. [[1723]]) *[[1795]] - [[Timothy Ruggles]], American-born Tory politician (b. [[1711]]) *[[1875]] - [[Hans Christian Andersen]], Danish writer (b. [[1805]]) *[[1938]] - [[Pearl White]], American actress (b. [[1889]]) *[[1957]] - [[Washington Luís Pereira de Sousa]], President of Brazil (b. [[1869]]) *[[1976]] - [[Roy Herbert Thomson]], Lord Thomson of Fleet, Canadian publisher (b. [[1894]]) *[[1977]] - [[Edgar Douglas Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian]], English physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1889]]) *[[1981]] - [[Melvyn Douglas]], American actor (b. [[1901]]) *[[1998]] - [[Yuri Artyukhin]], cosmonaut (b. [[1930]]) *[[1999]] - [[Victor Mature]], American actor (b. [[1915]]) *[[2001]] - [[Lorenzo Music]], American actor, writer, and producer (b. [[1937]]) *[[2003]] - [[Frederick Chapman Robbins]], American pediatrician and virologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1916]]) ==Holidays and observances== *[[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] - [[Jean Vianney|Saint John Vianney]] &amp;ndash; Patron Saint of Priests *[[Burkina Faso]] - Anniversary of the Revolution *[[Cook Islands]] - Constitution Day (celebrations begin on the last Friday in July and last up to 2 weeks.) *[[El Salvador]] - Transfiguration Bank Holiday *[[Ancient Egypt]] - Jubilation of the Heart of Re ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/4 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050804.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] ---- [[August 3]] - [[August 5]] - [[July 4]] - [[September 4]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:4 Augustus]] [[ar:4 أغسطس]] [[an:4 d'agosto]] [[ast:4 d'agostu]] [[bg:4 август]] [[be:4 жніўня]] [[bs:4. avgust]] [[ca:4 d'agost]] [[ceb:Agosto 4]] [[cv:Çурла, 4]] [[co:4 d'aostu]] [[cs:4. srpen]] [[cy:4 Awst]] [[da:4. august]] [[de:4. August]] [[et:4. august]] [[el:4 Αυγούστου]] [[es:4 de agosto]] [[eo:4-a de aŭgusto]] [[eu:Abuztuaren 4]] [[fo:4. august]] [[fr:4 août]] [[fy:4 augustus]] [[ga:4 Lúnasa]] [[gl:4 de agosto]] [[ko:8월 4일]] [[hr:4. kolovoza]] [[io:4 di agosto]] [[id:4 Agustus]] [[ia:4 de augusto]] [[ie:4 august]] [[is:4. ágúst]] [[it:4 agosto]] [[he:4 באוגוסט]] [[jv:4 Agustus]] [[ka:4 აგვისტო]] [[csb:4 zélnika]] [[ku:4'ê gelawêjê]] [[lt:Rugpjūčio 4]] [[lb:4. August]] [[li:4 augustus]] [[hu:Augusztus 4]] [[mk:4 август]] [[ms:4 Ogos]] [[nap:4 'e aùsto]] [[nl:4 augustus]] [[ja:8月4日]] [[no:4. august]] [[nn:4. august]] [[oc:4 d'agost]] [[pl:4 sierpnia]] [[pt:4 de Agosto]] [[ro:4 august]] [[ru:4 августа]] [[sq:4 Gusht]] [[scn:4 di austu]] [[simple:August 4]] [[sk:4. august]] [[sl:4. avgust]] [[sr:4. август]] [[fi:4. elokuuta]] [[sv:4 augusti]] [[tl:Agosto 4]] [[tt:4. August]] [[te:ఆగష్టు 4]] [[th:4 สิงหาคม]] [[vi:4 tháng 8]] [[tr:4 Ağustos]] [[uk:4 серпня]] [[wa:4 d' awousse]] [[war:Agosto 4]] [[zh:8月4日]] [[pam:Agostu 4]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alloys</title> <id>2419</id> <revision> <id>15900836</id> <timestamp>2003-07-19T23:19:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cgs</username> <id>9162</id> </contributor> <comment>Redirecting</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alloy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Apple Macintosh</title> <id>2420</id> <revision> <id>42155960</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:43:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tachikoma</username> <id>865752</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Processor architecture */ Motorola 68000</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Macintosh 128k transparency.png|thumb|250px|The [[Macintosh 128K|first Macintosh computer]], introduced in 1984, upgraded to 512KB.]] {{portal}} The '''Macintosh''', or '''Mac''', line of [[personal comp
lague), and can progress to the lungs (pneumonic plague). If untreated, the rate of mortality for bubonic plague is 30-75%. In [[septicemia|septicemic]] plague there is bleeding into the skin and other organs, which creates black patches on the skin. Untreated septicemic plague is universally fatal, but early treatment with [[antibiotics]] (usually [[streptomycin]] or [[gentamicin]]) is effective, reducing the mortality rate to around 15% (USA 1980s). People who die from this form of plague often die on the same day symptoms first appear. With [[pneumonia|pneumonic]] plague infecting [[lung]]s comes the possibility of person-to-person transmission through respiratory droplets. The incubation period for pneumonic plague is usually between two and four days, but can be as little as a few hours. The initial symptoms of headache, weakness, and coughing with [[hemoptysis]] are indistinguishable from other respiratory illnesses. Without diagnosis and treatment, the infection can be fatal in one to six days; mortality in untreated cases may be as high as 95%. The disease can be effectively treated with [[antibiotic]]s. ==History== === Historical epidemics === The first Western literary account of a possible outbreak of plague is found in the book of I Samuel 5:6 of the [[Hebrew Bible]]. In this account, the [[Philistines]] of [[Ashdod]] were struck with a plague for the crime of stealing the [[Ark of the Covenant]] from the Children of Israel. These events have been dated to approximately the second half of the eleventh century B.C. The word &quot;[[hemorrhoid]]s&quot; is used in [[English language|English]] [[translation]]s to describe the sores that came upon the Philistines. The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], however, can be interpreted as &quot;swelling in the secret parts&quot;. The account indicates that the Philistine city and its political territory were struck with a &quot;ravaging of mice&quot; and a plague, bringing death to a large segment of the population. In the second year of the [[Peloponnesian War]] (430 B.C.), [[Thucydides]] described the coming of an epidemic disease which began in [[Ethiopia]], passed through [[Egypt]] and [[Libya]], and then came to the Greek world. [[Athens]] was decimated by [[Plague_of_Athens|this plague]], losing possibly one-third of its population, including [[Pericles]] (Speilvogal, J, 1999, pp. 56). The loss of population did not affect the progress and outcome of the war. This epidemic has long been considered an outbreak of bubonic plague. However, from Thucydides' description, some modern scholars dispute the assignment of plague, feeling that [[smallpox]] or [[measles]] may be better candidates. In the first century AD, Rufus of Ephesus, a Greek anatomist, refers to an outbreak of plague in [[Libya]], [[Egypt]], and [[Syria]]. He records that Alexandrian doctors named Dioscorides and Posidonius described symptoms including acute fever, pain, agitation, and delirium. Buboes&amp;mdash;large, hard, and non-suppurating&amp;mdash;developed behind the knees, around the elbows, and &quot;in the usual places.&quot; The death toll of those infected was very high. Rufus also wrote that similar buboes were reported by a Dionysius Curtus, who may have practiced medicine in [[Alexandria]] in the third century B.C. If this is correct, the eastern [[Mediterranean]] world may have been familiar with bubonic plague at that early date. (ref. Simpson, W.J., Patrick, A.) The last significant European outbreak of bubonic plague occurred in [[Russia]] in A.D. 1877&amp;ndash;1889 in rural areas near the [[Ural Mountains]] and the [[Caspian Sea]]. This outbreak is sometimes seen as an extension of the [[Third Pandemic]] (see below). Efforts in hygiene and patient isolation reduced the spread of the disease, with approximately 420 deaths in the region. Significantly, the region of [[Vetlianka]] in this area is near a population of the &quot;bobak&quot;, a type of small [[marmot]] considered a very dangerous plague reservoir. === Historical pandemics === ====Plague of Justinian==== :''For more complete information, see [[Plague of Justinian]].'' :''See also [[Climate changes of 535-536]]''. The '''Plague of Justinian''' is the first known [[pandemic]] on record, and marks the first firmly recorded pattern of bubonic plague in A.D. 541&amp;ndash;542. This outbreak is thought to have originated in Ethiopia or Egypt. The huge city of [[Constantinople]] imported massive amounts of grain, mostly from Egypt, to feed its citizens. The grain ships may have been the source of contagion for the city, with massive public granaries nurturing the rat and flea population. At its peak the plague was killing 5,000 people in [[Constantinople]] every day and ultimately destroyed perhaps 40 percent of the city's inhabitants. It went on to destroy up to a quarter of the human population of the eastern Mediterranean. In A.D. 588 a second major plague wave spread through the Mediterranean into what is now France. A maximum of 25 million dead is considered a reasonable estimate. ====Black Death==== :''For more complete information, see [[Black Death]].'' During the mid-[[14th century]] C. E., the '''Black Death''', a massive and deadly epidemic, swept through [[Eurasia]], killing approximately one-third of the population (according to some estimates) and changing the course of Asian and European history. The 200 million victims, throughout the many years of infection, constituted the largest death toll from any known epidemic. Many scientists and historians believe the Black Death was an incidence of bubonic plague. A strong presence of the more contagious pneumonic and septicemic varieties increased the pace of infection, spreading the disease deep into inland areas of the continents. Plague continued to strike parts of [[Europe]] throughout the [[15th century]], the [[16th century]] and the [[17th century]] with varying degrees of intensity and fatality. Researchers still do not agree on why large outbreaks of the infection have not returned to Europe; however, changes in hygiene habits and strong efforts within public health and sanitation probably had a significant impact on the rate of infection from the infectuous disease. ====Third Pandemic==== :''For more complete information see [[Third Pandemic]].'' The [[Third Pandemic]] began in [[China]] in 1855, spreading the bubonic plague to all inhabited continents, and ultimately killing more than 12 million people in [[India]] and China alone. Casualty patterns indicate that waves of this pandemic may have been from two different sources. The first was primarily bubonic and was carried around the world through ocean-going trade, transporting infected persons, rats, and cargos harboring fleas. The second, more virulent strain was primarily pneumonic in character, with a strong person-to-person contagion. This strain was largely confined to [[Manchuria]] and [[Mongolia]]. Researchers during the &quot;Third Pandemic&quot; identified plague vectors and the plague bacillus, leading in time to modern treatment methods. === Plague as a biological weapon === Plague has a long history as a [[biological weapon]]. Historical accounts from [[medieval Europe]] detail the use of infected animal carcasses, such as cows or horses, and human carcasses, by [[Mongols]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and other groups, to contaminate enemy water supplies. Plague victims were also reported to have been tossed by [[catapult]] into cities under siege. During [[World War II]], the [[Japanese Army]] developed weaponized plague based on the breeding and release of large numbers of fleas. During the Japanese occupation of [[Manchuria]], [[Unit 731]] deliberately infected [[civilian]]s and [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] with the plague bacillus. These subjects, called &quot;logs&quot;, were then studied by [[dissection]], some while still living and conscious. After World War II, both the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] developed means of weaponizing pneumonic plague. Experiments included various delivery methods, vacuum drying, sizing the bacillus, developing strains resistant to antibiotics, combining the bacillus with other diseases, such as [[diphtheria]], and genetic engineering. Scientists who worked in [[Soviet Union|USSR]] bio-weapons programs have stated that the Soviet effort was formidable and that large stocks of weaponized plague bacillus were produced. Information on many of the Soviet projects is largely unavailable. Aerosolized pneumonic plague remains the most significant threat. [[Image:World distribution of plague 1998.PNG|thumb|right|320px|Worldwide distribution of plague infected animals 1998]] === Contemporary cases === The disease still exists in wild animal populations from the [[Caucasus Mountains]] east across southern and central [[Russia]], to [[Kazakhstan]], [[Mongolia]], and parts of [[China]]; in [[Southwest Asia|Southwest]] and [[Southeast Asia]], [[Southern Africa|Southern]] and [[East Africa]] (including the island of [[Madagascar]]); in [[North America]], from the [[Pacific ocean|Pacific Coast]] eastward to the western [[Great Plains]], and from [[British Columbia]] south to [[Mexico]]; and in [[South America]] in two areas: the [[Andes]] mountains and [[Brazil]]. There is no plague-infected animal population in [[Europe]] or [[Australia]]. Globally, the [[World Health Organization]] reports 1,000 to 3,000 human cases of plague every year. On [[2005-09-15]], [[ABC News]] reported[http://abcnews.go.com/Health/story?id=1128953] that three mice infected with the bacteria responsible for [[bubonic plague]] apparently disappeared from a laboratory. The mice were unaccounted-for at the Public Health Research Institute, which is on the campus of the [[University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey]] and conducts anti-[[bioterrorism]] research for the [[United States]] federal governmen
y, the rights to &quot;New San Antonio Rose.&quot; It wrecked him financially. Wills continued to tour and record through the 1950s into the early 1960s, despite the fact that Western Swing's popularity even in the Southwest, had greatly diminished. Even a 1958 return to KVOO where his younger brother Johnnie Lee Wills had maintained the family's presence, did not produce the success he hoped. He kept the band on the road into the 1960s. After two heart attacks, in 1965 he dissolved the Texas Playboys (who briefly continued as an independent unit) to perform solo with house bands. While he did well in Las Vegas and other areas, and made records for Kapp, he was largely a forgotten figure, though inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1968. A 1969 stroke left his right side paralyzed, ending his active career. Wills's musical legacy, however, endured. His style influenced performers [[Buck Owens]] and [[Merle Haggard]] and helped to spawn a style of music now known as the [[Bakersfield Sound]] (Bakersfield was one of Wills's regular stops in his heyday). A 1970 [[tribute album]] by Merle Haggard directed a wider audience to Wills's music, as did the appearance of younger &quot;revival&quot; bands like Asleep at the Wheel and the growing popularity of longtime Wills disciple and fan [[Willie Nelson]]. By 1971, Wills recovered sufficiently to travel occasionally and appear at tributes. In 1973 he a final reunion session of members of the Playboys from the 1930s to the 1960s and invited Haggard to take place. The session, scheduled for two days, took place in December, 1973, the album to be titled &quot;For the Last Time&quot;. While Wills appeared on a couple tracks from the first day session, he suffered another stroke overnight, and a more severe one a few days later. His musicians completed the album without him. Wills by then was comatose. He lingered until his death on May 13, 1975. Bob Wills was inducted into the [[Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame]] in 1970. ==External links== *[http://www.texasplayboys.net/ Texas Playboys website] *[http://nfo.net/usa/weswing.html Western Swing] [[Category:1905 births|Wills, Bob]] [[Category:1975 deaths|Wills, Bob]] [[Category:American bandleaders|Wills, Bob]] [[Category:American country musicians|Wills, Bob]] [[Category:American male singers|Wills, Bob]] [[Category:American songwriters|Wills, Bob]] [[Category:Bandleaders|Wills, Bob]] [[Category:Country musicians|Wills, Bob]] [[Category:People from Texas|Wills, Bob]] [[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Wills, Bob]] [[de:Bob Wills]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Badtrans (computer worm)</title> <id>4834</id> <revision> <id>41009065</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:18:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DabMachine</username> <id>922466</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation from [[Yahoo]] to [[Yahoo!]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''BadTrans''' is a malicious [[Microsoft Windows]] [[computer worm]] distributed by [[e-mail]]. Because of a known vulnerability in [[Internet Explorer]], some e-mail programs, such as Microsoft's [[Outlook Express]] and [[Outlook]] programs, may install and execute the worm as soon as the e-mail message is viewed. Once executed, the worm replicates by sending copies of itself to other e-mail addresses found on the host's machine, and installs a [[keystroke logging|keystroke logger]], which then captures everything typed on the affected computer. Badtrans then transmits the data to one of several e-mail addresses. (For more technical details on the worm, see [http://www.cert.org/incident_notes/IN-2001-14.html this.]) Among the e-mail address that receive the keylogs are free addresses at [[Excite]], [[Yahoo!|Yahoo]], and [[IJustGotFired.com]]. IJustGotFired is a free service of [[MonkeyBrains]], a [[San Francisco]]-based [[Internet service provider]]. The target address at IJustGotFired began receiving e-mails at 3:23pm on [[November 24]], [[2001]]. Once the account exceeded its quotas, it was automatically disabled, but the messages were still saved as they arrived. The address received over 100,000 keylogs in the first day alone. In mid-December, the [[FBI]] contacted Rudy Rucker, Jr., owner of MonkeyBrains, and requested a copy of the keylogged data. All of that data was stolen from the victims of the worm; it includes no information about the creator of Badtrans. Instead of complying with the FBI request, MonkeyBrains published a database website http://badtrans.monkeybrains.net for the public to determine if a given address has been compromised. The database does not reveal the actual passwords or keylogged data. [[Category:E-mail worms]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Barış Manço</title> <id>4836</id> <revision> <id>40335031</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T22:09:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Meddlin' Pedant</username> <id>51586</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:manco.jpg|frame|Barış Manço]] '''Barış Manço''' (also spelled '''Baris Mancho''' in some european album releases) ([[January 2]], [[1943]] - [[January 31]], [[1999]]) was a [[Turkey|Turkish]] singer, composer, television producer and celebrity. He composed about 200 songs, some of which were translated into a variety of languages including [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. He was, and still is, one of the most beloved public figures of Turkey. ==Early life and career== Manço was born in in [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]] on [[January 2]], [[1943]]. Her mother Rikkat Uyanık was a famed singer in early [[1940s]]. His older brother who was born during [[World War II]] was named Savaş (&quot;war&quot; in Turkish) and he was named Barış (&quot;peace&quot; in Turkish) by his parents to celebrate the end of the war. Allegedly he was the very first person to have this first name, which is now fairly popular in Turkey. During his primary school days his head was shaven to prevent [[head lice]], a serious threat back then. He mentioned that it was one of the reasons of his signature long hair. During his highschool days in [[Galatasaray Lisesi]] he formed his first band '''Kafadarlar''' (&quot;The Buddies&quot;), allegedly upon seeing [[Erkin Koray]] and his band performing which were all students of a nearby highschool. '''Asaf Savaş Akad''', a famed economist in Turkey was the [[saxophone]] player of the band. In 1962 and 1963, with his next band '''Harmoniler''' (&quot;The Harmonies&quot;), he recorded cover versions of some of the then popular american [[The Twist|twist]] songs, but also rearrangements of turkish folk songs in [[rock and roll]] form, marking the beginning of [[Anatolian rock]] movement, a synthesis of [[Turkish folk music]] and [[rock music|rock]]. In this period, his key visual and musical influence was [[Elvis Presley]]. After being graduated from the highschool in 1963, he moved to Europe, travelling around [[Paris]] and [[Liège (city)|Li&amp;egrave;ge]], where he formed bands with local musicians and recorded some singles mainly in English and in French but also in Turkish. He toured with his band '''Les Mistigris''' (not related with [[Mistigris]]) in [[Germany]], [[Belgium]], [[France]] and [[Turkey]] until 1967. In 1967, he suffered from a serious car accident after which he started to grow his signature mustache to disguise his scar. Frustrated by the difficulties of working with musicians from different nationalities, he formed '''Kaygısızlar''' (The Carefrees) featuring [[Mazhar Alanson]] and Fuat Güner, future members of the very popular Turkish band [[MFO]]. He recorded several singles and toured with the band, both in Turkey and abroad, until the band members revealed that they did not want to live abroad. In 1970, he formed Barış Manço Ve ... (&quot;Barış Manço And ...&quot;) again with foreign musicians, to record his first hit single, both in Turkey and in Belgium, &quot;Dağlar Dağlar&quot;, selling over 700,000 copies. Today the song remains as one of his most popular work. ==1970s== After the success of &quot;Dağlar Dağlar&quot;, Manço recorded a couple of singles with [[Moğollar]] (The Mongols), another influential Turkish Anatolian rock band. He then decided to return to Turkey where he recorded with the reformed Kaygısızlar for a short period. In 1971, his early works was compiled under his first full length album ''Dünden Bugüne'', today commonly referred as ''Dağlar Dağlar''. In 1972, he formed [[Kurtalan Ekspres]], a legend by itself, the band that would accompany him until his death. In 1975 until when he continued to release singles, he released his first non-compilation LP ''2023'', a [[concept album]] with strong [[Pink Floyd]] influences that includes many instrumental songs demonstrating Kurtalan Ekspres' impact on the overall Barış Manço sound. As a last attempt to reach international success, he released the LP titled ''Baris Mancho'' (1976), a strange transcription of his name, mostly with '''George Hayes Orchestra''' under [[CBS Records]] label, in Europe and South Africa. Although the album did not bring the fame he was expecting, it did reach the top of the charts in Romania and Morocco. Next year, the album was released in Turkey under the title ''Nick the Chopper''. From 1977 to 1980, he released three more albums in Turkey, partly consisting of compilations of older singles, namely ''Sakla Samanı Gelir Zamanı'' (1977), ''Yeni Bir Gün'' (1979) and ''20. Sanat Yılı Disko Manço'' (1980), all following a similar sound with ''2023''. All these albums are now rarity items, but most of the material from the era are available in later compilations ''Ben Bilirim'' and
on other charges, and current is then defined as charge per time. One consequence of this approach is that [[Coulomb's law|Coulomb’s law]] does not contain a [[constant of proportionality]]. While the proportional constants in cgs simplify theoretical calcuations, they have the disadvantage that the units in cgs are hard to define through experiment. [[SI]] on the other hand starts with a unit of current, the [[ampere]] which is easy to determine through experiment, but which requires that the constants in the electromagnetic equations take on odd forms. Ultimately, relating electromagnetic phenomena to time, length and mass relies on the forces observed on charges. There are two fundamental laws in action: [[Coulomb's law|Coulomb’s law]], which describes the electrostatic force between ''charges'', and [[Ampère's law|Ampère’s law]] (also known as the [[Biot-Savart law]]), which describes the electrodynamic (or electromagnetic) force between ''currents''. Each of these includes one [[proportionality constant]], ''k&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'' or ''k&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''. The static definition of magnetic fields yields a third proportionality constant, ''&amp;alpha;''. The first two constants are related to each other through the [[speed of light]], ''c'' (the ratio of ''k&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'' over ''k&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'' must equal ''c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''). We then have several choices: {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ! k&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; !! k&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; !! &amp;alpha; !! yields |- | 1 || c&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; || 1 || electrostatic cgs system |- | c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; || 1 || 1 || electromagnetic cgs system |- | 1 || c&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt; || c&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; || Gaussian cgs system |- | (4·π·ε&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; || µ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;·(4·π)&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; || 1 || SI |} &lt;!-- Here be the mentioned physical laws in independent form Coulomb: &lt;math&gt;F = k_1 \frac{\left|q_1\right| \left|q_2\right|}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt; Biot-Savart: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{B} = k_2 \frac{q \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{r}}{r^3}&lt;/math&gt; --&gt; There were at various points in time about half a dozen systems of electromagnetic units in use, most based on the cgs system. These include '''[[electromagnetic unit]]s''' ('''emu''', chosen such that the [[Biot-Savart law]] has no constant of proportionality), [[Gaussian units|Gaussian]], and [[Heaviside-Lorentz unit]]s. A key virtue of the Gaussian CGS system is that electric and magnetic fields have the same units, both &lt;math&gt;\epsilon_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mu_0&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;, and the only dimensional constant appearing in the equations is &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, the speed of light. The Heaviside-Lorentz system has these desirable properties as well, but is a &quot;rationalized&quot; system (as is SI) in which the charges and fields are defined in such a way that there are many fewer factors of &lt;math&gt;4 \pi&lt;/math&gt; appearing in the formulas, and it is in Heaviside-Lorentz units that the [[Maxwell equations]] take their simplest possible form. Further complicating matters is the fact that some physicists and [[Engineering|engineers]] in the United States use hybrid units, such as [[volt]]s per [[centimetre]] for electric field. However, this also can be seen more as an application of the previously described &quot;LAB&quot; units usage since electric fields near small circuit devices would be measured across distances on the order of magnitude of 1 centimetre. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ! Dimension ! Unit !! Definition !! SI |- ! [[electric charge|charge]] | electrostatic unit of charge, franklin, [[statcoulomb]] || 1 esu = 1 statC = 1 Fr = √(g·cm³/s²) || = 3.3356 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−10&lt;/sup&gt; [[coulomb|C]] |- ! [[electric potential]] | [[statvolt]] || 1 statV = 1 erg/esu || = 299.792458 [[volt|V]] |- ! [[electric field]] | || 1 statV/cm = 1 dyn/esu || = 2.99792458 × 10&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; V/m |- ! [[magnetic field strength]] '''H''' | [[oersted]] || 1 Oe || = 1000/(4π) A/m = 79.577 A/m |- ! [[magnetic flux]] | [[maxwell]] || 1 M = 1 G·cm² || = 10&lt;sup&gt;−8&lt;/sup&gt; [[Weber (Wb)|Wb]] |- ! [[magnetic induction]] '''B''' | [[gauss]] || 1 G = 1 M/cm² || = 10&lt;sup&gt;−4&lt;/sup&gt; [[tesla (unit)|T]] |- ! [[electrical resistance|resistance]] | || 1 s/cm || = 8.988 × 10&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt; [[ohm (unit)|Ω]] |- ! [[electrical resistivity|resistivity]] | || 1 s || = 8.988 × 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; Ω·m |- ! [[capacitance]] | || 1 cm || = 1.113 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−12&lt;/sup&gt; [[farad|F]] |- ! [[inductance]] | || 1 s²/cm || = 8.988 × 10&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt; [[henry (inductance)|H]] |} The [[Significand|mantissa]]s derived from the [[speed of light]] are more precisely 299792458, 333564095198152, 1112650056, and 89875517873681764. A centimetre of capacitance is the capacitance between a sphere of radius 1 cm in vacuum and infinity. The capacitance ''C'' between two spheres of radii ''R'' and ''r'' is : &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\frac{1}{r}-\frac{1}{R}}&lt;/math&gt;. By taking the limit as ''R'' goes to infinity we see ''C'' equals ''r''. == See also == * [[Scientific units named after people]] * [[Metric system]] * [[Units of measurement]] [[Category:Systems of units]] [[Category:CGS units| ]] [[bg:Система сантиметър-грам-секунда]] [[ca:CGS]] [[de:CGS-Einheitensystem]] [[es:Sistema cegesimal]] [[eo:CGS]] [[fr:Système CGS]] [[it:Sistema CGS]] [[he:יחידות cgs]] [[ja:CGS単位系]] [[pl:Układ jednostek miar CGS]] [[pt:Sistema CGS de unidades]] [[ru:СГС]] [[sv:Cgs-systemet]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Kazimierz II the Just</title> <id>7348</id> <revision> <id>32851607</id> <timestamp>2005-12-27T07:00:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Logologist</username> <id>127681</id> </contributor> <comment>Edit.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Kazimierz Sprawiedliwy.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|Kazimierz II the Just. Drawing by [[Jan Matejko]].]] '''Kazimierz II the Just''' ([[Polish language|Polish]]: '''''Kazimierz II Sprawiedliwy'''''; [[1138]] – [[May 5]], [[1194]]), of the [[Piast Dynasty]], was the youngest son of [[Bolesław III Wrymouth]] by Salome von Berg-Schelklingen, daughter of Henry, Duke of Berg. Kazimierz reigned as [[Duke]] of [[Kraków]] and senior [[prince]] of [[Poland]] (see [[Seniorate]]) from [[1177]] until his death. Born shortly before or after his father's death, and omitted (possibly for that reason) from Bolesław's will dividing the kingdom among Kazimierz's four elder brothers, he set about securing the basis for a claim to power. In [[1167]] he inherited from his brother Henryk the dukedom of [[Wiślica]], and in [[1173]] he obtained that of [[Sandomierz]]. In [[1177]], a rebellion by [[Lesser Poland]] lords against [[Mieszko III the Old]] led to the elevation of Kazimierz to the [[Kraków]] throne. In [[1180]] he won acceptance, by the nobility and clergy, of the principle of hereditary succession to the Kraków dukedom, though it would take more than a century to restore the Polish kingship. * Children: [[Konrad of Mazovia]], [[Leszek the White]] ==See also== * [[History of Poland (966-1385)]] {{Monarchs of Poland}} {{royal-stub}} {{Poland-noble-stub}} [[Category:Polish monarchs]] [[Category:Dukes of Masovia]] [[Category:1138 births]] [[Category:1194 deaths]] [[de:Kasimir II.]] [[fr:Casimir II le Juste]] [[ja:カジミェシュ2世]] [[pl:Kazimierz II Sprawiedliwy]] [[ru:Казимир II]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Causes of homosexuality</title> <id>7350</id> <revision> <id>15905422</id> <timestamp>2005-05-10T02:16:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Beland</username> <id>57939</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Fix double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sexual orientation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Casimir III the Great</title> <id>7352</id> <revision> <id>32106895</id> <timestamp>2005-12-20T15:14:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Appleseed</username> <id>404133</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kazimierz III the Great]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Complexity theory (computation)</title> <id>7353</id> <revision> <id>15905425</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computational complexity theory]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Complexity theory in computation</title> <id>7354</id> <revision> <id>15905426</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computational complexity theory]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Christology</title> <id>7355</id> <revision> <id>39736661</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T14:25:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Ced.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Jesus}} '''Christology''' is that part of [[Christian theology]] that studies and defines who [[Jesus]] the [[Christ]] was and is. It is generally less concerned with the minor details of his life; rather it deals with who he was, the [[incarnation]], and the major events of his life (his birth, death, and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]]). Impor
nd [[diabetes]]. Although complex disorders often cluster in families, they do not have a clear-cut pattern of inheritance. This makes it difficult to determine a person’s risk of inheriting or passing on these disorders. Complex disorders are also difficult to study and treat because the specific factors that cause most of these disorders have not yet been identified. Examples of polygenic disorders in humans include: * [[Autism]] ==Chromosomal disorders== Changes that affect entire [[chromosome]]s or segments of chromosomes can cause problems with growth, development, and function of the body's systems. These changes can affect many genes along the chromosome and alter the proteins made by those genes. Conditions caused by a change in the number or structure of chromosomes are known as chromosomal disorders. Some chromosomal conditions are caused by changes in the number of chromosomes, called [[aneuploidy]]. These changes are not inherited, but occur as random events during the formation of reproductive cells ([[ovum|ova]] and [[sperm cell]]s). An error in [[cell division]] called nondisjunction results in reproductive cells with an abnormal number of chromosomes. For example, a reproductive cell may accidentally gain or lose one copy of a chromosome. If one of these atypical reproductive cells contributes to the genetic makeup of a child, the child will have an extra ([[trisomy]]) or missing chromosome ([[monosomy]]) in each of the body’s cells. The formation of [[ring chromosome]]s following fertilization also cause genetic disorders. Chromosomal disorders can also be caused by chromosome structure. These changes are caused by the breakage and reunion of chromosome segments when an egg or sperm cell is formed or in early [[fetus|fetal]] development. Pieces of DNA can be rearranged within one chromosome, or transferred between two or more chromosomes. The effects of structural changes depend on their size and location. Many different structural changes are possible; some cause medical problems, while others may have no effect on a person’s health. Although it is possible to inherit some types of chromosomal abnormalities, most chromosomal disorders are not passed from one generation to the next. ==Study of Genetic Diseases== The study of genetic diseases is a large scientific discipline, whoes theoretical underpining is based on [[Population genetics]]. == Medical diagnosis, treatment, and counseling== Genetic diseases are typically diagnosed and treated by [[geneticists]]. [[Genetic counselor]]s assist the [[physicians]] and directly counsel patients. == See also == * [[List of genetic disorders]] ==References== ''This article incorporates public domain text from [http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov The U.S. National Library of Medicine]'' ==External links== * [http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/medicine/assist.html Genetic Disease Information from the Human Genome Project] * [http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/genome/genesandbody/gb_genesanddisease.html Genes and Disease] from the [[Wellcome Trust]] **[http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/genome/genesandbody/hg06b010.html Polygenic and multifactorial disease] from the [[Wellcome Trust]] [[Category:Genetics]] [[Category:Genetic disorders]] {{Link FA|he}} [[de:Erbkrankheit]] [[es:Enfermedad genética]] [[fr:Maladie génétique]] [[he:פגם גנטי]] [[hu:Genetikai betegség]] [[nl:Erfelijke aandoening]] [[ja:遺伝子疾患]] [[pl:Choroba genetyczna]] [[pt:Doença congênita]] [[ru:Наследственные заболевания]] [[zh:遗传病]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Genetic material</title> <id>12438</id> <revision> <id>37339565</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T09:40:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cohesion</username> <id>103640</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambiguation link repair [[Genetic]] to [[genetics]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Genetic material''' is used to store the [[genetics|genetic]] information of a organic life form. For all currently known living organisms, the genetic material is almost exclusively [[DNA]]. Some viruses use [[RNA]] as their genetic material. The first genetic material is generally believed to have been [[RNA]], initially manifested by self-replicating RNA molecules floating in bodies of water. This hypothetical period in the evolution of cellular life is known as the [[RNA world]]. This hypothesis is based off of RNA's ability to act both as genetic material and as a [[catalyst]], known as a [[ribozyme]]. However, once [[Protein|proteins]] , which can form [[Enzyme|enzymes]], came into existence, the more stable molecule DNA became the dominant genetic material, a situation continued today. Not only does DNA's double-stranded nature allow for correction of [[Mutation|mutations]] but RNA is inherently unstable. Modern cells use RNA mainly for the building of proteins from DNA instructions, in the form of [[messenger RNA]], [[ribosomal RNA]], and [[transfer RNA]]. Both RNA and DNA are macromolecules composed of [[nucleotides]], of which there are four available in each molecule. Three nucleotides compose a [[codon]], a sort of &quot;genetic word&quot;, which is specific to an [[amino acid]] in a protein. The codon-amino acid translation is known as the [[genetic code]]. {{genetics-stub}} [[Category:Genetics]] [[id:Bahan genetik]] [[is:Erfðaefni]] [[th:สารพันธุกรรม]] [[vi:Vật liệu di truyền]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Guanine</title> <id>12439</id> <revision> <id>38366814</id> <timestamp>2006-02-05T21:47:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>*drew</username> <id>91902</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+id:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt; &lt;!-- &lt;nowiki&gt; Submit {{subst:chembox_simple_organic}} to get this template or go to [[Template:Chembox_simple_organic]]. &lt;/nowiki&gt; --&gt; {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot; ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; | '''Guanine''' |- | [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]] | 2-Amino-1''H''-purin-6(9''H'')-one |- |Alternate name |2-amino-6-oxo-purine |- | [[Chemical formula]] | C&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;O |- | [[Molecular mass]] | 151.13 g/mol |- | [[Melting point]] | 360 °C |- | [[CAS registry number|CAS number]] | 73-40-5 |- | [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]] | NC(NC1=O)=NC2=C1N=CN2 |- | colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:Guanine_chemical_structure.png|172px|Chemical structure of guanine]] |- |} '''Guanine''' is one of the five main [[nucleobase]]s found in [[nucleic acid]]s (''e.g.'', [[DNA]] and [[RNA]]). Guanine is a [[purine]] derivative, and in [[base pair|Watson-Crick base pairing]] forms three [[hydrogen bond]]s with [[cytosine]]. Guanine &quot;stacks&quot; vertically with the other nucleobases via [[aromatic]] interactions. Guanine is a tautomer (see [[keto-enol tautomerism]]). The guanine [[nucleoside]] is called [[guanosine]]. '''Guanine''' is also the name of a white amorphous substance found in the scales of certain fishes, the [[guano]] of [[sea-bird]]s, and the [[liver]] and [[pancreas]] of [[mammal]]s. In fact, the name of the nucleobase is derived from the term 'guano', because it was first isolated from [[bird]] [[manure]]. In cosmetic industry, crystallic guanine is used as an additive to various products (eg. [[shampoo]]s), where it provides the pearly [[iridescence|iridescent]] effect. It provides shimmering lustre to [[eye shadow]] and [[nail polish]]. May irritate eyes. Its alternatives are synthetic [[pearl]], and [[aluminium]] and [[bronze]] particles. ==External links== *[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Guanine Computational Chemistry Wiki] {{Nucleic acids}} [[Category:Purines]] [[Category:Cosmetic chemicals]] [[Category:Organic minerals]] [[ar:جوانين]] [[ca:Guanina]] [[de:Guanin]] [[es:Guanina]] [[eo:Guanino]] [[fr:Guanine]] [[he:גואנין]] [[id:Guanin]] [[it:Guanina]] [[lt:Guaninas]] [[nl:Guanine]] [[ja:グアニン]] [[pl:Guanina]] [[pt:Guanina (purina)]] [[sl:Gvanin]] [[sr:Гуанин]] [[sv:Guanin]] [[vi:Guanine]] [[tr:Guanin]] [[zh:鳥嘌呤]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Genocide</title> <id>12441</id> <revision> <id>42046590</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:44:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Philip Baird Shearer</username> <id>26801</id> </contributor> <comment>Moved Rummel and removed unsourced POV on India</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Genocide''' is defined by the [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]] (CPPCG) article 2 as any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a [[national]], [[ethnicity|ethnic]], racial or [[religion|religious]] group, as such: &quot;Killing members of the group; Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; and forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.&quot; {{wiktionary}} ==Coining of the term genocide== The term &quot;genocide&quot; was coined by [[Raphael Lemkin]] (1900&amp;ndash;1959), a [[Poland|Polish]] Jewish legal scholar, in 1943, from the roots ''genos'' ([[Greek language|Greek]] for family, tribe or race) and ''-cide'' ([[Latin]] - ''occidere'', to massacre). Lemkin said about the definition of genocide in its original adoption for international law at the Geneva Conventions: :Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruc
