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ia]], particularly the neighborhood of [[Ephesus]]. Note the confident local allusion in 19:9 to "the school of Tyrannus" and in 19:33 to "Alexander"; also the very minute topography in 20:13–15. At any rate affairs in that region, including the future of the church of Ephesus (20:28–30), are treated as though they would specially interest "Theophilus" and his circle; also an early tradition makes Luke die in the adjacent [[Bithynia]]. Finally it was in this region that there arose certain early glosses (e.g., 19:9, 20:15), probably the earliest of those referred to below. How fully in correspondence with such an environment the work would be, as apologia for the Church against the Synagogue's attempts to influence Roman policy to its harm, must be clear to all familiar with the strength of Judaism in Asia (cf. [[Revelation|Rev]] 2:9, 3:9; and see Sir W. M. Ramsay, ''The Letters to the Seven Churches'', ch. xii.).
== Text ==
Of the many problems with Acts, perhaps the most complex is that of its text. As with the other books of the New Testament, Acts exists in several text types; however, unlike with the other books, the difference between the [[Alexandrian text-type]] and the [[Western text-type]] is very great; the size of the Western text of Acts (as represented by the [[Codex Bezae]]) is 10% larger than the [[Alexandria|Alexandrian]] (as represented by the [[Codex Sinaiticus]]). Although this issue was first observed in the 17th century, explanations for this difference remain little more than conjectures. Any explanation that reduces the Western text to the product of generations of scribes who showed little care for fidelity to their exemplar ignores the evidence that the Western text's additions and omissions have the same stylistic characteristics as the Alexandrian; that Western text readings in Acts date from early [[Latin]] authors like [[Tertullian]], [[Cyprian]] and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]].
The earliest theory, first espoused by Leclerc in 1684, but restated by Blass in 1895 and others since, explains the Western text as a first draft by the author, while the Alexandrian was a more polished version he subsequently published. The French scholars Boismard and Lamouille, in their extensive study of the text of Acts, have embraced this theory.
In 1914, A.C. Clark espousing the principle ''lectio longior potior'' (which is the opposite of the normal principle used in [[textual criticism]]) has argued that the shorter text was a modification of the original text. The opposite direction, that the Western text of Acts was expanded, was first proposed by G. Salmon in 1897 and recently revised by E. Delebecque, who believes the expansion of the text was performed by Luke at Ephesus after Paul's death.
Despite this ongoing debate, the majority of biblical scholars believes the text of Acts as witnessed in the Alexandrian tradition is the closest to the original, although accepting various isolated readings from the Western text families at different points. This was the conclusion of the text of Acts as printed by [[Brooke Foss Westcott|B.F. Westcott]] and [[Fenton John Anthony Hort|F.J.A. Hort]], as well as the most recent edition of Nestle and Aland's authoritative ''[[Novum Testamentum graece]]'' (1993).
==External links==
* [http://www.biblegateway.com/bible?passage=Acts&language=English&version=NIV ''Book of Acts'' at Bible Gateway]
* [http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp Acts from the Biblical Resource Database]
<center>
<br>
{| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse"
|- bgcolor="darkgray"
|colspan=3|<center>'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor="gainsboro"
|Preceded by:<br><Center>[[Gospel of John|John]]
|'''Acts'''
|Followed by:<br><Center>[[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]]
|}
</center>
[[Category:New Testament books]]
[[Category:New Testament narrative|Acts]]
[[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]]
[[zh-min-nan:Sù-tô· Hêng-toān]]
[[cs:Skutky apoštolů]]
[[da:Apostlenes Gerninger]]
[[de:Apostelgeschichte des Lukas]]
[[es:Hechos de los Apóstoles]]
[[eo:La Agoj de la Apostoloj]]
[[fr:Actes des Apôtres]]
[[ko:사도행전]]
[[id:Kisah Para Rasul]]
[[ia:Actos del Apostolos]]
[[it:Atti degli Apostoli]]
[[he:מעשי השליחים]]
[[jv:Para Rasul]]
[[nl:Handelingen van de Apostelen]]
[[ja:使徒行伝]]
[[no:Apostlenes gjerninger]]
[[pl:Dzieje Apostolskie]]
[[pt:Atos dos Apóstolos]]
[[ru:Деяния святых апостолов]]
[[scn:Atti di l'Apòstuli]]
[[fi:Apostolien teot]]
[[sv:Apostlagärningarna]]
[[zh:使徒行传]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Assyria</title>
<id>2085</id>
<revision>
<id>41905963</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:49:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Codex Sinaiticus</username>
<id>247981</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The Legacy of Assyria */ rm speculation and subjective pov, partly off topic w. Egypt, another controversial topic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For contemporary Assyrians, see [[Assyrian people]]. For the Roman province, see [[Assyria (Roman province)]].''
{{Template:Ancient Mesopotamia}}
'''Assyria''' in earliest historical times referred to a region on the Upper [[Tigris]] river, named for its original capital, the ancient city of [[Ashur]]. Later, as a nation and Empire, it also came to include roughly the northern half of [[Mesopotamia]] (the southern half being [[Babylonia]]).
Assyria proper was located in a mountainous region, extending along the Tigris as far as the high Gordiaean or Carduchian mountain range of [[Armenia]], sometimes called the "Mountains of Ashur".
The Assyrian kings controlled a large kingdom at three different times in history. These are called the Old, Middle, and Neo-Assyrian kingdoms, or periods. The by far most powerful and best-known nation of these periods is the Neo-Assyrian kingdom 911-612 BC.
==Early history==
The most important prehistoric ([[Neolithic]]) site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the [[Hassuna]] culture.
Of the early history of the kingdom of Assyria, little is positively known. According to some Judeo-Christian traditions, the city of Ashur (also spelled [[Assur]] or Aššur) was founded by Ashur the son of [[Shem]], who was deified by later generations as the city's patron god.
The upper [[Tigris]] river valley seems to have been ruled from Sumer, Akkad, and northern Babylonia in its earliest stages, being part of [[Sargon the Great]]'s empire. Destroyed by [[barbarian]]s in the [[Gutian period]], it was rebuilt, and ended up being governed as part of the Empire of the [[3rd dynasty of Ur]].
==Early Assyrian city-states and kingdoms==
The first inscriptions of Assyrian rulers appear after 2000 BC. Assyria then consisted of a number of city states and small [[Semitic]] kingdoms. The foundation of the Assyrian monarchy was traditionally ascribed to [[Zulilu]], who is said to have lived after Bel-kap-kapu (Bel-kapkapi or Belkabi, ca. [[1900 BC]]), the ancestor of [[Shalmaneser I]].
===The city state of Ashur===
The city-state of Ashur had extensive contact with cities on the [[Anatolia]]n plateau. The Assyrians established "merchant colonies" in [[Cappadocia]], e.g., at [[Kanesh]] (modern [[Kültepe]]) circa [[1920 BC]]&ndash;[[1840 BC]] and [[1798 BC]]&ndash;[[1740 BC]]. These colonies, called '''''karum''''', the Akkadian word for 'port', were attached to Anatolian cities, but physically separate, and had special tax status. They must have arisen from a long tradition of trade between Ashur and the Anatolian cities; but no archaeological or written records show this. The trade consisted of metal (perhaps lead or tin; the terminology here is not entirely clear) and textiles from Assyria, that were traded for precious metals in Anatolia.
===The kingdom of Shamshi-Adad I===
The city of Ashur was conquered by [[Shamshi-Adad I]] ([[1813 BC]]&ndash;[[1791 BC]]) in the expansion of [[Amorite]] tribes from the [[Khabur river]] delta. He put his son [[Ishme-Dagan]] on the throne of nearby city Ekallatum, and allowed the former Anatolian trade to continue. Shamshi-Adad I also conquered the kingdom of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] on the [[Euphrates]] and put another of his sons, Yasmah-Adad on the throne there. Shamshi-Adad's kingdom now encompassed the whole of northern Mesopotamia. He himself resided in a new capital city founded in the Khabur valley, called [[Shubat-Enlil]]. Ishme-Dagan inherited the kingdom, but Yasmah-Adad was overthrown and Mari was lost. The new king of Mari allied himself with [[Hammurabi]] of [[Babylon]]. Assyria now faced the rising power of Babylon in the south. Ishme-Dagan responded by making an alliance with the enemies of Babylon, and the power struggle continued for decades.
===Assyria reduced to vassal states===
Hammurabi eventually prevailed over Ishme-Dagan, and conquered Ashur for Babylon. With Hammurabi, the various ''karum'' in Anatolia ceased trade activity &mdash; probably because the goods of Assyria were now being traded with the Babylonians' partners.
Assyria was ruled by vassal kings dependent on the Babylonians for a century. After Babylon fell to the [[Kassites]], the [[Hurrians]] dominated the northern region, including Ashur.
== The Middle Assyrian period ==
(Scholars variously date the beginning of the "Middle Assyrian period" to either the fall of the Old Assyrian kingdom of [[Shamshi-Adad I]], or to when [[Ashur-uballit I]] ascended to the throne of Assyria.)
===Ashur-uballit I===
In the [[15th century BC]], [[Saushtatar]], king of "''Hanilgalbat''" (Hurrians of [[Mitanni]]), sacked Ashur and made Assyria a vassal. Assyria paid tribute to Hanilgalbat until Mitanni power collapsed from [[Hittites|Hittite]] pressure, enabling [[Ashur-uballit I]] ([[1365 BC]]&ndas |
] and [[Jews]] in presice) and remove the ''"enemies of the state"''.
The [[Partisans (Yugoslavia)|anti-fascist partisan movement]] emerged early in [[1941]], under the command of the [[Communist]] party, led by [[Josip Broz Tito]], as in other parts of [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]. Serbian royalist guerilla ''[[chetniks|Četnici]]'' were also formed.
Early in the war, [[Ustaše]] opened up the [[Jasenovac concentration camp]]. This complex of internment and extermination camps was one of the larger sites of mass murder in occupied Europe at the time and was the place of death of tens of thousands of people.
Both Ustaše and Četnici collaborated with the Axis powers and fought together against the Partisans. By [[1943]], the partisan resistance movement greatly expanded and was able to expel all Nazi collaborators by [[1945]], with the help of the Soviet [[Red Army]]. The ''ZAVNOH'', state anti-fascist council of people's liberation of Croatia, functioned since [[1943]] and formed an interim civil government.
By the end of the war, hundreds of thousands of [[Serbs]], [[Jews]], [[Roma|Romas]] and [[communist]]s were executed by the regime. After the war, between 50,000 and 200,000 of Croatia's population were massacred in places like [[Bleiburg massacre|Bleiburg]].
== Second Yugoslavia (1945–1991) ==
{{main|Croatia in the second Yugoslavia}}
[[Image:Tito.jpg|left|thumb|120px|[[Josip Broz Tito]].]]
Croatia became part of the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Democratic Federal Yugoslavia]] in [[1945]], which was run by Tito's [[Communist Party of Yugoslavia]]. Tito, himself a Croat, adopted a carefully contrived policy to manage the conflicting national ambitions of the Croats and Serbs.
Croatia was a [[socialist republic|Socialist Republic]] part of a six-part federation. Under the new communist system, private property was [[nationalization|nationalized]] and the economy was based on a type of planned [[market socialism]]. The country underwent a rebuilding process, recovered from WWII, went through [[industrialization]] and started developing [[tourism]].
The constitution of [[1963]] balanced the power in the country between the Croats and the Serbs, and alleviated the fact that the Croats were again in a minority. Trends after [[1965]], however, led to the [[Croatian Spring]] of [[1970]]–[[1971|71]], when students in Zagreb organized demonstrations for greater civil liberties and greater Croatian autonomy. The regime stifled the public protest and incarcerated the leaders, but this led to the ratification of a new Constitution in [[1974]], giving more rights to the individual republics.
In [[1980]], after Tito's death, political, ethnic and economic difficulties started to mount and the federal government began to crumble. The emergence of [[Slobodan Milošević]] in Serbia and many other events provoked a very negative reaction in Croatia, followed by a rise in nationalism and active dissent.
== Modern Croatia (from 1990/1991) ==
{{main|History of modern Croatia}}
[[Image:Franjo Tudman and Stjepan Mesic, Croatian politicians.jpg|thumb|right|[[Franjo Tuđman]] and [[Stjepan Mesić]]. Once allies, later rivals.]]
In [[1990]], the first free elections were held. A people's movement called the [[Croatian Democratic Union]] (HDZ) won, led by [[Franjo Tuđman]] General of Croatian WW2 antifascist movement, the Partisans. HDZ's intentions were to secure more independence for Croatia, contrary to the wishes of part of ethnic Serbs in the republic and official politics in Belgrade. The excessively polarized climate soon escalated into complete estrangement between the two nationalities and even sectarian violence.
In the summer of 1990, Serbs from the mountainous areas where they constitute a relative majority rebelled and formed an unrecognized "Autonomous Region of the Serb Krajina" (later the [[Republic of Serbian Krajina]]). Any intervention by the Croatian police was obstructed by the [[Yugoslav People's Army]] (JNA), mainly consisting of Serbs. The conflict culminated with the so-called "log revolution", when the Krajina Serbs blocked the roads to the tourist destinations in [[Dalmatia]] and started a mass ethnic cleansing of all non-Serb population.
The Croatian government declared independence from Yugoslavia on [[25 June]] [[1991]], and the JNA launch an open aggression on Republic and backing up local Serb militia's. Many Croatian cities, notably [[Vukovar]] and [[Dubrovnik]], came under the attack of the Serbian forces. The [[Croatian Parliament]] cut all remaining ties with Yugoslavia in October that year.
The civilian population fled the areas of armed conflict ''en masse'': generally speaking, thousands of Croats moved away from the Bosnian and Serbian border, while thousands of Serbs moved towards it. In many places, masses of civilians were forced out by the Yugoslav National Army (JNA), which consisted mostly from conscripts from Serbia and Montenegro, and irregulars from Serbia, in what became known as [[ethnic cleansing]].
The border city of [[Vukovar]] underwent a three month siege &mdash; the [[Battle of Vukovar]] &mdash; during which most of the city buildings were destroyed and a majority of the population was forced to flee. The city fell to the Serbian forces in late [[November 1991]]. Soon after, shocked with atrocites committed by Serbs, the foreign countries started recognizing Croatia's independence. By the end of January [[1992]], most of the world recognized the country.
Subsequent [[United Nations|UN]]-sponsored cease-fires followed, and the warring parties mostly entrenched. The Yugoslav People's Army retreated from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina where war was just about to start. During 1992 and [[1993]], Croatia also handled seven hundred thousands of refugees from Bosnia, mainly Bosnia's Moslems.
Armed conflict in Croatia remained intermittent and mostly on a small scale until [[1995]]. In early August, Croatia started the [[Operation Storm]] and quickly reconquered most of the so-called "[[Republic of Serbian Krajina]]", leading to a mass exodus of the Serbian population. An estimated 200,000 Serbs fled shortly before, during and after the operation. A few months later, as a result, the war ended upon the negotiation of the [[Dayton Agreement]]. A peaceful integration of the remaining Serbian-controlled territories in Eastern [[Slavonia]] was completed in [[1998]] under [[UN]] supervision.
President Tuđman died in late [[1999]]. In February [[2000]], [[Stjepan Mesić]] was elected president, ending the [[HDZ]]'s rule. The country underwent many liberal reforms beginning in [[2000]]. An economic recovery as well as healing of many war wounds ensued and the country proceeded to become a member of several important regional and international organizations. The country has started the process of joining the [[European Union]], but a perceived lack of co-operation with the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]] concerning the tracking down of the indicted general [[Ante Gotovina]] long formed difficulties. After Gotovina's capture on [[7 December]] [[2005]] the road now seems clear for Croatia to join the EU, although no sooner than [[2009]].
==See Also==
* [[Austro-Hungary]]
* [[History of Yugoslavia]]
* [[NDH]]
* [[Ustashe]]
* [[Jasenovac]]
* [[Balkans]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.hr/darko/etf/etfss.html Overview of History, Culture and Science of Croatia]
*[http://vlib.iue.it/history/europe/croatia.html WWW-VL History:Croatia]
*[http://mirror.veus.hr/myth/ Dr. Michael McAdams: Croatia — Myth and Reality]
*[http://www.geocities.com/tegetthoff66/vukovar/intro.html History of Croatia as an introduction to the battle of Vukovar]
*[http://www.felbar.com/siteindex/create.php?lang=en&rtype=1&mnav=maps&ext=htm Historical Maps of Croatia]
[[Category:History of Croatia|History of Croatia]]
[[Category:History of Europe|Croatia]]
[[bg:История на Хърватска]]
[[cs:Dějiny Chorvatska]]
[[de:Geschichte Kroatiens]]
[[es:Historia de Croacia]]
[[fr:Histoire de la Croatie]]
[[hr:Povijest Hrvatske]]
[[it:Storia della Croazia]]
[[lt:Kroatijos istorija]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Kroatië]]
[[pt:História da Croácia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Croatia</title>
<id>5575</id>
<revision>
<id>42124582</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:58:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jurrien</username>
<id>759752</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Croatia topo.jpg|thumb|Topographic map]]
'''Location:'''
Southeastern [[Europe]], bordering the [[Adriatic Sea]], between [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and [[Slovenia]]
'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor dm|45|10|N|15|30|E|}}
'''Map references:'''
Europe: see in article ''[[Europe]]'', or in the [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/reference_maps/europe.html CIA World Factbook]
'''Area:'''
<br />
''continent:'' 56,542 km²
* ''land:'' 56,414 km²
* ''water:'' 128 km²
''sea:''
33,200 km²
<br />
''grand total:''
89,742 km²
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than [[West Virginia]]
'''Land boundaries:'''
<br />
''total:''
2,197 km
<br />
''border countries:''
Bosnia and Herzegovina 932 km,
[[Slovenia]] 670 km,
[[Hungary]] 329 km,
[[Serbia and Montenegro]] (north) 241 km,
[[Serbia and Montenegro]] (south) 25 km
'''Coastline:'''
5,835 km (mainland 1,777 km, islands 4,058 km)
<br />
''See also:'' [[List of islands of Croatia]]
'''Maritime claims:'''
<br />
''continental shelf:''
200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
<br />
''territorial sea:''
12 nm
'''Climate:'''
Mediterranean and continental; continental climate predominant with hot summers and cold winters; mild winters, dry summers along coast
'''Terrain:'''
geographically diverse; flat plains along Hungarian border, low mount |
бирам'' || ''ne razbiram''
|-
|Where is the toilet? || ''каде е тоалетот?'' || ''kade e toaletot?''
|-
|generic toast || ''на здравје!'' || ''na zdravje!''
|-
|Do you speak English? || ''Зборувате ли англиски?'' || ''Zboruvate li angliski?''
|-
|English || ''англиски'' || ''angliski''
|}
== [[Maltese language|Maltese]] ([[Semitic languages|Semitic]]) ==
*Maltese language: ''Il-lingwa maltija'' /il lingwa ma:lti:ja/
*hello: ''merħba'' /merX\ba/
*good day: ''bonġu'' /bondZu:/
*bye: ''ċaw'' /tSaw/, ''saħħa'' /saX\X\a/
*please: ''jekk jogħġbok'' /jekk jo:dZbok/
*thank you: ''grazzi'' /grattsi/
*that one: ''dak'' /da:k/
*how much?: ''kemm?'' /kemm/
*yes: ''iva'' /i:va/
*no: ''le'' /le/
*sorry: ''jiddispjaċini'' /jiddispjatSi:ni/
*I don't understand: ''ma nifhimx'' /ma: nifimS/
*where is the toilet?: ''fejn it-tojlit?'' /fejn it tojlit/
*generic toast: ''saħħa!'' /saX\X\a/
*do you speak English?: ''titkellem bl-ingliż?'' /titkellem bliNli:s/
*Malta is a beautiful island: ''Malta hija gżira sabiħa'' /ma:lta i:ja gzi:ra sabi:X\a/
== [[Malay language|Malay]] ([[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]) ==
*Malay language: '''bahasa Melayu''' /ba-ha-sa me-la-yu/
*hello:
**'''selamat pagi''' /sə-la-mat pa-gi/ (morning)
**'''selamat tengah hari''' /... təŋah ha-ri/ (around midday and in the early afternoon)
**'''selamat petang''' /... pə-taŋ/ (late afternoon)
**'''selamat malam''' /... ma-lam/ (after dark)
*good-bye:
**'''selamat tinggal''' /... tiŋ-gal/ (said by person leaving) (lit., safe living [''tinggal'' has connotations of residence, stay])
**'''selamat jalan''' /... ʤa-lan/ (said by person staying) (lit., safe travelling)
*please: '''tolong''' /tɔ-lɔŋ/
*thank you: '''terima kasih''' /tə-ri-ma ka-sih/
*you're welcome: '''sama sama''' /sa-ma sa-ma/
*that one: '''itu''' /i-tʊ/
*how much?: '''berapa''' /bə-ra-pa/
*English language: '''bahasa Inggeris''' /ba-ha-sa iŋ-gəris/
*yes: '''ya''' /ja/
*no: '''tidak''' /ti-dak/
*excuse me, sorry: '''maaf''' /ma-af/
*I don't understand: '''saya tidak faham''' /sa-ja ti-dak fa-ham/
*Can you speak English?: '''bolehkah anda berbahasa Inggeris?''' /bo-leh-kah ʧakap .../
*Where is the restroom?: '''di mana tandas?''' /di mana tan-das/
*It's not yet the time to be with some one permanently: belum ada jodoh
== [[Maori language|Maori]] ([[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]) ==
*Maori: ''Māori'' /{{IPA|maːoɾi}}/
*hello: ''tēnā koe'' /{{IPA|teːnaː koe}}/ (to one person), ''tēnā kōrua'' /{{IPA|teːnaː koːɾua}}/ (to two people), ''tēnā koutou'' /{{IPA|teːnaː koutou}}/
*good-bye (to those who are staying): ''e noho rā'' /{{IPA|e noho ɾaː}}/
*good-bye (to those who are leaving): ''haere rā'' /{{IPA|haeɾe ɾaː}}/
*please: ''koa'' /{{IPA|koa}}/
*thank you (or "good day" - literally "be well"): ''kia ora'' /{{IPA|kia oɾa}}/
*how much?: ''pēhea?'' /{{IPA|peːhea}}/
*yes: ''ae'' /{{IPA|ae}}/
*no: ''kaore'' /{{IPA|kaoɾe}}/
== [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] ([[Dravidian languages]]) ==
*Malayalam: ''malayaalam''
*hello: ''namaskaram''
*good-bye: ''Poy varaam'or 'Poy varatte"
*please: ''dayavaayi''
*thank you: ''nanni''
*how much?: ''ethra?''
*yes: ''athe''
*no: ''illa'' or ''alla''
*English: ''aangaleyam''
*Whats your name:''pere enthanu''
*harassment:''peedanam''
*Do you like me: ''ninakku enne ishtamaano''
*what news?: ''enthokkeyaanu vishesham''
*news: ''vaartha\vishesham''
*first: ''aadyam\onnamathu''
*water: ''vellam''
*alphabet: ''aksharam''
*food: ''bhakshanam\aahaaram''
*rain: ''mazha''
*hotel: ''sathram\hotel''
*way: ''vazhi''
== [[Mandinka language|Mandinka]](Mande) (Congo-Niger) ==
*How are you: ''I be nyaadi''
*See you later: ''N be nyoo jee la''
*please: ''Dukare''
*thank you: ''Abaraka''
*that one: ''Woo''
*this one: ''Nying''
*how much?: ''Jelum?''
*Do you speak English: ''I ye English kang moy le''
*yes: ''Haa/Haaday''
*no: ''Haani''
== [[Marathi language|Marathi]] ([[Indo-Iranian]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation
|- valign=top
|-
|Marathi || मराठी || ''maraaThee''
|-
|hello || नमस्कार ||''namaskar''
|-
|good-bye || अच्छा || ''achhaa''
|-
|please || कृपया || ''krupah yaa''
|-
|thank you || आभार || ''aa bhaar''
|-
|how much? ||किती? || ''kitee?''
|-
|yes || हो || ''ho''
|-
|no || नाही || ''naa hee'
|-
|English || इंग्रजी || ''ingrajee''
|}
== [[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]] ([[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]]) ==
*Nahuatl: ''Nawatlahtoli''
*hello: ''niltse''
*good-bye: ''nimitsittas''
*thank you: ''tlasohkamati''
*that one: ''inon''
*yes: ''kema'' (ordinary), ''kemakatsin'' (reverential)
*no: ''ahmo'' (ordinary), ''ahmotsin'' (reverential)
*English: ''Inglestlahtoli''
*Do you speak [English]?: ''Nitetlahtoa [Inglestlahtoli]?''
*What is your name?: ''Tlen mo tokatsin?''
== [[Nigerian pidgin]] (English-based [[pidgin]]) ==
*Nigerian pidgin: &nbsp;
*hello: ''How now''
*good-bye: ''A go dey see yu now''
*please: ''A beg''
*thank you: ''Thank yu''
*that one: &nbsp;
*how much?: &nbsp;
*English: ''Oyinbo''
*yes: ''Yes''
*no: ''No''
*generic toast: &nbsp;
== [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) - [[Bokmål]] ==
*Norwegian: ''norsk'' /{{IPA|'nɔʃk}}/ (norsk)
*Hello: ''hallo'' /{{IPA|hɑ'luː}}/
*Hi: ''hei'' /{{IPA|hæi}}/
*Good-bye: ''farvel'' (formal and slightly old-fashioned)/{{IPA|fɑɾ'wel}}/ (farewell); ''Ha det bra'' (a bit less formal); ''ha det'' (informal); ''hei'' /{{IPA|hæi}}/ (on the phone, never used like this by children or adolescents)
*Please: ''vær så snill'' /{{IPA|'wæːr so snil}}/
*Thank you: ''takk'' /{{IPA|tɑk}}/ (takh)
*That one: ''den'' /{{IPA|den}}/ (den) or ''det'' /{{IPA|deː}}/ (deh)
*How much?: ''hvor mye?'' /{{IPA|wuɾ myːə}}/
*English: ''engelsk'' /{{IPA|'eŋelsk}}/ or /{{IPA|'əŋəlsk}}/
*Yes: ''ja'' /{{IPA|jɑː}}/ (yah)
*No: ''nei'' /{{IPA|næj}}/ (nay)
*Can I take your picture?: ''kan jeg ta bilde av deg?''
*Where is the bathroom?: ''hvor er badet/toalettet?'' (rooms with toilets and rooms with showers/bath tubs are usually separated in Norway)
*Where do you come from?: ''hvor kommer du fra?''
*Do you speak English?: ''snakker du engelsk?''
*Generic toast: ''skål'' /{{IPA|skoːl}}/
*Where can I find a restaurant?: ''hvor kan jeg finne en restaurant?''
*Where is the nearest hospital?: ''hvor er det nærmeste sykehuset?''
*Banana: ''banan''
== [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) - [[Nynorsk]] ==
* Norwegian: ''norsk'' /{{IPA|'nɔʃk}}/ (norsk)
* Hello: ''hallo'' /{{IPA|hɑ'luː}}/
* Hi: ''hei'' /{{IPA|hæi}}/
* Good-bye: ''Ha det bra'' (formal); ''ha det'' (informal)
* Please: ''ver så snill'' /{{IPA|'wæːr so snil}}/
* Thank you: ''takk'' /{{IPA|tɑk}}/ (takh)
* That one: ''han/ho/den'' /den/ (den) or ''det'' /{{IPA|deː}}/ (deh)
* How much?: ''kor mykje?''
* English: ''engelsk'' /{{IPA|'eŋelsk}}/ or /{{IPA|'əŋəlsk}}/
* Yes: ''jau'' /{{IPA|jɑː}}/ (yah) or ''ja''
* No: ''nei'' /{{IPA|næj}}/ (nay)
* Can I take your picture?: ''kan eg ta bilete av deg?''
* Where is the bathroom?: ''kor/kvar er toalettet?''
* Where do you come from?: ''kor/kvar kjem du frå?''
* Do you speak English?: ''talar du engelsk?''
* Generic toast: ''skål'' /{{IPA|skoːl}}/
* Where can I find a restaurant?: ''kor/kvar kan eg finne ein restaurant?''
* Where is the nearest hospital?: ''kor/kvar er det nærmaste sjukehuset?''
*cheese''ost''
== [[O'odham language|O'odham]] ([[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]]) ==
*O'odham: ''O'odham ñiok'' {{IPA|/ɔʔɔtˀm ˈɲiɔk/}}
*English: ''Milga:n ñiok'' {{IPA|/miɮˈgaːn ˈɲiɔk/}}
*hello: ''Ṣap kaic'' {{IPA|/ʃap ˈkaiʧ/}} (lit. what did you say?)
*good-bye: ''Do va ep em ñei'' {{IPA|/dɔ va ˈəp əm ɲəi/}}
*that one: ''hegai'' {{IPA|/həgaɪ/}}
*yes: ''ha'u'' {{IPA|/haʔʊ/}}
*no: ''pi'a'' {{IPA|/piʔa/}}
== [[Okinawan language|Okinawan]] ([[Japonic languages|Japonic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
|- valign=top
|-
|English
|''inciriguci''
|?
|-
|hello
|''haisai'' (women can also say ''haitai'')
|?
|-
|good-bye
|''cu: wuganabira''
|?
|-
|please
|''unige: sabira'' (things), ''-kwimi so:re:'' (actions)
|?
|-
|thank you
|''iqpe: nihwe: de:biru''
|?
|-
|I'm sorry
|''gubiri: sabira'' (being impolite), ''waqsaibi:ndo:'' (accidents, mistakes)
|?
|-
|how much?
|''caqsa nato:ibi:ga''
|?
|-
|what's this?
|''kure: nu:ndi bi:ga''
|?
|-
|yes
|''wu:''
|?
|-
|no
|''wu: wu:''
|?
|-
|I don't understand
|''wakayabiran''
|?
|-
|Where's the bathroom?
|''hwu:ruya ma: yaibi:ga''
|?
|-
|generic toast
|''kari:''
|?
|-
|Do you speak English?
|''inciriguciya naibi:miga''
|?
|}
== [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]], Pennsylvania Deutsch ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]])==
''(dialects may vary)''
*Pennsylvania Deutsch: ''Pennsilfaani(sch)-Deitsch''
*hello: ''hiya''
*good-bye: ''bis schpeeder'' (bis shpayder) Until later
*please: ''please''
*thank you: ''danki schee'' (dan-key shay)
*that one: ''da do'' (da daw)
*how much: ''Wie viel'' (wee feel)
*English: ''Englisch''
*yes: ''Ya''
*no: ''nee'' (nay)
*Can I take your picture?: ''Kann ich dei Pikder nemme?'' (can ich (Germanic 'ch' sounds like the H in huge) dye pic-der nay-me)
*Where is the washroom?: ''Wu is die Baadschtupp?''
*Sorry I don't understand you.: ''Sorry, Ich verschteh dich net.''
== [[Pidgin]] (Germanic) Neo-Melanesian English creole ==
*Pidgin: ''Tok Pisin''
*hello: ''gut de''
*good-bye: ''gut bai''
*please: ''plis''
*thank you: ''tenkyu''
*that one: ''em''
*how much?: ''haumas''
*English: ''Inglis''
*yes: ''yes''
*no: ''nogat''
*nevermind, it doesn't matter: ''maski''
*I don't know: ''mi no save'' (save is two syllables sa-ve)
== [[Polish language|Polish]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 style="font-family:'Lucida Sans Unicode';"
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! a |
who discover that they are targets of anti-Semitism, but are also in a position to save themselves and their fellow Jews. In support of the idea that the story is a fiction, scholars have pointed to the many improbabilities of the story (that Esther is taken from the house of the Jew Mordecai, but is not known to be a Jew; that the edicts of the Medes and Persians cannot be rescinded; that Ahasuerus would agree to kill an entire people without being told their name; that Ahasuerus would give the Jews leave to murder thousands of their enemies) as suggesting that it is a fictional story. They also note that none of the events depicted in Esther are attested from any other source. There is some disagreement about the degree of familiarity the author of Esther shows with its setting in the Persian court - some scholars have used this as evidence for the book's fictionallity, while others have suggested that these background aspects are among the more historically accurate parts of the book.
==Allegorical Reading==
{{sectstub}}
Some Christian readers consider this story to contain an allegory, representing the interaction between the church as 'bride' and [[God]]. This reading is related to the allegorical reading of the [[Song of Solomon]].
==Relation To Other Books In the Bible==
''Esther'' is (in the Hebrew version) one of only two books of the Bible that do not directly mention [[God]] (the other is [[Song of Songs]]). It is the only book of the [[Tanakh]] that is not represented among the [[Dead Sea scrolls]]. It has often been compared to the first half of the [[Book of Daniel]] and to the [[deuterocanonical]] Books of [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]] and [[Book of Judith|Judith]] for its subject matter.
==Additions to ''Esther''==
An additional six chapters appear interspersed in ''Esther'' in the [[Septuagint]], the Greek translation, which then was used by [[Jerome]] in compiling the Latin [[Vulgate]]; additionally, the Greek text contains many small changes in the meaning of the main text. The extra chapters include several prayers to God, perhaps because it was felt that the above-mentioned lack of mention of God was inappropriate in a holy book. Jerome recognized them as later additions, placing them at the end of his work.
By the time ''Esther'' was written, the foreign power visible on the horizon as a future threat to Judah was the [[Macedon|Macedonia]]ns of [[Alexander the Great]], who defeated the Persian empire about 150 years after the time of the story of Esther; the [[Septuagint]] version noticeably calls Haman a Macedonian where the Hebrew text describes him as an Agagite.
The canonicity of these Greek additions has been a subject of scholarly disagreement practically since their first appearance in the [[Septuagint]] - [[Martin Luther]], being perhaps the most vocal [[Reformation]] era critic of the work, considered even the original Hebrew version to be of very doubtful value. Luther's complaints against the book carried past the point of scholarly critique, and led in part to the complaint of anti-semitism frequently made against him. The Roman Catholic [[Council of Trent]], the summation of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation, declared the entire book, both Hebrew text and Greek additions, to be canonical. While modern Roman Catholic scholars openly recognize the Greek additions as clearly being additions to the text, the ''Book of Esther'' is used twice in commonly used sections of the Catholic Lectionary. In both cases, the text used is not only taken from a Greek addition, the readings also are the prayer of [[Mordecai]], and nothing of [[Esther]]'s own words is ever used. The Eastern Orthodox Church uses the Septuagint version of ''Esther'', as it does for all of the Old Testament.
==Reinterpretations of the story==
The classic Hollywood film version of the story is the [[1960 in film|1960]] ''Esther and the King'' starring [[Joan Collins]] and [[Richard Egan (actor)|Richard Egan]] and directed by [[Raoul Walsh]].
There are several paintings depicting Esther, including one by [[John Everett Millais|Millais]].
==External links==
*[http://Queen-Esther-Movie.com Queen-Esther-Movie.com : All About Esther]
{{wikisourcepar|Bible, English, King James, Esther}}
===Text and translations===
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15782 Esther (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
**[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/i/t/t33.htm Mechon Mamre] Full text, [[Aleppo Codex]]: text of ''Esther'' in Hebrew
*[[Christian]] translations:
** {{biblegateway||Esther}}
**[http://st-takla.org/pub_Deuterocanon/Deuterocanon-Apocrypha_El-Asfar_El-Kanoneya_El-Tanya__3-Esther.html The ''Book of Esther''] Full text, [[KJV]], (also available at [http://st-takla.org/pub_Deuterocanon/Deuterocanon-Apocrypha_El-Asfar_El-Kanoneya_El-Tanya__3-Esther_.html Arabic])
===Introduction and analysis===
====Early 20th century views====
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=483&letter=E ''The 1910 Jewish Encyclopedia'']: Early 20th century critical perspective as well a discussion of traditional Jewish views of Esther.
*[http://12.1911encyclopedia.org/E/ES/ESTHER.htm ''The 1911 Encylopedia Britannica'']: Early 20th century critical perspective.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05549a.htm ''The 1917 Catholic Encyclopedia'']: Counter arguments to early 20th century criticism.
====Modern scholarship====
*[http://www.two-age.org/recommended_works/Books/recommended%20esther.htm Recommended texts on Esther]
*[http://www.biblecentre.net/reference/ot_intro/intro233.html Introduction to the Old Testament: Esther]
*[http://www.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Purim/TO_Purim_History/Esther_830.htm Extract from The JPS Bible Commentary: Esther by Adele Berlin]: Liberal Jewish view.
*[http://www.aishdas.org/toratemet/en_esther.html The Historicity of Megillat Esther]: Gil Student's survey of scholarship supporting an historical reading of Esther
*[http://www.dabar.org/ISBE-1915/Isbe-e/Esther-BookOf.html ''Esther, Book of'']: A Christian perspective of the book.
[[Category:Deuterocanonical books|Esther (parts)]]
[[Category:Ketuvim|Esther, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Esther]]
[[ar:سفر استر]]
[[bg:Книга за Естир]]
[[ca:Llibre d'Ester]]
[[cs:Kniha Ester]]
[[de:Buch Ester]]
[[fr:Livre d'Esther]]
[[ko:에스텔 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Ester]]
[[he:מגילת אסתר]]
[[jv:Ester]]
[[nl:Esther]]
[[ja:エステル記]]
[[pl:Księga Estery]]
[[pt:Livro de Ester]]
[[ru:Книга Есфирь]]
[[fi:Esterin kirja]]
[[sv:Esters bok]]
[[zh:以斯帖記]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Rail transport in Great Britain</title>
<id>4384</id>
<revision>
<id>41314868</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T14:19:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.39.87.139</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For transport in [[Northern Ireland]], see [[rail transport in Ireland]]''
[[image:rail.diesel.wapleybridge.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Class 180 Multiple Unit of [[First Great Western]] at speed near [[Yate]], Bristol, England. Top speed is 200 km/h (125 mph)]]
The '''[[United Kingdom|British]] [[railway]] system''' is the oldest in the world. It consists of almost 10,274 miles (16,536 [[kilometres|km]]) of [[standard gauge]] track, of which 3,062 miles (4,928 km) is electrified.
==Historical overview==
{{main|History of rail transport in Great Britain}}
Great feats of engineering were performed in its creation. Examples from the [[Victorian era]] are the building of the [[Forth Bridge (railway)|Forth Bridge]], [[1890]], or the replacement of 177 miles (285 km) of [[broad gauge]] rail with [[standard gauge]] in a single weekend from [[May 21]], [[1892]]. Such feats are not things of the past; recent and current examples are the building of the [[Channel tunnel]] for the link to the Continental railway systems, and the [[Channel Tunnel Rail Link]] from London to the tunnel.
The system was originally built as a patchwork of local rail links operated by small private railway companies. Over the course of the [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]] these amalgamated or were bought by competitors until only a handful of larger companies remained (see [[railway mania]]). The entire network of was brought under government control during the [[World War I|first World War]], and a number of advantages of amalgamation and planning were revealed. However, the government resisted calls for the [[nationalization]] of the network (first proposed by [[William Gladstone]] as early the 1830s). Instead, from [[January 1]] [[1923]] the remaining companies were [[Railways Act 1921|grouped]] into the "big four", the [[Great Western Railway]], the [[London and North Eastern Railway]], the [[London, Midland and Scottish Railway]] and the [[Southern Railway (UK)|Southern Railway]] companies. These were joint stock public companies and they continued to run the railway system until [[December 31]] [[1947]].
The growth in road transport during the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]] greatly reduced revenue for the rail companies. Rail companies accused the government of favouring road haulage through the subsidised construction of roads. The railways entered a slow decline owing to a lack of investment and changes in transport policy and lifestyles. During the [[World War II|second World War]] the companies' managements joined together, effectively forming one company. A maintenance backlog developed during the war, and the private sector only had two years to deal with this after the war ended. After [[1945]], for both practical and ideological reasons, the government decided to bring the rail service into the [[public sector]].
From the first moment of 1948, the "big four" were [[nationalization|nationalised]] to form [[British Railways]] (latterly "British Rail") under the control of the [[British |
ally happened: , and [[Zeus]] eventually sends him to his room without supper -->). And she is the original cause of the [[Trojan War]] itself: not only did she start the whole affair by offering [[Helen]] of [[Troy]] to [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], but the abduction was accomplished when Paris, seeing Helen for the first time, was inflamed with desire to have her&mdash;which is Aphrodite's realm. Her domain may involve love, but it does not involve [[Romantic_love|romance]]; rather, it tends more towards [[lust]], the human irrational longing.
=== Marriage with Hephaestus ===
Due to her immense beauty, Zeus was frightened she'd be the cause of violence between the other gods. He married her off to [[Hephaestus]], the dour, humorless god of smithing. Hephaestus was overjoyed at being married to the goddess of beauty and forged her beautiful jewelry, including the cestus, a [[girdle]] that made her even more irresistible to men. Her unhappiness with her marriage caused Aphrodite to seek out companionship from others, most frequently [[Ares]], but also [[Adonis]], [[Anchises]] and more. Hephaestus once cleverly caught Ares and Aphrodite in bed with finely wrought chains, and brought all the other Olympian gods together to mock the pair (however, the "goddesses stayed at home, all of them for shame.") Hephaestus would not free them until [[Poseidon]] promised Hephaestus that Ares would pay reparations, but both escaped as soon as the chains were lifted and their promise was not kept.
=== Aphrodite and Psyche ===
Aphrodite was jealous of the beauty of a mortal woman named [[Psyche]]. She asked [[Eros (mythology)|Eros]] to use his golden arrows to cause Psyche to fall in love with the ugliest man on earth. Eros agreed but then fell in love with Psyche on his own, or by accidentally pricking himself with a golden arrow. Meanwhile, Psyche's parents were anxious that their daughter remained unmarried. They consulted an [[oracle]] who told them she was destined for no mortal lover, but a monster who lived on top of a particular mountain. Psyche was resigned to her fate and climbed to the top of the mountain. There, [[Zephyrus]], the west wind, gently floated her downwards. She entered a cave on the appointed mountain, surprised to find it full of jewellery and finery. Eros visited her every night in the cave and they made love; he demanded only that she never light any lamps because he did not want her to know who he was (having wings made him distinctive). Her two sisters, jealous of Psyche, convinced her to do so one night and she lit a lamp, recognizing him instantly. A drop of hot lamp oil fell on Eros' chest and he awoke, then fled.
When Psyche told her two jealous elder sisters what had happened; they rejoiced secretly and each separately walked to the top of the mountain and did as Psyche described her entry to the cave, hoping Eros would pick them instead. Zephyrus did not pick them and they fell to their deaths at the base of the mountain.
Psyche searched for her lover across much of Greece, finally stumbling into a temple to [[Demeter]], where the floor was covered with piles of mixed grains. She started sorting the grains into organized piles and, when she finished, Demeter spoke to her, telling her that the best way to find Eros was to find his mother, Aphrodite, and earn her blessing. Psyche found a temple to Aphrodite and entered it. Aphrodite assigned her a similar task to Demeter's temple, but gave her an impossible deadline to finish it by. Eros intervened, for he still loved her, and caused some ants to organize the grains for her. Aphrodite was outraged at her success and told her to go to a field where golden sheep grazed and get some golden wool. Psyche went to the field and saw the sheep but was stopped by a river-god, whose river she had to cross to enter the field. He told her the sheep were mean and vicious and would kill her, but if she waited until noontime, the sheep would go the shade on the other side of the field and sleep; she could pick the wool that stuck to the branches and bark of the trees. Psyche did so and Aphrodite was even more outraged at her survival and success. Finally, Aphrodite claimed that the stress of caring for her son, depressed and ill as a result of Psyche's unfaithfulness, had caused her to lose some of her beauty. Psyche was to go to [[Hades]] and ask [[Persephone]], the queen of the underworld, for a bit of her beauty in a black box that Aphrodite gave to Psyche. Psyche walked to a tower, deciding that the quickest way to the underworld would be to die. A voice stopped her at the last moment and told her a route that would allow her to enter and return still living, as well as telling her how to pass [[Cerberus]], [[Charon (mythology)|Charon]] and the other dangers of the route. She pacified Cerberus, the three-headed dog, with a sweet honey-cake and paid Charon an [[obolus]] to take her into Hades. On the way there, she saw hands reaching out of the water. A voice told her to toss a honey cake to them. Once there, Persephone said she would be glad to do do Aphrodite a favor. She once more paid Charon, threw the cake out to the hands, and gave one to Cerberus.
Psyche left the underworld and decided to open the box and take a little bit of the beauty for herself, thinking that if she did so Eros would surely love her. Inside was a "[[Wiktionary:stygian|Stygian]] sleep" which overtook her. Eros, who had forgiven her, flew to her body and wiped the sleep from her eyes, then begged Zeus and Aphrodite for their consent to his wedding of Psyche. They agreed and Zeus made her immortal. Aphrodite danced at the wedding of Eros and Psyche and their subsequent child was named Pleasure, or (in the Roman mythology) [[Volupta]].
=== Adonis ===
Aphrodite was [[Adonis]]' lover and had a part in his birth. She urged [[Myrrha]] or Smyrna to commit [[incest]] with her father, [[Theias]], the King of [[Assyria]]. Another version says Myrrha's father was [[Cinyras]] of [[Cyprus]]. Myrrha's nurse helped with the scheme. When Theias discovered this, he flew into a rage, chasing his daughter with a knife. The gods turned her into a [[myrrh]] tree and Adonis eventually sprang from this tree. Alternatively, Aphrodite turned her into a tree and Adonis was born when Theias shot the tree with an arrow or when a boar used its tusks to tear the tree's bark off.
Once Adonis was born, Aphrodite took him under her wing, seducing him with the help of [[Helene (mythology)|Helene]], her friend, and was entranced by his unearthly beauty. She gave him to [[Persephone]] to watch over, but Persephone was also amazed at his beauty and refused to give him back. The argument between the two goddesses was settled either by [[Zeus]] or [[Calliope]], with Adonis spending four months with Aphrodite, four months with Persephone and four months of the years with whomever he chose. He always chose Aphrodite because Persephone was the cold, unfeeling goddess of the underworld.
Adonis was eventually killed by a jealous [[Ares]]. Aphrodite was warned of this jealousy and was told that Adonis would be killed by a bull that Ares transformed into. She tried to persuade Adonis to stay with her at all times, but his love of hunting was his downfall. While Adonis was hunting, Ares found him and gored him to death. Aphrodite arrived just in time to hear his last breath.
It is also said that Aphrodite bore a daughter to Adonis, [[Beroe]].
=== The [[Judgement of Paris]] ===
The gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]] (the eventual parents of [[Achilles]]). Only the goddess [[Eris]] (Discord) was not invited, but she arrived with a golden [[apple]] inscribed with the words "to the fairest," which she threw among the goddesses. Aphrodite, [[Hera]], and [[Athena]] all claimed the apple, and the matter was put before [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], the most handsome mortal. Hera tried to bribe Paris with an earthly kingdom, while Athena offered great military skill, but Aphrodite was judged most beautiful when she offered Paris the most beautiful mortal woman as a wife. This woman was [[Helen]], and her abduction by Paris led to the [[Trojan War]].
=== Pygmalion and Galatea ===
[[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]] was a sculptor who had never found a woman worthy of his love. Aphrodite took pity on him and decided to show him the wonders of love. One day, Pygmalion was inspired by a dream of Aphrodite to make a woman out of [[ivory]] resembling her image, and he called her [[Galatea (mythology)|Galatea]]. He fell in love with the statue and decided he could not live without her. He prayed to Aphrodite, who carried out the final phase of her plan and brought the exquisite sculpture to life. Pygmalion loved Galatea and they were soon married.
Another version of this myth tells that the women of the village in which Pygmalion lived grew angry that he had not married. They all asked Aphrodite to force him to marry. Aphrodite accepted and went that very night to Pygmalion, and asked him to pick a woman to marry. She told him that if he did not pick one, she would do so for him. Not wanting to be married, he begged her for more time, asking that he be allowed to make a sculpture of Aphrodite before he had to choose his bride. Flattered, she accepted.
Pygmalion spent a lot of time making small clay sculptures of the Goddess, claiming it was needed so he could pick the right pose. As he started making the actual sculpture he was shocked to discover he actually wanted to finish, even though he knew he would have to marry someone when he finished. The reason he wanted to finish it was that he had fallen in love with the sculpture. The more he worked on it, the more it changed, until it no longer resembled Aphrodite at all.
At the very moment Pygmalion stepped away from the finished sculpture Aphrodite appeared a |
or Kōshō]] | after=[[Emperor Korei|Emperor Kōrei]] | years=392 BC-291 BC}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Koan]]
[[de:K&#333;an]]
[[fr:Empereur Koan]]
[[nl:Koan (keizer)]]
[[ja:&#23389;&#23433;&#22825;&#30343;]]
[[zh:孝安天皇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Korei</title>
<id>10447</id>
<revision>
<id>28980379</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-22T13:34:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Isnow</username>
<id>180201</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+zh</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Kōrei''' (孝霊天皇 ''Kōrei Tennō'') was the seventh [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a "legendary emperor". He was the sixth one of eight emperors without legend. In ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' only his name and genealogy were recorded. The Japanese traditionally accepted his historical existence, and a tomb was attributed to him, but contemporary studies support the view that no such person existed.
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Koan|Emperor Kōan]] | after=[[Emperor Kogen|Emperor Kōgen]] | years=290 BC-215 BC}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Korei]]
[[de:Kōrei]]
[[fr:Empereur Korei]]
[[ja:&#23389;&#38666;&#22825;&#30343;]]
[[zh:孝靈天皇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Kogen</title>
<id>10448</id>
<revision>
<id>28980547</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-22T13:38:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Isnow</username>
<id>180201</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+zh</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Kōgen''' (孝元天皇 ''Kōgen Tennō'') was the eighth [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a "legendary emperor". He was the seventh one of eight emperors without legend. In ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' only his name and genealogy were recorded. His historical existence was believed traditionally and a tomb was attributed to him, but contemporary studies support the view that no such person existed.
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{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Korei|Emperor Kōrei]] | after=[[Emperor Kaika]] | years=214 BC-158 BC}}
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[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kogen]]
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[[fr:Empereur Kogen]]
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[[zh:孝元天皇]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Kaika</title>
<id>10449</id>
<revision>
<id>28980623</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-22T13:40:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Isnow</username>
<id>180201</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+zh</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:NaraKaikaTennoRyo0367.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Tomb, said to be that of Emperor Kaika, [[Nara, Nara|Nara]]]]
'''Emperor Kaika''' (開化天皇 ''Kaika Tennō'') is the ninth [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a "legendary emperor". He was the eighth of eight emperors without legend. In ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', only his name and genealogy were recorded. Although his existence was traditionally believed and a tomb was attributed to him, contemporary studies support the view such a person did not exist while some still assume he existed. (Albeit with insufficient materials to prove his existence.)
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{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Kogen|Emperor Kōgen]] | after=[[Emperor Sujin]] | years=157 BC-98 BC}}
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[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kaika]]
[[de:Kaika]]
[[fr:Empereur Kaika]]
[[ja:&#38283;&#21270;&#22825;&#30343;]]
[[zh:開化天皇]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Sujin</title>
<id>10450</id>
<revision>
<id>41287019</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T08:01:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.6.68.65</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Sujin''' (崇神天皇 ''Sujin Tennō'') was the tenth [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of '''[[Japan]]''' to appear on the traditional [[Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a "legendary emperor". This does not necessarily imply that no such person ever existed, just that there is insufficient material to assign him to a historical period.
According to ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' he was the second son of [[Emperor Kaika]]. He founded some important shrines in [[Yamato province]], sent generals to subdue local provinces and defeated a prince who rebelled against him.
Some historians identify him with the [[Emperor Jimmu]] and consider that the legend attributed to Jimmu was originally based on the life of Sujin. Other scholars assume his legend reflected the switching of dynasties and powers in Yamato province.
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[[Category:Japanese emperors|Sujin]]
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[[fr:Sujin]]
[[it:Sujin imperatore del Giappone]]
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[[zh:崇神天皇]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Suinin</title>
<id>10451</id>
<revision>
<id>42122952</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:45:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dlohcierekim</username>
<id>1025532</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv test</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:SuininTennoRyo.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Grave of Emperor Suinin, [[Nara Prefecture]]]]
'''Emperor Suinin''' (垂仁天皇 ''Suinin Tennō'') was the eleventh [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a "legendary emperor". This does not necessarily imply that no such person ever existed, just that there is insufficient material to assign him to a historical period.
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{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Sujin]] | after=[[Emperor Keiko|Emperor Keikō]] | years=29 BC-AD 70}}
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[[Category:Japanese emperors|Suinin]]
[[de:Suinin]]
[[fr:Suinin]]
[[it:Suinin imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&#22402;&#20161;&#22825;&#30343;]]
[[zh:垂仁天皇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Keiko</title>
<id>10452</id>
<revision>
<id>41873329</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:24:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Beetle B.</username>
<id>108708</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Added eras to dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Keikō''' (景行天皇 ''Keikō Tennō'') was the twelfth [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a "legendary emperor". This does not necessarily imply that no such person ever existed, just that there is insufficient material to assign him to a historical period.
His legend was recorded in ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', but the accounts of him are different in these two sources. In ''Kojiki'' he sent his son [[Yamatotakeru]] to [[Kyushu]] to conquer local tribes. In ''Nihonshoki'' Keikō himself went there and won battles against local tribes. According to both sources, he sent Yamatotakeru to [[Izumo province]] and eastern provinces to conquer the area and spread his territory.
{{japan-bio-stub}}
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{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Suinin]] | after=[[Emperor Seimu]] | years=71 CE-130 CE}}
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[[Category:Japanese emperors|Keiko]]
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[[it:Keiko imperatore del Giappone]]
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[[zh:景行天皇]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Seimu</title>
<id>10453</id>
<revision>
<id>31351998</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-14T18:08:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.196.4.226</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Seimu''' (成務天皇 ''Seimu Tennō'') was the 13th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a "legendary emperor". This does not necessarily imply that no such person ever existed, just that there is insufficient material to assign him to a historical period.
{{japan-bio-stub}}
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{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Keiko|Emperor Keikō]] | after=[[Emperor Chuai|Emperor Chūai]] | years=131-191}}
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[[Category:Japanese emperors|Seimu]]
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[[it:Seimu imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&#25104;&#21209;&#22825;&#30343;]]
[[zh:成務天皇]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Em |
suffered a nervous breakdown and was forced to take an abrupt four month-long break. He suffered another breakdown in early [[1950]], while working on ''[[Destination Moon (Tintin)|Destination Moon]]''.
In order to lighten Hergé's workload, the Hergé Studios was set up on [[April 6]], [[1950]]. The studio employed a variety of assistants to help Hergé in producing the adventures of Tintin. Foremost amongst these was the artist [[Bob De Moor]], who would
collaborate with Hergé on the remaining Tintin adventures, filling in details and backgrounds such as the spectacular [[Moon|lunar]] [[landscape]]s in ''[[Explorers on the Moon]]''. With the aid of the studio, Hergé managed to produce ''[[The Calculus Affair]]'' (regarded by some as his most polished work) in [[1954]], followed by ''[[The Red Sea Sharks]]'' in [[1956]].
[[Image:Tintinautibet.gif|right|thumb|''[[Tintin in Tibet]]'' ([[1958]])]]
By the end of this period, his personal life was again in crisis. His marriage with Germaine was breaking apart after twenty-five years; he had fallen in love with Fanny Vlaminck, a young artist who had recently joined the Hergé Studios. Furthermore, he was plagued by recurring [[nightmare]]s filled with whiteness. He consulted a Swiss [[psychoanalyst]], who advised him to give up working on Tintin. Instead, he launched into ''[[Tintin in Tibet]]'', possibly the most powerful of the Tintin stories.
Published in ''Tintin magazine'' from September [[1958]] to November [[1959]], ''Tintin in Tibet'' sent Tintin to the [[Himalaya]] in search of [[Chang Chong-Chen]], the Chinese boy he had befriended in ''[[The Blue Lotus]]''. The adventure allowed Hergé to confront his nightmares by filling the book with austere [[Alpine climate | alpine]] landscapes, giving the adventure a powerfully spacious setting. The normally rich cast of characters was pared to a minimum - Tintin, Captain Haddock, and the [[Sherpa (people)|sherpa]] Tharkey - as the story focused on Tintin's dogged search for Chang. Hergé came to regard this highly personal and emotionally riveting Tintin adventure as his favorite. The completion of the story seemed also to signal an end to his problems: he was no longer troubled by nightmares, divorced Germaine in [[1975]] (they had separated in [[1960]]), and finally married Fanny Vlaminck in [[1977]].
===Last years===
The last three complete Tintin adventures, were produced at a much reduced pace: ''[[The Castafiore Emerald]]'' in [[1961]], '' [[Flight 714]]'' in [[1966]], and ''[[Tintin and the Picaros]]'' only in [[1975]]. However, by this time Tintin had begun to move into other media. From the start of ''Tintin magazine'', Raymond Leblanc had used Tintin for merchandising and advertisements. In [[1961]], the first Tintin [[film|movie]] was made: ''[[Tintin and the Golden Fleece]]'', starring Jean-Pierre Talbot as Tintin. Several Tintin [[animation|animated cartoons]] have also been made, beginning with ''Prisoners of the Sun'' in [[1969]].
Tintin's financial success allowed Hergé to devote more of his time to travel. He travelled widely across [[Europe]], and in [[1971]] visited [[United States|America]] for the first time, meeting some of the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] whose culture had long been a source of fascination for him. In [[1973]], he visited [[Taiwan]], accepting an invitation offered three decades ago by the [[Kuomintang]] government, in appreciation of ''[[The Blue Lotus]]''.
In a remarkable instance of life mirroring art, Hergé managed to resume contact with his old friend [[Chang Chong-jen]], years after Tintin rescued the fictional [[Chong-chen Chang]] in the closing pages of ''[[Tintin in Tibet]]''. Chang had been reduced to a street sweeper by the [[Cultural Revolution]], before becoming the head of the Fine Arts Academy in [[Shanghai, China|Shanghai]] during the [[1970s]]. He returned to Europe for a reunion with Hergé in [[1981]], and he would settle in Paris in [[1985]], where he died in [[1998]].
Hergé died on [[March 3]], [[1983]], aged 75, due to complications arising from [[anemia]], which he had suffered from for several years.
He left the twenty-fourth Tintin adventure, '' [[Tintin and Alph-Art]]'', unfinished. Following his expressed desire not to have Tintin handled by another artist, it was published posthumously as a set of sketches and notes in [[1986]]. In [[1987]], Fanny closed the Hergé Studios, replacing it with the Hergé Foundation. In [[1988]], ''Tintin magazine'' was discontinued.
A cartoon version of Herg&eacute; makes a number of cameo appearances in [[Ellipse Programme|Ellipse]]-[[Nelvana]]'s ''[[The Adventures of Tintin (TV series)|The Adventures of Tintin]]'' [[animated series|TV cartoon series]].
==External links==
*[http://www.tintinologist.org/guides/herge/index.html Hergé - a mini profile and timeline]
*[http://www.free-tintin.net/english/herge.htm Discover Tintin]
*[http://www.tintinologist.org/ Tintinologist.org - A famous Tintin fansite]
*[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/search-handle-url/index=books&field-author=Herge Query Amazon for Herge: over 500 items]
{{Tintin}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Horned God</title>
<id>14318</id>
<revision>
<id>42113162</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:29:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Retodon8</username>
<id>275884</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Shortened links a tiny bit (I thought there were more).</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gundestrup_A.jpg|thumb|300px|A depiction of [[Cernunnos]] appears on the [[Gundestrup cauldron]].]]
'''The Horned God''' is a modern [[syncretism|syncretic]] term used amongst [[Wiccan]]-influenced [[Neopagan]]s, which unites numerous male [[nature god]]s out of such widely-dispersed and historically unconnected [[mythology|mythologies]] as the [[Celtic mythology|Celtic]] [[Cernunnos]], the [[Welsh mythology|Welsh]] [[Caerwiden]], the [[English mythology|English]] [[Herne the Hunter]], the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Pashupati]], the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] [[Pan (god)|Pan]] and the [[satyr]]s, and even the [[Paleolithic]] cave painting "the Sorcerer" in the Cave of the Three Brothers in France.
A number of related British folk figures have been incorporated as well: [[Puck (mythology)|Puck]], [[Robin Goodfellow]], and the [[Green Man]].
==Development of an idea==
[[Image:Baphomet.png|thumb|right|[[Eliphas Levi]]'s illustration of [[Baphomet]], in his ''Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie'', 1855, accompanied the first modern suggestion of an ancient horned god driven underground by the spread of Christianity.]]
The idea that all such horned images were of deities and that they represented manifestations of a single Horned God, and that [[Christianity]] had attempted to suppress his worship by associating him with [[Satan]], developed in the fashionable 19th-century [[Occult]]ist circles of England and France. [[Eliphas Levi]]'s famous illustration (''right'') of [[Baphomet]] in his ''Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie'' (1855) accompanied the first suggestions to this effect. Levi's image of "Baphomet" is reflected in most depictions of the Devil made since. Symbolism is drawn from the ''[[The Devil (Tarot card)|Diable]]'' card of the 17th and 18th century [[Tarot of Marseille]]: the bat-winged, horned and hoofed figure with female [[breast]]s, perched upon a globe; Levi added the [[caduceus]] of Mercury at his groin, moved the flaming torch to crown his head and had him gesture towards [[moon (mythology)|lunar crescents]] above and below.
Sacred horned or antlered animals that signalled the numinous presence of a deity were ubiquitous in the ancient world, and certain scholars have criticised worshippers who blur "the very important distinctions between a god named, described, represented, and worshipped in animal form, a real animal worshipped as a god, animal symbols and animal masks in the cult, and finally the consecrated animal destined for sacrifice." (Burkert 1985 p 64). Many [[bull (mythology)|sacred bulls]] and goats, [[deer (mythology)|sacred stags]] and ibexes serve as examples. Not all horned gods and their priests were male; [[Astarte]] and [[Isis]] (borrowing an attribute from [[Hathor]]), for example, were sometimes depicted with horns.
It was not an evil figure, Levi contended, but a god of the old world, driven underground and condemned as a figure of witchcraft by hostile Christianity. Figures such as [[Aleister Crowley]] and [[Margaret Murray]] took up this suggestion and blended it with an adaptation of [[cultural anthropology|cultural anthropologies]] such as that of [[James Frazer]]. Where Frazer saw modern folklore and folk customs as the echoes of forgotten agricultural rituals, authors such as Murray and other members of the [[Folklore Society]] saw an esoteric fertility cult, a secret tradition driven underground and suppressed (see [[Burning Times]]) by Christianity. Margaret Murray suggested that Christian reports of witches meeting in the woods with Satan were actually pagans with their priest wearing a horned helmet to invoke their Horned God (Murray 1921). These themes shaped the modern concept of the Horned God revered by neopagans today, which the remainder of this article will describe.
*[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], ''Greek Religion'' 1985.
*[[James Frazer|Frazer, James]], ''[[The Golden Bough]]''
*[[Margaret Mur |
n and world literature (sometimes even despite those who tried to resist it), and even on the art world beyond literature. The scope of Poe's impact on art is evident when one sees the many and diverse artists who were directly and profoundly influenced by him.
====Detective Fiction====
He is often credited as being an originator in the genre of [[detective fiction]] with his three stories about [[Auguste Dupin]], the most famous of which is "[[The Murders in the Rue Morgue]]." (Poe also wrote a [[satirical]] detective story called [["Thou Art the Man"]]) There is no doubt that he inspired mystery writers who came after him, particularly [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] in his series of stories featuring [[Sherlock Holmes]]. Doyle was once quoted as saying, "Each [of Poe's detective stories] is a root from which a whole literature has developed.... Where was the detective story until Poe breathed the breath of life into it?" (''Poe Encyclopedia'' 103). Though Poe's [[Auguste Dupin]] was not the first detective in fiction, he became an [[archetype]] for all subsequent detectives.
The [[Mystery Writers of America]] have named their awards for excellence in the genre the "[[Edgar Award|Edgars]]."
====Science Fiction, Gothic Fiction and Horror Fiction====
Poe also profoundly influenced the development of early [[science fiction]] author [[Jules Verne]], who discussed Poe in his essay ''Poe et ses &#339;uvres'' and also wrote a sequel to Poe's novel ''The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket'' called ''The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym, Le sphinx des glaces'' (''Poe Encyclopedia'' 364). [[H. G. Wells]], in discussing the construction of his classics of science fiction, ''The War of the Worlds'' and ''The First Men in the Moon'', noted that "''Pym'' tells what a very intelligent mind could imagine about the south polar region a century ago" (''Poe Encyclopaedia'' 372). Renowned science fiction author [[Ray Bradbury]] has also professed a love for Poe. He often draws upon Poe in his stories and mentions Poe by name in several stories. His anti-[[censorship]] story "Usher II", set in a [[dystopia]]n future in which the works of Poe (and some other authors) have been censored, features an eccentric who constructs a house based on Poe's tale "The Fall of the House of Usher".
Along with [[Mary Shelley]], Poe is regarded as the foremost proponent of the [[Gothic_novel|Gothic]] strain in literary Romanticism. [[Death]], decay and madness were an obsession for Poe. His curious and often nightmarish work greatly influenced the [[Horror fiction|horror]] and [[fantasy]] genres, and the horror fiction writer [[H. P. Lovecraft]] claimed to have been profoundly influenced by Poe's works.
====Physics and Cosmology====
''Eureka'', an essay written in [[1848]], included a cosmological theory that anticipated the [[Big Bang]] theory by 80 years, as well as the first plausible solution to [[Olbers' paradox]]. Though described as a "[[prose poem]]" by Poe, who wished it to be considered as art, this work is a remarkable scientific and mystical essay unlike any of his other works. He wrote that he considered ''Eureka'' to be his career masterpiece.
Poe eschewed the scientific method in his ''Eureka''. He argued instead that he was reasoning from pure [[intuition]], using neither the [[Aristotelian]] [[a priori]] method of [[axioms]] and [[syllogisms]], nor the [[empirical]] method of modern science set forth by [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]]. For this reason, he considered it a work of art, not science, but insisted that it was still true. Though some of his assertions have later proven to be false (such as his assertion that gravity must be the strongest [[force]]--it is actually the ''weakest''), others have been shown to be surprisingly accurate and decades ahead of their time.
====Cryptography====
Poe had a keen interest in the field of [[cryptography]], as exemplified in his short story ''[[The Gold Bug]]''. In particular he placed a notice of his abilities in the [[Philadelphia]] paper ''Alexander's Weekly (Express) Messenger'', inviting submissions of [[cipher]]s, which he proceeded to solve.[http://starbase.trincoll.edu/~crypto/historical/poe.html] His success created a public stir for some months. He later wrote essays on methods of cryptography which proved useful in deciphering the [[Germany|German]] codes employed during [[World War I]].
Poe's success in cryptography relied not so much on his knowledge of that field (his method was limited to the simple substitution cryptogram), as on his knowledge of the magazine and newspaper culture. His keen analytical abilities, which were so evident in his detective stories, allowed him to see that the general public was largely ignorant of the methods by which a simple substitution cryptogram can be solved, and he used this to his advantage. [http://www.usna.edu/EnglishDept/poeperplex/cryptop.htm] The sensation Poe created with his cryptography stunt played a major role in popularizing cryptograms in newspapers and magazines.
====American Short Story Writers and Poets====
Poe's literary reputation was greater abroad than in the United States, perhaps as a result of America's general revulsion towards the macabre. Rufus Griswold's defamatory reminiscences did little to commend Poe to U.S. literary society. However, American authors as diverse as [[Walt Whitman]], [[H. P. Lovecraft]], [[William Faulkner]], and [[Herman Melville]] were influenced by Poe's works. [[Flannery O'Connor]], however, claimed the influence of Poe on her works was "something I'd rather not think about" (''Poe Encyclopaedia'', p. 259).
[[Nathanael West]] used the concept and remarkable black humour of Poe's "The Man That Was Used Up" in his third novel, ''A Cool Million''. [[T. S. Eliot]], who was quite hostile to Poe, conceded that "it is impossible, however, to know if even one's own works were not influenced by his."
====Influence on French Literature====
In [[France]], where he is commonly known as "Edgar Poe," [[Charles Baudelaire]] translated his stories and several of the poems into French. His excellent translations meant that Poe enjoyed a vogue among [[avant-garde]] writers in France while being ignored in his native land. Poe also exerted a powerful influence over Baudelaire's own poetry, as can be seen from Baudelaire's obsession with macabre imagery, morbid themes, musical verse and aesthetic pleasure. In a draft preface to his most famous work, ''[[Les Fleurs du Mal]]'', Baudelaire lists Poe as one of the authors whom he plagiarized. Baudelaire also found in Poe an example of what he saw as the destructive elements of [[bourgeois]] society. Poe himself was critical of [[democracy]] and [[capitalism]] (in his story "Mellonta Tauta," Poe proclaims that "democracy is a very admirable form of government—for dogs" [http://www.eapoe.org/works/tales/mellntab.htm]), and the tragic poverty and misery of Poe's biography seemed, to Baudelaire, to be the ultimate example of how the bourgeoisie destroys genius and originality.
Poe was much admired, also, by the school of [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]]. [[Stéphane Mallarmé]] dedicated several poems to him and translated some of Poe's works into French, accompanied by illustrations by Manet (see below). The later authors [[Paul Valéry]] and [[Marcel Proust]] were great admirers of Poe, the latter saying "Poe sought to arrive at the beautiful through evocation and an elimination of moral motives in his art." From France, writers like [[Algernon Swinburne]] caught the Poe-bug, and Swinburne's musical verse owes much to Poe's technique.
====Other World Literature Influenced by Poe====
[[Oscar Wilde]] called Poe "this marvellous lord of rhythmic expression" and drew on Poe's works for his novel ''[[The Picture of Dorian Gray]]'' and his short stories (''Poe Encyclopedia'' 375).
Poe's poetry was translated into [[Russia|Russian]] by the [[Symbolist]] poet [[Konstantin Bal'mont]] and enjoyed great popularity there in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, influencing artists such as [[Vladimir Nabokov|Nabokov]], who makes several references to Poe's work in his most famous novel, ''[[Lolita]]''. [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]] called Poe "an enormously talented writer" and many of his characters, such as Raskolnikov and Porfiry Petrovich in ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' are derived from Poe characters (in this case, Montresor from "[[The Cask of Amontillado]]" (this is debatable: Raskolnikov is constantly in doubt and trying to justify his actions to himself, while the chilling effect of Montresor's narration lies precisely in the character's calm certainty of his purpose) and [[Auguste Dupin]] from "Murders in the Rue Morgue") (''Poe Encyclopaedia'' 102). He wrote favorable reviews of Poe's detective stories and briefly references "[[The Raven]]" in his novel ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''. Poe was also an influence for the [[Sweden|Swedish]] poet and author [[Viktor Rydberg]], who translated a considerable amount of Poe's work into [[Swedish language|Swedish]]; a [[Japan|Japanese]] author who even took a pseudonym, [[Edogawa Rampo]], from a rendering of Poe's name in that language; and [[Germany|German]] author [[Thomas Mann]], in whose novel ''[[Buddenbrooks]]'', a character reads Poe's short novels and professes to be influenced by his works.
[[Franz Kafka]] once said of Poe, "He was a poor devil who had no defenses against the world. So he fled into drunkenness. Imagination served him only as a crutch. He wrote tales of mystery to make himself at home in the world. That's perfectly natural. Imagination has fewer pitfalls than reality.... I know his way of escape and his dreamer's face." Poe made a deep |
Name = Catatonia |
ICD10 = F20.2 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|295.2}} |
}}
:''This is a page about '''catatonic''' state. For the band, see [[Catatonia (band)]]''.
'''Catatonia''' is a very severe [[psychiatric]] condition which is variously characterized by a general absence of motor activity (in ''catatonic stupor'') or violent, hyperactive behaviour (in ''catatonic excitement''). It is most often associated with [[schizophrenia]].
This psychiatric [[symptom]] is listed in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]. It is indicative of other conditions such as schizophrenia (catatonic type), [[bipolar disorder]], [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], [[encephalitis lethargica]], [[neuroleptic malignant syndrome]], [[Clinical depression|depression]] and other mental disorders, as well as [[drug abuse]] and/or [[overdose]]. There are a variety of treatments available, and depending on the case, one or more drugs may be used, including [[antipsychotic]]s and [[benzodiazepine]]s.
Catatonia is not a mental disorder in itself, but it is a symptom of other mental disorders. There is a subtype of schizophrenia called "catatonic schizophrenia" in which the patient experiences an extreme loss of motor ability or constant hyperactive motor activity. The catatonic will sometimes hold rigid poses for hours and will ignore any external stimuli.
'''Catatonic stupor''' is a motionless, [[apathetic]] state in which one is oblivious or does not react to external [[stimuli]]. [[motor skill|Motor activity]] is nearly non-existent. Individuals in this state avoid bathing and grooming, make little or no eye contact with others, may be [[mute]] and rigid, and initiate no [[social]] behaviors.
'''Catatonic excitement''' is state of constant [[agitation]] and excitation. Individuals in this state are extremely hyperactive (although the activity seems to lack purpose) and often violent towards themselves or others.
==External links==
*[http://www.23nlpeople.com/schizophrenia_catatonic.htm Catatonic Schizophrenia - Descriptions and Interventions]
*[http://www.23nlpeople.com/Catatonic_Schizophrenia.htm Discussion on Issues Relating To Catatonia]
[[Category:Mental illness diagnosis by DSM and ISCDRHP]]
[[de:Katatonie]]
[[fr:Catatonie]]
[[pl:Katatonia (zaburzenie motoryki)]]
{{med-stub}}</text>
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<page>
<title>CountriesY</title>
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<title>Continent</title>
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{{mergefrom|Geographic Realms}}
[[Image:Dymaxion_map_unfolded-no-ocean.png|thumb|300px|right| [[Dymaxion map]] by [[Buckminster Fuller]] shows land mass with minimal distortion as only one continuous continent]]
A '''continent''' ([[Latin]] ''continere'', "to hold together") is a large continuous [[landmass]].[[Image:Continents vide couleurs.png|thumb|300px|A world map depicting traditionally-reckoned continents (geographically) and nation-states]]
__TOC__
==Definitions==
Since [[geography]] is defined by local convention, there are several conceptions as to which landmasses qualify as continents, and which might be termed '''[[supercontinents]]''' (''e.g.'' [[Africa-Eurasia]]), '''[[microcontinents]]''' (''e.g.'' Madagascar or New Zealand), or '''[[subcontinents]]''' (''e.g.'' [[South Asia]]). Seven [[landmass]]es and their associated [[islands]] are commonly reckoned as continents, but these may be consolidated. For example, North and South America are often considered a single continent, and Asia is often united with Europe. Ignoring cases where Antarctica is omitted, or where the terms [[Australasia]] or [[Oceania]] replaces Australia, there are half a dozen traditions for naming the continents.
===Models===
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="8" | Models<!-- Order follows the Dymaxion map by Buckminster Fuller above. -->
|-
|'''7 continents:''' ||[[Antarctica]] ||[[South America]] ||[[North America]] ||[[Europe]] ||[[Asia]] ||[[Africa]] ||[[Australia (continent)|Australia]]
|-
|'''6 continents:''' ||Antarctica ||colspan="2" |<center>[[Americas|America]]||Europe ||Asia ||Africa ||Australia
|-
|'''6 continents:''' ||Antarctica ||South America ||North America ||colspan="2" |<center>[[Eurasia]] ||Africa ||Australia
|-
|'''5 continents:''' ||Antarctica ||colspan="2" |<center>America ||colspan="2" |<center>Eurasia ||Africa ||Australia
|-
|'''5 continents:''' ||Antarctica ||South America ||colspan="3" |<center>[[Laurasia]] ||Africa ||Australia
|-
|'''4 continents:''' ||Antarctica ||colspan="2" |<center>America ||colspan="3" |<center>[[Africa-Eurasia]]||Australia
|-
|}
The 7-continent model is usually taught in [[Western Europe]], the [[United States]], and Australia. In [[Canada]], the government-approved [http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/reference/international/world/referencemap_image_view Atlas of Canada] names 7 continents and teaches Oceania instead of Australia. In [[East Asia]], especially in the [[Orient]], it is taught as a 7-''[[region]]'' model since the rendition of "continent" in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] is similar to "[[island]]", which connotes a separate smaller landmass surrounded by water. In [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[Korea]], the English term Australasia and local translations of Oceania are most often used. The 6-continent Americas model is taught in [[England]], Asia and [[Latin America]] but, again, it is often taught in terms of the 6-region model. The 6-continent/region Eurasia model is preferred by the geographic community, while the geologic community forgoes local differences by classifying based on [[tectonic plate]]s. It is especially used in [[Russia]], elsewhere in [[Eastern Europe]], and Japan, which often refer to the 7-continent model as a Western cultural convention. Historians may use the 5-continent/region model in which [[North Africa]] is separated from [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] and attached to Eurasia ([[Jared Diamond]]) or the 4-continent/region Afro-Eurasian ([[Andre Gunder Frank]]).
They are ranked here according to size.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" | Size
|-
| '''continent'''
| '''area (km²)'''
|-
|[[Africa-Eurasia]] ||90,500,000
|-
|[[Laurasia]] ||84,500,000
|-
|[[Eurasia]] ||60,300,000
|-
|[[Asia]] ||49,700,000
|-
|[[Americas|America]] ||42,320,000
|-
|[[Africa]] ||30,370,000
|-
|[[North America]] ||24,500,000
|-
|[[South America]] ||17,820,000
|-
|[[Antarctica]] ||13,720,000
|-
|[[Europe]] ||10,030,000
|-
|[[Australia (continent)|Australia]] ||&nbsp;8,560,000<!-- mainland 7,686,850 -->
|}
===Interpretations===
Geographers and historians often find it useful to define larger landmasses connected by [[land bridge]]s:
# [[Africa-Eurasia]] (also called ''Eurafrasia''): the combined land mass of Africa and Eurasia;
# [[Laurasia]]: the combined land mass of Eurasia and North America, which were connected by [[Beringia]] during the [[Ice Age]];
# [[Sahul]]: the combined land mass of Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania during the Ice Age.
That is, during the last Ice Age, there were three large landmasses: Africa-Eurasia + America (which has no name), Sahul, and Antarctica. These larger land masses are usually considered [[supercontinent]]s rather than continents, however.
Continents are sometimes subdivided into [[subcontinent]]s that are delineated by geological features: the prototype of this is the [[Indian subcontinent]]. In the last century, it has also become customary to subdivide major landmasses, particularly Eurasia and the Americas, into regions or [[subregion]]s of varying size and scope; for instance, the Indian subcontinent somewhat corresponds to [[South Asia]]. [[Image:United Nations geographical subregions.png|thumb|410px|right|A world map of continental regions and their [[subregion]]s in use by the [[United Nations]]]]
[[Island]]s are usually considered to belong geographically to the continent they are closest to. The Coral Sea and South Pacific islands may be associated with Australia/[[Australasia]] to form the "continent" of [[Oceania]] (though the Pacific islands without Australia are also called Oceania). The [[British Isles]] have always been considered part of Europe, and [[Greenland]] is considered part of North America.
When ''the Continent'' is referred to without clarification by a speaker of [[British English]], it is usually presumed to mean [[Continental Europe]], that is Europe, explicitly excluding [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]]<!-- better to say "British Isles" -->. Elsewhere, islanders may refer to the nearest [[mainland]] as simply ''the Continent''. The ''[[Continental United States]]'' excludes [[Hawaii]]. ''Contiguous'' or ''Co(n)terminous United States'' means the United States without Alaska |
nstitutions and other rights of Catalonia followed the Roman tradition of the Codex.
During the 19th and 20th centuries, Catalonia was one of the main centres of Spanish industrialisation.
The struggle between the Barcelonese conservative bourgeoisie and the working class, often immigrants from the rest of Spain, dominated Catalan politics.
Catalan nationalist and federalist movements arose in the nineteenth century, and when the Second Republic was declared in [[1931]], Catalonia became an autonomous region. Following the fall of the Second Republic after the Spanish Civil War of 1936-39, the authoritarian dictatorship of General [[Francisco Franco]] annulled Catalonia's autonomy statute and prohibited any public usage, official promotion or recognition of the Catalan language (although its private everday use was never proscribed). During the last decade of Franco's rule, there was a resurgence of nationalist sentiment in Catalonia as in the other 'historic' region of the Basque provinces.
Following Franco's death in [[1975]] and the restoration of full democracy by 1978, Catalonia regained its status as an autonomous region within Spain. The Catalan nationalist leader [[Jordi Pujol]] came to power in the first regional elections in [[1980]] and his two-party coalition, Convergence and Unity ([[Convergència i Unió]] or CiU), won successive elections for 23 years.
[[Terra Lliure]] ("Free Land"), which was essentially a [[terrorism|terrorist]] group, sought to achieve independence through violence against Spanish interests and the wider population, but it never achieved the infamy or reach of the Basque terrorist organisatoin [[ETA]], and disbanded after negotiations with the national government.
Following the 1996 national elections in Spain, and despite his long track-record as a Catalan nationalist (especially during the Franco era), Pujol surprised many by lending CiU's support to the minority government formed by the conservative - and essentially centralist - [[People's Party (Spain)|People's Party]] (''Partido Popular'' or PP) led by [[José María Aznar]]. Some nationalist factions became increasingly dissatisfied with Pujol's rule, especially the [[Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya|ERC]]. At the same time, the Party of Catalan Socialists ([[Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya]] or PSC), a sister-party of Spain's main socialist party (''Partido Socialista Obrero Espanol'' or PSOE) based in the industrial heartland of [[Barcelona]], began to enjoy renewed electoral popularity.
One of the 'fault-lines' in contemporary Catalan politics arises from the fact that Barcelona, with its strong metropolitan economy, continues to attract migrants from all over Spain and Latin America. As a result, Spanish remains the language spoken by the majority of Barcelona's inhabitants, particularly in working-class areas. By contrast, Catalan remains the predominant language in middle-class and upper-class urban areas, as well as among the region's rural population. The PSC has to some extent become the party of those who resent the dominance of middle-class Catalan nationalists over Barcelona. In any case, while Catalan has undoubtedly experienced a spectacular revival since the death of Franco, the dominant presence of Spanish-speakers will continue to make universal or exclusive use of Catalan unlikely. Recently there has been an influx of African and East European immigrants, but this has not yet influenced the political scene, even though the demographic impact of immigration can clearly be seen on the streets.
At the regional elections held on [[November 16]] [[2003]], at which Pujol retired, the combined parties of the left defeated the CiU for the first time and [[Pasqual Maragall i Mira]] became President of the [[Generalitat de Catalunya|Generalitat]]. Maragall's Socialists, however, actually lost seats: the big winners were the Republican Left of Catalonia ([[Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya]] or ERC), which favours full Catalan independence, and the Greens. While PSC mantains the post of President of the Generalitat (Maragall), ERC nominates the ''conseller primer'' (prime minister) &mdash; currently, Bargalló.
Maragall's government is a somewhat uneasy coalition between the PSC, the ERC, and the ICV.
====Current political issues ====
Unlike the autonomous communities of [[Navarre]] and the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]], Catalonia lacks its own tax system; thus the economic financing of the regional administration depends almost entirely on funds raised by national-government taxation and budgeted to Catalonia. This has become a mainstream issue, particularly as the proposed reform of the [[Catalan Statute of Autonomy]] is currently the subject of intense political debate at regional and national level. From an economic perspective, the regional government aims to achieve a high degree of fiscal autonomy (based on the argument that the region pays in more to the national Spanish coffers than it receives).
There is currently (Autumn 2005) a raging political controversy in Spain as a result of the Catalan parliament's proposed draft of a replacement Autonomy Statute (supported by some 90% of the parliament's elected deputies) which seeks to define Catalonia as a '[[nation]]'[http://www.gencat.net/nouestatut/]. Article 2 of the [[Spanish Constitution of 1978|1978 Spanish Constitution]] states that the constitution "is based in the indissoluble unity of the Spanish Nation (''Nación'')" while also referring to the "right to autonomy of the [[nationality|nationalities]] and [[region]]s (''nacionalidades y regiones'')". These nationalities and regions are left unnamed in the Constitution. [http://www.congreso.es/funciones/constitucion/cons_t_preliminar.htm] The controversy centers on whether referring to any Autonomous Community of Spain as a "nation" may go against Article 2 and whether the Catalan claim to be a ''nación'' rather than a ''nacionalidad'' has [[separatism|separatist]] overtones subversive of the "indissoluble unity" of Spain. There is also a high degree of controversy about the control of all taxes, and a parallel judicial system.
The proposed Autonomy Statute has been fiercely condemned by centralist political parties and media, whose constant and high profile criticism of the proposed plans has led to citizens in the rest of Spain boycotting Catalan products, and to some high ranking officers of the Spanish Armed Forces warning that they would intervene by military force if a Statute that contravened the Constitution were ever approved.
===Parties===
* [[CiU]] &mdash; Convergència i Unió (Convergence and Unity) - federation
** [[Democratic Convergence of Catalonia|CDC]] &mdash; Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya (Democratic Convergence of Catalonia)
** [[Democratic Union of Catalonia|UDC]] &mdash; Unió Democràtica de Catalunya (Democratic Union of Catalonia)
* [[Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya|ERC]] &mdash; Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (Republican Left of Catalonia)
* [[ICV]]-[[EUiA]] &mdash; Iniciativa per Catalunya-Verds &ndash; Esquerra Unida i Alternativa (Green Initiative for Catalonia-Left United Alternative)
* [[Partido Popular|PP]] &mdash; Partit Popular (People's Party)
* [[Socialists' Party of Catalonia|PSC]]-[[PSOE]] &mdash; Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya-Partido Socialista Obrero Español (Socialist Party of Catalonia-Spanish Socialist Workers' Party)
===Summary of votes and seats===
Votes and seats are compared with those won at the 1999 election.
Voters: 5,307,837
Voting: 3,319,276 62.5%
Invalid votes: 8,793 00.3%
Valid votes: 3,310,483 99.7%
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Party Votes % Seats
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Convergència i Unió 1,024,425 30.9 (-06.8) 46 (-10)
Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya 544,324 16.4 (+07.7) 23 (+11)
Iniciativa Verds-Esquerra Alternativa 241,163 07.3 (+04.8) 9 (+06)
Partit Popular 393,499 11.9 (+02.4) 15 (+03)
Partit Socialista de Catalunya 1,031,454 31.2 (-06.6) 42 (-10)
Others 75,618 02.3 -
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total 3,310,483 135
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
==Geography==
:''See also [[:Category:Geography of Catalonia]]''
The Spanish autonomous community of Catalonia borders on [[Land of Valencia]] to the south, [[Aragon]] to the west, [[France]] and [[Andorra]] to the north, and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the east and southeast.
'''Mountains:'''
* Catalan [[Pyrenees]]: [[Val d'Aran]] in the north face, Pica d'Estats 3141 m., Puigmal 2911 m., [[Cerdagne]] depression, Perthus pass (near the ancient [[Roman empire|Roman]] road).
* Catalan Litoral mountains: Montseny, [[Montserrat (mountain)|Montserrat]], Montsant.
* Iberic system: Maestrat.
[[Image:Catalonia Foix river dam.jpg|thumbnail|right|Foix river]]
'''Major rivers:'''
*[[Fluvià]]
*[[Ter River|Ter]]
*[[Llobregat]]
*[[Foix]]
*[[Francolí]]
*[[Gaià]]
*[[Ebre]] and its tributaries: [[Noguera]], [[River Segre|Segre]], [[Valira]].
==Environmental Policy==
Awareness of environmental problems tends to be much lower in Catalonia (and in Spain as a whole) than in northern Europe. CO<sub>2</sub> emissions in Catalonia have increased by 40% since 1992 and 60% of the region's electricity comes from aging nuclear power stations (a figure exceeded in Europe only by Fran |
Sundays, but otherwise hew to the text supplied by Boston, and order of service set out by the Manual. To be the First Reader in one's branch church is one of the highest and most prestigious positions the lay Christian Scientist can aspire to.
Churches also hold a one-hour Wednesday evening testimony meeting, with similar readings and accounts of healing from prayer by those attending. At these services, the First Reader may choose to read extended passages from church literature; they often choose Science and Health or Mary Baker Eddy's other writings. They may also choose alternate Bible translations at these services (i.e. [[J B Phillips New Testament|Phillips]]).
Recently some branch churches, following the lead of the Mother Church in Boston, have started to hold a social fellowship meeting at the conclusion of Sunday services. Branch churches also sponsor occasional lectures given by Christian Science practitioners or teachers.
== History: Eddy's death to 1980 ==
<!---(This is to be on their history from [[1910]] to [[1980]]--->
To be written.
== Recent history ==
Beginning in the mid-1980s, church executives undertook an ambitious foray into electronic broadcast media. A monthly half-hour television production was followed by a nightly half-hour news show on the [[Discovery Channel]], anchored by veteran journalist [[John Hart]]. The Church then purchased a Boston [[cable TV]] station for elaborate in-house programming production. In parallel, the church purchased a [[shortwave radio]] station and syndicated radio production to [[National Public Radio]]. However, revenues fell short of optimistic predictions by church management, who had ignored early warnings by members and media experts. Most of these operations closed in well under a decade. Public accounts in both the mainstream and trade media reported that the church lost approximately $250 million on these ventures.
The media collapse brought the church to the brink of bankruptcy. However, with the 1991 publication of ''[[The Destiny of The Mother Church]]'' by the late [[Bliss Knapp]], the church secured a $90 million bequest from the Knapp trust. The trust dictated that the book be published as "Authorized Literature," with neither modification nor comment. Historically the church had censured Knapp for deviating at several points from Eddy's teaching, and had refused to publish the work. The church's archivist, fired in anticipation of the book's publication, wrote to branch churches to inform them of the book's history. Many Christian Scientists thought the book violated the church's [[Manual of The Mother Church|bylaws]], and the editors of the church's religious periodicals and several other church employees resigned in protest. Alternate beneficiaries subsequently sued to contest the church's claim it had complied fully with the will's terms, and the church ultimately received only half of the original sum.
The fallout of the new media debacle also sparked a minor revolt among some prominent church members. In late 1993, a group of Christian Scientists filed suit against the Board of Directors, alleging a willful disregard for the [[Manual of The Mother Church|Manual of the Mother Church]] in its financial dealings. The suit was thrown out by the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts in 1997, but a lingering discontent with the church's financial matters persists to this day.
In spite of its early meteoric rise, it appears likely that the Christian Science Church has suffered a decline in membership over recent decades. Though the Church is prohibited by the [[Manual of The Mother Church|Manual]] from publishing membership figures, the number of branch churches in the United States has fallen steadily since World War II. A 1992 study in the ''Christian Research Journal'' found that church membership had fallen from 269,000 in the 1930s to about 150,000. Some believe membership has fallen further since then, however current estimates for church membership vary widely, from under 100,000 to 400,000.
Dr. Stephen Barrett has reported that since 1971, the number of practitioners and teachers listed in the Christian Science Journal has fallen from about 5,000 to about 1,160 and the number of churches has fallen from about 1,800 to about 1,000.
In 2005 the Boston Globe reported that the church is considering consolidating Boston operations into fewer buildings and leasing out space in buildings it owns. Church official Philip G. Davis noted that the administration and Colonnade buildings have not been fully used for many years and that vacancy increased after staff reductions last year. The church posted an $8 million financial loss in fiscal 2003, and in 2004 cut 125 jobs, a quarter of the staff, at [[The Christian Science Monitor]]. Davis said however that "the financial situation right now is excellent" that the church is not facing financial problems. <!--Boston Globe October 13, 2005 p. A1--->
==Notable Christian-Scientists==
Notable Christian Scientists, and issues discussed about them, are dealt with at the [[List of Christian Scientists (religious denomination)]]. Although a few entertainers and politicians had enough of a role in the history of the faith to merit brief mention here. For example Big Band leader [[Kay Kyser]] was a [[Christian Science practitioner]] who was honored by the faith for being one of their leading lecturers. He also ran their TV-film department. [[Alan Young]] of [[Mister Ed]] founded a broadcast division for the faith. Lastly British diplomat [[Philip Kerr, 11th Marquess of Lothian|Philip Kerr]] was very vocal in the British Christian Science community.
Perhaps not as notable, but interesting, is Dr. [[Laurance Doyle]] of [[SETI]] who is perhaps the best known Christian Scientist who is also a scientist in the secular sense. (Specifically he is a physicist)
Other notable Christian Scientists include actress Ginger Rogers, Carol Channing (whose father was a very famous practitioner), Val Kilmer, Georgia Engel, Peter Horton, Jean Stapleton, Howard Hawks, King Vidor, Frank Capra, Dalton Trumbo, Danielle Steel, Theodore Dreiser, Mike Nesmith, Lionel Hampton, Shannon Miller, Doug Jenkins, and Conrad Nagel.
==Public controversy==
Christian Science has been subject to significant criticism and public controversy throughout its history. The most highly publicized controversy surrounds Christian Science and medicine. While church members point out that followers are free to choose to seek traditional medical treatment, most rely heavily or exclusively on healing by prayer (Christian Scientists distinguish their method from “[[faith healing]],” arguing that this term refers merely to blind faith, while their method is a well-defined mental process which leads to healing.)
This issue is most controversial regarding children. In a small number of nationally publicized cases in the early [[1990s]], prosecutors charged parents belonging to the Christian Science church, whose children had died of curable ailments without being medically treated, with [[murder]] or [[manslaughter]]. Most of these parents were legally exonerated. Some outside observers see these tragedies, particularly among children, as unnecessary and irrational. Many members of the church also believe that the parents involved in these suits received poor guidance from church members, and failed to properly understand and apply the process of healing through Christian Science. They add that there are vastly more malpractice lawsuits against MDs, and that no healers are immune from the American obsession of suing for vast sums.
Since the episodes with regard to The Monitor Channel and the Bliss Knapp book, the church has at times been accused of attempting to silence dissenters by methods such as unlisting them as practitioners in the Christian Science Journal, or revoking their membership. Some dissenting groups continue to solicit support among current members of the church.
There has also at times been tensions over primarily theological and religious concerns. This is perhaps most important in the so called [[Bible Belt]]. While members of the Christian Science church claim their religion is based in, reconcilable with, and part of Christianity (being based upon the teachings of Jesus as interpreted by Mary Baker Eddy), there are orthodox Christian theologians and others that have disputed this.[http://www.carm.org/christian_science.htm] These critics state that Christian Science' diverges too greatly from basic tenets of Christianity. They often cite the faith's views on the nature/existence of evil or sin, the divinity and resurrection of Jesus, the trinity, and a few others as meaning that the faith can no longer be considered a [[Christian denomination]]. Members of the faith argue that these groups exaggerate any differences in interpretation on these issues. Interestingly a quip often used to discuss this attributed to the non-Christian [[George Bernard Shaw]][http://www.atheists.org/christianity/xtianScience.html] who was a friend of the well-known Christian Scientist [[Nancy Astor, Viscountess Astor|Viscountess Nancy Astor]]. The quip states "Christian Science is neither Christian
nor scientific" and has been quoted by many Evangelical Christians in relation to the faith.[http://bibleforums.org/forum/showthread.php?p=185675] Related to the quote most of the mainstream scientific community believes that the reliance on spiritual healing, and some of the Church's other beliefs, are decidedly non-scientific.
The medical community (and others) have taken some interest in spirituality and healing. The [[Harvard Medical School]] Department of Continuing Education continues to offer a course entitled "Spirituality and Healing in Medicine; The Importance of the Integration of Mind/Body Practices and Prayer" which the Mother Church has supported. In addition, there |
third-rate]] launched in [[1708]] and wrecked [[1711]].
* The fifth [[HMS Resolution (1758)|''Resolution'']] was a 74-gun [[third-rate]] launched in [[1758]] but run aground and lost a year later at the [[battle of Quiberon Bay]].
* The sixth [[HMS Resolution (1770)|''Resolution'']] was a 74-gun [[third-rate]] launched in [[1770]] and broken up in [[1813]].
* The seventh [[HMS Resolution (Cook)|''Resolution'']] was the vessel of Captain [[James Cook]] in his explorations.
* The eighth [[HMS Resolution (1779)|''Resolution'']] was a [[cutter]] purchased in [[1779]] and foundered [[1797]].
* The ninth [[HMS Resolution (1892)|''Resolution'']] was a [[battleship]] in service from [[1892]] to [[1914]].
* The tenth [[HMS Resolution (1915)|''Resolution'']] was a [[battleship]] in service from [[1915]] to [[1944]].
* The eleventh [[HMS Resolution (S22)|''Resolution'' (S22)]] was the [[lead ship]] of the [[Resolution class submarine|''Resolution''-class]] [[ballistic missile]] [[submarine]]s.
* The twelfth [[HMS Resolution (1989)|''Resolution'']] is a [[survey ship]] transferred to the [[Royal New Zealand Navy]] in [[1996]].
==References==
*{{Colledge}}
{{shipindex}}
[[Category:Royal Navy ship names|Resolution]]
[[sl:HMS Resolution]]</text>
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<title>Herculaneum</title>
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'''Herculaneum''' (in modern [[Italian language|Italian]] formerly ''Resina'', but since 1969 ''Ercolano'') was an ancient [[Roman Empire|Roman]] town of the [[Italy|Italian]] region of [[Campania]]. It is today most famous for having been preserved, along with [[Pompeii]], in the eruption of [[Mount Vesuvius]] beginning on [[August 24]], A.D. [[79]] that destroyed the towns, burying them in superheated pyroclastic material that has solidified into volcanic tufa. The [[pyroclastic flow]] instantly killed all residents who had not escaped before it struck. In contrast to Pompeii, the bodies of those killed at Herculaneum are not preserved in casts; however, hundreds of skeletons have been discovered, mostly on what was once the ancient beach. Herculaneum was a smaller town with a wealthier population than Pompeii at the time of its destruction.
Excavation began at modern Ercolano, a suburb of [[Naples]], in [[1738]]. The elaborate publication of [http://www.picure.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/arc/ercolano/index.html ''Le Antichità di Ercolano'' ("The Antiquities of Herculaneum")] under the patronage of the [[Charles III of Spain|King of the Two Sicilies]] had an effect on incipient European [[Neoclassicism]] out of all proportion to its limited circulation; in the later 18th century, motifs from Herculaneum began to appear on stylish furnishings from decorative wall-paintings and tripod tables to perfume burners and teacups.
[[Image:Ercolano1 Copyright2003KaihsuTai.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Fresco in the 'college of the Augustans', depicting the myth of Hercules, the cult dedicated to the imperial household.]]
The first major discovery of [[1st century]] A.D. Roman skeletal materials took place in Herculaneum. Because the Romans generally practised cremation into the [[3rd century]], very little skeletal material remains for study. Excavation during the [[1990s]] in the port area of Herculaneum turned up the skeletons of more than 200 individuals of varied age, sex, and class.
[[Image:Ercolano2 Copyright2003KaihsuTai.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The well-preserved paintings and mosaics in Herculaneum.]]
The most famous of the luxurious villas at Herculaneum is the '[[Villa of the Papyri]]' now identified as the magnificent seafront retreat for [[Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus]], [[Julius Caesar]]'s father-in-law. It stretches down towards the sea in four terraces. Piso, a literate man who patronized poets and philosophers, built there a fine library, the only one to survive intact from antiquity. Scrolls from the villa are stored at the [[National Library, Naples]]. The scrolls are badly carbonized, but a large number have been unrolled, with varying degrees of success. Computer-enhanced [http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/apr02/departments/input_output/input_out.html multi-spectral imaging], in the infra-red range, helps make the ink legible. There is now a real prospect that it will be possible to read the unopened scrolls using X-rays.[http://www.research.uky.edu/odyssey/fall04/seales.html] The same techniques could be applied to the scrolls waiting to be discovered in the as yet unexcavated part of the villa, removing the need for potentially damaging unrolling to be carried out.
==External links==
[[Image:Ring_Lady.JPG|left|thumb|150px|The skeleton called the "Ring Lady" unearthed in Herculaneum.]]
{{Commons|Ercolano}}
*[http://www.herculaneum.ox.ac.uk The Friends of Herculaneum Society]
*[http://www.romanherculaneum.com Herculaneum: Destruction and Re-discovery]
*[http://www2.pompeiisites.org/ The local archaeological authorities]
*[http://www.humnet.ucla.edu/humnet/classics/philodemus/philhome.htm The Philodemus Project will publish Philodemus' works on poetry and on rhetoric.]
*[http://magazine.byu.edu/article.tpl?num=44-Spr01 Brigham Young University: Herculaneum Scrolls]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Helen Keller</title>
<id>14254</id>
<revision>
<id>41996787</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:57:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Orion Minor</username>
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<comment>rv, vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography
|subject_name=Helen Adams Keller
|image_name=Helen Keller.jpg
|image_caption= Deaf-blind American author, activist, and lecturer
|date_of_birth=[[June 27]], [[1880]]
|place_of_birth=[[Tuscumbia, Alabama|Tuscumbia]], [[Alabama]], [[United States|USA]]
|dead=dead
|date_of_death=[[June 1]], [[1968]]
|place_of_death=[[Easton, Connecticut|Easton]], [[Connecticut]], [[United States|USA]]}}
''' Helen Adams Keller ''' ([[June 27]], [[1880]] &ndash; [[June 1]], [[1968]]) was a [[deafblind]] [[United States|American]] [[author]], [[activist]] and [[lecturer]].
Helen Keller was born in [[Tuscumbia, Alabama|Tuscumbia]], [[Alabama]]. Her [[disabilities]] were caused by a [[fever]] in February, 1882 when she was 19 months old. Her loss of ability to [[communicate]] at such an early developmental age was very traumatic for her and her family.
==Biography==
===Childhood===
Keller was born at an estate called Ivy Green, on [[June 27]], [[1880]], to parents [[Captain Arthur H. Keller]] and Kate Adams Keller. She was not born blind and deaf, but was actually a typical, healthy infant. It was not until nineteen months later that she came down with an illness that the doctors described as "an acute congestion of the stomach and the brain" which could have possibly been [[scarlet fever]] or [[meningitis]]. The illness did not last for a particularly long time, but it left her blind, deaf, and unable to speak. By age seven she had invented over sixty different signs that she could use to communicate with her family.
In 1886, her mother Kate Keller was inspired by an account in [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[American Notes]]'' of the successful education of another deaf/blind child, [[Laura Bridgman]], and travelled to a specialist doctor in [[Baltimore]] for advice. He put her in touch with local expert [[Alexander Graham Bell]], who was working with deaf children at the time. Bell advised the couple to contact the [[Perkins Institute for the Blind]], the school where Bridgman had been educated, which was then located in [[South Boston, Boston, Massachusetts]]. The school delegated [[teacher]] and former student, [[Anne Sullivan]], herself visually impaired and then only 20 years old, to try to open up Helen's mind. It was the beginning of a 49-year-long period of working together.
Sullivan demanded and got permission from Helen's father to isolate the girl from the rest of the family in a little house in their garden. Her first task was to instill [[discipline]] in the spoiled girl. Helen's big breakthrough in communication came one day when she realized that the motions her teacher was making on her palm, while running cool water over her palm from a pump, symbolized the idea of "water" and nearly exhausted Sullivan demanding the names of all the other familiar objects in her world (including her prized doll).
In 1890, ten-year-old Helen Keller was introduced to the story of [[Ragnhild Kaata]] - a deafblind Norwegian girl who had learned to speak. Ragnhild Kaata's success inspired Helen - she wanted to learn to speak as well. Anne was able to teach Helen to think intelligibly and to speak, using the [[Tadoma]] method: touching the lips of others as they spoke, feeling the [[vibration]]s, and spelling of [[alphabet]]ic |
s placed himself under Fabius' command. Minucius had been named a co-commander of the Roman forces by Fabius' detractors in the Senate. Minucius openly claimed that Fabius was cowardly because he failed to confront the Carthaginian forces. Near the present-day town of [[Larino]] in the Molise (then called Larinum) Hannibal had taken up a position in a town called Gerione. In the valley between Larino and Gerione, Minucius decided to make a broad frontal attack on Hannibal's troops. Several thousand men were involved on either side. It appeared that the Roman troops were winning but Hannibal had set a trap. Soon the Roman troops were being slaughtered. Fabius, despite Minucius' earlier arrogance, rushed to his co-commander's assistance and Hannibal's forces immediately retreated. After the battle there was some feeling that there would be conflict between Minucius and Fabius. However, the younger soldier marched his men to Fabius' encampment and he is reported to have said, "My father gave me life. Today you saved my life. You are my second father. I recognize your superior abilities as a commander."
At the end of Fabius' dictatorship, the command was given back to the consuls [[Gnaeus Servilius Geminus]] and [[Marcus Atilius Regulus]] and in the following year ([[216 BC]]) to the consuls [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus]] and [[Gaius Terentius Varro]]. After Paullus and Varro were defeated at the [[battle of Cannae]] that year, the wisdom of Fabius' tactic was understood and ''Cunctator'' became an honorific title. This tactic was followed for the rest of the war, as long as Hannibal remained in Italy.
Fabius' own military success was small, aside from the reconquest of [[Tarentum]] in [[209 BC]]. When, some years afterwars , M. Livius Macatus, the governor of Tarentum claimed the merit of recovering the town, "certainly," rejoined Fabius, "had you not lost it, I would had never retaken it." (Plut. Fab. 23 ; Cic. de Oral. ii. 67.) He served as consul twice more after serving as dictator in 214 B.C. and 215 B.C. as well as being Chief Augur and Pontifex Maximus - a combination not repeated until [[Julius Caesar]]. However, he opposed the young and ambitious [[Scipio Africanus]], who wanted to carry the war to [[Africa]].
Later, he became a legendary figure and the model of a tough, courageous Roman. According to [[Ennius]], ''unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem'' – "one man, by delaying, has restored the state to us." While Hannibal is mentioned in the company of history's greatest generals, military professionals have bestowed Fabius' name on an entire [[military strategy|strategic]] doctrine known as the "''[[Fabian strategy]]''."
==See also==
* [[Fabian Society]], an active group in the politics of [[Great Britain]] at the end of the [[19th century]].
