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diopathic essential tremor''. Mov Disord 2001;16:S30.
==Treatment==
Treatment of ET may or may not be attempted, depending on the severity of the tremor and the physical and social handicaps that implies. Drug treatment may include [[tranquilizer]]s, [[beta-blocker]]s, and [[antiepileptic]] drugs. [[Surgery|Surgical]] treatments (which are generally reserved for the most severe cases) include [[botulism]] toxin injections into the affected muscles, [[thalamotomy]], [[pallidotomy]], and [[deep brain stimulation]] – the insertion of a "[[pacemaker]]" into the [[brain]].
The two medications that are prescribed most commonly for control of ET symptoms are the anticonvulsant [[Primidone]] (Mysoline®) and the beta-blocker [[propranolol]] (Inderal®).
==Support groups==
The International Essential Tremor Foundation (IETF) provides information, services and support to individuals and families affected by essential tremor (ET). The organization encourages and promotes research in an effort to determine the causes, treatment and ultimately the cure for ET. The IETF is a worldwide organization dedicated to meeting the needs of those whose daily lives are challenged by ET. IETF, an international non-profit 501(c)(3) organization that derives its support entirely from its membership and the general public, was founded in 1988 and is guided by a board of directors and a medical advisory council. The organization's membership consists of patients, physicians, educators, parents, relatives and volunteers who provide education, community services and funding to help support tremor research.
The US-based Tremor Action Network (TAN) describes itself as "the first volunteer only 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization created by people diagnosed with essential tremor." This volunteer-run organisation provides a website with forums, FAQs, and recently started carrying a newsletter on its website.
The National Tremor Foundation (NTF), founded in 1992, is a British friendly organisation based in Essex, England, an affiliate of the International Tremor Foundation, which was founded in 1988. The organisation's primary work is production of a quarterly informational newsletter. The NTF also maintains a list of ITF medical advisors, and facilitates the formation of self-help groups. NTF was granted charitable status in 1994.
==Help with computers==
Tunic Software has released software to help people with essential tremor, [[Parkinson's Disease]], and other causes of hand tremor control their [[computer mouse]]. Called 'MouseCage', the software automatically smoothes mouse cursor motion to reduce the effects of unsteady or shaky hands. [http://www.mousecage.org/ MouseCage anti-tremor mouse software]
IBM created a peripheral device that filters out tremoring movements of the hand. The hardware adapter, termed AMA, is connected between the computer and the input device. It is switched on or off and adjusted for tremor severity right on the device.
IBM also offer a free smoothing mouse driver for windows 2000 and XP which uses the same technology that helps steady the image in a hand held camcorder.
[http://www.alphaworks.ibm.com/tech/mousesmoothing Free IBM Mouse smoothing software]
Other tools have also been adapted for people with tremors; for example, eating utensils which are weighted to help damp out tremor.
==External links==
*[http://www.essentialtremor.org/ International Essential Tremor Foundation] (USA)
*[http://www.tremoraction.org/ Tremor Action Network] (USA)
*[http://www.tremor.org.uk/ National Tremor Foundation] (UK)
*[http://www.aptes.org./ Association APTES] (FRANCE)
*[http://www.mousecage.org/ 'MouseCage' Essential Tremor Mouse Software]
*[http://www.steadymouse.com/ 'SteadyMouse' Essential Tremor Mouse Software]
*[http://www.casafuturatech.com/ Casa Futura Technologies DAF/FAF anti-stuttering devices]
*[http://www.montrosesecam.com/ Essential Tremor Mouse Hardware]
*[http://www.essentialtremor.us/ Essential Tremor Centralized Brain Repository]
[[Category:Neurology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Enos</title>
<id>10529</id>
<revision>
<id>27199538</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-02T23:22:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Paul D. Anderson</username>
<id>401201</id>
</contributor>
<comment>standardized intro</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Books of the Book of Mormon}}
'''''The Book of Enos''''' is the fourth book of the ''[[Book of Mormon]]''. According to the text it was written by [[Enos (Book of Mormon)|Enos]], a [[Nephite]] prophet.
The book consists of a single chapter and discusses Enos's conversion after praying all day and all night, and his subsequent dialog with the Lord. It also discusses the [[salvation|redemption]] of the Nephites and their enemies, the [[Lamanite]]s.
==External links==
* [http://scriptures.lds.org/enos/contents Book of Enos text] on the LDS Church web site
* [http://scriptures.lds.org/enos/summary Book of Enos summary]
[[Category:Books of the Book of Mormon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Environmental skepticism</title>
<id>10530</id>
<revision>
<id>40534186</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T06:39:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FWBOarticle</username>
<id>84919</id>
</contributor>
<comment>magician deleted. This isn't the place to ridicule environmental skepticism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Environmental skepticism''' is an umbrella term that describes those that believe certain claims put forward by [[environmentalism|environmentalists]] particularly alarming claims, are exaggerated to some degree. Sometimes a view may be labelled as environmental skepticism when the term ''environmental [[cynicism]]'' may be more accurate.
Some skeptics believe that human damage to the environment is either minimal or less important in its likely consequences than the benefits that damaging economic development brings, others believe that any significant future damage will be fixed by yet-to-be invented [[technology]], while yet others believe that major elements of the environment are in fact improving over time. On the other hand,skeptics who believe that human activities have not caused ''any'' environmental damage is almost non existence. .
Sometimes environmental skeptics hold opinions that run completely counter to the opinions of most environmentalists, for example their stance on second-hand tobacco smoke, [[recycling]], [[global warming]] or [[nuclear power]]. However, most skeptics arguments are much more nuanced. For example, they may object to recycling of plastic on the ground that resouce cost of recycling plastic is greater than resouce cost of producing plastic from oil. Some accept the science of global warming but object to the Kyoto protocol on the ground that it is ineconomical.
To illustrate the difference between the environmental cynics and the skeptics, environmental skeptics, like all skeptics use the scientific method to evaluate concerns while environmental cynics would maintain a generally negative attitude to all environmentalism including environmental science especially if it is based on some "soft" science such as meteology.
Historically, a small number of extreme Environmental skepticism have been linked to the interests of large, polluting industries such as Rachael Carson's ''Silent Spring'' ("dilution is the solution to pollution"). It is also pointed out that the environmentalist also employ much of "science" which are spinned toward the political purpose of environmentalist group.
A particularly controversial paper published is the political scientist [[Bjørn Lomborg]] who wrote ''[[The Skeptical Environmentalist]]''. His book was peer reviewed and published under the category of environmental economics. The book probably presented a middle ground of environmental skepticism. Bjorn accepted the general concensus of science about global warming while disagreed on the policy respose exemplified by Kyoto protocal. The environmental scientist generally were hostile to the book while the responses from economist and political scientist were generally positive.
[[Category:Environmental skepticism]]
== Bibliography ==
* Chase, Alston, ''In a Dark Wood: The Fight over Forests & the Myths of Nature'', New Brunswick, N.J., Transaction Publishers, 2001 ISBN 0765807521
* Driessen, Paul, ''Eco-Imperialism: Green Power, Black Death'', Kenmore, NY, Merrill Press, 2003 ISBN 0939571234
* Essex, Cristopher and Ross McKitrick, ''Taken By Storm: The Troubled Science, Policy and Politics of Global Warming'', Toronto, Ont., Key Porter Books, 2003 ISBN 1552632121
* Huber, Peter, ''Hard Green: Saving the Environment from the Environmentalists'', New York, Basic Books, 2000 ISBN 0465031137
* Lomborg, Bjørn, ''The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World'', Cambridge & New York, Cambridge University Press, 2001 ISBN 0521010683
* Lomborg, Bjørn (ed.), ''Global Crises, Global Solutions'', Cambridge & New York, Cambridge University Press, 2004 ISBN 0521606144
* Michaels, Patrick J., ''The Satanic Gases: Clearing the Air about Global Warming'', Washington D.C., Cato Institute, 2000 ISBN 1882577922
* [[José Ortega y Gasset|Ortega Y Gasset, Jose]], ''Meditations on Hunting'', Montague, MI, Wilderness Adventures Books, 1995, ISBN 1885106181
* Swan, James A., ''In Defense of Hunting: Yesterday and Today'', San Francisco, HarperSanFrancisco, 1995 ISBN 0062512374
----</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ENSO</title>
<id>10531</id>
<revision>
<id>42135178</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:27:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Greatigers</username>
<id>347900</id>
</contributor>
<comme |
]]al differences and [[randomness|random]] factors also play a part. [[Twin|Monozygotic ("identical") twins]], a [[cloning|clone]] resulting from the early splitting of an embryo, have the same DNA, but different [[personality|personalities]] and [[fingerprint]]s. Genetically-identical plants grown in colder [[climate]]s incorporate shorter and less-saturated [[fatty acid]]s to avoid stiffness.
==History==
{{main|History of genetics}}
In his paper "Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden" ("Experiments in Plant Hybridization"), presented in [[1865]] to the Brunn Natural History Society, [[Gregor Mendel]] traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and showed that they could be described mathematically. Although not all features show these patterns of [[Mendelian inheritance]], his work suggested the utility of the application of statistics to the study of inheritance. Since that time many more complex forms of inheritance have been demonstrated.
The significance of Mendel's work was not understood until early in the twentieth century, after his death, when his research was re-discovered by other scientists working on similar problems.
Mendel did not understand the nature of inheritance. We now know that some heritable information is carried in [[DNA]]. ([[Retrovirus]]es, including [[influenza]], [[oncovirus]]es and [[HIV]], and many [[plant virus]]es, carry information as [[RNA]].) Manipulation of DNA can in turn alter the inheritance and features of various organisms.
===Timeline of notable discoveries===
:[[1859]] [[Charles Darwin]] publishes ''[[The Origin of Species]]''
:[[1865]] [[Gregor Mendel]]'s paper, ''Experiments on Plant Hybridization''
:[[1903]] [[Chromosome]]s are discovered to be hereditary units
:[[1905]] British biologist [[William Bateson]] coins the term "genetics" in a letter to Adam Sedgwick
:[[1910]] [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]] shows that genes reside on chromosomes
:[[1913]] [[Alfred Sturtevant]] makes the first genetic map of a chromosome
:[[1913]] [[Gene map]]s show chromosomes containing linear arranged genes
:[[1918]] [[Ronald Fisher]] publishes ''On the correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian inheritance'' - the [[modern synthesis]] starts.
:[[1927]] Physical changes in genes are called [[mutation]]s
:[[1928]] [[Frederick Griffith]] discovers a hereditary molecule that is transmissible between bacteria (see [[Griffiths experiment]])
:[[1931]] [[Crossing over]] is the cause of [[recombination]] (see [[Barbara McClintock]] and [[cytogenetics]])
:[[1941]] [[Edward Lawrie Tatum]] and [[George Wells Beadle]] show that genes code for [[protein]]s; see the original [[central dogma of genetics]]
:[[1944]] [[Oswald Theodore Avery]], [[Colin McLeod]] and [[Maclyn McCarty]] isolate [[DNA]] as the genetic material (at that time called [[transforming principle]])
:[[1950]] [[Erwin Chargaff]] shows that the four nucleotides are not present in nucleic acids in stable proportions, but that some general rules appear to hold (e.g., that the amount of adenine, A, tends to be equal to that of thymine, T). [[Barbara McClintock]] discovers [[transposon]]s in [[maize]]
:[[1952]] The [[Hershey-Chase experiment]] proves the genetic information of [[phage]]s (and all other organisms) to be DNA
:[[1953]] DNA structure is resolved to be a double [[helix]] by [[James D. Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]], with the help of [[Rosalind Franklin]]
:[[1956]] [[Jo Hin Tjio]] and [[Albert Levan]] established the correct [[chromosome]] number in humans to be 46
:[[1958]] The [[Meselson-Stahl experiment]] demonstrates that DNA is [[semiconservative replication|semiconservatively replicated]]
:[[1961]] The [[genetic code]] is arranged in triplets
:[[1964]] [[Howard Temin]] showed using [[RNA virus]]es that Watson's [[central dogma]] is not always true
:[[1970]] [[Restriction enzymes]] were discovered in studies of a bacterium, ''Haemophilius influenzae'', enabling scientists to cut and paste DNA
:[[1977]] DNA is [[sequencing|sequenced]] for the first time by [[Fred Sanger]], [[Walter Gilbert]], and [[Allan Maxam]] working independently. Sanger's lab complete the entire genome of sequence of [[Bacteriophage]] [[Phi-X174 phage|&Phi;-X174;]].
:[[1983]] [[Kary Banks Mullis]] discovers the [[polymerase chain reaction]] enabling the easy amplification of DNA
:[[1985]] [[Alec Jeffreys]] discovers genetic finger printing.
:[[1989]] The first human gene is sequenced by [[Francis Collins]] and [[Lap-Chee Tsui]]. It encodes the [[CFTR]] protein. Defects in this gene cause [[cystic fibrosis]]
:[[1995]] The genome of ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]'' is the first genome of a free living organism to be sequenced
:[[1996]] Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the first [[eukaryote]] genome sequence to be released
:[[1998]] The first genome sequence for a multicellular eukaryote, ''[[C. elegans]]'' is released
:[[2001]] First draft sequences of the human genome are released simultaneously by the [[Human Genome Project]] and [[Celera Genomics]].
:[[2003]] ([[14 April]]) Successful completion of Human Genome Project with 99% of the genome sequenced to a 99.99% [[accuracy]] [http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/externe/English/Actualites/Presse/HGP/HGP_press_release-140403.pdf]
==Areas of genetics==
===Classical genetics===
:''Main articles:'' [[Classical genetics]], [[Mendelian inheritance]]
Classical genetics consists of the techniques and methodologies of [[genetics]] that predate the advent of [[molecular biology]]. After the discovery of the [[genetic code]] and such tools of [[Clone (genetics)|cloning]] as [[restriction enzyme]]s, the avenues of investigation open to geneticists were greatly broadened. Some classical genetic ideas have been supplanted with the mechanistic understanding brought by molecular discoveries, but many remain intact and in use, such as [[Mendelian inheritance|Mendel's laws]]. Patterns of inheritance still remain a useful tool for the study of [[genetic disease]]s.
===Behavioral genetics===
:''Main article:'' [[Behavioural genetics]] (British spelling)
Behavioral genetics studies the influence of varying genetics on animal behavior.
===Clinical genetics===
{{main|Clinical genetics}}
[[Physician]]s who are trained as Geneticists diagnose, treat, and counsel patients with [[genetic disorder]]s or [[syndrome]]s.
These doctors are typically trained in a genetics [[Residency (medicine)|residency]] and/or [[fellowship]]. Although many are [[pediatrician]]s, some are not.
===Molecular genetics===
{{main|Molecular genetics}}
Molecular genetics builds upon the foundation of classical genetics but focuses on the structure and function of [[gene|genes]] at a [[Molecule | molecular]] level. Molecular genetics employs the methods of both classical genetics (such as [[hybridization]]) and [[molecular biology]]. It is so-called to differentiate it from other sub fields of genetics such as [[ecological genetics]] and [[population genetics]]. An important area within molecular genetics is the use of molecular information to determine the patterns of descent, and therefore the correct [[scientific classification]] of organisms: this is called [[molecular systematics]].
The study of inherited features not strictly associated with changes in the [[DNA]] sequence is called [[epigenetics]].
Some take the view that [[life]] can be defined, in [[molecule|molecular]] terms, as the set of strategies which [[RNA]] polynucleotides have used and continue to use to perpetuate themselves. This definition grows out of work on the [[origin of life]], specifically the [[RNA world hypothesis]].
===Population, quantitative and ecological genetics===
:''Main articles:'' [[Population genetics]], [[Quantitative genetics]], [[Ecological genetics]]
Population, quantitative and ecological genetics are all very closely related subfields and also build upon classical genetics (supplemented with modern molecular genetics). They are chiefly distinguished by a common theme of studying [[population]]s of organisms drawn from nature but differ somewhat in the choice of which aspect of the organism on which they focus. The foundational discipline is population genetics which studies the distribution of and change in [[allele frequency|allele frequencies]] of genes under the influence of the four evolutionary forces: [[natural selection]], [[genetic drift]], [[mutation]] and [[migration]]. It is the theory that attempts to explain such phenomena as [[adaptation (biology)|adaptation]] and [[speciation]].
The related subfield of quantitative genetics, which builds on population genetics, aims to predict the response to [[selection]] given data on the [[phenotype]] and relationships of individuals. A more recent development of quantitative genetics is the analysis of [[quantitative trait loci]]. Traits that are under the influence of a large number of genes are known as quantitative traits, and their mapping to a location on the [[chromosome]] requires accurate phenotypic, pedigree and marker data from a large number of related individuals.
Ecological genetics again builds upon the basic principles of population genetics but is more explicitly focused on [[ecology|ecological]] issues. While molecular genetics studies the structure and function of genes at a molecular level, ecological genetics focuses on wild populations of organisms, and attempts to collect data on the ecological aspects of individuals as well as molecular markers from those individuals.
===Genomics===
{{main|Genomics}}
A more recent development is the rise of [[genomics]], which attempts the study of large-scale genetic patterns across the [[genome]] for (and in principle, all the DNA in) a given species. Genomics depends on the availability of whole genome sequences, and computational tools developed in the field of [[bioinformatics]] for analysis of large set of data.
===Closely-related fields===
The science |
o Western jurisprudence.
==Arbitrators==
Arbitrators are not bound by [[precedent]] and have great leeway in such matters as active participation in the proceedings, accepting [[evidence (law)|evidence]], questioning witnesses, and deciding appropriate remedies. Arbitrators may visit sites outside the hearing room, call [[expert witnesses]], seek out additional evidence, decide whether the parties may be represented by legal counsel, and perform many other actions not normally within the purview of a court. It is this great flexibility of action, combined with costs usually far below those of traditional litigation, which makes arbitration so attractive.
Arbitrators have wide latitude in crafting remedies in the arbitral decision, with the only real limitation being that they may not exceed the limits of their authority in their award. An example of exceeding arbitral authority might be awarding one party to a dispute the personal automobile of the other party when the dispute concerns the specific performance of a business-related contract.
It is open to the parties to restrict the possible awards that the abitrator can make. If this restriction requires a straight choice between the position of one party or the position of the other, then it is known as ''pendulum arbitration'' or ''final offer arbitration''. It is designed to encourage the parties to moderate their initial positions so as to make it more likely they receive a favourable decision.
No definitive statement can be made concerning the credentials or experience levels of arbitrators, although some jurisdictions have elected to establish standards for arbitrators in certain fields. Several independent organizations, such as the [[American Arbitration Association]], offer arbitrator training programs and thus in effect, credentials. Generally speaking, however, the credibility of an arbitrator rests upon reputation, experience level in arbitrating particular issues, or expertise/experience in a particular field. Arbitrators are generally not required to be members of the legal profession.
To ensure effective arbitration and to increase the general credibility of the arbitral process, arbitrators will sometimes sit as a panel, usually consisting of three arbitrators. Often the three consist of an expert in the legal area within which the dispute falls (such as contract law in the case of a dispute over the terms and conditions of a contract), an expert in the industry within which the dispute falls (such as the construction industry, in the case of a dispute between a homeowner and his general contractor), and an experienced arbitrator.
==Critics==
Critics of arbitration argue that contractual requirements to arbitrate can be unfair to employees or consumers who have no power to negotiate what is often a form contract. In these cases, the choice of arbiter may be spelled out in a contract. The arbitration panel may contain industry experts who may be more sympathetic to the industry than to the individual. Also, some have argued that the fact that an arbitration company may handle many cases for a corporation while an individual rarely goes through arbitration twice may bias the arbitrators in favor of the company. On this note, many arbitration companies have these corporations as their sole source of income, further biasing their judgments. The fact that most arbitral procedures are not public, and that there may be no provision for an individual to be represented by counsel, may also work to the disadvantage of the individual. These potential disadvantages make the ethics and professionalism of arbitrators even more important.
Arbitration in the U.S. has also been criticized because of the unavailability of appellate review. Although the New York and federal arbitration laws were based on the English arbitration law of 1898, they omitted the English provision permitting for de novo review of questions of law. Thus, American courts can overturn arbitral rulings only for extremely gross procedural errors that violate [[due process]], but cannot reverse most substantive errors.
Unlike judicial opinions, arbitration opinions are often confidential. As a result, the law relating to activities (such as reinsurance contracts and certain types of securities industry disputes) where contracts to arbitrate are widespread may develop more slowly because the usual process of creating [[precedent]] is not available.
==Arbitration on TV==
The "judge shows" that have become popular in many countries, especially the [[United States]], are actually binding arbitration. The most famous example is ''[[The People's Court]]''.
==References==
* Jerold S. Auerbach, ''Justice Without Law?: Non-Legal Dispute Settlement in American History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983).
* Mark J. Astarita, Esq., ''Introduction to Securities Arbitration'' (SECLaw.com, 2000 - [http://www.seclaw.com/arbover.htm www.seclaw.com/arbover.htm])
==Other uses in Pop Culture==
"Arbiter" is the name of a class of [[Protoss]] [[warships]] manned by [[Judicators]] in the PC game [[Starcraft]].
The Arbiter is one of the main characters in the game [[Halo 2]].
The Arbitrator is a class of Amarr cruiser in the MMORPG [[EVE Online]].
==See also==
* [[Conciliation]]
* [[Dispute resolution]]
* [[Expert determination]]
* [[Mediation]]
* [[Negotiation]]
*[[Special referee]]
* [[Subrogation]]
* [[Tort reform]]
For the relevant [[Conflict of Laws]] elements, see [[contract (conflict)|contract]], [[forum selection clause]], [[choice of law clause]], [[proper law]], and ''[[lex loci arbitri]]''
==External links==
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Arbitration_Committee Wikipedia:Arbitration Committee], [[Wikipedia]]'s final step in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Resolving_disputes dispute resolution]
* [http://www.great-legal-advice.com/arbitration-mediation/arbitration/about-arbitrators.htm Arbitrator]
*[http://www.adr.org American Arbitration Association's Home Page]
*[http://www.arbitrators.org Chartered Institute of Arbitrators (UK, elsewhere) Web Site]
*[http://www.arbitration.ie Chartered Institute of Arbitrators (Irish Branch)]
*[http://www.arbitrator.com Arbitrator.com]
*[http://www.arb-forum.com National Arbitration Forum]
*[http://www.euro-arbitration.org euro-arbitration.org]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Legal occupations]]
[[Category:Labor]]
[[Category:Dispute resolution]]
[[Category:Organizational studies and human resource management]]
[[Category:Labour relations]]
[[Category:Business law]]
[[Category:Professions|Arbitration]]
[[ar:تحكيم]]
[[de:Schiedsverfahren]]
[[it:Arbitrato]]
[[he:בוררות]]
[[nl:Arbitrage (in conflict)]]
[[th:อนุญาโตตุลาการ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adversarial system</title>
<id>2598</id>
<revision>
<id>40615442</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T21:15:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BDAbramson</username>
<id>196446</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Criticisms of the adversarial system */ recat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimPro}}
The '''adversarial system''' (or '''adversary system''') of law is the system of law, generally adopted in [[common law]] countries, that relies on the skill of the different [[jurist|advocate]]s representing their party's positions and not on some neutral party, usually the [[judge]], trying to ascertain the truth of the case. The [[inquisitorial system]] that is usually found on the continent of Europe among [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems (ie. those deriving from the Roman or [[Napoleonic Code]]s) has a judge or a group of judges who work together whose task is to investigate the case before them.
Judges in an adversarial system tend to be more interested in ensuring the fair play of [[due process]], or [[fundamental justice]]. Such judges decide, often when called upon by counsel rather than of their own motion, what [[evidence (law)|evidence]] is to be admitted when there is a dispute; though in some common law jurisdictions judges play more of a role in deciding what evidence to admit into the record or reject. At worst, abusing [[judicial discretion]] would actually pave the way to a biased decision rendering obsolete the judicial process in question &mdash; [[rule of law]] being illicitly subordinated by [[rule of man]] under such discriminating circumstances.
The rules of evidence are also developed based upon the system of objections of adversaries and on what basis it may tend to prejudice the [[trier of fact]] which may be the judge or the jury. In a way the rules of evidence can function to give a judge limited inquisitorial powers as the judge may exclude evidence he/she believes is not trustworthy or irrelevant to the legal issue at hand.
Peter Murphy in his [[Practical Guide to Evidence]] recounts an instructive example. A frustrated judge in an English (adversarial) court finally asked a barrister after witnesses had produced conflicting accounts, 'Am I never to hear the truth?' 'No, my lord, merely the evidence', replied counsel.
The name adversary system may be misleading in that it implies it is only within this type of system in which there are opposing prosecution and defense. This is not the case, and both modern adversary and inquisitiorial systems have the powers of the state separated between a prosecutor and the judge and allow the defendant the right to counsel. Indeed, the [[European Convention on Human Rights|European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms]] in Article 6 requires these features in the legal systems of its signatory states.
The right to counsel in criminal trials was initially not accepted in some adversarial systems. It was believed that the facts should speak for themselves, and that lawyers would just blur the matters. As a consequence, it was only in [[1836]] that Englan |
gy, let alone how specific situations inevitably resulted in deviations from ideology. Mussolini's policies drew on both the history of the Italian nation and the philosophical ideas of the 19th century. What resulted was neither logical nor well defined, to the extent that Mussolini defined it as "action and mood, not doctrine".
Nonetheless, certain ideas are clearly visible. The most obvious is nationalism. The last time Italy had been a great nation was under the banner of the [[Roman Empire]] and Italian nationalists always saw this as a period of glory. Given that even other European nations with imperial ambitions had often invoked ancient Rome in their foreign policy, architecture and vocabulary, it was perhaps inevitable that Mussolini would do the same. This included creating a new Roman empire, demolishing medieval Rome to create grand vistas of ancient monuments (eg connecting [[Piazza Venezia]] and the [[Colosseum]] with the [[Via dei Fori Imperiali]]), co-opting original sites (eg the [[Ara Pacis]]) and using ancient Roman architectural styles, with or without a modern twist (eg the [[Museum of Roman Civilization]] at the [[Esposizione Universale Roma|EUR]]).
Following the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]], Italy had not again been united until its final [[Italian unification|unification]] in 1870. Mussolini desired to affirm an Italian national identity and therefore saw the unification as the first step towards returning Italy to greatness and often exploited the unification and the achievements of leading figures such as [[Garibaldi]] to induce a sense of Italian national pride.
The Fascist cult of national rebirth through a strong leader has roots in the [[Romanticism|romantic movement]] of the 19th century, as does the glorification of war. For example, the loss of the war with [[Abyssinia]] had been a great humiliation to Italians and consequently it was the first place targeted for Italian expansion under Mussolini.
Not all ideas of fascism originated from the 19th century. For example, the use of systematic [[propaganda]] to pass on simple slogans such as "believe, obey, fight" and Mussolini's use of the [[radio]] both were techniques developed in the 20th century under the influence of the artistic and literary movement called [[futurism]]. Futurism was an early twentieth century intellectual movement in Italy which forcefully emphasized three main ideas: ''technology'', ''speed'', and ''violence''. Similarly, Mussolini's corporate state was a distinctly 20th-century creation.
==Nazism and Fascism==
{{main|Nazism}}
[[Image:Hitlermusso.jpg|thumb|[[Benito Mussolini]] giving the [[Roman salute]] standing next to [[Adolf Hitler]]]]
The extent and nature of the affinity between Fascism and Nazism has been the subject of much
academic debate. Although the modern consensus sees Nazism as a type or offshoot of fascism, there are some experts who still argue that Nazism is ''not'' fascism, either on the grounds that the differences are too great, or because they disagree that fascism can be generic.
===Differences===
Nazism differed from Fascism proper in the emphasis on the state's purpose in serving its national ideal on the basis of a national race, specifically the [[social engineering (political science)|social engineering]] of [[culture]] to the ends of the greatest possible prosperity for German race at the expense of all else and all others. In contrast, Mussolini's Fascism held that cultural factors existed to serve the state, and that it wasn't necessarily in the state's interest to serve or engineer any of these particulars within its sphere. The only [[purpose of government]] under Fascism was to uphold the state as supreme above all else, and for these reasons it can be said to have been a governmental [[statolatry]]. Where Nazism spoke of "Volk", Fascism talked of "State".
While Nazism was a [[Metapolitics|metapolitical]] ideology, seeing both party and government as a means to achieve an ideal condition for certain chosen people, fascism was a squarely anti-socialist form of [[statism]] that existed as an end in and of itself. The Nazi movement, at least in its overt ideology, spoke of class-based society as the enemy, and wanted to unify the racial element above established classes. The Fascist movement, on the other hand, sought to preserve the class system and uphold it as the foundation of established and desirable culture, although this is not to say that Fascists rejected the concept of [[social mobility]]. Indeed a central tenet of the Corporate State was [[meritocracy]]. This underlying theorem made the Fascists and National Socialists in the period between the two world wars sometimes see themselves and their respective political labels as at best partially exclusive of one another, and at worst diametrically opposed to one another. This seemed to be especially the case in 1934 when [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] the [[Austrofascism|Austrofascist]] leader of [[Austria]] was assassinated by Nazi [[Brown shirts]], on Hitler's orders in preparation for a planned [[Anschluss]], which prompted Mussolini to move troops to the Austrian-Italian border in readiness for war with Hitler.
===Similarities===
Nevertheless, despite these differences, [http://www.cf.ac.uk/hisar/people/kp/]Kevin Passmore (2002 p.62) observes:
<blockquote>There are sufficient similarities between Fascism and Nazism to make it worthwhile applying the concept of fascism to both. In Italy and Germany a movement came to power that sought to create national unity through the repression of national enemies and the incorporation of all classes and both genders into a permanently mobilized nation.</blockquote>
Hitler and Mussolini themselves recognised commonalities in their politics. The second part of Hitler's ''Mein Kampf'', "The National Socialistic Movement", first published in 1926, contains this passage:
<blockquote>I conceived the profoundest admiration for the great man south of the Alps, who, full of ardent love for his people, made no pacts with the enemies of Italy, but strove for their annihilation by all ways and means. What will rank Mussolini among the great men of this earth is his determination not to share Italy with the Marxists, but to destroy internationalism and save the fatherland from it. (p. 622)</blockquote>
==Anti-Communism==
{{main|Anti-Communism}}
Fascism and Communism are political systems that rose to prominence after World War I. Historians of the period between World War I and World War II such as [[E.H. Carr]] and [[Eric Hobsbawm]] point out that liberalism was under serious stress in this period and seemed to be a doomed philosophy. The success of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] resulted in a revolutionary wave across Europe. The socialist movement worldwide split into separate [[social democratic]] and [[Leninist]] wings. The subsequent formation of the [[Third International]] prompted serious debates within social democratic parties, resulting in supporters of the Russian Revolution splitting to form [[Communist Parties]] in most industrialized (and many non-industrialized) countries.
At the end of World War I, there were attempted socialist uprisings or threats of socialist uprisings throughout Europe, most notably in Germany, where the [[Spartacist uprising]], led by [[Rosa Luxemburg]] and [[Karl Liebknecht]] in January 1919, was eventually crushed. In Bavaria, Communists successfully overthrew the government and established the [[Munich Soviet Republic]] that lasted from 1918 to 1919. A short lived [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]] was also established under [[Béla Kun]] in 1919.
The Russian Revolution also inspired attempted revolutionary movements in Italy with a wave of factory occupations. Most historians view fascism as a response to these developments, as a movement that both tried to appeal to the working class and divert them from Marxism. It also appealed to capitalists as a bulwark against [[Bolshevism]]. Italian Fascism took power with the blessing of Italy's king after years of leftist-led unrest led many conservatives to fear that a communist revolution was inevitable.
Throughout Europe, numerous [[aristocracy|aristocrats]], [[conservative]] intellectuals, capitalists and industrialists lent their support to fascist movements in their countries that emulated Italian Fascism. In Germany, numerous right-wing nationalist groups arose, particularly out of the post-war [[Freikorps]], which were used to crush both the Spartacist uprising and the Munich Soviet.
With the worldwide [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s, it seemed that liberalism and the liberal form of capitalism were doomed, and Communist and fascist movements swelled. These movements were bitterly opposed to each other and fought frequently, the most notable example of this conflict being the [[Spanish Civil War]]. This war became a [[proxy war]] between the fascist countries and their international supporters &mdash; who backed [[Francisco Franco]] &mdash; and the worldwide Communist movement allied uneasily with [[anarchists]] and [[Trotskyists]] &mdash; who backed the [[Popular Front]] &mdash; and were aided chiefly by the Soviet Union.
Initially, the Soviet Union supported a coalition with the western powers against Nazi Germany and popular fronts in various countries against domestic fascism. This policy was largely unsuccessful due to the distrust shown by the western powers (especially Britain) towards the Soviet Union. The [[Munich Agreement]] between Germany, [[France]] and Britain heightened Soviet fears that the western powers were endeavoring to force them to bear the brunt of a war against Nazism. The lack of eagerness on the part of the British during diplomatic negotiations with the Soviets served to make the situation even worse. The Soviets changed their policy and negotiated a [[no |
]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวแท่นบูชา]]
[[zh:天坛座]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Auriga</title>
<id>1928</id>
<revision>
<id>39870436</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T12:46:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Auriga''' can refer to:
*[[Auriga (constellation)|A constellation of stars]]
*[[Auriga (slave)|A Roman slave chauffeur]]
*[[Alien: Resurrection|A spaceship in Alien: Resurrection]]
{{disambig}}
[[ca:Auriga]]
[[es:Auriga]]
[[it:Auriga]]
[[pl:Woźnica (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Auriga]]
[[sv:Auriga]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arkansas</title>
<id>1930</id>
<revision>
<id>42066997</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:11:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ScottMainwaring</username>
<id>288266</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
----
{{US Confederate state |
Name = Arkansas |
Fullname = State of Arkansas |
Flag = Flag of Arkansas.svg |
Flaglink = [[Flag of Arkansas]] |
Seal = Arkansasstateseal.jpg |
Map = Map_of_USA_highlighting_Arkansas.png |
Nickname = The Natural State |
Capital = [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] |
OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] |
LargestCity = [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] |
Governor = [[Mike Huckabee|Mike Huckabee]] (R)|
Senators = [[Blanche Lincoln]] (D)
[[Mark Pryor]] (D) |
PostalAbbreviation = AR |
TradAbbreviation = Ark. |
AreaRank = 29<sup>th</sup> |
TotalArea = 137&nbsp;732 |
LandArea = 134&nbsp;856 |
WaterArea = 2876 |
PCWater = 2.09 |
PopRank = 33<sup>rd</sup> |
2004Pop = 2,752,629 |
DensityRank = 34<sup>th</sup> |
2000Density = 19.82 |
AdmittanceOrder = 25<sup>th</sup> |
AdmittanceDate = [[June 15]], [[1836]] |
SecessionDate = [[May 6]], [[1861]] |
ReadmittanceDate = [[June 22]], [[1868]] |
TimeZone = [[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-6/[[Daylight saving time|DST]]-5 |
Latitude = 33°N to 36°30'N |
Longitude = 89°41'W to 94°42'W |
Width = 385 |
Length = 420 |
HighestElev = 839 |
MeanElev = 198 |
LowestElev = 17 |
ISOCode = US-AR |
TradAbbrev = Ark |
Website = www.state.ar.us
}}
'''Arkansas''' ([[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|/ˈɑ(r)k(ə)nˌsɑː/}} or {{IPA|/ˈɑ(r)k(ə)nˌsɔ/}}) is a [[U.S. Southern States|Southern]] [[U.S. state|state]] in the [[United States]]. The population according to the [[United States Census, 2004|2004 census]] was 2,752,629. It was admitted as the 25th state of the United States in 1836.
==History==
The early French explorers of the state gave it its name, which is probably a phonetic spelling for the French word for "downriver" people, a reference to the [[Quapaw]] people and the river along which they settled. Other [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] nations living in present-day Arkansas were [[Caddo]], [[Cherokee]] and [[Osage]] Nations.
On [[June 15]], [[1836]], Arkansas became the 25th state of the [[United States]] as a [[slave state]]. Arkansas refused to join the [[Confederate States of America]] until after [[Abraham Lincoln]] called for troops to invade South Carolina. It seceded from the Union on May 6, 1861. The state was the scene of numerous small-scale battles during the [[American Civil War]]. Under the Military Reconstruction Act, Congress, in June 1868, readmitted Arkansas.
===Historical references===
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3070180 Blair, Diane D. ''Arkansas Politics & Government: Do the People Rule?'' (1998)]
*Deblack, Thomas A. ''With Fire and Sword: Arkansas, 1861-1874'' (2003)
*Donovan, Timothy P. and Willard B. Gatewood Jr., eds. ''The Governors of Arkansas'' (1981)
*Dougan, Michael B. ''Confederate Arkansas'' (1982),
*Duvall, Leland. ed., ''Arkansas: Colony and State'' (1973)
*Fletcher, John Gould. ''Arkansas'' (1947)
*Hanson, Gerald T. and Carl H. Moneyhon. ''Historical Atlas of Arkansas'' (1992)
*Key, V. O. ''Southern Politics'' (1949), chapter on Arkansas
*Moore, Waddy W. ed., ''Arkansas in the Gilded Age, 1874-1900'' (1976).
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=52694010 Peirce, Neal R. ''The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States'' (1974)] solid reporting on politics and economics 1960-72
*Thompson, George H. ''Arkansas and Reconstruction'' (1976)
*Whayne, Jeannie M. et al. ''Arkansas: A Narrative History '' (2002)
*Whayne, Jeannie M. ''Arkansas Biography: A Collection of Notable Lives'' (2000)
*White, Lonnie J. ''Politics on the Southwestern Frontier: Arkansas Territory, 1819-1836'' (1964)
===Primary sources===
*Williams, C. Fred. ed. ''A Documentary History Of Arkansas'' (2005)
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=59509893 WPA., ''Arkansas: A Guide to the State'' (1941)]
==Law and government==
[[Image:LR capitol.jpg|thumb|right|The Arkansas State Capitol.]]
The current governor of Arkansas is [[Mike Huckabee]], a [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]. Huckabee, who had been elected lieutenant governor in a [[1993]] special election, became governor in [[1996]] when Governor [[Jim Guy Tucker]], a [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]], was convicted as part of the [[Whitewater Scandal]]. This led to a state "Constitutional crisis" when Tucker refused to give up the governor's office for a short period of time, because the Arkansas Constitution does not allow a convicted felon to be governor of the state. Tucker had been lieutenant governor under [[Bill Clinton]] and had become governor as a result of Clinton's election to the presidency.
Arkansas' two U.S. Senators are Democrats [[Blanche Lincoln]] and [[Mark Pryor]]. The state has four seats in House of Representatives. Three seats are held by Democrats&mdash;[[Marion Berry]] ([http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/preview/congdist/ar01_109.gif map]), [[Vic Snyder]] ([http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/preview/congdist/ar02_109.gif map]), and [[Mike Ross]] ([http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/preview/congdist/ar04_109.gif map]). One seat is held by the state's lone Republican Congressman, [[John Boozman]] ([http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/preview/congdist/ar03_109.gif map]). The Democratic Party holds [[super-majority]] status in the [[Arkansas General Assembly]]. Republicans actually lost seats in the State House in 2004. A majority of local and statewide offices are also held by Democrats. This arrangement is extremely rare in the modern [[U.S. Southern States|South]], where a majority of statewide offices are held by Republicans.
Most Republican strength lies mainly in northwest Arkansas in the area around [[Fort Smith, Arkansas|Fort Smith]], while the rest of the state is strongly Democratic. Arkansas has only elected one Republican to the United States Senate since [[Reconstruction]] and the Arkansas General Assembly has not been controlled by the Republican Party since Reconstruction, and is the fourth most Democratic Legislature in the country, after [[Massachusetts General Court|Massachusetts]], [[Hawaii State Legislature|Hawaii]], and [[Connecticut General Assembly|Connecticut]]. Arkansas is also the only state among the states of the former [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] that sends two Democrats to the U.S. Senate. However, the state is perceived as generally being conservative &ndash; its voters passed a ban on [[gay marriage]] and Arkansas is one of a handful of states that has legislation on its books banning [[abortion]] in the event [[Roe vs. Wade]] is ever overturned.
In Arkansas, the lieutenant governor is elected separately from the governor and thus can be from a different political party.
Each office's term is four years long. Office holders are [[term-limited]] to two full terms plus any partial terms prior to the first full term.
Some of Arkansas' [[counties]] have two county seats, as opposed to the usual one seat. The arrangement dates back to when travel was extremely difficult in the states. The seats are usually on opposite sides of the county. Though travel is no longer the difficulty it once was, there are few efforts to eliminate the two seat arrangement where it exists, since the county seat is a source of pride (and jobs) to the city involved.
''See: [[List of Arkansas Governors]]''
===Pronunciation and symbols===
The state is the only one with a pronunciation specified by law.
Section 105 of Chapter 4 of Title 1 of the Arkansas code<sup>[http://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/NXT/gateway.dll/ARCode/title00000.htm/chapter00063.htm/section00068.htm?f=templates$fn=document-frame.htm$3.0#JD_1-4-105]</sup> determined in 1881 the official, codified pronunciation of Arkansas: "It should be pronounced in three (3) syllables, with the final "s" silent, the "a" in each syllable with the Italian sound, and the accent on the first and last syllables." The same section states that the variation ''are-KAN-sas'' "is an innovation to be discouraged."
There are differing abbreviations of ''Arkansas'' in use: '''AR''' ([[U.S. postal abbreviations|postal]]),
'''Ark.''' ([[List of U.S. states by traditional abbreviation|traditional]] and [[AP Stylebook]]), and '''US-AR''' ([[ISO 3166-2]]).
The following [[Lists of U.S. state insignia|state symbol]]s are officially recognized by the state law.
*State American Folk Dance: [[Square Dance]]
*State Anthem: ''[[Arkan |
ght:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEF3</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEF3;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[yāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|y}} / {{ArabDIN|ī}}
|{{IPA|[j]}} / {{IPA|[iː]}}
|}
Letters lacking an initial or medial version are never tied to the following letter, even within a word. As to '''{{Ar|ﺀ}}''' ''hamza'', it has only a single graphic, since it is never tied to a preceding or following letter. However, it is sometimes 'seated' on a waw, ya or alif, and in that case the seat behaves like an ordinary waw, ya or alif.
====Modified letters====
The following are not actual letters, but rather different orthographical shapes for letters.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!rowspan="2"|General<br />Unicode
!colspan="4"|Conditional forms
!rowspan="2"|Name
!rowspan="2"|Translit.
!rowspan="2"|Phonetic Value (IPA)
|-
!Isolated
!Final
!Medial
!Initial
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0622</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0622;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE81</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE81;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE82</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE82;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE" colspan="2"|—
|{{ArabDIN|ʼalif madda}}
|{{ArabDIN|ʼā}}
|{{IPA|[ʔæː]}}
|- align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0629</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0629;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE93</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE93;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FE94</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFE94;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE" colspan="2"|—
|{{ArabDIN|tāʼ marbūṭa}}
|{{ArabDIN|h}} or {{ArabDIN|t}} / <sup><small>h</small></sup> / {{Unicode|ẗ}}
|{{IPA|[ɛ&#x308;]}}, {{IPA|[ɛ&#x308;t]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0649</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0649;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEEF</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEEF;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEF0</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEF0;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE" colspan="2"|—
|{{ArabDIN|ʼalif maqṣūra}} (Arabic)<br />(see note below)
|{{ArabDIN|ā}} / {{Unicode|ỳ}}
|{{IPA|[ɛ&#x308;]}}
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>06CC</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x06CC;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEEF</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEEF;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEF0</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEF0;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEF4</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEF4;}}</font>
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>FEF3</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEF3;}}</font>
|{{ArabDIN|yeh}} (Farsi, Urdu)<br />(see note below)
|{{ArabDIN|ā}} / {{Unicode|ỳ}}
|{{IPA|[ɛ&#x308;]}}
|}
;Notes:
The {{ArabDIN|ʼalif maqṣūra}}, commonly using Unicode 0x0649 ({{Ar|ى}}) in Arabic, is sometimes replaced in [[Persian language|Persian]] or Urdu, with Unicode 0x06CC (ی), called "Farsi Yeh". This is appropriate to its pronunciation in those languages. The glyphs are identical in isolated and final form (ﻯ ﻰ), but not in initial and medial form, in which the Farsi Yeh gains two dots below (ﻳ ﻴ) while the {{ArabDIN|ʼalif maqṣūra}} has neither an initial nor a medial form.
====Ligatures====
The only compulsory ligature is ''{{ArabDIN|lām}}'' + ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}''. All other ligatures (''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}''+''{{ArabDIN|mīm}}'', etc.) are optional.
* (isolated) ''{{ArabDIN|lām}}'' + ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'' (''{{ArabDIN|lā}}'' {{IPA|[læː]}}) :
*: <span style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEFB;}}</font></span>
* (final) ''{{ArabDIN|lām}}'' + ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'' (''{{ArabDIN|lā}}'' {{IPA|[læː]}}) :
*: <span style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFEFC;}}</font></span>
[[Unicode]] has a special glyph for the ligature ''{{ArabDIN|llāh}}'', the post-vocalic form of ''{{ArabDIN|[[Allāh]]}}'' (“God”).
* U+FDF2 ARABIC LIGATURE ALLAH ISOLATED FORM:
*: <span style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"><font size="5">{{Ar|&#xFDF2;}} (image: [[Image:Allah_glyph.png|28px]])</font></span>
Combined with an initial ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'', this becomes full ''{{ArabDIN|allāh}}'' :
*: <span style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0627;&#xFDF2;}}</div>
The latter is a work-around for the shortcomings of most text processors, which are incapable of displaying the correct [[harakat|vowel marks]] for the word ''{{ArabDIN|[[Allāh]]}}'', because it should compose a small ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'' sign above a gemination ''{{ArabDIN|šadda}}'' sign). Compare the display of the composed equivalents below (the exact outcome will depend on your browser and font configuration):
* ''{{ArabDIN|lām}}'', (geminated) ''{{ArabDIN|lām}}'' (with implied short-a vowel), (vowel reversed) ''{{ArabDIN|hāʼ}}'' :
*: <span style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0644;&#x0644;&#x0647;}}</font></span>
* ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'', ''{{ArabDIN|lām}}'', (geminated) ''{{ArabDIN|lām}}'' (with implied short-a vowel), (vowel reversed) ''{{ArabDIN|hāʼ}}'' :
*: <span style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0627;&#x0644;&#x0644;&#x0647;}}</font></span>
=== Hamza ===
{{main|hamza}}
Initially, the letter ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'' indicated an occlusive glottal, or glottal stop, transcribed by {{IPA|[ʔ]}}, confirming the alphabet came from the same [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] origin. Now it is used in the same manner as in other [[abjad]]s, with ''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}'' and ''{{ArabDIN|wāw}}'', as a ''mater lectionis'', that is to say, a consonant standing in for a long vowel (see below). In fact, over the course of time its original consonantal value has been obscured, since ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'' now serves either as a long vowel or as graphic support for certain diacritics (madda or hamza).*****
The Arabic alphabet now uses the ''[[hamza]]'' to indicate a [[glottal stop]], which can appear anywhere in a word. This letter, however, does not function like the others: it can be written alone or on a support in which case it becomes a diacritic:
* alone: {{Ar|ء}} ;
* with a support: {{Ar|إ, أ}} (above and under a ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}''), {{Ar|ؤ}} (above a ''{{ArabDIN|wāw}}''), {{Ar|ئ}} (above a dotless ''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}'' or ''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ hamza}}'').
=== Diacritics ===
====Shadda====
{{main|shadda}}
''{{ArabDIN|šadda}}'' ( {{Ar|&#x0651;}}<sup><small style="color:#CCCCCC">&#x25CC;</small></sup> ) marks the [[gemination]] (doubling) of a consonant; an {{ArabDIN|kasra}} ( {{Ar|&#x0650;}}<sup><small style="color:#CCCCCC">&#x25CC;</small></sup> ) vowel sign (when present) moves to between the geminate (doubled) consonant and ''{{ArabDIN|šadda}}''.
The w-shaped ''{{ArabDIN|šadda}}'' glyph above the second consonnant that it geminates, is in fact the begining of a small ''{{ArabDIN|šīn}}'' letter.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!General<br />Unicode
!Name
!Translit.
!Phonetic Value (IPA)
|-align="center"
|style="line-height:180%;padding:10px;"|<small>0651</small><br /><font size="5">{{Ar|&#x0651;}}<sup><small style="color:#CCCCCC">&#x25CC;</small></sup></font>
|{{ArabDIN|[[Shadda|šadda]]}}
|(consonnant doubled)
|{{IPA|[&#x25CC;&#x25CC;]}}
|}
====''Sukūn'' and ''ʼalif'' above====
An Arabic syllable can be open (ended by a vowel) or closed (ended by a consonant).
* open: CV[consonant-vowel] (long or short vowel)
* closed: CVC (short vowel only)
When the syllable is closed, we can indicate that the consonant that closes it does not carry a vowel by marking it with a sign called ''{{ArabDIN|sukūn}}'' ({{ar|ْ}}) to remove any ambiguity, especially when the text is not vocalised: it's necessary to remember that a standard text is only composed of series of consonants; thus, the word ''{{ArabDIN|qalb}}'', "heart", is written ''{{ArabDIN|qlb}}''.
''{{ArabDIN|Sukūn}}'' allows us to know where not to place a vowel: ''{{ArabDIN|qlb}}'' could, in effect, be read ''/qVlVbV/'', but written with a ''sukūn'' over the ''{{ArabDIN|l}}'' and the ''{{ArabDIN|b}}'', it can only be interpreted as the form ''/qVlb/''; we write this {{Ar|قلْبْ}}. This is one stage from full vocalization, where the ''a'' vowel would also be indicated b |
University''' is an institution of higher learning located in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]]. The school was founded in [[1891]] by [[Anthony J. Drexel]], a noted [[financier]] and [[philanthropist]]. The current president is [[Constantine Papadakis]].
==History==
[[Image:Drexel Main Building.jpg|thumb|left|The Main Building, dedicated in 1891.]]Drexel University was founded in 1891 as the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry by Philadelphia financier and philanthropist Anthony J. Drexel to provide educational opportunities in the “practical arts and sciences” for women and men of all backgrounds. The Drexel Institute of Technology gained university status in 1970, becoming Drexel University. On July 1, 2002, Drexel was officially united with the former MCP Hahnemann University. Drexel has also recently begun work on a new Law School, which will open in the autumn of 2006.
<br clear="all">
==Academics==
[[Image:Drexel-logo.gif|right|Drexel University Logo]]
Drexel University is known for its engineering school, which includes The Drexel Engineering Curriculum, or "tDEC" for short. tDEC is a rigorous series of online and offline courses designed to prepare students for future engineering work. Each year more than one percent of the graduating engineers in the United States get their degree from Drexel.
===Colleges===
*Antoinette Westphal College of Media Arts & Design
*Bennett S. LeBow College of Business
*College of Arts and Sciences
*College of Engineering
*College of Information Science and Technology
*College of Law (opening Fall 2006)
*College of Medicine
*College of Nursing and Health Professions
*Goodwin College of Professional Studies
*Pennoni Honors College
===Schools===
*School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems
*School of Education
*School of Public Health
===Most popular majors===
*Business Administration: 2,187 enrolled
*General Information Systems: 650
*Mechanical Engineering: 600
*Computer Science: 537
*Biology: 385
</td>
<font color="skyblue" size="-1">Source: [http://www.drexel.edu/provost/ir/factbook/ Drexel University Factbook]</font>
==Branch campuses==
Drexel University's campus is divided into three parts: the University City Campus, the Center City Hanneman Campus, and the Queen Lane College of Medicine Campus. The latter two are recent acquisitions by the university.
==Co-op program==
Branded as the Ultimate Internship™, Drexel's cooperative education program is one of the largest in the nation. Drexel has a fully internet-based job database, where users can submit resumes and request interviews with any of the hundreds of companies that are offering positions. A student graduating from Drexel with a 5-year degree typically has a total of 18 months of internship with up to three different companies. Major co-op employers include:
*[[Sunoco|Sunoco Inc.]]
*[[GlaxoSmithKline]]
*[[Unisys Corporation]]
*[[Lockheed Martin]]
*[[Comcast Corporation]]
*[[Merck]]
*[[Dupont]]
*[[University of Pennsylvania]]
==Drexel Art==
Drexel maintains three art galleries on its main campus.
The Drexel Collection is housed in the Westphal Picture Gallery, on the third floor of the Main Building. The collection was established by the university's founder, [[Anthony J. Drexel]], who collected many types of art. The collection continued to receive donations after his death from family, friends, and alumni. The collection has a large variety of artifacts, including porcelains and furniture.
The Leonard Pearlstein Gallery is an aluminum and slate structure connected to Nesbitt Hall (the building for the College of Media Arts and Design) in which art exhibitions are frequently held. The slate side of the building is frequently covered with chalk messages about upcoming events.
==Residence Halls==
Drexel requires all non-commuting freshmen to live in one of the six (soon to be seven) freshmen residence halls. Kelly Hall, Myers Hall, Towers Hall, and Calhoun are traditional dormitories, while East Hall and Van Rensselaer are arranged into suites of 4-6 residents. East Hall and Van R. are currently designated for students of the Penonni Honors College. All dormitories except East Hall are located on the north side of campus, north of Arch Street, in the area of [[Powelton Village]]. Drexel's continued efforts to expand the university and the dormitories have brought them into conflict with the Powelton Village Community Association, which has attempted to block dormitory construction on several occasions.
For upperclassmen North Hall is the only on-campus housing available. Most students find apartments within Powelton Village. Academic Properties Inc., a subsidary of Drexel, offers apartments, and there are also apartments in the nearby University Crossings building, which was previously owned by [[Amtrak]] and used as office buildings.
==Drexel Achievement==
Drexel has been ranked among the "Best National Universities-Top Schools" by a U.S. News & World yearly report on "America's Best Colleges". The 2006 rankings (released in 2005) placed Drexel as 109th. Drexel and [[University of Pennsylvania|Penn]] are the only Philadelphia colleges in this category.
Drexel frequently ranks among the top 25 schools in the nation for technology use according to [[The Princeton Review]] and [[Intel|The Intel Corporation]], and was ranked first for wireless access by [[Yahoo!]].
The Math Forum@Drexel has been selected as one of the most useful websites by [[PC Magazine]] and [[Scientific American]].
The universities [[financial endowment|endowment]] is currently over $500 million, placing it 108th among all U.S. colleges and Universities. (data from The Chronicle of Higher Education 2002-03)
Drexel is the 18th largest private university in the U.S., with an enrollment of 17,500 students. (data from the National Center for Educational Statistics 2001-02).
==Student Newspaper==
[[Image:trianglelogo.jpg|150px|right]]
'''''The Triangle''''' is the independent student newspaper at Drexel University. Operation began in [[1926]], under the direction of students with University advisors functioning only to offer advice. Publication has been on a weekly schedule during the academic school year with bi-weekly publication during summer. The Triangle recently began publishing in color in [[2004]]. Notable former columnists include [[Chuck Barris]], creator of ''[[The Gong Show]]'' and subject of the movie ''[[Confessions of a Dangerous Mind]]''.
The current Editor-in-chief is Diana Stow.