College|Bethune-Cookman]] |- |2/58 |[[Terrence Murphy]] |[[Wide Receiver]] |[[Texas A&amp;M University|Texas A&amp;M]] |- |4/115 |[[Marviel Underwood]] |[[Safety]] |[[San Diego State University|San Diego State]] |- |4/125 |[[Brady Poppinga]] |[[Linebacker]] |[[Brigham Young University|BYU]] |- |5/143 |[[Junius Coston]] |[[Guard]]/[[Tackle (American football)|Tackle]] |[[North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University|North Carolina A&amp;T]] |- |5/167 |[[Michael Hawkins (football player)|Michael Hawkins]] |[[Cornerback]] |[[University of Oklahoma|Oklahoma]] |- |6/180 |[[Mike Montgomery (football player)|Mike Montgomery]] |[[Defensive End]] |[[Texas A&amp;M University|Texas A&amp;M]] |- |6/195 |[[Craig Bragg]] |[[Wide Receiver]] |[[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] |- |7/245 |[[Kurt Campbell (football player)|Kurt Campbell]] |[[Linebacker]] |[[University at Albany|Albany]] |- |7/246 |[[Will Whitticker]] |[[Guard]] |[[Michigan State University|Michigan State]] |- |} ==Head coaches== {| |1921-1949 |[[Curly Lambeau|Earl (Curly) Lambeau]] |(212-106-21) |- |1950-1953 |[[Gene Ronzani]] |(14-31-1) |- |1953 |[[Hugh Devore]] and [[Ray (Scooter) McLean]] |(0-2-0) |- |1954-1957 |[[Lisle Blackbourn]] |(17-31-0) |- |1958 |Ray (Scooter) McLean |(1-10-1) |- |1959-1967 |[[Vince Lombardi]] |(98-30-4) |- |1968-1970 |[[Phil Bengtson]] |(20-21-1) |- |1971-1974 |[[Dan Devine]] |(25-28-4) |- |1975-1983 |[[Bart Starr]] |(53-77-3) |- |1984-1987 |[[Forrest Gregg]] |(25-37-1) |- |1988-1991 |[[Lindy Infante]] |(24-40-0) |- |1992-1998 |[[Mike Holmgren]] |(73-36-0) |- |1999 |[[Ray Rhodes]] |(8-8-0) |- |2000-2005 |[[Mike Sherman]] |(56-39-0) |- |2006- |[[Mike McCarthy]] |(0-0-0) |} ==Current Coaching Staff== ===Head Coach=== * [[Mike McCarthy]] ===Offensive Coaches=== * [[Jeff Jagodzinski]] - [[offensive coordinator|Offensive Coordinator]] * [[Tom Clements]] - [[Quarterbacks]] * [[Joe Philbin]] - [[offensive line|Offensive Line]] * [[Edgar Bennett]] - [[running back|Running backs]] * [[James Campen]] - Assistant Offensive Line * [[Ty Knott]] - Offensive Quality Control * [[Jimmy Robinson]] - [[wide receiver|Wide Receivers]] * [[Ben McAdoo]] - [[tight end|Tight Ends]] ===Defensive Coaches=== * [[Bob Sanders (American football coach)|Bob Sanders]] - [[defensive coordinator|Defensive Coordinator]] * [[Kurt Schottenheimer]] - [[secondary|Secondary]] * [[Winston Moss]] - [[linebacker|Linebackers]] * [[Robert Nunn]] - [[defensive tackle|Defensive Tackles]] * [[Carl Hairston]] - [[defensive end|Defensive Ends]] * [[Lionel Washington]] - [[defensive team|Defensive Nickel Package/Cornerbacks]] * Eric Lewis - Defensive Quality Control ===Special Teams Coaches=== * [[Mike Stock (American football coach)|Mike Stock]] - [[special teams|Special Teams]] Coordinator * Shawn Slocum - Assistant Special Teams ===Conditioning Coaches=== * [[Rock Gullickson]] - [[strength &amp; conditioning|Strength &amp; Conditioning]] * [[Mark Lovat]] - Assistant Strength &amp; Conditioning * [[Brandon Johnson]] - Assistant Strength &amp; Conditioning ==External links== *[http://www.packers.com/ Green Bay Packers official web site] *[http://greenbaypressgazette.packersnews.com/ The Green Bay Press-Gazette] *[http://www.jsonline.com/packer/ Packer Plus (The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel)] *[http://timesfour.com/groupee/forums/a/frm/f/938109321 x4 Packer Forum] *[http://packersuniforms.com/ The Green Bay Packers Uniform Database] *[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/gb/packers.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com] {{Green Bay Packers}} {{NFL}} [[Category:Green Bay Packers| ]] [[Category:National Football League teams]] [[Category:1919 establishments]] [[de:Green Bay Packers]] [[fr:Packers de Green Bay]] [[he:גרין ביי פקרס]] [[it:Green Bay Packers]] [[ja:グリーンベイ・パッカーズ]] [[pt:Green Bay Packers]] [[sv:Green Bay Packers]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>General purpose machine gun</title> <id>12664</id> <revision> <id>40349183</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T23:57:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Chobot</username> <id>259798</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: ko</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Gun-0001.jpg|thumb|right|General purpose machine gun (GPMG)]] --&gt; A '''general purpose [[machine gun]]''' ('''GPMG''') in concept is a compromise weapon, a machine gun intended to fill the role of either a [[light machine gun]] or [[medium machine gun]], while at the same time being man-portable. However, performance in either role may be inferior to a weapon specifically designed for that role. In modern practice, they are air-cooled medium machine guns firing full-power rifle cartridges such as [[7.62 NATO]]. They are generally operated from a stationary prone position from either a [[bipod]] or [[tripod]], or mounted on a vehicle, as they are usually too powerful and heavy to be fired effectively on foot from an unsupported standing position or on the move. The modern GPMG is a medium machine gun which operates as a support weapon. The term, which comes from the Belgian name ''Mitrailleuse d'Appui General'' or [[General purpose machine gun|General Purpose Machineguns]] (GPMG), became popular for describing medium machine guns used in multiple roles. The mediums fired full power rifle caliber ammunition, but had some concessions for more extended firing and more general usage. This generally included both bipod and tripod/pintle mounting options and quick-change barrels. The first medium machine guns used as a GPMG traces back to WWI, where aircooled medium machine guns were used in many different roles, typically with larger magazine on aircraft, tanks, and ships, and in lighter configurations by infantry on bipods on tripods. The GPMG designation (or a translation of the term) has been applied by several nations to their weapons, but they did not actually apply the concept, and others did the reverse. Overall the GPMG concept itself has not been especially successful, with lighter machine guns continuing to be used as well as heavier designs. They were successful in supplanting heavy water-cooled designs firing the same caliber, but this was mostly due to that type of weapon being rendered obsolete by modern warfare. In U.S. service, for example, the [[M240]] could be considered a GPMG, but in practice is generally used as a tripod- or vehicle-mounted medium machine gun. The lighter M249 (firing [[5.56 NATO]] ammunition) is the main U.S. light machine gun/[[squad automatic weapon]], and the [[M2 machine gun]] (using the [[.50 BMG]] [[cartridge (firearms)| cartridge]]) is used in the heavy machine gun role. In the [[British Army]], the current GPMG is the [[L7_(machine_gun)|L7]] and in the [[United States Army|US Army]] the [[M240]] which are both versions of the [[FN MAG]], FN ''Mitrailleuse d'Appui General '' (general purpose machine gun). The previous US GPMG (also widely used by allied nations) was the [[M60 machine gun]]. The approximate Russian equivalent is the [[PK machine gun|PKM]]. [[Category:Machine guns]] [[ko:다목적 기관총]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gdynia</title> <id>12665</id> <revision> <id>38824748</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T22:07:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GrinBot</username> <id>411872</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: hu</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gdynia''' (pronounce: [[Image:Ltspkr.png]] [[Media:Gdynia.ogg|[:gd&lt;strike&gt;i&lt;/strike&gt;&amp;#626;ia]]], [[German language|German:]] Gdingen/Gotenhafen, [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]/[[Pomeranian language|Pomeranian]]: ''Gdiniô'') is a city in the [[Pomeranian Voivodship]] of [[Poland]] and an important [[seaport]] at [[Gdansk Bay]] on the south coast of the [[Baltic Sea]]. Gdynia is located in [[Kashubia]] in [[Eastern Pomerania]]. Gdynia is part of a [[conurbation]] with the spa town of [[Sopot]], the city of [[Gdańsk]] (Danzig) and [[suburb]]an communities, which together form a [[metropolitan area]] called the [[Tricity]] (''Trójmiasto'') with a population of over a million people. &lt;!--SCROLL DOWN IN ORDER TO EDIT THE ARTICLE--&gt; {{Infobox Poland| city_name=Gdynia| motto=Gdynia - miasto z morza i marzeń &lt;br&gt;(''Gdynia - a city built of sea and dreams'')| voivodship=[[Pomeranian Voivodship|Pomeranian]]| council=Rada miasta Gdynia| mayor=Wojciech Szczurek| area=135,5| population=255 300 &lt;small&gt;(2003)&lt;/small&gt; [[List of cities in Poland|Ranked 12th]]| agglomeration=[[Tricity]] - 1 100 000| density=1885| date_founded=before [[1209]]| city_rights=[[February 10]], [[1926]]| latitude=54°32' N| longitude=18°32' E| area_code=58| car_plates=GA| twin_towns=[[Aalborg]], [[Baranovichi]], [[Brooklyn]], [[Kaliningrad]], [[Karlskrona]], [[Kiel]], [[Klaipeda|Klaipe&amp;#775;da]], [[Kotka]], [[Kristiansand]], [[Kunda]], [[Liepaja|Liepa&amp;#772;ja]], [[Plymouth]], [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]]| website=http://www.gdynia.pl/?lang=en| location_pic=Gdynia location map.png| flag_pic=Flaga Gdyni1.PNG| coa_pic=Herb Gdyni1.PNG| colour_scheme=background:#cccccc;| }} == History == The first known mention of the name &quot;Gdynia&quot; was of a [[Pomeranians|Pomeranian]] ([[Kashubians|Kashubian]]) fishing village, in [[1253]]. [[Oksywie]], now part of Gdynia, was mentioned even earlier in [[1209]]. It was there that the first church on the Polish coast was built. In [[1380]] the owner of the village which became Gdynia, Peter from Rusocin, gave the village to the Cisterian Order, so in the years [[1382]]&amp;ndash;[[1772]] Gdynia belonged to the [[Cistercian]] abbey in [[Oliwa]]. In [[1789]] there were only 21 houses in the village. The area of the later city of Gdynia shared its his
ere employed to oversee the reorganization of the Ottoman army. German government officials were brought in to reorganize the Ottoman government's finances. Sultan Hamid tried to take more of the reins of power into his own hands, for he distrusted his ministers. There were many set-backs. * Financial embarrassments forced him to consent to a foreign control over the national debt. In a decree issued in December 1881, many of the revenues of the empire were handed over to the Public Debt Administration for the benefit of (mostly foreign) bondholders. * There was also trouble in [[Egypt]], where a discredited ''[[khedive]]'' had to be deposed. Sultan Hamid mis-handled relations with [[Ahmed Urabi|Arabi]] - the end result of this was England gained near total control over Egypt. * There were problems on the [[Greece|Greek]] frontier and in [[Montenegro]], where the European powers were determined that the decisions of the [[Berlin Congress]] should be carried into effect. * The union in 1885 of [[Bulgaria]] with Eastern [[Rumelia]] was another blow. The creation of an independent and powerful [[Bulgaria]] was viewed as a serious threat to the Ottoman Empire. For many years Sultan Hamid had deal with Bulgaria in a way that did not antagonize either Russian or German wishes. &lt;br /&gt; Germany's friendship was not disinterested, and had to be fostered with railway and loan concessions. In 1899 a significant German desire, the [[Baghdad Railway]], was given to them. Over the years Sultan Hamid succeeded in reducing his ministers to the position of secretaries, and he concentrated much of the administration of the Empire into his own hands at [[Yildiz]]. But internal dissension was not reduced. [[Crete]] was constantly in turmoil. The Greeks living within the Ottoman Empire's borders were dissatisfied, as were the Armenians. Starting around 1890 the [[Armenians]] began clamoring to obtain the reforms promised them at Berlin. Unrest occurred in 1892 and 1893 at [[Marsovan]] and [[Tokat]]. In 1894 a more serious rebellion in the mountainous region of Sassun was ruthlessly stamped out. The European powers demanded protection be given to the Christian Armenians, the eventual grant of which in the autumn of 1895 was the signal, not for actual reform, but for for a series of massacres of Armenians. {{main|Hamidian_massacres}} &lt;br /&gt; These massacres extended over many months and throughout [[Asia Minor]], as well as in Istanbul itself. The reforms were nothing more than ink on a page. In a real sense, these massacres were the forerunner to the [[Armenian Genocide]]. [[Crete]] was granted ''extended privileges'', but these did not satisfy the population, which sought unification with Greece. In early in 1897 a Greek expedition sailed to Crete to overthrown Ottoman rule of the island. War followed, in which the [[Ottoman Empire]] was successful (see the [[Greco-Turkish_War_%281897%29]]). But then a few months later [[Crete]] was taken over ''en depot'' by England, France, and Russia. [[Prince George of Greece]] was appointed the ruler and so Crete was lost to the Ottoman Empire. Abd-ul-Hamid always resisted the pressure of the European powers to the last moment, in order to seem to yield only to overwhelming force, while posing as the champion of [[Islam]] against aggressive [[Christendom]]. Panislamic propaganda was encouraged; the privileges of foreigners in the Ottoman Empire &amp;mdash; often an obstacle to government &amp;mdash; were curtailed. A new railway to the holy city of [[Medina]] was completed - making the [[Hajj]] somewhat easier - though there was still a 160 mile camel ride to get to [[Mecca]]. Emissaries were sent to distant countries preaching Islam and the ''[[caliph]]'s'' supremacy. During his rule, Sultan Hamid refused [[Theodor Herzl]]'s offers to pay down a substantial portion of the Ottoman debt in exchange for a charter allowing the [[Zionists]] to colonize [[Palestine (region) | Palestine]]. Sultan Hamid's appeals to Muslim sentiment were powerless against widespread disaffection within his Empire due to perennial misgovernment. In [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Yemen]] disturbance was endemic; nearer home, a semblance of loyalty was maintained in the army and among the [[Muslim]] population only by a system of delation and espionage, and by wholesale arrests. After his rule began the Sultan became obsessed by a terror of assassination; he withdrew himself into fortified seclusion in the palace of Yildiz and never left. ==Last year in power== The national humiliation of the situation in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], together with the resentment in the army against the [[palace]] spies and informers, at last brought matters to a crisis. In the summer of 1908 the [[Young Turk]] revolution broke out and Abd-ul-Hamid, on learning of the threat of the [[Salonica]] troops to march on [[Istanbul]] ([[July 23]]), at once capitulated. On [[July 24|the 24th]] an ''irade'' announced the restoration of the suspended constitution of 1876; the next day, further ''irades'' abolished [[espionage]] and [[censorship]], and ordered the release of [[political prisoner]]s. On [[December 17]], Sultan Hamid opened the Turkish parliament with a speech from the throne in which he said that the first [[parliament]] had been &quot;temporarily dissolved until the education of the people had been brought to a sufficiently high level by the extension of instruction throughout the empire.&quot; This was, of course, an utter lie as no significant educational reforms had taken place over the last 30 years. The new attitude of the Sultan did not save him from the suspicion of intriguing with the powerful reactionary elements in the state, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude towards the counter-revolution of [[April 13]], [[1909]] known as ''[[31 Mart Olayı]]'', when an insurrection of the soldiers backed by a conservative public upheaval in the capital overthrew the cabinet. The government, restored by soliders from Salonica, decided on Abd-ul-Hamid's deposition, and on [[April 27]] his brother Reshid Effendi was proclaimed Sultan as [[Mehmed V]]. The ex-sultan was conveyed into dignified captivity at [[Salonica]]. Back again in [[İstanbul]] by 1912, he spent his last days studying, carpentering and writing his memoirs in custody at the palace of [[Beylerbeyi]], where he died on February 10, 1918, just a few months before his brother. ==Afterward== Sultan Hamid was the last real Sultan of the Ottoman Empire but he presided over 33 years of decline. The Ottoman Empire became known as the sick man of Europe. It would have been defeated and broken up if the European powers had choosen to do so. While its European neighbors were making railroads, automobiles, electric lights and even airplanes, the Ottoman empire was unable to develop any industry at all. Every advanced technology they used had to be purchased from the foreigners to the north. The people of the Ottoman empire were mired in poverty and ignorance, their lives essentially unchanged during his years of rule. Sultan Hamid commissioned thousands of photographs of his empire. Fearful of assassination he did not travel and so photographs provided visual evidence of what was taking place in his realm. The [[Sultan]] presented large gift albums of photographs to various governments and heads of state, including the [[United States]] (William Allen, &quot;The Abdul Hamid II Collection,&quot; History of Photography 8 (1984): 119-45.) and Great Britain (M. I. Waley and British Library., Sultan Abdulhamid II Early Turkish Photographs in 51 Albums from the British Library on Microfiche (Zug, Switzerland: IDC, 1987). The American collection is housed in the [[Library of Congress]] and has been digitized [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/ahiiquery.html] ==References== {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abd-ul-Hamid II}} * {{1911}} {{start box}} {{succession box | before = [[Murad V]]| title = [[Ottoman dynasty|Ottoman Sultan]]|years=[[August 31]], [[1876]] &amp;ndash; [[April 27]], [[1909]]| after = [[Mehmed V]]}} {{end box}} [[Category:1842 births]] [[Category:1918 deaths]] [[Category:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire]] [[ar:عبدالحميد الثاني]] [[bg:Абдул Хамид II]] [[ca:Abdul Hamid II]] [[de:Abdülhamid II.]] [[eo:Abd-ul-Hamid la 2-a]] [[fr:Abdülhamid II]] [[hr:Abdul Hamid II.]] [[id:Abd-ul-Hamid II]] [[he:עבדול חמיד השני]] [[hu:II. Abdul-Hamid]] [[nl:Abdülhamit II]] [[ja:アブデュルハミト2世]] [[pl:Abd-ul-Hamid II]] [[ro:Abdul-Hamid al II-lea]] [[ru:Абдул-Гамид II]] [[sv:Abd ül-Hamid II]] [[tr:II. Abdülhamit]] [[zh:阿卜杜勒·哈米德二世]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abd-ul-Mejid I</title> <id>2694</id> <revision> <id>41825662</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:09:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GrinBot</username> <id>411872</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: ar</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sultan abdul mejid.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Sultan Abdul Mejid I]] '''Abdül Mecid''' (also with various alternate spellings, including '''Abd-ul-Mejid,''''''Abd ül-Mecid''' and '''Abdülmecit'''; in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] عبد المجيد الأول ) ([[April 23]], [[1823]] &amp;ndash; [[June 25]], [[1861]]) was the [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and succeeded his father [[Mahmud II]] on [[July 2]] [[1839]]. His reign was notable for being enervated by internal [[nationalism]] and the incursions of European powers. When Abd-ul-Mejid succeeded to the throne, the affairs of the [[Ottoman Empire]] were in an extremely critical state. At the very time his father died, the news was on its way to [[Istanbul]] that the empire's army had been signally defeated at [[Nizip]] by that of the rebel [[Egypt]]ian [[viceroy]], [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Mehemet Ali]]. The empire's fleet was at the same time on its way to [[Alexandria]], where it was handed over to the same enemy by its commander [[Ahmed P
*1530 WCKY AM &quot;The Revolution of Talk Radio&quot; [http://www.wcky.com] **WAIF &quot;What Radio Was Meant To Be&quot; Community radio 88.3 FM [http://waif883.org] **WJVS &quot;Joint Vocational School&quot; Mon-Fri 8:00 AM to 3:00 PM on 88.3 FM **WGUC 90.9 FM NPR; Classical Music [http://www.wguc.org] **WVXU 91.7 FM NPR; Public Radio [http://www.wvxu.org/html/wvxu.html] **WOFX &quot;The FOX&quot; Classic Rock 92.5 FM [http://www.foxcincinnati.com] **WAKW &quot;New Life 93&quot; Christian 93.3 FM [http://www.wakw.com] **WVMX &quot;Mix 94.1&quot; Adult Contemporary FM [http://www.wvmx.com] **WMOJ &quot;Jammin' Oldies&quot; Oldies 94.9 FM [http://www.mojo949.com] **WYGY &quot;The Star&quot; Country 96.5 FM [http://www.965thestar.com] **WAQZ &quot;Cincinnati's New Rock 97.3&quot; Alternative Rock 97.3 FM [http://www.newrock973.com] **[[WOXY (FM)]] &quot;97.7 Max FM&quot; **WRRM &quot;Warm 98&quot; Soft Rock 98.5 FM [http://www.warm98.com] **WIZF &quot;The Wiz&quot; Urban Contemporary 100.9 FM [http://www.wizfm.com] **WKRQ &quot;Q 102&quot; Top 40 101.9 FM [http://www.wkrq.com] **WEBN &quot;WEBN&quot; Rock 102.7 FM [http://www.webn.com] **WGRR &quot;Oldies 103.5&quot; Oldies 103.5 FM [http://www.wgrr.com] **WNLT &quot;K Love&quot; Contemporary Christian 104.3 FM [http://www.klove.com] **WNKU &quot;Best Public Radio in the country&quot; Eclectic music 89.7 FM [http://wnku.org] **WUBE &quot;B 105&quot; Country 105.1 FM [http://www.wube.com] **WPFB &quot;The Rebel&quot; Country 105.9 FM [http://www.1059therebel.com] **WKFS &quot;KISS 107 FM&quot; Top 40 107.1 [http://www.kisscincinnati.com] **WDBZ &quot;The Buzz of Cincinnati&quot; 1320 AM Black Talk ===Online media=== *The following are online media outlets, including new aggregators, in the Cincinnati area: **''The [[Dean of Cincinnati]] -- now at The Cincinnati Beacon'' [http://www.cincinnatibeacon.com] **''513 Green PAC'' [http://www.513gpac.fiveonetree.org] **''AroundCinci.com'' [http://www.aroundcinci.com] **''Blue Chip Review'' [http://bluechipreview.com] **''Cincinnati.com'' [http://www.cincinnati.com] **''The Cincinnati Nation'' [http://www.cincinnatination.com] **''NKY.com'' [http://www.nky.com] **''Queen City Forum'' [http://queencityforum.com] **''[[WOXY (internet radio)]]'' [http://www.woxy.com] **''[[Cincymusic.com]]'' [http://www.cincymusic.com] ==Transportation== *[[Cincinnati-Northern Kentucky International Airport]] is located in [[Hebron, Kentucky]], and serves Cincinnati, Ohio. *The [[John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge]], opened in 1866, links Cincinnati and [[Covington, Kentucky]]. This bridge was the prototype for the [[Brooklyn Bridge]], also designed by Roebling. *Cincinnati is accessible via interstates [[I-75]], [[I-71]] and [[I-74]]. [[Interstate 275 (Ohio)|I-275]] is a [[beltway]] around the city, and [[I-471]] links it to [[Newport, Kentucky]]. *[[Lunken Airport]] - Cincinnati Municipal Airfield *[[Amtrak]] Passenger Rail Service *[[Greyhound Lines]] Bus Service *Cincinnati has an unfinished [[Cincinnati Subway|Subway]], abandoned during construction in 1925 due to cost overruns. The existing tunnels now stand vacant. *[[METRO]] city passenger bus, operated by [[SORTA]], the Southwest [[Ohio]] Regional Transit Authority *[[Transit Authority of Northern Kentucky|TANK]] Transit Authority of Northern [[Kentucky]] in Downtown Cincinnati, south of sixth street. ==Culture== * [[Mt. Adams]] * [[Clifton Gaslight District]] * [[Big Pig Gig]] * [[Cornhole]], which originated in Cincinnati's West Side ===Attractions=== * [[Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden]] * [[Newport Aquarium]] (across the Ohio River) [http://www.newportaquarium.org/] * [[Cincinnati Museum Center]] [http://www.cincymuseum.org/]combines the Cincinnati Children's Museum, the Cincinnati Museum of Natural History and Science, the OmniMax Cinema, and the Cincinnati History Museum in the classic Art-Deco Union Terminal, the largest half-dome on the planet Earth. * [[Krohn Conservatory]] * [[Mt. Airy Arboretum]] * [[Spring Grove Cemetery]] * [[Coney Island of Cincinnati]] * [[Paramount's Kings Island]], located in [[Mason, Ohio|Mason]], a suburb 20 miles northeast of Cincinnati * [[Boomerang Bay Waterpark]], also in Mason, also owned by Paramount * [[The Beach Waterpark]], also in Mason * [[TPC at River's Bend]], a [[golf]] club that hosts a [[Champions Tour]] event (men's senior golf) * [[Cincinnati Masters|Western &amp; Southern Financial Group Masters]], an important [[tennis]] tournament held in Mason * [[National Underground Railroad Freedom Center]] * [[Taft Museum of Art]] ===Buildings=== [[Image:Cincinnati Music Hall 2002b.jpg|thumb|Cincinnati Music Hall]] * [[Carew Tower]] tallest building in Cincinnati and a National Histroic Landmark; open air observation deck on 49th story; prototype for Empire State Building * [[PNC Tower]] 5th tallest in the world (tallest in the US outside of New York City) when it was built in 1914 * [[Scripps Center]] Home of the world headquarters for Scripps Howard * [[Ingalls Building]] The world's first reinforced concrete skyscraper * [[Star Tower]] * [[Cincinnati Museum Center at Union Terminal]] A former train station; now a museum; example of [[Art Deco]] style. Amtrak station has returned to Union Terminal since renovation. * [[US Bank Tower (Cincinnati)|US Bank Tower]] * [[The Contemporary Arts Center]] By Iraqi architect [[Zaha Hadid]], 2004 winner of the [[Pritzker Prize]]. Called by the New York Times the &quot;most important American building to be completed since the end of the Cold War.&quot; * [[Aronoff Center]] Performing art center, by architect [[César Pelli]]. * [[Aronoff Center for Design and Art]] Home of the [[University of Cincinnati]] College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, by architect [[Peter Eisenman]]. * [[Vontz Center]] for Molecular Studies at [[University of Cincinnati]], by architect [[Frank Gehry]], 1989 winner of the [[Pritzker Prize]]. * [[Engineering Resarch Center]] at [[University of Cincinnati]], by architect [[Michael Graves]]. * [[College Conservatory of Music]] at [[University of Cincinnati]], by architect [[Henry Cobb]] partner of [[I.M. Pei]]. * Campus Recreation Center at [[University of Cincinnati]], by architect Thom Mayne, 2005 winner of the [[Pritzker Prize]]. * Athletic Center at [[University of Cincinnati]], by architect [[Bernard Tschumi]]. Opening 2006. ===Galleries=== * [[Carl Solway Gallery]] * [[Cincinnati Art Galleries]] * [[The Design Consortium Gallery]] * [[Miller Gallery]] * [[Visual History Gallery]] * [[Weston Art Gallery]] ===Famous Cincinnati natives=== *[[William Howard Taft]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[President of the United States]], [[Chief Justice of the United States]] *[[William Henry Harrison]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; President of the United States *[[Sarah Jessica Parker]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; actress *[[Carmen Electra]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; entertainer *[[Bootsy Collins]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; musician *[[Jerry Springer]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; talk show host and former mayor of Cincinnati *[[Roger Staubach]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; football player *[[Barry Larkin]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; baseball player *[[Oscar Robertson]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Former Cincinnati guard and NBA Great *[[Ken Griffey, Jr.]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; baseball player (born in [[Pennsylvania]], raised in Cincinnati) *[[Pete Rose]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; baseball player *[[Frank Duveneck]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; painter *[[Ulysses S. Grant]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; President of the United States, General *[[Henry Heimlich]] &amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; co-developer of the Heimlich maneuver *[[Powel Crosley Jr.]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; inventor, industrialist, and entrepreneur *[[Steven Spielberg]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; producer/director *[[George Clooney]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Actor *[[Ted Turner]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Media Mogul *[[Roy Rogers]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; The Singing Cowboy *[[Bill Hemmer]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; FOX News Channel Anchor *[[Andy Williams]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; singer *[[Doris Day]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; actress *[[Tony Snow]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; FOX News Channel Anchor and radio host *[[Charles Manson]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; infamous murderer *[[Rosemary Clooney]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Singer/Actress *[[William McGuffey]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; 19th century writer of the ''[[McGuffey Readers]]'' *[[Daniel Carter Beard]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; founder of the [[Boy Scouts of America]] *[[Harriet Beecher Stowe]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; author of [[Uncle Tom's Cabin]], abolitionist *[[Thomas Worthington Whittredge]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; painter [http://www.spfld-museum-of-art.org/collection/whittre.html] *[[Linda Vester]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; FOX News Channel Anchor *[[Leon Wesley Walls]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Singer, Songwriter *[[Nick Lachey]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Singer, Member of 98 Degrees *[[Suzanne Farrell]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Ballerina *[[Shaun Alexander]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; football player *[[Neil Armstrong]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; astronaut *[[John Boehner]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; House Majority Leader *[[Julie Hagerty]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Actress ===Museums=== * [[American Classical Music Hall of Fame and Museum]] * [[Cincinnati Art Museum]] * [[The Center for Holocaust and Humanity Education]] * [http://www.cincyfiremuseum.com/history.html Cincinnati Fire Museum] * [[John Hauck House]] * [[Heritage Village Museum]] * [[Cincinnati Museum Center at Union Terminal]] * [[Cincinnati Observatory Center]] * [[The Contemporary Arts Center]] * [[Drake Planetarium]] * [[Greater Cincinnati Science Education Center]] * [[Harriet Beecher Stowe House]] * [[National Signs of the Times Museum]] * [[National Underground Railroad Freedom Center]] * [[Newport Aquarium]] (in [[Newport, Kentucky]]) * [[The Taft Museum of Art]] ===Theater=== For a city of its size, Cincinnati boasts a vibrant community of theatre artists, educators, and producers. Audiences can
wn as Inquiries to the Government '''Talebat Ihata'''. In addition, ministers attend meetings of the two houses of Parliament when laws pertaining to their areas of responsibility are being discussed. Traditionally, the cabinet comprises, in decreasing rank: *''The Prime Minister'' *''Presidential Ministers'', the ministers of Defense, Interior, Foreign Affairs, and Information are appointed by the President himself and report both to the President and the Prime Minister (as opposed to other Ministers who can only report to the Prime Minister). *''Ministers'' *''Ministers of State'', described as ‘junior ministers’, are assigned specific responsibilities or agencies. The portfolios of ministers of state are considerably more transient, as positions may be created and dissolved to suit specific short-term government priorities or the specific qualifications of candidates without alterations to the departmental structure, e.g. the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs. *''Ministers without portfolio'', ministers who do not head specific departments and occasionally attend cabinet meetings, e.g. Minister without portfolio Omar Suleiman, the current Chief of the Egyptian Intelligence Services. *''Chairmen of Departments'', who head certain important departments that do not fall under the jurisdiction of any of the ministers and answer directly to the Prime Minister, e.g. The Chairman of the Suez Canal Authority. *''Ministers-Delegate'', who assist ministers in areas of their duties and rarely attend cabinet meeting The number of ministries and the splitting of responsibilities and administrations between them vary from government to government, but some positions tend to stay the same, even though the exact title of the position may vary. *[[Ministry of the Interior (Egypt)|Ministry of the Interior]] (law enforcement, prisons) *[[Ministry of Defence (Egypt)|Ministry of Defence and Military Production]], *[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Egypt)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] *[[Ministry of Justice (Egypt)|Ministry of Justice]] (running the court system, supervision of the prosecution service) The government has a leading role in shaping the agenda of the houses of Parliament. It may propose laws to Parliament, as well as amendments during parliamentary meetings. It may make use of some procedures to speed up parliamentary deliberations. As of [[9 July]] [[2004]], the Prime Minister is [[Ahmed Nazif|Dr. Ahmed Nazif]]. ==Legislative branch== ''Main Article: [[History of Parliamentary life in Egypt]]''&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt; [[Parliament of Egypt|Parliament]] meets for one nine-month session each year: under special circumstances the President of the Republic can call an additional session. Even though the powers of the Parliament have increased since the 1980 Amendments of the Constitution, the Parliament remains to lack the powers to balance the excessive powers of the President. ===The People’s Assembly ('''Majilis Al-Sha’ab''') === The [[People's Assembly of Egypt|People’s Assembly]] is the principal legislative body. Out of the assembly’s 454 [[Chamber of Deputies|deputies]], 444 are directly elected while 10 are appointed by the President. The Constitution reserves fifty percent of the assembly seats for ‘workers and peasants’. The assembly sits for a five-year term but can be dissolved earlier by the President. All seats are voted on in each election. Four hundred seats are voted on using [[proportional representation]] while the remaining forty-four are elected in local majority votes. The People’s Assembly may cause the resignation of the executive cabinet by voting a motion of censure. For this reason, the [[Prime Minister of Egypt|Prime Minister]] and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly. In the case of a president and assembly from opposing parties, this leads to the situation known as [[cohabitation]]. While motions of censure are periodically proposed by the opposition following government actions that it deems highly inappropriate, they are purely rhetorical; party discipline ensures that, throughout a parliamentary term, the government is never overthrown by the assembly. ===The Shura Council ('''Majilis Al-Shura''') === The [[Shura Council (Egypt)|Shura Council]] is the 264-member upper house of Parliament created in 1980. The Shura Council roughly translates to the ‘Consultative Council’ in English. In the Shura Council 174 members are directly elected and 88 members are appointed by the President of the Republic for six-year terms. One half of the Shura Council is renewed every three years. The Shura Council's legislative powers are limited. On most matters of legislation, the People’s Assembly retains the last word in the event of a disagreement between the two houses. ===Parliamentary elections=== There currently exist eighteen recognized political parties from across the political spectrum. The formation of political parties based on religion is prohibited by the Constitution. The official opposition and political pressure groups, like the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], are active in Egypt and make their views public. They are represented at various levels in the political system. However, power is concentrated in the hands of the President of the Republic and the [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]] which retains a super-majority in the People's Assembly. The November 2000 Parliamentary Elections are generally regarded to have been more transparent and better executed than past elections. This is due to the new Law put into force establishing universal judicial monitoring of polling stations. On the other hand, opposition parties continue to lodge credible complaints about electoral manipulation by the government. There are significant restrictions on the political process and freedom of expression for non-governmental organizations, including professional syndicates and organizations promoting respect for human rights which have been greatly loosened up in the past five years. Below the national level, authority is exercised by and through governors and mayors appointed by the central government and by popularly elected local councils. ==Judicial branch== ''Main Article: [[The Egyptian Judicial System]]'' &lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt; The Egyptian judicial system is based on European, primarily French, legal concepts and methods. Under the several governments during the presidency of Mubarak, the courts have demonstrated increasing independence, and the principles of due process and judicial review have gained greater respect. The legal code is derived largely from the [[Napoleonic Code]]. Marriage and personal status are primarily based on the religious law of the individual concerned. Thus, there are three forms of Family Law in Egypt, Islamic, Christian, and secular (based on the French Family Laws).&lt;BR&gt; The judicial branch plays an important role in the political process in Egypt, the branch is given the responsibility to monitor and run the country's parliamentary and presidential elections. === Supreme Constitutional Court === ''Main Article: [[The Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt]]''&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt; The '''Supreme Constitutional Court''' is an independent judiciary body in the Arab Republic of Egypt, with its new seat in the [[Cairo]] suburban, [[Maadi]].&lt;BR&gt; The Court is the highest judicial power in [[Egypt]] and it alone undertakes the judicial control in respect of the constitutionality of the laws and regulations and shall undertake the interpretation of the legislative texts in the manner prescribed by law. &lt;BR&gt; The chief judge of the Supreme Court was the head of the Presidential Election Commission that supervised and ran the country's first multi-candidate presidential elections in 2005. ==Political parties and elections== According to the Egyptian Constitution, political parties are allowed to exist. Religious political parties that are banned from being formed in Egypt. Also political parties that encourage militia formations or that has an agenda that is contradictory to the constitution or threatening to the country's stability such as the national unity between the Muslims and copts in Egypt. Today, there are 18 political parties in Egypt. {{elect|List of political parties in Egypt|Elections in Egypt}} {{Egyptian parliamentary election, 2005}} {{Main|Egyptian parliamentary election, 2005}} {{Egyptian presidential election, 2005}} {{Main|Egyptian presidential election, 2005}} ==Civil Society== Egyptians have been living under emergency law since 1967, except for an 18-month break in 1980. Emergency laws have been continuously extended every three years since 1981. These laws sharply circumscribe any non-governmental political activity: street demonstrations, non-approved political organizations, and un-registered financial donations are formally banned. Nonetheless, since 2000, these restrictions have been violated in practice. New non-governmental organizations and activity first emerged around solidarity with the [[Palestinians]] during the second Intifada and continued with opposition to the invasion of Iraq. The [[Popular Committee in Solidarity with the Palestinian Intifada]] (PCSPI), which operates on a grassroots basis, and has held a variety of unlicensed activities, has formed a model for nongovernmental action. In 2005, the agenda shifted towards democratic reforms, opposition to the succession of Gamal Mubarak as president, and rejection of violence by state security forces. Groups involved in the latest wave include PCSPI, the Egyptian Movement for Change ([[Kifaya]] (Enough)), and the Association for Egyptian Mothers. Substantial peasant activism exists on a variety of issues, especially related to [[land rights]] and [[land reform]]. A major flashpoint was the 1997 repeal of Nasser-era land reform policies under pressure for [[structural adjust