==External links==
* [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/fabius.html ''Fabius''], by [[Plutarch]]
-----
''For other members of the ''Fabii'', see [[Fabius]].''
{{Plutarch's lives}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>FAR</title>
<id>11375</id>
<revision>
<id>15909123</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-21T11:07:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RadioActive</username>
<id>199469</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Far]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Floating point</title>
<id>11376</id>
<revision>
<id>41949865</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:57:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bmearns</username>
<id>474383</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Properties of floating point arithmetic */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''floating-point number''' is a [[digital]] representation for a number in a certain subset of the [[rational number|rational numbers]], and is often used to approximate an arbitrary [[real number]] on a [[computer]]. In particular, it represents an integer or [[fixed-point arithmetic|fixed-point]] number (the '''[[significand]]''' or, informally, the '''mantissa''') multiplied by a base (usually 2 in computers) to some integer power (the '''[[exponent]]'''). When the base is 2, it is the binary analogue of [[scientific notation]] (in base 10).
A ''floating-point calculation'' is an arithmetic operation on floating-point numbers. This often involves some approximation or rounding because the result of an operation may not be exactly representable&mdash;floating-point
numbers are of limited precision and can therefore only represent a finite set of values, and if a result is not exactly one of those values then a choice of which value to use has to be made, and the result will then be inexact.
A floating-point number ''a'' can be represented by two numbers ''m'' and ''e'', such that ''a = m &times; b<sup>e</sup>''.
In any such system we pick a base ''b'' (called the ''base'' of numeration, also the ''[[radix]]'') and a [[precision]] ''p'' (how many digits to store).
''m'' (which is called the ''[[significand]]'' or, informally, ''mantissa'') is either a ''p''-digit or ''p+1''-digit number (in the [[IEEE floating-point standard]], there is usually an implicit binary ''1'' to the left of the the binary point and ''p'' digits to the right) of the form ±d'''.'''ddd...ddd (each digit being a digit in the base, ''b''). If the leading digit of ''m'' is non-zero then the number is said to be '''normalized'''. Some descriptions use a separate sign bit (''s'', which represents &minus;1 or +1) and require ''m'' to be positive.
''e'' is called the ''exponent''.
This scheme allows a large range of magnitudes to be represented within a given size of field, which is not possible in a [[fixed-point]] notation.
As an example, a floating-point number with four decimal digits (''b'' = 10, ''p'' = 4) and an exponent range of ±4 could be used to represent 43210, 4.321, or 0.0004321, but would not have enough precision to represent 432.123 and 43212.3 (which would have to be rounded to 432.1 and 43210). Of course, in practice, the number of digits is usually larger than four.
In addition, floating-point representations often include the special values +&infin;, &minus;&infin; (positive and negative infinity), and [[NaN]] ('Not a Number'). Infinities are used when results are too large to be represented, and NaNs indicate an invalid operation or undefined result.
== Usage in computing ==
While in the examples above the numbers are represented in the [[decimal]] system (that is the base of numeration, ''b'' = 10), computers usually do so in the [[binary numeral system|binary]] system, which means that ''b'' = 2. In computers, floating-point numbers are sized by the number of [[bit|bits]] used to store them. This size is usually 32 bits or 64 bits, often called "single-precision" and "double-precision". A few machines offer larger sizes; Intel [[FPU|FPUs]] such as the [[Intel 8087]] (and its descendants integrated into the [[x86]] architecture) offer 80 bit floating point numbers for intermediate results, and several systems offer 128 bit floating-point, generally implemented in software.
[http://babbage.cs.qc.edu/courses/cs341/IEEE-754.html This website] can be used to calculate the floating point representation of a decimal number.
== Problems with floating-point ==
Floating-point numbers usually behave very similarly to the [[real number]]s they are used to approximate. However, this can easily lead programmers into over-confidently ignoring the need for [[numerical analysis]]. There are many cases where floating-point numbers do not model real numbers well, even in simple cases such as representing the decimal fraction 0.1, which cannot be exactly represented in any binary floating-point format. For this reason, financial software tends not to use a binary floating-point number representation. See: http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/
Errors in floating-point computation can include:
* Rounding
** Non-representable numbers: for example, the [[literal]] 0.1 cannot be represented exactly by a binary floating-point number
** Rounding of arithmetic operations: for example 2/3 might yield 0.6666667
* Absorption: 1&times;10<sup>15</sup> + 1 = 1&times;10<sup>15</sup>
* Cancellation: subtraction between nearly equivalent operands
* [[Arithmetic overflow|Overflow]], which usually yields an infinity
* [[Arithmetic underflow|Underflow]] (often defined as an inexact tiny result outside the range of the [[normal number (computing)|normal number]]s for a format), which yields zero, a [[subnormal]] number, or the smallest normal number
* Invalid operations (such as an attempt to calculate the square root of a negative number). Invalid operations yield a result of [[NaN]] (not a number).
* Rounding errors: unlike the fixed-point counterpart, the application of [[dither]] in a floating point environment is nearly impossible. See external references for more information about the difficulty of applying dither and the rounding error problems in floating point systems
Floating point representation is more likely to be appropriate when proportional accuracy over a range of scales is needed. When fixed accuracy is required, fixed point is usually a better choice.
== Properties of floating point arithmetic ==
|
In a [http://www.lds.org/newsroom/page/0,15606,3899-1---15-168,00.html style guide] issued in [[2001]], the church requests that the official name, "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", be used where possible, stating: "This full name was given by revelation from God to Joseph Smith in [[1838]]." It also encourages the use of "the Church" or "The Church of Jesus Christ" as a shortened reference although the "LDS Church" is commonly used within the church's publications. When referring to members of the church, it suggests "Latter-day Saints" as preferred, although "Mormons" is acceptable. Despite the church's efforts to encourage use of the official name, the [[Associated Press]] has continued to recommend "Mormon Church" as a proper second reference in its ''Style Guide'' for journalists. In contrast to the Associated Press Stylebook's guidelines which apply the term only to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, some scholars feel the term "Mormon" is also useful as a collective description for all those groups which claim to have descended from Joseph Smith. A new movement is underway to refer to the unique culture, social workings and doctrines of the sects that claim succession from Smith as [[Mormonism]] and historical underpinnings as the [[Latter Day Saint movement]].
<!--This is important to the terms used within the article and other articles in the Wikipedia:WikiProject Latter Day Saint movement. -->
Within the church, members are collectively referred to as "saints", which reflects the belief that anyone who covenants by baptism to follow Christ is a [[saint]], as members of the primitive church were also deemed. The term "saint" is not solely reserved for an exemplary Christian as in some other churches. It is used, as in Biblical times, to refer to anyone who had become converted to the gospel.
==Major Beliefs==
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has many beliefs unique to the church.
=== First Principles and Ordinances of the Gospel ===
The fourth [[Articles of Faith (Mormonism)|Articles of Faith]] states that Latter-day Saints "believe that the first principles and ordinances of the Gospel are: first, [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints#Faith|Faith]] in the Lord Jesus Christ; second, [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints#Repentance|Repentance]]; third, [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints#Baptism|Baptism]] by immersion for the remission of sins; fourth, Laying on of hands for the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints#Gift of the Holy Ghost|gift of the Holy Ghost]]."
==== Faith ====
Latter-day Saints believe that faith in Jesus is a fundamental requisite to [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation|Salvation]]. The Prophet [[Joseph Smith]] taught, “The fundamental principles of our religion are the testimony of the Apostles and Prophets, concerning Jesus Christ, that He died, was buried, and rose again the third day, and ascended into heaven; and all other things which pertain to our religion are only appendages to it.” (''Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith'', 121).
The ''Lectures on Faith'' teach that faith is a principle of action and of power, in both the temporal and the spiritual realm. Ultimately, faith is “the first great governing principle which has power, dominion, and authority over all things.” (Lecture 1). For Latter-day Saints, the historical basis of faith comes from the record in the [[Bible]], which leads to a personal [[Theophany]].
The ''Lectures on Faith'' explain:
:Let us here observe, that three things are necessary in order that any rational and intelligent being may exercise faith in God unto life and salvation:
:First, the idea that he actually exists.
:Secondly, a ''correct'' idea of his character, perfections, and attributes.
:Thirdly, an actual knowledge that the course of life which he is pursuing is according to his will. For without an acquaintance with these three important facts, the faith of every rational being must be imperfect and unproductive; but with this understanding it can become perfect and fruitful, abounding in righteousness, unto the praise and glory of God the Father, and the Lord Jesus Christ. (Lecture 3)
The character and attributes and perfections of Christ are [[Knowledge]], [[Faith]] (or [[Power (sociology)|Power]]), [[Justice]], [[Judgment]] , [[Mercy]] , and [[Truth]]. By the operation of the [[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]], the miracle of the [[Atonement]], and personal [[sacrifice]], we can develop the same character and attributes of God, and become like Him.
Faith in Jesus Christ means accepting Jesus Christ as the Son of God and the [[Messiah]]. This includes two parts: 1) the belief that all who live on Earth are granted salvation from [[death]] (physical [[resurrection]]) through the Atonement, the sacrificial death and resurrection of Jesus Christ; and 2) that salvation from [[sin]] (or spiritual death) is obtained through ''sincere'' repentance, resulting in forgiveness for sin through his [[Divine grace|grace]], and by following the teachings and commandments of Jesus Christ. Latter-day Saints are encouraged by church leaders and the LDS culture to develop their faith through study, prayer, service, and obedience to God's commandments. Faith is a form of spiritual work, and character-shaping, in conjunction with the miracle of Christ's Atonement.
Latter-day Saints often refer to their personal faith as their "testimony" and refer to telling others about their faith as "bearing testimony."
==== Repentance ====
Latter-day Saints believe in the principle of [[repentance]], which for them includes a sincere regret, or "godly sorrow", as well as restitution when possible and abstinence from the sin. Key to the repentance process is a person's personal, prayerful confession to God, which includes asking for forgiveness and resolving not to repeat the mistake. It is important to confess serious sins to a bishop, who can offer advice and encouragement. Consistent with the meaning of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] words from which it is translated, repentance denotes "a change of mind", "a turning of the heart and will to God, and a renunciation of sin to which we are naturally inclined." Thus, a return to sin shows that the repentance process is not truly completed. Repentance is for small and large sins and is an ongoing process.
==== Baptism ====
The Church of Jesus Christ practices [[baptism#Latter-day Saint baptism|baptism]] by immersion in water. Baptism is symbolic of burial and rebirth as a disciple of Jesus Christ. Like many [[Christian]]s, Latter-day Saints believe that a person who repents and is baptized has all prior sins remitted.
Baptism is never performed before the eighth birthday. The age of eight was given in latter-day revelation as the age when children become accountable for their sins, that is, they are able to discern between right and wrong. If a person is unable to discern between right and wrong (ie. those with severe mental retardation, etc.) they are deemed unaccountable for their sins and do not require baptism, regardless of their age; they are viewed as fully saved through the Atonement of Christ. ''The Book of Mormon'' and modern revelation specifically forbids the practice of [[pedobaptism|infant baptism]]. (See [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/68/27 Doctrine and Covenants 68:27] and [http://scriptures.lds.org/moro/8/4-23 Moroni 8:4-23].) Baptism is recognized only when performed by one holding the proper authority, contained in the office of a Priest in the [[Aaronic Priesthood]] or a higher office.
They also practice [[Baptism for the dead]], a practice that is unique to the LDS Church.
==== Gift of the Holy Ghost ====
Following baptism by immersion, individuals are confirmed members of the church and given the Gift of the [[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]] by the laying on of hands by [[Priesthood (Mormonism)|Priesthood]] bearers worthy to do so. Latter-day Saints believe that this blessing entitles the newly confirmed recipient to have the constant companionship of the Holy Ghost as a guide and guardian so long as the recipient lives worthy of the gift. Moreover, members believe that those who have not been confirmed may still receive inspiration and a witness from the Holy Ghost but are not entitled to constant companionship available through the gift of the Holy Ghost.
==== Enduring to the End ====
Latter-day Saints also believe that life involves enduring to the end, and is not just a "one-time" religious experience. A life of discipleship is daily spiritual maintenance, charitable works, and personal development — social, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual development. It also involves overcoming personal trials, attending church and temple, rearing families, and doing work for the dead. Ultimately, the goal is for [[sanctification]], the process of having the same character that God has: perfect love, perfect mercy, and perfect truth.
=== The Godhead ===
LDS theology maintains that God the Father (Heavenly Father), Jesus Christ, and the [[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]] are three separate and distinct personages who together comprise the [[Godhead (Mormonism)|Godhead]] (as distinct from the traditional doctrine of the [[Trinity]], which maintains that they are three persons but one in essence). All three members of the Godhead are eternal and equally divine, but play somewhat different roles. While the Holy Ghost is a spirit without a physical body, God and Christ do possess distinct, perfected, physical bodies of flesh and bone. Although Mormon theology sees the [[Heavenly Father|Father]], the Son, and the Holy Ghost as separate beings, they are considered to be "one God" in most every othe |
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<page>
<title>A.C. Milan</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:40:57Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Famous players */ - alphabetized</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
clubname = Milan |
image = [[Image:Ac_milan.gif|75px|logo]] |
fullname = Associazione Calcio Milan SpA |
nickname = ''Rossoneri'' |
founded = [[December 16]],[[1899]] |
ground = [[San Siro|Stadio Giuseppe Meazza]],<br/>San Siro, [[Milan]], [[Italy]] |
capacity = 85,700 |
chairman = [[Silvio Berlusconi]] |
manager = [[Carlo Ancelotti]] |
league = [[Serie A]] |
season = 2004-[[2005|05]] |
position = [[Serie A]], 2nd |
pattern_la1=_redshoulders|pattern_b1=_blackstripes|pattern_ra1=_redshoulders|
leftarm1=000000|body1=FF0000|rightarm1=000000|shorts1=000000|socks1=000000|
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leftarm2=FF0000|body2=FF0000|rightarm2=FF0000|shorts2=FFFFFF|socks2=FFFFFF|
}}
'''Associazione Calcio Milan''' is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] club. Based in [[Milan]], [[Lombardy]], they play in red-and-black stripes and black shorts ( the same as [[Bohemian F.C.]] ), giving them the nickname ''rossoneri'' ("red-blacks"). One of the most successful [[club]]s in the world, they have won the prestigious [[UEFA Champions League|European Cup]] 6 times (second only to [[Real Madrid]]), [[Serie A]] 17 times (only rivals [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]] have more [[Scudetto|Scudetti]]) and [[Coppa Italia]] five times. It is also one of the most supported football clubs in the world.
==History==
The club was founded in 1899 as the ''Milan Cricket and Football Club'' by [[Alfred Edwards]] and [[Herbert Kilpin]], [[United Kingdom|British]] expatriates. In honour of its origins, the club has retained the [[English language|English]] [[spelling]] of its [[city|city's]] name, instead of changing it to the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''Milano''; it should be noted that the current Italian [[pronunciation]] is actually ''MEE-lahn''.
Historically, AC Milan (usually referred to as "Mìlan" in Italy) was supported by the city's [[working class|working classes]] and [[trade union|trade unionists]], while Inter was mainly supported by the more prosperous. However, in recent years, the clubs have seen a significant reversal in supporter bases, since Milan is now owned by media magnate and current conservative Prime Minister of Italy [[Silvio Berlusconi]], while Inter is now owned by a centre-left [[petroleum|oil]] [[businessman]], [[Massimo Moratti]].
Perhaps AC Milan's greatest period of success was in the late 1980s and early 1990s, triumphing in the European Champions League in 1989, 1990 and 1994 as well as a brace of domestic league titles and various other prizes. During this time, the rossoneri came to be known as 'Gli Invicibili' the Invincibles - as proven by an unprecedented 58 match run with no defeats; their 1992 Scudetto triumph came without a single defeat - to this day a feat which has not been repeated. The Invincibili team had the likes of [[Franco Baresi]] and [[Paolo Maldini]] commanding possibly one of the best defences in history alongside the Dutch trio of [[Ruud Gullit]], [[Frank Rijkaard]] and [[Marco Van Basten]] rounding out the attack. AC Milan was crowned European champions in 1969 when [[Cesare Maldini]], current skipper, Paolo's father was in the side. More recently, AC Milan have attempted to recapture their glory days with two domestic titles in 1999 and 2004 and a sixth Champions League trophy in 2003. In 2005, AC Milan let a 3-0 lead in their Champions League Final slip to a 3-3 draw before losing on penalties against [[FC Liverpool]] of England. This was the first time that AC Milan had lost in a European Final while playing in their away strip (all-white).
==Stadium==
The team's current [[stadium]] is the 85,700 seater Giuseppe Meazza, also known as the [[San Siro]]. The stadium is shared with [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]] (also known as "Inter"), the other major football club in Milan. AC Milan supporters use "San Siro" to refer to the stadium because [[Giuseppe Meazza|Meazza]] was a star player for Inter.
On [[19 December]] [[2005]], Milan Vice-President/CEO, [[Adriano Galliani]] announced that the team is seriously working to move out from San Siro. He said that Milan's new stadium will be largely based on Schalke Arena and following the standards of football stadia in America, Germany, and Spain. Most likely it will be a stadium for football purpose only (without the athletic tracks). The new stadium's name will be given to the sponsors.
==Current first team squad==
''As of [[January 31]] [[2006]]''
{{Football squad start}}
{{Football squad player|no=1|nat=Brazil|name=[[Nelson de Jesus Silva|Dida]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=2|nat=Brazil|name=[[Marcos Evangelista de Moraes|Cafu]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=3|nat=Italy|name=[[Paolo Maldini]]|pos=DF|other=captain}}
{{Football squad player|no=4|nat=Georgia|name=[[Kakhaber Kaladze]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=5|nat=Italy|name=[[Alessandro Costacurta]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=7|nat=Ukraine|name=[[Andriy Shevchenko]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=8|nat=Italy|name=[[Gennaro Ivan Gattuso]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=9|nat=Italy|name=[[Filippo Inzaghi]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=10|nat=Portugal|name=[[Rui Costa]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=11|nat=Italy|name=[[Alberto Gilardino]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=12|nat=Italy|name=[[Valerio Fiori]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=13|nat=Italy|name=[[Alessandro Nesta]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=14|nat=Switzerland|name=[[Johann Vogel]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad mid}}
{{Football squad player|no=16|nat=Australia|name=[[Zeljko Kalac]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=17|nat=Croatia|name=[[Dario Šimić]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=18|nat=Czech Republic|name=[[Marek Jankulovski]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=20|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Clarence Seedorf]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=21|nat=Italy|name=[[Andrea Pirlo]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=22|nat=Brazil|name=[[Ricardo Izecson dos Santos Leite|Kaká]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=23|nat=Italy|name=[[Massimo Ambrosini]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=27|nat=Brazil|name=[[Sergio Claudio dos Santos|Serginho]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=31|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Jaap Stam]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=37|nat=Brazil|name=[[Marcio Amoroso|Amoroso]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=41|nat=Italy|name=[[Matteo Ardemagni]]|pos=FW|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad player|no=46|nat=Italy|name=[[Lino Marzoratti]]|pos=DF|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad end}}
==Championships==
One of the most successful [[club]]s in the World, they have won the prestigious [[UEFA Champions League|European Cup]] 6 times (second only to [[Real Madrid]]), [[Serie A]] 17 times (only rivals [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]] have more [[Scudetto|Scudetti]]) and [[Coppa Italia]] five times.
*'''[[Serie A|Scudetto]]: 17'''
**1901, 1906, 1907, 1950-51, 1954-55, 1956-57, 1958-59, 1961-62, 1967-68, 1978-79, 1987-88, 1991-92, 1992-93, 1993-94, 1995-96, 1998-99, 2003-04
[[Image:Milano Scudetto Milan 1.jpg|right|thumb|200px|May 2004: celebrating the 17<sup>th</sup> ''scudetto'' in ''piazza del [[Duomo di Milano|Duomo]]'']]
*'''[[UEFA Champions League|European Cup]]: 6'''
**1962-63, 1968-69, 1988-89, 1989-90, 1993-94, 2002-03
*'''[[Coppa Italia|Italian Cup]]: 5'''
**1966-67, 1971-72, 1972-73, 1976-77, 2002-03
*'''[[Italian Super Cup]]: 5'''
**1988, 1992, 1993, 1994, 2004
*'''[[European/South American Cup|Intercontinental Cup]]: 3'''
**1969, 1989, 1990
*'''[[European Super Cup]]: 4'''
**1989, 1990, 1995, 2003
*'''[[Cup Winners' Cup]]: 2'''
**1967-68, 1972-73
*'''[[Latin Cup]]: 2'''
**1951, 1956
* '''[[Mitropa Cup]]: 1'''
**1981/82
'''Finals'''
*'''European Cup/Champions League: 4'''
**1957/58, 1992/93, 1994/95, 2004/05
*'''Cup Winners' Cup: 1'''
**1973/74
*'''Intercontinental Cup: 4'''
**1963, 1993, 1994, 2003
*'''European Super Cup: 2'''
**1974, 1994
*'''Latin Cup: 1'''
**1953
*'''Italian Cup: 7'''
**1941/42, 1967/68, 1970/71, 1974/75, 1984/85, 1989/90, 1997/98
==Famous players==
{|
|valign="top"|
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Christian Abbiati]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Demetrio Albertini]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Jose Altafini]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Carlo Ancelotti]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Roberto Ayala]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Baggio]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Franco Baresi]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Marco van Basten]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Oliver Bierhoff]]
*{{flagicon|England}} [[Luther Blissett (footballer)|Luther Blissett]]
*{{flagicon|Croatia}} [[Zvonimir Boban]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aldo Boffi]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Cafu]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Fabio Capello]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Alessandro Costacurta]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Hernán Crespo]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Edgar Davids]]
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Marcel Desailly]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Renzo De Vecchi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Paolo Di Canio]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Dida]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Donadoni]]
*{{flagicon|Belgium}} [[Eric Gerets]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Alberto Gilardino]]
*{{flagicon|England}} [[Jimmy Greaves]]
*{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Gunnar Gren]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Ruud Gullit]]
*{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Kurt Hamrin]]
*{{flagicon|England}} [[Mark Hateley]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Louis van Hege]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Filippo Inz |
projects, where the resulting work is not the software product itself, but domain knowledge.
* Are small and more easily managed though informal methods.
Projects suited for more traditional methodologies are those that:
* Involve stable technology and have fixed requirements, where it is known that no changes will occur.
* Involve [[mission critical]] or [[safety critical]] systems, where [[formal method]]s must be employed for safety or [[insurance]] reasons.
* Are large projects that may overwhelm informal communication mechanisms.
[[Project manager]]s must weigh project aspects against available methodologies to make an appropriate selection.
== See also ==
*[[Software engineering]]
*[[Agile software development]]
*[[Extreme project management]]
*[[Toyota Production System]]
*[[List of software development philosophies]]
== References ==
''General''
*[http://www.ics.uci.edu/~ses/teaching/ics121/histories/hherela/ Chrysler Comprehensive Compensation System]
*[http://groups.google.com/group/comp.software.extreme-programming/about comp.software.extreme-programming]
''Pro-XP''
*[[Kent Beck]]: ''Extreme Programming Explained: Embrace Change'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201616416
*[[Kent Beck]] and [[Martin Fowler]]: ''Planning Extreme Programming'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201710919
*[[Martin Fowler]]: ''Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201485672
*[[Ken Auer and Roy Miller]]: ''Extreme Programming Applied: Playing To Win'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201616408
*[[Ron Jeffries]], [[Ann Anderson]] and [[Chet Hendrickson]]: ''Extreme Programming Installed'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201708426
*[[Kent Beck]] and [[Cynthia Andres]]: ''Extreme Programming Explained: Embrace Change, Second Edition'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0321278658
''Anti-XP''
*[[Matt Stephens]] and [[Doug Rosenberg]]: ''Extreme Programming Refactored: The Case Against XP'', Apress, ISBN 1590590961
''Background reading''
*[[Alistair Cockburn]]: ''Agile Software Development'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201699699
*[[Jim Highsmith]]: ''Agile Software Development Ecosystems'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201760436
== External links ==
*[[Ward Cunningham]]'s [[WikiWikiWeb]] page on [[WikiWikiWeb:ExtremeProgramming|Extreme Programming]]
*[http://www.nidelven-it.no/articles/extreme_programming Client-oriented introduction to XP]
*[[Ron Jeffries]] web-mag [http://www.xprogramming.com/ XProgramming.com - an Extreme Programming Resource]
*[http://www.extremeprogramming.org/ ExtremeProgramming.org]
*[http://www.xp2006.org/ XP2006, the 7th International Conference on eXtreme Programming and Agile Processes in Software Engineering] (with links to earlier conferences)
*[http://www.objectmentor.com/processImprovement/xpCaseStudies Case study links at Object Mentor]
*[[Matt Stephens]]'s satirical website, for an in-depth critique of [http://www.softwarereality.com/ExtremeProgramming.jsp Extreme Programming problems] (also see [http://www.softwarereality.com/lifecycle/xp/links.jsp this page] for further links to XP critiques)
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20041009200611/http://martinfowler.com/xp.html Martin Fowler on XP] (on the [[Internet Archive]], archived Oct 9, 2004
*[http://PairProgramming.com/ Pair Programming, an Extreme Programming practice]
*[http://www.agilemanifesto.org/ Manifesto for Agile Software Development]
*[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cis?q=%22Extreme+Programming%22 Citations from CiteSeer]
*Article [http://www.methodsandtools.com/archive/archive.php?id=2 XP Testing Without XP: Taking Advantage of Agile Testing Practices] from the [http://www.methodsandtools.com Methods & Tools] magazine
*Article [http://www.methodsandtools.com/archive/archive.php?id=10 Will Pair Programming Really Improve Your Project?] from the [http://www.methodsandtools.com Methods & Tools] magazine
*Article [http://www.methodsandtools.com/archive/archive.php?id=28 Extreme Programming as Nested Conversations] from the [http://www.methodsandtools.com Methods & Tools] magazine
*[http://agiletoolkit.libsyn.com Agile Toolkit] [[Podcast]] - Conversations with the Agile Community
*Article [http://www.laputan.org/mud/ Big Ball of Mud] by Brian Foote and Joseph Yoder, Department of Computer Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
[[Category:Extreme Programming]]
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[[cs:Extrémní programování]]
[[de:Extreme Programming]]
[[es:Programación Extrema]]
[[fr:Extreme programming]]
[[he:XP]]
[[it:Extreme Programming]]
[[ja:エクストリーム・プログラミング]]
[[lt:Ribinis programavimas]]
[[nl:Extreme Programming]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eschrichtiidae</title>
<id>10353</id>
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<timestamp>2003-05-19T11:52:06Z</timestamp>
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<minor />
<comment>#redirect [[Gray Whale]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Gray Whale]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edmund I of England</title>
<id>10354</id>
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<id>38804293</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T19:42:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Monarch Basic
| name=Edmund I
| title=King of England
| image=[[Image:Edmund I of England.jpg]]
| rank=10th
| reign=[[October 27]],[[939]] &ndash; [[May 26]],[[946]]
| date of birth=[[921]]
| place of birth=[[Wessex, England]]
| date of death=[[May 26]],[[946]]
| place of death=|
| place of burial=[[Glastonbury Abbey]]
| married=Elgiva and Ethelfleda
| father=[[Edward the Elder]]
| mother=[[Edgiva of Kent]]
}}
'''Edmund I''', or ''Edmund the Deed-Doer'' (''Eadmund'') ([[921]]&ndash;[[May 26]], [[946]]) was [[Kingdom of England|King of England]] from [[939]] until his death. He was a son of [[Edward the Elder]] and half-brother of [[Athelstan of England|Athelstan]].
Athelstan died on [[October 27]], 939, and Edmund succeeded him as King. Shortly after his proclamation as king he had to face several military threats. King [[Olaf III Guthfrithson|Olaf I of Dublin]] conquered [[Northumbria]] and invaded the [[Midlands]]. When Olaf died in [[942]] Edmund reconquered the Midlands. In [[943]] he became the god-father of King [[Olaf of York]]. In [[944]], Edmund was successful in reconquering Northumbria. In the same year his ally Olaf of York lost his throne and left for [[Dublin]] in [[Ireland]]. Olaf became the king of Dublin as [[Olaf Cuaran]] and continued to be allied to his god-father. In [[945]] Edmund conquered [[Strathclyde]] but conceded his rights on the territory to King [[Malcolm I of Scotland]]. In exchange they signed a treaty of mutual military support. Edmund thus established a policy of safe borders and peaceful relationships with [[Scotland]]. During his reign, the revival of [[monastery|monasteries]] in England began.
Edmund was murdered in 946 by Leofa, an exiled thief. He had been having a party in [[Pucklechurch]], when he spotted Leofa in the crowd. After the outlaw refused to leave, the king and his advisors fought Leofa. Edmund and Leofa were both killed. He was succeeded as king by his brother [[Edred of England|Edred]], king from [[946]] until [[955]].
Edmund's sons later ruled England as:
*[[Edwy of England|Edwin of England]], King from [[955]] until [[957]], king of only [[Wessex]] and [[Kingdom of Kent]] from [[957]] until his death on [[October 1]], [[959]].
*[[Edgar of England]], king of only [[Mercia]] and [[Northumbria]] from [[957]] until his brother's death in [[959]], then king of England from [[959]] until [[975]].
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Athelstan of England|Athelstan]]|
title=[[List of British monarchs|King of England]]|
years=[[939]]&ndash;[[946]]|
after=[[Edred of England|Edred]]
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:921 births]]
[[Category:946 deaths]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon monarchs]]
[[ang:Ēadmund Æðeling]]
[[de:Edmund I. (England)]]
[[es:Edmundo I el Magnífico]]
[[fr:Edmond Ier d'Angleterre]]
[[it:Edmundo I d'Inghilterra]]
[[he:אדמונד הראשון מלך אנגליה]]
[[nl:Edmund I van Engeland]]
[[no:Edmund I av England]]
[[pl:Edmund Starszy]]
[[pt:Edmundo I de Inglaterra]]
[[sv:Edmund I av England]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Eros</title>
<id>10355</id>
<revision>
<id>39031557</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T06:03:36Z</timestamp>
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* [[Eros (god)|Eros]], a [[deity|god]] in [[Greek mythology]]
'''Eros''' can also refer to:
* The [[Greek language|Greek]] [[word]] ''[[Eros (love)|Eros]]'', which means "[[Human sexual behavior|sexual love]]"
* [[433 Eros]], an [[asteroid]]
* EROS, the "[[Extremely Reliable Operating System]]"
* Pjur Eros, a premium latex-safe personal lubricant
* [[Eros (Freud)|Eros]], the life instinct postulated by [[Sigmund Freud|Freudian]] [[psychology]], standing in opposition to [[Thanatos]]
* The [[Eelam Revolutionary Organisation Of Students]], a [[militant]] [[Tamil people|Tamil]] group.
* A statue in [[Piccadilly Circus]], [[London]], which is commonly known as ''Eros'' but is in fact meant to represent ''The [[Angel]] of [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Charity]]''
*An international distribution company for Indian films
*''[[Eros (film)]]'', a [[2004 in film|2004 film]].
* [[EROS (satellite)|EROS]] an [[Israel|Israeli]] commercial [[Earth observation satellite]], designed and manufactured by [[Israel Aircraft Industries|IAI]].
* [[Event Related Optica |
references to an earlier source, ''The Honest Book of Truth''. From the quotations, the HBT seems to be arranged like the [[Bible]], consisting of verses grouped into chapters grouped into books grouped into the HBT itself. The Principia includes (on page 00041) a large portion of (or possibly all of) a chapter of "The Book of Explanations" which recounts how the HBT was revealed to [[Lord Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst]] (believed by many to be [[Kerry Thornley]]). It may be worth noting that the tale of the discovery of the HBT contains many similarities to the tale of the discovery of the [[Book of Mormon]], and that Thornley had been a [[Mormon]]. It also includes (on page 00030) part of the next chapter, telling how the HBT was taken by a garbage collector, who refused to return it.
Although most religions revere the principles of [[Harmony (disambiguation)|harmony]] and [[order]] in the [[Universe]], Discordianism can be interpreted as a recognition that [[disharmony]] and [[chaos]] are equally valid [[aspect]]s of [[reality]]. The ''[[Principia Discordia]]'' often hints that Discordianism was founded as a [[dialectic]] [[antithesis]] to more popular religions based on [[order]], although the [[rhetoric]] throughout the book describes [[chaos]] as a much more underlying impulse of the [[universe]]. This may have been done with the intention of merely "balancing out" the creative forces of [[order]] and [[disorder]], but the focus is certainly on the more disorderly aspects of the world &ndash; at times the forces of order are even [[wiktionary:vilify|vilified]].
The matron deity of Discordianism is [[Eris]], the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] goddess of discord, with whom the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] identified their goddess [[Discordia]].
==Organization==
:''If organized religion is the [[opium]] of the masses, then disorganized religion is the [[marijuana]] of the lunatic [[fringe]].'' &mdash;[[Kerry Thornley]] in the introduction to the 5th edition of ''[[Principia Discordia]]''
The very idea of a Discordian organization is something of an [[oxymoron]]. Nevertheless, some structure is indicated in ''Principia Discordia''. The most general group, presumably including all Discordians (and potentially others), is The [[Discordian Society]], whose definition is "The Discordian Society has no definition" (''[[Principia Discordia]]'', page 00032). Within the society are [[sect]]s of Discordianism, each under the direction of an "Episkopos" ([[Greek language|Greek]], "overseer", source of [[English language|English]] ''bishop'' and ''episcopalian''), who receives direction directly from [[Eris]], presumably via his or her [[pineal gland]].
:''Some Episkiposes have a one-man [[cabal]].''
:''Some work together.''
:''Some never do explain.''
:-marginalia from ''[[Principia Discordia]]'', page 00032
Discordians who do not form their own [[sect]]s, whether they belong to someone else's sect or not, make up the [[Legion of Dynamic Discord]], and may be referred to as [[Legionnaire]]s. Would-be Discordians are told on page 00032,
:If you want in on the Discordian Society
:then declare yourself what you wish
:do what you like
:and tell us about it
:or
:if you prefer
:don't.
:&nbsp;
:There are no rules anywhere.
:The Goddess Prevails.
===POEE===
The sect of Discordianism founded by [[Malaclypse the Younger|Malaclypse The Younger]] and Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst is known as the ''Paratheo-Anametamystikhood Of Eris Esoteric'' (POEE), and the ''Principia Discordia'' tells us much about POEE in particular, as well as Discordianism in general.
For example, page 00022 contains &ndash; along with a hand-copied quotation by [[Georg Christoph Lichtenberg|Lichtenberg]]: "This book is a mirror. When a monkey looks in, no apostle looks out." &ndash; some details about the structure of POEE. In particular:
:POEE had 5 DEGREES:
::There is the Neophyte, or LEGIONNAIRE DISCIPLE.
::The LEGIONNAIRE DEACON, who is catching on.
::An ordained POEE PRIEST/PRIESTESS or a CHAPLIN.
::The HIGH PRIEST, The Polyfather.
::And POEE =POPE=.
:POEE Legionnaire Disciples are authorized to initiate others as Discordian Society Legionnaires. PRIESTS appoint their own DEACONS. The POLYFATHER ordains Priests. I don't know about the =POPES=.
According to the [[Principia Discordia]], POEE is "a tribe of [[Philosophy|philosophers]], [[Theology|theologians]], [[magician]]s,[[Science|scientists]], [[art]]ists, [[clown]]s, and similar [[maniac]]s who are intrigued by [[Eris]] goddess of confusion and her doings." Furthermore it states that "POEE subscribes to the [[#The Law of Fives|Law Of Fives]] of Omar's sect" and "POEE also recognizes the Holy [[23 (number)|23]]."
'''Paratheo-Anametamystikhood''' can be taken to mean "equivalent deity, reversing beyond-mystique".
===Popes in Discordianism===
According to page 00036 of the Principia Discordia, a pope is "every single man, woman, and child on this Earth."
Included in the ''[[Principia Discordia]]'' there is an "official =POPE= card" (on page 00036) that may be reproduced and distributed freely to anyone and everyone. Papacy, however, is not granted through possession of this card &mdash;it is merely to inform people that they are a genuine and authorized ''Pope of Discordia.''
While the powers of a Pope were not necessarily enumerated in the ''Principia'', we are given some idea from a note under the card which states, "A =POPE= is someone who is not under the authority of the authorities."
Some Discordians have also taken it upon themselves to further elaborate upon the powers of a Pope. On the back of some Pope cards, the following message can be found:
<blockquote>
"The rights of a =POPE= include but are not necessarily limited to:
# To invoke infallibility at any time, including retroactively.
# To completely rework the Erisian church.
# To baptise, bury, and marry (with the permission of the deceased in the latter two cases).
# To ex-communicate, de-ex-communicate, re-ex-communicate, and de-re-ex-communicate (no backsies!) both his-/her-/it-/them-/your-/our-/His-/Her-/It-/Them-/Your-/Our-self/selves and others (if any).
# To perform all rites and functions deemed inappropriate for a Pope of Discordia."
</blockquote>
The third right (requiring permission from the deceased in cases of burying or marriage, but not baptism) may be a reference to the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] practice of [[Baptism for the dead]].
This understanding of the notion of Pope has far reaching consequences in Discordianism. For example, the introduction to ''Principia Discordia'' says, "Only a Pope may [[canonize]] a [[Saint]]. [...] So you can ordain yourself &mdash;and anyone or anything else &mdash;a Saint." The last enumerated right of a =POPE= may be an allusion to the [[necessary and proper clause]].
A female version, with the word ''Mome'' substituted for Pope, has also been promulgated.
== Philosophy ==
A summary of part of the Discordian [[philosophy]] appears on pages 00049 and 00050 of the ''Principia Discordia''. The following is a quote extracted from ''Principia Discordia'' ([[All Rites Reversed]]):
:HERE FOLLOWS SOME PSYCHO-METAPHYSICS.
:If you are not hot for philosophy, best just to skip it.
:The Aneristic Principle is that of APPARENT ORDER; the Eristic Principle is that of APPARENT DISORDER. Both order and disorder are man made concepts and are artificial divisions of PURE CHAOS, which is a level deeper than is the level of distinction making.
:With our concept making apparatus called "mind" we look at reality through the ideas-about-reality which our cultures give us.
:The ideas-about-reality are mistakenly labeled "reality" and unenlightened people are forever perplexed by the fact that other people, especially other cultures, see "reality" differently.
:It is only the ideas-about-reality which differ. Real (capital-T True) reality is a level deeper than is the level of concept.
:We look at the world through windows on which have been drawn grids (concepts). Different philosophies use different grids. A culture is a group of people with rather similar grids. Through a window we view [[chaos]], and relate it to the points on our [[grid]], and thereby understand it. The ORDER is in the GRID. That is the Aneristic Principle.
:Western philosophy is traditionally concerned with contrasting one grid with another grid, and amending grids in hopes of finding a perfect one that will account for all reality and will, hence, (say unenlightened westerners) be True. This is illusory; it is what we Erisians call the ANERISTIC ILLUSION. Some grids can be more useful than others, some more beautiful than others, some more pleasant than others, etc., but none can be more True than any other.
:DISORDER is simply unrelated information viewed through some particular grid. But, like "relation", no-relation is a concept. [[Male]], like [[female]], is an idea about [[sex]]. To say that male-ness is "absence of female-ness", or vice versa, is a matter of definition and metaphysically arbitrary. The artificial concept of no-relation is the Eristic Principle.
:The belief that "order is true" and disorder is false or somehow wrong, is the Aneristic Illusion. To say the same of disorder, is the Eristic Illusion.
:The point is that (little-t) truth is a matter of definition relative to the grid one is using at the moment, and that (capital-T) Truth, metaphysical reality, is irrelevant to grids entirely. Pick a grid, and through it some chaos appears ordered and some appears disordered. Pick another grid, and the same chaos will appear differently ordered and disordered.
:Reality is the original [[Rorschach inkblot test|Rorschac |
rek]]
*[[BattleTech]] ([[MechWarrior]])
*[[Shadowrun]]
*[[Renegade Legion]]
*[[Earthdawn]]
*[[Crimson Skies]]
*[[VOR:_The_Maelstrom|VOR the Maelstrom]]
*[[Crucible]]
*[[Doctor Who]]
FASA unexpectedly ceased active operations in early [[2001]], but still exists as a corporation holding [[intellectual property|IP]] (intellectual property rights) which it licenses to other publishers. Contrary to popular belief, the company did not go bankrupt. Allegedly the owners decided to quit while the company was still financially sound in a market they perceived as going downhill.
The [[BattleTech]], [[Shadowrun]] and [[Earthdawn]] properties were licensed off to [[WizKids]], who in turn licensed their publication to [[Fantasy Productions|FanPro LLC]]. However, the [[Earthdawn]] license was recently returned to FASA. [[Living Room Games]] publishes [[Earthdawn]] (Second Edition) while [[RedBrick Limited]] now holds a license to continue publishing First Edition material. [[Crimson Skies]] was originally developed by [[FASA Interactive]], a computer game company created by FASA proper in the late 1990s and used under license by FASA; FASA Interactive had been purchased by [[Microsoft]], so naturally the rights for Crimson Skies stayed with Microsoft. Rights to the [[Miniature figure|miniature]]s game [[VOR:_The_Maelstrom|VOR the Maelstrom]] reverted to the designer Mike "Skuzzy" Nielson, but it has not been republished in any form due partly to legal difficulties.
[[Category:BattleTech]]
[[Category:Earthdawn]]
[[Category:Role-playing game publishing companies]]
[[de:FASA]]
[[it:FASA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>F-4 Phantom II</title>
<id>11759</id>
<revision>
<id>42112575</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:25:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Emt147</username>
<id>545524</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Operational history */ +refs</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- This article is a part of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft]]. Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] for recommended layout. -->
:'''''F-4''''' ''redirects here; for other uses, see [[F4]].''
[[Image:F-4 Phantom II in flying.jpg|right|thumb|300px|USAF F-4E Phantom II dropping 500 lb (227 kg) [[Mark 82 bomb]]s. Note the sooty exhaust trail.]]
The '''[[McDonnell Douglas]] F-4 Phantom II''' is a two-place (tandem), supersonic, long-range, all-weather fighter-bomber. An unmistakable icon of the [[Cold War]] and the first modern [[air superiority]] fighter, the Phantom entered service with US military in the early 1960s and remains on active duty in several countries to this day. Shortly after its debut, the aircraft broke 16 world records for speed and altitude. Amazingly flexible, the Phantom easily expanded its original air defense role to include tactical reconnaissance and ground attack with conventional and nuclear munitions.
==Development==
In [[1953 in aviation|1953]], McDonnell Aircraft began work on modernizing its [[F3H Demon]] naval fighter. Seeking expanded capabilities and better performance, the company developed several projects including '''F3H-E''' with a Wright J67 engine, '''F3H-G''' with two [[Wright J65]] engines, and '''F3H-H''' with two [[General Electric J79]] engines. The J79-powered version promised a top speed of [[Mach number|Mach]] 1.97. On [[19 September]] [[1953]], McDonnell approached [[US Navy]] with their proposal for a "Super Demon." Uniquely, the aircraft was to be modular -- it could be fitted with a one- or two-seat noses for different missions, and could have different nose cones to accommodate radar, photo cameras, four 20 mm cannons, or 56 [[FFAR]] unguided rockets in addition to 9 hardpoints under the wings and fuselage. The Navy was sufficiently interested to order a full-size mockup of the F3H-G/H but felt that the upcoming [[F9F Panther|Grumman XF9F-9]] and [[F-8 Crusader|Vought XF8U-1]] already satisfied the need for a supersonic fighter. The McDonnell design was therefore reworked into an all-weather fighter-bomber with eleven external hardpoints for weapons and on [[18 October]] [[1954 in aviation|1954]] the company received a letter of intent for two '''YAH-1''' prototypes. On [[26 May]] [[1955 in aviation|1955]], four Navy officers arrived at the McDonnell offices and within an hour presented the company with an entirely new set of requirements. The project was now an all-weather fleet defence interceptor. The addition of a powerful radar necessitated a second crewman. In a fateful decision, the aircraft was to be armed only with missiles.
The '''XF4H-1''' was redesigned to carry four semi-recessed [[AIM-7 Sparrow|AAM-N-6 Sparrow III]] radar-guided missiles and fitted with J79-GE-8 engines. Like in the [[F-101 Voodoo]], the engines sat low in the fuselage to maximize internal fuel capacity and ingested air through fixed geometry intakes. The thin-section wing had a 45° leading edge sweep and was equipped with a [[boundary layer control system]] for better low-speed handling, a must for a carrier-borne aircraft. [[Wind tunnel]] testing revealed lateral instability requiring the addition of 5° dihedral to the wings. To avoid redesigning the titanium central section of the aircraft, McDonnell engineers angled up only the outer portions of the wings by 12° which averaged to the required 5° over the entire wingspan. The wings also received the distinctive "dogtooth" for improved control at high [[Angle of attack|angles of attack]]. The all-moving tailplane was given 23° of anhedral to improve control at high angles of attack and clear engine exhaust (the anecdote that it was the result of someone stepping on the blueprints has no substance). In addition, air intakes were equipped with movable ramps to regulate airflow to the engines at supersonic speeds. All-weather intercept capability was achieved thanks to the [[AN/APQ-50]] radar. To accommodate carrier operations, landing gear was designed for landings with a sink rate of 23 ft/s (7 m/s). The nose strut could extend by some 20 in (50 cm) to increase angle of attack at takeoff (Donald 2002).
To continue the McDonnell tradition of demonic names, F4H was initially going to be named "Satan" or "[[Mithras]]." Under pressure from the government, the aircraft given a less controversial name "Phantom II," the first "Phantom" being another McDonnell jet fighter, the [[FH-1 Phantom|FH-1]]. Since FH-1 was long out of service, the aircraft was usually referred to a simply the "Phantom."
On [[25 June]] [[1955 in aviation|1955]], Navy ordered two XF4H-1 test aircraft and five '''YF4H-1''' pre-production fighters. The Phantom made its maiden flight on [[27 May]] [[1958 in aviation|1958]] with Robert C. Little at the controls. A hydraulic problem precluded retraction of landing gear but subsequent flights went more smoothly. Early testing resulted in redesign of the air intakes, including the addition of distinctive 12,500 bleed air holes on each ramp, and the aircraft soon squared off against [[F-8 Crusader|Vought XF8U-3 Crusader III]]. The Navy wanted a two-seat aircraft and on [[17 December]] [[1958]] the F4H was declared a winner. Due to delays with J79-GE-8, the first production aircraft had J79-GE-2 and -2A engines with 16,100 lbf (71.8 kN) of [[afterburner]] thrust. In [[1959 in aviation|1959]], Phantom began carrier trials with the first complete launch-recovery cycle performed on [[15 February]] [[1960 in aviation|1960]] from [[USS Independence]].
Early in production, the radar was upgraded to a larger AN/APQ-72 necessitating the bulbous nose and the canopy was reworked to make the rear cockpit less claustrophobic. The changes did little to improve the Phantom's appearance, with one critic saying it looked like someone stepped on its nose and kicked it in the butt. Overall, the Phantom underwent a great many changes during its career which are summarized in the "Variants" section below.
The [[US Air Force]] received Phantoms as the result of [[Robert McNamara]]'s push to create a unified fighter for all branches of the military. After F-4B won the '''Operation Highspeed''' fly-off against [[F-106 Delta Dart]], the USAF borrowed two Naval F-4Bs, temporarily designating them '''F-110A Spectre''' and developed requirements for their own version. With unification of designations in 1962, the Phantom became the '''F-4''' with Naval version designated F-4B and USAF F-4C.
Phantom II production ended in the United States in [[1979 in aviation|1979]] after 5,057 had been built, making it the second most numerous US jet after [[F-86 Sabre]] mdash; more than 2,800 went to the USAF, about 1,200 to the Navy and Marine Corps, and the rest to foreign customers. The last U.S.-built F-4 went to Turkey, while the last F-4 ever built was completed in [[1981 in aviation|1981]] as an F-4EJ by [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]] in Japan.
===World record breaker===
Eager to show off their new fighter, the Navy led a series of record-breaking flights early in Phantom development.
* '''Operation Top Flight''' - on [[6 December]] [[1959]], the second XF4H-1 with performed a zoom climb to a world record 98,557 ft (30,040 m). The previous record of 94,658 ft (28,852 m) was set by a Soviet [[Sukhoi Su-9|Sukhoi T-43-1]] prototype. Commander Lawrence E. Flint, Jr accelerated his aircraft to Mach 2.5 at 47,000 ft (14,330 m) and climbed to 90,000 ft (27,430 m) at a 45° angle. He then shut down the engines and glided to the peak altitude. As the aircraft fell through 70,000 ft (21,300 m), Flint restarted the engines and resumed normal flight.
* On [[5 September]] 1960, an F4H-1 averaged 1,216.78 mph (1,958.16 km/h) over a 311 mi (500 km) closed-circuit course.
* On [[25 September]] 1960, an F4H-1 averaged 1,390.21 mph (2,237.26 km/h) over a 62 mi (100 km) closed-circuit course.
* '''Operatio |
Virus writers can have various reasons for creating and spreading malware. Viruses have been written as research projects, pranks, [[vandalism]], to attack the products of specific companies, to distribute political messages, and financial gain from identity theft or [[spyware]]. Some virus writers consider their creations to be works of art, and see virus writing as a creative hobby. Additionally, many virus writers oppose deliberately destructive payload routines. Some viruses were intended as "good viruses". They spread improvements to the programs they infect, or delete other viruses. These viruses are, however, quite rare, still consume system resources, may accidentally damage systems they infect, and, on occasion, have become infected and acted as vectors for malicious viruses. Moreover, they normally operate without asking for permission of the owner of the computer. Since self-replicating code causes many complications, it is questionable if a well-intentioned virus can ever solve a problem in a way which is superior to a regular program that does not replicate itself.
Releasing computer viruses (as well as worms) is a [[computer crime|crime]] in most jurisdictions.
See also the BBC News article [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3172967.stm Why people write computer viruses].
==Replication strategies==
In order to replicate itself, a virus must be permitted to execute code and write to memory. For this reason, many viruses attach themselves to executable files that may be part of legitimate programs. If a user tries to start an infected program, the virus' code may be executed first. Viruses can be divided into two types, on the basis of their behavior when they get executed. Nonresident viruses immediately search for other hosts that can be infected, infect these targets, and finally transfer control to the application program they infected. Resident viruses do not search for hosts when they are started. Instead, a resident virus loads itself into memory on execution and transfers control to the host program. The virus stays active in the background and infects new hosts when those files are accessed by other programs or the operating system itself.
===Nonresident viruses===
Nonresident viruses can be thought of as consisting of a ''finder module'' and a ''replication module''. The finder module is responsible for finding new files to infect. For each new executable file the finder module encounters, it calls the replication module to infect that file.
For simple viruses the replicator's task is to:
# Open the new file
# Check if the executable file has already been infected (if it is, return to the finder module)
# Append the virus code to the executable file
# Save the executable's starting point
# Change the executable's starting point so that it points to the start location of the newly copied virus code
# Save the old start location to the virus in a way so that the virus branches to that location right after its execution.
# Save the changes to the executable file
# Close the infected file
# Return to the finder so that it can find new files for the replicator to infect.
===Resident viruses===
Resident viruses contain a replication module that is similar to the one that is employed by nonresident viruses. However, this module is not called by a finder module. Instead, the virus loads the replication module into memory when it is executed and ensures that this module is executed each time the operating system is called to perform a certain operation. For example, the replication module can get called each time the operating system executes a file. In this case, the virus infects every suitable program that is executed on the computer.
Resident viruses are sometimes subdivided into a category of ''fast infectors'' and a category of ''slow infectors''. Fast infectors are designed to infect as many files as possible. For instance, a fast infector can infect every potential host file that is accessed. This poses a special problem to anti-virus software, since a virus scanner will access every potential host file on a computer when it performs a system-wide scan. If the virus scanner fails to notice that such a virus is present in memory, the virus can "piggy-back" on the virus scanner and in this way infect all files that are scanned. Fast infectors rely on their fast infection rate to spread. The disadvantage of this method is that infecting many files may make detection more likely, because the virus may slow down a computer or perform many suspicious actions that can be noticed by anti-virus software. Slow infectors, on the other hand, are designed to infect hosts infrequently. For instance, some slow infectors only infect files when they are copied. Slow infectors are designed to avoid detection by limiting their actions: they are less likely to slow down a computer noticeably, and will at most infrequently trigger anti-virus software that detects suspicious behavior by programs. The slow infector approach doesn't seem very successful however. Viruses that are common in the wild are mostly relatively fast to extremely fast infectors.
===Host types===
Viruses have targeted various types of hosts. This is a non-exhaustive list:
* Binary [[executable file]]s (such as [[COM file|COM]]-files and [[EXE]]-files in [[MS-DOS]], [[Portable Executable]] files in [[Microsoft Windows]], and [[Executable and Linkable Format|ELF]] files in Linux)
* [[Boot sector]]s of [[floppy disk]]s and hard disk partitions
* The [[master boot record]] of a harddisk
* General-purpose [[Script (computer programming)|script]] files (such as [[batch file]]s in [[MS-DOS]] and [[Microsoft Windows]], [[VBScript]] files, and [[shell script]] files on [[Unix-like]] platforms).
* Application-specific script files (such as [[Telix]]-scripts)
* Documents that can contain [[macro]]s (such as [[Microsoft Word]] documents, [[Microsoft Excel]] spreadsheets, [[AmiPro]] documents, and [[Microsoft Access]] database files)
==Methods to avoid detection==
In order to avoid detection by users, some viruses employ different kinds of deception. Some old viruses, especially on the MS-DOS platform, make sure that the "last modified" date of a host file stays the same when the file is infected by the virus. This approach does not fool anti-virus software, however.
Some viruses can infect files without increasing their sizes or damaging the files. They accomplish this by overwriting unused areas of executable files. These are called ''cavity viruses''. For example the [[CIH virus]], or Chernobyl Virus, infects [[Portable Executable]] files. Because those files had many empty gaps, the virus, which was 1 [[kilobyte|KB]] in length, did not add to the size of the file.
Recent viruses avoid any kind of detection attempt by attempting to forcefully kill the tasks associated with the virus scanner before it can detect them.
As computers and operating systems grow larger and more complex, old hiding techniques need to be updated or replaced.
===Avoiding bait files and other undesirable hosts===
A virus needs to infect hosts in order to spread further. In some cases, it might be a bad idea to infect a host program. For example, many anti-virus programs perform an integrity check of their own code. Infecting such programs will therefore increase the likelihood that the virus is detected. For this reason, some viruses are programmed not to infect programs that are known to be part of anti-virus software. Another type of hosts that viruses sometimes avoid is ''bait files''. Bait files (or ''goat files'') are files that are specially created by anti-virus software, or by anti-virus professionals themselves, to be infected by a virus. These files can be created for various reasons, all of which are related to the detection of the virus:
* Anti-virus professionals can use bait files to take a sample of a virus (i.e. a copy of a program file that is infected by the virus). It is more practical to store and exchange a small infected bait file, than to exchange a large application program that has been infected by the virus.
* Anti-virus professionals can use bait files to study the behavior of a virus and evaluate detection methods. This is especially useful when the virus is [[Polymorphic code|polymorphic]]. In this case, the virus can be made to infect a large number of bait files. The infected files can be used to test whether a virus scanner detects all versions of the virus.
* Some anti-virus software employs bait files that are accessed regularly. When these files are modified, the anti-virus software warns the user that a virus is probably active on the system.
Since bait files are used to detect the virus, or to make detection possible, a virus can benefit from not infecting them. Viruses typically do this by avoiding suspicious programs, such as small program files or programs that contain certain patterns of 'garbage instructions'.
A related strategy to make baiting difficult is ''sparse infection''. Sometimes, sparse infectors do not infect a host file that would be a suitable candidate for infection in other circumstances. For example, a virus can decide on a random basis whether to infect a file or not, or a virus can only infect host files on particular days of the week.
===Stealth===
Some viruses try to trick anti-virus software by intercepting its requests to the operating system. A virus can hide itself by intercepting the anti-virus software’s request to read the file and passing the request to the virus, instead of the [[Operating_System|OS]]. The virus can then return an uninfected version of the file to the anti-virus software, so that it seems that the file is "clean". Modern anti-virus software employs various techniques to counter stealth mechanisms of viruses. The only completely reliable method to avoid stealth is to boot from a medium that is known to be clean.
= |
e word may come from a [[Turkish language|Turkish]] term ''bir-üç'', or "one-three", supposedly referring to the one exposed and three concealed hands.) This game, known today by the [[retronym]]s ''bridge-whist'' and ''straight bridge'', became popular in the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]] in the [[1890s]].
In [[1904]], the practice caught hold of using an auction phase to determine which player would designate the trump suit and have the privilege of playing his partner's exposed hand. This variation was known as ''[[auction bridge]]''.
The modern game of ''contract bridge'' was the result of innovations to the scoring of auction bridge made by [[Harold Stirling Vanderbilt]] and others. Vanderbilt wrote down his rules in [[1925]], and within a few years contract bridge had become the dominant form of the game. It has supplanted all other forms of the game, including auction bridge, so that "bridge" is now synonymous with "contract bridge".
=== Tournaments ===
Tournaments were possible because of [[duplicate bridge]], a variation of the game where many sets of players play with the same hands. Duplicate had occasionally been used for whist matches, as early as [[1857]]. For some reason, duplicate was not thought to be suitable for bridge, and so it wasn't until the [[1920s]] that (auction) bridge tournaments became popular.
In 1925 when contract bridge first evolved, bridge tournaments were becoming popular, but the rules were somewhat in flux, and several different organizing bodies were involved in tournament sponsorship: the [[American Bridge League]] (formerly the American Auction Bridge League, which changed its name in [[1929]]), the [[American Whist League]], and the [[United States Bridge Federation]]. In [[1935]], the first officially recognized world championship was held. By [[1937]], however, the [[American Contract Bridge League]] had come to power (a union of the ABL and the USBF), and it remains the principal organizing body for bridge tournaments. In [[1958]], the [[World Bridge Federation]] was founded, as bridge had become an international activity.
Today, the [[American Contract Bridge League|ACBL]] has over 160,000 members and runs 1100 tournaments per year with 3200 officially-associated bridge clubs.
====Bidding boxes and bidding screens====
[[Image:Bidding box.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bidding box]]
In tournaments, "bidding boxes" are frequently used. A bidding box is a box of cards, each bearing the name of one of the legal calls in bridge. A player wishing to make a call displays the appropriate card from the box, rather than making a verbal declaration. This prevents unauthorized information from being conveyed via voice inflection. In top national and international events, "bidding screens" are used. These are diagonal screens which are placed across the table, preventing a player from seeing his partner during the game.
=== Important Bridge Players ===
* [[Charles Goren]]
* [[Samuel Stayman]]
* [[Ely Culbertson]]
* [[Oswald Jacoby]]
* [[Helen Sobel Smith]]
* [[Easley Blackwood Sr.]]
* [[Giorgio Belladonna]]
* [[Benito Garozzo]]
* [[Bob Hamman]]
* [[Omar Sharif]]
== Game Strategy ==
=== Bidding systems and conventions ===
:''Main articles: [[Bidding system]], [[Convention (bridge)]]''
Much complexity in bridge arises from the difficulty of successfully arriving at a good final contract in the auction. This is a fundamentally difficult problem: the two players in a partnership must try to communicate enough information about their hands to ultimately arrive at a makeable contract, but the information they can exchange is restricted in two ways:
* Information may ''only'' be passed by the calls made and later by the cards played, and not by any other means.
* The agreed-upon meaning of all information passed must be available to the opponents.
A ''bidding system'' is the typical solution to this problem: each player evaluates his or her own hand and makes bids to give or request information from their partner, with the goal of eventually arriving at an ideal contract. Bids, doubles, redoubles, and even passes can be either ''natural'' or ''[[convention (bridge)|conventional]]''. A natural bid is a proposal to reach a contract in the named suit. A conventional bid is an attempt to communicate, offering and/or asking for information about the partnerships' hands, that is ''not'' intended to be a proposal for the final contract. A wide variety of bidding systems have been developed over the course of the 20th century. However, most modern systems have well-established common ground.
First of all, a fairly universal system of [[high card point]]s is used to give a basic evaluation of the strength of a hand. Aces are counted as 4 points, kings as 3, queens as 2, and jacks as 1 point; therefore, the deck contains 40 points. 26 points shared between partners is considered sufficient for a partnership to bid, and make, game in a major or in no trump. In addition, the ''distribution'' of the cards in a hand into suits may also contribute to the strength of a hand and be counted as [[point count|distribution points]]. Because 26 points is usually considered sufficient to make game, 13 points in one hand is considered sufficient to ''open'' the bidding (that is, make the first bid in the auction), by bidding 1 of a suit.
A one no trump opening bid reflects a hand that has relatively balanced suits and high cards, and usually refers to a hand with 15-17 high card points. In some systems the number of points expected from a 1NT opening bid changes, but it always refers to a relatively narrow range of points.
Opening bids of 2 or higher are reserved for two types of bids: unusually strong bids and [[preempt]]ive bids. Unusually strong bids communicate an especially high number of points; the availability of unusually strong bids allows a player with a weak hand to safely pass when their partner opens the bidding at one of a suit. Preemptive bids are often made with weak hands that especially favor a particular suit. For instance, with a hand of &spades; AK98742 <font color="red">&hearts;</font> 73 <font color="red">&diams;</font> 42 &clubs; 76, an opening bid of 3&spades; is a very reasonable sacrificial bid, designed to make it difficult for the opposing team to determine a contract for themselves (which is good here, since they are likely to have the bulk of the points).
Most systems include the [[weak two bid]] convention, in which opening bids of 2<font color="red">&hearts;</font>, 2<font color="red">&diams;</font>, or 2&spades; are reserved for preemptive bids, while 2&clubs; is used for very strong hands. This is a first example of a ''conventional'' bid: an opening bid of 2&clubs; in no way suggests 2&clubs; as a final contract: indeed, in these systems 2&clubs; may be bid without ''any'' clubs.
Another common convention is the ''5-card major'' convention, in which an opening bid of 1<font color="red">&hearts;</font> or 1&spades; promises at least 5 cards in that suit. This leads to some awkward bids, for instance, when a player has four cards in each major, and is forced to open the bidding with 1 of a 3-card [[minor suit]].
Doubles are sometimes used in bidding conventions. A natural, or ''penalty'' double, is one used to try to gain extra points when the defenders are confident of setting the contract.
The most common example of a conventional double is the [[takeout double]] of a low-level bid, implying support for the unbid suits and asking partner to choose one of them.
There are many other conventions. Some of the most famous are [[Stayman]], [[Jacoby transfers]] and [[Blackwood convention|Blackwood]].
Bidding systems depart from these basic ideas in varying degrees. [[Standard American]], for instance, is a collection of conventions designed to bolster the accuracy and power of these basic ideas, while [[Precision Club]] is a highly conventional system that uses the 1&clubs; opening bid for strong hands (but sets the threshold rather lower than most other systems) and requires many other changes in order to handle other situations. Many experts today use a system called [[2/1 game forcing]]. In the UK, [[Acol]] is the standard system. There are even a variety of techniques used for hand evaluation. The most basic is [[point count|the Milton Work point count]], but this is sometimes augmented by other guidelines such as [[losing trick count]], [[law of total tricks]] or [[Zar Points]].
== Play techniques ==
[[Terence Reese]], a prolific author of bridge books, points out that there are only four ways of taking a trick by force, and two of these are very easy:
*playing a high card that no one else can beat
*trumping an opponent's high card
*establishing long cards (the last cards in a suit will take tricks if the opponents don't have the suit and are unable to trump)
*playing for the opponents' high cards to be in a particular position (if their ace is in front of your king, your king may take a trick)
Nearly all trick-taking techniques in bridge can be reduced to one of these four methods.
The optimum play of the cards can require much thought and experience, and is too complicated to describe in a short article. However, some basic ideas of probability may be considered:
Some of the most important probabilities have to do with the position of high cards.
* The probability that a given opponent holds one particular card, e.g. the king: 50%
* The probability that a given opponent holds two particular cards, e.g. the king and the queen: approximately 25%
* The probability that a given opponent holds at least one of two particular cards, e.g. the king or the queen: approximately 75%
When dev |
of the party after 1990, please see [[Social Democratic Party (UK, 1990)]].)
==Aftermath==
Most members of the SDP who joined the Liberal Democrats have remained in that party. There have been a few exceptions: notably [[Roger Liddle]]. Some Owenites joined the Conservative Party, with one, [[Danny Finkelstein]] becoming a close aide of both [[John Major]] and [[William Hague]]. Their critics believe that this had more to do with the desire to continue to do the most damage towards Labour than true political conviction. The venom that British Labour members direct towards those who leave for other parties results in few returning to their ranks later. [[Polly Toynbee]] was among those who did so.
==Effects==
It has been argued by some that the creation of the SDP led eventually to [[Tony Blair]]'s movement of the Labour Party back towards the political centre under the banner of "[[New Labour]]". But some of those Labour moderates who remained in the party, such as [[Roy Hattersley]], argue that the so-called "split in the centre-left" both aided the Conservatives and delayed the move of the Labour Party to a centrist position.
Perhaps more convincingly it has been argued that the impact of the SDP was to show those on the [[soft left]] of the Labour Party that they could not rely on a pendulum effect to propel a leftist Labour Party back to power - Labour had to actively engage with the electorate's concerns. Both Kinnock and Blair came from that soft left position.
(Interestingly, New Labour fought the 2001 general election under the old SDP colours of red and purple instead of their traditional red and yellow - much to the disgust of some. The SDP's adoption of red and purple in the first place was primarily due to the fact their previous red, white and blue rosettes were also used by Britain's two major far-right parties, the National Front and the [[British National Party]]).
The SDP also accelerated the breakup of the political [[Labour Movement]]. SDP politicians did not necessarily come from an anti-trade union position: many were, in fact Labour-right wing union organisers in pre-politician days. But being in a party without a direct trade union link, togther with their experience of the unions move to the left in the [[1970s]], made them more responsive to the anti-union mood of the country and less likely to defend the unions: in time, too, Labour had to respond to that mood.
But most important of all, the Social Democratic Party strengthened the political credibilty of the Liberals. The national status of Roy Jenkins (former Chancellor and Home Secretary) and David Owen (former Foreign Secretary who had been widely tipped as a future Labour Prime Minister) helped the Liberals become something more than a source of shock by-election results and a party for those living in rural areas such as the Highlands and Cornwall. The SDP also helped the Liberals attract attention from the media for their policies after a long period when the only media interest in the party resulted from the trial of former Liberal leader [[Jeremy Thorpe]].
The SDP proved that a brand new party outside of the major two could fight elections anywhere in the country, and win - but in their patronage by Sainsbury's they also proved what the National Front had learned the hard way in the 1970s, that a substantial source of income outside of that raised by members was required in order to be able to fight elections on equal terms with the "big two".
=='Tough and tender'==
The policies of the SDP often were described by members of the party as being 'tough and tender'. This meant that the SDP accepted the 'tough' [[Thatcherite]] economic reforms of the economy during the 1980s (such as anti-trade union legislation and the privatisation of state industries). However, they advocated a 'tender' approach coupled with the acceptance of Thatcherism, which included the provision of extra welfare (particularly regarding the Health Service).
==Leaders of the Social Democratic Party==
* [[Roy Jenkins]], 1982-1983
* [[David Owen]], 1983-1987
* [[Robert Maclennan]], 1987-1988
==See also==
*[[Politics of the United Kingdom]]
*[[:Category: UK Social Democratic Party (SDP) politicians|Social Democratic Party (SDP) politicians]]
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Defunct political parties in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Social democratic parties]]
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<page>
<title>Bank of England</title>
<id>4484</id>
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<id>41783203</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:47:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arpingstone</username>
<id>7095</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Bank of England pic replaced by identical one but hi-res</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Bank of England''' is the [[central bank]] of the [[United Kingdom]], sometimes known as "'''The Old Lady of [[Threadneedle Street]]'''" or "'''The Old Lady'''". The nearest [[London Underground]] station is [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank station]].
[[Image:london.bankofengland.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Bank of England]]
==Functions of the Bank==
It performs all the functions of a [[central bank]] -- to maintain price stability, and subject to that, to support the economic policy of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Her Majesty's]] [[Government]] ([[Bank of England Act 1998]]) in order to promote economic growth.
In pursuing its goal of maintaining a stable and efficient financial framework, the Bank has two core purposes;
#'''Core Purpose 1 — Monetary Stability.''' Monetary stability means stable prices and confidence in the currency. Stable prices are defined by the Government's inflation target, which the Bank seeks to meet through the decisions on interest rates taken by the [[Monetary Policy Committee]].
#'''Core Purpose 2 — Financial Stability.''' Financial stability entails detecting and reducing threats to the financial system as a whole. Such threats are detected through the Bank’s surveillance and market intelligence functions. They are reduced by financial and other operations, at home and abroad, including, in exceptional circumstances, by acting as the lender of last resort.
In pursuit of both purposes the Bank works closely with others, including:
*Other central banks and international organisations to improve the international monetary system.
*[[HM Treasury]] and the [[Financial Services Authority]], under the terms of the 1997 Memorandum of Understanding, to pursue financial stability.
It has a [[monopoly]] on the issue of [[banknote]]s in [[England]] and [[Wales]] (see [[Sterling]]); it is both the Government's banker and the bankers' bank; a "Lender of Last Resort"; it manages the country's foreign exchange and [[gold reserve]]s; it used to be responsible for the regulation and supervision of the banking [[industry]] (see [[Johnson Matthey]], [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]], and [[Barings]]), although this responsibility was transferred to the Financial Services Authority in June [[1998]]. Since [[1997]] the [[Monetary Policy Committee]] has had the responsibility for setting the official [[interest rate]]. With the decision to grant the Bank operational independence, responsibility for government debt management was transferred to the new [[UK Debt Management Office]] in [[1998]], which also took over government cash management in [[2000]]. The Bank maintains the Government's [[Consolidated Fund]] account. [[Computershare]] took over as the registrar for UK Government bonds (known as [[gilts]]) from the Bank at the end of [[2004]].
[[Scotland|Scottish]] and [[Northern Ireland|Northern Irish]] banks retain the right to issue their own banknotes, but they must be backed one to one with deposits in the Bank of England, excepting a few million pounds representing the value of notes they had in circulation in [[1845]]. [[Image:City1.jpg|right]]
The current [[Governor of the Bank of England]] is [[Mervyn Allister King]], who took over on [[June 30]] [[2003]] from [[Knight|Sir]] [[Edward George]].
==History==
The bank was founded by the [[Scotsman]] [[William Paterson (banker)|William Paterson]], in [[1694]] to act as the English government's banker. He proposed a loan of £1.2m to the government; in return the subscribers would be incorporated as '''The Governor and Company of the Bank of England''' with banking privileges including the issue of notes. The [[Royal Charter]] was granted on [[July 27]] [[1694]]. Public finances were in so dire a condition at the time that the terms of the loan were that it was to be serviced at a rate of 8% per annum, and there was also a service charge of £4000 per annum for the management of the loan. The first governor was [[Knighthood|Sir]] [[John Houblon]], who is depicted in the £50 note issued in [[1990]]. The charter was renewed in [[1742]], [[1764]], and [[1781]]. The Bank was originally constructed above the ancient [[Temple of Mithras, London]] at Walbrook, dating to the founding of [[Londinium]] in antiquity by Roman garrisons. [[Mithras]] was, among other things, considered the god of contracts, a fitting association for the Bank. In [[1734]] the Bank moved to its current location on Threadneedle Street, slowly acquiring the land to create the edifice seen today.
When the idea and reality of the [[National Debt]] came about during the [[18th century]] this was also managed by the bank. By the [[charter]] renewal in [[1781]] it was also the bankers' bank&mdash;keeping enough gold to pay its notes on demand until [[February 26]], [[1797]] when [[French Revolution|war]] had so diminished gold reserves that the government prohibited the Bank from paying out in gold. This prohibition lasted until [[1821]].
The [[1844]] [[Bank Charter Act]] tied the issue of notes to the gold reserves a |
Southampton and Portsmouth. These include the Norman [[Portchester Castle]] which overlooks [[Portsmouth Harbour]], and a series of forts built by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] including [[Hurst Castle]], situated on a sand [[spit (landform)|spit]] at the mouth of the Solent, [[Calshot Castle]] on another spit at the mouth of Southampton Water, and [[Netley Castle]]. Southampton and Portsmouth remained important harbours when rivals, such as [[Poole]] and [[Bristol]] declined, as they are amongst the few locations that combine shelter with deep water. Southampton has been host to many famous ships, including the ''[[Mayflower]]'' and the ''[[RMS Titanic|Titanic]]'', the latter being staffed largely by Hampshire natives.
Hampshire played a large role in [[World War II]] due to its large [[Royal Navy]] harbour at Portsmouth, the army camp at [[Aldershot]] and the military [[Netley Hospital]] on Southampton Water, as well as its proximity to the army training ranges on [[Salisbury Plain]] and [[Purbeck]]. [[Supermarine]], the designers of the [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]] and other military aircraft, were based in Southampton, which led to severe bombing of the city. Aldershot remains one of the [[British Army]]'s main permanent camps.
[[Image:NetleyRVCP-North.jpg|thumb|200px|Southampton from Netley Hospital.]]
The county has in the past been called "Southamptonshire" and appears as such on some [[Victorian era|Victorian]] maps. Its name was officially changed from 'County of Southampton' to 'County of Hampshire' on [[April 1]], [[1959]]. The short form of the name, often used in postal addresses, is ''Hants''.
The [[Isle of Wight]] has traditionally been treated as part of Hampshire for some purposes, but has been administratively independent for over a century, obtaining a [[county council]] of its own in [[1890]]. The Isle of Wight became a full [[ceremonial counties of England|ceremonial county]] in [[1974]]. Apart from a shared police force and health authority there are now no formal administrative links between the Isle of Wight and Hampshire, though many organisations still combine Hampshire and the Isle of Wight.
The towns of [[Bournemouth]] and [[Christchurch, Dorset|Christchurch]] also fall within the traditional county of Hampshire, but were ceded to [[Dorset]] in the local government reorganisation of 1974.
==Economy==
[[Image:050103 2300 hants bh.jpg|thumb|200px|The Beaulieu River.]]
Hampshire is a relatively affluent county, with a [[Gross domestic product]] (GDP) of [[Pound Sterling|£]]22.9 billion (£16.3 billion when excluding Southampton and Portsmouth). This makes it the sixth largest economy in England, and is equal in size to the economy of [[Northern Ireland]], making up 2% each of the economy of the UK as a whole {{ref|gdp}}.
Portsmouth and Winchester have the highest job densities in the county, and there is therefore a high level of commuting into the cities. Southampton has the highest number of total jobs and commuting both into and out of the city is high. The county has a lower level of [[unemployment rate|unemployment]] than the national average, at 1.9% when the national rate was 3.3%, and as of March 2005 has fallen to 1.1%. 39% are employed by large firms, compared to a national average of 42%. Hampshire has a considerably higher than national average employment in high-tech industries, but average levels in knowledge based industry. 25.21% of the population work in the [[public sector]] {{ref|economy}}.
Many rural areas of Hampshire have traditionally been reliant on [[agriculture]], though the county was less agricultural than most surrounding counties, and was mostly concentrated on [[dairy farming]]. The significance of agriculture as an employer and wealth creator has declined since the first half of the [[20th century]] and agriculture currently employs 1.32% of the population. The [[New Forest]] area is a [[National Parks of England and Wales|National Park]], and [[tourism]] is a significant economic segment in this area.
The cities of Southampton and Portsmouth are both significant ports, with Southampton handling a large proportion of the national container freight and Portsmouth housing a large [[Royal Navy]] base. The docks have traditionally been large employers in these cities, though again mechanisation has forced diversification of the economy.
==Demographics==
[[Image:Soton river test docks 01.jpg|thumb|200px|Southampton Docks.]]
At the [[Census 2001]] {{ref|census}} the ceremonial county recorded a population of 1,644,249, of which 1,240,103 were in the administrative county, 217,445 were in the [[unitary authority]] of Southampton, and 186,701 were in Portsmouth. The population of the administrative county grew 5.6% from the [[1991]] census, Southampton grew 6.2% while Portsmouth remained unchanged, compared with 2.6% for England and Wales as a whole. Eastleigh and Winchester grew fastest at 9% each. The age structure of the population is similar to the national average.
96.73% of residents were indigenous, falling to 92.37% in Southampton. The significant ethnic minorities are Asian at 1.34% and mixed race at 0.84%. 0.75% of residents were migrants from outside the UK. 73.86% stated their religion as [[Christianity]] and 16.86% were not religious. Significant minority religions were [[Islam]] (0.76%) and [[Hinduism]] (0.33%).
==Politics==
Hampshire is divided into seventeen [[List of Parliamentary constituencies in Hampshire|parliamentary constituencies]]. Ten of these are represented by [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] [[Member of Parliament|MPs]], four by the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] and three by [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]]. Labour represent the large cities, including both Southampton constituencies ([[Southampton Test (UK Parliament constituency)|Test]] and [[Southampton Itchen (UK Parliament constituency)|Itchen]]) and [[Portsmouth North (UK Parliament constituency)|Portsmouth North]]. The Conservatives represent the most rural constituencies, [[Aldershot (UK Parliament constituency)|Aldershot]], [[New Forest West (UK Parliament constituency)|New Forest West]], [[New Forest East (UK Parliament constituency)|New Forest East]], [[Hampshire North West (UK Parliament constituency)|Hampshire North West]], [[Basingstoke (UK Parliament constituency)|Basingstoke]], [[Hampshire North East (UK Parliament constituency)|Hampshire North East]], [[Hampshire East (UK Parliament constituency)|Hampshire East]], [[Havant (UK Parliament constituency)|Havant]], [[Gosport (UK Parliament constituency)|Gosport]] and [[Fareham (UK Parliament constituency)|Fareham]]. The Liberal Democrats represent [[Winchester (UK Parliament constituency)|Winchester]], [[Romsey (UK Parliament constituency)|Romsey]], [[Portsmouth South (UK Parliament constituency)|Portsmouth South]] and [[Eastleigh (UK Parliament constituency)|Eastleigh]], all centred around towns.
At the 2005 local elections for Hampshire County Council the Conservative Party had a 43.69% share of the votes, the Liberal Democrats had 36.01% and Labour 16.08%. Therefore 46 Conservatives, 28 Liberal Democrats and four Labour councillors sit on the County Council {{ref|county_council}}. Southampton City Council, which is entirely independent, has 18 Liberal Democrat, 15 Labour and 15 Conservative councillors {{ref|soton_council}}. Portsmouth City Council, also independent, has 20 Liberal Democrat, 18 Conservative, seven Labour and one independent councillor {{ref|ports_council}}.
==Cities, towns, and villages==
[[Image:Uk-basingstoke.jpg|thumb|200px|New apartment blocks in the rapidly changing Basingstoke.]]
Hampshire's [[county town]] is [[Winchester]], a historic city that was once the capital of the ancient kingdom of [[Wessex]]. The port cities of [[Southampton]] and [[Portsmouth]] were split off as independent [[unitary authorities]] in [[1997]], although they are still included in Hampshire for ceremonial purposes. [[Fareham]], [[Gosport]] and [[Havant]] have grown into a [[conurbation]] that stretches along the coast between the two main cities. The three cities are all [[university]] cities, Southampton being home to the [[University of Southampton]] and [[Southampton Solent University]] (formerly Southampton Institute), Portsmouth to the [[University of Portsmouth]], and Winchester to the [[University of Winchester]] (formerly known as University College Winchester; King Alfred's College).
Hampshire lies outside the [[green belt]] area of restricted development around [[London]], but has good [[railway]] and [[motorway]] links to the capital, and in common with the rest of the south-east has seen the growth of [[dormitory town]]s since the [[1960s]]. [[Basingstoke]], in the north of the county, has grown from a country town into a business and finance centre. [[Aldershot]], [[Portsmouth]], and [[Farnborough, Hampshire|Farnborough]] have strong military associations with the [[British Army|Army]], [[Royal Navy]] and [[Royal Air Force]] respectively. The county also includes several market towns; [[Andover, Hampshire|Andover]], [[Bishop's Waltham]], [[Lymington]], [[Petersfield, Hampshire|Petersfield]], [[Ringwood]], [[Romsey]], and [[Whitchurch, Hampshire|Whitchurch]].
'''Towns by population size:''' (2004 est.)
*[[Southampton]] - 221,100
*[[Portsmouth]] - 188,700
*[[Havant]] - 116,300
*[[Fareham]] - 107,977
*[[Winchester]] - 35,200
''For the complete list of settlements see [[List of places in Hampshire]].''
==Culture, arts and sport==
[[Image:Portsmouth.naval.750pix.jpg|thumb|200px|Portsmouth Harbour.]]
Hampshire has [[literature|literary]] connections, being the birthplace of authors including [[Jane Austen]], [[Charles Dickens]] and [[Charles Kingsley]]. Austen lived most of her life in Hampshire, where her father was rector of [[Steventon]], and wrote all of her novels in the county. Hampshire also has many [[visual |
he most widely seen Norwegian film ever.
In [[2001]] a [[computer game]] based on the film was released. The game was produced by Caprino's son Remo, while his grandson Mario was [[lead programmer]]. The lead designer was [[Joe Dever]].
* In [[2001]] DVD was released
* In [[2005]] new and digitaly restored DVD was released
== Trivia ==
* The movie was shown in cinemas every day of the week (mainly in Norway, Moscow and Tokyo) until 2003, 28 years in a row.
* Since Ivo Caprino was a perfectionist the animated band plays the right notes in correct timing to the soundtrack.
* The [[license plate]] "HB 4596" is a reference to [[moonshine]]. HB stands for "hjemmebrent" (home destilled) and 45 and 96 are alcohol by volume. 45% is was shop alcohol is and 96% is what moonshiners aim for.
* The movie inspierd a young Christian Von Koenigsegg to one day build the worlds fastes production car, something he did Febuary 2005 with his car the [[Koenigsegg CCR]]
== External links ==
* http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0073000/
[[Category:1975 films]][[Category:Norwegian films]]
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<page>
<title>Fortran</title>
<id>11168</id>
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<id>41759068</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T15:15:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Atlant</username>
<id>124135</id>
</contributor>
<comment>We're both correct</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Fortran''' (also '''FORTRAN''') is a [[computer programming|computer]] [[programming language]] originally developed in the [[1950s]]; it is still used for [[scientific computing]] and [[numerical analysis|numerical]] computation half a century later. It is sometimes considered the earliest "cross platform" (standardized) programming language.
The name is a [[portmanteau]] of '''''For'''mula '''Tran'''slator/'''Tran'''slation''. Early versions of the language were known as FORTRAN, but the capitalization has been dropped in newer revisions beginning with Fortran 90. The official language [[International standard|standards]] now refer to the language as "Fortran".
Fortran is [[static typing|statically typed]], [[compiled language|compiled]] (though sometimes [[interpreted language|interpreted]]), and [[Imperative programming|imperative]]. Although originally a [[Spaghetti code|spaghetti]] (FORTRAN 66) and [[Procedural programming|procedural]] (FORTRAN 77) programming language, recent versions of Fortran have included some features to support [[Array programming|vector]] (Fortran 90) and [[object-oriented programming|object-oriented]] (Fortran 2003) programming language.
==History==
[[Image:Hollerith card.jpg|thumb|300px|Fortran punch card. Note column markings.]]
The first FORTRAN [[compiler]] was developed for the [[IBM 704]] in [[1954]]&ndash;[[1957|57]] by an [[International Business Machines|IBM]] team led by [[John W. Backus]]. This was an [[Optimization (computer science)|optimizing]] compiler, because the authors reasoned that no one would use the language if its performance were not comparable to [[assembly language]].
The language was widely adopted by scientists for writing numerically intensive programs, which encouraged compiler writers to produce compilers that generate faster code. The inclusion of a [[complex number]] [[datatype|data type]] in the language made Fortran especially suited to scientific computation. There are many vendors of high performance Fortran compilers today. Many advances in the theory and design of [[compiler]]s were motivated by the need to generate good code for Fortran programs.
Several standards of the language have appeared: FORTRAN II in [[1958]], FORTRAN IV in [[1961]], FORTRAN 66 in [[1966]], FORTRAN 77 in [[1977]], Fortran 90 in [[1990]], Fortran 95 in [[1995]], and Fortran 2003 in [[2003]]. Fortran III was designed in [[1958]], allowing for inline assembler code; but it was never released because the portability concept of a [[High-level programming language|high-level language]] would be lost. It also included other new features such as boolean expressions. It was used by about 20 IBM customers but was never released as a commercial product. Boolean expressions and ''IF'' tests were also included in Fortran IV. Fortran II only had a three way ''IF'' branch, based on whether a numeric expression was negative, zero or positive.
Early FORTRAN programs were written on [[Punch card|punch cards]], and had strict rules for formatting. Line length was limited to 72 columns, originally because this was the maximum number of columns the online punch card reader of the 704 could read. Source statements were punched in columns 7 through 72. The first five columns were reserved for statement numbers or the ''C'' in column one that indicated a comment. Statements longer than 66 characters could be continued to additional cards by making a punch in column 6 of the continuation cards. There was a limit on the number of continuation cards allowed, in some implementations as few as three or four. Columns 73 to 80 were often used for sequence numbers, allowing a deck of cards to be resorted if it was dropped. Symbols were usually limited to the number of alphanumeric characters that fit in one machine [[word (computer science)|word]], six was typical but implementations on machines with small words might limit you to as few as three. As programs moved to magnetic media, vendors offered different extensions to increase line lengths. FORTRAN 77 was the last version to require fixed length symbols and names.
Fortran 90 was a major revision, adding [[free form language|free source form]], [[dynamic memory allocation]], [[array|array]] operations, [[abstract data type|abstract data types]], [[operator overloading]], [[pointer|pointers]], and [[module (programming)|modules]] to group related [[subprogram|procedures]] and data together. Fortran 95 was a minor revision, adding features for [[parallel programming]] from the [[High Performance Fortran]] dialect, such as user-defined pure and elemental functions, and the forall construct.
The most recent formal standard for the language, published in 2004, is known as Fortran 2003. It is an upwardly-compatible extension of Fortran 95, adding, among other things, support for [[IEEE 754|IEEE floating-point arithmetic]], [[exception handling]], [[object oriented programming|object-oriented programming]], and improved interoperability with the [[C programming language|C]] language. A comprehensive summary of the 2003 additions is at the [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] Fortran Working Group (WG5) web site, ftp://ftp.nag.co.uk/sc22wg5/N1551-N1600/N1579.pdf.
==Features==
Initially, the language relied on precise formatting of the [[source code]] and heavy use of statement numbers and [[goto (command)|goto]] statements. The ENTRY statement even allowed to pass the control into the ''middle'' of the subroutine being called. These quirks have been removed from newer versions of the language. Successive versions also introduced 'modern' programming concepts, such as source code [[comment|comments]] and output of text, IF-THEN-ELSE (in FORTRAN 77), and parallel constructs, while still attempting to maintain Fortran's 'lean' profile and high performance. Among the most popular specialized Fortran-based languages were [[SAS programming language|SAS]], for generating statistical reports, and SIMSCRIPT, for simulating processes involving queuing. [[F programming language|F]] is a clean subset of Fortran 95 that removes the unstructured features of Fortran, such as EQUIVALENCE.
Vendors of high performance scientific computers ([[Burroughs Corporation|Burroughs]], [[Control Data Corporation|CDC]], [[Cray Research|Cray]], [[Honeywell Corporation|Honeywell]], [[International Business Machines|IBM]], [[Texas Instruments]], [[UNIVAC]]...) added extensions to Fortran to make use of special hardware features such as: instruction [[cache]], CPU [[Pipeline (computer)|pipeline]]
, vector arrays, etc. For example, one of IBM's Fortran compilers (H Extended IUP) had a level of optimization which reordered the [[machine code]] [[instruction (computer science)|instruction]]s to keep several internal arithmetic units busy at the same time. Another example is CFD, a special 'version' of Fortran designed specifically for the [[ILLIAC IV]] supercomputer, running at [[NASA]]'s [[Ames Research Center]]. These extensions have either disappeared over time or had elements incorporated into the main standard; the major remaining extension is [[OpenMP]], which is a cross-platform extension for shared memory programming. One new extension, [[Co-array Fortran programming language|CoArray Fortran]], is intended to promote parallel programming.
==Syntax==
As what was basically a first attempt at designing a [[High-level programming language|high-level language]], the language's syntax is sometimes regarded as arcane by programmers familiar with more recently developed languages such as C. Fortran has stayed abreast of such advances, however, and contemporary versions have attempted to supersede and deprecate such syntax in favor of more robust and transparent syntax. In deprecated forms of the language, it is difficult to write a [[lexical analyzer]] and one-character mistakes can lead to runtime errors rather than compilation errors. Contemporary constructs, such as free-form source, ameliorate such problems, but, as with any language, sound programming practices are the best way to avoid such errors.
One should also consider that the features of Fortran have been tuned to scientific and numerical work, as opposed to software development. For example, Fortran 95 has very short commands for performing mathematical operations on arrays which not only greatly improve program readability but |
to [[Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]].
As a result, the [[Parliament of England]] decided that full union of the two Parliaments and nations was essential before Anne's death, and used a combination of exclusionary legislation (the [[Alien Act of 1705]]), politics, and [[bribery]] to achieve it within three years under the [[Act of Union 1707]]. This was in marked contrast to the four attempts at political union between [[1606]] and [[1689]], which all failed owing to a lack of political will. By virtue of Article II of the [[Treaty of Union]], which defined the succession to the [[British Crown]], the Act of Settlement became part of [[Scots Law]].
Sophia died before Anne, so the result of the Act was the succession of Sophia's son George as [[George I of Great Britain|King George I]], in preference to many of his cousins.
As a result of the Act of Settlement, several members of the [[British Royal Family]] who have converted to Roman Catholicism or married Roman Catholics have been barred from succeeding to the Crown, though since George I no individual has actually been excluded from the throne on the grounds of religion.
==Present debate==
From time to time there has been debate over removing the clause that keeps [[Roman Catholics]] or those who marry Catholics from ascending to the throne. Proponents argue that the clause is a [[bigoted]] [[anachronism]] and [[Cardinal Winning]], who was leader of the Roman Catholic Church in [[Scotland]], called the act an 'insult' to Catholics. [[Cormac Cardinal Murphy-O'Connor]], the leader of the Catholic Church in England, pointed out that [[Prince William]], "can marry by law a Hindu, a Buddhist, anyone, but not a Roman Catholic."[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2021615.stm] Opponents feel that repeal could lead to a Catholic assuming the throne, and could lead to the disestablishment of the [[Church of England]] as the state religion. They also point to the fact that the monarch must swear to defend the faith and be a member of the [[Anglican Communion]] and that a Catholic monarch would, like all Catholics, owe allegiance to the Pope which would, according to opponents of repeal such as [[Enoch Powell]] and [[Adrian Hilton]], amount to a loss of [[sovereignty]].
In Canada, where the Act of Settlement is now a part of Canadian constitutional law, [[Tony O'Donohue]], a Canadian civic politician, observed that the ''Act of Settlement 1701'' explicitly excludes [[Roman Catholic]]s from the throne and the Queen is [[Supreme Governor of the Church of England]], requiring her to be an [[Church of England|Anglican]]. This, he claimed, discriminates against non-Anglicans, including Catholics who are the largest faith group in Canada. In [[2002]], O'Donohue launched an ultimately unsuccessful court action that argued the ''Act of Settlement'' violates the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]. His case was dismissed by the court, which found that as the ''Act of Settlement'' is part of the [[Constitution of Canada|Canadian constitution]], the Charter of Rights does not have supremacy over it. Also, the court pointed out that while Canada has the power to amend the line of succession to the Canadian Throne, the ''[[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]]'' stipulates that the agreement of the governments of the fifteen other realms that share the Crown would first have to be sought if Canada wished to continue its relationship with the other [[Commonwealth Realm]]s. An appeal of the decision was dismissed [[16 March]], [[2005]]. (See [[O'Donohue v. Her Majesty the Queen, 2003]])
As alluded to above, there are also significant difficulties presented by the fact that the Act of Settlement regulates the succession of all the [[Commonwealth Realm]]s of which the [[Queen regnant|Queen]] is [[Monarch|Sovereign]], either directly or as a now separate, patriated law, and a change in the [[United Kingdom]] would not automatically apply elsewhere - where the Act would be unchanged. This could easily result in the succession being different in certain countries, and a division of the Crown could result. In the 2005 British [[general election]] campaign [[Michael Howard]] promised to work towards having that prohibition removed if the Conservative party gained a majority of seats in the House of Commons. In the event, the election was won by [[Tony Blair]]'s Labour party, who have made no moves to change this law.
==See also==
*[[List of British monarchs]]
*[[Line of succession to the British Throne]]
*[[Succession to the British Throne]]
*[[Monarchy in Canada]]
==External links==
* [http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page389.asp Royal Family web page on succession]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/monarchy/story/0,2763,407239,00.html Text of Act of Settlement 1701 - Guardian]
* [http://www.legislation.act.gov.au/a/db_1788/default.asp Text of Act of Settlement 1700 - Australian Capital Territory Government] Gives full preamble and long title.
[[Category:British laws]]
[[Category:Acts of the Parliament of England]]
[[Category:History of Catholicism in England]]
[[Category:1701 in law]]
[[Category:United Kingdom constitution]]
[[Category:Constitution of Canada]]
[[cs:Act of Settlement 1701]]
[[de:Act of Settlement]]
[[ru:Акт о престолонаследии (Великобритания)]]
[[ja:王位継承法]]</text>
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<title>Afrocelt Sound System</title>
<id>2071</id>
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<timestamp>2003-05-15T03:18:51Z</timestamp>
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<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Afro_Celt_Sound_System]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Abrahamic religions (temp)</title>
<id>2072</id>
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<id>32596929</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-24T14:51:02Z</timestamp>
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<username>Smart Fox</username>
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<comment>moved [[Abrahamic religions]] to [[Abrahamic religions (temp)]]</comment>
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<title>Andrew Jackson/First Inaugural Address</title>
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<comment>remove original text, will put external link on article page instead</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Andrew Jackson]]</text>
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<title>Andrew Jackson/Second Inaugural Address</title>
<id>2074</id>
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<timestamp>2002-09-13T06:55:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeronimo</username>
<id>108</id>
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<comment>remove original text, will put external link on article page instead</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Andrew Jackson]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Aircraft hijacking</title>
<id>2075</id>
<revision>
<id>41299730</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T10:56:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PhilipC</username>
<id>326275</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Partial list of hijackings */ linked Landshut</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Terrorism}}
'''Aircraft hijacking''' (also known as '''Skyjacking''') is the take-over of an [[aircraft]], by a person or group, usually armed. Unlike the [[hijacking]] of land vehicles, it is usually not perpetrated in order to rob the cargo. Rather, most aircraft hijackings are committed to use the passengers as [[hostage]]s in an effort to obtain transportation to a given location, to hold them for ransom, or, as in the case of the [[United States|American]] planes that were hijacked to [[Cuba]] during the [[1970s]], the release of comrades being held in prison. Another common motive is [[publicity]] for some cause or grievance. In the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the use of hijacked planes as suicide missiles changed the way hijacking was perceived as a security threat &mdash; though similar usages had apparently been attempted by [[Samuel Byck]] in [[1974]] and on [[Air France Flight 8969]] in [[1994]].
One task of [[airport security]] is to prevent hijacks by screening passengers and keeping anything that could be used as a [[weapon]] (even smaller objects like nail clippers and boxcutters, for example) off aircraft.
==Background==
Hijackings for hostages have usually followed a pattern of negotiations between the hijackers and the authorities, followed by some form of settlement -- not always the meeting of the hijackers' original demands -- or the storming of the aircraft by armed police or special forces to rescue the hostages. Previous to September, 2001, the policy of most airlines was for the pilot to comply with hijackers' demands in the hope of a peaceful outcome. Since then, policies have reversed course, in favor of arming and armoring the cockpit.
The first recorded aircraft hijack was on [[February 21]], [[1931]], in Arequipa, [[Peru]]. [[Byron Rickards]] flying a Ford Tri-motor was approached on the ground by armed revolutionaries. He refused to fly them anywhere and after a ten day stand-off Rickards was informed that the revolution was successful and he could go in return for giving one of their number a lift to Lima. Most hijackings have not been so farcical. The first hijack of a commercial airliner probably happened on [[June 16]], [[1948]], when a failed attempt to gain control of the [[Miss Macao]], a [[Cathay Pacific]] seaplane caused it to crash into the sea off [[Macau]]. On June 30 1948, a [[Bulgarian]] commercial [[Junkers]] plane was successfully hijacked to [ |
tless, sexist self-destructive fools. But for some reason the little wienerheads make us laugh.''
The word "completely" in the original disclaimer was also misspelled as "completly".
Early episodes with the controversial content intact are rare and traded on home-made tapes made from the original broadcasts. In an interview included with the recent Mike Judge Collection DVD set, Judge says he is unsure if some of the earlier episodes still exist in their uncensored form.
MTV also responded by broadcasting the program after 11:00 P.M., and changing the original disclaimer to a new one, reminding viewers that:
:''Beavis and Butt-Head are not role models. They're not even human, they're cartoons. Some of the things they do could cause a person to get hurt, expelled, arrested... possibly deported. To put it another way, don't try this at home.''
This disclaimer also appears before the opening of their [[Sega Genesis]] game.
''Beavis and Butt-Head'', along with ''[[Ren and Stimpy]]'' and ''[[The Simpsons]]'', pushed the boundaries of cartoons away from clean material for small children. They were famously lambasted by Democratic senator [[Fritz Hollings]] as "Buffcoat and Beaver" which would subsequently become a running gag on the show of adults mispronouncing their names (Ex.: Rush Limbaugh's parody "Gus Baker" in the episode "Right On"). Such an example is a reporter calling them "Brevis and Headbutt". Critics, though split upon the cultural merits of the cartoon, often compared the dialogue to that of [[Samuel Beckett]]. Social commentary was a recurrent theme throughout the series.
Beavis and Butt-Head have been compared to idiot savants, because of their creative and subversively intelligent observations of music videos. This part of the show was mostly improvised by [[Mike Judge]] (who performed both characters simultaneously) and are considered by many to be the show's highlight. With regard to criticisms of Beavis and Butt-Head as "idiots", Judge has responded that a show about straight-A students just wouldn't be funny. However, Daria, who academically excelled, then proceeded to star in her own critically acclaimed series.
===Recurring themes===
The series has a number of recurring elements.
They cause havoc at their place of employment, Burger World. Beavis and Butt-Head spend little time working, and when they try to work, they are often too incompetent to even take a customer's order. They often enjoy frying things other than food such as earthworms, dead mice, and their own fingers. The boys have also unintentionally had brief stints as [[secretary|secretaries]] and [[Telemarketing|telemarketers]].
They cause trouble at school. They are usually pitted against their teachers and other school officials. [[Principal McVicker]], whom they occasionally refer to as "McDicker", is visibly agitated by the duo's antics. At the end of the final episode, Beavis and Butt-Head's antics exasperate McVicker to the point where he suffers a heart attack.
One of their most prominent goals in life is to "score" with chicks. Throughout the series neither of them meets with any success. They occasionally spend Friday nights at the local Maxi-Mart, attempting to pick up on any female they encounter. This continues until the manager runs them off.
Beavis often transforms into his alter ego, the [[Cornholio|Great Cornholio]]. Beavis's transformation into Cornholio is indicated by pulling the back of his t-shirt over the top of his head, holding both arms up, pacing back and forth, proclaiming largely nonsensical utterances in an exaggerated Spanish-sounding accent, such as "I am the great cornholio! I need TP for my bunghole! Are you threatening me?" This transformation is prompted when Beavis rapidly consumes a large amount of sugar, caffeine, or other stimulants. In one episode, the duo wanders into a [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] coffeehouse, where an open-mic poetry slam is in session. Beavis takes a turn at the mic after ingesting a large amount of cappuccino, and the audience hails his antics as performance art. In another episode he transforms into Cornholio while at Burger World, as an INS official visits for a surprise inspection, searching for illegal aliens. Beavis' pseudo-Hispanic ramblings prompt the INS officer into thinking he is from Mexico, and Beavis is deported. Beavis also assumes the Great Cornholio persona for the climactic scenes of ''Beavis and Butt-Head Do America''. In a scene archetypical of the Great Cornholio's manic genius, he finds himself alone in the White House, confronting a portrait of President Nixon in his famous 2-armed "V for Victory" pose. His response epitomises a first impression of President Nixon, boldly, respectfully, and with high alertness for how President Nixon might respond.
===Locations===
There are several prime locations featured in the series. All these locations are located within the fictional town of Highland, which is alluded to be located somewhere in [[Texas]].
*'''Living room'''. Located at Butt-Head's house, much of the action, and all of the video segments, take place or begin here, with the two sitting on the couch, watching TV.
*'''Highland High School'''. Probably the most visited location in the series.
*'''Burger World'''. The fast food restaurant where Beavis and Butt-Head assume grill and drive-thru/front register duties respectively. It is regurarly damaged or completely demolished by the duo.
*'''Tom Anderson's house'''. Anderson's house is continually vandalized and destroyed by Beavis and Butt-Head. It is a typical middle class suburban home.
*'''Maxi-Mart'''. An obvious parody of [[7-Eleven]] and similar outlets. In contradiction to the continuity of the series, it has been shown as being called "Qwik-Mart" in a few episodes.
*'''Open field'''. A grassy field backdropped by a large water tower. This is where Beavis & Butt-Head can be found carrying out destructive experiments or setting things on fire.
*'''The Mall'''. A preferred loitering spot for the duo.
*'''Stewart's House'''. Beavis and Butt-Head occasionally visit Stewart's house. Their visits often entail damaging something in the house.
==Holiday specials==
At least three holiday specials were produced -- one for Halloween and two for Christmas.
The Halloween special involved them attempting to trick-or-treat, in ridiculous costumes. Butt-Head pours melted cheese on his head and becomes "nachos", while Beavis wears a pair of underwear on his head and is a "nad". Beavis and Butt-Head eventually become separated. After stealing some kids' candy, Beavis turns into the Great Cornholio. Butt-Head is taken to the country and deserted by Todd and his gang, where he is confronted by the crazy farmer. Eventually Beavis wakes up after his sugar high to find himself hanging in the farmers barn. At the end of the episode it is implied (but not shown) that he is killed by a now blue skinned Butt-Head and the farmer who are both wielding chainsaws.
The first Christmas special featured the pair sitting in front of the television providing crude commentary on various aspects of Christmas.
The second Christmas special consists of two segments that parodied popular Christmas stories. The first was a parody of ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'', featuring Beavis as Ebeneezer Scrooge. The second was a send up of ''[[It's A Wonderful Life]]'', with an angel named Charlie trying to convince Butt-Head to kill himself for the good of all mankind. The special also contained short segments where Butt-Head dressed as Santa and read letters from viewers, while Beavis was dressed as a reindeer whom Butt-Head occasionally struck with a bullwhip. The running joke during these segments was that in every letter written by a girl, she wants Beavis, which pisses off Butt-Head and leads him to hit Beavis even more with the bullwhip.
All of the letters read by Santa Butt-Head were actually sent in by MTV viewers, as several months before the special aired, MTV had a commercial encouraging viewers to write letters to Santa Butt-Head, and provided an address to which they could be sent.
==Music videos==
''For a full list of musical artists on Beavis and Butt-head, see [[List of musicians appearing on Beavis and Butt-head]].''
One of the most well-known aspects of the series was the inclusion of music videos, which occurred between animated segments. The duo would watch and make humorous observations, or simply engage in nonsensical dialogue.
They showed a particular disdain for many generic 80s [[hair metal|hair bands]]. Upon seeing a video by [[Def Leppard]], Butt-Head remarks that "[[Spinal Tap]] really sucks". Their epitome of "wuss bands" was [[Winger]], which their friend Stewart was a big fan of. They've also continuously said that [[Grim Reaper (band)|Grim Reaper]] sucks.
Bands they liked were also mocked. They were disappointed by an [[AC/DC]] video, despite the fact that they were fans of the group. Midway through viewing [[Judas Priest]]'s cheesy "Breaking The Law" video, Butt-head remarks, "I like Priest and everything, but this sucks!" At times, the criticism reflects their young age and ignorance of music history. Upon seeing a video by [[Black Sabbath]], they decide that the band's vocalist can't be [[Ozzy Osbourne]], because "Ozzy's an old fart!" Butt-head mistakes their sound for [[grunge rock|grunge]] and inquires if they are from Seattle, Beavis replies "No, they're American."
Beavis and Butt-Head expressed complete enjoyment rarely. [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]]'s [[Kurt Cobain]] is said to have been ecstatic at having the video for "Smells Like Teen Spirit" praised by Beavis and Butt-Head and deemed it a great compliment. [[Hum (band)|Hum]] appeared t |
om his prison and robed once more in the imperial purple, received his son in state.
Shortly afterwards Alexius made an effort in conjunction with Murtzuphlos ([[Alexius V]]) to recover the throne. The attempt was unsuccessful and, after wandering about [[Greece]], he surrendered with Euphrosyne, who had meanwhile joined him, to [[Boniface of Montferrat]], then master of a great part of the [[Balkan peninsula]] (the so-called [[Kingdom of Thessalonica]]). Leaving his protection he sought shelter with [[Michael I Ducas]], [[Despotate of Epirus|despot of Epirus]], and then repaired to [[Asia Minor]], where his son-in-law Lascaris was holding his own against the Latins.
Alexius, joined by [[Kay Khusrau I]], the [[sultan]] of [[Sultanate of Rüm|Rüm]] (also called the sultan of [[Iconium]] or [[Konya]]), now demanded the crown of Lascaris, and on his refusal marched against him. Lascaris, however, defeated and took him prisoner. Alexius was relegated to a [[monastery]] at [[Nicaea]], where he died on some date unknown.