==Sports==
<div style="float:right">
[[Image:Drexel.png]]<br />
<small>''Logo is a trademark<br /> of Drexel University''</small></div>
The school's sports teams are called the [[Drexel Dragons|Dragons]]. They participate in the [[NCAA]]'s Division I-A and the [[Colonial Athletic Association]].
Drexel participates in the following sports:
Men's:
*Basketball
*Crew
*Golf
*Lacrosse
*Soccer
*Swimming and Diving
*Tennis
*Wrestling
Women's:
*Basketball
*Crew
*Field Hockey
*Lacrosse
*Soccer
*Softball
*Swimming and Diving
*Tennis
==Student lore and traditions==
When students think they are being mistreated by the University, they often refer to it as getting the [[Drexel Shaft]]. The Drexel Shaft is also a smokestack structure on the rail yard next to the campus, and according to university legend the structure grows one more inch every time a student is shafted.
To receive good grades on exams, a myth is to rub the toe of the bronze "Waterboy" statue located in the Main Building on campus. Although the rest of the bronze statue has turned dark brown, the toe has become highly polished and shines.
==Trivia==
*Drexel University's campus is located right next to the [[University of Pennsylvania]] in [[University City, Pennsylvania|University City]], [[Philadelphia]].
*In the 2005 Princeton Review, under the category of "Campus Is Tiny, Unsightly, Or Both", Drexel was ranked 2nd. It is presently in the middle of several renovations to rectify this situation.
*A feature of the main quad is a water fountain bearing the ironic name "The Flame of Knowledge".
==Notable Alumni==
*[[Michael Anderson]]: [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] Player.
*[[Paul Baran]]: A founding father of the [[Internet]].
*[[Chuck Barris]]: Entertainer, creator of [[The Gong Show]].
*[[Michael Behe]]: A leading proponent of [[Intelligent Design]].
*[[Douglas Briggs]]: President of [[QVC]].
*George Campbell: President of [[Cooper Union|The Cooper Union]].
*[[Albert Carnesale]]: Chancellor of the [[University of California at Los Angeles]].
*[[Ruth Hale (feminist)]]: Fought for women's rights in 1920s; member of the [[Algonquin Round Table]].
*[[Jon "maddog" Hall]]: [[Open Source]] Developer and Advocate.
*Robert Hall: Publisher of ''[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]]'' and ''[[Philadelphia Daily News]]''.
*[[Bennett S. LeBow]]: Maverick CEO of the Vector Group and broker of the landmark tobacco settlement by corporate subsidiary Liggett & Myers.
*[[Peter Liacouras]]: Former president (18 years) of [[Temple University]].
*[[Peter Mafany Musonge]]: Prime minister of [[Cameroon]].
*[[Malik Rose]]: [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] Player.
*[[Joseph Woodland]]: Inventor of the [[bar code]] technology.
==External links==
*[http://www.drexel.edu www.drexel.edu (Drexel University homepage)]
*[http://www.drexeldragons.com www.drexeldragons.com (Official Drexel athletics site)]
*[http://www.dacpack.com www.dacpack.com (Official Basketball Student Section Site)]
*[http://www.library.drexel.edu/services/archives/campus_map/default.html Campus map, and images of buildings]
*[http://www.library.drexel.edu/archives/history/ Information about the history of Drexel University]
*[http://camille02.tripod.com/shaft.html The Goo |
phate in AD [[750]], Damascus was ruled from [[Baghdad]], although in AD [[858]] [[al-Mutawakkil]] briefly established his residence there with the intention of transferring his capital there from [[Samarra]]. However, he soon abandoned the idea. As the Abbasid caliphate declined, Damascus suffered from the prevailing instability, and came under the control of local dynasties. In [[875]] the ruler of Egypt, [[Ahmad ibn Tulun]], took the city, with Abbasid control being re-established only in [[905]]. In [[945]] the [[Hamdanids]] took Damascus, and not long after it passed into the hands of [[Muhammad bin Tughj]], founder of the [[Ikhshidid]] dynasty. In [[968]] and again in [[971]] the city was briefly captured by the [[Qaramita]].
===Fatimids, the Crusades and the Seljuks===
In [[970]] AD the [[Fatimid]] Caliphs in [[Cairo]] gained control of Damascus. This was to usher in a turbulent period in the city's history, as the Berber troops who formed the backbone of the Fatimid forces became deeply unpopular among its citizens. The presence in Syria of the Qaramita and occasionally of Turkish military bands added to the constant pressure from the [[Bedouin]]. For a brief period from [[978]], Damascus was self-governing, under the leadership of a certain [[Qassam]] and protected by a citizen militia. However, the Ghouta was ravaged by the Bedouin and after a Turkish-led campaign the city once again surrendered to Fatimid rule. From 1029 to 1041 the Turkish military leader [[Anushtakin]] was governor of Damascus under the Fatimid caliph [[al-Zahir]], and did much to restore the city's prosperity.
It appears that during this period the slow transformation of Damascus from a Graeco-Roman city layout - characterised by blocks of ''[[insulae]]'' — to a more familiar Islamic pattern took place: the grid of straight streets changed to a pattern of narrow streets, with most residents living inside ''harat'' closed off at night by heavy wooden gates to protect against criminals and the exactions of the soldiery.
With the arrival of the [[Seljuk Turks]] in the late 11th century, Damascus again became the capital of independent states. It was ruled by a Seljuk dynasty from 1079 to 1104, and then by another Turkish dynasty - the [[Burid Dynasty|Burid Emirs]], who withstood a [[Siege of Damascus|siege of the city]] during the [[Second Crusade]] in [[1148]]. In 1154 Damascus was conquered from the Burids by the famous [[Zengid Dynasty|Zengid]] Atabeg [[Nur ad-Din]] of [[Aleppo]], the great foe of the [[Crusade]]rs. He made it his capital, and following his death, it was acquired by [[Saladin]], the ruler of Egypt, who also made it his capital. Saladin rebuilt the citadel, and it is reported that under his rule the suburbs were as extensive as the city itself. It is reported by [[Ibn Jubayr]] that during the time of Saladin, Damascus welcomed seekers of knowledge and industrious youth from around the world, who arrived for the sake of "undistracted study and seclusion" in Damascus' many colleges.
In the years following Saladin's death, there were frequent conflicts between different [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid sultans]] ruling in Damascus and Cairo. [[Damascus steel]] gained a legendary reputation among the [[Crusade]]rs, and patterned steel is still "damascened". The patterned Byzantine and Chinese silks available through Damascus, one of the Western termini of the [[Silk Road]], gave the English language ''damask''.
[[Image:Azem Palace.JPG|thumb|left|280px|Azem Palace]]
===Mamluk rule===
Ayyubid rule (and independence) came to an end with the Mongol invasion of Syria in [[1260]], and Damascus became a provincial capital of the [[Mamelukes|Mamluk Empire]], ruled from Egypt, following the Mongol withdrawal.
===Timurlank===
In [[1400]] by [[Timur|Timurlank]], the [[Mongol]] conqueror, besieged Damascus. The Mamluk sultahn dispatched a deputation from Cairo, including [[Ibn Khaldun]], who negotiated with him, but after their withdrawal he put the city to sack. The Umayyad Mosque was burnt and men and women taken into slavery. A huge number of the city's artisans were taken to Timur's capital at [[Samarkand]]. These were the luckier citizens: many were slaughtered and their heads piled up in a field outside the north-east corner of the walls, where a city square still bears the name ''burj al-ruus'', originally "the tower of heads".
Rebuilt, Damascus continued to serve as a Mamluk provincial capital until [[1516]].
===The Ottoman conquest===
In early [[1516]], the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]], wary of the danger of an alliance between the Mamluks and the Persian [[Safavids]], started a campaign of conquest against the Mamluk sultanate. On [[21 September]], the Mamluk governor of Damascus fled the city, and on [[2 October]] the [[khutba]] in the Umayyad mosque was pronounced in the name of [[Selim I]]. The day after, the victorious sultan entered the city, staying for three months. On [[15 December]], he left Damascus by Bab al-Jabiya, intent on the conquest of Egypt. Little appeared to have changed in the city: one army had simply replaced another. However, on his return in October 1517, the sultan ordered the construction of a mosque, [[taqiyya]] and mausoleum at the shrine of Shaikh [[Ibn Arabi|Muhi al-Din ibn Arabi]] in Salihiyya. This was to be the first of Damascus' great Ottoman monuments.
The Ottomans remained for the next 400 years, except for a brief occupation by [[Ibrahim Pasha]] of [[Egypt]] from [[1832]] to [[1840]]. Because of its importance as the point of departure for one of the two great [[Hajj]] caravans to [[Mecca]], Damascus was treated with more attention by the [[Porte]] than its size might have warranted — for most of this period, [[Aleppo]] was more populous and commercially more important. In 1560 the Taqiyya al-Sulaimaniyya, a mosque and [[caravanserai|khan]] for pilgrims on the road to Mecca, was completed to a design by the famous Ottoman architect [[Sinan]], and soon afterwards a [[madrasa]] was built adjoining it.
Perhaps the most notorious incident of these centuries was the massacre of Christians in [[1860]], when fighting between [[Druze]] and [[Maronites]] in [[Mount Lebanon]] spilled over into the city. Some thousands of Christians were killed, with many more being saved through the intervention of the Algerian exile [[Abd al-Qadir]] and his soldiers, who brought them to safety in Abd al-Qadir's residence and the citadel. The Christian quarter of the old city, including a number of churches, was burnt down. The Christian inhabitants of the notoriously poor and refractory Midan district outside the walls were, however, protected by their Muslim neighbours.
===Rise of Arab nationalism===
In the early years of the twentieth century, nationalist sentiment in Damascus, initially cultural in its interest, began to take a political colouring, largely in reaction to the [[turkicisation]] programme of the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] government established in Istanbul in [[1908]]. The hanging of a number of patriotic intellectuals by [[Jamal Pasha]], governor of Damascus, in Beirut and Damascus in [[1915]] and [[1916]] further stoked nationalist feeling, and in [[1918]], as the forces of the [[Arab Revolt]] and the [[British army]] approached, residents fired on the retreating Turkish troops.
===Modern===
[[Image:Damascus-sunset.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Damascus at sunset]]
On [[1 October]] [[1918]], Australian soldiers from the 10th [[Light Horse]] Regiment entered Damascus and accepted the surrender of the city from the Turkish appointed Governor Emir Said (installed as Governor the previous afternoon by the retreating Turkish Commander). A military government under [[Shukri Pasha]] was named. Other British forces including [[T.E Lawrence]] followed later that day, and [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal ibn Abd Allah]] was proclaimed king of Syria. Political tension rose in November 1917, when the new [[Bolshevik]] government in [[Russia]] revealed the [[Sykes-Picot Agreement]] whereby Britain and France had arranged to partition the Arab east between them. A new Franco-British proclamation on 17 November promised the "complete and definitive freeing of the peoples so long oppressed by the Turks." The [[Syrian Congress]] in March adopted a democratic constitution. However, the [[Versailles Conference]] had granted [[France]] a [[League of Nations mandate|mandate]] over Syria, and in 1920 a French army crossed the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, defeated a small Syrian defensive expedition at the [[Battle of Maysalun]] and entered Damascus. The French made Damascus capital of their [[League of Nations]] Mandate of Syria.
When in [[1925]] the [[Druze]] revolt in the [[Hauran]] spread to Damascus, the French repressed it brutally, bombing and shelling the city. The area of the old city between Souq al-Hamidiyya and Souq Midhat Pasha was burned to the ground, with many deaths, and has since then been known as ''al-Hariqa'' ("the fire"). The old city was surrounded with barbed wire to prevent rebels infiltrating from the Ghouta, and a new road was built outside the northern ramparts to facilitate the movement of armoured cars.
In 1945 the French once more bombed Damascus, but on this occasion British forces intervened and the French agreed to withdraw, thus leading to the full independence of Syria in [[1946]]. Damascus remained the capital.
== Historical sites ==
[[Image:Damascus-Ananias chapel.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Ananias Chapel]]
Damascus has a wealth of historical sites dating back to many different periods of the city's history. Since the city has been built up with every passing occupation, it has become almost impossible to excavate all the ruins of Damascus that lie up to 8 feet below the modern level. The Citadel of Damascus is located in the northwest corner of the Old City. The ''street called straight'' (referred to in the conversion o |
iridium was used in [[1889]] to construct the standard [[metre]] bar and [[kilogram]] mass, kept by the [[Bureau International des Poids et Mesures|International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] near [[Paris]]. The metre bar was replaced as the definition of the fundamental unit of length in [[1960]] (see [[krypton]]), but the kilogram prototype is still the international standard of mass.
The [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event|KT event]] of 65 million years ago, marking the temporal border between the [[Cretaceous]] and [[Tertiary]] eras of [[Geologic Timescale|geological time]], was identified by a thin [[stratum]] of iridium-rich clay. A team led by [[Luis Alvarez]] ([[1980]]) proposed an extraterrestrial origin for this iridium, attributing it to an [[asteroid]] or [[comet]] impact near what is now [[Yucatan Peninsula]]. Their theory is widely accepted to explain the demise of the [[dinosaur]]s. Dewey M. McLean and others argue that the iridium may have been of [[volcano|volcanic]] origin instead. The [[Earth]]'s core is rich in iridium, and Piton de la Fournaise on [[Réunion]], for example, is still releasing iridium today.
== Occurrence ==
Iridium is found uncombined in nature with platinum and other platinum group metals in [[alluvium|alluvial]] deposits. Naturally occurring iridium alloys include [[osmiridium]] and [[iridiosmium]], both of which are mixtures of iridium and osmium. It is recovered commercially as a by-product from [[nickel]] mining and processing.
Iridium is rare on [[Earth]], but relatively common in [[meteorite]]s. <!-- Why is iridium rare on Earth?! -->
== Isotopes ==
There are two natural [[isotope]]s of iridium, and many [[radioisotope]]s, the most stable radioisotope being Ir-192 with a [[half-life]] of 73.83 days. Ir-192 [[beta decay]]s into platinum-192, while most of the other radioisotopes decay into osmium.
== Precautions ==
[[Image:Iridium_foil.jpg|thumb|Iridium foil]]
Iridium metal is mostly non-toxic due to its relative unreactivity, but iridium compounds should be considered highly toxic.
== References ==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/77.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Iridium]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Iridium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ir/index.html WebElements.com - Iridium]
*[http://www.pniok.de/ir.htm Picture in the element collection from Pniok.de]
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
[[Category:Precious metals]]
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[[ca:Iridi]]
[[cs:Iridium]]
[[de:Iridium]]
[[et:Iriidium]]
[[es:Iridio]]
[[eo:Iridio]]
[[fr:Iridium]]
[[ko:이리듐]]
[[io:Iridio]]
[[ia:Iridium]]
[[is:Iridín]]
[[it:Iridio]]
[[he:אירידיום]]
[[ku:Îrîdyûm]]
[[lv:Irīdijs]]
[[lt:Iridis]]
[[hu:Irídium]]
[[nl:Iridium (element)]]
[[ja:イリジウム]]
[[no:Iridium]]
[[nn:Iridium]]
[[oc:Iridi]]
[[pl:Iryd]]
[[pt:Irídio]]
[[ru:Иридий]]
[[sl:Iridij]]
[[sr:Иридијум]]
[[fi:Iridium]]
[[sv:Iridium]]
[[th:อิริเดียม]]
[[uk:Іридій]]
[[zh:铱]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>IOC (disambiguation)</title>
<id>14753</id>
<revision>
<id>39095180</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T18:06:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Junkermike</username>
<id>187023</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Change de</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The acronym '''IOC''' can have several meanings, depending on context:
*[[IBM Open Class]]
*[[Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission]]
*[[Icon of Coil]]
*[[Indian Oil Corporation]]
*Initial Operational Capability &ndash; Used e.g. for weapons systems
*[[I/O processor|Input/Output Controller]]
*[[International Olympic Committee]]
*[[Organized crime|International Organized Crime]]
*[[Inversion of Control]]
*[[Iron Ore Company of Canada]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:IOC (Begriffsklärung)]]</text>
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<page>
<title>ITU</title>
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<contributor>
<username>Thomas Blomberg</username>
<id>407237</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Telecommunication Union]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Wikipedia/Coordination</title>
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<timestamp>2004-07-13T23:07:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Snow</username>
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</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
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<title>International Wikipedia/Homepages</title>
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<username>Michael Snow</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination]]</text>
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<title>International Wikipedia/TextToTranslate</title>
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<timestamp>2004-02-17T13:56:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fabiform</username>
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<comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Translation into English]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>International Phonetic Alphabet</title>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Types of transcriptions */ dab "Pipe"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:<span class="dablink">'' "IPA" redirects here. For other uses, see [[IPA (disambiguation)]]. The [[NATO phonetic alphabet]] has also informally been called the "International Phonetic Alphabet."</span>
The '''International Phonetic Alphabet''' ('''IPA''') is a system of [[phonetic transcription|phonetic notation]] devised by linguists to accurately and uniquely represent each of the wide variety of sounds ([[phone]]s or [[phoneme]]s) used in spoken human language. It is intended as a notational standard for the [[Phoneme|phonemic]] and [[Phonetics|phonetic]] representation of all spoken languages.
For a treatment of the [[English language]] using the IPA, see [[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]]; for a brief chart, see [[IPA chart for English]].
[[Image:IPA chart 2005.png|thumb|400px|The International Phonetic Alphabet.]]
==History==
{{main |History of the International Phonetic Alphabet}}
==Description==
The general principle of the IPA is to provide a separate symbol for each [[speech segment]], avoiding letter combinations ([[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s) such as ''[[sh (digraph)|sh]]'' and ''[[th (digraph)|th]]'' in [[English orthography]], and avoiding ambiguity such as that of [[Pronunciation of English c|''c'' in English]].
===The principle of formation===
The IPA is what MacMahon (1996) has termed a "selective" phonetic alphabet. It aims to provide a separate symbol for every ''contrastive'' (that is, ''[[phonemic]]'') sound occurring in human language. For instance, a [[flap consonant|flap]] and a tap are two different articulations, but since no language has (yet) been found to make a phonemic distinction between them, the IPA does not provide them with dedicated symbols. Instead, it provides a single symbol,&nbsp;{{IPA|ɾ}}, that covers both. For ''non-contrastive'' (that is, ''[[phonetic]]'' or ''subphonemic'') details of these sounds, the IPA relies on [[diacritic]]s, which are optional. Thus there is a certain level of flexibility in representing a language with the IPA.
===Principles behind the symbols===
The letters chosen for the IPA are generally drawn from the [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] and [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] alphabets, or are modifications of Latin or Greek letters. There are also a few letters derived from Latin punctuation, such as the glottal stop {{IPA|ʔ}} (originally an [[apostrophe (mark)|apostrophe]], but later given the form of a "gelded" [[question mark]] to have the visual impact of the other consonants), and one, {{IPA|ʕ}}, although Latin in form, was inspired by [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] letter <ﻉ> ''`ain''. On the other hand, the original Latin-derived symbols for the [[click consonant|click]]s have been abandoned in favor of iconic [[Khoisan languages|Khoisanist]] symbols such as {{IPA|ǁ}}.
The sound-values of the [[consonant]]s taken from the [[Latin alphabet]] correspond to usage in French and Italian, and are close to those of most other European languages as well: {{IPA|[b]}}, {{IPA|[d]}}, {{IPA|[f]}}, {{IPA|[ɡ]}}, {{IPA|[k]}}, {{IPA|[l]}}, {{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}}, {{IPA|[p]}}, (unvoiced) {{IPA|[s]}}, {{IPA|[t]}}, {{IPA|[v]}}, {{IPA|[z]}}. English values are used for {{IPA|[h]}} and {{IPA|[w]}}.
The [[vowel]]s from the Latin alphabet ({{IPA|[a]}}, {{IPA|[e]}}, {{IPA|[i]}}, {{IPA|[o]}}, {{IPA|[u]}}) correspond to the vowels of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and are similar to [[Italian language|Italian]]. {{IPA|[i]}} is like the vowel in ''piece'', {{IPA|[u]}} like ''rule'', etc.
The other symbols from the Latin alphabet, {{IPA|[c]}}, {{IPA|[j]}}, {{IPA|[q]}}, {{IPA|[r]}}, {{IPA|[x]}}, and {{IPA|[y]}}, correspond to sounds these letters represent in various other languages. {{IPA|[j]}} has the Slavic and Germanic value of <j>, that of English ''y'' in ''yoke'';
{{IPA|[y]}} has the [[Scandinavian languages|Scandinavian]] and [[Old English language|Old English]] value: [[Finnish language|Finnish]] ''y'', [[German language|German]] |
d taken the Greeks under their "protection".
Following the end of the War and the independence of Greece, Constantine became an officer of the new Greek Navy reaching the rank of Admiral and later a politician.
==Political career==
Kanaris served as Minister in various governments and then as [[Prime Minister of Greece|Prime Minister]] from [[March 11]]- [[April 11]], [[1844]]. He served a second term ([[October 27]], [[1848]] &ndash; [[December 24]], [[1849]]) and a third ([[May 28]], [[1854]] &ndash; [[July 29]], [[1854]]). In [[1862]] he was one of the few War of Independence veterans that helped in the bloodless revolution that deposed King [[Otto of Greece]] and put Prince William of Denmark on the Greek throne as King [[George I of Greece]]. Under George I, he served as a prime minister for a fourth term ([[March 17]] &ndash; [[April 28]], [[1864]]), fifth term ([[August 7]], [[1864]] &ndash; [[February 9]], [[1865]]) and sixth and last term ([[June 7]] &ndash; [[September 2]], [[1877]]). Following his death his government remained in power until [[September 14]], [[1877]] without agreeing on a replacement at its head. He was buried in the First Cemetery of Athens, where most Greek prime ministers and celebrated figures are also buried. After his death he was honored as a national hero.
He is thought to be distantly related to [[Wilhelm Canaris]], head of the German [[Abwehr]] during [[World War II]], but the exact genealogical connection remains uncertain.
To honour Kanaris Hellenic Navy gave his name in [[18 December]] [[1941]] in Hunt III type destroyer the Kanaris L51 former [[HMS Hatherleigh]] transfered to Greece from Royal Navy, in [[1 July]] [[1972]] in a destroyer the [[USS Stickell_(DD-888)#HNS_Kanaris_(D-212)|HNS Kanaris (D 212)]] former [[USS Stickell (DD-888)]] and in [[29 November]] [[2002]] in a frigate [http://www.hellenicnavy.gr/frigates_s_en.asp FFG Kanaris (F 464)] a [[F-450 Elli|Elli (F 450)]] class frigate.
==External links==
*[http://www.nostos.com/greekrev/ Listed among other major figures of the Greek War of Independence]
*[http://www.grandlodge.gr/history.html The History of the Grand Lodge of Greece explains the origins of Philiki Etairia]
*[http://www.horus.ics.org.eg/html/modern_egypt_under_mohammad_ali.html Short profile of Mohammad Ali, Viceroy of Egypt]
*[http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/english/individuals/i4.html Short profile of Ibrahim Pasha]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Greece]]|before=[[Andreas Metaxas]]|after=[[Alexandros Mavrokordatos]]|years=[[March 11]] [[1844]] - [[April 11]] [[1844]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Greece]]|before=[[Georgios Kountouriotis]]|after=[[Antonios Kriezis]]|years=[[October 27]] [[1848]] - [[December 24]] [[1849]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Greece]]|before=[[Antonios Kriezis]]|after=[[Alexandros Mavrokordatos]]|years=[[May 28]] [[1854]] - [[July 29]] [[1854]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Greece]]|before=[[Dimitrios Voulgaris]]|after=[[Zinovios Valvis]]|years=[[March 17]] [[1864]] - [[April 28]] [[1864]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Greece]]|before=[[Zinovios Valvis]]|after=[[Benizelos Rouphos]]|years=[[August 7]] [[1864]] - [[February 9]] [[1865]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Greece]]|before=[[Alexandros Koumoundouros]]|after=[[Alexandros Koumoundouros]]|years=[[June 7]] [[1877]] - [[September 14]] [[1877]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:Greek War of Independence|Kanaris, Constantine]]
[[Category:Admirals|Kanaris, Constantine]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Greece|Kanaris, Constantine]]
[[Category:1795 births|Kanaris, Constantine]]
[[Category:1877 deaths|Kanaris, Constantine]]
[[el:Κωνσταντίνος Κανάρης]]
[[es: Konstantinos Kanaris]]
[[de:Konstantinos Kanaris]]
[[fr: Constantin Kanaris]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carl Sagan</title>
<id>6824</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42153705</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:19:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sir Paul</username>
<id>9449</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Popularization of science */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dr Carl Edward Sagan''' ([[November 9]] [[1934]] – [[December 20]] [[1996]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[astronomer]], astrobiologist and highly successful science popularizer. He pioneered [[Astrobiology|exobiology]] and promoted the Search for ExtraTerrestrial Intelligence ([[SETI]]). He is world-famous for his [[popular science]] books and the award-winning television series [[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage|''Cosmos'']], which he co-wrote and presented and eventually released as a [[Cosmos_(book)|book]]. He also wrote the novel [[Contact (novel)|''Contact'']], upon which the 1997 [[Contact (film)|film of the same name]] starring [[Jodie Foster]] was based. In his works, he frequently advocated the [[scientific method]].
==Education and scientific career==
Carl Sagan was born in [[Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]], [[New York]]{{ref|biographical}}. His parents were [[Jewish]]; his father, Sam Sagan, was a garment worker and his mother, Rachel Molly Gruber, was a housewife. Sagan attended the [[University of Chicago]], where he received a bachelor's degree (1955) and a master's degree (1956) in physics, before earning his doctorate (1960) in astronomy and astrophysics. During his time as an undergraduate, Sagan spent some time working in the laboratory of the geneticist [[Hermann Joseph Muller|H. J. Muller]]{{ref label|biographical|1|a}}.
In the early 1960s, no one knew for certain even the basic conditions of the surface of the planet Venus. He listed the contending possibilities in a report (which were later depicted for popularization in a Time-Life book, ''Planets''). His own view was that the planet was dry and very hot. As a visiting scientist to [[Caltech]]'s [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]], he contributed to the first Mariner missions to the planet Venus in the design and management of the project, which confirmed his views with the success of [[Mariner 2]] in [[1962]].
Sagan taught at [[Harvard University]] until 1968, when he moved to [[Cornell University]]. He became a full professor at Cornell in 1971 and directed a lab there. He contributed to most of the [[unmanned space missions]] that explored our [[solar system]]. He conceived the idea of adding an unalterable and universal message on spacecraft, destined to leave the [[solar system]], that could be understood by any extraterrestrial intelligence that might find it. The first message that was actually sent into space was a gold-anodized [[Pioneer plaque|plaque]], attached to the space probe [[Pioneer 10]]. He continued to refine his designs and the most elaborate such message he helped to develop was the [[Voyager Golden Record]] that was sent out with the [[Voyager_program|Voyager]] space probes.
==Scientific achievements==
Sagan was among the first to hypothesize that Saturn's moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]{{ref|science}} and Jupiter's moon [[Europa (moon)|Europa]] may possess oceans (a subsurface ocean, in the case of Europa) or lakes, thus making the hypothesized water ocean on Europa potentially habitable for [[life]]. Europa's subsurface ocean was later indirectly confirmed by the spacecraft [[Galileo probe|Galileo]].
He furthered insights regarding the atmosphere of [[Jupiter(planet)|Jupiter]], seasonal changes on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], and Saturn's moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]. Sagan established that the atmosphere of Venus is extremely hot and dense. He also perceived [[global warming]] as a growing, man-made danger and likened it to the natural development of [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] into a hot life-hostile planet through [[greenhouse gas]]es. He suggested that the seasonal changes on Mars were due to windblown dust, not to vegetation changes, as others had proposed
==Scientific advocacy==
[[Image:Planetary society.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Planetary Society members at the organization's founding. Carl Sagan seated, right]]
Sagan was a proponent of the search for extraterrestrial life. He urged the scientific community to listen with large radio telescopes for signals from intelligent extraterrestrial lifeforms. He advocated sending probes to other planets. Sagan was Editor in Chief of [[Icarus (journal)|''Icarus'']] (a professional journal concerning planetary research) for 12 years. He cofounded the ''[[Planetary Society]]'' and was a member of the [[SETI Institute]] Board of Trustees.
He was well known as a coauthor of the scientific paper that predicted [[nuclear winter]]{{ref|nuclearwinter}} would follow [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear war]]. Sagan famously predicted that smoky oil fires in Kuwait (set by Saddam Hussein's army) would cause an ecological disaster of black clouds. Retired atmospheric physicist, [[Fred Singer]], dismissed Sagan's prediction as nonsense, predicting that the smoke would dissipate in a matter of days. In his book ''[[The Demon-Haunted World]]'', Sagan gave a list of errors he had made (including his predictions about the effects of the Kuwaiti oil fires) as an example of how science is tentative.
Sagan is also known for being involved as a researcher in [[Project A119]], a secret [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] operation whose purpose was to drop a bomb on Earth's [[Moon]].
==Social concerns==
Sagan believed that the [[Drake equation]] suggested that a large number of extraterrestrial civilizations would form, but that the lack of evidence of such civilizations (the [[Fermi paradox]]) suggests that technological civilizations tend to destroy themselves rather quickly. This stimulated his interest in identifying and publicizing ways that humanity could destroy itself, with the hope of avoiding such destruction and eventually becoming a space-faring species.
Sagan became more politically active af |
es this view with the ancient quote, "Where Peter is, there is the Church."
Roman Catholics, Orthodox Christians (in general), and the Assyrian Church of the East each recognize the "validity" of each other's [[Eucharist]] ([[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] or [[Divine Liturgy]]), and of the holy orders of their respective priesthoods and episcopate. The Roman Catholic Church, on the other hand, considers Anglican Holy Orders to be "null and void," as declared by [[Pope Leo XIII]] in his Bull ''[[Apostolicae curae]]''. Beginning with the Encyclical Letter ''[[Saepius officio]]'' of the [[Archbishop]]s of [[Canterbury]] and [[York]] in response to ''Apostolicae curae'', Anglicans, for obvious reasons, have steadfastly rejected this claim. At present, Old-Catholics and many Lutheran churches are in [[full communion]] with the worldwide [[Anglican Communion]], including full exchange of clergy and participation in each other's ordinations (including episcopal consecrations). Although there were several statements made by a couple of Orthodox leaders in the early 20th century giving hope to High Anglican clergy that their priestly orders would eventually be recognized as valid by the Orthodox, today there is little variance among Orthodox patriarchs and metropolitans on the validity of Anglican Orders. As with the Catholic Church, today the Orthodox churches universally require ordination to the priesthood for Anglican clergy that convert to Orthodoxy, evidencing the prevailing Orthodox view that the Anglican liturgy is non-sacramental in nature. Recent decisions by various Anglican/Episcopal bishops to ordain women to the priesthood and to the episcopate have rendered any hope of formal ecclesiastical union with Orthodoxy (from the Orthodox point of view) a moot point.
Thus, for example, in an emergency, when no Roman Catholic priest is available, a Roman Catholic may, under canon law, receive the "Holy Eucharist" and receive absolution from an Orthodox priest, but not from an Anglican priest. This also means that if an Episcopal or Anglican (male) priest converts to the Roman Catholic Church, the Roman Catholic Church confers ordination on him (in its view, for the first time) and excludes women from Holy Orders. This divergence of belief is a considerable block to greater unity, in spite of substantial progress in ecumenical dialogues between Anglicans and Roman Catholics since the [[Second Vatican Council]].
Recent historic ecumenical efforts on the part of Roman Catholic Church have focused on healing the rupture between the Western (the Roman or Latin) Christian Church and the Eastern Christian Church (the "Greek" or "Orthodox"). Before he was incapacitated with a degenerative illness, [[Pope John Paul II]] often spoke of his great desire that the Catholic Church "once again breathe with both lungs," thus emphasizing that the Catholic Church seeks to restore full communion with the separated "Byzantine" and "Oriental" Christian Churches of the ancient East.
After the first rupture in the Catholic Church in 1054 between East and West, a brief reunification took place in the mid-15th century at the Council of Florence. The present Pope (Benedict XVI) has stated his intentions in restoring full unity with the Orthodox. From the Catholic standpoint, almost all of the ancient theological differences have been satisfactorily addressed (the Filioque clause, the nature of purgatory, etc.), and the experience of the Eastern Catholic Churches in communion with Rome has shown that the eventual reunion will not mean a "Latinization" of the Eastern Churches.
==Capitalization==
Capitalization is no sure guide to denominational affiliation. It may indicate formal affiliation with the (Roman) Catholic Church or it may not. Capitalization may merely indicate a wish to stress the [[holy]] and solemn nature of the [[spirituality|spiritual]] body of believers and a desire for all Christians to be one.
It would be anachronistic to attribute significance to capitalization or lack of capitalization in printings of texts dating from before the last few centuries or in translations of those texts, since the originals were written in unmixed majuscule or minuscule letters. Translations even of modern texts into English often follow the usage of the original language. For instance, since French normally capitalizes only the first word of the title of an entity, the adjective "catholique", following the noun "Église", has a lower-case initial. Texts in [[Latin (language)|Latin]] generally follow this usage, not the English practice.
==Avoidance of usage==
Some [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Churches avoid using the term completely. The Orthodox Churches share some of the concerns about Roman Catholic papal claims, but disagree with some Protestants about the nature of the Church as one body. For some, to use the word "Catholic" at all is to appear to give credence to papal claims.
==See also==
* [[Catholicism]]
* [[Roman Catholic Church]]
* [[Anglo-Catholicism]]
* [[Independent Catholic Churches]]
* [[Eastern Orthodox Churches]]
* [[Assyrian Church of the East]]
* [[Old Catholic Church]]
* [[Neo-Lutheranism]]
* [[Nicene Creed]]
* [[Catholic Epistles]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Assyrian Church of the East]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Lutheranism]]
[[Category:Old Catholicism]]
[[sk:Katolícka cirkev]]
[[cs:Katolick%C3%A1_c%C3%ADrkev]]
[[ca:Església Catòlica]]
[[de:Katholisch]]
[[ko:&#52852;&#53672;&#47533;]]
[[it:Chiesa cattolica]]
[[he:&#1492;&#1499;&#1504;&#1505;&#1497;&#1497;&#1492; &#1492;&#1511;&#1514;&#1493;&#1500;&#1497;&#1514;]]
[[lb:Kathoulesch Kierch]]
[[pl:Ko&#347;ci&#243;&#322; katolicki]]
[[ja:&#12459;&#12488;&#12522;&#12483;&#12463;&#25945;&#20250;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crystal Eastman</title>
<id>7611</id>
<revision>
<id>41717193</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T06:50:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gandalfxviv</username>
<id>851818</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>bypassed disambiguation MA</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CrystalEastman.jpeg|thumb|200px|]]
'''Crystal Eastman''' ([[June 25]], [[1881]] - [[July 8]], [[1928]]) was a [[lawyer]], [[antimilitarism|antimilitarist]], [[feminism|feminist]], [[socialism|socialist]], and journalist. She graduated from [[Vassar College]] in [[1903]], receiving an [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|M.A.]] in [[sociology]] from [[Columbia University]] in [[1904]]. She was second in the class of [[1907]] at [[New York University Law School]].
==Social efforts==
Social work pioneer and journal editor [[Paul Kellogg]] offered Eastman her first job, investigating labor conditions for [[The Pittsburgh Survey]] sponsored by the [[Russell Sage Foundation]]. Her report, ''Work Accidents and the Law'' ([[1910]]), became a classic and resulted in the first [[workers' compensation]] law, which she drafted while serving on a New York State commission. She continued to campaign for occupational safety and health while working as an investigating attorney for the U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations during [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s presidency.
==Emancipation==
During a brief marriage, Eastman lived in [[Milwaukee]] and managed the unsuccessful [[1912]] [[Wisconsin]] [[suffrage]] battle. When she returned east in [[1913]] she joined [[Alice Paul]], [[Lucy Burns]], and others in founding the militant [[Congressional Union]], which became the [[National Woman's Party]]. After women won the vote, Eastman and three others wrote the [[Equal Rights Amendment]] introduced in [[1923]]. One of the few socialists to endorse the ERA, she warned that protective legislation for women would mean only discrimination against women. Eastman claimed that one could assess the importance of the ERA by the intensity of the opposition to it, but she felt that "''this is a fight worth fighting even if it takes ten years.''"
==Peace efforts==
During [[World War I]], Eastman founded the [[Woman's Peace party]] and was president of the [[New York City|New York]] branch. Renamed the [[Women's International League for Peace and Freedom]] in [[1921]], it remains the oldest extant women's peace organization. Eastman also became executive director of the [[American Union against Militarism]], which lobbied against America's entrance into the European war and more successfully against war with Mexico in [[1916]], sought to remove profiteering from arms manufacturing, and campaigned against [[conscription]] and imperial adventures. When the United States entered World War I, Eastman organized the [[National Civil Liberties Bureau]] to protect [[conscientious objectors]], or in her words: ''To maintain something over here that will be worth coming back to when the weary war is over.'' Though never appropriately credited as a founder of the organization, which became the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], she was the attorney in charge.
Eastman had married British poet and antiwar activist [[Walter Fuller]] in [[1916]] with whom she had two children, and worked with him until the end of the war, when he returned to [[England]] to find work.
==Post-War==
After the war, Eastman organized the [[First Feminist Congress]] in [[1919]], she co-owned and edited a radical journal of politics, art, and literature, ''[[The Liberator]]'', with her brother [[Max Eastman|Max]] and she [[commuting|commuted]] between [[London]], to be with her husband, and New York, where she was blacklisted and thus rendered unemployable during the [[Red Scare]] of 1919-1921. Durin |
ng badly-written code.
Beyond April Fools', however, some of the distributions on the CPAN are jokes in themselves. The [[Acme::]] hierarchy is reserved for joke modules; for instance, [[Acme::Don't]] adds a <code>don't</code> function that doesn't run the code given to it (to complement the <code>do</code> built-in, which does). Even outside the Acme:: hierarchy, some modules are still written largely for amusement; one example is [[Lingua::Romana::Perligata]], which can be used to write Perl programs in a subset of Latin.
==See also==
*[[CRAN]]
*[[CTAN]]
[[Category:Perl]]
[[de:CPAN]]
[[es:CPAN]]
[[fr:Comprehensive Perl archive network]]
[[it:CPAN]]
[[ja:Comprehensive Perl Archive Network]]
[[no:CPAN]]
[[pl:CPAN]]
[[fi:CPAN]]
[[zh:CPAN]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chocolate mousse</title>
<id>6668</id>
<revision>
<id>15904791</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-21T19:15:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vegaswikian</username>
<id>214427</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect per VfD. Recipe was in wiki books and was not included in the VfD version but was added when the VfD header was removed so this was not nerged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mousse]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colorado Rockies</title>
<id>6669</id>
<revision>
<id>40562317</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T13:09:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Catapult</username>
<id>792235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 9|CFD]]: renaming category[[user:freakofnurture|...]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This is an article about the baseball team. For the [[National Hockey League]] Rockies team ([[1976]]-[[1982]]), see [[Colorado Rockies (NHL)|Colorado Rockies]]''
----
{{MLB infobox Rockies}}
The '''Colorado Rockies''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team based in [[Denver, Colorado]]. They are in the Western Division of the [[National League]]. The team is named after the [[Rocky Mountains]] which pass through Colorado.
== Franchise history ==
The Colorado Rockies joined the National League as an expansion franchise in 1993, along with the [[Florida Marlins]]. Their first pick in the expansion draft was pitcher [[David Nied]] from the [[Atlanta Braves]] organization. Nied pitched 4 seasons for the Rockies. The team's first home at-bat was a memorable one, as lead off batter [[Eric Young]] hit a [[home run]] for the Rockies.
The team set attendance records in its days back at [[Mile High Stadium]], and was the second team ([[Toronto Blue Jays|Toronto]] was first in 1991) in the history of [[Major League Baseball]] to record over 4,000,000 fans in annual attendance. The 1993 Rockies still have the largest ever season attendance, with 4,483,350, and the team led the National League in attendance every year from 1993 to 1999.
In 1995, the Rockies moved into a new stadium, [[Coors Field]], where they have played their home games ever since. That year, they made their first and, to date, only post-season appearance as the [[National League]] Wild Card team where they lost in the first round of the playoffs to the [[Atlanta Braves]].
In 1996, the team had three players who hit at least 40 home runs each, [[Andres Galarraga]] with 47, and [[Ellis Burks]] and [[Vinny Castilla]] with 40 each. [[Dante Bichette]] added 31.
Since their inception, the Rockies have always tended to have a strong hitting squad and home record, which are offset by a weak [[bullpen]] and road record. This can be attributed to the conditions of [[Coors Field]], whose thin air (due to the high altitude of Denver) makes hitting much easier, as the ball travels farther, and pitching more difficult, as the reduced air resistance makes breaking balls less effective than at sea level.
In 2001, the team signed top pitchers [[Mike Hampton]] to an 8 year, $121 million contract and [[Denny Neagle]] to a 5 year, $51 million contract to see if they could turn around the team's fortunes. However, the two went a combined 23-21 that season and Hampton was traded the next year after going 7-15. Neagle was granted free agency in 2004 after compiling a 19-23 record with the team. The experiment with the two pitchers was generally considered to be a disaster.
The Rockies have had a number of well-known players throughout the years, including [[Todd Helton]], who came up through the club's farm system, Andres Gallarraga, Ellis Burks, [[Larry Walker]], Andy Ashby, [[Darryl Kile]], Dante Bichette, Mike Hampton, [[Preston Wilson]], and [[Vinny Castilla]].
==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' [[1991]]
:'''Began play:''' [[1993]] ([[National League]] expansion)
:'''Uniform colors:''' Black, Silver, Purple, and White
:'''Logo design:''' Purple mountain with baseball
:'''Playoff appearances''' (1): [[1995]]
==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
*''none''
==Current roster==
{{:Colorado Rockies roster}}
==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Colorado Springs Sky Sox]], [[Pacific Coast League]]
* '''AA:''' [[Tulsa Drillers]], [[Texas League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Modesto Nuts]], [[California League]]
* '''A:''' [[Asheville Tourists]], [[South Atlantic League]]
* '''Short A:''' [[Tri-City Dust Devils]], [[Northwest League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Casper Rockies]], [[Pioneer League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[VSL Rockies]], [[Venezuelan Summer League]]
==See also==
*[[Colorado Rockies/Award winners and league leaders|Rockies award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Colorado Rockies/Team records|Rockies statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Colorado Rockies/Players of note|Rockies players of note]]
*[[Colorado Rockies/Broadcasters|Rockies broadcasters and media]]
*[[Colorado Rockies/Managers and ownership|Rockies managers and ownership]]
==External links==
*[http://www.coloradorockies.com/ Colorado Rockies official web site]
*[http://msn.foxsports.com/other/story/5265080 These 10 are absolute wrecks of an exec - Dan O'Dowd, general manager, Colorado Rockies]
{{MLB Team Colorado Rockies}}
{{MLB}}
[[Category:Colorado Rockies| ]]
[[Category:Sports in Denver, Colorado|Rockies]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]
http://msn.foxsports.com/other/story/5265080
[[de:Colorado Rockies]]
[[fr:Rockies du Colorado]]
[[ja:コロラド・ロッキーズ]]
[[pt:Colorado Rockies]]
[[sv:Colorado Rockies]]
[[zh:科羅拉多落磯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cement</title>
<id>6670</id>
<revision>
<id>41922717</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:18:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Narsamson</username>
<id>350112</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Cement''' is a material for bonding [[rock (geology)|stone]] or [[brick]]. The term ''cement'' is most commonly used to refer more specifically to powdered materials which develop strong adhesive qualities when combined with [[water]]. These materials are more properly known as hydraulic cements. Hydraulic [[limestone|limes]], natural [[pozzolana]] and [[Portland cement]]s are the more common hydraulic cements, with portland cement being the most important in construction. [[Gypsum]] [[plaster]] and common [[calcium oxide|lime]] are not hydraulic cements. Cement is an important ingredient in [[concrete]].
==History==
[[Image:BlueCircleSouthernCementBerrimaNSW.JPG|thumb|Blue Circle Southern Cement works near [[Berrima, New South Wales|Berrima]], [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]]. The company is a member of the [[Boral|Boral Group of Companies]].]]
[[Hydraulic cement]] was first invented by the [[Egypt]]ians, and later reinvented by the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Babylon]]ians, who made their [[mortar (masonry)|mortar]] out of lime, much harder than the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] mortars. Later, the Romans produced a good cement from [[pozzolanic ash]].
Other civilizations that had a similar mold to cement were the Aztecs[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztecs]
[[Portland cement]] was patented in [[England]] by [[Joseph Aspdin]] in [[1824]].
==Geology==
In [[geology]], the term is used to refer to the fine-grained minerals which bind the coarser-grained ''matrix'' in [[sedimentary rock]]s. Such cements are typically composed of [[calcite]], [[quartz]] or [[clay]] minerals.
==See also==
*[[Cement chemist notation]]
*[[Portland cement]]
*[[Silo cleaning]] and health and safety issues.
*[[Acoustic cleaning]] a safe and non invasive method for cleaning cement [[Silo]]s.
==External link==
*[http://www.primasonics.com/acoustic_cleaners_cement_applications.htm Acoustic cleaners for the cement and gypsum industries]
[[Category:Concrete]]
[[bg:&#1062;&#1080;&#1084;&#1077;&#1085;&#1090;]]
[[ca:Ciment]]
[[da:Cement]]
[[de:Zement_(Baustoff)]]
[[es:cemento]]
[[eo:Cemento]]
[[fr:ciment]]
[[id:Semen]]
[[lt:cementas]]
[[hr:Cement]]
[[nl:cement]]
[[no:sement]]
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[[pl:Cement]]
[[pt:cimento]]
[[sv:Cement]]
[[zh:&#27700;&#27877;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cincinnati Reds</title>
<id>6671</id>
<revision>
<id>42159595</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:23:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cfortunato</username>
<id>220877</id>
</contributor>
<comment>81 games, according to the Reds website (http://cincinnati.reds.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/cin/history/timeline1.jsp)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Reds}}
The '''Cincinnati Reds''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team based in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]]. They are in the Central Division of the [[National League]].
== Franchise history ==
===The beginning===
The original Cincinnati Re |
s entire sequence is set to [[The End (The Doors song)|The End]] by [[The Doors]]). Lying bloody and dying on the ground, Kurtz whispers "The horror...the horror." (This line is taken directly from Conrad's novella.) Willard walks through the now-silent crowd of natives until he comes upon Lance, who seems to have integrated himself into the society. The two of them make their way to the PBR and float away as Kurtz's final words echo in the wind as the screen fades to black.
===''Redux''===
In 2001 Coppola released ''Apocalypse Now: Redux'', which restored 49 minutes of scenes that were cut from the original film, including stopovers at a [[French people|French]] [[rubber]] plantation wherein Mr. Clean is buried and a rain-soaked American base camp. Nudity absent from the original was also included in the Redux, most notably at the French plantation and in an additional scene with the Playboy playmates (from the [[United Service Organizations|USO]] show.)
In this version, Willard steals Kilgore's surfboard, which can still be seen briefly onboard the PBR in the original cut.
===Alternate Endings===
Coppola denied having any actual alternative endings. In the [[DVD]] commentary, he states that they simply had a massive amount of footage to edit with and thus had some choices to make. They did consider using the explosion footage made during their destruction of the Kurtz compound, but he later decided that implying that the air strike had been called in was contrary to his wish to offer some slight hope that we could overcome the horrors of [[war]].
However, there are multiple slightly varying versions of the ending credits.
One version, from the 70mm release, ends with no credits, and shows the boat pulling away. Another version, for the 35mm wide release, rolls the credits while the Kurtz compound is destroyed in what must be assumed was an air strike. Yet another version ends silently, without the explosions, and the credits roll over a black background.
==Themes==
''Apocalypse Now'' is a thematically rich film. The primary motif of the film is that of ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'', i.e. an odyssey into the darkness of humanity.
Willard's constant narration gives us a glimpse into his fractured psychological state particularly in the opening scenes where he lies in his bed and stares blankly into the ceiling. He relates that he is on his second tour of duty and that he returned because he was unable to re-integrate himself into civilian life.
:''Saigon... shit; I'm still only in Saigon... Every time I think I'm gonna wake up back in the jungle. When I was home after my first tour, it was worse. I'd wake up and there'd be nothing. I hardly said a word to my wife, until I said "yes" to a divorce. When I was here, I wanted to be there; when I was there, all I could think of was getting back into the jungle. I'm here a week now... waiting for a mission... getting softer; every minute I stay in this room, I get weaker, and every minute Charlie squats in the bush, he gets stronger. Each time I looked around, the walls moved in a little tighter.''
This chilling monologue besides suggesting how man is connected to war is also an allusion to [[post traumatic stress disorder]], a condition common to many Vietnam veterans. Willard's quest for Kurtz's compound parallels Kurtz's own descent into madness. He never tells his fellow shipmates of the PBR the true purpose of the mission and in a chilling scene, after his crew massacres people sailing on a sampan, Willard murders the surviving girl. Kurtz who was a committed family man and a highly respected colonel is driven insane after witnessing a vile incident commited by his enemies while on a peacekeeping mission. He realised that he can never win the war unless he surrenders his morality and kill without judgment. For Kurtz, this action drove him insane and so he gathered other disillusioned soldiers and started a strange, bizarre civilization in the Cambodian forest.
This is a subtle allusion to the bureaucracy that directs soldiers in the war. The bureaucrats propagandized the [[Vietnam War]] as a just cause to save the world from the evil of [[Communism]].
The general public and several Vietnam war veterans fiercely condemned the war and believed that the government lied and misled the public.
Even Willard who is assigned the mission is cynical about his mission from the beginning :
: ''Charging a man with murder in this place was like handing out speeding tickets at the Indy 500''
{{spoiler}}
The climax at Kurtz's compound is the most confusing and the most frequently debated aspect of the film. Several critics believe it to be anticlimactic after the earlier more action oriented scenes and also the fact that it differs greatly from other war films in that there's no final battle scenario.
[[Roger Ebert]] in his original review defends the ending:
:''Coppola doesn't have an ending, if we or he expected the closing scenes to pull everything together and make sense of it. Nobody should have been surprised. "Apocalypse Now" doesn't tell any kind of a conventional story, doesn't have a thought-out message for us about Vietnam, has no answers, and thus needs no ending.The way the film ends now, with Brando's fuzzy, brooding monologues and the final violence, feels much more satisfactory than any conventional ending possibly could.''
When Willard arrives, he is captured and put into containment as he is 'interrogated' by Kurtz who lectures and drones on about his philosophies. While other interpretations exist, it can be assumed that Kurtz wishes to die a soldier's death and has been waiting for his death. But his followers refuse to kill him and Colby([[Scott Glenn]]) who was sent to kill him ended up joining his 'tribe'. He wishes or rather hopes that Willard would be able to do so. Willard, at first does not want to as he too is converted by Kurtz's beliefs but after Kurtz's monologue and his statement on judgment, Willard understands Kurtz's desire and so decides to complete his mission by subverting his moral judgment and justifies it to himself
:''Everybody wanted me to do it, him most of all. I felt like he was up there, waiting for me to take the pain away. He just wanted to go out like a soldier, standing up, not like some poor, wasted, rag-assed renegade. Even the jungle wanted him dead, and that's who he really took his orders from anyway.''
The 'jungle' is seen as a metaphor to nature or more specifically man's human nature. After killing Kurtz, Willard is revered by the denizens of Kurtz's tribe but he instead leaves suggesting that perhaps he is capable of escaping the horror of war.
==Responses==
''Apocalypse Now'' premiered in [[1979]] to mixed reviews and received polarized responses from the audiences. It is said that it was as lauded as it was reviled. Many critics slammed the film, calling it overly pretentious, while others felt that it ended anticlimatically after a splendid first act.
[[Roger Ebert]], who hailed it as the best film of [[1979]] and added it to his list of Great Movies stated:
:"Apocalypse Now is the best Vietnam film, one of the greatest of all films, because it pushes beyond the others, into the dark places of the soul. It is not about war so much as about how war reveals truths we would be happy never to discover."
Today, the film is regarded by many as a masterpiece of the [[New Hollywood]] era. It is on the [[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies]] list at number 28. Kilgore's quote "I love the smell of napalm in the morning" was number 12 on the [[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes]] list. ''[[Sight and Sound]]'' magazine polled several critics to name the best film of the last 25 years and ''Apocalypse Now'' was named number 1.
The catastrophic production of the film unfortunately made it symbol of the dangers of excessive directorial control over a film. The production was said to have taken a toll on Coppola, both mentally and emotionally. To many cinephiles, ''Apocalypse Now'' is the last great film of a legendary director whose subsequent films have failed to match it in quality.
==Adaptation==
Although inspired by Joseph Conrad's ''Heart of Darkness'', the film deviates extensively from it. The novel takes place in the [[Belgian Congo]] in the [[19th century]]; Kurtz and Marlow (who is named Willard in the movie) are commercial agents of a [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[ivory]] company that brutally exploits its [[Africa|African]] native workers. In the novel, Marlow is sent to bring the ailing Kurtz home; in the movie, Willard is sent to kill Kurtz.
The character of Kilgore is an invention of the screenwriters. Nevertheless, Coppola has maintained many episodes (the spear and arrow attack on the boat, for example) that respect the spirit of the novel and in particular its critique of the concept of civilization and progress. The fact that Coppola substituted [[Europe|European]] colonization with [[United States|American]] [[interventionism (politics)|interventionism]] does not change the universal message of the book. [http://www.cyberpat.com/essays/coppola.html]
==Influence==
As one of the most [[icon]]ic films of the [[1900s|20th century]], the film has been referenced and [[parody|parodied]] countless times.
===Film===
* The film was parodied in a short film called ''[[Porklips Now]]'', about health inspector Will Dullard, who makes a trip to inspect the meat processing shop of a man named Mertz.
* British film ''[[Nil by Mouth (film)|Nil by Mouth]]'', by ''[[Gary Oldman]]'', has a scene where the character Danny (played by ''[[Steve Sweeney]]'') dubs the scene that the photojournalist talks to Cap. Willard (when he is in the wood cage), as the film is played on a TV.
* In ''[[True Romance]]'', [[Clarence Worley]] calls ''Apocalypse Now'' "the greatest Vietnam film ever made".
* ''[[Apocalypse Pooh]]'' is a nine-minute short which marries visual |
The Hall of Dancers is a structure found at [[Ta Prohm]], [[Preah Khan]], [[Banteay Kdei]] and [[Banteay Chhmar]]. In each case it is a rectangular building elongated along the temple's east axis; and divided into four courtyards by galleries. The roofs were made of perishable materials and have disappeared. The pillars of the galleries are decorated with dancing apsaras, hence the presumption that the buildings were used for dancing.
===House of Fire===
The House of Fire, or ''Dharmasala'', found only in temples of [[Javarman VII]]'s reign, is enigmatic. 121 are known, all along the highways in and out of Angkor; it seems therefore to have been a resting point of some kind, either for travellers or (as the name suggests) for the sacred flame used in religious ceremonies. It has thick walls , a tower at the west end and south-facing windows. Examples include those at [[Preah Khan]], [[Ta Prohm]] and [[Banteay Chhmar]].
[[Image:Libraryangkorwat.JPG|thumb|Library at Angkor Wat; unusually, the libraries here open both east and west.]]