987, they pass into a new junior secondary school system for 3 years of academic training combined with technical and vocational training, where they pass a Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE). Those wishing to continue with their education move into the 3-year senior secondary school program. Entrance to universities is by examination following completion of senior secondary school. School enrollment totals almost 2 million: 1.3 million primary; 107,600 middle; 48,900 secondary; 21,280 technical; 11,300 teacher training; and 5,600 university. There is currently an on-going educational reform in Ghana, and teaching is mainly in English, Ghana's official language. ==Miscellaneous topics== * [[Communications in Ghana]] * [[Demographics of Ghana]] * [[Foreign relations of Ghana]] * [[Islam in Ghana]] * [[List of Ghanian companies]] * [[List of African writers (by country)#Ghana|List of writers from Ghana]] * [[Military of Ghana]] * [[Music of Ghana]] * [[Public Holidays in Ghana]] * [[Transportation in Ghana]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Ghana}} '''Government''' *[http://www.ghana.gov.gh/ The Republic of Ghana] official government site *[http://www.parliament.gh/ The Parliament of Ghana] official site '''News''' *[http://www.accra-mail.com/ Accra Daily Mail] daily newspaper *[http://allafrica.com/ghana/ AllAfrica.com - ''Ghana''] news headline links *[http://ghanareview.com/review/ Ghana Review International] UK-based daily *[http://www.graphicghana.com/ The Daily Graphic] daily newspaper *[http://www.ghanamusic.com/ Ghana Music.com] Music News [content updated daily] *[http://www.ghanaian-chronicle.com/ The Ghanaian Chronicle] daily newspaper *[http://www.independent-gh.com/ The Online Independent] daily newspaper *[http://www.highana.com/ Ghana News] Ghana News *[http://www.mobileafrica.net/ghana.php Mobile Africa] Mobile telecom in Ghana news *[http://www.musicinghana.com/ Ghana Music News] Ghana Music News '''Overviews''' *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1023355.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Ghana''] *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gh.html CIA World Factbook - ''Ghana''] *[http://www.joinafrica.com/countries1/ghana/people.htm Joinafrica.com - ''Ghana''] * [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/gh/ US State Department - ''Ghana''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports '''Directories''' *[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Ghana.html Columbia University Libraries - African Studies: ''Ghana''] directory category of the WWW-VL *[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Ghana/ Open Directory Project - ''Ghana''] directory category *[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/ghana.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Ghana''] directory category *[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Ghana/ Yahoo! - ''Ghana''] directory category '''Tourism''' *{{wikitravel}} *[http://www.ghanatourism.gov.gh/ Ghana: A golden experience at the center of the world] official government tourism site *[http://www.ghanainternationalairlines.com/ Ghana International Airlines] The New National Carrier of Ghana *[http://www.gattagh.com/ Ghana Association of Travel &amp; Tourist Agents] Ghana Association of Travel &amp; Tourist Agents *[http://www.viewghana.com/ View Ghana] Travel information and portal for Ghana '''Other''' *[http://www.ghanaweb.com/ GhanaWeb] portal *[http://www.movingplanets.com/world/countries/ghana/ Ghana on Movingplanets] *[http://www.ghanakeyboards.com/ GhanaKeyboards] Free Windows-based Downloadable Keyboards for Ghanaian Languages *[http://www.ghanafind.com/ Ghana Find] classifieds {{Africa}} [[Category:African Union member states]] [[Category:Ghana| ]] [[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Peace and Security Council]] [[af:Ghana]] [[ar:غانا]] [[bg:Гана]] [[zh-min-nan:Ghana]] [[bs:Gana]] [[ca:Ghana]] [[cs:Ghana]] [[cy:Ghana]] [[da:Ghana]] [[de:Ghana]] [[et:Ghana]] [[es:Ghana]] [[eo:Ganao]] [[eu:Ghana]] [[fr:Ghana]] [[gl:Gana - Ghana]] [[ko:가나]] [[hi:घाना]] [[hr:Gana]] [[io:Ghana]] [[id:Ghana]] [[is:Gana]] [[it:Ghana]] [[he:גאנה]] [[sw:Ghana]] [[ku:Gana]] [[la:Ghana]] [[lv:Gana]] [[lt:Gana]] [[li:Gana]] [[hu:Ghána]] [[ms:Ghana]] [[na:Ghana]] [[nl:Ghana]] [[nds:Ghana]] [[ja:ガーナ]] [[no:Ghana]] [[nn:Ghana]] [[pl:Ghana]] [[pt:Gana]] [[ro:Ghana]] [[ru:Гана]] [[sq:Gana]] [[simple:Ghana]] [[sk:Ghana]] [[sl:Gana]] [[sr:Гана]] [[fi:Ghana]] [[sv:Ghana]] [[tl:Ghana]] [[th:ประเทศกานา]] [[vi:Ghana]] [[tr:Gana]] [[tw:Ghana]] [[uk:Гана]] [[wa:Gana]] [[zh:加纳]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ghana/History</title> <id>12068</id> <revision> <id>15909776</id> <timestamp>2002-06-14T06:40:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Danny</username> <id>584</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Ghana]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Ghana</title> <id>12069</id> <revision> <id>40601915</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:26:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bastin8</username> <id>154626</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>United Kingdom</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Republic of Ghana'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt; |- | style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Image:Ghana Map.jpg|280px|Map of Ghana]] |- | '''[[Continent]]''' || [[Africa]] |- | '''[[Geographic coordinates]]''' || {{coor dm|8|00|N|2|00|W|type:country}} |- | '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water | [[List of countries by area|Ranked 77th]] &lt;br&gt; 238,540 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br&gt; 3.5% (8,520 km&amp;sup2') |- | '''Coastline''' || 700 km |- | '''Highest point''' || [[Mount Afadjato]], 880 m |- | '''Lowest point''' || [[Atlantic Ocean]], 0 m |- | '''Longest river''' || [[Volta|Volta River]] |- | '''Largest inland body of water''' || [[Lake Volta]] |- | '''Land Use'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Arable land&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Permanent&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;crops&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Permanent&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;pastures&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Forests and&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;woodlands&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Other ||&lt;br&gt;12 %&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;7 %&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;22 %&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;35 %&lt;br&gt;24 % (1993 est.) |- | '''[[Climate]]''': || [[Tropics|Tropical]] |- | '''add more''' || need ideas |- | '''Natural resources''' || [[gold]], [[timber]], industrial [[diamond]]s, [[bauxite]], [[manganese]], [[fish]], [[rubber]], [[hydropower]] |- | '''Environmental issues''' || [[drought]], [[deforestation]], [[overgrazing]], [[soil erosion]], [[poaching]], [[habitat destruction]], [[water pollution]], [[drinking water]] |} '''[[Ghana]]''' is a country in [[West Africa]], along the [[Gulf of Guinea]], just a few degrees north of the [[equator]]. ==Location and size== Ghana, which lies in the center of the West African coast, shares 2,093 km of land borders with the three French-speaking nations of [[Burkina Faso]] (548 km) to the north, [[Côte d'Ivoire]] (668 km) to the west, and [[Togo]] (877 km) to the east. To the south are the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean. With a total area of 238,533 square kilometers, Ghana is about the size of the [[United Kingdom]], or slightly smaller than [[Oregon]]. Its southernmost coast at [[Cape Three Points]] is 4° 30' north of the equator. From here, the country extends inland for some 670 kilometers to about 11° north. The distance across the widest part, between longitude 1° 12' east and longitude 3° 15' west, measures about 560 kilometers. The [[Greenwich Meridian]], which passes through London, also traverses the eastern part of Ghana at [[Tema]]. '''Maritime claims:''' &lt;br&gt;''contiguous zone:'' 24 [[nautical mile]]s (44 km) &lt;br&gt;''continental shelf:'' 200 nautical miles (370 km) &lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:'' 200 nautical miles (370 km) &lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:'' 12 nautical miles (22 km) == Climate == The country's warm, humid climate has an annual mean temperature between 26 and 29 °C. Variations in the principal elements of [[temperature]], [[rainfall]], and [[humidity]] that govern the climate are influenced by the movement and interaction of the dry tropical continental air mass, the [[harmattan]], which blows from the northeast across the [[Sahara]], and the opposing tropical maritime or moist equatorial system. The cycle of the seasons follows the apparent movement of the sun back and forth across the equator. During summer in the northern hemisphere, a warm and moist maritime air mass intensifies and pushes northward across the country. A low-pressure belt, or intertropical front, in the air mass brings warm air, rain, and prevailing winds from the southwest. As the sun returns south across the equator, the dry, dusty, tropical continental front, or harmattan, prevails. Climatic conditions across the country are hardly uniform. The [[Kwahu Plateau]], which marks the northernmost extent of the forest area, also serves as an important climatic divide. To its north, two distinct seasons occur. The harmattan season with its dry, hot days and relatively cool nights from November to late March or April, is followed by a wet period that reaches its peak in late August or September. To the south and southwest of the Kwahu Plateau, where the annual mean rainfall from north to south ranges from 1,250 millimeters 2,150 millimeters, four separate seasons occur. Heavy rains fall from about April through late June. After a relatively short dry period in Aug
rganisation]] (WIPO) *[[World Intellectual Property Day]] ([[April 26]]) ===Types of intellectual property=== *[[Copyright]] *[[Geographical indication]] *[[Industrial design rights]] *[[Intellectual property block|IP blocks]] used in [[electronic design]] *[[Moral rights]] *[[Patent]] *[[Personality rights]] *[[Plant breeders' rights]] *[[Trade dress]] *[[Trademark]] *[[Trade secret]] *[[Traditional knowledge]] *[[Domain Name]] ==Bibliography== *Arthur Raphael Miller, Michael H. Davis, ''Intellectual Property: Patents, Trademarks, and Copyright'', West Wadsworth; 3rd edition, [[2000]], ISBN 0314235191 (textbook particularly covering copyright and patent law) *[[Stephan Kinsella]], &quot;Against Intellectual Property&quot;, ''Journal of Libertarian Studies'', Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 1-53, 2001. Available in .PDF [http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/15_2/15_2_1.pdf here] * Jason Mazzone, ''Copyfraud'', http://ssrn.com/abstract=787244 *Michael Perelman, ''Steal This Idea: Intellectual Property Rights and the Corporate Confiscation of Creativity'', Palgrave Macmillan, [[2002]], ISBN 0312294085, (a critical discussion of some of the social, scientific and cultural impacts of recent intellectual property developments) *Roger E. Schechter, John R. Thomas, ''Intellectual Property: The Law of Copyrights, Patents and Trademarks'', West Wadsworth, [[2003]], ISBN 0314065997 (textbook) ==External links== *Articles, Papers, and Interviews ** [http://ipmall.info] Award-winning website covering numerous aspects of intellectual property. ** [http://lysanderspooner.org/intellect/contents.htm The Law of Intellectual Property: or an essay on the right of authors and inventors to a perpetual property in their ideas.] by [[American individualist anarchist]] [[Lysander Spooner]], 1855 ** [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=582602 Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding, August 2004] by Mark A. Lemley Stanford University - School of Law ** [http://www.ipfrontline.com/ IPFrontline™ Intellectual Property and Technology Magazine] from [http://www.iamcafe.com/ PatentCafe.] IPFrontline contains thousands of archived articles. *[http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?type=subject&amp;q=intellectual%20property&amp;q2=liv Read Congressonal Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Intellectual property] ** Speech by [[Richard Stallman]]: [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/stallman-patents.html Software patents ? Obstacles to software development] - it starts about IP and the problems it causes to talk or think using IP. ** [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/words-to-avoid.html#IntellectualProperty Confusing words to avoid ]. [[Free Software Foundation]] page that identifies ''intellectual property'' as a confusing term while talking about [[free software]]. ** [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/not-ipr.xhtml Why the Term 'Intellectual Property' is a seductive mirage] - an essay by [[Richard Stallman]]. Originally published on [[Newsforge]], see [http://www.newsforge.com/article.pl?sid=04/10/27/189204 commentary by Newsforge readers]. ** [http://web.archive.org/web/20041010160640/http://articles.pawlo.com/grep02.html ''Efficiency, Innovation, and Transparency - The Future of Intellectual Property Rights'', [[November 30]] [[2002]]] ** [http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/general/intellectual/intellectual.htm ''Economic and Game Theory Intellectual Property Page''] - by Michele Boldrin and David K. Levine ** [http://www.eff.org/~barlow/EconomyOfIdeas.html ''The Economy of Ideas: Selling Wine Without Bottles on the Global Net''] by [[John Perry Barlow]] ** [http://eyeteeth.blogspot.com/2003_04_20_eyeteeth_archive.html#92977561 The Anarchist in the Library: Discussing Cultural Democracy with Siva Vaidhyanathan] ** [http://www.qmipri.org] ''Queen Mary Intellectual Property Research Institute, University of London'' ** Georg Jakob's short [http://wiki.ael.be/uploads/ipenf_comments.html Paper on the Enforcement of Intellectual Property Rights in Europe]([http://www.rechtsprobleme.at/doks/ipenf_comments-jakob.pdf pdf]) ** [http://management.itmanagersjournal.com/management/05/07/03/142217.shtml Making sense of IP laws and regulations] by Ryan Paul - primarily covers copyright law and fair use ** [http://www.paecon.net/PAEReview/issue32/Baker32.htm The Reform of Intellectual Property] by Dean Baker (Center for Economic and Policy Research, USA) - about economic inefficiencies rooting from intellectual property rights ** Working paper for discussion [http://www.unece.org/operact/enterp/documents/kozeng.pdf EVALUATION OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND INTANGIBLE ASSETS]([http://www.unece.org/operact/enterp/documents/kozeng.pdf pdf]) (Prepared by [http://kozyrev.labrate.ru A.N. Kozyrev], [http://www.cemi.rssi.ru Central Economics and Mathematics Institute], Russian Academy of Sciences), HIGH-LEVEL TASK FORCE ON VALUATION AND CAPITALIZATION OF INTELLECTUAL ASSETS (First meeting, Geneva, [[18 November]] and [[19 November]] [[2002]]) *Miscellaneous IP sites ** [http://www.ipjustice.org IP Justice] - IP Justice Civil Liberties NGO ** [http://www.ip-watch.org IP Watch] - a blog on international IP developments ** [http://www.ipdragon.blogspot.com IP Dragon] - focused on IP in China ** [http://www.ipwatchdog.com IP Watch Dog] IP site by Gene Quinn, US patent attorney ** [http://www.ipnewsflash.com IP Newsflash] current IP related caselaw and notices of the patent offices ** [http://www.iusmentis.com/news/ Ius Mentis] Updated IP news feed ** [http://www.kinsellalaw.com/ip/index.php Intellectual Property Resources] ** [http://www.researchoninnovation.org/ Research on Innovation] ** [http://www.ip-links.de/ Intellectual Property Links], compiled by [[Representation before the European Patent Office (EPO)|European Patent Attorney]] [[Ralph Beier]] ** [http://www.freeculture.org/blog/ freeculture] news, events, and issues, focusing on the free culture movement ** [http://www.freedom-to-tinker.com/ Freedom To Tinker] Ed Felten's blog, focusing on effects of stifling the &quot;freedom to understand, discuss, repair, and modify the technological devices you own.&quot; ** [http://righttocreate.blogspot.com Right to Create] Focusing on exposing abuses of patent and copyright systems, and useful reforms. ** [http://www.corante.com/copyfight/ Copyfight] Copyright and patent issue blog ** [http://lawyerintl.com/modules/AMS/index.php?storytopic=13 Intellectual Property] An array of articles on a variety of Intellectual Property topics. ** [http://www.info-brevetti.org The Italian portal about intellectual property, patents and innovation] ** [http://www.internationaliplawforum.com/ International IP Law Forum] Articles specifically related to international IP issues *Lobbying organisations (in favour) ** [http://www.eucommittee.be/IssuesPriorities/ip.htm AmCham EU - American Chamber of Commerce to the European Union] ''&quot;Committed to a Competitive and Sustainable Europe&quot;'' ** [http://www.gbde.org/ipr.html GBDe - Global Business Dialogue on electronic commerce] - The IPR working group is chaired the Chairman and CEO of [[The Walt Disney Company]], and the Chairman and CEO of [[Bertelsmann]]. On Technological Protection Measures: ''&quot;However, it is acknowledged that technology alone is not sufficient to protect copyright works for unauthorized reproduction and distribution. Legal safeguards, such as those required by the [[WIPO]] treaties must also be in place.&quot;'' -&gt; [[digital rights management|DRM]], [[DMCA]] and so on. ** [http://www.esmoz.com] ** http://www.eicta.org/levies/technical_solutions/drm.html (see also: [[EICTA|European Information, Communications and Consumer Electronics Technology Industry Associations]]) *Lobbying organisations (critical of some rights which IP is used to refer to) ** [http://www.eldis.org/ipr/ ELDIS - gateway to information on development issues] ** [[Free Software Foundation]], [http://www.edri.org/ EDRi (European Digital Rights)], [http://www.fipr.org FIPR], [[FFII]] (many more) ** [[IP Justice]] http://ipjustice.org ** [http://www.nnm-ev.de/ Netzwerk Neue Medien / Network New Media] ** [http://www.ueapme.org/EN/policy_legal_intellectual.shtml UEAPME] [[Category:Intellectual property| ]] [[da:Immaterialret]] [[de:Geistiges Eigentum]] [[es:Propiedad intelectual]] [[eo:Intelekta propraĵo]] [[fr:Propriété intellectuelle]] [[id:Kekayaan Intelektual]] [[he:קניין רוחני]] [[nl:Intellectueel eigendom]] [[ja:知的財産権]] [[pl:Własność intelektualna]] [[ro:Proprietate intelectuală]] [[fi:Immateriaalioikeus]] [[sv:Immaterialrätt]] [[uk:Інтелектуальна власність]] [[zh:知识产权]] [[th:ทรัพย์สินทางปัญญา]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)</title> <id>14726</id> <revision> <id>42088729</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:25:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FWBOarticle</username> <id>84919</id> </contributor> <comment>/* The blight */ stub added</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Irish potato famine Bridget O'Donnel.jpg|thumb|200px|Bridget O'Donnell and her two children during the famine]] The '''Great Famine''' or the '''Great Hunger''' ([[Irish language|Irish]]: '''''An Gorta Mór''''' or '''''An Drochshaol'''''), known more commonly outside of [[Ireland]] as the '''Irish [[Potato]] Famine''', is the name given to a [[famine]] in [[Ireland]] between [[1845]] and [[1849]]. The Famine was at least fifty years in the making, due to the disastrous interaction of [[United Kingdom|British]] economic policy, destructive farming methods, and the unfortunate appearance of &quot;the Blight&quot; &amp;mdash;the [[potato fungus]] that almost instantly destroyed the primary food source for the majority population. The immediate after-effects of The Famine continued until [[1851]]. The number of deaths is unrecorded, and various estimates suggest totals between 500,000 and more than one million in the five
3500 milligrams of [[cholesterol]], 1170% of our recommended daily intake.{{ref|5}} Brain consumption can also result in contracting fatal [[Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy|transmissible spongiform encephalopathies]] such as Variant [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] and other [[prion]] diseases in humans and [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|mad cow disease]] in cattle.{{ref|collinge}}. Another prion disease called [[kuru]] has been traced to a funerary ritual among the [[Fore]] people of [[Papua New Guinea]] in which those close to the dead would eat their brain to create a sense of [[immortality]].{{ref|collins}} Some [[archaeology|archaeological]] evidence suggests that the mourning rituals of [[Europe|European]] [[Neanderthal]]s also involved the consumption of the brain.{{ref|8}} The practice of eating another human's brain has been depicted by [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] in the [[film]] ''[[Hannibal (film)|Hannibal]]'' and countless [[zombie]] movies. It is not only humans who eat the brains of other animals. The two species of [[chimpanzee]], though generally [[vegetarian|vegetarian]], are known to eat the brains of [[monkey]]s to obtain fat in their diet.{{ref|9}} ==See also== *[[Nervous system]] *[[Central nervous system]] *[[Neuroscience]] *[[Neurology]] *[[A/S ratio]] *[[Brain damage]] *[[Brain-computer interface]] *[[Human brain]] *[[List of regions in the human brain|Regions in the human brain]] *[[Traumatic brain injury]] ==Further reading== *{{cite book|author=Junqueira, L.C., and J. Carneiro|title=Basic Histology: Text and Atlas, Tenth Edition|publisher=Lange Medical Books McGraw-Hill|year=2003|id=ISBN 0071215654}} *{{cite book|author=Sala, Sergio Della, editor.|title=Mind myths: Exploring popular assumptions about the mind and brain|publisher=J. Wiley &amp; Sons, New York|year=1999|id=ISBN 0471983039}} *{{cite book|author=Vander, A., J. Sherman, D. Luciano|title=Human Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function|publisher=McGraw Hill Higher Education|year=2001|id=ISBN 0071180885}} ===References=== &lt;div style=&quot;font-size:85%&quot;&gt; # {{note | bear }}{{cite book | last = Bear | first = M.F. | coauthors = B.W. Connors, and M.A. Paradiso | title = Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain | location = Baltimore | publisher = Lippincott | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0781739446 }} # {{note | butler }}{{cite journal | last = Butler | first = Ann B. | title = Chordate Evolution and the Origin of Craniates: An Old Brain in a New Head | journal = The Anatomical Record | year = 2000 | volume = 261 | pages = 111–125 }} # {{note | kandel }} {{cite book | authorlink = Eric R. Kandel | last = Kandel | first = ER | coauthors = Schwartz JH, Jessell TM | title = [[Principles of Neural Science]] | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0838577016 }} # {{note | martin }}{{cite book | last = Martin | first = John H. | title = Neuroanatomy: Text and Atlas | edition = Second Edition | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | year = 1996 | id = ISBN 007138183X }} # {{note|1}} {{cite book | title = Basic Histology: Text and Atlas | edition = 10th ed. | first = L.C. | last = Junqueira | coauthors = J. Carneiro }} (Statistic from page 161) # {{note | 2 }} {{cite web | author = Lukas, Paul | title = Inconspicuous Consumption: Mulling Brains | work = New York magazine | url = http://www.bozosoft.com/mike/meat/brains-article.html | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }} # {{note | tete_de_veau }} {{cite web | url = http://cavelife.net/columns/2002columns/2002Mar13.html | author = Glover, William | title = Tales from the Loir: Tête de Veau | work = Cave Life in France | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }} # {{note | around_the_world }} {{cite web | url = http://www.weird-food.com/weird-food-mammal.html | work = Weird-Food.com | title = Weird Foods: Mammal | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }} # {{note | 3 }} {{cite web | url = http://www.berggorilla.de/english/gjournal/texte/18culture.html | author = Meder, Angela | title = Gorillas in African Culture and Medicine | work = Gorilla Journal | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }} # {{note | 4 }} {{cite web | url = http://www.autisminfo.com/dorfman.htm | title = Nutritional Summary: Notes Taken From a Recent Autism Society Meeting | author = Dorfman, Kelly | work = Diet and Autism | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }} # {{note | 5 }} {{cite web | url = http://thewvsr.com/porkbrains.htm | title = Pork Brains in Milk Gravy | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }} # {{note | 6 }} {{cite web | url = http://my.webmd.com/hw/health_guide_atoz/tu6534.asp?printing=true | title = Mad Cow Disease - Overview | work = Health Guide A-Z | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }} # {{note | 7 }} {{cite web | url = http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/2004/01/23/mad_cow.php | author = Touchette, Nancy | title = Genome Affects Human Forms of “Mad Cow” Disease | work = Genome News Network | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }} # {{note | 8 }} {{cite book | url = http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?ean=9781582432533&amp;displayonly=CHP | title = The Aztec Treasure House | last = Connell | first = Evan S. | publisher = Counterpoint Press | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 1582431620 }} # {{note | 9 }} {{cite web | url = http://www.positivehealth.com/Reviews/books/horrobin68.htm | title = Review of ''The Madness of Adam and Eve: How Schizophrenia Shaped Humanity'' | author = Clarke, Bella | work = Human Given magazine | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }} #{{note|collinge}} {{cite journal | last = Collinge | first = John | date = 2001 | title = Prion diseases of humans and animals: their causes and molecular basis | journal = Annual Review of Neuroscience | volume = 24 | pages = 519–50 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11283320 | id = PMID 11283320 }} #{{note|Collins}} {{cite journal | last = Collins | first = S | coauthors = McLean CA, Masters CL | date = 2001 | title = Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome,fatal familial insomnia, and kuru: a review of these less common human transmissible spongiform encephalopathies | journal = Journal of Clinical Neuroscience | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | ages = 387–97 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11535002 | id = PMID 11535002 }} &lt;/div&gt; ==External links== * [http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/ab0.html Brain Tutorial] * [http://brainmuseum.org/ Comparative Mammalian Brain Collection] * [http://www.rmcybernetics.com/science/cybernetics/ai_vision_perception_brain.htm RMCybernetics - The Brain and Artificial Intelligence] * [http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu BrainInfo for Neuroanatomy] * [http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html Neuroscience for kids] * [http://3dscience.com/advancedsearch.asp?stS=brain&amp;cboMatch=Any&amp;selectcategory=0&amp;txtMinPrice=&amp;txtMaxPrice=Free Brain Medical Clip Art]. * [http://purl.net/net/neurowiki neuroscience wiki] * [http://www.brainmaps.org/ BrainMaps.org], interactive high-resolution digital brain atlas based on scanned images of serial sections of both primate and non-primate brains {{nervous system}} [[Category:Central nervous system]] [[Category:Cerebrum]] [[Category:Neuroscience]] [[Category:Organs]] [[af:Brein]] [[ar:دماغ]] [[bg:Главен мозък]] [[bm:Kunkolosɛmɛ]] [[bn:মস্তিষ্ক]] [[ca:Cervell]] [[cs:Mozek]] [[cy:Ymennydd]] [[da:Hjerne]] [[de:Gehirn]] [[eo:Cerbo]] [[es:Cerebro]] [[fa:مغز]] [[fi:Aivot]] [[fr:Cerveau]] [[he:מוח]] [[id:Otak]] [[io:Cerebro]] [[is:Heili]] [[it:Cervello]] [[ja:脳]] [[ko:뇌]] [[lt:Galvos smegenys]] [[mk:Черепен мозок]] [[nl:Hersenen]] [[no:Hjerne]] [[pl:Mózg]] [[pt:Cérebro]] [[ru:Мозг]] [[scn:Ciriveddu]] [[simple:Brain]] [[sk:Mozog]] [[sl:Možgani]] [[sv:Hjärna]] [[ta:மனித மூளை]] [[th:สมอง]] [[tr:Beyin]] [[uk:Головний мозок]] [[zh:脑]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Byzantine Empire</title> <id>3718</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42086277</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:05:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bigdaddy1204</username> <id>530754</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>moving image slightly</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}} {{Byzantine Empire timeline infobox}} '''''Byzantine Empire''''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''{{Polytonic|Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων}}''') is the term conventionally used since the 19th century to describe the [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking [[Roman Empire]] during the [[Middle Ages]], centered at its capital in [[Constantinople]]. In certain specific contexts, usually referring to the time before the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]], it is also often referred to as the '''Eastern Roman Empire'''. There is no consensus on the starting date of the Byzantine period. Some place it during the reign of [[Diocletian]] (284–305) due to the administrative reforms he introduced, dividing the empire into a ''pars Orientis'' and a ''pars Occidentis''. Others place it during the reign of [[Theodosius I]] (379–395) and Christendom's victory over [[paganism]], or, following his death in 395, with the division of the empire into western and eastern halves. Others place it yet further in 476, when the last western emperor, [[Romulus Augustus]], was forced to abdicate, thus leaving sole imperial authority to the emperor in the [[Greek East]]. In any case, the changeover was gradual and by 330, when [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] inaugurated his new capital, the process of further [[Hellenization]] and increasing [[Christianization]] was already un
y, and the British government of [[Madras Presidency|Madras]]. The Anglo-Mysore conflict was bloody but inconclusive, and ended in a draw at the [[Treaty of Mangalore]] in 1784. ===Netherlands=== Also in 1780, the British struck against the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] of the [[Netherlands]] in the [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War]] to preempt Dutch involvement in the [[League of Armed Neutrality]], directed primarily against the British Navy during the war. Agitation by Dutch radicals and a friendly attitude towards the United States by the Dutch government, both influenced by the American Revolution, also encouraged the British to attack. The war lasted into 1784 and was disastrous to the Dutch mercantile economy. ===Mediterranean=== On [[February 5]], [[1782]], Spanish and French forces captured [[Minorca]], which had been under British control since the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] in 1713. A further Franco-Spanish effort to recover [[Gibraltar]] was unsuccessful. Minorca was ceded to Spain in the peace treaty. === Whitehaven === An interesting footnote to this war was the actual landing on [[Britain]] itself of a ship from the U.S. [[Navy]]. This occurred in 1778 when the port of [[Whitehaven]] in [[Cumberland]] was raided by [[John Paul Jones]]. The landing was a surprise attack, taken as an action of revenge by Jones, and was never intended as an invasion. Nevertheless, it caused hysteria in [[England]], with the attack showing a weakness that could be exploited by other states such as [[France]] or [[Spain]]. Its result was an intense period of fortification in British ports. == War's end == The northern, southern, and naval theaters of the war converged at [[Yorktown, Virginia|Yorktown]] in 1781. On [[September 5]], [[1781]], French naval forces defeated the British [[Royal Navy]] at the [[Battle of the Chesapeake]], cutting off Cornwallis's supplies and transport. Washington hurriedly moved his troops from [[New York]], and a combined Franco-American force of 17,000 troops commenced the [[Battle of Yorktown (1781)|Battle of Yorktown]] on [[October 6]], [[1781]]. Cornwallis's position quickly became untenable, and on [[October 19]] his army surrendered. The war was all but over. [[Image:Yorktown80.JPG|thumb|325px|''Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown'' ([[John Trumbull]], 1797). On the right is the American flag, on the left is the French flag (white flag of the monarchy). Despite the painting's title, Cornwallis (claiming illness) was not present and is not depicted. [[George Washington|Washington]] is on horseback in the right background; because the British commander was absent, military protocol dictated that Washington have a subordinate—in this case [[Benjamin Lincoln]]—accept the surrender.]] [[British Prime Minister]] [[Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford|Lord North]] resigned soon after hearing the news from Yorktown. In April 1782, the [[British House of Commons]] voted to end the war in America. On [[November 30]], [[1782]] preliminary peace articles were signed in [[Paris]]; the formal end of the war did not occur until the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] was signed on [[September 3]], [[1783]] and the United States Congress ratified the treaty on [[January 14]], [[1784]]. The last [[Evacuation Day (New York)|British troops left]] [[New York City]] on [[November 25]], [[1783]]. The reasons for Great Britain's misfortunes and defeat may be summarized as follows: Misconception by the home government of the temper and reserve strength of her colonists; disbelief at the outset in the probability of a protracted struggle covering the immense territory in America; consequent failure of the British to use their more efficient military strength effectively; the safe and [[Fabian Strategy|Fabian generalship]] of Washington; and perhaps most significantly, the French alliance and European combinations by which at the close of the conflict left Great Britain without a friend or ally on the continent. Decisive victory eluded the United States on the western frontier. Great Britain negotiated the Paris peace treaty without consulting her Indian allies, however, and ceded much American Indian territory to the United States. Full of resentment, Native Americans reluctantly confirmed these land cessions with the United States in a series of treaties, but the result was essentially an armed truce—the fighting would be renewed in conflicts along the frontier, the largest being the [[Northwest Indian War]]. ===Casualties=== The total loss of life resulting from the American Revolutionary War is unknown. As was typical in the wars of the era, disease claimed more lives than battle. The war took place in the context of a massive [[smallpox]] [[North American smallpox epidemic|epidemic]] in North America that probably killed more than 130,000 people. Historian [[Joseph J. Ellis]] suggests that Washington's decision to have his troops [[inoculation|inoculated]] may have been the commander-in-chief's most important strategic decision.{{ref|smallpox}} Casualty figures for the American Revolutionaries have varied over the years; a recent scholarly estimate lists 6,824 killed and 8,445 wounded in action. The number of Revolutionary troop deaths from disease and other non-combat causes is estimated at about 18,500.{{ref|casualties}} Approximately 1,200 Germans were killed in action and 6,354 died from illness or accident. About 16,000 of the remaining German troops returned home, but roughly 5,500 remained in the United States after the war for various reasons, many becoming American citizens. No reliable statistics exist for the number of casualties among other groups, including American Loyalists, British regulars, American Indians, French and Spanish troops, and civilians. == See also == *[[List of important people in the era of the American Revolution]] *[[Battles of the American Revolutionary War]] *[[Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War]] *[[American Revolution prisoners of war]] *[[British prison ships (New York)]] *[[France in the American Revolutionary War]] *[[Spain in the American Revolutionary War]] *[[The Netherlands in the American Revolutionary War]] *[[The Society of the Cincinnati]] *[[Daughters of the American Revolution]] *[[Timeline of United States revolutionary history (1760-1789)]] *[[Newburgh conspiracy]] *[[List of British Forces in the American Revolutionary War]] *[[List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War]] *[[Last surviving United States war veterans]] *[[South Carolina during the American Revolution]] *[[New Jersey during the American Revolution]] *[[Evacuation Day (New York)]] == Notes == &lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt; #{{note|loyalists}} Percentage of Loyalists and Revolutionaries: Robert M. Calhoon, &quot;Loyalism and Neutrality&quot; in ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution'', p. 247; number of Loyalist troops: Boatner, p. 663. #{{note|continental}} Size of Revolutionary armies: Boatner, p. 264. #{{note|British}} British troop strength: Black, pp. 27-29. Number of Germans hired: Boatner, pp. 424-26. #{{note|black_loyalists}} British usage of escaped slaves: Kaplan &amp; Kaplan, pp. 71-89. #{{note|black_patriots}} Revolutionary all-black units: Kaplan &amp; Kaplan, pp. 64-69. #{{note|warriors}} Total number of warriors: James H. Merrell, &quot;Indians and the new republic&quot; in ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution'', p. 393. Number of Iroquois warriors: Boatner, p. 545. #{{note|smallpox}} Smallpox epidemic: Fenn, p. 275. A great number of these smallpox deaths occurred outside the theater of war—in Mexico or among American Indians west of the Mississippi River. Washington and inoculation: Ellis, p. 87. #{{note|casualties}} Revolutionary dead and wounded: Chambers, p. 849. &lt;/div&gt; == References == *Black, Jeremy. ''War for America: The Fight for Independence, 1775-1783''. St. Martin's Press (New York) and Sutton Publishing (UK), 1991. ISBN 0312067135 (1991), ISBN 0312123469 (1994 paperback), ISBN 0750928085 (2001 paperpack). *Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. ''Encyclopedia of the American Revolution.'' New York: McKay, 1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0811705781. *Chambers, John Whiteclay II, ed. in chief. ''The Oxford Companion to American Military History''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0195071980. *Ellis, Joseph J. ''His Excellency: George Washington''. New York: Knopf, 2004. ISBN 1400040310. *Fenn, Elizabeth Anne. ''Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775-82''. New York: Hill and Wang, 2001. ISBN 0809078201. *Greene, Jack P. and J.R. Pole, eds. ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution''. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1991; reprint 1999. ISBN 1557865477. *Kaplan, Sidney and Emma Nogrady Kaplan. ''The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution''. Amherst, Massachusetts: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1989. ISBN 0870236636. *Wood, W. J. ''Battles of the Revolutionary War, 1775-1781''. Originally published Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin, 1990; reprinted by Da Capo Press, 1995. ISBN 0306806177 (paperback); ISBN 0306813297 (2003 paperback reprint). ==Further reading== *[http://www.americanrevolution.org/navindex.html Allen, Gardner W. ''A Naval History of the American Revolution'' (1913)] *Black, Jeremy. ''War for America: The Fight for Independence, 1775-1783''. (1991), British viewpoint *Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. ''Encyclopedia of the American Revolution.'' New York: McKay, 1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0811705781. * Buchanan, John. ''The Road to Valley Forge: How Washington Built the Army That Won the Revolution'' (2004) * Fischer, David Hackett. ''Washington's Crossing'' (2004), Pulitzer prize-winning narrative of 1776-77 * Higginbotham, Don. ''The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763-1789'' (1983) Online in ACLS History E-book Project; overview of military topics *Kwasny, Mark V. ''Washingto