{{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Isaac II Angelus]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Isaac II Angelus]]</b> and<br /><b>[[Alexius IV Angelus]]}}
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Angelid dynasty]]
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[[es:Alejo III Ángelo]]
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[[ja:アレクシオス3世アンゲロス]]
[[pl:Aleksy III Angelos]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Alexius V</title>
<id>1617</id>
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<id>40533553</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T06:33:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adam Bishop</username>
<id>13008</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.151.50.88|69.151.50.88]] ([[User talk:69.151.50.88|talk]]) to last version by 81.36.74.251</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexius V Ducas Murtzouphlos''' (d. [[1205]]), [[Byzantine emperor]], was proclaimed emperor on [[February 5]], [[1204]], during the siege of [[Constantinople]] by the Latins ([[Fourth Crusade]]). His nickname "Murtzouphlos" referred to his extremely bushy eyebrows. He was related to the imperial Angelus family.
A Byzantine nobleman, he had risen to the court position of protovestarius by the time of the [[4th Crusade]]. By January of [[1204]], the Emperors [[Isaac II]] and [[Alexius IV]] had inspired little confidence among the people of Constantinople in their efforts to defend the city from the Latins. As a result of his position, Alexius Ducas had easy access to the Imperial residence, and when a revolution in the city arose with the intent of toppling the two Angeli Emperors, Alexius used that access to capture them. The young [[Alexius IV]] would be killed by the bowstring. The death of his father, [[Isaac II]], shortly afterward, was possibly "artificially induced."
Upon his coronation, Alexius V began to strengthen the defenses of [[Constantinople]] and ended negotiations with the Latins. It was too late, however, for the new Emperor to make much of a difference. During the ensuing fight, he defended the city with courage and tenacity. The crusaders would prove to be too strong, and Alexius fled to Thrace shortly before the city fell.
He later attempted to ally with his fellow ex-emperor [[Alexius III]] against the Latins, but Alexius III had him blinded and delivered into the hands of the crusaders, who put him to death by casting him from the top of the Pillar of Theodosius as the murderer of Alexius IV. He was the last Byzantine emperor before the establishment of the [[Latin Empire]], which controlled Constantinople for the next 57 years.
{{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Isaac II Angelus]]</b> and<br><b>[[Alexius IV Angelus]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Theodore I Lascaris]]}}
==References==
*{{1911}}
*John Julius Norwich, "A Short History of Byzantium", Vintage Books, 1999.
[[Category:1205 deaths]]
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[[fi:Aleksios V]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Alexius Mikhailovich</title>
<id>1618</id>
<revision>
<id>15900085</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-08T16:53:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>John Kenney</username>
<id>10512</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alexis I of Russia]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich of Russia</title>
<id>1620</id>
<revision>
<id>41960789</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:17:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alex Bakharev</username>
<id>294809</id>
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<minor />
<comment>fmt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Tannauer Aleksei.jpg|thumb|200px|Portrait of Alexei by Johann Gottfried Tannauer, c. 1712-16, Russian Museum, St Petersburg]]
'''Alexei Petrovich''' ({{lang-ru|Алексей Петрович}}) ({{OldStyleDate|18 February|1690|28 February}} &ndash; {{OldStyleDate|7 July|1718|26 June}}), a [[Russia]]n [[tsarevich]]. He was born in [[Moscow]], the son of Tsar [[Peter I of Russia|Peter I]] and his first wife [[Eudoxia Lopukhina]].
==Childhood==
The young Alexei was brought up by his mother, who fostered an atmosphere of disdain towards [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]], Alexei's father. Alexei's relations with his father suffered from the hatred between his father and his mother, as it was very difficult for him to feel affection for his mother's worst persecutor. From the ages of 6 to 9, Alexei was educated by his tutor Vyazemsky, but after the removal of his mother by Peter the Great to the [[Suzdal]] Intercession Convent, Alexei was confined to the care of educated foreigners, who taught him history, geography, mathematics and French.
==Military career==
In [[1703]], Alexei was ordered to follow the army to the field as a private in a [[bombardier (rank)|bombardier]] regiment. In [[1704]], he was present at the capture of [[Narva]]. At this period, the preceptors of the tsarevich had the highest opinion of his ability. Alexei had strong leanings towards [[archaeology]] and [[ecclesiology]]. However, Peter had wished his son and heir to dedicate himself to the service of new [[Russia]], and demanded from him unceasing labour in order to maintain Russia's new wealth and power. Painful relations between father and son, quite apart from the prior personal antipathies, were therefore inevitable. It was an additional misfortune for Alexei that his father should have been too busy to attend to him just as he was growing up from boyhood to manhood. He was left in the hands of [[reactionary]] [[boyars]] and priests, who encouraged him to hate his father and wish for the death of the tsar-[[antichrist]].
In [[1708]] Peter sent Alexei to [[Smolensk]] to collect [[provender]] and [[recruit]]s, and after that to [[Moscow]] to fortify it against [[Charles XII of Sweden]]. At the end of [[1709]], Alexei went to [[Dresden]] for one year. There, he finished lessons in French, German, mathematics and fortification. After his education, Alexei married princess [[Charlotte of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel]], greatly against his will. The wedding was celebrated at [[Torgau]] on [[October 14]], [[1711]], in the house of the queen of [[Poland]]. Three weeks later, the bridegroom was hurried away by his father to [[Torun]] to superintend the provisioning of the Russian troops in Poland. For the next twelve months Alexei was kept constantly on the move. His wife joined him at Torun in December, but in April [[1712]] a peremptory [[ukase]] ordered him off to the army in [[Pomerania]], and in the autumn of the same year he was forced to accompany his father on a tour of inspection through [[Finland]].
==Self-exile==
Immediately on his return from Finland, Alexei was despatched by his father to [[Staraya Russa]] and [[Lake Ladoga]] to see to the building of new ships. This was the last commission entrusted to him, since Peter had not been satisfied with his son's performance and his lack of enthusiasm. Nevertheless, Peter made one last effort to "reclaim" his son. On [[October 11]], [[1715]], princess Charlotte died, after giving birth to a son, the grand-duke Peter, future tsar [[Peter II of Russia|Peter II]]. On the day of the funeral, Peter sent Alexei a stern letter, urging him to take interest in the affairs of the state. Peter threatened to cut him off if he did not acquiesce in his father's plans. Alexei wrote a pitiful reply to his father, offering to renounce the succession in favour of his baby half-brother Peter. Furthermore, in January of [[1716]], Alexei asked his father for permission to become a [[monk]].
Still, Peter did not despair. On the [[August 26]], 1716 he wrote to Alexei from abroad, urging him, if he desired to remain [[tsarevich]], to join him and the army without delay. Rather than face this ordeal, Alexei fled to [[Vienna]] and placed himself under the protection of his brother-in-law, the emperor [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]], who sent him for safety first to the [[Tirol]]ean fortress of Ahrenberg, and finally to the castle of [[San Elmo]] at [[Naples]]. He was accompanied throughout his journey by his mistress, the [[Finland|Finnish]] girl Afrosina. That the emperor sincerely sympathized with Alexei, and suspected Peter of harbouring murderous designs against his son, is plain from his confidential letter to [[George I of the United Kingdom]], whom he consulted on this delicate affair. Peter felt insulted. The flight of the tsare |
| {{PAGENAME}}}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Flat Earth</title>
<id>11593</id>
<revision>
<id>42048214</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:03:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>NuncAutNunquam</username>
<id>907747</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:John Gower world Vox Clamantis.jpg|thumb|200px|An image from one of English writer [[John Gower]]'s works (c.1400) shows him shooting the world, a sphere of earth, air, and water]]
The notion of a '''Flat Earth''' refers to the idea that the inhabited surface of [[Earth]] is flat, rather than [[curvature|curved]] (see [[Spherical Earth]]).
It is commonly assumed that people from [[Classical antiquity|early antiquity]] generally believed the world was flat, but by the time of [[Pliny the Elder]] ([[1st century]]) its spherical shape was generally acknowledged. At that time [[Ptolemy]] derived his maps from a curved globe and developed the system of [[latitude]] and [[longitude]] (see [[clime]]). His writings remained the basis of [[Europe|European]] [[astronomy]] throughout the [[Middle Ages]].
The common misconception that people before the [[age of exploration]] believed that Earth was flat entered the popular imagination after [[Washington Irving]]'s publication of ''The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus'' in [[1828]]. In the United States, this belief persists in the popular imagination, and is even repeated in some widely read textbooks, including [[Thomas A. Bailey|Thomas Bailey]]'s ''[[The American Pageant]]'', where it is stated that "The superstitious sailors ... grew increasingly mutinous...because they were fearful of sailing over the edge of the world" (Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me p. 56).
A few early [[Christianity|Christian]] writers questioned or even opposed the sphericity of the Earth on [[theological]] grounds, but several of these writers are not thought to have been influential in the Middle Ages due to a scarcity of references to their work in mediaeval writings. Even though Europe's view of the world between 600 and 1000 is difficult to determine, by the [[1100]]s, at the latest, the [[geocentric model]] had supplanted any doubts about the Earth's sphericity in the minds of the learned people of Europe. This did not settle, however, the question of whether the [[antipodes]] were habitable, or even reachable.
== Antiquity ==
Belief in a flat Earth is found in humankind's oldest writings. In early [[Mesopotamia]]n thought the world was portrayed as a flat disk floating in the [[ocean]], and this forms the premise for early [[Greece|Greek]] maps like those of [[Anaximander]] and [[Hecataeus]].
By [[Classical antiquity|classical times]] an alternative idea, that Earth was spherical, had appeared. This was espoused by [[Pythagoras]] apparently on aesthetic grounds, as he also held all other [[Astronomical objects|celestial bodies]] to be spherical. [[Aristotle]] provided physical evidence for the spherical Earth:
*Ships actually recede over the [[horizon]], disappearing hull-first. In a flat-earth model, they should simply get smaller and smaller until no longer visible, assuming that light travels in a straight line.
*Travelers going south see southern [[constellation]]s rise higher above the horizon. This is only possible if their "straight up" direction is at an angle to northerners' "straight up". Thus Earth's surface cannot be flat.
*The border of the shadow of Earth on the Moon during the partial phase of a [[lunar eclipse]] is always circular, no matter how high the Moon is over the horizon. Only a sphere casts a circular shadow in every direction, whereas a circular disk casts an [[Ellipse|elliptical]] shadow in most directions.
Earth's circumference was estimated around [[240 BC]] by [[Eratosthenes]]. Eratosthenes knew that in Syrene (now [[Aswan]]), in [[Egypt]], the Sun was directly overhead at the summer [[solstice]]. He used geometry to come up with a circumference of 252,000 stades, which, depending on the length of the [[Ancient_Greek_weights_and_measures#Length|stadion]] unit, is within 2% and 20% of the actual circumference, [[1 E7 m|40,008 kilometres]].
During this period Earth was generally thought of as divided into [[clime|climes]], with frigid climes at the [[Geographical pole|poles]] and a deadly torrid clime at the [[equator]]. Beyond the torrid clime were the ''[[antipodes]]'' (people living on the opposite side of a spherical Earth, so called because their feet would be turned towards the opposite direction).
[[Lucretius]] was opposed to the concept of a spherical Earth, because he considered the idea of [[antipodes]] absurd. But by the [[1st century]], [[Pliny the Elder]] was in a position to claim that everyone agrees on the spherical shape of Earth (''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'', 2.64), although there continued to be disputes regarding the nature of the antipodes, and how it is possible to keep the ocean in a curved shape. Interestingly, Pliny as an "intermediate" theory considers also the possibility of an imperfect sphere, "shaped like a pinecone" (''Natural History'', 2.65)
==The Early Church==
There is evidence that the spherical Earth was accepted by many Christians. For example, Emperor [[Theodosius II]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] placed the [[globus cruciger]] (which depicts Earth as round) on his coins.
However, the [[antipodes]] (thought to be separated from the [[Mediterranean]] world by the uncrossable torrid [[clime]]) were difficult to reconcile with the Christian view of a unified human race descended from one couple and redeemed by a single Christ. Consequently, some of the [[Church Fathers]] questioned their existence and even the roundness of Earth. [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] (354-430) wrote:
: "Those who affirm [a belief in antipodes] do not claim to possess any actual information; they merely conjecture that, since the Earth is suspended within the concavity of the heavens, and there is as much room on the one side of it as on the other, therefore the part which is beneath cannot be void of human inhabitants. They fail to notice that, even should it be believed or demonstrated that the world is round or spherical in form, it does not follow that the part of the Earth opposite to us is not completely covered with water, or that any conjectured dry land there should be inhabited by men. For Scripture, which confirms the truth of its historical statements by the accomplishment of its prophecies, teaches not falsehood; and it is too absurd to say that some men might have set sail from this side and, traversing the immense expanse of ocean, have propagated there a race of human beings descended from that one first man." (''[[De Civitate Dei]]'', 16.9)
Augustine denied that the antipodes were inhabited by men, not the idea of a round Earth. However, the phrase "even should it be believed or demonstrated that the world is round" (Latin: ''etiamsi figura conglobata et rotunda mundus esse credatur sive aliqua ratione monstretur'') suggests that he was skeptical of the round Earth, and perhaps even that many others were as well.
A few authors directly opposed the round Earth:
[[Image:Cosmas Indicopleustes - Topographia Christiana 1.jpg|thumb|Cosmas Indicopleustes' world picture - flat earth in a Tabernacle.]]
*[[Lactantius]] (245&ndash;325) called it "folly" because people on a sphere would fall down;
*Saint [[Cyril of Jerusalem]] (315&ndash;386) saw Earth as a firmament floating on water (though in his case, the relevant quote is found in the course of a sermon to the newly baptized, and it is unclear whether he was speaking poetically or in a physical sense);
*Saint [[John Chrysostom]] (344&ndash;408) saw a spherical Earth as contradictory to scripture;
*[[Diodorus of Tarsus]] (d. 394) also argued for a flat Earth;
*[[Severian, Bishop of Gabala|Severian]], Bishop of Gabala, (d. 408);
*The Egyptian monk [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] (547) in his ''Topographia Christiana'', where the Covenant Ark was meant to represent the whole universe, argued on theological grounds that the Earth was flat, a [[parallelogram]] enclosed by four oceans. It is likely that this description was intended to humorously illustrate what not to do when engaging in [[Biblical exegesis]], rather than a true model for the earth{{citation needed}}.
At least one early Christian writer, [[Basil of Caesarea]] (329&ndash;379), believed the matter to be theologically irrelevant. (Hexaemeron 9:1)
Different historians have argued either for very high (e.g. [[Andrew Dickson White|White]]) or very low (e.g. [[Jeffrey Russell]]) influence of these writers in the Middle Ages. Among today's historians, several of them are not thought to have been influential due to a scarcity of references to their work in mediaeval writings.
== The [[Middle Ages]] ==
=== Early Middle Ages ===
[[Image:Denmark_globus_cruciger.jpg|thumb|A [[globus cruciger]]: the earthly realm surmounted by the Christian cross.]]
Europe's view of the world between 600 and 1000 is difficult to determine because of the general scarcity of records from that time and the primitive [[cartography]]: most medieval [[mappa mundi|mappae mundi]] served as indices of geographical terms rather than navigational aids. Our best evidence comes from the writings of theologians:
*[[Isidore of Seville]] (560 – 636) taught that Earth was round, but shaped like a wheel, apparently thinking of a flat Earth (''[[Etymologiae]] |
llo Concerto #1 in C major''. Standard [[Romantic music era|Romantic era]] repertoire includes [[Antonín Dvořák|Dvořák's]] ''Cello Concerto in b minor'', [[Sir Edward Elgar|Elgar's]] ''Cello Concerto in e minor'', and two sonatas by [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]]. Modern compositions from the early [[20th century]] include unaccompanied cello sonatas by [[Paul Hindemith]] ([[opus number|opus]] 25) and [[Zoltán Kodály]] (opus 8). Recordings within the [[Avant Garde]] (cutting edge) genre have revitalized the instrument's perceived versatility. One example is ''Night of the Four Moons'' by [[George Crumb]].
==Construction==
The cello is much larger than the [[violin]] or the [[viola]] but smaller than the [[double bass]]. Like the other members of the [[violin family]], the cello has four strings. Its strings are normally tuned to the [[pitch (music)|pitches]] (from high to low) A, D, G, and C (A3, D3, G2, and C2 in [[scientific pitch notation]]). This is like the [[viola]] but one octave lower, and is one octave plus one fifth lower than the [[violin]] (see [[#Tuning and range]]). It is played in an upright position between the legs of a seated musician, resting on a metal spike called the [[endpin]]. The player draws the [[bow (music)|bow]] horizontally across the strings.
The cello is a complex instrument consisting of many different parts. Although the majority of it is composed of [[wood]], some parts can be made of [[steel]] or other metals and/or [[composite material]]. Today, the strings are most often metal but can be made of [[gut]] or [[nylon]].
===Body===
The main frame of the cello is typically made from wood, although some modern cellos are constructed from [[carbon fibre]]. A traditional cello normally has a [[spruce]] top, with [[maple]] for the back, sides, and neck. Other woods, such as [[poplar]] or [[willow]], are sometimes used for the back and sides. Less expensive cellos frequently have a top and back made of a [[Plywood|laminate]].
The top and back are traditionally hand-carved, though less expensive cellos are often machine-produced. The sides, or ribs, are made by heating the wood and bending it around forms. The cello body has a wide top bout, narrow middle formed by two C-bouts, and wide bottom bout, with the [[bridge (instrument)|bridge]] and [[f-hole]]s just below the middle.
===Neck, pegbox, and scroll===
Above the main body is the carved neck, which leads to a pegbox and then a scroll. The neck, pegbox, and scroll are normally carved out of a single piece of wood. Attached to the neck and extending over the body of the instrument is the fingerboard. The [[Nut_(instrumental)|nut]] is raised piece of wood fingerboard meets the pegbox which the strings rest on. The pegbox houses four [[tuning peg]]s, each which tunes its respective string by either tightening or loosening the string. The scroll is a traditional part of the cello and all other members of the [[violin family]]. [[Ebony]] is usually used for the tuning pegs, fingerboard, and nut, but other dark woods, such as [[boxwood]] or [[rosewood]], can be used.
===Tailpiece and endpin===
The [[tailpiece]] and endpin are found at the opposite end of the body as the neck. The tailpiece is traditionally made of [[ebony]] or another dark wood, but can also be made of [[plastic]] or [[composite material]]. It attaches the strings to the tail end of the cello. The endpin, made of metal or carbon fibre, supports the cello while in playing position. Modern endpins are usually retractable and adjustable. The end of the endpin touching the floor is usually a spiked tip that can be capped with rubber; both serve to grip the floor and prevent the cello from moving or slipping.
===Bridge and f-holes===
The [[bridge (instrument)|bridge]] elevates the strings above the cello and transfers their vibrations to the soundpost inside (see below). The bridge is not glued on; tension from the strings holds it in place. The [[f-hole]]s (named for their shape) are located on either side of the bridge, and allow air to move in and out of the instrument to produce sound. Additionally, f-holes act as access points to the interior of the body when the need for repair or maintenance arises. A "dampit", sometimes used to maintain proper [[humidity]] levels, can also be inserted through the f-holes.
===Internal features===
Internally, the cello has two important features: a [[bass bar]], which is glued to the underside of the top of the instrument, and a round wooden [[sound post]] (also called a sound peg), which is sandwiched between the top and bottom. The bass bar, found under the bass foot of the bridge, serves to support the cello's top, making it rigid. The sound post, found under the treble side of the bridge, connects the back and front of the cello. Like the bridge, the sound post is not glued to anything, but is kept in place by the tensions of the bridge and strings. Together, the bass bar and sound post are responsible for transfering the strings' vibrations to the body of the instrument, which in turn transfers them to the air mass inside the instrument, producing sound.
===Glue===
Cellos are constructed and repaired using [[Animal_glue|hide glue]], which is strong but reversible, allowing for disassembly when needed. Tops may be glued on with diluted glue, since some repairs call for the removal of the top. Theoretically, hide glue is weaker than the body's wood, so as the top or back shrinks side-to-side, the glue holding it will let go, avoiding a crack in the plate. However, in reality this does not always happen.
===Bow===
[[Image:Bow hand Violoncello.jpg|thumb|right|130px|A Cello Bow]]
Traditionally, [[bow (music)| bows]] are made from Pernambuco (high quality) or Brazilwood (lower quality). Both woods come from the same species of tree ([[Brazilwood|Caesalpina echinata]]), but Pernambuco is the heartwood of the tree and is much darker (Brasil wood is stained/painted dark to compensate). Pernambuco is a heavy, resinous wood with great elasticity and high sound velocity which makes it an ideal wood for instrument bows. The hair is [[horsehair]], though synthetic hair is also available nowadays. In addition, the bow can now be made of fiberglass or carbon fibre (or wood with a carbon fibre core). The hair is coated with [[rosin]] periodically to make it grip the strings and cause them to vibrate. Bows need to be re-haired periodically. The most common reason for rehairing is excessive hair loss through breakage. Hair that has stretched, and will not tighten enough, also calls for professional attention. Some professionals believe that eventually hair can also "lose its grip." Others disagree, saying that if the ribbon has enough hair, and will tighten properly, a proper cleaning will restore its playing quality. The hair is kept under tension while playing by a screw which pulls the ''frog''/''Heel'' (the part of the bow one holds) back. Leaving the bow tightened for long periods of time can damage it by warping the stick.
==Development==
The cello developed from the bass violin, first used by [[Monteverdi]], which was a three-string consort instrument. The invention of wire-wound [[strings (music)|strings]] (fine wire around a thin gut core), around 1660 in [[Bologna]], allowed for a finer bass sound than was possible with purely gut strings on such a short body. Bolognese makers exploited this new technology to create the cello, a somewhat smaller instrument suitable for solo repertoire due to both the timbre of the instrument and the fact that the smaller size made it easier to play [[virtuoso|virtuosic]] passages. This instrument had disadvantages as well, however. The cello's light sound was not as suitable for church and ensemble playing, so it had to be doubled by [[double bass|basses]] or [[violone]]s.
Around 1700 Italian players popularized the cello in northern Europe, although the bass violin continued to be used for another two decades in France and England. The sizes, names, and tunings of the cello varied widely by geography and time. The size was not standardized until around 1750.
Despite superficial similarities, the cello is not in fact related to the [[viol|viola da gamba]]. The cello is actually part of the viola da braccio family, meaning viol of the arm, which includes, among others, the [[violin]]. There are actually paintings of people playing the cello on the shoulder, like a giant violin. It was only somewhat later that the cello began to be played on the lap.
[[Baroque]] era cellos differed from the modern instrument in several ways. The neck has a different form and angle which matches the baroque bass-bar and stringing. Modern cellos have a retractable metal (or sometimes carbon fibre) spike at the bottom to support the instrument (and transmit some of the sound through the floor), while Baroque cellos are held only by the calves of the player. Modern bows curve in and are held at the frog; Baroque bows curve out and are held closer to the bow's point of balance. Modern strings normally have a metal core, although some use a synthetic core; Baroque strings are made of [[gut]], with the G and C strings wire-wound. Modern cellos often have fine-tuners connecting the strings to the tailpiece, which make it much easier to tune the instrument. Overall, the modern instrument has much higher string tension than the Baroque cello, resulting in a louder, more direct, tone, with fewer overtones.
No educational works specifically devoted to the cello existed before the [[18th century]], and those that do exist contain little value to the performer beyond simple accounts of instrumental technique. One of the earliest cello manuals is [[Michel Corrette]]'s ''Méthode, thèorique et pratique. Pour Apprendre en peu de tems le Violoncelle dans sa Perfection'' (Paris, 1741).
==Sound==
The cello produces a deep, rich, and vibrant sound. It has the lowest pitch in the traditional [[string quartet] |
>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Report features and automation</title>
<id>11137</id>
<revision>
<id>19583304</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-25T16:56:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jnc</username>
<id>18024</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Weed-whacking (tools to help in reining in chaos) */ Page now retrieved to Wikipedia:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----
<h3>Report features and automation</h3>
==== Reports and lists ====
* Report showing all orphaned pages (that is, pages that are not linked to by any other page).
* Report showing all old style link pages that aren't redirects (simplify converting them).
* Report showing all dangling links (i.e. links which point to pages that don't exist yet.)
* Automatically updated page giving the 100 or so most common searches over different periods (today, last 4 hours, last month, last 6 months). This information would help us add what people actually want (provided it fits in with what wikipedia should be).
* How about a feature that lists all places where the current page is linked from?
* Automatically-generated NewTopics page
** Still considering this, but not for version 0.92. --CliffordAdams
* Count and publicly display (somewhere) two or three different numbers of Wikipedia pages that are longer than various particulars lengths (to give a more realistic idea of how many actual pages are on the wiki, as opposed to redirection pages, tiny stubs, etc.).
** A good idea. The only quibble is that it requires opening every page to generate the report, but it shouldn't take any longer than the current search function.
** If wikipedia articles are stored in flat files, you could just approximate the length based on the file size, right?
* How's about an automatically generated Wikipedia Contributors page that lists contributors and the number of pages they created or changed? --SoniC
** Unfortunately, not all contributors use a username or have a single login. Also, not all of the requested information is kept permanently. --CliffordAdams
* Plagiarism-bot. A bot that goes through Wikipedia pages on a regular basis, does Google searches, and flags pages that it suspects might be plagiarized.
* Let's have contributors of a given Wikipedia page listed either in the header or in the footer. IP's are skipped of course and if there are more than, say, 10 contributors make a link to a special subpage &quot;Contributors&quot;.[[User:Kpjas]]
** If people wish to be listed, can't they simply include their name at the end of the text?
** I like the basic anonymity of the entries, especially if the diff information is actually stored somewhere. -- TheCunctator
* Provide a way to search for all the changes made by one user in Wikipedia. For example, if I contributed to numerous pages over a long period of time, then 2 years later, I would need a way to find out whether someone else added to the subject I once touched.
** Alternately, allow users to "monitor" a page, so that they get email whenever that page is edited. Or adds a link to that page to another page, which could be a subpage of their user page. [[User:Greg Lindahl]]
* I would like a page that is a top list of the most frequently linked-to non-existent page. [[User:Linus Tolke]]
==== Weed-whacking (tools to help in reining in chaos) ====
* Spell check [[batch job]] for newly created articles once a week with a link at the end of the article to the incorrectly spelled words. Even better would be one that worked as the "preview" button, before saving, and that marked somehow the suspicious words.
* Is it possible to invent something to sort lists alphabetically? Take a look at pages like [[Actresses]] and you know why this would be helpful...
* Would someone provide Wikipedia with code for programmatic update of the date on the [[Homepage]]? This would certainly make [[User:WojPob|WojPob]]'s life easier ;-)
* It would be great to have a feature that would identify all orphaned pages. There's a small but growing problem of our having many useful pages that are not linked-to or underlinked-to. It would be great if we could list all pages to which there are no links, or only one link. --[[User:Larry Sanger]]
* Provide a [[batch job]] that searches for and lists all links along with the page the link is contained in so that we can look for duplicate/slightly different versions of the same link and fix them. Please make this a weekly batch job so that it does not take too much time.
* Automate making old-style links into [[Wikipedia:Free Links|Free Links]]
** This will probably happen soon after the 0.92 release. The wiki code to rename pages is already present, although it is available to wiki administrator(s) only
* I was trying to find a good way to change the links for the entire UnitedStatesConstitution section so that all the subsections would automatically migrate to [[United States Constitution]]. Instead of copying and pasting everything on the web, I figured I could just copy the files on the server from one directory to the other. I tried this and the site broke, so now I think I will just ask if there is a way to do this. So: '''When we are changing links to the much nicer free link style, is there a good way to get subsections changed as well without having to manually edit each page in the subsection?'''
** The wiki admin(s) can use the page-rename commands to move pages. Unfortunately, each individual subpage needs to be moved by this method. I'll consider this to be a feature request for renaming all subpages when a page is renamed. --CliffordAdams
==== Automatic links ====
* For every topic, go through and grep every other topic (maybe just the root topic) and automatically create a link to the topic we are looking for. So eventually every word could possibly be a link. This could be great for people interested in the origins of words and would save topic creators much time too.
** This is a bad idea. First of all, there are the obvious technical difficulties. More importantly, human beings are much better at deciding when a link is ''relevant'' to a given bit of text. Patience--it'll be perfect in the end, trust me. --[[User:LMS]]
* At the bottom of every article, I would like to have a list of likely related pages, similar to http://everything2.com. These could be computed once a night or so, maybe at the same time the search indexing is done. Criteria for two pages to be related:
** contain similar words
** link to similar pages
** are linked to by similar pages --AxelBoldt
==== Automatic Empty Page Deletion ====
The whole [[Page titles to be deleted]] mechanism is unnecessarily burdensome. The software should be capable of automatically deleting pages that have no content other than whitespace.
:It's been discussed - but how do you train the software to distinguish between a blank page which is useless, a blank page which has been vandalised, or a blank page which has been wiped clean pending resolution of a debate on the relevant talk page? [[Page titles to be deleted]] is cumbersome, but it preserves the need for page deletions to be conducted with care and judicious consideration. All the history goes as well when a page is deeted - so there is no way back. [[User:MMGB]]
:I see. I missed the previous discussion. Sorry for retreading old ground. Causing links to empty pages to display as if it were a new page would do as well without the other problems. Attempts to deal with the issues otherwise: wait a few days or even weeks before deleting (anti-vandalism), don't delete if there are subpages (anti [[talk:Feature_requests|/Talk]] problem)? --[[User:Dmerrill]]
:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Interface</title>
<id>11138</id>
<revision>
<id>15908903</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-15T20:07:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Thue</username>
<id>19556</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----
'''This is old.''' The current working document is [[Wikipedia:User interface ideas]] (see).
Requests for what goes on outside of the entries--the menubars up top and bottom, etc., user preferences.
* Can we have the "edit this page right now!" link back at the top of the page? Or was that voted down? I like it.
* I second the above -- [[User:GWO]]
* I would like a link somewhere to my own personal page, since there I have linked pages that are of interest to me (in lack of a 'subscribe' feature =). I always search for my own page the first thing when I surf to wikipedia.
** When you're logged in, your personal page is linked to on every page. --[[user:Damian Yerrick|Damian Yerrick]]
* I would like to have a CANCEL Button on the Edits page (Page in Edit mode) added to the two existing ones SUBMIT and PREVIEW. Just to have a clear understanding what is going on and what the system/database is up to. [[User:StefanRybo]]
** How about a "SPELL CHECK" button, too?
*** It would be helpful if the spell checking also check for variations of |
<title>Communications in Guinea</title>
<id>12182</id>
<revision>
<id>15909885</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-24T19:23:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[Category:Communications_by_country]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
11,000 (1995)
'''Telephones - [[mobile phone|mobile cellular]]:'''
950 (1995)
'''Telephone system:'''
poor to fair system of open-wire lines, small radiotelephone communication stations, and new [[microwave radio]] relay system
<br>''domestic:''
microwave radio relay and radiotelephone communication
<br>''international:''
[[satellite]] earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM radio|AM]] 4, [[FM]] 8, [[shortwave]] 3 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
357,000 (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
6 (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
85,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
NA
'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GN
:''See also :'' [[Guinea]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Guinea]]
[[Category:Guinea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Guinea</title>
<id>12183</id>
<revision>
<id>38504653</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T20:19:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>141.211.191.30</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Airports - with paved runways */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">== Railways ==
<br>''total:''
1,086 km
<br>''standard gauge:''
279 km 1.435-m gauge
<br>''narrow gauge:''
807 km 1.000-m gauge (includes 662 km in common carrier service from Kankan to Conakry)
=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Guinea-Bissau|Guinea-Bissau]] - no railways
* [[Transportation in Senegal|Senegal]] - no - 1000mm gauge
* [[Transportation in Mali|Mali]] - no - 1000mm
* [[Transportation in Côte d'Ivoire|Ivory Coast]] - no - 1000mm gauge
* [[Transportation in Liberia|Liberia]] - no - 1067mm & 1435mm
* [[Transportation in Sierra Leone|Sierra Leone]] - no - 1067mm
== Highways ==
<br>''total:''
30,500 km
<br>''paved:''
5,033 km
<br>''unpaved:''
25,467 km (1996 est.)
== Waterways ==
1,295 km navigable by shallow-draft native craft
== Ports and harbors ==
* [[Boke]], [[Conakry]], [[Kamsar]]
== Merchant marine ==
none (1999 est.)
== Airports ==
15 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br>''total:''
5
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
3 (1999 est.)
<p>The airport code for the capital, Conakry, is CKY.
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br>''total:''
10
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
5
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
4
<br>''under 914 m:''
1 (1999 est.)
== See also ==
* [[Guinea]]
{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}
[[Category:Guinea]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Guinea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Guinea</title>
<id>12184</id>
<revision>
<id>15909887</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T02:12:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ingoolemo</username>
<id>71699</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>categorisation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Guinea's armed forces are divided into four branches--army, navy, air force, and gendarmerie--whose chiefs report to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who is subordinate to the Minister of Defense. President Conté appointed his first civilian Minister of Defense in 1997. The 10,000-member army is the largest of the four services. The navy has about 900 personnel and operates several small patrol craft and barges. Air force personnel total about 700; its equipment includes several Russian-supplied fighter planes and transport planes. Several thousand gendarmes are responsible for internal security.
'''Military branches:'''
Army, Navy, Air Force, Republican Guard, Presidential Guard, paramilitary National Gendarmerie, National Police Force (Surete National)
'''Military manpower - availability:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
1,721,941 (2000 est.)
'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
869,442 (2000 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$56 million (FY96)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
1.4% (FY96)
==References and Links==
*[[Guinea]]
[[Category:Guinea]]
[[Category:Militaries|Guinea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Guinea</title>
<id>12185</id>
<revision>
<id>15909888</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-24T06:53:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Livajo</username>
<id>91707</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Guinea]]'s relations with other countries, including with West African neighbors, have improved steadily since 1985. Guinea reestablished relations with [[France]] and [[Germany]] in [[1975]], and with neighboring [[Côte d'Ivoire]] and [[Senegal]] in 1978. Guinea has been active in efforts toward regional integration and cooperation, especially regarding the Organization of African Unity and the Economic Organization of West African States (ECOWAS). Guinea takes its role in a variety of international organizations seriously and participates actively in their deliberations and decisions.
Guinea has participated in both diplomatic and military efforts to resolve conflicts in [[Liberia]], [[Sierra Leone]], and [[Guinea-Bissau]], and contributed contingents of troops to peacekeeping operations in all three countries as part of [[ECOMOG]], the Military Observer Group of [[ECOWAS]]. Guinea has offered asylum to over 700,000 [[Liberia]]n, [[Sierra Leone]]an, and [[Bissau]]an refugees since 1990, despite the economic and environmental costs involved.
'''Disputes - international:''' none
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Guinea]]
[[Category:Guinea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guinea-Bissau</title>
<id>12186</id>
<revision>
<id>39736681</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T14:26:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SashatoBot</username>
<id>743015</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: ar</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big><big>'''República da Guiné-Bissau'''</big></big>
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" |
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
| align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Flag of Guinea-Bissau.svg|125px|]]
| align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Coat of Guinea-Bissau.png|100px|]]
|-
| align="center" width="140px" | ([[Flag of Guinea-Bissau|In Detail]])
| align="center" width="140px" | ([[Emblem of Guinea-Bissau|Full size]])
|}
|-
| align="center" colspan=2 | <small>''[[National motto]]: Unidade, Luta, Progresso<br>([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: Unity, Struggle, Progress)''</small>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[Image:LocationGuineaBissau.png]]
|-
| '''[[Official language]]'''
| [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]'''
| [[Bissau]] (Note: Former President [[Kumba Ialá]] decided to change the capital city to [[Buba]], but the plan is unlikely to go forward.)
|-
| '''[[President of Guinea-Bissau|President]]'''
| [[João Bernardo Vieira]]
|-
| '''[[Heads of Government of Guinea-Bissau|Prime Minister]]'''
| [[Aristides Gomes]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''<br>&nbsp;- Total <br>&nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 133rd]] <br> 36,120 [[square kilometre|km²]] <br> 12% / Negligible
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''
<br>&nbsp;- Total (2002)
<br>&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 147th]]
<br> 1,345,479
<br> 48/km²
|-
|'''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' ([[2003]]) || 0.348([[List of countries by Human Development Index|172nd]]) – <font color="#E0584E">low</font>
|-
| '''[[Independence]]'''
<br>&nbsp;- Declared
<br>&nbsp;- Recognised
| (from Portugal)
<br>[[September 24|24 Sep]] [[1973]]
<br>[[September 10|10 Sep]] [[1974]]
|-
| '''[[Currency]]'''
| [[CFA franc]]
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]'''
| [[Esta é a Nossa Pátria Bem Amada]]
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]'''
| [[.gw]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]'''
| 245
|}
The '''Republic of Guinea-Bissau''' (''República da Guiné-Bissau'', [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[IPA]] /{{IPA|ʁɛ.'pu.βli.kɐ dɐ gi.'nɛ bi.'saw}}/) is a country in [[western Africa]], and one of the smallest nations in continental [[Africa]]. It is bordered by [[Senegal]] to the north, and [[Guinea]] to the south and east, with the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to its west. Formerly the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[colony]] of [[Portuguese Guinea]], upon independence, the name of its capital, [[Bissau]], was added to the country's official name in order to prevent confusion between itself and the [[Guinea|Republic of Guinea]].
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Guinea-Bissau]]''
Guinea-Bissau was once the kingdom of Gabù, part of the [[Mali Empire]]; parts of the kingdom subsisted until the [[18th century]]. Though the rivers and coast of this area were among the first places colonized by |
*[http://www.infidels.org/library/magazines/tsr/1998/6/986lions.html Lion 1 Daniel 0]
**One of several articles on attacking a conservative viewpoint.
*[http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/book_daniel.html D.J. Wiseman, T.C. Mitchell & R. Joyce, W.J. Martin & K.A. Kitchen, ''Notes on Some Problems in the Book of Daniel''. London: The Tyndale Press, 1965.]
**A symposium of Daniel by conservative scholars.
-----
{{eastons}}<!--Eastons is left far behind now:this should be a reference-->
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[Category:Christian eschatology|Daniel, Book of]]
[[Category:Deuterocanonical books|Daniel (parts)]]
[[Category:Ketuvim|Daniel, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Daniel]]
[[cs:Kniha Daniel]]
[[de:Daniel (Buch)]]
[[fi:Danielin kirja]]
[[ja:ダニエル書]]
[[nl:Het boek Daniël]]
[[pl:Księga Daniela]]
[[pt:Livro de Daniel]]
[[sv:Daniel]]
[[zh:但以理書]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BF</title>
<id>4334</id>
<revision>
<id>41615259</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:07:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 20|Feb 20]] using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''BF''' can be short for:
* [[Aero-Service]] IATA code
* [[Bahamas]], obsolete [[List of NATO country codes|NATO]] [[country code]]
* [[Battlefield 1942]] An online multiplayer World War 2 Game
* [[Front (military)|Battlefront]], a military term
* [[Best friend]] (internet slang)
* [[GM Daewoo BF|BF]], the name of a series of buses manufactured by [[GM Daewoo]]. <!--**** IF CREATING ARTICLE FOR THIS ENTRY, PLEASE CHECK THAT THERE IS NOT ALREADY ONE. IF A GOOD ONE EXISTS ALREADY, CHANGE THE LINK TO POINT TO THAT *****-->
* [[Bigfoot]]
* [[Black flag]]
* [[Bluebird Cargo]] IATA code
* [[Bongo Frontier]], a [[RV]] in [[pickup truck]] built by [[Kia Motors]].
* [[Boyfriend]]
* [[Brainfuck]] (a programming language)
* [[Burkina Faso]], 2-letter [[List of ISO country codes|ISO]] [[country code]]
*[[Star Wars: Battlefront]], a game.
'''''See also: [[.bf]]''' (the [[ccTLD]] for Burkina Faso).''
{{2CC}}
[[de:BF]]
[[eo:Bf]]
[[fr:BF]]
[[ja:BF]]
[[ko:BF]]
[[sl:BF]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Batman</title>
<id>4335</id>
<revision>
<id>42152581</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:08:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>InShaneee</username>
<id>132185</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.139.46.32|69.139.46.32]] ([[User talk:69.139.46.32|talk]]) to last version by 200.50.55.231</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Superherobox
|image= [[Image:batmanlee.png|250px]]
|caption=From ''Batman'' #608<br>Art by [[Jim Lee]].
|comic_color= background: #8080ff
|character_name=Batman
|real_name=Bruce Wayne
|publisher=[[DC Comics]]
|debut= ''[[Detective Comics]]'' #27
|creators=[[Bob Kane]]<br>[[Bill Finger]] (uncredited)
|alliance_color=background: #ffc0c0
|status=Active
|alliances=[[Batman family]], including [[Alfred Pennyworth]], [[Nightwing]], [[Tim Drake|Robin]], [[Onyx (disambiguation)|Onyx]] and [[Huntress (comics)|Huntress]]; [[Superman]]
|previous_alliances=[[James Gordon (comics)|James Gordon]], [[Barbara Gordon|Oracle]], [[Jason Todd]], [[Catwoman]], [[Cassandra Cain|Batgirl]], [[Azrael (comics)|Azrael]], [[Spoiler (comics)|Spoiler]], [[Orpheus (comics)|Orpheus]], [[Outsiders (comics)|Outsiders]], [[Justice League]]; [[Justice Society of America]] ([[Multiverse (DC Comics)#Earth-Two|Earth-Two]] continuity), [[All-Star Squadron]] ([[Multiverse (DC Comics)#Earth-Two|Earth-Two]] continuity)
|aliases=The Bat, the Dark Knight, the Masked Manhunter, the Caped Crusader, [[Matches Malone]], Bats, the Dynamic Duo (with [[Robin (comics)|Robin]])
|relatives=[[Thomas Wayne]] (father, deceased), Martha Wayne (mother, deceased), Phillip Wayne (uncle and foster father, deceased), Alfred Pennyworth (butler and foster father), [[Dick Grayson]] (adopted son), [[Jason Todd]] (adopted son); [[Huntress#Helena Wayne|Helena Wayne]] (daughter, deceased; [[Multiverse (DC Comics)#Earth-Two|Earth-Two]] continuity),
|powers=None. However, he is a [[genius]], in peak human physical condition, and has vast personal [[wealth]] and access to custom equipment. He is also a master detective and one of the greatest martial artists in the [[DC Universe]].
|}}
The [[DC Comics]] [[superhero]] '''Batman''' (originally and still sometimes referred to as '''the Batman''' or '''the Bat-Man''') is a [[fictional character]] who first appeared in ''[[Detective Comics]]'' #27 in May [[1939]]. He has since become, along with [[Superman]] and [[Spider-Man]], one of the world's most well-known comic-book characters.<ref>The [[United Kingdom|British]] newspaper ''[[The Guardian]]'' has lauded Batman as "the perfect cultural artefact for the 21st century" in an article about Batman's anniversary [http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,,314504,00.html].</ref> Batman was co-created by artist [[Bob Kane]] and writer [[Bill Finger]], although only Kane receives official credit for the character.
His true identity is '''Bruce Wayne''', billionaire [[industrialist]], [[Wiktionary:playboy|playboy]], and [[philanthropist]]. Witnessing the murder of his parents as a child led him to train himself to the peak of physical and intellectual perfection, don a costume, and fight crime. Unlike many other [[superhero]]es, he does not possess superhuman powers or abilities; he makes use of intellect, detective skills, technology, and physical prowess in his war on crime.
==Publication history==
[[Image:Detective27.JPG|thumb|left|150px|''[[Detective Comics]]'' #27 (May 1939). The first appearance of Batman. Art by [[Bob Kane]].]]
In early 1939, the success of [[Superman]] in ''[[Action Comics]]'' prompted editors at the comic book division of [[National Publications]] (later [[DC Comics]], D.C. is short for ''Detective Comics'', now a subsidiary of [[Time Warner]]) to request more superheroes for their titles. In response, [[Bob Kane]] created a character called "the Bat-Man". His collaborator [[Bill Finger]] offered such suggestions as giving the character a cowl instead of a simple domino mask, wearing a cape instead of wings, wearing gloves, and removing the red sections from the original costume. Finger wrote the first Batman story and Kane provided the art. The Batman was a breakout hit, with sales on ''Detective Comics'' soaring to the point that National's comic book division was renamed "Detective Comics, Inc."
Kane signed away any ownership that he might have in the character in exchange for, among other compensation, a mandatory byline on all Batman comics stating "Batman created by Bob Kane". At the time, no comic books and few company-owned comic strips were explicitly credited to their creative teams. Bill Finger's contract, by comparison, left him with little money and without a byline, even on comics he had written. Finger, like [[Joe Shuster]], [[Jerry Siegel]], and many other creators during and after the [[Golden Age of Comic Books]], would resent National for denying him money and credit he felt he was owed for his creations. By the time Finger died in 1974, he had never been officially credited for his work. Kane himself, however, willingly acknowledged Finger's contributions to the character.
[[Image:BatmanComicIssue1,1940.gif|thumb|right|150px|''Batman'' #1 ([[Spring (season)|Spring]] 1940). Art by [[Bob Kane]] and [[Jerry Robinson]].]]
===Evolution of the character===
Inspirations for Batman's personality, character history, visual design and equipment include movies such as [[Douglas Fairbanks | Douglas Fairbanks]]' ''[[The Mark of Zorro (1920 film)|The Mark of Zorro]]'', ''[[The Bat (1926 movie)|The Bat]]'', and [[Dracula]]; characters such as [[the Shadow]], [[Sherlock Holmes (character)|Sherlock Holmes]], [[Dick Tracy]], [[the Green Hornet]], and [[Spring Heeled Jack]]; and even the technical drawings of [[Leonardo Da Vinci]].
Early Batman stories were often presented in the grim tone of the [[film noir]] and [[gothic horror]] films of the day; a few stories even present Batman making use of firearms, and the vigilante showed little remorse over his enemies' deaths. Unsurprisingly, the body count in the first dozen or so published Batman stories was quite high.
This interpretation of Batman began to soften in ''Detective Comics'' #38<ref>{{Comic book reference | writer=[[Bill Finger|Finger, Bill]] | penciller=[[Bob Kane|Kane, Bob]] | inker=[[Jerry Robinson|Robinson, Jerry]] | story=Robin the Boy Wonder | title=[[Detective Comics]] | volume=1 | issue=38 | date=[[April]], [[1940]] | publisher=[[National Comics]] }}</ref> in 1940. Dick Grayson/[[Robin (comics)|Robin]] (named after [[Robin Hood]]) was introduced based on Finger's suggestion to Kane that Batman needed a "Watson". In ''Batman'' #7, (1941) Batman was made an honorary member of Gotham City's [[police]] department, moving him even further from his dark, vigilante roots. Batman's tone continued to stay lighter for the next several decades.
In ''[[Superman (comic book)|Superman]]'' #76 (1952), Batman first teamed up with Superman and learned his secret identity; following the success of this story, the separate Batman and Superman features that had been running in ''[[World's Finest Comics]]'' instead featured both together; this series of stories ran until the book's cancellation in 1986. The stories featured the two as close friends and allies, tackling threats that required both of their talents.
Starting in the mid-1950s, Batman's stories gradually became more [[science fiction]] oriented in tone, an at |
]])
* [[Arashi]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Aryans]] ([[India]])
* [[ATL (boy band)|ATL]] ([[United States]])
* [[Aventura]] ([[United States]])
* [[B3]] ([[Denmark]])
* [[Backstreet Boys]] ([[United States]]) ([[1993]]-present)
* [[Bad Boys Inc]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Baha Men]] ([[United States]])
* [[Barako Boys]] ([[Philippines]])
* [[Big Fun]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Big Men]] ([[Philippines]])
* [[Blazin' Squad]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Blue (boy band)|Blue]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[2000]]-[[2005]])
* [[Boy'z]] ([[Hong Kong]])
* [[Boystar]] ([[Australia]])
* [[Boyzone]] ([[Ireland]]) ([[1993]]-[[2001]])
* [[B-Rad's Supa-Stars]] ([[Dark Side of the Moon]]) ([[1979]])
* [[C21]] ([[Denmark]])
* [[Caught in the Act (boy band) |Caught in the Act]] ([[Netherlands]])
* [[The Choir Boys]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[The Click Five]] ([[United States]])
* [[Code 5]] ([[United States]])
* [[Code Red]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Color Me Badd]] ([[United States]])
* [[Comic Boys]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Dale!]] ([[Argentina]])
* [[DBSK]] ([[TVXQ]]) ([[South Korea]])
* [[Devotion (boy band)|Devotion]] ([[Philippines]])
* [[Dream Street]] ([[United States]])
* [[D-Side]] ([[Republic of Ireland]])
* [[E-17]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[East 17]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Euphoria (Indian band)|Euphoria]] ([[India]])
* [[Evan & Jaron]] ([[United States]])
* [[F4 (band)|F4]] ([[Taiwan]]) ([[1999]]-[[2003]])
* [[Five (band)]] ([[United States]])
* [[Fixate]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[FLAME]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Fun-dmental '03]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[H.O.T.]] ([[South Korea]])
* [[Human Nature]] ([[Australia]])
* [[The Hunks]] ([[Philippines]])
* [[Il Divo]] ([[United Kingdom]] ([[2004]]-present)
* [[Immature]]/[[IMX]] ([[United States]])
* [[I.N.T.]] ([[United States]])
* [[inFOCUS]] ([[Ireland]]) ([[2000]])
* [[J Adore]] ([[United States]])
* [[J Brothers]] ([[Philippines]])
* [[Jeremiah]] ([[Philippines]])
* [[Jericho Road]] ([[United States]])
* [[Just 5]] ([[Poland]])
* [[Kai (band)|Kai]] ([[United States]])
* [[Kanjani 8]] ([[Japan]])
* [[KAT-TUN]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Kids in Trouble]] ([[Japan]])
* [[KRU]] ([[Malaysia]])
* [[Lead]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Lethbridge (band)|Lethbridge]] ([[Australia]])
* [[Lettermen]] ([[United States]])
* [[LMNT]] ([[United States]])
* [[Los MP]] ([[Argentina]])
* [[LFO|Lyte Funky Ones]] ([[United States]])
* [[Masculados]] ([[Philippines]])
* [[MDO]] ([[Puerto Rico]])
* [[Menudo]] ([[Puerto Rico]]) ([[1977]]-[[1997]])
* [[Mercury4]] ([[Australia]])
* [[Natural (band)|Natural]] ([[United States]]) ([[1999]]-[[2004]])
* [[New Kids On The Block]] ([[United States]]) ([[1984]]-[[1994]])
* [[NewS]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Next (band)|Next]] ([[United States]])
* [[No Authority]] ([[United States]])
* [[North (boy band)|North]] ([[Australia]])
* [[*NSYNC]] ([[United States]]) ([[1995]]-[[2002]])
* [[Upside Down / Orange Orange|Orange Orange]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Otown|O*town]] ([[United States]]) ([[2000]]-[[2003]])
* [[O-Zone]] ([[Romania]]) ([[2000]]-[[2005]])
* [[OTT (boyband)|OTT]] ([[Ireland]])
* [[One True Voice]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[2002]]-[[2003]])
* [[Paran (boy band)|Paran]] ([[Korea]])
* [[Phixx]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Playa (band)|Playa]] ([[United States]])
* [[Plus One]] ([[United States]])
* [[Point Break (boy band)|Point Break]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Power 4]] ([[Philippines]])
* [[St. Lunatics]] ([[United States]])
* [[Salbakutah]] ([[Philippines]])
* [[Shine (Cantopop group)|Shine]] ([[Hong Kong]])
* [[Shinhwa]] ([[South Korea]])
* [[Silk Route]] ([[India]])
* [[SMAP]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Son By Four]] ([[Puerto Rico]])
* [[Soul Control]] ([[Germany]])
* [[soulDecision]] ([[Canada]])
* [[South65]] ([[United States]])
* [[Streetboys]] ([[Philippines]])
* [[The Stylistics]] ([[United States]])
* [[Take 5 (band)|Take 5]] ([[United States]])
* [[Take 6 (band)|Take 6]] ([[United States]])
* [[Take That]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[1988]]-[[1996]])
* [[The Teens]] ([[Germany]]) - five boys born 1962-1964: Robert Bauer, Alexander Möbius, Uwe Schneider, Jörg Treptow, Michael Uhlich; performing late [[1970s]] - early [[1980s]]; in the [[1990s]] a comeback with two old and two new members. [http://www.teensfan.de/]
* [[T.O.K.]] ([[Jamaica]])
* [[Track 5]] ([[Australia]])
* [[Trademark (band)|Trademark]] ([[Germany]])
* [[True Vibe]] ([[United States]])
* [[Universal (band)|Universal]] ([[Australia]])
* [[Upside Down / Orange Orange|Upside Down]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[US5]] ([[Germany]])
* [[V (band)|V]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[2004]]-[[2005]])
* [[V6 (band)|V6]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Village People]] ([[United States]])
* [[Viva Hot Men]] ([[Philippines]])
* [[Westlife]] ([[Ireland]]) ([[1998]]-present)
* [[Worlds Apart (group)|World's Apart]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[w-inds.]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Youngstown]] ([[United States]])
=== 'Urban' Boy bands / R&B Vocal Harmony Groups ===
This is a list of traditional Soul and R&B vocal harmony groups. The audience for these groups in the United Kingdom is normally more mature than that of 'boybands':
* [[All-4-One]] ([[United States]])
* [[Az Yet]] ([[United States]])
* [[B2K]] ([[United States]]) ([[2001]]-[[2004]])
* [[Blackstreet]] ([[United States]])
* [[Color Me Badd]] ([[United States]])
* [[Damage (band)|Damage]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Jodeci]] ([[United States]])
* [[The Temptations]] ([[United States]])
* [[Silk]] ([[United States]])
* [[New Edition]] ([[United States]]) ([[1980]]-present)
* [[The Jackson 5]] ([[United States]]) ([[1966]]-[[1990]])
* [[Jagged Edge]] ([[United States]])
===Post-Boyband Groups===
These groups were signed in reaction to the boyband formula and are contemporaries of such solo recording acts as [[Avril Lavigne]]. However, even though these bands may play their own instruments and sight such bands as [[Green Day]] as an influence, there has been accusations that some of these bands are just as manufactured as those tagged as 'boybands'.
* [[Busted]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[2001]]-[[2005]])
* [[McFly]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[2004-present]])
* [[The Noise Next Door]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Rooster (boy band)|Rooster]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[2004]]-present)
===Teen Hearthrobs of The Pre-Boyband Era===
These are the bands, mainly from the 1980s, that would have featured in the pages of [[Smash Hits]] and [[Number One (magazine)|Number One]] Magazines before the rise of the 1990s style 'vocal harmony' hearthrobs. Similar to the boybands appropriation of R&B and soul sounds, many of the acts in this list from the late 1980s were termed '[[blue-eyed soul]]' bands, whilst earlier acts are either 'true pop' or electronic based pop.
* [[a-ha]] ([[Norway]])
* [[Breathe (band)|Breathe]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Bros]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Brother Beyond]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Duran Duran]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Johnny Hates Jazz]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Perfect Day (band)|Perfect Day]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[The Monkees]] ([[United States]]) ([[1965]]-[[1970]], [[1986]]-[[1989]], [[1996]]-[[1997]])
* [[Seven(band)|Seven]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Spandau Ballet]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[2 Brave]] ([[Norway]])
* [[Wet Wet Wet]]([[United Kingdom]])
In addition to the boybands, in the 1990s there were a number of bands continued with this trend towards real instrumentation:
* [[BB Mak]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Hanson]] ([[United States]])
* [[The Moffatts]] ([[Canada]])
* [[North & South (band)|North & South]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Ultra (boy band)|Ultra]] ([[United Kingdom]])
=== Male/Female vocal groups of the boyband era===
These groups are similar in style to boybands and marketed at the same '[[tween]]' and '[[teenybopper]]' markets. However they are mixed gender groups:
* [[4ORCE]] ([[Style 2 Style]] managed band not to be confused with 40RCE from the play 'boyband') ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Hear'say]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Six (group)|Six]] ([[Ireland]])
* [[Scooch]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Steps]] ([[United Kingdom]])
==Parodies==
The [[television]] series ''[[2ge-plus-her|2ge+her]]'' created a [[parody]] boy band with five personality types.
In a week-long spoof in [[1999]], talk show host [[Conan O'Brien]], complaining that he couldn't find a decent "musical guest" for his show, created his own boy band, '''Dudez-A-Plenti''', after randomly selecting five out-of-work actors. A series of humorous sketches ensued, culminating in a Friday performance of a song O'Brien apparently made up himself: "''Baby, I Wish You Were My Baby.''"
The [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[film|movie]] ''[[Get Ready to be Boyzvoiced]]'' [http://us.imdb.com/Title?0248036] is a [[mockumentary]] about the boyband [[Boyzvoice]], their fans and management.
In ''[[South Park]]'', [[Eric Cartman|Cartman]] formed a boy band named [[Fingerbang]].
The [[2001]] [[film]] ''[[Josie and the Pussycats (movie)|Josie and the Pussycats]]'' featured a fictional boy band named "Du Jour."
In ''[[The Simpsons]]'', [[Bart Simpson|Bart]] is recruited to a boy band named [[Party Posse]] that is secretly a vehicle for [[Subliminal message|subliminal]] navy recruitment messages. The members of Nsync cameoed in the episode as themselves. Contrary to popular belief they did not do the 'Party Posse' voices. Members of [[Lou Pearlman]]'s other band [[Natural (band)|Natural]] ([[Marc Terenzi]] did Nelson, [[Michael 'J' Horn]] did Milhouse, the rest are unknown) provided most of the voices.
On the [[Veggie Tales]] video ''The Ballad of Little Joe'', Larry, Mr. Lunt, Jimmy, and Junior do a parody of a boy band video for the original song "Bellybutton".
The [[Meaty Cheesy Boys]] were a fictional band created during an ad campaign for [[Jack in the Box]] restaurants.
In [[WCW]], a group of three [[cruiserweight (professional wrestling)|cruiserweight]] wrestlers ([[Evan Karagias]], [[Gregory Helms|Shane Helms]], and [[Shannon Moore]]) for |
span="2" | <small>Most numbers are from the [[UNDP]] from 2002, some numbers exclude certain countries for lack of information.</small>
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" | {{World economy infobox footer}}
|}
{{main|Economy of Asia}}
In terms of [[gross domestic product]] ([[Purchasing Power Parity|PPP]]), the largest national economy within Asia is that of the [[PRC]] ([[People's Republic of China]]). Over the last decade, China's and [[India]]'s economies have been growing rapidly, both with an average annual growth rate above 7%. PRC is the world's second largest economy after the US, followed by [[Japan]] and [[India]] as the world's third and fourth largest economies respectively (then followed by the European nations: [[Germany]], [[U.K.]], [[France]] and [[Italy]]).
In terms of [[exchange rates]] (nominal GDP) however, Japan has the largest economy in Asia and second largest of any single nation in the world, after surpassing the Soviet Union (measured in [[Net Material Product]]) in 1986 and Germany in 1968. (NB: A number of supernational economies are larger, such as the [[EU]], [[NAFTA]] or [[APEC]]). Economic growth in Asia since [[World War II]] to the 1990's had been concentrated in few countries of the [[Pacific Rim]], and has spread more recently to other regions. In the late 80's and early 90's Japan's economy was almost as large as that of the rest of the continent combined. In 1995, Japan's economy nearly equalled the USA to tie the largest economy in the world for a day, after the Japanese currency reached a record high of 79 [[yen]]. However, since then Japan's currency has corrected and China has grown to be the second largest Asian economy, followed by India in terms of exchange rates. It is expected that China will surpass Japan in currency terms to have the largest nominal GDP in Asia within a decade or two.
Trade blocs:
*[[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]]
*[[Asia-Europe Meeting|Asia-Europe Economic Meeting]]
*[[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]]
*[[Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement]]
*[[Commonwealth of Independent States]]
*[[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]]
*[[South Asia Free Trade Agreement (proposed)]]
===Natural resources===
Asia is by a considerable margin the largest continent in the [[world]], and is rich in natural resources, such as [[Petroleum]] and [[iron]].
High productivity in agriculture, especially of [[rice]], allows high population density of countries in the warm and humid area. Other main agricultural products include [[wheat]] and [[chicken]].
Forestry is extensive throughout Asia except Southwest and Central Asia. [[Fishing]] is a major source of food in Asia, particularly in Japan.
===Manufacturing===
Manufacturing in Asia has traditionally been strongest in East and Southeast Asia, particularly in [[PRC]], [[Taiwan]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]] and [[Singapore]]. The industry varies from manufacturing cheap goods such as [[toy]]s to high-tech goods such as [[computer]]s and [[automobile|car]]s. Many companies from [[Europe]], [[North America]], and [[Japan]] have significant operations in the developing Asia to take avantage of its abundant supply of cheap labor.
One of the major employers in manufacturing in Asia is the [[textile]] industry. Much of the world's supply of clothing and footwear now originates in Southeast Asia.
===Financial and other services===
Asia has three main financial centers. They are in [[Hong Kong]], [[Singapore]] and [[Tokyo]]. Call centers are becoming major employers in [[India]] and the [[Philippines]], due to the availablity of many well-educated English speakers. The rise of the business process [[outsourcing]] industry has seen the rise of India and China as the other financial centers.
==Early history==
{{main|History of Asia}}
[[Image:Asia 1892 amer ency brit.jpg|thumb|200px|Map of Asia, 1892.]]
The history of Asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions &mdashl [[East Asia]], [[South Asia]], and the [[Middle East]] &mdash; linked by the interior mass of the [[Central Asia]]n [[steppe]].
The coastal periphery was home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, each of them developing around fertile river valleys. The civilizations in [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Indus Valley]], and the [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] shared many similarities, and may well have exchanged technologies and ideas such as [[mathematics]] and the wheel. Other innovations, such as that of writing, seem to have been developed individually in each area. Cities, states and empires developed in these lowlands.
The central steppe region had long been inhabited by horse-mounted nomads, and from the steppes they could reach all areas of Asia. The earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is that of the [[Indo-European]]s, who spread their languages into the Middle East, India, and in the [[Tocharians]], to the borders of China. The northernmost part of Asia, including much of [[Siberia]], was largely inaccessible to the steppe nomads, owing to the dense forests, the climate, and the [[tundra]]. These areas remained very sparsely populated.
The centre and the peripheries were mostly kept separated by mountains and deserts. The [[Caucasus]] and [[Himalaya]] mountains and the [[Karakum Desert|Karakum]] and [[Gobi Desert|Gobi]] deserts formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could cross only with difficulty. While technologically and socially, the urban city dwellers were more advanced, in many cases they could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force; for this and other reasons, the nomads who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East often found themselves adapting to the local, more affluent societies.
==Population density==
The following table lists countries and dependencies by [[population density]] in inhabitants and km<sup>2</sup>.
Unlike the figures in the country articles, the figures in this table are based on areas including inland water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers) and may therefore be lower here.
The whole of Egypt, Russia, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Turkey are referred to in the table, although they may be considered to be only [[Countries in both Europe and Asia|partly in Asia]]. Asia also contains about 60% of the world's population. Leaving the other 40% of the world's population to other continents.
<center>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;"
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Country / Region
! Population Density<br><small>(/km<sup>2</sup>)</small>
! Area<br><small>(km<sup>2</sup>)</small>
! Population<br><small>(2002-07-01 est.)</small>
|-
| align="left" | ''{{MacauSAR}}''
| 17,684
| 25
| 461,833
|-
| align="left" | {{SIN}}
| 6,389
| 693
| 4,452,732
|-
| align="left" | ''{{HongKongSAR}}''
| 6,317
| 1,092
| 7,303,334
|-
| align="left" | {{MDV}}
| 1,070
| 300
| 320,165
|-
| align="left" | {{BAN}}
| 1,002
| 144,000
| 133,376,684
|-
| align="left" | {{BHR}}
| 987
| 665
| 656,397
|-
| align="left" | {{ROC-TW}}
| 627
| 35,980
| 22,548,009
|-
| align="left" | {{SKO}}
| 491
| 98,480
| 48,324,000
|-
| align="left" | {{LBN}}
| 354
| 10,400
| 3,677,780
|-
| align="left" | {{JPN}}
| 336
| 377,835
| 126,974,628
|-
| align="left" | {{IND}}
| 329
| 3,287,590
| 1,045,845,226
|-
| align="left" | {{LKA}}
| 298
| 65,610
| 19,576,783
|-
| align="left" | {{ISR}}
| 290
| 20,770
| 6,029,529
|-
| align="left" | {{PHL}}
| 282
| 300,000
| 84,525,639
|-
| align="left" | {{VNM}}
| 246
| 329,560
| 81,098,416
|-
| align="left" | {{NKO}}
| 184
| 120,540
| 22,224,195
|-
| align="left" | {{NEP}}
| 184
| 140,800
| 25,873,917
|-
| align="left" | {{PAK}}
| 184
| 803,940
| 147,663,429
|-
| align="left" | {{PRC-mainland}}
| 134
| 9,596,960
| 1,284,303,705
|-
| align="left" | {{THA}}
| 121
| 514,000
| 62,354,402
|-
| align="left" | {{IDN}}
| 121
| 1,919,440
| 231,328,092
|-
| align="left" | {{KUW}}
| 118
| 17,820
| 2,111,561
|-
| align="left" | {{ARM}}
| 112
| 29,800
| 3,330,099
|-
| align="left" | {{SYR}}
| 93
| 185,180
| 17,155,814
|-
| align="left" | {{AZE}}
| 90
| 86,600
| 7,798,497
|-
| align="left" | {{TUR}}
| 86
| 780,580
| 67,308,928
|-
| align="left" | {{CYP}}
| 83
| 9,250
| 775,927
|-
| align="left" | {{GEO}}
| 71
| 69,700
| 4,960,951
|-
| align="left" | {{CAM}}
| 71
| 181,040
| 12,775,324
|-
| align="left" | {{EGY}}
| 71
| 1,001,450
| 70,712,345
|-
| align="left" | {{QAT}}
| 69
| 11,437
| 793,341
|-
| align="left" | {{MAS}}
| 69
| 329,750
| 22,662,365
|-
| align="left" | {{TLS}}
| 63
| 15,007
| 952,618
|-
| align="left" | {{MMR}}
| 62
| 678,500
| 42,238,224
|-
| align="left" | {{BRU}}
| 61
| 5,770
| 350,898
|-
| align="left" | {{JOR}}
| 58
| 92,300
| 5,307,470
|-
| align="left" | {{UZB}}
| 57
| 447,400
| 25,563,441
|-
| align="left" | {{IRQ}}
| 55
| 437,072
| 24,001,816
|-
| align="left" | {{TJK}}
| 47
| 143,100
| 6,719,567
|-
| align="left" | {{BHU}}
| 45
| 47,000
| 2,094,176
|-
| align="left" | {{AFG}}
| 43
| 647,500
| 27,755,775
|-
| align="left" | {{IRN}}
| 40
| 1,648,000
| 66,622,704
|-
| align="left" | {{YEM}}
| 35
| 527,970
| 18,701,257
|-
| align="left" | {{ARE}}
| 30
| 82,880
| 2,445,989
|-
| align="left" | {{LAO}}
| 24
| 236,800
| 5,777,180
|-
| align="left" | {{KGZ}}
| 2 |
.
==See also==
*[[computer security]]
*[[shellcode]], code that is executed to gain access to a system, usually as a super-user
*[[computer virus]]
*[[Metasploit Project|Metasploit]], a framework for the construction and execution of exploits
==External links==
*[http://www.securitydocs.com/Exploits SecurityDocs] - A great resource for researching exploits
*[http://www.frsirt.com/exploits Exploits] - World Wide Exploits and 0day Exploits Database by the FrSIRT
*[http://medialab.freaknet.org/~alpt/tutorial/papers.html Advanced Exploit Tutorials]
*[http://www.packetstormsecurity.org Proof of concept exploit downloads]
*[http://www.securityfocus.com/ Home of the Bugtraq computer security mailing list]
*[http://www.securityforest.com/wiki/index.php/Category:ExploitTree ExploitTree] from [http://www.securityforest.com/ SecurityForest]
*[http://www.security.nnov.ru/exploits/ Exploits archive] from [http://www.security.nnov.ru/ Security.NNOV]
*[http://www.rosiello.org Rosiello Security Exploits] from [http://www.rosiello.org Rosiello Security]
[[Category:Security exploits]]
[[de:Exploit]]
[[es:Exploit]]
[[fr:Exploit]]
[[it:Exploit]]
[[pl:Exploit]]
[[pt:Exploit]]
[[ru:Эксплойт]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Erg</title>
<id>9877</id>
<revision>
<id>34480286</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-09T10:03:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>YurikBot</username>
<id>271058</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses see [[Erg (disambiguation)]]''
An '''erg''' is the unit of [[energy]] and [[mechanical work]] in the ''[[Centimetre gram second system of units|centimetre-gram-second]]'' (CGS) system of [[unit]]s, symbol "erg". Its name is derived from the Greek word meaning "work".
The erg is a quite small unit, equal to a force of one [[dyne]] exerted for a distance of one [[centimetre]]. In the CGS [[Unit of measurement#Base and derived units|base units]], it is equal to one [[gram]]-square centimetre per [[second]] squared (g&middot;cm<sup>2</sup>/s<sup>2</sup>). It is thus equal to [[1 E-7 J|1 &times; 10<sup>-7</sup> joule]]s or 0.1 microjoule (&micro;J) in [[SI]] units. It is approximately the amount of energy that a mosquito uses to take flight.
1 erg = 10<sup>-7</sup> [[joule]]
1 joule = 10<sup>7</sup> ergs
[[Category:Units of energy]]
[[Category:CGS units]]
From [[Greek language|Greek]] ''ergon'' work <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>
[[da:Erg (måleenhed)]]
[[de:Erg (Einheit)]]
[[fr:Erg]]
[[it:Erg]]
[[he:ארג]]
[[nl:Erg]]
[[ja:エルグ]]
[[pl:Erg (jednostka)]]
[[pt:Erg]]
[[ru:Эрг]]
[[sl:Erg]]
[[sv:Erg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Everway</title>
<id>9878</id>
<revision>
<id>39795566</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T22:45:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Genesis</username>
<id>72450</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added infobox</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title= Everway
|image=
|caption=
|designer= [[Jonathan Tweet]]
|publisher= [[Wizards of the Coast]], [[Rubicon Games]], [[Gaslight Press]] (since 2001)
|date= 1995
|genre= [[Fantasy]]
|system= Custom
|footnotes=
}}
'''Everway''' was marketed as a "Visionary [[role-playing game|Roleplaying Game]]", first published by [[Wizards of the Coast]] under their [[Alter Ego]] brand in the mid-[[1990s]]. Its lead designer was [[Jonathan Tweet]]. It has been often characterized as an innovative piece with a limited commercial success. Wizards later abandoned the line, and [[Rubicon Games]] purchased it, and published several supplements. The line was sold again to [[Gaslight Press]] in February [[2001]].
The game had a fantasy setting of the [[multiverse]] type, with many different worlds, some of which differed from generic fantasy. It appeared to have been heavily influenced by [[Tarot]], the four [[classical element]]s of [[History of Ancient Greece|ancient Greece]], and [[mythology|mythologies]] from around the world.
Everway was first with implementing, in a commercial game, several new concepts including much more picture-based/visual source material and character creation than usual. Like other works by [[Jonathan Tweet]], the rules are very simple and flexible. It is also one of a few "diceless" RPGs. Although the Fortune Deck works as a randomizer, the results obtained by it are entirely arbitrary and subjective, and the GM's absolute power over the game is further emphasized by the three resolution systems: Karma (the higher character ability wins, modified by situation), Drama (the GM decides what happens, by what they think most appropriate), and Fortune (more or less the same as the above, with interpretation flavored by a card draw). The original edition contained the "Fortune" deck of thirty-six cards, used for "divination" and action-resolution, as well as ninety "Vision" cards used as source material. The cards were illustrated by [[Scott Kirschner]] and [[Jeff Miracola]]. The box also had three books of source material and gameplaying tips.
== External links ==
* [http://www.gaslightpress.com/Everway/default.asp Everway section of Gaslight Press web site]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Everway-L/ Yahoo! Everway mailing list]
* [http://www.jonathantweet.com/jotgameshub.html Jonathan Tweet's web site]
* [http://www.runester.com/cgi/Wala/wala.pl?HomePage EverWiki]
{{rpg-stub}}
[[Category:Fantasy role-playing games]]
[[de:Everway]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Expellees</title>
<id>9880</id>
<revision>
<id>15907738</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-12T23:58:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Toby Bartels</username>
<id>1078</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Redirect with stuff after it; Removed such stuff, which Julie has presumably incorporated within the new page.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diaspora studies]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Efficient Markets Hypothesis</title>
<id>9881</id>
<revision>
<id>15907739</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-24T03:54:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jerryseinfeld</username>
<id>106579</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Efficient market hypothesis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Efficient markets theory</title>
<id>9882</id>
<revision>
<id>21193599</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-17T04:16:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shawnc</username>
<id>388211</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Redirected. Reason: a search via Google reveals that the phrase "Efficient Market Theory" (42,500 hits) is more commonly used compared to the phrase "Efficient Markets Theory" (4,890 hits).</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Efficient market theory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eurocard</title>
<id>9883</id>
<revision>
<id>40837980</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T09:19:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>OrphanBot</username>
<id>621721</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removing image with no copyright information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|July 2005}}
'''Eurocard''' is a [[Europe]]an standard format for [[Printed circuit board|PCB]] cards, which can be plugged together into a standardized [[subrack]]. The subrack consists of a series of slotted card guides on the top and bottom, into which the cards are slid so they stand on end, like books on a shelf. At the "back" of each card is one or more connectors, which plug into mating connectors on a backplane which closes the rear of the subrack.
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:2414.jpg]] -->
== Sizing and dimensions ==
The Eurocard packaging system is a complex mixture of English and metric dimensions.
Eurocard subracks have standardized sizes in the vertical and horizontal directions. Height is specified by the unit 'U', with 1 U being 1.75 [[inch]]es. Width is specified by the unit 'HP', with 1 HP being 0.20 inches. 'U' stands for 'Unit' and 'HP' for 'Horizontal Pitch' respectively. A 3U subrack is 5.25 inches high and accepts a 3U Eurocard which is 100 [[millimeter|mm]] high. Another popular size is the 6U high subrack which is 10.5 inches (266.7 mm) high and accepts 6U Eurocards which are 233.35 mm high. Note that front panel sizes are slightly less than the subrack sizes: for example a 3U front panel may only be 130 mm (5.12 inches) high whereas the 3U subrack itself is 133.35 mm (5.25 inches) high.
The Eurocard height starts at 100 mm and increments by 133.35 mm (5¼ in) increments. This arrangement allows two 3U high (100 mm) Eurocards to be supported properly next to a 6U high (233.35 mm) Eurocard. The 33.35 mm space is required for the card guide structure that would be between the two 3U high cards.
Eurocards come in modular depths that start at 100 mm and then increase in 60 mm increments. The 160 mm depth is the most common today, however standard hardware is available to accommodate depths of 100 mm, 160 mm, 220 mm, 280 mm, 340 mm, and 400 mm
== Standards & architecture ==
The Eurocard mechanical architecture was defined originally under IEC-60297-3. Today, the most widely recognized standards for this mechanical structure are [[IEEE]] 1101.1, IEEE 1101.10 (also known commonly as "dot ten") and IEEE 1101.11. IEEE 1101.10 covers the additional mechanical and [[EMI]] |
eassigned to an insignificant position in rural Victoria.
=== Commission of Enquiry ===
A Commission of Enquiry into the affair was organised, and was scathing in its assessment of all aspects of the administration of the gold fields, and particularly the Eureka Stockade affair. The gold licences were abolished, and replaced by an inexpensive annual miner's licence and an export fee based on the value of the gold. Mining wardens replaced the gold commissioners, and police numbers were cut drastically. The Legislative Council was expanded to allow representation to the major goldfields and [[Peter Lalor]] and [[John Basson Humffray]] were elected for Ballarat. After 12 months all but one of the demands of the Ballarat Reform League had been granted. Lalor and Humffray both led distinguished careers as politicians, with Lalor later elected as Speaker of the [[Legislative Assembly of Victoria]].
=== Commemoration ===
[[Image:Eureka1954handbill.gif|thumb|250px|right|Centenary anniversary commemoration in 1954]]
[[Image:Eureka 150th official commemoration.jpg|thumb|250px|right|150th anniversary official commemoration, [[December 3]] [[2004]].]]
[[Image:Eureka_Dawn_Lantern_walk_2004.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Dawn Lantern Walk, 2004.]]
Over the next thirty years, press interest in the events which took place at the Eureka Stockade dwindled, but Eureka was kept alive at the campfires and in the pubs, and in memorial events in Ballarat. In addition, key figures such as Lalor and Humfray were still around and in the public eye. Eureka had not been forgotten - it was readily remembered and a flag similar to the Eureka flag was flown above the [[Barcaldine, Queensland|Barcaldine]] shearers strike camp in the [[1891 Australian shearers' strike]] and in the poetry of [[Henry Lawson]], such as ''Flag of the Southern Cross'' (1887), ''Eureka (A Fragment)'' (1889), ''The Fight at Eureka Stockade'' (1890), and ''[[Freedom on the Wallaby]]'' (1891),
In 1889 Melbourne businessmen employed renowned American [[cyclorama]]
artist [[Thaddeus Welch]] who teamed up with local artist Izett Watson to paint 1000 square feet (90 m&sup2;) of canvas of the Eureka Stockade that was wrapped around a wooden structure. When it opened in Melbourne it was an instant hit. ''[[The Age]]'' reported in 1891 "it afforded a very good opportunity for people to see what it might have been like at Eureka". ''The Australasian'' claimed "that many person´s familiar with the incidents depicted, were able to testify to the fidelity of the painted scene". The people of Melbourne flocked to the cyclorama, paid up and had their picture taken before it. It was eventually dismantled and disappeared from sight.
The writer Samuel Clemens, better known as [[Mark Twain]], visited the Victorian Goldfields in 1895. Following his visit he said of the Eureka Stockade:
:''"By and by there was a result, and I think it may be called the finest thing in Australian history. It was a revolution - small in size, but great politically; it was a strike for liberty, a struggle for principle, a stand against oppression....It is another instance of a victory won by a lost battle. It adds an honourable page to history: the people know it and are proud of it. They keep green the memory of the men who fell at the Eureka stockade." ''
Because the materials used to build the stockade were rapidly removed to be used for the mines and the entire area itself was so extensively worked that the original landscape was unrecognisable, the exact location of the stockade was quickly lost track of. However the event itself returned to the national consciousness and became a rallying cry as the call for federation and nationhood gained momentum in the 1890s.
== Eureka Today ==
[[Image:Eureka Memorial Dec 3 2005 before Dawn.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Pre dawn at the Eureka Monument, [[December 3]] [[2005]].]]
The Eureka Stockade (or more accurately, the driving force of public opinion that followed) has been characterised as the "Birth of Democracy" within Australia. Its actual significance is uncertain; it has been variously mythologised by particular interest groups as a revolt of free men against imperial tyranny, of independent free enterprise against burdensome taxation, of labour against a privileged ruling class, or as an expression of [[multiculturalism|multicultural]] [[republicanism]], and so on. The affair continues to raise echos in Australian politics to the present day, and from time to time one group or another calls for the existing Australian flag to be replaced by the Eureka Flag.
The Eureka Stockade was certainly the most prominent rebellion in Australia's history and, depending on how one defines ''rebellion'', can be regarded as the only such event. (But see also [[Rum Rebellion]], and more recently the [[New Guard]].) The significance of the rebellion, however, remains debatable. Some historians believe that the undoubted prominence of the event in the public record has come about because Australian history does not include a major armed rebellion phase equivalent to the [[French Revolution]], the [[English Civil War]], or the [[American War of Independence]]: in consequence (according to this view) the Eureka story tends to be inflated well beyond its real significance. Others, however, maintain that Eureka was a seminal event and that it marked a major change in the course of Australian history. The debate remains active and may well remain so as long as Eureka is remembered.
== See also ==
* [[Flag of Australia]]
* [[History of Victoria]]
* [[Victorian gold rush]]
== References ==
* ''The Eureka Encyclopaedia'', Justin Corfield, Dorothy Wickham, Clare Gervasani, Ballarat Heritage Services, (2004), ISBN 1876478616
* ''Massacre at Eureka - The Untold Story'', Bob O'Brien, ISBN 0909874190
* ''Eureka'', John Molony, ISBN 0522849628
* ''The Eureka Stockade'' by [[Raffaello Carboni]], (1855). [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3546 Title from Project Gutenberg]
* [http://www.statelibrary.vic.gov.au/slv/educate/publications/eureka/ State Library of Victoria - The Eureka Stockade]
* [http://eureka.imagineering.com.au/home.htm Eureka on Trial]
* [http://users.netconnect.com.au/~ianmac/eureka.html Eureka Stockade, Ballarat, Victoria, Australia]
* [http://www.takver.com/history/eureka.htm Reclaiming the Radical Spirit of the Eureka Rebellion in 1854]
* [http://www.slv.vic.gov.au/slv/exhibitions/goldfields/eureka/chronol.htm Life on the Goldfields: Eureka Stockade]
* [http://www.eureka150.vic.gov.au/ 150th Anniversary of the Eureka Stockade]
* [http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/goldrush/ The Australian Gold Rush]
== External links ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Eureka_Stockade.ogg|2005-12-22}}
{{Wikisource}}
* [http://www.eurekaballarat.com/ The Eureka Centre]
* [http://www.sovereignhill.com.au/ Sovereign Hill]
[[Category:1854 in Australia]]
[[Category:History of Victoria]]
[[Category:Ballarat]]
[[de:Eureka Stockade]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Escape from New York</title>
<id>9835</id>
<revision>
<id>41725106</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:35:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mr Snrub</username>
<id>622021</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Trivia */ Debra Hill does the voice-over</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Film
|name = John Carpenter's
Escape from New York
|image = EscapefromNYposter.jpg
|director = [[John Carpenter]]
|producer = [[Larry J. Franco]]<br>[[Debra Hill]]
|writer = [[John Carpenter]]<br>[[Nick Castle]]
|starring = [[Kurt Russell]]<br>[[Lee Van Cleef]]<br>[[Ernest Borgnine]]<br>[[Donald Pleasence]]<br>[[Isaac Hayes]]
|movie_music= [[John Carpenter]]
|distributor= [[AVCO Embassy Pictures]]
|released= [[July 10]], [[1981]]
|runtime = 99 min.
|language = [[English language|English]]
|imdb_id = 0082340
|music = [[John Carpenter]], in association with [[Alan Howarth]]
|awards =
|budget = $6,000,000 (est.)
|}}
'''''John Carpenter's Escape from New York''''' is a [[1981]] [[science fiction]] action [[film]] [[film director|directed]] and scored by [[John Carpenter]]. He also co-wrote the screenplay with [[Nick Castle]].
The film was made on a total budget of around $7 million, which is sometimes apparent in the night scenes lit by fires in trash cans. It played upon the then recent highly-public fiscal and social eclipse of [[New York]] and fearful [[suburb]]an attitudes concerning failed inner cities in general. It is said to be one of the "best" [[B-Movie]]s, and still has a strong fan following. It eventually spawned a sequel, [[Escape from LA]]
==Cast of characters==
*[[Kurt Russell]] as [[Snake Plissken|"Snake" Plissken]]
*[[Lee Van Cleef]] as Police Commissioner Bob Hauk
*[[Donald Pleasence]] as [[President of the United States]]
*[[Isaac Hayes]] as the Duke of New York
*[[Ernest Borgnine]] as Cabbie
*[[Harry Dean Stanton]] as Harold "Brain" Helman
*[[Adrienne Barbeau]] as Maggie
==Synopsis==
''Tagline:'' "Breaking out is impossible. Breaking in is insane."
{{spoiler}}
The film is set in a [[dystopia|dystopian]] future of [[1997]], where the world is embroiled in [[World War III]]. Due to an overwhelming wave of crime that plagued the country, especially New York City, the government built a wall around [[Manhattan Island]] and turned it into a [[Prisons in the United States#Maximum Security|maximum security prison]]. Inside the city walls there is only the anarchy that the inmates have made and there is only one simple rule: "Once you go in, you don't come out". Any found escapees are ruthlessly shot on sight.
A crisis arises when [[Air Force One]], carrying the President of the United States to the Hartford Peace Summit, is hijacked by [[left-wing]] suicidal [[ter |
erve">#REDIRECT [[Water_(classical_element)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Classical Element/Earth</title>
<id>6306</id>
<revision>
<id>15904460</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-06T01:34:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Earth_(classical_element)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Classical Element/Ether</title>
<id>6307</id>
<revision>
<id>32248761</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-21T16:22:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Edgar181</username>
<id>491706</id>
</contributor>
<comment>more appropriate redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aether (classical element)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cayuga Lake</title>
<id>6309</id>
<revision>
<id>38986223</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T23:22:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
<id>293907</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cayuga Lake''' is the longest of western [[New York]]'s glacial [[Finger Lakes]], and is the second largest in surface area (marginally smaller than [[Seneca Lake]]) and volume. It is just under 40 miles long. Its average width is 1.7 miles, and it is 3.5 miles wide at its widest point near Aurora. It is approximately 435 feet deep at its deepest point. [[Image:Lake Cayuga.jpg|right|thumb|Cayuga Lake viewed in the late afternoon from [[Cornell University]].]]
==Location==
The lake has one small island near Union Springs, Frontenac Island, which is one of only two islands in all of the Finger Lakes.
[[Ithaca, New York]], site of [[Cornell University]], sits at the southern end of Cayuga Lake. Cornell's [[alma mater]] or official school song makes reference to its position "[[Far Above Cayuga's Waters]]".
Villages and settlements along the east shore of Cayuga Lake include Myers, King Ferry, [[Aurora, Cayuga County, New York|Aurora]], Levanna, [[Union Springs, New York|Union Springs]], and [[Cayuga, New York|Cayuga]]. Settlements along the west shore of the lake include Sheldrake, Poplar Beach, and Canoga.
===Geographical characteristics===
Cayuga Lake is located at 42.2 N, 76.1 W; 116.4m above sea level. Its depth, steep east and west sides with shallow north and south ends is typical of the Finger Lakes, as they were carved by glaciers during the last [[ice age]].
Length: 61.4 km<br/>
Average Width: 2.8 km<br/>
Maximum Depth: 132 m<br/>
Surface Area: 172 sq.km<br/>
Mean Depth: 54.5 m<br/>
Catchment Area: 2,033 sq.km (37.1% natural forest, 58% active agricultural)<br/>
Main Islands: 1, Frontenac<br/>
Main Outflows: 1<br/>
The water level is regulated by the Mud Lock at the north end of the lake. It is connected to [[Lake Ontario]] by the [[Erie Canal]] and [[Seneca Lake]] by the [[Seneca River]]. The lake is drawn down as winter approaches to minimize ice damage and to maximize its capacity to store heavy spring runoff.
The north end is dominated by shallow mudflats and is an important stopover for migratory birds, where [[Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge]] is located.
The southern end is also shallow and often freezes during the winter.
[[Image:CayugaLake.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Winter view of the southern end of Cayuga Lake]]
===Human impact===
The fish population is managed and substantial sport fishing is practised, including smelt, lake trout and smallmouth bass fishing.
Cayuga lake is very popular among recreational boaters. A large state marina and boat launch is located at the southern end of the lake in Ithaca (Allen H. Treman State Marine Park, the largest inland marina in New York). There is also a yacht club on the western shore a few miles north of Ithaca, and several other marinas and boat launches scattered along the lake shore.
The lake is used both for drinking water and waste disposal. There are also several [[lake source cooling]] systems that are in operation on the lake, whereby cooler water is pumped from the depths of the lake, warmed, and circulated in a closed system back to the surface. One of these systems, which is operated by Cornell University and began operation in [[2000]], was controversial during the planning and building states for potential negative environmental impact; however, all the environmental impact reports and scientific studies have shown that the Cornell lake source cooling system has not yet and will not likely have any measurably significant environmental impact. Furthermore, Cornell's system pumps significantly less warm water back into the lake than others further north which have been operating for decades.
==Trivia==
* A famous tradition at [[Wells College]] in Aurora holds that if the lake completely freezes over, classes are cancelled (albeit for only one day). According to Wells College records, this last happened in 1979. However, other sources suggest that the only time the entire lake froze over in the 20th century was in 1912.
==See also==
*[[Taughannock Falls]]
*[[Fall Creek (stream)|Fall Creek]]
==External links==
*[http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/nam/nam-17.html World Lakes Database] entry for Cayuga Lake.
*[http://www.cayugalake.org Cayugalake.org]
*[http://www.cldf.org/titlepage.html Cayuga Lake Defense Fund]
*[http://www.winecountrycabins.com/to_do/wine/cayugawine.htm Cayuga Lake Wineries]
*[http://www.stayfingerlakes.com/lastminute/ Cayuga Lake Vacation Accommodations]
*[http://www.fws.gov/r5mnwr Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge]
*[http://www.utilities.cornell.edu/LSC/FAQs/default.htm Cornell's Lake Source Cooling FAQ]
*[http://www.utilities.cornell.edu/EIS/EISTOC.htm Cornell's environmental impact statement for Lake Source Cooling]
[[Category:Lakes of New York]]
[[de:Cayuga Lake]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Columbia University</title>
<id>6310</id>
<revision>
<id>42077211</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:45:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shoreranger</username>
<id>985923</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Morningside Heights */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University
|image = [[Image:Cu-shield.png|Columbia University Coat of Arms]]
|name = Columbia University in the City of New York
|motto = In lumine Tuo videbimus lumen<br />(''In Thy light shall we see light'')
|established = [[1754]]
|type = [[Private school|Private]]
|president = [[Lee Bollinger]]
|city = [[New York City]]
|state = [[New York]]
|country = [[United States|USA]]
|undergrad = 5,530
|postgrad = 14,692
|staff= 3,224
|campus = [[Urbanization|Urban]], 36 [[acre]]s (0.15 [[kilometre|km]]&sup2;) Morningside Heights Campus, 26 [[acre]]s (0.1 km&sup2;) Baker Field athletic complex, 20 [[acre]]s (0.09 km&sup2;) Medical Center, 157 [[acre]]s (0.64 km&sup2;) Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory
|mascot = Royal [[Lion]] [[Image:Columbia university lion mascot.jpg|30px|]]
|free_label = Athletics
|free = 29 sports teams
|endowment= $5.2 billion
|website= [http://www.columbia.edu/ www.columbia.edu]
}}
'''Columbia University''' is a [[private school|private]] [[university]] in the [[Morningside Heights]] neighborhood of [[Manhattan]], [[New York City]] and a member of the [[Ivy League]].
It was established in [[1754]] as ''King's College'' and is the fifth [[Colonial colleges|oldest]] chartered institution of [[higher education]] in the [[United States]]. During these early years, [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[John Jay]], [[Gouverneur Morris]], and [[Robert Livingston]] studied at Columbia.
The university is legally known as ''Columbia University in the City of New York'', and is incorporated as ''The Trustees of Columbia University in the City of New York''. Its undergraduate schools are [[Columbia College of Columbia University|Columbia College]], the [[Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science]] (SEAS), and the [[Columbia University School of General Studies|School of General Studies]].
The university is affiliated with [[Barnard College]] (an undergraduate liberal arts college for women and one of the [[Seven Sisters (colleges)|Seven Sisters]]), [[Teachers College]], [[Jewish Theological Seminary]] and [[Union Theological Seminary]]. Through affiliation agreements, it is the university which awards degrees to graduates of [[Barnard College]] and [[Teachers College]].
== Campus ==
[[Image:Nyc_columbia.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Butler Library (June 2003)]]
Most of Columbia's graduate and undergraduate studies are conducted in [[Morningside Heights]] on [[Seth Low]]'s late-19th century vision of a university campus where all disciplines could be taught in one location. This campus was designed by acclaimed architects [[McKim, Mead, and White]] and is considered one of their best works.
Columbia's main [[campus]] occupies more than six [[city block]]s, 32 acres (132,000 m&sup2;), in the [[Morningside Heights]] neighborhood of [[Manhattan]]. The university owns 7300 apartments in Morningside Heights, which house faculty, graduate students, and staff. Health-related schools are located at the [[Columbia University Medical Center]], twenty acres located about fifty blocks uptown.
[[Image:Columbia_College_Walk.jpg|thumb|200px|left|"College Walk" provides a public path between Broadway and Amsterdam Avenue, and serves as the main campus quad.]]
Columbia also owns the 26 acre Baker Field, which has the facilities for field sports, outdoor track, tennis, and r |
kers]] and most antidepressants are examples. So while physical dependency can be a major factor in the psychology of addiction, the primary attribute of an addictive drug is its ability to induce euphoria while causing harm.
Some drugs induce [[withdrawal|physical dependence]] or [[physiological tolerance]] - but not addiction - for example many [[laxative]]s, which are not psychoactive; nasal [[decongestants]], which can cause rebound congestion if used for more than a few days in a row; and some [[antidepressants]], most notably [[Effexor]] and [[Paxil]], as they have quite short [[half-lives]], so stopping them abruptly causes a more rapid change in the neurotransmitter balance in the brain than many other antidepressants. Many non-addictive prescription drugs should not be suddenly stopped, so a doctor should be consulted before abruptly discontinuing them.
The speed with which a given individual becomes addicted to various substances varies with the substance, the frequency of use, the means of ingestion, and the individual. Some [[alcoholic]]s report they exhibited alcoholic tendencies from the moment of first intoxication, while most people can drink socially without ever becoming addicted. Because of this variation, some people hypothesise that physical dependency and addiction are in large part genetically moderated. [[Nicotine]] is one of the most addictive [[psychoactive]] substances: although 35 million smokers make an attempt to quit every year, less than 7% achieve even one year of abstinence.*
While [[eating disorders]], like other behavioral addictions, are usually considered primarily psychological disorders, they are sometimes treated as addictions, especially if they include elements of addictive behavior. Sufferers may experience withdrawal or withdrawal-like symptoms if they alter their diet suddenly. This suggests that some common food substances, especially [[chocolate]], [[sugar]], [[salt]] and white flour may have the potential for addiction. In addition, frequent [[Wiktionary:overeat|overeat]]ing can also be considered an addiction.
* From the NIDA research report on nicotine addiction.
===Psychological addiction===
''[[Psychological addictions]]'' are a dependency of the mind, and lead to psychological withdrawal symptoms. Addictions can theoretically form for any rewarding behavior, or as a habitual means to avoid undesired activity, but typically they only do so to a clinical level in individuals who have emotional, social, or [[Mental illness|psychological dysfunctions]], taking the place of normal positive stimuli not otherwise attained (see [[Rat Park]]).
== Addiction and drug control legislation ==
Most countries have legislation which brings various drugs and drug-like [[substance]]s under the control of licensing systems. Typically this legislation covers any or all of the opiates, cannabinoids, cocaine, barbiturates, hallucinogens and a variety of more modern synthetic drugs, and unlicensed production, supply or possession is a criminal offence.
Usually, however, drug classification under such legislation is not related simply to addictiveness. The substances covered often have very different addictive properties. Some are highly prone to cause physical dependency, whilst others rarely cause any form of compulsive need whatsoever.
Also, although the legislation may be justifiable on moral or public health grounds, it can make addiction or dependency a much more serious issue for the individual: reliable supplies of a drug become difficult to secure, and the individual becomes vulnerable to both criminal abuse and legal punishment.
==Methods of care==
Early editions of the [[American Psychiatric Association|American Psychiatric Association's]] ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' (DSM) described addiction as a physical dependency to a substance that resulted in withdrawal symptoms in its absence. Recent editions, including DSM-IV, have moved toward a diagnostic instrument that classifies such conditions as dependency, rather than addiction. The [[American Society of Addiction Medicine]] recommends treatment for people with chemical dependency based on [[patient placement criteria]] (currently listed in PPC-2), which attempt to match levels of care according to clinical assessments in six areas, including:
* Acute intoxication and/or withdrawal potential
* Biomedical conditions or complications
* Emotional/behavioral conditions or complications
* Treatment acceptance/resistance
* [[Relapse]] potential
* Recovery environment
Some medical systems, including those of at least 15 states of the United States, refer to an [[Addiction Severity Index]] to assess the severity of problems related to substance use. The index assesses problems in six areas: medical, employment/support, alcohol and other drug use, legal, family/social, and psychiatric.
While addiction or dependency is related to seemingly uncontrollable urges, and may have roots in genetic predisposition, treatment of dependency is always classified as behavioral medicine. Early treatment of acute withdrawal often includes medical detoxification, which can include doses of [[anxiolytic]]s to reduce symptoms of withdrawal. In chronic opiate addiction, a surrogate drug such as [[methadone]] is sometimes offered as a form of [[opiate replacement therapy]]. But treatment approaches universally focus on the individual's ultimate choice to pursue an alternate course of action.
Therapists often classify patients with chemical dependencies as either interested or not interested in changing. Treatments usually involve planning for specific ways to avoid the addictive stimulus, and therapeutic interventions intended to help a client learn healthier ways to find satisfaction. Clinical leaders in recent years have attempted to tailor intervention approaches to specific influences that effect addictive behavior, using therapeutic interviews in an effort to discover factors that led a person to embrace unhealthy, addictive sources of pleasure or relief from pain.
{| class="prettytable" Cellpadding=4 width=60% align=center bgcolor="FOF8FF"
|- style="background-color:#AFEEEE;font-size:large"
!colspan=3|'''Treatment Modality Matrix'''
|- style="background-color:#BFEFFF"
!'''''Behavioral Pattern'''''
!'''''Intervention'''''
!'''''Goals'''''
|-
|Low self esteem, anxiety, verbal hostility
|Relationship therapy, client centered approach
|Increase self esteem, reduce hostility and anxiety
|-
|Defective personal constructs, ignorance of interpersonal means
|Cognitive restructuring including directive and group therapies
|Insight
|-
|Focal anxiety such as fear of crowds
|Desensitization
|Change response to same cue
|-
|Undesirable behaviors, lacking appropriate behaviors
|Aversive conditioning, operant conditioning, counter conditioning
|Eliminate or replace behavior
|-
|Lack of information
|Provide information
|Have client act on information
|-
|Difficult social circumstances
|Organizational intervention, environmental manipulation, family counseling
|Remove cause of social difficulty
|-
|Poor social performance, rigid interpersonal behavior
|Sensitivity training, communication training, group therapy
|Increase interpersonal repertoire, desensitization to group functioning
|-
|Grossly bizarre behavior
|Medical referral
|Protect from society, prepare for further treatment
|- style="text-align:center;font-size:small"
|colspan=3|Adapted from: ''Essentials of Clinical Dependency Counseling'', Aspen Publishers
|}
==Diverse explanations==
Several explanations (or "models") have been presented to explain addiction:
*The ''[[moral]] model'' states that addictions are the result of human weakness, and are defects of [[moral character|character]]. Those who advance this model do not accept that there is any biological basis for addiction. They often have scant sympathy for people with serious addictions, believing either that a person with greater moral strength could have the force of will to break an addiction, or that the addict demonstrated a great moral failure in the first place by starting the addiction. The moral model is widely applied to dependency on illegal substances, perhaps purely for social or political reasons, but is no longer widely considered to have any therapeutic value. Elements of the moral model, especially a focus on individual choices, have found enduring roles in other approaches to the treatment of dependencies.
*The ''[[opponent-process]] model'' generated by Richard Soloman states that for every psychological event A will be followed by its opposite psychological event B. For example, the pleasure one experiences from heroin is followed by an opponent process of withdrawal, or the terror of jumping out of an airplane is rewarded with intense pleasure when the parachute opens. This model is related to the opponent process color theory. If you look at the color red then quickly look at a gray area you will see green. There are many examples of opponent processes in the nervous system including taste, motor movement, touch, vision, and hearing. Opponent-processes occurring at the sensory level may translate "down-stream" into addictive or habit-forming behavior.
*The ''[[disease]] model'' holds that addiction is an illness, and comes about as a result of the impairment of healthy [[neurochemistry|neurochemical]] or behavioral processes. While there is some dispute among clinicians as to the reliability of this model, it is widely employed in therapeutic settings. Most treatment approaches involve recognition that dependencies are behavioral dysfunctions, and thus involve some element of physical or mental disease.
*The ''[[genetics|genetic]] model'' posits a genetic predisposition to certain behaviors. It is frequently noted that certain addictions "run in the family," and while res |
zilian
===Ethnic groups===
The only relatively isolated minority ethnic groups in Brazil are various non-assimilated [[indigenous people of Brazil|indigenous tribes]], comprising less than 1% of the population, who live in officially delimited reservations and either avoid contact with "civilized" people, or constitute separate social and political communities.
The rest of the population can be considered a single "Brazilian" ethnic group, with highly varied racial types and backgrounds, but without clear ethnic sub-divisions. By physical type, a recent survey gives 55% "white", 38% "mixed", 6% "black", 1% "other". (However, these labels are poorly defined, and it is not known how they were determined for the survey.)
The [[ethnic origin]] of the Brazilians can be traced to:
* [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]
* [[Italians]]
* [[French people|French]]
* [[Dutch people|Dutch]]
* [[Yoruba]]
* [[Éwés|Ewe]]
* [[Bantu]]
* [[Tupi]]
* [[Guarani]]
* [[German people|Germans]]
* [[Syria|Syrian]]
* [[Spanish people|Spaniards]]
* [[Poles]]
* [[Lebanon|Lebanese]]
* [[Japanese-Brazilian|Japanese]]
* [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]]
* [[Koreans]]
* [[Lithuanians in Brazil|Lithuanians]]
===Religions===
[[Roman Catholic]] (nominal) 80%; most of the other 20% belong to [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations, [[Kardecism]], [[Judaism]], [[Islam]], [[Buddhism]], [[Candomblé]] and [[Umbanda]].
===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 86.4%
:Male: 86.1%
:Female: 86.6% (2003 est.)
==See also==
*[[Race#Race in Brazil|Race in Brazil]]
==References==
# {{note|BrazilCensusForms}} {{cite web
| title=Census Questionnaires
| work=IPUMS International
| url=http://www.ipums.org/international/source_materials.html
| accessdate=December 17 | accessyear=2005
}}
{{CIA WFB 2005}}
{{South America in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Demographics by country|Brazil]]
[[Category:Geography of Brazil]]
[[Category:Brazilian society]]
[[es:Demografía de Brasil]]
[[nb:Brasils demografi]]
[[pt:Demografia do Brasil]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Brazil</title>
<id>3633</id>
<revision>
<id>41449215</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T11:19:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gurch</username>
<id>241822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>ammendment -> amendment</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Brazil''' is a [[federal republic]] with 26 [[state]]s and a [[Federal District|federal district]]
(see: [[States of Brazil]]).
{{Politics of Brazil}}
The 1988 constitution grants broad powers to the federal government, made up of executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
The president holds office for four years, with the right to re-election for an additional four-year term, and appoints his own cabinet.
There are 81 senators, three for each [[List of states of Brazil|state]] and the [[Brazilian Federal District|Federal District]], and 513 deputies.
[[Federal Senate of Brazil|Senate]] terms are for eight years, with election staggered so that two-thirds of the upper house is up for election at one time and one-third four years later.
[[Chamber of Deputies of Brazil|Chamber of Deputies]] terms are for four years, with elections based on a complex system of proportional representation by states.
The seats are alloted proportionally to each state's population, but each state is eligible for a minimum of eight seats and a maximum of 70 seats. The result is a system weighted in favor of smaller states.
The military governed Brazil in alliance with the civilian economic and social elite between 1964 and 1985. In contrast to other bureaucratic authoritarian regimes in the region, Brazil’s rulers maintained elections but reorganised the party system by reducing their total number to two: a pro-regime party and another which acted as a magnet to dissidents.
A process of transition was begun in the 1970s, during which the party system was opened up in 1982 and direct elections for state governors and mayors allowed. An economic crisis in the 1980s coincided with a demand to wider democracy with a demand for direct elections in 1984. In 1985 the military handed over power to a civilian government, albeit following an indirect election in which a compromise candidate was chosen: Tancredo Neves. However, Neves died before he could assume office, his position being taken by his vice-president, José Sarney, who had been a member of the pro-military party in Congress during the dictatorship.
The first direct presidential election in 1989 saw the young, charismatic, neo-liberal populist and former governor of small Alagoas state, Fernando Collor de Mello, beat the Workers’ Party (PT) leader, [[Luis Inácio Lula da Silva]] for the presidency in a second round run-off. He was soon embroiled in a campaign finance scandal leading to his impeachment. He resigned in 1992, being replaced by his vice-president, Itamar Franco, a regional politician from the state of Minas Gerais. Franco appointed the prominent sociologist and social democrat, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, to serve as his finance minister. In 1993 Mr Cardoso launched his Real Plan, replacing the discredited old currency and pegging its value to the dollar. Inflation – which had become a fact of Brazilian life – was cut dramatically, enabling him to win the presidential race against Lula in 1994. During his first term, a constitutional amendment was passed to enable a sitting president to run for re-election, after which he again beat Lula in 1998. Lula would eventually be elected in his own right in 2002. In part his victory was derived from a softening of his and the party’s anti-neoliberal stance, including a vice-presidential candidate from the right-wing Liberal Party, acceptance of an IMF accord agreed to by the previous government and a line of discourse friendly to the markets.
Fifteen political parties are represented in [[National Congress of Brazil|Congress]].
Since it is common for politicians to switch parties, the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly.
[[Image:Brazil.Congress.01.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Chamber of Deputies]]
===States and municipalities===
Brazil is divided into two types of subnational units: States and Municipalities.
====States====
Brazilian ''states'' are semi-autonomous self-governing entities organized with complete administration branches, relative financial independence and their own set of symbols, similar to those owned by the nation itself. Despite their relative autonomy they all have the same model of administration, as set by the Constitution.