===Library===
The library is one of the most common features of Khmer temple architecture, but it is still not certain what they were used for. Most likely they were shrines rather than actual libraries. Free-standing buildings, they were normally placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the west.
===Lintels and pediments===
[[Image:Pedlintelsrei.JPG|thumb|left|Lintel and pediment at [[Banteay Srei]]; the pediment shows [[Shiva]] [[Nataraja]].]]Because of their position at the point of entrance to the temple, [[lintel]]s (horizontal blocks at the top of doorways) and [[pediment]]s (triangular panels above the lintels) had particular significance in Khmer temple architecture. The decoration of lintels passed through a series of styles which provide a useful guide for the dating of temples: protective [[kala]]s, [[Naga (mythology)|naga]]s and [[makara]]s were common motifs. Also frequently appearing were the gods associated with the direction in which the particular lintel faced.
===Nagas===
[[Image:Ankor Tom in Cambodia 001.JPG|thumb|200px|Demons holding the naga on a bridge entering [[Angkor Thom]].]]Mythical serpents, or [[Naga (mythology)|naga]]s (often with five or seven heads), were commonly used as decorative motifs in Khmer architecture. Naga bridges were causeways or true bridges with nagas running down either side as [[balustrade]]s. In some cases, as with the bridges at the entrances to [[Angkor Thom]], the nagas were held by gods and demons as in the story of the [[Bhagavata_Purana|Churning of the Ocean of Milk]]. The significance of the nagas may be as explained as bridges between the world of the gods and that of men, or as guardians of wealth.
===Quincunx===
[[Image:Quincunxlingakbalspean01.JPG|thumb|200px|left|Linga in the form of a quincunx, set inside a [[yoni]], at Kbal Spean.]]The identification of the [[Architecture of Cambodia#Central sanctuary|central sanctuary]] with [[Mount Meru]] was often emphasised by the inclusion of four towers surrounding the central prang in the form of a [[quincunx]] (Mount Meru having five peaks in this arrangement). The rectangular plan of the typical Khmer temple easily lent itself to this design. The quincunx also appears elsewhere in designs of the Angkor period, as in the riverbed carvings of [[Kbal Spean]].
===Srahs and barays===
Srahs and barays were [[reservoir (water)|reservoirs]], generally created by excavation and embankment respectively. The two largest at Angkor were the [[West Baray]] and the [[East Baray]], located on either side of [[Angkor Thom]]. Temples were built in the middle of both of these (the [[West Mebon|West]] and [[East Mebon]]s), while [[Neak Pean]] was built at the centre of [[Preah Khan]]'s [[Jayatataka]]. It is not clear to what extent the significance of the reservoirs was religious, agricultural, or a combination of the two.
===Temple mountain===
Temple mountains took the form of representations of [[Mount Meru]], home of the gods in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] mythology. The temples were built in a series of tiers, each shorter than the last to create an illusion of greater height. The first known example was [[Ak Yum]], although very little of that structure now remains; others at Angkor were [[Bakheng]], [[Bakong]], [[Bapuon]], [[Pre Rup]], [[Ta Keo]] and most notably [[Angkor Wat]]. Each of these was in turn the state temple, and thus the religious centre of the whole empire.
==Reference==
*Freeman, Michael and Jacques, Claude. ''Ancient Angkor''. River Books, [[1999]]. ISBN 0834804263.
[[Category:Cambodian architecture]]
[[fr:Architecture khmère]]
[[vi:Kiến trúc Khmer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Capricorn</title>
<id>5438</id>
<revision>
<id>15903646</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Capricornus]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Capricornus</title>
<id>5439</id>
<revision>
<id>41994944</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:40:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BorgQueen</username>
<id>382591</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.58.83.154|24.58.83.154]] ([[User talk:24.58.83.154|talk]]) to last version by El C</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Capricornus |
abbreviation = Cap |
genitive = Capricorni |
symbology = the [[Horn (anatomy)|Horned]] [[Goat]]|
RA = 21 |
dec= &minus;20 |
areatotal = 414 |
arearank = 40th |
numberstars = 1 |
starname = [[Delta Capricorni|&delta; Cap]] (Deneb Algedi) |
starmagnitude = 3.0 |
meteorshowers =
*[[Alpha Capricornids]]
*[[Chi Capricornids]]
*[[Sigma Capricornids]]
*[[Tau Capricornids]]
*[[Capricorniden-Sagittariids]] |
bordering =
*[[Aquarius]]
*[[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]]
*[[Sagittarius]]
*[[Microscopium]]
*[[Piscis Austrinus]] |
latmax = 60 |
latmin = 90 |
month = September |
notes=}}
'''Capricornus''' ([[Image:Capricorn_symbol.png|20px]] or [[Image:Capricorn_symbol_2.png|20px]], Unicode: ♑), a name meaning "[[Horn (anatomy)|Horned]] [[Goat]]" or "That which has horns like a goat's" in [[Latin]], is one of the [[constellation|constellations]] of the [[zodiac]]. It is commonly called '''Capricorn''', especially in [[astrology]]. It is commonly called the sea-goat, as it is in an area of the sky known as the [[Sea (astronomy)|Sea]]. Capricornus is one of the 88 modern constellations, and was also one of the 48 constellations listed by [[Ptolemy]]. Under its modern boundaries it is bordered by [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]], [[Sagittarius]], [[Microscopium]], [[Piscis Austrinus]] and [[Aquarius]].
== Notable features ==
This constellation is the dimmest in the zodiac besides [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]]. Its brighter stars are found on a triangle whose vertices are [[Alpha Capricorni|&alpha; Cap]] (Giedi), [[Delta Capricorni|&delta; Cap]] (Deneb Algiedi), and [[Omega Capricorni|&omega; Cap]].
== History ==
This constellation is one of the oldest to have been identified, possibly the oldest, despite its dimness. Since it falls in an area of the sky known as the sea, it became considered a sea-goat (in the same sense as a [[mermaid|sea-maiden]]). Depictions of a goat or goat-fish have been found on [[Babylon]]ian tablets dating back three thousand years. The constellation may owe its antiquity to the fact that at that time, the northern hemisphere's [[Winter Solstice]] occurred while the sun was in Capricorn. The concern for the sun's rebirth might have rendered astronomical and astrological observation of this region of space very important.
For the same reason, the sun's most southerly position, which is attained at the northern hemisphere's winter solstice, is now called the [[Tropic of Capricorn]], a term which also applies to the line on earth where the sun is directly overhead at noon on that solstice.
Due to early Greek beliefs that [[sin]] accumulated throughout the year, causing the darkness to increase, together with the sun's descent and pause at the Solstice, the ancient Greeks referred to this area of sky as ''the Augean Stable'', where they considered the sun ''stabled'' during the year. The cause of the association with the location or name of ''Augeas'' is not currently known. However, during the classical period of Greek history, this name gradually fell out of use.
Due to the [[precession]] of the equinoxes, the December solstice no longer takes place while the sun is in Capricorn, but the astrological period called Capricorn begins at approximately the same time as the solstice.
The planet [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] was discovered in this constellation by German astronomer [[Johann Galle]], near Deneb Algedi (&delta; Capricorni) on [[September 23]], [[1846]], which is reasonable as Capricornus can be seen best at [[9:00]] in [[September]].
== Mythology ==
This constellation is sometimes identified as [[Amalthea (mythology)|Amalthea]], the goat that suckled the infant [[Zeus]] after his mother [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]] saved him from being devoured by his father [[Cronos]] in [[Greek mythology]]. The goat's broken horn was transformed into the [[cornucopia]] or horn of plenty. Some ancient sources claim that this derives from the sun "taking nourishment" while in the constellation, in preparation for its climb back northward.
However, the constellation is often depicted as a sea-goat, a goat with a fish's tail. One myth that deals with this says that when the goat-god [[Pan (god)|Pan]] was attacked by the monster [[Typhon]], he dove into the [[Nile]]; the parts above the water remain |
[[1914]])
*[[1997]] - [[Doris Angleton]], American socialite (b. [[1951]])
*1997 - [[Roland Topor]], French illustrator (b. [[1938]])
*[[1998]] - [[Fred Davis]], English snooker player (b. [[1913]])
*[[2001]] - [[Michael Ritchie]], American film director (b. [[1920]])
*[[2002]] - [[Ruth Fertel]], American restaurateur (b. [[1927]])
*2002 - [[Robert Urich]], American actor (b. [[1946]])
*[[2003]] - [[Graham Stuart Thomas]], English author and garden designer (b. [[1909]])
*[[2005]] - [[Kay Walsh]], British actress (b. [[1911]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Feast day]]s:
**[[Benedict Joseph Labre]] in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]
**[[Bernadette Soubirous|Saint Bernadette]]
**[[Paternus|Saint Paternus]]
**[[Saint Cecilia]]
**[[Fructuosus|Saint Fructuosus]]
**[[Turibius|Saint Turibius]]
**Saints Martial, Urban, Eventius, Caecilian, Julia, and their companions [[martyr]]s of [[304]]
**[[Drogo|Saint Drogo]]
*Birthday of the Queen celebrated in [[Greenland]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/16 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[April 15]] - [[April 17]] - [[March 16]] - [[May 16]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:16 April]]
[[ar:16 إبريل]]
[[an:16 d'abril]]
[[ast:16 d'abril]]
[[bg:16 април]]
[[be:16 красавіка]]
[[br:16 Ebrel]]
[[bs:16. april]]
[[ca:16 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 16]]
[[cv:Ака, 16]]
[[co:16 d'aprile]]
[[cs:16. duben]]
[[cy:16 Ebrill]]
[[da:16. april]]
[[de:16. April]]
[[et:16. aprill]]
[[el:16 Απριλίου]]
[[es:16 de abril]]
[[eo:16-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 16]]
[[fo:16. apríl]]
[[fr:16 avril]]
[[fy:16 april]]
[[ga:16 Aibreán]]
[[gl:16 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 16일]]
[[hr:16. travnja]]
[[io:16 di aprilo]]
[[id:16 April]]
[[ia:16 de april]]
[[ie:16 april]]
[[is:16. apríl]]
[[it:16 aprile]]
[[he:16 באפריל]]
[[jv:16 April]]
[[ka:16 აპრილი]]
[[csb:16 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:16'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 16]]
[[lb:16. Abrëll]]
[[li:16 april]]
[[hu:Április 16]]
[[mk:16 април]]
[[ms:16 April]]
[[nap:16 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:16 april]]
[[ja:4月16日]]
[[no:16. april]]
[[nn:16. april]]
[[oc:16 d'abril]]
[[pl:16 kwietnia]]
[[pt:16 de Abril]]
[[ro:16 aprilie]]
[[ru:16 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 16.]]
[[sq:16 Prill]]
[[scn:16 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 16]]
[[sk:16. apríl]]
[[sl:16. april]]
[[sr:16. април]]
[[fi:16. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:16 april]]
[[tl:Abril 16]]
[[tt:16. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 16]]
[[th:16 เมษายน]]
[[vi:16 tháng 4]]
[[tr:16 Nisan]]
[[uk:16 квітня]]
[[ur:16 اپریل]]
[[wa:16 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 16]]
[[zh:4月16日]]
[[pam:Abril 16]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Associativity</title>
<id>1335</id>
<revision>
<id>41129832</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T06:01:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Melchoir</username>
<id>454640</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix cat sorting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about associativity in [[mathematics]]. For ''associativity'' in central processor unit memory cache architecture see [[CPU cache]].''
In [[mathematics]], '''associativity''' is a property that a [[binary operation]] can have. It means that the order of evaluation is immaterial if the operation appears more than once in an expression. Put another way, no [[parentheses]] are required for an associative operation. Consider for instance the equation
:(5+2)+1 = 5+(2+1)
Adding 5 and 2 gives 7, and adding 1 gives an end result of 8 for the left hand side. To evaluate the right hand side, we start with adding 2 and 1 giving 3, and then add 5 and 3 to get 8, again. So the equation holds true. In fact, it holds true for ''all'' [[real number]]s, not just for 5, 2 and 1. We say that "addition of real numbers is an associative operation".
Associative operations are abundant in mathematics, and in fact most [[algebraic structure]]s explicitly require their binary operations to be associative. However, many important and interesting operations are non-associative; one common example would be the [[vector cross product]].
==Definition==
Formally, a binary operation <math>*</math> on a [[set]] ''S'' is called '''associative''' if it satisfies the '''associative law''':
:<math>(x*y)*z=x*(y*z)\qquad\mbox{for all }x,y,z\in S.</math>
The evaluation order does not affect the value of such expressions, and it can be shown that the same holds for expressions containing ''any'' number of <math>*</math> operations. Thus, when <math>*</math> is associative, the evaluation order can therefore be left unspecified without causing ambiguity, by omitting the parentheses and writing simply:
:<math>x*y*z.</math>
==Examples==
Some examples of associative operations include the following.
*In [[arithmetic]], [[addition]] and [[multiplication]] of [[real number]]s are associative; i.e.,
::<math>
\left.
\begin{matrix}
(x+y)+z=x+(y+z)=x+y+z\quad
\\
(x\,y)z=x(y\,z)=x\,y\,z\qquad\qquad\qquad\quad\ \ \,
\end{matrix}
\right\}
\mbox{for all }x,y,z\in\mathbb{R}.
</math>
*Addition and multiplication of [[complex number]]s and [[quaternion]]s is associative. Addition of [[octonion]]s is also associative, but multiplication of octonions is non-associative.
*The [[greatest common divisor]] and [[least common multiple]] functions act associatively.
::<math>
\left.
\begin{matrix}
\operatorname{gcd}(\operatorname{gcd}(x,y),z)=
\operatorname{gcd}(x,\operatorname{gcd}(y,z))=
\operatorname{gcd}(x,y,z)\ \quad
\\
\operatorname{lcm}(\operatorname{lcm}(x,y),z)=
\operatorname{lcm}(x,\operatorname{lcm}(y,z))=
\operatorname{lcm}(x,y,z)\quad
\end{matrix}
\right\}\mbox{ for all }x,y,z\in\mathbb{Z}.
</math>
*[[Matrix multiplication]] is associative. Because [[linear transformation]]s can be represented by matrices, one can immediately conclude that linear transformations compose associatively.
*Taking the [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]] or the [[union (set theory)|union]] of [[set]]s:
::<math>
\left.
\begin{matrix}
(A\cap B)\cap C=A\cap(B\cap C)=A\cap B\cap C\quad
\\
(A\cup B)\cup C=A\cup(B\cup C)=A\cup B\cup C\quad
\end{matrix}
\right\}\mbox{for all sets }A,B,C.
</math>
*If ''M'' is some set and ''S'' denotes the set of all functions from ''M'' to ''M'', then the operation of [[functional composition]] on ''S'' is associative:
::<math>(f\circ g)\circ h=f\circ(g\circ h)=f\circ g\circ h\qquad\mbox{for all }f,g,h\in S.</math>
*Slightly more generally, given four sets ''M'', ''N'', ''P'' and ''Q'', with ''h'': ''M'' to ''N'', ''g'': ''N'' to ''P'', and ''f'': ''P'' to ''Q'', then
::<math>(f\circ g)\circ h=f\circ(g\circ h)=f\circ g\circ h</math>
:as before. In short, composition of maps is always associative.
==Non-associativity==
A binary operation <math>*</math> on a set ''S'' that does not satisfy the associative law is called '''non-associative'''. Symbolically,
:<math>(x*y)*z\ne x*(y*z)\qquad\mbox{for some }x,y,z\in S.</math>
For such an operation the order of evaluation ''does'' matter. [[Subtraction]], [[division (mathematics)|division]] and [[exponentiation]] are well-known examples of non-associative operations:
:<math>
\begin{matrix}
(5-3)-2\ne 5-(3-2)\quad
\\
(4/2)/2\ne 4/(2/2)\qquad\qquad
\\
2^{(1^2)}\ne (2^1)^2.\quad\qquad\qquad
\end{matrix}
</math>
In general, parentheses must be used to indicate the order of evaluation if a non-associative operation appears more than once in an expression. However, [[mathematician]]s agree on a particular order of evaluation for several common non-associative operations. This is simply a syntactical convention to avoid parentheses.
A '''left-associative''' operation is a non-associative operation that is conventionally evaluated from left to right, i.e.,
:<math>
\left.
\begin{matrix}
x*y*z=(x*y)*z\qquad\qquad\quad\,
\\
w*x*y*z=((w*x)*y)*z\quad
\\
\mbox{etc.}\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\ \ \,
\end{matrix}
\right\}
\mbox{for all }w,x,y,z\in S
</math>
while a '''right-associative''' operation is conventionally evaluated from right to left:
:<math>
\left.
\begin{matrix}
x*y*z=x*(y*z)\qquad\qquad\quad\,
\\
w*x*y*z=w*(x*(y*z))\quad
\\
\mbox{etc.}\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\ \ \,
\end{matrix}
\right\}
\mbox{for all }w,x,y,z\in S
</math>
Both left-associative and right-associative operations occur; examples are given below.
==More examples==
Left-associative operations include the following.
*Subtraction and division of real numbers:
::<math>x-y-z=(x-y)-z\qquad\mbox{for all }x,y,z\in\mathbb{R};</math>
::<math>x/y/z=(x/y)/z\qquad\qquad\quad\mbox{for all }x,y,z\in\mathbb{R}\mbox{ with }y\ne0,z\ne0.</math>
Right-associative operations include the following.
*[[Exponentiation]] of real numbers:
::<math>x^{y^z}=x^{(y^z)}.</math>
:The reason exponentiation is right-associative is that a repeated left-associative exponentiation operation would be less useful. Multiple appearances could (and would) be rewritten with multiplication:
::<math>(x^y)^z=x^{(yz)}.</math>
Non-associative operations for which no conventional evaluation order is defined include the following.
*Taking the pairwise [[average]] of real numbers:
::<math>{(x+y)/2+z\over2}\ne{x+(y+z)/2\over2}\ne{x+y+z\over3}\qquad\mbox{for some }x,y,z\in\mathbb{R}.</math>
*Taking the [[complement (set theory)|relative complement]] of sets:
::<math>(A\backslash B)\backslash C\ne A\backslash (B\backslash C)\qquad\mbox{for some sets }A,B,C.</math>
::<div style="width: 360px; float:left; margin:0em 2em 0em 0em; text-align: left;">[[image:RelativeComplement.png|Venn diagram of the relati |
;center" |<nowiki> >-<o </nowiki>|| jumping, diving <!--spread-eagled?-->
|-
| align="center" | o7 || saluting
|-
| align="center" | *\o/* || cheerleader
|-
| align="center" | <O || honor
|-
| align="center" | /=O=\ || goatse
|-
|}
They're also usable for displaying "animations", e.g. a crowning process:
: o/" _o
: o_ "\o
: o_ <ö
: o/ \ö/
Recently developed are "handicons" to represent hand gestures.{{citation needed}} They can be seen either right or left-handed (the examples below are shown from the perspective of facing a right-handed gesture). Many variantions use "." as a knuckle instead of "n" or "m". For the other hand, one simply reverses the order of the line and switches the knuckle (< for left, > for right).
{| cellpadding=2
|-
| align="center" | <lml or \m/ || [[Corna|Devil horns]] or rock jackal; commonly the hand gesture for "rock on" among [[Rock music|rock]] fans (left handed)
|-
| align="center" | <nlm || Flashing [[The finger|"the bird"]] (rig)
|-
| align="center" | <mnl || The [[Doctor Evil]] pinky as popularized by [[Austin Powers]]
|-
| align="center" | <Vm || The [[V sign]]
|-
| align="center" | <mm || [[wikt:Props|Props]] or the knuckle (often returned likewise as a greeting)
|-
|}
===Posture emoticons===
orz (sometimes seen as '''OTL''' '''Or2''', '''On_''', '''OTZ''', '''OTL''', '''O7Z''', '''Sto''', '''Jto''', '''_no''', '''_|￣|○''') spawned a [[subculture]] in late [[2004]].[http://www.boingboing.net/2005/02/07/all_about_orz.html] It illustrates a person facing left and kneeling on the ground: the "o" symbolizes the head, the "r" represents the arms and the body while the "z" shows the legs. People use the pictograph to show that they have failed and/or they are in despair. It is not read phonetically, the letters are spelled out. Not to be confused with '''m(_ _)m''', which means an apology.
Orz is associated sometimes with the phrase "nice guy" - that is, the concept of males being rejected for a date by girls they are pursuing with a phrase like "You're a nice guy," "I'd like to be your friend," etc., a la "[[nice guy syndrome]]".
On [[imageboard]]s, it has been used not only for failure and despair, but also as a symbol for the [[kowtow]], illustrating instead a person bowing down in worship of a certain picture that was posted.
==East Asian style==
Users from [[East Asia]] (particularly [[Japanese language]] speakers those who visit [[2channel]]) popularized a style of emoticons known as ''verticons'' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 顔文字, kaomoji; literally, "face characters"), which can be understood without turning one's head to the left. These styles of faces roughly resemble the style commonly found in [[Japan|Japanese]] [[anime]] and [[manga]] comic books.
The Japanese language is usually encoded using double-[[byte]] character codes. As a result there is a bigger variety of characters that can be used in emoticons, many of which cannot be reproduced in [[ASCII]]. Most kaomoji contain [[Cyrillic]] and other foreign letters to create even more complicated expressions analogous to [[ASCII art]]'s level of complexity. To type such emoticons, the input editor that is used to type Japanese on a user's system is equipped with a dictionary of emoticons, after which the user simply types the Japanese word (or something close to it) that represents the desired emoticon to convert the input into such complicated emoticons. Such expressions are known as [[Shift JIS art|Shift_JIS art]].
===Basic examples===
{|
|-
| align="center" | m(_ _)m || bowing
|-
| align="center" | (`ヘ´) || annoyed
|-
| align="center" | （´・ω・｀） || deflated
|-
| align="center" | （ ´Д｀） || yelling, or panting
|-
| align="center" | （ ﾟДﾟ） || surprised, or loudmouthed
|-
| align="center" | ┐('～`；)┌ || don't know the answer
|-
| align="center" | （´∀｀） || carefree
|-
| align="center" | （ ´_ゝ`） || indifferent
|-
| align="center" | Σ(゜д゜;) || shocked
|-
| align="center" | (*´Д`) || heavy breathing
|-
| align="center" | ＇へ＇凸 || flipping someone [[the bird]]
|-
| align="center" | V(-.-)V || rock on
|-
| align="center" | ¯\(º_o)/¯ || Who Cares?
|-
| align="center" | ╮(─▽─)╭ || "who cares?"
|-
| align="center" | ｷﾀ━━━━━━(ﾟ∀ﾟ)━━━━━━ !!!!! || "it came!/hooray!/touchdown!"
|}
==Anime style==
English [[anime]] forums spawned a form of kaomoji adapted for single-byte encoding. They have since seen use in more mainstream venues, including online gaming, instant-messaging, and other non-anime related forums. These emoticons are usually found in a format similar to (*_*), where the [[asterisk]]s indicate the [[eye]]s, the central character, usually an [[underscore]], the mouth, and the parentheses, the outline of the face. A large number of different characters can be used to replace the eyes, which usually is where the emoticon derives its emotive aspect (contrasting the Western emoticons' emoting through the mouth). The emphasis on the eyes is reflected in the common usage of emoticons that use only the eyes, e.g. ^^. Either a hyphen or a period can replace the underscore; the period is often used for a smaller, "cuter" mouth or to represent a nose, e.g. (^.^). Alternatively, the mouth/nose can be left out entirely, e.g. (^^). The parentheses also can often be replaced with [[Bracket#Curly brackets or braces .7B .7D|braces]], e.g. {^_^}. Many times, the parentheses are left out completely, e.g. o.o . A quotation mark ", apostrophe ', or semicolon ; can be appended to the emoticon to imply apprehension or embarrassment, à la the anime [[sweat drop]]. Many other characters can be appended to also indicate arms or hands, e.g. <(^_^)>. Anime style emoticons which include the parentheses, mouth or nose, and arms (especially those represented by the inequality signs < or >) also are often referred to as "Kirbies" in reference to their likeness to [[Nintendo]]'s [[video game]] character, [[Kirby (Nintendo)|Kirby]].
===Basic examples===
<!--Note to editors: This list should be kept fairly short. It is not meant to be comprehensive. Please think carefully before adding your favorite emoticon.-->
{|
|-
| align="center" | (^_^) or (^-^)|| smiley
|-
| align="center" | (`_^) or (^_~)|| wink
|-
| align="center" | (>_<) || angry, frustrated
|-
| align="center" | (^o^) || singing, or laughing maniacally
|-
| align="center" | \(^o^)/ || very excited (raising hands)
|-
| align="center" | (-_-) or (~_~) or (=_=) || annoyance, resignation, or sleeping (eyes shut), grumpy
|-
| align="center" | (-_-;) or (^_^') or (^_^);; || nervousness, or [[sweatdrop]] (embarrassed; semicolon can be repeated)
|-
| align="center" | (-_-#) or (-_-¤) || vein (used to show frustration)
|-
| align="center" | (¬_¬) || eyeing something or someone, sometimes used as an expression of rolling one's eyes
|-
| align="center" | (<_<) || skepticism, looking around suspiciously
|-
| align="center" | (;_;) or (T_T) || crying
|-
| align="center" | (@_@) || dazed
|-
| align="center" | (o_O) || confused surprise
|-
| align="center" | (0_<) || flinch, nervous wink
|-
| align="center" | (O_O) || shocked
|-
| align="center" | (._.) || intimidated, sad, ashamed
|-
| align="center" | ($_$) || money eyes; thinking about money
|-
| align="center" | (x_x) or (+_+) || dead or knocked out; giving up, lost, confused
|-
| align="center" | (n_n) || pleased
|-
| align="center" | (u_u) || annoyance, sarcasm, sometimes disappointment
|-
| align="center" | (9_9) || eye rolling
|-
| align="center" | (e_e) || mischief, distrust
|-
| align="center" | (*_*) || star-struck
|-
| align="center" | (",) || smirk
|-
| align="center" | ("o) || side shocked
|-
| align="center" | (-.-)zzZ || sleeping
|-
| align="center" | (o)_(o) || alternative for tired; sometimes used to illustrate crazed
|-
| align="center" | ;o; or ;O; || crying loudly/shouting
|-
| align="center" | T_T or TT_TT or Y_Y || exaggerated crying, so that the eyes are closed and tears stream down the face
|}
===Complex examples===
<!--Note to editors: This list should be kept very short. The idea is to give an idea of what is possible. Please think carefully before adding your favorite emoticon.-->
{|
|-
| align="center" | (ô ô) || boy (sometimes also used to indicate surprise)
|-
| align="center" | (ö ö) || girl
|-
| align="center" | (ó ò) || surprised, scared
|-
| align="center" | (ò ó) || angry
|-
| align="center" | (ó ô) || quizzical or "Indeed" (designed to mimic [[Star Trek]]'s [[Mr. Spock]])
|-
| align="center" | (╥_─) || annoyed, hiding frustration
|-
| align="center" | =^_^= || [[blush]]ing, or a cat face (mischievous)
|-
| align="center" | ^n_n^ || [[catgirl]] or boy
|-
| align="center" | d-_-b || listening to music, labeling title afterwards
|-
| align="center" | <nowiki>~~~~>_<~~~~</nowiki> || weeping horribly
|-
| align="center" | <(^_^)>,(>^_^)>, etc. || dancing, especially used to specifically show [[Kirby (Nintendo)|Kirby]] dancing
|-
| align="center" | (>^_^)> <(^_^<) || hugging
|-
| align="center" | |
ited to call in to win prizes. The channel launched on August 30, 2005, and is available on Sky, Freeview (channel 37) and NTL cable. The channel makes no mention of its connection with Channel 4 on-screen or on its website.
===[[More4]]===
More4 is a channel aimed at more upmarket 35 to 60 year olds. It was launched on 10th October 2005. The channel also carries news and nightly discussion programmes, such as "More4 News" an extension of Channel 4 News which brings you in-depth reports on the news happening. Advertising prior to the launch of the channel flaunted HBO shows such as ''Curb Your Enthusiasm'' and ''The Sopranos'', as well as ''The West Wing'' from NBC.
===4Learning===
4Learning produces innovative and thought-provoking [[multimedia]] services for schools and learners of all ages in the [[United Kingdom]]. More than 400 hours of its [[programming]] is broadcast on [[Channel 4]] in the [[UK]](excluding [[Wales]])each year. One of its well known programmes is [[The Hoobs]]. But between 1987-1993 the schools service was ran by [[ITV]] as ITV Schools on 4.
===FourDocs===
FourDocs is an Online service from Channel 4. FourDocs is a broadband documentary channel that celebrates all aspects of the documentary genre. It allows users to upload their own documentaries to the website for others to watch. The videos need to be 4 minutes long.
[http://www.channel4.com/fourdocs/ FourDocs Homepage]
===Future proposals===
On [[27 February]] 2004 it was reported that Channel 4 and [[Five (TV)|Five]] were discussing a possible merger. Because of the special nature of Channel 4, any such merger would have required an Act of Parliament. However in November 2004, Channel 4 pulled out of the discussions. Subsequently, Five has now been bought by [[RTL_Group|RTL]].
In [[August]] 2004 the news came that Channel 4 is planning a [[digital radio]] station using the licence currently belonging to Oneword radio. For more information, see the article [[Oneword]].
In [[September 2004]] Channel 4 spent [[Pound Sterling|£]]55m reserving space for up to 14 channels on [[SES Global]]'s [[Astra 2D]] satellite before the limited amount of air space is filled, though some of this may be filled with Channel 4's existing channels when more expensive contracts with [[BSkyB]] expire in [[2008]].
Also in September, the television regulator, [[Ofcom]], announced it was looking into creating a new public-service broadcasting license for a channel broadcasting three hours per day dedicated to factual and current affairs programming. The new channel, if it is approved, will probably not be funded by advertising, and may be a subscription channel or funded by a top-up to the BBC's license fee. It was widely suggested in the news that Channel 4 would be the most likely candidate to run the new channel.
In May 2005, E4 (which was previously a subscription channel via [[Top Up TV]] on the digital terrestrial platform) went free-to-air at the same time as E4+1 arrived on Freeview, on the opening day of the sixth season of ''[[Big Brother (UK TV series)|Big Brother]]''.
At an unspecified date, Channel 4 is planning to launch a channel devoted to programming imported from the [[United States]] such as ''[[Lost (TV Series)|Lost]]'', ''[[Desperate Housewives]]'', ''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]'' and ''[[L.A. Law]]'' (dubbed C4US). [http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/article/ds26081.html]
==Programming==
One of the channel's strengths is its [[comedy]] mostly shown on a [[Channel 4 Friday Comedy|Friday night]]. In the early days they screened ''[[The Comic Strip Presents]]'', a highly innovative series of hour-long one-off comedies produced by a rotating line-up of alternative comedians such as [[Rik Mayall]], [[Adrian Edmondson]], [[Dawn French]], [[Jennifer Saunders]], [[Peter Cook]], [[Peter Richardson]], and [[Alexei Sayle]]. ''[[The Tube (TV series)|The Tube]]'' and ''[[Friday Night Live]]'' also launched the careers of a number alternative comedians. Latterly they have aired cutting-edge comedy shows such as ''[[Brass Eye]]'', ''[[The Mark Thomas Product]]'', ''[[Peter Kay's Phoenix Nights]]'', ''[[Drop the Dead Donkey]]'', ''[[Desmond's]]'' and arguably its biggest mainstream hit ''[[Father Ted]]''. Recently added to Channel 4 is ''[[The IT Crowd]]''.
The first voice ever heard on Channel 4 was that of [[continuity announcer]] [[Paul Coia]], who intoned, "Good afternoon. It's a pleasure to be able to say to you: Welcome to Channel Four", before heading into [http://www.vintagebroadcasting.org.uk/video/c4opening.mpg a montage of clips from its programmes] (link to video clip) set to the station's [[Lord David Dundas]]-penned signature tune, ''Fourscore'', which would form the basis of the station's jingles for its first decade. The first programme to air on the channel was the teatime [[game show]] ''[[Countdown (game show)|Countdown]]'', produced by [[Yorkshire Television]]; it is still running as of 2006 and is contracted until 2009.
In contrast to the other terrestrial TV channels, Channel 4 makes none of the programmes it broadcasts, because it is known as a ''publishing only'' television channel and partly as a result of the terms under which it was founded. Its critically acclaimed news service, [[Channel 4 News]], is supplied by [[Independent Television News (ITN)|ITN]], and the channel commissions all of its programmes from outside companies.
The channel has established a tradition of broadcasting the [[animated film]] of [[Raymond Briggs]]'s picture book ''[[The Snowman]]'', which in [[1982]] was the new channel's first major animated commission, every [[Christmas]]. From [[2002]], the film was controversially cropped from its original 4:3 picture format to the current widescreen standard of 16:9.
Channel 4 was the first UK broadcaster to use stranded programming with slots such as ''[[4 Mation]]'' showing innovative animation. Under Isaacs the channel also gained a reputation for programmes on the contemporary arts.
Channel 4 pioneered the concept of 'after the pub' television, with series such as ''[[Who Dares Wins (TV comedy)|Who Dares Wins]]'', ''[[Tonight with Jonathan Ross]]'', ''[[Friday Night Live]]'' and ''[[The Word]]'' broadcast in the 10 &ndash; 11pm slot.
In 1989 the Channel launched a [[breakfast television]] slot produced by [[Mentorn Films]], called the ''[[Channel 4 Daily]]''. In 1992 this was replaced by ''[[The Big Breakfast]]''. After the massive failure of ''[[RI:SE]]'' the channel has quit original programming for the breakfast TV slot in favour of repeats. Now T4 runs the early morning slots on weekdays to replace ''[[RI:SE]]'' with popular shows like ''[[Friends]]'' showing every weekday morning. (This was temporarily interrupted in early [[2006]] with the show [[Morning Glory (TV show)|Morning Glory]], designed to keep the audience following the early morning transmission of [[Big Brother's Little Brother|Big Brother's Little Breakfast]]).
On [[November 4]], [[2003]], Channel 4 screened its final episode of ''[[Brookside]]'', a [[soap opera]] which had run for the 21 years since the channel started.
For years, Channel 4 has broadcast episodes of the most popular [[situation comedies| situation comedies]] from the [[United States]] on Friday nights. In 2004, Friday-night sitcoms on Channel 4 included ''[[Friends]]'', ''[[Sex and the City]]'' and ''[[Will & Grace]]''. American drama is also a key part of Channel 4's portfolio, initially with ''[[NYPD Blue]]'' and ''[[ER (television series)|ER]]''. These were followed by ''[[Without a Trace]]'', ''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]'' and ''[[Six Feet Under]]''.
Many of these programmes are shown (and notably edited) for their Sunday morning [[T4 (Channel 4)|T4]] slot.
Channel 4 is also noted for the screening of ''[[Big Brother (UK TV series)|Big Brother]]''. Based on the original Dutch format, the UK version has attracted massive press attention for each of its six series from 2000 to date.
Channel 4 also has a strong reputation for history programmes and real-life documentaries. It has also courted controversy, for example by broadcasting live the first public [[autopsy]] to be carried out in the UK for 170 years, carried out by [[Gunther von Hagens]] in [[2002]], or the [[2003]] one-off stunt ''[[Derren Brown]] Plays Russian Roulette Live''.
The television chef [[Jamie Oliver]] could not reach a deal with the BBC after his contract with them expired in [[December]], [[2002]]. Channel 4 took him up. Since this happened, Jamie Oliver has created a number of documentaries such as ''[[Jamie's Kitchen]]'', ''[[Jamie's School Dinners]]'', which was broadcast to coincide with his campaign to improve the quality of school dinners, and ''[[Jamie's Great Escape]]''.
Starting in [[2004]], Channel 4 began a promotion of its channel consisting of the broadcast of short clips between programs of British or American actors, alongside presenters of Channel 4 programmes, answering more or less personal questions, such as "What animal do you feel most compatible with?", "What would you be doing if you weren't an actor?". One such clip featured actors saying their favourite [[swear word]]s.
Since [[5 November]] [[2004]], Channel 4 has had the British terrestrial rights to show new-to-terrestrial episodes of ''[[The Simpsons]]'', in addition to several of the classic seasons, rights that had previously been held by the [[BBC]] since the show started airing on British terrestrial (1996). This was considered a major scoop for Channel 4, which began promoting ''The Simpsons'' nearly a month in advance, using 18-frame teasers for the show (made up of various characters' faces being created using different-coloured Channel 4 logos) to lead into commercial breaks from October 8th onward. When it started airing in November 2004, seasons 2-5 of the show were repeated weekdays at 6pm, with new and newer episodes from s |
T [[Demographics of Benin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Government of Benin</title>
<id>3564</id>
<revision>
<id>15901885</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T16:53:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Politics of Benin</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Benin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Benin</title>
<id>3565</id>
<revision>
<id>38981366</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T22:47:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Briaboru</username>
<id>284038</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Benin table}}
==Overview==
The economy of [[Benin]] remains underdeveloped and dependent on [[subsistence agriculture]], [[cotton]] Cotton accounts for 40% of GDP and roughly 80% of official export receipts. There is also production of [[textile]]s, palm products, and [[cocoa]]. [[Maize]] (corn), [[bean]]s, [[rice]], [[peanut]]s, [[cashew]]s, [[pineapple]]s, [[cassava]], [[yam (vegetable)|yams]], and other various tubers are grown for local subsistence. Benin began producing a modest quantity of offshore oil in [[October 1982]]. Production ceased in recent years but exploration of new sites is ongoing. A modest fishing fleet provides fish and shrimp for local subsistence and export to Europe. Formerly government-owned commercial activities are now privatized. A French [[brewing|brewer]] acquired the former state-run brewery. Smaller businesses are privately owned by Beninese citizens, but some firms are foreign owned, primarily [[France|French]] and [[Lebanese]]. The private commercial and agricultural sectors remain the principal contributors to growth.
==Economic Development==
Since the transition to a [[Democracy|democratic]] government in [[1990]], Benin has undergone an economic recovery. A large injection of external investment from both private and public sources has alleviated the economic difficulties of the early 1990s caused by global recession and persistently low commodity prices (although the latter continues to affect the economy). The manufacturing sector is confined to some light industry, which is mainly involved in processing primary products and the production of consumer goods. A planned joint [[hydroelectric]] project with neighboring [[Togo]] is intended to reduce Benin's dependence on imported energy mostly from [[Ghana]], which currently accounts for a significant proportion of the country's imports. The service sector has grown quickly, stimulated by economic liberalization and fiscal reform. Membership of the [[CFA Franc Zone]] offers reasonable currency stability as well as access to French economic support. Benin sells its products mainly to [[France]] and, in smaller quantities, to the [[Netherlands]], [[Korea]], [[Japan]], and [[India]]. France is Benin's leading source for imports. Benin is also a member of the [[West Africa]]n economic community [[ECOWAS]].
Despite its rapid growth, the economy of Benin still remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade. Growth in real output averaged a sound 5% since 1996, but a rapid population rise offset much of this growth on a per capita basis. Inflation has subsided over the past several years. Commercial and transport activities, which make up a large part of GDP, are vulnerable to developments in [[Nigeria]], particularly fuel shortages.
==Reference==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bn.html CIA World Factbook]
{{WTO}}
[[Category:Economy of Benin]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Benin]]
[[Category:WTO members|Benin]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Benin]]
[[af:Ekonomie van Benin]]
[[fr:Économie du Bénin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benin/Communications</title>
<id>3566</id>
<revision>
<id>15901887</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T16:53:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Communications in Benin</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Benin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benin/Transportation</title>
<id>3567</id>
<revision>
<id>32381566</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-22T17:55:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"Transportation in Benin" +"Transport in Benin"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transport in Benin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benin/Military</title>
<id>3568</id>
<revision>
<id>15901889</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T16:55:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Military of Benin</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Benin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benin/Transnational issues</title>
<id>3569</id>
<revision>
<id>15901890</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T16:55:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Foreign relations of Benin</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Benin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bermuda/History</title>
<id>3570</id>
<revision>
<id>15901891</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-01T16:29:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Bermuda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bermuda/Geography</title>
<id>3571</id>
<revision>
<id>15901892</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T16:57:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Geography of Bermuda</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Bermuda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bermuda/People</title>
<id>3572</id>
<revision>
<id>15901893</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T15:36:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Bermuda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Government of Bermuda</title>
<id>3573</id>
<revision>
<id>15901894</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T16:56:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Politics of Bermuda</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Bermuda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bermuda/Economy</title>
<id>3574</id>
<revision>
<id>15901895</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T16:58:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Economy of Bermuda</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Bermuda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bermuda/Communications</title>
<id>3575</id>
<revision>
<id>15901896</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T16:58:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Communications in Bermuda</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Bermuda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bermuda/Transportation</title>
<id>3576</id>
<revision>
<id>24815268</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-05T14:58:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transport in Bermuda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bermuda/Military</title>
<id>3577</id>
<revision>
<id>15901898</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T17:00:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Military of Bermuda</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Bermuda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bermuda/Transnational issues</title>
<id>3578</id>
<revision>
<id>15901899</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T11:30:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephen Gilbert</username>
<id>86</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bermuda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bhutan/History</title>
<id>3579</id>
<revision>
<id>15901900</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-01T16:32:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Bhutan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bhutan/Geography</title>
<id>3580</id>
<revision>
<id>15901901</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-07T17:09:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Geography of Bhutan</comment>
<text xml:sp |
ween Fiji's two main [[List of political parties in Fiji|political parties]], the [[United Fiji Party]] (mostly [[Fijian people|indigenous Fijian]]) and the [[Fiji Labour Party]] (mostly [[Indo-Fijian]]). ''"Fiji can make a similar report on the US on all those issues. Our report would be far worse than the [[US State Department]]'s report on Fiji,"'' he said. He went on to rebuke the United States for interfering in Fiji's "domestic affairs."
In an interview with the [[Fiji Times]] on [[29 May]] [[2005]], America's outgoing [[Ambassador]] [[David Lyons]] renewed his country's criticism of Fijian policies by criticizing the Qarase government's proposed [[Reconciliation and Unity Commission (Fiji)|Reconciliation and Unity Commission]]. Lyons expressed concern that its provisions for amnesty for persons convicted of involvement in the [[Fiji coup of 2000|coup d'etat]] that overthrew the elected government in [[2000]] would encourage further coups in the future. ''"If a democratic society doesn't make it clear that the violent over-throw of its elected leaders is a crime against that society, I have to think that it is inviting future upheaval,"'' he said. He also condemned statements of public figures predicting coups if they, their party, or their race is not successful in the [[Fiji election of 2006|next parliamentary election]], saying that such threats were ''"absolutely despicable in a free, democratic society"'' and constituted ''"the worst form of scaremongering."''
Lyons said that the amnesty for perpetrators of the [[Fiji coups of 1987|1987 coups]] had been an error of judgement and had set a precedent which could negatively affect the future unless stopped now. He concurred with statements made by a number of Fijian politicians, including deposed Prime Minister [[Mahendra Chaudhry]] and [[Senate (Fiji)|Senator]] [[Koila Nailatikau|Adi Koila Nailatikau]], that a coup culture had taken root in Fiji. He warned that tourism, which forms the mainstay of the [[Economy of Fiji|Fijian economy]], would be adversely impacted by any further instability. He believed, he said, that the Qarase government was sincere in its commitment to democracy, and acknowledged positive steps taken by the government to restore the rule of law. He added a word of caution, however: ''"All of these positive steps ... will vanish in an instant if there is another coup or sufficient political upheaval questioning the legitimacy of future elections."''
On [[12 July]], however, Lyons cautioned the Fijian Military against using the legislation as a pretext for a coup d'état. Their concern over the proposed law was understandable, he said, but it did warrant the overthrow of the government. ''"Extra constitutional action against a duly elected democratic government ... is unacceptable,"'' he said. A coup would be detrimental not only to Fiji, but to the entire Pacific region, Lyons said.
=== Relations with Australia ===
On [[13 April]] [[2005]], Qarase rejected criticism from [[Australia]] and some other countries over the prosecution and imprisonment of two foreigners charged with committing [[homosexuality|homosexual]] acts, which are illegal in Fiji, and said that other countries needed to respect Fiji's independence. Qarase said that as member of the United Nations, Fiji was as entitled as any other country to make its own laws as it saw fit.
The Australian government has taken a more measured position than its [[New Zealand]] counterpart (q.v.) over the controversial [[Reconciliation and Unity Commission (Fiji)|Reconciliation, Tolerance, and Unity Bill]] currently being debated in the Fijian [[Parliament (Fiji)|Parliament]]. [[Susan Boyd]], a former Australian [[High Commissioner]] to Fiji, has strongly criticized the legislation, but [[Foreign Minister of Australia|Foreign Minister]] [[Alexander Downer]] has said that it is an "internal matter" and that Australia does not want to get involved. He did, however, condemn recent threats from the [[Military of Fiji|Military]] commander, [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[Frank Bainimarama]], to declare [[martial law]] and arrest members of the present government if the bill is passed. The Australian High Commission in Suva told Bainimarama that his threats are not ''"the proper role for the military in a democracy."''
Australian [[Foreign Minister of Australia|Foreign Minister]] [[Alexander Downer]] visited Fiji for two days of talks, from [[28 September|28]]-[[30 September]] [[2005]]. Downer met government ministers and officials, [[Leader of the Opposition (Fiji)|Opposition Leader]] [[Mahendra Chaudhry]], and [[Military of Fiji|Military]] commander [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[Frank Bainimarama]]. The talks covered the controversial Unity bill, as well as the future of Fiji's preferential trade access to the Australian market, which the Fijian government regards as a priority. Downer said that he intended to elaborate further on [[List of Prime Ministers of Australia|Prime Minister]] [[John Howard]]'s promise of a seven-year extension of the [[SPARTECA-TCF]] scheme, which assists Fiji's textile, clothing, and footwear industry.
Foreign Minister Tavola expressed grave concern on [[7 February]] [[2006]] about a proposed [[Regional Trade Agreement]] (RTA) between Australia and China, saying that Fiji's exports to Australia would be unable to compete with Chinese products. For that reason, Fiji was persisting in its efforts to persuade Australia to renew the [[South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Cooperation]] - Textile Clothing Footwear ([[SPARTECA-TCF]]) scheme, to improve the competitiveness of Fijian exports, the [[Fiji Live]] news service reported.
=== Relations with China and Taiwan ===
<!--This section will soon be moved to an article of its own, but please leave it intact for now. ~~~-->
A diplomatic row with the [[People's Republic of China]] erupted on [[5 May]] [[2005]], when [[Republic of China|Taiwan (ROC)]] [[President of the Republic of China|President]] [[Chen Shui-bian]] arrived for a private visit and was welcomed at a private function at [[Suva]]'s [[Sheraton Resort (Fiji)|Sheraton Resort]] by [[List of Vice-Presidents of Fiji|Vice-President]] [[Ratu]] [[Joni Madraiwiwi]], [[Ratu]] [[Ovini Bokini]] ([[List of Chairmen of the Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Chairman]] of the [[Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Great Council of Chiefs]]), [[President of the Senate (Fiji)|Senate President]] [[Taito Waqavakatoga]] and several other [[Senate (Fiji)|Senators]] and [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|MPs]], and several judges including [[Chief Justice (Fiji)|Chief Justice]] [[Daniel Fatiaki]]. [[List of Foreign Ministers of Fiji|Foreign Minister]] [[Kaliopate Tavola]] asserted that those who attended the welcoming ceremony did so ''"of their own accord,"'' not as government representatives, and that Prime Minister Qarase's presence in the same hotel where President Chen was staying was purely "coincidental." Chinese [[Ambassador]] [[Cai Jin Biao]] rejected this explanation, and said that the visit was a violation of the [[One China Policy]], to which Fiji had agreed when diplomatic relations were established in [[1975]], which would ''"sabotage relations between China and Fiji."'' He charged that Prime Minister Qarase and Foreign Minister Tavola had known of the upcoming visit for months. The embassy issued a further statement on [[7 May]], demanding that Fiji discontinue any effort to establish a dialogue with Taiwan.
The row escalated when, on [[16 May]], Health Minister [[Solomone Naivalu]] voted in support of Taiwan's bid to gain observer status at the [[World Health Assembly]] in [[Geneva]]. Naivalu had apparently done so on his own initiative, contrary to a government briefing, sparking a major public disagreement between himself and Foreign Minister Tavola. [[Jia Qinglin]], chairman of the [[People's Political Consultative Conference]] (CPPCC), was dispatched to Fiji and met Prime Minister Qarase during a brief stopover on [[21 May|21]]-[[22 May]], a move that Tavola said was not coincidental. He said that Fiji could not afford to lose China, and that the government would ensure that "careless incidences" like Naivalu's vote in Geneva would not recur. Naivalu responded by saying that his vote was nothing new: ''"We always support Taiwan to get observer status every year,"'' he said.
On [[10 December]] [[2005]], the [[New Zealand Herald]] quoted Tavola as saying that Fiji would have to find a way to resolve a stand-off between the PRC and Taiwan, over membership of the Suva-based [[Council of South Pacific Tourism Organisation]]; China was resisting Taiwanese attempts to join the organization on an equal basis. [http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=2&ObjectID=10359277 ''"If China had its way it would not want Taiwan on that. So we have to resolve the situation amicably and are looking at how both countries can be represented there,"']Tavola said.
In defence of the earlier incident over the Taiwanese President's visit, Tavola said that it was the Pacific way to welcome people. ''"Even when considering Taiwan as a province of China,'' he went on, ''the President of a province is a man of high profile, so when he comes there is an urge to extend hospitality."'' It did not signify any modification to Fiji's adherence to the One China policy, he had explained to the Chinese ambassador.
China has invested in a number of major projects in Fiji. These include the Suva sports stadium, built for the [[South Pacific Games]] of [[2003]].
On [[14 December]] [[2005]], Fiji's [[Military of Fiji|Military]] Commander, [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[Frank Bainimarama]] began an official visit to China, at the invitation of the [[People's Liberation Army]]. He r |
Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics, two Packard Foundation grant holders, a Keck Distinguished Young Scholar, two Beckman Foundation Young Investigator grant holders, and two NYSTAR (New York State Office of Science, Technology, and Academic Research) early career award winners. In total, Cornell is affiliated to 32 [[Nobel prizes by university affiliation|Nobel laureates]].{{ref|faculty.distinction}}
Among [[Cornellians#Faculty|Cornell's notable former professors]] are [[Carl Sagan]], [[Norman Malcolm]], [[Vladimir Nabokov]], [[Hans Bethe]], [[Richard Feynman]], [[Kip S. Thorne]], and [[Allan Bloom]].
==Alumni==
{{seealso|List of Cornell University people}}
[[As of 2005]], Cornell University counted over 230,000 living alumni{{ref|alumni.living_graduates}}. The Office of Alumni Affairs and Development sponsors a wide variety of affinity programs, activities, and organizations, including annual Reunion Weekend and [[Homecoming (tradition)|Homecoming]] Weekend festivities in Ithaca, and the International Spirit of Zinck's Night sponsored by Cornell offices and organizations around the world. The various classes, regional clubs, and special interest associations are coordinated by the Cornell Alumni Federation.
Cornell ranked second in gifts and bequests from alumni and third in total support from all sources (alumni, friends, corporations, and foundations) among U.S. colleges and universities reporting voluntary gift support received in fiscal year 2003-4{{ref|alumni.gifts}}.
Among Cornell's most notable alumni are [[Thomas Pynchon]], [[Pearl S. Buck]], [[Ruth Bader Ginsberg]], [[David Starr Jordan]], [[Lee Teng-hui]], [[Christopher Reeve]], [[Janet Reno]], [[Hu Shih]], [[Sanford I. Weill]], [[E. B. White]] and [[Paul Wolfowitz]].
==Cornelliana==
[[Image:Dragon Day 1901.JPG|right|thumb|250px|[[Dragon Day]], one of the school's oldest traditions, has been celebrated since [[1901]].]]
:''See main article: [[Cornelliana]]''
Cornelliana is a term for Cornell's unique traditions, legends and lore. Cornellian traditions include [[Slope Day]], a celebration held on the last day of classes, and [[Dragon Day]], which includes the burning of a dragon built by architecture students.
The school colors are [[carnelian]] (a shade of [[red]]) and [[white]], a play on "Cornellian" and Andrew Dickson White. Cornell's athletic teams are referred to as the "[[Cornell Big Red|Big Red]]"; a bear is commonly used as the unofficial mascot, which dates back to the introduction of the mascot "Touchdown" in 1915, a live bear who was brought onto the field during football games. The sports teams participate in the [[Ivy League]] and the [[Eastern College Athletic Conference]] (ECAC). At sporting events, Cornellians sing the university's [[alma mater]] "[[Far Above Cayuga's Waters]]" and [[fight song]] "[[Give My Regards to Davy]]". People associated with the university are called "[[Cornellians]]"; "Cornellian" may also be used as an adjective and is the name of the university's [[yearbook]].
==See also==
*[[Ivy League]]
*[[Ivy League business schools]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cornell.edu/ Cornell University], official website
* [http://admissions.cornell.edu/ Cornell Undergraduate Admissions]
* [http://cuinfo.cornell.edu/ CUinfo], campus information portal
* [http://www.alumni.cornell.edu/ alumni.cornell], portal for the alumni, parents, and friends of Cornell University, offering services, organizations, and ways to become involved and support the university's mission.