t in action but not by the general public. Regardless of what other ''body science'' or ''holistic therapy'' experience someone who claims Alexander Technique knowledge may have, if he has not qualified at a professional teacher-training course in an establishment approved by a recognized professional AT organization, he is not a certified professional Alexander teacher. Professional organizations generally advise checking references of any teacher you might consider studying with. ===The Importance Attached To Learning From An Alexander Teacher=== F.M. Alexander and his brother A.R. Alexander often stressed that ''The Technique'' could not be acquired without the active cognitive participation of a student and the help of a suitably qualified instructor trained in the hands-on technique, deceptive self awareness being the significant effect of ''sensory adaptation.'' Most Alexander teachers today agree, but F.M. and A.R. did it first alone. So theoretically it is possible to learn without a teacher, although some properly trained help obviates many common pitfalls. Alexander Technique is difficult to describe and teach in words because it requires description of subjective kinesthetic sensations and momentary situations, as well as the ability to perceive them. Most people have little conscious awareness of kinesthetic sensation and not much to say if asked to describe what happens as they move. The possibility of moving in an easier way most often emerges as a surprise from underneath a learner's current sensory ability to command it on purpose. It is needlessly difficult to attempt to learn to apply the Alexander Technique for oneself simply by reading about it. Most ''Alexander teachers'' are of the professional opinion that twenty to forty individual lessons are required to learn to use the Technique for yourself. Other teachers believe that group workshops are at least as effective as individual lessons, because camaraderie is supportive, and group teaching usually involves some individual hands-on &quot;turns&quot; directly with the teacher as the class watches. A few teachers believe it is entirely possible to learn and continue to experiment with the basic principles on one's own. Everyone in the field, including other students, agree that having at least a few one-to-one sessions with a trained teacher is useful to appreciate how AT works and to get the benefits it offers. Availability of Alexander teachers is limited, except in the United Kingdom, where the profession is in the process of being included in the [[Complementary and alternative medicine]] of the [[National Health Service|UK National Health Service]]. Only a handful of teachers who were personally trained by the founder are still living. '''Alexander Technique''' has the lifetime dedication from less than five thousand teachers worldwide, usually grouped in associated professional societies. Alexander teachers differ in teaching style. Differences in teaching approaches evolved as various teachers originated what they believed constituted more effective teaching. Usually, a style of teaching is not just an imitation of training methods, but integrates many such personal lifetime discoveries. It's rare that a teacher can or will articulate the deliberate reasoning behind their teaching variations. Traditionalists believe that spending time on general intellectual concepts may encourage their student's misuse. These teachers may dodge discussions of principles until the student can have the conversation without their old habits of speaking. ==In-depth principles== Many of the principles of Alexander Technique are unique concepts. As has been mentioned previously, human senses are built to adapt to continuous messages sent by the brain. '''Repetition makes perceptual sensation disappear'''. Keeping muscles contracted when they don't need to be used compares to leaving the kitchen light on continuously because it so often needs to be on - which is a waste of energy. This principle was originally called ''debauchery''. It was later referred to as ''sensory adaptation'' by behavioral scientists. To unlearn these habits, a prerequisite seems to be a willingness to welcome experimentation and unfamiliarity; what is new feels strange. Another unique concept is a specialized use of the word ''Inhibition.'' Many Alexander teachers believe this concept to be the foundation of Alexander Technique. It is possible to learn to recognize and prevent a habitual patterned reaction and choose differently. As a carnivore stalking prey inhibits its natural urges in order to choose a deliberate leap for an effective attack, an unwanted habitual urge can be deliberately and strategically ''inhibited.'' Suggested practical means to effectively subvert a particular unwanted habit vary with each Alexander teacher's experience. Sidestepping, stalling, tricking, boring the old habitual solution - anything is fair game to get the old habit to disengage or entirely prevent it, leaving the freedom to try something different, something easier. A stiffening of the neck in a startle response, head down and back narrowed was discovered by Alexander to be the source of his self-imposed limitations. To address these indirectly rather than fight them, he originated an action called [[Direction]] which is an ingredient of his principle of [[Primary Control]]. People who direct themselves visualize movement and mentally guide the flow of using force through their body. Rather than gunning the motor and muscling their way through an activity, people who direct use their mind to guide or envision their own coordinated dynamic expansion while moving. By doing so, the body's reflexive coordination seems to spontaneously recover from habit to gracefully handle the action by lengthening as if by itself. The more inclusive principle of [[Primary Control]] shows the head's lightest initiation of moving is its structural balancing act, cradled at the top of the spine. By integrating attention, using direction and refusing habit, the whole body can follow any of the smallest initiation of motion with its own easiest qualities of movement. To the extent the learner can also pay attention to what they are doing, their suspended goal improves. Occasionally the result is a significant practical insight about the suspended goal, as refreshed senses give new sensory information. ===Sample lesson=== The Alexander Technique principles say that it is possible to learn to insert a new choice before a habitual reaction takes over, but how is this actually done? The principles may be put together in any sequence, not necessarily in this order. What follows is an example lesson. First, choosing some sort of movement to practice with is required. Sitting down or walking is a commonly selected activity. The teacher prompts the student how to observe him or herself during action. Students are asked to describe without value judgments and are encouraged to avoid being self-chastising. Habits are not demonized. A basic activity is to identify and stop habitual interference so a freer capacity to respond can reassert itself. Toward leaving out habit, the goal of the chosen action or motion is temporarily suspended, so motivation for immediate results does not encourage the habit to jump in to helpfully answer the urge to respond. Intercepting unnecessary habits might also be made easier by creating an arbitrary beginning moment of intentional choice. Once a sample activity is observed and described, the teacher and student craft experiments to avoid habitual interference, usually by slowing down reaction time. In keeping with the ''sensory adaptation'' principle, customary kinesthetic orientation and preparation assumed necessary is repeatedly noted to be unnecessary. The teacher shows how the head, neck and back together can ''lengthen'' to increase capacity for freedom of movement. The teacher may use their hands as &quot;training wheels&quot; to help the student perceive exactly when their habit is interfering - often during movement preparation. Teachers bring a student's attention to pivotal timing issues and specific qualities of motion that influences freedom. Teachers may experiment alongside students; modeling the process they would prefer the student to emulate. Sometimes the effect of this prevention of habit feels immediately strange or disorienting to the student. The teacher steadies and encourages the student to resist a need to go back down into the familiar habit and to tolerate additional unfamiliarity for longer periods of time. A sensation termed ''Do-less-ness'' may be used as the new measure of success. Just as often seeking any results is also suspended, because the ability to sense subtle perceptual differences may have become dulled from ''sensory adaptation.'' Usually, this is all that is required to be practiced in the lesson. Sometimes habits are trickier and remedies to detour habit are crafted and used. Some of these strategies are directly prescribed by F.M. Alexander's historic examples, but many may be invented on the spot. Now that the student's senses are not being dampened by habit, a discovery about the suspended objective of the activity may emerge at this time. These discoveries are noted and integrated into repeated experimentation to make them more reliable. It is important that this observing of results comes after doing the preventing and moving, not before; otherwise the unwanted habits can take back control. When additional results are desired, a similar process of questioning, experimenting and observing possible results is again used (or the principles recombined in another order, tailored for a student's needs. Some students need to suspend expectation of results entirely.) After repeated successes from much experimentation, hopefully a learner's tolerance for unfamiliarity increases. Using this Alexander Technique process never stops fee
said [[Beer|BEER]] to make it say &quot;[[Root beer|ROOT BEER]].&quot; Clear glasses with beer were recolored blue to create frothy mugs of water. Many violent scenes were left on the cutting room floor and others had wounds digitally removed or blood re-colored as spit. Dead bodies lingering on the battlefield during ongoing fights were not shown, implying they were taken away or vaporized altogether. The dialogue was changed, removing references to [[Heaven]], [[Hell]], [[God]], and [[death]]. The most infamous dialogue edits would be the characters saying &quot;I will send you to another dimension,&quot; rather than &quot;I will kill you&quot;, and another where after a villain destroys a helicopter, one of the characters exclaims &quot;It's okay, I can see their parachutes!&quot; when in the original version the crew died with the vehicle. This amount of editing led to characters' speech not matching what occurred on screen, unrealistic and twisted plots with major holes, and obviously altered images. These changes left many fans irate, and some ''Dragon Ball'' [[purist]]s refuse to watch the American version of the show. One of the biggest points raised by critics of the editing of violence is that the removal of wounds, blood, and death from a show ultimately about fighting will encourage violence without showing any of the consequences. Starting with the [[Ginyu Saga|Gi'nyu arc]] (3rd US season) on [[Cartoon Network]], censorship was reduced due to fewer restrictions on cable programming. FUNimation did the dubbing on their own this time around with their own [[voice actor]]s, meeting again with mostly critical reactions. Some censoring, of [[nudity]], however, was still unavoidable. Subsequent [[DVD]] and [[VHS]] releases of those episodes still have some censorship. FUNimation still used toned down words like &quot;heck&quot;, &quot;darn&quot;, &quot;oh my gosh&quot; instead of &quot;hell&quot;, &quot;damn&quot;, &quot;oh my god&quot; even on their uncut DVDs and VHS tapes. In 2003, FUNimation decided to redub the first two sagas of ''Dragon Ball Z'', to remove the problems that were caused from their previous partnership with Saban. They also redubbed the first three movies that were also dubbed by the Ocean Group voice actors but were distributed by Pioneer. The distribution of the redubs started in April 2005. The character &quot;[[Mr. Satan]]&quot; was changed to &quot;Hercule&quot; in the edited dub. A very violent scene with the extended version of Freeza's impalement of Kuririn during the Freeza saga was edited out on CN and merged with the other two episodes. Non-graphic scenes such as the beginning (Kuririn getting stabbed) and the end (Kuririn getting thrown into the water) were kept in. All blood was removed from the already edited version. The full scene is viewable by purchase of the ''Frieza-Transformation (Uncut version)'' VHS or DVD. ===Creative Changes=== To an equal extent, many fans who object to censoring have taken issue with changes that are ''not'' seen as necessary, such as extraneous dialogue not found in the original, dubbing that sways the English version in its own creative direction (example: the TV audience booing Gokū's appearance during the dubbed Cell Saga while cheering him in the Japanese series), and the replacement of the entire original musical score. Combined with widely criticized voice acting, many feel that the English version of ''Dragon Ball Z'' almost seems like an entirely different show than the original, and this has led many familiar with the Japanese series to dislike FUNimation's English dub. It is interesting to note that for the [[Ocean Group]]'s dub of the rest of the series (episodes 118-291), the replacement music was taken from [[Ruby-Spears]]'s [[Mega Man]] cartoon series which ran between 1995 and 1996 (the cartoons also shared certain voice actors). ===Post 9/11=== The day after the [[September 11 attacks]], CN cut an episode of ''Dragon Ball Z'' where Gohan saves a plane from crashing, then later has to deal with a burning skyscraper office building, due to the obvious parallel imagery. Since the series is a continuing story, Cartoon Network held off the rest of the 5th season until a few months later. ===Uncut Version=== In 2005, Cartoon Network started showing the [[uncut]] and unedited version of the first two seasons of ''Dragon Ball Z'', similar to the Japanese original, although the English version features a new darker opening theme, whereas the original Japanese themes were cheerful in tone and had bright, colorful animations, the &quot;new&quot; English dub still doesn't have the original Japanese soundtrack. Most importantly, all fighting scenes are totally uncut, but several other differences can be seen, like foamy water now actually being beer, blood being red again (whereas the edited version showed purple) and shots of characters sticking up their middle fingers being left in. References to death and killing can be heard and Muten Rōshi's lecherous attempts on [[Bulma]] are shown at their fullest, too. Mild use of [[profanity]] is also heard, like Jheese (Dub: Jeice) saying &quot;The crazy bastard killed Guldo!&quot; and Vegeta shouting &quot;Damn you, Kakarrot!&quot; and numerous utterances of the words ''dammit'', ''bastard'' and ''hell''. Still, the first 23 episodes of the &quot;Ultimate Uncut Special Edition&quot; were profanity-free, just like all the episodes of the FUNimation dub of DBZ. Those still contained euphemisms for profane words such as &quot;darn&quot;, &quot;heck&quot; and &quot;gosh&quot;. Episodes 24-67 did, however. Scenes containing graphic violence, like Vegeta blowing up a Saibaiman, Gokū shredding his hand on his training rope while on his way to Planet Namek, Vegeta slamming his arm clean through [[Zarbon]]'s stomach, Vegeta decapitating Gurd (Dub: Guldo) and destroying his still-speaking disembodied head, and Gohan getting severly beaten by Recoome are restored. Scenes featuring [[Launch (Dragon Ball)|Lunch]] also are restored; she was edited out of 4 episodes of the older version, because only the first 13 episodes of [[Dragon Ball]] had been dubbed at the time in which she did not appear. Other characters such as Karin, Piccolo, Tenshinhan, Chiaotzu, and Yajirobe had also not been seen in those 13 episodes, but they were important to DBZ's plot. Since Lunch was not, and her scenes included bank robbing, guns, and alcohol, they decided to remove her. In the new release, she is constantly following Tenshinhan due to her love for him. Other new scenes include the showing of Gohan's penis (albeit not detailed) and Gokū's bare butt while bathing at Princess Snake's palace. The Saibaimen are also more sadistic. Even missing episodes that were totally left out by [[FUNimation]] are now shown, such as young Gohan helping out a [[robot]] that refused to help him as an act of teaching him to take care of himself, and eventually saved his life before he shut down and &quot;died&quot;. ====Toonami Timeslot Controversy==== After [[Cartoon Network]] completed its airing of the uncut version on weeknights at 10:30PM EST, it was put on [[Toonami]] on Saturdays at 7:30PM EST. While there weren't many complaints about earlier episodes, there was controversy from parents over episodes such as '''Gohan Goes Bananas''' (which shows Gohan transforming into an [[Oozaru]] and then back into a boy, during which his [[penis]] and [[testicles]] are shown) and '''Princess Snake''' (which shows Gokū's bare buttocks while excercising in the spa and after he comes out. It also has a scene which shows one of Princess Snake's servants shooting herself in the head, but she doesn't die). Airing these episodes in the 7:30PM timeslot on Saturday nights makes this easier for young kids to watch them, as opposed to airing them at 10:30PM during the week, when most children are asleep. In response to this controversy, Cartoon Network officially removed the uncut version from their schedule on [[January 21]] [[2006]] and replaced it with the original [[Saban]]-edited version from 1996, which heavily altered the show's content for young children. Strangely, these episodes aired at a TV-PG rating, though this was probably just a mistake due to the sudden schedule change. This broadcast ended on February 18, 2006, when the show was replaced by reruns of ''[[Teen Titans (animated series)|Teen Titans]]''. On Wednesday [[February 15]] [[2006]], ''Dragonball Z'' returned to the 10:30PM slot on Cartoon Network and airs Monday through Thursday at 10:30PM EST, right before [[Adult Swim]]. This weeknight version is the edited FUNimation dub, and is starting in the middle of the [[Frieza Saga]] rather than the beginning of the series. On Monday [[February 27]] [[2006]], The weeknight run returned to TV-Y7 FV. ==Filler== [[Filler]] is used to pad out the series for many reasons; in the case of ''Dragon Ball Z'', more often than not, it was because the anime was running alongside the manga, and there was no way for the anime to run ahead of the manga (since Toriyama was still writing it, at the same time). The company behind the anime, [[Toei Animation]], would occasionally make up their own little side stories to either further explain things, or simply to extend the series. Filler doesn't come only in the form of side stories, though; sometimes it's as simple as adding some extra attacks into a fight. As the anime series was forced to expand 12 pages of manga text into 20 minutes of animation footage, these changes were introduced to kill time or to allow the (anime) writers to explore some other aspect of the series' universe (the Anoyo-ichi Budōkai (Afterlife tournament) between the Cell Saga and Majin Buu Saga and the Garlic Jr. arc, a.k.a. Garlic Jr.'s return from the ''Return my Gohan!!'' (''Dead Zone'') movie between the Freeza Saga and Trunks arc (pre-Cell Saga) are both good examples of this). They have also been k
30px|Gothenburg viewed from the [[Skansen Crown|Crown skans]]]] Gothenburg has a wide selection of cultural establishments, including theatres and museums. A new [[opera]] house was inaugurated in [[1994]], the [[Gothenburg Opera]]. Museums include art ([[Gothenburg Museum of Art]]), design and handcrafts (the [[Röhss Museum]]), sea history, natural history, science, East India, and the [[Museum of World Culture]] [http://www.varldskulturmuseet.se/smvk/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=126&amp;l=sv_SE] inaugurated in [[2004]]. [[Image:Göteborg från Liseberg.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Gothenburg viewed from [[Liseberg]] amusement park]] The [[Göteborg Botanical Garden]] [http://w3.goteborg.se/botaniska/engelska/english_start.html] is considered to be one of the most outstanding [[botanical garden]]s in [[Europe]]. The amusement park [[Liseberg]] located in the central part of the city, is the largest in Scandinavia, and among the most popular attractions in Sweden. Next to Liseberg is the science discovery centre [[Universeum]]. The central city and the harbour can be viewed from the [[GötheborgsUtkiken|The Gothenburg Lookout]]. Another tourist attraction is the archipelago of Gothenburg, it can be reached by boat; [[Älvsborg Fortress]], [[Vinga (Gothenburg)|Vinga]] and [[Styrsö]] islands are popular places to visit. ==Sports== ;Held events: * [[1992 European Football Championship]] * [[1993 in sports|1993]] [[World Men's Handball Championship]] * 1993 World Championships in [[Table tennis]] * [[1995 World Championships in Athletics]] * [[1997 in sports|1997]] World Championships in [[Swimming]] (Short track) * 1997 [[Davis Cup]] Finals, [[Tennis]], [[Sweden]]-[[United States]] * 1997 World Championships in [[Latin dances|Latin American Dance]] * 1998 World Championships in [[Latin dances|Latin]] [[Formation dance|Formation Dancing]] * [[1999 in sports|1999]] European Championships in [[Athletics]] (20-22 year olds) * [[2002 European Men's Handball Championship]] * 2002 [[Ice Hockey World Championships]] * 2002 [[Volvo Ocean Race]] * [[2003 in sports|2003]] World Championships in Skating (allround) * [[2004 in sports|2004]] O-Ringen - A 5-days [[orienteering]] competition * [[2004 in sports|2004]] World Championships in Skating (short track) * [[2004 in sports|2004]] [[UEFA Cup]] Final ;Annual events: [[Image:Nyaullevi.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Ullevi]] Arena in central Gothenburg]] *[[Gothia Cup]] ;Planned events: * [[2006 European Championships in Athletics]] * [[World Figure Skating Championships|2008 World Figure Skating Championships]] ;Arenas: * [[Scandinavium]] ([[ice hockey]]) * [[Gamla Ullevi]] ([[football (soccer)|football]]) * [[Ullevi]] (multisport) ;Teams: * [[Frölunda HC]] ([[ice hockey]]) * [[GAIS]] ([[football (soccer)|football]]) * [[IFK Göteborg]] (football) * [[BK Häcken]] (football) * [[Örgryte IS]] (football) ==Notable natives== *[[Ace of Base]], pop group *[[Daniel Alfredsson]], captain and MVP of the [[NHL]]'s [[Ottawa Senators]] *[[William Chambers (architect)|Sir William Chambers]] (1723-1796), Scottish architect *[[William Chalmers]] (1748-1811), manager of the [[Swedish East India Company]] and founder of [[Chalmers University of Technology]] *[[Ulf Dageby]], rock musician. *[[In Flames]], melodic death metal group *[[Gunnar Gren]], legendary [[Football (soccer)|football]] player *[[Bengt Hallberg]], jazz pianist *[[Hammerfall]], power metal group *[[Håkan Hellström]], singer-songwriter *[[Zeth Höglund]], founder of the swedish communist movement *[[Jan Johansson]], jazz pianist *[[Ingemar Johansson]], boxer and World Heavyweight Champion in [[1959]] *[[Torbjörn Nilsson]], former [[IFK Göteborg]] football player, part of the 1982 [[UEFA Cup]] winning team *[[Christian Olsson]] (born 1980), [[triple jump]] gold medalist in the [[2004 Summer Olympics]] *[[Helena Paparizou]], winner of the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2005|2005 Eurovision Song Contest]] *[[Laleh|Laleh Pourkarim]], Persian-Swedish singer-song-writer *[[Marcus Samuelsson]], renowned chef *[[Jonas Svensson]], professional tennis player *[[Dark Tranquillity]], melodic death metal group *[[Papa Dee|Daniel &quot;Papa Dee&quot; Wahlgren]], musician *[[Soilwork]], melodic death metal group ==Miscellaneous topics== Off the coast of Gothenburg is the [[Southern Gothenburg Archipelago]], a group of completely [[Auto-free zone|car-free]] islands. The city of Gothenburg has the worst air pollution in Sweden. In 2006, the number of days where the levels of [[NO2]] was higher than 60mg/m3 had exceeded the EU air pollution limit for the year by the end of January. The level of dust [[PM10]] also exceeds the EU framework directive for ambient air quality 1999/30/EC and the four Daughter Directives. Not surprisingly is Gothenburg the only city in Sweden that has a regular [[Critical Mass]] demonstration every month. Gothenburg is perhaps the city with the highest concentration of cafés and coffee shops in Sweden; with a large group of students in the city centre and a long tradition of more traditional cafés the number of establishments exploded in the 1990's. On the evening of October 29 [[1998]], a [[fire]] developed in the premises of the ''[[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonian]] Association'' [[discotheque]] in Gothenburg. On the evening of the fire it was estimated that the number of people in the disco reached 400. In this incident 63 people died[http://fseg.gre.ac.uk/fire/Gothenburg_fire_proj.html] [http://www.emergency-management.net/Gothenburg%20Report.pdf]. Gothenburg is also noted for being the centre of the [[melodic death metal]] movement, a typically Swedish musical style, being home to such internationally known bands as [[At The Gates]], [[Dark Tranquillity]], [[The Haunted]], [[In Flames]], and [[Arch Enemy (band)|Arch Enemy]]. It is also a [[pop music]] center in [[Sweden]], with an active indie scene. Gothenburg has been in a friendship partnership with the South African City of [[Port Elizabeth]] since 1998, a partnership fostering development of common fields of interest such as solid waste management, public libraries, sport and tourism. &lt;!-- missing [[Image:gothenburg.jpg]] --&gt; ==See also== * [[East Indiaman Götheborg]] * [[Eurovision Song Contest 1985]] * [[Gothenburg City Airport]] * [[Gothenburg-Landvetter Airport]] * [[Gothenburg Opera]] * [[Gothenburg Symphony Orchestra]] * [[Protests during the EU summit in Gothenburg 2001]] ==External links== {{commons|Göteborg}} *{{wikitravel|Göteborg}} *[http://www.goteborg.se/prod/sk/goteborg.nsf/1/english?OpenDocument Gothenburg] - Official City site *[http://www.goteborg.com/en Gothenburg &amp; Co.] - Official Tourist site *[http://www.gotbot.se/engelska/english_start.html Gothenburg Botanic Garden] - Official site *[http://www.hotels-sweden.com/site/homep_60024.htm Hotels in Gothenburg] *[http://drokov.narod.ru/photos/sweden200410/index.htm Photos from Gothenburg] *[http://www.arch.chalmers.se/projekt/sar/Docs/GuideAGS_EN.pdf Architecture in Gothenburg] - Pdf-guide in english {{Västra Götaland County}} {{Cities in Sweden}} [[Category:Coastal cities]] [[Category:Eurovision host cities]] [[Category:Gothenburg|*]] [[Category:Metropolitan Gothenburg]] [[Category:Municipalities of Sweden]] [[Category:Municipalities of Västra Götaland County]] [[Category:Towns in Sweden]] [[bg:Гьотеборг]] [[ca:Göteborg]] [[da:Göteborg]] [[de:Göteborg]] [[el:Γκέτεμποργκ]] [[eo:Göteborg]] [[es:Gotemburgo]] [[fi:Göteborg]] [[fr:Göteborg]] [[he:גוטנבורג]] [[ia:Göteborg]] [[id:Göteborg]] [[ja:イェーテボリ]] [[la:Gothoburgum]] [[hu:Göteborg]] [[nds:Göteborg]] [[nl:Gotenburg]] [[no:Göteborg]] [[nn:Göteborg]] [[pl:Göteborg]] [[pt:Gotemburgo]] [[sv:Göteborgs Stad]] [[tr:Göteborg]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Göteborg</title> <id>11862</id> <revision> <id>15909575</id> <timestamp>2003-10-06T10:52:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mic</username> <id>6273</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted to last edit by Bryan Derksen</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gothenburg]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gotland County</title> <id>11863</id> <revision> <id>40643802</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T00:49:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cattus</username> <id>543047</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+ pt wiki</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gotland County''', or ''Gotlands län'', is a [[Counties of Sweden|County]] or ''[[län]]'' of [[Sweden]]. Gotland is located in the [[Baltic sea]] to the east of [[Öland]], and is the largest of Sweden's islands. Counties are usually sub-divided into municipalities, but Gotland County only consists of one municipality: [[Gotland Municipality]]. The difference between the two are only at an administrative level, as the [[county council]] and municipal council serve different tasks. Both have their seat in the largest city [[Visby]], with 22,000 inhabitants. {{Infobox_Län| name=Gotland| fullname=Gotlands län| isocode=I| nutscode=094| capital=[[Visby]]| province=[[Gotland]]| governor=[[Marianne Samuelsson]]| council=[[Gotland Municipality]]| nuts=[[Småland and the islands]]| date=[[1658]]| arearank=20th| area=3,140| areapercent=0.8| population_as_of=1999| populationrank=21st| population=57,428| populationpercent=0.6| populationdensity=18.3| GDP_as_of=2004| GDPrank=21st| GDP=12,154 Million| &lt;!-- SEK --&gt; GDPpercapita=212,000| &lt;!-- SEK --&gt; GDPpercent=0.52| coatofarms=[[Image:Gotland_county.png]]| map=[[Image:svcmap_gotland.png]]| }} == Province == Sweden's counties are mainly administrative units, used for inhabitant figures, politics, etc. For the culture and history of the island, see article [[Gotland]]. == Administration == The main aim of the [[County Administrative Boards of Sweden|County Administrative Board]] is to fulfi
cliptic, in the area considered to represent the underworld. So the ecliptic cuts through the bond. The western one has mostly escaped, but is still bound, whereas the eastern one appears to still be bound to the ecliptic and heading downwards. That Theseus is named as the person Heracles released from being bound in the underworld marks an awareness that myths surrounding Theseus connect him to the queen of the Amazons, and that he thus had to appear in the following story as a companion of Heracles. This emphasis on continuity is possibly connected to the fact that the constellation which features in the subsequent story also partly exists in Pisces. Under Pisces is the constellation [[Cetus]], usually considered as a sea monster, or a whale. However, it is equally possible to view it as two closed gates with their gateposts, with a set of three stars behind the centre of the gate. Since they face the ecliptic, and are extremely close to it, such gates would be gates to the underworld (which was below the ecliptic). The guard of the gates to the underworld was traditionally [[Cerberus]], who had three heads, an association requiring use of the three main (but comparatively faint) stars, in the modern constellation [[Fornax]], as a tail. Since Cerberus was considered a permanent fixture of Hades, nothing much could happen to him that was damaging. There being no other constellations in this region, little more story could be given other than doing something non permanent to Cerberus, such as moving him to the other side of the gates. Alternately, and earlier version may not have featured the tale of Theseus being bound, which may have been a later reapplication of the constellations to the story. In such a case, the non-escaping branch of Pisces may have been taken to represent the usual patrol of Cerberus on a [[leash]], whereas the other branch being taken to represent Cerberus' subsequent ascent (still on the leash, thus still having to eventually return) ==Trivia== *[[The Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] developed [[Kerberos (protocol)|Kerberos]] as a [[computer network]] [[authentication]] [[cryptographic protocol|protocol]] which allows individuals communicating over an insecure network to prove their identity to one another in a secure manner. *WebGroup Media LLC developed Cerberus [[Helpdesk]], a popular e-mail management application, to guard companies against the hell of [[technical support]]. *The cult comic book [[Cerebus]] was named for this Greek and Roman mythical figure; the different spelling wasn't intentional -- the original author accidentally left out the second 'r' in a simple case of bad spelling. *In Spanish, ''cancerbero'' (from ''Canis Cerberus'', &quot;dog Cerberus&quot;) is a Latinate form for gatekeeper, even for a [[football]] (soccer) [[goalkeeper]]. *In [[Finnish language|Finnish]], a strict, angry doorman of a restaurant or nightclub (who is likely not to let you in for some reason) is sometimes jokingly called &quot;Kerberos&quot;. Also, there is similar usage of word &quot;Cerber&quot; in Polish. *Some aspects of video games, particulary of the [[Role-playing game|RPG]] genre, are based on mythology. Cerberus is no exception. **In the ''[[Castlevania]]'' series, which makes extensive use of [[Hell]]-based themes, Cerberus is seen a few times, and is a boss in ''[[Castlevania: Circle of the Moon]]''. **In Monolith's Blood, Cerberus was the third act's boss, most likely this is an allusion to [[Divine Comedy]], in which Cerberus resides in the third layer of Hell. **In ''[[Final Fantasy VIII]]'', one of the Guardian Forces was a three headed dog called Cerberus. **In [[God of War]], the player faces several Cerberus as part of [[Poseidon]]'s challenge, in order to obtain [[Pandora's Box]]. **In the [[PlayStation 2]] game, ''[[Devil May Cry 3]]'', Cerberus is one of the early bosses [[Dante (Devil May Cry)|Dante]] will face; he appears in Mission 3 and is encased in ice **In the [[Wing Commander game series]], the [[TCS Cerberus]] was a '''''Hades-class'' Quick Strike Cruiser''' - the player's base of operations in the final installment of the series. **Cerberus is a Heavy Assault Ship of the Caldari Faction in the ''[[EVE Online]]'' [[MMORPG]], and is currently disliked by certain members of the EVE Community who argue that it is comparatively underpowered and doesn't perform well in Player vs Player combat. **Atlus' PS2 RPG ''[[Shin Megami Tensei III: Nocturne]]'' has Cerberus as a monster you can recruit. **In the [[Resident Evil]] series, the zombie dogs are called cerberus. **In the [[Playstation 2]] game [[R-Type Final]], Cerberus (designation R-13A) is the name of one of the ships the player can collect. **In the [[Nintendo 64]] game [[Mischief Makers]], Cerberus Alpha is the name of a high-tech motorcycle boss. **In [[Megaman X]], one of the bosses called the Guardian of the Underworld. It bears remarkable resemblance to a mechanical Cerberus. **In [[Rygar]], one of the creatures Rygar is able to summon using the Diskarmor is the dog Cerberus. **In [[Kingdom Hearts]], at the [[Colosseum]], you have to fight Cerberus after the seven rounds and [[Cloud Strife]]. This is not a [[trial]], and is the 'real thing' according to Phil. * In Manhunt ''[[(video game)]]'' The final gang of the game are called The Cerberus *In Japanese cartoons: **Kerberos, the guardian of the seal, is one of the main characters in the popular Japanese [[anime]]'' [[Cardcaptor Sakura]]'' **Kerberos is in the [[manga]] ''[[Devil &amp; Devil]]'' where it was the dog that Devil Sword had tamed. **In the anime series and PlayStation 2 game ''[[Gungrave]]'', the Cerberus are a set of three guns, individually referred to as the left, right, and center head. The right and left head are used by [[Grave]] and the center head is used by [[Fangoram]]. *In other film and television: **In the movie ''[[Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children]]'' and the upcoming video game, ''[[Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII]]'', [[Vincent Valentine|Vincent's]] three barrelled gun is named Cerberus. **In ''[[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]]'' there is a giant three-headed dog named Fluffy which guards the [[Philosopher's Stone]]. It can be lulled to sleep by playing it music. **In ''[[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]]'' episode &quot;Mandy Bites Dog&quot;, Ceberus is Grim's out-of-control dog which Mandy manages to tame. Two of the heads are male [[hunting dog]]s and the third is a [[poodle]]. **In an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' the staff of ''&quot;[[Itchy &amp; Scratchy]]&quot;'' created a new dog character. At one point the producers are describing the new character to the writers, one producer says, &quot;He's the original dog from hell&quot; to which a writer responds, &quot;You mean Cerberus?&quot;. **In the 1992 Film [[Highway to Hell]] Cerberus guards the entrance to Hell City, and only allows people that are dead to pass through *[[Cerebrus]] is mentioned in [[Sylvia Plath]]'s poem Fever 103°. ==See also== *[[Garm]] (in [[Norse mythology]]) ==External links== *[http://www.theoi.com/Ther/KuonKerberos.html Cerberus in the Theoi Project] [[category:Greek legendary creatures]] [[Category:Mythological dogs]] [[Category:Twelve labours of Herakles]] [[bg:Цербер]] [[cs:Kerberos]] [[da:Kerberos]] [[de:Kerberos (Mythologie)]] [[el:Κέρβερος]] [[es:Cerbero]] [[fr:Cerbère (mythologie)]] [[gl:Cérbero]] [[it:Cerbero]] [[he:קרברוס (מיתולוגיה)]] [[lt:Cerberis]] [[nl:Cerberus (mythologie)]] [[ja:ケルベロス]] [[no:Kerberos]] [[nn:Kerberos]] [[pl:Cerber]] [[ru:Цербер]] [[sl:Kerber]] [[sk:Cerberus]] [[fi:Kerberos]] [[sv:Kerberos]] [[th:เซอร์เบอรัส]] [[uk:Кербер]] [[pt:Cérbero]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CamelCase</title> <id>6698</id> <revision> <id>39487149</id> <timestamp>2006-02-13T18:34:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jorge Stolfi</username> <id>48742</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Early uses */ trimmed Bantu languages example a bit</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''CamelCase''', '''camel case''' or '''medial capitals''' is the practice of writing [[compound noun and adjective|compound word]]s or phrases where the words are joined without [[whitespace|space]]s, and each word is [[capitalization|capitalized]] within the compound. The name comes from the uppercase &quot;bumps&quot; in the middle of the compound word, suggesting the [[hump]]s of a [[camel]]. This practice is known by a large variety of names, including '''BiCapitalization''', '''InterCaps''', '''MixedCase''', etc., and many of its users do not ascribe a name to it at all. CamelCase is a standard [[identifier naming convention]] for several [[programming language]]s, and has become fashionable in [[marketing]] for names of products and companies. Outside these contexts, however, CamelCase is rarely used in [[Formal written English]], and most [[style guide]]s recommend against it. [[Image:CamelCase sign.jpg|frame|A [[road sign]] with CamelCase]] ==Variations and synonyms== There are two common varieties of CamelCase, distinguished by their handling of the initial letter of what would otherwise be the first of separate words. Where the first letter is capitalized is commonly called '''UpperCamelCase''', '''[[Pascal programming language|Pascal]]Case''', or '''BiCapitalized'''. Where the first letter is left in lowercase is commonly called '''lowerCamelCase'''. This variant has also been occasionally called '''dromedaryCase''' or '''camelCase'''. For clarity, this article will use the terms '''UpperCamelCase''' and '''lowerCamelCase''', respectively. camelCaseLooksLikeThis lowerCamelCaseLooksTheSame UpperCamelCaseLooksLikeThis The term ''[[StudlyCaps]]'' is similar &amp;mdash; but not necessarily identical &amp;mdash; to CamelCase. It is sometimes used in reference to CamelCase but can also refer to