State hold elections every four years and exercise a considerable amount of power, since the 1988 constitution -- besides allowing them to keep their own taxes -- mandated regular allocation of a share of the taxes collected locally by the federal government.
The Executive is held by the ''Governador'' (Governor) and his appointed ''Secretários'' (Secretaries); the Legislative is held by the ''Assembléia Legislativa'' (literally, Law-Making Assembly); and the Judiciary, by the ''Tribunal de Justiça'' (Law Court). The governors and the members of the assemblies are elected, but the members of the Judiciary are appointed by the governor from a list provided by the current members of the State Law Court containing only judges (these are chosen by merit in exams open to anyone with a Law degree). The name chosen by the governor must be approved by the Assembly before inauguration. Since the 1988 Constitution this is the greatest amount of autonomy the states have been granted since the Old Republic. As a consequence, state governors are very visible nationwide and often run for president.
Each of the 27 governors must achieve more than 50 per cent of the vote, including a second round run-off between the top two candidates if necessary. In contrast to the federal level, state legislatures are unicameral, although the deputies are elected through similar means, involving an open-list system in which the state serves as one constituency. State level elections occur at the same time as those to the president and Congress. In 2002 candidates from eight different parties won the gubernatorial contest while 28 parties are represented in the country’s state legislatures. The next set of elections will take place in 2006.
The most important Brazilian states (in terms of population, economic power and cultural relevance) are [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Minas Gerais]], [[Rio Grande do Sul]], [[Paraná]], [[Bahia]], [[Pernambuco]] and [[Pará]].
====Municipalities====
Brazil has no clear distinction between ''towns'' and ''cities'' (in effect, the Portuguese word '''cidade''' means both). The only possible difference is regarding the municipalities which have a Law Court and those who have not. The first are called ''Sedes de Comarca'' (''Comarca'' being the territory under the rule of that specific Court). Other than this, only size and importance differs one from another.
The Municipality (''Município'') is a territory comprising one urban area, the ''sede'' ('''seat'''), from which it takes the name, and several other minor urban or rural areas, the ''distritos''. The seat of a municipality must be the most populous urban area within it, when another urban are grows too much it usually splits from the original municipality to form another one.
A Municipality is relatively autonomous: it is allowed to have its own ''constitution'' (properly called ''Lei Orgânica''), to collect taxes and fees, to maintain a municipal police force, to pass laws on any matter that does not contradict either the state or the national constitution and to imperson itself with symbols (like a flag, an anthem and a coat-of-arms). However, not all municipalities exercise the e |
[http://www2.evansville.edu/ecoleweb/glossary/barnabas.html The Ecole Glossary about Barnabas]
* [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-41.htm The Epistle of Barnabas]
* [http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/saintb12.htm BARNABAS the Apostle]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0124.htm The Epistle of Barnabasn Catholic Encyclopedia]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Religion in Cyprus]]
[[Category:Cypriot people]]
[[Category:Cypriot writers]]
[[Category:Ancient Jewish Greek history]]
[[de:Barnabas]]
[[it:San Barnaba]]
[[nl:Barnabas]]
[[fi:Barnabas]]
[[sv:Barnabas]]
[[tr:Barnabas]]
[[zh:巴拿巴]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Birka</title>
<id>4608</id>
<revision>
<id>38866589</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T03:47:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Croat Canuck</username>
<id>389406</id>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Björkö in Sweden.png|right|200px|thumb|Location in Sweden]]
'''Birka''' {{Audio|Sv-Birka.ogg|listen}} , also '''Birca''' and '''Bierkø''' (today named '''Björkö''', literally "Birch Island"), was an important trading center in the [[Baltic Sea]] region from the [[8th century]], which handled goods from [[Eastern Europe]] and the Orient, possibly as far as [[China]], thus covering most of the [[Viking Age]]. Björkö is located in the [[Mälaren|Lake Mälaren]], just west of [[Stockholm]], in the municipality of [[Ekerö]] in Sweden. Birka and Hovgården is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] since [[1993]].
Ownership of Björkö, is today mainly in private hands, and used for farming. The settlement site, however is an [[archaeological]] site, and a [[museum]] has been built nearby for exhibition of finds, models and reconstructions. It is a popular site to visit during the summer times.
== Brief description ==
The Birka archaeological site, located on Björkö in [[Mälaren|Lake Mälaren]] and occupied in the [[9th century|9th]] and [[10th century|10th centuries]], and [[Hovgården]], on the neighbouring island of [[Adelsö]], make up an archaeological complex which illustrates the elaborate [[trading network]]s of [[Viking Age]] [[Europe]] and their influence on the subsequent history of [[Scandinavia]]. Birka was also important as the site of the first [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Congregation (worship)|congregation]] in Sweden, founded in [[831]] by [[Ansgar|Saint Ansgar]].
[[Image:Suecia Björkö.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Map of Björkö, late 17th century, from [[Suecia antiqua et hodierna]]. Engraving by Willem Swidde.]]
== History ==
Sources are mainly archeological remains. No texts survive from this area, though the written text ''Vita Ansgarii'', "The life of Ansgar" by [[Rimbert]] (c. 865) describes the missionary work of [[Ansgar]] around 830 at Birca, and another written source by [[Adam of Bremen]] describes the [[archbishop]] Unni, who died at Birka in 936. [[Ansgar|St Ansgars]] work was the first attempt to convert the inhabitants from [[Norse Mythology|heathen]] living to Christianity, and it was unsuccessful.
Since there are no known [[Old_Norse_language|Norse]] sources mentioning the name of the settlement, the true name of Birka is unknown. The names in general use, ''Birca'' and ''Birka'' are the [[Romanization|latinicised]] forms given in the sources. The exact location of Birka was also lost during the centuries, leading to speculation from Swedish historians. Still today there are those who question whether Björkö was indeed the legendrary Birka.
In the late 19th century, [[Hjalmar Stolpe]], an [[Entomology|entymologist]] by education, arrived on Björkö to study fossilized insects found in [[amber]] on the island. Stolpe found very large amounts of amber on the island, which is unusual since amber is not normally found in lake Mälaren. Stolpe speculated that the island may have been an important trading post, prompting him to conduct a series of archeological excavations. The excavations soon indicated that a major settlement had been located on the island and eventually Stolpe spent two decades excavating the island. With Birka's location determined to be Björkö, it is now assumed that the original name of Birka was simply ''Bierkø'' (sometimes spelt ''Bjärkö''), an earlier form of ''Björkö''.
The function or significance as a trading center of the [[Baltic sea]] was moved to [[Sigtuna]] in the [[10th century]] for unknown reasons. Although due to the [[Post-glacial_rebound|rising of lake Mälaren]], Björkö is no longer navigable from the Baltic Sea.
== Archeological site ==
[[Image:BirkaExcavation1.png|thumb|left|Townsite of Birka]]
The archeological remains are located in the north part of Björkö and span an area of about 7 [[hectare]]s (17 [[acre]]s). The remains are both graveyards and buildings, and in the south part of this area, there is also a [[castle]]-like building called "Borgen" ("The Castle"). The construction technique of the buildings is still unknown, but the main material was [[wood]]. An adjacent island holds the remains of [[Hovgården]], an estate which housed the King's retinue during visits.
Approximately 700 people lived at Birka when it was as largest, and about 3,000 graves have been found. Its administrative center was supposedly located outside of the settlement itself, on the nearby island of [[Adelsö]]. According to Rimbert, the settlement itself was fortified by a wooden [[palisade]] and its [[harbour]] guarded by pilings driven into the bottom of the lake, limiting the number of ships able to pass into it. However, there is as yet no archaeological evidence of this.
The island has been a focus of investigation since the [[17th century]], although the largest excavations were performed by Stolpe between 1871-95. The most recent large excavation was performed between 1990-95 in a certain region, the "Black Land", believed to be the site of the main settlement. Björkö is today mainly agricultural, and shipping lines carry tourists to the island, where a museum showcases a view of life during the Viking era.
== Contemporary centres of Baltic trade ==
*[[Hedeby]]
*[[Roslagen]]
*[[Ladoga]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.raa.se/varveng/birkae.asp Birka and Hovgården] at the [[Swedish National Heritage Board]]
*[http://www.raa.se/birka_eng/index.asp Birka] at the [[Swedish National Heritage Board]]
*[http://whc.unesco.org/sites/555.htm Birka and Hovgården] - at UNESCO
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Sweden]]
[[Category:Mälaren]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Sweden]]
[[Category:European archaeology]]
[[Category:Viking Age]]
[[da:Birka]]
[[de:Birka]]
[[eo:Birka]]
[[hu:Birka (város)]]
[[nl:Birka en Hovgården]]
[[no:Birka]]
[[pl:Birka (miasto)]]
[[fi:Birka]]
[[sv:Birka]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beta-lactamase</title>
<id>4609</id>
<revision>
<id>36456793</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T04:02:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>147.8.45.206</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Beta-lactamase''' is a type of [[enzyme]] ({{EC number|3.5.2.6}}) produced by some bacteria that is responsible for their [[antibiotic resistance|resistance]] to [[beta-lactam antibiotic]]s like [[penicillin]]s, [[cephalosporin]]s, [[cephamycin]]s and [[carbapenem]]s. These [[antibiotic]]s have a common element in their molecular structure: a four-atom ring known as a [[beta-lactam]]. The lactamase enzyme breaks that ring open, deactivating the molecule's antibacterial properties.
The structure of a ''[[Streptomyces]]'' &beta; lactamase is given by {{PDB|1BSG}}.
== See also: ==
* [[Penicillinase]]
==Reference==
* Jacoby GA, Munoz-Price LS. ''The new &beta;-lactamases''. [[N Engl J Med]] 2005;352:380-91. PMID 15673804
[[Category:Microbiology]]
[[Category:EC 3.5.2]]
[[fr:Bêta-lactamase]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Burhanuddin Rabbani</title>
<id>4611</id>
<revision>
<id>38180361</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T19:23:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Burhanuddin Rabbani''' ('''برهان الدين رباني''') (born [[1940]]), an ethnic [[Tajiks|Tajik]], is a former President of Afghanistan and was political leader of the [[Afghan Northern Alliance|Northern Alliance]] of [[Afghanistan]].
In [[1992]] he became [[President]] of the Islamic Council of [[Afghanistan]] (and thus effective ruler of the country), until [[Kabul]] was captured by the [[Taliban]] in [[1996]]. He set up headquarters in the northern Afghan town of [[Faizabad_%28Badakhshan|Faizabad]] and led, with support from [[India]], [[Iran]], and [[Russia]], one of the five anti-Taliban factions.
He was still recognised as leader of [[Afghanistan]] by the [[United Nations]] and most other countries during the Taliban regime. Despite this most of the real power was held by his Ministers of Defence, first [[Ahmed Shah Massoud]] and later [[Mohammed Fahim]] after Massoud's assassination. When the [[United States]] and its allies deposed the Taliban in [[2001]], Rabbani retook the capital and proclaimed himself to be Afghanistan's legitimate [[Head of State]]. He formally handed over power to an interim government headed by [[Hamid Karzai]] on [[December 22]], [[2001]].
In [[2004]] he attended Karzai's formal inauguration as Afghanistan's first elected president. In [[2005]] he was elected to the Afghan Parliament.
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Sibghatullah Mojadeddi|Sibghatullah Mojadeddi]] |
title=[[President of Afghanistan|President of Afghanistan]] |
years=1992&ndash;1996, 2001 |
after=[[Hamid |
ed around [[1500]] and erected magnificent [[Mandara Strongholds|fortified structures]], the purpose and exact history of which is still unresolved. The [[Aro confederacy]] of [[Nigeria]], had presence in Western Cameroon due to migration in the 18nth and 19nth centuries.
During the late [[1770s]] and early [[1800s]], the [[Fula|Fulani]], a [[pastoralism|pastoral]] [[Islam|Islamic]] people of the western [[Sahel]], conquered most of what is now northern Cameroon, subjugating or displacing its largely non-Muslim inhabitants.
Although the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] arrived on Cameroon's coast in the [[1500s]], [[malaria]] prevented significant European settlement and conquest of the interior until the late [[1870s]], when large supplies of the malaria suppressant, [[quinine]], became available. The early European presence in Cameroon was primarily devoted to coastal trade and the acquisition of [[slavery|slaves]]. The northern part of Cameroon was an important part of the Muslim slave trade network. The slave trade was largely suppressed by the mid-[[19th century]]. Christian [[missionary|missions]] established a presence in the late 19th century and continue to play a role in Cameroonian life.
[[Image:German building at Ambam.jpg|thumb|right|250px|German-built building at Ambam, today used as a school]]
==Colonization==
Beginning on [[July 5]], [[1884]], all of present-day Cameroon and parts of several of its neighbors became the [[Germany|German]] colony of '''Kamerun''', with a capital first at [[Buea]] and later at [[Yaoundé]]. After [[World War I]], this colony was partitioned between the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] under a [[June 28]], [[1919]] [[League of Nations]] mandate. France gained the larger geographical share, transferred outlying regions to neighboring French colonies, and ruled the rest from Yaoundé as '''Cameroun''' (French Cameroons). Britain's territory, a strip bordering [[Nigeria]] from the sea to [[Lake Chad]], with an equal population was ruled from [[Lagos]] as '''[[Cameroons]]''' (British Cameroons).
In [[1955]], the outlawed [[Union of the Peoples of Cameroon]] (UPC), based largely among the [[Bamileke]] and [[Bassa]] ethnic groups, began an armed struggle for independence in French Cameroon. This rebellion continued, with diminishing intensity, even after independence. Estimates of death from this conflict vary from tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands.
==Cameroon since independence==
French Cameroons achieved independence in [[1960]] as the '''Republic of Cameroon'''. The following year, on October 1, 1961, the largely Muslim northern two-thirds of [[British Cameroons]] voted to join Nigeria; the largely Christian southern third voted to join with the Republic of Cameroon to form the '''Federal Republic of Cameroon'''. The formerly French and British regions each maintained substantial [[Self-governance|autonomy]]. [[Ahmadou Ahidjo]], a French-educated Fulani, was chosen president of the federation in [[1961]]. Ahidjo, relying on a pervasive internal security apparatus, outlawed all political parties but his own in [[1966]]. He successfully suppressed the continuing UPC rebellion, capturing the last important rebel leader in [[1970]]. In [[1972]], a new constitution replaced the federation with a unitary state called the '''United Republic of Cameroon'''.
Ahidjo resigned as president in [[1982]] and was constitutionally succeeded by his [[Prime Minister]], [[Paul Biya]], a career official from the [[Beti-Pahuin]] ethnic group. Ahidjo later regretted his choice of successors, but his supporters failed to overthrow Biya in a [[Cameroonian Palace Guard Revolt|1984 coup]]. Biya won single-candidate elections in [[1983]] and [[1984]] when the country was again named the '''Republic of Cameroon'''. Biya has remained in power, winning flawed multiparty elections in [[1992]], [[1997]], and [[2004]]. His [[Cameroon People's Democratic Movement]] (CPDM) party holds a sizeable majority in the legislature.
On [[August 15]], [[1984]], [[Lake Monoun]] exploded in a [[limnic eruption]] that released [[carbon dioxide]], [[Asphyxia|suffocating]] 37 people to death. On [[August 21]], [[1986]], another limnic eruption at [[Lake Nyos]] killed as many as 1,800 people and 3,500 livestock. The two disasters are the only recorded instances of limnic eruptions.
==External links==
*[http://unimaps.com/cameroon1914/index.html Map of German Cameroon (Kamerun) in 1914]
{{Africa in topic|History of}}
[[Category:History by country|Cameroon]]
[[Category:History of Africa]]
[[Category:History of Cameroon|History of Cameroon]]
[[fr:Histoire du Cameroun]]
[[ja:カメルーンの歴史]]
[[pt:História dos Camarões]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Cameroon</title>
<id>5449</id>
<revision>
<id>40555981</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T11:41:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lupo</username>
<id>34978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>better map</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cameroon_Map.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map Of Cameroon]]
'''Location:'''
Western [[Africa]], bordering the [[Bight of Biafra]], between [[Equatorial Guinea]] and [[Nigeria]]
'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor d|6|N|12|E|}}
'''Map references:'''
Africa
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
475,440 km&sup2;
<br>''land:''
469,440 km&sup2;
<br>''water:''
6,000 km&sup2;
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly larger than [[California]]
'''Land boundaries:'''
<br>''total:''
4,591 km
<br>''border countries:''
[[Central African Republic]] 797 km, [[Chad]] 1,094 km, [[Republic of the Congo]] 523 km, Equatorial Guinea 189 km, [[Gabon]] 298 km, Nigeria 1,690 km
'''Coastline:'''
402 km
'''Maritime claims:'''
<br>''territorial sea:''
50 nm
'''Climate:'''
varies with terrain, from tropical along coast to semiarid and hot in north
[[Image:Rhumsiki Peak.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Rhumsiki]] Peak in Cameroon's [[Extreme North Province]].]]
'''Terrain:'''
diverse, with coastal [[plain]] in southwest, dissected [[plateau]] in center, [[mountain]]s in west, plains in north
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br>''lowest point:''
[[Atlantic Ocean]] 0 m
<br>''highest point:''
[[Fako]](aka. Mt. Cameroon) 4,095 m
'''Natural resources:'''
[[petroleum]], [[bauxite]], [[iron ore]], [[timber]], [[hydropower]]
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
13%
<br>''permanent crops:''
2%
<br>''permanent pastures:''
4%
<br>''forests and woodland:''
78%
<br>''other:''
3% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
210 km&sup2; (1993 est.)
'''Natural hazards:'''
Recent [[limnic eruption]]s with release of [[carbon dioxide]]:
*from [[Lake Monoun]], [[August 15]], [[1984]], killing 37
*from [[Lake Nyos]], [[August 21]], [[1986]], killing as many as 1800
'''Environment - current issues:'''
water-borne diseases are prevalent; [[deforestation]]; [[overgrazing]]; [[desertification]]; [[poaching]]; [[overfishing]]
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br>''party to:''
[[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], Desertification, [[Endangered Species]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Tropical Timber 83]], [[Tropical Timber 94]]
<br>''signed, but not ratified:''
[[Nuclear Test Ban]]
'''Geography - note:'''
sometimes referred to as the hinge of Africa
== See also ==
* [[Cameroon]]
{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography by country|Cameroon]]
[[Category:Geography of Cameroon| ]]
[[fr:Géographie du Cameroun]]
[[pl:Geografia Kamerunu]]
[[pt:Geografia dos Camarões]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Cameroon</title>
<id>5450</id>
<revision>
<id>35370088</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-16T06:41:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.51.144.223</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Languages */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Maka-Njem ethnic groups.png|right|thumb|400px|The [[Maka-Njem]] ethnic groups of Cameroon.]]
[[Image:Duala ethnic groups.png|right|thumb|400px|The [[Duala peoples|Duala]] ethnic groups of Cameroon.]]
The '''demographic profile of Cameroon''' is complex for a country of its population. [[Cameroon]] is comprised of an estimated 250 distinct [[ethnic groups]], which may be formed into five large regional-cultural divisions:
* '''western highlanders''' ('''[[Semi-Bantu]]''' or '''grassfielders'''), including the [[Bamileke]], [[Bamun people|Bamun]] (or ''Bamoun''), and many smaller [[Tikar]] groups in the [[Northwest Province, Cameroon|Northwest]] (est. 38% of total population);
* '''coastal tropical forest peoples''', including the [[Bassa]], [[Duala peoples|Duala]] (or ''Douala''), and many smaller groups in the [[Southwest Province, Cameroon|Southwest]] (12%);
* '''southern tropical forest peoples''', including the [[Beti-Pahuin]], Bulu (a subgroup of Beti-Pahuin), Fang (subgroup of Beti-Pahuin), [[Maka-Njem]], and [[Baka (nomadic Central African people)|Baka]] [[pygmy|pygmies]] (18%);
* '''predominantly [[Islam|Islamic]] peoples''' of the northern semi-arid regions (the [[Sahel]]) and central highlands, including the [[Fulani]] (or ''Peuhl'' in French) (14%); ''and''
* '''the "[[Kirdi]]"''', non-Islamic or recently Islamic peoples of the northern desert and central highlands (18%).
[[Image:Tikar family.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A Tikar family in the Northwest Province]]
An up-to-date demographic profile is unavailable from the country's government, which hasn't published census data since 1976.
==Demographic data==
The Cameroon government held two national censuses during the country's first 44 years as an independent country, in 1976 and again in 1987. Results from the second head count were never published. A third census, expected to take years to product results, began on [[November 11]], [[2005]], wit |
i custody "will take place within two weeks... you can consider this as an official confirmation." According to the ICRC, this is required by international law. On [[June 16]], [[George W. Bush]] commented on this in vague language characterized by the press as "hedging," "noncommittal," and "refusal to set a date," stating that the transfer would ''not'' take place until the U.S. was "sure that he is secure."
*On [[28 June]] [[2004]], the Coalition Provisional Authority dissolved and full governmental authority was transferred to the sovereign Iraqi Interim Government (IIG).
A few have asserted that the term "return of sovereignty" stems from a flawed understanding of international law: according to these individuals, sovereignty is vested in the people of Iraq, independently from the formal structure of the state. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,1245135,00.html]
But, this is misconstruing the intent of the phrase. The phrase usually means the return by one political agency to another political body of the exclusive rights to exercise supreme authority over a geographic region and group of people. Regardless, Iraq was set on a direct path to full democratic elections in January & December of 2005.
===Interim period===
In [[November 2003]] the coalition announced plans to turn over sovereignty to an [[Iraq interim government|interim Iraqi government]] by mid-2004. The actual transfer of sovereignty occurred on [[June 28]] [[2004]]. The interim president was [[Sheikh]] [[Ghazi Mashal Ajil al-Yawer]], and the interim prime minister [[Iyad Allawi]].
Under the [[Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period|interim Iraqi constitution]], signed March [[2004]], the country's executive branch is now led by a three-person presidential council. The election system for the council effectively ensures that all three of Iraq's major ethnic groups are represented. The constitution also includes basic freedoms like [[freedom of religion]], [[freedom of speech|speech]], and [[freedom of assembly|assembly]], and in many ways has been hailed as more liberal than the [[United States Constitution|U.S. constitution]]. Controversially, however, it states that all laws that were in effect on the transfer date cannot be repealed. Furthermore, since the coalition forces are currently an official occupying power under the [[United Nations]], Coalition troops can remain in control of the country indefinitely despite the transfer of sovereignty. Since Iraqi forces are currently considered ill-equipped to police and secure the country, it is expected that coalition troops will remain in the country for many years to come.
Part of the proposed system (holding regional caucuses which then elect national leaders) was rejected by [[Ayatollah]] [[Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani|Ali al-Sistani]], which resulted in massive peaceful (though unsuccessful) protests against the proposed systems. Sistani, the most senior Shiite cleric in Iraq, declared the system as too easy to manipulate to elect an U.S.-friendly government and not representative of the people. However, the process followed closely to the [[November 15]] [[2003]] agreement established before Sistani's protests. That agreement established the caucuses for the IIG which indeed occurred in June of 2003. The full elections for the Constitutional Committee occurred in January 2005, 2 months before the [[15 November]] agreement established date of [[March 31]] [[2005]].
==Iraqi National Assembly Election==
On [[January 30]] [[2005]], the Iraqi people chose representatives for the newly-formed 275-member Iraqi National Assembly in legislative elections. Following the ratification of the constitution of Iraq on [[October 15]] [[2005]], a general election was called for [[15 December]] to elect a permanent 275-member Iraqi National Assembly.
''For more information, see:'' '''[[Iraqi legislative election, January 2005]]''' and '''[[Iraqi legislative election, December 2005]]'''
==Hierarchy of future Iraqi national government==
===Executive===
* President heading the Presidency Council
** Vice President
** Vice President
* Prime Minister
** Council of Ministers
===Legislative===
* President of National Assembly
** Deputy President
** Deputy President
*** National Assembly
===Judicial===
* Higher Judicial Council
** Federal Supreme Court
*** Court of Cassation
*** Courts of Appeal
*** Central Criminal Court
==Present executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Iraq]]
|[[Jalal Talabani]]
|[[Patriotic Union of Kurdistan|YNK]]
|[[7 April]] [[2005]]
|-
|rowspan=2|Vice-president of Iraq
|[[Ghazi Mashal Ajil al-Yawer]]
|[[The Iraqis]]
|[[6 April]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[Adel Abdul Mahdi]]
|[[SCIRI]]
|[[6 April]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Iraq]]
|[[Ibrahim al-Jaafari]]
|[[Islamic Dawa Party|Dawa]]
|[[7 April]] [[2005]]
|}
The president serves in a largely [[figurehead]] capacity, with few powers. The [[Prime Minister of Iraq]] holds most of the actual executive authority and is required to appoint a cabinet. All three were appointed in April 2005 after elections which saw political differences papered over by ethnic unity (and inter-ethnic divisions).
==Legislative branch==
The Constitution includes a bicameral legislative body: the Parliament of Iraq. The lower house is the '''House of Deputies:'''. which consists of 275 members known as 'Members of Parliament' elected nation wide in the existing National Assembly constituencies. The Speaker will be elected by the House.
The upper house is the '''Senate:'''. This would give equal representation to the ethnicities in Iraq. The members would be known as 'senators'. The Senate shall have an equal number of senators from Sunni Senatorial Districts, Kurdish Senatorial Districts and Shia Senatorial Districts. There shall be 50 senators from each division, thus a total of 150 senators. The President of the Senate will be a Vice President in the Presidency Council chosen by the President.
The Senate will produce three sets of nominations for the Presidency Council and the House of Deputies shall vote on which nomination to elect. The House will have supremacy in financial matters in which the Senate cannot defeat a bill passed by the House and may only delay and propose amendments for 30 days. In other matters the Senate has delaying power of 2 years. The Senate alone can confirm treaties and appointments to federal agencies and departments, high ranking military positions and Justices of the Supreme Court.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Iraq|Elections in Iraq}}
{{Iraqi legislative election, December 2005}}
:''More info: [[Iraqi legislative election, December 2005]]
==See also==
* [[Reconstruction of Iraq]]
* [[State terrorism#State-specific examples|Human rights abuses in Iraq]]
* [[Post-invasion Iraq, 2003-2005]]
{{Arab_League}}
==External links and references==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/post_saddam_iraq/html/default.stm BBC Report: Who's Who in Post-Saddam Iraq]
* [http://iraqelectionwire.blogspot.com/ Iraq Elections newswire]
* [http://atlas-real.atlas.uiuc.edu:8080/ramgen/ips/acdis/acdis_iraq_2005.04.20.rm Video Seminar on Iraq Coalition Politics]: [[April 20]] [[2005]], sponsored by the Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security at the University of Illinois.
* M. Ismail Marcinkowski, ''Religion and Politics in Iraq. Shiite Clerics between Quietism and Resistance'', with a foreword by Professor Hamid Algar of the University of California at Berkeley. Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2004 (ISBN 9971775131)
[[Category:Politics of Iraq|*]]
[[ar:سياسة العراق]]
[[es:Política de Iraq]]
[[pt:Política do Iraque]]
[[sv:Iraks politik]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Iraq</title>
<id>14668</id>
<revision>
<id>42095962</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:22:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dismas</username>
<id>152983</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>US -> U.S. per MoS#Acronyms and abbreviations</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
{{Economy of Iraq table}}
==Overview==
[[Iraq]]'s economy is dominated by the [[petroleum]] sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. In the 1980s, financial problems caused by massive expenditures in the eight-year war with [[Iran]] and damage to oil export facilities by Iran led the government to implement austerity measures, borrow heavily, and later reschedule foreign debt payments; Iraq suffered economic losses of at least $100 [[billion]] from the war. After the end of hostilities in 1988, oil exports gradually increased with the construction of new pipelines and restoration of damaged facilities.
==Economic sanctions of the 1990s==
Iraqs seizure of [[Kuwait]] in August [[1990]], subsequent [[Iraq sanctions|international economic sanctions]], and damage from military action by an international coalition beginning in January [[1991]] drastically reduced economic activity. The government's policies of supporting large military and internal security forces and of allocating resources to key supporters of the regime have exacerbated shortages. The implementation of the [[UN]]'s [[Oil for Food program]] in December [[1996]] has helped improve economic conditions. For the first six six-month phases of the program, Iraq was allowed to export limited amounts of oil in exchange for food, medicine, and other humanitarian goods. In December 1999, the UN Security Council authorized Iraq to export as much oil as required to meet humanitarian needs. Oil exports are now about three-quarters their prewar level. Per capita food imports have increased significantly, while medical supplies and health care services are steadily improving. Per |
try. Costa Rican forces followed the filibusters into Rivas, Nicaragua, where in a final battle, William Walker and his forces were finally pushed back. Juan Santamaria, a drummer boy who lost his life torching the filibusters' stronghold, was killed in this final battle, and is today remembered as a national hero.
An era of peaceful democracy in Costa Rica began in [[1899]] with elections considered the first truly free and honest ones in the country's history.
Costa Rica has avoided much of the violence that has plagued much of [[Central America]]. Since the late [[19th century]], only two brief periods of violence have marred its democratic development. In 1917-19, [[Federico Tinoco Granados]] ruled as a dictator, and, in 1948, [[José Figueres Ferrer]] led an armed uprising in the wake of a disputed presidential election.In [[1949]], [[José Figueres Ferrer]] abolished the [[army]]; and since then, Costa Rica has been one of the few countries to operate within the democratic system without the assistance of a military.
With more than 2,000 dead, the 44-day [[Costa Rica Civil War]] resulting from this uprising was the bloodiest event in 20th-century Costa Rican history, but the victorious junta drafted a constitution guaranteeing free elections with universal suffrage and the abolition of the military. Figueres became a national hero, winning the first election under the new constitution in 1953. Since then, Costa Rica has held 11 presidential elections, the latest in 2002.
Once a largely agricultural country, the twin pillars of Costa Rica's current economy are technology and eco-tourism. Costa Rica's major source of export income is technology based. Microsoft, Motorola, Intel and other technology related firms have established operations in Costa Rica. Local companies create and export software as well as other computer related products. Tourism is growing at an accelerated pace and many believe that income from this tourism may soon become the major contributor to the nation's GDP. Traditional agriculture, particularly coffee and bananas, continues to be an important contributor to Costa Rica's export income. Land ownership and wealth is widespread and the population enjoys a relatively high standard of living.
==See also==
*[[List of Presidents of Costa Rica]]
*[[Costa Rica Civil War]]
<!--
==External links==
*[http://www.kostaryka.org/2001/history62.htm Very detailed history of the Republic of Costa Rica]
-->
[[Category:History of Costa Rica| ]]
[[ca:Història de Costa Rica]]
[[es:Historia de Costa Rica]]
[[fr:Histoire du Costa Rica]]
[[pt:História da Costa Rica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Costa Rica</title>
<id>5553</id>
<revision>
<id>38777702</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T16:17:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>12.221.101.205</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Costa Rica map.png|200px|thumb|right|Political map of Costa Rica.]]
[[Image:Costa Rica map shaded relief.png|200px|thumb|right|Shaded relief map of Costa Rica.]]
[[Image:Costa Rica map detail.PNG|200px|thumb|right|Map of Costa Rica.]]
[[Costa Rica]] is located on the [[Central America]]n [[Isthmus]], 10&deg; north of the [[Equator]] and 84&deg; west of the [[Prime Meridian]]. It borders both the [[Caribbean Sea]] (to the east) and the [[Pacific Ocean|North Pacific Ocean]] (to the west), with a total of 1,290 km of coastline (212 km on the Caribbean coast and 1016 km on the Pacific).
Costa Rica also borders [[Nicaragua]] to the north (309 km of border) and [[Panama]] to the south-southeast (330 km of border). In total, Costa Rica comprises 51,100 km&sup2; of which 50,660 km&sup2; is land and 440 km&sup2; is water, making it slightly smaller than the [[U.S. state]] of [[West Virginia]].
The nation's [[terrain]] is coastal plain separated by rugged mountains in the center of the country. Costa Rica claims an [[exclusive economic zone]] of 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km) and a [[Territorial waters|territorial sea]] of 12 nautical miles (22 km). The country has a [[Tropics|tropical]] and [[subtropical]] climate and is part of the [[Neotropic]] [[ecozone]]. It is part of many [[ecoregion]]s, including Costa Rican seasonal moist forests, Bocas del Toro-San Bastimentos Island-San Blas mangroves, Mosquitia-Nicaraguan Caribbean Coast mangroves, Southern Dry Pacific Coast mangroves, Central American dry forests, and Talamancan montane forests.
The country is noted for its [[National Parks of Costa Rica|national park system]], administered by [[SINAC]] (''Sistema Nacional de Areas de Conservacion'', or "National System of Conservation Areas"). This agency oversees over 160 protected areas in Costa Rica, of which 26 are [[national park]]s. Together the protected areas comprise over one-forth of Costa Rican territory. The largest national park is [[Cocos Island]] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Isla del Coco''), an island about 500 km from the Costa Rica's Pacific coast and 24km&sup2; in area.
Costa Rica's dry season is from December to April, while the rainy season is from May to November. The highlands areas are always cooler. The lowest [[elevation]] level in the country is the Pacific Ocean at [[sea level]], the highest point is [[Cerro Chirripo]], a [[Volcano|volcanic]] mountain with an elevation of 3,810 m (part of Cerro Chirripo National Park). On a clear day, it is possible to sea both the Caribbean and the Pacific from the peak.
Costa Rica is party to many environmental treaties, including the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], the [[Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques|Convention on Environmental Modification]], the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]], the [[Montreal Protocol]], the [[Ramsar Convention]], the [[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling]], the [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification|Desertification Convention]], the [[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna|Endangered Species Convention]], the [[Basel Convention]], the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|Convention on the Law of the Sea]], the [[Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter|Convention on Marine Dumping]], the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]]. It has signed but not ratifed the [[Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas|Convention on Marine Life Conservation]] and the [[Kyoto Protocol]].
'''Natural resources:'''
*[[Hydropower]] from [[Lake Arenal]], the largest lake in Costa Rica.
'''Natural hazards:'''
occasional [[earthquake]]s, [[hurricane]]s along [[Atlantic]] coast; frequent [[flood]]ing of lowlands at onset of rainy season; active [[volcano]]es (See [[Climate of Costa Rica]]).
'''Environment - current issues:'''
[[deforestation]], largely a result of the clearing of land for cattle ranching; soil [[erosion]]; water [[pollution]] (rivers); fisheries protection; solid waste management
==See also==
*[[Costa Rica]]
*[[Climate of Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Geography of Costa Rica|*]]
[[es:Geografía de Costa Rica]]
[[fr:Géographie du Costa Rica]]
[[pt:Geografia da Costa Rica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Costa Rica</title>
<id>5554</id>
<revision>
<id>41547145</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T01:57:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>147.26.216.126</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Population */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Costa Rica demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Costa Rica, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
The indigenous population today numbers about 29,000 or less than 1% of the population. Descendants of 19th century [[Jamaica]]n immigrant workers constitute an English-speaking minority and -- at 3% of the population -- number about 96,000. An important and growing ethnic group in Costa Rica are [[Nicaraguan]]s who represent 10% of the population. Most of these [[Nicaraguan]]s are refugees from the Sandinista regime that existed in [[Nicaragua]], and today work as manual laborers. Racism against the Nicaraguans is common, and their position in society has been compared to the Mexican situation in the United States.
The main migrants were once those of [[Germany|German]], [[Polish people|Polish]], [[Italia]]n, and [[Jewish]] ancestry, but today there is a growing number of [[Amerindian]] people who migrate for seasonal work opportunities as agricultural workers. There is also a growing number of [[Colombia]]n, [[Panama]]nian and [[Peru]]vian refugees who call Costa Rica home, an example of Costa Rica's hospitality and peaceful government in Latin America. There are also many Americans who retire or come to live in Costa Rica.
==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==
0
===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 28.9% (male 593,540/female 566,361)
:15-64 years: 65.5% (male 1,330,481/female 1,300,664)
:65 years and over: 5.6% (male 104,564/female 120,563) (2005 est.)
===Median age===
:Total: 26.03 years
:Male: 25.59 years
:Female: 26.5 years (2005 est.)
===Population growth rate===
:1.48% (2005 est.)
===Birth rate===
:18.6 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Death rate===
:4.33 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Net migration rate===
:0.5 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.87 male(s)/female
:Total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 9.95 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 10.85 deaths/1,000 live |
editor is [[Perry White]]. Within the Superman [[comics]], the ''Daily Planet'' is depicted as a famous nationally published newspaper of the same caliber as the ''[[New York Times]]''.
In the comics, the newspaper is located in the heart of Metropolis, at the corner of Fifth Street and Concord Lane. The ''Planet'' began publication in 1775; [[George Washington]] wrote a guest editorial for the first daily edition. The ''Daily Planet'' building's most distinguishing and famous feature is the enormous [[globe]] that sits on top of the building.
==History==
===Golden and Silver Age===
When Superman first appeared in comics (in 1938's ''[[Action Comics]]'' #1), his [[alter ego]] [[Clark Kent]] worked for a newspaper named the ''Daily Star'', under editor George Taylor. Superman co-creator [[Joe Shuster]] likely named the ''Daily Star'' after the ''Toronto Daily Star'' newspaper in [[Toronto, Ontario]], which had been the newspaper that Shuster's parents received and for which Shuster had worked as a newsboy. (Called the ''Evening Star'' prior to 1899, the ''Toronto Daily Star'' is now known as the ''[[Toronto Star]]''.) When the Superman newspaper [[comic strip]] appeared, the fictional newspaper's name was permanently changed to the ''Daily Planet'' to avoid a name conflict with real newspapers which had ''Star'' in their name.
When DC made use of its [[multiverse (DC Comics)|multiverse]] means of continuity tracking between the early 1960s and mid-1980s, it was declared that the ''Daily Star'' was the workplace of the [[Golden Age of Comics|Golden Age]] or "Earth-Two" versions of Clark Kent, Lois Lane and Jimmy Olsen, while the ''Daily Planet'' was unique to their [[Silver Age of Comics|Silver Age]] or "Earth-One" versions. The Clark Kent of Earth-Two eventually became the editor-in-chief of the ''Daily Star'', something his Earth-One counterpart didn't achieve at his newspaper.
In Silver Age continuity, Clark's first contact with the ''Daily Planet'' came when reporter (and future editor) Perry White came to [[Smallville]] to write a story about [[Superboy]], and wound up getting an interview where the Boy of Steel first revealed his [[extraterrestrial]] origins (the story wound up winning Perry a [[Pulitzer]] prize). During Clark Kent's years in college, Perry White was promoted to editor-in-chief upon the retirement of the ''Daily Planet'''s previous editor, the Earth-One version of George Taylor.
After graduating from Metropolis University with a degree in [[journalism]], Clark Kent went to work at the ''Planet'', and quickly met Lois Lane (who had been working there for some time already). Some time after Clark was hired, Jimmy Olsen joined the paper's staff.
In 1971, the ''Daily Planet'' was purchased by [[Morgan Edge]], president of the Galaxy Broadcasting System. Edge proceeded to integrate Metropolis [[television]] station WGBS-TV's studios into the ''Daily Planet'' building, and named Clark Kent as the anchor for the WGBS evening news. Eventually, Clark's former schoolmate from [[Smallville]] [[Lana Lang]] joined Clark as a co-anchor.
After the 1985-1986 miniseries ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]]'', many of these elements, including Morgan Edge buying the ''Daily Planet'', were retroactively changed or eliminated from Superman canon.
===Modern Age===
In the modern comics' canon, years before Clark or Lois began working for the paper, [[Lex Luthor]] owned the ''Daily Planet.'' When Luthor, deciding to sell the paper, began taking bids for the ''Planet'', Perry White convinced an international conglomerate, TransNational Enterprises, to buy the paper. They agreed to this venture with only one stipulation: that Perry White would become editor-in-chief. White has served as the ''Planet'' editor-in-chief ever since, barring the few times he was absent. During those times people such as [[Sam Foswell]] and Clark Kent have looked after the paper. [[Franklin Stern]], an old friend of White's, became the ''Daily Planet'''s publisher.
The ''Planet'' saw its share of rough times during White's tenure, including: worker strikes; the ''Daily Planet'' building being destroyed during the "Fall of Metropolis" storyline; the ''Planet'' building sustaining heavy damages after the villain [[Doomsday]]'s rampage; and possibly its darkest hour, Franklin Stern's decision to put the paper up for sale. Lex Luthor, disliking the heavy criticism of himself and his company that the ''Planet'' became noted for, purchased the ''Daily Planet'' and subsequently closed the paper down. Luthor fired every employee of the newspaper save for four people: [[Simone D'Neige]], [[Dirk Armstrong]] (a fictional counterpart of conservative [[radio]] commentator [[Rush Limbaugh]]), [[Jimmy Olsen]], and [[Lois Lane]]. As a final insult, Luthor saw to it that the ''Planet'' globe was unceremoniously dumped in the Metropolis [[landfill]]. In the ''Planet'''s place emerged "LexCom," a news-oriented [[Internet]] web site that primarily catered to Luthor's views of "quality journalism."
Eventually, after Lois Lane made a deal with Luthor, Luthor sold the ''Daily Planet'' to Perry White for the minuscule sum of one [[dollar]]. The paper was quickly reinstated, rehiring all of its old staff. Some time later, ownership of the ''Planet'' fell into the hands of [[Batman|Bruce Wayne]].
During the "Y2K" storyline (involving the city of Metropolis being infused with futuristic technology thanks to a descendant of the villain [[Brainiac]]), the ''Daily Planet'' building was "upgraded" along with the rest of Metropolis, and a holographic globe replaced the physical one. Eventually, Metropolis and the ''Daily Planet'' building, globe and all, were restored to their former states.
In the current comics and media spinoffs, the ''Daily Planet'' is presented as a thoroughly modern news operation, including operating an Internet web site much like most large newspapers. The ''Planet'''s reporters also have access to the best modern equipment to aid their work, though Perry White has often been shown as still favoring his manual [[typewriter]].
The ''Planet'''s major competitors in Metropolis include the [[tabloid]] newspaper the ''Daily Star'', WGBS-TV (which briefly employed Jimmy Olsen), and Lex Luthor's various media operations.
==In other media==
In the 2000s live-action television series ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]'', the ''Daily Planet'' building is located across the street from the LuthorCorp building. The editor-in-chief of the ''Planet'' in this series is [[Pauline Kahn]]. One of the main characters of ''Smallville'', [[Chloe Sullivan]], works in the basement of the ''Planet'', editing the paper's [[obituary|obituaries]].
==External links==
* [http://members.tripod.com/~davidschutz/superman3.html "Superman at the Star": An interview with Superman co-creator Joe Shuster from the ''Toronto Star'', April 26, 1992, about Shuster's memories of Toronto and the ''Evening Star'' newspaper.]
* [http://www.supermanhomepage.com/comics/who/who-intro.php?topic=daily-planet The Superman Homepage's entry for the Daily Planet]
* [http://supermanica.info/wiki/index.php/Daily_Planet Supermanica: Daily Planet] Supermanica entry on the Pre-Crisis Daily Planet
[[Category:Fictional newspapers]]
[[Category:Superman]]
[[sv:Daily Planet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Digital Private Network Signalling System</title>
<id>8965</id>
<revision>
<id>31467926</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-15T14:11:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.166.116.237</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Added specification number and current body responsible for it.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Digital Private Network Signalling System''' ('''DPNSS''') is a [[network protocol]] used on digital trunk lines for connecting two [[PABX]]. It supports a defined set of inter-networking facilities.
DPNSS was originally defined by [[British Telecom]]. The specification for the protocol is defined in BTNR188. The specification currently comes under the Network Interoperability Consultative Committee.
==See also==
* [[DASS1]]
* [[QSIG]]
{{com-stub}}
[[Category:Network protocols]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DASS1</title>
<id>8966</id>
<revision>
<id>32023982</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-19T22:57:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shanes</username>
<id>94147</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Ronberto|Ronberto]] ([[User talk:Ronberto|talk]]) to last version by Alynna Kasmira</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Digital Access Signaling System 1''' ('''DASS1''') is a [[protocol (computing)|protocol]] defined by [[British Telecom]] for digital links to [[PSTN]] based on [[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]].
==See also==
* [[DASS2]]
{{tech-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DASS2</title>
<id>8967</id>
<revision>
<id>31116959</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-12T23:40:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.9.109.222</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Digital Access Signaling System 2''' ('''DASS2''') is a [[protocol (computing)|protocol]] defined by [[British Telecom]] for digital links to [[PSTN]] based on [[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]].
It is an improved version based on experiences with [[DPNSS]].
In the UK the ISDN concept was first introduced to customers by BT with their
DASS2 connections. Dass2 (Digital Access Signalling System) is a BT designed
signalling standard. It was introduced before the Q931 standard was finalised
by the International Community. British Telecom used the term ISDN when
describing their DASS2 lines.
DASS2 lines are provided to the customer on a 2Mb/s link and can ha |
istory of syncretism==
*[[Druze]]
*[[Sikhism]]
*[[History of Rastafarianism]]
==Other==
*[[History of Shintoism]]
==External links==
*[http://www.historyofreligions.com/ History of religion]
[[Category:History of religion]]
[[ja:&#23447;&#25945;&#12398;&#27508;&#21490;]]
[[nl:Godsdienstgeschiedenis]]
[[pl:Historia religii]]
[[zh:&#23447;&#25945;&#21490;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>House music</title>
<id>13930</id>
<revision>
<id>42076517</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:39:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mushin</username>
<id>271938</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{genrebox|name=House
|color=silver
|bgcolor=black
|stylistic_origins=[[Electro (music)|Electro]], [[Funk]], [[Disco]], [[Synthpop]], [[Rhythm and blues|R&B]]
|cultural_origins=[[1980s]], [[New York, New York|New York]], [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[United Kingdom]]
|instruments=[[Synthesizer]] - [[Drum machine]] - [[Music sequencer|Sequencer]] - [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboard]] - [[Sampler (musical instrument)|Sampler]]
|popularity=Large, especially late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]] [[United Kingdom]]
|derivatives=[[Rave music|Rave]] - [[Nu jazz]] - [[Madchester]]
|subgenrelist=List of electronic music genres
|subgenres=[[Acid house|Acid]] - [[Chicago house|Chicago]] - [[Deep house|Deep]] - [[Garage (dance music)|Garage]] - [[Microhouse]] - [[Progressive house|Progressive]] - [[Dream house|Dream]] - [[Amsterdam house|Amsterdam]] - [[Amyl house|Amyl]] - [[Gabber house|Gabber]] - [[French house|French]] - [[Happy house|Happy]] - [[Hard house|Hard]] - [[Italo house|Italo]] - [[Latin house|Latin]] - [[Minimal house|Minimal]] - [[NY house|NY]] - [[Oriental house|Oriental]] - [[Pumpin' house|Pumpin']] - [[Tribal house|Tribal]] - [[UK Hard house|UK Hard]] - [[US Hard house|US Hard]] - [[Vocal house|Vocal]]
|fusiongenres=[[Ambient house|Ambient]] - [[Ghetto house|Ghetto]] - [[Hip house|Hip]] - [[Tech house|Tech]]
|regional_scenes=
|other_topics=[[List of house music artists|Notable artists and DJs]] - [[Styles of house music]]
}}
'''House music''' is a collection of styles of [[electronic dance music]], the earliest forms of which originated in the [[United States]] in the early- to mid-[[1980s in music|1980s]]. The name is said to derive from the Warehouse [[club]] in [[Chicago]], where the resident DJ, [[Frankie Knuckles]], mixed classic [[disco]] and European [[synthpop]] recordings. Club regulars referred to his selection of music as "'house" music. However, since Frankie was not creating new music at that time, it has been argued that [[Chip E.]] in his early recording "It's House" defined this new form of electronic music and gave it the name "House Music".
The common element of most house music is a 4/4 [[beat (music)|beat]] (a prominent kick drum on every beat) generated by a [[drum machine]] or other electronic means (such as a [[sampler (musical instrument)|sampler]]), together with a continuous, repeating (usually also electronically generated) [[bassline]]. Typically added to this foundation are electronically generated sounds and [[sampling (music)|samples]] of music such as [[jazz]], [[blues]] and [[synth pop]], as well as additional percussion. As new recordings adhering to this general style emerged, the house genre divided into a number of subcategories, some of which are described below.
"House Music" also refers to the recorded music played while a theatre audience takes their seats before a performance, or, in live music venues, the recorded music played before the live music begins. Well-known live acts can demand their choice of house music, or that there be none at all. Such demands are made in the technical rider to their contract (the same document that specifies what items must be present in the dressing room).
==History==
:''Not everyone understands House music; it's a spiritual thing; a body thing; a soul thing.''<br>
::--as sampled by Eddie Amador [[media:Eddie_Amador-House_Music.ogg|listen to 22 s sample (488Kb)]]
===Proto-history: from disco to house: late 1960s to early 1980s ===
''Main article:'' [[Electronic music#History|Electronic music history]]
House, [[techno music|techno]], [[electro (music)|electro]] and [[hip hop music|hip hop]] musicians owe their existence to the pioneers of [[analog synthesizer]]s and sample based keyboards such as the [[Minimoog]] and [[Mellotron]] which enabled a wizardry of sounds to exist, available at the touch of a button or key.
Although many people believe house music to have originated from Donna Summer's "[[I Feel Love]]", fully formed electronic music tracks actually came before house. Early American [[Sci-Fi]] films and the [[BBC]] Soundtrack to popular [[television series]] ''[[Doctor Who]]'' stirred a whole generation of techno music lovers like the [[space rock]] generation during the [[1970s]], influenced by the [[psychedelic music]] sound of the late [[1960s]] and bands such as [[Pink Floyd]], [[Soft Machine]], [[Amon Düül]], [[Crazy World of Arthur Brown]], and the so-called [[Krautrock]] early electronic scene ([[Tangerine Dream]] and [[Klaus Schulze]]). Shunned by many as a "gimmick" or "children's music", it was a genre similar and parallel to the [[Kosmische Rock]] scene in [[Germany]]. Space rock is characterized by the use of spatial and floating backgrounds, mantra loops, electronic sequences, and futuristic effects over Rock structures. Some of the most representative artists were [[Steve Hillage]]'s [[Gong (band)|Gong]] and [[Hawkwind]].
The late 1970s saw [[disco]] utilise the (by then) much developed electronic sound and a limited genre emerged, appealing mainly to [[gay]] and black audiences, it crossed over into mainstream [[United States|American]] culture following the hit [[1977]] film ''[[Saturday Night Fever]]''. As disco clubs filled there was a move to larger venues. "[[Paradise Garage]]" opened in [[New York]] in January [[1978]], featuring the [[DJ]] talents of [[Larry Levan]] ([[1954]]&ndash;[[1992]]). [[Studio 54]], another New York disco club, was extremely popular. The clubs played the tunes of singers such as [[Diana Ross]], [[Chic]], [[Gloria Gaynor]], [[Kool & the Gang]], [[Donna Summer]], and Larry Levan's own hit "I Got My Mind Made Up". Drugs including [[LSD]], [[poppers]] and [[quaalude]]s boosted the stamina of the clubbers. The disco boom was short-lived. There was a backlash from [[Middle America (US)|Middle America]], epitomised in Chicago radio DJ Steve Dahl's "[[Disco Demolition Night]]" in [[1979]]. Disco returned to the smaller clubs like the Warehouse in [[Chicago, Illinois]].
Opened in 1977 the Warehouse on Jefferson street in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] was a key venue in the development of House music. The main DJ was [[Frankie Knuckles]]. The club staples were still the old disco tunes but the limited number of records meant that the DJ had to be a creative force, introducing more deck work to revitalise old tunes. The new mixing skills also had local airplay with the [[Hot Mix 5]] at [[WBMX]]. The chief source of this kind of records in Chicago was the record-store "Imports Etc." where the term House was introduced as a shortening of Warehouse (as in these records are played at the Warehouse). Despite the new skills the music was still essentially disco until the early 1980s when the first [[drum machine]]s were introduced. Disco tracks could now be given an edge with the use of a mixer and drum machine. This was an added boost to the prestige of the individual DJs.
===Chicago years: early 1980s - late 1980s ===
{{main|Chicago house}}
In [[1983]] the Music Box club opened in Chicago. Owned by Robert Williams, the driving force was a DJ, [[Ron Hardy]]. The chief characteristics of the club's sound were sheer massive volume and an increased pace to the tunes. The pace was apparently the result of Hardy's [[heroin]] use. The club also played a wider range of music than just disco. Groups such as [[Kraftwerk]] and [[Blondie (band)|Blondie]] were well received, as was a brief flirtation with [[punk music|punk]], dances like "Punking-Out" or "Jacking" being very popular.
Two tunes are arguably the first House music, each arriving in early [[1983]]. The tune that was chronologically first was [[Jamie Principle]] and Frankie Knuckles' "Your Love", a huge hit in the clubs, but only available on tape copies. The second, "On And On" by [[Jesse Saunders]] was later put on vinyl (1985). (Shapiro, [[2000]]). Immediately on the tails of these recordings was [[Chip E.]] "Jack Trax" which defined the genre with its complex rhythms, simple bassline, use of sampling technology and minimalist vocals.
By [[1985]] house music dominated the clubs of Chicago, in part due to the radio play the music received on 102.7 FM WBMX, and their resident DJ Team the HOT MIX 5. Also, the music and movement was aided by the musical electronic revolution - the arrival of newer, cheaper and more compact [[music sequencer]]s, drum machines (the Roland 909 and 808 and 707, and Latin percussion machine the 727) and bass modules (such as the legendary [[Roland TB-303]] in late 1985) gave House music creators even wider possibilities in creating their own sound, indeed the creation of [[Acid House]] is directly related to the efforts of DJ Pierre on the new drum machines.
Two record labels dominated the house music scene in Chicago, DJ International Records, owned by Rocky Jones and Trax Records owned by [[Larry Sherman]] (Trax self pressed records and the quality was not as good as the Disc Makers pressings of DJ International).
Many of the songs that defined the era came off of those record labels. Steve Hurley's "M |
U/NetBSD]]'', on the [[NetBSD]] kernel
*''[[Debian GNU/kFreeBSD]]'', on the [[FreeBSD]] kernel
*''[[Nexenta OS]]'' is an unofficial port to the [[OpenSolaris]] kernel
There have been no official releases of the non-Linux ports yet, so currently Debian is exclusively a Linux distribution.
==Development versions==
Software packages in development are uploaded to branches called ''unstable'' (alias ''sid'') and ''experimental''. Normally, software packages uploaded to ''unstable'' are versions released by the original ''upstream'' developer that are themselves stable, but with packaging and other Debian-specific modifications introduced by Debian developers that may be new and untested. Software which is itself unstable or otherwise not yet ready for the ''unstable'' branch is typically placed in ''experimental''.
After a software package has remained in ''unstable'' for a certain length of time depending on the urgency of the changes in the new version, that package is automatically migrated to another branch, called ''testing'', if no more serious (''release-critical'') bugs in the package are reported and if the other packages on which that package depends for functionality are themselves qualified for inclusion in ''testing'' by the same criteria.
As updates to Debian software packages between official releases do not contain new features, ''testing'' and ''unstable'' branches are used by some for their newer packages. However, the software in ''testing'' and ''unstable'' is less tested; in the latter, incautious upgrades can sometimes seriously break operating software functionality.
The next stable release, currently in ''testing'' and codenamed ''etch'', is tentatively planned for December 2006.
==Project organization==
[[Image:Debian-organigram.png|thumb|300px|Diagram of the organisational structure of the Project]]
The Debian Project is a volunteer organization with three foundational documents:
*The [[Debian Social Contract]] defines a set of basic principles by which the project and its developers conduct affairs.
*The [[Debian Free Software Guidelines]] define the criteria for "free software" and so what software is permissible in the distribution, as referenced in the Social Contract. These guidelines have also been adopted as the basis of the [[Open Source Definition]].
*[http://www.debian.org/devel/constitution The Debian Constitution] describes the organizational structure for formal decision-making within the Project, and enumerates the powers and responsibilities of the Debian Project Leader, the Debian Project Secretary, and the Debian Developers generally.
Currently, the project includes more than a thousand developers. Each of them sustains some niche in the project, be it [[software package|package]] maintenance, [[software documentation]], maintaining the project infrastructure, [[quality assurance]], or release coordination. Package maintainers have jurisdiction over their own packages, although packages are increasingly co-maintained. Other tasks are usually the domain of smaller, more collaborative groups of developers.
The project maintains official [[mailing list]]s and conferences for communication and coordination between developers. For issues with single packages or domains, a public [[computer bug|bug]] tracking system is used by developers and end-users both. Informally, [[Internet Relay Chat]] channels (primarily on the [[OFTC]] and [[freenode|Freenode]] networks) are used for communication among developers and users as well.
Together, the Developers may make binding general decisions by way of a General Resolution or election. All voting is conducted by [[Schulze method|Cloneproof Schwartz Sequential Dropping]], a [[Condorcet method]] of voting. A Project [[Leader]] is elected once per year by a vote of the Developers; in April 2005, [[Branden Robinson]] was voted into this position, succeeding [[Martin Michlmayr]]. The Debian Project Leader has several special powers, but this power is far from absolute and is rarely utilized. Under a General Resolution, the Developers may, among other things, recall the leader, reverse a decision by him or his delegates, and amend the constitution and other foundational documents.
The Leader sometimes delegates authority to other developers in order for them to perform specialized tasks. Generally this means that a leader delegates someone to start a new group for a new task, and gradually a team gets formed that carries on doing the work and regularly expands or reduces their ranks as they think is best and as the circumstances allow.
Perhaps a more important person to Debian than the Leader is the [[software release|Release]] Manager, who sets goals for the next "stable" release, supervises the process, and makes the final decision as to when to release.
A list of many important positions in the Debian Project is available at [http://www.debian.org/intro/organization the Debian organization web page].
==Developer recruitment, motivation, and resignation==
The Debian Project has a steady influx of applicants wishing to become Developers. These applicants must undergo an elaborate vetting process which establishes their identity, motivation, understanding of the Project's goals (embodied in the Social Contract), and technical competence. More information on the "New Maintainer" process is available at [http://www.debian.org/devel/join/newmaint the Debian New Maintainer page].
Debian Developers join the Project for any number of reasons; some that have been cited in the past include:
*a desire to contribute back to the [[Free software movement|Free Software community]] (practically, all applicants are users of [[Free Software]]);
*a desire to see some specific software task accomplished (some view the Debian user community as a valuable testing or proving ground for new software);
*a desire to make, or keep, Free Software competitive with [[proprietary software|proprietary alternatives]];
*a desire to work closely with people that share some of their aptitudes, interests, and goals (there is a very strong sense of [[community]] within the Debian Project which some applicants do not experience in their paid jobs);
*a simple enjoyment of the iterative process of [[software development]] and maintenance (some developers have a nearly obsessive level of dedication to refinement and enhancement of software).
Debian Developers may resign their positions at any time by orphaning the packages they were responsible for and sending a notice to the developers and the [[public key infrastructure|keyring]] maintainer (so that their upload authorization can be revoked).
==Debian package life cycle==
[[Image:Debian-package-cycle.png|thumb|300px|Flowchart of the life cycle of a Debian package]]
Each Debian software package has a maintainer who keeps track of releases by the "upstream" authors of the software and ensures that the package is compliant with Debian Policy, coheres with the rest of the distribution, and meets the standards of quality of Debian. In relations with users and other developers, the maintainer uses the bug tracking system to follow up on bug reports and fix bugs. Typically, there is only one maintainer for a single package, but increasingly small teams of developers "co-maintain" larger and more complex packages and groups of packages.
Periodically, a package maintainer makes a release of a package by uploading it to the "incoming" directory of the Debian package archive (or an "upload queue" which periodically batch-transmits packages to the incoming directory).
Package uploads are automatically processed to ensure that the [[upload]] is well-formed (all the requisite files are in place) and that the package bears the digital signature -- produced with [[OpenPGP]]-compatible software -- of a Debian developer. All Debian developers have [[public key]]s. Packages are signed to be able to reject uploads from hostile outsiders to the project, and to permit accountability in the event that a package contains a serious [[Computer bug|bug]], a violation of policy, or malicious code.
If the package in incoming is found to be validly signed and well-formed, it is installed into the archive into an area called the "pool" and distributed every day to hundreds of [[mirror (computing)|mirror]]s worldwide. Initially, all package uploads accepted into the archive are only available in the "unstable" suite of packages, which contains the most up-to-date version of each package.
However, new code is also untried code, and those packages are only distributed with clear disclaimers. For packages to become candidates for the next "stable" release of the Debian distribution, they first need to be included in the "testing" suite. The requirements for a package to be included in "testing" is that it:
*must have been in ''unstable'' for the appropriate length of time (the exact duration depends on the "urgency" of the upload).
*must not have a greater number of "release-critical" bugs filed against it than the current version in testing. Release-critical bugs are those bugs which are considered serious enough that they make the package unsuitable for release.
*must be compiled for all architectures slated to release.
*must be a package for an architecture that is slated to release (in other words, packages for architectures that aren't scheduled to release with all the rest are never considered for "testing").
*must not depend on versions of any packages that do not meet the above conditions.
Thus, a release-critical bug in a package on which many packages depend, such as a shared library, may prevent many packages from entering the "testing" area, because that library is considered deficient.
Periodically, the Release Manager publishes guidelines to the developers in ord |
orgegraham}} and he was sacked in 1995. His replacement, [[Bruce Rioch]], lasted for only one season, leaving the club after a dispute over transfer funds.
The club's success in the late 1990s and 2000s owes a great deal to the appointment of manager [[Arsène Wenger]] in 1996. Wenger brought new tactics, a new training regime and several foreign players who complemented the existing English talent. Arsenal won a second league and cup double in 1998 and a third in 2002. In addition, the club were victorious in the 2003 and 2005 FA Cups, and won the League in 2004 without losing a single match; in all, the club went 49 league matches unbeaten, a [[Football records in England|record]]. Arsenal finished in either first or second place in the league in eight of Wenger's first nine seasons, and they are now considered to be one of the "big three" clubs in England along with [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] and [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]]. However, they have been unable to replicate their domestic success in the [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]], having never progressed beyond the quarter-finals (as of 2005).
<!--
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==Crest==
[[Image:Arsenal crest 1888.png|thumb|160px|Arsenal's first crest from 1888]]
[[Image:Arsenal_fc_old_crest_small.png|thumb|160px|Arsenal's crest from ''c.'' 1949 to 2002]]
Royal Arsenal's first crest, unveiled in 1888, featured three [[cannon]] viewed from above, pointing northwards, similar to the crest of the [[Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich|Borough of Woolwich]]. These can sometimes be mistaken for [[chimney]]s, but the presence of a carved lion's head and a [[cascabel]] on each are clear indicators that they are cannon. In 1922, the club adopted its first single-cannon crest, featuring an eastward-pointing cannon. This crest was only used until 1925 when the cannon was reversed to point westward, its barrel was slimmed down and the club's nickname, ''The Gunners'', was inscribed to the left of it. In 1949, the club unveiled a modernised crest featuring the same style of cannon, the club's name set in [[blackletter]] above the cannon, and a scroll inscribed with the club's newly adopted [[Latin]] [[motto]], ''Victoria Concordia Crescit'' (meaning "victory comes from harmony"). For the first time, the crest was rendered in colour – red, green, and gold – which varied slightly over the crest's lifespan.
Because of the numerous revisions of the crest, Arsenal were unable to [[copyright]] it; although the club had managed to register the crest as a [[trademark]], and had fought (and eventually won) a long legal battle with a local street trader who sold 'unofficial' Arsenal merchandise,{{ref|trademark}} Arsenal sought more comprehensive legal protection. Therefore, in 2002 they introduced a new crest featuring more modern curved lines and a simplified style, which was copyrightable.{{ref|newcrest}} The cannon once again faces east and the club's name is written in a [[sans-serif]] [[typeface]] above the cannon. Green was replaced by dark blue. The new crest received a mixed response from supporters, with some claiming that it had ignored much of Arsenal's history by removing the blackletter text, motto, and [[Heraldry|coat of arms]].
==Colours==
{{Football kit box |
align = left |
pattern_la = |
pattern_b = |
pattern_ra = |
leftarm = FFFFFF |
body = FF0000 |
rightarm = FFFFFF |
shorts = FFFFFF |
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title = Arsenal's usual home colours
}}
For much of Arsenal's history, their home colours have been bright red shirts with white sleeves and white shorts, though this has not always been the case. The choice of red is in recognition of a charitable donation from [[Nottingham Forest F.C.|Nottingham Forest]], soon after Arsenal's foundation in 1886. Two of Dial Square's founding members, [[Fred Beardsley]] and [[Morris Bates]], were former Forest players who had moved to Woolwich for work. As they put together the first team in the area, no kit could be found, so Beardsley and Bates wrote home for help and received a set of kit and a ball. The shirt was a darker shade of red than the club's modern-day colours, almost purple, and was worn with either white or dark red shorts.
In 1933 Herbert Chapman, wanting his players to be more distinctly dressed, updated the kit, adding white sleeves and changing the shade to a brighter [[pillar box]] red. The team have stuck with the combination since, aside from two seasons. Firstly, in [[1963-64 in English football|1963–64]] the kit reverted to all red, but this proved unpopular and the white sleeves returned the following season. Secondly, as [[2005-06 in English football|2005–06]] is the last season that Arsenal will play at Highbury, the team's shirts have temporarily reverted back to the original darker red, or "redcurrant", to reflect the colour worn in the first season at Highbury, in 1913. The club will return to its usual colours at the end of the season.
Arsenal's home colours have been the inspiration for at least two other clubs. In 1909, [[AC Sparta Praha|Sparta Prague]] adopted a dark red kit like the one Arsenal wore at the time; in the 1930s, [[Hibernian F.C.|Hibernian]] adopted the design of the Arsenal shirt sleeves in their own green and white strip. Both teams still wear these designs to this day.
Arsenal's away colours are traditionally yellow and blue, although they wore a green and navy away kit for a short while in the early 1980s. Since the 1990s and the advent of the lucrative replica kit market, the away colours have been changed every couple of seasons. Generally, they have been either yellow and blue, or two-tone blue designs, although there was a metallic gold and navy strip for the [[2001-02 in English football|2001–02]] season. However, many Arsenal fans feel that the blue shirts bring bad luck – all three of the club's recent Premier League titles have come in a season where the team wore yellow or gold. The [[2005-06 in English football|2005–06]] away colours are yellow and dark grey.
==Stadium==
[[Image:Arsenal Stadium interior North Bank.jpg|thumb|300px|The North Bank stand, [[Arsenal Stadium]].]]
[[Image:Emirates Stadium under construction.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Emirates Stadium]] under construction]]
[[Arsenal Stadium]], widely referred to as Highbury, has been Arsenal's home since the club's move to North London in 1913. The original stadium was built by the renowned football architect [[Archibald Leitch]], and had a design common to many football grounds in the UK at the time, with a single covered stand and three open-air banks of [[stadium|terracing]]. In the 1930s, the entire stadium was given a massive overhaul, with new [[Art Deco]] East and West stands constructed, and roofs added to the North Bank and Clock End terraces. At its peak, Highbury could hold over 60,000 spectators, and had a capacity of 57,000 until the early 1990s. The [[Taylor Report]] and [[FA Premier League|Premier League]] regulations forced Arsenal to convert Highbury into an all-seater in 1992, reducing its capacity to the current total of 38,500; this capacity has to be reduced further during [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]] matches to accommodate additional [[advertising]] hoardings. Expansion has been restricted because the East Stand is now a [[listed building|Grade II listed building]].
These limitations in Highbury's capacity have prevented the club from maximising the revenue that their domestic form could have brought in recent seasons. Although the club remains highly profitable, Arsenal are currently in the process of building [[Emirates Stadium]], a new 60,000-seater stadium at Ashburton Grove, about 500 metres south-west of Highbury. While this project was delayed by red tape (including final approval of the necessary compulsory purchase orders by [[Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Deputy Prime Minister]] [[John Prescott]]) and rising costs, construction is now nearly complete and the stadium is expected to be ready for the start of the [[2006-07 in English football|2006–07]] season. The stadium is named after its sponsors, the airline company [[Emirates]], with whom the club signed the largest sponsorship deal in English football history, worth approximately £100 million over the term of the deal. As a part of the deal the stadium will be known as Emirates Stadium for at least the first 15 years, and the airline will be the club's shirt sponsor from 2006 until the end of the 2013–14 season.
==Supporters==
Arsenal have a large and generally loyal fanbase, with virtually all home matches selling out. Arsenal fans often refer to themselves as "Gooners", the name being derived from the team's nickname, "The Gunners". The club's location, adjoining both wealthy areas such as [[Crouch End]] and [[Hampstead]], mixed areas such as [[Islington]] and [[Highbury]], and working-class suburbs such as [[Holloway, London|Holloway]], [[Finsbury Park]] and [[Stoke Newington]] has meant that Arsenal's supporters have come from across the usual class divides. Arsenal have the highest proportion (7.7%) of non-white attending supporters of any club in English football, probably because of the high proportion of [[minority|ethnic minorities]] in north London.{{ref|minorities}}
Like all major English football clubs, Arsenal have a number of domestic supporters' clubs, including the Official Arsenal Football Supporters Club, which is affiliated with |
Croatian alphabet consists of 30 letters (official character set is ''ISO-8859-2'', but Microsoft's ''Windows-1250'' character set is also used very often).
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Croatia]]''
[[Croats]] came to [[Dalmatia]] and [[Pannonia]] in the [[7th century]]. Ruled by various [[List of rulers of Croatia|Croatian Princes]], [[Dukes]] since [[852]], Dalmatia eventually absorbed Pannonia and after periods of nominal [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman]] and then [[Frankish]] Imperial rule, Croatia eventually became a strong independent [[Kingdom]] in [[924]]. In [[1102]] the Croatians ended a decades-long dynastic struggle by agreeing to submit themselves to [[Hungary|Hungarian]] Royal authority.
By the mid-1400s, the [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungarian kingdom]] was gravely hurt by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] expansion as much of the mountainous country now known as [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] fell to the Turks. At the same time, [[Dalmatia]] became mostly [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]]. [[Dubrovnik]] was a [[city-state]] that was firstly [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] (Roman) and Venetian, but later, unlike other Dalmatian city-states, it became independent as [[Republic of Dubrovnik]], even if it was often under the [[suzerainty]] of neighboring powers.
The [[Battle of Mohács]] in [[1526]] led the [[Croatian Parliament]] to invite the [[Habsburg]]s to assume control over Croatia. Habsburg rule eventually did prove to be successful in thwarting the Ottomans, and by the 18th century, much of Croatia was free of Turkish control. The odd crescent shape of the Croatian lands remained as a mark, more or less, of the frontier to the Ottoman advance into Europe. [[Istria]], Dalmatia and Dubrovnik all eventually passed to the [[Habsburg Monarchy]] between [[1797]] and [[1815]].
[[Image:Hr-map.png|framed|Map of Croatia]]
Following [[World War I]], Croatia joined the [[State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs]] (comprising what is today, [[Slovenia]], Croatia and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]]). Shortly thereafter, this joint state in turn formed a union with [[Serbia]] to form the [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]] (which eventually became [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] in [[1929]]). [[Yugoslavia]] was invaded during [[World War II]] and Croatia was turned into a [[fascist]] puppet-state named [[Independent State of Croatia]]. When the Axis powers were defeated, Yugoslavia became a federal [[communist state|socialist state]].
Along with Slovenia, Croatia declared her independence from [[Yugoslavia]] on [[June 25]], [[1991]], which triggered the [[Croatian War of Independence]]. Belgrade rejected the new country and the ensuing months saw combat between various Croatian armed forces and the Belgrade-based [[YNA]] (Yugoslav National Army). In early 1992, Germany recognised Croatia, with many other influential countries following suit; finally the remainder of Yugoslavia was compelled to recognise the newly independent states, and as such, the Yugoslav security forces withdrew.
A [[Serb]] poplation living in some areas of Croatia then revolted and proclaimed their own state - [[Republic of Serbian Krajina]]. They were supported by the [[JNA|Yugoslav army]]. In [[1995]], the Croatian Army successfully launched two major offensives to retake the rebel areas by force, leading to a mass exodus of the Serbian population. A few months later, as a result, the war ended upon the negotiation of the [[Dayton Agreement]]. A peaceful integration of the remaining Serbian-controlled territories was completed in [[1998]] under [[UN]] supervision.
Croatia is currently in the process of joining the [[European Union]], accession negotiations started in December 2005.
== Counties ==
[[Image:City of Korcula, Island of Korcula, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|150px|City of [[Korčula]], Island of Korčula]]
[[Image:Dubrovnik (near), Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Dubrovnik]]]]
[[Image:Amphitheater (external view), Pula, Istria, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Amphitheater in [[Pula]], [[Istria]]]]
''Main article: [[Counties of Croatia]]''
Croatia is divided into 20 counties (Croatian: županija) and the city district of the capital, Zagreb*:
# [[Zagreb county]] (Zagrebačka županija)
# [[Krapina-Zagorje county]] (Krapinsko-zagorska županija)
# [[Sisak-Moslavina county]] (Sisačko-moslavačka županija)
# [[Karlovac county]] (Karlovačka županija)
# [[Varaždin county]] (Varaždinska županija)
# [[Koprivnica-Križevci county]] (Koprivničko-križevačka županija)
# [[Bjelovar-Bilogora county]] (Bjelovarsko-bilogorska županija)
# [[Primorje-Gorski Kotar county]] (Primorsko-goranska županija)
# [[Lika-Senj county]] (Ličko-senjska županija)
# [[Virovitica-Podravina county]] (Virovitičko-podravska županija)
# [[Požega-Slavonia county]] (Požeško-slavonska županija)
# [[Brod-Posavina county]] (Brodsko-posavska županija)
# [[Zadar county]] (Zadarska županija)
# [[Osijek-Baranja county]] (Osječko-baranjska županija)
# [[Šibenik-Knin county]] (Šibensko-kninska županija)
# [[Vukovar-Srijem county]] (Vukovarsko-srijemska županija)
# [[Split-Dalmatia county]] (Splitsko-dalmatinska županija)
# [[Istria county]] (Istarska županija)
# [[Dubrovnik-Neretva county]] (Dubrovačko-neretvanska županija)
# [[Međimurje county]] (Međimurska županija)
# [[Zagreb]] (Grad Zagreb)*
See also: [[List of cities in Croatia]]
== Geography ==
''Main article: [[Geography of Croatia]]''
[[Image:Plitvice lakes.JPG|thumb|right|150px|The [[Plitvice Lakes]], a [[UNESCO]]-[[World Heritage]] Site]]
[[Image:Pakleni otoci (Hell's Islands) near Hvar, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Hell's Islands (Pakleni otoci) near [[Hvar]]]]
[[Image:Brela, Southern Dalmatia, Croatia.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Brela]], Southern Dalmatia]]
Croatia is situated between central, southern, and eastern Europe. It has a rather peculiar shape that resembles a crescent or a horseshoe which helps account for its many neighbours: [[Slovenia]], [[Hungary]], the [[Serbia]]n part of [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], the [[Montenegro|Montenegrin]] part of Serbia and Montenegro, and [[Italy]] across the Adriatic (disputed, see [[Foreign_relations_of_Croatia#Slovenia|Slovenia-Croatia border dispute]]). Its mainland territory is split in two non-contiguous parts by the short coastline of Bosnia and Herzegovina around [[Neum]].
Its terrain is diverse, containing:
* plains, lakes and rolling hills in the continental north and northeast (Central Croatia and [[Slavonia]], part of the [[Pannonian plain]]);
* densely wooded mountains in [[Lika]] and Gorski Kotar, part of the [[Dinaric Alps]];
* rocky coastlines on the [[Adriatic Sea]] ([[Istria]], Northern Seacoast and [[Dalmatia]]).
The country is famous for it's many beautiful [[List of national parks of Croatia|national parks]].
Croatia has a mixture of [[climate]]s. In the north and east it is continental, Mediterranean along the coast and a semi-highland and highland climate in the south-central region.
== Politics ==
===Political system===
''Main article: [[Politics of Croatia]]''
Since the adoption of the [[1990]] [[Constitution of Croatia|Constitution]], Croatia has been a [[parliamentary democracy]].
{| class="toccolours" align="right" style="margin: 0.5em"
|-
| style="background:#ccccff" align="center" | '''Croatia is a member of:'''
|-
| align="center" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[United Nations]]
|-
| align="center" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Council of Europe]]
|-
| align="center" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]]
|-
| align="center" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Partnership for Peace]]
|-
| align="center" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Foreign relations of Croatia#International organizations|Other organizations]]
|}
The [[Presidents of Croatia|President of the Republic]] (''Predsjednik'') is [[head of state]] and elected for a five-year term, and the Prime Minister is Head of Government. In addition to being the [[commander in chief]] of the armed forces, the president has the procedural duty of appointing the Prime minister with the consent of the Parliament, and has some influence on foreign policy.
The [[Croatian Parliament]] (''Sabor'') is a [[unicameral]] legislative body of not less then 100 and not more then 160 representatives, all elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The plenary sessions of the Sabor take place from January 15 to July 15, and from September 15 to December 15.
The [[Croatian Government]] (''Vlada'') is headed by the [[Prime ministers of Croatia|Prime minister]] who has 2 deputy prime ministers and 14 ministers in charge of particular sectors of activity. The executive branch is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the foreign and internal policies of the republic.
Croatia has a three-tiered judicial system, consisting of the [[Croatian Supreme Court|Supreme Court]], county courts, and municipal courts. The [[Croatian Constitutional Court|Constitutional Court]] rules on matters regarding the [[Constitution of Croatia|Constitution]].
''See also:'' [[Foreign relations of Croatia]]
===European Union===
''Main article: [[Enlargement of the European Union#Croatia|Croatian accession to the European Union]]
== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Croatia]]''
[[Image:Sibenik_(Croatia)_Cathedral_of_St_Jacob.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Cathedral of St. Jakob in [[Šibenik]]]]
Croatia has an economy based mostly on various [[Tertiary sector of industry|services]] and some, mostly light [[Secondary sector of industry|industry]]. [[Tourism]] is a notable source of income.
The estimated [[Gross Domestic Product]] per capita in [[purchasing power parity]] terms for 2004 was USD 11,200 or 41.6% of the [[European Union|EU]] average for the same year.
T |
ulges and additional armour, and building on a "pagoda" mast. The 3,800 tons of additional armour slowed their speed, but between 1933 and 1940 replacement of heavy equipment and an increase in the length of the hull by 26ft (8m) allowed them to get up to 30 knots once again. They were reclassified as "fast battleships", although their armour and guns still fell short compared to surviving World War 1-era battleships in American or British navies. In battle against true fast battleships of the [[South Dakota class battleship|''South Dakota'']] and [[North Carolina class battleship|''North Carolina'']] classes, the "fast battleship" refit would prove inferior to the real thing.
* The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] scrapped three of the four ''Amagi'' class battlecruisers (which were under construction), and converted the fourth, [[Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi|''Akagi'']], into an [[aircraft carrier]] in 1927.
====US Designs====
The [[United States Navy]] retasked two battlecruiser hulls as aircraft carriers: [[USS Lexington (CV-2)|USS ''Lexington'']] and [[USS Saratoga (CV-3)|''Saratoga'']] were both designed as battlecruisers (the hull designations were originally CC-1 and CC-3) but converted part-way through construction, although this was only considered marginally preferable to scrapping the hulls outright (the remaining four: ''Constellation'', ''Ranger'', ''Constitution'' and ''United States'' were indeed scrapped). The ''Lexington'' class battlecruisers if completed would have been closer in concept to the later fast battleships, being both swift and well-armored without sacrificing firepower. They were planned to be armed with 16" guns and armored against light battleship-caliber weapons; the engines required to propel these vessels at 33 knots (their design speed) made them into fast, flexible and tough aircraft carriers with large growth margins. The heavy use of ''Saratoga'' during World War II, however (at one point she and ''Enterprise'' were the only carriers in the Pacific), precluded her from having a postwar career: Severe and repeated bomb and torpedo damage took their toll and by 1946 the hull was simply worn out.
===Rearmament===
As war became more likely nations began to rebuild their forces. At first lip-service was paid to the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and the [[Washington Naval Treaty]], but as war became more likely the designs became more ambitious.
====German designs====
*The German pocket battleships (German:''Panzerschiffe'' - ''armored ship'': [[German battleship Deutschland|''Deutschland'']], [[German battleship Admiral Scheer|''Admiral Scheer'']], and [[German battleship Admiral Graf Spee|''Admiral Graf Spee'']]), built to meet the 10,000 ton [[displacement (fluid)|displacement]] limit of the [[Treaty of Versailles]], were another attempt at a battlecruiser-like concept. Rather than construct a lightweight battleship which sacrificed protection in order to attain high speed, the pocket battleships were relatively small vessels with only six 11 inch (280&nbsp;mm) guns &mdash; essentially large [[heavy cruiser]]s. They attained fairly high speeds of 26 knots (52&nbsp;km/h), and reasonable protection, while staying close to the displacement limit, by using welded rather than riveted construction, triple main armament [[turret]]s, and replacing the normal [[steam turbine]] power with a pair of massive 9 cylinder [[diesel engine]]s driving each propeller shaft. They were later reclassified as "heavy cruisers", having heavier guns and armour than regular heavy cruisers at the cost of speed. Unfortunatley, they were outclassed by British WW1-era true battlecruisers in speed, weaponry, and protection.
*Two more ships were built later in the 1930s, the [[German battlecruiser Scharnhorst|''Scharnhorst'']] and [[German battlecruiser Gneisenau|''Gneisenau'']], which were considerably more powerful. At 38,900 tons full load they were somewhat larger than the French ''Dunkerque'' class and very well armoured. They were designed to carry six 15 inch (380mm) guns in three twin turrets, but for various reasons they were stuck with nine 11 inch (280mm) guns in three triple turrets instead (it was planned to rearm them during the war, but this plan was abandoned). The Royal Navy categorised them as battlecruisers since they followed the Imperial German Navy design lineage of trading off gun size for protection and speed. The German Navy nonetheless categorised them as battleships.
====French designs====
As a response to the German pocket battleships the French decided to build the [[French battleship Dunkerque|''Dunkerque'' class]] in the 1930s. They were labelled "fast battleships" and were armed with 13 inch (330mm) guns arranged in two quadruple turrets located forward. They were considerably larger, faster and more powerfully armed than the ships they were designed to hunt. This last design illustrated inter-war technological developments. The ultimate limit on ship speed was drag from the water displaced (which increases as a cube of speed) rather than weight, so heavier armor slowed [[World War II]] battleships by only a couple of knots (4&nbsp;km/h) over their more lightly armored brethren. Heavy guns mounted on fast and well armoured ''fast battleships'' invalidated the concept of the battlecruiser as a ship class in its own right, although the development of the [[aircraft carrier]] overshadowed all big-gun vessels including the ''fast battleship''.
==Second World War==
===Commerce raiding===
In the early years of the war the German ships each had a measure of success hunting merchant ships in the [[Atlantic]]. The [[pocket battleships]] were deployed alone and sank a number of vessels, causing disruption to the trade routes which supplied the [[UK]]. They were pursued by the [[Royal Navy]] and on one occasion, at the [[Battle of the River Plate]] in 1939, the hunter became the hunted. Allied battlecruisers such as [[HMS Renown|''Renown'']], [[HMS Repulse|''Repulse'']], [[French battleship Dunkerque|''Dunkerque'']] and [[French battleship Strasbourg|''Strasbourg'']] were employed on operations to hunt down the commerce raiding German battlecruisers, but they rarely got close to their targets. The exception was when the [[German battleship Bismarck|''Bismarck'']] was sent out as a raider and was intercepted by [[HMS Hood (1918)|HMS ''Hood'']] in May [[1941]]. However, the modern German battleship was not suitable prey for the elderly British battlecruiser and the ''Bismarck’s'' 15 inch shells caused a magazine explosion reminiscent of the [[Battle of Jutland]]. Only three men survived.
The [[German battlecruiser Gneisenau|''Gneisenau'']] and the [[German battlecruiser Scharnhorst|''Scharnhorst'']] hunted together and were initially successful at commerce raiding, sinking the British armed merchant cruiser ''Rawalpindi'' in 1939. Following repairs from damage during the [[Norwegian campaign]], the two battlecruisers set out commerce raiding once again in 1941 and sank 22 merchant ships. They returned to [[Brest, France|Brest]] in northern [[France]] but found this port was vulnerable to [[Royal Air Force]] attacks and were obliged to return to [[Germany]]. They did so in the [[Channel Dash]], a daring and successful run up the [[English Channel]]. However, they were both damaged and although ''Scharnhorst'' was repaired, ''Gneisenau'' was damaged again in [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] bombing raids and was eventually disarmed and sunk as a blockship. [[German battlecruiser Scharnhorst|''Scharnhorst'']] was employed once more to attack commerce and attempted to raid the [[Arctic convoys of World War II|Arctic convoys]] in December 1943. However, she was cornered by the battleship [[HMS Duke of York (17)| HMS ''Duke of York'']] at the [[Battle of North Cape]] and sunk on [[26 December]] [[1943]].
The use of battlecruisers as commerce raiders was curtailed following an attack by the [[German pocket battleship Admiral Scheer|''Admiral Scheer'']] on a convoy guarded by the [[HMS Jervis Bay (F40)|HMS ''Jervis Bay'']], an armed merchant cruiser. It persuaded the British [[Admiralty]] that convoys had to be guarded by battleships (or battlecruisers) and subsequently the smaller German ships were forced away from their quarry. Additionally, the air gap over the North Atlantic closed, [[Huff-Duff]] (radio triangulation equipment) improved, airborne [[History of radar#Magnetron|centimetric radar]] was introduced and convoys received [[escort carrier]] protection. The results of some of these developments were illustrated by the successful defence of convoys at the [[Battle of the Barents Sea]] and the [[Battle of the North Cape]].
===Norwegian campaign===
[[Image:Gneisenau-18.jpg|thumb|220px|German battlecruisers in a Norwegian port in June 1940]]
The [[Royal Navy]] and the [[Kriegsmarine]] both deployed battlecruisers during the [[Norwegian Campaign]] in April [[1940]]. The [[German battlecruiser Gneisenau|''Gneisenau'']] and the [[German battlecruiser Scharnhorst|''Scharnhorst'']] both engaged [[HMS Renown (1916)|HMS ''Renown'']] and although they had stronger armour than their counterpart, the British ship could hit them harder and at a longer range. They disengaged after ''Gneisenau'' sustained damage.
Later in the campaign they returned and sunk the light [[aircraft carrier]] [[HMS Glorious|HMS ''Glorious'']] (a converted battlecruiser herself) and her destroyer escort. One of the destroyers succeeded in damaging the ''Scharnhorst'' with a torpedo, and later a submarine did the same to ''Gneisenau'', forcing both ships to spend several months in repair. The [[pocket battleship]] [[Lutzow|''Lutzow'']] was similarly damaged by [[HMS Spearfish (S95)|HMS ''Spearfish'']] during the campaign.
===Mediterranean===
The French battlecruisers had fled to North Africa following the [[Battle of France|fall of France]]. In [[July |
r>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Atlas (architecture)]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atlas the topology term</title>
<id>2591</id>
<revision>
<id>15900989</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-03T17:01:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
<id>43</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Atlas (topology)]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atlas Computer (Manchester)</title>
<id>2592</id>
<revision>
<id>31430634</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-15T05:03:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.193.189.215</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Atlas Computer''' of the [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]] became operational in [[1962]], as a joint development between the University, [[Ferranti]] and [[Plessey]]. It was arguably the fastest computer in the world until the release of the [[CDC 6600]]. It was said at the time that whenever it went offline half of the [[United Kingdom|UK]] computer capacity was lost. It was a second-generation computer, using [[transistor]]s.
Two other Atlas machines were built: one for [[BP|British Petroleum]] and the [[University of London]] and one for the [[Atlas Computer Laboratory]] at Chilton near [[Oxford]]. A derivative system was built by Ferranti for [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]], called the [[Titan (computer)|Titan]], which had a different memory organisation, and ran a [[time-sharing]] operating system developed by Cambridge Computer Laboratory.
The University of Manchester's Atlas system was eventually decommissioned in [[1971]].
==Technical description==
===Hardware===
The machine had many innovative features but the key operating parameters were:
* 48-bit [[word size]]
* 24-bit [[address space]]
* 16[[Kilo|K]] words of [[magnetic core memory|core store]] (equivalent to 96 [[kilobyte|KB]]), featuring interleaving of odd/even addresses
* 96K words of [[drum memory|drum store]] (eqv. to 576 KB), split across four drums but integrated with the core store using [[virtual memory]] and [[paging]] techniques
* Capability for the addition of (for the time) sophisticated new [[peripheral]]s such as [[magnetic tape]]
* Addressing of peripherals through Vstore addresses and [[extracode]] routines
It did not use a synchronous clocking mechanism so performance measurements were not easy but as an example:
* [[Fixed-point arithmetic|Fixed-point]] [[processor register|register]] add &mdash; 1.59 [[microsecond]]s
* [[Floating-point]] add, no modification &mdash; 1.61 microseconds
* Floating-point add, double modify &mdash; 2.61 microseconds
* Floating-point multiply, double modify &mdash; 4.97 microseconds
===Extracode===
One interesting feature of the Atlas was '''extracode''', a system that allowed new instructions to be added in software.
The uppermost ten [[bit]]s of an Atlas machine instruction denoted which operation should be performed. If the [[most significant bit]] was set to [[0 (number)|zero]], this was an ordinary machine instruction executed directly by the hardware.
If the uppermost bit was set to [[1 (number)|one]], this was an Extracode and was implemented as a special kind of [[subroutine]] jump to an [[memory address|address]] in the fixed store ([[Read-only memory|ROM]]) where that address was determined by the other nine bits. Extracode mode had its own [[program counter|program address counter]].
Many of the extracodes were what we would probably call [[microcode]]s nowadays; they were simple arithmetic [[procedures]] which would have been too inefficient to implement in [[computer hardware|hardware]]. However, about half of the codes were designated as Supervisor functions which invoked [[operating system]] procedures. Typical examples would be "Print the character specified on the stream specified" or "Read a block of 512 words from logical tape N".
Extracodes were the only means that a [[computer program|program]] could communicate with the Supervisor program.
Modern Intel-type CPUs have a mechanism which is similar in principle but termed 'interrupts'. This is a bad and unhelpful name, as it leads to confusion with [[interrupt|hardware interrupt]]s.
===Software===
A unique [[Supervisor]] software system managed the computer's processing time (as such it qualifies in modern terminology as an advanced [[scheduling|job scheduler]], or a simple [[operating system]]).
One of the first [[high level language]]s available on Atlas was named [[Atlas Autocode]], which was contemporary to Algol60 and created specifically to address what Tony Brooker perceived to be some defects in that language. The Atlas did however support [[Algol 60]], as well as [[Fortran]] and [[COBOL]]. Being a university machine it was patronised by a large number of the student population who even had access to a protected [[machine code]] development environment.
<!-- What other [[operating system]]s and [[programming language]]s were available on the Atlas? [[CPL]] was intended to be made available. -->
==References==
*''The First Computers: History and Architectures'', edited by Raúl Rojas and Ulf Hashagen, 2000, MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-18197-5.
*[http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/docs/atlasautocode.html The Atlas Autocode Reference Manual]
[[Category:Early computers]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Accountancy</title>
<id>2593</id>
<revision>
<id>42058001</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:43:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Weregerbil</username>
<id>700735</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv spam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Accountancy''' ([[profession]]) or '''accounting''' (methodology) is the measurement, disclosure or provision of assurance about information that helps managers and other decision makers make resource allocation decisions. [[Financial accountancy | Financial accounting]] is one branch of accounting and historically has involved processes by which financial information about a business is recorded, classified, summarized, interpreted, and communicated. [[Financial audit|Auditing]], a related but separate discipline, is the process whereby an independent auditor examines an organization's financial statements in order to express an opinion -- that conveys reasonable but not absolute assurance -- as to the fairness and adherence to [[generally accepted accounting principles]], in all material respects.
Practitioners of accountancy are known as '''accountants'''. Officially [[license]]d accountants are recognized by titles such as ''[[Chartered Accountant]]'' (UK, Canada, India), ''[[Certified Public Accountant]]'' (US), ''[[Certified Management Accountant]]'' (Canada), or ''[[Certified General Accountant]]'' (Canada). The majority of "public" accountants in Canada are Chartered Accountants; however, Certified General Accountants are also authorized by legislation to practise public accounting and auditing in all Canadian provinces, except Ontario and Quebec, as of 2005.
Accountancy attempts to create accurate [[financial statement|financial reports]] that are useful to managers, regulators, and other [[stakeholder]]s such as [[shareholder]]s, [[creditor]]s, or owners. The day-to-day record-keeping involved in this process is known as bookkeeping.
At the heart of modern financial accounting is the [[double-entry book-keeping]] system.
This system involves making at least two entries for every transaction: a debit in one account, and a corresponding credit in another account. The sum of all debits should always equal the sum of all credits. This provides an easy way to check for errors. This system was first used in medieval [[Europe]], although claims have been made that the system dates back to [[Ancient Greece]].
According to critics of [[standard accounting practices]], it has changed little since. [[Accounting reform]] measures of some kind have been taken in each generation to attempt to keep bookkeeping relevant to capital assets or production capacity. However, these have not changed the basic principles, which are supposed to be independent of [[economics]] as such.
==History==
Accountancy's infancy dates back to the earliest days of [[human]] [[agriculture]] and [[civilization]] (the [[Sumerians]] in [[Mesopotamia]]), when the need to maintain accurate records of the quantities and relative values of agricultural products first arose.
The art of accountancy based upon a [[logic]]al [[mathematic]] [[system]] ([[double-entry book-keeping]]) must certainly have been understood in [[Italy]] before 1495, when [[Luca Pacioli]] (1445 - 1517), also known as Friar Luca dal Borgo, published at [[Venice]] his treatise on book-keeping.
The first known [[English language|English]] book on the science was published in [[London]] by John Gouge or Gough in 1543. It is described as ''A Profitable Treatyce called the Instrument or Boke to learn to knowe the good order of the kepyng of the famouse reconynge, called in Latin, Dare and Habere, and, in English, Debitor and Creditor''.
A short book of instructions were also published in 1588 by [[John Mellis]] of [[Southwark]], in which he says, "I am but the renuer and reviver of an ancient old copie printed here in London the 14 of August 1543: collected, published, made, and set forth by one Hugh Oldcastle, Scholemaster, who, as appeareth by his treatise, then taught Arithmetics, and this booke in Saint Ollaves parish in Marko Lane." John Mellis refers to the fact that the principle of accounts he explains (which is a simple system of double entry) is "after the forme of Venice".
The very interesting and able book described as ''The Merchants M |
he right, consisting of a shifting of the player's body weight to the right side, a turning of the [[pelvis]] and shoulders, lifting of the arms and flexing of the [[elbow]]s and [[wrist]]s. At the end of the backswing the hands are above the right shoulder, with the club pointing more or less in the intended direction of ball flight. The downswing is roughly a backswing reversed. After the ball is hit, the follow-through stage consists of a continued rotation to the left. At the end of the swing, the weight has shifted almost entirely to the left foot, the body is fully turned to the left and the hands are above the left shoulder with the club hanging down over the players' back.
The full golf swing is an unnatural, highly complex motion and notoriously difficult to learn. It is not uncommon for beginners to spend several months practising the very basics before playing their first ball on a course. It is usually considered impossible to acquire a stable and successful swing without [[golf instruction|professional instruction]] and even highly skilled golfers may continue to take golf lessons for many years. One can also purchase or use a new [[golf simulator]] that can cost upwards of $50,000.
Relatively few golfers play left-handed (i.e., swing back to the left and forward to the right), with even players who are strongly [[left-handed]] in their daily life preferring the right-handed golf swing. In the past, this may have been due to the difficulty of finding left-handed golf clubs. Today, more manufacturers provide left-handed versions of their club lines, and the clubs are more readily purchased from mail-order and Internet catalogues. A golfer who plays right-handed, but holds the club left-hand-below-right is said to be "cack-handed". It is difficult to obtain the same consistency and power with this arrangement as is possible with conventional technique.
Besides the physical part, the [[mental]] aspect contributes to the difficulty of the golf swing. Golfers play against the course, not each other directly, and hit a stationary object, not one put into motion by an opponent. This means that there is never anyone to blame but oneself for a bad result, and in most competitive formats there are no teammates to directly help one out. Knowledge of this creates a great deal of psychological pressure on the golfer; this pressure exists at all levels of play. Even the best professional golfers sometimes succumb to this pressure, such as [[Bernhard Langer|getting the "yips"]] and being unable to make short putts, or having [[Ian Baker-Finch|collapses]] of their full swing.
===Physics of a golf shot===
A [[golf ball]] acquires spin when it is hit. ''Backspin'' is imparted in almost every shot due to the golf club's ''loft'' (i.e., angle between the clubface and a vertical plane). A spinning ball deforms the flow of air around it [http://wings.avkids.com/Book/Sports/instructor/golf-01.html] and thereby acts similar to an aeroplane wing; a back-spinning ball therefore experiences an upward force which makes it fly higher and longer than a ball without spin would. The amount of backspin also influences the behavior of a ball when it hits the ground. A ball with little backspin will usually roll out for a considerable distance while a ball with much backspin may not roll at all or in some cases even roll backwards. ''Sidespin'' occurs when the clubface is not aligned perpendicularly to the plane of swing. Sidespin makes the ball curve to the left or right, a ''hook'' or ''slice'' respectively for a right-handed player; this effect can be made use of to steer it around obstacles or towards the safe side of a difficult fairway. However, it is difficult to control the amount of sidespin, and many poor shots result from uncontrolled or excessive spin that makes the ball curve sharply.
==Equipment==
===Golf clubs===
{{main|Golf club (equipment)}}
A player usually carries several clubs during the game (but no more than fourteen, the limit defined by the rules). There are three major types of clubs, known as ''woods'', ''irons'', and ''putters''. ''Wedges'' are irons used to play shorter shots. Woods are played for long shots from the tee or fairway, and occasionally rough, while irons are for precision shots from fairways as well as from the rough. A new type of wood known as a "hybrid" combines the straight-hitting characteristics of irons with the easy-to-hit-in-the-air characteristics of higher-lofted woods. A "hybrid" is often used for long shots from difficult rough. Hybrids are also used by players who have a difficult time getting the ball airborne with long irons. Wedges are played from difficult ground such as sand or the rough and for approach shots to the green. Putters are mostly played on the green, but can also be useful when playing from bunkers or for some approach shots.
[[Image:Golfballinsiderp.jpg|right|thumb|golfball with a tough rubber core]]
===Golf balls===
{{main|Golf ball}}
The minimum allowed diameter of a golf ball is 42.67mm and its mass may not exceed than 45.93g. Modern golf balls have a two, three, or four layer design constructed from various synthetic materials. The surface usually has a pattern of 300-400 dimples designed to improve the ball's aerodynamics. The method of construction and materials used greatly affect the ball's playing characteristics such as distance, trajectory, spin and feel. Harder materials, such as Surlyn, usually result in the ball's traveling longer distances, while softer covers, such as Balata, tend to generate higher spin, more "feel" and greater stopping potential.
===Other equipment===
[[Image:tees.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Golf tees, used to prop up the ball on the tee]]
Sometimes [[transport]] is by special [[golf cart]]s. Clubs and other equipment are carried in [[golf bag]]s. Golfers wear special [[shoe]]s with exchangeable spikes (or little plastic claws termed ''soft spikes'') attached to the soles. They also often wear [[gloves]] that help grip the club. ''[[Tee]]s'' resemble nails with a flattened head and are usually made of wood or plastic. A tee is pushed into the ground to rest a ball on top of for an easier shot; however, this is only allowed for the first stroke (''tee shot'' or ''drive'') of each hole. When on the green, the ball may be picked up to be cleaned or if it is in the way of an opponent's putting line; its position must then be marked using a ''ball marker'' (usually a flat, round piece of plastic or a coin). A ''ball mark repair tool'' (or ''pitchfork'') is used to repair a ''ball mark'' (depression in the green where a ball has hit the ground). To repair a ball mark, one pushes the tool under the mark, and lifts upwards gently, loosening the compacted turf to allow rapid regrowth of grass. Scores are recorded on a ''score card'' during the round.
==History==
''See also [[Timeline of golf history 1353-1850]], [[Timeline of golf history 1851-1945]], and [[Timeline of golf history 1945-1999]].''
Golf is usually regarded as a [[Scotland|Scottish]] invention, as the game was mentioned in two [[15th-century]] laws prohibiting the playing of the game of "gowf". Some scholars, however, suggest that this refers to another game which is much akin to [[shinty]] or [[hurling]], or to modern [[field hockey]]. They point out that a game of putting a small ball in a hole in the ground using ''golf clubs'' was played in [[17th-century]] [[Netherlands]]. The term ''golf'' is believed to have originated from a [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] word for "club".
The oldest playing golf course in the world is The Old Links at [[Musselburgh]]. Evidence has shown that golf was played on Musselburgh Links in 1672 although Mary Queen of Scots reputedly played there in 1567.
Golf courses have not always had eighteen holes. The [[St Andrews Links]] occupy a narrow strip of land along the sea. As early as the 15th century, golfers at St. Andrews established a customary route through the undulating terrain, playing to holes whose locations were dictated by topography. The course that emerged featured eleven holes, laid out end to end from the clubhouse to the far end of the property. One played the holes out, turned around, and played the holes in, for a total of 22 holes. In 1764, several of the holes were deemed too short, and were therefore combined. The number was thereby reduced from 11 to nine, so that a complete round of the links comprised 18 holes.
The major changes in equipment since the 19th century have been better mowers, especially for the greens, better golf ball designs, using rubber and man-made materials since about [[1900]], and the introduction of the metal shaft beginning in the 1930s. Also in the 1930s the wooden golf tee was invented. In the 1970s the use of metal to replace wood heads began, and shafts made of graphite composite materials were introduced in the 1980s.
It was reported in January 2006 that recent evidence unearthed by Prof. Ling Hongling of [[Lanzhou University]] suggests that a game similar to modern-day golf was played in [[China]] at least 500 years before golf was first mentioned in [[Scotland]]. Archives called the ''Dongzuan Records'' from the [[Song Dynasty]] describe a game called ''chuiwan'' and also include drawings. It was played with 10 clubs including a ''cuanbang'', ''pubang'', and ''shaobang'', which are comparable to a driver, two-wood, and three-wood. The archive also includes references to a Nan [[Tang Dynasty]] [[magistrate]] who asked his daughter to make "holes" for him to play, and describes his "tee" as being jewel-encrusted. There were further descriptions of clubs being inlaid with [[jade]] and [[gold]], suggesting golf was for the wealthy. Hongling suggested golf may have been exported to Europe and then Scotland by [[Mongolian]] travellers in the late [[Middle Ages]]- although there is no |
[[multiple unit]]s are almost invariably equipped with control cabs at both ends, which is why such units are so frequently used to provide commuter services, due to the associated short turn-around time.
Locomotive hauled services are used in some countries or locations. This is often a case of [[asset sweating]], by using a single large combined fleet for intercity and regional services. Loco hauled services are usually run in [[push-pull]] formation, that is, the train can run with the locomotive at the "front" or "rear" of the train (pushing or pulling). Trains are often equipped with a "driving van trailer" (DVT), a control cab at the other end of the train from the locomotive, allowing the train driver to operate the train from either end. The motive power for locomotive-hauled commuter trains may be either electric or [[diesel]]-electric, although some countries, such as Germany and some of the former Soviet-bloc countries, also use diesel-hydraulic locomotives.
== Seat plans ==
Since regional rail rides are usually within one or two hours, their designers may use every conceivable methods to cram as many passengers as possible. One frequently used seat plan is two rows of facing benches on the right and left sides of the train. This arrangement is uncomfortable and sometimes dangerous. However, it leaves much room for people who stand in the center.