* [http://www.cornellbigred.com/ Cornell Big Red], official athletics site
* ''[http://www.cornelldailysun.com/ The Cornell Daily Sun]'', student newspaper (independent)
* [http://cybertower.cornell.edu/ Cornell Cybertower], collection of Cornell lectures available online
* [http://www.law.cornell.edu/ Legal Information Institute], public information service of Cornell Law School
* [http://www.explore.cornell.edu/scene.cfm?scene=Sites%20and%20Landmarks A Virtual Tour of Cornell]
{{Mapit-US-streetscale|42.448510|-76.478620}}
==Notes and references==
<!-- Wikipedia:Cite_sources/example_style -->
#{{note|lead.research}} {{cite web | url = http://dpb.cornell.edu/irp/research.htm | title = Cornell Institutional Research and Planning: Research | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|lead.china}} {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/04/7.1.04/Lehman-China_trip.html | title = "Lehman leads Cornell delegation in China; Hong Kong and India next" | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}; {{cite web | url =http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Nov05/Rawlings_China_main.html | title = "Rawlings heads to China to sign partnership agreement and deliver keynote address at economic summit in Beijing" | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|lead.india}} {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/04/7.15.04/Lehman_India_cover.html | title = "Lehman discusses research and academic collaborations in India" | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}; {{cite web | url =http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/July05/RawlingsIndia.bpf.html | title = "Cornell president joins Indian prime minister to open new chapter in science education" | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}; {{cite web | url =http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/March04/India.Grant.bpf.html | title = "Cornell's International Programs awarded $300,000 USAID grant to help bolster agricultural economy in India" | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|lead.singapore}} {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/04/11.11.04/HotelSchool-Nanyang.html | title = "Hotel School, Singapore university establish joint master's program" | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|lead.transnational_claim}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornell.edu/about/mission/ | title = The Cornell University Mission | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|conception_of_cornell.western_union}} {{cite web | url = http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/Ezra-exhibit/EC-life/EC-life-6.html | title = Ezra Cornell: The Business of the Telegraph | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|conception_of_cornell.cornell_quote}} {{cite web | url = http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/Ezra-exhibit/EC-life/EC-life-10.html | title = Ezra Cornell: "To the poor and to posterity" | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|establishment_of_cornell.act}} {{cite web | url = http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/Ezra-exhibit/EC-life/Screen/C11senate1.JPEG | title = State of New York. In Senate, February 7, 1865 | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|establishment_of_cornell.trustees}} {{cite book | first = Carl | last = Becker | title = Cornell University: Founders and the Founding | year = 1943 | pages = 90 | publisher = Cornell University Press | url = http://dspace.library.cornell.edu/handle/1813/184}}
#{{note|establishment_of_cornell.class_size}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornell.edu/about/facts/faq_profile.cfm?id=915 | title = Facts about Cornell - How old is Cornell? | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|establishment_of_cornell.ezra_cornell_quote}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornell.edu/president/history_bio_white.cfm | title = Cornell University - Office of the President - Andrew Dickson White | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|establishment_of_cornell.curriculum}} {{cite book | first = Morris | last = Bishop | title = A History of Cornell | year = 1962 | pages = 75 | edition = 1st ed. | publisher = Cornell University Press | id = ISBN 0-8014-0036-8}}; {{cite book | first = Frederick | last = Rudolph | title = Curriculum: a history of the American undergraduate course of study since 1636 | year = 1977 | edition = 1st ed. | publisher = San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers | id = ISBN 0-8758-9358-9}}
#{{note|establishment_of_cornell.frederick_rudolph}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornell.edu/academics/ | title = Cornell University - Academics - Overview | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|research.nsfnet}} {{cite web | url = http://www.nsf.gov/about/history/nsf0050/internet/launch.htm | title = The Internet - The Launch of NSFNET | accessdate = 2006-01-05}}; {{cite web | url = http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=103050 | title = A Brief History of NSF and the Internet | accessdate = 2006-01-05}}; {{cite web | url = http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_nsfnet.htm | title = NSFNET, National Science Foundation Network | accessdate = 2006-01-05}}
#{{note|research.timeline}} {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/rover/timeline.html | title = Cornell's role in missions to Mars: 1962-2003 | accessdate = 2006-01-10}}
#{{note|research.squyres}} {{cite web | url = http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=000B5749-67A2-1150-A5AC83414B7F0000&pageNumber=2&catID=2 | title = Science and Technology at Scientific American.com: Father of Spirit and Opportunity | accessdate = 2006-01-10}}
#{{note|research.breakthrough}} {{cite web | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/306/5704/2001 | title = Editorial: Breakthrough of the Year | accessdate = 2006-01-10}}
#{{note|research.rover_control}} {{cite web | url = http://www.space.com/news/rovers_cornell_041105.html | title = Space.com—Control of Mars Rovers Shifts to Cornell | accessdate = 2006-01-10}}
#{{note|cornell_university_library.collections}} {{cite web | url = http://library.cornell.edu/about/collstats.html | title = "Cornell University Library: Collection Statistics" | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|cornell_university_press.history}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/cup8_presshistory.html | title = "The History of the Cornell University Press" | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|main_campus.cascadilla}} {{cite web | url = http://ezra.cornell.edu/posting.php?timestamp=781416000#question9 | title = Dear Uncle Ezra: Questions for Thursday, October 6, 1994 | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|main_campus.clo |
taly]] receiving eye treatment at the medicinal mud baths
at [[Ischia]], it was sometimes difficult to assess the
factional and party affiliation of the officers who took place.
Despite a number of conversions of Parchamis to the Khalqi
faction by the time of the communist coup of April [[1978]] which
overthrew Daoud, both party and factional loyalties became
obvious after the PDPA took power.
Although leftists had played a central role in the coup, and
despite the appointment of two leftists as ministers, evidence
suggests that the coup was Daoud's alone. Officers personally
loyal to him were placed in key positions while young Parchamis
were sent to the provinces, probably to get them out of [[Kabul]],
until Daoud had purged the leftist officers by the end of [[1975]].
The next year, Daoud established his own political party, the
National Revolutionary Party, which became the focus of all
political activity. In January [[1977]], a [[loya jirga]] approved
Daoud's constitution establishing a presidential, one party
system of government.
Any resistance to the new regime was suppressed. A coup attempt by [[Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal]], which may have been planned before Daoud took power, was subdued shortly after his coup. In October [[1973]], Maiwandwal, a former prime minister and a highly respected former diplomat, died in prison at a time when Parchamis controlled the Ministry of Interior under circumstances corroborating the widespread belief that he had been tortured to death.
While both of the PDPA's factions had attempted to collaborate
with Daoud before the [[1973]] coup, Parcham used its advantage to
recruit on an unprecedented scale immediately following the coup.
Daoud, however, soon made it clear that he was no front man and
that he had not adopted the claims of any ideological faction. He
began in the first months of his regime to ease Parcharmis out of
his cabinet. Perhaps not to alienate the Soviet Union, Daoud was
careful to cite inefficiency and not ideological reasons for the
dismissals. Khalq, seeing an opportunity to make some short-term
gains at Parcham's expense, suggested to Daoud that "honest"
Khalqis replace corrupt Parchamis. Daoud, wary of ideologues,
ignored this offer.
Daoud's ties with the Soviet Union, like his relations with
Afghan communists, deteriorated during his five year presidency.
This loosening of ties with the Soviet Union was gradual. Daoud's
shift to the right and realignment made the Soviets anxious but
western observers noted that Daoud remained solicitous of Soviet
interests and Afghanistan's representative in the [[United Nations]]
voted regularly with the [[Soviet Bloc]] or with the group of
nonaligned countries. The Soviets remained by far Afghanistan's
largest aid donor and were influential enough to insist that no
Western activity, economic or otherwise, be permitted in northern
Afghanistan.
Daoud still favored a state-centered economy, and, three years
after coming to power, he drew up an ambitious seven-year
economic plan ([[1976]] - [[1983]]) that included major projects and required
a substantial influx of foreign aid. As early as [[1974]], Daoud
began distancing himself from over-reliance on the Soviet Union
for military and economic support. That same year, he formed a
military training program with [[India]], and opened talks with Iran
on economic [[development aid]]. Daoud also turned to other oil-rich
[[Muslim]] nations, such as [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Iraq]], and [[Kuwait]], for
financial assistance.
Pashtunistan zealots confidently expected the new president to
raise this issue with [[Pakistan]], and in the first few months of
the new regime, bilateral relations were poor. Efforts by Iran
and the [[United States]] to cool a tense situation succeeded after a
time, and by [[1977]] relations between Pakistan and Afghanistan had
notably improved. During Daoud's March [[1978]] visit to [[Islamabad]],
an agreement was reached whereby President [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] of
Pakistan released Pashtun and [[Baloch]] militants from prison in
exchange for Daoud withdrawing support for these groups and
expelling Pashtun and Baloch militants taking refuge in
Afghanistan.
Daoud's initial visit to the Soviet Union in [[1974]] was
friendly, despite disagreement on the Pashtunistan issue. By the
time of Daoud's second visit in April [[1977]], the Soviets knew of
his purge of the left begun in [[1975]], his removal of Soviet
advisers from some Afghan military units, and his changes in
military training whereby other nations, especially India and
[[Egypt]], trained Afghans with Soviet weapons. Despite official
goodwill, unofficial reports circulated of sharp Soviet criticism
of anticommunists in Daoud's new cabinet, of his failure to
cooperate with the PDPA, and of his criticism of [[Cuba|Cuba's]] role in
the [[Non-Aligned Movement|non-aligned movement]]. Furthermore, Daoud was friendly with
Iran and Saudi Arabia, and he had scheduled a visit to [[Washington, DC]]
for the spring of [[1978]].
By [[1978]] Daoud had achieved little of what he had set out to
accomplish. Despite good harvests in [[1973]] and subsequent years,
no real economic progress had been made, and the Afghan standard
of living had not improved. By the spring of [[1978]], he had
alienated most key political groups by gathering power into his
own hands and refusing to tolerate dissent. Although Muslim
[[fundamentalist|fundamentalists]] had been the object of repression as early as 1974, their numbers had nonetheless increased. Diehard
Pashtunistan supporters were disillusioned with Daoud's
rapprochement with Pakistan, especially by what they regarded as
his commitment in the [[1977]] agreement not to aid Pashtun militants
in Pakistan.
Most ominous for Daoud were developments among Afghan
communists. In March [[1977]], despite reaching a fragile agreement
on reunification, Parcham and Khalq remained mutually suspicious.
The military arms of each faction were not coordinated because,
by this time, Khalqi military officers vastly outnumbered
Parchami officers and feared the latter might inform Daoud of
this, raising his suspicion that a coup was imminent. Although
plans for a coup had long been discussed, according to a
statement by [[Hafizullah Amin]], the April 1978 coup was implemented
about two years ahead of time.
The [[April 19]], [[1978]], funeral for [[Mir Akbar Khyber]], a prominent
Parchami ideologue who had been murdered, served as a rallying
point for Afghan communists. An estimated 10,000 to 30,000
persons gathered to hear stirring speeches by [[Nur Mohammed Taraki]] and Karmal. Shocked by this demonstration of communist unity, Daoud ordered
the arrest of PDPA leaders, but he reacted too slowly. It took
him a week to arrest Taraki, and Amin was merely placed under
house arrest. According to later PDPA writings, Amin sent
complete orders for the coup from his home while it was under
armed guard using his family as messengers. The army had been put
on alert on [[April 26]] because of a presumed "anti-Islamic" coup.
Given Daoud's repressive and suspicious mood, officers known to
have differed with Daoud, even those without PDPA ties or with
only tenuous connections to the communists, moved hastily to
prevent their own downfall.
==April [[1978]] Coup==
On [[April 27]], [[1978]], a [[coup d'état]] beginning with troop
movements at the military base at [[Kabul International Airport]],
gained ground slowly over the next twenty-four hours as rebels
battled units loyal to Daoud in and around the capital. Daoud and
most of his family were shot in the Presidential Palace the
following day. Two hundred and thirty-one years of royal and then republican rule by [[Ahmad Shah]] and his descendants had ended and the period
of the communist [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] had began.
[[Category:Former countries|Afghanistan, Daoud's Republic of]]
[[Category:History of Afghanistan]]
[[no:Daouds afghanske republikk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Decameron</title>
<id>9063</id>
<revision>
<id>15906986</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Decameron]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Division ring</title>
<id>9067</id>
<revision>
<id>38361470</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T21:12:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tosha</username>
<id>37304</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], a '''division ring''', also called a '''skew field''', is a [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] with 0 &ne; 1 and such that every non-zero element ''a'' has a [[multiplicative inverse]] (i.e. an element ''x'' with ''ax'' = ''xa'' = 1). If rings are viewed as [[category theory|categorical]] constructions, then this is equivalent to requiring that all nonzero [[morphism]]s are [[isomorphism]]s. Division rings are very similar to [[field (mathematics)|fields]] - they differ only in that their multiplication is not required to be [[commutative]]. The condition 0 &ne; 1 is only there to exclude the trivial ring with a single element 0 = 1. Stated differently, a ring is a division ring [[If and only if|iff]] the [[group of units]] is the set of all non-zero elements.
All fields are division rings; more interesting examples are the non-commutative division rings. The best known example is the ring of [[quaternion]]s '''H'''. If we allow only [[rational number|rational]] instead of [[real number|real]] coefficients in the constructions of the quaternions, we obtain another division ring. In general, if ''R'' is a ring and ''S'' is a [[simple module]] over ''R'', then the [[endomorphism ring]] of ''S'' is a di |
groups===
*[http://www.ithacappella.com/ Ithacappella] - male a cappella singing group
*[http://www.ithaca.edu/premiumblend/ Premium Blend] - female a cappella singing group
*[http://www.icvoicestream.com/ VoiceStream] - co-ed a cappella singing group
==External links==
*[http://www.ithaca.edu/ Ithaca College official site]
*[http://www.ithaca.edu/ithacan The Ithacan - Ithaca's official newspaper]
*[http://www.imprintmagazine.org/ iMPrint Magazine: College Life's Internet Magazine]
*[http://www.ithaca.edu/icjournal/ Ithaca College Journal of Race, Culture, Gender and Ethnicity]
*[http://www.buzzsawhaircut.com/ Buzzsaw Haircut] - Ithaca's alternative student-run magazine publication
==Trivia==
*The characters from the movie [[Road Trip]] attended "Ithaca University." The filming, however, took place at The [[University of Georgia]].</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Individual differences psychology</title>
<id>15447</id>
<revision>
<id>39936477</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T23:07:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>EPM</username>
<id>675682</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Differential psychology}}
'''Individual differences psychology''' studies the ways in which individual people differ in their behavior. This is distinguished from other aspects of [[psychology]] in that although psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists invariably study [[groups]]. For example, in evaluating the effectiveness of a new therapy, the mean performance of the therapy in one [[treatment group|group]] might be compared to the mean effectiveness of a [[placebo]] (or a well-known therapy) in a second, [[control group]]. In this context, differences between individuals in their reaction to the experimental and control manipulations are actually treated as errors rather than as interesting phenomena to study. This is because [[psychology|psychological]] research depends upon statistical controls that are only defined upon groups of people. Individual difference psychologists usually express their interest in individuals while studying groups by seeking dimensions shared by all individuals but upon which individuals differ. Individual differences typically includes the study of [[intelligence (trait)]] and [[IQ]] and the study of [[personality]].
Individual differences of the [[Emotion|emotional]] type were described by [[Knight Dunlap]], in ''Habits: Their Making and Unmaking'' (1932), pp 233-234:
* The timid person has emotions of embarrassment, dismay, apprehension or fear in situations where normal persons show little emotional effect, or where quite different emotions would be more appropriate.
* An irritable person may "boil over" in an offensive way or express himself snappishly under stimulation which should be only mildly annoying. On the other hand, he may, for politic reasons, somewhat restrain his outward expressions, but still feel the irritation he does not flagrantly display. The bad-tempered person, however, seldom restrains his expressions of irritation completely.
* Another type of emotionally maladjusted individual is popularly described as "soft." His sympathy is too easily aroused, and he is an easy prey for clever swindlers. He pities not merely the unfortunate person, but also the deliberate miscreant, and so is an impediment to the maintenance of social order and justice. At the other extreme is the "hard-boiled" man, who is callous to the suffering and misfortune of others and who spares the feelings of no one.
* Self-pity, unlike the emotional defects above described, is not an exaggeration of a normal habit, but is a trait which is undesirable throughout.... However deserving a man may be of pity from others, he cannot afford to pity himself. The neurotic, from whatever complex of disadvantageous traits he may suffer, is especially prone to self-pity, which confirms and strengthens his neurosis.
==Bibliographic Reference==
Dunlap, Knight. ''Habits: Their Making and Unmaking.'' New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, Inc. (1932).
[[Category:Psychology]]
==See also==
* [[London School of Differential Psychology]]
==External links==
* [http://www.wilderdom.com/personality/L1-1Introduction.html Introduction to Individual Differences]
*Buss, D.M., & Greiling, H.(1999). [http://lepo.it.da.ut.ee/~renee/Buss/buss1999.pdf#search='David%20Bussadaptive%20differencespdf' Adaptive Individual Differences.] ''Journal of Personality, 67'', 209-243.
[[Category:Branches of psychology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Israeli</title>
<id>15449</id>
<revision>
<id>15912923</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-01T21:30:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kevin Saff</username>
<id>37386</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to Israel</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Israel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Industrial and organizational psychology</title>
<id>15450</id>
<revision>
<id>41444200</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T10:08:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>132.170.32.108</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Industrial and organizational psychology''' (or '''I/O psychology''') is also known as '''occupational psychology''' (in the [[United Kingdom]]) and '''work psychology''' (from the German, ''Arbeitpsychologie'').
Industrial and organizational psychology is the study of the behavior of people in the workplace. Industrial and organizational psychology attempts to apply psychological results and methods to aid workers and organizations.
Industrial and organizational psychologists use [[psychological testing]] to measure the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics of people for a variety of employment-related purposes, such as selection for hiring or promotion, training and development, or measuring employee satisfaction. Historically, the [[job analysis]] has been the traditional means by which the essential characteristics associated with any particular position are identified. A thorough job analysis takes time, resources and money but its benefits tend to out weigh the costs, especially when the position is of great importance, such as an executive position in a major corporation.
It is a fairly diverse field incorporating aspects of fields such as [[clinical psychology]], social psychology, and psychometrics as well as broader social studies such as [[organizational theory]], [[law]], and gender issues.
Many industrial and organizational psychologists specialize in aspects (e.g., psychometrics; time and motion studies; labor law; personnel selection; training) aspects (e.g., leadership selection, coaching and development; organizational design and change). Some I/O psychologists are academic (working in both business and psychology departments) or non-academic researchers, while many others are engaged in practice, holding positions such as:
* executive coach
* diversity consultant
* legislative compliance officer
* labor relations specialist
* human resources specialist
* process improvement consultant
* manager of selection and training.
== Related disciplines ==
* [[Industrial engineering]]
* [[Total quality management]]
* [[Psychometrics]]
* [[Social psychology]]
* [[Labor and industrial relations]]
* [[Organizational development]]
* [[Personality psychology]]
* [[Organizational behavior]]
== Milestones in industrial and organizational psychology ==
* [[Hawthorne studies]] at [[Western Electric]]
* [[U.S. Army]] Project A
==See also==
* [[Industrial sociology]]
* [[List of human resource management topics]]
* [[List of psychological topics]]
* [[How Occupation and Employment can affect Identity]]
* [[List of publications in psychology#Industrial and organizational psychology | Important publications in Industrial and organizational psychology ]]
== Key works in industrial and organizational psychology ==
* ''Handbook Of Research Methods In Industrial And Organizational Psychology'', by Steven G. Rogelberg
* Two volume ''Handbook of Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology'', edited by Neil Anderson, Deniz S. Ones, Handan K. Sinangil, and Chockalingam Viswesvaran
* ''Handbook of Psychology, Industrial and Organizational Psychology'' by Walter C. Borman, Daniel R. Ilgen, Richard J. Klimoski, Irving B. Weiner
==External links==
* Additional information can be found at the Web site of the [http://www.siop.org Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology].
* Related information can be found at the web site of the [http://www.aomonline.org Academy of Management].
[[Category:applied psychology]]
[[category:Organizational studies and human resource management]]
[[af:Bedryfsielkunde]]
[[fa:روانشناسی صنعتی]]
[[fi:Työpsykologia]]
[[sl:Kadrovsko-menedžerska in industrijska psihologija]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Council of Unitarians and Universalists</title>
<id>15451</id>
<revision>
<id>40364482</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Council of Unitarians and Universalists''' (ICUU) is a world council bringing together [[Unitarian]]s, [[Universalist]]s and [[Unitarian Universalism|Unitarian Universalists]]. The original initiative for its establishment was contained in a resolution of the [[General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches]] of the [[United Kingdom]] in 1987. This led to the establishment of the "Advocates for the Establishment of |
unctions.
Unlike similar efforts of the time, Babbage's difference engine was created to calculate a series of values automatically. By using the method of finite differences, it was possible to avoid the need for multiplication and division.
The first difference engine needed around 25,000 parts of a combined weight of fifteen tons standing eight feet high. Although he received much funding for the project, he did not complete it. He later designed an improved version, "Difference Engine No. 2". This was not constructed at the time, but was built using his plans in 1989-1991, to 19th century tolerances, and performed its first calculation at the London Science Museum bringing back results to 31 digits, far more than the average modern pocket calculator.
===Printer===
Babbage designed a printer for the second difference engine which had some remarkable features; it supported line-wrapping, variable column and row width, and programmable output formatting.
===Analytical engine===
Soon after the attempt at making the difference engine crumbled, Babbage started designing a different, more complex machine called the [[Analytical Engine]]. The engine is not a single physical machine but a succession of designs that he tinkered with until his death in 1871. The main difference between the two engines is that the Analytical Engine could be programmed using [[punch cards]], an idea unheard of in his time. He realized that programs could be put on similar cards so the person had to only create the program initially, and then put the cards in the machine and let it run. The analytical engine was also proposed to use loops of [[Jacquard loom|Jacquard]]'s punched cards to control a mechanical calculator, which could formulate results based on the results of preceding computations. This machine was also intended to employ several features subsequently used in modern computers, including sequential control, branching, and looping, and would have been the first mechanical device to be [[Turing-complete]].
[[Ada Lovelace]], an impressive mathematician and one of the few people who totally understood Babbage's vision, created a program for the Analytical Engine. Had the Analytical Engine ever actually been built, her program would have been able to calculate a numerical sequence known as the [[Bernoulli numbers]]. Based on this work, Ada is now credited as being the first [[programmer|computer programmer]] and, in 1979, a contemporary programming language was named [[Ada programming language|Ada]] in her honour. Shortly afterward, in 1981, a satirical article in Datamation magazine described the [http://www.tlc-systems.com/babbage.htm Babbage programming language], the "language of the future".
==Other accomplishments==
In [[1824]], Babbage won the [[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] "for his invention of an engine for calculating mathematical and astronomical tables".
From [[1828]] to [[1839]] Babbage was [[Lucasian professor]] of mathematics at Cambridge. He contributed largely to several scientific periodicals, and was instrumental in founding the Astronomical Society in [[1820]] and the Statistical Society in [[1834]]. However, he dreamt of designing mechanical calculating machines.
:“... I was sitting in the rooms of the Analytical Society, at Cambridge, my head leaning forward on the table in a kind of dreamy mood, with a table of logarithms lying open before me. Another member, coming into the room, and seeing me half asleep, called out, Well, Babbage, what are you dreaming about?" to which I replied "I am thinking that all these tables" (pointing to the logarithms) "might be calculated by machinery. "
In [[1837]], responding to the official eight ''[[Francis Henry Egerton, 8th Earl of Bridgewater|Bridgewater Treatises]] "On the Power, Wisdom and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation"'', he published his ''Ninth Bridgewater Treatise'' putting forward the thesis that God had the omnipotence and foresight to create as a divine legislator, making laws (or programs) which then produced species at the appropriate times, rather than continually interfering with ''ad hoc'' miracles each time a new species was required. The book is a work of [[natural theology]]. The book incorporated extracts from correspondence he had been having with [[John Herschel]] on the subject.
Charles Babbage also achieved notable results in [[cryptography]]. He broke Vigenère's [[autokey cipher]] as well as the much weaker cipher that is called [[Vigenère cipher]] today. The autokey cipher was generally called "the undecipherable cipher", though owing to popular confusion, many thought that the weaker polyalphabetic cipher was the "undecipherable" one. Babbage's discovery was used to aid English military campaigns, and was not published until several years later; as a result credit for the development was instead given to [[Friedrich Kasiski]], who made the same discovery some years after Babbage.
Babbage also invented the [[Pilot (locomotive)|pilot]] (also called a cow-catcher), the metal frame attached to the front of locomotives that clears the tracks of obstacles in 1838. He also performed several studies on [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]]'s [[Great Western Railway]].
He only once endeavoured to enter public life, when, in [[1832]], he stood unsuccessfully for the borough of [[Finsbury]]. He came in last in the polls.
==Eccentricities==
Babbage once counted all the broken panes of glass of a factory, publishing in 1857 a "Table of the Relative Frequency of the Causes of Breakage of Plate Glass Windows": 14 of 464 were caused by "drunken men, women or boys". His distaste for commoners ("the Mob") included writing "Observations of Street Nuisances" in 1864, as well as tallying up 165 "nuisances" over a period of 80 days; he especially hated [[street music]]. He was also obsessed with [[fire]], once baking himself in an oven at 265°F (130°C) for four minutes "without any great discomfort" and to "see what would happen." Later, he arranged to be lowered into [[Mount Vesuvius]] in order to view molten [[lava]] for himself.
==Named after Babbage==
*[[Babbage (crater)|Babbage crater]], on the [[Moon]], is named in his honor.
==References==
* Charles Babbage. ''Passages from the Life of a Philosopher''. ISBN 1851960406.
* Anthony Hyman. ''Charles Babbage: Pioneer of the Computer''. ISBN 0691023778.
* Maboth Moseley. ''Irascible Genius: A Life of Charles Babbage, Inventor''.
* Doron Swade. ''The Cogwheel Brain''. ISBN 03166484772.
==See also==
* [[History of computing hardware]]
* [[Ada Byron]], Countess of Lovelace, described and programmed the analytical engine
* [[Francis Henry Egerton%2C 8th Earl of Bridgewater| Earl of Bridgewater]] for other ''Bridgewater Treatise''
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Babbage}}
* [http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/babbage/index.asp Science Museum's exhibit on the Difference engine]
* [http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/babbage/index.html ''Economy of Machinery and Manufactures''] at [http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/ Archive for the History of Economic Thought]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Charles_Babbage|name=Charles Babbage}}
* [http://www.victorianweb.org/science/science_texts/bridgewater/b1.htm The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise]
* [[Francis Baily]], "On Mr. Babbage's new machine for calculating and printing mathematical and astronomical tables" [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AN.../0002//0000227.000.html ''Astronomische Nachrichten'', '''2''' (1824) 407/408]
* "Address of the President of the [[Royal Astronomical Society|Astronomical Society of London]], on presenting the [[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society|Gold Medal]] of the Society to ''Charles Baggage'' [sic], Esq." [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AN.../0003//0000098.000.html ''Astronomische Nachrichten'', '''3''' (1825) 169/170]
* [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0032//0000101.000.html Obituary of Charles Babbage in ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'', '''32''' (1872) 101]
** Babbage's grave is in [[Kensal Green Cemetery]] London. [http://web.uvic.ca/~rutherfo/mr_grvs.html Famous Economists Grave Sites].
* [http://vmoc.museophile.org/babbage/ Charles Babbage] information in the [[Virtual Museum of Computing]]
* [http://www.smartcomputing.com/editorial/dictionary/detail.asp?guid=&searchtype=&DicID=16692&RefType=Encyclopedia Smart Computing Encyclopedia ''Charles Babbage"]
<!-- Please do not delete! For explanation see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->
{{Persondata
|NAME=Babbage, Charles
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[England|English]] [[computer]] pioneer
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[December 26]], [[1791]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[London]], [[England]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[October 18]], [[1871]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[London]], [[England]]
}}
{{lifetime|1791|1871|Babbage, Charles}}
[[Category:19th century philosophers|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Alumni of Peterhouse, Cambridge|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Anglicans|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Business theorists|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Babbage]]
[[Category:Computer designers|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:English inventors|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:English mathematicians|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Londoners|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Mechanical calculators|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:People buried in Kensal Green Cemetery|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Pre-computer cryptographers|Babbage, Charles]]
[[bg:Чарлз Бабидж]]
[[bn:চার্লস ব্যাবেজ]]
[[bs:Charles Babbage]]
[[ca:C |
See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fem isa 2.gif|thumb|350px|{{{demo}}}|A woman's clitoris extends from the visible portion to a point below the pubic bone.]]
The '''clitoris''' (plural: ''clitorides'') is a [[sex organ|sexual organ]] in the body of [[female]] [[mammal]]s. The visible [[doorknob|knob]]-like portion is located near the [[anterior]] junction of the [[labia minora]], above the opening of the [[vagina]]. Unlike the [[Homology (biology)|homologous]] male organ (the [[penis]]), the clitoris does not contain the [[distal]] portion of the [[urethra]] and functions solely to induce [[sexual pleasure]]. The only known exception to this is in the [[Crocuta|Spotted Hyena]], where the [[urogenital system]] is modified so that the female urinates, mates and gives birth via an enlarged, erectile clitoris.
The word: ''clitoris'' can be pronounced KLIHT uh rihs ({{IPA|['kl&#618;t&#601;&#633;&#601;s]}} in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] notation {{noprint|([[media:Clitoris pronunciation 1.ogg|listen]]}})) or klih TOHR ihs ({{IPA|[kl&#618;'t&#596;&#633;&#601;s]}} {{noprint|([[media:Clitoris pronunciation 2.ogg|listen]]}})). The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]]'' suggests that KLY tor ihs ({{IPA|['kla&#618;t&#594;&#633;&#618;s]}}) is also used in the [[United Kingdom|UK]].
== Development and formation ==
[[Image:Clitoris_inner_anatomy.gif|thumb|220px|The internal anatomy of the human vulva, with the clitoral hood and labia minora indicated as lines.]]
[[Image:Vulvabigopen2(english).jpg|thumb|220px|Photograph of the human vulva showing the glans clitoris. In many cases the clitoral hood completely covers the glans, as seen in the photo below.]]
[[Image:HumanVulva-NewText-PhiloViv.jpg|thumb|220px|{{{demo}}}|A photograph of the human vulva, with the clitoris obscured by the clitoral hood and folds of the labia minora.]]<!-- This image has been the subject of much controversy. Change or remove it at your own risk. (As of 9th Sept 2005, updated to an image with the same photo but new text)-->
The female clitoris corresponds to [[homologous]] parts of the [[male]] [[penis]], i.e., [[embryology|embryologically]] it comes from the same tissue that forms the penis. The trigger for forming a penis instead of a clitoris is the action of [[testosterone]] ''[[in utero]]''.
The organ is formed out of [[corpus cavernosum]], a rich collection of [[capillary tissue]] with a substantial presence of [[nerve tissue]]. It contains roughly the same number of nerve endings as the penis[http://www.mypleasure.com/education/qanda/questions/1093.asp], and it is particularly well-suited for [[sexual stimulation]].
The outside portion of the clitoris, the ''[[clitoral glans]]'', is entirely or partially covered by the ''[[clitoral hood]]'' or ''[[prepuce]]'', tissue that is homologous to the [[foreskin]] in males and beneath which [[smegma]] is formed and may collect. In humans, the [[clitoral body]] then extends several [[centimetre|centimeters]] upwards and to the back, before splitting into two arms, the ''[[clitoral crura]]''. Shaped like an inverted "V", these crura extend around and to the interior of the [[labia majora]]. Including external and internal components, it is thought the clitoris is similar in size to the penis.
Most of the clitoris is hidden, and external stimulation of the entire clitoris can result in a more profound sexual response. There is considerable variation among women with regard to how much of the clitoris protrudes from the hood and how much is covered by it, ranging from complete, covered invisibility to full, protruding visibility. One explanation advanced for the [[vaginal orgasm]] is that it results from stimulation of the internal parts of the clitoris during vaginal penetration. Nevertheless, some women experience both clitoral and vaginal orgasms and distinguish between them in terms of both the physical and general sensations associated with each.
During sexual arousal, the clitoris enlarges as its [[erectile tissue]] fills with [[blood]]. Shortly before [[orgasm]], this erection often increases further, drawing the clitoris upwards, so that viewed from the outside it actually appears to shrink.
== Recognition of existence ==
[[:Category:Medical journals|Medical literature]] first recognised the existence of the clitoris in the [[16th century]]. This is the subject of some dispute: [[Realdo Colombo]] (also known as Matteo Renaldo Colombo) was a [[lecturer]] in [[surgery]] at the [[University of Padua]], [[Italy]], and in [[1559]] he published a book called ''De re anatomica'' in which he described the "seat of woman's delight". Colombo concluded, "Since no one has discerned these projections and their workings, if it is permissible to give names to things discovered by me, it should be called the love or sweetness of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]."
Colombo's claim was disputed by his successor at [[Padua]], [[Gabriele Falloppio]] (who discovered the [[fallopian tube]]), who claimed that he was the first to discover the clitoris. [[Caspar Bartholin the Younger|Caspar Bartholin]], a [[17th century]] Danish [[anatomy|anatomist]], dismissed both claims, arguing that the clitoris had been widely known to [[medicine|medical science]] since the [[2nd century]].[http://www.doctorweevil.org/archives/000470.html]
Noted researchers [[Masters and Johnson]], [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] based researcher [[John Garabedian]], and Dr. [[Matt Jaeger]] at the [[University of Kentucky]] all conducted extensive studies of the clitoris.
In the [[1970s]], the word ''clitoris'' was considered offensive in the spoken [[English language]] and is still seen as a [[taboo]] word by many people. The first use of ''clitoris'' on [[television]] in the [[United States]] is believed to have been by Dr. [[Rich O'Brien]], a [[Harvard]] colleague of Garabedian's, on the [[Ruth Westheimer|Dr. Ruth Westheimer]] show.
== Body modification ==
''Main article: [[genital modification and mutilation]]''
The external part of the clitoris may be partially or totally removed during [[female circumcision]] (also known as a clitorectomy) in voluntary or involuntary procedures. The topic is highly controversial with many countries condemning the traditions that give rise to involuntary procedures with some countries outlawing even voluntary procedures. [[Amnesty International]] estimates that over 2 million involuntary female circumcisions are being performed every year, mainly in [[Africa]]n [[Africa#Countries|countries]].
In various cultures, the clitoris is sometimes [[Clitoris piercing|pierced directly]]. Other piercings may include a [[Clitoral hood piercing]] and the [[Isabella piercing]], among many others. Some cultures at various times in history have practiced stretching, which can enlarge the clitoris, or can make it more visible.
== Popular culture ==
*In the ''[[Seinfeld]]'' episode "The Junior Mint", [[Jerry Seinfeld]] does not remember his new girlfriend's name - he is only given the clue that it rhymes with a female body part. George's guesses of "Mulva" and "Bovary" are off the mark, but it finally comes to him: "Dolores."
*[[Alice Walker]]'s ''Possessing the Secret of Joy'' is a book about a tribal African Woman, Tashi, who because of a misguided loyalty to the customs of her people voluntarily submits herself to tsunga's knife and is circumcised. She is severely traumatized by this experience. The book encapsulates her journey through life as she tries to regain her ability to recognize her own reality and to feel.
*''The Anatomist'' (1998), a novel by [[Federico Andahazi]] ISBN 0385494009, describes [[Realdo Colombo]]'s "discovery" and its personal consequences.
*In a ''[[Family Guy]]'' episode, [[Tom Tucker]] announces an upcoming report on "the Clitoris, nature's [[Rubik's Cube]]."
*An Australian motor sports television show ([[In Pit Lane]] on [[Channel 31]] Melbourne) occasionally carries news stories about motor sports events that have occurred in the United States, where the exact location is unknown or cannot be found out in the limited time before broadcast. These events are described as having taken place in "Clitoris, Missouri". This is a ribald reference to the previous point.
*In the ''[[Red Dwarf]]'' episode Polymorph from season 3, Rimmer suggest that the crew name themselves "The Committee for the Liberation and Integration of Terrifying Organisms and their Rehabilitation Into Society", the only drawback being that the abbreviation is "CLITORIS".
*In the Kevin Smith movie ''[[Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back]]'', the characters Jay and Silent Bob are supposedly the leaders of the Coalition for the Liberation of Itinerent Tree-dwellers, or "CLIT".
*In ''[[South Park: Bigger, Longer, and Uncut]]'', [[Stan Marsh]] goes in search of "The Clitoris" to ask her for help with [[Wendy Testaburger]] after [[Chef (South Park character)|Chef]] mentions the name. Near the end he finds the clitoris, which is a giant pink shining blob. She tells him to be courageous and to be himself.
== See also ==
*[[Wiktionary:WikiSaurus:clitoris|WikiSaurus:clitoris]] &mdash; the [[Wiktionary|WikiSaurus]] list of synonyms and slang words for the clitoris in many languages
* [[Glans penis]]
* [[Clitoromegaly]]
* [[G-spot]]
* [[Skene's gland]]s
* [[Female circumcision|Clitoridectomy]]
* [[Clitoral hypertrophy]]
* [[:Image:VulvaDiagram-800.jpg]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.the-clitoris.com/ The-Clitoris.com] &ndash; a very thorough website about everything related to the clitoris Warning - site contains explicit photos
* [http://www.luckymojo.com/tkclitorislarger.html Study claims clitoris is larger than thought] by Althaea Yronwode
*[http://www.scarleteen.com/body/fem |
ntinued the distribution of condoms so lubricated, and the [[Food and Drug Administration]] has proposed a warning regarding this issue.<ref>"<cite> Nonoxynol 9 works as a vaginal contraceptive by damaging the cell membrane of sperm. It has been shown in laboratory studies to damage the cell walls of certain organisms that cause STDs and to be active against some STD-causing bacteria and viruses. On the basis of data that are described in the labeling proposal, FDA believes that this same membrane-damaging effect can harm the cell lining of the vagina and cervix, thereby increasing the risk of STD transmission.</cite>" [http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/2003/ANS01191.html FDA proposes new warning for over-the-counter contraceptive drugs containing Nonoxynol-9] <br /> "<cite>The Centers for Disease Control states: 'N-9 can damage the cells lining the rectum, thus providing a portal of entry for HIV and other sexually transmissible agents. Therefore, N-9 should not be used as a microbicide or lubricant during anal sex.'</cite>" [http://www.thebody.com/atn/384/nonoxynol9.html Nonoxynol-9 Dangers: Health Experts Warn Against Rectal Use]</ref>
Latex condoms used with oil-based lubricants (e.g. [[vaseline]]) are likely to break due to rapid deterioration caused by the oils.
==Prevalence of condoms==
Condoms are most accessible in [[developed countries]]. In various cultures, a number of social or economic factors make access to condoms prohibitive. In some cases, cultural beliefs may cause some persons to shun condoms deliberately even when they are available. <ref>"<cite>Two thirds of teenagers in the central African country of Cameroon have sex by the age of 16 and more than half of them shun condoms, according to a study by German aid agency GTZ.</cite>" [http://12.31.13.116/HealthNews/Reuters/20040302elin014.htm Sexually Active Cameroon Youths Shun Condoms]</ref>
Furthermore, regardless of culture and availability, many men shun condoms simply because they dislike using them. This dislike may be due either to a belief that condoms reduce sexual pleasure or to practical problems, e.g. difficulty in sustaining an erection hard enough for effective condom use.
==Female condoms==
[[Image:Préservatif féminin.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Female condom]]
Recently "'''female condoms'''" or "'''femidoms'''" (not to be confused with [[femdom]]s) have become available. They are larger than male condoms and have a stiffened ring-shaped opening, and are designed to be inserted into the [[vagina]]. The female condom also contains an inner ring which keeps the condom in place inside the vagina — inserting the female condom requires squeezing this ring. Sales of these have been disappointing in developed countries, though increasingly developing countries are using them to complement already existing family planning and HIV/AIDS programming. Probable causes for poor sales are that inserting the female condom is a skill that has to be learned and that female condoms can be significantly more expensive than male condoms (upwards of 2 or 3 times the cost). Also, reported "rustling" sounds during intercourse turn off some potential users, as does the visibility of the outer ring which remains outside the vagina. This type of condom is made from [[polyurethane]], though newer iterations are made from [[nitrile]].
In September 2005, the primary global manufacturer of female condoms — the Female Health Company of Chicago, Illinois — announced the introduction of a second-generation FC2 Female Condom made from [[nitrile]]<ref>"<cite>Changes in the material for FC2 permits use of a manufacturing process that results in reduced cost as volume increases. This offers the Female Health Company the opportunity to dramatically lower the price of FC2</cite>" [http://www.prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/release?id=155037 Female Health Company Announces International Availability of Second - Generation Female Condom at Significantly Lower Price]</ref>. The Female Health Company noted that the second-generation [[nitrile]] female condom performs statistically the same as its polyurethane precursor in preventing the transmission of [[HIV]], sexually transmitted infections, and unintended pregnancy. The [[nitrile]] female condom has also been designed to mitigate the "rustling" noise that some consumers have attributed to the [[polyurethane]] female condom. The [[nitrile]] material of the second-generation female condom will also allow for significant reductions in female condom pricing because it can be produced with a new manufacturing process that allows for efficient economies of scale when made in mass quantities.
On November 22, 2005, the World [[YWCA]] issued an international Call to Action for the Female Condom that called on national health ministries and international donors to commit to purchasing 180 million female condoms for global distribution in 2006<ref>"<cite>The World YWCA is issuing a direct appeal to national health ministries, foreign aid agencies and international NGOs. We call on these entities to sign agreements in 2006 that will commit them to purchasing a minimum of 180 million of the second-generation female condom for annual global distribution. We also call on governments to ensure that the female condom is marketed to women in local communities and promoted as an effective method to prevent HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted infections.</cite>" [http://www.prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/release?id=158769= Statement of Dr. Musimbi Kanyoro, General Secretary, World YWCA]</ref>. The World YWCA statement, which was signed by General Secretary Musimbi Kanyoro and World YWCA affiliates in six African nations, noted that the female condom is the only available form of woman-initiated protection against HIV but remains virtually inaccessible to women in the developing world due to its high unit cost of 72 cents per female condom. The World YWCA noted that if the global public health sector will commit to buying at least 180 million female condoms in bulk, the price of the female condom will immediately decline by more than two-thirds — to 22 cents per female condom. Currently, only 12 million female condoms are distributed to women in the developing world on an annual basis. By comparison, between 6 and 9 billion male condoms are distributed.
Female condoms have the advantage of being compatible with oil-based lubricants as they are not made of latex. The external genitals of the wearer and the base of the penis of the inserting partner are more protected than when the male condom is used. Inserting a female condom does not require male erection. (Boston Women's Healthbook Collective, 2005: 336-337)
The instructions for use of female condoms are of necessity different from those of male condoms, since they are inserted rather than worn, and designed to drape around the penis, rather than to fit tightly over it. They are as follows:
* The condom should be removed carefully from the packaging;
* The small inner ring should be squeezed closed;
* The inner ring should be pushed into the vagina, the outer ring remaining outside;
* The penis should be guided through the outer ring to ensure that it is not pushed aside.
* Before removing the condom, the outer ring should be squeezed and twisted (while the wearer is still lying down, if applicable) to ensure that semen does not leak out of the pouch. Pull to remove the condom.
* Any "rustling" can be counteracted by applying extra lubricant to the inside of the condom; this is also the course of action to take if the outer ring is pulled into the vagina during intercourse. (Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 2005: 337-338)
A new, updated female condom is being developed by PATH, a medical technologies NGO, that is claimed to be easier to put in as well as less awkward to use<ref>"<cite>But the result was a female condom that is easy to insert and remove, is very stable during sex, and feels good for both partners.</cite>" [http://www.path.org/projects/womans_condom.php PATH's Woman's Condom]</ref>. A second iteration of the original female condom is also in development by the Female Health Company that would be cheaper and easier to use<ref>"<cite>We anticipate that by offering the second generation product at significantly reduced cost, the availability of FC Female Condom will experience considerable growth.</cite>" [http://www.femalehealth.com/pdf/FHCAR2004.pdf The Female Health Company 2004 Annual Report]</ref>.
=="French Letter"==
Condom is sometimes considered a clinical expression. In Britain a condom is also named a French letter, much like the colloquial German word for a condom, "Pariser". The English phrase "French letter" expresses the old image (or prejudice of Brits) that anything coming from France is decadent and has to do with sex. According to British military history, a Britain's Royal Guards Colonel named Condum, in 17th century (when Anglo-Fench enmity was at its mutual height) devised the French letter to protect his troops from the French by using it. According to colloquial French, however, a condom is named an "English overcoat" ("''capote anglaise''").
==Religious attitudes towards use of condoms==
:''Main article: [[Birth control#Religious and cultural attitudes toward birth control|Religious and cultural attitudes toward birth control]]''
Condoms and other mechanisms of contraception, along with [[abortion]], are condemned by the [[Roman Catholic Church]], some Christian denominations, and many [[Hindus]] for moral reasons relating to their beliefs regarding the purpose of the sexual faculty. Opinions of [[Orthodox C |
, "those who work with paper". [[Early Muslim philosophy|Early Muslim]]s were heavily engaged in translating and absorbing all [[ilm]] ("[[knowledge]]") from all other known civilizations, "as far as [[China]]." Critically analyzing, accepting, rejecting, improving and codifying knowledge from other cultures became a key activity, and a [[knowledge industry]] as presently understood began to evolve. By the beginning of the [[9th century]], paper had become the standard medium of written communication, and most warraqeen were engaged in paper-making, book-selling, and taking the dictation of authors, to whom they were obliged to pay royalties on works, and who had final discretion on the contents. As the standard means of presentation of a new work was its public dictation in the [[mosque]] or [[madrassah]], in front of many scholars and students, a high degree of professional respect was required to ensure that other warraqeen did not simply make and sell copies, or that authors did not lose faith in the warraqeen or this system of publication. This was an early guild.
This publication industry that spanned the Muslim empire from the first works under this system in [[874]] to the 15th century, gave rise to all concerns a modern [[intellectual property law]]yer would recognize: by means of the tens of thousands of books per year so published, [[instructional capital]] from one group of artisans admired for their work could be spread to other artisans elsewhere who could copy it and perhaps "[[passing off|pass it off]]" as the original, exploiting the [[social capital]] built up at great expense by the originators of techniques. Artisans began to take various ways to protect their proprietary interests, restrict access to techniques, materials, and to markets.
==European history==
In the [[Early Middle Ages]] most of the Roman craft organizations, formed as religious confraternities, had disappeared with the apparent exceptions of stonecutters and perhaps glassmakers. [[Gregory of Tours]] tells a miraculous tale of a builder whose art and techniques suddenly left him, but were restored by an apparition of the Virgin Mary in a dream. Michel Rouche (1987 pp431ff) remarks that the story speaks for the importance of practically transmitted journeymanship.
The early egalitarian communities called "guilds" (for the gold deposited in their common funds) were denounced by Catholic clergy for their "conjurations"&mdash;the binding oaths sworn among artisans to support one another in adversity and back one another in feuds or in business ventures. The occasion for the drunken banquets at which these oaths were made was [[December 26]], the pagan feast of [[Yule|Jul]]: Bishop [[Hincmar]], in 858 sought vainly to Christianize them (Rouche 1987 p 432).
By about 1100 European '''guilds''' (or '''gilds''') and [[Livery Company|livery companies]] had evolved into an approximate equivalent to modern-day [[business]] organizations such as [[institute]]s or [[consortium]]s. They had strong controls over [[instructional capital]], and the modern concepts of a lifetime progression of [[apprentice]] to [[craftsman]], [[journeyer]], and eventually to widely-recognized [[master craftsman|master]] and [[master craftsman|grandmaster]] began to emerge. The appearance of the European guilds is believed to be tied to the emergent [[money]] economy, and to [[urbanization]]. Before this time it was not possible to run a money-driven organization, as [[commodity money]] was the normal way of doing business.
The guild was at the center of [[Europe|European]] handicraft organization. The guild system reached a mature state in [[Germany]] in the [[Middle Ages]], circa [[1300]]. The guilds were identified with organizations enjoying certain [[privilege]]s ([[letters patent]]), usually issued by the [[monarch|king]] or [[state]] and overseen by local town business authorities (some kind of [[chamber of commerce]]). These were the predecessors of the modern [[patent]] and [[trademark]] system.
Like their Muslim predecessors, European guilds imposed long periods of [[apprenticeship]], and made it difficult or impossible for those lacking the approval of their peers to gain access to materials or knowledge, or sell into certain markets. These are defining characteristics of [[mercantilism]] in economics, which dominated most European thinking about [[political economy]] until the rise of [[classical economics]]. States applied this thinking, for instance, to restrict the flow of gold and silver to military opponents, as gold was useful to buy weapons and hire [[mercenaries]].
The guilds also maintained funds in order to support infirm or elderly members, as well as widows and orphans of guild members, funeral benefits, and a 'tramping' allowance for those needing to travel to find work.
==Organization==
The guild was made up by experienced and confirmed experts in their field of handicraft. They were called [[master craftsman|master craftsmen]]. Before a new employee could rise to the level of mastery, he had to go through a schooling period during which he was first called an [[apprenticeship|apprentice]]. After this period he could rise to the level of [[journeyman]]. Apprentices would typically not learn more than the most basic techniques until they were trusted by their peers to keep the guild's or company's secrets.
Some argue that the title 'journeyman' is derived from the itinerant nature of the position. However, it is more likely that the title derives from the French word for 'day' (''jour'') from which came the middle English word ''journei''. Journeymen were generally paid by the day and were thus day laborers. After being employed by a master for several years, and after producing a qualifying piece of work, the apprentice attained the rank of journeyman and was given a letter which entitled him to travel to other towns and countries to learn the art from other masters. These journeys could span large parts of Europe and were an unofficial way of communicating new methods and techniques.
After this journey and several years of experience, a journeyman could be elected to become a master craftsman. This would require the approval of all masters of a guild, a donation of money and other goods, and in many practical handicrafts the production of a so-called [[masterpiece]], which would illustrate the abilities of the aspiring master craftsman.
The medieval guild was offered a letters patent (usually from the king) and held an [[oligopoly]] on its trade in the town in which it operated: handicraft workers were forbidden by law to run any business if they were not members of a guild, and only masters were allowed to be members of a guild. Before these privileges were legislated, these groups of handicraft workers were simply called 'handicraft associations'.
The town authorities were represented in the guild meetings and thus had a means of controlling the handicraft activities. This was important since towns very often depended on a good reputation for export of a narrow range of products, on which not only the guild's, but the town's, reputation depended. Controls on the association of physical locations to well-known exported products, e.g. wine from the [[Champagne, France|Champagne]] and [[Bordeaux]] regions of [[France]], [[fine china]] from certain cities in [[Holland]], [[lace]] from [[Chantilly]], etc., helped to establish a town's place in global commerce — this led to modern [[trademark]]s.
In many German towns, the more powerful guilds attempted to influence or even control town authorities. In the [[14th century]], this led to numerous bloody uprisings, during which the guilds dissolved town councils and detained patricians in an attempt to increase their influence.
==Fall of the guilds==
Despite its advantages for agricultural and artisan producers, the guild became a target of much criticism towards the end of the 1700s and the beginning of the 1800s. They were believed to oppose [[free trade]] and hinder [[technological innovation]], [[technology transfer]] and [[business development]]. According to several accounts of this time, guilds became increasingly involved in simple territorial struggles against each other and against free practitioners of their arts, but the neutrality of these claims is doubted. It may be [[propaganda]].
Two of the most outspoken critics of the guild system were [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and [[Adam Smith]], and all over Europe a tendency to oppose government control over trades in favour of [[laissez-faire]] [[free market]] systems was growing rapidly and making its way into the political and legal system. Even [[Karl Marx]] (not normally in league with Adam Smith) in his ''[[Communist Manifesto]]'' criticized the guild system for its rigid gradation of social rank and the relation of opressor/opressed entailed by this system. From this time comes the low regard in which some people hold the guilds to this day. For example, Smith writes in ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' (Book I, Chapter X, paragraph 72):
:It is to prevent this reduction of price, and consequently of wages and profit, by restraining that free competition which would most certainly occasion it, that all corporations, and the greater part of corporation laws, have been established. (...) and when any particular class of artificers or traders thought proper to act as a corporation without a charter, such adulterine '''guilds''', as they were called, were not always disfranchised upon that account, but obliged to fine annually to the king for permission to exercise their usurped privileges.
In part due to their own inability to control unruly [[corporation|corporate]] behavior, the tide turned against the guilds.
Because of industrialization and modernization of the trade and industry, and the rise of powerful nation-states that could |
ing forces, and re-dedicated the Second Temple.
The spiritual side of Judaism shies away from commemorating military victories, the [[Hasmonean]]s later became corrupt, and civil war between Jews is considered deplorable, so Hanukkah does not formally commemorate either of these historical events. Instead, the festival commemorates the Miracle of the Oil and the positive spiritual aspects about the Temple's re-dedication. In doing so, the oil becomes metaphor for the miraculous survival of the Jewish people through millennia of trials and tribulations.
== Historical sources ==
=== In the Talmud ===
The [[miracle]] of Hanukkah is described in the [[Talmud]]. The [[Gemara]], in tractate ''Shabbat 21b'' {{ref|shabbat21b}}, says that after the occupiers had been driven from the Temple, the [[Maccabees]] discovered that almost all of the ritual [[olive oil]] had been profaned. They found only a single container that was still [[seal (device)|seal]]ed by the High Priest, with enough oil to keep the [[Menorah]] in the Temple lit for a single day. They used this, and miraculously, that oil burned for eight days (the time it took to have new oil pressed and made ready).
The Talmud presents three customs:
#Lighting one light each night per household,
#One light each night for each member of the household, or,
#The most pious method, where the number of candles changed each night.
There was a dispute over how the last option was to be performed: either display eight lamps on the first night of the festival, and reduce the number on each successive night; or begin with one lamp the first night, increasing the number till the eighth night. The followers of [[Shammai]] favored the former custom; the followers of [[Hillel the Elder|Hillel]] advocated the latter. As is the case in most such disputes, Jews today follow Hillel. Except in times of danger, the lights were to be placed outside one's door or in the window closest to the street.
[[Josephus]] believed that the lights were symbolic of the liberty obtained by the Jews on the day that Hanukkah commemorates. [[Rashi]], in a note to ''Shabbat 21b,'' says their purpose is to publicize the miracle. Hanukkah is also mentioned in the (older) [[Mishnah]] (TB [[The Five Scrolls#In the Mishnah|Megillah]] 30b).
=== In the Septuagint ===
The story of Hanukkah is preserved in the books of [[1 Maccabees]] and [[2 Maccabees]]. A story similar in character, and obviously older in date, is the one alluded to in 2 Maccabees 1:18 ''et seq.'', according to which the relighting of the altar-fire by [[Nehemiah(biblical)|Nehemiah]] was due to a miracle which occurred on the twenty-fifth of Kislev, and which appears to be given as the reason for the selection of the same date for the rededication of the altar by Judah Maccabeus.
The Books of Maccabbes (''Sifrei HaMakaviyim'') are not part of the [[Tanakh]] ([[Hebrew Bible]]), but are part of [[deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] historical and religious material preserved in the [[Septuagint]]. The [[Tanakh]] ends with the consequences following the events of [[Purim]], and had already been codified many centuries earlier by the [[Great Assembly|Men of the Great Assembly]] (''Anshei Knesset HaGedolah'').
Another source is the [[Megillat Antiokhos]] &mdash; a text ascribed to the Maccabees themselves by [[Saadia Gaon]], but according to some scholars, perhaps written around the [[1st century|first]] or [[2nd century|second]] century CE. Indeed, Saadia Gaon's theory is highly unlikeley, as Megillat Antiokhos gives the timeframe for the story in relation to the destruction of the second Temple, which occurred over 200 years later, and could not possibly have been known to the Maccabees.
== The story ==
{{main|Hasmonean}}
Around [[200 BCE]] Jews lived as an autonomous people in the [[land of Israel]], also referred to as [[Judea]], which at that time was controlled by the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] [[Seleucid dynasty|king of Syria]]. The Jewish people paid taxes to Syria and accepted its legal authority, and by and large were free to follow their own faith, maintain their own jobs, and engage in trade.
By [[175 BCE]] [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] ascended to the Seleucid throne. At first little changed, but under his reign Jews were gradually forced to violate the [[613 mitzvot|precepts of their faith]]. Jews rebelled at having to do this. Under the reign of Antiochus IV, the Temple in [[Jerusalem]] was looted, Jews were massacred, and [[Judaism]] was effectively outlawed.
In [[167 BCE]] Antiochus ordered an altar to [[Zeus]] erected in the Temple. Mattathias, a [[Kohen|Jewish priest]], and his five sons John, Simon, Eleazar, Jonathan, and Judah led a rebellion against Antiochus. Judah became known as Judah Maccabee ("Judah the Hammer"). By [[166 BCE]] Mattathias had died, and Judah took his place as leader. By [[165 BCE]] the Jewish revolt against the Seleucid monarchy was successful. The Temple was liberated and rededicated.