Cantor Sets] at [[cut-the-knot]] * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/do_you_know/cantor.shtml Cantor Set and Function] at [[cut-the-knot]] [[Category:Set theory]] [[Category:Topological spaces]] [[Category:Fractals]] {{Link FA|he}} [[ca:Conjunt de Cantor]] [[de:Cantor-Menge]] [[es:Conjunto de Cantor]] [[eo:Aro de Kantor]] [[fr:Ensemble de Cantor]] [[ko:칸토어 집합]] [[it:Insieme di Cantor]] [[he:קבוצת קנטור]] [[nl:Cantorverzameling]] [[ja:カントール集合]] [[pl:Zbiór Cantora]] [[ru:Канторово множество]] [[sl:Cantorjeva množica]] [[sv:Cantormängden]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cardinal number</title> <id>6173</id> <revision> <id>41270461</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T04:59:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bloodshedder</username> <id>20963</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>main template</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[linguistics]], '''cardinal numbers''' is the name given to number words that are used for quantity (''one'', ''two'', ''three''), as opposed to [[ordinal number]]s, words that are used for order (''first'', ''second'', ''third''). See ''[[names of numbers in English]]''. ---- [[Image:Aleph0.png|thumb|right|150px|Aleph-0, the smallest infinite cardinal]] In [[mathematics]], '''cardinal numbers''', or '''cardinals''' for short, are a generalized kind of [[number]] used to denote the size of a [[set]]. While for finite sets the size is given by a [[natural number]] - the number of elements - cardinal numbers ([[cardinality]]) can also classify degrees of [[infinity]]. On one hand, a proper subset ''A'' of an infinite set ''S'' may have the same cardinality as ''S''. On the other hand, perhaps also counterintuitively, not all infinite objects are of the same size. There is a formal characterization of how some infinite objects are strictly smaller than other infinite objects. Concepts of cardinality are embedded in most branches of mathematics and are essential to their study. Cardinality is also an area studied for its own sake as part of [[set theory]], particularly in trying to describe the properties of [[large cardinal|large cardinals]]. ==History== The cardinal numbers were invented by [[Georg Cantor]], when he was developing the set theory now called [[naive set theory]] in [[1874]]&amp;ndash;[[1884]]. He first established cardinality as an instrument to compare finite sets; e.g. the sets {1,2,3} and {2,3,4} are not ''equal'', but have the ''same cardinality'', namely three. Cantor invented the [[bijection|one-to-one correspondence]], which easily showed that two finite sets had the same cardinality if there was a one-to-one correspondence between the members of the set. Using this one-to-one correspondence, he transferred the concept to infinite sets; i.e the set of natural numbers '''N''' = {1, 2, 3, ...}. He called these cardinal numbers [[transfinite cardinal numbers]], and defined all sets that had a one-to-one correspondence with '''N''' to be [[Countable set|denumerably infinite set]]s. Naming this cardinal number &lt;math&gt;\aleph_0&lt;/math&gt;, [[Aleph number|aleph-null]], Cantor proved that many subsets of '''N''' have the same cardinality as '''N''', even if this might be against intuition at first. He also proved that the set of all [[ordered pair]]s of natural numbers is denumerably infinite, and later that the set of all [[algebraic number]]s (every member of the set is a set of numbers of its own &lt;math&gt;(a_0, a_1, ..., a_n),\;\; a_i \in \mathbb{N}&lt;/math&gt;, like an extended ordered pair) is denumerably infinite. At this point, in 1874, there was a curiosity whether ''all infinite sets'' are denumerably infinite, and what the use would be in that case. But, later that year, Cantor succeeded in proving that there were higher-order cardinal numbers using the ingenious but simple [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]. This new cardinal number, called the [[cardinality of the continuum]], was termed ''c'' by Cantor. Cantor also developed a lot of the general theory of cardinal numbers; he proved that there is a transfinite cardinal number that is the smallest (&lt;math&gt;\aleph_0&lt;/math&gt;, aleph-null) and that for every cardinal number, there is a next-larger cardinal (&lt;math&gt;\aleph_1, \aleph_2, \aleph_3, \cdots&lt;/math&gt;). The later [[continuum hypothesis]] suggests that ''c'' is the same as &lt;math&gt;\aleph_1&lt;/math&gt;, but this has been found to be independent of the standard axioms of mathematical set theory; it can neither be proved nor disproved under the standard assumptions. == Motivation == In informal use, a '''cardinal number''' is what is normally referred to as a '''counting number'''. They may be identified with the [[natural numbers]] beginning with 0 (i.e. 0, 1, 2, ...). The counting numbers are exactly what can be defined formally as the [[finite]] cardinal numbers. Infinite cardinals only occur in higher-level mathematics and logic. More formally, a non-zero number can be used for two purposes: to describe the size of a set, or to describe the position of an element in a sequence. For finite sets and sequences it is easy to see that these two notions co-incide, since for every number describing a position in a sequence we can construct a set which has exactly the right size, e.g. 3 describes the position of 'c' in the sequence &lt;'a','b','c','d',...&gt;, and we can construct the set {a,b,c} which has 3 elements. However when dealing with [[infinite set]]s it is essential to distinguish between the two &amp;mdash; the two notions are in fact different for infinite sets. Considering the position aspect leads to [[ordinal number]]s, while the size aspect is generalized by the '''cardinal numbers''' described here. The intuition behind the formal definition of cardinal is the construction of a notion of the relative size or &quot;bigness&quot; of a set without reference to the kind of members which it has. For finite sets this is easy; one simply counts the number of elements a set has. In order to compare the sizes of larger sets, it is necessary to appeal to more subtle notions. A set ''Y'' is at least as big as, or greater than or equal to a set ''X'' if there is an [[injective function|injective]] (one-to-one) [[map (mathematics)|mapping]] from the elements of ''X'' to the elements of ''Y''. A one-to-one mapping identifies each element of the set ''X'' with a unique element of the set ''Y''. This is most easily understood by an example; suppose we have the sets ''X'' = {1,2,3} and ''Y'' = {a,b,c,d}, then using this notion of size we would observe that there is a mapping: : 1 &amp;rarr; a : 2 &amp;rarr; b : 3 &amp;rarr; c which is one-to-one, and hence conclude that ''Y'' has cardinality greater than or equal to ''X''. Note the element d has no element mapping to it, but this is permitted as we only require a one-to-one mapping, and not necessarily a one-to-one and [[onto]] mapping. The advantage of this notion is that it can be extended to infinite sets. We can then extend this to an equality-style relation. Two [[set|sets]] ''X'' and ''Y'' are said to have the same '''cardinality''' if there exists a [[bijection]] between ''X'' and ''Y''. By the [[Schroeder-Bernstein theorem]], this is equivalent to there being ''both'' a one-to-one mapping from ''X'' to ''Y'' ''and'' a one-to-one mapping from ''Y'' to ''X''. We then write |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| = |&amp;nbsp;''Y''&amp;nbsp;|. The cardinal number of ''X'' itself is often defined as the least [[ordinal number|ordinal]] ''a'' with |&amp;nbsp;''a''&amp;nbsp;| = |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;|. This is called the [[von Neumann cardinal assignment]]; for this definition to make sense, it must be proved that every set has the same cardinality as ''some'' ordinal; this statement is the [[well-ordering principle]]. It is however possible to discuss the relative cardinality of sets without explicitly assigning names to objects. The classic example used is that of the infinite hotel paradox, also called [[Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel]]. Suppose you are an innkeeper at a hotel with an infinite number of rooms. The hotel is full, and then a new guest arrives. It's possible to fit the extra guest in by asking the guest who was in room 1 to move to room 2, the guest in room 2 to move to room 3, and so on, leaving room 1 vacant. We can explicity write a segment of this mapping: : 1 &amp;harr; 2 : 2 &amp;harr; 3 : 3 &amp;harr; 4 : ... : n &amp;harr; n+1 : ... In this way we can see that the set {1,2,3,...} has the same cardinality as the set {2,3,4,...} since a bijection between the first and the second has been shown. This motivates the definition of an infinite set being any set which has a proper subset of the same cardinality; in this case {2,3,4,...} is a proper subset of {1,2,3,...}. When considering these large objects, we might also want to see if the notion of counting order coincides with that of cardinal defined above for these infinite sets. It happens that it doesn't; by considering the above example we can see that if some object &quot;one greater than infinity&quot; exists, then it must have the same cardinality as the infinite set we started out with. It is possible to use a different formal notion for number, called [[ordinal|ordinals]], based on the ideas of counting and considering each number in turn, and we discover that the notions of cardinality and ordinality are divergent once we move out of the finite numbers. It can be proved that the cardinality of the [[real number|real numbers]] is greater than that of the natural numbers just described. This can be visualized using [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]; classic questions of cardinality (for instance the [[continuum hypothesis]]) are concerned with discovering whether there is some cardinal between some pair of other infinite cardinals. In more recent times mathematicians have been describing the
s&quot; and &quot;Kiss the Children,&quot; as well as a superb cover of [[Tompall Glaser]]'s &quot;Streets of Baltimore.&quot; Parsons, by now featuring Harris as his duet partner, played dates across the [[United States]] as Gram Parsons and the Fallen Angels. For his next and final album, [[1974]]'s ''[[Grievous Angel]]'', he again used Harris and Burton. The record, which was released after his death, received even more enthusiastic reviews than had ''GP'', and has since attained classic status. Among its most celebrated songs is &quot;$1000 Wedding,&quot; which was covered by one of the many groups influenced by Parsons, [[the Mekons]], and &quot;Brass Buttons,&quot; which addresses his mother's alcoholism. ===Death=== Parsons died [[September 19]], [[1973]] in [[Joshua Tree, California ]] at the age of 26 from a [[drug overdose|overdose]], purportedly of [[morphine]] and [[tequila]]. In a story that has taken on legendary stature, Parsons' body disappeared from the [[Los Angeles International Airport]], where it was being readied to be shipped to Louisiana for burial. His former road manager, Phil Kaufman, claimed that Gram had remarked after [[Clarence White]]'s funeral in July of that year that he (Gram) did not want to be buried when he died, but instead would rather be taken out to Joshua Tree and cremated. Kaufman and a friend managed to steal Parson's body from the airport and, in a borrowed hearse, drove Parsons' body to Joshua Tree where they [[cremation|cremated]] it. The site of the cremation is today marked by a small concrete slab and is presided over by a large rock flake known to [[rock climbing|rock climbers]] as 'The Gram Parsons memorial hand traverse'. The two were arrested several days later and fined $700 for burning the coffin, since stealing a body was not a crime. [http://www.gramparsons.com/faq/] The burned remains were eventually returned to Parsons' family and interred in [[New Orleans]]. A version of these events is depicted in the [[2003 in film|2003]] [[film]] ''[[Grand Theft Parsons]]''; they are discussed at length by several people, including Kaufman, in the documentary ''Fallen Angel: Gram Parsons''. == Discography== * ''[[Safe at Home]]'' : International Submarine Band (1968) * ''[[Sweetheart of the Rodeo]]'' : The Byrds (1968) * ''[[The Gilded Palace of Sin]]'' : Flying Burrito Brothers (1969) * ''[[Burrito Deluxe]]'' : Flying Burrito Brothers (1970) * ''[[GP (album)|GP]]'' : Gram Parsons (1973) * ''[[Grievous Angel]]'' : Gram Parsons (1974) * ''[[Early Years (1963&amp;ndash;1965)]]'' : Gram Parsons (1979) * ''[[Live 1973]]'' : Gram Parsons and the Fallen Angels (1982) * ''[[Sacred Hearts &amp; Fallen Angels: The Gram Parsons Anthology]]'' : Gram Parsons/Various (2001) * ''[[The Complete Reprise Sessions]]'' : Gram Parsons (2005). ==Samples== *[[Media:Miller'sCave.ogg|Download sample]] of &quot;Miller’s Cave&quot; from ''[[Gram Parsons International Submarine Band (Safe at Home)]]'' ==References== Christgau, Robert. 1990. ''Rock Albums of the '70s: A Critical Guide''. (New York: Da Capo Press). ISBN 0-306-80409-3. ==Further reading== * ''Are You Ready for the Country: Elvis, Dylan, Parsons and the Roots of Country Rock,'' Peter Dogget, Penguin Books, 2001. ISBN 0-140-26108-7 * ''Dreaming Out Loud: Garth Brooks, Wynonna Judd, Wade Hayes and the changing face of Nashville,'' Bruce Feiler, Avon Books, 1998. ISBN 0-380-97578-5 * ''In The Country of Country: A Journey to the Roots of American Music,'' Nicholas Dawidoff, Vintage Books, 1998. ISBN 0-375-70082-x * ''Hickory Wind: The Life and Times of Gram Parsons,'' Ben Fong-Torres, Pocket Books, 1991. ISBN 0-671-70513-X * ''Grievous Angel : An Intimate Biography of Gram Parsons'' by Jessica Hundley and Polly Parsons (Paperback - Nov 9, 2005) ==External links== * [http://www.gramparsons.com www.gramparsons.com], a fan page with many links * [http://ebni.com/byrds/memgrp1.html Parsons biography] on a Byrds-oriented web site * [http://www.dizzyrambler.com/legends/GParsons/parsons_bio.html Another Parsons biography] with a lot of graphics, high-school pictures, album covers, International Submarine Band logos and band pictures, and more. * [http://www.gramparsonsproject.com www.gramparsonsproject.com], a page with interviews from those in the know * {{imdb name|id=0663828|name=Gram Parsons}} [[Category:1946 births|Parsons, Gram]] [[Category:1973 deaths|Parsons, Gram]] [[Category:American guitarists|Parsons, Gram]] [[Category:American male singers|Parsons, Gram]] [[Category:American pianists|Parsons, Gram]] [[Category:American songwriters|Parsons, Gram]] [[Category:Country musicians|Parsons, Gram]] [[Category:Drug-related deaths|Parsons, Gram]] [[Category:Entertainers who died in their 20s|Parsons, Gram]] [[de:Gram Parsons]] [[fr:Gram Parsons]] [[nl:Gram Parsons]] [[sv:Gram Parsons]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Go-fast boat</title> <id>12992</id> <revision> <id>29766612</id> <timestamp>2005-12-01T03:44:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KaiserbBot</username> <id>624606</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation: general-purpose_machine_gun</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:gofast.jpg|right|thumb|A &quot;go-fast&quot; is the preferred boat of many smugglers.]] The '''go-fast boat''' is the generic name for the drug [[smuggling]] [[boat]] of choice in many parts of the world in the [[1990s]] and [[2000s|first years]] of the [[21st century]]. The name is also more widely used for high performance craft of the characteristic design. A typical smuggling go-fast is built of solid, dark-colored [[fiberglass]], wide of beam and with a deep &quot;&lt;tt&gt;V&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; offshore racing hull from usually 30 to 50 [[Foot (unit of length)|feet]] (10 to 15 [[metre|m]]) long. It commonly carries a [[ton]] or more of cargo, several fuel drums, a handheld [[global positioning system]], perhaps a [[cellular telephone]], and a small crew. With several 250 [[horsepower]] (200 [[kilowatt|kW]]) engines, they travel at top speeds of 35 to 50 [[knot_(nautical)|knots]] (65 to 100 [[Kilometre per hour|km/h]]), slowing little in light chop and still maintaining 25 knots (50 km/h) in the average five to seven foot (1.5 to 2 m) [[Caribbean]] seas. They are heavy enough to cut through higher waves, although at a slower pace. Go-fasts are rarely detected by [[radar]] except on flat calm seas or at close range. The [[US Coast Guard]] finds them to be [[Stealth technology|stealthy]], fast, seaworthy, and very difficult to intercept using conventional craft. Because of this, Coast Guards are developing their own high-speed craft and also using [[helicopter]]s. The helicopters are equipped with [[sniper rifle]]s which can be used to disable the motors of the go-fast boat. The Coast Guard go-fast boat is a [[Rigid-hulled inflatable boat|RHIB]] equipped with radar and more powerful engines. The RHIB is armed with several types of [[non-lethal force|non-lethal]] weapons and [[M240]] [[General purpose machine gun|GPMG]]. == External links == * [http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/library/congress/1998_h/h980610-raff.htm Congressional testimony on technologies for detecting go-fast boats] * [http://www.lexingtoninstitute.org/defense.asp?aid=288 Lexington Institute article on technologies for stopping go-fast boats] [[Category:Law enforcement equipment]] [[Category:Boat types]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Global positioning system</title> <id>12993</id> <revision> <id>15910637</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Global Positioning System]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Glasgow City Chambers</title> <id>12994</id> <revision> <id>41326532</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T16:32:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>195.93.21.135</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Wfm glasgow cityhall.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The front of the City Chambers, from [[George Square]].]] [[Image:City Chambers dusk.jpg|thumb|right|250px|City Chambers viewed from George Square. The main entrance is obscured by the cenotaph commemorating [[World War II]].]] [[Image:Glasgow City Chambers Council Chamber.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Council Chamber]] [[Image:Glasgow City Chamers Full Marble Staircase.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Full Marble Staircase]] [[Image:Glasgow City Chambers, interior.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Mosaic ceiling of the ground floor Loggia]] The City Chambers of [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]], are magnificent Victorian buildings on the eastern side of the city's [[George Square]]. They are the headquarters of [[Glasgow City Council]], the largest [[local authority]] in Scotland, and were completed in [[1889]]. [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] herself performed the inauguration ceremony in August [[1888]], and the first [[Council]] meeting was held in October 1889. The entrance hall of the Chambers proudly displays a mosaic of the city's [[coat of arms]] on the floor. The arms reflect legends about Glasgow's [[patron saint]], [[Saint Mungo]], and include four emblems - the bird, tree, bell, and fish - as remembered in the following verse: :''Here's the Bird that never flew'' :''Here's the Tree that never grew'' :''Here's the Bell that never rang'' :''Here's the Fish that never swam'' A tapestry hanging in the hall is intended to represent Glasgow's past and present, and from a distance appears almost Japanese in style. Pillars of [[marble]] and [[granite]] give way to staircases of marble, [[freestone]], and [[alabaster]], and a ceiling decorated in gold is topped by a [[stained glass]] dome. The [[C
(1368), the Southern Courts power weakened, and order was restored to Kyoto. Also around this time, the Emperor's authority began to show its weakness. On April 9, 1371, he abdicated in favor of his son, who became the [[Northern Court (Japan)|Northern Pretender]] [[Emperor Go-En'yu|Emperor Go-En'yū]]. He continued to rule as [[Cloistered rule|Cloistered Emperor]] until he died of illness on March 12, 1374. ==[[Japanese era name| Eras]] of his reign== (Northern) *[[Kan'o|Kan'ō]] *[[Bunna]] *[[Embun]] *[[Koan (second)|Kōan]] *[[Joji|Jōji]] *[[Oan|&amp;#332;an]] (Southern) *[[Shohei|Shōhei]] *[[Kentoku]] ==Southern Court Rivals== *[[Emperor Go-Murakami|Emperor Go-Murakami]] *[[Emperor Chokei|Emperor Chōkei]] {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Emperor Suko|Emperor Sukō]] | title=[[Northern Court (Japan)|Northern Pretender]] | after=[[Emperor Go-En'yu|Emperor Go-En'yū]] | years=1352-1371}} {{end box}} [[Category:1336 births|Go-Kogon of Japan]] [[Category:1374 deaths|Go-Kogon of Japan]] [[Category:Japanese emperors|Go-Kogon]] [[ja:後光厳天皇]] [[zh:後光嚴天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Go-En'yu</title> <id>10441</id> <revision> <id>28756521</id> <timestamp>2005-11-19T15:46:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jefu</username> <id>256366</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Go-En'yū''' (後円融天皇 ''Go-En'yū Tennō'') ([[January 11]], [[1359]] &amp;ndash; [[June 6]], [[1393]]) was the fifth of the [[Northern Court (Japan)|Ashikaga Pretenders]] during the period of two courts. He claimed the throne from [[April 9]], [[1371]] to [[May 24]], [[1382]]. His personal name was '''Ohito''' (緒仁). ==Genealogy== He was the second son of the fourth Northern Pretender [[Emperor Go-Kogon|Emperor Go-Kōgon]]. His mother was Fujiwara Nakako (藤原仲子), daughter of Hirohashi Kanetsuna (広橋兼綱). *Consort: Itsuko (厳子), daughter of Sanjō Kimitada (三条公忠) **First son: Imperial Prince Motohito (幹仁親王) ([[Emperor Go-Komatsu]]) **First daughter: Imperial Princess Keiko (珪子内親王) *Lady-in-waiting Fujiwara Imako (藤原今子) **Second son: Imperial Prince ?? (道朝親王) ==Life== In [[1371]], by Imperial Proclamation, he received the rank of &lt;i&gt;shinnō&lt;/i&gt; (親王), or Imperial Prince (and potential heir). Immediately afterwards, he became emperor upon the abdication of his father, [[Emperor Go-Kogon|Emperor Go-Kōgon]]. There was said to be a disagreement between Go-Kōgon and the retired Northern Emperor [[Emperor Suko|Emperor Sukō]] over the Crown Prince. With the support of Hosokawa Yoriyuki, who controlled the [[shogunate|Bakufu]], Go-Kōgon's son became the Northern Emperor. Until 1374, Go-Kōgon ruled as [[Cloistered rule|cloistered emperor]]. In 1368, [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] was named [[shogun| Shōgun]], and with his guardianship, the Imperial Court was stabilized. In 1382, upon abdicating to [[Emperor Go-Komatsu]], his [[cloistered rule]] began. Having no actual power, he rebelled, attempting suicide and accusing [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] and his consort Itsuko of adultery. In 1392, peace with the Southern Court being concluded, the [[Nanboku-cho|Period of the Northern and Southern Courts]] came to an end. On June 6, 1393, Go-En'yū died. ==[[Japanese era name|Eras]] during his reign== (Northern) *[[Oan|Ōan]] *[[Eiwa]] *[[Koryaku|Kōryaku]] *[[Eitoku]] (Southern) *[[Kentoku]] *[[Bunchu|Benchū]] *[[Tenju]] *[[Kowa|Kōwa]] ==Southern Court Rivals== *[[Emperor Chokei|Emperor Chōkei]] {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Emperor Go-Kogon|Emperor Go-Kōgon]] | title=[[Northern Court (Japan)|Northern Pretender]] | after=[[Emperor Go-Komatsu]] | years=1371-1382}} {{end box}} [[Category:Japanese emperors|Go-En'yu]] [[Category:1359 births|Go-En'yu, Emperor of Japan]] [[Category:1393 deaths|Go-En'yu, Emperor of Japan]] [[ja:&amp;#24460;&amp;#20870;&amp;#34701;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]] [[zh:&amp;#24460;&amp;#22291;&amp;#34701;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Suizei</title> <id>10442</id> <revision> <id>41872879</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:19:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Beetle B.</username> <id>108708</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Wikified some words</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Suizei''' (綏靖天皇 ''Suizei Tennō'') was the second imperial ruler of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[List of Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a &quot;legendary emperor&quot;. He was the first one of eight emperors without legend. In ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' only his name and genealogy were recorded. His historical existence was traditionally believed and a tomb was attributed to him, but contemporary studies support the view no such person existed. He ruled from the palace of [[Takawoka]] in [[Kadzuraki]]. According to the sources he was a son of [[Emperor Jimmu]]. Soon after he succeeded his father, his brother rebelled against him. His [[posthumous name]] literally means &quot;joyfully healthy peace.&quot; {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Jimmu]] | after=[[Emperor Annei]] | years=581 BC-549 BC}} {{end box}} {{japan-stub}} [[Category:Japanese emperors|Suizei]] [[cs:Suizei]] [[de:Suizei]] [[eo:Suizei]] [[fr:Empereur Suizei]] [[it:Suizei imperatore del Giappone]] [[nl:Suizei]] [[ja:綏靖天皇]] [[zh:綏靖天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Annei</title> <id>10443</id> <revision> <id>41134230</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T06:46:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>OrphanBot</username> <id>621721</id> </contributor> <comment>Removing image with no source information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Annei thumb.jpeg|right|thumb|Meiji era print of Emperor Annei]] --&gt; '''Emperor Annei''' (安寧天皇　''Annei Tennō'') was the third imperial ruler of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[List of Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a &quot;legendary emperor&quot;. He was the second one of eight emperors without legend. In ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' only his name and genealogy were recorded. The Japanese traditionally accepted his historical existence, and a tomb was attributed to him, but contemporary studies support the view that no such person existed. His [[posthumous name]] literally means &quot;steady tranquillity.&quot; {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Suizei]] | after=[[Emperor Itoku]] | years=549 BC-511 BC}} {{end box}} [[Category:Japanese emperors|Annei]] [[cs:Annei]] [[de:Annei]] [[eo:Annei]] [[fr:Empereur Annei]] [[nl:Annei]] [[ja:&amp;#23433;&amp;#23527;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]] [[zh:安寧天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Itokuo of Japan</title> <id>10444</id> <revision> <id>21288919</id> <timestamp>2005-08-18T13:24:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jefu</username> <id>256366</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Emperor Itoku]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Kosho</title> <id>10445</id> <revision> <id>33963156</id> <timestamp>2006-01-05T11:27:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vina-iwbot</username> <id>727408</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: fr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Kauseu thumb.jpeg|right|thumb|Meiji era print of Emperor Kosho]] '''Emperor Kōshō''' (孝昭天皇 ''Kōshō Tennō'') was the fifth imperial ruler of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a &quot;legendary emperor&quot;. He was the fourth one of eight emperors without legend. In ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' only his name and genealogy were recorded. His historical existence was believed traditionally and a tomb was attributed to him, but contemporary studies support the view that no such person existed. His [[posthumous name]] literally means &quot;filial manifestation.&quot; {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Itoku]] | after=[[Emperor Koan|Emperor Kōan]] | years=475 BC-393 BC}} {{end box}} [[Category:Japanese emperors|Kosho]] [[de:Kōshō]] [[eo:Koŝo]] [[fr:Empereur Kōshō]] [[nl:Kosho]] [[ja:孝昭天皇]] [[zh:孝昭天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Koan</title> <id>10446</id> <revision> <id>39266602</id> <timestamp>2006-02-11T23:45:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jmlk17</username> <id>659090</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Kōan''' (孝安天皇 ''Kōan Tennō'') was the sixth imperial ruler of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a &quot;legendary emperor&quot;. He was the fifth of eight emperors without legend. In ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' only his name and genealogy were recorded. The Japanese traditionally accepted his historical existence, and a tomb was attributed to him, but contemporary studies support the view that no such person existed. {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Kosho|Emper
ss in diameter. On a 30 m tower, this turbine can provide enough power to supplement solar power on cloudy days. Commercially available wind turbines use sealed, one-moving-part AC generators and passive, self-feathering blades for years of operation without service. The largest advantage of [[wind power]] is that larger wind turbines have a lower per-watt cost than solar cells, provided there is wind. However, location is critical. Just as some locations lack sun for solar cells, some locations lack sufficient wind for an economical turbine installation. Paul Gipe (a recognized authority, see below) says that in the [[Great Plains]] of the [[United States]] a 10 m turbine can supply enough energy to heat and cool a well-built all-electric house. Economic use in other areas requires research, and possibly a site-survey. During times of low demand, excess power can be stored in batteries for future use. However, batteries need to be replaced every few years. In many areas, battery expense can be eliminated by attaching the building to the [[Distributed generation|electric power grid]] and operating the power system with net metering. Such a building is less autonomous, but more economical and sustainable with fewer lifestyle sacrifices. Some electrical utilities either pay or give electricity credits to homes that produce energy and put it back into the grid when it's not required for immediate household use. In areas that lack access to the grid, battery size can be reduced by including a generator to recharge the batteries during extended fogs or other low-power conditions. Auxiliary generators are usually run from gas, or sometimes diesel. An hour of charging usually provides a day of operation. Recent advances in [[magnetic levitation|passively stable magnetic bearings]] may someday permit inexpensive storage of power in a flywheel in a vacuum. Well-funded groups like Canada's [[Ballard Power Systems]] are also working to develop a &quot;regenerative [[fuel cell]],&quot; a device that can generate hydrogen and oxygen when power is available, and combine these efficiently when power is needed. [[Earth battery| Earth batteries]] tap into the electric currents inside the earth called [[telluric current]]. They can be installed anywhere in the ground, but provide very little electricity. They were used to power [[Telegraphy|telegraph]]s in the 19th century. Earth batteries may be used again in the future, if electric appliances become so efficient that they require very little electricity. === Heating === [[Passive solar heating]] can heat most buildings in even the coldest climates. Modern [[krypton]]- or [[argon]]-insulated windows permit otherwise normal looking windows to provide passive solar heat without compromising structural strength. The basic requirement for passive solar heating is that the windows must face the prevailing sunlight (south in the northern hemisphere, north in the southern hemisphere), and the building must incorporate [[thermal mass]] to keep it warm in the night. [[Earth sheltering]] and [[windbreak]]s can also reduce the absolute amount of heat needed by a building. Several feet below the earth, temperature ranges from 4°C (40 °F) in North Dakota to 26 °C (80 °F)[http://www.greenershelter.org/TokyoPaper.pdf ], in Southern Florida. Wind breaks reduce the amount of heat carried away from a building. Rounded, aerodynamic buildings also lose less heat. If small amounts of [[gas]], [[heating oil]] or [[wood]] heat are available for the coldest nights, a properly designed slab or basement cistern can inexpensively provide the required [[thermal mass]]. In colder climates, construction costs can be as little as 15% more than new, conventional buildings. In warm climates, those having less than two weeks of frosty nights per year, there is no cost impact. A small supplementary heater can substantially reduce the required amount, and expense, of thermal mass, and also reduce lifestyle impacts with a small reduction of autonomy. A popular system for ultra-high-efficiency houses is a central hydronic (radiator) air heater with water recirculating from the water heater. A new system used in some commercial buildings is to provide heating, often water heating, from the output of a gas turbine or stirling electric generator. [http://www.microturbine.com/technology/whitePapers.asp ] Houses designed to cope with interruptions in civil services generally incorporate a wood stove, or heat from diesel fuel or bottled gas, regardless of their other heating mechanisms. Electric heaters and electric stoves provide pollution-free heat, but they consume large amounts of electricity. If enough electricity is provided by solar panels, wind turbines, or other means, then electric heaters and stoves become a practical option. === Water heating === Solar water heaters are widely useful because they can save large amounts of fuel. Also, small changes in lifestyle, such as doing laundry, dishes and bathing on sunny days, can greatly increase their efficiency. The basic trick in a solar water heating system is to use a well-insulated holding tank. Some systems are vacuum insulated, acting something like large thermos bottles. The tank is filled with hot water on sunny days, and made available at all times. Unlike a conventional tank water heater, the tank is filled only when there is sunlight. Good storage makes a smaller, higher-technology collector feasible. Such collectors can use relatively exotic technologies, such as vacuum insulation, and reflective concentration of sunlight. Current practical, comfortable water-heating systems combine the solar heating system with a thermostatic gas-powered flow-through heater, so that the temperature of the water is consistent, and the amount is unlimited. This again reduces life-style impacts at some cost in autonomy. However, this compromise can still save 50-75% of the gas otherwise used, and the resulting system is redundantly reliable. If either system fails, the other can continue to provide hot water until the equipment is repaired, fuel or sunlight becomes available, etc. But can any building that uses fossil fuel be called &quot;autonomous?&quot; Natural gas can be replaced by methane digesters, fueled by composting human excrement and kitchen scraps, or a biodiesel &quot;co-gen&quot; can produce both electricity and hot water from oilseed crops grown on-site. === Cooling === [[Earth sheltering]] or [[passive solar heating|annualized passive solar systems]] substantially reduce the cooling needed by a building. In temperate climates several feet below the earth the average temperature ranges from 4 °C (40 °F) in North Dakota to 26 °C (80 °F), in Southern Florida. Annualized passive solar buildings often have buried, sloped water-tight skirts of insulation that extend 6 m (20 ft) from the foundations, to prevent heat leakage between the earth used as thermal mass, and the surface. Less dramatic improvements are possible. Windows can be shaded in summer. Eaves can be overhung to provide the necessary shade. These also shade the walls of the house, reducing cooling costs. Another trick is to cool the building's thermal mass at night, and then cool the building from the thermal mass during the day. It helps to be able to route cold air from a sky facing radiator (perhaps an air heating solar collector with an alternate purpose) or evaporative cooler directly through the thermal mass. On clear nights, even in tropical areas, sky facing radiators can cool below freezing. If a circular building is aerodynamically smooth, and cooler than the ground, it can be passively cooled by the &quot;dome effect.&quot; Many installations have reported that a reflective or light colored dome induces a local vertical heat driven vortex that sucks cooler overhead air downward into a dome if the dome is vented properly (a single overhead vent, and peripheral vents). Some persons have reported a temperature differential as high as 15 °F (8 °C) between the inside of the dome and the outside. [[Buckminster Fuller]] discovered this effect with a simple house design adapted from a grain silo, and adapted his [[Dymaxion house]] and [[geodesic dome]]s to use it. Refrigerators and air conditioners operating from the waste heat of a diesel engine exhaust, heater flue or solar collector are entering use. These use the same principles as a gas refrigerator. Normally, the heat from a flue powers an &quot;[[absorptive chiller]].&quot; The cold water or brine from the chiller is used to cool air or a refrigerated space. Cogeneration is popular in new commercial buildings. In current cogeneration systems small gas turbines or [[stirling engine]]s powered from natural gas produce electricity and their exhaust drives an absorptive chiller, heats water. A truck trailer refrigerator operating from the waste heat of a tractor's diesel exhaust was demonstrated by NRG Solutions, Inc. 11385 Shipley Road Johnstown, OH 43031, for EPA contract No. 68D98131. NRG developed a hydronic ammonia gas heat exchanger and vaporizer, the two essential new, not commercially available components of a waste heat driven refrigerator. A similar scheme (multiphase cooling) can be by a multistage evaporative cooler. The air is passed through a spray of salt solution to dehumidify it, then through a spray of water solution to cool it, then another salt solution to dehumidify it again. The brine has to be regenerated, and that can be done economically with a low temperature solar still. Multiphase evaporative coolers can lower the air's temperature by 50F, and still control humidity. If the brine regenerator uses high heat, they also partially sterilise the air. If enough electric power is available, cooling can be provided by conventional air conditioning using a [[heat pump]]. === Food === Food production has often been included in historic autonomous p