In the U.S. and other countries, a three-and-two seat plan is also used. However, most passengers prefer not to use the middle seat if all other seats are taken. Therefore, people may stand in the passageway rather than taking the middle seat. It is said one industrial designer for [[Transportation in New York City|New York City's]] commuter rail, [[Metro-North Railroad|Metro-North]], told people: "I designed the aisle seat with a half-back and no upholstery, so it will be very uncomfortable to sit there. They'll move in and take the center seat!"[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/06/opinion/l06train.html]
==See also==
*[[Commuter rail in North America]]
*[[List of suburban and commuter rail systems]]
*[[Rail terminology]]
*Passenger rail [[Passenger rail terminology|Terminology]]
*[[Public transport]]
*Terrorist attacks on railway systems
**[[Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway]] March 11
**[[1995 Islamist terror bombings in France]] July August and October
**[[March 11, 2004 Madrid attacks]]
**[[7 July 2005 London bombings]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/31/nyregion/31seat.html For Train Riders, Middle Seat Isn't the Center of Attention]
[[Category:Rail transport]]
[[Category:Regional rail systems|*]]
[[de:Regionalbahn]]
[[fr:Train de banlieue]]
[[he:רכבת פרברית]]
[[nl:Stoptrein]]
[[ja:通勤形電車]]
[[sl:Regionalna železnica]]
[[sv:Regiontåg]]
[[zh:區域鐵路]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of city listings by country</title>
<id>6287</id>
<revision>
<id>39699973</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T05:58:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JFG</username>
<id>168812</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Corrected link to [[British overseas territories]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is the list of [[city]] listings by [[country]] and [[territory]]:
<table border=0><tr valign=top><td width=200>
*[[List of cities in Afghanistan|Afghanistan]]
*[[List of cities in Albania|Albania]]
*[[List of cities in Algeria|Algeria]]
*[[List of cities in Andorra|Andorra]]
*[[List of cities in Angola|Angola]]
*[[List of cities in Antigua and Barbuda|Antigua and Barbuda]]
*[[List of cities in Argentina|Argentina]]
*[[List of cities in Armenia|Armenia]]
*[[List of cities in Australia|Australia]]
*[[List of cities in Austria|Austria]]
*[[List of cities in Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]]
*[[List of cities in Bahamas|Bahamas]]
*[[List of cities in Bahrain|Bahrain]]
*[[List of cities in Bangladesh|Bangladesh]]
*[[List of cities in Barbados|Barbados]]
*[[List of cities in Belarus|Belarus]]
*[[List of cities in Belgium|Belgium]]
*[[List of cities in Belize|Belize]]
*[[List of cities in Benin|Benin]]
*[[List of cities in Bhutan|Bhutan]]
*[[List of cities in Bolivia|Bolivia]]
*[[List of cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[List of cities in Botswana|Botswana]]
*[[List of cities in Brazil|Brazil]]
*[[List of cities in Brunei|Brunei]]
*[[List of cities in Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]
*[[List of cities in Burkina Faso|Burkina Faso]]
*[[List of cities in Burundi|Burundi]]
*[[List of cities in Cambodia|Cambodia]]
*[[List of cities in Cameroon|Cameroon]]
*[[List of cities in Canada|Canada]]
*[[List of cities in Cape Verde|Cape Verde]]
*[[List of cities in the Central African Republic|Central African Republic, The]]
*[[List of cities in Chad|Chad]]
*[[List of cities in Chile|Chile]]
*[[List of cities in the People's Republic of China|China, People's Republic of]]
**[[List of cities and towns in Hong Kong|Hong Kong]]
**[[List of cities and parishes in Macao|Macau]]
*[[List of cities in Taiwan|China, Republic of]]
*[[List of cities in Colombia|Colombia]]
*[[List of cities in the Comoros|Comoros]]
*[[List of cities in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo, Democratic Republic of the]]
*[[List of cities in the Republic of the Congo|Congo, Republic of the]]
*[[List of cities in Costa Rica|Costa Rica]]
*[[List of cities in Côte d'Ivoire|Côte d'Ivoire]]
*[[List of cities in Croatia|Croatia]]
*[[List of cities in Cuba|Cuba]]
*[[List of cities in Cyprus|Cyprus]]
*[[List of cities in the Czech Republic|Czech Republic, The]]
*[[List of cities in Denmark|Denmark]]
**[[List of towns in Greenland|Greenland]]
*[[List of cities in Djibouti|Djibouti]]
*[[List of cities in Dominica|Dominica]]
*[[List of cities in the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic, The]]
*[[List of cities in East Timor|East Timor (Timor Leste)]]
*[[List of cities in Ecuador|Ecuador]]
*[[List of cities in Egypt|Egypt]]
*[[List of cities in El Salvador|El Salvador]]
*[[List of cities in Equatorial Guinea|Equatorial Guinea]]
*[[List of cities in Eritrea|Eritrea]]
*[[List of cities in Estonia|Estonia]]
*[[List of cities in Ethiopia|Ethiopia]]
*[[List of cities and towns in Fiji|Fiji]]
*[[List of cities in Finland|Finland]]
*[[List of cities in France|France]]
**[[List of cities in French Guiana]]
*[[List of cities in Gabon|Gabon]]
*[[List of cities in Gambia|Gambia, The]]
*Gaza Strip<br />- ''see'' [[List of cities in the West Bank and Gaza Strip|West Bank and the Gaza Strip]]
*[[List of cities in Georgia|Georgia]]
<td width=200>
*[[List of cities in Germany|Germany]]
*[[List of cities in Ghana|Ghana]]
*[[List of cities in Greece|Greece]]
*[[List of cities in Grenada|Grenada]]
*[[List of cities in Guatemala|Guatemala]]
*[[List of cities in Guinea|Guinea]]
*[[List of cities in Guinea-Bissau|Guinea-Bissau]]
*[[List of cities in Guyana|Guyana]]
*[[List of cities in Haiti|Haiti]]
*[[List of cities in Honduras|Honduras]]
*[[List of cities in Hungary|Hungary]]
*[[List of cities in Iceland|Iceland]]
*[[List of cities in India|India]]
*[[List of cities in Indonesia|Indonesia]]
*[[List of cities in Iran|Iran]]
*[[List of cities in Iraq|Iraq]]
*[[List of cities in Ireland|Ireland]]
*[[List of cities in Israel|Israel]]
*[[List of cities in Italy|Italy]]
*[[List of cities in Jamaica|Jamaica]]
*[[List of cities in Japan|Japan]]
*[[List of cities in Jordan|Jordan]]
*[[List of cities in Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]]
*[[List of cities in Kenya|Kenya]]
*[[List of cities in Kiribati|Kiribati]]
*[[List of cities in North Korea|Korea, North]]
*[[List of cities in South Korea|Korea, South]]
*[[List of cities in Kuwait|Kuwait]]
*[[List of cities in Kyrgyzstan|Kyrgyzstan]]
*[[List of cities in Laos|Laos]]
*[[List of cities in Latvia|Latvia]]
*[[List of cities in Lebanon|Lebanon]]
*[[List of cities in Lesotho|Lesotho]]
*[[List of cities in Liberia|Liberia]]
*[[List of cities in Libya|Libya]]
*[[List of cities in Liechtenstein|Liechtenstein]]
*[[List of cities in Lithuania|Lithuania]]
*[[List of cities in Luxembourg|Luxembourg]]
*[[List of cities in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia, Former Yugoslav Republic of]]
*[[List of cities in Madagascar|Madagascar]]
*[[List of cities in Malawi|Malawi]]
*[[List of cities in Malaysia|Malaysia]]
*[[List of cities in Maldives|Maldives]]
*[[List of cities in Mali|Mali]]
*[[List of cities in Malta|Malta]]
*[[List of cities in the Marshall Islands|Marshall Islands, The]]
*[[List of cities in Mauritania|Mauritania]]
*[[List of cities in Mauritius|Mauritius]]
*[[List of cities in Mexico|Mexico]]
*[[List of cities in the Federated States of Micronesia|Micronesia, Federated States of]]
*[[List of cities in Moldova|Moldova]]
*[[List of cities in Mongolia|Mongolia]]
*[[List of cities in Morocco|Morocco]]
*[[List of cities in Mozambique|Mozambique]]
*[[List of cities in Myanmar|Myanmar]]
*[[List of cities in Namibia|Namibia]]
*[[List of cities in Nauru|Nauru]]
*[[List of cities in Nepal|Nepal]]
*Netherlands, Kingdom of the
**[[List of cities in Aruba|Aruba]]
**[[List of cities in the Netherlands|Netherlands, The]]
**[[List of cities in the Netherlands Antilles|Netherlands Antilles, The]]
*[[List of cities in New Zealand|New Zealand]]
*[[List of cities in Nicaragua|Nicaragua]]
*[[List of cities in Niger|Niger]]
*[[List of cities in Nigeria|Nigeria]]
*[[List of cities in Niue|Niue]]
*[[List of cities in Norway|Norway]]
*[[List of cities in Oman|Oman]]
*[[List of cities in Pakistan|Pakistan]]
*[[List of cities in Palau|Palau]]
*[[List of cities in Panama|Panama]]
<td width=200>
*[[List of cities in Papua New Guinea|Papua New Guinea]]
*[[List of cities in Paraguay|Paraguay]]
*[[List of cities in Peru|Peru]]
*[[List of cities in the Philippines|Philippines, The]]
*[[List of cities in Poland|Poland]]
*[[List of cities in Portugal|Portugal]]
*[[List of cities in Qatar|Qatar]]
*[[List of cities in Reunion|Reunion]]
*[[List of |
lides can be caused by [[earthquake]]s, [[volcanic eruption]]s, or general instability in the surrounding land. Mudslides, or mud flows, are a special case of landslides, in which heavy rainfall causes loose soil on steep terrain to collapse and slide downwards (see also [[Lahar]]); these occur with some regularity in parts of [[California]] after periods of heavy rain.
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===Mudslide===
{{main|Mudslide}}
A mudslide is a slippage of mud because of poor drainage of [[rainfall]] through soil. An underlying cause is often deforestation or lack of vegatation. Some mudslides are massive and can decimate large areas. On January 10, 2005 at 1:20pm in [[La Conchita]], a massive mudslide buried four blocks of the town in over 30 feet of earth. Ten people were killed by the slide and 14 were injured. Of the 166 homes in the community, fifteen were destroyed and 16 more were tagged by the county as uninhabitable.
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===Sink hole===
{{main|Sinkhole}}
A sinkhole is a localized depression in the surface topography, usually caused by the collapse of a subterranean structure, such as a [[cave]]. Although rare, large sinkholes that develop suddenly in populated areas can lead to the collapse of buildings and other structures.
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===Solar flare===
{{main|Solar flare}}
[[Image:Solar flare.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Solar flare]]
A solar flare is a violent explosion in the [[Sun]]'s atmosphere with an energy equivalent to tens of millions of [[hydrogen bomb]]s. Solar flares take place in the solar [[corona]] and [[chromosphere]], heating the gas to tens of millions of kelvins and accelerating electrons, protons and heavier ions to near the speed of light. They produce electromagnetic radiation across the spectrum at all wavelengths from long-wave radio signals to the shortest wavelength gamma rays. Solar flare emmissions are a danger to orbitting satellites, manned space missions, communications systems, and power grid systems.[http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/technology/soho_impact_030623.html]
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===Storm surge===
{{main|Storm surge}}
A storm surge is an onshore rush of water associated with a low pressure weather system, typically a [[tropical cyclone]]. Storm surge is caused primarily by high winds pushing on the ocean's surface. The wind causes the water to pile up higher than the ordinary sea level. Storm surges are particularly damaging when they occur at the time of a [[tide|high tide]], combining the effects of the surge and the tide. The highest storm surge ever recorded was produced by the [[1899]] Bathurst Bay Hurricane, which caused a 13 m (43 feet) storm surge at [[Bathurst Bay]], [[Australia]]. In the US, the greatest recorded storm surge was generated by [[Hurricane Katrina]], which produced a storm surge of 9 m (30 feet).
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===Thunderstorm===
{{main|Thunderstorm}}
[[Image:Rolling-thunder-cloud.jpg|thumb|100px|right|A thunderstorm]]
A thunderstorm is a form of [[severe weather]] characterized by the presence of [[lightning]] and its attendant [[thunder]], often accompanied by copious [[rainfall]], [[hail]] and on occasion [[snowfall]] and [[tornado|tornadoes]].
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===Tornado===
[[image:tornado.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Tornado]]
{{main|Tornado}}
A tornado is a natural disaster resulting from a [[thunderstorm]]. Tornadoes are violent currents of wind. Tornadoes can occur one at a time, or can occur in large [[tornado outbreak]]s along a [[squall line]]. The most powerful tornado ever recorded in terms of wind speed was the tornado which swept through [[Moore, Oklahoma]] on [[May 3]], [[1999]] and reached windspeeds of up to 318 mph.
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===Tsunami===
[[Image:2004_Indonesia_Tsunami_100px.gif|thumb|100px|right|2004 Indonesian Tsunami Animation]]
{{main|Tsunami}}
A tsunami is a giant [[wave]] of [[water]] which rolls into the shore of an area with a height of over 15&nbsp;m (50&nbsp;ft). It comes from [[Japanese language|Japanese words]] meaning [[harbor]] and wave. Tsunamis can be caused by undersea earthquakes as in the [[2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake]], or by landslides such as the one which occurred at [[Lituya Bay]], [[Alaska]]. The tsunami generated by the [[2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake]] currently ranks as the deadliest tsunami in recorded history.
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===Volcanic eruption===
[[Image:Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg|thumb|100px|right|[[Puù Òò]]]]
{{main|Volcano}}
This natural disaster is caused by the eruption of a [[volcano]], and eruptions come in many forms. They range from daily small eruptions which occur in places like [[Kilauea]], in [[Hawaii]], or extremely infrequent [[supervolcano]] eruptions in places like [[Lake Toba]]. Recent large volcanic eruptions include that of [[Mount St. Helens]] and [[Krakatoa]], occurring in [[1980]] and [[1883]], respectively.
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===Waterspout===
{{main|Waterspout}}
[[Image:Trombe.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Waterspout]]
A waterspout is a tornadic weather phenomenon normally occurring over tropical waters in light rain conditions. They form at the base of cumulus-type clouds and extend to the water surface where winds pick up water spray. Waterspouts are dangerous to boats, planes and land structures. Many waterspounts occur in the [[Bermuda Triangle]] and are suspected of being the cause of the many missing ships and planes in that region.
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===Winter storm===
[[Image:blizzard.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Blizzard]]
{{main articles|[[Blizzard]], [[Winter storm]], and [[Freezing rain]]}}
A snowstorm is a winter storm in which the primary form of precipitation is [[snow]]. When such a storm is accompanied by winds above 32 mph that severely reduce visibility, it becomes a [[blizzard]]. Hazards from snowstorms and blizzards include traffic-related accidents, hypothermia for those unable to find shelter, as well as major disruptions to transportation and fuel and power distribution systems.
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==Man-made disasters==
Disasters having an element of human [[intent]], [[negligence]], [[error]] or involving a failure of a system are called man-made disasters. Man-made disasters like power or telecommunication outages may be caused by thunderstorms, tornados or earthquakes and though the root cause is a natural phenomenon, they are considered to be man-made disasters.
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===Aviation===
{{main|Accidents and incidents in aviation}}
{{sect-stub}}
===Arson===
[[Image:Skyline Parkway Motel Burned.jpg|thumb|100px|right|A building after arson]]
{{main|Arson}}
Arson is the criminal intent of setting a [[fire]] with intent to cause damage. The definition of arson was originally limited to setting fire to [[building]]s, but was later expanded to include other objects, such as [[bridge]]s, [[vehicle]]s, and [[private property]]. Arson is the greatest cause of fires in data repositories. [http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byorg/georgia/disast.html]
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===CBRNs===
{{main|CBRN}}
A catch-all initialism meaning [[Chemical]] [[Biological]] [[Radiological]] [[Nuclear weapon|Nuclear]]. The term is used to describe a non-conventional terror threat that, if used by a nation, would be considered use of a weapon of mass destruction. This term is used primarily in the United Kingdom. Planning for a CBRN event may be appropriate for certain high-risk or high-value facilities and governments.
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===Civil disorder===
[[Image:spain_barcelona_20030326_01.PNG|thumb|100px|right|Spanish Rioters]]
{{main|Civil disorder}}
Civil disorder is a broad term that is typically used by law enforcement to describe one or more forms of disturbance. Examples of disastrous civil disorder include, but are not necessarily limited to: riots; sabotage; and other forms of crime. Although civil disorder does not necessarily escalate to a disaster in all cases the event may escalate into general chaos.
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There were riots in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles, California in 1968 and 1992. The 1992 riots which started at the Florence and Normandee intersection of Watts were started immediately after the [[Rodney King]] verdict was announced on live TV. About 50 people died in the 1992 riots.
Former highly successful Major League Baseball Commissioner Peter Uberroth tried to lead an attempt to rebuild Watts from private business funds in 1992, but that was largely unsuccessful. There are vacant lots left by both riots. Thus the riot scars are still noticeable.
There were riots in Detroit, Atlanta, and Chicago after [[Martin Luther King, Jr.|Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.]] was assassinated in 1968.
There were riots that were televised live outside of the Democratic National Convention in Chicago in 1968.
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===Power outage===
A power outage is an interruption of normal sources of electrical power. Short-term power outages (up to a few hours) are common and have minor adverse effect, since most businesses and health facilities are prepared to deal with them. Extended power outages, however, can disrupt personal and business activities as well as medical and rescue services, leading to business losses and medical emergencies. Extended loss of power also interferes with law enfor |
, largely set in provincial England, are well known for their [[realism (arts)|realism]] and psychological perspicacity.
She used a male pen name, she said, to ensure that her works were taken seriously. Female authors published freely under their own names, but Eliot wanted to ensure that she was not seen as merely a writer of romances. An additional factor may have been a desire to shield her private life from public scrutiny and to prevent scandals attending her relationship with the married [[George Henry Lewes]].
==Biography==
Mary Ann Evans was the daughter of an estate agent in [[Warwickshire]], born on a farm on the [[Arbury Hall]] Estate near [[Nuneaton]]. She was brought up with a narrowly [[low church]] religion. Charles Bray, a [[Coventry]] manufacturer, brought her into contact with more liberal theologies. She translated [[David Strauss|Strauss]]' ''Life of Jesus'' ([[1846]]) and began contributing to the ''[[Westminster Review]]'' in [[1850]] and became its assistant editor in [[1851]]. The ''Westminster Review'' had been founded by [[John Stuart Mill]] and [[Jeremy Bentham]] and was the leading journal for philosophical radicals. In [[1854]], she published a translation of [[Feuerbach]]'s ''Essence of Christianity'', and it was at that time that she began to live with [[George Henry Lewes]] in an extramarital cohabitation.
In [[1857]], she published "Amos Barton," the first of the "Scenes of Clerical Life" in ''[[Blackwood's Magazine]]''. The collected "Scenes" were well received and launched Evans on a novelistic career. Evans' cohabitation with Lewes was a scandalous matter. Lewes' wife refused to be divorced, and so he remained married to her in name only, while he made house solely with Evans.
[[Image:4 Cheyne Walk GE ILN 1881.jpg|thumb|175px|George Eliot died at 4 [[Cheyne Walk]], [[Chelsea]].]]
Two years after the death of Lewes, on [[May 6]], [[1880]] she married a friend, [[John Cross]], an [[United States|American]] banker, who was 20 years her junior. They honeymooned in [[Venice]] and, allegedly, Cross jumped from their hotel balcony into the Grand Canal on their [[wedding night]]; he survived. She died on 22 December 1880 at the age of 61 in [[Chelsea]] of a [[kidney]] [[ailment]] and was [[interred]] in [[Highgate Cemetery]] (East), [[Highgate]], [[London]].
Friend and author [[Henry James]] once wrote of her:
<blockquote>She had a low forehead, a dull grey eye, a vast pendulous nose, a huge mouth full of uneven teeth and a chin and jawbone ''qui n'en finissent pas''... Now in this vast ugliness resides a most powerful beauty which, in a very few minutes steals forth and charms the mind, so that you end, as I ended, in falling in love with her. Yes behold me in love with this great horse-faced bluestocking.</blockquote>
==Select Works==
* ''Scenes Of a Clerical Life'', 1858
* ''[[Adam Bede]]'', 1859
* ''[[The Mill on the Floss]]'', 1860
* ''[[Silas Marner]]'', 1861
* ''[[Felix Holt, the Radical]]'', 1866
* ''[[Middlemarch]]'', 1871-72
* ''[[The Legend of Jubal]]'', 1874
* ''[[Daniel Deronda]]'', 1876
==Literary assessment==
Eliot's most famous work, ''[[Middlemarch]]'', is a turning point in the history of the novel. Making masterful use of a [[counterpoint]]ed plot, Eliot presents the stories of a number of denizens of a small English town on the eve of the [[Reform Bill]] of [[1832]]. The main characters, Dorothea Brooke and Tertius Lydgate, each long for exceptional lives but are powerfully constrained by their own unrealistic expectations as well as conservative society. The novel is notable for its deep psychological insight and sophisticated character portraits.
Throughout her career, Eliot wrote with a politically astute pen. From ''[[Adam Bede]]'' to ''[[The Mill on the Floss]]'' and the frequently-read ''[[Silas Marner]]'', Eliot presented the cases of social outsiders and small town persecution of that which they consider alien. No author since [[Jane Austen]] had been as sharp in pointing out the hypocrisy of the country squires and socially conscious. ''[[Felix Holt, the Radical]]'' and ''[[The Legend of Jubal]]'' were overtly political novels, and political crisis is at the heart of ''[[Middlemarch]]''. By the time of ''[[Daniel Deronda]]'', Eliot's sales were falling off, and she faded from public view to some degree.
As an author, Eliot was not only very successful in sales, but she was, and remains, one of the most widely praised for her style and clarity of thought. Eliot's sentence structures are clear, patient, and well balanced, and she mixes plain statement and unsettling irony with rare poise. Her commentaries are never without sympathy for the characters, and she never stoops to being arch or flip with the emotions in her stories. Villains, heroines and bystanders are all presented with awareness and full motivation.
==Select bibliography==
===Bibliography===
* Haight, Gordon S., ''George Eliot: A Biography'', Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1968.
* Haight, Gordon S., ed., ''George Eliot: Letters'', New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, 1954.
* Uglow, Jennifer, ''George Eliot'', London, Virago, 1987.
===Context and Background===
* Beer, Gillian, ''Darwin's Plots: Evolutionary Narrative in Darwin, George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Fiction'', London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983.
* Beer, Gillian, ''George Eliot'', Brighton, Harvester, 1986.
* Chapman, Raymond, ''The Sense of the Past in Victorian Literature'', London, CroomHelm, 1986.
* Cosslett, Tess, ''The 'Scientific Movement' and Victorian Literature'', Brighton, Harvester, 1982.
* Gilbert, Sandra M., and Gubar, Susan, ''The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination'', New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, 1979.
* Jay, Elisabeth, ''The Religion of the Heart: Anglican Evangelicalism and the Nineteenth-Century Novel'', Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1979.
* Pinney, Thomas, ed., ''Essays of George Eliot'', London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963.
* Shuttleworth, Sally, ''George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Science: The Make-Believe of a Beginning'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984.
* Willey, Basil, ''Nineteenth-Century Studies: Coleridge to Matthew Arnold'', London, Chatto & Windus, 1964.
* Williams, Raymond, ''The Country and the City'', London, Chatto & Windus, 1973.
===Critical Studies===
* Ashton, Rosemary,'' George Eliot'', Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1983.
* Beaty, Jerome, '''Middlemarch'from Notebook to Novel: A Study of George Eliot's Creative Method'', Champaign, Illinois, University of Illinois, 1960.
* Carroll, David, ed., ''George Eliot: The Critical Heritage'', London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971.
* [[David Daiches|Daiches, David]], ''George Eliot: Middlemarch'', London, Edward Arnold, 1963.
* Dentith, Simon, ''George Eliot'', Brighton, Harvester, 1986.
* Garrett, Peter K., ''The Victorian Multiplot Novel: Studies in Dialogical Form'', New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, 1980.
* Graver, Suzanne, ''George Eliot and Community: A Study in Social Theory and Fictional Form'', Berkeley, California, University of California Press, 1984.
* Harvey, W. J, ''The Art of George Eliot'', London, Chatto & Windus, 1961.
* Kettle, Arnold. ''An Introduction to the English Novel, vol. I'', London, Hutchinson, 1951.
* Leavis, F R''The Great Tradition'', London, Chatto & Windus, 1948.
* Neale, Catherine, ''Middlemarch: Penguin Critical Studies'',London, Penguin, 1989
* Swinden, Patrick, eel., ''George Eliot: Middlemarch'', London, Macmillan, 1972.
==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote }}
*[http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/eliot/eliotov.html Victorian web biography]
*[http://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&UID=1408 Literary Encyclopedia biography]
* [http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/gelliot.htm Biography]
*[http://35.1911encyclopedia.org/E/EL/ELIOT_GEORGE.htm George Eliot in LoveToKnow 1911 Encyclopdia]
*{{Gutenberg author|id=George_Eliot|name=George Eliot}}
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/17172 The Ethics of George Eliot's Works] by John Crombie Brown (First published in 1879)
*[http://www.litquotes.com/quote_author_resp.php?AName=George%20Eliot George Eliot Quotations]
*[http://www.shvoong.com/books/classic-literature/113633-mill-the-floss/ A Summary of "The Mill On The Floss"]
[[Category:1819 births|Eliot, George]]
[[Category:1880 deaths|Eliot, George]]
[[Category:English essayists|Eliot, George]]
[[Category:English novelists|Eliot, George]]
[[Category:Natives of Warwickshire|Eliot, George]]
[[Category:Women writers|Eliot, George]]
[[Category:Women of the Victorian era|Eliot, George]]
[[Category:Alumni of Royal Holloway, University of London|Eliot, George]]
[[Category:Pseudonyms|Eliot, George]]
[[da:George Eliot]]
[[de:George Eliot]]
[[eo:George ELIOT]]
[[fr:George Eliot]]
[[he:ג'ורג' אליוט]]
[[nl:George Eliot]]
[[ja:ジョージ・エリオット]]
[[pl:George Eliot]]
[[pt:George Eliot]]
[[sr:Џорџ Елиот]]
[[sv:George Eliot]]
[[zh:乔治·艾略特]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guru Meditation</title>
<id>13050</id>
<revision>
<id>42101074</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:05:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nandesuka</username>
<id>221935</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/165.247.175.83|165.247.175.83]] ([[User talk:165.247.175.83|talk]]) to last version by GrizzlyX</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Guru Meditation''' is the name of the error that occurred on early versions of the [[Amiga]] [[home computer]]s when they [[crash (computing)|crashed]]. It is analogous to the "screens of death" in other [[operating system]]s.
== Description ==
When a Guru Meditation is displayed, the options are to reboot by pre |
Studies]] -- [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Bergen College]]
#[[Bergen University]]
#[[Berklee College of Music]]
#[[Bermuda College]]
#[[Berufsakademie Ravensburg]]
#[[Berufsakademie Mosbach]]
#[[Bessenyei Gyorgy Teachers Training College]]
#[[Bethany College (California)]]
#[[Bethany College (West Virginia)]]
#[[Bethel College and Seminary, St. Paul Minnesota]]
#[[Bethel College, Newton, Kansas]]
# [[Bethune College]]
==Bi-Bl==
#[[Biel School of Engineering]]
#[[Bifröst School of Business]]
#[[Big Bend Community College]]
#[[Bilkent University]]
#[[Biola University]]
#[[Birkbeck, University of London]]
#[[Birla Institute of Technology]]
#[[Birla Institute of Technology and Science]] (BITS)
#[[Birmingham College of Food]]
#[[Birmingham College of Speech and Drama]]
#[[Birmingham-Southern College]]
#[[Birzeit University]]
#[[Bishop's University]]
#[[Blackfeet Community College]]
#[[Black Hills State University]]
#[[Blackburn College]]
#[[Blekinge Institute of Technology]]
#[[Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[Blue Mountain Community College]]
#[[Blue Ridge Community College]]
#[[Bluffton College]]
==Bo==
#[[Bob Jones University]]
#[[Bogazici University]]
#[[Boise State University]]
#[[Bond University]]
#[[Borough of Manhattan Community College]]
#[[Boston Architectual Center]]
#[[Boston Baptist College]]
#[[Boston College]]
#[[Boston Theological Institute]]
#[[Boston University]]
#[[Boston University Brussels]]
#[[Bournemouth University]]
#[[Bournemouth Arts Institute]]
#[[Bowdoin College]]
#[[Bowie State University]]
#[[Bowling Green State University]]
==Br==
===Bra-Bri===
#[[University of Bradford]]
#[[Bradley Academy for the Visual Arts]]
#[[Bradley University]]
#[[Brandeis University]]
#[[Brandenburg Technical University of Cottbus]]
#[[Brandon University]]
#[[Brenau University]]
#[[Brevard Community College]]
#[[Briar Cliff College]]
#[[Briarcliffe College]]
#[[Bridgewater College]]
#[[Bridgewater State College]]
#[[Brigham Young University]]
#[[Brigham Young University of Hawaii|Brigham Young University of Hawai'i]]
#[[Brigham Young University-Idaho]]
#[[Bristol Community College]]
#[[Bristol Old Vic Theatre School]]
#[[Bristol University]]
#[[British Columbia Institute of Technology]]
#[[Briercrest Bible College]] (BBC, largest bible college in Canada located in Caronport, SK)
===Bro-Bry===
#[[Brock University]]
#[[Bromley College, Bromley]]
#[[Brookdale Community College]]
#[[Brookhaven College]] (part of the [[DCCCD]])
#[[Brooklands College]]
#[[Brooklyn College]]
#[[Brooks Institute of Photography]]
#[[Broome Community College]]
#[[Broward Community College]]
#[[Brown University]]
#[[Brunel University]]
#[[Bryant College]]
#[[Bryn Mawr College]]
==Bu-By==
#[[Bucheon College]] -- [[Gyeonggi]], [[South Chungcheong]]
#[[Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College]]
#[[Bucknell University]]
#[[Budapest University of Economic Sciences]]
#[[Budapest University of Technology and Economics]]
#[[Buena Vista University]]
#[[Busan Arts College]] -- [[Busan]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Busan Kyungsang College]] -- Busan, South Korea
#[[Busan National University of Education]] -- Busan, South Korea
#[[Busan Polytechnic College]] -- Busan, South Korea
#[[Busan Presbyterian University]] -- [[South Gyeongsang]], South Korea
#[[Business Management Training College of Southern Africa]]
#[[Butler University]]
#[[Butte Community College]]
#[[Byuksung College]] -- [[North Jeolla]], [[South Korea]]
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|B]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with C</title>
<id>6476</id>
<revision>
<id>35576792</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T19:47:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vizcarra</username>
<id>116263</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- '''C''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
==Ca==
===Cab-Cai===
#[[Cabot College of Applied Arts, Technology and Continuing Education]]
#[[Cairo American College]]
===Cal===
====Cali====
=====Calif=====
======Califo======
'''California C-California P'''
#[[California Coast University]]
#[[California College for Health Sciences]]
#[[California Institute of Technology]]
#[[California Institute of the Arts]]
#[[California Lutheran University]]
#[[California Maritime Academy]]
#[[California National University for Advanced Studies]]
#[[California Pacific University]]
#[[California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo]]
'''California S-California U'''
#[[California School of Professional Psychology]]
#[[California State Polytechnic University, Pomona]]
#[[California State University, Bakersfield]]
#[[California State University, Chico]]
#[[California State University, Dominguez Hills]]
#[[California State University, Fresno]]
#[[California State University, Fullerton]]
#[[California State University, Hayward]]
#[[California State University, Long Beach]]
#[[California State University, Los Angeles]]
#[[California State University, Northridge]]
#[[California State University, Sacramento]]
#[[California State University, San Bernardino]]
#[[California State University, San Marcos]]
#[[California State University, Stanislaus]]
#[[California University of Pennsylvania]]
====Calv====
#[[Calvin College]]
#[[Calvin University]] -- [[Gyeonggi]], [[South Korea]]
===Cam-Car===
#[[University of Cambridge]]
#[[Cameron University]]
#[[Camosun College]]
#[[Campbell University]]
#[[Canadian Baptist Seminary]]
#[[Canadian Coast Guard College]]
#[[Canadore College]]
#[[Canberra College of Theology]]
#[[Canisius College]]
#[[Canterbury Christ Church University]]
#[[Canterbury University]]
#[[Capital Baptist Theological University]] -- [[Gyeonggi]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Capital Community-Technical College]]
#[[Capital University]]
#[[Capitol College]]
#[[Cardinal Stritch University]]
#[[Carleton College]]
#[[Carleton University]]
#[[Carlow University]]
#[[Carnegie Mellon University]] ([[Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]])
#[[Carroll College]]
#[[Carroll College (Montana)]]
#[[Carson-Newman College]]
#[[Carthage College]]
===Cas-Cat===
#[[Cascadia Community College]]
#[[Case Western Reserve University]]
#[[Castleton State College]]
#[[Catholic Sangji College]] -- [[North Gyeongsang]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Catholic University of America]]
#[[Catholic University of Daegu]] -- [[North Gyeongsang]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Catholic University of Korea]] -- [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Catholic University of Louvain]]
#[[Catholic University of Pusan]] -- [[Busan]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Catonsville Community College]]
==Cd==
#[[CDI-StW Management Institute]]
==Ce==
===Cec-Ced===
#[[Cecil Community College]]
#[[Cedar Valley College]] (part of the [[DCCCD]])
#[[Cedarville University]]
===Ceg===
====Cege====
=====Cegep=====
======Cegep A-Cegep B======
#[[Cegep Andre-Laurendeau]]
#[[Cegep Beauce-Appalaches]]
======Cegep d======
#[[Cegep d'Ahuntsic]]
#[[Cegep d'Alma]]
#[[Cegep de Baie-Comeau]]
#[[Cegep de Bois-de-Boulogne]]
#[[Cegep de Chicoutimi]]
#[[Cegep de Drummondville]]
#[[Cegep de Granby-Haute-Yamaska]]
#[[Cegep de Jonquiere]]
#[[Cegep de l'Abitibi-Temiscamingue]]
#[[Cegep de la Gaspesie et des Iles]]
#[[Cegep de la Pocatière]]
#[[Cegep de la region de l'Amiante]]
#[[Cegep de Levis-Lauzon]]
#[[Cegep de Limoilou]]
#[[Cegep de l'Outaouais]]
#[[Cegep de Matane]]
#[[Cegep de Maisonneuve]]
#[[Cegep de Rimouski]]
#[[Cegep de Riviere-du-Loup]]
#[[Cegep de Rosemont]]
#[[Cegep de Saint-Felicien]]
#[[Cegep de Saint-Hyacinthe]]
#[[Cegep de Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu]]
#[[Cegep de Saint-Jerome]]
#[[Cegep de Saint-Laurent]]
#[[Cegep de Sainte-Foy]]
#[[Cegep de Sept-Iles]]
#[[Cegep de Sherbrooke]]
#[[Cegep de Sorel-Tracy]]
#[[Cegep de Trois-Rivières]]
#[[Cegep de Valleyfield]]
#[[Cegep de Victoriaville]]
#[[Cegep du Vieux-Montreal]]
======Cegep G-Cegep R======
#[[Cegep Gerald-Godin]]
#[[Cegep Edouard-Montpetit]]
#[[Cegep Francois-Xavier-Garneau]]
#[[Cegep Lionel-Groulx]]
#[[Cegep Marie-Victorin]]
#[[Cegep Montmorency]]
#[[Cegep regional de Lanaudiere]]
===Cem===
#[[CEMA Instituto Universitario]]
===Cen===
====Cent====
=====Cente=====
#[[Centenary College]]
#[[Centenary College of Louisiana]]
=====Centr=====
======Centra-Centre======
#[[Central Alabama Community College]]
#[[Central Arizona College]]
#[[Central Christian College of the Bible]]
#[[Central College]]
#[[Central Connect |
N DHCP Auto-Configuration
117 Name Service Search N Name Service Search
118 Subnet Selection Option 4 Subnet Selection Option
119 Domain Search N DNS domain serach list
120 SIP Servers DHCP Option N SIP Servers DHCP Option
121 Classless Static Route N Classless Static Route Option
Option
122 CCC N CableLabs Client Configuration
123 GeoConf Option 16 GeoConf Option
124 V-I Vendor Class Vendor-Identifying Vendor Class
125 V-I Vendor-Specific Vendor-Identifying Vendor-Specific
Information Information
126 Removed/Unassigned
127 Removed/Unassigned
128 PXE - undefined (vendor specific) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
128 Etherboot signature. 6 bytes: E4:45:74:68:00:00
128 DOCSIS "full security" server IP address
128 TFTP Server IP address (for IP Phone software load)
129 PXE - undefined (vendor specific) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
129 Kernel options. Variable length string
129 Call Server IP address
130 PXE - undefined (vendor specific) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
130 Ethernet interface. Variable length string.
130 Discrimination string (to identify vendor)
131 PXE - undefined (vendor specific) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
131 Remote statistics server IP address
132 PXE - undefined (vendor specific) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
132 802.1P VLAN ID
133 PXE - undefined (vendor specific) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
133 802.1Q L2 Priority
134 PXE - undefined (vendor specific) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
134 Diffserv Code Point
135 PXE - undefined (vendor specific) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
135 HTTP Proxy for phone-specific applications
136-149 Unassigned
150 TFTP server address (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
150 Etherboot
150 GRUB configuration path name
151-174 Unassigned
175 Etherboot (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
176 IP Telephone (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
177 Etherboot (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
177 PacketCable and CableHome (replaced by 122)
178-207 Unassigned
208 pxelinux.magic (string) = F1:00:74:7E (241.0.116.126) (Tentatively
Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
209 pxelinux.configfile (text) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
210 pxelinux.pathprefix (text) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
211 pxelinux.reboottime (unsigned integer 32 bits) (Tentatively Assigned
- [[23 June]] [[2005]])
212-219 Unassigned
220 Subnet Allocation Option (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
221 Virtual Subnet Selection Option (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
222-223 Unassigned
224-254 Private Use
==Implementations==
[[Microsoft]] introduced DHCP on their [[Windows NT|NT server]] with Windows NT version 3.5 in late 1994. (Despite its billing as "a new feature from Microsoft", DHCP did not originate from Microsoft.)
The [[Internet Software Consortium]] published DHCP software distributions for [[Unix]] variants with version 1.0.0 of the ISC DHCP Server released on [[December 6]] [[1997]] and a more RFC-compliant version 2.0 on [[June 22]] [[1999]]. One can download this software from http://www.isc.org/sw/dhcp/
[http://www.wide.ad.jp/ WIDE Project] released their DHCP implementation in 1995 and a more stable version (1.4.0) in August 1997. One can freely download this from ftp://sh.wide.ad.jp/WIDE/free-ware/dhcp/
[http://www.kame.net/ KAME Project] released a DHCPv6 implementation, [[as of 2006 | now]] separately maintained. It uses the new home page http://wide-dhcpv6.sourceforge.net/
[[Novell]] has included a DHCP server in their [[Novell NetWare|NetWare]] operating system since version 5, released in [[1998]]. It integrates with Novell's directory service - [[Novell eDirectory]].
[http://www.weird-solutions.com Weird Solutions] has produced a variety of multi-platform DHCP implementations since 1997, targeted at both the [[Internet service provider]] and consumer markets.
Other major implementations include:
* [[Cisco Systems | Cisco]], with a DHCP server made available in Cisco IOS 12.0 in February 1999
* [[Sun Microsystems | Sun]], who added DHCP support in the July 2001 release of [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]] 8.
[[Cisco Systems]] offers DHCP servers in routers and switches with their IOS software. Moreover, they offer [http://www.cisco.com/en/US/products/sw/netmgtsw/ps1982/index.html Cisco Network Registrar] (CNR) - a highly scalable and flexible DNS, DHCP and TFTP server.
==Extent of DHCP usage==
Most [[Cable modem|cable internet]] providers in the United States of America use DHCP to allocate IP addresses. [[Digital Subscriber Line | DSL]] providers in the US rarely use DHCP, preferring [[Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet|PPPoE]] instead.<!-- Does anybody know about usage outside of the U.S. by broadband ISPs? -->
In the U.K. many broad-band ISP networks use DHCP, but [[XDSL]] providers make extensive use of "infinite lease", which amounts to assigning semi-static IPs.
In addition, many [[router]]s and other gateway devices provide DHCP support for [[Computer Network|networks]] of up to 255 computers, for assigning private IP addresses.
Office networks also use DHCP, in particular when workers make extensive use of laptops that only occasionally link directly to the in-house network.
Network [[router]]s often employ a ''DHCP relay agent'', which relays DHCP Discover broadcasts from a LAN without a DHCP server to a network which has one.
==Protocol anatomy==
DHCP uses the same two [[IANA]] assigned ports as [[BOOTP]]: 67/udp for the server side, and 68/udp for the client side.
===DHCP Discover===
The client broadcasts on the local physical subnet to find available servers. Network administrators can configure a local router to forward DHCP packets to a DHCP server on a different subnet. This client implementation creates a [[User_Datagram_Protocol|UDP]] packet with the broadcast destination of 255.255.255.255 and also requests its last-known IP address of 192.168.1.100 (although the server may ignore this optional parameter).
<table border="0">
<tr><td valign="top">
<table border="1" cellspacing="0"><caption>DHCPDISCOVER</caption>
<tr><td colspan=4>[[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]] Src=0.0.0.0 sPort=68 Dest=255.255.255.255 dPort=67</td></tr>
<tr><th>OP</th><th>HTYPE</th><th>HLEN</th><th>HOPS</th></tr>
<tr><td>0x01</td><td>0x01</td><td>0x06</td><td>0x00</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>XID</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x3903F326</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=2>SECS</th><th colspan=2>FLAGS</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=2>0x0000</td><td colspan=2>0x0000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>CIADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>YIADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>SIADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>GIADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>CHADDR</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00053C04</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x8D590000</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x00000000</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>192 octets of 0's. [[BOOTP]] legacy</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>DHCP option 53: DHCP Discover</td></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>DHCP option 50: 192.168.1.100 requested</td></tr>
</table></td>
===DHCP Offer===
The server determines the configuration based on the client's hardware address as specified in the CHADDR field. Here the server, 192.168.1.1, specifies the IP address in the YIADDR field.
<td valign="top"><table border="1" cellspacing="0"><caption>DHCPOFFER</caption>
<tr><td colspan=4>UDP Src=192.168.1.1 sPort=67 Dest=255.255.255.255 dPort=68 </td></tr>
<tr><th>OP</th><th>HTYPE</th><th>HLEN</th><th>HOPS</th></tr>
<tr><td>0x02</td><td>0x01</td><td>0x06</td><td>0x00</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=4>XID</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=4>0x3903F326</td></tr>
<tr><th colspan=2>SECS</th><th colspan=2>FLAGS</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan=2&g |
notation for the idea of taking derivatives at a point; thus one has
:<math>\int_0^1 \tilde{B_n}(x) f(x) dx = \frac{1}{n!} \left[
f^{(n-1)}(1) - f^{(n-1)}(0) \right]</math>
for ''n'' &gt; 0 and some arbitrary but differentiable function ''f''(''x'') on the unit interval. For the case of ''n''=0, one defines <math>\tilde{B_0}(x)=1</math>. The Bernoulli polynomials, along with their duals, form an orthogonal set of states on the unit interval: one has
:<math>\int_0^1 \tilde{B_m}(x) B_n(x) dx = \delta_{mn}</math>
and
:<math>\sum_{n=0}^\infty B_n(x) \tilde{B_n}(y) = \delta (x-y)</math>
The Euler-MacLaurin summation formula then follows as an integral over the latter. One has
:<math>f(x)=\int_0^1 \sum_{n=0}^\infty B_n(x) \tilde{B_n}(y) f(y) dy</math>
::<math>=\int_0^1 f(y)dy +
\sum_{n=1}^{N} B_n(x) \frac{1}{n!}
\left[ f^{(n-1)}(1) - f^{(n-1)}(0) \right]
- \frac{1}{(N+1)!} \int_0^1 B_{N+1}(x-y) f^{(N)}(y) dy</math>
Then taking ''x''=0, and rearranging terms, one obtains the traditional formula, together with the error term. Note that the Bernoulli numbers are defined as <math>B_n=B_n(0)</math>, and that these vanish for odd ''n'' greater than 1. Note that this derivation does assume that ''f''(''x'') is sufficiently differentiable and well-behaved; specifically, that ''f'' may be approximated by [[polynomial]]s; equivalently, that ''f'' is a real [[analytic function]].
The Euler-MacLaurin summation formula can thus be seen to be an outcome of the [[group representation|representation]] of functions on the unit interval by the direct product of the Bernoulli polynomials and their duals. Note, however, that the representation is not [[complete]] on the set of [[square-integrable]] functions. The expansion in terms of the Bernoulli polynomials has a non-trivial [[kernel of a function|kernel]]. In particular, sin(2&pi;nx) lies in the kernel; the integral of sin(2&pi;nx) is vanishing on the unit interval, as is the difference of its derivatives at the endpoints.
==Motivation for the existence==
From a formal point of view the existence of the Euler-MacLaurin summation formula can be motivated as follows.
The [[difference operator]] <math>\Delta</math> may formally be written as
<math>\Delta = e^D - I</math>, where <math>D</math> denotes an ordinary [[differential operator]].
Since the [[summation]] operator <math>\Sigma</math> is the inverse operator to the difference operator
<math>\Delta</math> we get
:<math>\Sigma = \Delta^{-1} = \frac1{e^D - I}</math>.
Now we know that the exponential generating function of the [[Bernoulli numbers]]
is given by
:<math> \frac{x}{e^x-1} = \sum_{n=0}^{\infin} B_n \frac{x^n}{n!} </math>,
hence formally
:<math>\Sigma = \frac1D \sum_{n=0}^{\infin} B_n \frac{D^n}{n!} = \frac1D -\frac12 I + \frac16 D + \cdots
= \int - \frac12 I + \frac16 D + \cdots, </math>
where <math>\int</math> denotes the [[integral operator]]. This pure formal
derivation indicates the existence of the formula. The idea is due to Legendre.
==External links==
*[http://numbers.computation.free.fr/Constants/Miscellaneous/bernoulli.html Bernoulli numbers, polynomials and applications of the Euler-Maclaurin formula]
[[Category:Approximation theory]]
[[Category:Asymptotic analysis]]
[[Category:Hilbert space]]
[[it:Formula di Euler - Maclaurin]]
[[pl:Formu&#322;a Eulera-Maclaurina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epimenides paradox</title>
<id>9638</id>
<revision>
<id>42051062</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:34:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stevepeterson</username>
<id>535278</id>
</contributor>
<comment>change cretan to cretian as it is more correct English and closer to the Greek cretico</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Epimenides paradox''' is a problem in [[logic]]. This problem is named after the [[Crete|Cretian]] philosopher [[Epimenides]] of [[Knossos]] (flourished circa 600 BC), who stated ''&#x039a;&#x03c1;&#x1fc6;&#x03c4;&#x03b5;&#x03c2; &#x1f00;&#x03b5;&#x1f77; &#x03c8;&#x03b5;&#x1f7b;&#x03c3;&#x03c4;&#x03b1;&#x03b9;'', "Cretians, always liars". There is no single statement of the problem; a typical variation is given in the book [[Gödel, Escher, Bach]] (page 17), by [[Douglas R. Hofstadter]].
: ''Epimenides was a Cretian who made one immortal statement: "All Crietans are liars."''
Did Epimenides speak the truth? We will first consider the logical status of his statement and then review the history of this famous quote.
== Logical analysis ==
If we define "liar" to mean that every statement made by a liar is false (so that Epimenides' statement amounts to "Anything said by a Cretan is false"), then the statement "All Cretans are liars," if uttered by the Cretan Epimenides, cannot be consistently true. (And, as will be noted below, according to one interpretation it also cannot be consistently false, either.)
The conjunction of "Epimenides said all Cretians are liars" and "Epimenides is a Cretian" would, if true, imply that a Cretian has truthfully asserted that no Cretian has ever spoken the truth; the truth of Epimenides' statement would be a counterexample (some Cretian has told the truth at least once) and would mean that not all Cretians are necessarily always liars, which would contradict Epimenides' statement and thus would render it false.
Several interpretations and analyses are available, if the statement is considered false. It might be contended that the truth-value "false" can be consistently assigned to the simple proposition that "All Cretans are liars," so that this statement by itself, when deemed false, is not, strictly speaking, paradoxical. Thus, if there ever existed a Cretian (not Epimenides in this instance) who even once spoke the truth, the categorical statement "All Cretians are (always) liars," would be false, and Epimenides might be simply regarded as having made a false statement himself. But if Epimenides' statement is understood as in essence asserting its own falsehood, then the statement cannot consistently be false, either, because its falsehood would imply the truth of its self-asserted falsehood.
An interesting asymmetry is possible under one interpretation: the statement's truth clearly implies its falsehood, but, unless the statement is interpreted to refer specifically to itself (rather than referring categorically to all statements by Cretans), the statement could be contingently false without implying its own truth.
Alternatively, if, by "liar", we were to mean someone whose statements are usually but not always false, the logical problem would dissolve: Epimenides might usually lie, but on this occasion it might be that he happened to speak the truth. This interpretation would not lead to an interesting logical problem.
Paradoxical versions of the Epimenides problem are closely related to a class of more difficult logical problems, including the [[liar paradox]], [[Russell's paradox]], and the [[Burali-Forti paradox]], all of which have self-reference in common with Epimenides. (The Epimenides paradox is usually classified as a variation on the liar paradox, and sometimes the two are not distinguished.) The study of self-reference led to important developments in logic and mathematics in the twentieth century.
== History ==
The Epimenides paradox, as a problem in logic, appears to have a relatively recent origin, although the statement "Cretans, always liars" has quite a history itself.
Epimenides was a philosopher and religious prophet who, against the general sentiment of Crete, proposed that [[Zeus]] was immortal. As he wrote in his poem ''Cretica'',
:They fashioned a tomb for thee, O holy and high one-
:The Cretians, always liars, evil beasts, idle bellies!
:But thou art not dead: thou livest and abidest forever,
:For in thee we live and move and have our being.
Denying the immortality of Zeus, then, is the lie of the Cretians. It appears that by "Cretians", Epimenides intended "Cretians other than myself". The phrase "Cretians, always liars" was quoted by the poet [[Callimachus]] in his ''Hymn to Zeus'', with the same theological intent as Epimenides. The entire second line is quoted in the [[Epistle to Titus]], chapter 1, verse 12, and identified as such by [[Clement of Alexandria]]. The entire verse reads, "One of themselves, even a prophet of their own, said, The Cretians are alway liars, evil beasts, slow bellies." And the next verse continues, "This witness is true." (King James Version.) Though this explicitly includes the self-reference, it appears to be solely intended to defame the Cretans.
The inconsistency of a Cretian asserting all Cretians are liars does not seem to have occurred to Epimenides, nor to Callimachus, Paul, or Clement. In the original context, Epimenides necessarily meant "Cretans other than myself", so there is no self-reference and thus no logical problem to speak of. The liar paradox was known in antiquity, but it was not associated with Epimenides then. ([[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] restates the liar paradox, without mentioning Epimenides or Titus, in ''[[Against the Academicians]]'' III.13.29.) Many variations of the liar paradox (called [[insolubilia]]) were studied in the Middle Ages, but none of the extant medieval works on insolubilia refer to Epimenides, neither directly nor through the Epistle to Titus. The earliest appearance of Epimenides in the context of a logical problem dates only to the nineteenth century. Since that |
tre of the suite, serving as a corridor to link the state rooms, is the Picture Gallery, which is top lit and 55 yards (50m) long. The Gallery is hung with works by [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], [[Anthony van Dyck|van Dyck]], [[Peter Paul Rubens|Rubens]], and [[Johannes Vermeer|Vermeer]], among many others. Other rooms leading from the Picture Gallery are the [[Throne room|Throne Room]] and the Green Drawing Room. The Green Drawing room serves as a huge anteroom to the Throne Room, and is part of the ceremonial route to the Throne from the Guard Room at the top of the Grand Staircase. The Guard Room contains a white marble statue of Prince Albert, in Roman costume set in a [[Tribune (architecture)|tribune]] lined with tapestries. These very formal rooms are used only for ceremonial and official entertaining.
[[Image:Plan of Buckingham palace.gif|thumb|right|300px|[[Piano nobile]] of Buckingham Palace. A: State Dining Room; B:Blue Drawing Room; C:Music Room; D:White Drawing Room; E:Royal Closet; F:Throne Room; G:Green drawing Room; H:Cross Gallery; J:Ball Room; K:East Gallery; L:Yellow Drawing Room; M:Centre/Balcony Room; N:Chinese Luncheon Room; O:Principal Corridor; P:Private Apartments; Q:Service Areas; W:The Grand staircase. ''On the ground floor'': R:Ambassador's Entrance; T: Grand Entrance. The areas defined by shaded walls represent lower minor wings. '''Note''': This is an unscaled sketch plan for reference only. Proportions of some rooms may slightly differ in reality.]]
Directly underneath the State Apartments is a suite of slightly less grand rooms known as the semi-state apartments. Opening from the marble hall, these rooms are used for less-formal entertaining, such as luncheon parties and private audiences. Some of the rooms are named and decorated for particular visitors, such as the '1844 Room', which was decorated in that year for the State visit of [[Tsar|Emperor]] [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] of [[Russia]]. At the centre of this suite is the Bow Room, through which thousands of guests pass annually to the Queen's Garden Parties in the Gardens beyond. The Queen uses privately a smaller suite of rooms in the North wing.
Between 1847 and 1850, when Blore was building the new east wing, the Brighton Pavilion was once again plundered of its fittings. As a result many of the rooms in the new wing have a distinctly oriental atmosphere. The red and blue Chinese Luncheon Room is made up from parts of the Brighton banqueting and music rooms, but has a chimney piece, also from Brighton, in design more Indian than Chinese. The Yellow Drawing Room has [[18th-century]] wall paper, which was supplied in 1817 for the Brighton Saloon, and the chimney piece in this room is a European vision of what the Chinese equivalent would look like, complete with nodding [[mandarin (bureaucrat)|mandarins]] in [[niche]]s and fearsome winged [[Chinese dragon|dragons]]. [[Image:Buckingham Palace Prince Albert's music room The Graphic 1887.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Prince Albert's music room, one of the smaller less formal rooms at the palace, in 1887.]]At the centre of this wing is the famous balcony, with behind its glass doors the Centre Room. This is a Chinese-style saloon enhanced by Queen Mary in the late 1920s, although the [[lacquer]] doors were brought from Brighton in 1873. Running the length of the piano nobile of the east wing is an immense gallery, modestly known as the Principal Corridor. It has mirrored doors, and mirrored cross walls reflecting [[porcelain]] pagodas and other oriental furniture from Brighton. The Chinese Luncheon Room and Yellow Drawing Room are situated at each end of this gallery, with the Centre Room obviously placed in the centre.
Visiting [[Head of state|heads of state]] today, when staying at the palace, occupy a suite of rooms known as the [[Belgian]] suite, which is on the ground floor of the North-facing garden front. These rooms, with corridors enhanced by [[saucer dome]]s, were first decorated for Prince Albert's uncle [[Léopold I of Belgium|Léopold]], the first King of the Belgians. King [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Edward VIII]] lived in these rooms during his short reign.
==Court ceremonies==
[[Image:Louis Haghe The New Ballroom 1856.jpg|thumb|275px|The State Ballroom is the largest room at Buckingham Palace. It was added by Queen Victoria and is used for ceremonies such as investitures and state banquets. This picture dates from 1856. The polychrome colour scheme has been replaced by mainly white decoration with gold details and red upholstery.]]
During the current reign court [[ceremony]] has undergone a radical change, and entry to the palace is no longer the prerogative of just the upper class.
Formal [[court dress]] has now been abolished. In previous reigns, men not wearing military [[uniform]] wore knee [[breeches]] of an 18th-century design. In the evenings, women wore dresses with obligatory trains, and [[tiara]]s or feathers (or even both) in their hair. So rigid was the palace dress code that after [[World War I]], when Queen Mary wished to follow [[fashion]] by raising her skirts a few inches from the ground, she asked a Lady-in-Waiting to shorten her skirt first to gauge the King's reaction. King George V was horrified and Queen Mary's hemline remained unfashionably low. [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] and Queen Elizabeth were slightly more fashionable, and daytime skirts were allowed to rise.
In 1924 [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] [[Prime Minister]] [[Ramsay MacDonald]] was the first man to be received by a monarch inside the palace wearing a lounge [[suit]]; however, this was a one-off concession. Prescribed evening court dress remained obligatory until World War II.
Today, most men invited to Buckingham Palace in the daytime choose to wear service uniform or morning coats, and in the evening, depending on the formality of the occasion, [[black tie]] or [[white tie]]. If the occasion is 'white tie' then women, if they possess one, wear a tiara, although no dress code is officially demanded.
One of the first major changes was in 1958 when the Queen abolished the presentation parties for [[debutante]]s. These court presentations of [[aristocrat]]ic girls to the monarch took place in the [[Throne room|Throne Room]]. Debutantes wore full court dress, with three tall [[ostrich]] [[feather]]s held precariously in their hair. They entered the Throne Room, curtsied, performed a choreographed backwards walk and a further curtsey, while perilously manoeuvring a dress train of a prescribed length.
The Queen felt this ceremony, which corresponded to the "[[Drawing room|court drawing rooms]]" of earlier reigns, to be elitist and antiquated, and replaced the presentations with large and frequent palace garden parties, to which a more varied cross section of British society is invited. The late [[Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon|Princess Margaret]] is reputed to have said of the debutante presentations: "We had to put a stop to it, every tart in London was getting in" (Blaikie). The Throne Room today is used for the reception of formal addresses such as that given to the Queen on her jubilees. It is here on the throne [[dais]] that royal wedding photographs are taken.
[[Image:ac.queenpms.jpg|thumb|275px|right|[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|The Queen]] photographed with [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] [[Prime Minister]]s in the White Drawing Room at Buckingham Palace, in the 1950s. To her right, [[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]] and [[Sidney Holland]] of [[New Zealand]]; to her left, [[Robert Menzies]] of [[Australia]] and [[Louis St. Laurent]] of Canada]]
[[Investiture]]s, which include the conferring of [[knighthood]]s by dubbing with a sword, and other awards take place in the palace's Victorian Ballroom, built in 1854. At 123[[foot (unit of length)|ft]] by 60ft (37 m by 20 m) , this is the largest room in the palace. It has replaced the [[Throne room|Throne Room]] in importance and use. During investitures the Queen does not sit on the throne, but stands on the throne dais beneath a giant, domed [[velvet]] canopy, known as a shamiana or a [[baldachin]], used at the coronation [[Delhi Durbar|Durbar]] in [[Delhi]] in 1911. A [[military]] band plays in the musicians' gallery, as the recipients of awards approach the Queen and receive their [[honour]]s, watched by their families and friends. [[The Beatles]] were among the first non-establishment [[artist]]s to be awarded honours at the palace.
State [[banquet]]s also take place in the Ballroom. These formal dinners take place on the first evening of a state visit by a visiting Head of State. On these occasions, often over 150 guests in formal "white tie and decorations" including tiaras for women, dine off gold plate. The largest and most formal reception at Buckingham Palace takes place every November, when the Queen entertains members of the foreign [[diplomat|diplomatic]] corps resident in London. On this occasion all the state rooms are in use, as the entire Royal Family proceed through them, beginning their procession through the great north doors of the Picture Gallery. As Nash had envisaged, all the large, double-mirrored doors stand open, reflecting the numerous crystal chandeliers and sconces, causing a deliberate optical illusion of space and light.
[[Image:Buckingham Palace Grand Staircase The Graphic 1870.jpg|thumb|250px|This 1870 drawing shows guests ascending the Grand Staircase.]]
Smaller ceremonies such as the reception of new ambassadors take place in the '1844 Room'. Here too the Queen holds small lunch parties, and often meetings of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]]. Larger lunch parties often take place in the curved and [[dome]]d Music Room, or the State Dining Room. On all formal occasions the ceremonies are attended by the [[Yeomen of the Guard |
html interactive manner and place of articulation]
*[http://www.oneletterwords.com Dictionary of All-Consonant Words]: a free online dictionary with over 1,000 words with no vowels and examples of usage from literature.
{{Consonants}}
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<page>
<title>Costume jewelry</title>
<id>5642</id>
<revision>
<id>41130932</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T06:12:07Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Costume jewelry''' is [[jewelry]] that is made of less valuable materials, including [[base metal]]s, [[glass]], [[plastic]], and synthetic stones, in place of more valuable materials such as [[precious metal]]s and [[gem]]s. These items are usually, but not always, inexpensive, and often flashy. Costume jewelry is mainly used for [[fashion]] purposes, opposed to "real" (precious) jewelery which may exist primary as collectables, keepsakes, or investments.
Costume jewelry gets its name from its use in [[stage (theatre)|stage]] [[costume]]s. See [[fashion jewelry]]
[[Coco Chanel]] greatly popularized the use of faux jewelry in her years as a fashion designer, bringing costume jewelry to life with gold and faux pearls.
[[Pennino Brothers Jewelry]] is one rare, but well-known brand of costume jewelry.
{{fashion-stub}}
[[Category:Jewellery]]
[[ru:Бижутерия]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Channel Islands</title>
<id>5643</id>
<revision>
<id>41575052</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T06:18:07Z</timestamp>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Transport and Communications */ fix link - Postcode now UK postcodes</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Alternative meaning: [[Channel Islands of California]]''
[[Image:ChannelIslands.png|right]]
The '''Channel Islands''' are a group of [[island]]s off the coast of [[Normandy]], [[France]], in the [[English Channel]]. They comprise two separate [[bailiwick]]s: the Bailiwick of [[Guernsey]] and the Bailiwick of [[Jersey]].
==History==
Major articles: [[History of Jersey]], [[History of Guernsey]]
The Islands were annexed to the [[Duchy of Normandy]] in [[933]]. In [[1066]] the Duke [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]] invaded and conquered [[England]], becoming the English monarch. Since [[1204]], the loss of the rest of the monarch's lands in mainland Normandy has meant that the Channel Islands have been governed as separate possessions of [[the Crown]].
The Bailiwicks have been administered separately from each other since the late [[13th century]], and although those unacquainted with the Islands often assume they form one political unit, common institutions are the exception rather than the rule. The two Bailiwicks have no common laws, no common elections, and no common representative body (although their politicians consult regularly). There is no common newspaper or radio station, but a common television station, [[Channel Television]].
The Islands acquired commercial and political interests in the [[North America]]n colonies. Islanders became involved with the [[Newfoundland]] fisheries in the 17th century. In recognition for all the help given to him during his exile in Jersey in the 1640s, [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] gave [[George Carteret]], Bailiff and governor, a large grant of land in the American colonies, which he promptly named [[New Jersey]], now part of the [[United States of America]]. [[Edmund Andros]] of Guernsey was an early colonial governor in North America, and head of the short-lived [[Dominion of New England]].
During the [[World War II|Second World War]], the Islands were the only British soil [[Occupation of the Channel Islands|occupied by Germany]] (excepting that part of [[Egypt]] occupied by the [[Afrika Korps]] at the time of the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]]). The Nazi occupation 1940-1945 was harsh, with some island residents being taken for [[Unfree labour|slave labour]] on the Continent; native [[Jews]] sent to [[concentration camp]]s; [[Partisan (military)|partisan]] resistance and retribution; accusations of [[collaboration]]; and slave labour (primarily [[Russia]]ns and eastern Europeans) being brought to the islands to build [[fortification]]s. The [[Royal Navy]] [[blockade]]d the islands from time to time, particularly following the [[Battle of Normandy|liberation of mainland Normandy]] in 1944. Intense negotiations resulted in some [[Red Cross]] humanitarian aid, but there was considerable hunger and privation during the five years of German occupation.
==Politics==
Major articles: [[Politics of Jersey]], [[Politics of Guernsey]]
The Channel Islands fall into two separate self-governing bailiwicks. Both the Bailiwick of [[Guernsey]] and the Bailiwick of [[Jersey]] are [[British Empire|British]] [[Crown dependency|crown dependencies]], but neither is part of the [[United Kingdom]]. They have been part of the [[Duchy of Normandy]] since the [[10th century]] and [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] is often referred to by her traditional and conventional title of [[Duke of Normandy]]. However, pursuant to the [[Treaty of Paris (1259)]] she is not the Duke in a constitutional capacity and instead governs in her right as Queen. This notwithstanding, it is a matter of local pride by monarchists to treat the situation otherwise; the [[Loyal Toast]] at formal dinners is to "The Queen, our Duke" rather than to "Her Majesty, the Queen" as in the UK.
[[Image:States Chamber public entrance Jersey.jpg|thumb|Entrance to the public gallery of the States Chamber in Jersey]]
The Channel Islands are not represented in the [[UK Parliament]] and each Island has its own primary legislature, known as the [[States of Guernsey]] and the [[States of Jersey]], with Chief Pleas in Sark and the States of Alderney. Laws passed by the States are given Royal Sanction by [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|The Queen in Council]], to which the Islands' governments are responsible.
The systems of government date from [[Normans|Norman]] times, which accounts for the names of the [[legislature|legislatures]], [[the States]], derived from the [[Norman language|Norman]] ''États'' or ''[[Estates of the realm|estates]]'' (i.e. the Crown, the Church, and the people). The States have evolved over the centuries into democratic [[parliament]]s.
A bailiwick is a territory administered by a bailiff. The [[Bailiff (Channel Islands)|Bailiff]] in each bailiwick is the civil head, presiding officer of the States, and also head of the [[judiciary]].
In [[2001]] responsibility for links between the Channel Islands (together with the [[Isle of Man]]) and the Crown passed from the [[Secretary of State for the Home Department|Home Secretary]] to the [[Lord Chancellor]]'s Department, replaced in [[2003]] by the [[Department of Constitutional Affairs]].
In addition, Acts of the UK Parliament may be extended to any of the Channel Islands by Order-in-Council (thus giving the UK Government the ultimate responsibility for good government in the Islands). By constitutional convention this is only done at the request of the Insular Authorities, and has become a rare option, the Islands usually preferring nowadays to pass localised versions of laws giving effect to international treaties.
Matters reserved to the Crown (i.e. the United Kingdom government) are limited to defence, citizenship, and diplomatic representation. The Islands are not bound by treaties concluded by the United Kingdom (unless they so request) and may separately conclude treaties with foreign governments (except concerning matters reserved to the Crown). The United Kingdom conceded at the end of the 20th century that the Islands may establish direct political (non-diplomatic) contacts with foreign governments to avoid the situation whereby British Embassies were obliged to pass on communications from the governments of the Bailiwicks that were in conflict with United Kingdom government policy.
The Islands are not part of the [[European Union]] but are part of the Customs Territory of the [[European Community]] by virtue of Protocol 3 to the [[Treaty on European Union]].
Islanders are full British Citizens, but not all are European Citizens. Any British citizen who applies for a passport in Jersey or Guernsey receives a passport bearing the words '[[British Islands]], Bailiwick of Jersey' or '[[British Islands]], Bailiwick of Guernsey'. Under the provisions of Protocol 3, Channel Islanders who do not have a close connection with the UK (no parent or grandparent from the UK, and have never been resident in Great Britain or Northern Ireland for any 5 year period) do not automatically benefit from the EU provisions on free movement within the EU and consequently their passports receive an endorsement to that effect. This only affects a minority of Islanders.
Under the Interpretation Act 1978, the Channel Islands are deemed to be part of the [[British Islands]], not to be confused with the [[British Isles]], of which they are also historically considered a part.
Both Bailiwicks are members of the [[British-Irish Council]], and [[Jèrriais]] and [[Dgèrnésiais]] are recognised [[regional language]]s of the Isles.
The legal courts are separate (separate courts of appeal have been in place since 1961). |
t]]'', directed by [[Michael Almereyda]] ([[2000]]). The setting is updated to modern [[Manhattan]]. Hamlet is played by [[Ethan Hawke]], Polonius by [[Bill Murray]], and Ophelia by [[Julia Stiles]].
====Films that reference ''Hamlet''====
Note: a number of films have also used lines from Hamlet's soliloquy as film titles. See [[To be, or not to be]] for a list of these films.
*''[[A King in New York]]'' ([[1957]]), directed by [[Charlie Chaplin]] includes a scene in which Chaplin recites the "to be or not to be" speech, and is arguably on a par with other famous renditions.
*[[Tom Stoppard]]'s popular play and movie ''[[Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead]]'' depicts the two title characters contemplating their roles as minor players in a bigger drama. Occasional scenes are taken directly from ''Hamlet''.
*[[Tom Stoppard]] also has a short entitled ''[[The Fifteen Minute Hamlet]]'' which includes Philip Seymour Hoffman in the cast. The fifteen minute version is followed by an even shorter version.
*''Hamlet Goes Business'' (Hamlet liikemaailmassa) ([[1987]]) by [[Aki Kaurismäki]] is a comic reworking of the story as a power struggle in a rubber duck factory.
*Episode 43 of ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' ([[1974]]) is entitled ''Hamlet''.
*The comedy ''[[Strange Brew]]'' ([[1983]]) is loosely based on ''Hamlet''. Among other jokes, scenes takes place at Elsinore Brewery.
*The ''[[Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country]]'' (1991) character General Chang, a [[Klingon]] officer, was a Shakespeare aficionado, and opined that Shakespearian works were best experienced in the "original" [[Klingon language|Klingon]]. Indeed, Klingonists Nick Nicholas and Andrew Strader published a Klingon translation of Hamlet in 1996. The Klingon version of the famous quote, which Chang recites in the film, is ''taH pagh taHbe''.
*''Hamlet'' features strongly in the film [[Renaissance Man]], in which [[Danny De Vito|Danny DeVito]]'s character uses its plot and characters to introduce a group of under-achieving soldiers to critical thinking.
*''[[The Simpsons]]'' offered a shortened version of ''Hamlet'' in the episode "[[Tales from the Public Domain]]".
*''[[The Brak Show]]'' referenced the basic plot of Hamlet in the episode "Braklet, Prince of Spaceland". In the episode, Brak's father is killed by [[Zorak]], who also hypnotizes Brak's mother into believing that the two are married. Brak's father appears as a ghost, and informs [[Brak]] what has happened. Brak goes insane and makes a movie of the murder, which he shows to Zorak.
*The action movie and comedy film [[Last Action Hero]] starts with [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] starring in the advert of a (fictional) [[Rambo]]-like action movie that is an adaptation of Hamlet.
*There was an episode of [[South Park]] in which Terrance and Philip's professional relationship failed, resulting in one of them moving to Canada to become a Shakespearean actor, subsequently performing Hamlet with other Canadian actors, with the ending of the play being shown in the episode.
*Egyptian director [[Youssef Chahine]] frequently cites from ''Hamlet'' in his films. His films ''Alexandria.. Why?'' (1978) and ''Alexandria.. New York''(2004) feature performances of soliliquies. In ''Alexandria Again and Forever'' (1990) Hamlet appears as a film within the film.
*Princess Diaries Two:The Royal Engagement. Lily, the Princess Mia's best friend refers to Mia's two chambermaids as "Rosencrantz" and "Guildenstern"
===''Hamlet'' in music===
At least 26 operas have been written based on Hamlet, including:
* Ambleto, by [[Francesco Gasparini]] (1706)
* Ambleto, by [[Domenico Scarlatti]] (1715)
* Amleto, by [[Gaetano Andreozzi]] (1792)
* Amleto, by [[Franco Faccio]] (libretto by [[Arrigo Boito]]) (1865)
* Hamlet, by [[Ambroise Thomas]] (1868)
* Hamlet, by [[Humphrey Searle]] (1968)
* Hamlet (?), by [[Sandor Szokolay]] (year?)
Instrumental works based on Hamlet include:
* [[Nocturne]] in G Minor, Opus 15 No. 3 by [[Frédéric Chopin]], inspired by Hamlet
* ''Hamlet'' (1858), symphonic poem by [[Franz Liszt]]
* ''Hamlet'' and ''Ophelia'', symphonic poems by [[Edward MacDowell]]
* ''Hamlet'' (1888), fantasy overture Op. 67 in f Minor by [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]
*''Hamlet'', the score for the 1963 film, by [[Dmitri Shostakovich]].
Contemporary popular music includes:
* ''What a Piece of Work is Man'' from the [[1967]] musical ''[[Hair (musical)|Hair]]'' is Hamlet's speech from act 2 scene 2 set to music.
* The [[Dream Theater]] song [[Pull Me Under]] is influenced by, and makes reference to, [[Hamlet]].
* [[Lou Reed]]'s song ''"Goodnight Ladies"'', from his [[1972]] album ''[[Transformer (album)|Transformer]]'', uses a line from Ophelia's mad speech (Act 4, Scene 5) as its chorus.
* [[Darling Violetta]]'s song ''Ophelia'', from the band's debut album ''Bath-Water-Flowers'', references Ophelia's death/suicide.
==External links==
{{wikisourcepar|The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikibooks}}
{{commonscat|Hamlet}}
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Hamlet's_soliloquy Wikisource - Hamlet's soliloquy]
* {{gutenberg|no=2265|name=Hamlet}}
* {{gutenberg|no=9077|name=the 'Bad Quarto' version of Hamlet}}
* [http://www.asksam.com/ebooks/Shakespeare/Hamlet.asp Search and analyze the text of Hamlet on-line or in a downloadable eBook]
* [http://sciencesoft.at/index.jsp?link=literature&book=Hamlet&lang=en Hamlet] - HTML/XML version, including search function
* [http://william-shakespeare.classic-literature.co.uk/the-tragedie-of-hamlet/ The Tragedie of Hamlet] - HTML version of this title.
* [http://shea.mit.edu/ramparts Hamlet on the Ramparts] - from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s Shakespeare Electronic Archive
* [http://www.leoyan.com/global-language.com/ENFOLDED/ Hamletworks.org] Multiple versions of Hamlet, numerous commentaries, concordances, facsimiles, etc.
* [http://www.switzersguide.com The Switzer's Guide to Hamlet] An Extra's view of the Royal Shakespeare Company's 2004 production of Hamlet with Toby Stephens in the title role
* [http://www.slashdoc.com/tag/hamlet.html Slashdoc : Hamlet] Scholarly essays on Shakespeare's Hamlet
* [http://monster-island.org/tinashumor/humor/anagrams.html Hamlet Anagram by Cory Calhoun - Anagram of the 1st three lines of the 'To Be or Not Be' soliloquy]
* [http://uninteresting.myby.co.uk/noeffort/hamlet.htm Tales for the Leet: Hamlet] - A humorous flash version of Hamlet, done in [[leet|leetspeak]]
{{Shakespeare}}
[[Category:English Renaissance plays]]
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<page>
<title>High Germanic languages</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-17T14:26:02Z</timestamp>
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<comment>rm sp in lnk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language family
|name=High Germanic
|region=predominantly central and southern [[Germany]], northern and central [[Switzerland]], and [[Austria]]
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam1=[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|child1=[[German language|Standard German]]
|child2=[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]
|child3=[[Central German]]
|child4=[[Upper German]]
}}
The '''High Germanic languages''' (in [[German language|German]], ''Hochdeutsch'') are any of the [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] of [[German language|standard German]] and [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] as well as the local German [[dialect]]s spoken in central and southern [[Germany]], in [[Austria]], in [[Liechtenstein]], in [[Switzerland]], in [[Luxembourg]] and in neighbouring portions of [[Belgium]], [[France]] ([[Alsace]]), [[Italy]] and [[Poland]]. It is also spoken in former colonial settlements, for instance in [[Romania]] (''[[Transylvania]]''), [[Russia]], [[USA]] or [[Namibia]].
"High" refers to the [[mountain]]ous areas of central and southern Germany and the [[Alps]], as opposed to the [[Low Germanic languages]] spoken along the flat sea coasts of the north. High Germanic can be subdivided into [[Upper German]] and [[Central German]] (''Oberdeutsch, Mitteldeutsch'').
The German term ''Hochdeutsch'' is also used loosely, but not by linguists, to mean [[German language|standard written German]] as opposed to dialect, because the standard language developed out of High rather than Low Germanic. This is based on a misunderstanding, and the attempt to rationalise it by suggesting that "high" means "official" doesn't solve the problem. In English, "High Germanic" has never been used to mean "Standard German".
==History==
High Germanic as used in Southern Germany, Bavaria and Austria was an important basis for the development of standard German.
The historical forms of the language are [[Old High German]] and [[Middle High German]].
==Classification==
High Germanic are distinguished from other Western Germanic varieties in that they took part in the [[High German consonant shift]] (c. AD 500).
To see this, compare German ''Pfanne'' with [[English language|English]] ''pan'' ({{IPA|[pf]}} to {{IPA|[p]}}), German ''zwei'' with English ''two'' ({{IPA|[ts]}} to {{IPA|[t]}}), German ''machen'' with English ''make'' ({{IPA|[x]}} to {{IPA|[k]}}).
In the [[Alemannic German|High Alemannic dialects]], there is a further shift; ''Sack'' (like Engl |
stice Holmes also invoked the powerful metaphor of the "[[marketplace of ideas]]."
This marketplace of ideas rationale for freedom of speech has been criticized by scholars on the grounds that it is wrong to assume all ideas will enter the marketplace of ideas, and even if they do, some ideas may drown out others merely because they enjoy dissemination through superior resources.
The marketplace is also criticized for its assumption that truth will necessarily triumph over falsehood. It is visible throughout history that people may be swayed by emotion rather than reason, and even if truth ultimately prevails, enormous harm can occur in the interim. However, even if these weaknesses of the marketplace of ideas are acknowledged, supporters argue that the alternative of government determination of truth and censorship of falsehoods is worse.
Alan Haworth in his book ''Free Speech'' (1998), has suggested that the metaphor of a marketplace of ideas is misleading. He argues that Mill's classic defence of free speech, in ''[[On Liberty]]'', does not develop the idea of a market (as later suggested by Holmes) but essentially argues for the freedom to develop and discuss ideas in the search for truth or understanding. In developing this argument, Haworth says, Mill pictured society, not as a marketplace of ideas, but as something more like a large-scale academic seminar. This implies the need for tacit standards of conduct and interaction, including some degree of mutual respect. That may well limit the kinds of speech that are justifiably protected.
Another way of putting this point is to concede Mill's claim that freedom of speech of certain kinds is needed for rational inquiry. This can support the claimed need to protect potentially unpopular ideas. However, it can then be added that this does not necessarily lead to the conclusion that a wide range of speech, including offensive or insulting speech, must be given the same protection.
As put by Mill, the argument can also be seen as somewhat elitist, since it may seem that relatively little speech or expression appeals primarily to the intellect. However, there are senses in which this justification can be extended beyond the speech of individuals who are involved in narrowly intellectual inquiry, such as scientists and academic scholars. In one sense, it merges with justifications based on autonomy, if it is interpreted as relating to the psychological need felt by individuals to pursue truth and understanding. In another sense, it may be extended to the protection of literature and art that has a claim to some kind of social value.
=== Advancing autonomy ===
Another rationale is that freedom of speech is an essential aspect of personhood and autonomy. It has been said, for example, that political protest is a form of self-definition, self-fulfillment, or self-realization, even if the protestor believes the protest to be futile. This idea also suggests a rationale for the protection of acts of expression that are not obviously political or vital to self-government, such as abstract art, music, or dance.
Protecting speech because it aids the political process or furthers the search for truth emphasizes the instrumental values of expression. Justice Thurgood Marshall wrote that "the First Amendment serves not only the needs of the polity but also those of the human spirit &mdash; a spirit that demands self-expression." (''[[Procunier v. Martinez]]'', 416 U.S. 396, 1974). This view is sometimes developed further by referring to the importance for individuals of communicating deeply held beliefs and the value of creativity as expressed in literature, art and many other ways. The issue here is how we should treat other individuals as moral and psychological beings who have a need for self-expression and self-fulfilment.
Critics of this view argue that there is no inherent reason to find speech to be a fundamental right compared with countless other activities that might be regarded as a part of autonomy or that could advance self-fulfillment.
=== Promoting tolerance===
Still another explanation is that freedom of speech is integral to tolerance, which some people feel should be a basic value in society. Professor [[Lee Bollinger]] is an advocate of this view and argues that "the free speech principle involves a special act of carving out one area of social interaction for extraordinary self-restraint, the purpose of which is to develop and demonstrate a social capacity to control feelings evoked by a host of social encounters." The free speech principle is left with the concern of nothing less than helping to shape "the intellectual character of the society".
This claim is to say that tolerance is a desirable, if not essential, value, and that protecting unpopular speech is itself an act of tolerance. Such tolerance serves as a model that encourages more tolerance throughout society. Critics argue that society need not be tolerant of the intolerance of others, such as those who advocate great harm, even genocide. Preventing such harms is claimed to be much more important than being tolerant of those who argue for them.
==Restrictions on free speech==
Various governing, controlling, or otherwise powerful bodies, in many places around the world have attempted to change the opinion of the public or others by taking action that allegedly disadvantages one side of the argument. This attempt to assert some form of control through control of [[discourse]] has a long history and has been theorized extensively by philosophers like [[Michel Foucault]]. Many consider these attempts at controlling debate to be attacks on free speech, even if no direct government censorship of ideas is involved. Alleged examples include the following:
*Some consider the deportation of a foreign [[peace activist]] [[Scott Parkin]] from Australia in September 2005 to have been an attack on free speech, claimed by the federal government to be a risk to national security.
*In [[Finland]], a new [[copyright]] law was enacted in October 2005, which prohibited [[communication]] about certain encoding methods and bypassing them{{fact}}.
*[[Gunns Limited]], a Timber and [[woodchip]] product company in Australia ([http://www.gunns.com.au/ Gunns Website]) is suing 17 individual activists, including Federal [[Australian Greens|Greens]] Senator [[Bob Brown]], as well as three [[not-for-profit]] environmental groups, for over 7.8 million dollars. Gunns claims that the defendants have sullied their reputation and caused them to lose profits, the defendants claim that they are simply protecting the environment. The defendants have become collectively known as the [[Gunns 20]] ([http://www.gunns20.org/ Friends of the Gunns 20]). Although this example involves a private law suit, not government censorship, some claim that it is an abuse of defamation law, since it ties up the environmental activists in court proceedings, during which time Gunns may build a [[Pulp Mill]] in northern [[Tasmania]]. According to this view, the plaintiffs are not genuinely seeking to vindicate their reputations and they are seeking to scare off other activists with the prospect of ruinous legal expense. Such cases raise interesting questions about the extent to which powerful corporate interests should have access to defamation law.
*In the [[UK]] Parliament passed the [[Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005|Serious Organised Crime and Police Act]] in [[2005]] banning protest without permit within 1km of Parliament. The first conviction under the Act was in December 2005, when [[Maya Evans]] was convicted for reading the names of British soldiers and Iraqi civilians killed in the [[Iraq War]], under the [[Cenotaph]] in October, without police permission. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/4507446.stm]
* In Italy the media [[Tycoon]] [[Silvio Berlusconi]] used [[censorship]] by stopping the [[Satire |satirical]] [[Raiot]] series, from [[Sabina Guzzanti]] on RAI television, by arguing that they were vulgar and full of disrespect to the government. (He claimed to sue the RAI for 21.000.000 Euro if the show would go on). The RAI stopped the show. Sabina Guzzanti went to court to proceed with the show and won the case. However the government and the RAI refused to follow the courtorder and the show never went on air again.
* In some European countries, [[holocaust denial]] is a criminal offence. A prominent proponent of this view, [[David Irving]], was sentenced for 3 years in Austria for denying the holocaust in February, 2006.
* Some countries still have outdated censorship law that are rarely used. British law technically still prohibits blasphemy, displays of erect penises and promotion of suicide.
==The Internet==
The development of the [[Internet]] opened new possibilities for achieving freedom of speech using methods that do not depend on legal measures. [[Pseudonymity]] and [[data haven]]s (such as [[Freenet]]) allow free speech, as the technology guarantees that material cannot be removed (censored).
Websites which fall foul of government censors in other countries are often re-hosted on a server in a country with no such restrictions. Given that the United States has in many respects the least restrictive governmental policies in the world on freedom of speech, many of these websites re-host their content on an American server and thus escape censorship while remaining available to their target audience. This is especially the case with [[neo-nazi]] and other sites promoting racial hatred, since these are prohibited in a number of [[European]] countries. It should be mentioned, however, that the US Government has attempted to regulate certain acts and speech on the Internet (''[[US v. Baker]]''). The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] (EFF) is an organization dedicated to protecting freedom of speech on the Internet.
The [[People's Republic of China|Chi |
first five players elected into the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]].
[[Image:Ruth1938.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Ruth coaching first base for the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1938.]]
Retirement was often unsettling for Ruth. He had more than enough [[money]], but he missed the game. He spent much time on the [[golf]] course, dabbled in a few other things, but his heart was set on managing a big league club. He would never be given the chance. The closest Ruth ever came to managing was when [[Brooklyn Dodgers]] general manager [[Larry MacPhail]] offered him a first base coaching job in June 1938. The Dodgers attendance was lagging, and MacPhail hired Ruth for the sole purpose of getting people to the [[ballpark]]. Ruth took the job, perhaps thinking he would have a chance to manage the Dodgers in the future, but MacPhail had clearly stated to Ruth that [[Leo Durocher]] was being groomed to take over the managerial reigns of the Dodgers for next season. Ruth never got along with Durocher, and he quit at the end of the season. The coaching position was the last time Ruth would have a job in major league baseball.
In 1939, all the years of fast living began to show signs of catching up with Ruth. During a round of [[golf]] with his playing partner Ben Curry, Ruth said to him, "I feel terrible." He was taken to the clubhouse where a doctor observed his condition. It was not diagnosed then, but Ruth had probably suffered a mild [[heart attack]], and about a year later, he suffered another similar attack. By this time Ruth's weight had ballooned to over 270 pounds (122 kg).
In 1942, Ruth was asked to play a part (as himself, in his athletic prime) in the film ''[[The Pride of the Yankees]]'', a film biography of [[Lou Gehrig]], who had passed away from [[Motor neurone disease|ALS]] in [[June]] 1941. Ruth needed to lose a great deal of weight to play the role, and with a vigorous workout schedule he had lost 40 pounds (18 kg). He did a respectable job of acting in a bit part, but the strict hours of filming did not suit his night life. He caught a bad [[common cold|cold]] (he had caught frequent colds his whole life), which developed into [[pneumonia]]. At one point, a report circulated that he was near death, but he recovered in a couple of weeks and finished the film part.
During [[World War II]], Ruth did some charity work for the [[Red Cross]], and bought over $100,000 in war bonds himself. He even organized a charity golf game with his old rival [[Ty Cobb]] (the two had despised each other in their playing days). Ruth appeared at many benefits during the war, and a few times donned his old baseball uniform. During one benefit at [[Yankee Stadium]], he batted against the former great pitcher [[Walter Johnson]], and another time, pinch hit in a game made up of teams from the armed forces. Later in 1943 in another charity game at Yankee Stadium, he pinch hit and drew a walk, but tore [[cartilage]] in his [[knee]] while running the bases. This would be the last time he would play in a formal game.
==Illness==
After the war, Ruth continued to look for a chance to manage in the big leagues. While in the past he had essentially been [[blackballed]] by owners who, for various reasons, did not trust him, this time it was his health that would prevent the opportunity. In 1946, he began experiencing severe pain over his left eye. He was not concerned, thinking it was [[sinus]] problems, but this situation was much more grave than his health problems of the past. In [[November]] 1946, a visit to French Hospital in [[New York]] revealed Ruth had a [[cancer|malignant tumor]] in his neck that had encircled his left [[carotid artery]], and physicians told him he would need surgery to have the cancerous growth removed. During the surgery, part of the [[nerve]]s that led to the [[larynx]] had to be cut, and as a result his voice was reduced to a whisper. He would be unable to swallow foods and had to be fed with [[feeding tube]]s. Since physicians could not remove all the cancer, Ruth was given [[radiation therapy]] to treat the cancer that remained.
Released from the hospital in February 1947, Ruth was now 80 pounds (36 kg) lighter. Although he regained enough of his strength to play [[golf]], hunt, and do other activities he had enjoyed, it was obvious to all who saw him that his health was not good. The tumor continued to grow, and he was in so much pain that he required [[morphine]]. He did manage to attend Babe Ruth Day, an appreciation of what Ruth had done for the game, held [[April 27]], [[1947]] at [[Yankee Stadium]]. It was on this occasion where Ruth spoke in a disheartening croaking voice to a capacity crowd of more than 60,000. He made a speech which included the line, "The only real game in the world, I think, is baseball."
In June 1947, Ruth was in so much pain physicians tried an experimental new [[medication|drug]] on him, a drug that was a synthetic form of [[folate]]. The ongoing treatments seemingly improved Ruth so much that his case was cited at an International Cancer Congress held in [[St. Louis]]. He seemed to have recovered some of his health and, with renewed energy, started the Babe Ruth Foundation, a charity for disadvantaged children. Another Babe Ruth Day held at [[Yankee Stadium]] in [[September]] helped raise money for his newest charity.
[[Image:Ruth1948.jpg|thumb|230px|left|A cancer-ravaged Ruth (right) in 1948, visited by New York City Mayor [[William O'Dwyer]].]]
Unfortunately, the apparent recovery was only a brief remission of the cancer. His health gradually declined, and he became sick and in as much pain as he had ever been. On [[June 13]], [[1948]], a weak Ruth was barely able to attend the Yankees 25th anniversary celebration of the opening of Yankee Stadium. He met old teammates from the 1923 Yankee team and later stood for photographs. The highlight of the day was when his name was announced over the loudspeaker, and the crowd erupted into a loud roar. Ruth walked slowly to the microphone using a baseball bat as a cane, and his old Yankees uniform he wore appeared several sizes too large on his now frail body. Ruth spoke a few words at the microphone, saying how much he enjoyed seeing his old teammates and being a Yankee. After a 2-inning game played by the old players, Ruth left Yankee Stadium for the last time. Shortly before, he had a conversation with former teammate [[Joe Dugan]]. Ruth told Dugan, "Joe, I'm gone. I'm done Joe," a confession which had Ruth breaking down and crying, and Dugan crying with him.
There can be little doubt that the cause of Ruth's [[Head and neck cancer|throat cancer]] was a lifelong habit of [[tobacco]] use. He began chewing tobacco at the age of seven, and in his teens began smoking cigarettes and cigars regularly, sometimes smoking up to a dozen cigars a day. He also used [[snuff]] in such large amounts that the dust would clog his [[Nasal cavity|nasal passages]]. Ruth's lifelong problems with colds and other respiratory problems can also likely be tied to this habit. While there was strong medical evidence that tobacco use and cancer were linked, the public was not widely aware of this. However, even if this information had been common knowledge during Ruth's lifetime, it is not likely that this would have changed his--or most other ballplayers--behavior, as the baseball culture of tobacco use had been ingrained since baseball's beginnings.
==Death==
Shortly after he had attended the Yankee Stadium anniversary event, Ruth was again back in the hospital. By now he knew it was [[cancer]] even if no one had told him, which apparently no one had. He received hundreds of well-wishing letters daily, many requesting autographs and photos. With his wife Claire's help, he made sure he answered every one. He was still able to walk and get out even near his end, and on July 26, 1948, he attended the premiere of the film about his life, ''The Babe Ruth Story'', which starred [[William Bendix]], who had been a Yankee bat boy in the early 1920's. Feeling very ill while watching the film, Ruth left well before the film was finished.
[[Image: Ruthfuneral.jpg|thumb|300px|right|On August 19, 1948, thousands of people lined the streets of New York City to see Ruth's funeral cortege.]]
Ruth returned to the hospital, and this time he would never leave. The [[cancer]] had eaten away at his body ([[cachexia]]) leaving him with an emaciated appearance, and he was barely able to speak. Only a few visitors were allowed to see him, one of whom was the then [[National League]] President and future [[Commissioner of Baseball]], [[Ford Frick]]. Frick had been a good friend of Ruth's since Ruth's early days as a Yankee and the ghostwriter for various articles supposedly written by Ruth. In Ruth's last days, scores of reporters hovered around the hospital, almost anticipating the end. On [[August 16]], the day after Frick's visit, Babe Ruth died at 8:01 p.m. at the age of 53. His body lay in state in [[Yankee Stadium]] for two days; more than 200,000 people filed past the casket. Three days later 9,500 mourners crammed into the area around [[St. Patrick's Cathedral]] for his funeral. Tens of thousands more lined the streets as his funeral cortege drove by. The outpouring of grief from so many thousands of [[United States|Americans]] was in marked contrast to the few dozen people who would later attend the services for his great rival [[Ty Cobb]] in 1961. Ruth was buried in the [[Cemetery of the Gate of Heaven]] in [[Hawthorne, New York|Hawthorne]], [[New York]], about 25 miles (40 km) north of [[New York City]]. His wife Claire was buried next to him upon her death in 1976.
Ruth's birthplace has been preserved as a combination Babe Ruth and Baltimore Orioles museum, and is just a short walk from [[Oriole Park at Camden Yards]].
==Statistics==
'''[[Baseball statistics|Career Statistics] |
mages from Encyclopædia Britannica|Images from Encyclopædia Britannica]]
==External links==
{{Wikisource}}
Encyclopaedia history:
*[http://heritage.scotsman.com/ingenuity.cfm?id=634942005&20050610140559 The history of the encylopaedia on ''The Scotsman's'' Heritage and Culture pages]
Earlier editions:
*[http://www.eliohs.unifi.it/testi/700/history3/ The article History] from the third edition.
*[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/ Scanned version of ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 1911], including the article [http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/EMS_EUD/ENCYCLOPAEDIA.html Encyclopaedia]
*[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/ Another scanned version of ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 1911]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13600 Slice of the 1911] Encyclopædia Britannica, as [[public domain]] text on [[Project Gutenberg]]
*[http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/xmilgov.htm James Mill's essay on government, 1820]
*[http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/joseph_mccabe/lies_of_britannica.html The Lies And Fallacies Of The Encyclopædia Britannica. How Powerful And Shameless Clerical Forces Castrated A Famous Work Of Reference] by [[Joseph McCabe]], c. 1947. Tract that claims to show systematic religious bias in the ''Britannica'' of the time.
*[http://www.britannica.com/original?content_id=1395 Vintage Britannica] or "Evolving Knowledge" &mdash; excerpts on a single topic selected from various Britannica editions since 1768
Modern editions:
*[http://www.britannica.com/ Official website for the current version of ''Encyclopædia Britannica'']
*[http://members.cox.net/kevin82/eberrors.htm One reader's catalogue of errors in the Encyclopædia Britannica]
*[[Wikipedia:Errors in the Encyclopædia Britannica that have been corrected in Wikipedia|Errors in Encyclopædia Britannica that have been corrected in Wikipedia]]
*[http://ifets.ieee.org/periodical/vol_1_2002/alevizou.html To wire or not to wire? Encyclopædia Britannica vs. Microsoft Encarta] A comparison of the two encyclopedias, by Panagiota Alevizou, published by the ''[[Educational Technology & Society]]'' journal
Business history:
*[http://www.businessweek.com/1997/42/b3549124.htm "Dusting off the Britannica"] article from ''Business Week'' (1997)
*[http://www.salon.com/media/media960510.html "Death of a salesforce"] from Salon (1996)
Sample articles:
*[http://store.britannica.com/content/pdf/Vietnam.pdf "Vietnam War"]. First three pages of the article from the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' Store.
*[http://store.britannica.com/content/pdf/Nanotech.pdf "Nanotechnology"]. First two pages of the article from the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' Store.
*[http://store.britannica.com/content/pdf/SciFi.pdf "Science Fiction"]. First three pages of the article from the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' Store.
*[http://store.britannica.com/content/pdf/Electronics.pdf "Electronics"]. First three pages of the article from the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' Store.
[[Category:Encyclopedias|Britannica, Encyclopædia]]
[[Category:Online encyclopedias|Britannica, Encyclopædia]]
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[[fa:دانشنامه بریتانیکا]]
[[fr:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
[[ko:브리태니커 백과사전]]
[[id:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
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[[he:אנציקלופדיה בריטניקה]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Endometrium</title>
<id>9509</id>
<revision>
<id>36809169</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T16:55:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/80.0.136.208|80.0.136.208]] ([[User talk:80.0.136.208|talk]]) to last version by Mikereichold</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''endometrium''' is the inner uterine membrane in [[mammal]]s which is developed in preparation for the [[implantation]] of a [[fertilized]] egg upon its arrival into the [[uterus]]. It grows to be rich in glands and [[blood vessel]]s, which are eventually to be connected to by the [[pregnancy]], forming the [[placenta]] through which the [[embryo]], as it becomes a [[fetus]] and eventually gestates fully, receives [[oxygen]] and is nourished.
The endometrial lining undergoes cyclic regeneration. Most mammals are subject to an [[estrous cycle]] while humans and the great apes display the [[menstrual cycle]]. In either situation the endometrium proliferates initially under the influence of [[estrogen]]. Once [[ovulation]] occurs, in addition to estrogen the ovary will also start to produce [[progesterone]] and thereby change the '''proliferative''' pattern of the endometrium to a '''secretory''' lining. In time the secretory lining provides a hospitable environment to one or more fertilized eggs. If no fertilized egg is detected, the progesterone level drops and the endometrial lining is either reabsorbed (estrous cycle) or shed (menstrual cycle). In the latter, the process of shedding involves the breaking down of the lining, tearing small connective blood vessels, and the loss of the tissue and blood which had constituted it through the [[vagina]], over a series of days. This may be accompanied by some uterine contractions to help expel the '''menstrual''' endometrium. In case of implantation, however, the endometrial lining does not get absorbed or shed, but remains as '''[[decidua]]''', provides support and protection for the gestation, and becomes part of the placenta.
If there is inadequate stimulation of the lining due to lack of hormones, the endometrium remains thin and inactive. In humans this will result in [[amenorrhea]]. The lining after the [[menopause]] is often described to be '''atrophic'''. In contrast, endometrium that is chronically exposed to estrogens, but not to progesterone, may become '''hyperplastic'''.
In humans, the cycle of building and shedding the endometrial lining is 28 days long on average, though it varies among individuals. The endometrium develops at different rates in different mammals. Its formation is sometimes affected by seasons, climate, stress and other factors. The endometrium itself produces certain [[hormone]]s at different points in the cycle affecting other portions of the [[reproductive system]].
More about the patterns of endometrial growth in different mammals can be found in the article about the [[estrous cycle]].
==Other==
Growth of the endometrium into the muscle layer of the uterus ([[myometrium]]) is seen in [[adenomyosis]].
Growth of endometrial tissue outside the uterus is a pathological condition known as [[endometriosis]].
[[Endometrial cancer]] is the most common [[cancer]] of the human female genital tract.
==See also==
#[[Menstrual cycle]]
#[[Estrous cycle]]
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<page>
<title>Electronic music</title>
<id>9510</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:09:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Teeroy</username>
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<comment>look pal, computers *are* electronic. If you state that they aren't then you have to exlude most of the synth made since the DX7. Newsflash, modern synths are custom computers with custom interfaces.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- this box is *only* intended for top level electronic genres: those that have genreboxes, not all subgenres, please *do not* add them to this box here -->
{| align=right id=toc style="margin-left: 15px;"
!align=center bgcolor=silver|[[Electronic music]]
|-
|[[Ambient music|Ambient]]
|-
|[[Breakbeat]]
|-
|[[Drum and bass]]
|-
|[[Electronica]]
|-
|[[Electronic art music]]
|-
|[[House music|House]]
|-
|[[Industrial music|Industrial]]
|-
|[[Intelligent dance music|IDM]]
|-
|[[Synthpop]]
|-
|[[Techno music|Techno]]
|-
|[[Trance music|Trance]]
|}
'''Electronic music''' is a term for [[music]] created using [[electronics|electronic]] devices. As [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/eab/faqs1.htm defined] by the IEEE standards body, electronic devices are low-power systems and use components such as transistors and integrated circuits. Working from this definition, distinction can be made between instruments that produce sound through electromechanical means as opposed to instruments that produce sound using electronic components. Examples of an electromechanical instrument are the [[teleharmonium]], [[Hammond B3]], and the [[electric guitar]], whereas examples of an electronic instrument are a [[Theremin]], [[synthesizer]], and a computer.
== History ==
===Late 19th century early 20th century===
Before electronic music, there was a growing desire for composers to use emerging technologies for musical purposes. Several instruments were created that employed electromechanical designs and they paved the way for the later emergence of electronic instruments. An electromechanical instrument called the [[Teleharmonium]] (or Telharmonium) was developed by [[Thaddeus Cahill]] in [[1897]]. Simple inconvenience hindered the adoption of the Teleharmonium: the instrument weighed seven tons and was the size of a boxcar. The first electronic instrument is often viewed to be the |
od's "mitzvot" (wishes or commandments). This is because Judaism views the following of God's ways as a desirable end in and of itself rather than a means to an end.
Jews recognize two kinds of "sin," offenses against other people, and offenses against God. Offenses against God may be understood as violation of a contract (the covenant between God and the Children of Israel). Since the destruction of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]], Jews have believed that right action (as opposed to right belief) is the way for a person to atone for one's sins. [[Midrash]] ''Avot de Rabbi Natan'' states the following:
:One time, when Rabban Yochanan ben Zakkai was walking in [[Jerusalem]] with Rabbi Yehosua, they arrived at where the Temple now stood in ruins. "Woe to us" cried Rabbi Yehosua, "for this house where atonement was made for Israel's sins now lies in ruins!" Answered Rabban Yochanan, "We have another, equally important source of atonement, the practice of ''gemilut hasadim'' ("loving kindness"), as it is stated "I desire loving kindness and not sacrifice" ([http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=16160&showrashi=true Hosea 6:6]).
The Babylonian [[Talmud]] states:
:Rabbi Yochanan and Rabbi Eleazar both explain that as long as the Temple stood, the altar atoned for Israel, but now, one's table atones [when the poor are invited as guests]. (Tractate Berachot, 55a.)
The liturgy of the Days of Awe (the High Holy Days; i.e. [[Rosh Hashanah]] and [[Yom Kippur]]) states that prayer, repentance and [[tzedakah]] (the dutiful giving of charity) atone for sin. But prayer cannot atone for wrongs done, without an honest sincere attempt to rectify any wrong done to the best of one's ability, and the sincere intention to avoid repetition. Atonement to Jews means to repent and set aside, and the word "T'shuvah" used for atonement actually means "to return". Judaism is optimistic in that it always sees a way that a determined person may return to what is good, and that God waits for that day too.
== Faith versus good deeds ==
Judaism teaches that the purpose of the [[Torah]] is to show that good deeds are considered in holiness as much or even more important than belief in God, and that both are required of people. An old Jewish saying captures this sentiment, "If you hear the Messiah has come, and you are doing a job, finish the job properly, then go and see." Although the Torah commands Jews to believe in God, Jews see belief in God as a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for a Jewish life. The quintessential verbal expression of Judaism is the [[Shema Yisrael]], the statement that the God of the Bible is their God, and that this God is unique and one. The quintessential physical expression of Judaism is behaving in accordance with the [[613 Mitzvot]] (the commandments specified in the Torah), and thus live one's life in God's ways.
Thus fundamentally in Judaism, one is enjoined to bring holiness into life (with the guidance of Gods laws), rather than removing oneself from life to be holy.
Much of [[Christianity]] also teaches that God wants people to perform good works, but all branches hold that good works alone will not lead to salvation, which is called [[Legalism (theology)|Legalism]]. Some Christian denominations hold that salvation depends upon transformational faith in Jesus which expresses itself in good works as a testament (or witness) to ones faith for others to see (primarily [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Christianity and [[Roman Catholic|Roman Catholicism]]), while others (including most Protestants) hold that faith alone is necessary for salvation. However, the difference is not as great as it seems, because it really hinges on the definition of "faith" used. The first group generally uses the term "faith" to mean "intellectual and heartfelt assent and submission." Such a faith will not be salvific until a person has allowed it to effect a life transforming conversion (turning towards God) in their being (see [[ontological faith]]). The Christians that hold to "salvation by faith alone" (also called by its Latin name "[[sola fide]]") define faith as being implicitly [[ontological]]--mere intellectual assent is not termed "faith" by these groups. Faith, then, is life-transforming by definition.
A practical outcome of this difference is the attitudes of the two religions to ''death bed conversions''. According to most forms of classical Christianity, one may lead an evil life, but on one's death one may repent for one's sins, accept Jesus as Christian dogma teaches, and then that person will be rewarded with a heavenly afterlife by God; this will be the same heavenly paradise that a comparatively less sinful person would receive. In contrast, all forms of Judaism teach that God judges a person based on their whole lifetime of actions and beliefs, and that deathbed conversions are therefore meaningless and have minimal effect on God's view of their life.
== Love ==
Love is a central value in both Judaism and Christianity. In ''Jesus and Yahweh: The Names Divine'', literary critic [[Harold Bloom]] argues that their notions of love are fundamentally different. Specifically, he links the Jewish conception of love to justice, and the Christian conception of love to charity.
As in English, the Hebrew word for "love," [[ahavah]] אהבה, is used to describe intimate or romantic feelings or relationships, such as the love between parent and child in [[Genesis]] 22:2; 25: 28; 37:3; the love between close friends in [[Books of Samuel|I Samuel]] 18:2, 20:17; or the love between a young man and young woman in [[Song of Songs]].
Like many Jewish scholars and theologians, Bloom understands Judaism as fundamentally a religion of love. But he argues that one can understand the Hebrew conception of love only by looking at one of the core commandments of Judaism, [[Leviticus]] 19:18, "Love your neighbor as yourself." This commandment is, arguably, at the center of the Jewish faith. As the third book of the [[Torah]], Leviticus is literally the central book. Historically, Jews have considered it of central importance: traditionally, children began their study of the Torah with Leviticus, and the [[midrash]]ic literature on Leviticus is among the longest and most detailed of midrashic literature (see Bamberger 1981: 737). Bernard Bamberger considers Leviticus 19, beginning with God's commandment in verse 3 &ndash; "You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God, am holy" &ndash; to be "the climactic chapter of the book, the one most often read and quoted" (1981:889). Leviticus 19:18 is itself the climax of this chapter.
As theologian [[Franz Rosenzweig]] has pointed out, "love" in this context is remarkably different from the more common examples of love in that it constitutes an impersonal relationship:
:...the neighbor is only a representative. He is not loved for his own sake, nor for his beautiful eyes, but only because he just happens to be standing there, because he happens to be nighest to me. Another could easily stand in his place &mdash; precisely at this place nearest me. The neighbor is the other ...
(This point is underscored by another verse in the same chapter, Leviticus 19: 34, commanding the Children of Israel to love strangers.)
According to Franz Rosenzweig, the commandment to love one's neighbor itself arises out of another unique love: the relationship between God and the [[Children of Israel]]. That the relationship between God and the Children of Israel is a romantic relationship and comparable to the marital bond is made clear in [[Hosea]] 2:19 (see also [[Ezekiel]] 16:8, 60; [[Isaiah]] 54:5; [[Jeremiah]] 3:14; 31:32). The centrality of love to the relationship between God and Israel is epitomized in [[Deuteronomy]] 6: 4-5: "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God; the Lord is one. You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your might." Arguably, this commandment is as central to Judaism as as Leviticus 19: 18, as it was recited twice daily in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]], and in the prayers of all observant Jews. Moreover, the Rabbis dictated that all Jews should recite this verse at the moment of their death (this custom contrasts with Mathew 27: 46, "About the ninth hour Jesus cried out in a loud voice, 'Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?' — which means, "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?" see also Mark 15: 33; Luke 23: 46, however, is closer to the spirit of Jewish practice: "Jesus called out with a loud voice, 'Father, into your hands I commit my spirit.' When he had said this, he breathed his last.")
Apparently by the Hellenistic period these two commandments were understood to be central to Jewish faith (see Mark 12: 28-32). Rosenzweig believes that these two commandments to love are inextricably connected, but in a complex way. He finds it remarkable that throughout the [[Torah]] God demands that Israel love Him, yet never professes love for Israel (except in the future; that if Israel loves God He will bless them in return). But he does not see this as evidence that God does not love Israel; on the contrary. Rosenzweig asks, how can someone command love? The only answer, he argues, is that only a lover can do so; only one who loves can demand, "love me!' in return (Rosenzweig 1970: 176-177). The consequences of this demand, according to Rosenzweig, provide the foundation for Judaism.