The festival of Hanukkah was instituted by [[Judah Maccabee]] and his brothers to celebrate this event. ([http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/BIBLE/1MA/1MA4.HTM#59 1 Macc. iv. 59]). After having recovered [[Jerusalem]] and the Temple, Judah ordered the Temple to be cleansed, a new altar to be built in place of the polluted one and new holy vessels to be made. According to the [[Talmud]], oil was needed for the menorah in the Temple, which was supposed to burn throughout the night every night. But there was only enough oil to burn for one day, yet miraculously, it burned for eight days, the time needed to prepare a fresh supply of oil for the menorah. An eight day festival was declared to commemorate this miracle.
[[Image:Hanukkah2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hanukkah lamp unearthed near [[Jerusalem]], c. 1900.]]
Other versions of the story state that an eight day celebration of songs and sacrifices was proclaimed upon rededication of the altar, but do not mention the miracle of the oil. ([http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/BIBLE/1MA/1MA4.HTM#36 1 Macc. iv. 36]). A number of historians believe that the reason for the eight day celebration was that the first Hanukkah was in effect a belated celebration of the festival of [[Sukkot]], the Feast of Tabernacles ([http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/BIBLE/2MA/2MA10.HTM#6 Macc. x. 6] and [http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/BIBLE/2MA/2MA1.HTM#9 i. 9]). During the war the Jews were not able to celebrate Sukkot properly. The theory is based on the belief that Sukkot also lasts for eight days, and was a holiday in which the lighting of lamps played a prominent part during the Second Temple period (Suk.v. 2-4). However, Sukkot is in fact a seven-day holiday, the eighth day being a separate festival known as [[Sukkot#Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah|Shemini Atzeret]] ("the Eighth Day of the Assembly"); see Lev. 23:33-36, Num. 29:12; Deut. 16:13-15).
The historian [[Josephus]] ([http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=J.+AJ+12.287]
''Jewish Antiquities'' xii. 7, § 7, #323) mentions the eight-day festival and its customs, but does not tell us the origin of the eight day lighting custom. Given that his audience was Hellenized Romans, his silence on the origin of the eight-day custom is more likely due to its miraculous nature than to it being inspired by Sukkot. In any event, he does report that lights were kindled in the household and the popular name of the festival was, therefore the "Festival of Lights" ("And from that time to this we celebrate this festival, and call it Lights").
It has been noted that Jewish festivals are connected to the harvesting of the Biblical seven fruits which Israel was famed for. [[Pesach]] is a celebration of the barley harvest, [[Shavuot]] of the wheat, [[Sukkot]] of the figs, dates, pomegranates and grapes, and Hanukkah of the [[olive]]s. The olive harvest is in November and [[olive oil]] would be ready in time for Hanukkah in December.
It has also been noted that the number eight has special significance in Jewish theology, as representing transcendence and the Jewish People's special role in human history. Seven is the number of days of creation, that is, of completion of the material cosmos. Eight, being one step beyond seven, represents the Infinite (as an eight turned on its side). Hence, the Eighth Day of the Assembly festival, mentioned above, is according to Jewish Law a festival for Jews only (unlike Sukkoth, when all peoples were welcome in Jerusalem). Similarly, the rite of circumcision, which brings a Jewish male into God's Covenant, is performed on the eighth day. Hence, Hanukkah's eight days (in celebration of monotheistic morality's victory over Hellenistic humanism) have great symbolic importance for practicing Jews.
==Hanukkah rituals==
:''(see also '''[[Chanukkiyah]]''')''
[[Image:Hanukkah1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Various [[menorah|menorot]] used for Hanukkah, also called Hanukiot (sing. Hanukiah).]]
Hanukkah has relatively simple religious rituals that are performed during the eight nights and days of the holiday. Some aspects are practiced at home by the family, other aspects are communal. There are additions to the regular daily prayer services in the [[Siddur]], the Jewish prayer book. Jewish law does not require one to refrain from activities on Hanukkah that would fit the Jewish definition of "work." So, children do not get out of going to school to celebrate the holiday, and parents do not get a week's vacation from employment, either.
===Kindling the Hanukkah Lights===
The primary ritual, according to [[Halakha|Jewish law and custom]], is to light a single light each night for eight nights. As a universally-practiced "beautification" of the [[mitzvah]], an additional candle is added each night, for a total of thirty-six over the course of eight nights.
The lights can be ca |
from going blind. Director [[Lars von Trier]] eventually asked her to consider playing the role of Selma, a proposal she initially turned down. He then threatened to stop the project, which would have made all the musical work she had already done useless. Eventually, she accepted. Filming began in early 1999, and the film debuted in 2000 at the 53rd [[Cannes Film Festival]]. Björk received the best actress award for her role, and yet she described the shoot as so physically and emotionally trying that she has sworn off acting ever again. This was a rumour, however that was put to rest in numerous interviews. Björk later stated that she always wanted to do one musical in her life, and this was the one. She also said that she could not do movies and music at the same time. The soundtrack Björk created for the film was released with the title ''[[Selmasongs]]''. The album features a duet with [[Thom Yorke]] of [[Radiohead]] titled "I've Seen it All". She was invited to record [[Gollum's Song]] for the film ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers]]'', but declined the invitation, as she was then pregnant; the track was instead recorded by her fellow Icelander [[Emiliana Torrini]].
[[Image:BjorkGuest.jpg|frame|right|Björk in "Drawing Restraint 9"]]
In 2005, Björk collaborated with her New York-based long-time boyfriend [[Matthew Barney]] on the experimental art film [[Drawing Restraint 9]], a no-dialogue exploration of [[Japanese culture]]. Björk and Matthew both appear in the film, even though Björk commented that she wouldn't act again. She says that what she does in the film isn't acting; it's being a human sculpture. She is also responsible for the film's soundtrack, her second after 2000's ''[[Selmasongs]]''.
== Her name ==
Björk usually goes by her first name only. This is not a stage name or affectation; it is normal for an Icelander to be referred to by his or her first name, as the last name simply indicates the name of the father. See [[Icelandic name|Icelandic naming conventions]].
''Björk'' means "a [[birch]] tree" in [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] (the meaning of Icelandic names is often transparent), cognate with [[Old English language|Old English]] ''beorc'' and the modern English word. Though many English-speakers pronounce her name "Byork", a more accurate approximation would be "Byerk", which she has pointed out rhymes with "jerk". [http://ebweb.at/ortner/tia/97/babe9706/babe9706.html] ''Guðmundsdóttir'' is pronounced roughly "GWUTH-muns-doe-tir", and means "Guðmundur's daughter".
Björk's father, [[Guðmundur Gunnarsson]], is a well known labour leader in Iceland and was nationally recognized before his daughter became famous.
== Personal life ==
Björk and her partner, contemporary media artist [[Matthew Barney]], have a daughter, Isadora, born October 3, 2002. Björk also has a son, Sindri, born June 8, 1986, by Þór Eldon who was her bandmate in the [[1980s]] post-punk group "The Sugarcubes". Her son Sindri Þórsson now has his own band called "Desida", where he plays bass. They garnered some positive reviews after their performance at [[Iceland Airwaves]] in 2005.
On the negative side, Björk has complained of being hounded by paparazzi in England and in 1996 two separate incidents gave the media much to chew on. First there was "The Bangkok Incident" - a rather notorious brawl that was captured on tape. After a long flight to Thailand an obviously exhausted Björk emerged from an aircraft at Don Muang airport with her then ten year old son. A television reporter attempted to get her attention as she hurried past the TV crews, but failed. The reporter then made a move towards Björk's son and seemed to try to grab hold of him as she put the microphone in his face. Björk suddenly snapped and attacked the reporter, landing several blows in a confusing mêlée that was quickly broken up. This incident may be connected to her overall frustration with the media invading her privacy at that time, or it may simply have been caused by exhaustion, jet lag and the confusion of the situation.
Later that year a more disturbing story emerged - this time casting Björk as the victim but causing her still more distress. An apparently deranged fan from Florida named Ricardo Lopez (not to be confused with the boxer) filmed himself in the process of making a bomb intended to at the very least disfigure his idol if not kill her outright. While the device, which was intercepted in the mail sorting room near its final destination in England, has frequently been described as a disfiguring "acid bomb," Lopez says on one of the many tapes he made of himself, "I am the angel of death for her." This, and his eventual on-tape actions, seem to indicate that he did not expect her to survive.
The more than 20 hours of videotape detailing his deranged obsession with Björk, the construction of the device and general rantings then end quite dramatically as Lopez takes out a gun. Believing his device had either killed Björk or would soon do so, Lopez shot himself on camera in an apparent attempt to meet her in the afterlife. He was successful in taking his own life but the tape was seen by police and the package was intercepted in time to save Björk.
Already a private person, Björk was loath to comment on either of these incidents and later told the Guardian: "It just got a bit much."
In a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4594602.stm poll] published by BBC Homes and Antiques magazine in January 2006, Björk was voted the most eccentric star, beating [[Chris Eubank]], [[David Icke]], and [[Doctor Who]] actor [[Tom Baker]].
==Singles==
=== The Sugarcubes singles ===
{| class="wikitable"
!align="left"|Release
!align="left"|Single
!align="left"|Album
!align="left"|UK chart
|-
|align="left"|January 1992
|align="left"|''[[Hit]]''
|align="left"|''[[Stick Around For Joy]]''
|align="center"|'''#17'''
|}
=== Björk's solo singles ===
{| class="wikitable"
!align="left"|Release
!align="left"|Single
!align="left"|Album
!align="left"|UK chart
|-
|align="left"|June 1993
|align="left"|''[[Human Behaviour]]''
|align="left"|''[[Debut (album)|Debut]]''
|align="center"|'''#36'''
|-
|align="left"|September 1993
|align="left"|''[[Venus as a Boy]]''
|align="left"|''[[Debut (album)|Debut]]''
|align="center"|'''#29'''
|-
|align="left"|October 1993
|align="left"|''[[Play Dead]]''
|align="left"|''[[Debut (album)|Debut]]''
|align="center"|'''#12'''
|-
|align="left"|December 1993
|align="left"|''[[Big Time Sensuality]]''
|align="left"|''[[Debut (album)|Debut]]''
|align="center"|'''#17'''
|-
|align="left"|March 1994
|align="left"|''[[Violently Happy]]''
|align="left"|''[[Debut (album)|Debut]]''
|align="center"|'''#13'''
|-
|align="left"|May 1995
|align="left"|''[[Army of Me]]''
|align="left"|''[[Post (album)|Post]]''
|align="center"|'''#10'''
|-
|align="left"|August 1995
|align="left"|''[[Isobel]]''
|align="left"|''[[Post (album)|Post]]''
|align="center"|'''#23'''
|-
|align="left"|November 1995
|align="left"|''[[It's Oh So Quiet]]''
|align="left"|''[[Post (album)|Post]]''
|align="center"|'''#4'''
|-
|align="left"|February 1996
|align="left"|''[[Hyperballad]]''
|align="left"|''[[Post (album)|Post]]''
|align="center"|'''#8'''
|-
|align="left"|November 1996
|align="left"|''[[Possibly Maybe]]''
|align="left"|''[[Post (album)|Post]]''
|align="center"|'''#13'''
|-
|align="left"|March 1997
|align="left"|''[[I Miss You (Björk song)|I Miss You]]''
|align="left"|''[[Post (album)|Post]]''
|align="center"|'''#36'''
|-
|align="left"|September 1997
|align="left"|''[[Jóga]]''
|align="left"|''[[Homogenic]]''
|align="center"|'''-'''
|-
|align="left"|December 1997
|align="left"|''[[Bachelorette (song)|Bachelorette]]''
|align="left"|''[[Homogenic]]''
|align="center"|'''#21'''
|-
|align="left"|October 1998
|align="left"|''[[Hunter (Björk song)|Hunter]]''
|align="left"|''[[Homogenic]]''
|align="center"|'''#44'''
|-
|align="left"|December 1998
|align="left"|''[[Alarm Call]]''
|align="left"|''[[Homogenic]]''
|align="center"|'''#33'''
|-
|align="left"|June 1999
|align="left"|''[[All is Full of Love]]''
|align="left"|''[[Homogenic]]''
|align="center"|'''#24'''
|-
|align="left"|August 2001
|align="left"|''[[Hidden Place]]''
|align="left"|''[[Vespertine]]''
|align="center"|'''#21'''
|-
|align="left"|November 2001
|align="left"|''[[Pagan Poetry]]''
|align="left"|''[[Vespertine]]''
|align="center"|'''#38'''
|-
|align="left"|March 2002
|align="left"|''[[Cocoon]]''
|align="left"|''[[Vespertine]]''
|align="center"|'''#35'''
|-
|align="left"|December 2002
|align="left"|''[[It's In Our Hands]]''
|align="left"|''[[Björk's Greatest Hits]]''
|align="center"|'''#37'''
|-
|align="left"|August 2004
|align="left"|''[[Oceania]]''
|align="left"|''[[Medúlla]]''
|align="center"|'''-'''
|-
|align="left"|October 2004
|align |
color=#ffeedd | 11th
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | F4
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | &minus;49 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 12th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | G4
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | +2 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | 13th
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | A4
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | +41 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | 14th
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | Bb4
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | &minus;31 cents
|}
| valign=top |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=2
|-
! Harmonic
! Note
! Variance
|-
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | 15th
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | B4
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | &minus;12 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 16th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | C5
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 0 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 17th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | C#5
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | +5 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 18th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | D5
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | +4 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 19th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | D#5
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | &minus;2 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | 20th
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | E5
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | &minus;14 cents
|}
|}
</center>
If two different notes are played simultaneously, the composite sound includes the harmonics of both notes. In musical intervals, one or more of those harmonics are common to both notes. For example, if C3 and G3 are sounding together, their harmonic series intersect at G4 (2nd of G3, 3rd of C3) and G5 (4th of G3, 6th of C3). If these common harmonics are at the same frequency or nearly so in both notes, the composite sound will seem harmonious. If their frequencies differ significantly, we tend to hear the notes as "out of tune" with each other. Tuning involves changing the fundamental pitch of one of the notes to control the relationship between these common harmonics.
'''''Temperament''''' is the process of [[musical tuning|tuning]] notes of the 12-semitone Western scale to set the common harmonics of certain intervals slightly out of tune in certain directions to allow an overall harmonious musical experience when the notes are played together in many combinations. Because the term "harmonious" has different meanings in different contexts and cultures, there are many different temperaments, but all are tuned according to the relationships among the common harmonics of various intervals.
== Timbre of musical instruments ==
The relative [[amplitude|amplitudes]] of the various harmonics primarily determine the [[timbre]] of different instruments and sounds, though [[formant|formants]] also have a role. For example, the [[clarinet]] and [[saxophone]] have similar [[mouthpiece|mouthpieces]] and [[reed (music)|reeds]], and both produce sound through [[resonance]] of air inside a chamber whose mouthpiece end is considered closed. Because the clarinet's resonator is cylindrical, the even-numbered harmonics are suppressed, which produces a purer tone. The saxophone's resonator is conical, which allows the even-numbered harmonics to sound more strongly and thus produces a more complex tone. Of course, the differences in [[resonance]] between the wood of the clarinet and the brass of the saxophone also affect their tones. The [[inharmonicity|inharmonic]] ringing of the instrument's metal resonator is even more prominent in the sounds of brass instruments.
Our ears tend to resolve harmonically-related frequency components into a single sensation. Rather than perceiving the individual harmonics of a musical tone, we perceive them together as a tone color or timbre, and we hear the overall [[pitch (music)|pitch]] as the fundamental of the harmonic series being experienced. If we hear a sound that is made up of even just a few simultaneous tones, and if the intervals among those tones form part of a harmonic series, our brains tend to resolve this input into a sensation of the pitch of the fundamental of that series, ''even if the fundamental is not sounding''. This phenomenon is used to advantage in music recording, especially with low bass tones that will be reproduced on small speakers.
Variations in the frequency of harmonics can also affect the ''perceived'' fundamental pitch. These variations, most clearly documented in the [[piano]] and other stringed instruments but also apparent in brass instruments, are caused by a combination of metal stiffness and the interaction of the vibrating air or string with the resonating body of the instrument. The complex splash of strong, high [[overtone|overtones]] and metallic ringing sounds from a cymbal almost completely hide its fundamental tone. See [[stretched tuning]], [[inharmonicity]], and [[piano acoustics]].
== Register and special effects of musical instruments ==
In wind instruments, which produce sounds with a resonating air column, the lowest possible note is the fundamental resonance of the entire instrument. For a given length of resonator, only notes in the harmonic series of the resonator can be played clearly: higher notes are played by exciting higher harmonics, which is accomplished by changing the vibration at the reed or mouthpiece. Notes that are not in the harmonic series are played by changing the effective length of the resonator, usually by opening a venting hole in the side of the instrument.
Many wind instruments are designed to allow higher harmonics to be played more easily by damping the normal fundamental resonance. For example, on most [[woodwind instrument|woodwind instruments]] (such as [[clarinet]], [[saxophone]], [[oboe]], and [[bassoon]]), an [[octave key]] or register key opens a small hole high up on the resonator, prompting the instrument to oscillate at a higher harmonic partial and giving the player easier access to a higher octave of the instrument. Generally, flutists can access higher harmonics even without a register key simply by changing the pressure and angle of the air stream. This is also evident in blowing over the lips of bottles.
On [[brass instruments]], the small number of keys only allows a small chromatic range to be played off of any given harmonic, so it is necessary for the musician to play many harmonics to get the full range of the instrument. The different harmonics are accessed by increasing the vibration of the lips against the mouthpiece, essentially by tightening the embouchure and blowing the air faster. A brass instrument of relatively short length with no valves (e.g. military [[Bugle (instrument)|bugle]]) plays only the lowest notes of the harmonic series, making it ideal for [[bugle call]]s. The six- to ten-foot length of the unvalved "natural trumpet", the predominant form of the [[trumpet]] from about 1500 to the early 1800s[http://www.goucher.edu/physics/baum/nattrumpfaql.htm], not only allowed skilled players to play twice as many harmonics (the "Clarino register"), but also produced a fuller, richer tone due to the presence of those harmonics in lower notes.
The fundamental pitches of conical-bore brass instruments (such as [[flugelhorn]] or [[tuba]]) can be played, but they require significant skill to play with characteristic tone, and they are not often called for in literature.
The physics of cylindrical-bore brass instruments (such as the modern [[trumpet]] and [[trombone]]) does not actually provide a mode of vibration for the fundamental pitch. However, the higher harmonics help the lips establish a vibration at the fundamental frequency regardless. These "faked fundamentals" are known as [[pedal tone|pedal tones]]. Pedal tones have a distinct timbre and require some skill to control. They are called for occasionally in advanced literature, particularly in that of the trombone.
On a stringed instrument, it is possible to damp the fundamental and thus sound at a higher frequency by lightly touching the string at a harmonic [[node (physics)|node]]. For example, by touching the string lightly at its midpoint, the musician forces the string to vibrate in its second transverse mode, sounding the second harmonic. Such light-touch fingering can be applied to notes at 1/3, 1/4, etc. of the string length to produce higher harmonics. Simply pressing the string to the fingerboard at those positions would not yield the same note as the harmonic.
== See also ==
* [[Harmony]]
* [[FM synthesis]]
* [[Additive synthesis]]
* [[Missing fundamental]]
* [[Pedal tone]]
* [[Overtone singing]]
* [[Physics of music]]
* [[Mathematics of musical scales]]
==External links==
*The interaction of reflected waves on a string is illustrated in a simplified animation that can be found at [http://id.mind.net/~zona/mstm/physics/waves/interference/waveInterference2/WaveInterference2.html Edward Zobel's "Zona Land"].
*[http://www.music.sc.edu/fs/bain/atmi02/ A Web-based Multimedia Approach to the Harmonic Series]
*[http://www.rmit.edu.au/browse/News%20and%20Events%2FNews%2FOpenline%2F2000%2FBells%20worth%20listening%20to/ Bells worth listening to: A composer and a sculptor from Melbourne have developed the world's first harmonic bells]
[[Category:Tuning]]
[[pl:szereg harmoniczny (muzyka)]]
[[pt:Série harmônica (música)]]
[[it:Armonici naturali]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hasidim</title>
<id>14441</id>
<revision>
<id>15911998</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-04T16:23:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jfdwolff</username>
<id>46555</id>
</contributor>
<comment>the former term is not used, see [[Special:Whatlinkshere/Hasidim]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hasidic Judaism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of post-communist Rusia</title>
<id>14442</id>
<revision>
<id>15911999</id>
<timestamp>2004-06-28T06:31:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Paranoid</username>
<id>25394</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[History of post-Soviet Russia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hoosier Hysteria</title>
<id>14443</id>
<revision>
<id>40207304</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T2 |
ecial attention has been given to women fighters, who made up some 30% of the EPLF's combat troops. By [[1998]], the army had shrunk to 47,000.
In order to fund the demobilization program, the government cut other expenditures, campaigned to raise voluntary contributions, took its first loans, and sought external aid. [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Israel]], and the [[U.S.]] have provided assistance.
Although committed to demobilization, the Government of Eritrea feels it has some legitimate [[security]] concerns and continues to seek U.S. assistance to upgrade its equipment and training with a goal of producing a smaller, more professional, and more efficient army. United States military assistance so far has included deploying in-country training teams, establishing a de-[[land mine|mining]] training program, ship visits during which U.S. service personnel contribute labor and materials for various community relations projects, and the training of Eritrean [[military officer]]s in the United States.
The Eritrean Army is equipped with a hodgepodge of captured [[Ethiopia]]n equipment, mostly of [[Soviet]] origin.
The Military of Eritrea, depending on annual fluctuation, trades positions with [[North Korea]] as the nation that maintains the title as the most militarized state in the world (highest number of active personnel versus total population).
'''Military branches:'''
Army, Navy, Air Force
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$196 million (FY97)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
28.6% (FY97)
==References and Links==
*[[Eritrea]]
<!-- Isn't there a template for this? -->
*''This article incorporates [[public domain]] text from [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]] Background Notes.''
[[Category:Eritrea]]
[[Category:Militaries|Eritrea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Eritrea</title>
<id>9385</id>
<revision>
<id>39393940</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T21:53:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<comment>template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Eritrea}}
[[Eritrea]] is a member in good standing of the [[African Union]] (AU), the succesor of the [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU). But it has withdrawn its representative to the AU in protest of the AU's lack of leadership in facilitating the implementation of a binding border decision demarcating the border between Eritrea and [[Ethiopia]]. Eritrea's relationship with the [[United States]] is complicated. Although the two nations have a close working relationship regarding the on-going war on terror, there has been a growing tension in other areas. Eritrea's relationship with [[Italy]] and the [[EU]] has become equally strained in many areas in the last three years.
Within the region, Eritrea's relations with Ethiopia turned from that of close alliance to a deadly rivalry that cost an estimated one hundred thousand live between May, 1998 to June 2000.
Eritrea broke diplomatic relations with the [[Sudan]] in December 1994. This action was taken after a long period of increasing tension between the two countries due to a series of cross-border incidents involving the [[Eritrean Islamic Jihad]] (EIJ). Although the attacks did not pose a threat to the stability of the Government of Eritrea (the infiltrators have generally been killed or captured by government forces), the Eritreans believe the [[National Islamic Front]] (NIF) in [[Khartoum]] supported, trained, and armed the insurgents. After many months of negotiations with the Sudanese to try to end the incursions, the Government of Eritrea concluded that the NIF did not intend to change its policy and broke relations. Subsequently, the Government of Eritrea hosted a conference of Sudanese opposition leaders in June 1995 in an effort to help the opposition unite and to provide a credible alternative to the present government in Khartoum. Eritrea resumed diplomatic relations with Sudan on December 10, 2005.[http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/051210/2005121017.html]
'''Disputes - international:'''
dispute over alignment of boundary with Ethiopia led to armed conflict in 1998. The conflict was slowed by an OAU-sponsored peace treaty signed in December 13, 2000.
In April of 2002 Ethiopia and Eritrea agreed on a common border, drawn up by an independent commission in [[The Hague]] under the auspices of the [[United Nations]].
=== See also ===
*[[Eritrea]]
[[Category:Eritrea]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Eritrea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Estonia</title>
<id>9386</id>
<revision>
<id>42134059</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:17:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.100.234.88</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Climate */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox Country |
native_name = Eesti Vabariik |
common_name = Estonia |
image_flag = Flag of Estonia.svg |
image_coat = Estonia coatofarms.png|
image_map = LocationEstonia.png|Location of Estonia |
national_motto = none |
national_anthem = ''[[Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm]]'' |
official_languages = [[Estonian language|Estonian]] |
capital = [[Tallinn]] |
latd=59|latm=26|latNS=N|longd=24|longm=45|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Tallinn]] |
government_type =[[Parliamentary democracy]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Estonia|President]]<br>[[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]] |
leader_names = [[Arnold Rüütel]]<br>[[Andrus Ansip]] |
area = 45,226 |
area_rank = 129th |
area_magnitude = 1 E10|
percent_water = 4.56% |
population_estimate = 1,332,893|
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 148th |
population_census = |
population_census_year = |
population_density = 29.8 |
population_density_rank = 144th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2006 |
GDP_PPP = $21.81 billion|
GDP_PPP_rank = 111th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $16,400 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 62nd |
HDI_year=2003|
HDI=0.853|
HDI_rank=38th|
HDI_category=<font color="#009900">high</font>|
sovereignty_type = [[History of Estonia|Independence]] |
established_events = &nbsp;- Declared<br>&nbsp;- Recognised<br>&nbsp;- Occupied by USSR<br><br>[[Collapse of the Soviet Union|Independence]]<br> &nbsp;- Re-declared<br> |
established_dates = From [[Russian SFSR|Russia]] and [[Imperial Germany|Germany]]<br> [[24 February]] [[1918]]<br>[[2 February]] [[1920]]-<br>[[16 June]] [[1940]]<br>From [[Soviet Union]]<br>[[20 August]] [[1991]] |
currency = [[Estonian kroon]] |
currency_code = EEK |
time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]] |
utc_offset = +2 |
time_zone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]] |
utc_offset_DST = +3 |
cctld = [[.ee]] |
calling_code = 372 |
footnotes =|
}}
The '''Republic of Estonia''', or '''Estonia''' ([[Estonian language|Estonian]]: ''Eesti Vabariik'' or ''Eesti'') is a country in [[Northern Europe]] and a member state of [[European Union]] since [[2004]]. It is separated from [[Finland]] in the north by the narrow [[Gulf of Finland]] and from [[Sweden]] in the west by the middle part of the [[Baltic Sea]]. Estonia has land borders with its fellow [[Baltic countries|Baltic country]] [[Latvia]] to the south and [[Russia]] to the east.
== History ==
{{main|History of Estonia}}
Human settlement in Estonia became possible when the ice, from the last [[Ice Age|glacial era]], melted away 11,000–13,000 years ago. The oldest known settlement in Estonia was located on the [[Pärnu|Pärnu River]], near the town of Sindi (Pulli settlement, by village Pulli - on right bank of Pärnu River). It dates back to the middle of the 8th millennium BC.
Estonia was first [[christianization|christianised]] when the [[Germany|German]] "[[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]]" and [[Denmark]] conquered the land by [[1227]]. Subsequent foreign powers that controlled Estonia at various times included Denmark, [[Sweden]], [[Poland]] and finally ([[1710]] de facto, [[1721]] de jure, see [[Treaty of Nystad]]) [[Russia]]. However, the upper classes and the higher middle class remained primarily [[Baltic German]] until roughly 1918. During and immediately after World War II, the remaining Germans were forced out by [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] and, later, [[Stalin]].
Following the collapse of [[Imperial Russia]] after the [[October Revolution]], Estonia declared itself an independent republic on [[February 24]], [[1918]]. After the [[Estonian Liberation War]] and [[Treaty of Tartu]] signed in [[February 2]], [[1920]] Estonia maintained this independence for twenty-two years, and the very same parliamentary government was reinstated in [[1992]], after the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]]. It included a parliament called ''Riigikogu'', elected by all Estonian citizens aged 18 or above. ''Riigikogu'' was disbanded in [[1934]] and the country was ruled by decree by [[president]] [[Konstantin Päts]] until the parliamentary elections in [[1938]].
The country was occupied by Soviet troops in [[June]] [[1940]], as a consequence of the [[1939]] [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Many of its political and intellectual leaders were killed or repressed, including Estonia's first president Konstantin Päts, who was deported to [[Russia]]. The country was occupied by the German [[Third Reich]] from [[1941]] to [[1944]], when Soviet forces reconquered it. Estonia regained its independence on [[August 20]], [[1991]], with the [[Singing Revolution]] and the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]]. [[August 20]] is now a national holiday in Estonia.
The last Russian troops left on [[August 31]], [[1994]], and Estonia joined [[NATO]] on [[March 29]], [[2004]] and the [[European Union]] on [[May 1]], [[2004]].
Estonia signed a border agreement with [[Ru |
the case. The court will also examine the ability of the firm to prosecute the claim for the plaintiffs, and their resources for dealing with class actions; the court may, as [[due process]] requires, have complex notices be sent, published, or broadcast to the public, in any place where the class members can be found.
As part of this notice procedure, there may have to be several notices, first a notice giving class members the opportunity to opt out of the class, i.e. if individuals wish to proceed with their own litigation they are entitled to do so, only to the extent that they give timely notice to the class counsel or the court that they are opting out. Second, if there is a settlement proposal, the court will usually direct the class counsel to send a settlement notice to all the members of the certified class and all the members of any subclasses (that might have slightly different but uniform claims), informing them of the settlement offer being made by the defendants, and the fact that the named plaintiffs have agreed to accept the settlement. Usually, the court will also state the legal fees being paid to the class counsel as part of the settlement, which may be considerable, making class actions appealing to many plaintiff law firms.
In federal [[civil procedure]] law, which has generally been accepted by most states (through adoption of rules paralleling the FRCP), the class action must have certain definite characteristics: '''(1)''' the class must be so large as to make individual suits impractical, '''(2)''' there must be legal or factual claims in common '''(3)''' the claims or defences must be typical of the plaintiffs or defendants, and '''(4)''' the representative parties must adequately protect the interests of the class.
===State class actions===
Since 1938, many states have adopted rules similar to the FRCP. However, some states like [[California]] have homegrown civil procedure codes which they have been reluctant to abandon. The law of class actions in California developed in a rather chaotic fashion through judicial glosses on vaguely worded statutes (there are four key ones), and has never been cleaned up (in the way that the FRCP cleaned up the thicket of federal procedural law). As a result, there are entire treatises dedicated to the topic.
==Pros and cons of class actions==
===Advantages of class actions===
Depending on the case, a class action may offer a number of advantages. Each of these advantages essentially stems from the fact that a class action aggregates a large number of individualized claims into one representational [[lawsuit]]. Although aggregation creates the potential for harm, it also creates potential benefits.
First, aggregation may increase the efficiency of the legal process. In cases with common questions of law and fact, aggregation of claims into a class action may avoid the necessity of repeating "days of the same [[witnesses]], [[exhibits]] and issues from [[trial (law)|trial]] to trial." ''Jenkins v. Raymark Indus., Inc.'', 782 F.2d 468, 473 (5th Cir. 1986) (granting certification of a class action involving [[asbestos]]).
Second, a class action overcomes "the problem that small recoveries do not provide the incentive for any individual to bring a solo action prosecuting his or her rights." ''Amchem Prods., Inc. v. Windsor'', 521 U.S. 591, 617 (1997) (quoting ''Mace v. Van Ru Credit Corp.'', 109 F.3d 388, 344 (7th Cir. 1997)). "A class action solves this problem by aggregating the relatively paltry potential recoveries into something worth someone’s (usually an attorney’s) labor." ''Amchem Prods., Inc.'', 521 U.S. at 617 (quoting ''Mace'', 109 F.3d at 344). In other words, a class action ensures that a [[defendant]] who engages in widespread harm -- but does so minimally against each individual [[plaintiff]] -- must compensate those individuals for their injuries. For example, thousands of shareholders of a public company may have losses too small to justify separate lawsuits, but a class action can be brought efficiently on behalf of all shareholders.
Third, in "limited fund" cases, a class action ensures that all [[plaintiffs]] receive relief and that early-filing [[plaintiffs]] do not raid the fund (''i.e.'', the [[defendant]]) of all its [[assets]] before other [[plaintiffs]] may be compensated. ''See Ortiz v. Fibreboard Corp.'', 527 U.S. 815 (1999). A class action in such a situation centralizes all claims into one [[venue]] where a court can equitably divide the assets amongst all the [[plaintiffs]] if they win the case.
Finally, a class action avoids the situation where different court rulings could create "incompatible standards" of conduct for the defendant to follow. For example, a court might certify a case for class treatment where a number of individual bond-holders sue to determine whether they may convert their [[bonds]] to [[common stock]]. Refusing to litigate the case in one [[trial (law)|trial]] could result in different outcomes and inconsistent standards of conduct for the [[defendant]] [[corporation]]. Thus, courts will generally allow a class action in such a situation. ''See, e.g., Van Gemert v. Boeing Co.'', 259 F. Supp. 125 (S.D.N.Y. 1966).
Whether a class action is superior to individual [[litigation]] depends on the case. The Advisory Committee Note to Rule 23, for example, states that [[mass torts]] are ordinarily "not appropriate" for class treatment. Class treatment generally does little to improve the efficiency of a [[mass tort]] because the claims almost always involve individualized issues of law and fact that will have to be re-tried on an individual basis. ''See Castano v. Am. Tobacco Co.'', 84 F.3d 734 (5th Cir. 1996) (rejecting nationwide class action against tobacco companies). [[Mass torts]] also involve high individual damage awards; thus, the absence of class treatment will not impede the ability of individual claimants to seek justice. ''See id.'' Other cases, however, may be more conducive to class treatment.
===Criticisms of class actions===
There are at least two basic criticisms of allowing class action lawsuits. One criticism is that it encourages attorneys to bring a class actions on behalf of everyone injured by a wrongful act and then bind everyone with an unreasonably low [[settlement (law)|settlement]] just to quickly obtain large attorney fees. These are sometimes referred to as ''coupon settlements''. These coupon settlements (which usually allow the plaintiffs to receive minimal benefit such as a small check or a coupon for future services or products with the defendant company) are also a way for a defendant to forestall major liability by precluding a large number of people from litigating their claims separately, to recover reasonable compensation for the damages.
Others point out there are at least three protections against the class attorney and defendant entering into a low [[Collusion|collusive]] settlement that benefits only the class action attorney and the defendant:
1) The court must approve any settlement and class members and their attorneys have the right to argue against a settlement as being too low;
2) Normally the court will allow class members to "opt-out" of the settlement if they so choose; and
3) Collusive settlements are illegal.
A second criticism complains that this mechanism is a form of taxation upon large business corporations that prevents them from aggressively pursuing innovation. For example, they may argue that although primitive self-driving cars have already been developed, no rational automobile manufacturer will sell such cars in the open market until their artificial intelligence is perfect because they are terrified of being sued in a class action by those injured as a result of the slightest defect in the car's software.
Others respond to this criticism by pointing out that any civil liability allowing damages for those injured by defective products could be viewed as a form of "taxation." A class action only provides a method of requiring the wrongdoer to compensate those it has injured by allowing those injured to bring one large lawsuit rather than by bringing many small lawsuits. If society wanted to encourage innovation by manufactures of self-driving, but not fully proven technologies, it could do so by directly immunizing all new technology from civil lawsuits for damages, rather than stopping all class action lawsuits - a strategy that the gun industry, for example, has successfully pursued in the [[U.S. Congress]].
Many well-financed defendants dislike the class action mechanism because it deprives them of the opportunity to direct their superior financial resources against each injured plaintiff, one-at-a-time, in a divide and conquer strategy.
==Defendant class action==
Although normally plaintiffs are the class, defendent class actions are also possible. For example, in 2005, the Archidiocese of [[Portland]] was sued as part of the Catholic priest sex-abuse scandal. All parishioners of the Archdiocese's churches were cited as a defendent class. This was done to include their assets (local churches) in any settlement.
==Availability==
Many jurisdictions (for example: [[Germany]], [[Austria]]) do not provide Class Action lawsuits.
==See also==
*''[[Dukes v. Wal-Mart]]'' (the largest class-action lawsuit to date)
* [[Wikipedia Class Action]]
==External links==
*[http://trialandappeal.blogspot.com/2005/11/5-million-class-action-controversy-go.html"$5 million Class Action Controversy?--Go to Federal Court"], Court Watch, [[November 8]] [[2005]] (Also, links to the Act and President Bush's statement when signed into law.)
*[http://www.pointoflaw.com/classactions/overview.php James Copland, ''Point of Law'', "Class Actions"]
*Michael S. Greve, "Harm-Less Lawsuits? What's Wrong with Consumer |
<comment>I really should be asleep...</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bugtraq''' is a [[full disclosure]] [[electronic mailing list|mailing list]] dedicated to issues about [[computer security]]. On-topic discussions are new discussions about vulnerabilities, methods of exploitation, and how to fix them. It is a high volume mailing list, and almost all new vulnerabilities are discussed there.
Bugtraq was created on Friday [[November 5]], [[1993]] by Scott Chasin, in response to the perceived failings of the existing internet security infrastructure of the time, particularly [[CERT]]. Bugtraq's policy was to publish vulnerabilities, regardless of vendor response, as part of the [[Full disclosure|Full Disclosure]] movement of vulnerability disclosure.
Elias Levy noted in an interview that "the environment at that time was such that vendors weren't making any patches. So the focus was on how to fix software that companies weren't fixing."
In the beginning, the mailing list was not moderated, however the signal-to-noise ratio became unacceptably bad. It became moderated beginning [[June 5]], [[1995]]. At the same time it moved from its original home at Crimelab.com to Netspace.org.
The mailing list was moderated by [[Elias Levy]] (a.k.a. Aleph One) from [[May 14]], [[1996]], until he stepped down on [[October 15]], [[2001]], then [[Dave Ahmad]] took over until he stepped down on [[February 23]], [[2006]]. The current moderator is [[David McKinney]].
In July [[1999]] Bugtraq moved from [[Netspace.org]] to [[SecurityFocus]]. The last few years, Bugtraq has been the property of the computer security company SecurityFocus, which was bought out by [[Symantec]] on [[August 6th]], [[2002]].
<!--
Future expanding of article should include:
* More history of bugtraq
* Why the list was created in the first place
-->
==External links==
*[http://archive.salon.com/tech/feature/2001/08/29/west/index1.html Salon article on Bugtraq and full disclosure]
*[http://www.spirit.com/Network/net0800.html#section-1.1. A history of the CERT Advisory CA-93:15 case]
*http://cert.uni-stuttgart.de/archive/bugtraq/
*http://www.symantec.com/press/2002/n020806.html
*[http://www.securityfocus.com/archive/ Subscription information]
{{compu-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Black (people)</title>
<id>4745</id>
<revision>
<id>42130699</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:47:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>4.249.72.136</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Who looks Black?<sup>[[#2|2]]</sup> */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
'''Black''' (noun, black or blacks; adjective, black people) is a color-defined term used as a form of ethno-racial classification. Though literally implying dark-skinned, "black" has been used in different ways at different times and places. The [[English language|English]] word was spawned by the European colonization and conquest of non-Europeans, however the concept of Black people can be found as early as the [[2nd Century BC]]. It solidified into popular culture during the [[Enlightenment]] as one of the [[Color metaphors for race|four major categories]] into which European philosophers tried to organize the newly discovered human diversity. The categories were based upon skin tone as perceived by Europeans of the time: Red ([[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]), Yellow ([[East Asians]]), White ([[Europeans]]), and Black ([[Africans]]). Today, the term's usage differs slightly among former European colonies. [[Latin Americans]], former members of the [[British Empire]], and [[Americans]] (USA) all use the term differently. The term is most often applied today in three ways. First, it denotes people who are seen as part of the [[African Diaspora]]. Second, it is also applied to native non-European people lacking African ancestry but who were labeled as "Black" by their colonizers. Third, it has been internalized as an ethno-political rallying label by leaders of oppressed and marginalized populations in several regions around the world. A fourth criterion (who "looks black") is less useful because it is subjective.
==The concept of blackness created through colonialism==
Since the dawn of recorded history humans have tried to classify each other with various descriptive names in an attempt to organize their environment. The ancient [[Hebrews]] used the word "Kushim" from the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] "K'sh" as a specific label of identifying people from [[Africa]] who were of naturally dark complexion [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2004/2004-02-53.html]. It is difficult to discern whether this label was originally applied merely to skin tone or if it considered the regional or ethnic identity of groups. This is because ancient cultures did not usually associate skin tone with group identity. A dark-skinned person was not considered less of a Hebrew or Egyptian than someone of lighter complexion. The early [[Ancient Greeks|Greeks]] and [[Romans]] called various dark skinned peoples by various names: ''Aethiops'' referred to their burnt colored skin. ''Melanogaetulians'' were dark skinned people in the north. ''Leukaethiops'' meant light burnt faces. Until at least the 14th century, this word ''Aethiops'' had been the word of choice in Europe and much of the middle east to describe darker skinned people, especially those from Africa.
Further east, the term ''zanj'' became synonymous with "black", and is found in the word "Zanzibar". This term became a part of [[Ancient Persia|Persian]], and [[Ancient China|Chinese]] descriptions of dark-skinned people at various periods of time, again describing people especially (but not exclusively) from Africa. Like "Aethiops," this was a label imposed upon a population from without.
When Europeans began colonizing the [[Western Hemisphere]] and brought slaves from [[West Africa]], the term "negro" was applied to describe them. The term was usually distinct from the concept of "African" which was also used in [[colonial America]] to refer to the inhabitants of that continent. ''Negro'' was applied to the descendants of Africans in the British colonies. Apparently, this term originated from the [[Spanish Language|Spanish]] word of the same spelling.
==Usage differs among former European colonies==
There are subtle differences among former colonial cultures in how the term is used. Once-colonial cultures, such as the Spanish and Portuguese, that lacked an [[endogamous]] barrier between the descendants of Europeans and the descendants of Africans seldom use the term as an ethno-racial label. Those with weak or three-caste endogamous barriers, such as the French, Dutch, and British distinguish between Black and [[Coloured]]. The only land with a single two-caste color line, the United States, uses the term to denote a voluntary ethnic self-identity.
===Former Iberian colonies do not use the label to denote groups===
Latin American societies, including those of the [[Spanish Caribbean]], have always lacked endogamous color lines. Every [[Hispanic]] resides on an Afro-Amerind-European continuum where status depends on wealth, breeding, education, and political power as well as [[phenotype]]. Latin American countries typically have three economic classes: A lower class of agricultural peasants and urban poor; a middle class of landowning farmers and urban craftsmen; and an upper class of wealthy professionals, educators, or the politically powerful. The structure has a strong hereditary component. It is rigid, offers little social mobility, and is often harsh or unjust. Nevertheless, despite significant class/skin-tone correlation, it has no color line in the sense of endogamy. Enforced Black/White endogamy is impossible in Latin America because nearly every Hispanic has immediate blood relatives who are more African-looking and others who are more European-looking than himself. Spanish contains about a dozen words to denote various blends of Afro-European appearance: ''prieto, criollo, blanquito, mulato, moreno, trigueño, mestizo, jabao, marrano'', etc. [[Brazilian Portuguese]] has an equivalent set of terms. Yet, none of these terms has the denotation that "black" has in [[English Language|English]], [[French Language|French]], or [[Dutch Language|Dutch]]. In fact, the word ''negro/a'' in many Latin American countries is seldom used to denote appearance. It is simply a common term of endearment, like the English ''honey''. It is used by affectionate couples, even those who look entirely European.
===Former British colonies apply the label to people darker than Europeans===
In most former British colonies, ''Coloured'' denotes both an intermediate group between White and Black, and the '''[[Khoisan]]''' who are lighter skinned indigenous Africans. [[Apartheid South Africa]] enforced segregation and endogamy between each of its three groups: Black, White, and Coloured. This often confused [[African-American]] visitors, who tried to associate with locals who were members of South Africa's Black group. The problem was that the Black group in the United States includes what South Africans consider two distinct groups, Black plus Coloured. In apartheid South Africa, association between members of the Black and Coloured endogamous groups was forbidden. Even today, after the ending of apartheid, South Africa's three endogamous groups, whose segregation was formerly enforced by criminal law, have become three separate appearance-based political blocs whose segregation is still enforced by social custom.
Coloured people in the [[British West Indies]] also form an intermediate group between Europeans and those of strong African appearance. Neither status within the group nor movement between groups was ever as in |
Coffey]]. Also joining the Red Wings around this time were draft picks like [[Vyacheslav Kozlov|Slava Kozlov]], [[Darren McCarty]], [[Vladimir Konstantinov]], and [[Nicklas Lidström]].
===1990 to 2004===
[[Scotty Bowman]], the winningest coach in NHL history, joined the Red Wings in [[1993-94 NHL season|1993]]. In his second season, the [[1994-95 NHL lockout|lockout]]-shortened [[1994-95 NHL season]], he guided Detroit to its first Finals appearance in 29 years. They were swept by the [[New Jersey Devils]].
The Wings kept adding more star power, picking up [[Viacheslav Fetisov|Slava Fetisov]], [[Igor Larionov]], and goaltender [[Mike Vernon]] in trades. After a third-round playoff loss to the new [[Colorado Avalanche]] in [[1995-96 NHL season|1996]], Detroit, joined by [[Brendan Shanahan]] and [[Larry Murphy]] during the season, once again reached the Finals in [[1996-97 NHL season|1997]], beating the [[Philadelphia Flyers]] in four straight games. It was the Wings' first Stanley Cup since 1955, breaking the longest drought in the league at that time.
Tragedy struck the Wings days after their championship. Vladimir Konstantinov suffered a brain injury in a car accident, and his career had to come to an abrupt end. Their [[1997-98 NHL season|1997-98]] season, which also ended in a Cup victory (a sweep over the [[Washington Capitals]]), was dedicated to Konstantinov, who came out in his wheelchair that night to touch the Cup.
The Wings built up a fierce rivalry with the Avalanche by this time. With the Red Wings beating the Avalanche in the third round in [[1996-97 NHL season|1997]], and Colorado beating Detroit in the second round in both [[1998-99 NHL season|1999]] and [[1999-00 NHL season|2000]], the battles between these two teams has become one of the fiercest in sports. During one game, [[Brawl in Hockeytown|a brawl]] ensued between Colorado goalie [[Patrick Roy]] and his Detroit counterpart [[Mike Vernon]].
In [[2000-01 NHL season|2001]] Detroit, the league's second-best team in the regular season, suffered a first-round playoff loss to the [[Los Angeles Kings|Kings]]. They got goalie [[Dominik Hasek]] from a trade with the [[Buffalo Sabres]], and landed left-wing [[Luc Robitaille]] and right-wing [[Brett Hull]] in the [[offseason]]. The Wings became the odds-on favorite to win the Cup in [[2001-02 NHL season|2002]]. They did not disappoint, having the league's best record in the regular season and capturing another Cup, in five games over the Cinderella [[Carolina Hurricanes]]. Bowman and Hasek both retired after the season.
In [[2002-03 NHL season|2003]], with new coach [[Dave Lewis]] and goalie pickup [[Curtis Joseph]], the Wings were upset by the [[Mighty Ducks of Anaheim|Anaheim Mighty Ducks]] in four straight games in the first round, after one of the most successful regular seasons in team history.
Long time Red Wing Sergei Fedorov signed with the Mighty Ducks as a free agent during the offseason. Hasek came out of retirement, and joined the Wings for the [[2003-04 NHL season|2003-04 season]]. This meant that Detroit had three goalies, with Joseph and [[Manny Legace]] as backups. The Wings also added defenseman [[Derian Hatcher]] from [[Dallas Stars|Dallas]] via free agency, as well as forward [[Ray Whitney (hockey player)|Ray Whitney]] from [[Columbus Blue Jackets|Columbus]] as a free agent. Joseph, despite being one of the highest paid players in the NHL, had to spend part of the season with the [[Grand Rapids Griffins]], Detroit's [[American Hockey League]] affiliate. Ultimately, Hasek had to call it quits because of a groin injury, and Joseph led the team to the top of the Central Division and the Western Conference. Hatcher was also injured just a few games into the regular season with a torn MCL. He would not return until the end of the regular season. The Wings acquired veteran center [[Robert Lang (hockey player|Robert Lang]] from the Capitals at the trade deadline and he made a big impression over the next few weeks.
In the first round of the [[2003-04 NHL season|2004]] playoffs, Detroit eliminated the [[Nashville Predators]] in 6 games. After losing [[Captain (hockey)|captain]] Steve Yzerman for the season with a horrific eye injury in Game 5, the Red Wings were eliminated by the [[Calgary Flames]] in 6 games in the second round.
During the 2004 offseason, the Wings focused on keeping players they already had instead of being active on the free agent market. They re-signed [[Frank J. Selke Trophy|Selke Trophy]]-winning forward [[Kris Draper]], who had just had a career season, to a four year deal, and captain Steve Yzerman to a one year deal. They also re-signed [[Brendan Shanahan]], [[Jiri Fischer]], [[Jason Williams (hockey)|Jason Williams]], and [[Mathieu Dandenault]] as well head coach Dave Lewis, despite his poor playoff record. Deals were not reached with veteran defensemen [[Chris Chelios]] and [[Mathieu Schneider]] or star forward [[Pavel Datsyuk]] before the NHL owners triggered their [[2004-05 NHL lockout|lockout]] on [[September 15]]. There also was a parting of ways with veteran forward Brett Hull, who signed with the [[Phoenix Coyotes]] as did forward [[Boyd Devereaux]].
==2005-06 Season==
In [[June 2005]], due to his poor performance in the playoffs, the Red Wings decided to let go of head coach Dave Lewis. On [[July 15]], [[2005]], [[Mike Babcock]], former coach of the Mighty Ducks, became the new head coach for the Wings.
In [[July 2005]], due to the new NHL restrictions, the Wings had to release Darren McCarty, Derian Hatcher and Ray Whitney. The Wings did re-sign Chris Chelios and Mathieu Schneider to one-year contracts and also signed [[2004 NHL Entry Draft|2004]] top draft pick [[Johan Franzen]]. Team captain Steve Yzerman also re-signed for one year for what many fans feel will be his final season. On [[August 8]], the Wings brought back [[Chris Osgood]] to a one year contract.
The Red Wings are on a record setting start to the 2005-2006 season. They are currently first in the Central Division with a 39-13-5 record and have 83 points as of [[February 14]], [[2006]]. ([http://www.nhl.com/standings/index.html NHL Standings].) Manny Legace started his own legacy in October. With Osgood out, Legace became the starter and set an NHL record with most wins, 10, in the month of October. The Red Wings went on to have a very impressive 11-1-0 record in October. The Red Wings tied a league record with the most points after 14 games, 25 points. They also tied their franchise's record with most consecutive wins, 9.
==Notable players==
===Current Squad===
''As of [[February 12]], [[2005-06 NHL season|2006]]'' [http://tsn.ca/nhl/feature/?fid=8957&hubname=]
{|
!colspan=6 |<big>Goaltenders
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
!width=5%|Number
!width=5%|
!!width=15%|Player
!width=16%|Catches
!width=9%|Acquired
!width=37%|Place of Birth
|-
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''30'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Chris Osgood]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2005-06 NHL season|2005]]
|[[Peace River, Alberta]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''34'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Manny Legace]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[1999-00 NHL season|1999]]
|[[Toronto, Ontario]]
<!-- sent to Grand Rapids
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''35'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|USA}}
|[[Jimmy Howard]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2003 NHL Entry Draft|2003]]
|[[Ogdensburg, New York]] -->
|}
{| width=100%
!colspan=7 |<big>Defensemen
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
!width=5%|Number
!width=5%|
!!width=15%|Player
!width=16%|Shoots
!width=9%|Acquired
!width=37%|Place of Birth
|-
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''2'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CZE}}
|[[Jiri Fischer]] (Injured Reserve)
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[1998 NHL Entry Draft|1998]]
|[[Horovice]], [[Czechoslovakia]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''3'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|SWE}}
|[[Andreas Lilja]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2005-06 NHL season|2005]]
|[[Landskrona]], [[Sweden]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''4'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Jamie Rivers]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2003-04 NHL season|2003]]
|[[Ottawa, Ontario]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''5'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|SWE}}
|[[Nicklas Lidstrom]] - A
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[1989 NHL Entry Draft|1989]]
|[[Vasteras]], [[Sweden]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''15'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Jason Woolley]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2002-03 NHL season|2002]]
|[[Toronto, Ontario]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''22'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|USA}}
|[[Brett Lebda]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2005-06 NHL season|2004]]
|[[Buffalo Grove, Illinois]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''23'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|USA}}
|[[Mathieu Schneider]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2002-03 NHL season|2003]]
|[[New York City|New York, New York]]
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''24'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|USA}}
|[[Chris Chelios]]
|align=center|R
|align=center|[[1998-99 NHL season|1999]]
|[[Chicago, Illinois]]
<!-- in Grand Rapids
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''45'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Kyle Quincey]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2003 NHL Entry Draft|2003]]
|[[Kitchener, Ontario]] -->
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''55'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|SWE}}
|[[Niklas Kronwall]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2000 NHL Entry Draft|2000]]
|[[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]]
|}
{|
!colspan=7 |<big>Forwards
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
!width=5%|Number
!width=5%|
!!width=15%|Player
!width=8%|Shoots
!width=8%|Position
!width=9%|Acquired
!width=37%|Place of Birth
|-
|-bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|align=center|'''11'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Daniel Cleary]]
|align=center|L
|align=center |
recent medications the patient is taking
* Past Medical History - any related history, or medical conditions that could complicate treatment (e.g. heart condition)
* Last meal - last food and/or drink
* Events - confirm how injury most likely occurred
(Note - interview should include bystanders as well, to supplement info from the patient)
====2) Vitals====
(Most certifications at the first-aid level include only the following four vitals)
** LOC - Level of Consciousness description (e.g. - alert, aware, disoriented, confused, unresponsive)
** Breathing Rate - Number of breaths per minute. Calculate by counting breaths for ten seconds and multiplying by six, or 15 seconds and multiplying by four.
** Pulse Rate - Number of heartbeats per minute. Calculate by counting pulse for ten seconds and multiplying by six, or 15 seconds and multiplying by four. Pulse for an unconscious person is taken on the neck (carotid pulse) and on the wrist (radial pulse) for a conscious person.
** Skin Condition - Pale vs. normal, cool/cold vs. hot, clammy/sweaty vs. dry
====3) Head-to-toe examination====
* Perform a head-to-toe examination (for a child, toe-to-head)
**Look for medical alert bracelets or medallions.
**Compare one side of the patient against the other
**Look for pain, or deformity
==Wilderness (or mass emergency) First Aid==
'''Wilderness first aid''' is the provision of [[first aid]] under conditions where the arrival of emergency responders or the evacuation of an injured person may be delayed due to constraints of terrain, weather, and available persons or equipment. It may be necessary to care for an injured person for several hours or days.
In the [[United States]], '''Wilderness First Aid''' (WFA) is the name of a certification in wilderness medicine that covers wilderness first aid; depending on the laws applicable where it is practiced, it may impose specific responsibilities and confer specific immunities on duly-diligent practitioners. For instance, the practicing of certain rules of WFA, by someone certified in the usual "street" First Aid discipline but not in WFA (or a higher Wilderness Medicine qualification), could result in civil liability or perhaps even criminal prosecution.