October 1]], [[686]]) was the 40th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He ruled from [[672]] until his death in [[686]]. He was the youngest son of [[Emperor Jomei]] and [[Empress Kogyoku|Empress Saimei]], and the younger brother of the [[Emperor Tenji]]. His name at birth was '''Prince Ōama'''. He was succeeded by [[Empress Jito|Empress Jitō]], who was both his niece and his wife. == Genealogy == During the reign of his elder brother, Emperor Tenji, Temmu was forced to marry several of Tenji's daughters because Tenji thought those marriages would help to strengthen political ties between the two brothers. The nieces he married included Princess Unonosarara, today known as the Empress Jitō, and Princess Ōta. Temmu also had other consorts whose fathers were influential courtiers. Temmu had many children, including his crown prince [[Kusakabe]] by Princess Unonosarara, Prince [[Prince Otsu|Ōtsu]] by Princess Ōta (whose father also was Tenji), and [[Prince Toneri of Japan|Prince Toneri]], the editor of ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' and father of [[Emperor Junnin]]. Through Prince Kusakabe, Temmu had two emperors and two empresses among his descendents. [[Empress Koken|Empress Shōtoku]] was the last of these imperial rulers from his lineage. == Life == The first and only document on his life was ''[[Nihonshoki]]''. However, it was edited by his son, Prince Toneri, and the work was written during the reigns of his wife and children, causing one to suspect its accuracy and impartiality. Temmu's father died while he was young, and he grew up mainly under the guidance of Empress Saimei. He was not expected to gain the throne, because his brother Tenji was the crown prince, being the older son of their mother, the reigning empress. After Tenji ascended to the throne, Temmu was appointed crown prince. This was because Tenji had no appropriate heir among his sons at that time, as none of their mothers was of a rank high enough to give the necessary political support. Tenji was suspicious that Temmu might be so ambitious as to attempt to take the throne, and felt the necessity to strengthen his allegiance through the marriages mentioned above. In his old age, Tenji had a son, Prince Ōtomo, by a low-ranking consort. Since Ōtomo had weak political support from his maternal relatives, the general wisdom of the time held that it was not a good idea for him to ascend to the throne, yet Tenji was obsessed with the idea. In [[671]] Temmu felt himself to be in danger and volunteered to resign the office of crown prince to become a monk. He moved to the mountains in Yoshino, [[Yamato province]] (now in [[Yoshino, Nara]]), officially for reasons of seclusion. He took with him his sons and one of his wives, Princess Unonosarara, a daughter of Tenji. However, he left all his other consorts at the capital, Omikyō in [[Omi province]] (today in [[Otsu, Shiga]]). A year later, (in [[672]]) Tenji died and Prince Ōtomo ascended to the throne as [[Emperor Kobun|Emperor Kōbun]]. Temmu assembled an army and marched from Yoshino to the east, to attack Omikyō in a counterclockwise movement. They marched through Yamato, [[Iga province|Iga]] and [[Mino province]]s to threaten Omikyō in the adjacent province. The army of Temmu and the army of the young Emperor Kobun fought in the northwestern part of Mino (nowadays [[Sekigahara, Gifu]]). Temmu's army won and Kōbun committed suicide ('''Jinshin-no-ran'''). In [[673]] Temmu moved the capital back to Yamato province, naming his new capital Asukakiyomihara, and there he ascended to the throne. He elevated Unonosarara to be his empress. He reigned from this capital until his death in 686. == Politics == In ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' Temmu is described as a great innovator, but the neutrality of this description is doubtful, since the work was written under the control of his descendants. It seems clear, however, that Temmu strengthened the power of the emperor and appointed his sons to the highest offices of his government, reducing the traditional influence of powerful clans such as the [[Otomo clan|Ōtomo]] and [[Soga clan|Soga]]. He renewed the system of ''[[kabane]]'', the hereditary titles of duty and rank, but with alterations, including the abolition of some titles. [[Omi]] and [[Muraji]], the highest kabane in the earlier period, were reduced in value in the new hierarchy, which consisted of eight kinds of kabane. Each clan received a new kabane according to its closeness to the imperial bloodline and its loyalty to Temmu. Temmu attempted to keep a balance of power among his sons. Once he traveled to Yoshino together with his sons, and there had them swear to cooperate and not to make war on each other. This turned out to be ineffective: one of his sons, Prince Ōtsu, was later executed for treason after the death of Temmu. Temmu's foreign policy favored the Korean kingdom [[Silla]], which took over the entire Korean peninsula in [[676]]. After the unification of Korea by Silla, Temmu decided to break diplomatic relations with the [[Tang dynasty]] of China, evidently in order to keep on good terms with Silla. Temmu used religious structures to increase the authority of the imperial throne. During his reign there was increased emphasis on the tie between the imperial household and the [[Ise Shrine]] (dedicated to the ancestor goddess of the emperors, [[Amaterasu]]), and several festivals were financed from the national budget. He also showed favor to [[Buddhism]], and built several large temples and monasteries. On the other hand, all Buddhist priests, monks and nuns were controlled by the state, and no one was allowed to become a monk without the state's permission. This was aimed at preventing cults and stopping farmers from turning into priests. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Emperor Kobun|Emperor Kōbun]] | after=[[Empress Jito|Empress Jitō]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | years=672-686}} {{end box}} [[Category:631 births|Temmu]] [[Category:686 deaths|Temmu]] [[Category:Japanese emperors|Temmu]] [[de:Temmu]] [[ko:덴무 천황]] [[it:Temmu imperatore del Giappone]] [[he:טמו]] [[nl:Tenmu]] [[ja:天武天皇]] [[zh:天武天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Empress Jito</title> <id>10427</id> <revision> <id>38718227</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T04:02:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Emperorbma</username> <id>12403</id> </contributor> <comment>+cat Japanese women</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hyakuninisshu 002.jpg|thumb|{{PAGENAME}} (From Ogura Hyakunin Isshu)]] [[Image:TenmuJitoTomb.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Tomb of Emperor Temmu and Empress Jitō]] Empress '''Jitō''' (持統天皇 ''Jitō Tennō'') ([[645]] &amp;ndash; December 22, 702{{an|Japanese_dates1 1}}) was the 41st [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. She was the daughter of [[Emperor Tenji]]. She took the throne in [[687]] following the death of her husband, [[Emperor Temmu]], who was also her uncle, in order to ensure the eventual succession of her grandson, [[Emperor Mommu]]. In [[697]] she abdicated in Mommu's favor, but she continued to hold power as a [[cloistered rule]]r, which became a persistent trend in Japanese politics. ==Notes== #Japanese dates correspond to the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until 1873. December 22, 702 of the [[Japanese calendar]] corresponds to [[January 13]], [[703]] of the [[Julian calendar]]. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Emperor Temmu]] | after=[[Emperor Mommu]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Empress of Japan]] | years=686-697}} {{end box}} [[Category:645 births|Jito]] [[Category:703 deaths|Jito]] [[Category:Japanese emperors|Jito]] [[Category:Japanese women|Jito]] [[Category:Empresses|Jito]] [[de:Jitō]] [[it:Jito imperatrice del Giappone]] [[he:&amp;#1490;'&amp;#1497;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1493;]] [[nl:Jito]] [[ja:持統天皇]] [[zh:&amp;#25345;&amp;#32479;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Mommu</title> <id>10428</id> <revision> <id>23342953</id> <timestamp>2005-09-16T14:24:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jefu</username> <id>256366</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Mommu''' (文武天皇 ''Mommu Tennō'') ([[683]]-[[707]]) was the 42nd [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He was a grandson of [[Emperor Temmu]] and [[Empress Jito|Empress Jitō]]. When his father, Crown Prince [[Kusakabe]], died, he was only six years old. He took the throne in [[697]] and ruled until his death by illness in [[707]], at which point he was succeeded by his mother, [[Empress Gemmei]], who was also his [[first cousin once removed]] and his first cousin twice removed. He left a young son by [[Fujiwara]] no Miyako, a daughter of [[Fujiwara no Fuhito]]: Obito no miko (Prince Obito), who eventually became [[Emperor Shomu|Emperor Shōmu]]. {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Empress Jito|Empress Jitō]] | after=[[Empress Gemmei]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | years=697-707}} {{end box}} [[Category:683 births|Mommu]] [[Category:707 deaths|Mommu]] [[Category:Japanese emperors|Mommu]] [[de:Mommu]] [[it:Mommu imperatore del Giappone]] [[ja:&amp;#25991;&amp;#27494;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]] [[zh:&amp;#25991;&amp;#27494;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Empress Gensho</title> <id>10430</id> <revision> <id>38717916</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T04:00:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Emperorbma</username> <id>12403</id> </contributor> <comment>+cat Japanese women</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Empress Genshō''' (元正天皇
'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;. The (interior) angle &amp;theta; between '''x''' and '''y''' is then given by :&lt;math&gt;\theta = \cos^{-1}\left(\frac{\mathbf{x}\cdot\mathbf{y}}{\|\mathbf{x}\|\|\mathbf{y}\|}\right)&lt;/math&gt; where cos&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; is the [[arccosine]] function. Finally, one can use the norm to define a [[distance function]] (or [[Metric (mathematics)|metric]]) on '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; in the following manner :&lt;math&gt;d(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{y}) = \|\mathbf{x} - \mathbf{y}\| = \sqrt{\sum_{i=1}^n (x_i - y_i)^2}.&lt;/math&gt; The form of this distance function is based on the [[Pythagorean theorem]], and is called the '''[[Euclidean metric]]'''. Real coordinate space together with the above Euclidean structure (dot product and the associated norm and metric) is called '''Euclidean space''' often denoted by '''E'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;. (Many authors refer to '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; itself as Euclidean space, with the Euclidean structure being understood). The Euclidean structure on '''E'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; gives it the structure of an [[inner product space]] (in fact a [[Hilbert space]]), a [[normed vector space]], and a [[metric space]]. ==Alternative definition== In fact, Euclidean space '''E'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is a real n-dimensional [[affine space]] such as its corresponding linear or [[vector space]] ( isomorphic to the linear or vector space '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; ) has an [[inner product]]. ==Euclidean topology== Since Euclidean space is a [[metric space]] it is also a [[topological space]] with the natural topology induced by the metric. The metric topology on '''E'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is called the '''Euclidean topology'''. A set is [[open set|open]] in the Euclidean topology [[if and only if]] it contains an [[open ball]] around each of its points. The Euclidean topology turns out to be equivalent to the [[product topology]] on '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; considered as a product of ''n'' copies of the [[real line]] '''R''' (with its standard topology). An important result on the topology of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, that is far from superficial, is [[L. E. J. Brouwer|Brouwer]]'s [[invariance of domain]]. Any subset of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; (with its [[subspace topology]]) which is [[homeomorphic]] to another open subset of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is itself open. An immediate consequence of this is that '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''m''&lt;/sup&gt; is not homeomorphic to '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; if ''m'' &amp;ne; ''n'' &amp;mdash; an intuitively &quot;obvious&quot; result which is nonetheless difficult to prove. Euclidean ''n''-space is the prototypical example of an ''n''-[[manifold]], in fact, a [[smooth manifold]]. For ''n'' &amp;ne; 4, any differentiable ''n''-manifold that is [[homeomorphic]] to '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is also [[diffeomorphic]] to it. The surprising fact that this is not also true for ''n'' = 4 was proved by [[Simon Donaldson]] in [[1982]]; the counterexamples are called [[exotic 4-spaces |exotic]] (or ''fake'') 4-spaces. Euclidean space is also known as ''linear manifold''. An ''m-dimensional linear submanifold'' of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is a Euclidean space of ''m'' dimensions embedded in it (as an [[affine subspace]]). For example, any straight line in some higher-dimensional Euclidean space is a 1-dimensional linear submanifold of that space. ==See also== *[[Euclidean geometry]] *[[Euclidean distance]] *[[Minkowski space]] [[Category:Euclidean geometry|*]] [[Category:Linear algebra]] [[Category:Topological spaces]] [[Category:Norm]] [[de:Euklidischer Raum]] [[es:Espacio euclídeo]] [[fr:Espace euclidien]] [[ko:유클리드 공간]] [[he:מרחב אוקלידי]] [[io:Euklidana spaco]] [[ja:ユークリッド空間]] [[pl:Przestrzeń euklidesowa]] [[ru:Евклидово поле]] [[zh:欧几里德空间]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electrical Potential</title> <id>9698</id> <revision> <id>15907569</id> <timestamp>2005-03-21T20:28:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jnc</username> <id>18024</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Avoid dbl redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electric potential]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Edmund Hoyle</title> <id>9699</id> <revision> <id>15907570</id> <timestamp>2004-07-03T22:51:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Netoholic</username> <id>41995</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Edmond Hoyle]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Edwin Austin Abbey</title> <id>9700</id> <revision> <id>39192848</id> <timestamp>2006-02-11T10:34:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.127.196.250</ip> </contributor> <comment>[[eo:Edwin Austin Abbey]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}} [[Image:Drawing of Edwin Austin Abbey.jpg|right|thumb|Edwin Austin Abbey]] &lt;div style=&quot;float:left;width:200px;&quot;&gt; [[Image:SpiritofLight.JPG|left|thumb|''Spirit of Light'' by Abbey, [[Pennsylvania]] State Capitol rotunda, [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania]].]] [[Image:AllegoryofScience.JPG|left|thumb|Allegorical medal of ''Science'' by Abbey, [[Pennsylvania]] State Capitol, [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania]].]] &lt;/div&gt; '''Edwin Austin Abbey''' ([[April 1]], [[1852]] &amp;ndash; [[August 1]], [[1911]]) was an American [[artist]], [[illustration|illustrator]], and [[painter]]. His most famous work, ''The Quest of the [[Holy Grail]]'', resides in the [[Boston Public Library]]. Though born in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], he moved to [[England]] in [[1878]]. The aforementioned work was finished in [[1902]] and is quintessential of his subject - historical (or pseudo-historical in this case). Another of his works marks the coronation of [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VII]] in the same year. It was the official painting of the occasion and, hence, resides at [[Buckingham Palace]]. In 1908-1909, Abbey painted a number of [[mural]]s and other artworks for the [[rotunda]] of the new [[Pennsylvania]] State [[Capitol]] in [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania]]. His works in that building include [[allegorical]] medallions representing ''Science'', ''Art'', ''Justice'', and ''Religion'', as well as large murals underneath the Capitol dome. His work is [[melodramatic]] to modern eyes - though he was also a political illustrator for the journal ''[[Harper's Weekly]]''. {{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbey, Edwin Austin}} [[Category:1852 births|Abbey, Edwin Austin]] [[Category:1911 deaths|Abbey, Edwin Austin]] [[Category:American illustrators|Abbey, Edwin Austin]] [[Category:American painters|Abbey, Edwin Austin]] [[et:Edwin Austin Abbey]] [[eo:Edwin Austin Abbey]] [[pl:Edwin Austin Abbey]] [[ru:Эбби, Эдвин Остин]] {{US-painter-stub}} {{illustrator-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>English Football League</title> <id>9702</id> <revision> <id>15907573</id> <timestamp>2005-04-30T07:49:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FlaBot</username> <id>228773</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>warnfile Adding:de</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''English football league''' is not specific; it may refer to: * The [[FA Premier League]] - the highest level of English football since 1992 * [[The Football League]] - the highest level of English football until 1992 and the second tier since * The [[English football league system]] - the entire network of football leagues in England, of which the FA Premier League, Football League and many more are part {{disambig}} [[de:The Football League]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Evolutionary psychology</title> <id>9703</id> <revision> <id>42160232</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:29:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>71.246.25.218</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{psychology}} '''Evolutionary psychology''' (abbreviated '''ev-psych''' or '''EP''') proposes [[psychology]] can be better understood in light of [[evolution]]. Though applicable to any [[organism]] with a [[nervous system]], most EP [[research]] focuses on [[humans]]. Specifically, EP proposes the [[brain]] comprises many functional [[Mechanism (science)|mechanisms]], called ''[[psychological adaptation]]s'' or ''evolved psychological mechanisms'' (EPMs), that evolved by [[natural selection]]. Uncontroversial examples of EPMs include [[vision (physiology)|vision]], [[hearing (physiology)|hearing]], [[memory]], and [[Motoneuron|motor control]]. More controversial examples include [[Westermarck effect|incest avoidance mechanisms]], [[Wason selection task|cheater detection mechanisms]], and [[sex]]-specific mating preferences, mating strategies, and spatial cognition. Most evolutionary psychologists argue that EPMs are universal in a [[species]], excepting those specific to [[sex]] or age. Evolutionary psychology has roots in [[cognitive psychology]] and [[evolutionary biology]]. It also draws heavily on [[behavioral ecology]], [[artificial intelligence]], [[genetics]], [[ethology]], [[anthropology]], [[archeology]], [[biology]], and [[zoology]]. Evolutionary psychology is closely linked to [[sociobiology]], but there are key differences between them including the emphasis on ''domain-specific'' rather than ''domain-general'' mechanisms, the relevance of measures of current [[fitness (biology)|fitness]], the importance of mismatch theory, and psychology rather than behaviour. Many evolutionary psychologists, however, argue that the mind consists of both domain-specific and domain-general mechanisms, especially [[evolutionary developme
h|Isaiah]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah%2052:13-53:12;&amp;version=31; 52:13-53:12] – “How then is it written about the Son of Man, that he is to go through many sufferings and be treated with contempt?” (9:12b, NRSV) Yet this comparison is not explicit ; Mark’s Gospel creates this link between [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] and Isaiah, and applies it to Christ. It’s postulated that this is because of the persecution of Christians; thus, Mark’s Gospel encourages believers to stand firm ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2013:13;&amp;version=31; 13:13]) in the face of troubles. *The testing of Jesus in the wilderness for forty days contains no discourse between Jesus and [[Satan]] and only here are wild beasts mentioned ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%201:12-13;&amp;version=31; 1:12-13]). *Jesus refers to himself as the Son of Man numerous times. *The sabbath was made for man, not man for the sabbath ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%202:27;&amp;version=31; 2:27]). Omitted from both Matt [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2012:1-8;&amp;version=31; 12:1-8] and Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%206:1-5;&amp;version=31; 6:1-5]. *Jesus' family say he is out of his mind ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%203:21;&amp;version=31; 3:21]). *Among the synoptics Mark contains the smallest number of parables or riddles; only 12 (John has 3. None of them are found in Mark). *Only Mark counts the possessed swine; there are about two thousand ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%205:13;&amp;version=31; 5:13]). *Only place in the New Testament Jesus is addressed as &quot;the son of Mary&quot; ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206:3;&amp;version=31; 6:3]). *Two consecutive healing stories of women, make use of the number twelve ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%205:25;&amp;version=31; 5:25] and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%205:42;&amp;version=31; 5:42]). *The taking of a staff and sandals ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206:8-10;&amp;version=31; 6:8-10]) are prohibited in Matt [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2010:10;&amp;version=31; 10:10] and Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%209:3;&amp;version=31; 9:3] and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2010:4;&amp;version=31; 10:4]. *The longest version of the story of Herodias' daughter's dance and the beheading of John the Baptist ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206:14-29;&amp;version=31; 6:14-29]). *Mark's literary cycles: :*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206:30-44;&amp;version=31; 6:30-44] - '''Feeding''' of the five thousand; :*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206:45-56;&amp;version=31; 6:45-56] - Crossing of the '''lake'''; :*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%207:1-13;&amp;version=31; 7:1-13] - '''Dispute''' with the Pharisees; :*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%207:14-23;&amp;version=31; 7:14-23] - Discourse about '''food''' defilement. :Then: :*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%208:1-9;&amp;version=31; 8:1-9] - '''Feeding''' of the four thousand; :*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%208:10;&amp;version=31; 8:10] - Crossing of the '''lake'''; :*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%208:11-13;&amp;version=31; 8:11-13] - '''Dispute''' with the Pharisees; :*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%208:14-21;&amp;version=31; 8:14-21] - Incident of '''no bread''' and discourse about the '''leaven''' of the Pharisees. *Jesus heals using his fingers and spit ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%207:33;&amp;version=31; 7:33]). *Jesus must lay his hands on a blind man twice to cure him ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%208:22;&amp;version=31; 8:22]). *The '[[Messianic Secret]]' motif (e.g. [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%201:32-34;&amp;version=31; 1:32-34]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%203:11-12;&amp;version=31; 3:11-12]); Demons know of Jesus and his secret identity. He is not just a wonder-worker; Jesus is the, or a, Son of God. *There are no 'favorite' disciples (''contra'' [[Gospel of John|John]]). *Even though the 12 disciples are Jesus' close traveling companions, they still have difficulty understanding his teachings and wonder who he is. *Mark is the only synoptic gospel that does not contain &quot;The Lord's Prayer&quot;, unless one accepts ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2011:25-26;&amp;version=31; 11:25-26]). *When Jesus is arrested a young naked man flees ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:51-52;&amp;version=31; 14:51-52]). *A woman anoints Jesus' head. There is no mention of her hair ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:3-9;&amp;version=31; 14:3-9]). *Witness testimony against Jesus does not agree ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:56;&amp;version=31; 14:56]). *Jesus gives the direct answer,&quot;I am&quot;([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:62;&amp;version=31; 14:62]). *The cock crows &quot;twice&quot; as predicted ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:72;&amp;version=31; 14:72]). *The cloak is royal purple ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2015:17;&amp;version=31; 15:17]), as in John ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2019:2;&amp;version=31; 19:2]). In Matthew ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2027:28;&amp;version=31; 27:28]) it is a common scarlet military cloak. *Simon of Cyrene's sons are named ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2015:21;&amp;version=31; 15:21]). *A summoned centurion is questioned ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2015:44-45;&amp;version=31; 15:44-45]). *The women ask each other who will roll away the stone ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2016:3;&amp;version=31; 16:3]). *A young man sits on the &quot;right side&quot; ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2016:5;&amp;version=31; 16:5]). *Afraid, the women flee from the empty tomb. They &quot;tell no one&quot; what they have seen ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2016:8;&amp;version=31; 16:8]). Close of short ending text. *As in [[John 20|John]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2020:14;&amp;version=31; 20:14]) the resurrected Jesus first appears to only Mary Magdalene, from whom had been cast out seven demons ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2016:9;&amp;version=31; 16:9]). Later he appears to others. *Disciples are told by the resurrected Jesus that they can handle serpents and drink poison without harm ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2016:18;&amp;version=31; 16:18]). *Mark is possibly the easiest gospel recognizable as an artistic creation of a particular culture of people at a particular period in the ancient world. This is a world where miracle is taken for granted. Not to believe in them would seem simply irrational. MacMullen,1984 (Also see Galen's-''On Jews and Christians '' in its ENTIRETY, Robert Wilken's ''The Christians as the Romans Saw Them'', Yale, 1986 &amp; ''Changes in the Roman Empire : Essays in the Ordinary'', Ramsay MacMullen, Princeton, 1990) ==Markan priority among the Synoptic gospels== The first three or [[synoptic gospels]] are closely related. For example, out of a total of 662 verses, Mark has 406 in common with both Matthew and Luke, 145 with Matthew alone, 60 with Luke alone, and at most 51 peculiar to itself, according to one reckoning. The commonality goes beyond the same selection of what stories about Jesus to tell but extends to the use of many of the same words in how they are told. The [[synoptic problem]] is an investigation into whether and how the gospels of Mark, Matthew, and Luke used each other or common sources. Most researchers into the synoptic problem have concluded that Mark was written first and used by Matthew and Luke (&quot;[[Markan priority]]&quot;). Markan priority was first proposed by G. Ch. Storr, in [[1786]] but it did not come to dominate critical scholarship until the mid-19th century. The major alternative to Markan priority is the [[Griesbach hypothesis]], which holds that Mark was written third as an abbreviating combination of Matthew and Luke. The traditional view that Matthew was written first in Hebrew (or Aramaic), and the Greek Mark was based on it, and a few of the advocates of traditional suggest that the Greek Matthean was translated with the use of an already written Mark and/or Luke, bringing the text into better agreement, to give the familiar Greek Matthew. Of the two solutions to the synoptic problem that are based on Markan priority, the [[Two-Source hypothesis]] (2SH) posits that the gospels of Matthew and Luke also draw extensively from a now-lost &quot;sayings&quot; collection&amp;mdash;called [[Q document|Q]] after [[German language|German]] ''Quelle'', &quot;source&quot;. Most supporters of the 2SH do not think there is a literary connection between Mark and Q, but a couple of active scholars have argued that Mark had some knowledge of Q. ==The &quot;little [[Apocalypse]]&quot; of Mark 13== [[Exegesis]] is often made to show correspondences with the calamities of the First [[Jewish Revolt]] of AD 66&amp;ndash;70. Jesus' remarks in 13:1&amp;ndash;2, seen as a reference to the destruction of the Temple, would place the work after AD 70. The passage predicts that the Temple would be torn down completely&amp;mdash;&quot;Not one stone will be left upon another.&quot; Indeed, the Temple was completely destroyed by the forces of the Roman general Titus ([[Josephus]], ''[[Jewish War]]'' VI). (The [[Western Wall]]
approached within 0.005 [[Astronomical Unit|AU]] of the [[Earth]] in [[1937]]. Astronomers began to realize the possibilities of Earth impact. Two events in later decades increased the level of alarm: the increasing acceptance of [[Walter Alvarez]]' theory of [[K-T extinction|dinosaur extinction]] being due to an [[impact event]], and the [[1994]] observation of [[Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9]] crashing into [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. The U.S. military also declassified the information that its military satellites, built to detect nuclear explosions, had detected hundreds of upper-atmosphere impacts by objects ranging from one to 10 metres across. All of these considerations helped spur the launch of highly efficient automated systems that consist of Charge-Coupled Device ([[Charge-coupled device|CCD]]) cameras and computers directly connected to telescopes. Since [[1998]], a large majority of the asteroids have been discovered by such automated systems. A list of teams using such automated systems includes [http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/programs]: * The [[Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research]] (LINEAR) team * The [[Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking]] (NEAT) team * [[Spacewatch]] * The [[LONEOS|Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search]] (LONEOS) team * The [[Catalina Sky Survey]] (CSS) * The [[Campo Imperatore Near-Earth Objects Survey]] (CINEOS) team * The [[Japanese Spaceguard Association]] * The [[Asiago-DLR Asteroid Survey]] (ADAS) The LINEAR system alone has discovered 62,283 asteroids as of [[December 14]], [[2005]] [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/MPDiscSites.html]. Between all of the automated systems, 3868 near-Earth asteroids have been discovered [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/Unusual.html] including over 600 more than 1 km in diameter. ==Naming asteroids== ===The naming format=== Newly discovered asteroids are given a [[Provisional designation in astronomy|provisional designation]] consisting of the year of discovery and an alphanumeric code, such as 2001 FH. When its orbit is confirmed, it is given a number, and later may also be given a name (e.g. [[1 Ceres]]). The formal naming convention uses parentheses around the number (e.g. ''(433) Eros''), however, dropping the parentheses is quite common. Informally, especially when a name is repeated in running text, it is common to drop the number altogether, or to drop it after the first mention. The [[Minor Planet Circular]] (MPC) of [[October 19]], [[2005]] was a historical one, as it saw the highest numbered asteroid jump from 99947 to 118161, causing a small &quot;[[Y2k]]&quot; like crisis for various automated data services &amp;mdash;up until then, only five digits were allowed in most data formats for the asteroid number. This has been addressed in some data fields by having the leftmost digit, the ten-thousands place, use the alphabet as a digit extension. A=10, B=11,…, Z=35, a=36,…, z=61. The highest number 120437 thus is cross-referenced as C0437 on some lists. Also, the fictional asteroid of ''[[The Little Prince]]'', '''B612''', now could be connected with the real (110612) 2001 TA&lt;sub&gt;142&lt;/sub&gt; which is listed as (B0612) 2001 TA&lt;sub&gt;142&lt;/sub&gt; in the compacted lists &amp;mdash;although it is already present as [[46610 Bésixdouze]] (B612 in hexadecimal translates to 46610 in decimal notation). ===Unnamed asteroids=== Unnamed asteroids that have been given a number keep their provisional designation, e.g. [[(29075) 1950 DA]]. As modern discovery techniques have discovered vast numbers of new asteroids, they are increasingly being left unnamed. The first asteroid to be left unnamed was [[(3360) 1981 VA]]. On rare occasions, an asteroid's [[Provisional designation in astronomy|provisional designation]] may become used as a name in itself: the still unnamed [[(15760) 1992 QB₁]] gave its name to a group of asteroids which became known as [[cubewano]]s. ===Sources for names=== The first few asteroids were named after figures from [[Graeco-Roman mythology]], but as such names started to run out, others were used &amp;mdash;famous people, literary characters, the names of the discoverer's wives, children, and even television characters. The first asteroid to be given a non-mythological name was [[20 Massalia]], named after the city of [[Marseille|Marseilles]]. For some time only female (or feminized) names were used; [[Alexander von Humboldt]] was the first man to have an asteroid named after him, but his name was feminized to [[54 Alexandra]]. This unspoken tradition lasted until [[334 Chicago]] was named; even then, oddly feminised names show up in the list for years afterward. As the number of asteroids began to run into the hundreds, and eventually the thousands, discoverers began to give them increasingly frivolous names. The first hints of this were [[482 Petrina]] and [[483 Seppina]], named after the discoverer's pet dogs. However, there was little controversy about this until [[1971]], upon the naming of [[2309 Mr. Spock]] (which was not even named after the ''[[Star Trek]]'' character, but after the discoverer's cat who supposedly bore a resemblance to him). Although the [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]] subsequently banned pet names as sources, eccentric asteroid names are still being proposed and accepted, such as [[6042 Cheshirecat]], [[9007 James Bond]], or [[26858 Misterrogers]]. For a full list, see [[meanings of asteroid names]]. ===Special naming rules=== Asteroid naming is not always a free-for-all: there are some types of asteroid for which rules have developed about the sources of names. For instance [[Centaur (planetoid)|Centaurs]] (asteroids orbiting between Saturn and Neptune) are all named after mythological [[centaur]]s, [[Trojan asteroid|Trojans]] after heroes from the [[Trojan War]], and [[trans-Neptunian objects]] after underworld spirits. ==Asteroid symbols== The first few asteroids discovered were assigned symbols like the ones traditionally used to designate Earth, the Moon, the Sun and planets. The symbols quickly became ungainly, hard to draw and recognise. By the end of [[1851]] there were 15 known asteroids, each (except one) with its own symbol. The first four's main variants are shown here: :1 Ceres [[Image:1 Ceres (0).png|15px|Old planetary symbol of Ceres]] [[Image:1 Ceres (1).png|15px|Variant symbol of Ceres]] [[Image:1 Ceres (2).png|15px|Sickle variant symbol of Ceres]] [[Image:1 Ceres (3).png|20px|Other sickle variant symbol of Ceres]] :2 Pallas [[Image:2 Pallas (0).png|15px|Old symbol of Pallas]] [[Image:2 Pallas (1).png|15px|Variant symbol of Pallas]] :3 Juno [[Image:3 Juno (0).png|15px|Old symbol of Juno]] [[Image:3 Juno (1).png|15px|Other symbol of Juno]] :4 Vesta [[Image:4 Vesta (0).png|15px|Old symbol of Vesta]] [[Image:100px-Simbolo di Vesta.jpg|15px|Old planetary symbol of Vesta]] [[Image:4 Vesta (1).png|15px|Modern astrological symbol of Vesta]] [[Johann Franz Encke]] made a major change in the ''Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch'' (BAJ, &quot;Berlin Astronomical Yearbook&quot;) for [[1854]]. He introduced encircled numbers instead of symbols, although his numbering began with [[5 Astraea|Astraea]], the first four asteroids continuing to be denoted by their traditional symbols. This symbolic innovation was adopted very quickly by the astronomical community. The following year ([[1855]]), Astraea's number was bumped up to 5, but Ceres through Vesta would be listed by their numbers only in the [[1867]] edition. A few more asteroids ([[28 Bellona]], [[35 Leukothea]], and [[37 Fides]]) would be given symbols as well as using the numbering scheme. The circle would become a pair of parentheses, and the parentheses sometimes omitted altogether over the next few decades. For details, see [[James L. Hilton]], [[2001]], [http://aa.usno.navy.mil/hilton/AsteroidHistory/minorplanets.html ''When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets?'']. ==Asteroid exploration== Until the age of [[space travel]], asteroids were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes and their shapes and terrain remained a mystery. The first [[close-up]] photographs of asteroid-like objects were taken in [[1971]] when the [[Mariner 9]] probe imaged [[Phobos (moon)|Phobos]] and [[Deimos (moon)|Deimos]], the two small moons of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], which are probably captured asteroids. These images revealed the irregular, potato-like shapes of most asteroids, as did subsequent images from the [[Voyager program|Voyager]] probes of the small moons of the [[gas giant]]s. [[Image:951 Gaspra.jpg|thumb|right|[[951 Gaspra]], the first asteroid to be imaged in close up.]] The first true asteroid to be photographed in close-up was [[951 Gaspra]] in [[1991]], followed in [[1993]] by [[243 Ida]] and its moon [[Dactyl (asteroid)|Dactyl]], all of which were imaged by the [[Galileo spacecraft|Galileo probe]] ''en route'' to [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. The first dedicated asteroid probe was [[NEAR Shoemaker]], which photographed [[253 Mathilde]] in [[1997]], before entering into orbit around [[433 Eros]], finally landing on its surface in [[2001]]. Other asteroids briefly visited by spacecraft ''en route'' to other destinations include [[9969 Braille]] (by [[Deep Space 1]] in [[1999]]), and [[5535 Annefrank]] (by [[Stardust (spacecraft)|Stardust]] in [[2002]]). In September [[2005]], the Japanese [[Hayabusa]] probe started studying [[25143 Itokawa]] in detail and will return samples of its surface to earth. Following that, the next asteroid encounters will involve the European [[Rosetta space probe|Rosetta probe]] (launched in [[2004]]), which will study [[2867 Steins|2867 &amp;#352;teins]] and [[21 Lutetia]] in [[2008]] and [[2010]]. As a consequence of cost overruns and technical problems, [[NASA]] cancelled its [[Dawn Mission]] in March, 2006. Dawn was originally scheduled to launch June 2006 (later rescheduled for 2007) and was to orbit both [[1 Ceres]] and [[4 Vesta]] in [[