The first consequence of being loved, according to Rosenzweig, is a feeling of shame:
:In the admission of love, the soul bares itself. To admit that one requites love and in the future wants nothing but to be loved &mdash; this is sweet. But it is hard to admit tha |
igrants as depicted in a USPS stamp]]
Ellis Island was the first stop for most immigrants from Europe. There, they were processed before they could enter the United States. First, they had to pass a physical examination. Those with serious health problems or diseases were sent home or were held in the island's hospital facilities for long periods of time. Next, they were asked a series of questions, including name, occupation, work experience, and the amount of money they carried with them. Generally, those immigrants who were approved spent from hours up to a day at the island. More than three thousand would-be immigrants died on Ellis Island, however, while being held in the hospital facilities. Some unskilled workers and infirm migrants were rejected outright because they were considered "likely to become a public charge."
Writer [[Louis Adamic]] came to America from [[Slovenia]], in southeastern Europe, in 1913. Adamic described the night he spent on Ellis Island. He and many other immigrants slept on bunk beds in a huge hall. Lacking a warm blanket, the young man "shivered, sleepless, all night, listening to snores" and dreams "in perhaps a dozen different languages."
After 1924, Ellis Island was only used for detainees and refugees. Ordinary immigrants were processed through other facilities.
As with all historic areas administered by the [[National Park Service]], [[Ellis Island National Monument]], along with [[Statue of Liberty National Monument]], was listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] on [[October 15]], [[1966]].
Today, Ellis Island houses a museum, reachable by ferry from [[Liberty State Park]] in [[Jersey City, New Jersey]] and from the southern tip of [[Manhattan]] in [[New York City]]. The [[Statue of Liberty]], sometimes thought to be on Ellis Island because of its symbolism as a welcome to immigrants, is actually on nearby [[Liberty Island]].
Ellis island was also known as "The Isle of Tears" or "Heartbreak island."<ref>Davis, Kenneth (2003), ''Don't Know Much About American History,'' HarperTrophy, ISBN 0064408361 ("Isle of Tears" or "Heartbreak Island," p. 123)</ref> Many immigrants were sent back to their countries and did not become U.S. citizens after a long travel to Ellis island.
==Legacy==
[[Image:EllisIsland.JPG|thumbnail|right|400px|Immigration Museum on Ellis Island]]
[[Image:Liberty-ellis-island.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Main building detail.]]
Ellis Island is also known as a place where people changed their names; however, this is largely legend. It is said that if the immigration officer could not spell the original name, they would come up with an approximation, or something shorter or simpler, such as "Ellen Pollock" for "Helena Polonowycz". This is said to have been especially common when the newcomer couldn't read and write English. However, immigrants' identities were backed by their travel documents and ship lists, and they were often assisted by immigration societies of fellow countrymen. Very few cases of name changes can be traced to immigration processing while "Americanization" of ethnic names was a common occurrence as immigrants blended into everyday existence among friends and coworkers in their new country.
Ellis island mainly consisted of two types of immigrants: old immigrants and new immigrants. Old immigrants came prior to 1890, mostly from northern and western Europe. New immigrants came after 1890 from the Eastern and Southern parts of Europe. It is said that newer immigrants were not accepted as easily for cultural reasons as well as physical reasons (they were not as white as the old immigrants; white peoples were seen as superior).
Many immigrants were tested for mental problems, physical problems and other illnesses. Those who were wealthy did not have to take these exams.
In order to become a U.S. citizen, immigrants had to pass a few other exams, including reading, writing, and a U.S. history exam. An immigrant also had to renounce their citizenship from their mother country.
==Jurisdiction==
On [[October 15]], [[1965]], Ellis Island was proclaimed a [[U.S. National Monument|national monument]] and is managed by the [[National Park Service]] as part of [[Statue of Liberty National Monument]]. Because it is owned by the federal government the long-running jurisdictional dispute between the states of [[New Jersey]] and [[New York]] was more symbolic than practical. The island is on the New Jersey side of the Hudson River. During the colonial period, however, New York had taken possession, and New Jersey had acquiesced in that action. In a compact between the two states, approved by [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] in [[1834]], New Jersey therefore agreed that New York would continue to have exclusive jurisdiction over the island. [[Image:IMG 0286.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Main building's exterior.]]
Thereafter, however, the federal government expanded the island by [[Land reclamation#Creating new land|landfill]], so that it could accommodate the immigration station that opened in 1892. Landfilling continued until [[1934]]. Nine-tenths of the current area is [[artificial island]] that did not exist at the time of the interstate compact.
[[Image:Ellisislandhallinside.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Main building's interior.]]
New Jersey contended that the new extensions were part of New Jersey, since they were not part of the previous cession. New Jersey eventually filed suit to establish its jurisdiction, leading New York City Mayor [[Rudolph Giuliani]] to famously remark that his father, an Italian who immigrated through Ellis Island, never intended to go to New Jersey.
The dispute eventually reached the [[United States Supreme Court]], which ruled in [[1998]] that New Jersey had jurisdiction over all portions of the island created after the original compact was approved. This caused several immediate problems: some buildings, for instance, fell into the territory of both states. New Jersey and New York soon agreed to share jurisdiction over the island.
==Inspection Symbols==
These inspection symbols were chalked on the clothing of sick or otherwise "defective" hopeful immigrants, and some only entered the country by surreptitiously wiping them off.
<!-- need better explanation -->
* '''C''' - Conjunctivitis
* '''B''' - Back
* '''CT''' - Trachoma
* '''E''' - Eyes
* '''F''' - Face
* '''FT''' - Feet
* '''G''' - Goiter
* '''H''' - Heat
* '''K''' - Hernia
* '''L''' - Lameness
* '''N''' - Neck
* '''P''' - Physical and Lungs
* '''PG''' - Pregnancy
* '''SC''' - Scalp (fungus)
* '''SI''' - Special Inquiry
* '''X''' - Suspected Mental Defect
* '''X (circled)''' - Definite Mental Defect
There are one or two signs not available here.
<!--And it would be nice if somebody could add them-->
==Other==
The main building now houses a [[museum]] in addition to being a historic site. It is legally in New York state, while the southern part of the island, which holds the unrestored infirmary and hospital buildings, was given back to New Jersey in the court settlement. There is now a land bridge that connects Ellis Island with Jersey City, although visitors must travel by ferry.
The island was a scene used in ''[[Hitch (movie)|Hitch]]'', a [[motion picture]] starring [[Will Smith]]. He and [[Eva Mendes]] take a [[jet ski]] to the island and explore the building.
The IMAX 3D movie, [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0112286/ Across the Sea of Time], about the New York immigrant experience, incorporates both modern footage and historical photographs of Ellis Island.
==Trivia==
The last person processed at Ellis Island was Arne Petterssen, a Norwegian seaman who was sent home for overstaying his work permit.
==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
filename = Ellis Island immigration footage.ogg |
title = Ellis Island immigration footage, 1906 |
description = Depicts scenes at the Immigration Depot and a nearby dock on Ellis Island. (3:37, 16.6 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
format = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}
==References==
<references/>
==See also==
* [[List of museums and cultural institutions in New York City]]
* [[Geography and environment of New York City]]
==External links==
* Official site: [http://www.nps.gov/elis/ Ellis Island National Monument]
* [http://www.SaveEllisIsland.org Save Ellis Island!]
* [http://www.ellisislandrecords.org/ Ellis Island Database - NY Arrivals 1892-1924]
* [http://www.ancestry.com/learn/library/article.aspx?article=3893 The Myth of Ellis Island Name Changes]
* [http://www.ellisisland.org/ Ellis Island web site]
* [http://www.ellisisland.com/timeline.html Ellis Island timeline]
* [http://www.insecula.com/salle/theme_40024_M0087.html/ Ellis Island] (in French)
* [http://newyorkbirds.free.fr/manhattan/lower%20manhattan/ellis%20island/index.php Air visit of 'Ellis Island' in Photographs]
* [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&navby=case&vol=000&invol=120ORIG Supreme Court opinion in ''New Jersey v. New York'' (1998)]
{{New York City}}
[[Category:Art museums and galleries in the United States]]
[[Category:Artificial islands]]
[[Category:History of New York City]]
[[Category:History of immigration to the United States]]
[[Category:Islands of New Jersey]]
[[Category:Islands of New York City]]
[[Category:Museums in New York City]]
[[Category:National Monuments of the United States]]
[[Category:National Register of Historic Places]]
[[da:Ellis Island]]
[[de:Ellis Island]]
[[fr:Ellis Island]]
[[it:Ellis Island]]
[[he:אי אליס]]
[[nl:Ellis Island]]
[[ja:エリス島]]
[[no:Ellis Island]]
[[pt:Ellis Island]]
[[sv:Ellis Island]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Early Helladic</title>
<id>9807</id>
<revision>
<id>15907673</id>
<timestamp>2005-0 |
'Óðinn kvað:
:''"Þegj-at-tu, völva,
:''þik vil ek fregna,
:''unz alkunna,
:''vil ek enn vita:
:''Hverr mun heift Heði
:''hefnt of vinna
:''eða Baldrs bana
:''á bál vega?"
:''Völva kvað:''
:''Rindr berr Vála''
:''í vestrsölum,''
:''sá mun Óðins sonr''
:''einnættr vega:''
:''hönd of þvær''
:''né höfuð kembir,''
:''áðr á bál of berr''
:''Baldrs andskota;''
:''nauðug sagðak,''
:''nú mun ek þegja."'' - [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/edda/vegtamskvida.php Guðni Jónsson's edition]
| style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" |
:Vegtam
:"Be thou not silent, [[Völva|Vala]]!
:I will question thee,
:until I know all.
:I will yet know
:who will Baldr’s
:slayer be,
:and Odin’s son
:of life bereave."
:Vala
:"Hödr will hither
:his glorious brother send,
:he of Baldr will
:the slayer be,
:and Odin’s son
:of life bereave.
:By compulsion I have spoken;
:I will now be silent."
:Vegtam
:"Be not silent, Vala!
:I will question thee,
:until I know all.
:I will yet know
:who on Hödr vengeance
:will inflict
:or Baldr’s slayer
:raise on the pile."
:Vala
:"Rind a son shall bear,
:in the western halls:
:he shall slay Odin’s son,
:when one night old.
:He a hand will not wash,
:nor his head comb,
:ere he to the pile has borne
:Baldr’s adversary.
:By compulsion I have spoken;
:I will now be silent." - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/poetic2/005.php Thorpe's translation]
|
|}
Höðr is not mentioned again by name in the Eddas. He is, however, referred to in ''[[Völuspá in skamma]]''.
{|
| style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" |
:''Váru ellifu''
:''æsir talðir,''
:''Baldr er hné,''
:''við banaþúfu;''
:''þess lézk Váli''
:''verðr at hefna,''
:''síns of bróður''
:''sló hann handbana.'' - [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/edda/voluspainskamma.php Guðni Jónsson's edition]
| style="padding: 1pt 10pt;" |
:There were eleven
:Æsir reckoned,
:when Baldr on
:the pile was laid;
:him Vali showed himself
:worthy to avenge,
:his own brother:
:he the slayer slew. - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/poetic2/015_02.php Thorpe's translation]
|
|}
==Skaldic poetry==
The name of Höðr occurs several times in [[skaldic poetry]] as a part of warrior-[[kenning]]s. Thus ''Höðr brynju'', "Höðr of byrnie", is a warrior and so is ''Höðr víga'', "Höðr of battle". Some scholars have found the fact that the poets should want to compare warriors with Höðr to be incongruous with Snorri's description of him as a blind god, unable to harm anyone without assistance. It is possible that this indicates that some of the poets were familiar with other myths about Höðr than the one related in ''Gylfaginning'' - perhaps some where Höðr has a more active role. On the other hand the names of many gods occur in kennings and the poets might not have been particular in using any god name as a part of a kenning.
==Gesta Danorum==
[[Image:Hotherus and wood maidens by Froelich.jpg|left|thumb|300px|In [[Saxo Grammaticus|Saxo]]'s version of the story Høtherus meets wood maidens who warn him that Balderus is a demi-god who can't be killed by normal means.]]
In ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'' '''Høtherus''' is a human hero of the Danish and Swedish royal lines. He is gifted in swimming, archery, fighting and music and Nanna, daughter of King [[Gevarus]] falls in love with him. But at the same time Balderus, son of Othinus, has caught sight of Nanna bathing and fallen violently in love with her. He resolves to slay Høtherus, his rival.
As Høtherus is hunting he is led astray by a mist and meets wood-maidens who control the fortunes of war. They warn him that Balderus has designs on Nanna but also tell him that he shouldn't attack him in battle since he is a demigod. Høtherus goes to consult with King Gevarus and asks him for his daughter. The king replies that he would gladly favour him but that Balderus has already offered a like request and he does not want to incur his wrath.
Gevarus tells Høtherus that Balderus is invincible but that he knows of one weapon which can defeat him, a sword kept by [[Mimingus]], the satyr of the woods. Mimingus also has another magical artifact, a bracelet that increases the wealth of its owner. Riding through a region of extraordinary cold in a carriage drawn by reindeer Høtherus captures the satyr with a clever ruse and forces him to yield his artifacts.
Hearing about Høtherus's artifacts, Gelderus, king of Saxony, equips a fleet to attack him. Gevarus warns Høtherus of this and tells him where to meet Gelderus in battle. When the battle is joined, Høtherus and his men save their missiles while defending themselves against those of the enemy with a [[testudo formation]]. With his missiles exhausted, Gelderus is forced to sue for peace. He is treated mercifully by Høtherus and becomes his ally. Høtherus then gains another ally with his eloquent oratory by helping King Helgo of [[Hålogaland]] win a bride.
Meanwhile Balderus enters the country of king Gevarus armed and sues for Nanna. Gevarus tells him to learn Nanna's own mind. Balderus addresses her with cajoling words but obtains a refusal. Nanna tells him that because of the great difference in their nature and stature, since he is a demigod, they are not suitable for marriage.
As news of Balderus's efforts reaches Høtherus he and his allies resolve to attack Balderus. A great naval battle ensues where the gods fight on the side of Balderus. [[Thor]]o in particular shatters all opposition with his mighty club. As the battle seems lost Høtherus manages to hew Thoro's club off at the haft and the gods are forced to retreat. Gelderus perishes in the battle and Høtherus arranges a funeral pyre of vessels for him. After this battle Høtherus finally marries Nanna.
Balderus is not completely defeated and shortly afterwards returns to defeat Høtherus in the field. But Balderus's victory is without fruit for he is still without Nanna. Lovesick he is harassed by phantoms in Nanna's likeness and his health deteriorates so that he cannot walk but has himself drawn around in a cart.
After a while Høtherus and Balderus have their third battle and again Høtherus is forced to retreat. Weary of life because of his misfortunes against Balderus he plans to retire and wanders into the wilderness. In a cave he comes upon the same maidens he had met at the start of his career. Now they tell him that he can defeat Balderus if he gets a taste of some extraordinary food which had been devised to increase the strength of Balderus.
Encouraged by this Høtherus returns from exile and once again meets Balderus in the field. After a day of inconclusive fighting Høtherus goes out during the night to spy on the enemy. He finds where Balderus's magical food is prepared and plays the lyre for the maidens preparing it. While they don't want to give him the food they bestow on him a belt and a girdle which secure victory.
Heading back to his camp, Høtherus meets Balderus and plunges his sword into his side. After three days Balderus dies from his wound. Many years later, Bous, the son of Othinus and Rinda avenges his brother and kills Høtherus in a duel.
==Notes==
<!-- [[wikipedia:footnote3]] -->
#{{note|name}} The name ''Höðr'' is thought to be related to ''höð'', "battle", and mean something like "killer". This would seem to fit with the god's mythological role. In the standardized Old Norse orthography the name is spelled ''{{unicode|Hǫðr}}'' but the letter '{{unicode|ǫ}}' is frequently replaced with the Modern Icelandic 'ö' for reasons of familiarity or technical expediency. <br> The name can be [[Old Norse orthography|represented in English texts]] as ''Hod'', ''Hoder'', ''Hodur'', ''Hodr'', ''Hödr'', ''Höd'' or ''Hoth'' or less commonly as ''Hödur'', ''Hödhr'', ''Höder'', ''Hothr'', ''Hodhr'', ''Hodh'', ''Hother'', ''Höthr'', ''Höth'' or ''Hödh''. In the reconstructed pronunciation of [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] ''Höðr'' is pronounced {{IPA2|'hɔðr}} ([[:Image:Höðr_(RP).ogg|♫]]) while the Icelandic pronunciation is {{IPA2|'hœðʏr}} ([[:Image:Höðr_(IP).ogg|♫]]), corresponding to the Icelandic spelling ''Höður''. The various anglicizations are pronounced in an ad hoc fashion according to the taste and dialect of the speaker.
==References==
* Bellows, Henry Adams (transl.) (1936). ''The Poetic Edda''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/index.htm Available online]
* Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist (transl.) (1916). ''The Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson''. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation. [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/index.php Available online]
* Dronke, Ursula (ed.) (1997) ''The Poetic Edda: Mythological Poems''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198111819.
* Eysteinn Björnsson (2001). ''Lexicon of Kennings : The Domain of Battle''. Published online: http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/kennings/kennings.html
* Eysteinn Björnsson (ed.). ''Snorra-Edda: Formáli & Gylfaginning : Textar fjögurra meginhandrita''. 2005. Published online: http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/
* Eysteinn Björnsson (ed.). ''Völuspá''. Published online: http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/vsp3.html
* Guðni Jónsson (ed.) (1949). ''Eddukvæði : Sæmundar Edda''. Reykjavík: Íslendingasagnaútgáfan. [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/edda/index.php Available online]
* Lindow, John (2001). ''Handbook of Norse mythology''. Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio. ISBN 1576072177.
* [[Benjamin Thorpe|Thorpe, Benjamin]] (transl.) (1866). ''Edda Sæmundar Hinns Froða : The Edda Of Sæmund The Learned''. (2 vols.) London: Trübner & Co. [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/poetic2/000.php Available online]
[[Category:Norse gods]]
[[ca:Hödr]]
[[da:Høder]]
[[de:Hödur]]
[[es:Hoder]]
[[fr:Hod]]
[[hr:Hodr]]
[[lt:Hiodas]]
[[nl:Hodr]]
[[ja:ヘズ]]
[[no:Hod]]
[[nn:Hod]]
[[pl:Høder]]
[[ru:Хёд]]
[[sv:Höder]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Herat</title>
<id>14128</id>
<revision>
|
ple consisted of simple, soft-shelled [[foraminifera]], with four of the others representing species of the complex, multi-chambered genera ''Leptohalysis'' and ''Reophax''. Overall, 85% of the specimens consisted of organic soft-shelled allogromids. This is unusual compared to samples of sediment-dwelling organisms from other deep-sea environments, where the percentage of organic-walled foraminifera ranges from 5% to 20% of the total. As small organisms with hard calcated shells have trouble growing at extreme (10,000 m) depths because the water at that depth is severely lacking in [[calcium carbonate]], scientists theorize that the preponderance of soft-shelled organisms at the Challenger Deep may have resulted from the typical [[biosphere]] present when the Challenger Deep was shallower than it is now. Over the course of six to nine million years, as the Challenger Deep grew to its present depth, many of the species present in the sediment died out or were unable to adapt to the increasing water pressure and changing environment. The remaining species may have been the ancestors of the Challenger Deep's current denizens.
== External link ==
* [http://www.onr.navy.mil/focus/ocean/vessels/submersibles11.htm Official press release regarding Challenger Deep operation].
[[Category:Pacific Ocean]]
[[de:Challengertief]]
[[fi:Challengerin syvänne]]
[[sv:Challengerdjupet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Claude Louis Berthollet</title>
<id>7787</id>
<revision>
<id>38535223</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T23:45:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Itub</username>
<id>426390</id>
</contributor>
<comment>link to berthollides</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Claude_Louis_Berthollet.jpg|thumb|200px|Claude Louis Berthollet]]
'''Claude Louis Berthollet''' ([[December 9]], [[1748]] &ndash; [[November 6]], [[1822]]) was a French [[chemist]].
Claude Louis Berthollet was born in [[Talloires]], near [[Annecy]], [[France]].
Berthollet, along with [[Antoine Lavoisier]] and others, devised a chemical nomenclature, or a system of names, which serves as the basis of the modern system of naming chemical compounds. He also carried out research into [[dye]]s and [[Bleach (chemical)|bleach]]es (introducing the use of [[chlorine]] as a bleach) and determined the composition of [[ammonia]]. Potassium Chlorate (KClO3), a strong oxidizer, is known as Berthollet's Salt. [[Non-stoichiometric compound]]s are also named ''berthollides'' in his honor.
He died in [[Arcueil]], France.
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<title>C. L. Berthollet</title>
<id>7788</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Claude Louis Berthollet]]
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<page>
<title>Chasidic Judaism</title>
<id>7790</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hasidic_Judaism]]
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<page>
<title>Constitution of Chile</title>
<id>7791</id>
<revision>
<id>40037710</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T17:55:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pmsyyz</username>
<id>83813</id>
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<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Chile}}The current '''Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile''', approved by [[Chile|Chilean]] voters in a tightly controlled [[plebiscite]] on [[September 11]] [[1980]], under the dictatorship of [[Augusto Pinochet]], effective [[March 11]] [[1981]] and amended [[July 30]] [[1989]], [[1991]], [[1994]], [[1997]], [[1999]], [[2000]], [[2001]], [[2003]] and [[2005]], replaced the earlier [[constitution]] of [[1925]]. In its original permanent dispositions, it gave the President of the Republic a large amount of power; however, some of these dispositions, such as the power of dissolving the [[Lower house|Lower Chamber]] of Congress and serving eight year terms with possibility of reelection, were modified or eliminated after [[1990]], when the country regained its [[democracy]] and the Congress was reestablished. It created some new institutions, such as the Constitutional Tribunal and the [[controversy|controversial]] National Security Council (COSENA).
In its temporary dispositions, the document ordered the transition from the former [[military]] government, with [[Augusto Pinochet]] as President of the Republic, and the Legislative Power of the [[Junta|Military Junta]] (formed by the heads of the [[Navy]], [[Air Force]], National Police, and a representative of the [[Army]], the head of the Army being president of the [[republic]]), to a civil one, with a time frame of eight years, during which the Legislative Power would still be the Military Junta. It set the first eight year presidential term for Pinochet, with a [[plebiscite]] in the eighth year, in which only one candidate, nominated by the Junta, would be accepted or not. The candidate, as expected, was Pinochet himself. While the steps to follow in the case of a triumph of the "yes" option, which the document obviously anticipated, were clearly delineated, the steps for the "no" triumph were less so, but still clear enough that no serious doubt emerged when the "no" option actually was victorious in the [[1988]] plebiscite.
After the plebiscite, several [[Constitutional amendment|modifications]] to the Constitution were agreed and subjected to referendum, among them a simplification on the mechanism of future modification.
In [[2005]] over 50 reforms were approved, which eliminated the remaining undemocratic areas of the text, such as the existence of non-elected Senators (institutional senators, or senators for life) and the inability of the President to remove the Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. These reforms led the President to controversially declare Chile's transition to democracy as complete.
==Timeline of Constitutions==
* ''Reglamento para el arreglo de la Autoridad Ejecutiva Provisoria de Chile 1811''
* ''Reglamento Constitucional 1812''
* ''Reglamento para el gobierno Provisorio 1814''
* ''Constitución de 1818''
* ''Constitución de 1822''
* ''Constitución de 1823''
* ''Constitución de 1828''
* ''Constitución de 1833''
* ''Constitución de 1925''
* ''Constitución de 1980''
==References==
*[http://www.bcn.cl/pags/legislacion/leyes/resena_const.htm Brief review of Chile's constitutional history] - Chile's Library of Congress (in Spanish)
==External links==
{{wikisource|es:Constitución Política de la República de Chile|Constitution of Chile (in Spanish)}}
* [https://www.presidencia.cl/view/pop-up-nueva-constitucion-texto.asp 2005 recasting of the 1980 Constitution] ([https://www.presidencia.cl/documentos/Constituci%F3n%20Pol%EDtica.pdf PDF version]) (Spanish original)
* [http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Chile.pdf Official translation of the original 1980 Constitution] (PDF file)
* [http://www.bcn.cl/pags/legislacion/leyes/constitucion_politica.htm Text of Chilean constitutions] - Library of Congress of Chile (Spanish original)
* [http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3320682 "Untying the knot" (The Economist)]
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<page>
<title>Crass</title>
<id>7792</id>
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<id>41671261</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:41:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Quercusrobur</username>
<id>3741</id>
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<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Anarchism}}''For information about the [[anarchist]] writer see [[Chris Crass]]''
[[Crass]] was an influential [[England|English]] [[anarchist]] [[punk rock]] band.
==Overview==
[[Image:Crass2.jpg|thumb|left|Crass pictured at [[Bristol]], [[September]] [[1981]]]]
Crass formed in [[1977]], based around [[Dial House]], an '[[commune (intentional community)|open house community]]' near [[Epping, England|Epping]], [[Essex, England|Essex]], in England.
Whereas the [[Sex Pistols]]' anarchism seemed to be a self-consciously [[Nihilism|nihilistic]] [[prank]], Crass's stance was more directly linked to the [[libertarian socialism|libertarian socialist]] or communalistic varieties of 20th century political thought.
Taking literally the punk manifesto of "[[DIY punk ethic|Do It Yourself]]", Crass combined the use of [[song]], [[film]], [[sound collage]], [[graphic]]s and [[subversion (political)|subversion]] to launch a sustained and innovative critical broadside against all that they saw as a culture built on foundations of [[war]], [[violence]], [[sexism]], religious hypocrisy and unthinking [[consumerism]]. They were also amongst the progenitors of the [[anarcho-pacifism]] that became pervasive in the punk music scene (see also [[anarcho-punk]]).
==Origins of the band==
The band came together when Dial House founder and former member of |
Donald Hoffman
*''Usonia : Frank Lloyd Wright's Design for America'', Alvin Rosenbaum
===Biographies on Wright===
*''Many Masks'', by Brendan Gill
*''Frank Lloyd Wright: a Biography'', by Meryle Secrest
*''Frank Lloyd Wright: His Life and Architecture'', by Robert Twombly
===Selected survey books on Wright’s work:===
*''Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright, The'', by Neil Levine
*''Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog, The'', by William Allin Storrer ISBN 0-226-77623-9
*''Frank Lloyd Wright: America’s Master Architect'', by Kathryn Smith
*''Frank Lloyd Wright: Architect'', by the Museum of Modern Art
*''Frank Lloyd Wright Companion, The'', by William Allin Storrer ISBN 0-226-77624-7
*''Frank Lloyd Wright: Masterworks'', by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer
*''Wrightscapes: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Landscape Designs'', by Charles and Berdeana Aguar
==See also==
* [[:Category:Frank Lloyd Wright buildings|Frank Lloyd Wright buildings]]
* [[Wasmuth Portfolio]]
* [[Bridge Over Troubled Water|"So Long, Frank Lloyd Wright" (song)]]
==External links==
{{commons|Frank Lloyd Wright}}
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.uni.edu/artdept/gd/rbehrens3.html Roy R. Behrens: Grant Wood and Frank Lloyd Wright: A Gothic Revival]
*[http://www.franklloydwright.org/ Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation]
*[http://www.wrightplus.org/ Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust]
*[http://www.structural.net/News/Media_coverage/media_fallingwater_toh.html Saving Fallingwater from Collapse]
*[http://www.savewright.org/ Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy]
*[http://www.pbs.org/flw/ Frank Lloyd Wright] a [[PBS]] [[Television documentary|documentary]] by [[Ken Burns]]
*[http://www.bolender.com/Frank%20Lloyd%20Wright/Frank%20Lloyd%20Wright.htm Photo visits and a visit to a major work inspired by Frank Lloyd Wright]
*[http://www.casas.com/architect/franklloydwright/fallingwater000.html Fallingwater Photo Tour]
*[http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/flw/flw.html Frank Lloyd Wright. Designs for an American Landscape 1922-1932]
*[http://www.wrightinwisconsin.org/ Frank Lloyd Wright in Wisconsin]
*[http://www.appraisercitywide.com/FrankLloydWright Frank Lloyd Wright in the Chicago Area]
*[http://www.blueskymausoleum.com/ Frank Lloyd Wright's Blue Sky Mausoleum (Buffalo, NY) Built 2004]
*[http://www.pierce-arrow.com/flw%20filling%20station.htm Frank Lloyd Wright's Filling Station (Buffalo, NY)]
*[http://www.darwinmartinhouse.org Darwin Martin House (Buffalo, NY)]
*[http://ah.bfn.org/a/archs/wright/buff/ Frank Lloyd Wright in Buffalo, NY]
*[http://graycliff.bfn.org/ Graycliff Estate (Buffalo, NY)]
*[http://www.westcotthouse.org/ The Westcott House, Springfield Ohio]
*[http://www.koutayba.com/flw/ A Frank Lloyd Wright presentation]
*[http://architecture.about.com/library/bl-wright-list.htm Complete list of Wright buildings]
*[http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/1469/flwquote.html Some famous Frank lloyd Wright quotes.]
*[http://www.jiyu.jp/index-e.html Jiyuugakuen Myonichikan,Tokyo]
*[http://www.yodoko.co.jp/geihinkan/index_e.html Yodoko Guest House,Kobe]
*[http://you-are-here.com/architect/wright.html FLW in Los Angeles]
*[http://patentroom.com/architecture/patents/frank-lloyd-wright-house.html Patent illustration for Ardmore Experiment]
*[http://daronhagen.com/brow/index.html Official Website of 'Shining Brow' the opera about Frank Lloyd Wright]
*[http://architect.architecture.sk/frank-lloyd-wright-architect/frank-lloyd-wright-architect.php Frank Lloyd Wright : architect biography]
*[http://www.state.il.us/hpa/Thomas.htm The Dana-Thomas House, Springfield, Illinois]
* [http://www.geocities.com/allwrightsite/flw.html All Wright Site]
* [http://www.delmars.com/wright/flw8-16.htm Beth Sholom Synagogue]
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[[th:แฟรงก์ ลอยด์ ไรต์]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Filk music</title>
<id>10685</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-28T03:37:00Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Awards and Funds */ (Deleted mention of Sams, w/o link)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Filk''' is a musical culture, genre, and community tied to [[Science fiction fandom|science fiction/fantasy fandom]], active since the early 1950s if concentrated primarily since the mid-1970s.
==Definitions of filk==
As [[Debbie Ridpath Ohi]]'s compilation [http://www.electricpenguin.com/filking/articles/whatisfilk2.html What Is Filk?] and the Interfilk [http://www.interfilk.org/interfilk/filk.htm What Is Filk] page each demonstrate, there is no consensual definition of filk, though one could divide the different proposed definitions by their focus on the content and style of filk music or the cultural aspects of filking as an activity.
One definition focuses on filk as a genre: filk is [[folk music]], usually with a [[science fiction]] or [[fantasy]] theme. This definition is not exact; '''filkers''' often also write filk songs about [[computers]] or [[cat]]s. The other common definition is anthropological (and recursive): Filking is what is sung/performed by the network of people who originally gathered to sing at science fiction/fantasy conventions. Yet another definition focuses on filking as a community of those interested in filk music and who form part of the social network self-identified with filking. As described later in this article, the origins of filk in science fiction conventions and its current organization emphasizes the social-network aspect of filking.
Whichever definition one chooses, filk is a form of [[music]] created from within science fiction & fantasy [[fandom]], often performed late at night at [[science fiction conventions]], though there are now dedicated filk conventions in [[Canada]], [[England]], [[Germany]], and the [[USA]]. And whichever definition one chooses, the boundaries of filking are muddy. For example, filking overlaps with the singing and music performed by participants in the [[Society for Creative Anachronism]].
==Styles and subjects==
In keeping with the folk-culture roots of filk, the musical styles and topics of filk music are eclectic. While a plurality of filk is rooted firmly in acoustic-instrument [[Folk music|folk music]], other pieces and artists draw inspiration from [[Rock (music)|rock]], [[A capella|a capella]] vocal groups, or other styles. The hobbyist and itinerant nature of filk events (especially folk circles) gives some advantages to acoustic-vocal soloists and small groups, who need only carry a lightweight instrument or two and whose rehearsals do not need to balance scheduling logistics against regular work and other obligations. One of the few rock-style groups in filk has been [[Ookla the Mok (band)|Ookla the Mok]], whose studio recordings use techniques common in modern rock.
The range of topics in filk songs stems from its cultural roots in [[Fandom|fandom]]. Many songs honor specific works in science fiction, fantasy, or speculative fiction. Other songs are about science, fantasy, computers, technology in general, or values related to technological change. Yet others are about the culture of fandom, including filk. Some clusters of songs do not fall neatly from the origins of filk in fandom, however, including songs about cats or popular culture in general. These are perhaps best explained as an outgrowth of filk as a folk culture, open in some respects to expansion by individual artists.
==History==
For the first few decades of the occasional [[science fiction convention]], there had been late-night singing sessions in hotel rooms. Part of this practice may have been rooted in an older folk culture of fans. Some of the oldest filks coming out of [[Fandom|fandom]] were protest songs with original words and music written by a group of New York fans called [[Futurians|The Futurians]], and were written by [[Fred Pohl]] and [[Cyril Kornbluth]] (see [[Damon Knight]]'s book of the same name, which contains the words and music to several of them). With the break up of the city clubs common during the depression, filking moved to science fiction conventions, often in the form of late-night singing sessions in hotel rooms, lobbies, service passages, or wherever else the filkers could find enough room to play/sing music uninterrupted.
In the early 1950s, the term ''filk music'' started as a misspelling of ''folk music'' in an essay by Lee Jacobs, "The Influence of Science Fiction on Modern American Filk Music." While [http://www.wildebst.demon.co.uk/WoF.html some sources] claim that the editor of the Spectator Amateur Press Society refused to publish it, what '''is''' clear in the oral tradition of filking is that Jacobs's typo became the self-identified term for the genre/subculture while it was still an informal, unrecognized |
ever, most jurisdictions require a signed writing for certain kinds of contracts (like real estate transactions).
In the United States, a law setting out such requirements is typically called the [[Statute of Frauds]]; the name originates from an English statute that was for "the prevention of frauds." The point of the ''Statute of Frauds'' is to prevent false allegations of the existence of contracts that were never made, by requiring formal (i.e. written) evidence of the contract. Contracts that do not meet the requirements of Statute of Frauds legislation are unenforceable, but not void. However, a party unjustly enriched by an unenforceable contract may be subject to [[restitution]] for [[unjust enrichment]]. Statutes of Frauds are typically codified in state statutes covering specific types of contracts, such as contracts for the sale of real estate.
In [[Australia]], for contracts subject to legislation equivalent to the Statute of Frauds, there is no requirement for the entire contract to be in writing, although there must be a note or memorandum evidencing the contract, which may come into existence after the contract has been formed. The note or memorandum must be signed in some way, and a series of documents may be used in place of a single note or memorandum. It must contain all material terms of the contract, the subject matter and the parties to the contract.
In [[England and Wales]], the [[Statute of Frauds]] is still in force, but only for guarantees, which must be evidenced in writing, although the agreement may be made orally. Certain other kinds of contract (such as for the sale of land) must be in writing or they are void.
Furthermore, the existence of a written contract does not necessarily ensure its enforceability or validity. A contract can be deemed unenforceable if it requires a party to undertake an illegal act, if it was signed under [[duress]] or while intoxicated, if the disparity in knowledge between the parties is extreme and the weaker party was given onerous terms, etc. For example, a contract to sell heroin or engage in prostitution is unenforceable on the grounds that it is against public policy.
If the terms of a contract subject to Statute of Frauds legislation are to be varied, the variations must be noted in writing as well. However, the contract may be discharged orally.
If a contract is in a written form, then generally, you are bound by its terms regardless of whether you have read it or not (''L'Estrange v. F Graucob Ltd'' [1934] 2 KB 394). However, this is tempered by the exception that if the terms of the contract are misrepresented, then the plaintiff is unable to rely on the terms of the contract; in addition, the document must be contractual in nature (''Curtis v. Chemical Cleaning and Dyeing Co'' [1951] 1 KB 805).
Furthermore, if a party wishes to use a document as the basis of a contract, reasonable notice of its terms must be given to the other party prior to their entry into the contract (see ''Balmain New Ferry Company Ltd v. Robertson'' (1906) 4 CLR 379). This includes such things as [[Ticket cases|tickets]] issued at parking stations.
==Void, voidable and unenforceable contracts==
In general, there are three classifications of contracts that are not binding:
* '''Void:''' If a contract is held to be void, the contract has never come into existence. For example, a contract is ''void'' if it is based on an illegal purpose or contrary to [[public policy]]; the classic example is a contract with a [[hit man]]. Such a contract will not be recognized by a court, and cannot be enforced by either party.
* '''Voidable:''' A contract is ''voidable'' if one of the parties has the option to terminate the contract. Contracts with a [[minor (law)|minor]] are examples of voidable contracts.
* '''Unenforceable:''' If a contract is unenforceable, neither party may enforce the other's obligations. For example, in the United States, a contract is unenforceable if it violates the [[Statute of frauds]]. An example of the above is an oral contract for the sale of a motorcycle for [[US dollar|US$]]5,000 (because in the [[USA]] any contract for the sale of goods over US$500 must be in writing to be enforceable).
===Uncertainty and incompleteness===
If the terms of the contract are uncertain or incomplete, the parties cannot have reached an agreement in the eyes of the law. An agreement to agree does not constitute a contract, and an inability to agree on key issues, which may include such things as price or safety, may cause the entire contract to fail.
However, a court will attempt to give effect to commercial contracts where possible, by construing a reasonable construction of the contract (see ''[[Hillas v. Arcos Ltd]]'' (1932) 147 LT 503).
Courts may also look to external standards, which are either mentioned explicitly in the contract (''Whitlock v. Brew'' (1968) 118 CLR 445) or implied by common practice in a certain field (''Three Rivers Trading Co., Ltd. v. Gwinear & District Farmers, Ltd.'' (1967), 111 Sol. J. 831). In addition, the court may also imply a term; if price is excluded, the court may imply a reasonable price, with the exception of land, and second-hand goods, which are unique.
===Severence of unenforceable clauses===
If there are uncertain or incomplete clauses in the contract, and all options in resolving its true meaning have failed, it may be possible to sever and void just those affected clauses. The test of whether a clause is severable is an objective test - whether a reasonable person would see the contract standing even without the clauses.
===Spy contracts===
In the U.S., one unusual type of unenforceable contract is a personal [[employment]] contract to work as a [[spy]] or [[secret agent]]. This is because the very secrecy of the contract is a condition of the contract (in order to maintain [[plausible deniability]]). If the spy subsequently sues the government on the contract over issues like salary or benefits, then the spy has breached the contract by revealing its existence. It is thus unenforceable on that ground, as well as the public policy of maintaining [[national security]] (since a disgruntled agent might try to reveal ''all'' the government's secrets during his lawsuit).
==Bilateral v. unilateral contracts==
Contracts may be bilateral or unilateral. The more common of the two, a bilateral contract, is an agreement in which each of the parties to the contract makes a promise or promises to the other party. For example, in a contract for the sale of a home, the buyer promises to pay the seller $200,000 in exchange for the seller's promise to deliver title to the property.
In a unilateral contract, only one party to the contract makes a promise. A typical example is the reward contract: A promises to pay a reward to B if B finds A's dog. B is not obliged to find A's dog, but A is obliged to pay the reward to B if B finds the dog. In this example, the finding of the dog is a [[condition precedent]] to A's obligation to pay.
An offer of a unilateral contract may often be made to many people (or 'to the world') by means of an advertisement. In that situation, acceptance will only occur on satisfaction of the condition (such as the finding of the offeror's dog). If the condition is something that only one party can perform, both the offeror and offeree are protected &mdash; the offeror is protected because he will only ever be contractually obliged to one of the many offerees; and the offeree is protected, because if she does perform the condition, the offeror will be contractually obliged to pay her.
In unilateral contracts, the requirement that acceptance be communicated to the offeror is waived. The offeree accepts by performing the condition, and the offeree's performance is also treated as the price, or [[consideration]], for the offeror's promise.
The most common type of unilateral contract is the insurance contract. The insurance company promises to pay the insured a stated amount of money on the happening of an event if the insured pays premiums; note that the insured does not make any promise to pay the premiums.
Courts generally favor bilateral contracts. The general rule in the United States is: "In case of doubt, an offer is interpreted as inviting the offeree to accept ''either'' by promising to perform what the offer requests ''or'' by rendering the performance, as the offeree chooses." ''Restatement (Second) of Contracts'' § 32 (1981) (emphasis added). Here the law attempts to provide some protection from the risk of revocation in a unilateral contract to the offeree. Note that if the offer specifically requests performance rather than a promise, a unilateral contract will exist. See [[option contract]]s for more information on protection given to the offeree in a unilateral contract.
==Express and implied contracts==
A contract can be either an express contract or an implied contract. An express contract is one in which the terms are expressed verbally, either orally or in writing. An implied contract is one in which some of the terms are not expressed in words.
===Implied in fact or implied in law===
An implied contract can either be [[implied in fact contract|implied in fact]] or [[implied in law contract|implied in law]]. A contract which is implied in fact is one in which the circumstances imply that parties have reached an agreement even though they have not done so expressly. For example, by going to a doctor for a physical, a patient agrees that he will pay a fair price for the service. If he refuses to pay after being examined, he has breached a contract implied in fact.
===Quasi-contract===
A contract which is implied in law is also called a [[quasi-contract]], because it is not in fact a contract; rather, it is a means for the courts to remedy situations in which one party would be unjustly enriched were he or she not required to compensate |
ith the exception of the Planetary Governor or Supreme Leader elections, each faction has one vote, with the governor holding [[veto]] power. In Planetary Governor or Supreme Leader elections, each faction casts a number of votes that is based on its total population and modifiers from secret projects.
===Society===
Despite being set in the future, the problems of human society still plague the inhabitants of Chiron. Reflecting this are the existence of drones in the population. Drones represent the undereducated, discontent segments of society. When the number of drones overwhelm the number of well educated citizens, called Talents, a drone [[riot]] occurs. During a drone riot all productive activity within the base are suspended. If not stopped, prolonged drone riots will eventually escalate in severity until facilities are destroyed, or in extreme cases, the entire city defects to another faction.
Drone riots can be suppressed through the use of in base military units as [[police]]. The amount of suppression allowed depends on the degree of tolerance the society, under current [[Social engineering (political science)|social engineering]] models, has for policing. There also exists the temporary and more extreme solution of ''nerve stapling''. This directly suppresses the violent tendencies of the population, preventing drone riots for a short period of time, but carrying it out is considered an atrocity and can negatively impact diplomatic reactions.
===Social Engineering===
[[Social engineering (political science)|Social engineering]] is another decisive game element reflecting human nature. Here, political, economic, social and future society models may be chosen. Each choice has its benefits and drawbacks. When combined, these models shape the faction's overall society. The aspects of social engineering affect a diverse range of gameplay elements, ranging from contentment and growth of the populace, unit morale and fighting strength, to the amount of energy credits received, among other things.
* ''[[Political systems|Politics]]'' represents the method your society uses to make political decisions.
**''[[Frontier]]'' is the default system. This politics represents the informal government used in the young colonies, before the settlement reach a substantial size, which require a more sophisticated government system.
** ''[[Police state|Police State]]'' is the system in which the government uses brutal police force to discipline the citizens and keep them in line. The leader has great power over the military and the citizens but the economic efficiency is decreased.
** ''[[democracy|Democratic]]'' is the system where the citizens take part in the government by electing their representatives. The stability this government type offers increases growth and efficiency, but the citizens become suspicious of large military deployments.
** ''[[fundamentalism|Fundamentalist]]'' is the system where the society is heavily based on a religion. This government type provides loyal citizens, and tends to make the citizens more resistant against brainwashing. However, scientific research suffers greatly under this government.
* ''Economics'' represents how your society [[economic systems|manages its resources]].
** ''[[Primitive accumulation of capital|Simple]]'' is the default administration. It represents the informal, [[ad hoc]] economic system, which is utilized in the early years after Planetfall.
** ''[[free market|Free Market]]'' is the system where the market forces are released. This system generates a lot of wealth, at the expense of severe environmental damage and unhappiness of people who are suddenly rendered poor by unscrupulous moguls.
** ''[[Planned economy|Planned]]'' is the system where the market forces are tied very tight by strict government regulations. This benefits the production and growth, at the expense of efficiency.
** ''[[Green politics|Green]]'' is government with nature preservation as its top goal. Extensive recycling increases the efficiency and reduces ecological damage, but growth is sacrificed due to deference for native life.
* ''Values'' represents which [[Value system|value system]] your society is based upon.
** ''[[Survival skills|Survival]]'' is the most important value in the early struggles of surviving on the foreign planet.
** ''[[Power]]'' is the value of having a strong leader with power to enforce his will and have large military budget. But the industry suffers from this exaggerated 'defense' budget.
** ''[[Knowledge]]'' is the society value where science and knowledge are highly prized. It promotes free flow of information, which increases scientific progress but tends to render the player's society more vulnerable to probe attacks.
** ''[[Wealth]]'' values the acquisition of money and material goods most highly. The benefits for the economy and for industry are apparent; the morale of the society suffers, however, due to greed.
* ''[[Transhumanism|Future society]]'' represents advanced social engineering models, which can be used very late in the game after extensive research and much experience with social engineering.
** ''None'' is the default future society. This represents that the player's society has not yet developed a future society.
** ''[[Cybernetics|Cybernetic]]'' is the future society where artificial intelligence has taken over the menial tasks of society, allowing humans devote their time to creative pursuits. Its downside is the civil unrest often caused as people have their jobs taken by machines.
** ''[[Eudaimonia|Eudaimonic]]'' is virtue in accord with excellence: the citizens of this society achieve ultimate happiness by striving to fulfil their greatest potential.
** ''[[Thought control]]'' is the future society where mind-control methods are used to utterly subjugate the citizens of the player's society.
==Factions==
The original seven [[Political faction|factions]] in the game are as follows below (the [[Sid Meier's Alien Crossfire|Alien Crossfire]] expansion adds seven more):
===Spartan Federation===
True to their name, the Spartan faction places the highest priority on strength, discipline and combat readiness. Commanded by Colonel Corazon Santiago, a survivalist from Puerto Rico, the Spartans make planetfall with the technology ''Doctrine: Mobility''. Spartan units receive morale upgrades (making them better fighters) and their disciplined society is naturally tolerant of [[police]] actions, allowing two [[military]] units to help suppress a colony's drones. The Spartans' skilled military expertise allows them to build prototype units without extra mineral cost. However, the excessive labour developed to military production imposes a 10% penalty to industrial production. The Spartans may not pursue Wealth as a social engineering choice. Their founding base is Sparta Command.
===Gaia's Stepdaughters===
A faction that values living in [[Ecology|ecological]] harmony with Planet and abhors ecological destruction. They are led by Lady Deirdre Skye of Scotland. The Gaians make planetfall with the technology ''Centauri Ecology''. The Gaians' ecological safeguards allow them to avoid ecological damage and to capture native mind worms, and their experience with lifecycles and recycling gives them an efficiency bonus. The Gaians also receive one extra nutrient from fungal squares and their infantry units can move through xenofungus without movement penalties. The Gaians are [[pacifism|pacifistic]] and freedom-loving, giving rise to their weaknesses: low troop morale and a lower police rating which prevents nerve stapling. The Gaians may not use a [[Free market|Free Market]] system in social engineering. Their founding base is Gaia's Landing.
===University of Planet===
A faction that values knowledge and scientific advancement, although not necessarily ethically obtained. Led by Academician Prokhor Zakharov of Russia. The [[University]] makes planetfall with ''Information Networks'', as well as another randomly selected technology. The brilliant researchers of the University allow them to discover new technologies 20% faster than normal, but the openness of their academic networks leaves them prone to infiltration from other factions. Every University base comes equipped with a Network Node, which boosts research by another 50%. Due to the University's lack of ethics, one in every four citizens is a drone. The University may not use a [[Fundamentalist]] [[government]] in social engineering. Their founding base is University Base.
===Peacekeeping Forces===
This faction works hard to keep the peace through diplomacy and to maintain the United Nations charter. Led by Commissioner Pravin Lal of India, the Peacekeepers make planetfall with the technology ''Biogenetics''. The [[United Nations]] style bureaucracy of the Peacekeepers causes them to lose efficiency. The Peacekeepers do attract intellectual elites, causing every fourth citizen to be a talent. The Peacekeeper colonies may grow two sizes beyond normal population restrictions. In votes for Planetary Governor and Supreme Leader, the Peacekeepers' votes are double its population. The Peacekeepers may not use a [[police state]] government in social engineering. Their founding base is United Nations Headquarters.
===Human Hive===
A totalitarian faction based on [[Communist]]/[[Collectivist]] principles. They are controlled by Chairman Sheng-Ji Yang of China. The Hive makes planetfall with the technology ''Doctrine: Loyalty''. The Hive has its growth rate boosted by 10% and its brutal serfdom decreases the mineral cost of units and facilities by 10%, however the lack of political freedom causes each colony to generate one less unit of energy per turn. In the original version of the game, the Hives' belief in the greater good greatly raised the morale of Yang's army. In the [[Sid Meier's Alien Crossfire|expansion pack]], the Hive loses its morale bonus but is given an immunity to ineffi |
r the influence of Jewish opinions, but that they themselves are purer [in doctrine], and more intelligent, than the apostles."
Many modern scholars wonder what happened to those who required circumcision for Gentile converts. (An obvious answer is the [[Ethiopian Orthodox]] and [[Coptic Orthodox]] who still practice circumcision.) Referring to the "non-Pauline" [[Twelve Apostles|apostles]] as [[Nazarenes]] ([[Saint James|James]], [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[John the Apostle|John]]), these scholars have pieced together evidence that [[Jewish Christians|Jewish sects of Christianity]] grew and thrived for a while in Judea and the surrounding areas, which they speculate were more closely followers of the Nazarenes in contrast to the [[Pauline Christianity|Pauline Christians]]. They attempt to trace these early Nazarene Christians through later groups, such as the [[Ebionites]] and [[Elkasites]], who are derogatively called ''re-Judaizers'', and who rejected the Christian movement as it was developing among the Pauline Christians. In other words, they believe that contrary to the writer of the Galatians, a rift between Paul and the other apostles was radical and permanent. These controversial views have strong endorsement from modern academia, and the theories are advanced as a significant correction of the [[History of the Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church's account of its own history]], which tradition has lost. See also [[Great Apostasy]].
The [[Didache]] and other writings in the [[Apostolic Fathers]] collection further document early church practice.
Observance of the [[Sabbath]] and [[Quartodeciman]] were also early issues.
===Martyrs===
*[[Saint Stephen|Saint Stephen, Deacon]] the protomartyr (first martyr)
*[[Saint James the Great|James the son of Zebedee]]
*[[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]]
*[[Saint Peter]]
*[[Ignatius of Antioch]], disciple of [[Saint Peter]] and first bishop of Antioch after him
*[[Polycarp]], bishop of Smyrna and disciple of [[John the Evangelist]]
===Apologists===
*[[Justin Martyr]], convert from Greek philosophy
*[[Irenaeus of Lyons]], bishop of Lyons, categorized heresies in order to refute them
*[[Clement of Rome]], 3rd/4th bishop of Rome ([[Pope]])
===House Churches===
*[[Dura-Europos]], [[Syria]] is the site of the earliest discovered identifiable Christian house church.
===New Testament apocrypha===
The early Christians produced many historically significant [[New Testament Apocrypha]], canons, and other literature described church organization. One of the earliest of these is the [[Didache]], which is usually dated to the late first or early 2nd century.
=== Early heresies ===
Disputes of doctrine began early on. The newly-organized church organized councils to sort matters out. Councils representing the entire church were called [[ecumenical council]]s. Some groups were rejected as [[heresy|heretics]].
*[[Simon Magus|Simonianism]]
*[[Nicolaitan|Nicolaitanism]]
*[[Judaizers]]
*[[Gnosticism]] (based on "secret wisdom" from Paul in Romans 16:25)
*[[Marcionism]] (called the most dangerous threat ever faced)
*[[Montanism]] (claiming new revelations to new prophets and an imminent Millenial kingdom)
*[[Alogi]]
*[[Mandaeanism]]
*[[Monarchianism]]
*[[Nestorianism]] (advanced by [[Nestorius]], a [[patriarch of Constantinople]])
*[[Apollinarianism]]
*[[Arianism]] (4th century, advanced by [[Arius]], a priest)
====Arianism====
Arius (250 - 336 CE) proposed that Jesus and God were very separate and different entities: Jesus was closer to God than any other human being, but he was born a man, had no prior existence, and was not a god. On the other hand, God has existed forever. Arius felt that any attempt to recognize the deity of Christ would blur the lines between Christianity and the Pagan religions. If Christianity recognized two separate gods, the Father and Jesus, it would become a polytheistic religion.
Although most writings of Arius were destroyed by the early Catholic Church and the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]], we can infer from [[Athanasius]]' arguments against Arius some idea of the movement. Basically, Arius was a leader of Christians who had a very particular understanding of the early [[trinitarianism]] movement, reflecting the divine nature of Christ. Arius' hypothesis, to our knowledge, was that Jesus was created by God (as in, "There was a time when the Son was not"), and hence, was secondary to God. His primary proof text was John 17:3. Athanasius' position was that Jesus was and always had been divine, and had a divine nature along with the Father and the Holy Spirit.
====Gnosticism====
A Greek philosophical/religious movement known as [[Gnostic]]ism had developed at roughly the same time as Christianity. Many followers of this movement ([[Valentinius]] being one of the most well-known) were also Christians, and taught a synthesis of the two belief systems. This produced a major controversy in the early church.
Gnostic interpretations differed from mainstream Christianity because orthodox Christians took the literal interpretation of the [[Gospels]] as the correct one, whereas Gnostics tended to read them as [[allegory]]; thus the orthodox branch attracted greater numbers of adherents. This was observed quite early, for example, the second century [[Celsus]] (whose words are preserved in [[Origen]]'s ''Contra Celsum'', a text designed against Celsus) states that Christianity
:''continues to spread amongst the vulgar, nay one can even say it spreads because of its vulgarity, and the illiteracy of its adherents. And while there are a few moderate, reasonable, and intelligent people who are inclined to interpret its beliefs allegorically, yet it thrives in its purer form amongst the ignorant''
=== Competing religions ===
Christianity was not the only religion seeking and finding converts in the 1st century. Modern historians of the Roman world often discern interest in what they tend to call ''[[mystery religions]]'' or ''mystery cults'' beginning in the last century of the [[Roman Republic]] and increasing during the centuries of the [[Roman Empire]]. Roman authors themselves, such as [[Livy]], tell of the importation of "foreign gods" during times of stress in the Roman state. [[Judaism]], too, was receiving converts and in some cases actively evangelizing. The New Testament reflects a class of people referred to as 'believers in God' who are thought to be Gentile converts, perhaps those who had not submitted to circumcision; [[Philo]] of Alexandria makes explicit the duty of Jews to welcome converts.
====Mithraism====
Worship of [[Mithras]] (known as [[Mithraism]]) developed in the Roman army during the 1st century BC, though it is currently unknown how this particular mystery religion originated, as it appears to have little to do with the [[Zoroastrian]] [[Mithra]]. Since it developed amongst a group of highly mobile people (professional soldiers), it quickly spread to the outer regions of the empire. It soon proved to be one of the most popular of the mystery religions by the start of the 3rd century. Roman emperors were openly encouraging it as the religion favored by their empire.
The Mithras religion is thought to have its ultimate origin in the cult of Mithra, a [[Amesha Spenta|deity]] connected to popular forms of [[Zoroastrianism]] (though it is important to note that strictly, early Zoroastrianism is dualist, and modern Zoroastrianism is monotheist, and neither includes Mithra).
By the end of the 3rd century, the popular cults of [[Apollo]] and Mithras had started to merge into the syncretism known as ''[[Mithraism|Mithras Sol Invictus]]'' or simply ''[[Sol Invictus (disambiguation)|Sol Invictus]]'' (the unconquerable sun&mdash;a term also used by other cults), and in 274 the emperor [[Aurelian]] made worship of this form official.
After the decree of [[Theodosius]] in 391, and subsequent suppression, many Mithraeums were converted into Christian churches (such as Notre-Dame du Taur, and the [[Church of San Clemente]]); these were often dedicated to the [[Michael (archangel)|archangel Michael]].
====Mandaeanism====
[[Mandaeanism]] was a Gnostic religion which revered [[John the Baptist]] instead of Jesus. According to legend, [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] was a Mandaean. Mandaeanism still exists.
====Manichaeism====
[[Manichaeism]] was one of the major ancient religions. Though its organized form is mostly extinct today, a revival has been attempted under the name of Neo-Manichaeism. However, most of the writings of the founding [[prophet]] [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] have been lost. Some scholars and anti-Roman Catholic polemicists argue that its influence subtly continues in Christian thought via [[Augustine of Hippo]], who converted to Christianity from Manichaeism and whose writing continues to be enormously influential among Catholic theologians.
The religion was founded by Mani, who reportedly was born in western [[Persian Empire|Persia]] and lived approximately 210-275 AD. The name Mani is mainly a title and term of respect rather than a personal name. This title was assumed by the founder himself and so completely replaced his personal name that the precise form of the latter is not known. Mani was likely influenced by Mandaeanism and began preaching at an early age. He claimed to be the [[Paraclete]], as promised in the New Testament: the [[Last Prophet]] and [[Seal of the Prophets]] that finalized a succession of men guided by God and included figures such as [[Zoroaster]], [[Hermes]], [[Plato]], [[Buddha]], and Jesus.
The Manichees made every effort to include all known religious traditions in their faith. As a result, they preserved many apocryphal Christian works, such as the [[Acts of Thomas]], that otherwise would have been lost. Mani was eager to describe himself as a "disciple of Jesus Christ", but the orthodox church rejected h |
]] teachers.
* [http://www.borishennig.de/texte/descartes/diss/cartes_04b.pdf/ History of the word "consciousness" until Descartes]
* [http://www.consciousentities.com/ Conscious Entities] Discussions of leading theories and issues.
* [http://www.iacworld.org/English/Resources/ FAQ & Articles] Consciousness & psi phenomena
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~pear/5.html Consciousness-Related Engineering Anomaly] Princeton
* [http://www.godconsciousness.com/Evolution%20of%20Consciousness.pdf Evolution of Consciousness Literature Review, Notes and Excerpts] by Doug Phillips
* [http://develintel.blogspot.com/2006/02/minds-eye-models-of-attentional-blink.html Computational Models of the Attentional Blink]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Currency</title>
<id>5665</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:44:10Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For current [[exchange rates]], see [[Exchange rate#External links|Exchange links]]''.
{{Foreign Exchange}}
{{TOCright}}
A '''currency''' is a [[unit]] of exchange, facilitating the [[trade|transfer]] of goods and services. It is a form of [[money]], where money is defined as a medium of exchange (rather than e.g. a store of value). A '''currency zone''' is a country or region in which a specific currency is the dominant medium of exchange. To facilitate [[international trade|trade]] between currency zones, there are [[exchange rate]]s i.e. prices at which currencies (and the goods and services of individual currency zones) can be exchanged against each other. Currencies can be classified as either [[floating currency|floating currencies]] or [[fixed currency|fixed currencies]] based on their [[exchange rate regime]]. In common usage, currency sometimes refers to only paper money, as in "coins and currency", but this is incorrect. Coins and paper money are both forms of currency.
In most cases, each [[country]] has [[monopoly]] control over its own currency. Member countries of the European Monetary Union are a notable exception to this rule, as they have ceded control of monetary policy to the [[European Central Bank]].
In cases where a country does have control of its own currency, that control is exercised either by a [[central bank]] or by a Ministry of Finance. In either case, the institution that has control of monetary policy is referred to as the monetary authority. Monetary authorities have varying degrees of autonomy from the governments that create them. In the United States, the [[Federal Reserve]] operates with full independence from the government. It is important to note that a monetary authority is created and supported by its sponsoring government, so independence can be reduced or revoked by the legislative or executive authority that creates it. In almost all Western countries, the monetary authority is largely independent from the government.
Several countries can use the same name, each for their own currency (e.g. Canadian dollars and US dollars), several countries can use the same currency (e.g. the [[euro]]), or a country can declare the currency of another country to be [[legal tender]]. For example, [[Panama]] and [[El Salvador]] have declared US currency to be legal tender, and from 1791-1857, Spanish silver coins were legal tender in the United States. At various times countries have either restamped foreign coins, or used [[currency board]] issuing one note of currency for each note of a foreign government held, as [[Ecuador]] currently does.
Each currency typically has one fractional currency, often valued at 1/100 of the main currency: 100 [[Cent (currency)|cent]]s = 1 [[dollar]], 100 [[centime]]s = 1 [[franc]], 100 [[pence]] = 1 [[pound (currency)|pound]]. Units of 1/10 or 1/1000 are also common, but some currencies do not have any smaller units. [[Mauritania]] and [[Madagascar]] are the only remaining countries that do not use the decimal system; instead, the Mauritanian [[Mauritanian ouguiya|ouguiya]] is divided into 5 [[khoum]], while the [[Malagasy ariary]] is divided into 5 [[iraimbilanja]]. However, due to inflation, both fractional units have in practice fallen into disuse.
See [[Non-decimal currencies]] for other (mostly historic) currencies with non-decimal divisions.
== History ==
=== Early currency ===
The origin of currency is the creation of a circulating [[medium of exchange]] based on a [[store of value]]. Currency evolved from two basic innovations: the use of counters to assure that shipments arrived with the same goods that were shipped, and the use of silver ingots to represent stored value in the form of grain. Both of these developments had occurred by 2000 BC.
This first stage of currency, where metals were used to represent stored value, and symbols to represent commodities, formed the basis of trade in the [[Fertile Crescent]] for over 1500 years. However, the collapse of the Near Eastern trading system pointed to a flaw: in an era where there was no place that was safe to store value, the value of a circulating medium could only be as sound as the forces that defended that store. Trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military.
=== Coinage ===
These factors led to the shift of the store of value being the metal itself: at first silver, then both silver and gold. Metals were mined, weighed, and stamped into coins. This was to assure the individual taking the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal. Coins could be counterfeited, but they also created a new [[unit of account]], which helped lead to [[banking]]. It was with Archimedes' principle that the next link in currency occurred: coins could now be easily tested for their [[fine]] weight of metal, and thus the value of a coin could be determined, even if it had been shaved, debased or otherwise tampered with (see [[Numismatics]]).
In most major economies using coinage, copper, silver and gold formed three tiers of coins. Gold coins were used for large purchases, payment of the military and backing of state activities. Silver coins were used for large, but common, transactions, and as a unit of account for taxes, dues, contracts and fealty, while copper coins represented the coinage of common transaction. In Europe this system worked through the [[medieval]] period because there was virtually no new gold, silver or copper introduced through mining or conquest. Thus the overall ratios of the three coinages remained roughly equivalent.
In China, however, the need for credit and for circulating medium led to the introduction of paper money, commonly known today as [[banknote]]s. In Europe paper money was first introduced in Sweden 1661. Sweden was rich on copper but because of copper's low value extraordinarily big coins had to be made. It was probably more convenient to have a note stating your possession of such a coin.
=== The era of hard and credit money ===
Paper money was, in one sense, a return to the oldest form of currency: it represented a store of value backed by the credibility of the issuing authority. Drafts and checks issued privately had been in intermittent use for centuries, however, it was with the rise of global trade that paper money would find a permanent place in currency.
The advantages of paper currency were numerous: it reduced transport of gold and silver, and thus lowered the risks; it made loaning gold or silver at interest easier, since the specie (gold or silver) never left the possession of the lender until someone else redeemed the note; and it allowed for a division of currency into credit and specie backed forms. It enabled the sale of [[stock]] in joint stock companies, and the redemption of those shares in paper.
However, these advantages held within them disadvantages. First, since a note has no intrinsic value, there was nothing to stop issuing authorities from printing more of it than they had specie to back it with. Second, because it created money that did not exist, it was subject to [[Gresham's Law]]: people would exchange money rather than coins of the same value, and this increased the velocity of money and therefore increased inflationary pressures, a fact observed by [[David Hume]] in the [[18th century]]. The result is that paper money would often lead to an inflationary bubble, which would then collapse when the demand for paper notes fell to zero, and people began demanding hard money. The printing of paper money was also associated with wars, and financing of wars, and therefore regarded as part of maintaining a [[standing army]].
For these reasons, paper currency was held in suspicion and hostility in Europe and America. It was also addictive, since the speculative profits of trade and capital creation were quite large. Major nations established [[mint (coin)| mints]] to print money and mint coins, and branches of their treasury to collect taxes and hold gold and silver stock.
=== Legal tender era ===
With the creation of central banks, currency underwent several significant changes. During both the coinage and credit money eras the number of entities which had the ability |
ited States Republican Party|US Republican Party]] and other [[right-wing]] causes. Amway Corporation claims to support no political party, yet 100% of its political donations have been to Republicans. [[Rich DeVos]] and [[Jay Van Andel]], who fully owned the company until their retirement (when they delegated authority and substantial ownership to their children), have strongly supported the Republican Party and socially and economically [[conservative]] causes, but that has been with their personal assets, not as a company position ''per se''. Many of Amway's best-known distributors, including Dexter Yager, have also declared themselves Republicans. Amway touts the [[environmental]] benefits of many of its products, and in June [[1989]] the [[United Nations Environmental Programme]]'s Regional Office for North America recognized it for its contributions to the cause of the environment.
As well as tending towards being right wing, the senior distributors also promote a worldview encompassing [[Pentecostal]] [[Christian fundamentalism]], and a general advocacy of [[Baby boomer|boomer]]/[[1950s|50s]] values. The Amway Motivational Organization's (AMO's) perception of the role of women, though, always includes successful women in awards, recognition and speaking engagements. One rarely, if ever, sees a male, married distributor speak on stage without his wife getting equal billing, and explaining her active role in the business. This is a reflection of the AMOs' strong advocacy of the [[1950s]] style [[nuclear family]] model. (Women have successfully developed Amway/Quixtar businesses around the world.)
A significant part of the Amway culture is the promotion and sale of training materials, as well as the attendance at meetings and rallies locally, regionally, and nationally. Training includes education about the topic of generalised, non-Amway specific [[entrepreneurship]]. The purpose of this is to create interest and enthusiasm. They are intended to maintain and increase membership, and to inspire IBOs to be more successful in their businesses. To a casual observer, they have some resemblance to a religious gathering. By involving people in a regular schedule of meetings, people are encouraged to maintain their focus, and to not be distracted by critics and other nay-sayers.
[[Doug Wead]], who was a Special Assistant to former U.S. President [[George H. W. Bush]], is a successful IBO who is a regular speaker at group rallies.
In May of 2005, former Amway President Dick DeVos, one of the wealthiest people in Michigan, and his wife Betsy were listed as two of the largest campaign contributors of the 2004 election. Just days later, Dick announced that he would run against Governor [[Jennifer Granholm]] in [[2006]].
==Supporters==
[[Robert Kiyosaki]], author of the best-selling (but controversial) business books ''[[Rich Dad, Poor Dad]]'' and ''[[Cashflow Quadrant]]'', endorses organizations that, according to him, promote financial literacy. A few of those organizations utilize Amway as a vehicle to develop a business.
==Legal rulings==
In the [[1979]] ''In re. Amway Corp.'' (93 F.T.C. 618) ruling [http://www.ftc.gov/speeches/other/dvimf16.htm#N_19_], the [[Federal Trade Commission]] found that Amway does not qualify as an illegal pyramid scheme since the main aim of the enterprise is the sale of product. It did, however, order Amway to change several business practices and prohibited the company from misrepresenting the amount of profit, earnings or sales its distributors are likely to achieve. Amway was ordered to accompany any such statements with the actual averages per distributor, pointing out that more than half of the distributors do not make any money, with the average distributor making less than $100 per month. The order was violated with a [[1986]] ad campaign, resulting in a $100,000 fine. [http://www.ftc.gov/opa/predawn/F86/amway.htm]
In [[1983]], Amway pleaded guilty to [[tax evasion]] and [[Customs (tax)|customs]] [[fraud]] in Canada, resulting in a fine of CDN$25 million, the largest fine ever imposed in that country.
==Other violations==
In 2005, Amway/Quixtar orchestrated an attempt to drown out sites reporting deceptive practices and negative opinions. The [http://www.webraw.com/quixtar/archives/2004/10/the_quixtar_web_initiative.php "Web Initiative"] was flagged as [[Google bombing]], a violation of [http://www.google.com/webmasters/guidelines.html Google's Quality Guidelines].
==External links and references==
* [http://www.amway.com/ Amway Corporation]
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/40/40031.html Yahoo! - Alticor Inc. Company Profile]
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/103/103441.html Yahoo! - Amway Corporation Company Profile]
*[http://www.amway.co.jp/ Amway Japan Limited]
Amway detractors accuse the company of spreading [[right-wing]] beliefs among its distributors:
*[http://www.motherjones.com/news/special_reports/1996/09/burstein.html Mother Jones]
*[http://io.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0412/S00154.htm Scoop].
This has led to the derogatory term "Amway Christian", which suggests a professed Christian with a lack of commitment to the social-justice elements of the faith
*[http://www.webraw.com/quixtar/archives/2005/02/amway_christian.php, Webraw]
*[http://www.augustafreepress.com/stories/storyReader$31336 Augusta]
*[http://www.ftc.gov/speeches/other/dvimf16.htm Prepared Statement of Debra A. Valentine, General Counsel for the U.S. FTC, on "Pyramid Schemes"]
*[http://www.ftc.gov/opa/predawn/F86/amway.htm Amway Corp. to Pay $100,000 Civil Penalty (1986), from ftc.gov]
==Resources==
*[http://www.quixtar.com/ Quixtar homepage]
*[http://www.alticor.com/companies/quixtar.html Alticor Inc. (Amway & Quixtar Parent Company)]
*[http://www.pyramidschemealert.org/ Pyramid Scheme Alert] a non profit consumer rights organization.
*[http://dmoz.org/Business/Opportunities/Opposing_Views/Amway_and_Quixtar/ Dmoz.org: Amway and Quixtar] Selection of opposing websites.
*[http://www.merchantsofdeception.com/ Merchants of Deception (MOD) - True Amway Quixtar story by former Emerald IBO] (free PDF eBook by Eric Scheibeler)
*[http://www.letsgetthewordout.com Let's Get the Word Out] - A grassroots movement to help those disassociating from Amway Quixtar and multi-level marketing
*[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4375477/ MSNBC Dateline undercover investigation of Amway, Quixtar and Bill Britt] - transcript
*[http://www.quixtarresponse.com Quixtar's response to the Dateline report]
*[http://www.technorati.com/tags/Amway Technorati 'Amway' tag site] - gathers blog posts, links and images related to Amway
*[http://amquix.info/ Quixtar Business Analysis] - analyzes and criticizes Amway extensively, mostly from a financial perspective
*[http://www.amwaylive.com/ amwaylive.com] A Japanese site where IBOs in Japan order products and find business tools
*[http://www.amquix.info/blakey.html The Blakey Report] A report by a drafter of recent American organized crime legislation, comparing the structure and function of Amway, when combined with the distributor organizations, with that of the American Mafia
[[Category:Amway]]
[[Category:Multi-level marketing]]
[[Category:Companies based in Michigan]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Adam Smith</title>
<id>1814</id>
<revision>
<id>42116676</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:55:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/138.89.41.193|138.89.41.193]] ([[User talk:138.89.41.193|talk]]) to last version by Bluemoose</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherpeople|Adam Smith}}
{{Infobox_Philosopher |
<!-- Scroll down to edit this page -->
<!-- Philosopher Category -->
region = Western Philosophers |
era = [[18th-century philosophy]]<br>(Modern Philosophy) |
color = #B0C4DE |
<!-- Image and Caption -->
image_name = AdamSmith.jpg |
image_caption = Adam Smith |
<!-- Information -->
name = Adam Smith |
birth = [[June 5]], [[1723]] (baptized) ([[Kirkcaldy]], [[Fife]], [[Scotland]]) |
death = [[July 17]], [[1790]] ([[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]) |
school_tradition = [[Classical economics]] |
main_interests = [[Political philosophy]], [[ethics]], [[economics]] |
influences = [[Aristotle]], [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], [[John Locke|Locke]], [[David Hume|Hume]], [[Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]] |
influenced = [[Thomas Malthus|Malthus]], [[David Ricardo|Ricardo]], [[John Stuart Mill|Mill]], [[John Maynard Keynes|Keynes]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]], [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]], [[Founding Fathers of the United States|American Founding Fathers]] |
notable_ideas = [[Classical economics]], modern [[free market]], [[division of labour]] |
}}
'''Adam Smith, [[Royal Society of Edinburgh|FRSE]]''' (baptised [[June 5]], [[1723]] – [[July 17]], [[1790]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[political economy|political economist]] and [[moral philosophy|moral philosopher]]. His ''[[The Wealth of Nations|Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations]]'' was one of the earliest attempts to study the historical development of industry and commerce in [[Europe]]. That work helped to create the modern academic discipline of [[economics]] and provided one of the best-known intellectual rationales for [[free trade]] and [[capitalism]].
==Biography==
Smith was a son of the controller of the customs at [[Kirkcaldy]], [[Fife]], [[Scotland]]. The exact date of his birth is unknown, but he was baptized at Kirkcaldy on [[June 5]], [[1723]], his father having died some six months |
g|thumb|Estonian folk dancing]]
{{main|Culture of Estonia}}
* [[Estonian mythology]]
* [[Estonian rock|Estonian rock music]]
* [[Estonian rap|Estonian rap music]]
* [[Music of Estonia]]
* [[Tallinn University of Technology]]
* [[University of Tartu]]
== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Baltic Germans]]
* [[Communications in Estonia]]
* [[Crime in Estonia]]
* [[Eesti Skautide Ühing]]
* [[The Estonian State Decorations|Estonian State Decorations]]
* [[Foreign relations of Estonia]]
* [[List of cities in Estonia]]
* [[List of Estonian rulers]]
* [[List of famous Estonians]]
* [[List of islands of Estonia]]
* [[List of municipalities of Estonia]]
* [[List of national parks of Estonia]]
* [[List of people on stamps of Estonia]]
* [[Military of Estonia]]
* [[Public holidays in Estonia]]
* [[History of Russians in Estonia|Russians in Estonia]]
* [[Occupation of Baltic Republics|Soviet occupation of Baltic countries]]
* [[Tourism in the Baltics]]
* [[Transportation in Estonia]]
== Further reading ==
* ''The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century'' John Hiden and Patrick Salmon
* ''The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence'' Anatol Lieven
* ''The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania'' Graham Smith
* ''Bradt Travel Guide: Estonia'' Neil Taylor
* ''Estonia and the Estonians'' Toivo U. Raun
* ''Estonia: Independence and European Integration'' David J. Smith
* ''Estonia: Return to Independence'' Rein Taagepera
* ''Lonely Planet World Guide: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania'' Nicola Williams, Cathryn Kemp and Debra Herrmann
* ''War In The Woods: Estonia's Struggle For Survival 1944-1956'' M. Laar, Mart Laar and Tiina Ets
== External links ==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Estonia}}
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/article/Estonia Estonia at Wikitravel]
* [http://www.ciesin.ee/ESTCG/ Estonia Country Guide]
* [http://www.europe-atlas.com/estonia-map.htm Estonia Map]
* [http://english.eesti.pl Estonia onLine - website about Estonia]
* [http://www.7is7.com/otto/estonia/ Pictures of Estonia] - with clickable map.
* [http://www.unanenestonie.net/ Estonia Pictures] - in French.
* [http://www.estonica.org/ Estonica - from A to Z about Estonia]
* [http://www.riik.ee/en/ Official State Website (''e''Riik)] - in English
* [http://www.culture.ee Culture events in Estonia]
* [http://www.ilm.ee/tallinn Webcam and weather in Tallinn]
* [http://www.parks.it/world/EE/Eindex.html Parks in Estonia] - National parks, nature reserves and protected areas
*[http://www.worldwide-tax.com/estonia/indexestonia.asp Estonia economy and business indicators] Estonia key Data on Taxes.
*[http://www.estonian-air.ee/?keel=eng Estonian Air] - in English. Cheap flights to Estonia.
{{EU_countries}}
{{Europe}}
[[Category:Estonia| ]]
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[[Category:European Union member states]]
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[[be:Эстонія]]
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[[id:Estonia]]
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[[is:Eistland]]
[[it:Estonia]]
[[he:אסטוניה]]
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[[kw:Estoni]]
[[ku:Estonya]]
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[[lv:Igaunija]]
[[lt:Estija]]
[[li:Esland]]
[[hu:Észtország]]
[[mk:Естонија]]
[[ms:Estonia]]
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[[nl:Estland]]
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[[pl:Estonia]]
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[[ro:Estonia]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Estonia/History</title>
<id>9387</id>
<revision>
<id>15907283</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-04T14:30:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Estonia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Estonia</title>
<id>9388</id>
<revision>
<id>30407473</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-06T23:54:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hippophaë</username>
<id>128291</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:En-map.png|right|Map of Estonia]]
[[Image:Estonia_1999_CIA_map.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Detailed map of Estonia]]
[[Image:Satellite image of Estonia in April 2004.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Satellite image of Estonia in April 2004]]
[[Image:Seascape.jpg|thumb|right|250px|North-west coast of [[Estonia]] near [[Nõva]], [[Lääne_County|Lääne county]]]]
Between 57.3 and 59.5 [[latitude]] and 21.5 and 28.1 [[longitude]], '''[[Estonia]]''' lies on the eastern shores of the [[Baltic Sea]] on the level northwestern part of the rising east European platform. It borders the [[Gulf of Finland]], between [[Latvia]] and [[Russia]]. Average elevation reaches only 50m (160 ft.).
The climate resembles that of [[New England]], maritime, wet, with moderate winters and cool summers. [[Oil shale]] and [[limestone]] deposits, along with forests which cover 47% of the land, play key economic roles in this generally resource-poor country. Estonia boasts over 1,500 lakes, numerous bogs, and 3,794 kilometers of coastline marked by numerous bays, straits, and inlets. [[Tallinn]]'s Muuga port offers one of Europe's finest warm-water harbor facilities.
Estonia's strategic location has precipitated many wars that were fought on its territory between other rival powers at its expense. In 1944 the [[Soviet Union]] returned to [[Russia]] the [[Ivangorod]] and [[Pechory|Petseri]] regions that in [[1920]]-[[1941]] belonged to Estonia, the move that remains contested by some Estonians.
'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|59|00|N|26|00|E|type:country}})
==Geographic features==
Estonia is a low, flat country covering 45,226 square kilometers. It is about the size of Vermont and New Hampshire combined. Estonia has a long, shallow coastline (1,393 kilometers) along the Baltic Sea, with 1,520 islands dotting the shore. The two largest islands are Saaremaa (literally, island land), at 2,673 square kilometers, and Hiiumaa, at 989 square kilometers. The two islands are favorite Estonian vacation spots. The country's highest point, Suur Munamägi (Egg Mountain), is in the hilly southeast and reaches 318 meters above sea level. Estonia is covered by about 18000 km² of forest. Arable land amounts to about 9260 km². Meadows cover about 2520 km², and pastureland covers about 1810 km². There are more than 1,400 natural and artificial lakes in Estonia. The largest of them, Lake Peipsi (3,555 km²), forms much of the border between Estonia and Russia. Located in central Estonia, Võrtsjärv is the second-largest lake (270 km²). The Narva and Emajõgi are among the most important of the country's many rivers.
Estonia has a temperate climate, with four seasons of near-equal length. Average temperatures range from 16.3 °C on the Baltic islands to 17.1 °C inland in July, the warmest month, and from -3.5 °C on the Baltic islands to -7.6 °C inland in February, the coldest month. Precipitation averages 568 millimeters per year and is heaviest in late summer.
Estonia's land border with Latvia runs 267 kilometers; the Russian border runs 290 kilometers. From 1920 to 1945, Estonia's border with Russia, set by the 1920 Tartu Peace Treaty, extended beyond the Narva River in the northeast and beyond the town of Pechory (Petseri) in the southeast. This territory, amounting to some 2,300 square kilometers, was incorporated into Russia by Stalin at the end of World War II. Estonia is now disputing that territorial loss.
==Environmental issues==
One of the most burdensome legacies of the Soviet era is widespread environmental pollution. The worst offender in this regard was the Soviet army. Across military installations covering more than 800 km² of Estonian territory, the army dumped hundreds of thousands of tons of jet fuel into the ground, improperly disposed of toxic chemicals, and discarded outdated explosives and weapons in coastal and inland waters. In the 1990s, during the army's withdrawal from Estonia, extensive damage was done to discarded buildings and equipment. In October 1993, the Estonian Ministry of Environment issued a preliminary report summing up part of the degradation it had surveyed thus far. The report described the worst damage as having been done to Estonia's topsoil and underground water supply by the systematic dumping of jet fuel at six Soviet army air bases. At the air base near Tapa, site of the worst damage, officials estimated that six square kilometers of land were covered by a layer of fuel; 11 square kilometers of underground water were said to be contaminated. The water in the surrounding area was undrinkable. With Danish help, Estonian crews began cleaning up the site, although they estimated the likely cost to be as much as EKR4 million. The Ministry of Environment assigned a monetary cost of more than EKR10 billion to the damage to the country's topsoil and water supply. However, the ministry was able to allocate only EKR5 million in 1993 for cleanup operations.
In a 1992 government report to the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development, Estonia detailed other major environmental conce |
e:Kammu]]
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[[zh:桓武天皇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Empress Shotoku of Japan</title>
<id>10127</id>
<revision>
<id>21622540</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-23T04:08:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jnc</username>
<id>18024</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Empress Koken]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Elizabeth I of England</title>
<id>10128</id>
<revision>
<id>42105518</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:36:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sophie-Lou</username>
<id>792811</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Style and arms */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{|align=right
|[[Image:Elizabeth I (Ermine Portrait).jpg|thumb|right|220px|'''Elizabeth I''' <br><small>Queen of England and Ireland</small>]]
|-
|{{House of Tudor}}
|}
'''Elizabeth I''' ([[7 September]], [[1533]] &ndash; [[24 March]], [[1603]]) was [[List of British monarchs|Queen of England]] and [[King of Ireland|Queen of Ireland]] from [[17 November]] [[1558]] until her death. Sometimes referred to as '''The Virgin Queen''' (since she was never married), '''Gloriana''', or '''Good Queen Bess''', Elizabeth I was the fifth and final monarch of the [[Tudor dynasty]], having succeeded her half-sister, [[Mary I of England|Mary I]]. She reigned during a period of great religious turmoil in [[England|English]] history.
Elizabeth's reign is referred to as the [[Elizabethan era]] or the Golden Age and was marked by increases in English power and influence worldwide. Playwrights [[William Shakespeare]], [[Christopher Marlowe]], and [[Ben Jonson]] all flourished during this era. In addition, [[Francis Drake]] became the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe; [[Francis Bacon]] laid out his philosophical and political views; and English colonisation of [[North America]] took place under [[Walter Raleigh|Sir Walter Raleigh]] and [[Humphrey Gilbert|Sir Humphrey Gilbert]]. Elizabeth was a short-tempered and sometimes indecisive ruler. This last quality, viewed with impatience by her counsellors, often saved her from political and marital misalliances. Like her father [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], she was a writer and poet. She granted [[Royal Charter]]s to several famous organizations, including [[Trinity College, Dublin]] ([[1592]]) and the [[British East India Company]] ([[1600]]).
The reign was marked by prudence in the granting of [[British honours system|honours and dignities]]. Only eight peerage dignities, one [[earl|earldom]] and seven [[baron|baronies]] in the [[Peerage of England]], and one barony in the [[Peerage of Ireland]], were created during Elizabeth's reign. Elizabeth also reduced the number of [[Privy Council|Privy Counsellors]] from thirty-nine to nineteen, and later to fourteen.
[[Virginia]], an English [[13 colonies|colony in North America]] and afterwards a member of the [[United States]], was named after Elizabeth I, the "Virgin Queen".
==Early life==
Elizabeth was the only surviving child of King [[Henry VIII of England]] by his second wife, [[Anne Boleyn]] whom he secretly married sometime between the winter of [[1532]] and late January of [[1533]] and whom he had beheaded on [[May 19]], [[1536]]. She was born in the [[Palace of Placentia]] in [[Greenwich]], on September 7, 1533. Henry would have preferred a son to ensure the Tudor succession, but upon her birth, Elizabeth was the [[heir presumptive|heiress presumptive]] to the throne of England.
Her surviving paternal aunts included [[Margaret Tudor]] and [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary Tudor]]. Her maternal aunt was [[Lady Mary Boleyn]]. Her maternal uncle was [[George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford]].
After Queen Anne failed to produce a male heir, Henry had her executed on charges of [[treason]] (adultery against the King was considered treason), [[incest]] with her older brother and [[witchcraft]]. Elizabeth was three years old at that time and was also declared illegitimate and lost the title of princess. Thereafter she was addressed as Lady Elizabeth and lived apart from her father as he married his succession of wives. Henry's last wife [[Catherine Parr]] helped reconcile the King with Elizabeth, and she, along with her half-sister, Mary, daughter of [[Catherine of Aragon]], was reinstated in the line of succession after [[Edward VI of England|Prince Edward]] under the [[English Act of Succession|Act of Succession 1544]].
Elizabeth's first governess was Lady Margaret Bryan, a baroness whom Elizabeth called "Muggie". At the age of four, Elizabeth had a new governess, Katherine Chapernowne, who was often referred to as "Kat". Chapernowne developed a close relationship with Elizabeth and remained her confidante and good friend for life. She had been appointed to Elizabeth's household after [[Anne Boleyn]]'s death. [[Matthew Parker]], her mother's favourite priest, took a special interest in Elizabeth's well-being, particularly since a fearful Anne had entrusted her daughter's spiritual welfare to Parker before her death. Later, Parker would become the first Archbishop of [[Canterbury]] after Elizabeth became queen in [[1558]]. One companion, to whom she referred with affection throughout her life, was the Irishman [[Thomas Butler, 3rd Earl of Ormonde|Thomas Butler]], later 3rd [[Earl of Ormonde]] (ob.[[1615]]).
In terms of personality, Elizabeth was far more like [[Anne Boleyn|her mother]] than her father: neurotic, glamorous, flirtatious, charismatic and religiously tolerant. Elizabeth also inherited her mother's delicate bone structure, physique and facial features. She also inherited her mother's onyx black eyes and petite girth and not her father's enormous weight. However, from her father she did inherit his red hair.
[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] died in [[1547]] and was succeeded by Edward VI. Catherine Parr married [[Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley]], Edward VI's uncle, and took Elizabeth into her household. It is believed that Seymour made advances towards Elizabeth while she lived in his household. There, Elizabeth received her education under [[Roger Ascham]]. She came to speak or read six languages: her native [[English language|English]], as well as [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Latin]]. Under the influence of Catherine Parr and Ascham, Elizabeth was raised a [[Protestantism|Protestant]].
[[Image:ElizabethTudorAt13-woc-0475.jpg|thumb|left|Elizabeth in her early 20s by Levina Teerlinc]]
As long as her Protestant half-brother remained on the throne, Elizabeth's own position remained secure. In [[1553]], however, Edward died at the age of fifteen, having left a will which purported to supersede his father's. Contravening the [[English Act of Succession|Act of Succession 1544]], it excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from succeeding to the throne and declared [[Lady Jane Grey]] to be his heiress. Lady Jane ascended the throne, but was [[Deposition_(politics)|deposed]] less than two weeks later. Armed with popular support, Mary rode triumphantly into London, her half-sister Elizabeth at her side.
Mary I contracted a marriage with the [[Spain|Spanish]] prince Philip, later King [[Philip II of Spain]], and she worried that the people might depose her and put Elizabeth on the throne in her stead. [[Wyatt's Rebellion]] in [[1554]] sought to prevent Mary from marrying Philip and, after its failure, Elizabeth was imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]]. There were demands for Elizabeth's execution, but few Englishmen wished to put a member of the popular Tudor dynasty to death. Mary attempted to remove Elizabeth from the line of succession, but Parliament would not allow it. After two months in the Tower, Elizabeth was put under house arrest under the guard of Sir Henry Bedingfield; by the end of that year, when Mary was falsely rumoured to be pregnant, Elizabeth was allowed to return to court at Philip's behest, as he worried that his wife might die in childbirth, in which case he preferred Lady Elizabeth to succeed rather than her next-closest relative, [[Mary I of Scotland]]. For the remainder of her reign, the staunchly [[Catholicism|Catholic]] Mary persecuted Protestants, and came to be known as "[[Bloody Mary (person)|Bloody Mary]]" because of a desire to present her assertion of authority as cruel. She urged Elizabeth to take the faith, but the princess kept up a skilful show of allegiance to suit her own conscience and ambitions.
==Early reign==
[[Image:Elizabeth I of England - coronation portrait.jpg|thumb|right|275px|The coronation of Elizabeth]]
{|align="left"
|-
| {{infobox UKkingstyles|royal name=Queen Elizabeth I|image=[[Image:QEI arms.jpg|60px]]|dipstyle=[[Her Majesty]]|offstyle=Your Majesty|altstyle=Her/Your Grace, Her/Your Highness}}
|}
In November of [[1558]], upon Mary I's death, Elizabeth ascended the throne. She was far more popular than her sister, and it is said that upon Mary's death, the people rejoiced in the streets.
Elizabeth was crowned on [[15 January]] [[1559]]. There was no [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] at the time; [[Reginald Cardinal Pole]], the last Catholic holder of the office, had died shortly after Mary I. Since the senior bishops declined to participate in the [[coronation]] (since Elizabeth was illegitimate under both [[canon law]] and [[statute]] and since she was a Protestant), the relatively unimportant [[Owen Oglethorpe]], [[Bishop of Carlisle]] had to crown her. The [[communion]] was celebrated not by Oglethorpe, but by the Queen's personal chaplain, to avoid the usage of the Roman rites. Elizabeth I's |
l]], identifying France, [[Russia]] and [[Japan]] as countries that explicitly backed Germany's bid.
==See also==
* [[Drang nach Osten]]
* [[Germany]]
* [[1920s Berlin]]
* [[History of Europe]]
* [[History of present-day nations and states]]
==External links==
* [http://www.rootsweb.com/~deubadnw/history/maps/maps.htm Historical maps of Germany]
{{Middle Ages}}
[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:History of Europe|Germany]]
[[Category:History of Germany]]
[[cs:Dějiny Německa]]
[[da:Tysklands historie]]
[[de:Geschichte Deutschlands]]
[[es:Historia de Alemania]]
[[eo:Historio de Germanio]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Allemagne]]
[[ko:독일의 역사]]
[[it:Storia della Germania]]
[[he:היסטוריה של גרמניה]]
[[lt:Vokietijos istorija]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Duitsland]]
[[ja:ドイツの歴史]]
[[nn:Tysk historie]]
[[pt:História da Alemanha]]
[[ru:История Германии]]
[[sr:Историја Немачке]]
[[fi:Saksan historia]]
[[sv:Tysklands historia]]
[[zh:德国历史]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hades</title>
<id>13225</id>
<revision>
<id>42108114</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:53:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jkelly</username>
<id>357262</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/86.143.1.28|86.143.1.28]] ([[User talk:86.143.1.28|talk]]) to last version by Francisco Valverde</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
[[Image:Hades (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hades, [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] god of the underworld, enthroned, with his bird-headed staff, on a red-figure vase made in the 4th century B.C.]]
'''Hades''' (From {{polytonic|ᾍδης}}, ''Hadēs'', or {{polytonic|Ἅιδης}}, ''Háidēs'', [[Greek language|Greek]] for "unseen"{{ref|unseen}}) refers to both the ancient Greek abode of the dead and the god of that [[underworld]]. The word originally referred to just the god; ''haidou'', its [[genitive case|genitive]], was short for "the house of Hades". Eventually, the [[nominative case|nominative]], too, came to designate the abode of the dead.
Hades was also known as [[Pluto (mythology)|Pluto]] (from Greek Πλούτων, ''Plouton''), and was known by this name, as well as [[Dis Pater]] and [[Orcus (mythology)|Orcus]], in [[Roman mythology]]; the corresponding [[Etruscan mythology|Etruscan]] god was [[Aita]]. "Hades" is sometimes employed by Christians as a classicizing [[euphemism]] for [[Hell]], which otherwise has few of the original attributes of Hades.
== Location ==
There were several sections of Hades, including the [[Elysium|Elysian Fields]] (contrast the Christian [[Paradise]] or [[Heaven]]), and [[Tartarus]], (compare the Christian [[Hell]]). Greek [[mythographer]]s were not perfectly consistent about the geography of the [[afterlife]].
A contrasting myth of the Afterlife concerns the [[Hesperides|Garden of the Hesperides]], often identified with the [[Fortunate Isles|Isles of the Blessed]].
In [[Roman mythology]], an entrance to the underworld located at [[Avernus]], a crater near [[Cumae]], was the route [[Aeneas]] used to descend to the Underworld. By [[synecdoche]], "Avernus" could be substituted for the underworld as a whole. The [[Inferi Dii]] were the Roman gods of the underworld.
The deceased entered the underworld by crossing the river [[Acheron]], ferried across by [[Charon (mythology)|Charon]] (kair'-on), who charged an ''[[obolus]],'' a small coin for passage, placed under the tongue of the deceased by pious relatives. Paupers and the friendless gathered forever on the near shore. The far side of the river was guarded by [[Cerberus]], the three-headed dog defeated by [[Heracles]] (Roman [[Hercules]]). Beyond Cerberus, the shades of the departed entered [[Tartarus]], the land of the dead.
The five rivers of Hades are [[Acheron]], [[Cocytus]], [[Phlegethon]], [[Lethe]] and [[Styx (mythology)|Styx]]. See also [[Eridanos (mythology)|Eridanos]].
The first region of Hades comprises the Fields of [[Asphodel]], described in ''[[Odyssey]]'' xi, where the shades of heroes wander despondently among lesser spirits, who twitter around them like bats. Only [[libation]]s of blood offered to them in the world of the living can reawaken in them for a time the sensations of humanity (compare [[vampire]]s).
Beyond lay [[Erebus]], which could be taken for a euphonym of Hades, whose own name was dread. There were two pools, that of Lethe, where the common souls flocked to erase all memory, and the pool of [[Mnemosyne]] ("memory"), where the initiates of the Mysteries drank instead. In the forecourt of the baleful palace of Hades and Persephone sit the three judges of the Underworld: [[Minos]], [[Rhadamanthys]] and [[Aeacus]]. There at the [[trivium]] sacred to [[Hecate]], where three roads meets, souls are judged, returned to the Fields of Asphodel if they are neither virtuous nor evil, sent by the road to Tartarus if they are impious or evil, or sent to [[Elysium]] with the heroic or blessed.
== Entity ==
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Hades''' (the "unseen"), the god of the underworld, was a son of the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]]s [[Cronus]] and [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]]. He had three older sisters, [[Hestia]], [[Demeter]], and [[Hera]], as well as two younger brothers, [[Poseidon]] and [[Zeus]]: together they accounted for half of the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian]] gods.
Upon reaching adulthood Zeus managed to force his father to disgorge his siblings. After their release the six younger gods, along with allies they managed to gather, challenged their parents and uncles for power in [[Titanomachy]], a divine war. Zeus, Poseidon and Hades received weapons from the three Cyclops to help in the war. Zeus the thunderbolt; Hades the helmet of invisibility; and Poseidon the trident. During the night before the first battle Hades put on his helmet and, being invisible, stole over to the Titans' camp and destroyed their weapons. The war lasted for ten years and ended with the victory of the younger gods. Following their victory Hades and his two younger brothers, Poseidon and Zeus, drew lots for realms to rule. Zeus got the sky, Poseidon got the seas, and Hades received the underworld, the unseen realm to which the dead go upon leaving the world.
Hades obtained his eventual consort, [[Persephone]], through trickery, a story that connected the ancient [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] with the Olympian pantheon.
Hades ruled the dead, assisted by demons over whom he had complete authority. He strictly forbade his subjects to leave his domain and would become quite enraged when anyone tried to leave, or if someone tried to steal his prey from him.
Besides [[Heracles]], the only other living persons who ventured to the Underworld were all [[hero]]es: [[Odysseus]], [[Aeneas]] (accompanied by the [[Cumaean Sibyl|Sibyl]]), [[Orpheus]], and [[Theseus]]. None of them was especially pleased with what they witnessed in the realm of the dead. In particular, the [[Trojan War]] hero [[Achilles]], whom Odysseus met in Hades (although some believe that Achilles dwells in the [[Fortunate Isles|Isles of the Blest]]), said:
:"Do not speak soothingly to me of death, glorious Odysseus. I should choose to serve as the hireling of another, rather than to be lord over the dead that have perished."
::&mdash;Achilles' soul to Odysseus. [[Homer]], ''[[Odyssey]]'' 11.488
=== Worship ===
[[Image:Amphora Hades Louvre G209.jpg|thumb|260px|Hades, labelled as as ''"Plouton"'', "The Rich One", bears a [[cornucopia]] on an Attic red-figure amphora, ca 470 BCE.]]
Hades was a fearsome figure to those still living; in no hurry to meet him, they were reticent to swear oaths in his name. To many, simply to say the word "Hades" was frightening. So, a euphemism was pressed into use. Since precious minerals come from under the earth (i.e., the "underworld" ruled by Hades), he was considered to have control of these as well, and was referred to as Πλούτων (Plouton, related to the word for "wealth"), hence the Roman name [[Pluto (god)|Pluto]]. [[Sophocles]] explained referring to Hades as "the rich one" with these words: "the gloomy Hades enriches himself with our sighs and our tears." In addition, he was called [[Clymenus]] ("notorious"), [[Eubuleus]] ("well-guessing"), and [[Polydegmon]] ("who receives many").
Although he was an Olympian, he spent most of the time in his dark realm. Formidable in battle, he proved his ferocity in the famous [[Titanomachy]], the battle of the Olympians versus the [[Titans]], which established the rule of Zeus.
Because of his dark and morbid personality he was not especially liked by either the gods nor the mortals. His character is described as "fierce and inexorable", and of all the gods he was by far most hated by mortals. He was not, however, an evil god, for although he was stern, cruel, and unpitying, he was still just. Hades ruled the Underworld and therefore most often associated with death and was feared by men, but he was not Death itself &mdash; the actual embodiment of Death was [[Thanatos]].
When the Greeks worshipped Hades, they banged their hands on the ground to be sure he would hear them. Black animals, such as sheep, were sacrificed to him, and it is believed that at one time even human sacrifices were offered. The blood from sacrifices to Hades dripped into a pit so it could reach him. The person who offered the sacrifice had to turn away his face. Every hundred years festivals were held in his honor, called the [[Secular_games|Secular Games]].
Hades' weapon was a two-pronged fork, which he used to shatter anything that was in his way or not to his liking, much as Poseidon did with his trident. This ensign of his power was a staff with which he drove the shades of the dead i |
High Command (Control)
*Flereous - Fire Elemental
*Lucifer - Air Elemental
*Beelzebuth - Lord of Lords
*Belphegore - Master of Weaponry- gain
*Mesphito - Keeper of the book of death
*Delepitoré- (Female) Demoness of magick.
*Belial - Earth Elemental
'''Family 2'''
*Luithian - Advisor
*Azlyn - (Female) Weaves the threads of things to come, future.
*Leviathan - Water Elemental
*Sonnelion - (Female) Demoness of hate
'''Family 3'''
*Abbadon - Advisor
*Ammon - demon of domination
*Mammon - Demon of Avarice
'''Family 4'''
*Rosier - Demon of love
*Astarte - (Female) Demoness of love
*Ashtaroth - (Female) Priestess of friendship
*Astarot - Matters concerning the heart
*Amducious - The destroyer
*Asmodeus - Demon of Lust
'''Family 5'''
*Eurynomous - Demon of Death
*Balberith - Prince of dying
*Babeal - Keeper of Graves
'''Family 6'''
*Verrine - Demon of Health
*Verrier - (Female) Demoness of herbal knowledge
*Ronwe - Demon of Knowledge
'''Family 7'''
*Svengali - Demon of Vengeance
*Tezrian - (Female) Priestess of battle
'''Family 8''' - Some speculation has arisen suggesting that family 8 should actually be coupled with family 3. As it has been suggested these are the females of that family.
*Asafoetida - (Female) Demoness of feminine attributes
*Rashoon - (Female) Priestess of seduction
*Taroon - (Female) Priestess of Desire
'''Family 9'''
Consists of lesser hierarchy.
*Berith
*Agares
*Abigor
*Lillith
'''Source: ''With Permission From The Author'''''
*Modern Demonolatry by S. Connolly (1997, 2005 DB Publishing)
*Lessons in Demonolatry by S. Connolly (1997, 2005 DB Publishing)
----
== The Demonic Enns ==
Another aspect of Demonolatry is the use of the "Enns" which are [[prayers]], [[Invocation|invocations]], to the Demons. Across three or more separate journals of Demonolators, the same enns allegedly appear and date back to the 1500's according to one journal. Some people have speculated that the enns are modern and in one of the [[Gaelic]] languages while others speculate the enns are very old and in the language of the demons. Traditional Demonolators also have a specific set of seals (signatures), also called [[sigils]], for the Dukante Hierarchy.
----
== A Basic Definition of Demonolatry ==
Demonolatry is the [[worship]] of one or more [[demon|demons]] or [[Archdemon|archdemons]], typically other than [[Satan]] (Worship of Satan primarily or exclusively is called [[Satanism]]). Demonolators who classify themselves as Satanists or Satanic Demonolaters worship demons other than Satan in a secondary fashion, if they are worshipped at all.
In some Demonolatry, Satan is referred to as the "fifth element," or the source of all other energies. In other words, Satan is the "Whole" and every other Demon is simply a part of the whole. Each person, animal, plant and thing that exists in nature is a part of the whole as well. Some other traditions, on the other hand, treat Satan as just one of many demons available for worship.
Some claim that demonolatry is not related to the modern religious and philosopical movements collectively referred to as Satanism; see the main article on [[Satanism]] for more information.
Demonolatry is often confused with diabolatry, reverse Christianity, [[ceremonial magic]], magick that employs [[evocation]], [[necromancy]] and demonomancy.
----
== External links ==
*[http://www.ofs-demonolatry.org/ OFS Demonolatry]
*[http://home.comcast.net/~momentomori/ Demonolatry Blends and Articles]
[[Category:Satanism]]
[[ar:عبادة جن]]
[[nl:Demonolatrie]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev</title>
<id>8282</id>
<revision>
<id>32418202</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-22T23:18:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikkalai</username>
<id>28438</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>David Weinberger</title>
<id>8283</id>
<revision>
<id>41529849</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T23:42:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm caps in section header.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''David Weinberger''', born in 1950 in New York, is a technologist and commentator, probably best known as co-author of the [[Cluetrain Manifesto]] (originally a website, and eventually a book). Weinberger's work focuses on how the [[Internet]] is changing human relationships, communication, and society. A philosopher by training, he holds a Ph.D. from the [[University of Toronto]], taught college from 1980-1986, became a marketing consultant and executive at several high tech companies, and currently serves as a fellow at the [[Berkman Center for Internet and Society]] at [[Harvard Law School]]. He is also an avid [http://www.hyperorg.com/blogger/index.html blogger]. He was an advisor to [[Howard Dean]]'s [[U.S. Democratic Party presidential nomination, 2004|2004 presidential campaign]].
==Published works==
* ''The [[Cluetrain Manifesto]]: The End of Business as Usual'' (with [[Christopher Locke]], [[Rick Levine]], and [[Doc Searls]], [[2001]])
* ''[[Small Pieces Loosely Joined]]: A Unified Theory of the Web'' ([[2002]])
==Other works==
* [http://www.worldofends.com/ ''World of Ends, What the Internet Is and How to Stop Mistaking It for Something Else''] (with [[Doc Searls]])
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.hyperorg.com/ Journal of the Hyperlinked Organization] Weinberger's personal site
* [http://www.hyperorg.com/blogger/ Joho the Blog]
* [http://www.smallpieces.com/ Website for ''Small Pieces'']
* [http://www.evident.com/ Home page]
* [http://webcast.oii.ox.ac.uk/?view=Webcast&ID=20051130_109 Recent talk at the Oxford Internet Institute]
* [http://sandhill.typepad.com/sandhill_trek/2003/12/interview_david.html 2003 interview with Frank Paynter]
{{academic-bio-stub}}
{{US-writer-stub}}
[[Category:1950 births|Weinberger, David]]
[[Category:Living people|Weinberger, David]]
[[category:American bloggers|Weinberger, David]]
[[Category:American technology writers|Weinberger, David]]
[[Category:Technology in society|Weinberger, David]]
[[Category:Berkman Fellows]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dense</title>
<id>8285</id>
<revision>
<id>15906294</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-26T22:58:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Redirecting to [[density (disambiguation)]]. It's amazing that this asserted that the rationals are not dense in the reals; that is idiotic nonsense.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[density (disambiguation)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Domino effect</title>
<id>8286</id>
<revision>
<id>20395366</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-06T07:20:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stevertigo</username>
<id>4099</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Domino theory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dinosaurs</title>
<id>8288</id>
<revision>
<id>15906297</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dinosaur]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diplodocus</title>
<id>8289</id>
<revision>
<id>40971595</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T05:00:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Skorpion87</username>
<id>959679</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = ''Diplodocus''
| image = Diplodocus skull.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = Diplodocus skull
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Sauropsid|Sauropsida]]
| superordo = [[Dinosaur|Dinosauria]]
| ordo = [[Saurischia]]
| subordo = [[Sauropodomorpha]]
| infraordo = [[Sauropoda]]
| familia = [[Diplodocidae]]
| genus = '''''Diplodocus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Othniel Charles Marsh|Marsh]], 1878
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''D. carnegiei'' (Hatcher, 1901)<br/>
''D. hayi'' (Holland, 1924)<br/>
''D. longus'' (Marsh, 1878; [[holotype]])<br/>
}}
'''''Diplodocus''''' (dih-PLOH-doc-us) meaning "double beam" in reference to its double-beamed [[chevron (anatomy)|chevron bones]] ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''diplos'' = double + ''dokos'' = beam) is a type of [[dinosaur]] of subgroup [[Sauropoda]]. Diplodocus lived during the [[Jurassic]] period. Scientists gave the dinosaur its name due to the way part of its skeleton was formed.