A classic problem is whether to leave an injured person or stay, if only one person is ambulatory. Barring special circumstances, the injured one should be stabilized, placed in shelter, and marked in a way visible from the air (usually a single long line of cut brush or trampled snow). Then the injured one should be left alone, while the other goes for help.
If there are three or more, the healthy group should be split into halves by speed, with the fastest going for help, and the others remaining to make the preparations. (In a party of four, it would be a rare hiker who would be better sent for help alone, rather than sent in a sub-party of two.)
Ensuring the rescuers can find the injured person is crucial. If a [[personal locator beacon]] is available, it should be triggered and placed with the injured person. If enough help is available, air-visible markings may be worthwhile. Where surveyor's tape is available within the party (and assuming clear trails are available), it should be used by the sub-party going for help to back up memory and notes with tape-flagging of the toward-the-injury-location choices of trail at intersections. (When an injury location is off clear trails, or distances that make it impractical to keep blazes of tape within sight of each other, forks in watercourses should be used as substitutes for trail intersections.)
See [[medical emergency]] for a list of medical emergencies and specific guidance directed towards first-aiders, [[Outdoor Emergency Care]] technicians and [[Emergency medical technician|EMT]]s, often including [[evacuation]] criteria.
Training in wilderness first aid is available. Any group of persons traveling in wilderness should have at least one person trained in wilderness first aid and carry a [[first aid kit]] designed for the area they are traveling in.
[[Nursing]] care is not part of normal [[first aid]] but is part of wilderness first aid.
==Conditions that often require first aid==
Also see [[medical emergency]]
*[[Altitude sickness]], which can begin in susceptible people at altitudes as low as 5,000 feet, can cause potentially fatal [[cerebral edema|swelling of the brain]] or [[pulmonary edema|lungs]].
*[[Anaphylaxis]], a life-threatening condition in which the airway can become constricted and the patient may go into [[shock]]. The reaction can be caused by a systemic allergic reaction to [[allergen]]s such as insect bites or peanuts. Anaphylaxis is initially treated with injection of [[epinephrine]].
*[[Bone fracture]] a break in a bone initially treated by stabilizing the fracture with a [[splint (medical)|splint]].
*[[Burn (injury)|Burns]], which can result in damage to tissues and loss of body fluids through the burn site.
*[[Choking]], blockage of the airway which can quickly result in death due to lack of [[oxygen]] if the patient's trachea is not cleared, for example by the [[Heimlich maneuver]].
*[[Childbirth]].
*[[Cramp]]s in muscles due to lactic acid buildup caused either by inadequate oxygenation of muscle or lack of water or salt.
*[[Diving disorders]] resulting from too much pressure.
*[[Gastrointestinal bleeding]].
*[[Heart attack]], or inadequate blood flow to the blood vessels supplying the heart muscle.
*Heat stroke, also known as sunstroke or [[hyperthermia]], which tends to occur during heavy exercise in high humidity, or with inadequate water, though it may occur spontaneously in some chronically ill persons. Sunstroke, especially when the victim has been unconscious, often causes major damage to body systems such as brain, kidney, liver, gastric tract. [[coma|Unconsciousness]] for more than two hours usually leads to permanent disability. Emergency treatment involves rapid cooling of the patient.
*[[Heat syncope]], another stage in the same process as heat stroke, occurs under similar conditions as heat stroke and is not distinguished from the latter by some authorities.
*[[Hemorrhage]], or heavy bleeding, treated by applying pressure (manually and later with a [[pressure bandage]]) to the wound site and elevating the limb if possible.
*[[Hyperglycemia]], or [[diabetic coma]].
*[[Hypoglycemia]], or [[insulin shock]]
*[[Hypothermia]], or exposure, occurs when a person's core body temperature falls below 33.7°C (92.6°F). First aid for a mildly hypothermic patient includes rewarming, but rewarming a severely hypothermic person could result in a fatal [[arrhythmia]], an irregular heart rhythm.
*Insect and animal [[bite (medicine)|bites]] and stings.
*[[Strain (injury)|Muscle strain]].
*[[Poisoning]], which can occur by injection, inhalation, absorption, or ingestion.
*[[Sprain]], a temporary [[dislocation]] of a [[joint (anatomy)|joint]] that immediately reduces automatically but may result in ligament damage.
*[[Stroke]] a temporary loss of blood supply to the brain.
*[[Pneumothorax|Sucking chest wound]], a life threatening hole in the chest which can cause the chest cavity to fill with air and prevent the lung from filling, treated by covering with an [[occlusive dressing]] to let air out but not in.
*[[Toothache]], which can result in severe pain and loss of the tooth but is rarely life threatening.
*[[Wound]]s and [[bleeding]], including [[laceration]], [[incision]] and [[abrasion]], and [[avulsion]], which present risk of infection and should be irrigated with sterile [[normal saline]] and may require [[antibiotic]] medication.
==Providing first aid==
* [[Emergency Action Principles]]
* [[Wilderness first aid]]
* [[Emergency medical service]]
* [[Good Samaritan law]]
==Techniques and procedures of first aid==
* [[Artificial respiration]]
* [[Cardiopulmonary resuscitation]] (CPR)
* [[Occlusive dressing]]
* [[Oxygen first aid]]
* [[Triage]]
* [[Tourniquet]]
* [[Sub-abdominal thrusts]]
==Important Note==
Although commonly associated with first aid, the symbol of a red cross is well-protected symbol of the [[Red Cross]] and should not be used to represent first aid or other health aspects, as regulated by the [[Geneva Conventions]] and other international law.
==References==
# {{note|FirstAidForm}} {{cite web
| title = First Aid Form from CWC Services
| url = http://firstaidform.cwc-services.com/cwcfaorder.htm
| accessdate = Dec 28
| accessyear = 2005
}}
==External links==
{{wikibookspar||First Aid}}
*[http://www.cpr-training-classes.com/individual.htm#AL Find First Aid training classes throughout the US, Canada, & Mexico]
*[http://www.sja.org.uk/ifirstaid First Aid advice] from [[St. John Ambulance]], including downloadable audio files of spoken tips.
*[http://www.emergencyinstitute.us Emergency Institute]
*[http://www.healthy.net/clinic/firstaid/ HealthWorld Online - Emergency & First Aid]
*[http://med.mywebcities.com First aid tips and tutorials]
*[http://www.wildernessmanuals.com/manual_4/index.html Wilderness manuals: First aid] - U.S. Army manual.
*[http://www.vbgov.com/dept/ems/firstaid/ VBgov.com - First Aid Tips]
[[Category:Emergency medicine]]
[[Category:First aid|*]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
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<page>
<title>F. Matthias Alexander</title>
<id>11297</id>
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<id>40096558</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T02:39:50Z</timestamp>
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<username>Cmdrjameson</username>
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<minor />
<comment>Fix broken URL</comment>
|
such as [[methohexital]] and [[thiopentone]]/[[thiopental]]
* [[Benzodiazepine]]s such as [[midazolam]] and [[diazepam]] (commonly known as Valium)
* [[Ketamine]] (commonly known as the street drug [[ketamine | Special K]], and used as a date rape drug)
== Mechanism of action ==
Researchers agree that ion channels are the ultimate site of action of general anaesthetics, and are now determining the exact molecular mechanisms. However, the sites of action of general anaesthetics proved difficult to identify until the last decade. The wide variation in structure, ranging from complex [[steroid]]s to the inert monatomic gas [[xenon]], led to several now [[outdated theories of anaesthetic action]].
It is now known that general anaesthetics act on the [[central nervous system]] by modifying the electrical activity of neurons at a molecular level by modifying the function of [[ion channel]]s. This may occur by anaesthetic molecules binding directly to ion channels or by their disrupting the function of molecules that maintain ion channels.
Scientists have cloned forms of receptors in the past decade, adding greatly to knowledge of the [[protein]]s involved in neuronal excitability. These include:
* [[Voltage-gated ion channel]]s, such as sodium, potassium, and calcium channels
* [[Ligand-gated ion channel]] superfamily
* [[G protein-coupled receptor]] superfamily
== See also ==
* [[Local anesthesia]]
* [[Mechanical ventilation]]
* [[Intraoperative awareness]]
[[Category:Pharmacology]][[Category:Anesthesia]]
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<page>
<title>Geoffrey Chaucer</title>
<id>12787</id>
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<id>41755660</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:45:30Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Life */ Leicester</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Geoffrey Chaucer - Illustration from Cassell's History of England - Century Edition - published circa 1902.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Chaucer: Illustration from Cassell's ''History of England'', circa 1902.]]
'''Geoffrey Chaucer''' (c. [[1343]] &ndash; [[October 25]], [[1400]]) was an [[England|English]] [[English literature|author]], [[English poetry|poet]], [[philosopher]], [[Bureaucracy|bureaucrat]] ([[Noble court|courtier]]), and [[diplomat]]. Chaucer is best known as the author of ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]''. He is sometimes credited with being the first author to demonstrate the artistic legitimacy of the [[vernacular]] [[Middle English|English language]], rather than [[French language|French]] or [[Latin]].
==Life==
[[Image:Chaucer ellesmere.jpg|thumb|left|Chaucer as a pilgrim from the [[Ellesmere manuscript]]]]
Chaucer was born around [[1343]] probably in [[London]], although the exact date and location is not known. His father and grandfather were both London [[wine]] merchants ([[vintner]]s) and before that, for several generations, the family were merchants in [[Ipswich]]. In [[1324]] John Chaucer, Geoffrey's father, was kidnapped by an aunt in the hope of marrying the twelve year-old boy to her daughter; an attempt to keep property in Ipswich. The aunt was imprisoned and the £250 [[Pound sterling|pound]]s fine levied suggests that the family was well-to-do, [[bourgeoisie|upper middle-class]] if not in the [[elite]]. John married Agnes Copton, who in [[1349]] inherited property including twenty-four shops in London from her uncle, Hamo de Copton, who is described as the "moneyer" at the [[Tower of London]].
There are no details of Chaucer's early life and education but compared to his near contemporary poets, [[William Langland]] and [[The Pearl Poet]], his life is well documented with nearly five hundred written items testifying to his career. The first time he is mentioned is in [[1357]], in the household accounts of [[Elizabeth de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster|Elizabeth de Burgh]], the [[Earl of Ulster|Countess of Ulster]] when his father's connections enabled him to become a [[page]] to the noble lady. In [[1359]], in the early stages of the [[Hundred Years' War]], [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] invaded [[France]] and Chaucer travelled with [[Lionel of Antwerp]], Elizabeth's husband, as part of the [[History of the British Army|English army]]. In [[1360]], he was captured during the [[Reims|siege of Reims]], becoming a [[prisoner of war]]. Edward contributed £16 as part of a [[ransom]], and Chaucer was released.
After this Chaucer's life is uncertain but he seems to have travelled in France, [[Spain]] and [[Flanders]], possibly as a messenger and perhaps even going on a pilgrimage to [[Santiago de Compostela]]. Around [[1366]] Chaucer married [[Philippa (de) Roet]] at [[St Mary de Castro (Leicester)]]. She was a lady-in-waiting to Edward III's queen, [[Philippa of Hainault]], and a sister of [[Katherine Swynford]], who later (ca. [[1396]]) became the third wife of Chaucer's friend and patron, [[John of Gaunt]]. It is uncertain as to how many children Chaucer and Philippa had, but 3 or 4 are the numbers most widely agreed upon. [[Thomas Chaucer]] had an illustrious career, [[Chief Butler of England|chief butler]] to four kings, envoy to France and [[Speaker of the British House of Commons|Speaker of the House of Commons]]. Thomas' great-grandson, Geoffrey’s great-great-grandson, [[John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln]] was the heir to the throne designated by [[Richard III of England|Richard III]], before he was deposed. Geoffrey's other children probably included Elizabeth Chaucy, a nun, Agnes, an attendant at [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]'s coronation and another son Lewis Chaucer.
Chaucer is presumed to have studied law in the [[Inner Temple]] (an [[Inn of Court]]) at about this time, although definite proof is lacking. It is recorded that he became a member of the [[British royal family|royal court]] of Edward III as a [[valet]] or [[esquire]] on [[20 June]] [[1367]], a position which could entail any number of jobs. He travelled abroad many times with at least some of them being in his role as a valet. In [[1368]] he may have attended the wedding of Lionel of Antwerp to Violante, daughter of [[Galeazzo II Visconti]], in [[Milan]]. Two literary stars of the era who were in attendance were [[Jean Froissart]] and [[Petrarch]]. Chaucer also travelled to [[Picardy]] the following year as part of a military expedition and visited [[Genoa]] and [[Florence]] in [[1373]].
It is on this [[Italy|Italian]] trip that it is speculated he came into contact with [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[Italian poetry]], the forms and stories of which he would use later. While he may have been exposed to manuscripts of these works the trips were not usually long enough to learn sufficient [[Italian language|Italian]]. It may have been his upbringing among the merchants and immigrants in the [[docklands]] of London that gave him the opportunity to learn the language. One other trip he went on in [[1377]] seems shrouded in mystery with records of the time conflicting in details. Later documents suggest it was a mission, along with [[Jean Froissart]], to arrange a marriage between the future [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] and a French princess, thereby ending the Hundred Years War. If this was the purpose of their trip, they seem to have been unsuccessful as no wedding occurred.
[[image:Geoffrey Chaucer.jpeg|150px|left|thumb|A 19th century depiction of Chaucer. For three near-contemporary portraits of Chaucer see [http://www.towson.edu/~duncan/chaucer/images.htm here].]]
Another indication of his early poetic life came on [[St. George's Day]] in [[1374]] when [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] granted Chaucer a gallon of wine daily for life for some unspecified service. An unusual grant, Chaucer nonetheless regularly collected it until Richard II came to power and converted it to a monetary grant. A more substantial job was that of [[Comptroller]] of the Customs for the port of [[London]] which Chaucer began on [[8 June]] [[1374]]. He must have been suited for the role as he continued in it for twelve years, a long time in such a post at that period. His life goes undocumented for much of the next ten years and it is not known if he was in the city at the time of the [[Peasants' Revolt]]. He was mentioned in law papers of [[4 May]] [[1380]], involved in the ''raptus'' of Cecilia Chaumpaigne. What ''raptus'' means, [[rape]] or possibly kidnapping, is unclear but the incident seems to have been resolved quickly and did not leave a stain on Chaucer's reputation.
While still working as comptroller Chaucer appears to have moved to [[Kent]], being appointed as one of the commissioners of peace for Kent, at a time when French invasion was a possibility. He also became a [[Member of Parliament]] for Kent in [[1386]]. There is no further reference after this date to Philippa, Chaucer's wife, and she is presumed to have died in [[1387]]. He survived the political upheavals caused by the [[Lords Appellant]]s despite the fact that some of the men executed over the affair Chaucer had known well.
On [[12 July]] [[1389]] Chaucer was appointed the [[clerk of the king's works]], a sort of [[foreman]] organizing most of the king's building projects. No major works were begun during his tenure but he did conduct repairs upon [[Westminster Palace]], [[St. George's Chapel, Windsor]], continue building the wharf at the [[Tower of London]] and build the stands for a tournament held in [[1390]]. It may have been a difficult job but it paid well: two [[shilling]]s a day, over three times the salary as a comptroller. In September [[1390]], records say that he was robbed, and possibly injured, while conducting the business and it was shortly after on [[17 June]] [[1391]] that he stopped working in this |
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<page>
<title>Marquis de Sade</title>
<id>8787</id>
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<comment>RV NON</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sade (van Loo).png|thumb|right|190px|''Portrait of the Marquis de Sade'' by [[Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo]] (c. 1761)]]
'''Donatien Alphonse François de Sade''', better known as the '''[[Marquis]] de Sade''' and nicknamed the '''Divine Marquis''' ([[June 2]], [[1740]], [[Paris]] &ndash; [[December 2]], [[1814]], [[Saint-Maurice, Val-de-Marne|Charenton-Saint-Maurice]]), was a [[France|French]] aristocrat and writer of [[philosophy]]-laden and often violent [[pornography]], as well as some strictly philosophical works. His is a philosophy of extreme [[freedom]], unrestrained by [[ethics]], [[religion]] or [[law]], with the egotistical pursuit of personal pleasure being the highest principle. Much of his writing was done during the 29 years he was incarcerated.
His name is pronounced as {{IPA|[maʁ'ki.də.saːd]}} ([[IPA]]); it is the origin of the word [[sadism]].
== Life ==
=== Early life and education===
Sade was born in the [[Condé palace]] in [[Paris]]. His father was the [[Comte]] de Sade and his mother was Marie Elénore Maillé de Carman, who was a [[lady-in-waiting]] to the [[prince of Condé|princess of Condé]]. Early on he was educated by his uncle, an [[Abbé]] (who would later be arrested in a brothel). Sade then attended a [[Jesuit]] [[lycée]] and went on to follow a [[military]] career. He participated in the [[Seven Years' War]]. He returned from the war in [[1763]] and pursued a woman who rejected him; he then married Renée-Pelagie de Montreuil, daughter of a rich magistrate, in the same year. The marriage had been arranged by his father. They would eventually have three children together.
When his father died in January 1767, Sade assumed the title "Comte de Sade", although he never used this title and continued to refer to himself as the "Marquis de Sade".
=== Scandals and imprisonment ===
Shortly after his wedding, he began living a scandalous [[libertine]] existence and repeatedly abused young [[prostitution|prostitutes]] and employees of both sexes in his castle in [[Lacoste, Vaucluse]], later also with the help of his wife. His wayward behavior also included an affair with his wife's sister, who had come to live at the castle.
After an episode in [[Marseille]] that involved poisoning of prostitutes with the supposed [[aphrodisiac]] [[spanish fly (insect)|spanish fly]] (nobody died), he was sentenced to death for sodomy and poisoning in [[1772]] but was able to flee to [[Italy]] and later hid at Lacoste. His mother-in-law obtained a ''[[lettre de cachet]]'' for his arrest. He kept a group of young employees at Lacoste, most of whom fled quickly. The father of one of these employees came to Lacoste to claim her, shot at the Marquis and barely missed.
In [[1777]] Sade was finally arrested and imprisoned in the [[Château de Vincennes|dungeon of Vincennes]]. He successfully appealed his death sentence in [[1778]], but remained imprisoned under the ''lettre de cachet''. He escaped but was recaptured soon after. In prison, he started to write. At Vincennes he met the fellow prisoner [[Honoré Mirabeau|Comte de Mirabeau]] who also wrote erotic works, but the two disliked each other immensely.
In [[1784]], Vincennes was closed and Sade was transferred to the [[Bastille]] in [[Paris]]. On [[July 2]] [[1789]], he reportedly shouted out of his cell to the crowd outside, "They are killing the prisoners here!", causing somewhat of a riot. Two days later, he was transferred to the [[Charenton (asylum)|insane asylum at Charenton]] near Paris. (The [[storming of the Bastille]], marking the beginning of the [[French Revolution]], happened on [[July 14]].) He had been working on his ''[[magnum opus]]'', "[[The 120 Days of Sodom]]" and he despaired when the manuscript was lost during his transferral; but he continued to write.
He was released from Charenton in [[1790]], after the new [[National Constituent Assembly|Constituent Assembly]] had abolished the instrument of ''lettre de cachet''. His wife obtained a divorce soon after.
=== Return to freedom, and imprisoned for "moderatism" ===
During his time of freedom (beginning 1790), he published several of his books anonymously. He met Marie-Constance Quesnet, a former actress and mother of a six year old son who had been abandoned by her husband; Constance and Sade would stay together for the rest of his life. Sade was by now extremely obese.
He initially arranged himself with the new political situation after the revolution, called himself "Citizen Sade", and managed to obtain several official positions despite his aristocratic background. He wrote several political pamphlets. Sitting in court, when the family of his former wife came before him, he treated them favorably, even though they had schemed to have him imprisoned years earlier. He was even elected to the [[National Convention]], where he represented the far left.
Appalled by the [[Reign of Terror]] in [[1793]], he nevertheless wrote an admiring [[eulogy]] for [[Jean-Paul Marat]] to secure his position. Then he resigned his posts, was accused of "moderatism" and imprisoned for over a year. He barely escaped the [[guillotine]] (probably due to an administrative error) and was released after the overthrow and execution of [[Maximilien Robespierre|Robespierre]] had effectively ended the Reign of Terror. This experience presumably confirmed his life-long detestation of state tyranny and especially of the [[death penalty]].
Now all but destitute, in [[1796]] he had to sell his castle in [[Lacoste, Vaucluse|Lacoste]] that had been sacked in [[1792]]. (The ruins were acquired in the [[1990]]s by fashion designer [[Pierre Cardin]] who now holds regular theatre festivals there.)
=== Imprisoned for his writings, return to Charenton, and death ===
In [[1801]], [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] ordered the arrest of the anonymous author of ''[[The Misfortunes of Virtue|Justine]]'' and ''[[L'Histoire de Juliette|Juliette]]''. Sade was arrested at his publisher's office and imprisoned without trial, first in the [[Sainte-Pélagie]] prison and then, following allegations that he had tried to seduce young fellow prisoners there, in the harsh fortress of [[Bicetre]]. After intervention by his family, he was declared insane in [[1803]] and transferred once more to the [[Charenton (asylum)|asylum at Charenton]]; his ex-wife and children had agreed to pay for his pension there.
Constance was allowed to live with him at Charenton. The liberal director of the institution, [[Abbe de Coulmier]], allowed and encouraged him to stage several of his plays with the inmates as actors, to be viewed by the Parisian public. Coulmier's novel approaches to psychotherapy attracted much opposition.
Sade began an affair with thirteen-year-old Madeleine Leclerc, an employee at Charenton. This affair lasted some 4 years, until Sade's death in 1814. He had left instructions in his will to be cremated and his ashes scattered, but instead he was buried in Charenton; his skull was later removed from the grave for [[phrenology|phrenological]] examination. His son had all his remaining unpublished manuscripts burned; this included the immense multi-volume work ''Les Journées de Florbelle''.
== Quotes ==
{{quotation|Imperious, choleric, irascible, extreme in everything, with a dissolute imagination the like of which has never been seen, atheistic to the point of fanaticism, there you have me in a nutshell.... Kill me again or take me as I am, for I shall not change.|Marquis de Sade|Last Will and Testament}}
== Literary works ==
Many of Sade's works contain explicit and often repetitive descriptions of [[rape]] and countless sexual [[perversion]]s, often involving violence and transcending the boundaries of the possible. Sade's libertines founded their philosophy on a purposeful flouting of moral norms and a hatred of religious ethics. In nature, they say, the strong win and the weak lose; therefore all laws and ethics, designed as they are to protect the weak, are seen as unnatural.
[[Image:Juliette Sade Dutch.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Illustration in a Dutch printing of ''Juliette'', c. 1800]]
In [[1782]], while in prison, he completed the short ''[[Dialogue Between a Priest and a Dying Man]]'', expressing his [[atheism]] by having the dying libertine convince the priest of the mistakes of a pious life.
The novel ''[[The 120 Days of Sodom]]'', written in [[1785]] but not completed, catalogs a wide variety of sexual perversions performed on a group of enslaved teenagers and is Sade's most graphic work. The manuscript was believed to have been lost during the storming of the Bastille and the book was not published until [[1904]].
In 1787 he wrote ''[[The Misfortunes of Virtue|Les infortunes de la vertu]]'', an early version of ''Justine'' which was published in 1791. It describes the misfortunes of a girl who continues to believe in the goodness of [[God]] despite persistent evidence to the contrary. The companion novel ''[[L'Histoire de Juliette|Juliette]]'' (1798) narrates the adventures of Justine's sister, Juliette, who chooses to reject the teachings of the church and adopt an amoral [[Hedonism|hedonist]] philosophy, resulting in a successful fulfilled life.
The novel ''[[Philosophy in the Bedroom]]'' (1795) accounts the lascivious education of a privileged young lady a |
y==
Mayr was born in Kempten and completed his high school education in [[Dresden]]. He planned to become a physician and completed his preclinical studies in 1925. However he was attracted to ornithology, and was introduced to [[Erwin Stresemann]] due to his claimed sighting of [[Red-crested Pochard]]s in Germany, a species that had not been seen in Europe for 77 years. After a tough interrogation, Stresemann accepted and published the sighting as authentic. Stresemann offered him a position with the Berlin Museum and the prospect of bird-collecting trips to the tropics on the condition that he completed his PhD studies in 16 months. Mayr completed his PhD in ornithology at the [[University of Berlin]] in June 1926 at the age of 21 and accepted the position offered to him at the Museum.
At the International Zoological Congress at Budapest in 1927, Mayr was introduced by Stresemann to banker and naturalist [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Walter Rothschild]], who asked him to undertake an expedition to New Guinea on behalf of himself and the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in New York. In New Guinea Mayr collected several thousands bird skins (he named 26 new bird species during his lifetime) and, in the process also named 38 new [[orchid]] species. During his stay in New Guinea, he was invited to accompany the Whitney South Seas Expedition to the [[Solomon Islands]].
He returned to Germany in 1930 and in 1931 he accepted a curatorial position at the American Museum of Natural History, where he played the important role of brokering and acquiring the [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Walter Rothschild]] collection of bird skins, which was being sold in order to pay off a blackmailer. During his time at the museum he produced numerous publications on bird taxonomy, and in 1942 his first book, ''[[Systematics and the Origin of Species]]'', which completed the evolutionary synthesis started by Darwin.
After Mayr was appointed at the American Museum of Natural History, he influenced American ornithological research by cultivating mentoring relationships with young birdwatchers. Mayr organized a monthly seminar under the auspices of the Linnaean Society of New York. This society, under the influence of J. A. Allen, Frank Chapman and Jonathan Dwight concentrated on taxonomy and later became a clearing house for bird banding and sight records. There were a group of eight young birdwatchers from the Bronx and later became the Bronx County Bird Club and they were led by Ludlow Griscom. Mayr was surprised at the differences between American and German Birding Societies. He noted that the German society was "far more scientific, far more interested in life histories and breeding bird species, as well as in reports on recent literature." Mayr also encouraged his Linnaean Society seminar participants to take up a specific research project of their own. "Everyone should have a problem" was the way one Bronx County Bird Club member recalled Mayr's refrain. One of Mayr's seminar participants was Joseph Hickey and under Mayr's influence went on to write ''A Guide to Birdwatching'' (1943). Hickey remembered later &ndash;"Mayr was our age and invited on all our field trips. The heckling of this German foreigner was tremendous, but he gave tit for tat, and any modern picture of Dr E. Mayr as a very formal person does not square with my memory of the 1930's. He held his own." Mayr's said of his own involvement with the local birdwatchers: "In those early years in New York when I was a stranger in a big city, it was the companionship and later friendship which I was offered in the Linnean Society that was the most important thing in my life."
Another person that Mayr greatly influenced was [[Margaret Morse Nice]]. Mayr encouraged her to correspond with the European ornithologists of the time, and helped her in her landmark study on Song Sparrows. Nice wrote to Joseph Grinnell in 1932 trying to get foreign literature reviewed in the ''Condor'': "Too many American ornithologists have despised the study of the living bird; the magazine[s] and books that deal with the subject abound in careless statements, anthropomorphic interpretations, repetition of ancient errors, and sweeping conclusions from a pitiful array of facts. ... in Europe the study of the living bird is taken seriously. We could learn a great deal from their writing." Mayr ensured that Nice could publish her two volume ''Studies in the Life History of the Song Sparrow'', finding her a publisher, and her book was reviewed by Aldo Leopold, Grinnell, Jean Delacour. Nice dedicated her book to "My Friend Ernst Mayr."
Mayr joined the [[Faculty (university)|faculty]] of [[Harvard University]] in 1953, where he also served as director of the Museum of Comparative Zoology from 1961 to 1970. He retired in 1975 as [[emeritus]] professor of [[zoology]], showered with honors. Following his retirement, he went on to publish more than 200 articles, in a variety of journals&mdash;more than some reputable scientists publish in their entire careers; 14 of his 25 books were published after he was 65. Even as a [[centenarian]], he continued to write books. On his 100th birthday, he was interviewed by ''[[Scientific American]]'' magazine.
He received awards including the [[National Medal of Science]], the [[Balzan Prize]] and the [[International Prize for Biology]]. He was never awarded a [[Nobel Prize]], but he noted that there is no Prize for evolutionary biology, and that Darwin would not have received one, either.
Mayr was co-author of six global reviews of [[bird species new to science]] (listed below).
==Mayr's ideas==
As a traditionally trained biologist with little [[mathematics|mathematical]] experience, Mayr was often highly critical of early mathematical approaches to evolution such as those of [[J. B. S. Haldane]], famously calling in 1959 such approaches "bean bag genetics". He maintained that factors such as [[Species#The isolation species concept in more detail|reproductive isolation]] had to be taken into account. In a similar fashion, Mayr was also quite critical of [[molecular evolution]]ary studies such as those of [[Carl Woese]].
In many of his writings, Mayr rejected [[reductionism]] in evolutionary biology, arguing that evolutionary pressures act on the whole organism, not on single genes, and that genes can have different effects depending on the other genes present. He advocated a study of the whole [[genome]] rather than of isolated genes only. Current molecular studies in evolution and speciation indicate that although [[allopatric speciation]] seems to be the norm in groups (possibly those with greater mobility) such as the birds, there are numerous cases of [[sympatric speciation]] in many invertebrates (especially in the insects).
Mayr was an outspoken defender of the [[scientific method]], and one known to sharply critique science on the edge. As a notable recent example, he criticized the search for aliens as conducted by fellow Harvard professor [[Paul Horowitz]] as being a waste of university and student resources, for its inability to address and answer a scientific question.
==See also==
* [[Philosophy of biology]]
==Bibliography==
===Books===
*1942 ''[[Systematics and the Origin of Species]]''. Columbia University Press. New York. ISBN 0674862503
*1963 ''[[Animal Species and Evolution]]''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674037502
*1970 ''[[Populations, Species and Evolution]]''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674690133
*1976 ''[[Evolution and the Diversity of Life]]: Selected Essays''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 067427105X
*1982 ''[[The Growth of Biological Thought]]: Diversity, Evolution and Inheritance''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674364465
*1988 ''[[Toward a New Philosophy of Biology]]: Observations of an Evolutionist''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674896661
*1991 with P Ashlock ''[[Principles of Systematic Zoology]]'' revised ed. McGraw-Hill, NY. ISBN 0070411441
*1991 ''[[One Long Argument]]: Charles Darwin and the Genesis of Modern Evolutionary Thought''. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. ISBN 0674639065
*1997 ''[[This is Biology]]: The Science of the Living World''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674884698
*2001 with [[Jared Diamond]]. ''[[Birds of Northern Melanesia]]: Speciation, Ecology and Biogeography''. Oxford University Press, NY. ISBN 0195141709
*2001 ''[[What Evolution Is]]''. Basic Books. New York. ISBN 0465044263
*2004 ''[[What makes biology unique?]] Considerations on the Autonomy of a Scientific Discipline''. Cambridge University Press. New York. ISBN 0521841143
===Global reviews of species new to science===
* Zimmer, J. T. & E. Mayr (1943) New species of birds described from 1938 to 1941 ''[[The Auk]]'' Vol. 60 pp. 249-262
* Mayr, E. (1957) New species of birds described from 1941 to 1955 ''[[Journal for Ornithology]]'' Vol. 98 pp. 22-35
* Mayr, E. (1971) New species of birds described from 1956 to 1965 ''Jour. f. Ornith.'' Vol. 112 pp. 302-316
* Mayr, E. & F. Vuilleumier (1983) New species of birds described from 1966 to 1975 ''Jour. f. Ornith.'' Vol. 124 pp. 217-232
* Vuilleumier, F. & E. Mayr (1987) New species of birds described from 1976 to 1980 ''Jour. f. Ornith.'' Vol. 128 pp. 137-150
* Vuilleumier, François, Mary LeCroy & Ernst Mayr (1992) New species of birds described from 1981 to 1990 ''[[Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club]]'' Vol. 112A pp. 267-309
===Other notable publications===
*1923 "Die Kolbenente (''Nyroca rufina'') auf dem Durchzuge in Sachsen". ''Ornithologische Monatsberichte'' 31:135-136
*1923 "Der Zwergfliegenschapper bei Greifswald". ''Ornithologische Monatsberichte'' 31:136
*1926 "Die Ausbreitung des Girlitz (''Serinus canaria serinus'' L.) Ein Beitrag zur Tiergeographie". ''J. fur Ornithologie'' 74:57 |
nas Basin]].
The resulting "micro climate" provides relatively mild temperatures for the region, and coupled with the fertile glacial sedimentary soils on the valley floor, the region is conducive to growing vegetable and fruit crops. Particularly famous for its [[apple]] crop, the valley hosts in excess of 1,000 farms of various types, the majority being relatively small family-owned operations.
==History==
Long settled by the [[Mi'kmaq]] Nation, the valley experienced French settlement at the [[Habitation at Port-Royal]], near modern day Annapolis Royal in the western part of the valley, beginning in 1605 and continuing through to the British-ordered expulsion of [[Acadian|Acadians]] in [[1755]] and at [[Grand Pre, Nova Scotia|Grand Pré]] in the eastern part of the valley. [[New England Planters]] moved in to occupy the abandoned Acadian farming areas and the region also saw subsequent settlement by [[United Empire Loyalists|Loyalist]] refugees of the [[American Revolutionary War]], as well as foreign Protestants.
==Economy==
Today, the valley is still largely dominated by agriculture but also has a growing diversity in its economies, partly aided by the importance of post-secondary education centres provided by [[Acadia University]] in Wolfville, and the [[Nova Scotia Community College]] campuses located in [[Kentville, Nova Scotia|Kentville]], [[Middleton, Nova Scotia|Middleton]], [[Lawrencetown, Nova Scotia|Lawrencetown]], and [[Digby, Nova Scotia|Digby]].
[[Michelin]] has an important truck tire manufacturing plant in [[Waterville, Nova Scotia|Waterville]] and the [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Department of National Defence]] has its largest [[Canadian Forces Air Command|air force]] base in [[Atlantic Canada]] located at [[CFB Greenwood]].
The valley is home to the annual [[Annapolis Valley Apple Blossom Festival|Apple Blossom Festival]], held in late spring.
==Communities==
Population centres in the valley from west to east include:
*[[Digby, Nova Scotia|Digby]]
*[[Cornwallis, Nova Scotia|Cornwallis]]
*[[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia|Annapolis Royal]]
*[[Bridgetown, Nova Scotia|Bridgetown]]
*[[Middleton, Nova Scotia|Middleton]]
*[[Kingston, Nova Scotia|Kingston]]
*[[Greenwood, Nova Scotia|Greenwood]]
*[[Aylesford, Nova Scotia|Aylesford]]
*[[Berwick, Nova Scotia|Berwick]]
*[[Cambridge, Nova Scotia|Cambridge]]
*[[Waterville, Nova Scotia|Waterville]]
*[[Coldbrook, Nova Scotia|Coldbrook]]
*[[Kentville, Nova Scotia|Kentville]]
*[[New Minas, Nova Scotia|New Minas]]
*[[Wolfville, Nova Scotia|Wolfville]]
*[[Grand Pré, Nova Scotia|Grand Pré]]
{{commons|Annapolis Valley|Annapolis Valley}}
[[Category:Valleys of Nova Scotia]]
[[Category:Annapolis Valley|*]]
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<page>
<title>Analgesic</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Painkiller}}
An '''analgesic''' (colloquially known as '''painkillers''') is any member of the diverse group of [[Medication|drug]]s used to relieve [[pain]] and to achieve '''analgesia'''. This derives from Greek ''an-'', "without", and ''-algia'', "pain". Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the [[peripheral nervous system|peripheral]] and [[central nervous system]]; they include [[paracetamol]] (acetaminophen), the [[nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug]]s (NSAIDs) such as the [[salicylate]]s, [[narcotic]] drugs such as [[morphine]], synthetic drugs with narcotic properties such as [[tramadol]], and various others. Some other classes of drugs not normally considered analgesics are used to treat [[neuropathy|neuropathic]] pain syndromes; these include [[antidepressant|tricyclic antidepressants]] and [[anticonvulsant]]s.
==Stepwise use==
In [[1990]], the [[World Health Organisation]] (WHO) approved an "analgesic ladder" which recommends the stepwise introduction of stronger painkillers if the more basic ones are ineffective. While originally introduced for managing pain in [[cancer]], these guidelines have found application in all fields of medicine, such as surgery and anaesthetics.
# The first step is [[paracetamol]] (500&nbsp;mg to 1&nbsp;g every 4&ndash;6 hours).
# The second step involves the addition of an NSAID (e.g. [[ibuprofen]]) or a weak opioid (such as [[codeine]]).
# The third step comprises the addition of a strong opioid (such as [[morphine]], [[oxycodone]] or a [[fentanyl]] preparation); if codeine is being taken the strong opioid replaces codeine.
==The major classes==
===Paracetamol and NSAIDs===
The exact mechanism of action of paracetamol is uncertain, but it appears to be acting centrally. [[Aspirin]] and the NSAIDs inhibit [[cyclooxygenase]], leading to a decrease in [[prostaglandin]] production; this improves pain and also [[inflammation]] (in contrast to paracetamol and the opioids).
Paracetamol has few side effects, but dosing is limited by possible [[hepatotoxicity]] (potential for [[liver]] damage). NSAIDs may predispose to [[peptic ulcer]]s, [[renal failure]], [[allergy|allergic reactions]], and [[hearing loss]]. They may also increase the risk of [[hemorrhage]].
===Opiates and morphinomimetics===
[[Tramadol]] and [[buprenorphine]] are thought to be [[partial agonist]]s of the [[opioid receptor]]s. [[Morphine]], the archetypical opioid, and various other substances (e.g. [[pethidine]], [[oxycodone]], [[hydrocodone]], [[diamorphine]]) all exert a similar influence on the cerebral opioid system. Dosing may be limited by opioid toxicity (confusion, [[myoclonus|myoclonic jerks]] and pinpoint pupils), but there is no dose ceiling in patients who tolerate this.
Opioids, while very effective analgesics, may have some unpleasant side-effects. Up to 1 in 3 patients starting morphine may experience [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]] (generally relieved by a short course of [[antiemetic]]s). [[Pruritus]] (itching) may require switching to a different opioid. [[Constipation]] occurs in almost all patients on opioids, and [[laxative]]s ([[lactulose]], [[macrogol]]-containing or [[co-danthramer]]) are typically co-prescribed.
When used appropriately, opioids and similar [[narcotic]] analgesics are safe and effective, carrying relatively little risk of [[addiction]]. Occasionally, gradual tapering of the dose is required to avoid withdrawal symptoms.
===Specific agents===
In patients with chronic or neuropathic pain, various other substances may have analgesic properties. [[Tricyclic antidepressant]]s, especially [[amitriptyline]], have been shown to improve pain in what appears to be a central manner. The exact mechanism of [[carbamazepine]], [[gabapentin]] and [[pregabalin]] is similarly unclear, but these [[anticonvulsant]]s are used to treat neuropathic pain with modest success.
==Specific forms and uses==
===Combinations===
Analgesics are frequently used in combination, such as the paracetamol and [[codeine]] preparations found in many non-prescription pain relievers. They can also be found in combination with vasoconstrictor drugs such as [[pseudoephedrine]] for [[sinus]]-related preparations, or with [[antihistamine]] drugs for allergy sufferers.
===Topical or systemic===
Topical analgesia is generally recommended to avoid systemic side-effects. Painful joints, for example, may be treated with an [[ibuprofen]]- or [[diclofenac]]-containing gel; [[capsaicin]] also is used topically. [[Lidocaine]] and [[glucocorticoid|steroids]] may be injected into painful joints for longer-term pain relief. [[Lidocaine]] is also used for painful [[mouth sore]]s and to numb areas for [[dentistry|dental]] work and minor medical procedures.
===Psychotropic agents===
[[Tetrahydrocannabinol]] and some other [[cannabinoids]], either from the ''[[Cannabis sativa]]'' plant or synthetic, have analgesic properties, although the use of cannabis derivatives is illegal in many countries. Other analgesic agents include [[ketamine]] (an NMDA receptor antagonist), [[clonidine]] and other α<sub>2</sub>-adrenoreceptor agonists, and [[mexiletine]] and other local anaesthetic analogues.
==Addiction==
In the [[United States]] in recent years, however, there has been a wave of new [[addiction]]s to prescription painkillers such as [[oxycodone]] (OxyContin, Percocet etc.) and [[hydrocodone]] (Vicodin, Lortab etc.). The [[US Government|U.S. Government]] is now taking steps to reverse this epidemic, which it has blamed on easy access to prescription drugs over the [[Internet]]. The bigger problem however is doctors overprescribing these drugs.
==See also==
* [[Patient-controlled analgesia]]
==Reference==
* ''Cancer pain relief and palliative care''. Report of a WHO expert committee [World Health Organization Technical Report Series, 804] . Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1990. pp. 1-75.
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<page>
<title>Amphibious assault ship</title>
<id>2247</id>
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<comment>/* Developments in the 1950s, 1960s */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:USN_Amphibious_assault_ships.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Six of the U.S. Navy's seven amphibious assault ships in formation]]
[[Image:San Giusto.jpg|300px|right|thumb|The Italian MM San Giusto]]
'''Amphibious assault ships''', usually sho |
ssioned by a different patron and having a different form or extent. He wrote at least one treatise on [[alchemy]], but several others have been falsely attributed to him. His book on [[animal]]s was translated by [[Michael Scot]]. His ''Logic'', ''Metaphysics'', ''Physics'', and ''De Caelo'', are treatises giving a synoptic view of Aristotelian doctrine. The ''Logic'' and ''Metaphysics'' have been printed more than once, the latter, e.g., at Venice in [[1493]], [[1495]], and [[1546]]. Some of his shorter essays on medicine, logic, &c., take a poetical form (the poem on logic was published by Schmoelders in [[1836]]). Two encyclopaedic treatises, dealing with philosophy, are often mentioned. The larger, [[Al-Shifa']] (''Sanatio''), exists nearly complete in manuscript in the [[Bodleian Library]] and elsewhere; part of it on the ''De Anima'' appeared at Pavia ([[1490]]) as the ''Liber Sextus Naturalium'', and the long account of Ibn Sina's philosophy given by [[Shahrastani]] seems to be mainly an analysis, and in many places a reproduction, of the Al-Shifa'. A shorter form of the work is known as the [[An-najat]] (''Liberatio''). The Latin editions of part of these works have been modified by the corrections which the monastic editors confess that they applied. There is also a ''Philosophia Orientalis'', mentioned by [[Roger Bacon]], and now lost, which according to Averroes was pantheistic in tone.
In the museum at [[Bukhara]], there are displays showing many of his writings, surgical instruments from the period and paintings of patients undergoing treatment.
In Iran, he is considered a Persian hero. He is often regarded as one of the greatest Persians who have ever lived. Many of his portraits and statues remain in Iran today. An impressive monument to the life and works of the man who is known as the 'doctor of doctors' still stands outside the Bukhara museum and his portrait hangs in the Hall of the Faculty of Medicine in the [[University of Paris]].
Ibn Sina was interested in the effect of the [[mind]] on the [[body]], and wrote a great deal on [[psychology]], likely influencing [[Ibn Tufayl]] and [[Ibn Bajjah]].
Along with [[Rhazes]], [[Ibn Nafis]], [[Al-Zahra]] and [[Al-Ibadi]], he is considered an important compiler of [[Early Muslim medicine]].
There is a crater on the moon called [[Avicenna (crater)|Avicenna]] which was named after him.
==References==
* For Ibn Sina's life, see [[Ibn Khallikan]]'s ''Biographical Dictionary'', translated by [[de Slane]] (1842); [[F. Wüstenfeld]]'s ''Geschichte der arabischen Aerzte und Naturforscher'' (Gottingen, 1840).
* For his medicine, see [[Sprengel]], ''Histoire de la Medecine''
* For his philosophy, see
** [[Shahrastani]], German translation, vol. ii. 213-332
** [[K. Prantl]], ''Geschichte der Logik im Abendland'', ii. 318-361
** [[Albert Stöckl]], ''Philosophie des Mittelalters'', ii. ~3-58
** [[Salomon Munk]], ''Mélanges'', 352-366; [[B. Haneberg]] in the ''Abhandungen der philosophische-philologisches Classifikation der bayerischen Academie'' (1867);
** [[Carra de Vaux]], ''Avicenne'' (Paris, 1900).
* For a list of extant works, [[C. Brockelmann]]'s ''Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur'' (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 452-458. (XV. W.; G. W. T.)
* For an overview of his career see [[Shams Inati]], "Ibn Sina" in ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', ed. [[Hossein Seyyed Nasr]] and [[Oliver Leaman]], New York:Routledge (1996).
==See also==
*[[List of Persian scientists]]
*[[Iranian philosophy]]
*[[History of medicine]]
*[[Early Muslim medicine]]
*[[Muslim philosophy]]
*[[Islamic scholars]]
*[[Al-Qumri]]
==External links==
*[http://www.farhangsara.com/ibn_sina.htm Biography of Avicenna (in English)]
*[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/sina/default.htm Ibn Sina]
*[http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/ibn_sina/ Biography of Avicenna]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02157a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Avicenna]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Avicenna}}
*[http://www.formalontology.it/avicenna.htm The Ontology of Ibn Sina (Avicenna)]
==Source==
* {{1911}}
* History of Islamic Philosophy by [[Henry Corbin]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>The Ashes</title>
<id>1132</id>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.30.31.17|212.30.31.17]] to last version by Jess Cully</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the rugby league series between Great Britain and Australia see [[Rugby League Ashes]]; for the "Women's Ashes" Test series for female players between England and Australia see [[Women's Ashes]].}}
[[Image:Ashes_urn.jpg|right|frame|The Ashes [[urn]] is reputed to contain a set of burnt [[bail (cricket)|bails]] symbolising the death of English cricket.]]
'''The Ashes''' is a [[biennial]] [[Test cricket]] contest played between [[English cricket team|England]] and [[Australian cricket team|Australia]]. The Ashes is one of cricket's fiercest and most celebrated rivalries, and certainly the oldest such in international cricket, dating back to 1882. The [[The 2005 Ashes|2005 Ashes series]] was played in [[England]], and was won by England. Australia had held the Ashes for 16 years prior to that. The next Ashes series will be in [[Australia]] in 2006-07; the next series in England will be in 2009.
The series is named after a [[satire|satirical]] [[obituary]] published in ''The Sporting Times'' in 1882 following the match at [[The Oval]], in which Australia beat England in [[England]] for the first time. The obituary stated that English cricket had died, and ''the body will be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia''. The English media dubbed the next English tour to [[Australia]] as ''the quest to regain The Ashes''. A small [[terra cotta|terracotta]] urn was presented to the [[English cricket captains|England captain]] [[Ivo Bligh]] by a group of [[Melbourne]] women after England's victory in the Test series. The urn is reputed to contain a set of burnt [[bail (cricket)|bails]] symbolising "the ashes of English cricket". While the urn has come to symbolise the Ashes series, the name ''The Ashes'' predates the existence of the urn. The urn is not used as a [[trophy]] for the Ashes series, and whichever side "holds" the Ashes, the urn remains in the [[Marylebone Cricket Club|MCC]] Museum at [[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]]. Since the 1998-99 Ashes series, a [[Waterford crystal]] trophy has been presented to the winners.
Notable Ashes series took place in 1932-33 (the [[Bodyline]] tour), 1948 ([[Donald Bradman|Sir Donald Bradman's]] "[[The Invincibles (cricket)|Invincibles]]" Australian side), 1981 (in which an England team spearheaded by [[Ian Botham]] won a thrilling series), and 2005 (when England eventually won the Ashes back, after a 'drought' of 16 years).
==The obituary==
[[Image:DeathofEnglishCricket.jpg|250px|thumb|The obituary notice that appeared in ''The Sporting Times''.]] The first Test match between England and Australia had been played in 1877, but the Ashes legend dates back only to their ninth Test match, played in 1882.
On the 1882 tour, the Australians played only one Test, at [[The Oval]] in [[London]]. It was a low-scoring game on a difficult [[Cricket pitch|pitch]]. Australia made only 63 runs in their first [[innings]], and England, led by [[Monkey Hornby]], took a 38-run lead with a total of 101. In the second innings, Australia made 122, leaving England to score only 85 [[The result in cricket|runs to win]]. Australian bowler [[Fred Spofforth]] refused to give in, declaring, "This thing can be done". He devastated the English batting, taking the final four wickets while conceding only two runs, to leave England a mere seven runs short of victory in one of the closest and most nail-biting finishes in [[history of cricket|cricket history]].
When England's last batsman went in the team needed only 10 runs to win, but the final batsman Peate scored only 2 before being bowled by Boyle. The astonished crowd fell silent, not believing that England could possibly have lost by 7 runs. When what had happened had sunk in, the crowd cheered the Australians.
When Peate returned to the Pavilion he was reprimanded by [[WG Grace]] for not allowing his partner at the wicket [[Charles Studd]] to get the runs. Despite Studd being one of the best batsman in England, Peate replied, "I had no confidence in Mr Studd, sir, so thought I had better do my best."
The defeat was widely recorded in the English press. The most notable report was a mock obituary, written by [[Reginald Shirley Brooks]], printed in ''[[The Sporting Times]]'' on the following Saturday, [[September 2]] [[1882]]. The obituary read as follows:
:"In Affectionate |
Calorimetry</title>
<id>7522</id>
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<comment>/* [[Temperature]] and Internal [[Energy]] */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Calorimetry''' is the [[science]] of measuring the [[heat]] of [[chemical reaction]]s or [[physical change]]s. Calorimetry involves the use of a [[calorimeter]].The word calorimetry is derived from the Latin word calor, meaning heat.
== [[Temperature]] and Internal [[Energy]] ==
At all temperatures above [[absolute zero]], atoms possess varying amounts of [[kinetic energy]] of vibration. As neighboring atoms collide with each other, this energy is passed back and forth. Although the energy of individual atoms may vary as a result of these energy-sharing collisions, a collection of atoms isolated from the outside world has a total amount of energy that doesn't change as it gets passed around from atom to atom. Conceptually, an average energy per atom can be calculated by dividing the total energy by the number of atoms.
Although we don't know the total energy of an object's atoms or perform that calculation directly, we can measure the effect of that average kinetic energy - it is that object's temperature. An increase in the average kinetic energy of the atoms in the object show up as an increase in its temperature and vice versa.
If an object is isolated from the rest of the universe, its temperature must stay constant. If energy enters or leaves, the temperature must change. Energy moving from one place to another is called '''[[heat]]''' and calorimetry uses the measurement of temperature changes to track the movement of heat.
===Constant-volume===
''Constant-volume calorimetry'' is [[calorimetry]] performed at a constant [[volume]]. This involves the use of a [[constant-volume calorimeter]].
No work is performed in constant-volume calorimetry, so the heat measured equals the change in internal energy of the system. The equation for constant-volume calorimetry is:
:<math>q = C_V \Delta t = \Delta U \,</math>
Since in ''constant-volume calorimetry'' [[pressure]] is not kept constant, the heat measured does not represent the ''[[enthalpy]] change''.
=== Constant-pressure ===
''Constant-pressure calorimetry'' is [[calorimetry]] performed at a constant [[pressure]]. This involves the use of a [[constant-pressure calorimeter]].
The heat measured equals the change in internal energy of the system minus the work performed:
: <math> q = \Delta U - w \,</math>
Since in ''constant-pressure calorimetry'', [[pressure]] is kept constant, the heat measured represents the ''enthalpy change'':
: <math>q = \Delta H = H_\mathrm{final} - H_\mathrm{initial} \,</math>
== See also ==
* [[Enthalpy]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.parrinst.com?page_id=183 More Information, History - from Parr with over 100 years of Calorimetry]
[[Category:Thermodynamics]]
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<page>
<title>Charles Evans Hughes</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox US Chief Justice|image name=Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes.jpg
| name=Charles Evans Hughes
| term start=[[February 24]], [[1930]]
| term end=[[June 30]], [[1941]]
| predecessor=[[William Howard Taft]]
| successor=[[Harlan Fiske Stone]]
| date of birth=[[April 11]], [[1862]]
| place of birth=[[Glens Falls, New York|Glens Falls]], [[New York]]
| date of death=[[August 27]], [[1948]]
| place of death=[[Osterville, Massachusetts|Osterville]], [[Massachusetts]]
}}
'''Charles Evans Hughes''' ([[April 11]], [[1862]] &ndash; [[August 27]], [[1948]]) was [[Governor of New York]], [[United States Secretary of State]], and [[Chief Justice of the United States]].
Hughes was a precocious youngster. At age 6 he found public school boring and confining, and submitted to his parents a plan of study for [[home schooling]], which his parents accepted. Shortly before his 12th birthday, his family moved from [[Glens Falls, New York]] to [[New York City]], where his parents enrolled him in public school, and he graduated from high school at age 13, second in his class. His father was a Baptist minister from Wales, so he too followed the Baptist religion.
He went to Madison College (now [[Colgate University]]) for two years (where he became a member of [[Delta Upsilon]] Fraternity), then transferred to [[Brown University]], where he continued as a member of [[Delta Upsilon]] Fraternity, where he graduated in [[1881]] at age 19, youngest in his class, receiving third-highest honors. For the next year, he worked at Delaware Academy, in [[Delhi, New York]] where he taught Greek, [[Latin]] and [[algebra]], in order to earn money to enter [[law school]]. He entered [[Columbia University]] law school in [[1882]], and graduated in [[1884]] with highest honors.
In [[1885]] he met Antoinette Carter, daughter of a senior partner of the law firm where he worked, and married her in [[1888]].
In [[1891]] he left the practice of law to become a professor at [[Cornell University]] Law School, but in [[1893]] he returned to his old law firm.
In [[1905]] he was appointed counsel to a New York state legislative committee investigating utility rates. He uncovered corruption to get gas rates lowered in [[New York City]]. As a result, he was appointed to investigate the [[insurance]] industry in New York.
[[Image:Charles Hughes whistle stop 1916.jpg|thumb|left|[[1916]] Republican candidate for [[President of the United States]], Charles Evans Hughes, and his wife shake hands with supporters at [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]'s [[Union Station (Chicago)|Union Station]].]]
He served as [[Governor of New York]] from [[1907]]&ndash;[[1910]], defeating [[William Randolph Hearst]] in the [[1906]] election to gain the position, and being the only [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] statewide candidate to win office. In [[1908]] he was offered the [[Vice President of the United States of America|vice-presidential]] nomination by [[William Howard Taft]], but declined it to run again for Governor.
In 1909 he led the Charge to incorporate [[Delta Upsilon]] Fraternity and created a headquarters for the organization in Indianapolis, IN. He served as the first International president of the Fraternity which was the first fraternity to incorperate. Today several other fraternities have followed Hughes' lead by incorperating and located in Indianapolis.
Subsequently he was appointed an [[Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States|Associate Justice]] of the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]], serving [[1910]]&ndash;[[1916]], when he resigned to be Republican candidate for [[U.S. presidential election|election]] as [[President of the United States]]. Defeated by [[Woodrow Wilson]] in a close election, he returned to private law practice. {{see|U.S. presidential election, 1916}}
In [[1920]], Hughes favored the ratification of the treaty creating the [[League of Nations]].