[[Roman Empire]] collapsed, and occupied and named [[Burgundy]] in [[France]]. The island was originally part of [[Skåneland|Scania (Skåneland)]]. When the eastern [[Lands of Denmark|provinces of Denmark]] were ceded to Sweden in 1658, Bornholm was returned to [[Denmark-Norway]] two years later (along with [[Trøndelag]] and [[Anholt]]). Bornholm, as a part of [[Denmark]], was captured by Germany relatively early in the [[World War II|Second World War]], and served as a lookout post and listening station during the war. The island's perfect central position in the [[Baltic Sea]] meant that it was an important &quot;natural fortress&quot; between [[Germany]] and [[Sweden]], effectively keeping submarines and destroyers away from Nazi occupied waters. Several concrete coastal installations were built during the war, some of which had tremendous range, but none of them were ever used, and only a single test shot was fired during the occupation. These remnants of Nazi rule has since then fallen into disrepair and are mostly regarded as a novelty. Many tourists visit the ruins each year, providing a useful supplement income to the tourist industry. As it was true about the rest of [[Denmark]], the inhabitants of Bornholm quickly came to accept the Germans. &quot;They don't bother us, we don't bother them&quot; was the unspoken rule of the agreement between commoners and soldiers. German soldiers acted more like tourists than occupants during their stay, and the rough German discipline meant that only few incidents of violence was reported on the island. (No noteworthy resistance from the natives was ever reported by the German officials). On the 22nd of August 1943 a rocket (numbered V83) crashed on Bornholm as part of a test - the warhead was a dummy made of concrete. This was photographed (? Some sources only mention sketches?) by the Danish Naval Officer-in-Charge on Bornholm, Lieutenant Commander Hasager Christiansen. Although this rocket was probably launched from a [[Heinkel]] III, this was the first sign British Intelligence saw of Germany's aspirations to develop the flying bombs and rockets - which were to become known as [[V-1_flying_bomb|V1]] and [[Vergeltungswaffe 2|V2]]. Bornholm was heavily bombarded by [[Soviet Union|Soviet forces]] in May 1945. [[Von Kamft]], the German superior officer in charge of the island garrison refused to surrender to [[Soviet Union|Soviet forces]], as his orders were to surrender to the Allied Forces. The Germans sent several telegrams to [[Copenhagen]] requesting that at least one single British soldier should be transferred to Bornholm, so that the Germans could surrender to the western allied forces instead of the Russians. When Von Kamft failed to provide a written capitulation as demanded by Russian HQ, [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] aircraft relentlessly bombed and destroyed more than 800 civilian houses, with roughly 3000 more being seriously damaged on the 7th and 8th of May 1945. Eventually, the German garrison did surrender to the Soviet forces, which occupied the island until [[April 5]], [[1946]]. As a result, quite a few natives of Bornholm to this day regard Russians with some suspicion and contempt, as the Russian forces made their presence felt for a whole year while looting and ravaging the Bornholm countryside. In newer times [[NATO]] [[radar]] installations have been placed on the island. A Russian (Soviet) declaration after World War II states that foreign (read: NATO) soldiers on Bornholm would be a declaration of war against Russia. This has caused diplomatic problems at least twice; once when an American [[helicopter]] landed outside the city of Svaneke due to engine problems in a NATO drill over the Baltic Sea, and once (somewhere between 1999 and 2003) when the Danish government suggested total shut down of ''Almegårdens Kaserne'', the local military facility, since &quot;the island could quickly be protected by troops from surrounding areas and has no strategic importance after the fall of the [[Iron Curtain]]&quot;. == Other islands in the Baltic Sea == * [[Gotland]], [[Öland]] * [[Rügen]], [[Usedom]] * [[Saaremaa]], [[Hiiumaa]] * [[Wolin]] * [[Åland]] == See also == * [[Bornholm disease]] ==External links== * [http://www.brk.dk/ Municipality's official website] * [http://www.bornholminfo.dk/s1/default.asp?langid=2 Tourist information] * [http://www.bornholmsmuseum.dk/ Bornholm's Museum] * [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=55.125508,14.916687&amp;spn=0.520682,0.990211&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google Map] * [http://www.hotel-bornholm.com/ Hotels on Bornholm] == References == * Municipal statistics: [http://www2.netborger.dk/Kommunefakta/ NetBorger Kommunefakta], delivered from [http://www.kmd.dk/ KMD aka Kommunedata (Municipal Data)] * Municipal mergers and neighbors: [http://kommune.eniro.dk/region/media/nyekommuner.shtml Eniro new municipalities map] {{amt}} [[Category:Islands of Denmark]] [[Category:Terra Scania]] [[Category:Baltic islands]] [[Category:Municipalities of Denmark]] [[ca:Bornholm]] [[cs:Bornholm]] [[da:Bornholm]] [[de:Bornholm]] [[et:Bornholm]] [[es:Bornholm]] [[eo:Bornholm]] [[fr:Bornholm]] [[nl:Bornholm]] [[ja:ボーンホルム島]] [[lt:Bornholmas]] [[nb:Bornholm]] [[pl:Bornholm]] [[pt:Bornholm]] [[simple:Bornholm]] [[fi:Bornholm]] [[sv:Bornholm]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bay (disambiguation)</title> <id>3777</id> <revision> <id>37881111</id> <timestamp>2006-02-02T19:29:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ewlyahoocom</username> <id>241538</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|bay}} A [[bay]] is an area of water bordered by land on three sides. '''Bay''' may also refer to: * [[Bay (color)]], a color of the hair coats of horses * [[Bay leaf]], the aromatic leaves of several species of the Laurel family * [[Bay, Somalia]] * [[Bay, Laguna]], a municipality in the Philippines * [[Michael Bay]], an American film director * [[Jason Bay]], a professional baseball player * [[Chancellor Bay]], a royal scribe to an ancient Egyptian ruler * [[Bay (architecture)]], a module in classical or Gothic architecture * [[Baia Mare Airport]] (IATA airport code: '''BAY''') in Baia Mare, Romania '''The Bay''' may refer to: * [[The Bay]], a chain of department stores in Canada, subsidiary of the Hudson's Bay Company * [[The Bay (radio station)]], in North West England {{disambig}} [[cy:Bae]] [[da:Bugt]] [[sv:Bukt]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Book</title> <id>3778</id> <revision> <id>41996948</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:58:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brighterorange</username> <id>219031</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/67.83.101.180|67.83.101.180]] ([[User talk:67.83.101.180|talk]]) to last version by Pvt Parts</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} {{wiktionarypar|book}} A '''book''' is a collection of leaves of [[paper]], [[parchment]] or other material, bound together along one edge within covers. A book is also a literary work or a main division of such a work. A book produced in electronic format is known as an [[e-book]]. In [[library and information science]], a book is called a [[monograph]] to distinguish it from serial [[publication]]s such as [[magazine]]s, [[journal]]s or [[newspaper]]s. Publishers may produce low-cost, pre-proof editions known as '''galleys''' for promotional purposes, such as generating reviews in advance of publication. Galleys are usually made as cheaply as possible, since they are not intended for sale. A lover of books is usually referred to as a [[bibliophilia|bibliophile]], a bibliophilist, or a philobiblist, or, more informally, a [[bookworm]]. A book may be studied by students in the form of a [[book report]]. It may also be covered by a professional writer as a [[book review]] to introduce a new book. Some belong to a [[book club]]. == History == [[Image:Old book bindings.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Historic manuscripts at the [[Merton College library]] at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]].]] The oral account ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories. When [[writing system]]s were invented in [[ancient civilization]]s, [[clay tablet]]s or [[parchment]] [[scroll (parchment)|scroll]]s were used as, for example, in the [[library of Alexandria]]. [[Scroll (parchment)|Scrolls]] were later phased out in favor of the [[codex]], a bound book with [[page (paper)|page]]s and a spine, the form of most books today. The codex was invented in the first few centuries A.D. or earlier. Some have said that [[Julius Caesar]] invented the first codex during the [[Gallic Wars]]. He would issue scrolls folded up accordion style and use the &quot;pages&quot; as reference points. Before the invention and adoption of the [[printing press]], almost all books were copied by hand, which made books comparatively expensive and rare. During the early [[Middle Ages]], when only churches, universities, and rich noblemen could typically afford books, they were often chained to a bookshelf or a [[desk]] to prevent theft. The first books used [[parchment]] or [[vellum parchment|vellum]] (calf skin) for the pages, which was later replaced with [[paper]]. In the mid 15th century books began to be produced by block printing in western Europe (the technique had been known in the East centuries earlier). In block printing, a relief image of an entire page was carved out of wood. It could then be inked and used to reproduce many copies of that page. Creating an entire book, however, was a painstaking process, requiring a hand-carved block for each page. Also, the wood blocks were not durable and could easily wear out or crack. The oldest dated book printed by the method of block printing is ''[[The Diamond Sutra]]''. There is a [[b
estionable. === Television === By the standards of print science fiction, there has been little or no television that would qualify as hard SF. In particular, science itself, and scientific problems, speculations, and discoveries, are rarely if ever a focus of these shows' plots. In their focus on character drama and adventure, television shows are usually much closer to the [[Space opera|space opera]] subgenre. However, some shows have made more of an effort than others toward scientific accuracy. ==== ''Babylon 5'' and ''Crusade'' ==== One science-fiction [[television]] show which has consciously attempted to portray physics correctly is [[J. Michael Straczynski]]'s ''[[Babylon 5]]'', albeit inconsistently especially in later seasons of its half-decade run. The sequel series, ''[[Crusade (TV series)|Crusade]]'', went so far as to formally enter into a working partnership with [[NASA]]'s [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] to ensure scientific accuracy. Certain dramatic elements such as sounds in space, visible lasers in a vacuum, etc., are probably to be expected or even demanded by the casual viewer not deeply familiar with the real science involved, and any television or film SF producer must tread a thin line between pleasing the lowest and highest common denominators in his audience. However, even in these cases, the producers came up with explanations which attempted to produce a consistent physics (i.e. the sounds in space were background music and the lasers were not lasers but plasma bolts). ==== The revised ''Battlestar Galactica'' ==== The so-called &quot;re-imagined&quot; ''[[Battlestar Galactica (2003)|Battlestar Galactica]]'' also uses some of the features of hard SF in order to make the series more realistic than previous television series. For instance, [[extraterrestrial life]] does not appear to exist, thus rendering the story conflicts more internal than external. The [[Cylon (Battlestar Galactica)|Cylons]] of the original series, which consisted of the robotic soldiers of a nearly-extinct reptilian alien race, have been revised as [[android]] servants of humans who later rebel upon gaining some form of [[artificial sentience]]. Since an [[armistice]], the Cylons have evolved from their [[Battlestar Galactica (1978)|original series]]' robot stylings into a form mimicking humans down to the [[cellular]] level. This adds dramas in the form of espionage, psychological manipulation, and suspense, since anyone in the series could turn out to be a disguised Cylon [[sleeper agent|agent]]. Additionally, technology deployed on ''Battlestar'' is similar to present-day technologies: the Cylons and humans use [[projectile|projectile weapons]] and all ships utilize [[reaction control system]]s similar to those seen on the [[NASA]] [[Space Shuttle program|space shuttle]]. Sounds in the space dogfights are mostly muted, by contrast with the impossible sounds of explosions in space that occur most televised space opera. All of the ships in the rag-tag fleet accompanying ''Galactica'' have [[faster-than-light]] ability, although at speeds less than the [[speed of light]] the fleet moves only as fast as the slowest ship. Lightspeed physics appear to avoid violation of [[General Relativity]] principles by using the [[wormhole]] concept of apparent FTL travel, instead of using fantastic energies or materials (à la &quot;[[anti-matter]]&quot; or &quot;[[Dilithium|dilithium crystal]]s,&quot; respectively) for FTL travel. Likewise, the series avoids nonsensical [[technobabble]] to explain events and does not rely on the [[science fiction themes|science fiction cliché]] of [[deflector shield|energy shield]]s. ====''Firefly''==== [[Joss Whedon]]'s short-lived TV series ''[[Firefly (TV series)|Firefly]]'' attempted to be 'harder' than most Television science fiction. There are no extra-terrestrials and the earth-like environments of the worlds are explained as the result of [[terraforming]]. In addition, ''Firefly'' is one of very few TV series to have accurately portrayed the silence of space. === Manga === [[Masamune Shirow]] is a [[manga]] artist who works in the hard SF genre. His works often examine the impact of advanced future technology in society, particularly [[cybernetics]] and information networks. He is known for going into great technical and scientific detail, to the point of using numerous captions and footnotes to explain technical aspects to the reader or even suggest possible theories/implementations for fictional technology. This extends to his drawings, where he will sometimes make a note to explain the function of a stylistic feature of a weapon or robot. He has also created the [[Neurohard]] project, a world in the hard science fiction style to be used by him and other artists. Shirow's work is unique in that it develops in equally great depth the social/cultural aspects in a 'hard' style, again providing notes on ideas, philosophy, etc. and using a somewhat technical approach in discussing ethics and social issues. The ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'' manga (but not the [[anime]]) is a good example of his serious work. ''[[Appleseed]]'' is another story featuring heavy use of advanced technology. === Anime === Also in anime, ''[[Mobile Suit Gundam]]'' marked the maturation of the giant robot genre. Giant warrior robots were initially depicted as colossal superheroic metal giants with inexplicable (sometimes campy) superscience that bordered on magic. Gundam turned these robots into high-tech military hardware that were later given background stories based on a modern understanding of robotics, hydraulics, and military hardware. This gave rise to the [[real robot]] subgenre, a subset of [[mecha]], which also spawned classics such as ''[[Votoms]]'', ''[[The Super Dimension Fortress Macross]]'', and ''[[Robotech]]''. (The creators of the first ''Macross'' series do note that this robotic mecha story is not hard science fiction, but a combination of elements from hard science fiction and other science fiction sub-genres.) [[Cowboy Bebop]] mixes many of the elements of hard science fiction with some elements that are more fantastic. For instance, there is a distinct lack of energy weapons (or [[lasers]]) with a single exception: Spike's plasma cannon. Most hand weapons are typical [[firearms]], even to the point of being models available today. Spaceships usually fire [[rocket]]s, [[rocket propelled grenade]]s, or normal [[machine gun]]s. Most episodes portray physical flight in a way consistent with [[aerodynamics]] principals. When piloted in a vacuum the various ships require reaction jets to turn, and when inside the atmosphere control surfaces usually move correctly. Engines require fuel, and firing weapons produces acceleration. On the other hand, some episodes depict characters with mysterious powers that have no basis in science. == Miscellaneous == An example of a web-based hard science fiction project (where many people contribute different pieces of what becomes a coherent story) is [[Orion's Arm]]. [[A Mind Forever Voyaging]] is a [[text adventure]] written by [[Steve Meretzky]] while working for the [[software]] company [[Infocom]] in [[1986]]. The player assumed the role of a sophisticated [[computer]] with [[artificial intelligence]] tasked with investigating the effects of proposed [[legal]] and [[constitutional]] [[reforms]] in a future [[United States|American]] [[society]]. The game was clearly intended as a critique of political and social trends in American society during the [[Reagan]] administration. A fan organization that has grown up around Hard Science Fiction is [[General Technics]], populated by scientists, technical folks, and others with a specific interest in this area. General Technics' name is taken from the organization that created a global-scale computer in [[John Brunner (novelist)|John Brunner]]'s novel, ''[[Stand on Zanzibar]]''. General Technics, though concentrated in the American Midwest, has a global membership. ==External links== *[http://www.hardsf.net HardSF.net : Hard Science Fiction Culture] == See also == * [[Science fiction]] * [[Soft science fiction]] * [[Science fiction themes]] [[Category:Science fiction genres]] [[cs:Hard science fiction]] [[es:Ciencia ficción dura]] [[ko:하드 SF]] [[it:Fantascienza hard]] [[nl:Harde SF]] [[ja:ハードSF]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Handloading</title> <id>13863</id> <revision> <id>41252052</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T02:00:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cmdrjameson</username> <id>101935</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>sp (4): becomming→becoming, desireable→desirable, interchangable→interchangeable, ocasions→occasions</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Handloading''' is the process used to create [[firearm]] [[cartridge (weaponry)|cartridges]] by hand versus those put together ''en masse'' and sold commercially, generally in packages of 6 to 50. When previously fired cases are used, the process is often called '''reloading'''. Generally only boxer primed cases (see [[internal ballistics]]) are reloaded, though there are exceptions. ==Reasons for handloading== The most common motivations for handloading cartridges are increased accuracy and cost savings, though handloaders may sacrifice one for the other. Reloading fired cases can save the shooter a significant amount of money, as the case is usually the major cost of a cartridge. The handloader can also create cartridges for which there are no commercial equivalents, such as [[wildcat cartridge]]s. Collectors of obsolete firearms often have to handload since many obsolete cartridges are no longer produced. [[Hunter]]s may desire cartridges with specialized bullets. [[Shooting sports|Target shooters]] seek optimum accuracy. Many handloaders customize their cartridges to their specific gun. This is usually in the pursuit of a
' | align=center | {{IPA|ai}} | align=center | {{IPA|au}} | align=center | {{IPA|ae}} | align=center | {{IPA|ao}} |} ===Syllable structure=== Hawaiian [[syllable]]s may contain zero or one consonants in the [[syllable onset|onset]]; unlike many languages, Hawaiian syllables with no onset contrast with syllables beginning with the [[glottal stop]]: {{IPA|/alo/}} &quot;front, face&quot; contrasts with {{IPA|/ʔalo/}} &quot;to dodge, evade&quot;. [[Syllable coda|Coda]]s and [[consonant cluster]]s are prohibited. ==Orthography== Hawaiian is written in a variety of the [[Latin alphabet]], called ''ka {{Unicode|pīʻāpā Hawaiʻi}}'' in Hawaiian. {| cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- align=&quot;center&quot; ! Aa || Ee || Hh || Ii || Kk || Ll || Mm || Nn || Oo || Pp || Uu || Ww || {{Unicode|[[okina|ʻ]]}} |- align=&quot;center&quot; | /a/ || /e/ || /h/ || /i/ || /k/ || /l/ || /m/ || /n/ || /o/ || /p/ || /u/ || /w/ || {{IPA|/ʔ/}} |} All the letters have their [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] value, except for '''{{Unicode|ʻ}}''', called ''{{Unicode|[[ʻOkina|ʻokina]]}}'', which is the [[glottal stop]]. Vowel length is marked by a [[macron]] (called ''kahak&amp;#333;'') above the vowel, i.e. '''Āā Ēē Īī Ōō Ūū'''. The macron does not represent [[stress (linguistics)|stress]], although under the rules for assigning stress in Hawaiian, a long vowel will always receive stress. ===The {{Unicode|ʻokina}}=== :''Main article: {{Unicode|[[ʻOkina|ʻokina]]}}'' The {{Unicode|ʻokina}} is officially written as '''{{Unicode|ʻ}}''' with the [[Unicode]] value &amp;amp;#x02bb; (decimal &amp;amp;#699), which although always having the correct appearance is not supported in some fonts/browsers, or alternatively written as an opening single quote '''‘''' with the [[Unicode]] value &amp;amp;#x2018; (decimal &amp;amp;#8216;), which appears either as a left-leaning quote or a quote with greater thickness at the bottom than at the top. For examples of use of the ''{{Unicode|ʻokina}}'' consider the word &quot;{{Unicode|[[Hawaii|Hawaiʻi]]}}&quot;, or &quot;{{Unicode|[[Oahu|Oʻahu]]}}&quot; (often simply &quot;Hawaii&quot; and &quot;Oahu&quot; outside [[Hawaiian English]]). The words are actually pronounced (using [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]): {{IPA|/ha.ˈʋai.ʔi/}} and {{IPA|/o.ˈʔa.hu/}}, with a [[glottal stop]] where the {{Unicode|ʻokina}} is written. ==See also== *The [[Wiktionary:Category:Hawaiian language|list of Hawaiian words]] and [[Wiktionary:Category:Hawaiian derivations|list of words of Hawaiian origin]] at [[Wiktionary]], the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project *[[Languages in the United States]] ==References== * {{cite book | last = Elbert | first = Samuel H. | coauthors = Mary Kawena Pukui | title = Hawaiian Grammar | location = Honolulu | publisher = University of {{Unicode | Hawaiʻi }} Press | Year = 1979 | ID = ISBN 0824816374 }} * {{cite book | last = Pukui | first = Mary Kawena | coauthors = Samuel H. Elbert | title = Hawaiian Dictionary | location = Honolulu | publisher = University of {{Unicode | Hawaiʻi }} Press | Year = 1986 | ID = ISBN 0-8248-0703-0 }} * {{cite book | last = Schutz | first = Albert J. | title = The Voices of Eden: A History of Hawaiian Language Studies | location = Honolulu | publisher = University of {{Unicode | Hawaiʻi }} Press | Year = 1994 | ID = ISBN 0-8248-1637-4 }} ==External links== {{InterWiki|code=haw}} *[http://ulukau.org/english.php Ulukau - the Hawaiian electronic library] *[http://wehewehe.org/cgi-bin/hdict?e=q-0hdict--00-0-0--010---4----den--0-000l--1haw-Zz-1---Zz-1-home---00031-0000escapewin-00&amp;d=&amp;l=en Hawaiian Dictionary] *[http://ask.yahoo.com/ask/20011204.html/ Ask Yahoo!: How many people still speak Hawaiian?] *[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=haw Ethnologue report for Hawaiian] *[http://www.geocities.com/~olelo/ The Hawaiian Language Website] *[http://home.attbi.com/~pgdt/Phonology/austro.html Information and a resource link on Hawaiian.] *[http://www.olelo.hawaii.edu/dual/orgs/keelikolani/ Ka Haka {{Unicode|ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani}}, College of Hawaiian Language] *[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/hawaiian.htm Omniglot Hawaiian article] *[http://ksdl.ksbe.edu/kulaiwi/ Kulaiwi] &amp;mdash; learn Hawaiian through distance learning courses *[http://www.ahapunanaleo.org/ Aha Punana Leo] *[http://www.starbulletin.com/kauakukalahale.php/ Kauakukalahale] [[Category:Hawaiian language| ]] [[Category:Languages of the United States]] [[Category:Languages of Oceania]] [[Category:Polynesian languages]] [[Category:Marquesic languages]] [[ca:Hawaià]] [[da:Hawaiiansk (sprog)]] [[de:Hawaiianische Sprache]] [[eo:Havaja lingvo]] [[es:Idioma hawaiano]] [[fi:Havaijin kieli]] [[fr:Langue hawaiienne]] [[haw:ʻōlelo Hawaiʻi]] [[ja:ハワイ語]] [[li:Hawaiïaans]] [[lt:Havajiečių kalba]] [[nl:Hawaïaans]] [[pl:Język hawajski]] [[pt:Língua havaiana]] [[simple:Hawaiian language]] [[sk:Havajčina]] [[sl:Havajščina]] [[sm:Gagana faʼa Hawaiʼi]] [[sv:Hawaiianska]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Homosexuality Causal theories</title> <id>14243</id> <revision> <id>15911809</id> <timestamp>2005-05-10T02:15:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Beland</username> <id>57939</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Sexual_orientation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Second Polish Republic</title> <id>14245</id> <revision> <id>41604883</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:16:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ta bu shi da yu</username> <id>75749</id> </contributor> <comment>Remove copyrighted TIME image. Sorry, fair use does not apply in this instance</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rzeczpospolita 1920.png|thumb|300px|Second Polish Republic 1921-1939]] The '''Second Polish Republic''' is an unofficial name applied to the [[Republic of Poland]] between [[World War I]] and [[World War II]]. When the borders of the state were fixed in [[1921]], it had an area of 388.6 thousand sq. km. (sixth largest in Europe), and 27.2 million inhabitants according to the census of that year. In [[1939]], just before the outbreak of [[World War II]], it had an estimated 35.1 million inhabitants. A third of these were national minorities (17% [[Ukraine|Ukrainians]] and [[Belarus|Belarusians]],10% [[Jew]]s, 5% [[Germany|Germans]], and 1% percent [[Lithuania]]ns, [[Russia]]ns and [[Czech Republic|Czechs]]). ==History== {{Template:Polish statehood}} {{main|History of Poland (1918-1939)}} Occupied by [[Germany|German]] and [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] armies in the summer of [[1915]], the formerly Russian-ruled part of what was considered Poland was proclaimed an independent kingdom by the occupying powers on [[November 5]], [[1916]], with a governing Council of State and (from [[October 15]], [[1917]]) a Regency Council (''Rada Regencyjna Królestwa Polskiego'') to administer the country under German auspices pending the election of a king. Shortly before the end of [[World War I]], on [[October 7]], [[1918]], the Regency Council dissolved the Council of State and announced its intention to restore Polish independence. With the notable exception of the [[Marxism|Marxist]]-oriented [[Social Democratic Party of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania]] (SDKPiL), most political parties supported this move. On [[October 23]] the Council appointed a new government under [[Józef Swierzynski]] and began conscription into the [[Polish Army]]. On [[November 5]], in [[Lublin]], the first [[Soviet of Delegates]] was created. On [[November 6]] the [[Communism|Communists]] announced the creation of a [[Republic of Tarnobrzeg]]. The same day, a Provisional People's Government of the Republic of Poland was created under the Socialist, [[Ignacy Daszynski]]. On [[November 10]], [[Jozef Pilsudski|Józef Piłsudski]], newly freed from imprisonment by the German authorities at [[Magdeburg]], returned to [[Warsaw]]. Next day, due to his popularity and support from most political parties, the [[Regency Council]] appointed Piłsudski [[Commander in Chief of the Polish Armed Forces]]. On [[November 14]] the Council dissolved itself and transferred all its authority to Piłsudski as Chief of State (''Naczelnik Państwa''). Centers of government that were created in [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] (formerly Austrian-ruled southern Poland) included a National Council of the [[Principality of Cieszyn]] (created on November 19??) and a [[Polish Liquidation Committee]] (created on [[October 28]]). Soon afterward, conflict broke out in [[Lviv]] (Polish ''Lwów'') between forces of the [[Military Committee of Ukrainians]] and the Polish [[&quot;Eagles&quot; of Lwów]]. After consultation with Pilsudski, Daszynski's government dissolved itself and a new government was created under [[Jedrzej Moraczewski]]. ---- [[Image:Powstancy Wlkp.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Soldiers of Greatpolish Army, 1919]] [[Image:Polish-soviet war 1920 Aftermath of Battle of Warsaw.jpg|thumb|350px|center|Polish soldiers displaying captured Soviet battle flags after the [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]].]] == List of events == [[Image:Armoured Car Korfanty 1920.jpg|thumb|150px|righ|Polish [[armoured car]] ''Korfanty'' in 1920 in the Silesian Uprisings]] [[Image:Roman Dmowski.JPG|thumb|120px|right|Roman Dmowski]] &lt;!-- [[Image:Rydz Smigly Bulawa1.jpg|180px|right|thumb|[[Edward Rydz-Smigly|Edward Rydz-Śmigły]] receiving the [[Marshal]] [[bulawa|buława]] from [[president of Poland]] [[Ignacy Moscicki|Ignacy Mościcki]]. [[November 10]], [[1936]], [[Warsaw]].]] --&gt; * Elections to the Sejm: [[January 26]], [[1919]]. * [[Treaty of Versailles]] * War against the Ukrainians: [[Polish-Ukrainian War]]. * War against the Soviets: [[Polish-Soviet War]]
otential hemopoietic stem cell|haematopoietic stem cells]]. In developing embryos, blood formation occurs in aggregates of blood cells, called [[blood islands]]. As development progresses, the blood formation will occur in the [[spleen]], [[liver]] and [[lymph nodes]]. When bone marrow becomes developed, it will assume the task of forming most of the [[erythrocytes]] and [[granulocytes]]. Lymphoid organs continue to produce most of the mature [[lymphocytes]] and [[monocytes]], though lymphoid progenitor cells originate in the bone marrow. While most of the haematopoiesis in adults occurs in the bone marrow of the [[femur]]s (also the [[rib]]s and [[sternum]]), the liver, thymus, and spleen may resume their haematopoietic function if necessary (called ''extramedullary haematopoiesis''). In some vertebrate forms, haematopoiesis can occur wherever there is a loose [[stroma]] of connective tissue and slow blood supply, such as the [[gut]], [[spleen]], [[kidney]] or [[ovaries]]. {{med-stub}} ==External links== * [http://www.mcl.tulane.edu/classware/pathology/Krause/Blood/HP.html Tulane] [[Category:Blood cells]] [[cs:Krvetvorba]] [[fr:Hématopoïèse]] [[ru:Гемопоэз]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hogmanay</title> <id>14375</id> <revision> <id>39989415</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T08:38:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cactus.man</username> <id>264914</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.142.143.114|212.142.143.114]] to last version by 123456nbvdfgghj</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hogmanay''' ([[Scottish English|pronounced]] {{IPA|[&amp;#716;hɔgm&amp;#601;'ne:]}} &amp;mdash; with the main stress on the last syllable - hog-muh-NAY) is the [[Scots Language|Scots]] word for the last day of the year and is synonymous with the celebration of the [[New Year]] in the Scottish manner. Its official date is the [[31 December]]. However this is normally only the start of a celebration which lasts through the night until the morning of the [[1 January]] or, in many cases, [[2 January]]. ==Origins== The roots of Hogmanay reach back to the [[Paganism|pagan]] celebration of the [[winter solstice]]. In [[Europe]], this evolved into the ancient celebration of [[Saturnalia]], a great [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[winter]] festival, where people celebrated completely free of restraint and inhibition. The [[Viking]]s celebrated [[Yule]], which later became the [[Twelve Days of Christmas]], or the &quot;Daft Days&quot; as they were sometimes called in Scotland. The winter festival went underground with the [[Protestant Reformation]] and ensuing years, but re-emerged near the end of the [[17th century]]. ==Customs== There are many customs, both national and local, associated with Hogmanay. The most widespread national custom is the practice of ''[[First-Foot|first-footing]]'' which starts immediately after midnight. This involves being the first person to cross the threshold of a friend or neighbour and often involves the giving of symbolic gifts such as salt (less common today), coal, [[shortbread]], whisky, and black bun (a fruit pudding) intended to bring different kinds of luck to the householder. Food and drink are then given to the guests. This may go on throughout the early hours of the morning and well into the next day. The first-foot is supposed to set the luck for the rest of the year, so it is important that a suitable person does the job. A tall, handsome, and dark-haired man bearing a gift is strongly preferred. According to popular folklore, a man with dark hair was welcomed because he was assumed to be a fellow Scotsman; a blonde or red haired stranger was assumed to be an unwelcome [[Norseman]]. An example of a local Hogmanay custom is the fireball swinging which takes place in [[Stonehaven, Scotland|Stonehaven]], [[Kincardineshire]] in north-east Scotland. This involves local people making up ''balls'' of chicken wire, tar, paper and other flammable material to a diameter of about a metre. Each ball has 2 m of wire, chain or non-flammable rope attached. The balls are then each assigned to a swinger who swings the ball round and round their head and body by the rope while walking through the streets of [[Stonehaven, Scotland|Stonehaven]] from the harbour to the Sheriff court and back. At the end of the ceremony any fireballs which are still burning are cast into the harbour. Many people enjoy this display which is more impressive in the dark than it would be during the day. As a result large crowds flock to the town to see it. The Hogmanay custom of singing [[Auld Lang Syne]] (a traditional poem reinterpreted by [[Robert Burns]] which was later set to music is commonly practiced), has become common in many countries. When sang outside Scotland the words are often corrupted with a common mistake being to sing &quot;For the Sake of Auld Lang Syne&quot; in the place of &quot;For auld lang syne!&quot; ==Presbyterian Influence== The Presbyterian Church generally disapproved of Hogmanay. The following quote is one of the first mentions of the holiday in official church records: &quot;It is ordinary among some plebeians in the South of Scotland to go about from door to door upon New-years Eve, crying Hagmane.&quot; ''1692 Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence'' (ed. 2) p82. Until the [[1960s]], Hogmanay and Ne'erday (a contraction of &quot;New Year's Day&quot; in Scots dialect, according to the OED) in Scotland took the place of Christmas Eve and Christmas Day in the rest of the UK. Although Christmas Day held its normal religious nature, the Presbyterian national church, the [[Church of Scotland]], had discouraged its celebration for over 300 years. As a result Christmas Day was a normal working day in Scotland until the 1960s and even into the [[1970s]] in some areas. The gift-giving, public holidays and feasting associated with mid-winter were held between the [[31 December]] and [[2 January]] rather than between [[24 December]] and [[26 December]]. With the fading of the Church's influence and the introduction of English cultural values via television and immigration, the transition to Christmas feasting was well-nigh complete by the [[1980s]]. However, [[1 January]] and [[2 January]] remain public holidays in Scotland, despite the addition of Christmas Day and Boxing Day to the public holiday list, and Hogmanay still is associated with as much celebration as Christmas in Scotland. Most Scots still celebrate Ne'erday with a special dinner, usually [[steak pie]]. ==Ne'erday== When Ne'erday falls on a Sunday, [[3 January]] becomes an additional public holiday in Scotland; when Ne'erday falls on a Saturday, both [[3 January]] and [[4 January]] will be public holidays in Scotland. As in the rest of the world, the four largest Scottish cities, [[Glasgow]], [[Edinburgh]], [[Aberdeen]] and [[Dundee]], hold all-night celebrations, as does [[Stirling]]. The Edinburgh Hogmanay celebrations are among the largest in the world, though in 2003-4 most of the organised events were cancelled at short notice due to very high winds. ==Handsel Day== Historically presents were given in Scotland on the first Monday of the New Year. This would be celebrated often by the employer giving his staff presents and parents giving children presents. A roast dinner would be eaten to celebrate the festival. Handsel was a word for gift box and hence Handsel Day. In modern Scotland this practice has died out. ==Etymology== The [[etymology]] of the word is obscure. Suggestions that have been made include: * [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] ''h' og maidne'' (&quot;new morning&quot;) * The Gaelic expression &quot;theacht mean oiche&quot; (&quot;the arrival of midnight&quot;, pronounced &quot;heacht meawn eehe&quot;) * Gaelic ''ocht mean oiche'' (&quot;eighth midnight&quot; (from Christmas)) * [[Old English language|Old English]] ''haleg mona&amp;thorn;'' (&quot;Holy Month&quot;) * [[Norman language|Norman]] ''hoguinané'' * [[Manx]] word [[Hop-tu-Naa]] (31st October) - the Old Celtic new year. **Compare the obsolete customs in [[Jersey]] of crying ''ma hodgîngnole'', and in [[Guernsey]] of asking for an ''oguinane'', for a New Year gift * [[Old French]] ''anguillanneuf'' (&quot;gift at New Year&quot;) * [[French language|French]] ''au gui mener'' (&quot;lead to the mistletoe&quot;), ''au gui l'an neuf'' (&quot;to the mistletoe the new year&quot;), ''(l')homme est né'' (&quot;(the) man is born&quot;) * [[Flemish language|Flemish]] ''hoog min dag'' (&quot;day of great love&quot;) * [[Greek language|Greek]] ''αγια μηνη'' (&quot;holy month&quot;) * [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''[[aguinaldo]]'' (&quot;Christmas gift&quot;) However none of these is more than guesswork. ''Brand's Popular Antiquities'' (1859) describes a custom in [[Kent]] of ''going a hodening'' at Christmas, going round the houses in procession and singing carols, accompanied by a sort of hobby-horse. ==References== *''Observations on the Popular Antiquities of Great Britain'', Brand, London, 1859 *''Dictiounnaire Angllais-Guernesiais'', de Garis, Chichester, 1982 *''Dictionnaire Jersiais-Français'', Le Maistre, Jersey, 1966 *''1692 Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence'', Edinburgh ==External links== *[http://www.hogmanay.net/ Hogmanay.net - the home of Scotland's Hogmanay] *[http://www.edinburghshogmanay.org/ Edinburgh's Hogmanay Official Web Site] *[http://www.thebookofdays.com/months/jan/4.htm Handsel Day Page on The Book of Days] [[Category:Scottish culture]] [[Category:Winter holidays]] [[Category:Christmas-linked holidays]] [[Category:New Year celebrations]] [[de:Hogmanay]] [[nl:Hogmanay]] [[sco:Hogmanay]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hamster</title> <id>14376</id> <revision> <id>42131653</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:55:56Z</timestamp> <contributor>