The first Diplodocus [[skeleton]] was found at [[Como Bluff]], [[Wyoming]] in [[1878]] and was named ''Diplodocus longus'' ("long double-beam") by [[paleontology|paleontologist]] [[Othniel Charles Marsh]]. Other species include ''D. carnegiei'' (named after [[Andrew Carnegie]]) and ''D. hayi''.
Diplodocus remains have been found in the Western [[United States]] of [[Colorado]], [[Utah]], [[Montana]] and [[Wyoming]]. [[Fossil]]s of this animal are common, except for the [[skull]], which is often missing from otherwise complete skeletons. The skull was very small compared to the [[largest organism|huge size]] of the animal, which could reach up to 27&nbsp;m, although some suggest that the Diplodocus could reach a full length of 45 metres and weigh up to 20 U.S. tons. Instead of the way ''Diplodocidae'' were formerly portrayed, with their necks high up in the air, it is now believed by some that the animal could only keep its head ver |
o for the 2nd qualifying round, five for the 3rd qualifying round, four for the 4th qualifying round, and one for the 1st round proper. Multiple replays no longer take place, so this record is unlikely to be beaten.
* The [[1977]]-78 competition saw [[New Brighton A.F.C.|New Brighton's]] 1956-57 nine-round record equalled by [[Blyth Spartans F.C.|Blyth Spartans]], who progressed from the 1st qualifying round to the 5th round proper. The games for the 2nd qualifying round and the 5th rounds proper went to a replay.
* The [[1979]]-80 competition saw the nine-round record equalled by [[Harlow Town F.C.|Harlow Town]], who progressed from the Preliminary round through four qualifying rounds to the fourth round proper, where they lost to [[Watford F.C.|Watford]]. The matches for the 2nd and the 3rd rounds went to a replay.
* In [[1980]], [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]] became the last side to date to win the competition from outside the top division in football. They were a [[Football League Second Division|Second Division]] outfit when they beat holders Arsenal 1-0 thanks to a goal by [[Trevor Brooking]]. Three clubs - [[Queens Park Rangers F.C.|Queens Park Rangers]] in [[1982]], Sunderland in [[1992]] and [[Millwall F.C.|Millwall]] in [[2004]] - have since reached the final, though all three lost.
* In [[1983]] [[Norman Whiteside]], at 18, became the youngest player ever to score in an FA Cup final, whilst playing for Manchester United against Brighton and Hove Albion. As of [[2005]] this record remains unbroken.
* In [[1984]], [[Johnny Hore]]'s [[Plymouth Argyle F.C.|Plymouth Argyle]] side narrowly missed out on being the first [[Football League Third Division|Third Division]] side to reach the final. In a tense semi-final at [[Villa Park, England|Villa Park]], [[Watford F.C.|Watford]] came out on top, 1-0 victors. Starting in the first round proper, Argyle had beaten [[Southend United F.C.|Southend United]] (on a replay), [[Barking F.C.|Barking]], [[Newport County F.C.|Newport County]] (on a replay), [[West Bromwich Albion F.C.|West Bromwich Albion]] and [[Derby County F.C.|Derby County]] (on a replay).
* In [[1985]], [[Kevin Moran]] of [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] became the first player to be sent off in an FA Cup Final.
* In [[1988]] underdogs [[Wimbledon F.C.|Wimbledon]] beat [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] 1-0 to cause an upset, [[Lawrie Sanchez]] scoring a 37th minute header for the Dons from a [[Dennis Wise]] free kick. Wimbledon goalkeeper [[Dave Beasant]] saved a 61st minute [[John Aldridge]] penalty in the second half, becoming the first [[goalkeeper]] to do so in an FA Cup final. He was also the first goalkeeper to captain a team to FA Cup success.
* In [[1989]] during the opening minutes of the FA Cup semi-final between [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] and [[Nottingham Forest F.C.|Nottingham Forest]], 96 people were crushed to death because of overcrowding. See the [[Hillsborough disaster]].
* In [[1991]], after the [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] vs [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]] third round tie went to a third replay, the FA decided that one replay, they extra time, then a penalty shootout would be a suitable alternative to a fixtures backlog.
* In [[1993]], the final between [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] and [[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.|Sheffield Wednesday]] went to a replay and then extra time. The FA decided that important neutral venue ties from then on, such as the semi-final and final, should be decided "on the day".
*In [[1997]] Division Two (or level three) side [[Chesterfield F.C.|Chesterfield]] narrowly and controversially missed out on becoming the first side from outside the top two divisions to reach an FA Cup final, having led 2-0 against 10-man [[Middlesbrough F.C.|Middlesbrough]]. With the score at 2-1, a shot hit the bar and went over the line but was disallowed by referee David Elleray. The Spireites instead were pegged back to 2-2. Extra time ended 3-3 but Middlesbrough won the replay convincingly to meet [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] in the final at Wembley.
*In 1997, [[Ruud Gullit]] became the first overseas manager to win the FA Cup, as his Chelsea side beat Middlesbrough 2-0.
*Also in 1997, the fastest ever goal in a Wembley FA Cup final was scored by Chelsea's [[Roberto di Matteo]] after 43 seconds.
* [[2000]] was the last final to be played at the old Wembley stadium. Chelsea beat [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]] 1-0.
* The first FA Cup final played outside of England was in the final of the [[2000]]/[[2001]] season at the [[Millennium Stadium]] in [[Cardiff]]. Liverpool came from behind to snatch a 2-1 victory over [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]. Arsenal went back to Wales the following two seasons to win the Cup.
* For the first time, the FA Cup was played under a roof in the final of the [[2002]]/[[2003]] season, held on [[May 17]], 2003 at the [[Millennium Stadium]] in [[Cardiff]], with [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] and [[Southampton F.C.|Southampton]] benefitting from cover from the rain (Arsenal were the 1 - 0 winners).
* That same year, [[Team Bath F.C.|Team Bath]] (from the [[University of Bath]]) became the first university team to enter the competition since [[Gonville & Caius A.F.C.|Gonville & Caius]] in [[1881]], and progressed through the qualifying rounds before being knocked out in the first round proper by [[Mansfield Town F.C.|Mansfield Town]].
* In [[2003]] [[Tony Roberts]] became the first [[goalkeeper]] to score in a FA Cup fixture.
* In [[2004]] [[Roy Keane]] of [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] became the first player to play in six finals since the [[19th century]], and [[Curtis Weston]] of [[Millwall F.C.]] became the youngest ever player to play in the final at the age of 17 years and 119 days, beating the record of [[James F. M. Prinsep|James Prinsep]] of [[Clapham Rovers F.C.|Clapham Rovers]] set as long back as the 1879 final.
* In [[2004]], [[Yeading F.C.|Yeading]] from the [[Isthmian League Premier Division|Isthmian Premiership]] were drawn at home against [[FA Premier League|FA Premiership]] side [[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]]. This marked the first time two teams six divisions apart had faced each other in the cup. Newcastle won the match 2-0.
* The [[2005]] FA Cup Final between [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] and [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] was the first final ever to have to go to [[kicks from the penalty mark|penalties]]. After ordinary time and extra time, the score was still 0-0. Arsenal won the shootout &ndash; and thus the Cup &ndash; 5-4.
* During the [[2005]] final, [[José Antonio Reyes]] became the second man to ever be sent off in an FA Cup Final, when he was dismissed for a second yellow card at the end of extra time. Roy Keane extended his own record by appearing in his seventh final.
==Past Winners of the FA Cup==
:''For the full results of all FA Cup finals, see [[FA Cup Final]]''
[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] have won the cup the most times - eleven in all.
The top 10 clubs by number of wins (and when they last won and lost a final):
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse: collapse;"
!style="background:silver;"|
!style="background:silver;"|Club
!style="background:silver;"|Winner
!style="background:silver;"|Last win
!style="background:silver;"|Runner-up
!style="background:silver;"|Last losing final
|-
|1||[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]||11||2004||6||2005
|-
|2||[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]||10||2005||7||2001
|-
|3||[[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]]||8||1991||1||1987
|-
|4||[[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]]||7||1957||3||2000
|-
|5||[[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]]||6||1928||2||1960
|-
|=||[[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]]||6||2001||6||1996
|-
|=||[[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]]||6||1955||7||1999
|-
|8||[[Everton F.C.|Everton]]||5||1995||7||1989
|-
|=||[[Wanderers F.C.]]||5||1878||0||N/A
|-
|=||[[West Bromwich Albion F.C.|West Bromwich Albion]]||5||1968||5||1935
|}
Clubs with up to 4 wins:
*4 wins: [[Bolton Wanderers F.C.|Bolton Wanderers]], [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]], [[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]], [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]]
*3 wins: [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]], [[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.|Sheffield Wednesday]], [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]]
*2 wins: [[Bury F.C.|Bury]], [[Nottingham Forest F.C.|Nottingham Forest]], [[Old Etonians F.C.|Old Etonians]], [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]], [[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]]
*1 win: [[Barnsley F.C.|Barnsley]], [[Blackburn Olympic F.C.|Blackburn Olympic]], [[Blackpool F.C.|Blackpool]], [[Bradford City A.F.C.|Bradford City]], [[Burnley F.C.|Burnley]], [[Cardiff City F.C.|Cardiff City]], [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]], [[Clapham Rovers F.C.|Clapham Rovers]], [[Coventry City F.C.|Coventry City]], [[Derby County F.C.|Derby County]], [[Huddersfield Town A.F.C.|Huddersfield Town]], [[Ipswich Town F.C.|Ipswich Town]], [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]], [[Notts County F.C.|Notts County]], [[Old Carthusians F.C.|Old Carthusians]], [[Oxford University A.F.C.|Oxford University]], [[Portsmouth F.C.|Portsmouth]], [[Royal Engineers A.F.C.|Royal Engineers]], [[Southampton F.C.|Southampton]], [[Wimbledon F.C.|Wimbledon]]
Three clubs have won consecutive FA Cups on more than one occasion: [[Wanderers F.C.|Wanderers]] (1872, 1873) and (1876, 1877, 1878), [[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]] (1884, 1885, 1886) and (1890, 1891), and [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] (1961, 1962) and (1981, 1982).
Six clubs have won the FA Cup as part of a [[The Double|League and Cup double]], these are [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]] (1889), [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]] (1897), [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.]] (1961), [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] (1971, 1998, 2002), [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] (19 |
006-02-20T16:07:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aditsu</username>
<id>697319</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Notes */ disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''[[color model]]''' is an abstract mathematical model describing the way [[color]]s can be represented as [[tuple]]s of numbers, typically as three or four values or ''color components'' (e.g. [[RGB color model|RGB]] and [[CMYK color model|CMYK]] are color models). However, a color model with no associated mapping function to an [[absolute color space]] is a more or less arbitrary color system with little connection to the requirements of any given application.
Adding a certain mapping function between the color model and a certain reference color space results in a definite "footprint" within the reference color space. This "footprint" is known as a [[gamut]], and, in combination with the color model, defines a new '''color space'''. For example, [[Adobe RGB color space|Adobe RGB]] and [[sRGB color space|sRGB]] are two different [[absolute color space]]s, both based on the RGB model.
==Understanding the concept==
Most people have heard that a wide range of colors can be created by the [[primary colors]] red, blue, and yellow, if working with paints. Those colors then define a color space. We can specify the amount of red color as the X [[coordinate axis|axis]], the amount of blue as the Y axis, and the amount of yellow as the Z axis, giving us a three-dimensional space, wherein every possible color has a unique position.
However, this is not the only color space. For instance, when colors are displayed on a computer monitor, they are usually defined in the RGB (red, green and blue) color space. This is another way of making the same colors, and red, green and blue can be considered as the X, Y and Z axes. Another way of making the same colors is to use their [[hue]] (X axis), their [[saturation (color theory)|saturation]] (Y axis) and their [[brightness]] (Z axis). This is called the [[HSV_color_space|HSB]] color space. There are many more color spaces. Many can be represented as three-dimensional (X,Y,Z) values in this way, but some have more, or fewer dimensions, and some cannot be represented in this way at all.
== Notes ==
When formally defining a color space, the usual reference standard is the [[Lab color space|CIELAB]] color space, which was specifically designed to encompass all colors the average human can see. This is the most accurate color space but is too complex for everyday uses.
Since "color space" is a more specific term for a certain ''combination'' of a color model plus a color mapping function, the term "color space" tends to be used to also identify color models, since identifying a color space automatically identifies the associated color model. Informally, the two terms are often used interchangeably, though this is strictly incorrect. For example, although several specific color spaces are based on the RGB model, there is no such thing as ''the'' RGB color space.
In the generic sense of the definitions above, color spaces can be defined without the use of a color model. These spaces, such as [[Pantone]], are in effect a given set of names or numbers which are defined by the existence of a corresponding set of physical color swatches.
Since any color space defines colors as a function of the absolute reference frame, color spaces, along with device profiling, allow reproducible representations of color, in both [[analog signal|analogue]] and [[digital]] representations.
=== Color space density ===
The RGB color model is implemented in different ways, depending on the capabilities of the system used. By far the most common general-use incarnation [[as of 2005]] is the 24-[[bit]] implementation, with 8 bits, or 256 discrete levels of color per [[color channel|channel]]. Any color space based on such a 24-bit RGB model is thus limited to a gamut of 256&times;256&times;256 &asymp; 16.7 million colors. Some implementations use 16 bits per component, resulting in the same range with a greater density of distinct colors. This is especially important when working with wide-gamut color spaces (where most of the more common colors are located relatively close together), or when a large number of digital filtering algorithms are used consecutively. The same principle applies for any color spaces based on the same color model, but implemented in different bit depths.
== Partial list of color spaces ==
[[CIE 1931 color space|CIE 1931 XYZ color space]] is the first attempt to produce a color space based on measurements of human color perception and it is the basis for almost all other color spaces. Variants of the CIE space include
* [[Lab color space|CIELUV]] color space - a modification to display color differences more conveniently, replaced by:
* [[Lab color space|CIELAB]] color space
* CIE 1964 color space - measurements over a larger field of view than the 1931 color space which produces slightly different results.
=== Generic color models ===
[[Image:AdditiveColorMixing.png|thumbnail|200px|Additive color mixing]]
[[Image:SubtractiveColorMixing.png|thumbnail|200px|Subtractive color mixing]]
[[RGB color space|RGB]] uses [[additive color]] mixing, because it describes what kind of ''light'' needs to be ''emitted'' to produce a given color. Light is added together to create form from out of the darkness. RGB stores individual values for red, green and blue. [[RGBA color space|RGBA]] is RGB with an additional channel, alpha, to indicate transparency.
Common color spaces based on the RGB model include [[sRGB]], [[Adobe RGB color space|Adobe RGB]] and [[Adobe Wide Gamut RGB color space|Adobe Wide Gamut RGB]].
[[CMYK]] uses [[subtractive color]] mixing used in the printing process, because it describes what kind of ''inks'' need to be applied so the light reflected from the substrate and through the inks produces a given color. One starts with a white substrate (canvas, page, etc), and uses ink to subtract color from white to create an image. [[CMYK]] stores ink values for cyan, magenta, yellow and black. There are many CMYK colorspaces for different sets of inks, substrates, and press characteristics (which change the dot gain or transfer function for each ink and thus change the appearance).
[[YIQ]] is used in [[NTSC]] (North American) television broadcasts for historical reasons. [[YIQ]] stores a luminance value with two chrominance values, corresponding approximately to the amounts of blue and red in the color. It corresponds closely to the [[YUV]] scheme used in [[PAL]] television except that the YIQ color space is rotated 33&deg; with respect to the YUV color space. The [[YDbDr]] scheme used by [[SECAM]] television is rotated in another way. (''work needed'')
[[YPbPr]] is a scaled version of YUV. It is most commonly seen in its digital form, [[YCbCr]], used widely in [[Video compression|video]] and [[Image compression|image]] compression schemes such as [[MPEG]] and [[JPEG]].
[[HSV color space|HSV]] ('''h'''ue, '''s'''aturation, '''v'''alue), also known as HSB (hue, saturation, '''b'''rightness) is often used by artists because it is often more natural to think about a color in terms of hue and saturation than in terms of additive or subtractive color components. HSV is a transformation of an RGB colorspace, and its components and colorimetry are relative to the RGB colorspace from which it was derived.
[[HSL color space|HSL]] ('''h'''ue, '''s'''aturation, '''l'''ightness/'''l'''uminance), also known as HLS or HSI (hue, saturation, '''i'''ntensity) is quite similar to [[HSV color space|HSV]], with "lightness" replacing "brightness". The difference is that the ''brightness'' of a pure color is equal to the brightness of white, while the ''lightness'' of a pure color is equal to the lightness of a medium gray.
Once you've decided which color model you want to work in, if you are working on a computer, you must then address the problem of color space encoding.
=== Commercial color spaces ===
* [[Munsell color system]]
* [[Natural Color System|Natural Color System (NCS)]]
=== Special-purpose color spaces ===
* The [[RG Chromaticity]] space is used in [[Computer vision]] applications, and shows the color of light (red, yellow, green etc.), but not its intensity (dark, bright).
=== Obsolete color spaces ===
Early color spaces had two components. They largely ignored blue light because the added complexity of a 3-component process provided much less of a marginal increase in fidelity than the jump from monochrome to 2-component color.
* [[RG color space|RG]] for early [[Technicolor]] film
* [[RGK color space|RGK]] for early color printing
==References==
* [[R. W. G. Hunt]], <cite>The Reproduction of Colour in Photography, Printing & Television</cite>, 5th Ed. Fountain Press, England, 1995. ISBN 0863433812
* Mark D. Fairchild, <cite>Color Appearance Models</cite>, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA (1998). ISBN 0-201-63464-3
* Charles A. Poynton, <cite>[http://groups.google.co.uk/groups?selm=kvpnumINN4rr%40exodus.Eng.Sun.COM&rnum=1 Introduction to Video Colour Spaces]</cite>
==See also==
* [[List of colors]]
* [[Additive color]]
* [[Subtractive color]]
* [[Pitch space]]
* [[Color models]]
==External links==
* [http://www.poynton.com/ColorFAQ.html Charles Poynton's Color FAQ]
* [http://www.colourware.co.uk/cpfaq.htm FAQ about color physics]
* [http://www.physics.sfasu.edu/astro/color.html Dan Bruton's Color Science]
* [http://www-swiss.ai.mit.edu/~jaffer/Color/index.html Color-Scheme - open source color space management package written in Scheme]
* [http://www.wackerart.de/mixer.html RGB-Color Mixer Java Applet] Java-Plugin required
* [http://www.easyrgb.com/math.ph |
;br>
ffccc<br>
FFP<br>
FFT<br>
FGDC<br>
FGHC<br>
FGL<br>
FGL+LV<br>
FGRAAL<br>
fgrep<br>
FHS<br>
fi<br>
Fiber Distributed Data Interface<br>
Fiber Optic InterRepeater Link<br>
fiber optics<br>
Fibonacci series<br>
Fibre Channel<br>
Fibre Channel-Arbitrated Loop<br>
fibre optics<br>
FIDIL<br>
FIDO<br>
FidoNet<br>
field<br>
field circus<br>
field effect transistor<br>
field mouse<br>
field-programmable gate array<br>
field servoid<br>
FIFO<br>
Fifth<br>
Fifth Dimension Technologies<br>
fifth generation language<br>
fifth normal form<br>
Fight-o-net<br>
file<br>
File Allocation Table<br>
File Attach<br>
File Composition<br>
file compression<br>
file control block<br>
file descriptor<br>
file descriptor leak<br>
file extension<br>
FileMaker<br>
FileMaker, Inc.<br>
filename extension<br>
FileNet<br>
File Request<br>
File Separator<br>
file server<br>
File Service Protocol<br>
file signature<br>
file system<br>
Filesystem Hierarchy Standard<br>
file transfer<br>
File Transfer Protocol<br>
file type<br>
filing system<br>
filk<br>
fill-out form<br>
film at 11<br>
FILO<br>
Filtabyte<br>
filter<br>
filter promotion<br>
FIMS<br>
Finagle's Law<br>
Financial Information eXchange<br>
fine adjuster<br>
fine grain<br>
finger<br>
finger-pointing syndrome<br>
finite<br>
Finite Automata<br>
Finite Automaton<br>
finite differencing<br>
Finite Impulse Response<br>
Finite State Automata<br>
Finite State Automaton<br>
Finite State Machine<br>
finn<br>
FIPS<br>
FIR<br>
firebottle<br>
firefighting<br>
firehose syndrome<br>
firewall<br>
firewall code<br>
firewall machine<br>
Firewire -- '''DONE'''<br>
fireworks mode<br>
Firmware<br>
firmy<br>
first class module<br>
First Fit<br>
first generation computer<br>
first generation language<br>
first-in first-out<br>
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first-order logic<br>
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fish<br>
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fix<br>
fixed disk<br>
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flame bait<br>
flame off<br>
flame on<br>
flamer<br>
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flaming<br>
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flap<br>
flapping router<br>
flarp<br>
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Flash EPROM<br>
Flash Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory<br>
flash memory<br>
Flash ROM<br>
flat<br>
flat address space<br>
flat ASCII<br>
flat file<br>
flatten<br>
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flavour<br>
Fleng<br>
FLEX<br>
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Flex 2<br>
flib<br>
FLIC<br>
FLIP<br>
Flip Chip Pin Grid Array<br>
flip-flop<br>
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floating-point<br>
floating-point accelerator<br>
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floating point underflow<br>
Floating-Point Unit<br>
floating underflow<br>
F-Logic<br>
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floppy disk<br>
floppy disk drive<br>
floppy drive<br>
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Flops<br>
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Flow<br>
flow chart<br>
flow control<br>
flower key<br>
FLOW-MATIC or FLOWMATIC<br>
flow of control<br>
FLPL<br>
FLUB<br>
Fluegelman, Andrew<br>
flush<br>
Flynn's taxonomy<br>
fly page<br>
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fm<br>
FMPL<br>
FMQ<br>
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FMV<br>
FNAL<br>
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[[fnord]]<br>
FN tunnelling<br>
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foreground<br>
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FORM<br>
FORMAC<br>
FORMAL<br>
Formal Description Technique<br>
[[formal methods]] '''DONE''' <br>
Formal Object Role Modeling Language<br>
formal review<br>
FORMAT-Fortran<br>
Formatting Output Specification Instance<br>
Formes<br>
form factor<br>
form feed<br>
form function<br>
FORML<br>
forms<br>
formula<br>
Formula ALGOL<br>
Forsythe<br>
FORTH<br>
for The Rest Of Them<br>
for The Rest Of Us<br>
Forth Modification Lab<br>
Fortran<br>
Fortran 66<br>
Fortran 77<br>
Fortran 90<br>
Fortran Automatic Symbol Translator<br>
Fortran D<br>
Fortran I<br>
Fortran II<br>
Fortran III<br>
Fortran IV<br>
Fortran-Linda<br>
Fortran M<br>
Fortran Matrix Abstraction Technique Fortran<br>
Fortran-Plus<br>
FORTRANSIT<br>
Fortran V<br>
Fortran VI<br>
Fortrash<br>
FORTRUNCIBLE<br>
fortune cookie<br>
forum<br>
for values of<br>
forward<br>
forward analysis<br>
forward chaining<br>
forward compatibility<br>
forward compatible<br>
forward delta<br>
forward engineering<br>
Forward Error Correction<br>
forwards compatibility<br>
forwards compatible<br>
FORWISS<br>
For Your Information<br>
FOSI<br>
FOSIL<br>
fossil<br>
foundation<br>
FOundation for Research and Technology - Hellas<br>
four-colour glossies<br>
four colour map theorem<br>
four colour theorem<br>
Fourier transform<br>
fourth generation computer<br>
fourth generation language -- '''DONE'''<br>
fourth normal form<br>
Fowler-Nordheim tunnelling<br>
FoxBASE+<br>
FoxPRO<br>
Fox Software<br>
FP<br>
FP2<br>
FPA<br>
fpc<br>
FPGA<br>
FPLMTS<br>
FPM<br>
FP/M<br>
FPM DRAM<br>
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FPU<br>
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FQL<br>
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fractal compression<br>
fractal dimension<br>
FRAD<br>
fragile<br>
fragment<br>
fragmentation<br>
FRAM<br>
frame<br>
frame buffer<br>
Frame Check Sequence<br>
frame grabber<br>
FrameKit<br>
FrameMaker<br>
frame pointer<br>
frame rate<br>
Frame Relay<br>
Frame Relay Access Device<br>
frames per second<br>
Frame Technology Corporation<br>
framework<br>
Framework 4<br>
framing specification<br>
FRANK<br>
Franz Lisp<br>
FRED<br>
fred<br>
Fredette's Operating System Interface Language<br>
frednet<br>
free<br>
FreeBSD<br>
FreeHEP<br>
Freenet<br>
FreePPP<br>
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free software<br>
Free Software Foundation<br>
free variable<br>
freeware<br>
freeze<br>
Frege, Gottlob<br>
frequency division multiple access<br>
frequency division multiplexing<br>
Frequency Modulation<br>
Frequency Shift Keying<br>
frequently asked question<br>
Fresco<br>
Fresh<br>
friction feed<br>
fried<br>
Friend<br>
FRINGE<br>
frink<br>
friode<br>
fritterware<br>
FRL<br>
FRMT-FTRN<br>
frob<br>
frobnicate<br>
frobnitz<br>
Frobozz Magic Programming Language<br>
frogging<br>
Frolic<br>
front end<br>
front-end processor<br>
front side bus<br>
[[frotz]] ''done''<br>
frotzed<br>
frowney<br>
fry<br>
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FSB<br>
fsck<br>
FSF<br>
FSK<br>
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FSM<br>
FSP<br>
fsplit<br>
FT<br>
FTAM<br>
FTP<br>
FTP archive<br>
FTP by mail<br>
FTP server<br>
FTP Software, Inc.<br>
FTTP<br>
FTX<br>
FUBAR<br>
FUD<br>
fudge<br>
fudge factor<br>
Fudgets<br>
FUDGIT<br>
FUD wars<br>
Fuel-can<br>
Fugue<br>
Fujitsu<br>
full-custom<br>
full-duplex<br>
full-duplex Switched Ethernet<br>
full laziness<br>
full-motion video<br>
full outer join<br>
fully associative cache<br>
Fully Automated Compiling Technique<br>
fully lazy lambda lifting<br>
fully qualified domain name<br>
fum<br>
function<br>
functional<br>
functional database<br>
functional dependency<br>
functionality<br>
functional language<br>
functional program<br>
functional programming<br>
fun |
f [[Austin, Texas|Austin]]. On [[May 29]], [[2001]] Jenna was charged with trying to use a third party's [[identity document|identification]] ([[Identity document forgery|fake ID]] with the name "Barbara Pierce," her paternal grandmother's maiden name) to purchase alcohol at Chuy's, a popular [[Mexican food|Mexican]] [[restaurant]] within close driving distance of the [[University of Texas at Austin]] campus. At the same incident, Barbara Bush was charged with being a minor in possession of alcohol. They both pleaded [[nolo contendere|no contest]] to all charges.
On [[July 6]], [[2001]], for the false identification charge, Jenna was ordered to pay $100, perform 36 hours of [[community service]], and attend a session where victims of alcohol-related crimes speak. For the underage drinking charge, Jenna was fined $500 and her [[driver's license]] was suspended for 30 days.
[http://archive.salon.com/politics/feature/2001/05/31/twins/print.html] [http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/jenna5.html]
==See also==
* [[George W. Bush presidential campaign, 2004]]
* [[Sage and Chalice]]
==External links==
*[http://www.thefirsttwins.com/ TheFirstTwins.com]
[[Category:Living people|Bush, Barbara and Jenna]]
[[Category:Bush family|Bush, Barbara and Jenna]]
[[Category:1981 births|Bush, Barbara and Jenna]]
[[Category:Fraternal twins|Bush, Barbara and Jenna]]
[[Category:George W. Bush|Bush, Barbara and Jenna]]
[[Category:Children of Presidents of the United States|Bush, Barbara and Jenna]]
[[Category:People from Texas|Bush, Barbara and Jenna]]
[[nl:Jenna Welch Bush]]
[[sk:Barbara a Jenna Bushová]]
[[sv:Barbara och Jenna Bush]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bragi</title>
<id>4067</id>
<revision>
<id>37492809</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T09:08:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pearle</username>
<id>112114</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Changing {{cleanup}} to {{cleanup-date|January 2006}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
[[Image:Idunn and Bragi by Blommer.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Bragi is shown with a harp and accompanied by his wife [[Iðunn]] in this [[19th century]] painting by [[Nils Blommér]].]]
'''Bragi''' is the god of [[poetry]] in [[Norse mythology]].
==Origins==
'''Bragi''' is generally associated with ''bragr'', the Norse word for [[poetry]]. The name of the god may have been derived from ''bragr'', or the term ''bragr'' may have been have been formed to describe 'what Bragi does.'
A connection between the name Bragi and English ''brego'' 'chieftain' has been suggested but is generally now discounted
[[Snorri Sturluson]] writes in the ''[[Gylfaginning]]'' after describing [[Odin]], [[Thor]], and [[Baldr]]:
<blockquote>One is called Bragi: he is renowned for wisdom, and most of all for fluency of speech and skill with words. He knows most of skaldship, and after him skaldship is called ''bragr'', and from his name that one is called ''bragr''-man or -woman, who possesses eloquence surpassing others, of women or of men. His wife is [[Iðunn]].</blockquote>
In his ''[[Skáldskaparmál]]'' Snorri writes:
<blockquote>How should one periphrase Bragi? By calling him ''husband of Iðunn'', ''first maker of poetry'', and ''the long-bearded god'' (after his name, a man who has a great beard is called Beard-Bragi), and ''son of Odin''.</blockquote>
[[Image:Bragi by Wahlbom.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Bragi by [[Carl Wahlbom]] (1810-1858).]]
That Bragi is Odin's son is clearly mentioned only here and in some versions of a list of the sons of Odin (see '''[[Sons of Odin]]'''). But "wish-son" in stanza 16 of the ''[[Lokasenna]]'' could mean "Odin's son" and is translated by Hollander as ''Odin's kin''. Bragi's mother is never named. If Bragi's mother is [[Frigg]], then Frigg is somewhat dismissive of Bragi in the ''Lokasenna'' in stanza 27 when Frigg complains that if she had a son in [[Ægir]]'s hall as brave as [[Baldr]] then [[Loki]] would have to fight for his life.
In that poem Bragi at first forbids Loki to enter the hall but is overruled by Odin. Loki then gives a greeting to all gods and goddesses who are in the hall save to Bragi. Bragi generously offers his sword, horse, and an arm ring as peace gift but Loki only responds by accusing Bragi of cowardice, of being the most afraid to fight of any of the [[Æsir]] and [[Elves]] within the hall. Bragi responds that if they were outside the hall, he would have Loki's head, but Loki only repeats the accusation. When Bragi's wife Iðunn attempts to calm Bragi, Loki accuses her of embracing her brother's slayer, a reference to matters that have not survived. Perhaps Bragi had slain Iðunn's brother or perhaps the reference is to something else entirely.
A passage in the eddic poem ''[[Sigrdrífumál]]'' describes runes being graven on the sun, on the ear of one of the sun-horses and on the hoofs of the other, on [[Sleipnir]]'s teeth, on bear's paw, on eagle's beak, on wolf's claw, and on several other things including on Bragi's tongue. Then the runes are shaved off and the shavings are mixed with mead and sent abroad so that Æsir have some, Elves have some, [[Vanir]] have some, and Men have some, these being beech runes and birth runes, ale runes, and magic runes. The meaning of this is obscure.
The first part of Snorri Sturluson's ''[[Skáldskaparmál]]'' is a dialogue between [[Ægir]] and Bragi about the nature of poetry, particularly skaldic poetry. Bragi tells the origin of the mead of poetry from the blood of [[Kvasir]] and how Odin obtained this mead. He then goes on to discuss various poetic metaphors known as ''[[kenning]]s''.
Snorri Sturluson clearly distinguishes the god Bragi from the mortal skald Bragi Boddason whom he often mentions separately. Bragi Boddason is discussed below. The appearance of Bragi in the ''Lokasenna'' indicates that if these two Bragis were originally the same, they have become separated for that author also, or that chronology has become very muddled and Bragi Boddason has been relocated to mythological time. Compare the appearance of the [[Wales|Welsh]] [[Taliesin]] in the second branch of the [[Mabinogion|Mabinogi]]. Legendary chronology sometimes does become muddled. Whether Bragi the god originally arose as a deified version of Bragi Boddason was much debated in the [[1800s|19th century]], especially by the [[Germany|German]] scholars Eugen Mogk and Sophus Bugge. The debate remains undecided.
In the poem ''[[Eiríksmál]]'' Odin, in [[Valhalla]], hears the coming of the dead [[Norway|Norwegian]] king Eirík Bloodaxe and his host, and bids the heroes [[Sigmund]] and [[Sinfjötli]] rise to greet him. Bragi is then mentioned, questioning how Odin knows that it is Eirik and why Odin has let such a king die. In the poem ''[[Hákonarmál]]'', Hákon the Good is taken to Valhalla by the [[valkyrie]] [[Göndul]] and Odin sends [[Hermóðr]] and Bragi to greet him. In these poems Bragi could be either a god or a dead hero in Valhalla. Attempting to decide is further confused because ''Hermóðr'' also seems to be sometimes the name of a god and sometimes the name of a hero. That Bragi was also the first to speak to Loki in the ''Lokasenna'' as Loki attempted to enter the hall might be a parallel. It might have been useful and customary that a man of great eloquence and versed in poetry should greet those entering a hall.
A connection between Bragi and the ''bragarfull'' 'promise cup' is sometimes suggested, as ''bragafull'', an alternate form of the word, might be translated as 'Bragi's cup'. See '''[[Bragarfull]]'''.
==Other Spellings==
* Norwegian form: ''Brage''
* German form: ''Brego''
===Modern invention===
* Bragi's mother was Frigg.
* Bragi's mother was son of Odin by the giantess [[Gunnlod|Gunnlöd]].
* Bragi was generally conceived to have runes permanently carved into his tongue.
* Bragi was told to let the runes out like butterflies at banquets of the gods and in Valhalla in the form of poetry.
* Bragi had runes carved on his tongue by his wife Iðunn, the inventor of runes. (This is an invention of Barbara Walker, author of ''The Crone''.)
* Bragi was responsible for dolling out the mead of poetry.
* Bragi customarily greeted new arrivals to Valhalla. (In fact this occurs only in the poem ''Eiríksmál''.)
Some of the above are reasonable as modern literary invention in retellings or as scholarly speculation and may even have been what the ancient Norse believed for all that is known, but they are not found in surviving texts.
A. & E. Keary in the back matter to their ''Heroes of Asgard'' (published in 1891), provides the following on Bragi's name:
<blockquote>From ''braga'', "to shine;" or ''bragga'', "to adorn." ''Bragr'', which in Norse signifies "poetry," has become in English "to brag," and a poet "a braggart." From Bragi's bumper, the Bragafull, comes our word "bragget," and probably, also, the verb "to brew;" Norse, ''brugga''.</blockquote>
A relation to ''braga'' 'to shine' is not generally accepted, must less to ''bragga'' or ''brugga''. English ''brag'' might indeed be from Old Norse ''braugr'', discussed above, if not from ''braying'' of a trumpet. But English ''brew'' is certainly unrelated to Bragi, though ''brew'' is related to Old Norse ''brugga''.
==Bragi Boddason==
In his ''Edda'' Snorri Sturluson quotes many stanzas attributed to '''Bragi Boddason''' the old (''Bragi Boddason inn gamli''), a court poet who served several Swedish kings, [[Ragnar Lodbrok]], [[Östen Beli]] and [[Björn at Hauge]] who reigned in the first half of the [[800s|ninth century]]. This Bragi was reckoned as the first skaldic poet, and was certainly the earliest skaldic poet then remembered by name whose verse survived in memory.
Snorri especially quotes passages from Bragi's ''[[Ragnars |
ng directors and audiences alike. This period brought him work on several [[Europe|European]] productions with [[film director|director]]s including [[Luchino Visconti]] and [[Bernardo Bertolucci]]. Lancaster sought demanding roles and, if he liked a part or a director, was prepared to work for much lower pay than he might have earned elsewhere; he even helped to finance movies in whose artistic value he believed. He produced a number of films himself and also mentored such new directors as [[Sydney Pollack]] and [[John Frankenheimer]], thus adding to his numerous acting achievements a pioneering role the development of [[independent cinema]]. He also appeared in several TV films.
For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Burt Lancaster has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6801 Hollywood Blvd.
He was also an unabashed liberal activist and spoke out many times in support of minorities and forming liberal groups.
As famous for his prickly, temparamental personality as much as he was for his skills at blending into and out of different characterizations, Lancaster vigorously guarded his private life. He was married three times and had five children. His first spouse, from [[1935]] to [[1946]], was June Ernst, from whom he divorced. His second marriage was with Norma Anderson from [[1946]] to [[1969]] and also ended in divorce. His third wife was Susan Martin, whom he married in [[1991]]. As Mr. Lancaster aged, heart trouble increasingly hindered him from working as intensely as his passion and determination demanded. He eventually had to undergo open-heart surgery, and a cerebral stroke in [[1990]] left him in a wheel-chair, partly paralyzed. At home in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] on October 20, 1994, Burt Lancaster died of a heart attack at the age of 80.
Lancaster was [[cremated]]; his ashes were interred at [[Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery]].
== Quotes ==
Most people seem to think I’m the kind of guy who shaves with a blowtorch. Actually, I’m bookish and worrisome.
===Academy Awards for Best Actor===
*1953:&nbsp; ''[[From Here to Eternity]]'' - Nomination
*1960:&nbsp; ''[[Elmer Gantry]]'' - Winner
*1962:&nbsp; ''[[Birdman of Alcatraz]]'' - Nomination
*1981:&nbsp; ''[[Atlantic City]]'' - Nomination
===Filmography===
*''[[The Killers (1946 film)|The Killers]]'' ([[1946]])
*''[[Brute Force (1947 movie)|Brute Force]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[Desert Fury]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[Variety Girl]]'' ([[1947]]) (Cameo)
*''[[I Walk Alone]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[All My Sons]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[Sorry, Wrong Number]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[Kiss the Blood Off My Hands]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[Criss Cross (1949 movie)]]'' ([[1949]])
*''[[Rope of Sand]]'' ([[1949]])
*''[[The Flame and the Arrow]]'' ([[1950]])
*''[[Mister 880]]'' ([[1950]])
*''[[Vengeance Valley]]'' ([[1951]])
*''[[The Screen Director]]'' ([[1951]]) (short subject)
*''[[Jim Thorpe - All American]]'' ([[1951]])
*''[[Ten Tall Men]]'' ([[1951]])
*''[[The Crimson Pirate]]'' ([[1952]]) (also producer)
*''[[Come Back, Little Sheba]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[South Sea Woman]]'' ([[1953]])
*''[[From Here to Eternity]]'' ([[1953]])
*''[[Three Sailors and a Girl]]'' ([[1953]]) (Cameo)
*''[[His Majesty O'Keefe]]'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Apache]]'' ([[1954]]) (also producer)
*''[[Vera Cruz (movie)|Vera Cruz]]'' ([[1954]]) (also co-producer)
*''[[The Kentuckian]]'' ([[1955]]) (also director)
*''[[The Rose Tattoo]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[Screen Snapshots: Playtime in Hollywood]]'' ([[1956]]) (short subject)
*''[[Trapeze]]'' ([[1956]]) (also producer)
*''[[The Rainmaker]]'' ([[1956]])
*''[[The Heart of Show Business]]'' ([[1957]]) (short subject) (narrator)
*''[[Gunfight at the O.K. Corral]]'' ([[1957]])
*''[[Sweet Smell of Success]]'' ([[1957]])
*''[[Run Silent Run Deep]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[Separate Tables]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[The Devil's Disciple]]'' ([[1959]])
*''[[The Unforgiven (1960 film)|The Unforgiven]]'' ([[1960]]) (also co-producer)
*''[[Elmer Gantry]]'' ([[1960]])
*''[[The Young Savages]]'' ([[1961]])
*''[[Judgment at Nuremberg]]'' ([[1961]])
*''[[Birdman of Alcatraz]]'' ([[1962]])
*''[[A Child Is Waiting]]'' ([[1963]])
*''[[The Leopard]]'' ([[1963]])
*''[[The List of Adrian Messenger]]'' ([[1963]]) (Cameo)
*''[[Seven Days in May]]'' ([[1964]])
*''[[The Train]]'' ([[1964]])
*''[[Handle with Care]]'' ([[1965]]) (short subject) (narrator)
*''[[The Hallelujah Trail]]'' ([[1965]])
*''[[The Professionals]]'' ([[1966]])
*''[[All About People]]'' ([[1967]]) (short subject) (narrator)
*''[[The Scalphunters]]'' ([[1968]]) (also producer)
*''[[The Swimmer]]'' ([[1968]])
*''[[Jenny Is a Good Thing]]'' ([[1969]]) (short subject) (narrator)
*''[[Castle Keep]]'' ([[1969]])
*''[[The Gypsy Moths]]'' ([[1969]])
*''[[Airport (movie)|Airport]]'' ([[1970]])
*''[[King: A Filmed Record... Montgomery to Memphis]]'' ([[1970]]) (documentary)
*''[[Ali: The Fighter]]'' ([[1971]]) (documentary)
*''[[Lawman]]'' ([[1971]])
*''[[Valdez Is Coming]]'' ([[1971]])
*''[[Ulzana's Raid]]'' ([[1972]]) (also producer)
*''[[Scorpio (movie)|Scorpio]]'' ([[1973]])
*''[[Executive Action (movie)|Executive Action]]'' ([[1973]])
*''[[The Midnight Man]]'' ([[1974]]) (also director, producer, and writer)
*''[[Conversation Piece]]'' ([[1974]])
*''[[The Cinema According to Bertolucci]]'' ([[1975]]) (documentary)
*''[[Victory At Entebbe]]'' ([[1976]])
*''[[Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson]]'' ([[1976]])
*''[[1900 (movie)|1900]]'' ([[1976]])
*''[[The Cassandra Crossing]]'' ([[1976]])
*''[[Exploring the Unknown]]'' ([[1977]]) (documentary) (narrator)
*''[[Twilight's Last Gleaming]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[The Island of Dr. Moreau]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[Go Tell the Spartans]]'' ([[1978]])
*''[[Zulu Dawn]]'' ([[1979]])
*''[[Atlantic City (film)|Atlantic City]]'' ([[1980]])
*''[[Cattle Annie and Little Britches]]'' ([[1981]])
*''[[The Skin]]'' ([[1981]])
*''[[Local Hero]]'' ([[1983]])
*''[[The Osterman Weekend]]'' ([[1983]])
*''[[Little Treasure]]'' ([[1985]])
*''[[Tough Guys]]'' ([[1986]])
*''[[Mind Control (movie)|Mind Control]]'' ([[1987]])
*''[[The Jeweller's Shop]]'' ([[1988]])
*''[[Rocket Gibraltar]]'' ([[1988]])
*''[[Field of Dreams]]'' ([[1989]])
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000044|name=Burt Lancaster}}
* [http://www.thegoldenyears.org/lancast.html Classic Movies (1939 - 1969): Burt Lancaster]
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=1835&pt Find-A-Grave profile Burt Lancaster]
[[Category:1913 births|Lancaster, Burt]]
[[Category:1994 deaths|Lancaster, Burt]]
[[Category:Film actors|Lancaster, Burt]]
[[Category:American actors|Lancaster, Burt]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar|Lancaster, Burt]] <!-- Elmer Gantry -->
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee|Lancaster, Burt]] <!-- From here to Eternity, Birdman of Alcatraz, Atlantic City (movie) -->
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Lancaster, Burt]]
[[Category:People from New York City|Lancaster, Burt]]
[[Category:Irish-American actors|Lancaster, Burt]]
[[Category:English Americans|Lancaster, Burt]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 80s|Lancaster, Burt]]
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[http://www.epinions.com/mvie-review-6F76-903F267-38A85854-prod6 Go Tell the Spartans]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bio accumulate</title>
<id>4538</id>
<revision>
<id>15902802</id>
<timestamp>2003-05-15T03:22:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bioaccumulation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Balts</title>
<id>4540</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41821766</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:37:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">::''For more information on Germans inhabiting the shores of the [[Baltic Sea]] see [[Baltic Germans]]''
[[Image:Baltic sea map.jpg|thumb|320px|The Baltic Sea]]
The '''Balts''' or '''Baltic peoples''' ([[Latvian language|Latvian]]: ''balti'', [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: ''baltai''), defined as speakers of one of the [[Baltic languages]], a branch of the [[Indo-European language]] family, are descended from a group of [[Indo-European]] tribes who settled the area between lower [[Vistula]] and upper [[Daugava|Dvina]] and [[Dnieper river|Dneper]]. Because of geographical isolation, the Baltic languages retain a number of conservative or archaic features. Among the Baltic peoples are modern [[Lithuanians]] and [[Latvians]] as well as the [[Prussians]], [[Yotvingians]] and [[Curonians]], whose languages were extinct in the [[Middle Ages]].
==History==
The prehistoric cradle of the Baltic peoples according to [[Archaeogenetic|archeogenetic]] research and archaeological studies was the area near the Baltic sea and central Europe at the end of [[ice age]] and beginning of the [[Mesolith]]ic period. They spread in the area from Baltic sea in the west to the Volga in the east. Slavic cradle was in Danubian - Krakowian region close to Baltic. Slavs entered the [[Dnepr]] region in the VI a. after [[Avar]] invasion into Europe conquerring and assimilating eastern Balts. According to some false old theories the cradle area was very late near the upper and middle Dnepr river in modern [[Ukraine]] settled by a hypothetical [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic community]]; that is, a population ancestral to the modern Balts and [[Slavs]]. In the early [ |
Boas argued that the task of fieldworkers is to produce and collect texts in non-literate societies. This took the form not only of compiling lexicons and grammars of the local language, but of recording myths, folktales, beliefs about social relationships and institutions, and even recipes for local cuisine. In order to do this, Boas relied heavily on the collaboration of literate native ethnographers (among the Kwakiutl, most often [[George Hunt]]), and he urged his students to consider such people valuable partners, inferior in their standing in Western society, but superior in their understanding of their own culture. (see Bunzl 2004: 438-439)
Using these methods, Boas published another article in 1920, in which he revisited his earlier research on Kwakiutl kinship. in the late 1890s Boas had tried to reconstruct transformation in the organization of Kkwakiutl clans, by comparing them to the organization of clans in other societies neighboring the Kwakiutl to the north and south. Now, however, he argued against translating the Kwakiutl principle of kin groups into any English word. Instead of trying to fit the Kwakiutl into some larger model, he tried to understand their beliefs and practices in their own terms. For example, whereas he had earlier translated the Kwakiutl word ''numaym'' as "clan," he now argued that the word is best understood as referring to a bundle of privileges, for which there is no English word. Men secured claims to these privileges through their parents or wives, and there were a variety of ways these privileges could be acquired, used, and transmitted from one generation to the next. As in his work on alternating sounds, Boas had come to realize that different ethnological interpretations of Kwakiutl kinship were the result of the limitations of Western categories. As in his work on Alaskan needlecases, he now saw variation among Kwakiutl practices as the result of the play between social norms and individual creativity.
==Scientist as Activist==
:There are two things to which I am devoted: absolute academic and spiritual freedom, and the subordination of the state to the interests of the individual; expressed in other forms, the furthering of conditions in which the individual can develop to the best of his ability &mdash; as far as it is possible with a full understanding of the fetters imposed upon us by tradition; and the fight against all forms of power policy of states or private organizations. This means a devotion to principles of true democracy. I object to teaching of slogans intended to befog the mind, of whatever kind they may be. (letter from Boas to John Dewey, 11/6/39)
Many social scientists in other disciplines often agonize over the legitimacy of their work as "science," and consequently emphasize the importance of detachment, objectivity, abstraction, and quantifiability in their work. Perhaps because Boas, like other early anthropologists, was originally trained in the natural sciences, he and his students never expressed such anxiety. Moreover, he did not believe that detachment, objectivity, and quantifiability were required to make anthropology scientific. Since the object of study of anthropologists is different from the object of study of physicists, he assumed that anthropologists would have to employ different methods and different criteria for evaluating their research. Thus, Boas used statistical studies to demonstrate the extent to which variation in data is context-dependent, and argued that the context-dependent nature of human variation rendered many abstractions and generalizations that had been passing as scientific understandings of humankind (especially theories of social evolution popular at the time) in fact unscientific. His understanding of ethnographic fieldwork began with the fact that the objects of ethnographic study (for example, the Inuit of Baffin Island) were not just objects, but subjects, and his research called attention to their creativity and agency. More importantly, he viewed the Inuit as his teachers, thus reversing the typical hierarchical relationship between scientist and object of study.
This emphasis on the relationship between anthropologists and those they study -- the point that, while astronomers and stars; chemists and elements; botanists and plants are fundamentally different, anthropologists and those they study are equally human -- implied that anthropologists themselves could be objects of anthropological study. Although Boas did not pursue this reversal systematically, his article on alternating sounds illustrates his awareness that scientists should not be confident about their objectivity, because they too see the world through the prism of their culture.
This emphasis also led Boas to conclude that anthropologists have an obligation to speak out on social issues. Boas was especially concerned with racial inequality, which he had demonstrated was not biological in origin, but rather social. An early example of this concern is evident in his 1906 commencement address to Atlanta University, at the invitation of [[W. E. B. DuBois]]. Boas began by remarking that "If you did accept the view that the present weakness of the American Negro, his uncontrollable emotions, his lack of energy, are racially inherent, your work would still be noble one." He then went on, however, to argue against this view. To the claim that European and Asian civilizations are, at the time, more advanced than African societies (a claim still dominant today, see [[Guns, Germs, and Steel]]), Boas objected that against the total history of humankind, the past two thousand years is but a brief span. Moreover, although the technological advances of our early ancestors (such as taming fire and inventing stone tools) might seem insignificant when compared to the invention of the steam engine or control over electricity, we should consider that they might actually be even greater accomplishments. Boas then went on to catalogue advances in Africa, such as smelting iron, cultivating millet, and domesticating chickens and cattle, occurred in Africa well before they spread to Europe and Asia. He then described the activities of African kings, diplomats, merchants, and artists as evidence of cultural achievement. From this, he concluded, any social inferiority of Negroes in the United States cannot be explained by their African origins:
:If, therefore, it is claimed that your race is doomed to economic inferiority, you may confidently look to the home of your ancestors and say, that you have set out to recover for the colored people the strength that was their own before they set foot on the shores of this continent. You may say that you go to work with bright hopes, and that you will not be discouraged by the slowness of your progress; for you have to recover not only what has been lost in transplanting the Negro race from its native soil to this continent, but you must reach higher levels than your ancestors ever had attained.
Boas proceeds to discuss the arguments for the inferiority of the Negro race, and calls attention to the fact that they were brought to the Americas through force. For Boas, this is just one example of the many times conquest or colonialism has brought different peoples into an unequal relation, and he mentions "the conquest of England by the Normans, the Teutonic invasion of Italy, [and] the Manchoo conquest of China" as resulting in similar conditions. But the best example, for Boas, of this phenomenon is that of the Jews in Europe:
:Even now there lingers in the consciousness of the old, sharper divisions which the ages had not been able to efface, and which is strong enough to find -- not only here and there -- expression as antipathy to the Jewish type. In France, that let down the barriers more than a hundred years ago, the feeling of antipathy is still strong enough to sustain an anti-Jewish political party.
Boas's closing advice is that Negroes should not look to Whites for approval or encouragement, because people in power usually take a very long time to learn to sympathize with people out of power. "Remember that in every single case in history the process of adaptation has been one of exceeding slowness. Do not look for the impossible, but do not let your path deviate from the quiet and steadfast insistence on full opportunities for your powers."
Despite Boas's caveat about the intractability of White prejudice, he also considered it the scientist's responsibility to argue against White myths of racial purity and racial superiority, and to use the evidence of his research to fight racism.
Boas was also critical of one nation imposing its power over others. In 1916 Boas wrote a letter to ''The New York Times'' which was published under the headline, "Why German-Americans Blame America." Although Boas did begin the letter by protesting bitter attacks against German-Americans at the time of the war in Europe, most of his letter was a critique of American nationalism. "In my youth I had been taught in school and at home not only to love the good of my own country, but also to seek to understand and to respect the individualities of other nations. For this reason one-sided nationalism, that is so often found nowadays, is to me unendurable." He writes of his love for American ideals of freedom, and of his growing discomfort with American beliefs about its own superiority over others.
:I have always been of the opinion that we have no right to impose our ideals upon other nations, no matter how strange it may seem to us that they enjoy the kind of life they lead, how slow they may be in utilizing the resources of their countries, or how much opposed their ideals may be to ours .... Our intolerant attitude is most pronounced in regard to what we like to call "our free institutions." Mo |
al African region. In 1889 the French established a post on the Ubangi river at [[Bangui]], the future capital of [[Ubangi-Shari]] and the CAR. De Brazza then sent expeditions in 1890-91 up the [[Sangha River]] in what is now southwestern CAR, up the center of the Ubangi basin toward [[Lake Chad]], and eastward along the Ubangi river toward the [[Nile]]. De Brazza and the procolonial in France wished to expand the borders of the French Congo to link up with French territories in [[West Africa]], [[North Africa]] and [[East Africa]]. In 1894, the French Congo's borders with Leopold II's [[Congo Free State]] and German Cameroon were fixed by diplomatic agreements. Then, in 1899, the French Congo's border with Sudan was fixed along the Congo-Nile watershed, leaving France without her much coveted outlet on the Nile and turning southeastern Ubangi-Shari into a cul-de-sac.
Once European negotiators agreed upon the borders of the French Congo, France had to decide how to pay for the costly occupation, administration, and development of the territory. The reported financial successes of Leopold II's concessionary companies in the Congo Free State convinced the French government in 1899 to grant 17 private companies large concessions in the Ubangi-Shari region. In return for the right to exploit these lands by buying local products and selling European goods, the companies promised to pay rent to the colonial state and to promote the development of their concessions. The companies employed European and African agents who frequently used extremely brutal and atrocious methods to force Central Africans to work for them. At the same time, the French colonial administration began to force Central Africans to pay taxes and to provide the state with free labor. The companies and French administration often collaborated in their efforts to force Central Africans to work for their benefit, but they also often found themselves at odds. Some French officials reported abuses committed by private company militias and even by their own colonial colleagues and troops, but efforts to bring these criminals to justice almost always failed. When news of terrible atrocities committed against Central Africans by concessionary company employees and colonial officials or troops reached France and caused an outcry, there were investigations and some feeble attempts at reform, but the situation on the ground in Ubangi-Shari remained essentially the same.
In the meantime, during the first decade of French colonial rule (c. 1900-1910), the rulers of African states in the Ubangi-Shari region increased their slave raiding activities and also their sale of local products to European companies and the colonial state. They took advantage of their treaties with the French to procure more weapons which were used to capture more slaves and so much of the eastern half of Ubangi-Shari was depopulated as a result of the export of Central Africans by local rulers during the first decade of colonial rule. Those who had power, Africans and Europeans, often made life miserable for those who did not have the power to resist.
During the second decade of French colonial rule (c. 1910-1920), armed employees of private companies and the colonial state continued to use brutal methods to deal with local populations who resisted forced labor but the power of local African rulers was destroyed and so slave raiding was greatly diminished. In 1911, the Sangha and Lobaye basins were ceded to Germany as part of an agreement which gave France a free-hand in Morocco and so western Ubangi-Shari came under German rule until World War I, duing which France reconquered this territory by using Central African troops.
The third decade of French colonial rule (1920-30) was a period of transition during which a network of roads was built, cash crops were promoted, mobile health services were formed to combat sleeping sickness, and Protestant missions established stations in different parts of the country. New forms of forced labor were also introduced, however, as the French conscripted large numbers of Ubangians to work on the [[Congo-Ocean railway]] and many of these recruits died of exhaustion and illness. In 1925 the French writer [[André Gide]] published [[Voyage au Congo]] in which he described the alarming consequences of conscription for the Congo-Ocean railroad and exposed the continuing atrocities committed against Central Africans in western Ubangi-Shari by employees of the Forestry Company of Sangha-Ubangi, for example. In 1928 a major insurrection, the [[Kongo-Wara]] 'war of the hoe handle' broke out in western Ubangi-Shari and continued for several years. The extent of this insurrection, perhaps the largest anticolonial rebellion in Africa during the interwar years, was carefully hidden from the French public because it provided evidence, once again, of strong opposition to French colonial rule and forced labor.
During the fourth decade of colonial rule (c. 1930-1940), [[cotton]] [[tea]] [[coffee]] emerged as important cash crops in Ubangi-Shari and the mining of [[diamond]]s and [[gold]] began in earnest. Several cotton companies were granted purchasing monopolies over large areas of cotton production and were thus able to fix the prices paid to cultivators in order to assure profits for their shareholders. Europeans established coffee plantations and Central Africans also began to cultivate coffee.
The fifth decade of colonial rule (c. 1940-1950) was shaped by the [[World War II|Second World War]] and the political reforms which followed in its wake. In September 1940 pro-Gaullist French officers took control of Ubangi-Shari.
===Independence===
On [[1 December]] [[1958]] the colony of Ubangi-Shari became an autonomous territory within the [[French Community]] and took the name Central African Republic. The founding father and president of the "Conseil de Gouvernement," [[Barthélémy Boganda]], died in a mysterious plane accident in 1959, just eight days before the last elections of the colonial era. On [[13 August]] [[1960]] the Central African gained its independence and two of Boganda's closest aides, [[Abel Goumba]] and [[David Dacko]], became involved in a power struggle. With the backing of the French, Dacko took power and soon had Goumba arrested. By 1962 President Dacko had established a one-party state.
On [[31 December]] [[1965]] Dacko was overthrown by Colonel [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]], who suspended the constitution and dissolved the National Assembly. President Bokassa declared himself President for life in 1972 and had himself named Emperor Bokassa I on [[4 December]] [[1977]]. Bokassa was crowned in a lavish and expensive ceremony that was ridiculed by much of the world. In 1979 France carried out a coup against Bokassa and "restored" Dacko to power. Dacko, in turn, was overthrown in a coup by General [[André Kolingba]] on [[1 September]] [[1981]].
Kolingba suspended the constitution and ruled with a military junta until 1985. He introduced a new constitution in 1986 which was adopted by a nationwide referendum. Membership in his new party, the [[Rassemblement Démocratique Centrafricain]] (RDC) was voluntary. In 1987, semi-competitive elections to parliament were held and municipal elections were held in 1988. Kolingba's two major political opponents, Abel Goumba and [[Ange-Félix Patassé]], boycotted these elections because their parties were not allowed to compete.
By 1990, after the fall of the Berlin Wall, a pro-democracy movement became very active. In [[May 1990]] a letter signed by 253 prominent citizens asked for the convocation of a National Conference but Kolingba refused this request and detained several opponents. Pressure from the United States and, more reluctantly, from France, finally led Kolingba to agree, in principle, to hold free elections in [[October 1992]]. After using the excuse of alleged irregularities to suspend the elections, President Kolingba came under intense pressure from the international community to establish a "Conseil National Politique Provisoire de la République" (Provisional National Political Council) (CNPPR) and to set up a "Mixed Electoral Commission" which included representatives from all political parties.
When elections were finally held in 1993, Ange-Félix Patassé came in first in the first round and Kolingba came in fourth after Abel Goumba and David Dacko. In the second round, Patassé won 52.5 percent of the vote while Goumba won 45.6 percent. Most of Patassé's support came from Gbaya, Kare and Kaba voters in seven heavily-populated prefectures in the northwest while Goumba's support came largely from ten less-populated prefectures in the south and east. Furthermore, Patassé's party, the ''Mouvement pour la Libération du Peuple Centrafricain'' (MLPC) or Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People gained a simple but not an absolute majority of seats in parliament, which meant Patassé needed coalition partners.
Patassé relieved former President Kolingba of his military rank of general in March of 1994 and then charged several former ministers with various crimes. Patassé also removed many [[Yakoma]] from important, lucrative posts in the government. Two hundred mostly Yakoma members of the presidential guard were also dismissed or reassigned to the army. Kolingba's RDC loudly proclaimed that Patassé's government was conducting a "witch hunt" against the Yakoma.
A new constitution was approved on [[28 December]] [[1994]] and promulgated on [[14 January]] [[1995]], but this constitution, like those before it, did not have much impact on the practice of politics. In 1996-1997, three mutinies against Patassé's government was accompanied by widespread destruction of property and heightened ethnic tension. On 25 January 1997, the Bangui Peace Accords were signed which provided for the deployment of an inter-African military |
|Wingspan|| ft in|| 7.70 m
|-
|Height|| ft in|| 3.45 m
|-
|Wing area|| ft&sup2;|| m&sup2;
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Weights
|-
|Empty|| lb|| 5530 kg
|-
|Loaded|| lb|| 7830 kg
|-
|Maximum takeoff|| lb|| 11,500 kg
|-
|Capacity||colspan="2"|
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Powerplant
|-
|Engines||colspan="2"|1 Rolls-Royce Bristol Pegasus 101 turbofan
|-
|Thrust|| 19,000 lbf|| 85 kN
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Performance
|-
|Maximum speed|| mph|| 1185 km/h
|-
|Combat range|| mile|| km
|-
|Ferry range|| miles|| km
|-
|Service ceiling|| ft|| 15,000 m
|-
|Rate of climb|| ft/min|| m/min
|-
|Wing loading|| lb/ft&sup2;|| kg/m&sup2;
|-
|Thrust/weight||colspan="2"|
|-
|Power/mass|| hp/lb|| kW/kg
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Avionics
|-
|Avionics||colspan="2"|
|-
!bgcolor="#87CEEB" colspan="3"|Armament
|-
|Guns||colspan="2"|2 x external 30 mm [[Aden cannon]] pods
|-
|Bombs||colspan="2"| various
|-
|Missiles||colspan="2"| [[Martel (missile)|AS-37 Martel]] or [[AIM-9 Sidewinder|AIM-9D]] guided missiles
|-
|Rockets||colspan="2"|
|-
|Other||colspan="2"|Reconnaissance pod or fuel tanks
|-
|}
''See also [[BAE Sea Harrier]]''
The '''Hawker-Siddeley Harrier''' and the AV-8A are the first generation of the Harrier series, a revolutionary close-support and reconnaissance [[fighter aircraft]] with unique [[STOL|V/STOL]] capabilities. The family is part of a large family of experimental versions and service aircraft, including the much modernized [[Harrier II]].
The Harrier continues to serve today as the [[RAF Harrier II|Harrier GR.Mk 7 and GR.Mk 9]] and [[AV-8B]] which are built by [[BAE Systems]] and [[Boeing]]. The current operational British Harriers (GR.Mk 7 and GR.Mk 9) are license-built versions of the [[McDonnell Douglas]] (now Boeing) version, respectively the AV-8B Harrier II and AV-8B+ Harrier II Plus.
The aircraft is also notable for its complicated history intertwined deeply with United States, Britain, and the Cold War. Key points of involvement include funding from the United States via the [[Mutual Weapons Development Program]] (MWDP) and the nature of the [[AV-16A Advanced Harrier Program]] which led to the Harrier II family.
== Variants ==
===Hawker P.1127===
<!-- THIS SECTION IS A SUMMARY. CONSIDER ADDING MATERIAL TO THE 'Hawker P.1127' ARTICLE.-->
{{main|Hawker P.1127}}
The Harrier family was started with the Hawker P.1127. Design began in 1957 by Sir [[Sidney Camm]], Ralph Hooper of [[Hawker Aviation]] and Stanley Hooker of the [[Bristol Engine Company]]. Rather than using rotors or a direct jet thrust the P.1127 had an innovative [[thrust vectoring|''vectored thrust'']] [[jet engine|turbofan engine]] and the first vertical take-off was on [[October 21]], [[1960]]. Six prototypes were built in total, one of which was lost at an air display.
===Hawker Siddeley Kestrel===
The P.1127 was renamed Kestrel after [[Hawker Siddeley Aviation]] was created. The Kestrel was an evaluation aircraft, and nine were produced, the first flying on [[March 7]], [[1964]]. The Kestrel had fully swept wings and a larger tail than the P.1127, and the fuselage was modified to take the larger 15,000 lbf (85 kN) Pegasus engine.
Due to interest from the US and Germany the Tri-partite Evaluation Squadron was formed, staffed by military test pilots from [[United Kingdom|Britain]], the [[United States|US]] and [[West Germany]]. After testing at [[RAF West Raynham]], the eight surviving evaluation aircraft were transferred to the USA for evaluation by the Army, [[USAF|Air Force]] and Navy (including [[USMC]]) as the [[XV-6A]]. After Tri-Service evaluation they were passed to the USAF for further evaluation at [[Edwards AFB]].
An order for 60 aircraft was received from the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] in 1966, and the first pre-production Harriers were flying by mid-1967.
===Harrier GR.1===
The Harrier GR Mk.1 was the first production model taken from the Kestrel, it first flew on [[December 28]], [[1967]], and entered service with the RAF on [[April 1]], [[1969]]. Construction took place at factories in [[Kingston-upon-Thames]] in southwest London and at Dunsfold, Surrey. The latter adjoined an airfield used for flight testing; both factories have since closed. The ski-jump technique for STOL use by Harriers launched from Royal Navy [[aircraft carrier]]s was tested at the Royal Navy's airfield at Yeovilton, [[Somerset]]. Their flight decks were designed with an upward curve to the bow following the successful conclusion of those tests. The air combat technique of [[vectoring in forward flight]], or viffing, was evolved in the Harrier to outmaneuver a hostile aircraft or other inbound weapon.
===Harrier GR.1A===
The GR.Mk 1A was an upgraded version of the GR.Mk 1, the main difference being the uprated Pegasus Mk 102. 58 GR.Mk 1As entered RAF service, 17 GR.Mk 1As were produced and a further 41 GR.Mk 1s were upgraded.
===Harrier GR.Mk 3===
The Harrier GR.3 featured improved sensors, countermeasures and a further uprated Pegasus Mk 103 and was to be the ultimate development of the 1st generation Harrier. This model saw extended service in the [[Falklands War]]. ''(See Service History bellow)''
== Specification (GR1 data) ==
=== Dimensions ===
*Length: 13.90 m
*Height: 3.45 m
*Span: 7.70 m
=== Power plant ===
1 [[Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls--Royce]] Bristol [[Rolls-Royce Pegasus|Pegasus]] 101 turbofan with four swivelling nozzles, generating 19,000 lb (85 kN) of thrust.
In addition the engine supplied four 'puffer jets' with high pressure air with a total of 1,000 lbf (4 kN) thrust. These were in the nose, the wing tips, and one (steerable) on the tail. These were linked to the control column and gave stability when in vertical flight and the normal control surfaces did not contribute control.
=== Armament ===
There was no internal armament. Two 30-mm [[Aden cannon]] [[Gun pod|pods]] could be fitted under the fuselage sides. There were an additional four underwing and one under-fuselage pylon hard-points to carry various loadouts, including bombs, unguided rocket pods, the Martel or [[AIM-9 Sidewinder|AIM-9D]] guided missiles, reconnaissance pod or fuel tanks
The RAF ordered 118 of the GR Mk.1 to 3 series Harrier. The AV-8A for the [[USMC]] and the Spanish airforce was very similar and 113 craft were ordered.
* '''1st generation Harriers'''
** Hawker P.1127 (1960)
** Hawker Siddeley F(GA).1 Kestrel (1964)
** Hawker Siddeley Harrier GR.Mk 1 (1966)
** Hawker Siddeley Harrier GR.Mk 1/1A (1969)
** Hawker Siddeley Harrier GR.Mk 3/3A
** [[BAE Sea Harrier|British Aerospace Sea Harrier FRS.Mk 1]] (1979)
** [[BAE Sea Harrier|British Aerospace Sea Harrier FRS.Mk 51]] (1983)
** British Aerospace Sea Harrier T.Mk 60
** [[BAE Sea Harrier|British Aerospace Sea Harrier FA.Mk 2]] (1988)
** Hawker Siddeley Harrier T.Mk 2/2A (1970)
** Hawker Siddeley Harrier T.Mk 4/4A
** Hawker Siddeley Harrier T.Mk 4N
** British Aerospace Harrier T.Mk 8 (1994)
** AV-8A Harrier (USMC version, 1970)
** TAV-8A Harrier
** AV-8C Harrier (Upgraded AV-8As for the US Marine Corps)
** AV-8S Matador (for Spain, 1983)
** TAV-8A Matador
* '''2nd generation (Harrier IIs)'''
** [[AV-8 Harrier II|McDonnell Douglas-BAe AV-8B Harrier II]] (1983)
** British Aerospace-McDonnell Douglas Harrier GR.Mk 5/5A (1985)
** British Aerospace-McDonnell Douglas Harrier GR.Mk 7 (1992)
** [[RAF Harrier II|British Aerospace Harrier T.Mk 10]]
** McDonnell Douglas-BAe AV-8B Harrier II Plus (1992)
The later model Harriers are easily distinguished by their extended wingspan, the wings extending beyond the outrigger wheels that are at the wingtips of the earlier versions (including Kestrel prototypes and the Sea Harrier).
==Controls and handling==
While the Harrier is one of the most flexible aircraft ever made, the necessary understanding and skill to pilot it are considerable. In addition to being able to effectively pilot the Harrier in full forward flight mode (above stall speed when it behaves in the manner of a typical fixed-wing aircraft), it is necessary to maintain control during [[VTOL]] and [[STOL]] manouvres when the lift and control surfaces are not functional. This requires skills and understanding more associated with helicopters. Most militaries thus demand great aptitude and extensive training, with prior experience of piloting both types of aircraft. Many only recruit trainee pilots from the most experienced and skilled helicopter pilots in their organisations.
The Harrier has two control elements that a fixed wing aircraft does not normally have. These are the thrust vector and reaction control. The thrust vector is the angle of the four engine nozzles and can be set between zero degrees (horizontal, pointing straight back) and 98 degrees (pointing slightly forwards). The 90 degree position is generally used for VTOL manouvring. Thrust vector is adjusted by a control similar to and beside the thrust lever. The reaction control is achieved by manipulating the control stick and is similar in action to the cyclic control of a helicopter. While irrelevant during forward flight mode, these controls are critical during VTOL and STOL, and have to be precisely manipulated in concert during these manouvres. Wind direction and the orientation of the aircraft to this is also critically-important during VTOL manouvres (in this sense operation is limited compared with a helicopter, which can take off and land in side winds). The Harrier's landing gear configuration also complicates normal landing; it is necessary to ensure that the wing-mounted stabiliser struts contact the runway simultaneously; bounce or skew to one side can result if this is not achieved.
The procedure for VTOL involves parking the aircraft facing into the wind. The aircraft is brought to |
424860 }} Describes the formation of large-scale structures in detail.
* {{cite book | first = John | last = Peacock | title = Cosmological Physics | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 0521422701 }} An introduction with more background on general relativity and quantum field theory than most.
* {{cite book | first = P. J. E. | last = Peebles | title = Principles of Physical Cosmology | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0691019339 }} Peebles' book has a strong historical focus.
* {{cite book | first = P. J. E. | last = Peebles | title = The Large-Scale Structure of the Universe | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1980 | id = ISBN 0691082405 }} The classic work on large scale structure, in particular the discussion of correlation functions.
* {{cite book | first = Martin | last = Rees | title = New Perspectives in Astrophysical Cosmology | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0521645441 }}
* {{cite book | first = Steven | last = Weinberg | title = Gravitation and Cosmology | publisher = John Wiley | year = 1971 | id = ISBN 0471925675 }} An older book, but still a standard reference for a lot of the mathematical formalism.
==External references==
===From groups===
*[http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/cos_home.html]-from the Cambridge University(Public Home Page)
*[http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_uni.html Cosmology 101] - from the [[NASA]] [[WMAP]] group
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/origins/ Origins, Nova Online] - Provided by ''[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]''.
* [http://dhost.info/cosmology/ Cosmology] -- Cosmology Of The Universe.
* [http://cfcp.uchicago.edu/ Center for Cosmological Physics]. [[University of Chicago]], [[Chicago, Illinois]].
* ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':
** [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-64 Cosmic Images]
** [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-66 Cosmology from Antiquity to 1850]
** [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-67 Cosmology since 1850]
*[http://www.shekpvar.net/~dennis/Elib/Astronomicon/Astronomicon/Cosmos/cosmos.html Cosmos - an Illustrated Dimensional Journey from microcosmos to macrocosmos] - from DNA Digital Nature Agency
===From individuals===
* Gale, George, "[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cosmology-30s/ Cosmology: Methodological Debates in the 1930s and 1940s]", ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
* Hoiland, Paul, "''[http://cosmology.bravehost.com/ Modern Cosmology Examined]''"''[http://tprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/archive/00000033/01/MUSINGS_ON_THE_EVOLUTION_OF_A_COSMOS.pdf Musing on the Evolution of a Cosmos]'' Gouldsboro, Maine.
* Jordan, Thomas F., "''[http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0309756 Cosmology calculations almost without general relativity]''". ([[arXiv.org]])
* Madore, Barry F., "''[http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/ Level 5] : A Knowledgebase for Extragalactic Astronomy and Cosmology''". Caltech and Carnegie. Pasadena, California, USA.
* Smith, Tony, "''[http://www.innerx.net/personal/tsmith/cosm.html Cosmology] -- At the Millennium, Experimental Observations tell us a lot about Cosmology''".
* Tyler, Pat, and Phil Newman "''[http://universe.gsfc.nasa.gov/ Beyond Einstein]''". Laboratory for High Energy Astrophysics (LHEA) [[NASA]] [[Goddard Space Flight Center]].
* Wright, Ned. "''[http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/cosmolog.htm Cosmology tutorial and FAQ]''". Division of Astronomy & Astrophysics, UCLA.
{{Astronomy-footer}}
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<page>
<title>Cosmic inflation</title>
<id>5382</id>
<revision>
<id>41426294</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T06:04:57Z</timestamp>
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<username>Guettarda</username>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/149.150.236.250|149.150.236.250]] ([[User talk:149.150.236.250|talk]]) to last version by Curps</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Cosmology}}
'''Cosmic inflation''' is the idea, first proposed by [[Alan Guth]] in 1981, that the nascent [[universe]] passed through a phase of [[exponential growth|exponential expansion]] (the [[inflationary epoch]]) that was driven by a negative pressure [[vacuum]] energy density. This expansion is similar to a [[de Sitter universe]] with positive [[cosmological constant]]. As a direct consequence of this expansion, all of the observable universe originated in a small [[Causality (physics)|causally-connected]] region. [[Quantum fluctuation]]s in this microscopic region, magnified to cosmic size, then became the seeds for the growth of structure in the universe (see [[galaxy formation and evolution]]). The particle responsible for inflation is generally called the ''[[inflaton]]''.
The name of the theory was a semi-humorous reference to the economic [[inflation]] in the [[United States]] in the late 1970s.
==Motivation==
Inflation resolves [[Big Bang#Features, issues and problems|several problems]] in the [[Big Bang]] cosmology that were pointed out in the 1970s. Among these are the observed flatness of the universe (the [[flatness problem]]), its extraordinary homogeneity on large (non-causally-connected) scales (the [[horizon problem]]), and its lack of any observed topological defects (the [[magnetic monopole|monopole problem]]), predicted by many [[Grand unification theory|Grand Unified Theories]]. Predictions of the standard model of inflation include [[shape of the universe|geometrical flatness]] of the universe and near [[scale invariance]] of the [[primordial fluctuations|primordial density fluctuations]] of the universe. These have been confirmed to great accuracy by precision measurements of the [[cosmic microwave background]] (such as those made by the [[WMAP]] satellite) and surveys of the [[large-scale structure of the cosmos|distribution of galaxies]] observed by [[galaxy survey|galaxy surveys]] (such as the [[Sloan Digital Sky Survey]]).
There are also consequences for high-energy [[particle physics]] near or at the [[Grand unification theory|GUT]] scale, as the simplest models of inflation have energies around the GUT scale, at 10<sup>15</sup>[[GeV]]. During the 1980s, there were many attempts to relate the field that generates the vacuum energy to specific fields that were predicted by [[Grand unification theory|Grand Unified Theories]] or to use observations of the universe to constrain those theories. These efforts were largely fruitless and the exact nature of the particle or field that generates the vacuum energy density for inflation (the "inflaton") remains a mystery: inflation is understood principally by its detailed predictions of the [[boundary condition|initial conditions]] for the hot big bang, and the particle physics is largely ''ad hoc'' modelling.
==Mechanism==
The original model of inflation,{{ref|guth}} proposed by [[Alan Guth]], had the universe in a [[false vacuum]]. The universe was in an exactly [[de Sitter universe|de Sitter]] phase. In this model, regions of non-inflating universe are created through the nucleation of bubbles of true vacuum, while the rest of the universe continues inflating. When two such bubbles collide, the vast energy of the bubble walls is converted into the particles seen at the beginning of the big bang. This process is called ''reheating''. Alan Guth has described the inflationary universe as the ultimate "free lunch": new universes, similar to our own, are continuously produced in a vast inflating background. Gravitational interactions, in this case, circumvent the [[arrow of time]] problem (''i.e.'' the [[second law of thermodynamics]]) and [[conservation of energy]].
However, the original model of Guth fails because, in order to guarantee a sufficient amount of inflation to solve the standard problems, the bubble nucleation rate must be too low for bubble walls to collide and for the reheating process to actually work. This is called the "graceful exit problem" and Guth's original model is now called "old inflation." [[Andrei Linde]]{{ref|linde}} and, independently, [[Andreas Albrecht]] and [[Paul Steinhardt]]{{ref|albrechtsteinhardt}} proposed a "new inflation" or "slow-roll inflation" in which the inflaton is modelled by a [[scalar field]] slowly rolling down a flat potential. In this model, the expansion of the universe is only approximately de Sitter, and the [[Hubble parameter]] is actually decreasing: the expansion is slowing. While the spectrum of fluctuations generated in the false vacuum de Sitter universe of old inflation is exactly scale-invariant, new inflation produces only a ''nearly'' scale invariant spectrum.{{ref|bardeen}} This means that information about the potential during inflation can be extracted, in principle, from the cosmic microwave background by measuring the [[spectral index]].
New inflation is generally eternal: that is, the process continues eternally. Although the scalar field is classica |
of Appeal in Ordinary or Lord of Appeal may sit judicially beyond the age of seventy-five. The judicial business of the Lords is supervised by the Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary and his or her deputy, the Second Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary.
The jurisdiction of the House of Lords extends, in civil and in criminal cases, to appeals from the courts of England and Wales, and of Northern Ireland. From Scotland, appeals are possible only in civil cases; Scotland's [[High Court of Justiciary]] is the highest court in criminal matters. The House of Lords is not the United Kingdom's only court of last resort; in some cases, the Privy Council performs such a function. The jurisdiction of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom, however, is narrower than that of the House of Lords; it encompasses appeals from ecclesiastical courts, issues related to [[devolution]], disputes under the [[House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975]], and a few other minor matters.
Not all Law Lords sit to hear cases; rather, since [[World War Two]] cases have been heard by panels known as Appellate Committees, each of which normally consists of five members (selected by the Senior Lord). An Appellate Committee hearing an important case may consist of even more members. Though Appellate Committees meet in separate committee rooms, judgement is given in the Lords Chamber itself. No further appeal lies from the House of Lords unless the matter concerns European Law or the [[European Convention on Human Rights]]. With European law an appeal can be made to the [[European Court of Justice]], with decisions due to its more purposive approach often differing from the House of Lords, who prefer a more literal approach to the legal system. Cases under the European Convention on Human Rights have a right of appeal to the [[European Court of Human Rights]].
A distinct judicial function&mdash;one in which the whole House, rather than just the Law Lords, may participate&mdash;is that of trying [[impeachment]]s. Impeachments are brought by the House of Commons, and are tried in the House of Lords; a conviction requires only a majority of the Lords voting. Impeachments, however, are essentially obsolete; the last impeachment was that of [[Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville]] in [[1806]].
Similarly, the House of Lords was once the court that tried peers charged with high treason or felony. The House would be presided over not by the Lord Chancellor, but by the [[Lord High Steward]], an official especially appointed for the occasion of the trial. If Parliament was not in session, then peers could be tried in a separate court, known as the Lord High Steward's Court. Only peers, their wives, and their unremarried widows were entitled to trials in the House of Lords or the Lord High Steward's Court; the Lords Spiritual were tried in Ecclesiastical Courts. In [[1948]], the right of peers and peeresses to be tried in such special courts was abolished; now, they may be tried in the same courts as others.
The [[Constitutional Reform Act 2005]] will lead to the creation of a separate [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom]], to which the judicial function of the House of Lords, and some of the judicial functions of the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]], would be transferred. In addition, the office of Lord Chancellor will be reformed, to remove his ability to act as both a government minister and a judge. This is motivated in part by concerns that the historical admixture of legislative, judicial, and executive power, may not be in conformance with the requirements of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] (a judicial officer having legislative or executive power not being likely to be considered sufficiently impartial to provide a fair trial), and in any case are considered undesirable according to modern constitutional theory concerning the separation of powers. The new Supreme Court will be located in [[Middlesex Guildhall]].
==Relationship with the Government==
Unlike the House of Commons, the House of Lords does not control the term of the Prime Minister or of the Government. Only the Lower House may force the Prime Minister to resign or call elections by passing a motion of no-confidence or by [[Loss of Supply|withdrawing supply]]. Thus, the House of Lords' oversight of the government is limited.
Most Cabinet ministers are from the House of Commons, rather than the House of Lords. In particular, all Prime Ministers since [[1902]] have been members of the Lower House. ([[Alec Douglas-Home]], who became Prime Minister in [[1963]] whilst still an Earl, disclaimed his peerage and was elected to the Commons soon after his term began.) No major cabinet position (except [[Lord Chancellor]] and [[Leader of the House of Lords]]) has been filled by a peer since [[1982]]. However, the House of Lords does remain a source for junior ministers.
==Current composition==
''Source: [http://www.parliament.uk/directories/house_of_lords_information_office/analysis_by_composition.cfm House of Lord official figures]''
The House of Lords, as of [[January 9]], [[2005]]:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| align="center" rowspan="2" colspan="2"|'''Affiliation'''
| align="center" rowspan="2"|'''Life Peers'''
| align="center" colspan="3"|'''Hereditary Peers'''
| align="center" rowspan="2"|'''Lords Spiritual'''
| align="center" rowspan="2"|'''Total'''
|-
| align="center"|'''Elected by Party''' &dagger;
| align="center"|'''Elected by Whole House'''
| align="center"|'''Royal Office-holders'''
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Labour}}|&nbsp;
| align="center"|[[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]
| align="center"|204
| align="center"|2
| align="center"|2
| align="center"|0
| align="center"|0
| align="center"|'''208'''
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Conservative}}|&nbsp;
| align="center"|[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]
| align="center"|156
| align="center"|40
| align="center"|9
| align="center"|0
| align="center"|0
| align="center"|'''205'''
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Liberal Democrat}}|&nbsp;
| align="center"|[[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]
| align="center"|69
| align="center"|3
| align="center"|2
| align="center"|0
| align="center"|0
| align="center"|'''74'''
|-
| bgcolor="#999999"|&nbsp;
| align="center"|[[Cross-bencher|Cross-benchers]]
| align="center"|161
| align="center"|28
| align="center"|2
| align="center"|2
| align="center"|0
| align="center"|'''193'''
|-
| bgcolor="#999999"|&nbsp;
| align="center"|Other party/<br>Non-affiliated
| align="center"|9
| align="center"|2
| align="center"|0
| align="center"|0
| align="center"|0
| align="center"|'''11'''
|-
| bgcolor="#000000"|&nbsp;
| align="center"|Lords Spiritual
| align="center"|0
| align="center"|0
| align="center"|0
| align="center"|0
| align="center"|26
| align="center"|'''26'''
|-
| align="center" colspan="2"|'''Total'''
| align="center"|'''599'''
| align="center"|'''75'''
| align="center"|'''15'''
| align="center"|'''2'''
| align="center"|'''26'''
| align="center"|'''717'''
|}
''Note: These figures exclude eight peers who are on leave of absence.''
&dagger;The number of hereditary peers "allocated" to each party, which is based on the proportion of hereditary peers that belongs to that party, is:
*Conservative Party: 42 peers
*Labour Party: 2 peers
*Liberal Democrats: 3 peers
*Cross-benchers: 28 peers
Of the initial 42 hereditary peers elected as Conservatives, one ([[Ivan Moore-Brabazon, 3rd Baron Brabazon of Tara|The Lord Brabazon of Tara]]) now sits as a Cross-bencher, having become the House of Lords' ''Chairman of Committees'', and another ([[Leopold Verney, 21st Baron Willoughby de Broke|The Lord Willoughby de Broke]]) now sits as a non-affiliated member.
==See also==
*[[Speakership of the House of Lords]]
*[[Introduction (House of Lords)|Introduction ceremony]]
*[[Members of the House of Lords]]
*[[UK topics]]
*[[Lords Reform]]
==References==
*Carmichael, Paul, Brice Dickson, and Guy Peters. (1999). ''The House of Lords: Its Parliamentary and Judicial Role.'' Oxford: Hart Publishing.
*[http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld/ldcomp/compso.htm Davies, Michael. (2003). ''Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the Proceedings of the House of Lords'', 19th ed. London: HMSO.]
*Farnborough, T. E. May, 1st Baron. (1896). ''Constitutional History of England since the Accession of George the Third'', 11th ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
*[http://www.geocities.com/andynick_98/Lordsessaywn.doc Dakoutros, A N 2003 The future of the House of Lords * A paper discussing possibilities for House of Lords Reform (Word document)]
*Longford, Frank Pakenham, 7th Earl of. (1999). ''A History of the House of Lords.'' New edition. Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing.
*"Parliament" (1911). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.
*Raphael, D. D., Donald Limon, and W. R. McKay. (2004). ''Erskine May: Parliamentary Practice'', 23rd ed. London: Butterworths Tolley.
==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/a-z_of_parliament/ The British Broadcasting Corporation. (2005). "A&ndash;Z of Parliament."]
*[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/lords/ ''The Guardian.' |
ted in the book; the latter is known in the Amber community as an "[[Amethyst]]" game. A third option is to have the players portray [[Corwin (The Chronicles of Amber)|Corwin]]'s children, in an amber-like city built around Corwin's pattern; this is sometimes called an "Argent" game, since one of Corwin's heraldic colours is [[Silver]].
==System==
===Attributes===
Characters in Amber DRPG are represented by four [[attribute (role-playing games)|attributes]]: ''Psyche'', ''Strength'', ''Endurance'' and ''Warfare''.
*'''Psyche''' is used for feats of willpower or magic.
*'''Strength''' is used for feats of strength or unarmed combat.
*'''Endurance''' is used for feats of endurance.
*'''Warfare''' is used for armed combat, from duelling to commanding armies
The attributes run from -25 (normal human level), through -10 (normal level for a denizen of the Courts of Chaos) and 0 (normal level for an inhabitant of Amber), upwards without limit. Scores above 0 are "ranked", with the highest score being ranked 1st, the next-highest 2nd, and so on. The character with 1st rank in each attribute is considered "superior" in that attribute, being considered to be substantially better than the character with 2nd rank even if the difference in scores is small.
====The Attribute Auction====
A character's ability scores are purchased during [[character generation]] in an [[auction]]; players get 100 [[character point]]s, and bid on each attribute in turn. Unlike conventional auctions, bids are non-refundable; if one player bids 65 for psyche and another wins with a bid of 66, then the character with 66 is "superior" to the character with 65 even though there is only one bid difference. After the auction, players can secretly pay extra points to raise their ranks, but they can only pay to raise their scores to an existing rank. Further, a character with a bid-for rank is considered to have a slight advantage over character with a bought-up rank.
====Psyche in Amber DRPG compared to the Chronicles====
Characters with high psyche are presented as having strong [[telepathic]] abilities, being able to [[hypnotise]] and even mind-[[rape]] any character with lesser psyche with whom they can make eye-contact. This is likely due to two scenes in the Chronicles: first, when [[Corwin (The Chronicles of Amber)|Corwin]] faces the demon Strygwalldir, it is able to wrestle mentally with him when their gazes meet; and second, when Fiona is able to keep Brand immobile in the final battle at the Courts of Chaos. However, in general, the books only feature mental battles when there is some reason for mind-to-mind contact (for example, Trump contact) and magic is involved in both the above conflicts, so it is not clear whether Zelazny intended his characters to have such a power when it would have almost certainly assured Brand of victory.
===Powers===
Characters in Amber DRPG have access to the powers seen in the Chronicles of Amber: '''Pattern''', '''Logrus''', '''Shape-shifting''', '''Trump Artistry''', and magic. A character who has walked the pattern can walk in shadow to any possible universe, and while there can manipulate probability. A character who has mastered the Logrus can send out Logrus tendrils and pull themself or objects through shadow. Shape-shifters can alter their physical form, and Trump Artists can create Trumps, a sort of [[tarot]] card which allows mental communication and travel. Three types of magic are detailed: '''Power Words''', with a quick, small effect; '''Sorcery''', with pre-prepared spells as in many other game systems; and '''Conjuration''', the creation of small objects. Each of the first three powers is available in an advanced form.
===Artifacts, Personal shadows and Constructs===
While a character with Pattern, Logrus or Conjuration can acquire virtually any object, players can choose to spend character points to obtain objects with particular virtues - unbreakability, or a mind of their own. Since they have paid points for the items, they are a part of the character, and cannot lightly be destroyed. Similarly, a character can find any possible universe, but they can spend character points to know of or inhabit shadows which are (in some sense) "real" and therefore useful. The expansion, ''Shadow knight'', adds Constructs - artifacts with connections to shadows.
===Stuff===
Unspent character points become '''good stuff''' - a good luck for the character. Players are also allowed to overspend (in moderation), with the points becoming '''bad stuff''' - bad luck which the Gamemaster should inflict on the character. As well as representing luck, stuff can be seen as representing a character's outlook on the universe: characters with good stuff seeing the multiverse as a cheerful place, while characters with bad stuff see it as hostile.
===Conflict resolution===
In any given fair conflict between two characters, the character with the higher score in the relevant attribute will eventually win. The key word here is ''fair'' - if characters' ranks are close, and the weaker character has obtained some advantage, then the weaker character can prevail. This concept has been developed further in [[John Wick]]'s ''Advantage system''. Alternatively, if characters' attribute ranks are close, the weaker character can try to change the relevant attribute by changing the nature of the conflict. For example, if two characters are wrestling the relevant attribute is Strength; a character could reveal a weapon, changing it to Warfare; they could try to overcome the other character's mind using a power, changing it to Psyche; or they could concentrate their strength on defense, changing it to Endurance. This concept is similar to the concept of ''escalation'' in [[Dogs in the Vineyard]]. If there is a substantial difference between characters' ranks, the conflict is generally over before the weaker character can react.
===The Golden Rule===
Amber DRPG advises gamemasters to change rules as they see fit - even to the point of adding or removing powers or attributes.
==Trivia==
The book features Trump portrait of each of the elder Amberites. The trump picture of Corwin is executed in a subtly different style - and has features very similar to Roger Zelazny's.
==References==
* Erick Wujcik ''Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game'' (Phage Press, 1991) ISBN 1880494000
* Erick Wujcik ''Shadow Knight'' (Phage Press, 1993) ISBN 1880494019
* Roger Zelazny ''The Great Book of Amber'' ([[Eos Press]], 1999) ISBN 0380809060
== External links ==
*[http://www.phagepress.com/ Phage Press]'s homepage for the game
*Guardians of Order's [http://www.guardiansorder.com/boards/forumdisplay.php?f=21 Amber DRPG forum] and [http://www.guardiansorder.com/store/amber.php store]
*[http://drivethrurpg.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=1447 Amber DRPG] and [http://drivethrurpg.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=1448 Shadow Knight] as PDF downloads
*[http://calwestray.tripod.com/amber.htm Westray], an Amber DRPG fansite
*[http://www.chorazin.org/gcircle/ The Golden Circle], and Amber [[webring]] with many Amber DRPG sites.
[[Category:The Chronicles of Amber]]
[[Category:Fantasy role-playing games]]
[[Category:Universal role-playing games]]
[[fr:Ambre (jeu de rôle)]]
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<title>Athene</title>
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<title>Alloy</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T09:40:48Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alloy''' is a combination, either in [[solution]] or [[chemical compound|compound]], of two or more [[chemical element|elements]], which has a combination of at least one [[metal]], and where the resultant material has [[metallic]] properties. An alloy with two components is called a binary alloy; one with three is a ternary alloy; one with four is a quaternary alloy. The result is a metallic substance with properties different from those of its components.
Alloys are usually designed to have properties that are more desirable than those of their components. For instance, [[steel]] is stronger than [[iron]], one of its main elements, and [[brass]] is more durable than [[copper]], but more attractive than [[zinc]].
Unlike pure metals, many alloys do not have a single [[melting point]]. Instead, they have a melting range in which the material is a mixture of [[solid]] and [[liquid]] phases. The temperature at which melting begins is called the [[solidus]], and that at which melting is complete is called the [[liquidus]]. Special alloys can be designed with a single melting point, however, and these are called [[eutectic]] mixtures.
Sometimes an alloy is just named for the base metal, as 14 [[Carat (purity)|karat]] (58%) [[gold]] is an alloy of gold with other elements. The same holds for [[silver]] used in [[jewellery]], and [[aluminium]] used structurally.
The term "alloy" is frequently used in everyday speech as an alternative to "aluminium alloy." Many engin |
ased, along with the completed versions of "Good Vibrations" and "Heroes and Villains," on the LP ''[[Smiley Smile]]'', which would prove to be a critical and commercial disaster for the group.
''Smile'' itself, in its original conception, did not surface until Wilson and Parks completed the writing and Brian rerecorded it as a solo project in [[2004]]. However, despite the cancellation of ''Smile'', interest in the work remained high and versions of several major tracks -- including "Our Prayer," "Cabinessence," "Cool, Cool Water," and "Surf's Up" -- were assembled by Carl Wilson over the next few years and included on later albums. The band was expecting to complete and release ''Smile'' even until [[1972]], when it became clear that only Brian would ever be able to make sense out of the endless fragments that were recorded. A substantial number of original tracks and linking fragments were included on the group's 30th anniversary CD boxed set in [[1993]].
==Mid-career brings a change in leadership==
As Wilson became increasingly withdrawn in the late 1960s and 1970s, his brother Carl gradually took over leadership of the band, and developed into an accomplished songwriter and producer. The 1967 album ''[[Wild Honey (album)|Wild Honey]]'' is regarded by many critics as a classic and features a cover of [[Stevie Wonder]]'s "I Was Made to Love Her." ''Wild Honey'' and its hit single "Darlin'" also marked the end of the Beach Boys as a major commercial entity, with subsequent releases faring far less well than those previous. Their image problems were not helped by the criticism that followed their forced withdrawal from the bill of the 1967 [[Monterey Pop Festival|Monterey International Pop Festival]] as a result of Carl's draft problems, an event which would undoubtedly have been crucial in establishing their new sound had they been able to play and to present their new material.
Despite Wilson's deteriorating health, the band continued to work, recording the albums ''Friends'' (1968) and ''20/20'' (1969), featuring lyrics on one song ("Never Learn Not To Love", originally titled "Cease to Exist") by [[Charles Manson]][http://www.snopes.com/risque/tattled/alliwant.asp], before finally breaking with Capitol and signing with [[Reprise Records]]. According to the liner notes for the 2004 version, Reprise expected ''Smile'' to be completed and released as part of the new contract.
Their first two Reprise LPs were ''Sunflower'' ([[1970]]) and [[1971]]'s ''Surf's Up''. The addition of [[Ricky Fataar]] and [[Blondie Chaplin]] in [[1972]] led to the very un-Beach Boys-like ''Carl and the Passions-"So Tough"'', a unique, R&B-flavored LP that was a dramatic departure in sound for the band. The slightly more traditional ''Holland'' of 1973 received mixed reviews. The album's lead single "Sail on Sailor," a brief return to the collaboration between Parks and Wilson, was one of the more emblematic of Beach Boys songs; it hit the charts in both [[1973]] and [[1975]]. Recent statements by Parks on Wilson's message board, however, suggest that the song was not really worked on by Wilson, but rather that Wilson gave him a few chords with a small melody. Parks claims that part of the reason it was so heavily stressed to be a mostly Wilson composition (indeed, Parks had to sue to gain any credits at all) is because Warner Brothers had demanded Wilson return to writing music and to the front of the band-something Wilson was not willing to do.
In the summer of 1974 Capitol, in consultation with Love, released a double album compilation of the Beach Boys' pre-''Pet Sounds'' hits, entitled ''[[Endless Summer (album)|Endless Summer]]''. Helped by a sunny, colorful graphic cover, it caught the mood of the country and surged to #1 on the [[Billboard]] album chart, becoming their first gold record since "Good Vibrations", and stayed on the album chart for three years. [http://www.mp3.com/albums/1194/summary.html] The following year another compilation, ''[[Spirit of America]]'', also did well. These sales performances demonstrated that the classic Beach Boys sound was back in fashion.
In [[1975]], the Beach Boys staged a highly successful joint concert tour with [[Chicago (band)|Chicago]], with each group performing some of the other's songs, including their previous year's collaboration on Chicago's hit "Wishing You Were Here".
In [[1977]] the Beach Boys released the LP ''Love You'', a collection of songs that reflected both Wilson's continuing retreat from the world ("[[Johnny Carson]]," "[[Solar System]]") and his continued introspection ("Airplane," "The Night Was So Young"). "If Mars had life on it/I might find my wife on it" from "Solar System" sums up the oddball preoccupations of ''Love You'', which has since gained the status of a classic within the Beach Boys' oeuvre.
The group and its tours remained popular, even as they came to be viewed primarily as a nostalgia act. Many problems affected their later career, none more so than Wilson's continuing drug and mental health problems. Although he appeared sporadically with them in concert, he contributed little to their performances or recordings. Despite a much-publicised "Brian's Back" campaign in the late '70s, most critics believed the group was past their prime. Many expected that Wilson would one day become the latest in a long line of celebrity drug casualties.
==Deaths of Dennis and Carl Wilson==
In the late 70s Dennis Wilson also began to suffer increasingly from drug and alcohol abuse, and some of the group's concert appearances were marred when he and other band members showed up onstage drunk or drugged. The band was forced to publicly apologise after a shambolic performance in [[Sydney]] in [[1979]] during which several members of the group appeared to be drunk. In spite of his own frequent drinking, Dennis Wilson managed to release his first solo work, ''[[Pacific Ocean Blue]]'', and to launch the now famed work-in-progess ''[[Bamboo]]'', with friend and musician [[Carli Muñoz]].
In [[1980]], the Beach Boys played a [[Fourth of July]] concert on the [[National Mall]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] before a vast crowd. This tradition continued for the next two years, but in [[1983]] [[Secretary of the Interior]] [[James G. Watt|James Watt]] banned the group from playing on the Mall, saying that rock concerts drew "an undesirable element". [http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20040725/news_m1a25timelin.html] This drew howls of outrage from the many of the Beach Boys' American fans, who stated that the Beach Boys sound was a very ''desirable'' part of the American cultural fabric. [[First Lady of the United States|First Lady]] [[Nancy Reagan]] apologized, and in [[1985]] the group appeared on the Mall again. The group most recently appeared on the Mall in [[2005]] for the [[Fourth of July]] concert.
Dennis Wilson's problems had escalated in the early 1980s and he accidentally drowned in late 1983 while diving from his boat as he drunkenly tried to recover items he had previously thrown overboard.
Despite Dennis Wilson's death, The Beach Boys soldiered on, and they enjoyed a resurgence of interest later in the 1980s, assisted by tributes such as the [[David Lee Roth]] version of "California Girls"; they scored their first #1 in 22 years with the [[1988]] song "[[Kokomo (song)|Kokomo]]," which was featured on the soundtrack of the hit [[Tom Cruise]] movie ''[[Cocktail_(movie)|Cocktail]]'' and which became their biggest-selling hit ever. In [[1996]] they guested with [[Status Quo (band)|Status Quo]] on a re-recording of ''[[Fun Fun Fun]]'', which was a British Top 30 hit.
Members of the band appeared on [[sitcom]]s such as ''[[Full House]]'' (starring sometime drummer [[John Stamos]]) and ''[[Home Improvement]]'' in the [[1990s]], as well as touring occasionally, but their declining career contrasted dramatically with the massive public interest and rabid critical praise that followed Brian's gradual return to touring in the 1990s. The critically acclaimed documentary ''[[I Just Wasn't Made For These Times]]'', important in restoring Wilson's reputation, saw him performing for the first time with his now adult daughters, [[Wendy Wilson|Wendy]] and [[Carnie Wilson|Carnie]], and included glowing tributes to his talents from a host of major music stars of the '60s, '70s, and '80s.
Tragedy struck the Wilson family again in 1998 when Carl Wilson died of [[lung cancer]]. Although Love and Johnston continue to tour as The Beach Boys, no other original members accompany them.
==Personnel changes through the years ==
From the start, The Beach Boys have undergone many variations in composition, being represented by fill-ins as often as not. Wilson neighbor [[David Marks]] appeared on their first four albums and was a member from 1962 to 1963 as a temporary replacement for Jardine, who had left the group to pursue a career in dentistry. Marks rejoined the band in 1997, during Carl Wilson's last illness, and remained with them for two years.
[[Glen Campbell]] toured for several months with the group in 1965, as a touring replacement for Brian, who had played bass in concert. Campbell was subsequently replaced by [[Bruce Johnston]], who later became a permanent member. During the mid-1970s drummer [[Ricky Fataar]] and guitarist [[Blondie Chaplin]] joined the band.
Though not official members, The Beach Boys' supporting band has featured many notable musicians over the years. Keyboard player [[Daryl Dragon]], later famous as half of the pop duo [[Captain & Tennille]], toured with the band, along with his future wife [[Toni Tennille]]. [[Carli Muñoz]], who had been playing percussion with the band since 1970, in 197 |
producing [[pea]]-sized black fruit. Although the fruit is similar the plant is not otherwise like the huckleberries. This is the huckleberry of [[Mark Twain]]'s book ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]''.
The [[fruit]] of the various species of plant called huckleberry are generally edible. The berries are small and round, usually less than 5mm in diameter. Berries range in color according to species from bright red, through dark purple, and into the blues. In taste the berries range from tart to sweet, with a flavor similar to that of a [[blueberry]], especially from in blue/purple colored varieties. Huckleberries are the favorite of many animals such as [[bear]]s.
===Environment===
In the [[Pacific Northwest]] of [[North America]] the huckleberry plant can be found in mid-[[alpine]] regions, often on the lower slopes of mountains. The plant grows best in damp soil, and under optimal condition can be as much as 1.5-2 m high. Huckleberries usually ripen in mid to late summer, later at higher elevations.
== See also ==
* [[Huckleberry Finn]]
* [[Huckleberry Hound]]
[[Category:Ericaceae]]
[[Category:fruit]]
{{fruit-stub}}</text>
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<title>Huntingtons disease</title>
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<title>History of Byzantium</title>
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<title>Hamlet</title>
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<comment>/* Sources */ tidyup</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''''The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark''''' is a [[tragedy]] by [[William Shakespeare]] and one of his best-known and most oft-quoted plays. It was written at an uncertain date between [[1600]] and the summer of [[1602]].
''Hamlet'' may be the most frequently produced work in almost every western country, and it is considered a crucial test for mature [[actor]]s. Hamlet's "[[To be, or not to be]]" [[soliloquy]] (Act Three, Scene One), the most popular passage in the play, is so well known that it has become a stumbling-block for many modern actors.
''Hamlet'' is one of the world's most famous literary works, and has been translated into every major living language.
[[Image:Hamlet play scene cropped.png|thumb|right|450px|A detail of the engraving of [[Daniel Maclise]]'s 1842 painting ''The Play-scene in Hamlet'', portraying the moment when the guilt of Claudius is revealed.]]
==Sources==
Shakespeare's play tells the story of the legendary Danish Prince Hamlet, or Amleth (see: [[Hamlet (legend)|the legendary Hamlet]]) whose exploits were recorded by [[Saxo Grammaticus]] in his ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'' around [[1200]] AD; [[François de Belleforest]] adapted Saxo's story in his ''Histoires Tragiques'' ([[1570]]).
Shakespeare's main source, however, is believed to be an earlier play about Hamlet (known as the ''[[Ur-Hamlet]]''), which is attributed to [[Thomas Kyd]] and is known to have introduced a ghost to the story. The 'Ur-''Hamlet''' was never printed, and is now lost. However, it was praised in print in [[Thomas Nashe]]'s preface to [[Robert Greene]]'s ''[[Menaphon]]'' as early as [[1589]]. It made the phrase "Hamlet, revenge!" (which does not appear in Shakespeare's play) famous. While the Ur-''Hamlet'' is usually assumed to have been written by Kyd, it is sometimes suggested that it may have written by Shakespeare himself, and later revised or rewritten into the play as it has been preserved in print.
Shakespeare may also have taken some elements from Kyd's other play, ''[[The Spanish Tragedy]]'', especially the hero's [[procrastination]].
==Texts==
There are three extant texts of ''Hamlet'' from the early [[1600s]]: two quarto editions, and one from the first folio (see [[Folios and Quartos (Shakespeare)|Quarto and Folio]]).