His next position in the United States government was [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] under [[Warren G. Harding]] and [[Calvin Coolidge]] from [[1921]]&ndash;[[1925]]. As Secretary of State, he convened the [[Washington Conference]] in [[1921]], regulating naval armament among the [[Great Powers]]. In the [[1920s]] he served as a judge of the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] and the [[Permanent Court of International Justice]] in [[The Hague]], [[The Netherlands]]. [[Herbert Hoover]], who had appointed Hughes' son as [[United States Solicitor General|Solicitor General]] in [[1929]], appointed Hughes to [[Chief Justice of the United States]] in [[1930]], in which capacity he served until [[1941]]. As Chief Justice, he led the fight against [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s attempt to [[Court-packing Bill|pack the Supreme Court]].
== External links ==
*[http://shwi.alternatehistory.com/Mr%20Hughes%20Goes%20to%20War.txt "Mr. Hughes Goes to War"] (An [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternate history]] where Hughes is elected President of the United States in 1916)
===Archives===
* [http://air.fjc.gov/servlet/tGetMan?jid=1113 '''Judge Manuscript Information: Charles Evans Hughes''']. List of archives with documents via [http://air.fjc.gov/history/judges_frm.html Judges of the United States Courts]. Retrieved April 15, 2005.
===Legal opinions as Chief Justice===
* [http://www.michaelariens.com/ConLaw/cases/joneslaughlin.htm NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 U.S. 1 (1937)].
* [http://www.michaelariens.com/ConLaw/cases/westcoasthotel.htm West Coast Hotel v. Parrish, 300 U.S. 379 (1937)]
<!-- Succession table -->
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
title= [[Governor of New York]]|
years=1907 - 1910 |
before= [[Frank W. Higgins]]|
after=[[Horace White]] }}
{{succession box|
title= [[Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States]]|
years=[[October 10]], [[1910]]–[[June 10]], [[1916]]|
before= [[David Josiah Brewer]]|
after= [[John Hessin Clarke]]}}
{{succession box
| title= [[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party presidential nominee]]
| before=[[William Howard Taft]]
| after= [[Warren G. Harding]]
| years=[[United States presidential election, 1916|1916]] (lost)}}
{{succession box|
title= [[United States Secretary of State]]|
years= [[March 5]][[1921]]–[[March 4]][[1925]]|
before= [[Bainbridge Colby]] |
after= [[Frank B. Kellogg]]}}
{{succession box|
title=[[Chief Justice of the United States]] |
yea |
uot;|'''International Space Station'''
|-
|colspan="3" align="center"|
{|
|[[Image:ISS_Aug2005.jpg|none|250px|]]
<small>International Space Station photographed following<br>separation from the [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'']], [[August 7]], [[2005]]</small>
|}
{|
<small>International Space Station insignia</small>
|}
|-
!colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|ISS Statistics
|-
|width="40%"|'''Crew:'''||width="30%"| 2 || width="30%"| As of<br />[[August 21]], [[2005]]
|-
|''' [[Perigee]]: '''|| 352.8 km || "
|-
|'''Apogee:'''|| 354.2 km || "
|-
|'''[[Orbital period]]:'''|| 91.61 minutes || "
|-
|'''Inclination:'''|| 51.64 degrees || "
|-
|'''Orbits per day:'''|| 15.72 || "
|-
|'''Days in orbit:''' || 2,473 || [[August 28]], [[2005]]
|-
|''' Days occupied:''' || 1,759 || "
|-
|'''Total orbits:''' || 38,694 || "
|-
|'''Distance traveled:''' || ≈1,400,000,000 km || [[June 17]], [[2005]]
|-
|''' Average speed:''' || 27,685.7 km/h || "
|-
|'''Mass:'''|| 183,283 kg || [[August 28]], [[2005]]
|-
|'''Living volume:'''|| 425 m&sup3; || "
|-
!colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|'''International Space Station '''
|-
|colspan="3" align="center"|
{|
| [[Image:ISS-elements-23-Jul-2004-pt.png|250px|right|ISS elements (NASA)]]
<small>International Space Station elements as of 23-July-2004.<br>Click to enlarge.</small>
|}
|-
!colspan="3" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD"|ISS Diagram
|-
|}
[[image:NASA-Krikalev-inside-ISS.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Cosmonaut [[Sergei Krikalev]] inside the Zvezda Service Module, November 2000]]
The '''International Space Station''' ('''ISS''') is a joint project of five space agencies:
*[[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] ([[United States]])
*[[Russian Federal Space Agency]] ([[Russia|Russian Federation]])
*[[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]] ([[Japan]])
*[[Canadian Space Agency]] ([[Canada]])
*[[European Space Agency]] (15 of its member states are currently participating; [[Austria]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], [[Portugal]], and [[Finland]] chose not to participate; [[Greece]] and [[Luxembourg]] joined ESA later).
The [[Brazilian Space Agency]] ([[Brazil]]) participates through separate contract with [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]].The [[Italian Space Agency]] similary has separate contracts for various activities, that are not done in the framework of [[European Space Agency|ESA]] ISS works (where [[Italy]] also fully participates).
The [[space station]] is located in [[orbit]] around the [[Earth]] at an altitude of approximately [[1 E5 m|360]] [[kilometre|km]] (220 miles), a type of orbit usually termed [[low Earth orbit]] (The actual height varies over time by several kilometres due to [[atmospheric drag]] and reboosts {{ref|altitude}}). It orbits Earth in a [[Orbital period|period]] of about 92 minutes; by June [[2005]] it had completed more than 37,500 orbits since launch of the [[Zarya|Zarya module]] on [[November 20]], [[1998]].
In many ways the ISS represents a merger of previously planned independent space stations: [[Russian Federal Space Agency|Russia]]'s [[ISS Zvezda|Mir 2]], [[NASA|United States]]' [[Space Station Freedom]] and the planned [[ESA|European]] [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus]] and [[JAXA|Japanese]] [[Japanese Experiment Module|Experiment Module]]. Today it represents a permanent human presence in space, as it has been manned with a crew of at least two since [[November 2]], [[2000]] (see [[#ISS Expeditions]]).
It is serviced primarily by the [[Space Shuttle]], [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] and [[Progress spacecraft]] units. It is still being built, but is home to some experimentation already. At present, the station has a capacity for a crew of three. So far, all members of the expedition crews have come from the Russian or United States space programs. The ISS has however been visited by many more astronauts, a number of them from other countries (and by three [[space tourist]]s).
==History==
Initially planned as a [[NASA]] "[[Space Station Freedom]]" and promoted by [[Ronald Reagan|President Reagan]], it was found to be too expensive. After the end of the [[Cold War]], it was taken up again as a joint project of NASA and [[Russia]]'s [[Rosaviakosmos]]. On [[December 1]], [[1987]], [[NASA]] announced the names of four U.S. companies who were awarded contracts to help manufacture the US-built parts of the Space Station: [[Boeing|Boeing Aerospace]], [[General Electric]]'s Astro-Space Division, [[McDonnell Douglas]], and the [[Rocketdyne]] Division of [[Rockwell International|Rockwell]].
The first section, the [[Zarya|Zarya Functional Cargo Block]], was put in orbit in November [[1998]]. Two further pieces (the [[Unity Module]] and [[ISS Zvezda|Zvezda service module]]) were added before the first crew, [[Expedition 1]], was sent. [[Expedition 1]] docked to the ISS on [[November 2]], [[2000]] and consisted of US [[astronaut]] [[William Shepherd]] and two Russian cosmonauts, [[Yuri Gidzenko]] and [[Sergei Krikalev]].
To construct the station, the large components are almost entirely completed on
Earth, so that when they are launched into orbit the amount of installation required by the astronauts on the ISS is minimal. The components are usually launched in the large cargo bay of the [[NASA]] [[Space Shuttle]]. Currently the [[ISS assembly sequence|assembly sequence]] is just under half complete. [[As of 2006]] the station is only able to accommodate three permanent crew members, compared to the expected seven that the completed station will hold.
The ISS has been far more expensive than originally anticipated by [[NASA]]. Its construction is also behind schedule, largely due to the halting of all NASA Shuttle flights following the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Columbia disaster]] in early [[2003]]. For the two and a half years that the NASA [[Space Shuttle]] fleet was grounded, crew rotation continued on the station through the use of the Russian [[Soyuz spacecraft]]s, although the science conducted aboard was very limited.
Construction of the station was scheduled to resume in [[2006]], following a few 'Return to Flight' missions, like [[STS-114]]. Unfortunately, the reappearance of the [[STS-114#Launch sequence anomalies|foam debris problem]] on the [[STS-114]] mission in July [[2005]], (the same that doomed [[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]) has again delayed the launch sequence, and has even called into question the future of the space station. Further aggravating the construction of the ISS, the plant where the space shuttle's external fuel tank is made, is located near [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]], and was damaged by [[Hurricane Katrina]].
==Building the ISS==
*[[ISS assembly sequence]]
Building the ISS requires more than 50 assembly and utilization flights. Of these flights, 39 are planned to be [[Space Shuttle]] flights. In addition to the assembly and utilization flights, approximately 30 [[Progress spacecraft]] flights are required to provide logistics. When assembly is complete, the ISS will have a pressurized volume of 1,200 cubic meters, a mass of 419,000 kilograms, 110 kilowatts of power output, a truss 108.4 meters long, modules 74 meters long, and a crew of six.
As of the end of 2005 many changes have been made to the originally planned ISS, modules and other structures have been cancelled or replaced and the number of remaining Shuttle flights to the ISS has been reduced to now 18 during the years 2006-2010.
The station consists of several modules and elements:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Element
! Flight
! Launch Vehicle
! Launch date
! Length<br>(m)
! Diameter<br>(m)
! Mass<br>(kg)
|-
| '''[[Zarya]] FGB'''
| 1A/R
| [[Proton rocket]]
| [[November 20]],[[1998]]
| style="text-align: right"|12.6
| style="text-align: right"|4.1
| style="text-align: right"|19,323
|-
| '''[[Unity Module|Unity]] Node 1'''
| 2A - [[STS-88]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| [[December 4]],[[1998]]
| style="text-align: right"|5.49
| style="text-align: right"|4.57
| style="text-align: right"|11,612
|-
| '''[[ISS Zvezda|Zvezda]] Service Module'''
| 1R
| [[Proton rocket]]
| [[July 12]],[[2000]]
| style="text-align: right"|13.1
| style="text-align: right"|4.15
| style="text-align: right"|19,050
|-
| '''[[ISS Truss|Z1 Truss]]'''
| 3A - [[STS-92]]
| [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]
| [[October 11]],[[2000]]
| style="text-align: right"|4.9
| style="text-align: right"|4.2
| style="text-align: right"|8,755
|-
| '''[[ISS Solar Arrays|P6 Truss - Solar Array]]'''
| 4A - [[STS-97]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| [[November 30]],[[2000]]
| style="text-align: right"|73.2
| style="text-align: right"|10.7
| style="text-align: right"|15,900
|-
| '''[[Destiny Laboratory Module|Destiny]]'''
| 5A - [[STS-98]]
| [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]
| [[February 7]],[[2001]]
| style="text-align: right"|8.53
| style="text-align: right"|4.27
| style="text-align: right"|14,515
|-
| '''[[Mobile Servicing System|Canadarm2]]'''
| 6A - [[STS-100]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| [[April 19]],[[2001]]
| style="text-align: right"|17.6
| style="text-align: right"|0.35
| style="text-align: right"|4,899
|-
| '''[[Joint Airlock]] - Quest Airlock'''
| 7A - [[STS-104]]
| [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]
| [[July 12]],[[2001]]
| style="text-align: right"|5.5
| style="tex |
ry]]
* [[Supreme being]]
* Hegel, [[Phenomenology of Spirit]]
* Heidegger, [[Being and Time]]
* Sartre, [[Essays in Existentialism]] and [[Being and Nothingness]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.formalontology.it/being.htm Being in philosophy and linguistics]
{{Philosophy navigation}}
[[Category:Ontology]]
[[da:Væsen]]
[[de:Sein (Philosophie)]]
[[fr:Être]]
[[it:Essere (filosofia)]]
[[simple:Being]]
[[fi:Olemassaolo]]
[[ru:Бытие]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bird</title>
<id>3410</id>
<revision>
<id>42088765</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:25:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MPF</username>
<id>38759</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Circulatory System */ {{citation required}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
:'''''Aves''' redirects here. For the Caribbean island administered by [[Venezuela]], see [[Isla Aves]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Birds
| image = Parus major 3 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = [[Great Tit]], ''Parus major''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| subphylum = [[Vertebrate|Vertebrata]]
| classis = '''Aves'''
| classis_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = [[Order (biology)|Orders]]
| subdivision =
<center>Many - see [[#Bird orders|section below]].</center>
}}
'''Birds''' are [[biped]]al, [[Homeothermic|warm-blooded]], [[oviparous]] [[vertebrate]]s characterized primarily by [[feather]]s, forelimbs modified as [[wing]]s, and hollow bones.
Birds range in size from the tiny [[hummingbird]]s to the huge [[Ostrich]] and [[Emu]]. Depending on taxonomic viewpoint, there are about 8,800–10,200 living bird species (plus about 120–130 that have become [[extinction|extinct]] in the span of human history) in the world, making them the most diverse class of terrestrial [[vertebrate]]s.
Birds feed on [[nectar (plant)|nectar]], [[plant]]s, seeds, [[insect]]s, [[rodent]]s, [[fish]], carrion, or other birds. Most birds are [[diurnal animal|diurnal]], or active during the day. Some birds, such as the [[owl]]s and [[nightjar]]s, are [[nocturnal]] or [[crepuscular]] (active during twilight hours). Many birds [[bird migration|migrate]] long distances to utilise optimum habitats (e.g., [[Arctic Tern]]) while others spend almost all their time at sea (e.g. the [[Wandering Albatross]]). Some, such as [[frigatebird]]s, stay aloft for days at a time, even sleeping on the wing.
Common characteristics of birds include a bony [[beak]] with no teeth, the laying of hard-shelled [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s, high [[metabolism|metabolic]] rate, and a light but strong [[Bird skeleton|skeleton]]. Most birds are characterised by [[bird flight|flight]], though the [[ratite]]s are flightless, and several other species, particularly on islands, have also lost this ability. Flightless birds include the [[penguins]], [[ostrich]], [[kiwi]], and the extinct [[Dodo]]. Flightless species are vulnerable to extinction when humans or the [[mammal]]s they introduce arrive in their habitat. The [[Great Auk]], flightless [[Rallidae|rail]]s, and the [[moa]] of [[List of New Zealand birds|New Zealand]], for example, all became extinct due to human influence.
Birds are among the most extensively studied of all animal groups. Hundreds of academic journals and thousands of scientists are devoted to bird research, while amateur enthusiasts (called birdwatchers or, more commonly, [[birding|birders]]) probably number in the millions.
==High-level taxonomy==
Birds form a ''[[Class (biology)|class]]'', whose scientific name is ''Aves''. The founding species of class Aves probably lived in the [[Jurassic]] period.
According to the most recent consensus, Class Aves and a sister group, the family [[Crocodylidae]], together form a group of unnamed rank, the [[Archosauria]].
The class of birds separated early into two [[superorder]]s, the [[Paleognathae]] (mostly flightless birds like [[ostrich]]es), and the wildly diverse [[Neognathae]], containing all other birds.
==Bird orders==
[[Image:Galloanseri2.png|279px|thumb|right|Relationships between bird orders]]
This is a list of the taxonomic orders in the class Aves. The [[list of birds]] gives a more detailed summary, including families.
[[Paleognathae]]:
*[[Struthioniformes]], [[Ostrich]], [[emu]]s, [[kiwi]]s, and allies
*[[Tinamiformes]], [[tinamou]]s
[[Neognathae]]:
*[[Anseriformes]], waterfowl
*[[Galliformes]], fowl
*[[Gaviiformes]], [[loon]]s
*[[Podicipediformes]], [[grebe]]s
*[[Procellariiformes]], [[albatross]]es, [[petrel]]s, and allies
*[[Sphenisciformes]], [[penguin]]s
*[[Pelecaniformes]], [[pelican]]s and allies
*[[Ciconiiformes]], [[stork]]s and allies
*[[Phoenicopteriformes]], [[flamingo]]s
*[[Accipitriformes]], [[eagle|eagles]], [[hawk]]s and allies
*[[Falconiformes]], [[falcon]]s
*[[Turniciformes]], button-quail
*[[Gruiformes]], cranes and allies
*[[Charadriiformes]], plovers and allies
*[[Pteroclidiformes]], sandgrouse
*[[Columbiformes]], [[dove]]s and [[pigeon]]s
*[[Psittaciformes]], [[parrot]]s and allies
*[[Cuculiformes]], [[cuckoo]]s
*[[Strigiformes]], [[owl]]s
*[[Caprimulgiformes]], [[nightjar]]s and allies
*[[Apodiformes]], [[swift]]s
*[[Trochiliformes]], hummingbirds
*[[Coraciiformes]], [[kingfisher]]s
*[[Piciformes]], [[woodpecker]]s and allies
*[[Trogoniformes]], [[trogon]]s
*[[Coliiformes]], mousebirds
*[[Passerine|Passeriformes]], passerines
Note: This is the traditional classification (the so-called [[James Clements|Clements]] order). A more recent, radically different classification based on molecular data has been developed (the so-called Sibley order) and is gaining acceptance.
[[Image:slimbridge.chilean.flamingo.arp.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Chilean Flamingo]] is found throughout Peru, Bolivia and Chile]]
== Evolution ==
There is significant evidence that birds evolved from [[Theropoda|theropod]] [[Dinosauria|dinosaur]]s, specifically, that birds are members of [[Maniraptora]], a group of theropods which includes [[dromaeosaur]]s and [[Oviraptoridae|oviraptorids]], among others [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/274/5290/1164]. As more non-avian theropods that are closely related to birds are discovered, the formerly clear distinction between non-birds and birds becomes less so. Recent discoveries in northeast [[China]] ([[Liaoning]] Province) demonstrating that many small theropod dinosaurs had feathers contribute to this ambiguity.
The basal bird ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'', from the [[Jurassic]], is well-known as one of the first "missing links" to be found in support of [[evolution]] in the late [[19th century]]. It remains the most primitive known bird. Other [[Mesozoic]] birds include the [[Confuciusornithidae]], [[Enantiornithes]], ''[[Ichthyornis]]'', and [[Hesperornithiformes]], a group of flightless divers resembling [[grebe]]s and [[loon]]s.
The recently discovered dromaeosaur, ''[[Cryptovolans]]'', was capable of powered flight, contained a [[keel (bird)|keel]] and had ribs with [[uncinate]] processes. In fact, ''[[Cryptovolans]]'' makes a better "bird" than ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' which is missing some of these modern bird features. Because of this, some paleontologists have suggested that [[dromaeosaur]]s are actually basal birds whose larger members are secondarily flightless, i.e. dromaeosaurs evolved from birds and not the other way around. Evidence for this theory is currently inconclusive, but digs continue to unearth fossils (especially in China) of the strange feathered dromaeosaurs.
It should be noted that although [[ornithischia]]n (bird-hipped) dinosaurs share the same [[hip]] structure as birds, birds actually originated from the [[saurischia]]n (lizard-hipped) dinosaurs (if the dinosaurian origin theory is correct), and thus arrived at their hip structure condition [[Analogy (biology)|independently]]. In fact, the bird-like hip structure also developed a third time among a peculiar group of theropods, the [[Therizinosauridae]].
An alternate theory to the dinosaurian origin of birds, espoused by a few scientists (most notably Lary Martin and Alan Feduccia), states that birds (including [[Maniraptora|maniraptoran]] "dinosaurs") evolved from early archosaurs like ''[[Longisquama]]'', a theory which is contested by most other scientists in paleontology, and by experts in feather development and evolution such as R.O. Prum. See the ''[[Longisquama]]'' artcile for more on this alternative.
Modern birds are classified in Neornithes, which are split into the Paleognathae and Neognathae. The paleognaths include the [[tinamou]]s (found only in Central and South America) and the [[ratite]]s. The ratites are large flightless birds, and include ostriches, cassowaries, kiwis and emus. Some scientists suspect that the ratites represent an artificial grouping of birds which have independently lost the ability to fly, while others contend that the ratites never had the ability to fly and are more directly related to the dinosaurs than other modern birds. The basal divergence from the remaining Neognathes was that of the Galloanseri, the superorder containing the [[Anseriformes]] ([[duck]]s, [[goose|geese]] and [[swan]]s), and the [[Galliformes]] (the [[pheasant]]s, [[grouse]], and their allies). See the chart for more information.
The classification of birds is a contentious issue. [[Charles Sibley|Sibley]] & Ahlquist's ''Phylogeny and Classification of Birds'' (1990) is a landmark work on the classification of birds (although frequently debated and constantly revised). A preponderance of evidence seems to suggest that the modern bird orders constitute accurate [[taxon|taxa]]. However, scientists are not in agreement as to the relationships between the orders; evidence from modern bird anatomy, fossils and DNA have all been brought to bear on the problem but no strong consensus has emerged |
celebrated ''[[Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras|representation theorem for Boolean algebras]]'' states that ''every'' Boolean algebra ''A'' is isomorphic to the Boolean algebra of all [[closed-open]] sets in some ([[compact space|compact]] [[totally disconnected]] [[Hausdorff space|Hausdorff]]) topological space.
== Axiomatics for Boolean algebras ==
In 1933, the American mathematician [[Edward Vermilye Huntington]] (1874-1952) showed the following axiomatization for Boolean algebra:
# ''Commutativity'': ''x'' + ''y'' = ''y'' + ''x''.
# ''Associativity'': (''x'' + ''y'') + ''z'' = ''x'' + (''y'' + ''z'').
# ''Huntington equation'': ''n''(''n''(''x'') + ''y'') + ''n''(''n''(''x'') + ''n''(''y'')) = ''x''.
The [[unary functional symbol]] ''n'' may be read as 'complement'.
[[Herbert Robbins]] then posed the following question: Can the Huntington equation be shortened as follows, and is this new equation, together with associativity and commutativity, a basis for Boolean algebra? With this collection of axioms called a ''Robbins algebra'', the question then becomes: Is every Robbins algebra a Boolean algebra?
Axiomatization for Robbins algebra:
# ''Commutativity'': ''x'' + ''y'' = ''y'' + ''x''.
# ''Associativity'': (''x'' + ''y'') + ''z'' = ''x'' + (''y'' + ''z'').
# ''Robbins Equation'': ''n''(''n''(''x'' + ''y''') + ''n''(''x'' + ''n''(''y''))) = ''x''.
This question remained open from the 1930s, and became a favorite question of [[Alfred Tarski]] and his students.
In 1996, [[William McCune]] at [[Argonne National Laboratory]], building upon the work of Larry Wos, Steve Winker, and Bob Veroff, answered this long-standing question in the affirmative: Every Robbins algebra is a Boolean algebra. This work was done using McCune's [[automated reasoning program]] [[EQP]].
==See also==
* [[Boolean function]]
* [[Boolean logic]]
* [[Boolean-valued function]]
* [[Canonical form (Boolean algebra)]]
* [[Complete Boolean algebra]]
* [[Forcing (mathematics)]]
* [[Free Boolean algebra]]
* [[Heyting algebra]]
* [[Karnaugh map]]
* [[List of Boolean algebra topics]]
* [[Logic gate]]
* [[Logical matrix]]
* [[:simple:Boolean algebra|Boolean algebra]] (an article about Boolean logic in the Simple English Wikipedia)
* [[Venn diagram]]
== External links ==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/boolalg-math/ Article on ''The Mathematics of Boolean Algebra''] at the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]
[[Category:Boolean algebra|*]]
[[bg:Булева алгебра]]
[[bn:বুলিয়ান বীজগণিত]]
[[ca:Àlgebra de Boole]]
[[cs:Booleova algebra]]
[[de:Boolesche Algebra]]
[[es:Álgebra de Boole]]
[[fa:جبر بولی]]
[[fr:Algèbre de Boole (logique)]]
[[gl:Álxebra de Boole]]
[[hr:Booleova algebra]]
[[io:Booleana algebro]]
[[id:Aljabar Boolean]]
[[it:Algebra di Boole]]
[[he:אלגברה בוליאנית]]
[[lt:Būlio algebra]]
[[nl:Booleaanse algebra]]
[[ja:ブール代数]]
[[pl:Algebra Boole'a]]
[[pt:Álgebra booleana]]
[[ru:Булева алгебра]]
[[sl:Booleova algebra]]
[[sr:Булова алгебра]]
[[sv:Boolesk algebra]]
[[th:พีชคณิตแบบบูล]]
[[tr:Boole cebiri]]
[[uk:Булева алгебра]]
[[zh:布尔代数]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Banca d'Italia</title>
<id>3960</id>
<revision>
<id>35397491</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-16T13:19:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>XanaX</username>
<id>241901</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Banca d'Italia''' is the [[central bank]] of [[Italy]] and part of the [[European System of Central Banks]]. It is located in Palazzo Koch, [[Rome|Roma]], via Nazionale. The bank's current governor is [[Mario Draghi]], having taken office on [[January 16]], [[2006]].
==Functions==
After the charge of monetary and exchange rate policies was shifted in 1998 to the [[European Central Bank]], within the European institutional framework, the bank implements the decisions, issues [[Euro|euro]] banknotes and withdraws and destroys worn pieces.
The main function has thus become banking and financial supervision. The objective is to ensure the stability and efficiency of the system and compliance to rules and regulations; the bank pursues it through secondary legislation, controls and cooperation with governmental authorities.
Following reform in 2005, which was prompted by takeover scandals, the bank has lost exclusive antitrust authority in the cedit sector, which is now shared with [[Italy's Antitrust Authority]].
Other functions include, market supervision, oversight of the payment system and provision of settlement services, State treasury service, Central Credit Register, economic analysis and institutional consultancy.
==History==
The institution, also called '''Bankitalia''', was founded in 1893, from the fusion of the four major banks in Italy. Until 1928 it was directed by a ''General Manager'', while since then it is directed by a ''Governor''. The Governor was elected from the internal commission of managers, with a decree from the [[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Republic]]. Its mandate had no preestablished duration and it was, as a matter of fact, to life.
===General Managers (1893 - 1928)===
*[[Giacomo Grillo]] (1893 - 1894)
*[[Giuseppe Marchiori]] (1894 - 1900)
*[[Bonaldo Stringher]] (1900 - 1928)
===Governors (1928 - present)===
*[[Bonaldo Stringher]] (1928 - 1930)
*[[Vincenzo Azzolini]] (1931 - 1944)
*[[Luigi Einaudi]] (1945 - 1948)
*[[Donato Menichella]] (1948 - 1960)
*[[Guido Carli]] (1960 - 1975)
*[[Paolo Baffi]] (1975 - 1979)
*[[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]] (1979 - 1993)
*[[Antonio Fazio]] (1993 - 2005)
*[[Mario Draghi]] (2006 - present)
==Organization of the Bank of Italy==
===Governing Bodies===
The Bank's governing bodies are the [[Annual General Meeting|General Meeting of Shareholders]], the [[Board of Directors]], the [[Governor]], the [[Director General]] and two Deputy Directors General; the last four constitute the Directorate.
The general meeting takes place yearly and has the purpose of approving accounts and appointing the [[Auditor|auditors]]. The Board of Directors has administrative powers and is chaired by the governor (or by the Director General in his absence). Following reform in 2005, the governor has lost exclusive responsibility regarding decisions with external relevance (i.e. banking and financial supervision), which has been transferred to the Directorate (on majority vote). The Director General is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the bank, and acts as governor when absent.
The [[Board of Auditors]] assesses the bank's administration and compliance with the law, regulations and the statute.
===Appointment===
The Directorate's [[term of office]] lasts six years and is renewable once. The appointment of the governor is in charge of the government, heard the Board of Directors, with the approval of the [[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Republic]] (formally a [[decree]] of the President). The Board of Directors is elected by the shareholders according to the bank [[statute]].
==External links==
*[http://www.bancaditalia.it/rootcollection;internal&action=_setlanguage.action?LANGUAGE=en Official web page]
*[http://www.bancaditalia.it/la_banca/storia/history.pdf History of the Banca d'Italia]
{{Org-stub}}
[[Category:Banks of Italy]]
[[Category:European System of Central Banks|Italia]]
[[fr:Banque d'Italie]]
[[it:Banca d'Italia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British</title>
<id>3962</id>
<revision>
<id>41639133</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:42:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBlau</username>
<id>111074</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>please see [[WP:MOSDAB]] before adding extraneous wikilinks to this page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:{{Template:British Isles (terminology)}}
'''British''' is an adjective derived from the word [[Britain]]. It is used most commonly to describe the citizenship of a person from the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]].
It can also be used for:
*Someone or something from the island of [[Great Britain]]
*In the geographical term [[British Isles]]
*As a descriptor of [[British English]] dialects collectively, or of the [[British language (Celtic)|extinct Celtic language now called "British"]] or [[Brythonnic]]
*[[Brython]]s, the [[indigenous]] [[Celtic]] people of Great Britain
*Someone or something from one of the modern United Kingdom's predecessor states, these being -
:*The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]
:*The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain]]
==See Also==
*[[Alternative words for British]]
*[[British nationality law]]
*[[Briton]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beachcomber</title>
<id>3963</id>
<revision>
<id>23214986</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-14T10:20:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stewartadcock</username>
<id>29890</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Other formats */ dab LP</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the founding father of tiki restaurants, bars, and nightclubs, see [[Don the Beachcomber]].''
'''Beachcomber''' was a [[pen name|''nom de plume'']] used by [[surrealism|surrealist]] humorous columnists [[D. B. Wyndham-Lewis]] and [[J. B. Morton|John Bingham Morton]] as authors of a [[Daily Express]] column called "By the Way". Other authors who used the name were Major John William Arbuthnott [[MVO]] and [[William Hartston]].
=="By The Way" in print==
The "By The Way" column was originally a society news column, published from [[1917]] onwards, written by social correspondent Major John Arbuthnott who invented the name "Beachcomber". It was taken over by Wyndham-Lewis sometime in [[1919]] who reinvented it as an outlet for his wit |
[[Category:Congressional Gold Medal recipients|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:Living people|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:People from West Virginia|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:Recipients of US Distinguished Flying Cross|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Legion of Merit|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Purple Heart medal|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:Test pilots|Yeager, Charles]]
[[Category:United States Air Force generals|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[ca:Chuck Yeager]]
[[da:Charles Elwood Yeager]]
[[de:Chuck Yeager]]
[[fr:Charles Elwood Yeager]]
[[nl:Charles Elwood Yeager]]
[[ja:チャック・イェーガー]]
[[pl:Chuck Yeager]]
[[pt:Charles Elwood Yeager]]
[[ro:Chuck Yeager]]
[[sv:Chuck Yeager]]
[[tr:Chuck Yeager]]
[[zh:查克·葉格]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cajun cuisine</title>
<id>6186</id>
<revision>
<id>40339017</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T22:38:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jbenton</username>
<id>404284</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Misconceptions */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cajun cuisine''' originates from the French-speaking [[Acadian]] or "[[Cajun]]" immigrants in [[Louisiana]], [[United States|USA]]. It is what could be called a rustic [[cuisine]] &mdash; [[local food|locally available ingredients]] predominate, and preparation is simple. An authentic Cajun meal is usually a three-pot affair, with one pot dedicated to the main dish, one dedicated to steamed rice, skillet cornbread, or some other grain dish, and the third containing whatever vegetable is plentiful or available.
The aromatic vegetables bell-pepper, onion, and celery, called by some chefs the [[Holy trinity (cuisine)|holy trinity]] of Cajun cuisine, are ubiquitous. Characteristic seasonings include [[parsley]], [[bay leaf]], "onion tops" or [[scallion]]s, and [[cayenne pepper]] (the dried and powdered form or as one of the locally made pepper sauces such as [[Tabasco sauce|Tabasco]], but rarely fresh!) The overall feel of the cuisine is more Mediterranean than North American.
Cajun cuisine developed out of necessity. The Acadian refugees, farmers rendered destitute by the British expulsion, had to learn to live off the land and adapted their French rustic cuisine to local ingredients such as rice, crawfish, and sugar cane.
In addition to the obvious Canadian and French peasant influences, Cajun cuisine was influenced by African and Native American food cultures. For example, '[[gumbo]]', the name of a family of stews prepared in south Louisiana is a word brought to the region from western [[Africa]]. In parts of Africa as well as in standard French and in Caribbean creole languages "gumbo" means [[okra]], which is a principal ingredient in some of the stews called "gumbo". A filé gumbo, on the other hand, contains no okra, is a dark [[roux]] based soup or stew, and is seasoned at the table with ground [[sassafras]] leaves, a practice borrowed from the [[Choctaw]] Indians.
== Misconceptions ==
<div style="float:right; width:25%; margin: 1em; border: 1px solid #8888aa;">
&nbsp;Traditional Cajun food...
* is not fancy.
* is not extremely hot from pepper.
* does not use wine as part of the cooking.
* does not require expensive or exotic ingredients.
* is not available from a box.
* is often simple and brown.
* does not contain cream or pasta as an ingredient.
* is not often seen on restaurant menus.
</div>
There is a common misconception outside of south Louisiana that Cajun food is hot and spicy. An authentic Cajun dish will usually have a bit of a "kick" but will not be eye-wateringly hot. The Cajun cook does not seek to overpower the dish with simple heat &mdash; this is done by the diner at the table if they so wish. Rather, a balance of different pepper flavors is strived for, usually involving a mixture of black, white and cayenne pepper in various ratios. The sensation of these three peppers along the palate is what makes Cajun seasoning unique.
Cajun dishes prepared outside of Louisiana, are often hotter than their Louisiana counterparts, and lack the flavor of the original dishes. Even andouille sausage, mild and smoky in Louisiana, gets the pepper treatment elsewhere. This is partially a result of the "Cajun" foods craze of the [[1980s]], when Cajun-style seasoning was popularized by chef [[Paul Prudhomme]]'s creation of the very spicy dish called Blackened Redfish at his New Orleans restaurant "K-Paul's". It is also a result of recent "extreme" food fads, where many items are hotter than the originals.
Outside of southern Louisiana, foods prepared using Cajun-style seasoning are called Cajun, including some decidedly non-Cajun dishes such as red beans and rice, and blackened redfish. Sometimes the label is applied incorrectly to any dish including traditional Cajun ingredients such as cayenne pepper, or merely as a slogan, as in [[McDonalds]]'s "Spicy Cajun McChicken".
Cajun cuisine is sometimes confused with [[Creole cuisine]], and many outside of Louisiana don't make the distinction. This matter is complicated by the sharing of several dishes between the cuisines, including [[gumbo]], gumbo z'herbes (a vegetarian gumbo), seafood à l'[[etouffee|étouffée]], and jambalaya, although New Orleans jambalaya and gumbo are prepared differently than its Cajun counterpart.
Further complicating this is that the term Creole is used to designate several somewhat distinct New Orleans food cultures. So-called 'haute-creole' cuisine was influenced in the past few decades by Cajun food as Creole restaurants such as Commander's Palace and K-Paul's created a distinct "Cajun-Creole fusion" cuisine combining Cajun flavors with Creole ingredients and preparation. Dishes rooted primarily in the New Orleans metropolitan area such as po'-boys, barbecued shrimp, or red beans and rice are in general Creole, not Cajun, as are most dishes involving a cream sauce or the French mother sauces.
==Cajun methods of preparation==
Some of these are traditional, and some are recent innovations. Deep-frying of turkey or oven-roasted [[turducken]] is included because these items have entered Acadian folkways in some limited areas. Blackening of fish or chicken and barbecuing of shrimp in the shell is excluded because it is not, in general, prepared in Acadian homes or Acadian restaurants.
*Boiling, as in boiling of crawfish, shrimp, or other crustacean, in seasoned liquid.
*Grilling
*Pan-frying
*Deep frying of whole turkeys outdoors in a large pot. The same pot and burner rig is also used for crawfish or shrimp boils. '''Note:''' [[Underwriters Laboratories]] have warned that this technique can be dangerous. Some safety precautions can be found at [http://www.ul.com/consumers/turkeys.html].
*Stewing
*Fricassee
*[[etouffee|Étouffée]] (cooking a vegetable or meat in its own juices, similar to [[braising]] or what in New Orleans is called "smothering")
*Smoking
*Barbecueing - Very similar to "slow and low" Texas [[barbecue]] traditions, but with Cajun seasoning
*Injecting - Using a large syringe type setup to place seasoning deep inside large cuts of meat.
==Cajun or Cajun-influenced chefs==
* [[Justin Wilson (chef)|Justin Wilson]]
* [[Paul Prudhomme]]
* [[John Folse]]
* [[Jamie Shannon]]
* [[Emeril Lagasse]]
* [[Frank Brigtsen]]
* [[Alex Patout]]
==Cajun ingredients==
The following is a partial list of ingredients used in Cajun cuisine and some of the [[Staple food|staple ingredients]] of the Acadian food culture.
===Grains===
*Long, medium, or short grain white [[Rice]]
**Popcorn rice
*Corn ([[Maize]])
*[[Wheat]] (for baking bread)
===Fruits and vegetables===
*[[Onion]]
*Onion Tops (better known as [[scallion]]s)
*Mirlitons (also called vegetable pears or [[chayote]])
*[[Blackberry|Blackberries]]
*[[Fig]]s
*[[Celery]]
*[[Cucumbers]]
*[[Sweet potato]]es
*[[Bell pepper]]s
*[[Tomato]]es
*[[Satsuma (fruit)|Satsuma Oranges]]
*[[Pecan]]s
*[[Lemon]]s
*[[Cayenne pepper|Cayenne]] Pepper
*[[Muscadine]]s
*[[strawberry|Strawberries]] (especially around [[Ponchatoula, Louisiana|Ponchatoula]])
===Meat and seafood===
Acadian folkways include many ways of preserving meat, some of which are waning due to the availability of refrigeration and mass-produced meat at the grocer. Smoking of meats remains a fairly common practice, but once-common preparations such as turkey or duck confit (preserved in poultry fat, with spices) are now seen even by Acadians as quaint rarities.
The traditional pig-slaughtering party, or [http://www.cajuncountry.org/boucherie/ Boucherie], where Cajuns would gather to socialize, play music, dance, and preserve meat does still occur in some rural communities, especially [[St. Martinville]] but the exploitation of every last bit of meat, including organs and variety cuts in sausages such as '[[boudin]]' and the inaccessible bits in the head as [[head cheese]] is no longer a necessity.
Game (and [[hunting]]) are still uniformly popular in Acadiana.
The recent increase of [[catfish]] farming in the Mississippi Delta has brought about an increase in its usage in Cajun cuisine in the place of the more traditional wild-caught trout and redfish.
====Seafood====
*Freshwater <!--Please add more-->
**[[Catfish]]
**[[Perch]]
**[[Bass (fish)|Bass]]
**Sac-au-Lait/white perch or crappie
*Saltwater or brackish water species
**[[Trout]]
**[[Redfish]]
**Pompano
**[[Drumfish]]
**[[Flounder]]
**[[Grouper]]
**[[Perch]] - Many varieties [[Image:DSCN0141.JPG|thumb|Louisiana Style Crawfish Boil]]
**[[Snapper]] - Many varieties
*Shellfish
**[[Crayfish|Crawfish]]- either wild swamp or farm-raised |
a</i> = 10000 and <i>b</i> = <i>a</i>×cos{<i>Œ</i>}, results with different ellipticities can be found and compared:
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! b !! Pr !! Ramanujan-#2 !! Ramanujan-#1 !! Muir
|-
|9975
||&nbsp;'''9987.50391&nbsp;11393'''&nbsp;
||&nbsp;'''9987.50391&nbsp;11393'''&nbsp;
||&nbsp;'''9987.50391&nbsp;11393'''&nbsp;
||&nbsp;'''9987.50391&nbsp;113'''89
|-
|9966
||&nbsp;'''9983.00723 73047'''
||&nbsp;'''9983.00723 73047'''
||&nbsp;'''9983.00723 73047'''
||&nbsp;'''9983.00723 730'''34
|-
|9950
||&nbsp;'''9975.01566 41666'''
||&nbsp;'''9975.01566 41666'''
||&nbsp;'''9975.01566 41666'''
||&nbsp;'''9975.01566 416'''04
|-
|9900
||&nbsp;'''9950.06281 41695'''
||&nbsp;'''9950.06281 41695'''
||&nbsp;'''9950.06281 41695'''
||&nbsp;'''9950.06281 4'''0704
|-
|9000
||&nbsp;'''9506.58008 71725'''
||&nbsp;'''9506.58008 71725'''
||&nbsp;'''9506.58008''' 67774
||&nbsp;'''9506.5'''7894 84209
|-
|8000
||&nbsp;'''9027.79927 77219'''
||&nbsp;'''9027.79927 77219'''
||&nbsp;'''9027.7992'''4 43886
||&nbsp;'''9027.7'''7786 62561
|-
|7500
||&nbsp;'''8794.70009 24247'''
||&nbsp;'''8794.70009 2424'''0
||&nbsp;'''8794'''.69994 52888
||&nbsp;'''8794'''.64324 65132
|-
|6667
||&nbsp;'''8417.02535 37669'''
||&nbsp;'''8417.02535 37'''460
||&nbsp;'''8417.02'''428 62059
||&nbsp;'''841'''6.81780 56370
|-
|5000
||&nbsp;'''7709.82212 59502'''
||&nbsp;'''7709.82212''' 24348
||&nbsp;'''7709.8'''0054 22510
||&nbsp;'''770'''8.38853 77837
|-
|3333
||&nbsp;'''7090.18347 61693'''
||&nbsp;'''7090.183'''24 21686
||&nbsp;'''70'''89.94281 35586
||&nbsp;'''70'''83.80287 96714
|-
|2500
||&nbsp;'''6826.49114 72168'''
||&nbsp;'''6826.4'''8944 11189
||&nbsp;'''682'''5.75998 22882
||&nbsp;'''68'''14.20222 31205
|-
|1000
||&nbsp;'''6468.01579 36089'''
||&nbsp;'''646'''7.94103 84016
||&nbsp;'''646'''2.57005 00576
||&nbsp;'''64'''31.72229 28418
|-
|&nbsp;100
||&nbsp;'''6367.94576 97209'''
||&nbsp;'''636'''6.42397 74408
||&nbsp;'''63'''46.16560 81001
||&nbsp;'''63'''03.80428 66621
|-
|&nbsp;&nbsp;10
||&nbsp;'''6366.22253 29150'''
||&nbsp;'''636'''3.81341 42880
||&nbsp;'''63'''40.31989 06242
||&nbsp;'''6'''299.73805 61141
|-
|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1
||&nbsp;'''6366.19804 50617'''
||&nbsp;'''636'''3.65301 06191
||&nbsp;'''63'''39.80266 34498
||&nbsp;'''6'''299.60944 92105
|-
|iota
||&nbsp;'''6366.19772 36758'''
||&nbsp;'''636'''3.63636 36364
||&nbsp;'''63'''39.74596 21556
||&nbsp;'''6'''299.60524 94744
|}
==External links==
* [http://home.att.net/~numericana/answer/ellipse.htm#elliptic Numericana - Circumference of an ellipse]
[[Category:Geometry]]
[[bg:&#1054;&#1073;&#1080;&#1082;&#1086;&#1083;&#1082;&#1072;]]
[[da:Omkreds]]
[[de:Umfang]]
[[et:Ümbermõõt]]
[[es:Circunferencia]]
[[fr:Circonférence]]
[[it:Circonferenza]]
[[nl:Omtrek]]
[[nn:Omkrins]]
[[ja:&#20870;&#21608;]]
[[pl:Obwód]]
[[ru:Периметр]]
[[sr:&#1054;&#1073;&#1080;&#1084; (&#1075;&#1077;&#1086;&#1084;&#1077;&#1090;&#1088;&#1080;&#1112;&#1072;)]]
[[th:&#3648;&#3626;&#3657;&#3609;&#3619;&#3629;&#3610;&#3623;&#3591;]]
[[zh:圓周]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Continuum mechanics</title>
<id>5918</id>
<revision>
<id>41094447</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T00:31:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.206.19.182</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Continuum mechanics''' is a branch of [[physics]] (specifically [[mechanics]]) that deals with [[continuum|continuous]] matter, including both [[solid]]s and [[fluid]]s (i.e., [[liquid]]s and [[gas]]es).
The fact that matter is made of [[atom]]s and that it commonly has some sort of heterogeneous ''microstructure'' is ignored in the simplifying approximation that physical quantities, such as [[energy]] and [[momentum]], can be handled in the [[infinitesimal]] [[limit]]. [[Differential equation]]s can thus be employed in solving problems in continuum mechanics. Some of these differential equations are specific to the materials being investigated and are called [[constitutive equations]], while others capture fundamental [[physical law]]s, such as [[conservation of mass]] or [[conservation of momentum]]. In [[fluid]]s, the [[Knudsen number]] is used to assess to what extent the approximation of continuity can be made.
The [[physical law]]s of solids and fluids do not depend on the [[coordinate system]] in which they are observed. Continuum mechanics thus uses [[tensor]]s, which are mathematical objects that are independent of coordinate system. These tensors can be expressed in coordinate systems, for computational convenience.
{|align=left border=1
|rowspan=4|[[Continuum mechanics]]
|rowspan=2|[[Solid mechanics]]. Solid mechanics is the study of the physics of continuous solids with a defined rest shape.
|colspan=2|[[Elastic|Elasticity]], which describes materials that return to their rest shape after an applied [[stress (physics)|stress]].
|-
|[[Plasticity (physics)|Plasticity]], which described materials that permanently deform (change their rest shape) after a large enough applied stress.
|rowspan=2|[[Rheology]] Given that some materials are [[viscoelasticity|viscoelastic]] (a combination of elastic and viscous), the boundary between solid mechanics and fluid mechanics is blurry.
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Fluid mechanics]] (including [[Fluid statics]] and [[Fluid dynamics]]), which deals with the physics of fluids. An important property of fluids is its [[viscosity]], which is the force generated by a fluid in response to a velocity field.
|[[Non-Newtonian fluid]]s
|-
|colspan=2|[[Newtonian fluid]]s
|}
<br clear=all>
==See also==
*[[equation of state]]
{{Physics-footer}}
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Continuum mechanics]]
<!--Interwiki-->
[[de:Kontinuumsmechanik]]
[[fr:Mécanique des milieux continus]]
[[nl:Continuümmechanica]]
[[ja:連続体力学]]
[[ru:Механика сплошных сред]]
[[fi:Kontinuumimekaniikka]]
[[sv:Kontinuummekanik]]
[[vi:Cơ học môi trường liên tục]]
[[zh:连续介质力学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Constitutional law</title>
<id>5919</id>
<revision>
<id>38597488</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T10:22:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>138.40.156.157</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Constitutional law''' is the study of foundational [[law]]s that govern the scope of powers and authority of various bodies in relation to the creation and execution of other laws by a [[government]]. A [[constitution]] binds a government or governments, limiting the contexts in which rules may be created, interpreted and force may be applied. Constitutions may reference various bodies, including organizations, associations, [[stateless people]]s and [[nation-state]]s.
Most commonly constitutional law is the law of these foundational laws, customs, and constitution a conventions in regard to nation-states. Not all nation-states have constitutions, though all such states have a ''[[jus commune]]'', or law of the land, that may consist of a variety of imperative and consensual rules, that may be customary law, oral law and written law that apply in the various jurisdictions of such state. Of those nation-states that do have constitutions, not all are considered strictly written constitutions, as the laws that govern such issues may not be consolidated into one single constitution document or instrument. The constitutional law may be the fact of interpreting a variety of text which may also be informed by history, custom and unwritten constitutional conventions . Compare, for example, the written [[Constitution of the United States]] with [[British constitutional law]], which arises from multiple sources including [[Magna Carta]], the [[common law]], and other customary sources. In some countries, the constitution is known as the [[Basic Law]].
Constitutional laws may often be considered second order rulemaking or rules about making rules of exercise power. One of the key tasks of constitutions within this context is to indicate hierarchies and relationships of power. Thus, for example, in the case of a [[unitary state]], the Constitution will vest ulitimate authority in one central administration and [[legislature]], and [[judiciary]], though there is often a delegation of power or authority to local or municipal authorities. Whereas when a constitution establishes a [[federal state]], it will identify the several levels of government coexisting with exclusive or shared areas of jurisdiction over lawmaking, application and enforcement.
==See also==
*[[Australian constitutional law]]
*[[British constitutional law]]
*[[Indian constitutional law]]
*[[Spanish constitutional law]]
*[[United States constitutional law]]
*[[Basic Law]]s
*[[European Community law]]
[[Category:Constitutional law| ]]
[[de:Verfassungsrecht]]
[[es:Derecho Constitucional]]
[[eo:Konstitucia juro]]
[[fr:Droit constitutionnel]]
[[he:משפט חוקתי]]
[[it:Diritto costituzionale]]
[[no:Statsrett]]
[[pt:Direito constitucional]]
[[ru:&#1050;&#1086;&#1085;&#1089;&#1090;&#1080;&#1090;&#1091;&#1094;&#1080;&#1086;&#1085;&#1085;&#1086;&#1077; &#1087;&#1088;&#1072;&#1074;&#1086;]]
[[sl:Ustavno pravo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Celtic languages</title>
<id>5920</id>
<revision>
<id>41869571</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T06:41:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Angr</username>
<id>157842</id>
</contributor>
<comm |
valence|logically equivalent]].
:* The two-element Boolean algebra is also used for circuit design in [[electrical engineering]]; here 0 and 1 represent the two different states of one [[bit]] in a [[digital circuit]], typically high and low [[voltage]]. Circuits are described by expressions containing variables, and two such expressions are equal for all values of the variables if and only if the corresponding circuits have the same input-output behavior. Furthermore, every possible input-output behavior can be modeled by a suitable Boolean expression.
:* The [[two-element Boolean algebra]] is also important in the general theory of Boolean algebras, because an equation involving several variables is generally true in all Boolean algebras if and only if it is true in the two-element Boolean algebra (which can always be checked by a trivial [[brute force search|brute force]] algorithm). This can for example be used to show that the following laws (''Consensus theorems'') are generally valid in all Boolean algebras:
:** (''a'' &or; ''b'') &and; (&not;''a'' &or; ''c'') &and; (''b'' &or; ''c'') &equiv; (''a'' &or; ''b'') &and; (&not;''a'' &or; ''c'')
:** (''a'' &and; ''b'') &or; (&not;''a'' &and; ''c'') &or; (''b'' &and; ''c'') &equiv; (''a'' &and; ''b'') &or; (&not;''a'' &and; ''c'')
* Starting with the [[propositional calculus]] with &kappa; sentence symbols, form the [[Lindenbaum-Tarski algebra|Lindenbaum algebra]] (that is, the set of sentences in the propositional calculus modulo tautology). This construction yields a Boolean algebra. It is in fact the [[free Boolean algebra]] on &kappa; generators. A truth assignment in propositional calculus is then a Boolean algebra homomorphism from this algebra to {0,1}.
* The [[power set]] (set of all subsets) of any given set ''S'' forms a Boolean algebra with the two operations &or; := &cup; (union) and &and; := &cap; (intersection). The smallest element 0 is the [[empty set]] and the largest element 1 is the set ''S'' itself.
* The set of all subsets of ''S'' that are either finite or [[cofinite]] is a Boolean algebra.
* For any [[natural number]] ''n'', the set of all positive [[divisor]]s of ''n'' forms a [[distributive lattice]] if we write ''a'' &le; ''b'' for ''a'' | ''b''. This lattice is a Boolean algebra if and only if ''n'' is [[square-free integer|square-free]]. The smallest element 0 of this Boolean algebra is the natural number 1; the largest element 1 of this Boolean algebra is the natural number ''n''.
* Other examples of Boolean algebras arise from [[topology|topological spaces]]: if ''X'' is a topological space, then the collection of all subsets of ''X'' which are both open and closed forms a Boolean algebra with the operations &or; := &cup; (union) and &and; := &cap; (intersection).
* If ''R'' is an arbitrary [[mathematical ring|ring]] and we define the set of ''central idempotents'' by <br> ''A'' = { ''e'' &isin; ''R'' : ''e''<sup>2</sup> = ''e'', ''ex'' = ''xe'', &forall;''x'' &isin; ''R'' } <br> then the set ''A'' becomes a Boolean algebra with the operations ''e'' &or; ''f'' := ''e'' + ''f'' &minus; ''ef'' and ''e'' &and; ''f'' := ''ef''.
== Order theoretic properties ==
[[Image:Hasse diagram of powerset of 3.png|right|thumb|250px|Boolean lattice of subsets]]
Like any lattice, a Boolean algebra (''A'', <math>\land</math>, <math>\lor</math>) gives rise to a [[partially ordered set]] (''A'', &le;) by defining
: ''a'' &le; ''b'' [[iff]] ''a'' = ''a'' <math>\land</math> ''b''
(which is also equivalent to ''b'' = ''a'' <math>\lor</math> ''b'').
In fact one can also define a Boolean algebra to be a distributive lattice (''A'', &le;) (considered as a partially ordered set) with least element 0 and greatest element 1, within which every element ''x'' has a complement ¬''x'' such that
: ''x'' <math>\land</math> ¬''x'' = 0 and ''x'' <math>\lor</math> ¬''x'' = 1
Here <math>\land</math> and <math>\lor</math> are used to denote the [[infimum]] (meet) and [[supremum]] (join) of two elements. Again, if complements in the above sense exist, then they are uniquely determined.
The algebraic and the order theoretic perspective can usually can be used interchangeably and both are of great use to import results and concepts from both [[universal algebra]] and [[order theory]]. In many practical examples an ordering relation, conjunction, disjunction, and negation are all naturally available, so that it is straightforward to exploit this relationship.
== Principle of duality ==
One can also apply general insights from [[duality (order theory)|duality in order theory]] to Boolean algebras. Especially, the order dual of every Boolean algebra, or, equivalently, the algebra obtained by exchanging <math>\land</math> and <math>\lor</math>, is also a Boolean algebra. In general, any law valid for Boolean algebras can be transformed into another valid, dual law by exchanging 0 with 1, <math>\land</math> with <math>\lor</math>, and &le; with &ge;.
== Other notation ==
The operators of Boolean algebra may be represented in various ways. Often they
are simply written as AND, OR and NOT. In describing circuits, NAND (NOT AND),
NOR (NOT OR) and XOR (eXclusive OR) may also be used. [[Mathematician]]s, [[engineer]]s, and [[programmer]]s often use + for OR and · for AND (since in some ways those operations are analogous to addition and multiplication in other [[algebraic structure]]s and this notation makes it very easy to get [[sum of products form]] for people who are familiar with normal algebra) and represent NOT by a line drawn above the expression being negated. Sometimes, the symbol ~ is used for NOT.
Here we use another common notation with "meet" <math>\land</math> for AND, "join" <math>\lor</math> for OR, and &not; for NOT.