d as being frequency of church attendance and self-evaluation) also affected their level of opposition towards euthanasia. Individuals who attended church regularly and more frequently and considered themselves more religious were found to be more opposed than to those who had a lower level of religiosity {{ref|Burdette}}. === Race and Ethnicity === Recent studies have shown a difference in acceptance of euthanasia among different racial and ethnic groups. Compared to African Americans, Caucasians were found to be more accepting of euthanasia as a whole. They are also more likely to have advance directives and to use other end of life measures.{{ref|Werth}} African Americans are 2.8 times more likely to oppose euthanasia than Caucasians. The main reason for this discrepancy is attributed to the lower levels of trust in the medical establishment.{{ref|Jennings}} Researchers believe that past history of abuses towards minority in medicine (such as the [[Tuskegee Syphilis Study]]) have made minority groups less trustful of the level of care they receive. Studies have also found that there are significant disparities in the treatment and pain management that non-Caucasian groups received in the health care setting.{{ref|Werth}} Within African Americans, level of education has also contributed to whether an individual would support euthanasia. Without a four-year college degree, African Americans were 2.24 times more likely to oppose euthanasia than those who did attain one. However, level of education does not significantly influence any other group. Some researchers also suggest that African Americans also tend to be more religious, however this is a claim that is difficult to substantiate and define.{{ref|Jennings}} However, only these two groups have been studied in extensive detail. Although it has been found that non-Caucasian groups are less supportive of euthanasia than Caucasians, there is still some ambiguity as to what degree this is true. === Gender === The research on differences in attitudes towards euthanasia across gender has shown that overall, gender is not considered a significant factor in predicting opinion. However, some studies have shown that there are differences in views between males and females. A recent Gallup Poll found that 84% of males supported euthanasia compared to 64% of females.{{ref|Moore}} Some cite the prior studies showing that women have a higher level of religiosity and moral conservatism as a reason of explanation. Within both genders, there are differences in attitudes towards euthanasia due to other influences. For example, one study found that African American women are 2.37 times more likely to oppose euthanasia than Caucasian women. African American men are 3.61 times more likely to oppose euthanasia than Caucasian men.{{ref|Jennings}} === Economic Education === While the United States has a rather advanced health care system, it also contains a large population of uninsured poor and working class people that are not always able to afford to take advantage of it. In the debate over whether to legalize euthanasia, many academics fear that people lacking the resources to afford alternative options would become over represented in the percentage of those who did chose euthanasia. Several studies have shown that subjects from low-income groups oppose euthanasia more than other income groups. Compared to other factors, income level is not a strong predictor of support for euthanasia. For females, income level is less of predictor than in males.{{ref|Jennings}} === Euthanasia by Omission in America: The Texas Futile Care Law === On March 15, 2005, six month old [[infant]] [[Sun Hudson]] was the first person to die under The [[Texas Futile Care Law]] signed by then Governor [[George W. Bush]]. [http://lawprofessors.typepad.com/healthlawprof_blog/2005/03/lifesupport_sto.html] In December 2005, a controversial case under Texas law involved [[Tirhas Habtegiris]], a young woman and legal immigrant from Africa. Under the law, in some situations, Texas hospitals and physicians have the right to withdraw life support on a patient who they declare terminally ill.[http://www.capitol.state.tx.us/statutes/docs/HS/content/htm/hs.002.00.000166.00.htm] == See also == *[[Manslaughter]] *[[Omission (criminal)|Omission]] *[[Suicide Act 1961]] *[[Karl Binding]] *[[Alfred Hoche]] *[[Werner Catel]] *[[Jack Kevorkian]] *[[Diane Pretty]] *[[Texas Futile Care Law]] == References == #{{note|Burdette}}Burdette, Amy M; Hill, Terrence D; Moulton, Benjamin E. Religion and Attitudes toward Physician-Assisted Suicide and Terminal Palliative Care. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 2005, 44, 1, Mar, 79-93. #{{note|Jennings}}Jennings, Patricia K.,Talley, Clarence R.. A Good Death?: White Privilege and Public Opinion. Race, Gender, &amp; Class. New Orleans: Jul 31, 2003. Vol. 10, Iss. 3; pg. 42. #{{note|Moore}}Moore, D. (2005 May 17). “Three in Four Americans Support Euthanasia.” The Gallup Organization. #{{note|Werth}}Werth Jr., James L.; Blevins, Dean; Toussaint, Karine L.; Durham, Martha R. The influence of cultural diversity on end-of-life care and decisions. The American Behavioral Scientist; Oct 2002; 46, 2; pg 204-219. == External links == ===Neutral=== *[http://www.religionfacts.com/euthanasia/index.htm Euthanasia and Religion] - various religious views of euthanasia *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/ethics/euthanasia/ Religion and Ethics - Euthanasia] - many views of euthanasia, for, against, and religious ===For euthanasia=== * [http://www.compassionandchoices.org/ Compassion &amp; Choices] - provides education, support and advocacy for the choice-in-dying movement * [http://www.dignityindying.org.uk/ Dignity in Dying] - leading campaigning organisation promoting patient choice at the end of life * [http://www.worldrtd.net/ World Federation of Right To Die Societies] * [http://www.assistedsuicide.org/ Assisted Suicide] * [http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/ve.htm Voluntary Euthanasia]- Atheist Foundation of Australia Inc * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/euthanasia-voluntary/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry] * [http://www.cosmoetica.com/B121-DES72.htm A defense of euthanasia] ===Against euthanasia=== *[http://www.carenotkilling.org.uk/ www.carenotkilling.org.uk] - Care NOT Killing: a UK alliance promoting palliative care, opposing euthanasia and assisted suicide *[http://www.euthanasia.com/ euthanasia.com] *[http://www.nrlc.org/euthanasia/ National Right to Life articles on euthanasia] *[http://www.internationaltaskforce.org/ International Task Force against Euthanasia]- many resources *[http://www.starcourse.org/euthanasia.htm Non-religious arguments against euthanasia] *[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/speeches/2000/jan-mar/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_20000214_acd-life_en.html/ A Papal encyclical dealing with a number of issues of life and death including euthanasia] *[http://www.alleanzacattolica.org/idis_dpf/english/e_euthanasia.htm A brief presentation of the issue and the Christian Catholic viewpoint on it] ===By country=== ;Netherlands: *Official: **[http://www.minvws.nl/images/broch-euthanasie-nl_tcm10-16130.pdf Ministry of Justice brochure on euthanasia and PAS] (PDF, in Dutch) **[http://www.minvws.nl/en/themes/euthanasia/ Ministry of Health on euthanasia and PAS] **[http://www.toetsingscommissieseuthanasie.nl/pdf/jaarverslag2003_engels.pdf Joint annual report 2003 of the Regional Euthanasia Review Conmmittees] (PDF) *For: **[http://www.nvve.nl/english/ Right to Die-NL] - Dutch union for voluntary termination of life NVVE **[http://www.internationaltaskforce.org/holbors.htm NRC Handelblad April 14, 2001 interview of Els Borst: Transparency in Euthanasia]- Note that this is from an anti-euthanasia web site, but claims to be merely a translation of a [http://www.nrc.nl/W2/Nieuws/2001/04/14/Vp/01a.html Dutch article]. Els Borst is a prominent Dutch advocate of Euthanasia. *Against: **[http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/342/8/551?hits=20&amp;where=fulltext&amp;andorexactfulltext=and&amp;searchterm=complications+from+assisted+suicide&amp;sortspec=Score%2Bdesc%2BPUBDATE_SORTDATE%2Bdesc&amp;excludeflag=TWEEK_element&amp;searchid=1100279357113_6876&amp;FIRSTINDEX=0&amp;journalcode=nejm Clinical Problems with the Performance of Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide in the Netherlands, NEJM, February 24, 2000] **[http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/apr19/hendin/hendin.html Consultants or Facilitators? Medical Journal of Australia, 1999 Editorial]- Cites original research, including that on alternative palliative care **[http://opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=95000390 Wall Street Journal Article on Dutch Euthanasia] The article claims that unofficial Euthanasia is performed on as many as sixteen adults per day (90% of adult physician-assisted deaths), and 8% of all infants, often without patient consultation, according to Dutch statistics. This source claims that many old Dutch people are afraid to go to the hospital, citing the existence of cards stating [http://www.nizw.nl/Thesaurus/levenswensverklaringen.htm Do Not Euthanize] carried by some in the Netherlands. **[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/004/616jszlg.asp Weekly Standard Article Claiming Unauthorized Euthanasia of Dutch Infants] **[http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/comment121800d.shtml December 18, 2000 National Review Opinion, Wesley Smith]- Cites statistics showing frequent involuntary physician-assisted deaths in the Netherlands. ;United States: *[http://www.ohd.hr.state.or.us/chs/pas/pas.cfm Oregon's Death with Dignity Act (State Website)] *[[Futile care law|Texas — The Futile Care Law]] ;Canada: *[http://www.epcc.ca/ The Euthanasia Prevention Coalition of Canada] &lt;!-- Meta Data --&gt; [[Category:Euthanasia|Euthanasia]] [[Category:Core issues in ethics]] [[Category:Medical ethics]] [[Category:Palliative medicine]] [[
the administration of [[anesthesia]]. {{ref|pain2}} Others suggest that the human experience of pain, being more than just physiological, cannot be measured in such [[reflexive]] responses. ====Mental health==== Some women will experience negative feelings as a result of elective abortion. However, whether this phenomenon is significant enough to warrant a general diagnosis, or even classification as an independent syndrome (see [[post-abortion syndrome]]), is a subject that is debated among members of the medical community. Data on the incidence of [[clinical depression]], [[mental illness]], [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], and suicide in association with abortion remain inconclusive. {{ref|mental1}} A comparative analysis of the suicide rates among [[postnatal| postpartum]] and post-abortive women in [[Finland]] found a [[statistics| statistical]] correlation between abortion and suicide. {{ref|mental2}} Other studies have suggested a link between the elective termination of an unwanted [[pregnancy]] and an improvement in reported mental well-being. {{ref|mental3}} Elective abortion may reduce the occurrence of depression in cases of unwanted pregnancy, as compared to cases in which the pregnancy has been carried to completion, but it is also sometimes reported as an additional [[stressor]] ([[ibid.]]). The majority of evidence would seem to indicate that adverse emotional reactions to the procedure are most strongly influenced by pre-existing [[psychology| psychological]] conditions and other negative factors ([[ibid.]]). Spontaneous abortion, or [[miscarriage]], is known to present an increased risk of [[depression]] in women. {{ref|mental4}} ==History of abortion== {{main|History of abortion}} [[Image:TansyPills.jpg|thumb|right|90px|Bottom-most: &quot;Dr. Caton's Tansy Pills!&quot; An example of a clandestine advertisement.]] The practice of induced abortion, according to some [[anthropologists]], can be traced to ancient times. There is evidence to suggest that, historically, pregnancies were terminated through a number of methods, including the administration of [[abortifacient]] herbs, the use of sharpened implements, the application of abdominal pressure, and other techniques. [[Soranus]], a 2nd century [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[physician]], suggested in his work ''[[Gynecology]]'' that women wishing to abort their pregnancies should engage in violent exercise, energetic jumping, carrying heavy objects, and riding animals. He also prescribed a number of recipes for herbal bathes, [[pessary| pessaries]], and [[bloodletting]], but advised against the use of sharp instruments to induce miscarriage due to the risk of organ [[perforation]]. {{ref|history1}} It is also known that the ancient Greeks relied upon the herb [[silphium]] as both a [[contraceptive]] and an [[abortifacient]]. The plant, as the chief export of [[Cyrene]], was driven to [[extinction]], but it is suggested that it might have possessed the same abortive properties as some of its closest extant relatives in the [[Apiaceae|Apiaceae family]]. Such folk remedies, however, varied in effectiveness and were not without risk. [[Tansy]] and [[pennyroyal]], for example, are two [[poison|poisonous]] [[herbs]] with serious [[Adverse effect (medicine)|side effects]] that have at times been used to terminate pregnancy. [[19th-century]] [[medicine]] saw advances in the fields of [[surgery]], [[anaesthesia]], and [[sanitation]], in the same era that doctors with the [[American Medical Association]] lobbied for bans on abortion in [[The United States]] and the [[British Parliament]] passed the Offences Against the Person Act. Demand for the procedure continued, however, as the disguised, but nonetheless open, advertisement of abortion services in Victorian times would seem to suggest. {{ref|history2}} ==Social issues== A number of of complex issues exist in the debate over abortion. These, like the suggested effects upon health listed above, are a focus of research and a fixture of discussion among members on all sides the controversy. ===Effect upon crime rate=== {{Main|legalized abortion and crime effect}} A controversial theory attempts to draw a [[correlation]] between the unprecedented nationwide decline of the overall [[crime rate]] witnessed in the [[United States]] during the 1990s and the decriminalization of abortion 20 years prior. The suggestion was brought to widespread attention by a 1999 [[academic paper]], ''[[The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime]]'', authored by the [[economist]]s [[Steven Levitt| Steven D. Levitt]] and [[John Donohue]]. They attributed the drop in crime to a reduction in individuals said to have a higher statistical probability of committing crimes: unwanted children, especially those born to mothers who are [[African-American]], [[poverty| impoverished]], [[teenage pregnancy|adolescent]], [[education|uneducated]], and [[single parent|single]]. The change coincided with what would've been the adolescence, or peak years of potential criminality, of those who had not been born as a result of ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' and similar cases. Donohue and Levitt's study also noted that states which legalized abortion before the rest of the nation experienced the lowering crime rate pattern earlier and that those with higher abortion rates had more pronounced reductions. {{ref|crimerate1}} Fellow economists [[Christopher Foote]] and [[Christopher Goetz]] criticized the [[methodology]] in the Donahue-Levitt study, noting a lack of accommodation for statewide yearly variations such as [[cocaine]] use, and recalculating based on incidence of crime [[per capita]]; they found no [[statistically significant|statistically significant]] results. {{ref|crimerate2}} Levitt and Donohue responded to this by presenting an adjusted [[data set]] which took into account these concerns but, they claim, maintained the statistical significance of their initial paper. {{ref|crimerate3}} Such research has been criticized by some as being [[utilitarian]], [[discrimination|discriminatory]] as to [[race]] and [[social class|socioeconomic class]], and as promoting [[eugenic]]s as a solution to [[crime]]. {{ref|crimerate4}} {{ref|crimerate5}} Levitt states in his book, ''[[Freakonomics]]'', that they are neither promoting nor negating any course of action &amp;ndash; merely reporting data as economists. ===Sex-selective abortion=== {{Main|sex-selective abortion and infanticide}} The advent of both [[ultrasound]] and [[amniocentesis]] has allowed [[parent]]s to determine [[sex]] before [[childbirth|birth]]. This has lead to the occurrence of [[sex-selective abortion and infanticide|sex-selective abortion]] or the targeted termination of a [[fetus]] based upon its gender. It is suggested that sex-selective abortion might be partially responsible for the noticeable disparities between the [[birth rate]]s of [[male]] and [[female]] children in some places. The preference for male children is reported in many areas of [[Asia]], and the use of abortion to limit female births has been reported in [[Mainland China]], [[Taiwan]], [[South Korea]], and [[India]]. {{ref|sexselective1}} In [[India]], the [[economic]] role of [[men]], the costs associated with [[dowry| dowries]], and a [[Hindu]] tradition which dictates that [[funeral|funeral rites]] must be performed by a male relative have lead to a [[culture| cultural]] preference for [[son]]s. {{ref|sexselective2}} The widespread availability of diagnostic testing, during the 1970s and '80s, lead to advertisements for services which read, &quot;Invest 500 [[rupee]]s [for a sex test] now, save 50,000 rupees [for a dowry] later.&quot; {{ref|sexselective3}} In 1991, the male-to-female [[sex ratio]] in India was skewed from its biological norm of 105 to 100, to an average of 108 to 100. {{ref|sexselective4}} Researchers have asserted that between 1985 and 2005 as many as 10 million female fetuses may have been selectively aborted. {{ref|india1}} The Indian government passed an official ban of pre-natal sex screening in 1994 and moved to pass a complete ban of sex-selective abortion in 2002. {{ref|sexselective5}} In the [[People's Republic of China]], there is also a historic son preference. The implementation of the [[one-child policy]] in 1979, in response to population concerns, lead to an increased disparities in the sex ratio as parents attempted to circumvent the law through sex-selective abortion or the abandonment of unwanted [[daughter]]s. {{ref|sexselective6}} Sex-selective abortion might be a part of what is behind the shift from the baseline male-to-female birth rate to an elevated national rate of 117:100 reported in 2002. The trend was more pronounced in rural regions: as high as 130:100 in [[Guangdong]] and 135:100 in [[Hainan]]. {{ref|sexselective7}} A ban upon the practice of sex-selective abortion was enacted in 2003. {{ref|sexselective8}} ===Unsafe abortion=== {{main|Unsafe abortions}} Where and when access to safe abortion has been barred, due to explicit sanctions or general unavailability, women seeking to terminate their pregnancies have sometimes resorted to unsafe methods. &quot;[[Back-alley abortion]]&quot; is a [[slang]] term for any abortion not practiced under ideal conditions of [[sanitation]] and [[professional| professionalism]]. The [[World Health Organization]] defines an unsafe abortion as being, &quot;a procedure...carried out by persons lacking the necessary skills or in an environment that does not conform to minimal medical standards, or both.&quot; {{ref|unsafe1}} This can include a person without medical training, a professional health provider operating in sub-standard conditions, or the woman herself. Unsafe abortion remains a [[public health]] concern today due to the higher incidence and severity of its associated complications, such as incomplete abortion, [[sepsis]], [[hemorrhage]], and damage to internal organs. WHO estimates that 19 m
heory, postulated an excutive ego (essentially a central executive system in today's cognitive psychological terms) which became dissociated from sub-components via an 'amnesic barrier'. Suggestions from a hypnotist could produce alterations in perception and behaviour, which were explainable in terms of these dissociated sub-systems. Hilgard's ideas were influenced by his discovery of the 'hidden observer' phenomenon, a process by which different components of consciousness were investigated (other researchers, notably Spanos, believed the hidden observer to be an experimental artifact). ===Social constructionism / Role-playing theory=== Generally, under hypnosis people become more receptive to suggestion, causing changes in the way they feel, think, and behave. Some psychologists (such as Sarbin and Spanos) have suggested that hypnosis is a social construct, so well-known that strong social expectations are played out by subjects, who believe they are in a state of hypnosis, behaving in a way that they imagine a hypnotized person would behave. Much experimental work has demonstrated that the experiences of hypnotized subjects can be dramatically shaped by expectations and social nuances. This view is often misunderstood: it does not discount the claim that hypnotized individuals are truly experiencing suggested effects, just that the mechanism by which this has taken place has in part been socially constructed and is not necessarily reliant on the idea of an [[altered state of consciousness]] Barber theorizes that hypnosis is not a state or a trance and is not produced as the result of suggestions. He suggests that hypnosis is based on a number of overlapping variables, but, primarily, that interpersonal relationships allows the operator to restructure perceptions and conceptions of the subject. He theorizes that this occurs because the subject is relatively inattentive to the environment and, because of this misdirection of attention, the subject is willing to think as the hypnotist wants them to think.{{ref|Barber}} ===Neuropsychological theory of hypnosis=== Neuropsychological theories of hypnosis attempt to explain hypnotic phenomenon in terms of alterations in brain activity. Gruzlier, based on large amounts of EEG research, proposed that hypnosis is characterised by a shift in brain activity from anterior (front) to posterior (back). === Hypnosis as a state of hysteria === &lt;!--(THIS MAY BE BETTER OFF IN THE HISTORY SECTION) --&gt; Charcot postulated that hypnosis was a symptom of [[hysteria]] and that only those people experiencing hysteria were believed to be hypnotizable.{{ref|Charcot}} Although those exhibiting hysteria seem to be more suggestible, normal individuals are, indeed, hypnotizable which calls this theory into question. === Hypnosis as a conditioned process leading to sleep === &lt;!-- (THIS IS ALSO RATHER DATED - IDEAS FROM BEHAVIOURISTIC PSYCHOLOGY HAVE BEEN SLOWLY REPLACED BY IDEAS FROM COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY) --&gt; Ivan Pavlov believed that hypnosis was a &quot;partial sleep&quot;. He observed that the various degrees of hypnosis didn't significantly differ physiologically from the waking state and hypnosis depended on insignificant changes of environmental stimuli. Pavlov also suggested that lower brain stem mechanisms were involved in hypnotic conditioning.{{ref|pavlov}} Although some modern researchers still subscribe to this theory, Kroger states &quot;during deep sleep, conditioned reflexes and physiological responses to a repeatedly given stimulus cannot be established, whereas in hypnosis the learning of conditioned reflexes is enhanced over and above that of the nonhypnotic state.&quot; In hypnosis, the subject typically appears to be asleep because of eye closure that is typically part of the induction procedure, but there is quite a bit of literature on blood pressure, reflexes, physiochemical and EEG studies which indicates that hypnosis more closely resembles complete wakefulness.{{ref|Dittborn}} === Role-playing theory === &lt;!-- (Kroger, 1977, p. 29) --&gt; This theory suggests that individuals are playing a role and allowing the hypnotist to create a reality for them. This relationship depends on how much rapport has been established between the hypnotist and the subject (see [[Hawthorne effect]], [[Pygmalion effect]], and the [[Placebo effect]]). === Hyper–suggestibility theory === &lt;!-- (Kroger, 1977, p. 31) --&gt; Currently a more popular theory, it states the subject's attention is narrowed by certain techniques used by the hypnotist. As attention is narrowed, the hypnotist's words eventually take over the inner voice of the subject. From this theory comes the implication that only gullible or weak-minded people are suggestible. Some people, however, find the narrowing of attention to be desirable. [[Milton H. Erickson]] was said to have told his subjects, &quot;... and my voice will go with you,&quot; meaning that Erickson's voice would be a comforting presence in the face of adversity and trouble. === Informational theory === &lt;!-- (Kroger, 1977, p. 31 - THIS SOUNDS PSEUDO SCIENTIFIC) --&gt; This theory applies the concept of the brain-as-computer model. In electronic systems, a system adjusts its feedback networks to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for optimum functioning, called a &quot;steady state&quot;. Increasing the receptability of a receptor enables messages to be more clearly received from a transmitter primarily by trying to reduce the interference (noise) as much as possible. Thus, the object of the hypnotist is to use techniques to reduce the interference and increase the receptability of specific messages (suggestions). ==Research on Hypnosis== Much research has been conducted into the nature and effects of hypnosis and suggestion, and hypnosis continues to be a popular (if somewhat peripheral) tool in contemporary Psychological research. A number of different strands of hypnosis research are apparent: that which examines the 'state' of hypnosis itself, that which examines the effects and properties of suggestions in and out of hypnosis, and that which uses hypnotic suggestion as a tool to research other areas of psychological functioning. With the advent of recent brain imaging techniques (MRI, although also EEG and PET) there has been a resurgence of interest in the relationship between hypnosis and brain function. Any human experience is reflected in some way in the brain - seeing colors or motion is underscored by activity in the visual cortex, feeling fear is mediated by activity in the amygdala - and so hypnosis and suggestion are expected to have observable effects upon brain function. An important issue for researchers conducting brain imaging is to separate the effects of hypnosis and suggestion - knowing that a suggestion given during hypnosis affects brain area X does not just tell us about hypnosis, it tells us about the effects of the suggestion too. To account for this, experiments need to include a non-hypnotic-response-to-suggestion condition - only this way can the specific effects of hypnosis be examined. A number of brain-imaging studies have been conducted which have used hypnosis, a selection are given below: For example, one controlled scientific experiment postulates that hypnosis may change conscious experience in a way not possible when people are not &quot;hypnotized&quot;, at least in &quot;highly hypnotizable&quot; people. In this experiment, color perception was changed by hypnosis in &quot;highly hypnotizable&quot; people as determined by [[positron emission tomography]] (PET) scans (Kosslyn et al., 2000). (This research does not compare the effects of hypnosis on less hypnotizable people and could therefore show little causal effect due to the lack of a control group.) Another research example, employing event-related [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]] and [[Electroencephalography|EEG]] coherence measures, compared certain specific neural activity &quot;during [[Stroop effect|Stroop task]] performance between participants of low and high hypnotic susceptibility, at baseline and after hypnotic induction&quot;. According to its authors, &quot;the fMRI data revealed that conflict-related [[Anterior cingulate cortex|ACC]] activity interacted with hypnosis and hypnotic susceptibility, in that highly susceptible participants displayed increased conflict-related neural activity in the hypnosis condition compared to baseline, as well as with respect to subjects with low susceptibility.&quot; (Egner et al., 2005). Skeptics dispute the significance of such findings, claiming that such changes cannot be shown to be particular to the hypnotized state, and that any other action such as daydreaming is also likely to alter brain activity in some manner. The subject is still a matter of current research and scientific debate. There is a long tradition (over a century) of hypnosis research (the majority of which does not use brain imaging techniques!) which has allowed scientists to test key ideas in the debate. Hypnosis has been shown to be an effective tool for pain relief, and when combined adjunctively with other therapeutic techniques it has been demonstrated to be a powerful tool (it is effective for weight loss, IBS, anxiety conditions and many more - the data for smoking cessation are more dubious). ==Hypnosis Methodologies and Effects== ===General methods=== The act of inducing a hypnotic state is referred to as an induction procedure. There is no current consensus on what the requirements are for an induction procedure to be effective; while some practitioners use simple calming verbal techniques, others use complex triggers, including mechanical devices (''see [http://hypnosistreatmentcenter.com/page45.html Michael Robinson's Self-Hypnosis Learning or Licensed Online Counseling, page 45)''.] Many experienced hypnotists claim that they can hypnotize almost anyone. They also claim
er uses of Gothic, see [[Gothic (disambiguation)]]. Note, this article contains special characters. You may need to install a [[:got:Wikipedia:Gothic Unicode Fonts|Gothic Unicode Font]].'' [[Image:Illus0381.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''Invasion of the Goths'': a late [[19th century]] painting by O. Fritsche portrays the Goths as cavalrymen.]] The '''Goths''' ([[Gothic language|Gothic]]: 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌰𐌽𐍃, ''Gutans'') were an [[East Germanic tribe]] who according to their own traditions originated in [[Scandinavia]] (specifically [[Gotland]] and [[Götaland]] proper). They migrated southwards and conquered parts of the [[Roman empire]]. Two closely related tribes, the ''Gutar'' and the ''Götar'', who remained in Scandinavia and are often called Goths{{fn|1}}, are separately treated, as [[Gotlander]]s and [[Geats]] respectively. ==Historical sources== The only source for early Gothic history is [[Jordanes]]' ''[[Getica]]'', (published [[551]]), a condensation of the lost twelve-volume history of the Goths written in Italy by [[Cassiodorus]]. Jordanes may not even have had the work at hand to consult from, and this early information should be treated with caution. Cassiodorus was well placed to write of Goths, for he was an essential minister of [[Theodoric the Great]], who apparently had heard some of the Gothic songs that told of their traditional origins, related in turn by Jordanes with the remark &quot;for so the story is generally told in their early songs, in almost historic fashion.&quot; The Gothic bards accompanied themselves on a stringed instrument that Latin writers associated with the ''[[cithara]],'' which was more familiar to them. ==History== From Scandinavia, the Goths migrated and set up a kingdom in [[Scythia]] ( modern-day [[Ukraine]] and [[Belarus]]). In the third century, the tribe split into two: the [[Ostrogoths]] remained in Scythia, while the [[Visigoths]] migrated to [[Dacia]] (modern-day [[Romania]]) to set up an independent kingdom. The Visigoths sacked Byzantium in the year 267, but by 271, were driven back to Dacia by the Byzantines. [[Hun]] domination of the Ostrogoth kingdom began in the fourth century, but was defeated by the year 450. Both the Ostrogoths and Visigoths became heavily Romanized during this period by the influence of trade with the Byzantines, and by their membership in a military covenant centered in Byzantium to assist each other militarily. In the 5th century, the Visigoths would conquer modern-day Spain from the Roman Empire. Though many of the fighting nomads who followed them were to prove more bloody, the Goths were feared because the captives they took in battle were sacrificed to their god of war, [[Tyz]] [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/grimmst/009_03.php](the one-Handed [[Tyr]]), and the captured arms hung in trees as a token-offering. Their kings and priests came from a separate aristocracy, according to Cassiodorus/Jordanes, and their mythic kings of ancient times were honored as gods. Their mythic lawgiver, named [[Deceneus]], traditionally dated about the [[1st century BC]], ordered their laws, which they possessed by the [[6th century]] in written form and called ''belagines''. A force of Goths launched one of the first major &quot;[[barbarian]]&quot; invasions of the Roman Empire in [[267]] ([[Hermannus Contractus]], quoting [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]], has ''&quot;[[263]]: [[Macedon]]ia, [[Greece|Graecia]], [[Pontus]], [[Asia Minor|Asia]] et aliae provinciae depopulantur per Gothos&quot;''). A year later, they suffered a devastating defeat at the [[Battle of Naissus]] and were driven back across the [[Danube River]] by [[271]]. This group then settled on the other side of the Danube from Roman territory and established an independent kingdom centered on the abandoned Roman province of [[Dacia]], as the [[Visigoth]]s. In the meantime, the Goths still in [[Ukraine]] established a vast and powerful kingdom along the Black Sea. This group became known as the [[Ostrogoth]]s. The Goths were briefly reunited under one crown in the early sixth century under the Ostrogothic king [[Theodoric the Great]], who became regent of the Visigothic kingdom for nearly two decades. For the later history of the Goths, see [[Visigoth]]s and [[Ostrogoth]]s. ==Origins== Explaining the origins of the Goths, [[Jordanes]] recounted: :''The same mighty sea has also in its arctic region, that is in the north, a great island named [[Scandza]], from which my tale (by God's grace) shall take its beginning. For the race whose origin you ask to know burst forth like a swarm of bees from the midst of this island and came into the land of Europe.'' [...] ''Now from this island of Scandza, as from a hive of races or a womb of nations, the Goths are said to have come forth long ago under their king, Berig by name. As soon as they disembarked from their ships and set foot on the land, they straightway gave their name to the place. And even to-day it is said to be called [[Gothiscandza]]. Soon they moved from here to the abodes of the [[Rugians|Ulmerugi]], who then dwelt on the shores of Ocean, where they pitched camp, joined battle with them and drove them from their homes.'' In the [[1st century]], [[Tacitus]] ([[Germania]], 43) located the ''Gothones'' south of the Mare [[Suebi]]cum (Suevicum) or [[Baltic Sea]]: :''Beyond the [[Lygians]] dwell the '''Gothones''', under the rule of a king; and thence held in subjection somewhat stricter than the other German[ic] nations, yet not so strict as to extinguish all their liberty. Immediately adjoining are the [[Rugians]] and [[Lemovians]] upon the coast of the ocean, and of these several nations the characteristics are a round shield, a short sword and kingly government.'' [[Pliny the Elder]] calls them the '''Gutones'''. According to him, they were a major Germanic people, being one of five ([[Natural History]], Book 4, Chapter 28). He also states (Op. Cit. Book 37, Chapter 11) that the explorer, [[Pytheas]] of [[Massilia]] ([[4th century BC]]) encountered them in his northern expedition to an &quot;estuary&quot; we know to have been the Baltic from Pliny's reference to amber washed up on the beaches. A date earlier than the [[1st century]] is thus supported. [[Strabo]] also (Geography, Book 7, Chapter 1, Section 3) mentions that [[Marbod]], after a pleasant sojourn with [[Augustus]], took command of nearly all the tribes in Germania, including the '''Boutones''' (attested as ''Boutonas'' in the accusative case, and Latinized to '''Butones'''), which are generally interpreted as an error for ''Goutones'', Latinized to ''Gutones''. For the Scandinavian Goths, we have [[Ptolemy]], who mentions the '''Goutai''' as living in the south of the island of Skandia. Due to the central role that the Goths have played in history, their origins have been discussed for a long time. Although no alternative theory has been proposed for the appearance of [[Germanic tribes]] in today's northern Poland, some historians have expressed doubts that the Goths originated in Scandinavia. This is due to the fact that, disregarding Jordanes, the earliest unambiguous ''literary'' evidence for the Goths ([[Tacitus]] and [[Pliny the Elder]]) puts them at the [[Vistula]] in [[1st century]]. Some claim that there is no evidence for a migration at the time of Christ´s birth, and therefore claim that the origin in Scandinavia has to be taken as a topos (cf. Christensen, ''Cassiodorus, Jordanes and the History of the Goths'', Copenhagen 2002). On the other hand, the German scholar Wenskus has pointed out that if Jordanes had wanted to invent a fictive past for the Goths, he would have claimed that they were descended from a prestigious location such as [[Troy]] or [[Rome]]. He would not have placed their origins in the barbaric North. Moreover, he was writing for fellow Goths who were familiar with their traditions. Besides Jordanes' account, there is both linguistic and archaeological support for the Scandinavian origin. === Archaeology === [[Image:Chernyakhov.PNG|right|250px|thumb|The green area is the traditional extent of [[Götaland]] and the dark pink area is the island of [[Gotland]]. The red area is the extent of the [[Wielbark Culture]] in the early [[3rd century]], and the orange area is the [[Chernyakhov Culture]], in the early [[4th century]]. The dark blue area is the [[Roman Empire]]]] In today's [[Poland]], the earliest material culture identified with the Goths is the Willenberg/Prussia , now [[Wielbark Culture]] [http://www.muzarp.poznan.pl/archweb/gazociag/title5.htm], which replaced the local Oxhoeft/Prussia , now [[Oksywie culture]] in the [[1st century]]. However, as early as the late [[Nordic Bronze Age]] and early [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]] (ca [[1300 BC]] - ca [[300 BC]]), this area had influences from southern Scandinavia [http://www.arkeologi.uu.se/publications/opia/gothicabstract.htm]. In fact, the Scandinavian influence on [[Pomerania]] and today's northern Poland from ca [[1300 BC]] (period III) and onwards was so considerable that this region is sometimes included in the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] culture (Dabrowski 1989:73). During the period ca [[600 BC]] - ca [[300 BC]] the warm and dry climate of southern Scandinavia (2-3 degrees warmer than today) deteriorated considerably, which not only dramatically changed the flora, but forced people to change their way of living and to leave settlements. The Goths are believed to have crossed the [[Baltic Sea]] sometime between the end of this period, ca [[300 BC]], and [[100]], and in the traditional province of [[Ostrogothia]], in Sweden, archaeological evidence shows that there was a general depopulation during this period. The settlement in today's Poland probably corresponds to the introduction of Scandinavian burial traditions, such as the [[Stone Circle (Iron Age)|stone circles]] and the [[Menhir (Iron Age)|stelae]], which indicates that the early Goths preferred to bury their dead accor