The play first appeared in print in [[1603]] in a version now known as the 'bad Quarto'. This edition follows essentially the same plot as the play we know as ''Hamlet'' but it is much shorter and its language is often very different; for example, where the accepted version reads "To be or not to be, that is the question", the Bad Quarto reads "To be or not to be, aye there's the point". These differences, which usually seem aesthetically weaker than the other versions, have led to the suggestion that the text may have been published without the permission of the playing company, and put together by [[shorthand|stenography]] or by minor actors recalling the lines of others by memory. In particular, the finger has been pointed at the character Marcellus as the likely culprit for the source of the "Bad Quarto" because his scenes and lines are rendered most "accurately" compared to other Quartos and when he is absent from stage the text diverges more. Most modern textual scholars find this theory fanciful, since a minor actor would be unlikely to have memorised the lines of other actors, even inaccurately -- but actors and other theatrical professionals (who often have large portions of plays they work on memorized without even attempting to) would likely dispute this point.
The authorized 'Second Quarto' (Q2) was published in [[1604]], and was described on its title page as "enlarged to almost as much again as it was". This is the longest text of ''Hamlet'' to be published in the period.
The third edition was the version published in the [[First Folio]] of Shakespeare's complete works. This text is shorter but also contains scenes not in Q2.
Modern editions are a compromise between the Second Quarto text and the Folio text. Some conflate the two to produce one very long text. Others assume that the Folio text represents Shakespeare's final intentions and that the cuts were made by him; they therefore present the cut Q2 passages in an appendix.
In the theatre, performing the full, conflated Q2/Folio text takes around 4 hours. Because of this, most productions use a cut text. For example, the [[Royal Shakespeare Company]]'s Artistic Director [[Michael Boyd]] staged Hamlet in the summer of [[2004]] using lines from various Quartos; his text was dubbed the "Boyd Quarto" by newspaper reviewers.
Some theatre companies have experimented with performing the Bad Quarto, which takes only 2 hours. They claim that while it reads badly on the page, in performance it is faster-paced and more direct than the 'official' versions.
==Main characters==
{{spoilers}}
'''[[Hamlet#Hamlet as a character|Prince Hamlet]]''', the title character, is the son of the late [[King Hamlet|King of Denmark]], who was also named Hamlet. He is a student at a school in [[Wittenberg]]. He is charged by the ghost of his father to avenge his murder, which he finally succeeds in doing, but only after the rest of the royal house has been wiped out and he himself has been mortally wounded with a poisoned [[rapier]] by Laertes at the end of the play.
'''[[King Claudius|Claudius]]''' is the current King of Denmark, Hamlet's uncle, who succeeded to the throne upon the death of his brother. The ghost of King Hamlet tells Prince Hamlet that he was murdered by brother Claudius, who poured [[hebenon]] in his ear while he was asleep. Claudius is killed with a poisoned rapier by Hamlet who also forces him to drink the wine which Claudius actually had intended to poison Hamlet with at the end of the play.
'''[[King Hamlet]]''' (referred to in the stage directions as '''Ghost''') was Hamlet's father. At the start of the play, it has not been long since his death. He appears to Hamlet as a [[ghost]] and urges him to avenge him and tells him he himself, King Hamlet was killed by Claudius with a poison emptied into one of his ears by Claudius. Hamlet questions the his contention that the spirit really is the ghost of King Hamlet or whether it is a malicious demon in disguise. He cannot find a definitive answer.
'''[[Gertrude (Hamlet)|Gertrude]]''' is Hamlet's mother. Widowed because of King Hamlet's death, she has quickly been remarried to Claudius, the late king's brother, a relationship considered [[incest]]uous by Hamlet and in Shakespeare's time (although religious authorities could and did grant dispensations for such marriages). She dies by accidentally drinking poisoned wine intended for Hamlet at the end of the play.
'''[[Polonius]]''' is Claudius's chief councillor, who is distrustful of Hamlet's relationship with Ophelia, his own daughter, because she is a social inferior to him. He fears Hamlet will only take her virginity and won't marry her, a situation which would compromise his status at court. So he forbids her from having a relationship with him. Daughters in those days had to obey their fathers no matter what the demand. He is a fatuous bore, and Hamlet frequently teases him while pretending to be mentally unbalanced. He is fatally stabbed by Hamlet, who mistakes him for Claudius, when he hides himself behind an arras while trying to eavesdrop on a conversation between Hamlet and his mother.
'''[[Laertes (character)|Laertes]]''' is Polonius's son, who d |
bers of X. For instance, we could define [[natural number]] as folows: (I) 1 is a natural number. (II) The successor of a natural number is also a natural number, and nothing else is. ("Nothing else is", the closure step, is sometimes considered a separate step.) For this to work well, the definition in any given case must be well-founded, avoiding a circle or an infinite regress. (See the following.)
*A [[circular definition]] is one that assumes a prior understanding of the term being defined. For instance, we can define "oak" as a tree which has catkins and grows from an acorn, and then define "acorn" as the nut produced by an oak tree. To someone not knowing either which trees are oaks or which nuts are acorns, the definition is usually fairly useless. (see [[tautology]])
*A [[stipulative definition]] is the specification of a meaning adopted or assumed specifically for the purposes of argument or discussion in a given context. For example, I might want to explain to you how [[beer]] is made, but not be sure whether [[sake]] is a kind of beer nor how it is made. So I might stipulate at the beginning that ''By 'beer,' I mean only beer brewed from barley.''
*A [[precising definition]] "is a definition that extends the dictionary definition (lexical definition) of a term for a specific purpose by including additional criteria that narrow down the set of things meeting the definition."
*A [[persuasive definition]] "is a type of definition in which a term is defined in such a way as to be an argument for a particular position (as opposed to a lexical definition, which aims to be neutral to all usages), and is deceptive in that it has the surface form of a dictionary definition."
== Determining meaning: extension, intension, ambiguity, and vagueness ==
Just as [[logical argument|argument]]s can be good or bad, definitions can be good or bad. A definition gives us the ''meaning'' of a word. To understand this more deeply requires an elucidation of a few features of meaning, the principal ones being extension, intension, ambiguity, and vagueness.
*An [[ostensive definition]] points out examples by which one gains a sense of the meaning of a word.
*An [[extensional definition]] exhaustively lists every referent of a word (the completion of an ostensive exploration).
*An [[intensional definition]] gives the properties of the referents of the word under investigation, usually allowing a more compact definition than a complete enumeration.
The distinction between the ''[[extension (semantics)|extension]]'' and the ''[[intension]]'' of a word is very similar to the distinction between a word's ''denotation'' and ''connotation''. For example, the extension of the word "bachelor" would be ''all and only the bachelors in the world''. The extension of this word would include several hundreds of millions of men. The ''intension'' of the word is more brief because it includes just two properties: the property of being a ''man'', and the property of being ''unmarried''. Essentially, all bachelors are unmarried men, and ''only'' bachelors are unmarried men.
The sort of definition that philosophers are interested in, insofar as they are interested in ''definitions'' at all, is one that identifies a word's ''intension'', rather than its ''extension''. A definition of the word 'bachelor' is 'unmarried man' which could also be specified by a very long list including all unmarried men. Aside from being practically impossible, such a list is not what is generally desired. What is desired is a description of what all those things we call 'bachelors' have in common that distinguishes them from all non-bachelors. A list of all bachelors would be static, and could not expand to determine whether any new human is a bachelor or not.
There are two different ways in which the meanings of words can be ''unclear''. Words can be unclear in the sense of being ''[[ambiguity|ambiguous]]'', of being ''[[vagueness|vague]]'', or a combination of the two. Most words are, in fact, both ambiguous and vague. This is not a skeptical or even a controversial claim; to say that many, or perhaps even most, words are both ambiguous ''and'' vague is not to say that they have no meaning. It is to say, first, that many individual words have many distinct senses; and, second, that those senses are often, in ordinary language, not meant to be exhaustively precise. A word that is both ambiguous and vague, whose extreme limits are fuzzy and undefined, can still contain a rich fund of meaning.
== A definition of 'definition'==
Suppose we have decided to define a certain word or a concept associated with that word. Suppose also that we have identified ''which sense'' of the word we are interested in, and we have noted clear cases, some unclear cases, and some borderline cases of the application of the word. The question then is: how can this word be defined? What is desired here is a description of the ''intension'' of the word: that is, an account of the set of properties that characterizes all and only members of the extension. In that case, it seems the following is a serviceable account of the meaning of '(intensional) definition':
:The ''definition'' of a [[concept]], or of (a given sense of) a word or phrase, is a [[description]] of its [[intension]]&mdash;that is, the set of [[Property (philosophy)|properties]] that characterizes all and only members of the [[extension (semantics)|extension]] of the word; the extension is all the things that the concept, word, or phrase applies to.
Some philosophers have criticisms of this sort of definition of the word ''definition''; or perhaps it would be better to say that some philosophers think that it is, for various reasons, impossible to give exhaustively exact definitions of most concepts, words, and phrases. Two prominent critics are [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]] and [[W. V. Quine|Quine]]. Still most philosophers acknowledge that in philosophy something similar to giving definitions of important philosophical concepts is necessary.
== ''A contribution to defining the term 'definition''' ==
Minimum Intent: The following definition of the term 'definition' is presented as a reference, (a comparator, a norm) that must not be violated when defining scientific terms.
Axioms:
1) ‘Something’ is a term that has a most general meaning, it can mean anything (but it does not automatically include ‘everything’).
2) 'Ambient' is anything in the vicinity of, and, to a certain degree, within something.
3) ‘Event’ is something that can be distinguished from its ambient.
4) ‘Relation’ is something that has, at least, two events.
5) ‘System’ is something that has at least two relations.
6) ‘Phenomenon’ is a generic term (hypernym) for the above terms, providing that one or several of human senses indicate (directly or indirectly, presently or in the past) the existence of a so-termed system, relation, event, ambient, or something else.
7) All other terms used within this theorem - apart from the term “definition” and the terms listed in inverted commas under 1) to 6) above - are already intrinsically known; the understanding of each of these terms is consistent with this treatise.
Theorem:
"Definition" is a fixed, static form (a model; an appearance of something as distinguished from the substance of which it is made; something autonomous from its own representation) of some relation(s) that significantly increases the probability of realisation of an intended (premeditated) change of some phenomenon. Such a change is to be achieved by an entity that is capable of utilising this definition for such a specified purpose. A definition cannot be generated, or used, without the existence of a system, which is organised and structured above a certain level of chaos. However, once it is generated and recorded, a definition can continue to exist (to be recorded) without the existence of the mentioned entity. A definition should be complemented with a minimum intent statement: a context that delimits a minimum domain of purposes for which it can be used. This statement does not exclude the possibility of using the same definition correctly for some other purpose. However, this extended use must not violate (contradict) an already established meaning; e.g. it must not cause synonymy or homonymy.
In addition, a definition must be complemented with axioms, with one or more examples, and, when needed and possible, with figures and animated representations.
Definitions are the bits necessary to construct and communicate knowledge. A definition is built up of structural components: pieces of information. Information is conveyed by means of signals of various kinds; the most frequently used include figures and terms. Although terms can be transferred by means of figures, they can also be transferred by means of sounds which are registered by the hearing senses. It is worth noting that information media can be mutually translated, e.g. visual info can be translated into information received by tactile or hearing senses. A history of the media used to record information reveals a variety of options. Alphabetic writing (in which consonant and vowel sounds are presented by letters or other symbols such as Braille characters and Morse code) is the most widespread system, but it is not the earliest, nor is it the only one. Writing has evolved from an extension of pictures that iconically represented some thing or action and then the word that bore that meaning. This approach led to so-called character script, such as that of Chinese, in which each word is represented by a separate symbol.
Contemporary definitions rely heavily on textual formulations, but figures are also very efficient at conveying comprehensive information; many sciences (e.g. mathematics, chemistry) have accepted ideograms to convey sophisticate |
nn Jakob Kaup|Kaup]], 1829
| species = '''''A. lagopus'''''
| binomial = ''Alopex lagopus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])
}}
The '''Arctic Fox''' (''Alopex lagopus'' or ''Vulpes lagopus'') is a small [[fox]] native to cold [[Arctic]] regions of the [[Northern Hemisphere]]. It is common to see an arctic fox in all three tundra biomes. Although some authorities have suggested placing them in the [[genus]] ''[[Vulpes]]'', they have long been considered the sole member of the genus ''Alopex''. Smaller, more rounded ears than red fox; braincase more rounded and muzzle slightly shorter and broader than Vulpes vulpes (Clutton-Brock et al. 1976). Occurs in two distinct colour morphs, "blue" and "white". Each colour phase also changes seasonally "blue" moults from chocolate brown in summer to lighter brown tinged with blue sheen in winter. In winter, "white" is almost pure white, while in summer it is grey to brownish-grey dorsally, and light grey to white below. Colour morphs are determined genetically at a single locus, white being recessive. The "blue" morph comprises less than 1% of the population through most of its continental range, but this proportion increases westwards in Alaska, and on islands. Head-and-body length: 55 cm (male); 53 cm (female). Tail length: 31 cm (male); 3O cm (female). Shoulder height: 25-30 cm. Weight: 3.8 kg (male); 3.1 kg (female)
==Habits==
[[Image:Arcticfox-3.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Arctic Fox at Bird cliff]]
Arctic Foxes eat a wide variety of things, including [[lemming]]s, [[Arctic Hare]], [[bird]]s and their [[egg (biology)|egg]]s and [[carrions]]. The most important of these foods is lemming. A family of foxes can eat dozens of lemmings each day. During April and May, Arctic Foxes also prey on [[Ringed Seal]] pups when the young animals are confined to a snow den and are relatively helpless.Sometimes they follow polar bears and eat the left over prey. When their normal prey is scarce, Arctic Foxes scavenge the leftovers of larger predators, such as [[Polar Bear]]s, even though Polar Bears' prey includes the Arctic Fox itself.
The foxes tend to form [[monogamy|monogamous]] pairs in the breeding season. Litters of about half a dozen to a dozen [[whelp]]s are born in the early summer, a very large litter size for [[mammal]]s. The parents raise the young in a large [[den]].
Arctic foxes habitats are tundra and coastal areas. The white morph is generally associated with true tundra habitat, the blue more with coastal habitat.
==Population and distribution==
[[Image:Distribution arctic fox.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Distribution of the Arctic Fox]]
[[Image:Arctic fox.jpg|thumb|200px|left|An Arctic Fox]]
Arctic Foxes have a [[circumpolar]] range, meaning that they are found throughout the entire Arctic, including [[Russia]], [[Canada]], [[Nunavut]], [[Alaska]], [[Greenland]] and [[Svalbard]], as well as in sub-Arctic and alpine areas, such as [[Iceland]] and mainland alpine [[Scandinavia]]. The conservation status of the species is good, except for the Scandinavian mainland population. It is acutely endangered, despite decades of legal protection from hunting and persecution. The total population estimate in Norway, Sweden and Finland is a mere 120 adult individuals.
The abundance of Arctic Foxes tends to fluctuate in a cycle along with the population of lemmings. Because the foxes reproduce very quickly and often die young, population levels are not seriously impacted by [[trapping]]. They have, nonetheless, been eradicated from many areas where humans are settled.
The Arctic Fox is losing ground to the larger [[Red Fox]]. Historically, the [[Grey Wolf]] has kept the number of Red Foxes down, but as wolves have been hunted to near [[extinction]], the Red Fox population has grown larger, taking over the niche of top predator. In areas of northern [[Europe]] there are programs to hunt Red Foxes in the Arctic Fox's previous range.
{{Commons|Alopex lagopus}}
[[Category:Arctic land animals]]
[[Category:Foxes]]
[[bg:Полярна лисица]]
[[da:Polarræv]]
[[de:Polarfuchs]]
[[es:Alopex lagopus]]
[[eo:Arkta vulpo]]
[[fr:Renard polaire]]
[[he:שועל שלג]]
[[lt:Poliarinė lapė]]
[[nl:Poolvos]]
[[no:Fjellrev]]
[[nn:Fjellrev]]
[[pl:Lis polarny]]
[[pt:Raposa-do-ártico]]
[[ru:Песец]]
[[sl:Polarna lisica]]
[[fi:Naali]]
[[sv:Fjällräv]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anglo-Saxon</title>
<id>2209</id>
<revision>
<id>15900641</id>
<timestamp>2004-06-09T12:05:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>G-Man</username>
<id>8272</id>
</contributor>
<comment>REDIRECT [[Anglo-Saxons]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anglo-Saxons]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Folklore of the United States</title>
<id>2210</id>
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<id>41749619</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:47:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
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<minor />
<comment>removing link [[Myth]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Usculture}}
The '''folklore of the United States''', or '''American folklore''', is the folk tradition which has evolved on the [[North America|North American]] continent since [[Europe|Europeans]] arrived in the [[16th century]]. While it contains much in the way of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tradition, it should not be confused with the actual tribal beliefs of any real band, nation or community of native people. American folklore, rather, is a fusion of European ideals of "civilization" with a European obsession with the "exotic" and the "savage." American folklore is essentially about immigrants and their misunderstanding of each other, and of the new landscape they found themselves conquering, and of the people that had already been there when the first European colonists arrived.
== Founding Myths ==
The founding of the [[United States]] is often translated as myth. A [[mythology]] is simply a story of some sort which has emotional, cultural, moral or ethical value to a nation. Taken broadly, then, American mythology can include any narrative which has contributed to the shaping of [[American values]] and belief systems. These narratives may be true and may be false; the veracity of the stories is not a determining factor. Three founding myths include: Christopher Columbus, the Pilgrims, and George Washington.
=== Christopher Columbus ===
Though [[Christopher Columbus]] did not participate in the founding of the American government, he has been interpreted as a "founder" of the American nation, in that it is descended from the [[Europe]]an immigrants that would not have moved to the New World if Columbus had not found where it was. Indeed, one particularly pervasive myth is that Columbus discovered America, as it is far easier to heroify a man than a complex series of waves of immigrants from multiple conditions and walks of life. According to some stories, Columbus sailed across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in order to prove that the world was round, because he expected to reach the Far East by sailing west. Like most mythological "founders" Columbus' mission is then rendered entirely noble, intellectual and rational. He helped dispel the inaccurate myths of his time, and, so, it is concluded, the nation he founded must be a nation of intellect and logic. [[Washington Irving]] is the first citation for this myth.
=== Pilgrims ===
The holiday of [[Thanksgiving]] is said to have begun with the [[Pilgrims]] in [[1619]]. They had come to America to escape religious persecution, but then nearly starved to death due to the unfamiliar land. Some friendly [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s (including [[Squanto]]) helped the Pilgrims survive through the first winter. The perseverance of the Pilgrims is celebrated during the annual Thanksgiving festival. As a myth, this story relates to the founding of the culture. The Pilgrims' dedication to their cause in spite of the hardships renders the foundation of the country, and therefore the country itself, seem stronger and more resilient. It is also a fertility festival, similar in some ways to other harvest-time celebrations in other cultures, celebrating the nourishment that comes from the earth. It was also said that the Pilgrims were the first colony in the New World, but before that, there were some [[France|French]] and [[Spain|Spanish]] colonies, as well as other [[England|English]] colonies. Some English colonies in America that predated Plymouth Rock include [[Roanoke settlement]], which was later overtaken by or integrated with [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribes, and the [[Jamestown Settlement]], which was successful and predated the Pilgrims' settlement by 20 years.
=== George Washington ===
[[George Washington]], the country's first president, is often said to be the founder of the United States. Since his death, Washington has been mythologized, with many anecdotes and stories about his life told, in general, to present the founder of the modern American nation as a just and wise [[culture hero|cultural hero]]. For example, it is said that Washington, as a young child, chopped down his father's cherry tree. His angry father confronted the young Washington, who proclaimed "I can not tell a lie" and admitted to the transgression, thus illuminating his honesty. Parson [[Mason Locke Weems]] is the first citation of the myth, in his [[1850]] book, ''The Life of George Washington: With Curious Anecdotes, Equally Honorable to Himself and Exemplary to His Young Countrymen''. [[Samuel Clemens]] (Mark Twain) is also known to ha |
intained throughout the [[Anglophone|English speaking]] world among the [[Irish diaspora]] and there are active Irish language groups in [[North America]]n, [[Britain|British]] and [[Australia]]n cities.
Several computer software products have the option of an Irish-language interface. Prominent examples include [[Mozilla Firefox]][http://gaeilge.mozdev.org/], [[Mozilla Thunderbird]][http://gaeilge.mozdev.org/], [[OpenOffice.org]][http://ga.openoffice.org/], and Microsoft [[Windows XP]][http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?FamilyID=0db2e8f9-79c4-4625-a07a-0cc1b341be7c&displaylang=ga].
==Irish in education==
The Irish language is a compulsory subject in government funded schools in the Republic of Ireland and has been so since the early days of the state. While many students learn Irish well through the Irish school system, and develop a healthy respect for it, many other students find it difficult are taught it poorly by unmotivated teachers; these students' attitudes toward Irish tend to range from apathy to hostility.
All things being equal, for English-speakers, Irish is more difficult than Spanish or German. Irish syntax, morphology, and vocabulary are a good deal more different to English than many other European languages are; this makes learning it challenging for many. The Irish Government has endeavoured to address the situation by revamping the curriculum at primary school level to focus on spoken Irish. However, at secondary school level, it can easily be argued that Irish is still taught "academically". Students must write lengthy essays, debates, and stories in Irish in the Leaving Certificate exam.
Recently the abolition of compulsory Irish has been discussed and while some Irish people favour such a move, many do not. In 2005 [[Enda Kenny]], leader of Ireland's main opposition party, [[Fine Gael]], called for the language to be made an optional subject in the last two years of secondary school. This call drew widespread criticism from many quarters although some, such as the [[Reform Movement (Ireland)|Reform Movement]], have supported his call. Mr Kenny, despite being a fluent speaker himself, stated that he believed that compulsory Irish has done the language more harm than good.
A relatively recent development is the proliferation of [[gaelscoil]]eanna, i.e. schools in which Irish is the medium of education. By September 2005 there were 158 gaelscoileanna at primary level and 36 at secondary level in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland together (excluding the Gaeltacht, whose schools are not considered gaelscoileanna), which amounted to approximately 31,000 students. This has grown from a total of less than 20 in the early 1970's and there are 15 more being planned at present. With the opening of Gaelscoil Liatroma in [[County Leitrim]] in 2005 there is now at least one gaelscoil in each of the 32 [[counties of Ireland|traditional counties of Ireland]].
==Language Reformism==
Calls for the simplification of the Irish language have been made by a few sources, most notably the [http://www.teanganua.pro.ie An Teanga Nua] website, to fierce opposition from online sources (such as [http://www.Daltai.com Daltai.com] who themselves are fluent in the language.
The reform advocated by this website is pretty radical, and not outlined in great detail online as of yet.
==Notes==
<sup>1</sup>Article in the Irish Independent.
<sup>2</sup> J.P.Mallory ''Two Perspectives on the Problem of Irish Origins'' Emania 9(1991)53, at 58: "The lexical evidence of the Irish language suggests that it was introduced into Ireland most plausibly after c.1200 BC and any attempt to set the arrival of the Irish before this date becomes increasingly difficult to sustain ... I find it difficult to imagine it as anything other than a language introduced by a population movement rather than a ''lingua franca'' or pidgin carried along trade routes ..."
==See also==
* [[Differences between Scottish Gaelic and Irish]]
* [[Irish initial mutations]]
* [[Irish name]]
* [[Irish morphology]]
* [[Irish orthography]]
* [[Irish phonology]]
* [[Irish syntax]]
* [[Irish words used in the English language]]
* [[Modern literature in Irish]]
* [[Place names in Irish]]
* [[List of Irish given names]]
* [[Common phrases in different languages]]
* [[Non-native pronunciations of English]]
* [[List of Ireland-related topics]]
* [[Céad míle fáilte]]
* [[Newfoundland Irish]]
* [[Language Freedom Movement]]
== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=ga}}
{{Wikibookspar||Irish}}
*[http://wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page:Gaeilge Irish main page at Wikisource]
*{{de icon}}''[http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Die_araner_mundart Die araner mundart]'' (a phonological description of the dialect of the [[Aran Islands]], from 1899)
*[http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/gaeilge/gaeilge.html Gaeilge ar an ghréasán Irish online recources]
*[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/r.a.mccartney/baile_nua/main.html A Plan to save the Irish Language - includes background info from authoritative sources]
*[http://www.bnag.ie Foras na Gaeilge]
*[http://www.foinse.ie Foinse - weekly newspaper]
*[http://www.daltai.com Irish Language Information and Resources]
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=gle Irish] at [[Ethnologue]]
*[http://www.ceantar.org/Dicts/search.html Gaelic Dictionaries]
*[http://nualeargais.ie/gnag/gram.htm Braesicke's Gramadach na Gaeilge (Engl. translation)]
*[http://www.naaclt.org/ North American Association for Celtic Language Teachers]
*[http://www.celticleague.org/ The Celtic League, American Branch (CLAB)]
*[http://www.celtdigital.org/ Celt Digital, The Celtic World on the Web]
*[http://www.irishhamilton.ca/ Irish Hamilton]
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Irish-english/ Irish English Dictionary] from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
*[http://www.celtic-tigers.com Irish language for children in SE Asia]
*[http://www.gaelscoileanna.ie]
===Northern Ireland===
* [http://www.cinni.org/ultach/ Ultach Trust]
* [http://www.nuacht.com Lá]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/irish/ BBC Northern Ireland Irish language]
[[Category:Irish language| ]]
[[af:Iers-Gaelies]]
[[ar:لغة ايرلندية]]
[[ast:Irlandés]]
[[bg:Ирландски език]]
[[br:Iwerzhoneg]]
[[ca:Gaèlic irlandès]]
[[cs:Irština]]
[[cy:Gwyddeleg]]
[[da:Irsk (sprog)]]
[[de:Irische Sprache]]
[[es:Idioma irlandés]]
[[eo:Irlanda lingvo]]
[[eu:Gaeliko]]
[[fr:Irlandais]]
[[ga:Gaeilge]]
[[gd:Gaeilge]]
[[ko:아일랜드어]]
[[id:Bahasa Irlandia]]
[[is:Írska]]
[[it:Lingua irlandese]]
[[he:אירית]]
[[kw:Iwerdhonek]]
[[la:Lingua Hibernica]]
[[li:Iers]]
[[hu:Ír nyelv]]
[[nl:Iers-Gaelisch]]
[[ja:アイルランド語]]
[[no:Irsk gælisk]]
[[nn:Irsk gælisk språk]]
[[oc:Irlandés]]
[[pl:Język irlandzki]]
[[pt:Língua irlandesa]]
[[ro:Limba irlandeză]]
[[rm:Lingua irlandesa]]
[[ru:Ирландский язык]]
[[se:Iirragiella]]
[[simple:Irish]]
[[sl:Irska gelščina]]
[[fi:Iiri]]
[[sv:Iriska]]
[[zh:愛爾蘭語]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Icelandic (language)</title>
<id>15106</id>
<revision>
<id>15912613</id>
<timestamp>2003-07-22T22:13:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.144.24.9</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting page to new (more conventional) name</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[icelandic language]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Internet Control Message Protocol</title>
<id>15107</id>
<revision>
<id>41011427</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T13:42:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: tr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{IPstack}}
<!-- Edit the stack image at: Template:IPstack -->
The '''Internet Control Message Protocol''' ('''ICMP''') is one of the core protocols of the [[Internet protocol suite]]. It is chiefly used by networked computers' [[operating system]]s to send error messages&mdash;indicating, for instance, that a requested service is not available or that a host or router could not be reached.
ICMP differs in purpose from [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] and [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]] in that it is usually ''not'' used directly by user network applications. One exception is the [[ping]] tool, which sends ICMP Echo Request messages (and receives Echo Response messages) to determine whether a host is reachable and how long packets take to get to and from that host.
== Technical Details==
The '''Internet Control Message Protocol''' ('''ICMP''') is part of the [[Internet protocol suite]] as defined in RFC 792. ICMP messages are typically generated in response to errors in [[Internet Protocol|IP]] [[datagram]]s (as specified in RFC 1122) or for diagnostic or routing purposes.
The version of ICMP for [[IPv4|Internet Protocol version 4]] is also known as '''ICMPv4''', as it is part of IPv4. [[IPv6]] has an equivalent protocol.
ICMP messages are constructed at the IP layer, usually from a normal IP datagram which has generated an ICMP response. IP encapsulates the appropriate ICMP message with a new IP header (to get the ICMP message back to the original sending host), and transmits the resulting datagram in the usual manner.
For example, every machine (such as intermediate [[router]]s) that forwards an IP datagram has to decrement the [[time to live]] (TTL) field of the IP header by one; if the TTL reaches 0, an ICMP [[ICMP_Time_Exceeded|Time to live exceeded in transit]] message is sent to the source of the datagram.
Each ICMP message is encapsulated directly within a single IP datagram, and thus, like [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]], ICMP does not guarantee delivery.
Although ICMP messages are contained within standard IP datagrams, ICMP messages are usually processed as a special case distinguished from normal |
id>15496</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:33:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ChrisTheDude</username>
<id>625916</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Teams 2005-06 */ slight re-wording</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Serie A''' is the top division of the [[Italian Football League]], the highest [[football (soccer)|football]] league in [[Italy]]. Italian mobile phone company [[Telecom Italia Mobile|TIM]] is the main sponsor, so the official name is Serie A TIM. The division consists of 20 clubs from the [[2004]]-[[2005|05]] season, with each team competing against each other team twice, round-robin style, for a total of 38 matches per season. The bottom three clubs in the league table are [[relegation|relegated]] to [[Serie B]]. The top two clubs from Serie B are promoted automatically, while the third- through sixth-place clubs enter a promotion playoff for the final place in Serie A. The promotion playoff, similar to that used for years in [[England]]'s [[The Football League|Football League]], was first employed in 2004-05.
Serie A, as it is structured today, began in [[1929]]. From [[1898]] to 1929 the competition was organised into regional groups. No title was awarded in [[1927]] after [[Torino Calcio|Torino]] were stripped of the championship by the [[Italian Football Federation]] (FIGC). Torino were declared champions in the [[1948]]-[[1949|49]] season following [[Superga air disaster|a plane crash]] near the end of the season in which the entire team was killed.
The Serie A Championship title is often referred to as the '''Scudetto''' (small shield) because the winning team will bear a small coat of arms with the [[flag of Italy|Italian tricolour]] on their uniform in the following season. The most successful league club is [[Juventus]] with 28 championships, followed by [[A.C. Milan]] (17), [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]] (13) and [[Genoa 1893|Genoa C&FC]] (9). For every ten titles won, clubs are allowed to wear a golden star above their club badge; so Juventus has two stars, while Milan and Internazionale have one star each.
==Teams 2005-06==
Twenty clubs compete in Serie A in the 2005-06 season. The first two teams qualify for the [[UEFA Champions League]] automatically, while the third and fourth enter the qualifying rounds. The fifth and sixth teams, as well as the winner of the [[Coppa Italia]], enter the [[UEFA Cup]]. For the season 2005-06, the Italian teams playing Champions League are Juventus, Milan, Internazionale, and Udinese – the last two entered through qualification matches; Sampdoria, Palermo and Roma (as runner-up in Coppa Italia) will play in the UEFA Cup.
*'''[[Ascoli Calcio 1898]]''' ([[Ascoli Piceno]])
*'''[[Cagliari Calcio]]''' ([[Cagliari]])
*'''[[A.C. ChievoVerona]]''' ([[Verona]])
*'''[[Empoli F.C.]]''' ([[Empoli]])
*'''[[ACF Fiorentina]]''' ([[Florence]])
*'''[[Internazionale Milano F.C.]]''' ([[Milan]])
*'''[[Juventus F.C.]]''' ([[Turin]])
*'''[[S.S. Lazio]]''' ([[Rome]])
*'''[[U.S. Lecce]]''' ([[Lecce]])
*'''[[A.S. Livorno Calcio]]''' ([[Livorno]])
*'''[[F.C. Messina Peloro]]''' ([[Messina]])
*'''[[A.C. Milan]]''' ([[Milan]])
*'''[[U.S. Città di Palermo]]''' ([[Palermo]])
*'''[[Parma F.C.]]''' ([[Parma]])
*'''[[Reggina Calcio]]''' ([[Reggio Calabria]])
*'''[[A.S. Roma]]''' ([[Rome]])
*'''[[U.C. Sampdoria]]''' ([[Genoa]])
*'''[[A.C. Siena]]''' ([[Siena]])
*'''[[Treviso F.B.C. 1993]]''' ([[Treviso]])
*'''[[Udinese Calcio]]''' ([[Udine]])
==Champions==
{|
|valign="top"|
* 1898 - [[Genoa Cricket & Football Club|Genoa Cricket & Athletic Club]]
* 1899 - Genoa Cricket & Athletic Club
* 1900 - [[Genoa Cricket & Football Club]]
* 1901 - [[A.C. Milan|Milan Cricket & FC]]
* 1902 - Genoa C&FC
* 1903 - Genoa C&FC
* 1904 - Genoa C&FC
* 1905 - [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus FC]]
* 1906 - [[A.C. Milan|Milan FC]]
* 1907 - Milan FC
* 1908 - [[U.S. Pro Vercelli Calcio|Pro Vercelli]]
* 1909 - Pro Vercelli
* 1910 - [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]]
* 1911 - Pro Vercelli
* 1912 - Pro Vercelli
* 1913 - Pro Vercelli
* 1914 - [[A.S. Casale Calcio|Casale]]
* 1915 - Genoa C&FC (title awarded by the FIGC)
* 1916-19 - ''league suspended due to [[World War I]]''
* 1920 - Internazionale
* 1921 - Pro Vercelli
* 1922 - ''CCI:'' Pro Vercelli; ''FIGC:'' [[U.S. Novese|US Novese]]
* 1923 - Genoa C&FC
* 1924 - Genoa C&FC
* 1925 - [[Bologna F.C. 1909|Bologna FC]]
* 1926 - Juventus FC
* 1927 - [[Torino F.C.|FC Torino]] (removed by the FIGC)
* 1928 - FC Torino
* 1929 - Bologna
* 1929-30 - [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Ambrosiana SS]]
* 1930-31 - Juventus FC
* 1931-32 - Juventus FC
* 1932-33 - Juventus FC
* 1933-34 - Juventus FC
* 1934-35 - Juventus FC
* 1935-36 - Bologna
* 1936-37 - Bologna
* 1937-38 - [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Ambrosiana-Internazionale]]
* 1938-39 - Bologna
* 1939-40 - Ambrosiana-Internazionale
* 1940-41 - Bologna
* 1941-42 - [[A.S. Roma|AS Roma]]
* 1942-43 - Torino
* 1944-45 - ''league suspended due to [[World War II]]''
* 1945-46 - Torino
* 1946-47 - Torino
* 1947-48 - Torino
* 1948-49 - Torino
* 1949-50 - Juventus FC
* 1950-51 - [[A.C. Milan|AC Milan]]
* 1951-52 - Juventus FC
* 1952-53 - Internazionale
|width="50"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
* 1953-54 - Internazionale
* 1954-55 - AC Milan
* 1955-56 - [[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]]
* 1956-57 - AC Milan
* 1957-58 - Juventus FC
* 1958-59 - AC Milan
* 1959-60 - Juventus FC
* 1960-61 - Juventus FC
* 1961-62 - AC Milan
* 1962-63 - Internazionale
* 1963-64 - Bologna
* 1964-65 - Internazionale
* 1965-66 - Internazionale
* 1966-67 - Juventus FC
* 1967-68 - AC Milan
* 1968-69 - Fiorentina
* 1969-70 - [[Cagliari Calcio|Cagliari]]
* 1970-71 - Internazionale
* 1971-72 - Juventus FC
* 1972-73 - Juventus FC
* 1973-74 - [[SS Lazio]]
* 1974-75 - Juventus FC
* 1975-76 - Torino
* 1976-77 - Juventus FC
* 1977-78 - Juventus FC
* 1978-79 - AC Milan
* 1979-80 - Internazionale
* 1980-81 - Juventus FC
* 1981-82 - Juventus FC
* 1982-83 - [[A.S. Roma|AS Roma]]
* 1983-84 - Juventus FC
* 1984-85 - [[Hellas Verona F.C.|Hellas Verona]]
* 1985-86 - Juventus FC
* 1986-87 - [[Napoli Soccer|SSC Napoli]]
* 1987-88 - AC Milan
* 1988-89 - Internazionale
* 1989-90 - SSC Napoli
* 1990-91 - [[U.C. Sampdoria|UC Sampdoria]]
* 1991-92 - AC Milan
* 1992-93 - AC Milan
* 1993-94 - AC Milan
* 1994-95 - Juventus FC
* 1995-96 - AC Milan
* 1996-97 - Juventus FC
* 1997-98 - Juventus FC
* 1998-99 - AC Milan
* 1999-2000 - SS Lazio
* 2000-01 - AS Roma
* 2001-02 - Juventus FC
* 2002-03 - Juventus FC
* [[Serie A 2003-04|2003-04]] - AC Milan
* [[Serie A 2004-05|2004-05]] - Juventus FC
|width="50"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
|}
{|
|valign="top"|
# ''28'' - {{Fc|Juventus}}
# ''17'' - [[A.C. Milan]]
# ''13'' - [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]]
# ''9'' - [[Genoa Cricket & Football Club|Genoa 1893]]
# ''7'' - [[Bologna F.C. 1909|Bologna]], {{Fc|Torino}}, [[Pro Vercelli]]
# ''3'' - [[A.S. Roma]]
# ''2'' - [[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]], [[S.S. Lazio|Lazio]], [[SSC Napoli]]
# ''1'' - [[A.S. Casale Calcio|Casale]], [[U.S. Novese|Novese]], [[Cagliari Calcio|Cagliari]], {{Fc|Hellas Verona}}, [[U.C. Sampdoria|UC Sampdoria]]
|width="50"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
|}
<gallery>
Image:Totti-a.s.Roma-celebration.jpg|2000-01. Transfer on a [[Rome|Roman]] house to celebrate [[Francesco Totti|Totti]] and [[A.S. Roma]]'s third ''scudetto''.
Image:Milano Scudetto Milan 1.jpg|2003-04. Celebrations in [[Milan]] for the 17<sup>th</sup> ''scudetto'' of [[A.C. Milan]].
</gallery>
==Records==
===Top Scorers by seasons===
{|
|valign="top"|
* 1946/47 - 29 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Valentino Mazzola]] ([[Torino Calcio|Torino]])
* 1947/48 - 27 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giampiero Boniperti]] ([[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]])
* 1948/49 - 26 goals {{flagicon|France}} [[Stefano Nyers]] ([[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]])
* 1949/50 - 35 goals {{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Gunnar Nordahl]] ([[A.C. Milan|Milan]])
* 1950/51 - 34 goals {{flagicon|Sweden}} Gunnar Nordahl (Milan)
* 1951/52 - 30 goals {{flagicon|Denmark}} [[John Hansen (football manager)|John Hansen]] (Juventus)
* 1952/53 - 26 goals {{flagicon|Sweden}} Gunnar Nordahl (Milan)
* 1953/54 - 23 goals {{flagicon|Sweden}} Gunnar Nordahl (Milan)
* 1954/55 - 26 goals {{flagicon|Sweden}} Gunnar Nordahl (Milan)
* 1955/56 - 29 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gino Pivatelli]] ([[Bologna F.C. 1909|Bologna]])
* 1956/57 - 22 goals {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Dino Da Costa]] ([[A.S. Roma|Roma]])
* 1957/58 - 28 goals {{flagicon|Wales}} [[John Charles]] (Juventus)
* 1958/59 - 33 goals {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Antonio Valentin Angelillo]] (Internazionale)
* 1959/60 - 28 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Omar Sivori]] (Juventus)
* 1960/61 - 27 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Sergio Brighenti]] ([[U.C. Sampdoria|Sampdoria]])
* 1961/62 - 22 goals:
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[José Altafini]] ([[A.C. Milan|Milan]])
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aurelio Milani]] ([[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]])
* 1962/63 - 19 goals:
**{{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Harald Nielsen]] (Bologna)
**{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Pedro Manfredini]] (Roma)
* 1963/64 - 21 goals {{flagicon|Denmark}} Harald Nielsen (Bologna)
* 1964/65 - 17 goals:
**Orlando (Fiorentina)
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Sandro Mazzola]] (Internazionale)
* 1965/66 - 25 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luis Vinicio]] ([[Vicenza Calcio|Vicenza]])
* 1966/67 - 18 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gigi Riva]] ([[Cagliari Calcio|Cagliari]])
* 1967/68 - 15 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Pierino Prati]] (Milan)
* 1968/69 - 21 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Gigi Riva (Cagliari)
* 1969/70 - 21 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Gigi Riva (Cagliari)
* 1970/71 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Boninsegna]] (Internazionale)
* 1971/72 - 22 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Roberto Boninsegna (Internazionale)
* 1972/73 - 17 goals:
**{{flagi |
{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Aron Winter]]
*{{flagicon|Chile}} [[Ivan Zamorano]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Javier Zanetti]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Walter Zenga]]
|}
==Internazionale Presidents since 1908==
{|
|valign="top"|
*[[1908]] [[Giovanni Paramithiotti]]
*[[1909]] [[Ettore Strauss]]
*[[1910]] [[Carlo De Medici]]
*[[1912]] [[Emilio Hirzel]]
*[[1914]] [[Luigi Ansbacher]]
*[[1914]] [[Giuseppe Visconti Di Modrone]]
*[[1919]] [[Giorgio Hulss]]
*[[1920]] [[Francesco Mauro]]
*[[1923]] [[Enrico Olivetti]]
*[[1926]] [[Senatore Borletti]]
|valign="top"|
*[[1929]] [[Ernesto Torrusio]]
*[[1930]] [[Oreste Simonotti]]
*[[1932]] [[Ferdinando Pozzani]]
*[[1942]] [[Carlo Masseroni]]
*[[1955]] [[Angelo Moratti]]
*[[1968]] [[Ivanoe Fraizzoli]]
*[[1984]] [[Ernesto Pellegrini]]
*[[1995]] [[Massimo Moratti]]
*[[2004]] [[Giacinto Facchetti]]
|}
==Internazionale Managers since 1908==
{|
|valign="top"|
*1909-15 - [[Virgilio Fossati]]
*1919 - [[Virgilio Fossati]]
*1920 - [[Nino Resegotti]]
*1922-24 - [[Bob Spotiswood]]
*1924-26 - [[Paulo Schiedler]]
*1926-28 - [[Arpad Veisz]]
*1928-29 - [[Josef Viola]]
*1929-31 - [[Arpad Veisz]]
*1931-32 - [[Istvan Toth]]
*1932-34 - [[Arpad Veisz]]
*1935-36 - [[Gyula Feldmann]]
*1936 - [[Albino Carraro]]
*1936-38 - [[Armando Castellazzi]]
*1938-40 - [[Tony Carnelli]]
*1940 - [[Giuseppe Peruchetti]]
*1941 - [[Italo Zamberletti]]
*1941-42 - [[Ivo Fiorentini]]
*1942-43 - [[Giovanni Ferrari]]
*1945-46 - [[Carlo Carcano]]
*1946 - [[Nino Nutrizio]]
*1947-48 - [[Giuseppe Meazza]]
*1948 - [[Carlo Carcano]]
*1948 - [[John Astley]]
|width="33"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
*1949-50 - [[Giulio Cappelli]]
*1950-52 - [[Aldo Olivieri]]
*1952-55 - [[Alfredo Foni]]
*1955 - [[Aldo Campatelli]]
*1955-56 - [[Giuseppe Meazza]]
*1956 - [[Annibale Frossi]]
*1957 - [[Luigi Ferrero]]
*1957 - [[Giuseppe Meazza]]
*1957-58 - [[John Carver]]
*1958 - [[Giuseppe Bigogno]]
*1959-60 - [[Aldo Campatelli]]
*1960 - [[Camillo Achilli]]
*1960 - [[Giulio Cappelli]]
*1960-68 - [[Helenio Herrera]]
*1968-69 - [[Alfredo Foni]]
*1969-71 - [[Heriberto Herrera]]
*1971-73 - [[Giovanni Invernizzi]]
*1973 - [[Enea Masiero]]
*1973 - [[Heriberto Herrera]]
*1974 - [[Enea Masiero]]
*1974-75 - [[Luis Suarez]]
*1976-77 - [[Giuseppe Chiappella]]
*1977-82 - [[Eugenio Bersellini]]
|width="33"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
*1982-83 - [[Rino Marchesi]]
*1983-84 - [[Luigi Radice]]
*1984-86 - [[Ilario Castagner]]
*1986 - [[Mario Corso]]
*1986-91 - [[Giovanni Trapattoni]]
*1991 - [[Corrado Orrico]]
*1992 - [[Luis Suarez]]
*1992-94 - [[Osvaldo Bagnoli]]
*1994 - [[Giampiero Marini]]
*1994-95 - [[Ottavio Bianchi]]
*1995 - [[Luis Suarez]]
*1995-97 - [[Roy Hodgson]]
*1997 - [[Luciano Castellini]]
*1997-98 - [[Luigi Simoni]]
*1999 - [[Mircea Lucescu]]
*1999 - [[Luciano Castellini]]
*1999 - [[Roy Hodgson]]
*1999-01 - [[Marcello Lippi]]
*2001 - [[Marco Tardelli]]
*2001-03 - [[Héctor Raul Cúper]]
*2003 - [[Corrado Verdelli]]
*2004 - [[Alberto Zaccheroni]]
*2004 - [[Roberto Mancini]]
|}
==Team Honours==
*[[Serie A|Italian Championships]]: '''13'''
#1909/10 Campelli, Fronte, Zoller, Yenni, V.Fossati, Stebler, Capra, C.Payer, E.Peterly, Aebi, Schuler.
#1919/20 Campelli, Francesconi, Beltrami, Milesi, G.Fossati, Scheidler; Conti, Aebi, Agradi, L.Cevenini, Asti
#1929/30 Degani, Gianfardoni, Allemandi, Rivolta, Viani, Castellazzi, Visentin, Serantoni, Meazza, Blasevich, Conti
#1937/38 Peruchetti, Buonocore, Setti, Locatelli, Olmi, Antona, Frossi, N.Ferrara, Meazza, Ferrari, P.Ferraris
#1939/40 Peruchetti, Poli, Setti, Locatelli, Olmi, Campatelli, Frossi, A.Demaria, Guarnieri, Candiani, P.Ferraris
#1952/53 Ghezzi, Blason, Giacomazzi, Neri, Giovannini, Nesti, Armano, Mazza, Lorenzi, Skoglund, Nyers
#1953/54 Ghezzi, Giacomazzi, Padulazzi, Neri, Giovannini, Nesti, Armano, Mazza, Lorenzi, Skoglund, Nyers
#1962/63 Buffon, Burgnich, Facchetti, Zaglio, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Di Giacomo, Suarez, Corso
#1964/65 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Tagnin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Domenghini, Suarez, Corso
#1965/66 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Bedin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Domenghini, Suarez, Corso
#1970/71 L.Vieri, Bellugi, Facchetti, Bedin, Giubertoni, Burgnich, Jair, Bertini, Boninsegna, S.Mazzola, Corso
#1979/80 Bordon, G.Baresi, Oriali, Pasinato, Mozzini, Bini, Caso, Marini, Altobelli, Beccalossi, Muraro
#1988/89 Zenga, Bergomi, Brehme, Matteoli, Ferri, Mandorlini, A.Bianchi, Berti, Diaz, Matthaeus, A.Serena
*[[European Cup]]: '''2'''
#1963/64 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Tagnin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Milani, Suarez, Corso
#1964/65 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Bedin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Peirò, Suarez, Corso
*[[Coppa Italia|Italian Cup]] '''4'''
#1938/39 Sain, Buonocore, Setti, Locatelli, Olmi, Campatelli, Frossi, A.Demaria, Guarnieri, G.Meazza, P.Ferraris
#1977/78 Cipollini, Canuti, Fedele, Baresi, Gasparini, Bini, Scanziani, Oriali, Altobelli, Marini, Muraro
#1981/82 Bordon, Bergomi, Baresi, Marini, Oriali, Canuti, Bini, Bagni, Prohaska, Beccalossi, Altobelli
#2004/05 Toldo, J.Zanetti, Materazzi, Mihajlovic, Favalli, Ze Maria, Cambiasso, Stankovic, Kily Gonzalez, Martins, Adriano
*[[UEFA Cup]]: '''3'''
#1990/91 Zenga, Bergomi, Brehme, Battistini, Ferri, A.Paganin, A.Bianchi, Berti, Klinsmann, Matthaeus, Pizzi
#1993/94 Zenga, A.Paganin, D.Fontolan, Jonk, Bergomi, Battistini, Orlando, Manicone, Berti, Bergkamp, Sosa
#1997/98 Pagliuca, Colonnese, Fresi, West, J.Zanetti, A.Winter, Ze Elias, Djorkaeff, Simeone, Zamorano, Ronaldo
*[[European/South American Cup|Intercontinental Cup]]: '''2'''
#1964 Sarti, Malatrasi, Facchetti, Tagnin, Guarneri, Picchi, Domenghini, Milani, Peirò, Suarez, Corso
#1965 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Bedin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Peirò, Suarez, Corso
*[[Italian Super Cup|SuperCoppa Italiana]] '''2'''
#1988/89 Zenga, G.Baresi, Brehme, Matteoli, Bergomi, Verdelli, Bianchi, Berti, Morello, Cucchi, A.Serena
#2005/06 Toldo, J.Zanetti, Materazzi, Cordoba, Favalli, Ze Maria, Cambiasso, Stankovic, Veron, Martins, Adriano
'''Finals:'''
*European Cup 2
#1966/67 Sarti; Burgnich, Guarneri, Facchetti; Bedin, Picchi; Domenghini, Mazzola, Cappellini, Bicicli, Corso
#1971/72 Bordon; Burgnich, Facchetti, Bellugi, Oriali; Giubertoni, Bedin, Frustalupi; Jair (Pellizarro), Mazzola, Boninsegna
*UEFA Cup 1
#1996/97 Pagliuca, Bergomi, Fresi, Paganin, Pistone, Djorkaeff, Sforza, Ince, Zanetti, Ganz, Zamorano
*Central Europe Cup ([[Mitropa Cup]]) 1 (The Mitropa Cup carried a prestige only comparable with the Champions' Cup of later decades)
#1932/33
*Italian Cup 4
#1958/59 Matteucci, Guarneri, Gatti, Masiero, Cardarelli, Bolchi, Bicieli, Firmani, Angelillo, Corso, Rizzolini
#1964/65 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Bedin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Peirò, Suarez, Corso
#1976/77
#1999/00 Peruzzi, Serena, Cordoba, Blanc, Domoraud, J.Zanetti, Di Biagio, Cauet, Seedorf, R.Baggio, Zamorano
#2004/2005 (Leg 1) Toldo, J Zanetti, Mihajlovic, Materazzi, Ze Maria, Favalli, Kily (v.d. Meyde), Cambiasso, Stankovic, Martins (Cruz), Adriano. (Leg 2) Toldo, Cordoba, Mihajlovic, Materazzi, Ze Maria, Favalli (Gamarra), Kily, Stankovic, C.Zanetti, Martins, Cruz
'''Youth Trophies'''
*National Championship "Primavera" - Under 20: 1964, 1966, 1969, 1989, 2002
*Coppa Italia - Under 20: 1973, 1976, 1977, 1978
*National Championship "Berretti" - Under 18: 1980, 1984, 1991
*National Championship "Allievi" - Under 16: 1985, 1987, 1998
*National Championship "Giovanissimi" - Under 14: 1988, 1997, 2003
*International Trophy "Città di Viareggio" - Under 20: 1962, 1971, 1986, 2002
*Youth International Tournament - Città di Bergamo: 1998, 1999
*Youth Tournament U-19 Naters (Valais, Switzerland): 1999
*Citta di Gradisca-Trofeo Nereo Rocco U-16/U-17: 2000
*Trofeo Internazionale Giovanile "Citta di Arco - Beppe Viola" (U-17/U-16): 1999
*Tournoi International Juniors U-19 de Croix (France): 1964
*Tournoi Espoirs U-20 du CS Chênois (Switzerland): 1976
*San Remo U-18 Tournament (Italy): 1948, 1953, 1954, 1956, 1970, 1990
*Torneo Internazionale U-19/U-20 di Bellinzona (Ticino, Switzerland): 1946, 1949, 1966, 1979, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989
*Blue Stars Youth Tournament (U-20 Zürich, Switzerland): 1983
*Tournoi Juniors du Servette FC, Switzerland: 1953,1954,1955,1957,1961
'''Other Trophies won by Inter'''
*Turnier Sankt Moritz: 1911
*Torneo Zürich di Milano: 1969
*Trofeo Ciudad de Vigo: 1996
*Trofeo Santiago Bernabéu: 1993, 2001
*Coppa Super Clubs (Mundialito de Clubs): 1981
*Trofeo Birra Moretti: 2001, 2002
*Trofeo Valle d'Aosta: 1998
*Trofeo TIM: 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005
==External links==
*[http://www.inter.it Official Website] (in [[Italian language|Italian]], [[English language|English]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]])
*[http://www.internazionale.fr Internazionale.Fr]
*[http://www.forza-inter.com/forums/ Forza Inter Forums]
*[http://only-inter.fateback.com/default.htm Only Inter Website]
*[http://www.intermilan-online.com Inter Milan Online]
*[http://www.interfans.org Inter Fans]
*[http://www.intermediolan.com/ Polish Inter Milan Site]
*[http://www.inter-calcio.it/ Inter Calcio]
*[http://www.interfc.it/ Inter Emotional]
*[http://www.tuttointer.com/ TuttoInter]
*[http://www.inter-chat.tk/ Inter CHAT]
*[http://www.resultsfromfootball.com/seriea-team/fcinternazionale.html Inter statistics]
{{Champions League 2005/06}}
{{Serie A}}
[[Category:Italian football clubs]]
[[Category:Internazionale| ]]
[[Category:G-14 clubs|Internazionale]]
[[cs:FC Internazionale Milano]]
[[de:Inter Mailand]]
[[es:Internazionalle Milano Football Club]]
[[fr:Inter Milan]]
[[id:Internazionale]]
[[it:Internazionale Football Club]]
[[he:אינטר מילאנו]]
[[nl:Internazionale]]
[[ja:インテルナツィオナーレ・ミラノ]]
[[no:Internazionale]]
[[pl:Inte |
y]
* [http://www.maltagenealogy.com/malteseheraldry/maltaheraldry.htm/ Maltese Heraldry]
* [http://www.heraldry.ws/ Information on the customs and practices of Heraldry and contemporary Heraldry]
* [http://www.heraldry.org.uk/ Heraldry; Coats of Arms and Crests]
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/britannia/anglo-saxon/flowers/heraldry.html James Grout: ''Heraldry'', part of the Encyclopædia Romana]
* [http://www.btinternet.com/~paul.j.grant/guillim/ A DISPLAY OF HERALDRIE: by John Guillim (c1551 - 1621) being a complete transcription of the first edition (1610) of this work]
* [http://www.heraldsnet.org/saitou/parker/|''A Glossary of Terms used in Heraldry''] by James Parker, first published in 1894
{{heraldry}}
{{blazon}}
{{nationalflags}}
==Note==
# One possible exception might be the arms of the University of Northern British Columbia.[http://www.unbc.ca/communications/identity/coat_of_arms.html]
[[Category:Heraldry| ]]
[[Category:National symbols]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[bg:Хералдика]]
[[be:Геральдыка]]
[[ca:Heràldica]]
[[cs:Heraldika]]
[[da:Heraldik]]
[[de:Heraldik]]
[[et:Heraldika]]
[[es:Heráldica]]
[[eo:Heraldiko]]
[[fr:Héraldique]]
[[gl:Heráldica]]
[[he:הרלדיקה]]
[[ia:Heraldica]]
[[it:Araldica]]
[[lv:Heraldika]]
[[nl:Heraldiek]]
[[ja:紋章学]]
[[no:Heraldikk]]
[[pl:Heraldyka]]
[[pt:Heráldica]]
[[ru:Геральдика]]
[[sl:Heraldika]]
[[sr:Хералдика]]
[[fi:Heraldiikka]]
[[sv:Heraldik]]
[[zh:紋章學]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heretic (video game)</title>
<id>13611</id>
<revision>
<id>42043161</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:01:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.139.77.86</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Heretic
| image =
| developer = [[Raven Software]]
| publisher = [[id Software]], [[GT Interactive]]
| designer =
| engine = [[Doom engine]]
| released = [[December 23]], [[1994]]
| genre = [[First-person shooter]]
| modes = [[Single player]], [[Multiplayer]] 2-4 player [[deathmatch]] or [[cooperative]]
| ratings = [[ESRB]]: Mature (M)
| platforms = [[IBM PC compatible|PC]], [[Apple Macintosh|Mac]]
| media =
| requirements =
| input = [[computer keyboard|Keyboard]], [[mouse (computing)|Mouse]]
}}
'''''Heretic''''' is a [[fantasy]] [[first-person shooter]] [[Computer and video games|computer game]] created by [[Raven Software]], published by [[id Software]], and distributed by [[GT Interactive]] in 1994.
Using a modified ''[[Doom]]'' engine, Heretic was one of the first first-person games to feature inventory manipulation and the ability to look up and down. It also introduced multiple [[gibs|gib]] objects spawned when a character suffered a death by extreme force or heat. Previously, the character simply crumpled into a heap of jumbled body parts. It's notable that besides background music, the game also used randomized ambient sounds and noises to further enhance the atmosphere, such as evil laughter, chains rattling, water dripping, etc. All music in the game was composed by [[Kevin Schilder]].
The original version of ''Heretic'' had three unlinked episodes, but a stand-alone special edition, Heretic: Shadow of the Serpent Riders, was also available, featuring two additional episodes.
The Episodes in the original are '''the City of the Damned''', where the player has to go through an abandoned ancient city overrun by monsters, '''Hell's Maw''', which is set in Hell, and '''the Dome of D'Sparil''', which is set in a city at the bottom of the ocean, protected by gigantic crystal domes. The two extra episodes are '''the Ossuary''' and '''the Stagnant Demesne'''.
'''The [[Ossuary]]''' takes the player to the shattered remains of a world conquered by the Serpent Riders centuries ago. '''The Stagnant [[Demesne]]''' is the final episode where the player enters D'Sparil's home stronghold - the very pit he was spawned. The heretic seeks to find a way out, yet D'Sparil's personal guards are out to kill him. That fifth episode was designed to be the hardest episode of the game.
The first sequel, ''[[HeXen]]'', which also used a modified ''Doom'' engine, was released about a year after ''Heretic'' in 1995. The next game in the ''HeXen''/''Heretic'' universe, ''[[HeXen II]]'', was released in 1997 and was based on a modified ''[[Quake]]'' engine. Later in 1998, ''[[Heretic II]]'' was released, using a modified [[Quake II]] engine.
In early 1999, the [[source code]] of Heretic was published by Raven Software. This resulted in ports of Heretic to [[Linux]] and other operating systems, and updates to the Heretic engine which utilized 3D acceleration.
== Weapons ==
The game has 8 weapons in all, each of which has an alternate powered up mode activated by the the Tome of Power item. The weapons are;
1 - '''Staff/Gauntlets of the Necromancer'''; the staff is made of wood and is used to "poke" enemies, hardly doing any damage.
Gauntlests have a green electricity-like discharge coming off their fingers when attacking, doing slightly more damage then Staff and at encreased range. Neither requires any ammunition.
*Powered: When under the influence of a Tome of Power artifact, the Staff is electrified, does more damage, and has knockback. The Gauntlets' electrical charge changes its color to red and does more damage, and drains health points from the enemy transferring them to the player.
2 - '''Elven Wand'''; a staff topped with a magical crystal that shoots weak projectiles at slow rate, manifested by a gold-colored "spark" at the point of impact.
*Powered: Shoots out several yellow crystal-like projectiles that do more damage.
*Ammo: wand crystal (small), crystal geode (large)
3 - '''Ethereal Crossbow'''; more powerful weapon, shooting green "ethereal" arrows traveling in threes.
*Powered: Shoots multiple (4 or 5) heavy ethereal arrows for a wider coverage and more damage.
*Ammo: ethereal arrow (small), quiver of ethereal arrows (large)
4 - '''Dragon Claw'''; a small helmet-like item worn of the fist with claws mounted on its top, that shoots projectiles at high rate manifested by a blue-colored "spark" at the point of impact.
*Powered: Shoots out more powerful blue projectiles, which, on impact, release multiple spiked metal orbs, which deal considerabl damage.
*Ammo: Claw orb (small), Energy orb (large)
5 - '''Hellstaff'''; a staff topped with a horned skull that shoots red projectiles at high rate, doing more damage then Dragon Claw and also unlike Dragon Claw posessing some stopping power.
*Powered: Releases a single projectile. Upon impact, it unleashes a "rain" of red sparks, which do heavy damage on anything below (exception: Maulotaurs).
*Ammo: lesser runes (small), greater runes (large)
6 - '''Phoenix Rod'''; a golden staff topped with a phoenix-like design, shoting a fiery, smoking, moderately fast projectile that explodes upon impact into a phoenix-like shape. Pushes player back when used.
*Powered: Turns into a "flamethrower". Launches a steady stream of flame that causes tremendous damage.
*Ammo: phoenix orb (small), Inferno orb (large)
7 - '''Firemace'''; a mace-like staff that shoots exploding canonball-like projectiles at high rate.
*Powered: Shoots out bigger metallic spheres, which are slower, but home on their targets and cause heavy damage.
*Ammo: mace spheres (small), pile of mace spheres (large)
It should be noted that despite the difference in setting and design, Heretic is very similar to Doom, especially in regards to its weapons, which are for the most part, equivalents of weapons found in Doom. For instance, the Dragon Claw and Hellstaff are similar to the Chaingun and Plasma rifle respectively. Other weapons are similar to an extent, like Ethereal Crossbow and Shotgun, staff and fists, Gauntlets of the necromancer and Chainsaw, Elven wand and Pistol, Phoenix rod and Rocket launcher. Yet others, such as the Firemace and BFG 9000 bear no resemblance to each other.
== Game levels ==
'''Episode 1: The City of the Damned'''
*1. The Docks
*2. The Dungeons
*3. The Gatehouse
*4. The Guard Tower
*5. The Citadel
*6. The Cathedral (secret exit to lvl 9)
*7. The Crypts
*8. Hell's Maw
*9. (secret) The Graveyard
'''Episode 2: Hell's Maw'''
*1. The Crater
*2. The Lava Pits
*3. The River of Flame
*4. The Ice Grotto (secret exit to lvl 9)
*5. The Catacombs
*6. The Labyrinth
*7. The Great Hall
*8. The Gates of Chaos
*9. (secret) The Glacier
'''Episode 3: The Dome of D'Sparil'''
*1. The Storehouse
*2. The Cesspool
*3. The Confluence
*4. The Azure Fortress (secret exit to lvl 9)
*5. Ophidian Lair
*6. The Halls of Fear
*7. The Chasm
*8. The Lair of D'Sparil
*9. (secret) The Acquifer
'''Episode 4: The Ossuary'''
*1. Catafalque
*2. The Blockhouse
*3. Ambulatory
*4. Sepulcher (secret exit to lvl 9)
*5. Great Stair
*6. Halls of the Apostate
*7. Ramparts of Perdition
*8. Shattered Bridge
*9. (secret) Mausoleum
'''Episode 5: The Stagnant Demesne'''
*1. Ochre Cliffs
*2. Rapids
*3. Quay (secret exit to lvl 9)
*4. Courtyard
*5. Hydratyr
*6. Colonnade
*7. Foetid Masne
*8. Arena of Judgement
*9. (secret) Skein of D'Sparil
== See also ==
{{DOOMgames}}
== External links ==
*[http://www.ravensoft.com/heretic.html Official Heretic website from Raven]
*[http://www.idsoftware.com/games/hexen/heretic/ Official Heretic website from id Software]
*[http://www.gamers.org/dhs/helpdocs/hticfaq.html The Heretic FAQ]
*[http://dmoz.org/Games/Video_Games/Shooter/H/Heretic_and_Hexen_Series/Heretic/ Category at ODP]
*[http://www.doomsdayhq.com/ jHeretic source port]
*[http://www.mobygames.com/game/heretic-shadow-of-the-serpent-riders Heretic at MobyGames]
[[Category:Doom]]
[[Category:Id Software games]]
[[Category:First-person shooters]]
[[Category:1994 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Linux games]]
[[Category:DOS games]]
[[Category:Apple Macintosh games]]
[[cs:Heretic]]
[[de:Heretic]]
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C]], and [[11 September]] [[200 BC]].
* For the eccentric model, Hipparchus found for the ratio between the radius of the [[eccenter]] and the distance between the center of the eccenter and the center of the ecliptic (i.e., the observer on Earth): 3144 : 327+2/3 ;
* and for the epicycle model, the ratio between the radius of the deferent and the epicycle: 3122+1/2 : 247+1/2 .
The somewhat weird numbers are due to the cumbersome unit he used in his chord table. The results are distinctly different. This is partly due to some sloppy rounding and calculation errors, for which Ptolemy criticised him (he himself made rounding errors too). Anyway, Hipparchus found inconsistent results; he later used the ratio of the epicycle model (3122+1/2 : 247+1/2), which is too small (60 : 4;45 hexadecimal): Ptolemy established a ratio of 60 : 5+1/4 . See [Toomer 1967].
=== Apparent motion of the Sun ===
Before Hipparchus, [[Meton]], [[Euctemon]], and their pupils at [[Athens]] had made a solstice observation (i.e., timed the moment of the summer [[solstice]]) on [[June 27]], [[432 BC]] ([[proleptic Julian calendar]]). [[Aristarchus of Samos]] is said to have done so in [[280 BC]], and Hipparchus also had an observation by [[Archimedes]]. Hipparchus himself observed the summer solstice in [[135 BC]], but he found observations of the moment of [[equinox]] more accurate, and he made many during his lifetime. Ptolemy gives an extensive discussion of Hipparchus' work on the length of the year in the ''Almagest'' III.1, and quotes many observations that Hipparchus made or used, spanning [[162 BC]] to [[128 BC]].
Ptolemy quotes an equinox timing by Hipparchus (at [[24 March]] [[146 BC]] at dawn) that differs from the observation made on that day in [[Alexandria]] (at 5h after sunrise): Hipparchus may have visited Alexandria but he did not make his equinox observations there; presumably he was on Rhodes (at the same geographical longitude). He may have used his own armillary sphere or an equatorial ring for these observations. Hipparchus (and Ptolemy) knew that observations with these instruments are sensitive to a precise alignment with the [[equator]]. The real problem however is that atmospheric [[refraction]] lifts the Sun significantly above the horizon: so its apparent [[declination]] is too high, which changes the observed time when the Sun crosses the equator. Worse, the refraction decreases as the Sun rises, so it may appear to move in the wrong direction with respect to the equator in the course of the day - as Ptolemy mentions; however, Ptolemy and Hipparchus apparently did not realize that refraction is the cause.
At the end of his career, Hipparchus wrote a book called ''Peri eniausíou megéthous'' ("On the Length of the Year") about his results. The established value for the [[tropical year]], introduced by [[Callippus]] in or before [[330 BC]] (possibly from Babylonian sources, see above), was 365 + 1/4 days. Hipparchus' equinox observations gave varying results, but he himself points out (quoted in ''Almagest'' III.1(H195)) that the observation errors by himself and his predecessors may have been as large as 1/4 day. So he used the old solstice observations, and determined a difference of about one day in about 300 years. So he set the length of the tropical year to 365 + 1/4 - 1/300 days (= 365.24666... days = 365&nbsp;days 5&nbsp;hours 55&nbsp;min, which differs from the actual value (modern estimate) of 365.24219... days = 365&nbsp;days 5&nbsp;hours 48&nbsp;min 45&nbsp;s by only about 6&nbsp;min).
Between the solstice observation of Meton and his own, there were 297 years spanning 108,478 days. This implies a tropical year of 365.24579... days = 365&nbsp;days;14,44,51 (sexagesimal; = 365&nbsp;days + 14/60 + 44/60<sup>2</sup> + 51/60<sup>3</sup>), and this value has been found on a Babylonian clay tablet [A. Jones, 2001]. This is an indication that Hipparchus' work was known to Chaldeans.
Another value for the year that is attributed to Hipparchus (by the astrologer [[Vettius Valens]] in the [[1st century]]) is 365 + 1/4 + 1/288 days (= 365.25347... days = 365&nbsp;days 6&nbsp;hours 5&nbsp;min), but this may be a corruption of another value attributed to a Babylonian source: 365 + 1/4 + 1/144 days (= 365.25694... days = 365&nbsp;days 6&nbsp;hours 10&nbsp;min). It is not clear if this would be a value for the [[sidereal year]] (actual value at his time (modern estimate) ca. 365.2565 days), but the difference with Hipparchus' value for the tropical year is consistent with his rate of [[precession]] (see below).
=== Orbit of the Sun ===
Before Hipparchus the Chaldean astronomers knew that the lengths of the [[season]]s are not equal. Hipparchus made equinox and solstice observations, and according to Ptolemy (''Almagest'' III.4) determined that spring (from spring equinox to summer solstice) lasted 94 + 1/2 days, and summer (from summer solstice to autumn equinox) 92 + 1/2 days. This is an unexpected result given a premise of the Sun moving around the Earth in a circle at uniform speed. Hipparchus' solution was to place the Earth not at the center of the Sun's motion, but at some distance from the center. This model described the apparent motion of the Sun fairly well (of course today we know that the [[planet]]s like the Earth move in [[ellipse]]s around the Sun, but this was not discovered until [[Johannes Kepler]] published his first two laws of planetary motion in [[1609]]). The value for the [[eccentricity (orbit)|eccentricity]] attributed to Hipparchus by Ptolemy is that the offset is 1/24 of the radius of the orbit (which is too large), and the direction of the [[apogee]] would be at longitude 65.5° from the [[vernal equinox]]. Hipparchus may also have used another set of observations (94 + 1/4 and 92 + 3/4 days), which would lead to different values. The question remains if Hipparchus is really the author of the values provided by Ptolemy, who found no change three centuries later, and added lengths for the autumn and winter seasons.
=== Calendar ===
"To be written"
=== Distance, parallax, size of the Moon and Sun ===
{{main|Hipparchus On Sizes and Distances}}
Hipparchus also undertook to find the distances and sizes of the Sun and the Moon. He published his results in a work of two books called ''Peri megethoon kai 'apostèmátoon'' ("On Sizes and Distances") by Pappus in his commentary on the ''Almagest'' V.11; [[Theon of Smyrna]] ([[2nd century]]) mentions the work with the addition "of the Sun and Moon".
Hipparchus measured the apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon with his ''diopter''. Like others before and after him, he found that the Moon's size varies as it moves on its (eccentric) orbit, but he found no perceptible variation in the apparent diameter of the Sun. He found that at the '''[[mean]]''' distance of the Moon, the Sun and Moon had the same apparent diameter; at that distance, the Moon's diameter fits 650 times into the circle, i.e., the mean apparent diameters are 360/650 = 0°33'14".
Like others before and after him, he also noticed that the Moon has a noticeable [[parallax]], i.e., that it appears displaced from its calculated position (compared to the Sun or [[star]]s), and the difference is greater when closer to the horizon. He knew that this is because the Moon circles the center of the Earth, but the observer is at the surface - Moon, Earth and observer form a triangle with a sharp angle that changes all the time. From the size of this parallax, the distance of the Moon as measured in Earth [[radius|radii]] can be determined. For the Sun however, there was no observable parallax (we now know that it is about 8.8", more than ten times smaller than the resolution of the unaided eye).
In the first book, Hipparchus assumes that the parallax of the Sun is 0, as if it is at infinite distance. He then analyzed a solar eclipse, presumably that of [[14 March]] [[190 BC]]. It was total in the region of the [[Hellespont]] (and in fact in his birth place Nicaea); at the time the Romans were preparing for war with [[Antiochus III]] in the area, and the eclipse is mentioned by [[Livy]] in his ''[[Ab Urbe Condita]]'' VIII.2. It was also observed in Alexandria, where the Sun was reported to be obscured for 4/5 by the Moon. Alexandria and Nicaea are on the same meridian. Alexandria is at about 31° North, and the region of the Hellespont at about 41° North; authors like Strabo and Ptolemy had fairly decent values for these geographical positions, and presumably Hipparchus knew them too. So Hipparchus could draw a triangle formed by the two places and the Moon, and from simple geometry was able to establish a distance of the Moon, expressed in Earth radii. Because the eclipse occurred in the morning, the Moon was not in the [[meridian (astronomy)|meridian]], and as a consequence the distance found by Hipparchus was a lower limit. In any case, according to Pappus, Hipparchus found that the least distance is 71 (from this eclipse), and the greatest 81 Earth radii.
In the second book, Hipparchus starts from the opposite extreme assumption: he assigns a (minimum) distance to the Sun of 470 Earth radii. This would correspond to a parallax of 7', which is apparently the greatest parallax that Hipparchus thought would not be noticed (for comparison: the typical resolution of the human eye is about 2'; [[Tycho Brahe]] made naked eye observation with an accuracy down to 1'). In this case, the shadow of the Earth is a [[conical surface|cone]] rather than a [[cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]] as under the first assumption. Hipparchus observed (at lunar eclipses) that at the mean distance of the Moon, the diameter of the shadow cone is 2+½ lunar diameters. That apparent diameter is, as he had observed, 360/650 degrees. With these values and simple geometry, Hipparch |
e>FloNight</username>
<id>453528</id>
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<comment>Revert to revision 41677457 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Female anatomy frontal.png|right|thumb|240px|Schematic frontal view of female anatomy]]
The '''cervix''' (from [[Latin]] "neck") is actually the lower, narrow portion of the [[uterus]] where it joins with the top end of the [[vagina]]. It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper anterior vaginal wall. Approximately half its length is visible with appropriate medical equipment; the remainder lies above the vagina beyond view. It is occasionally called "cervix uteri", or "neck of the uterus".
==Anatomy==
===Ectocervix===
The portion projecting into the vagina is referred to as the ''portio vaginalis'' or ''ectocervix''. On average, the ectocervix is 3 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. It has a convex, elliptical surface and is divided into anterior and posterior lips.
====External Os====
The ectocervix's opening is called the ''external os''. The size and shape of the external os and the ectocervix varies widely with age, hormonal state, and whether the woman has had a vaginal birth. In women who have not had a vaginal birth the external os appears as a small, circular opening. In women who have had a vaginal birth, the ectocervix appears bulkier and the external os appears wider, more slit-like and gaping.
===Endocervical canal===
The passageway between the external os and the uterine cavity is referred to as the ''endocervical canal''. It varies widely in length and width, along with the cervix overall. Flattened anterior to posterior, the endocervical canal measures 7 to 8 mm at its widest in reproductive-aged women.
===Internal Os===
The endocervical canal terminates at the ''internal os'' which is the opening of the cervix inside the uterine cavity.
==Cervical mucus==
Normally the external os is blocked by a thick [[mucus]] that prevents [[infection]], however the mucus thins when [[ovum]] are ready to be fertilized, allowing [[spermatazoa]] to pass through the cervix. Most [[oral contraceptive]]s increase their effectiveness by not allowing this mucus to thin, therefore blocking spermatazoa from passing even when ovum are ready to be fertilized. During pregnancy the cervix is completely blocked by a special antibacterial mucosal plug which prevents infection as before. The mucous plug comes out as the cervix dilates in labor or shortly before.
==Functionality==
During [[orgasm]], the cervix convulses and the external os dilates. Dr. R. Robin Baker and Dr. Mark A. Bellis, both at the [[University of Manchester]], first proposed that this behavior worked in such a way as to draw any [[semen]] in the vagina into the uterus, increasing the likelihood of [[conception]]. Later researchers, most notably Elisabeth A. Lloyd, have questioned the logic of this theory and the quality of the experimental data used to back it.
During [[menstruation]] the cervix stretches open slightly to allow the [[endometrium]] to be shed. This stretching is believed to be part of the [[cramp|cramping]] pain that many women experience. Evidence for this is given by the fact that some women's cramps subside or disappear after their first baby because the cervical opening has widened.
During [[childbirth]], contractions of the uterus will dilate the cervix up to 10 cm in diameter to allow the child to pass through.
==Cervical cancer==
In humans the cervix is associated with [[cervical cancer]], a particular form of [[cancer]] which is detectable by [[cytology|cytological]] study of [[epidermis (skin)|epidermal]] [[cell (biology)|cells]] removed from the cervix in a process known as the [[pap smear]]. Evidence now shows that those with exposure to HPV, or the [[human papilloma virus]], are at increased risk for cervical cancer. This virus is related to the virus that causes [[wart]]s.
==Lymphatic drainage==
The [[Lymphatic system|lymphatic drainage]] of the cervix is along the [[uterine artery|uterine arteries]] and [[cardinal ligament]]s to the parametrial, [[iliac lymph node|external iliac]], internal iliac, [[obturator lymph node|obturator]], and presacral [[lymph node]]s. From these pelvic lymph nodes, drainage then proceeds to the [[paraaortic lymph node]]s.
==See also==
*[[Wiktionary:WikiSaurus:cervix|WikiSaurus:cervix]] &mdash; the [[Wiktionary|WikiSaurus]] list of synonyms and slang words for the cervix in many languages
{{reproductive system}}
[[Category:Female reproductive system]]
[[Category:Gynecology]]
[[Category:Reproductive system]]
[[cs:Děložní hrdlo]]
[[de:Cervix uteri]]
[[es:Cérvix]]
[[fr:Col de l'utérus]]
[[he:צוואר הרחם]]
[[ja:子宮頚部]]
[[lt:Gimdos kaklelis]]
[[nl:Baarmoederhals]]
[[simple:Cervix]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Compiler</title>
<id>5739</id>
<revision>
<id>42152070</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:03:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>R. S. Shaw</username>
<id>102175</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Front end */ pre-what</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ideal compiler.png|right|thumb|300px|A diagram of the operation of a typical multi-language compiler.]]
A '''compiler''' is a [[computer program]] (or set of programs) that translates text written in a [[computer language]] (the ''source language'') into another computer language (the ''target language''). The original sequence is usually called the ''[[source code]]'' and the output called ''[[object code]]''. Commonly the output has a form suitable for processing by other programs (e.g., a [[linker]]), but it may be a human readable [[text file]].
The most common reason for wanting to translate source code is to create an [[executable]] program. The name "compiler" is reserved for programs that translate source code from a [[High-level programming language|high level language]] to a lower level language (e.g., [[assembly language]] or [[machine language]]). A program that translates from a low level language to a higher level one is a ''[[decompiler]]''. A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a ''language translator'', ''source to source translator'', or ''language converter''. A ''language [[rewriting|rewriter]]'' is usually a program that translates the form of expressions without a change of language.
A compiler is likely to perform many or all of the following operations: [[lexer|lexing]], [[preprocessor|preprocessing]], [[parser|parsing]], [[semantic analysis (computer science)|semantic analysis]], [[compiler optimization|code optimizations]], and [[code generation]].
==History==
Early computers did not use compilers, because they had just a few opcodes and little memory and users entered binary machine code directly.
In late [[1940s]], programmers found that the tedious machine code could be denoted using some mnemonics ([[assembly language]]) and computers could translate those mnemonics into machine code. The primitive compiler, [[assembler]], emerged.
During the [[1950s]], machine-dependent assembly languages were still not ideal for programmers and high level, machine-independent programming languages evolved. Subsequently, several experimental compilers were developed then (see, for example, the seminal work by [[Grace Hopper]] on the [[A-0]] language), but the [[Fortran|FORTRAN]]<!-- ###here (only), upper-case FORTRAN is correct, as it was the name used at the time, and on IBM's early compilers ###--> team led by [[John Backus]] at [[IBM]] is generally credited as having introduced the first complete compiler, in [[1957]]. [[COBOL]] was an early language to be compiled on multiple architectures, in [[1960]]. [http://www.interesting-people.org/archives/interesting-people/199706/msg00011.html]
The idea of compilation quickly caught on, and most of the principles of compiler design were developed during the [[1960s]].
With the evolution of [[programming language]]s and the increasing power of computers, compilers are becoming more and more complex to bridge the gap between problem-solving modern programming languages and the various computer systems, aiming at get the highest performance out of the target machines.
A compiler is itself a computer program written in some ''implementation language''. Early compilers were written in [[Assembler|assembly language]]. The first ''self-hosting'' compiler &mdash; capable of compiling its own source code in a high-level language &mdash; was created for [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] by Hart and Levin at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] in [[1962]] [http://www.ai.mit.edu/research/publications/browse/0000browse.shtml].
The use of high-level languages for writing compilers gained added impetus in the early [[1970s]] when Pascal and C compilers were written in their own languages. Building a self-hosting compiler is a [[bootstrapping (compilers)|bootstrapping]] problem -- the first such compiler for a language must be compiled either by a compiler written in a different language, or (as in Hart and Levin's Lisp compiler) compiled by running the compiler in an interpreter.
Compiler construction and [[compiler optimization]] are taught at universities as part of the [[computer science]] curriculum. Such courses are usually supplemented with the implementation of a compiler for an [[educational programming language]]. A well documented example is the [[PL/0]] [http://www.246.dk/pl0.html compiler], which was originally used by [[Niklaus Wirth]] for teaching compiler construction in the [[1970s]]. In spite of its simplicity, the [[PL/0]] [http://www.246.dk/pl0.html compiler] introduced several concepts to the field which have since become established educational standards:
# The use of [http://www.acm.org/classics/dec95/ Program Development by Step |
ction. Like other organs and tissues, this functional structure should be universally shared amongst a species, and should solve important problems of survival and [[reproduction]]. Evolutionary psychologists seek to understand [[psychological adaptation|psychological mechanisms]] by understanding the survival and reproductive functions they might have served over the course of evolutionary history.
Evolutionary psychologists subdivide the concept of psychological mechanisms into two general categories:
* ''Domain-specific'' mechanisms, which deal with recurrent adaptive problems over the course of human evolutionary history
* ''Domain-general'' mechanisms, which deal with evolutionary novelty
== The Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA) ==
{{Main|Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness}}
In order to understand the design and function of any mechanism, it is necessary to correctly identify the 'environment' the mechanism is intended to interact with. It would be difficult to understand the design of a pipe wrench, for example, without understanding the properties of pipes and pipe-fittings. This argument also applies to evolved mechanisms in the living world. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to understand the function of the lungs without understanding the properties of a gaseous oxygen atmosphere, or to understand the immune system without understanding the properties of pathogens. The environment that a mechanism evolved to interact with is termed the EEA of that mechanism.
EP argues that in order to understand an evolved ''psychological'' mechanism, one must similarly understand the properties of the environment that the psychological mechanism evolved to interact with. Sunlight is an essential aspect of the EEA of vision, for example. For another example, the fact that women got pregnant and men did not is an essential aspect of the EEA of human mating preferences.
The EEA is not a single time or place. Rather, it is [[adaptation]]-specific. The EEA of the lungs is different from the EEA of vision is different from the EEA of the immune system is different from the EEA of mating preferences.
The term 'EEA' was coined by [[John Bowlby]] of [[attachment theory]] fame. In the environment in which ducks evolved, the first moving being that a duckling was likely to see was its mother. A psychological mechanism that evolved to form an attachment to the first moving being would therefore properly function to form an attachment to the mother. In novel environments, however, the mechanism can malfunction by forming an attachment to a dog or human instead. It is an important prediction of EP that human psychology will similarly exhibit some such ''mismatches''. One convincing example is the fact that although cars kill over 40,000 people in US annually, whereas spiders and snakes kill only a handful, people nonetheless much more readily learn fear of spiders and snakes than they do fear of cars, guns, electric outlets, and other novel dangers. The most likely explanation is that spiders and snakes were a real threat to human ancestors, whereas cars and other novel dangers were not. There is thus a mismatch between our evolved fear learning psychology and the modern environment. (See [[Human evolution]])
== Controversies ==
{{POV-section}}
[[Animal behavior]] studies have long recognized the role of evolution; the application of evolutionary theory to human psychology, however, is controversial. There are many families of criticism of the idea.
===How knowable is the EEA?===
Some critics of evolutionary psychology claim that because little is known about [[Pleistocene|the evolutionary context in which humans developed]] (including population size, structure, lifestyle, eating habits, [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]], and more), there is little basis on which evolutionary psychology may operate. Most EP research, the critics contend, is thus confined to certainties about the past, such as pregnancies only occurring in women, and that humans lived in groups.
Many evolutionary psychologists argue that this criticism is based on a misunderstanding. Evolutionary psychologists argue that they use knowledge of the environment of evolutionary adaptedness to generate [[hypotheses]] regarding possible psychological adaptations, and subsequently, these hypotheses can be tested and evaluated against the empirical evidence in just the same way that any other hypothesis generated from any other theoretical perspective can be assessed.
Furthermore, evolutionary psychologists posit that there are many environmental features that we can be sure played a part in our species' evolutionary history. They argue that our [[hunter-gatherer]] ancestors most certainly dealt with predators and prey, [[foraging|food acquisition]] and sharing, mate choice, child rearing, interpersonal aggression, interpersonal assistance, diseases and a host of other fairly predictable challenges that constituted significant selection pressures. (For a strong outline of the current state of all our concrete knowledge in this area, see: Mithen, Steven. ''After The Ice: A Global Human History 20000-5000 BC''. Harvard Uni. Press, 2004).
However, there also exists debate ''within'' evolutionary psychology about the nature of the EEA. Many evolutionary psychologists contend that many aspects of the EEA were not as consistent as other evolutionationay psychologists would argue. This argument is used, therefore, to support the notion that the mind consists of not only domain-specific psychological mechanisms but of domain-general ones as well, that deal with environmental novelty.
===Falsifiability===
Critics claim that many of the propositions of evolutionary psychology are not [[falsifiability|falsifiable]] and thus label it as a [[pseudoscience]].
Evolutionary psychologists counter that this too is due to a fundamental misunderstanding. Evolutionary psychology, they argue, is a way of generating testable, (and thus falsifiable), hypotheses about the structure of the mind. Evolutionary psychologists contend that ''all'' of psychology makes predictions, (or assumptions), about the structure of the mind and that evolutionary psychology commits to a very specific causal relationship between the mind and the environment in which its design was selected, thus making evolutionary theory a source of highly specific, concrete, and falsifiable predictions.
===Biology vs. environment===
Some studies have been criticized for their tendency to attribute to evolutionary processes elements of human cognition that may be attributable to social processes (e.g. preference for particular physical features in mates).
Evolutionary psychologists respond that many traits have been shown to be universal in humans and that social processes are related to evolutionary processes. They argue that statements such as "biology vs. environment" and "genes vs. culture" amount to "false dichotomies." Evolutionary psychologists justify this claim by arguing that behavior results from an organism ''interacting'' with its environment. Psychological mechanisms, they argue, are created by genes, (which, in turn, were selected for by the evolutionary process),and those mechanisms help the organism negotiate its environment. Furthermore, they assert that many aspects of the environment, (e.g. culture and social institutions), are rested upon those mechanisms. In short, evolutionary psychologists argue that their is a ''bidirectional'' influence between things like "biology and environment" and "cognition and social processes."
===Reductionism===
Some alternatives to evolutionary psychology maintain that elements of human behaviour are [[irreducible (philosophy)|irreducible]] to their component parts. By way of illustration, in the work of [[Peter Hobson]], human consciousness is identified as the product principally of intersubjective learning, albeit on a platform of emotional tools provided by [[human nature]]. As a social process, such a construction of minds would not be describable in the cellular components of individual organisms. See [[Daniel Dennett]] for an elegant handling of this caricature of science (called [[greedy reductionism]]), which is not characteristic of any sophisticated [[philosophy of science]], including a science of psychology informed by evolutionary biology.
===Ethical justification===
Some people worry that evolutionary psychology will be used to justify harmful behavior, and have at times tried to suppress its study. They give the example that people may be more likely to cheat on their spouse if they believe their mind evolved to be that way.
Evolutionary psychologists respond by saying that they only state what is, not what ought to be. Knowing how something works, they argue, is the first step in fixing it if it's broken, or changing how it works (if we should is a decision commonly left to [[philosophers]]). They further suggest that if people understand the system that "makes" them promiscuous - not for their happiness, not because it is right or moral, but because of the blind causal process of natural selection - they can become better consumers of their own consciousness, and other people may be able to use this understanding to intervene and change their behaviour.
Evolutionary psychologists contend that understanding evolutionary psychology does not entail taking a moral viewpoint on people's behaviour, any more than understanding how cancer works condones its existence. (see [[naturalistic fallacy]])
A recent hypothesis about the nature of the human condition (our capacity for good and evil) is based on the approach of evolutionary biology. [[Jeremy Griffith]] asks the question “what happened in human evolution when the intellect evolved to the level where it could take control from the instincts”. This hypothesis is explored in a controversial book e |
ay fail for spaces which are non-Hausdorff (there are examples of T<sub>1</sub> spaces where it fails).
The definition of a Hausdorff space says that points can be separated by neighborhoods. It turns out that this implies something which is seemingly stronger: in a Hausdorff space every pair of disjoint compact sets can be separated by neighborhoods. This is an example of the general rule that compact sets often behave like points.
Compactness conditions together with preregularity often imply stronger separation axioms. For example, any [[locally compact space|locally compact]] preregular space is [[completely regular space|completely regular]]. [[Compact space|Compact]] preregular spaces are [[normal space|normal]], meaning that they satisfy [[Urysohn's lemma]] and the [[Tietze extension theorem]] and have [[partition of unity|partitions of unity]] subordinate to locally finite [[open cover]]s. The Hausdorff versions of these statements are: every locally compact Hausdorff space is [[Tychonoff space|Tychonoff]], and every compact Hausdorff space is normal Hausdorff.
The following results are some technical properties regarding maps ([[continuous (topology)|continuous]] and otherwise) to and from Hausdorff spaces.
Let ''f'' : ''X'' &rarr; ''Y'' be a function and let <math>\mbox{ker}(f) = \{(x,x') \mid f(x) = f(x')\}</math> be its [[kernel of a function|kernel]] regarded as a subspace of ''X'' &times; ''X''.
*If ''f'' is continuous and ''Y'' is Hausdorff then ker(''f'') is closed.
*If ''f'' is an [[open map|open]] [[surjection]] and ker(''f'') is closed then ''Y'' is Hausdorff.
*If ''f'' is a continuous, open surjection (i.e. an open quotient map) then ''Y'' is Hausdorff [[iff]] ker(f) is closed.
If ''f,g'' : ''X'' &rarr; ''Y'' are continuous maps and ''Y'' is Hausdorff then the [[equalizer]] <math>\mbox{eq}(f,g) = \{x \mid f(x) = g(x)\}</math> is closed in ''X''. It follows that if ''Y'' is Hausdorff and ''f'' and ''g'' agree on a [[dense (topology)|dense]] subset of ''X'' then ''f'' = ''g''. In other words, continuous functions into Hausdorff spaces are determined by their values on dense subsets.
Let ''f'' : ''X'' &rarr; ''Y'' be a [[closed map|closed]] surjection such that ''f''<sup>&minus;1</sup>(''y'') is [[compact space|compact]] for all ''y'' &isin; ''Y''. Then if ''X'' is Hausdorff so is ''Y''.
Let ''f'' : ''X'' &rarr; ''Y'' be a [[quotient map]] with ''X'' a compact Hausdorff space. Then the following are equivalent
*''Y'' is Hausdorff
*''f'' is a [[closed map]]
*ker(''f'') is closed
==Preregularity versus regularity==
All [[regular space]]s are preregular, as are all Hausdorff spaces. There are many results for topological spaces that hold for both regular and Hausdorff spaces.
Most of the time, these results hold for all preregular spaces; they were listed for regular and Hausdorff spaces separately because the idea of preregular spaces came later.
On the other hand, those results that are truly about regularity generally don't also apply to nonregular Hausdorff spaces.
There are many situations where another condition of topological spaces (such as [[paracompactness]] or [[local compactness]]) will imply regularity if preregularity is satisfied.
Such conditions often come in two versions: a regular version and a Hausdorff version.
Although Hausdorff spaces aren't generally regular, a Hausdorff space that is also (say) locally compact will be regular, because any Hausdorff space is preregular.
Thus from a certain point of view, it is really preregularity, rather than regularity, that matters in these situations.
However, definitions are usually still phrased in terms of regularity, since this condition is more well known than preregularity.
See [[History of the separation axioms]] for more on this issue.
==Variants==
The terms "Hausdorff", "separated", and "preregular" can also be applied to such variants on topological spaces as [[uniform space]]s, [[Complete space|Cauchy space]]s, and [[convergence space]]s.
The characteristic that unites the concept in all of these examples is that limits of nets and filters (when they exist) are unique (for separated spaces) or unique up to topological indistinguishability (for preregular spaces).
As it turns out, uniform spaces, and more generally Cauchy spaces, are always preregular, so the Hausdorff condition in these cases reduces to the T<sub>0</sub> condition.
These are also the spaces in which [[completeness (topology)|completeness]] makes sense, and Hausdorffness is a natural companion to completeness in these cases.
Specifically, a space is complete iff every Cauchy net has at ''least'' one limit, while a space is Hausdorff iff every Cauchy net has at ''most'' one limit (since only Cauchy nets can have limits in the first place).
==Joke==
There is a mathematicians' joke that serves as a reminder of the meaning of this term:
In a Hausdorff space, points can be "housed off" from one another. [[Atiyah]] used to draw house-shaped sets on the blackboard. (In an old-fashioned British accent, ''off'' could be ''orf'', phonetically, which all helps.)
[[Category:Topology]]
[[Category:Separation axioms]]
[[de:Hausdorff-Raum]]
[[he:מרחב האוסדורף]]
[[ko:하우스도르프 공간]]
[[it:Spazio di Hausdorff]]
[[nl:Hausdorff]]
[[ja:ハウスドルフ空間]]
[[pl:Przestrzeń Hausdorffa]]
[[ru:Хаусдорфово пространство]]
[[zh:豪斯多夫空间]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heat</title>
<id>13638</id>
<revision>
<id>42061599</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:17:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UkPaolo</username>
<id>269651</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.20.14.130|216.20.14.130]] ([[User talk:216.20.14.130|talk]]) to last version by Isopropyl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[heat (disambiguation)]].}}
In [[physics]], '''heat''' is defined as ''energy in transit''.{{ref|one}} Generally, heat is a form of [[energy]] associated with the motion of [[atom]]s, [[molecule]]s and other particles which comprise [[matter]]. Heat can be created by [[chemical reaction]]s (such as [[combustion|burning]]), [[nuclear reaction]]s (such as [[Nuclear fusion|fusion]] taking place inside the [[Sun]]), [[electromagnetic]] [[dissipation]] (as in [[electric stove]]s), or [[mechanics|mechanical]] dissipation (such as [[friction]]). Heat can be transferred between objects by [[thermal radiation|radiation]], [[conduction]] and [[convection]]. [[Temperature]], defined as the measure of an object to spontaneously give up energy, is used to indicate the level of elementary motion associated with heat. Heat can only be transferred between objects, or areas within an object, with different temperatures.
[[Image:SOHO solar flare sun large 20031026 0119 eit 304.png|thumb|right|250px|Solar-thermal '''"heat"''' emissions recorded via the [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]]/EIT [[telescope]].]]
== History ==
As early as 460 BC [[Hippocrates]], the father of medicine, postulated that ''“heat, a quantity which functions to animate, derives from an internal fire located in the left ventricle.”'' The hypothesis that heat is a form of motion was proposed initially in the 12th century. Around 1600, the English philosopher and scientist [[Francis Bacon]] surmised that ''“heat itself, its essence and quiddity is motion and nothing else.” '' Similarly, in the mid 17th century, English scientist [[Robert Hooke]] states: ''“…heat being nothing else but a brisk and vehement agitation of the parts of a body…”''
The modern history of heat, however, begins in 1797 when cannon manufacturer [[Benjamin Thompson]] methodically first set out to quantify the well-known phenomenon of frictional heat, i.e. to find out how much heat is produced by metal rubbing against metal. To do this, he designed a specially shaped cannon barrel, thoroughly insulate against heat loss, then replaced the sharp boring tool with a dull drill bit, and immersed the front part of the gun in a tank full of water. Using this setup, to the amazement of his onlookers, he made cold water boil in two-and-half-hours time, without the use of fire!{{ref|baeyer}}
Rumford summarizes this phenomena as follows: ''“It is hardly necessary to add, that anything which any insulated body … can continue to furnish without limitation, cannot possibly be a material substance; and it appears to me to be extremely difficult, if not quite impossible, to form any distinct idea of anything capable of being excited and communicated in the manner the Heat was excited and communicated in these experiments, except it be Motion.”'' As far as what of this "heat" is moving, where it is moving, and how it is moving, Rumford was at a relative standstill. As he states: ''“I am very far from pretending to know how … that particular kind of motion in bodies which has been supposed to constitute heat is excited, continued, and propagated...”''
It would not be until 20th century, with confirmation of the theory that all matter is composed of atoms, that these questions could be answered. Other important historical postulates of heat include the [[phlogiston]] (1733), [[fire air]] (1775), and the [[caloric]] (1787).
== Overview ==
By common knowledge, the term ''heat'' has been used in connection with the [[warm]]th, or [[hot]]ness, of surrounding objects. The concept that warm objects "contain heat" is not uncommon. During its 350 year development, the science of [[thermodynamics]] had established a physical quantity named ''temperature'' to quantify the level of "warmth", whereas ''heat'' (also improperly called ''heat change'') was defined as a [[transient]] form of [[energy]] that quantifies the [[spontaneous]] [[transfer |
o launch [[terrorism|terrorist]] attacks on Israeli [[civilian]]s). The invasion was widely criticized both in and outside Israel, especially after the Israeli-backed Christian militia's [[Sabra and Shatila massacre]] and ultimately led to the death of 20,000 Lebanese. Although the attack succeeded in exiling Arafat to [[Tunisia]], Israel became entangled with various local Muslim militias (particularly [[Hezbollah]]), which fought to end the Israeli [[occupation]]. By 1985 Israel retreated from all but a narrow stretch of Lebanese territory designated by Israel as the [[Israeli Security Zone]]. The [[UN Security Council Resolution 425]] confirmed ([http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2000/20000618.sc6878.doc.html]) that as of [[June 16]] [[2000]], Israel had completely withdrawn its forces from Lebanon.
===Intifada of 1987-1993===
The [[First Intifada]], 1987-1993, began as an uprising of Palestinians, particularly the young, against the Israeli military occupation of the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]]. The exiled PLO leadership in Tunisia quickly assumed a role, but the uprising also brought a rise in the importance of Palestinian national and Islamic movements. The intifada started by a group of young who started throwing rocks at the Israeli occupying forces in Jabalia (Gaza Strip) in December 1987. Children of Palestine were the leaders of this uprising and were called (Atfal Al-Hijara). The Intifada ended with the signing of the [[Oslo Accords]] by Israel and the PLO.
===Gulf War of 1990-1991===
The [[Gulf War]], 1990-1991, began with the Iraqi invasion and annexation of [[Kuwait]] and did not initially involve direct military engagement with Israel. An international coalition led by the United States which included Arab forces was assembled to drive Iraqi forces out of Kuwait. To draw Israel into the confrontation and fracture the multinational coalition, Iraq launched [[Scud]] missiles on Israeli cities and on Israel's nuclear facilities at [[Dimona]]. However, under strong pressure from the U.S. which feared direct Israeli involvement would threaten the unity of the coalition, Israel did not retaliate against Iraq and the multinational coalition ousted Iraqi forces from Kuwait. During the war, the Palestinian leadership and King [[Hussein of Jordan]] allied themselves with Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. Kuwait and other Gulf Arab monarchies then expelled more than 400,000 Palestinian refugees ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4089961.stm]) and withdrew their support from the Palestinian cause, which was one of the factors leading to the [[PLO]] signing the [[Oslo Accords]].
===Intifada of 2000===
The [[al-Aqsa Intifada]] began in late September, 2000, around the time Israeli opposition leader [[Ariel Sharon]] and a large contingent of armed bodyguards visited the [[Temple Mount]]/[[Al-Haram As-Sharif]] complex in [[Jerusalem]] and declared the area eternal Israeli territory. Widespread riots and attacks broke out in Jerusalem and many major Israeli cities, and spread throughout the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]]. In the months after the death of [[Yasser Arafat]] on [[November 11]] [[2004]], the Intifada is largely thought to have come to an end. An Israeli Human Rights group [[B'Tselem]] estimated[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3694350.stm] the death toll to be around 4000.
==Reasons for the conflict==
The Arab-Israeli conflict is the result of numerous factors. Reasons cited for the conflict therefore vary from participant to participant and observer to observer. A powerful example of this divide can be found in opinion surveys of Palestinians and Israelis. In a March, 2005 poll 63% of the Israelis blamed the failure of the Oslo Peace Process on Palestinian violence, but only 5% of the Palestinians agreed. 54% of Palestinians put the blame on Israeli policies, but only 20% of the Israelis agreed.[http://www.pcpsr.org/survey/polls/2005/p15ejoint.html] It is therefore difficult to develop a single, objective reason for the conflict, so this article will present some of the arguments made by each side.
[[Image:Cia-is-map.gif|right|thumb|200px|Israel's existence as a [[Jew]]ish state and the future of the [[West Bank]], [[Gaza Strip]], and [[Golan Heights]] are at the center of the Arab-Israeli conflict.]]
====Arab hostility====
Many if not most Israelis believe that the conflict is largely a result of Arab attempts to destroy Israel, and that only Israeli military power stands between them and annihilation.
They characterize the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], the [[1967 Six Day War]] and the [[1973 Yom Kippur War]] as attempts to destroy Israel. As evidence of this intent, pro-Israeli literature often places a heavy emphasis on statements made by Arab leaders during and preceding the wars. The following quotes are mainstays of pro-Israeli arguments:
*"This will be a war of extermination and a momentous massacre which will be spoken of like the Mongolian massacres and the Crusades." (by [[Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam]] Pasha, Secretary General of the [[Arab League]], in anticipation of victory over the new Jewish state in 1948 by the five invading Arab armies. This quote is described by Isi Leibler (1972) and mentioned in letters to the New York Times in [[15 October]] [[1951]], and [[28 August]] [[1958]].
*"I declare a holy war, my Muslim brothers! Murder the Jews! Murder them all!" (Haj [[Amin al-Husseini]], the Mufti of [[Jerusalem]], and head of the [[Palestinian Arab Higher Committee]] [http://www.jewishstudentscanada.ca/voice/story10.html], the original quote purportedly comes from a <!-- more accurate date? -->1948 radio broadcast by the Mufti)
*After the withdrawal of the [[UNEF]], the ''Voice of the Arabs'' radio station proclaimed ([[May 18]] [[1967]]): "As of today, there no longer exists an international emergency force to protect Israel. We shall exercise patience no more. We shall not complain any more to the UN about Israel. The sole method we shall apply against Israel is total war, which will result in the extermination of Zionist existence."[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mf6.html]
*"Our forces are now entirely ready not only to repulse the aggression, but to initiate the act of liberation itself, and to explode the Zionist presence in the Arab homeland. The Syrian army, with its finger on the trigger, is united....I, as a military man, believe that the time has come to enter into a battle of annihilation." (Syrian Defense Minister [[Hafez Assad]] ([[May 20]] [[1967]]) [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mf6.html])
*"If Israel embarks on an aggression against Syria or Egypt...The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel." ([[Gamal Abdel Nasser]]'s speech to Arab Trade Unionists ([[May 26]] [[1967]]) [http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign%20Relations/Israels%20Foreign%20Relations%20since%201947/1947-1974/7%20Statement%20by%20President%20Nasser%20to%20Arab%20Trade%20Unio])
*On [[May 30]] [[1967]], Nasser proclaimed: "The armies of Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon are poised on the borders of Israel...to face the challenge, while standing behind us are the armies of Iraq, Algeria, Kuwait, Sudan and the whole Arab nation. This act will astound the world. Today they will know that the Arabs are arranged for battle, the critical hour has arrived. We have reached the stage of serious action and not declarations." (Isi Leibler, ''The Case For Israel'', 1972, p.60.) After Iraq joined the Arab military alliance in [[June 4]], its president Abdur Rahman Aref announced: "The existence of Israel is an error which must be rectified. This is our opportunity to wipe out the ignominy which has been with us since 1948. Our goal is clear - to wipe Israel off the map." (Leibler, p.18)
=====Israel is forced to fight in self-defense=====
[[Israel]]is generally claim that, when nations declare war against Israel, Israel by definition is then at war with them. Israelis claim that they have always preferred peace to war:
[[UN Security Council Resolution 242|SC 242]], the [[Land for peace]] formula, was adopted on [[November 22]], [[1967]] in the aftermath of the [[Six-Day War]] and the [[Khartoum Resolution]], and called for withdrawal from occupied territories in return for "termination of all claims or states of belligerency" and mutual "acknowledgment of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence" by Israel and the other states in the area, and recognized the right of "every state in the area" (in particular, Israel) to live "free from threats or acts of force" within "secure and recognized boundaries".
Immediately after the [[Six-Day War]], Israel maintains that it offered to return the [[Golan Heights]] to [[Syria]] and the [[Sinai Peninsula]] (including the [[Gaza Strip]]) to [[Egypt]] in exchange for peace treaties and various concessions, but that Syria and Egypt refused the offer and this offer was very soon withdrawn. [[Anwar Sadat]], the Egyptian President at the time, proposed negotiations towards peace with Israel in the early 1970s but Israel refused the offer, claiming that it held unreasonable preconditions. Later Israel signed the [[Camp David Accords (1978)]] with Egypt and subsequently withdrew from all Egyptian territory it occupied.
Israelis note that the English language version of SC 242 deliberately did not state '''all''' territories occupied during the conflict, as the framers recognized some territorial adjustments were likely and rejected previous drafts with the word '''all'''. The French language translation of the text did include the definite article. Some, but not Israel itself, consider that Israel complied with this sense of the resolution when it returned the [[Sinai peninsula|Sinai]] to Egypt in 1982.
=====Israel has no p |
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