== Homomorphisms and isomorphisms ==
A ''homomorphism'' between the Boolean algebras ''A'' and ''B'' is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''f'' : ''A'' &rarr; ''B'' such that for all ''a'', ''b'' in ''A'':
: ''f''(''a'' <math>\lor</math> ''b'') = ''f''(''a'') <math>\lor</math> ''f''(''b'')
: ''f''(''a'' <math>\land</math> ''b'') = ''f''(''a'') <math>\land</math> ''f''(''b'')
: ''f''(0) = 0
: ''f''(1) = 1
It then follows that ''f''(¬''a'') = ¬''f''(''a'') for all ''a'' in ''A'' as well. The [[class (set theory)|class]] of all Boolean algebras, together with this notion of morphism, forms a [[category theory|category]]. An ''isomorphism'' from ''A'' to ''B'' is a homomorphism from ''A'' to ''B'' which is [[bijective]]. The inverse of an isomorphism is also an isomorphism, and we call the two Boolean algebras ''A'' and ''B'' ''isomorphic''. From the standpoint of Boolean algebra theory, they cannot be distinguished; they differ only in the notation of their elements.
== Boolean rings, ideals and filters ==
Every Boolean algebra (''A'', <math>\land</math>, <math>\lor</math>) gives rise to a [[ring (algebra)|ring]] (''A'', +, *) by defining ''a'' + ''b'' = (''a'' <math>\land</math> ¬''b'') <math>\lor</math> (''b'' <math>\land</math> ¬''a'') (this operation is called "symmetric difference" in the case of sets and [[Truth table|XOR]] in the case of logic) and ''a'' * ''b'' = ''a'' <math>\land</math> ''b''. The zero element of this ring coincides with the 0 of the Boolean algebra; the multiplicative identity element of the ring is the 1 of the Boolean algebra. This ring has the property that ''a'' * ''a'' = ''a'' for all ''a'' in ''A''; rings with this property are called [[Boolean ring]]s.
Conversely, if a Boolean ring ''A'' is given, we can turn it into a Boolean algebra by defining ''x'' <math>\lor</math> ''y'' = ''x'' + ''y'' &minus; ''xy'' and ''x'' <math>\land</math> ''y'' = ''xy''. Since these two operations are inverses of each other, we can say that every Boolean ring arises from a Boolean algebra, and vice versa. Furthermore, a map ''f'' : ''A'' &rarr; ''B'' is a homomorphism of Boolean algebras if and only if it is a homomorphism of Boolean rings. The [[category theory|categories]] of Boolean rings and Boolean algebras are equivalent.
An ''ideal'' of the Boolean algebra ''A'' is a subset ''I'' such that for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''I'' we have ''x'' <math>\lor</math> ''y'' in ''I'' and for all ''a'' in ''A'' we have ''a'' <math>\land</math> ''x'' in ''I''. This notion of ideal coincides with the notion of [[ring ideal]] in the Boolean ring ''A''. An ideal ''I'' of ''A'' is called ''prime'' if ''I'' &ne; ''A'' and if ''a'' <math>\land</math> ''b'' in ''I'' always implies ''a'' in ''I'' or ''b'' in ''I''. An ideal ''I'' of ''A'' is called ''maximal'' if ''I'' &ne; ''A'' and if the only ideal properly containing ''I'' is ''A'' itself. These notions coincide with ring theoretic ones of [[prime ideal]] and [[maximal ideal]] in the Boolean ring ''A''.
The dual of an ''ideal'' is a ''filter''. A ''filter'' of the Boolean algebra ''A'' is a subset ''p'' such that for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''p'' we have ''x'' <math>\land</math> ''y'' in ''p'' and for all ''a'' in ''A'' if ''a'' <math>\lor</math> ''x'' = ''a'' then ''a'' in ''p''.
== Representing Boolean algebras ==
It can be shown that every ''finite'' Boolean algebra is isomorphic to the Boolean algebra of all subsets of a finite set. Therefore, the number of elements of every finite Boolean algebra is a [[power of two]].
[[Marshall H. Stone|Stone's]] |
ring data with other systems, stemming from the too revolutionary data-object soup system, was a key contributor to Newton's demise.
Earlier MessagePads used [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]-standard [[serial port]]s - round [[DIN connector|Mini-DIN 8 connector]]s instead of the more common trapezoidal [[D-subminiature|DE-9, commonly called DB-9]]. The 2000/2100 models had a proprietary small flat connector, called an InterConnect port, used with an adapter. In addition, all models had [[infrared]] connectivity. Unlike the Palm, all MessagePad models were equipped with a standard [[PCMCIA]] expansion slot (two on the 2000/2100). This allowed native modem and even [[Ethernet]] connectivity; Newton users have also written [[Device_driver|drivers]] for [[802.11b]] wireless networking cards and ATA-type [[flash memory]] cards, a category that includes the popular [[CompactFlash]] format, as well as for [[Bluetooth]] cards. With the 1xx series, an optional keyboard became available, which could also be used via the dongle on a 2x00. Newton could also dial a phone number through the MessagePad speaker, simply holding a telephone handset up to the speaker, and fax / email support was built in at the operating system level, although it required external cards.
The MessagePad 2000 and 2100, with a vastly improved handwriting recognition system, 162MHz [[StrongARM]]SA-110 [[RISC]] processor, Newton 2.1, and a better, clearer, backlit screen, attracted critical plaudits. Although their size and expense were factors which kept them from being as popular as later [[PalmOS]] devices, the Newton still has a small but passionate user base. The final evolution of the Newton's handwriting recognition system is still considered by many to be very impressive, only matched by the more modern [[Tablet PC]] handwriting recognition system.
The MessagePad could be used with the screen turned horizontally ("landscape") as well as vertically ("portrait"). A change of a setting would instantly rotate the contents of the display by ninety degrees. Handwriting recognition would still work properly with the display rotated.
The use of 4x [[AA]] [[NiCd]] (MessagePad 110, 120 and 130) and 4x AA [[NiMH]] cells (2x00 series, eMate 300) gave a runtime of up to 30 hours (MP 2100 w/ 2x 20 MB linear [[Flash memory]] [[PC Card]]s, no backlight usage) and up to 24 hours with backlight on. While adding more weight to the Newtons than [[AAA battery|AAA batteries]] (as used in the MessagePad and MessagePad 100) or custom battery packs, the choice of an easily replaceable/rechargeable cell format gave the user a still unsurpassed runtime and flexibility of power supply. This, together with the [[Flash memory]] used as internal storage (if all cells lost their power, no data was lost due to the static character of this storage), gave birth to the slogan "Newton never dies, it only gets new batteries".
Apple and third parties marketed several "wallets" (cases) for the MessagePads, which would hold them securely along with the owner's credit cards, driver's license, business cards, and cash. These wallets were even larger than the MessagePads and even less able to fit in a pocket, so they were most often used as a protective case for the unit to shield it from bumps and scratches.
== Outcome ==
Although the Apple Newton was produced for six years, it was never as successful in the marketplace as Apple had hoped. This has been attributed to two primary reasons: the Newton's high price (which went up to $1000 when models 2000 and 2100 were introduced), and its large size (it failed the "pocket test" by not fitting in an average coat, shirt, or trouser pocket). Critics also panned its [[handwriting recognition]]. These initial problems marred Newton's reputation in the eyes of the public, and PDAs would remain a niche product until [[Palm, Inc.]]'s [[Palm Pilot]], which emerged shortly before the Newton was discontinued. The Palm Pilot, with its smaller, thinner shape, cheaper cost, and more robust [[Graffiti (Palm OS)|Graffiti]] handwriting recognition system - which had been available first as a software package for the Newton - managed to restore the viability of the PDA market after Newton's commercial failure. Ironically, Palm Computing was founded by ex-Apple employee [[Donna Dubinsky]].
The Newton marketing campaign trumpeted the product's handwriting recognition, though in initial versions it was fairly inaccurate. The original handwriting recognition engine was called Calligrapher, and was licensed from a Russian company called Paragraph International. It was actually quite sophisticated; unlike the later Palm Pilot's Graffiti - which made the user learn a new handwriting system and write each letter in an input area - Newton learned the user's natural handwriting, using a database of known words to make guesses as to what the user was writing, and could interpret writing anywhere on the screen. Newton could also recognize and clean up simple drawn shapes such as triangles, circles, and squares, and had an intuitive system for handwritten editing, such as scratching out words to be deleted, circling text to be selected, or using written carets to mark inserts.
Later releases of the Newton operating system retained the original recognizer for compatibility, but added a printed-text recognizer, code-named "[[Rosetta (Newton)|Rosetta]]," which was developed by Apple, included in version 2.0 of the Newton operating system, and refined in Newton 2.1. Rosetta was generally considered a significant improvement and many users consider the Newton 2.1 handwriting recognition software better than any of the alternatives since. Recognition and computation of handwritten horizontal and vertical formulas such as "1 + 2 =" was also under development but never released.
The most critical feature of the Newton handwriting recognition system was the modeless error correction. That is, correction done in situation without using a separate window or widget, using a minimum of gestures. If a word was recognized improperly, the user would simply double-tap the word and a list of alternatives would pop up in a menu under the stylus. Most of the time, the correct word would be in the list. If not, a button at the bottom of the list allowed the user to edit individual characters in that word. Error correction in many current handwriting systems provides such functionality but adds more steps to the process, greatly increasing the interruption to a user's workflow that a given correction requires. Excellent handwriting recognition (in OS 2.1 and higher) with smooth, modeless access to robust error correction is quite possibly a leading reason for the continued popularity of the device among Newton users.
Even given the age of the hardware and software, Newtons still demand a sale price on the used market far greater than that of PDAs produced by other companies. [[As of 2004]] the Newton 2000 and 2100 can still fetch a price, without accessories, of over $100.
==Later efforts==
Many prototypes of additional Newton models were spotted. Most notable was a Newton tablet or "slate," a large, flat screen that could be written on. Others included a "Kids Newton" with side handgrips and buttons, "VideoPads" which would have incorporated a video camera and screen on their flip-top covers for two-way communications, the "Mini 2000" which would have been very similar to Palm Pilot, and the "NewtonPhone" (developed by [[Siemens AG]]) which incorporated a handset and a keyboard.
At least one product, the [[eMate 300]] was derived from the Apple Newton, and was offered to schools in 1997 as an inexpensive ($799 US, originally sold to education markets only) and durable computer for classroom use. However, in order to achieve its low price, the eMate 300 did not have all the features of the contemporary Newton equivalent, the MessagePad 2000 and was cancelled along with the rest of the Newton line.
Before the Newton project was cancelled, it was "spun off" into its own company, ''Newton Inc.'', but was reabsorbed several months later when [[Steve Jobs]] ousted Apple CEO [[Gil Amelio]] and resumed control of Apple. There has since been continual speculation that Apple might release a new PDA with some Newton technology or collaborate with Palm. Apple continues to deny that such a project will ever happen.
The Apple [[Apple iPod | iPod]] is somewhat of a descendant of the Newton in that it is a pocket-sized programmable device based on the ARM processor. Two ex-Apple Newton developers founded [[Pixo]], the company that created the iPod's OS.
Feeding a bit of speculation, Apple put the "Print Recognizer" part of the Newton 2.1 handwriting recognition system into [[Mac OS X]] version 10.2 (known as "Jaguar"). It can be used with graphics tablets to seamlessly input handwritten printed text anywhere there was an insertion point on the screen. This technology, known as "[[Inkwell (Macintosh)|Inkwell]]", appears in the System Preferences whenever a tablet input device is plugged in. Whether Apple will ever utilize such technology again in a [[handheld device]] remains to be seen.
In June 2004, Apple CEO Steve Jobs indicated that he was proud that Apple resisted pressure to market a new handheld computer. While a small group of Mac faithful consumers have lobbied Apple to sell such a device, the worldwide market for PDAs was in a decline at the time, and Apple chose not to develop the device because demand would have been inadequate.
==Newton models==
* MessagePad (also known as the H1000, OMP or Original MessagePad)
* MessagePad 100 (Supported newer Newton OS)
* MessagePad 110 (slightly longer and narrower, with integrated flip cover and retracting stylus)
* MessagePad 120 (Up to 2MB RAM, versus 1MB)
* Mess |
main dish (generally, meat or fish with a side of vegetables, pasta, rice or fries);
* some [[cheese]] and/or dessert (fruit or cake).
Meals, particularly lunch, are often followed by a cup of [[coffee]].
Alcoholic products may be consumed as follows:
* The meal may be preceded by an ''apéritif'', typically some dose of flavoured [[Vermouth]] or some [[Pastis]].
* Wine is often drunk with the meal, though this is rarer today. Occasionally, people consume beer though the frequency depends on the region of the country. Typically, wine or beer is chosen to match with the food.
* The meal may be followed by a ''digestif'' — some small dose of [[liqueur]] or other high alcoholic spirit, but this is uncommon.
Festive meals may include several main dishes. Some meals incorporate a ''trou normand'' — some small dose of a highly alcoholic liquor or [[sorbet]], perhaps [[calvados]], which props up appetite for what follows.
In large cities most working people and students eat their lunch at a cafeteria. In the case of smaller companies, it is commonplace that the employer distributes lunch vouchers (''Ticket Restaurant'', etc.) that workers use to pay for meals in neighbouring budget restaurants. It is to be noted that corporate and school cafeterias normally serve complete meals (appetizers, main dish, dessert); it is not usual for students to bring sandwiches. In smaller cities and towns, some working people leave their offices to return home for lunch, generating four rush hours during the day (8 {{AM}}, 12 {{PM}}, 2 {{PM}}, and 6 {{PM}}).
With contemporary lifestyle, especially the reduced number of [[housewife|housewives]], the French rely a lot more on canned or frozen foods for weekdays. Cooking evening or weekend meals from fresh ingredients is still popular. In most cities, there are [[street market]]s selling vegetables, meat and fish, several times a week; however, most of those products are now bought at [[hypermarket|hyper-]] or [[supermarket]]s.
===Drink===
Traditionally, France has been a culture of [[wine]] consumption. While this characteristic has lessened with time, even today, many French people drink wine daily [http://www.inra.fr/Internet/Departements/ESR/publications/iss/pdf/iss97-3.pdf]. The consumption of low-quality wines during meals has been greatly reduced. [[Beer]] is especially popular with the youth. Other popular alcoholic drinks include [[pastis]] (in the south), an [[aniseed]]-flavoured beverage drunk diluted with cold water, especially in the summer, or [[cider]] in the northwest.
The legal drinking age for most spirits is 16. However, it is not customary that shopkeepers or bartenders check for the age of consumers, and teenagers eating with their family in restaurants will be served wine if the family requests so. On the other hand, it is very unusual to witness the kind of public inebriation that is customary in English or Scandinavian cities on Saturday nights. Usually, parents tend to forbid the consumption of alcohol to their children before they reach their early teens. Students and young adults are known to drink heavily during parties ([[vodka]] and [[tequila]] being very popular), but usually drunkenness is not displayed in public. Public consumption of alcohol is legal, but driving under the influence can result in severe penalties.
==Divisions of restaurant cuisine==
Schematically, French [[restaurant]] cuisine can be divided into:
===Cuisine bourgeoise===
''Cuisine bourgeoise'', which includes all the classic French dishes which are not (or no longer) specifically regional, and which have been adapted over the years to suit the taste of the affluent classes. This type of cooking includes the rich, cream-based sauces and somewhat complex cooking techniques that many people associate with French cuisine. At the 'top end' of this category is what is known as [[haute cuisine]], a highly complex and refined approach to food preparation and kitchen management.
Because this kind of cuisine is what is often served abroad under the name of "French cuisine", many foreigners mistakenly believe that typical French meals involved complex cooking and rich, un-dietetic dishes. In fact, such cooking is generally reserved for special occasions, while typical meals are simpler.
===Cuisine du terroir===
''Cuisine du terroir'', which covers regional specialities with a strong focus on quality local produce and peasant tradition. Many dishes that fall in this category do not stand out as stereotypically "French," sometimes because regional cooking styles can be quite different from the elaborate dishes seen in French restaurants around the world.
===Cuisine nouvelle===
''Cuisine nouvelle'' or ''nouvelle cuisine'', which developed in the [[1970s]] as a reaction to traditional cuisine, under the influence of chefs such as [[Michel Guérard]]. This type of cooking is characterized by shorter cooking times, much lighter sauces and dressings, and smaller portions presented in a refined, decorative manner. Its modern, inventive approach sometimes includes techniques and combinations from abroad (especially Asia) and has had a profound influence on cooking styles all over the world.
===Today===
Food [[fashion]]s and trends in France tend to alternate between these three types of cuisine; [[As of 2005|today (2006)]] there is a distinct focus on ''cuisine du terroir'', with a return to traditional rustic cooking and the "forgotten" flavours of local farm produce. The "fusion" cuisine popular in the English-speaking world is not widespread in France, though some restaurants in [[Paris|the capital]] have a "fusion" theme, and many modern French chefs are influenced by a variety of international cooking styles.
[[Vegetarian]]ism is not widespread in France, and few restaurants cater for vegetarians. [[Vegan]]ism is hardly known or represented at all.
One contentious subject, since the 1980s, has been the quick development of [[fast-food]] chains, which have been perceived by some as a threat to traditional French cuisine as well as symbols of [[cultural imperialism]], [[factory farming]] and [[junk food]] (see article on [[Jose Bove|José Bové]]). These chains are popular and [[McDonald's]] alone has around [http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/03_02/b3815047.htm 1000 restaurants in France]. In any case, fast-food chains and a large number of specialised restaurant chains have become part of the French cuisine landscape.
==Foreign cuisines==
Foreign cuisines popular in France include:
* Dishes from the former French colonies in North Africa, especially [[couscous]], are found everywhere in France due to the large number of immigrants of North African origin.
* [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] food, more particularly [[pizza]] and [[pasta]] (especially in [[Nice]] and the rest of the [[Cote d'Azur]], which has a large Italian population). There are also many pizza chains.
* [[Spanish cuisine|Spanish]] food, more particularly [[paella]].
* [[Vietnamese|Vietnamese]] and [[Cuisine of China|Chinese]] food. Generic Asian restaurants serving a variety of Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai and other Asian dishes are fairly commonplace.
* [[Turkish cuisine|Turkish]] food, especially [[Döner kebab]], called sandwich grec (Greek sandwich) in France, is widely popular in urban areas.
* [[Indian cuisine|Indian food]].
* Restaurants offering [[Japanese cuisine|Japanese]] dishes such as [[sushi]] or [[yakitori]] are getting increasingly popular in urban centers, though the majority of the French population objects to eating raw fish, save for the marked exception of oysters. Most of such restaurants in France nowadays are actually operated by people of Eastern Asian non-Japanese origin.
* American-style [[hamburger|hamburgers]] and [[french fries | fries]] are popular dishes sold in chains like [[McDonald's]] and the Franco-Belgian [[Quick (restaurant chain) | Quick]].
As a general rule, foreign "exotic" restaurants can be more readily found in large urban centres.
==Notable dishes==
===Famous French dishes===
* French [[bread]]s
* [[Blanquette de veau]]
* [[Boeuf a la mode]]
* [[Coq au Vin]] (rooster simmered in wine)
* [[List of French cheeses|Cheeses]]
* Lamb [[Navarin]]
* [[Oyster]]s are generally eaten raw; cooking oysters is uncommon.
* [[Pot-au-feu]], a kind of [[beef]] [[stew]].
* [[Steak au poivre]]
* [[Soufflé]]
===Quick food===
The following dishes can generally be ordered in [[brasserie]]s:
* ''Steak frites'' ([[steak]] with fries; fries can often be replaced by ''haricots verts'' — [[string bean]]s);
* ''Poulet frites'' ([[chicken]] with fries)
* ''Croque monsieur'' (a grilled Swiss cheese sandwich with a slice of ham)
Generally speaking, ''frites'' ([[French fries]]) are a common side order for lower-end French-style restaurants. The French generally believe that fries are of [[Belgium|Belgian]] origin, although there is no evidence for this origin; a typically Belgian dish is steamed mussels with a side of fries.
A typical simple, cheap, quick meal consists of [[pasta]] (often [[spaghetti]]) with [[tomato sauce]].
===Common canned food===
* [[Cassoulet]]
* [[Ravioli]]s (Italian specialty)
* [[Paella]] (Spanish specialty)
* [[Couscous]] (Northern African specialty)
* [[Choucroute garnie]]
Most dishes, including relatively sophisticated ones, are available as canned or frozen food in supermarkets. These products are sometimes endorsed by famous chefs.
===Common savory pies===
* [[Tarte flambée|Flammekueche]] from [[Alsace]] (crème fraîche, onions, and [[lardon]]s)
* [[Famiche]] from [[Artois]]-[[Picardy]] (with leeks or Maroilles cheese)
* [[Quiche]] from [[Lorraine]] (added ingredients may include ham, cheeses and mushrooms)
* [[Pissaladière]] from [[Nice]] (with caramelized onion, anchovies and dark olives)
* [[Tarte flambée]]
===Famous but untypical dishes===
The following dishes are considered typical of French cuisine in som |
e are also known as [[emote|emotes]], stemming from [[emotion]] which is where the word [[emoticon]] has its origins as well. For instance: <smile>, *smile*, <jumping up and down>, *jumping up and down*, <very very sad right now> or *very very sad right now* are all acceptable usages. Double colons are occasionally seen on each side of such expressions (::excited::); this usage may originate from an action syntax common to [[Simming|simming]].
*The symbols <tt><nowiki><...></nowiki></tt> and <tt><nowiki></...></nowiki></tt> are often to denote the author's feelings at the time of writing an enclosed sentence or paragraph and are known as "emotags." For instance, "<nowiki><sarcasm>I just love how wonderfully the new nerf to our characters has gone</sarcasm></nowiki>" This notation derives from [[HTML]]. Variants exist, such as <tt><nowiki>[/...]</nowiki></tt> (a syntax variant found on [[Internet forums]]) and even simply "/...", as in "Internet slang confuses me! /angry".
==Common examples==
<!-- Do not add slang or abbreviations here, use the "List of internet slang" article -->
{{main article|[[List of Internet slang]]}}
==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Abbreviation]]
* [[Acronym]]
* [[Avatar (virtual reality)]]
* [[Diablospeak]]
* [[Emoticon]]
* [[Jargon File]]
* [[Internet troll]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Leet]] (aka 1337)
* [[List of computing and IT abbreviations]]
* [[List of Internet slang]]
* [[Slang]]
* [[Texting language]] (Txt)
{{col-end}}
==External links==
* [http://www.noslang.com Internet Slang Translator & Dictionary]
* [http://www.sharpened.net/glossary/acronyms.php Chat Acronyms used in E-mail and Online Chat]
* [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/ Jargon File webpage]
* [http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/index.html FOLDOC &mdash; Free On-Line Dictionary of Computing]
* [http://www.acronymfinder.com/ Acronym Finder] &mdash; searchable acronyms and abbreviations site
* [http://www.geocities.com/ben-fuzzybear/acronyms.html BIBLIA &mdash; Ben's Incredible Big List of Initialisms and Acronyms]
* [http://www.urbandictionary.com/ UrbanDictionary.com] ('''Warning:''' Possibly offensive and sexual words on this site.)
* [http://www.netlingo.com NetLingo.com The Internet Dictionary]
* [http://www.bestslang.com BestSlang.com &mdash; The Slang Wiki]
* [http://www.slanginsider.com Slang Insider.com] (Includes results filtering for family use.)
* [http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=emotag&i=42568,00.asp PCMag Encyclopedia - emotag]
<!-- Categories -->
[[Category:Internet slang|*]]
[[Category:Acronyms]]
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[[cs:Seznam zkratek v online diskusích]]
[[da:Internet-jargon]]
[[de:Netzjargon]]
[[fr:Argot Internet]]
[[ko:인터넷 유행어]]
[[he:קיצורי מילים לשימוש באינטרנט]]
[[it:Gergo di internet]]
[[ja:インターネットスラング]]
[[nl:Internetjargon]]
[[pl:Slang internetowy]]
[[pt:Internetês]]
[[simple:Internet slang]]
[[sl:Internetni sleng]]
[[fi:Nettislangi]]
[[zh:网络语言]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Islamic</title>
<id>15173</id>
<revision>
<id>35502393</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T04:59:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antandrus</username>
<id>57658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/87.122.212.252|87.122.212.252]] ([[User talk:87.122.212.252|talk]]) to last version by Andre Engels</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Islam]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Impi</title>
<id>15174</id>
<revision>
<id>39219581</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T16:35:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>220.233.193.139</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Enlistment */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
An '''Impi''' is a [[Zulu]] word for any armed body of men. However, in English it is often used to refer to a Zulu [[regiment]], which is called an ''ibutho'' in Zulu. The first impis were formed by Zulu king [[Shaka]], who was then only the exiled illegitimate son of king [[Senzangakona]], but already showing much prowess as a general in the army of [[Mthethwa]] king [[Dingiswayo]] in the Mthethwa-[[Ndwandwe]] war in the early 1810s.
==Youth==
Impi warriors were raised from the age as low as of six, joining the army as ''udibi'' porters at first, being enrolled into [[age set|same-age groups]] (''intanga''). Until they were ''buta'''d, Zulu boys accompanied their fathers and brothers on campaign as servants. Eventually, they would go to the nearest ''ikhanda'' to ''kleza'' (which literally means to drink directly from the udder), at which point they would become ''inkwebane'', or cadets. They would spend their time training until they were formally enlisted by the king. They would challenge each other to stick fights, which had to be accepted on pain of dishonor.
==Enlistment==
On being formally formed into regiments -''ibutho'' (plural ''amabutho'') after their 20th birthday, they would build their ''ikhanda'' (often referred to as a 'homestead', and it was basically a stockaded group of huts surrounding a corral for cattle) which would be where they would come when mustered for active service. They would have to come for this muster until they married, which was a privilege the king bestowed. They were trained to outrun a horse, cover about 80 km (50 miles) a day on foot and hide and stalk in the underbrush. The amabutho were recruited on the basis of age rather than regional or tribal origin. The reason for this was to enhance the centralised power of the Zulu king at the expense of clan and tribal leaders. They swore loyalty to the king of the Zulu nation.
Every ibutho was a thousand warriors strong and originally contained warriors from the same ''intanga'' (this practice later changed as casualties suffered by the regiments made reinforcements necessary). Each ibutho had its own colors in colored shields, headdress and other ornaments. An impi - a force which contained several ''amabutho'' - was also accompanied by ''udibi'', young boys who carried implements like cooking pots and sleeping mats and on occasion acted as scouts. Shaka insisted that troops wear no shoes&mdash;they could run faster and were not disabled by the loss of their sandals. Training for this was to stamp thorns into the ground with bare feet.
==Service==
In wartime, the Zulu soldier went into battle minimally dressed, painting his upper body and face with chalk and red ochre, despite the popular conception of elaborately panoplied warriors. In Shaka's day, warriors often wore elaborate plumes and cow tail regalia, but by the [[Anglo-Zulu War]] of 1879, many warriors wore only loin cloth into battle. As a weapon he carried the ''[[iklwa]]'' stabbing spear (losing one could result in execution), [[cudgel]]s (''[[knobkerrie]]''). He also carried shields, which were property of the king. The iklwa with its long (c. 25cm) tip was an invention of Shaka that superseded the older thrown [[assegai]]. It could theoretically be used both in melee and as a thrown weapon, but warriors were forbidden in Shaka's day from throwing it, which would disarm them and give their opponents something to throw back. Moreover, Shaka felt it discouraged warriors from closing into hand to hand combat. However, after the Zulus encountered the Boers and the British, who were armed with firearms, the Zulus re-introduced the throwing spear in an effort to counter their enemies firepower. By the time of [[Zulu War]], king [[Cetshwayo]] also equipped them with [[musket]]s and they also used [[rifle]]s captured from the British. However, many of their weapons were obsolete or in bad condition and warriors were usually badly trained in their use.
==Tactics==
Shaka used impis with a modified encircling tactic - ''impondo zankoma'' ('bull's horns'); Impi troops would divide into four groups. The main group (''isifuba'', 'chest') would face the enemy, two wings (''izimpondo'', 'horns') on two sides of the enemy and then force them towards the center. The fourth party (usually the veterans) remained as a reserve. They travelled light, and carried their own food or foraged along the way. The image of the Zulu warrior who could "run fifty miles and fight a battle at the end of it" is not at all true, but the barefooted Zulu warrior was swift, and could cover perhaps 25 miles a day. Thus tactics against their enemies (other African tribes, the [[Boers]], and the British) were surprise and overwhelming force, rather than siege or long campaigns. During the [[Anglo-Zulu War]], British commander [[Frederick Augustus Thesiger, 2nd Baron Chelmsford|Lord Chelmsford]] complained that they did not 'fight fair'.
==History==
Against the [[Ndwandwe]], numerically superior northern neighbours who invaded Zulu territory to suppress them, [[Shaka]] played hide-and-seek games, while laying waste to the land to prevent foraging. Shaka waited and only attacked when the Ndwandwe were divided or exhausted.
Impi were also famous for their custom 'washing of spears (in their enemy's blood)' in which they cut open the belly of killed (and allegedly sometimes still living) opponents. The Zulus believed that this meant the release of the opponent's spirit so it could not haunt the killer.
Complex ceremonies surrounded battles, and great honours were bestowed upon the courageous in battle. Cowards were dishonoured and occasionally executed. Wounds were crudely serviced, but the Zulus had an unusual rate of recovery. Overall, the Zulu army was versatile and all but invincible against other African armies. However, they faced tougher opposition when confronted with the Boers, from around 1830 and later the British. Although Zulu impis unde |
[[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]] to lead the government. In practice, the position usually goes to the leader of the strongest political party in the Commons which usually has most of the seats in the [[lower house]] and forms a [[majority government]]. On several occasions in Canadian history no party has had a majority in the House of Commons and thus one party, usually the largest, forms a [[minority government]]. However, the prime minister holds office until he or she resigns or is removed by the Governor General; therefore, the party that was in government before the election may attempt to continue to govern if they so desire, even if they hold fewer seats than another party. [[Coalition government]]s are rare at the federal level: Canada has only once had a coalition government, the [[Union Government]] of Sir [[Robert Borden]] during [[World War I]].
Political parties are private organizations that are not mentioned in the constitution. By the convention of [[responsible government]], the prime minister and most of his cabinet are members of Parliament so they can answer to Parliament for their actions. But, constitutionally, any adult Canadian is eligible for the jobs, and prime ministers have held office after being elected leader but before taking a seat in the Commons ([[John Turner]], for example), or after being defeated in their constituencies. The prime minister selects ministers to head the various government departments and form a [[Cabinet of Canada|cabinet]]. The members of the Cabinet remain in office at the pleasure of the prime minister. If the Commons passes a [[motion of no confidence]] in the government, the prime minister and his cabinet are expected either to resign their offices or to ask for Parliament to be dissolved so that a general election can be held. To avoid non-confidence voting, strong [[party discipline]] has long been an established fact of life in the Canadian parliament, in which members of a party, especially members of the ruling party, are strongly urged always to vote the "party line" or face consequences, up to expulsion from the party's caucus. While the government likes to keep strong control due to the issue of motions of no confidence in (unwritten) practice the only time it is required is when a money bill (financial or budget) does not pass. However if a government finds that it can not pass any legislation it is common to hold a vote of confidence. But the failed passage of most bills does not require a vote of confidence, contrary to how it is often portrayed. The exception would be if the Prime Minister or the government declared that if a bill did not pass they would consider it a confidence issue (hence how backbenchers are often held to strict party voting).
While a member of a governing party is free to vote their conscience, they are constrained by the fact that voting against the party line (especially in confidence votes) might lead to expulsion from their party. Such an expulsion would lead to loss of election funding and the former party backing an alternate candidate. However, in the 2004 election one independent member of parliament was elected. [[Chuck Cadman]] had sought nomination under the Conservative Party of Canada having held a seat in one of the two founding parties. He did not win the nomination but won the election for his seat. He was the first independent member of parliament to be ''elected'' in recent memory, though [[Andre Arthur]] was elected as an independent in 2006. Most independent members were elected under a party but either chose to leave it or were expelled. After the [[Conservative Party of Canada]] was formed, a number of members of the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservative Party]] and the [[Canadian Alliance]] party chose to sit as independents.
When there are enough seats for another party to form a government after the resignation of a prime minister, the Governor General may ask the other party to try and form the government. This became clear after the [[King-Byng Affair]] in 1926. In practice, it is unlikely there could be a separate and new alliance created.
==Legislative branch: Parliament==
Canada's Parliament consists of the monarch and a [[bicameral]] [[legislature]]: an elected [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]] and an appointed [[Canadian Senate|Senate]]. The Governor General appoints Canadians, who are recommended by the Prime Minister, to the Senate according to a formula that distributes the seats among the provinces. In practice, legislative power rests with the party that has the majority of seats in the House of Commons, which is elected from 308 constituencies (or electoral districts) for a period not to exceed five years. Canada's highly disciplined political parties and [[First Past the Post electoral system|first-past-the-post electoral system]] have, since the 1970s, usually given one political party control of the Commons. The five-year period has only been extended once, in 1916. The prime minister may ask the governor general to dissolve Parliament and call new elections at virtually any time. That request was refused only once, during the minority government of 1926. By custom, prime ministers usually call new elections after four years in power. Because the [[First Past the Post electoral system|first-past-the-post electoral system]] leads to a one-party rule for a protracted amount of time, it has led to calls for championing a different kind of electoral system, such as [[proportional representation]] or [[Single Transferable Vote|STV]].
Members of the Senate do have some power, however. It is usually the greatest after a party has been in power a long time (and hence nominated Senators that would most likely support their policies), and a new party forms the government. [[Brian Mulroney]] used a special provision to recommend the appointment of an additional eight senators so that he could get bills he wanted passed through the Senate. Also, after the criminalization of abortion was decided to be against the [[Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] by the Supreme Court of Canada, a new bill was prepared by [[Kim Campbell]], who was then Minister of Justice. While it passed in the House of Commons, there was a tied vote in the Senate. In the case of tied votes, the bill is not passed. For more on this particular case, see the page on [[Abortion in Canada|abortion in Canada]].
Since 1867, there have been only three [[Referenda in Canada|Canada-wide referenda]].
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Canada|Elections in Canada}}
{{main|Canadian federal election, 2006}}
{{Canadian federal election, 2006}}
==Judicial branch==
Criminal law, most of which is contained in the federal ''[[Criminal Code of Canada|Criminal Code]]'' (R.S.C. 1985, Chapter C-46), is uniform throughout the nation and is under federal jurisdiction. Civil law is based on the [[common law]] of [[England]], except in [[Quebec]], to which Britain granted the right in [[1774]] to retain the French [[civil code]]. While legislation regarding non-criminal matters is, generally speaking, different from province to province, there are some non-criminal legislation, such as the federal ''Divorce Act'' (R.S.C. 1985, Chapter 3 (2nd Supp.)), that is applicable throughout the nation. Justice is administered by federal, provincial, and municipal courts.
The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] is the court of final jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has nine justices, led by the [[Chief Justice of Canada]], and are appointed by the [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]]. This court hears appeals from decisions rendered by the various appellate courts from the provinces and territories. A trial-level court from a common law province is required to follow previous decisions from both the Supreme Court of Canada and the appellate court of its respective province or territory. In contrast, a Quebec trial-level court may treat judgements from higher courts to be persuasive but not binding. See [[Courts of Canada]].
==Jurisdiction==
Residual power — that is, all powers not specified in the constitution — resides with the federal government; the original intent of this provision was to avoid the sectionalism which had resulted in the [[American Civil War]]. However, in 1895 the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] ruled that the federal government could exercise its residuary power only in wartime. As a result, responsibilities for new functions of government such as labour law or social welfare had to be accommodated under powers specified in the British North America Act. Many ended up being assigned to [[provinces and territories of Canada|provincial]] areas of jurisdiction, so that Canada today is a highly decentralized federation. Further decentralization of functions has been implemented to accommodate provincial aspirations, chiefly those of [[Quebec]], as described below. However, all provinces have the right to assume the powers now exercised only by Quebec, and [[Alberta]] and [[Ontario]] have expressed interest in doing so.
Each province has a [[Lieutenant-Governor]], a [[Premier (Canada)|Premier]], and a single ([[unicameral]]), elected legislative chamber. Provincial governments operate under a parliamentary system similar in nature to that of the federal government, with the premier chosen in the same manner as the Canadian prime minister. The [[lieutenant-governor]], recommended by the prime minister and then appointed by the governor general, represents the Crown in each province. Lieutenant-governors, like the governor general, have broad powers that are only rarely used.
==Federal-provincial relations==
Federal-provincial (or intergovernmental, formerly dominion-provincial) relations is a regular issue in Canadian politics: Quebec wishes to preserve and strengthen its distinctive nature, western provin |
many reforms: [[monetary]], [[government]]al, [[military]], or [[ecclesiastic]]al.
===Monetary reforms===
[[Image:Karldergrossesignatur.jpg|left|thumb|[[Monogram]] of Charlemagne, from the subscription of a royal diploma: &quot;Signum (monogr.: KAROLVS) Caroli gloriosissimi regis&quot;.]]
Pursuing his father's reforms, Charlemagne did away with the monetary system based on the gold ''[[sou]]''. Both he and the [[Anglo-Saxon]] King [[Offa of Mercia]] took up the system set in place by Pippin. He set up a new standard, the ''[[livre]]'' (from the Latin ''[[libra]]'', the modern [[pound (currency)|pound]])&mdash;a unit of both money and weight&mdash;which was worth 20 sous (from the Latin ''[[solidus]]'', the modern [[shilling]]) or 240 ''[[denier (coin)|denier]]s'' (from the Latin ''[[denarius]]'', the modern [[penny]]). During this period, the ''livre'' and the ''sou'' were counting units, only the ''denier'' was a coin of the realm.
Charlemagne applied the system to much of the European continent, and Offa's standard was voluntarily adopted by much of [[England]]. After Charlemagne's death, continental coinage degraded and most of Europe resorted to using the continued high quality English coin until about [[1100]].
===Education reforms===
A part of Charlemagne's success as warrior and administrator can be traced to his admiration for learning. His reign and the era it ushered in are often referred to as the [[Carolingian renaissance|Carolingian Renaissance]] because of the flowering of [[scholarship]], [[literature]], [[art]], and [[architecture]] which characterise it. Most of the surviving works of classical Latin were copied and preserved by Carolingian scholars. Indeed, the earliest manuscripts available for many ancient texts are Carolingian and it is almost certain that a text which survived to the Carolingian age, survives still. The pan-European nature of Charlemagne's influence is indicated by the origins of many of the men who worked for him: [[Alcuin]], an [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] from [[York]]; [[Theodulf]], a [[Visigoths|Visigoth]], probably from [[Septimania]]; [[Paul the Deacon]], a [[Lombards|Lombard]]; and [[Angilbert]] and [[Einhard]], Franks.
Charlemagne took a serious interest in his and others' scholarship and had learned to read in his adulthood, although he never quite learned how to write, he used to keep a slate and stylus underneath his pillow, according to Einhard. His handwriting was bad, from which grew the legend that he could not write. Even learning to read was quite an achievement for kings at this time, of whom most were illiterate.
Charlemagne's mother tongue was the [[Old High German]] dialect called [[Frankish language|Frankish]]. He also spoke [[Latin language|Latin]] and understood some [[Greek language|Greek]].
===Writing reforms===
[[Image:Codexaureus 04.jpg|left|thumb|Page from the [[Lorsch Gospels]] of Charlemagne's reign.]]
During Charles' reign, the [[uncial|Roman half uncial]] script and its [[cursive]] version, which had given rise to various continental [[minuscule]] scripts, combined with features from the "insular" scripts that were being used in [[Irish]] and [[England|English]] monasteries. [[Carolingian minuscule]] was created partly under the patronage of Charlemagne. Alcuin of York, who ran the palace school and [[scriptorium]] at Aachen, was probably a chief influence in this. The revolutionary character of the Carolingian reform, however, can be over-emphasised; efforts at taming the crabbed Merovingian and Germanic hands had been underway before Alcuin arrived at Aachen. The new minuscule was disseminated first from Aachen, and later from the influential scriptorium at [[Tours]], where Alcuin retired as an abbot.
===Political reforms===
Charlemagne engaged in many reforms of Frankish governance, but he continued also in many traditional practices, such as the division of the kingdom among sons, to name but the most obvious one.
====Organisation====
In the first year of his reign, Charlemagne went to [[Aachen]] (in [[French language|French]], ''Aix-la-Chapelle'') for the first time. He began to build a [[palace]] twenty years later (788). The palace [[chapel]], constructed in 796, later became [[Aachen Cathedral]]. Charlemagne spent most winters between 800 and his death at Aachen, which he made the joint capital with Rome, in order to enjoy the hot springs. Charlemagne organised his empire into 350 [[county|counties]], each led by an appointed [[count]]. Counts served as judges, administrators, and enforcers of [[capitulary|capitularies]]. To enforce loyalty, he set up the system of ''[[missi dominici]]'', meaning "envoys of the lord". In this system, one representative of the church and one representative of the emperor would head to the different counties and every year report back to Charlemagne on their status.
====Imperial coronation====
Historians have debated for centuries whether Charlemagne was aware of the Pope's intent to crown him Emperor prior to the coronation itself (Charlemagne declared that he would not have entered Saint Peter's had he known), but that debate has often obscured the more significant question of ''why'' the Pope granted the title and why Charlemagne chose to accept it once he did.
Roger Collins points out (''Charlemagne'', pg. 147) "that the motivation behind the acceptance of the imperial title was a romantic and antiquarian interest in reviving the Roman empire is highly unlikely." For one thing, such romance would not have appealed either to Franks or Roman Catholics at the turn of the ninth century, both of whom viewed the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] heritage of the Roman Empire with distrust. The Franks took pride in having "fought against and thrown from their shoulders the heavy yoke of the Romans" and "from the knowledge gained in baptism, clothed in gold and precious stones the bodies of the holy martyrs whom the Romans had killed by fire, by the sword and by wild animals", as Pippin III described it in a law of [[763]] or [[764]] (Collins 151). Furthermore, the new title &mdash; carrying with it the risk that the new emperor would "make drastic changes to the traditional styles and procedures of government" or "concentrate his attentions on Italy or on Mediterranean concerns more generally" (Collins 149) &mdash; risked alienating the Frankish leadership.
For both the Pope and Charlemagne, the Roman Empire remained a significant power in European politics at this time, and continued to hold a substantial portion of Italy, with borders not very far south of the city of Rome itself &mdash; this is the empire historiography has labelled the Byzantine Empire, for its capital was Constantinople (ancient Byzantium) and its people and rulers were [[Byzantine Empire|Greek]]; it was a thoroughly Hellenic state. Indeed, Charlemagne was usurping the prerogatives of the Roman Emperor in Constantinople simply by sitting in judgement over the Pope in the first place:
:''By whom, however, could he ''[the Pope]'' be tried? Who, in other words, was qualified to pass judgement on the Vicar of Christ? In normal circumstances the only conceivable answer to that question would have been the Emperor at Constantinople; but the imperial throne was at this moment occupied by [[Irene]]. That the Empress was notorious for having blinded and murdered her own son was, in the minds of both Leo and Charles, almost immaterial: it was enough that she was a woman. The female sex was known to be incapable of governing, and by the old Salic tradition was debarred from doing so. As far as Western Europe was concerned, the Throne of the Emperors was vacant: Irene's claim to it was merely an additional proof, if any were needed, of the degradation into which the so-called Roman Empire had fallen.'' ([[John Julius Norwich]], ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'', pg. 378)
For the Pope, then, there was "no living Emperor at the that time" (Norwich 379), though [[Henri Pirenne]] (''Mohammed and Charlemagne'', pg. 234n) disputes this saying that the coronation "was not in any sense explained by the fact that at this moment a woman was reigning in Constantinople." Nonetheless, the Pope took the extraordinary step of creating one. The papacy had for some years been in conflict with Irene's predecessors in Constantinople over a number of issues, chiefly the continued Byzantine adherence to the doctrine of iconoclasm, the destruction of Christian images. By bestowing the Imperial crown upon Charlemagne, the Pope abrogated to himself "the right to appoint ... the Emperor of the Romans, ... establishing the imperial crown as his own personal gift but simultaneously granting himself implicit superiority over the Emperor whom he had created." And "because the Byzantines had proved so unsatisfactory from every point of view&mdash;political, military and doctrinal&mdash;he would select a westerner: the one man who by his wisdom and statesmanship and the vastness of his dominions ... stood out head and shoulders above his contemporaries."
[[Image:Charlemagne1.gif|thumb|right|The imperial coronation of Charlemagne, an act of utmost importance in European history.]]
With Charlemagne's coronation, therefore, "the Roman Empire remained, so far as either of them [Charlemagne and Leo] were concerned, one and indivisible, with Charles as its Emperor", though there can have been "little doubt that the coronation, with all that it implied, would be furiously contested in Constantinople." (Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Apogee'', pg. 3) How realistic either Charlemagne or the Pope felt it to be that the people of Constantinople would ever accept the King of the Franks as their Emperor, we cannot know; Alcuin speaks hopefully in his letters of an ''Imperi |
idt was never a Nazi and never anti-semitic but simply extraordinarily naïve about politics. [[Hans Keller]] proffered similar endorsement. Most of his principal musical friends were Jews, and they benefited from his generosity. It might also be said that, whatever his personal naïvety in these matters, Schmidt’s music was realistic, and prophetic: ''Das Buch mit sieben Siegeln'' is now seen to foretell, in the most powerful terms, the disasters that were shortly to be visited upon Europe in the Second World War. Here his invention rises to a sustained pitch of genius: the work may be seen as the last majestic representative of the great Austro-German oratorio tradition stretching back through Brahms and Bruckner to the masses of Haydn and Bach and the oratorios of Handel. It owes much, too, to such choral symphonies as Mahler’s Eighth and Beethoven’s Ninth.
Schmidt is generally, if erroneously, regarded as a conservative composer, but the [[rhythmic]] subtlety and [[harmony|harmonic]] complexity of much of his music belie this. His music is modern without being modernist, combining a reverence for the great Austro-German lineage of composers with very personal innovations in harmony and [[orchestration]]. The considerable technical accomplishment of his music ought to compel respect, but he seems to have fallen between two stools: his works are too complex for the conservatively-minded, yet too obviously traditional for the avant-garde (they are also notoriously difficult to perform). Since the 1970s his music has enjoyed a modest revival which looks set to continue as it is rediscovered and re-evaluated.
== References ==
*Thomas Bernard Corfield - ''Franz Schmidt (1874-1939) - A Discussion of His Style With Particular Reference to the Four Symphonies and 'Das Buch mit sieben Siegeln'' (Garland Publishing, New York, 1989)
*Harold Truscott - ''The Music of Franz Schmidt - 1: The Orchestral Music'' (Toccata Press, London, 1984)
[[Category:Romantic composers|Schmidt, Franz]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Schmidt, Franz]]
[[Category:Austrian composers|Schmidt, Franz]]
[[Category:1874 births|Schmidt, Franz]]
[[Category:1939 deaths|Schmidt, Franz]]
[[da:Franz Schmidt]]
[[de:Franz Schmidt]]
[[ja:フランツ・シュミット]]
[[sl:Franz Schmidt]]
[[sv:Franz Schmidt]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Free beer</title>
<id>11769</id>
<revision>
<id>18173865</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-05T05:42:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Natalinasmpf</username>
<id>107009</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gratis versus Libre]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Freedom of beer</title>
<id>11770</id>
<revision>
<id>15909494</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-24T01:05:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RedWolf</username>
<id>27822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gratis versus Libre]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fucking</title>
<id>11771</id>
<revision>
<id>41139874</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T07:54:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>4.228.123.138</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|fucking}}
'''Fucking''' ([[slang]]) may refer to [[sexual intercourse]] or:
* A village in Upper Austria; see [[Fucking, Austria]].
* The word "fucking" is also used to show extreme emotion, for example, "I don't fucking care!" "Who gives a Fuck", or "I don't like what the fuck is going on here"; see [[Fuck]].
{{disambig}}</text>
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<page>
<title>Finnish Civil War</title>
<id>11772</id>
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<id>41160676</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T12:39:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Small Profit</username>
<id>436092</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Improved writing.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Civil War in Finland''' was fought from January to May [[1918]], between the "Reds" ''(punaiset),'' i.e. [[Social Democratic Party of Finland|Social Democrats]] together with [[Communist Party of Finland|Communists]], and the "Whites" ''(valkoiset),'' i.e. forces commanded by the [[Conservative]] [[Senate of Finland|Senate]] that in the preceding autumn had succeeded a [[National Unity Government|National Unity Senate]], intending to maintain the [[status quo]] (retain [[independence]] and [[constitutional monarchy]] without [[parliamentarism]]).
[[Finns]] have many names for this conflict: ''vapaussota'' ('''War of Liberty'''), ''kansalaissota'' ('''Citizens War''') or ''sisällissota'' ('''Civil War'''), ''luokkasota'' ('''Class War'''), ''punakapina'' ('''Red Rebellion'''), ''torpparikapina'' ('''Crofters' Rebellion'''), ''veljessota'' ('''the war between brothers''') even ''vallankumous'' ('''Revolution'''). Present-day historians point out that all of these different names have their merits, although their [[propagandist]] charges differ.
The Civil War and the [[Continuation War]] have been the two most controversial and emotionally loaded events in the history of modern [[Finland]]. They are often seen as the hinges or pivots of Finland's fate; both have also had a great influence on the [[foreign relations of Finland]].
== Background ==
[[Image:Peasants in finland.jpg|thumb|270px|'''Peasants on the field'''. Propertyless peasants, who worked rented farms and paid their rent through work, were people who had no political influence in the political system run by the estates.]]
The background of the Civil War can be traced to political polarization caused by the major conflict between Imperial Russia and the [[autonomy|autonomous]] [[Grand Duchy of Finland]], which commenced in [[1889]] as an outcome of Russian [[Pan-Slavism]], and was intensified in [[1899]] with the attempted [[Russification of Finland]]. As one consequence Finland's [[army]] was abolished.
Until then, Finland's Senate had successfully pursued a Conservative-Loyalist policy towards Russia, aiming at securing Finland's vital national interests through domestic autonomy. It was widely recognized that "the people" must be diverted from [[radicalism|radical]] outbursts, which could disturb the Imperial court in [[Saint Petersburg, Russia|Saint Petersburg]]. As this policy collapsed, both the Left and the Right started to radicalize.
The Rightist radicalization was in response to attempts at Russian cultural and constitutional hegemony, and would ultimately lead to [[Finnish Jäger troops|covert collaboration]] with [[Imperial Germany]], which had emerged as a new [[Great Power]] in the [[Baltic region]] after its [[1871]] unification.
The [[Leftist]] radicalization was chiefly a reaction to the emergence and growth of a propertyless [[peasant]]ry, without land of their own to cultivate (''Torpparit''). The Finns had no traditional experience of this, as they were used to being a people of poor but independent [[farmer]]s with no lords other than the [[Monarch|king]] and his [[civil service|civil servants]]. In addition the [[Industrial Revolution]] had started to affect southern Finland. It was a good time for trade, and the rift between [[wealth|rich]] and [[poverty|poor]] widened.
Public opinion was dominated by the educated classes, and had during the [[19th century]] become used to seeing Finland's problems in terms of culture, language, education and the [[Constitution]]. The threat from the common enemy, Russia, veiled the deepening rift between the classes, but when the Russian oppression was mitigated, a frightening conflict surfaced.
=== The General Strike (1905) ===
Tensions during Russia's failed [[Russo-Japanese War|war against Japan]] led, among other things, to a [[general strike]] in [[1905]], during which "Red" ([[Socialist]]) [[Red Guards (Finland)|"Protection Guards of Workers"]] (''Punakaarti'') and "White" (anti-Socialist) [[White Guard (Finland)|Protection Guards]] (''Suojeluskunnat'') were organized. The White and Red Guards were typically disguised as fire-brigades, which became a matter of great national concern in Finland.
In an attempt to quell the general unrest, [[universal suffrage]] was introduced. This soon led to near 50% turnouts for the [[Social Democratic Party of Finland|Social Democrats]], but no improvements for their voters, as legislation was "shared" between the Parliament and the Russian [[Tsar]] (in his role as [[Grand Duke]] of Finland). The legacy of the 19th century was the widespread belief that Finland's interests were best served by the [[status quo]].
=== The February Revolution (1917) ===
[[Image:General Strike Helsinki 1917.jpg|thumb|220px|'''On strike in Helsinki, 1917'''. Workers demanded food and a complete shifting of legislative power from the Russian government to the Finnish parliament.]]
Though the first violent clash between [[Red Guards (Finland)|Red]] and [[White Guard (Finland)|White]] Guards had begun in July [[1906]] in [[Helsinki]], renewed Russian oppression had a unifying effect on the Finns and delayed more serious conflict until after the [[February Revolution]] in Russia [[1917]].
After the general elections of [[1916]], when the Social Democrats had gained an [[absolute majority]] in the [[Parliament of Finland]], the [[Senate of Finland|Finland's Senate]] was a broad coalition-[[cabinet]] led by [[Oskari Tokoi]], [[Social Democratic Party of Finland|Social Democrat]] and [[labor union|trade Union]] leader. His cabinet's attempt to gain increased [[autonomy]] failed however. According to the [[Left-wing politics|Left wing]], this was chiefly due to secret resistance from the non-Socialists and their collaborati |
, free arcade rom from http://www.mame.net
*''[[Hidden and Dangerous]]''
* ''[[Kingpin: Arcade Sports Bowling]]'' ([[1995]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_kingpin_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[Lure of the Temptress]]'' ([[1992]]), by [[Revolution Software]], ([http://revolution.co.uk/_display.php?id=10 Get it here])
* ''[[Marathon (computer game series)|Marathon]]'' series released by Bungie for free: ([http://trilogyrelease.bungie.org/ Get it here])
* ''[[Miami Chase]]'' ([[1990]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_miamichase_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[One Must Fall#One Must Fall: 2097|One Must Fall: 2097]]'' ([[1994]]), by [[Epic MegaGames]], declared freeware on [[February 10]], [[1999]]
* ''[[Overdrive (computer game)|Overdrive]]'' ([[1993]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_overdrive_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[Project X (computer game)|Project X]]'' ([[1992]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_projectx_downloads.html Get it here]) ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_projectxse_downloads.html Get the Special Edition here])
* ''[[Qwak]]'' ([[1993]]) by [[Jamie Woodhouse]]/[[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_qwak_downloads.html Get it here], also available on [http://www.jamiewoodhouse.co.uk/ Jamie Woodhouse's Homepage])
* ''[[Red Baron (game)|Red Baron]]'' ([[1990]]), by [[Dynamix]]/[[Sierra On-Line]], limited-time promotional free download
* ''[[Sopwith (computer game)|Sopwith]]'' ([[1984]]), by BMB Compuscience, source code released to the public by its author
* ''[[Speris Legacy|The Speris Legacy]]'' ([[1995]]) published by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_sperislegacy_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[Starsiege: Tribes]]'' ([[1998]]), by [[Dynamix]]/[[Sierra On-Line]], free download release in 2004 as publicity for the release of [[Tribes: Vengeance]] (Tribes 3) ([http://www.fileplanet.com/files/140000/140246.shtml Get it here])
*''[[Styx]]'' ([1983]), by [[Windmill Software]]. Remastered edition. You can play it without any CGA cards and even if you're not using a PC/XT. [http://www.digger.org/styx]
* ''[[Superfrog]]'' ([[1993]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_superfrog_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[Super Stardust]]'' ([[1994]]) published by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_superstardust_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[Tribes 2]]'' ([[2001]]), by [[Dynamix]]/[[Sierra On-Line]], free download release in 2004 as publicity for the release of ''[[Tribes: Vengeance]]'' (''Tribes 3'')
* ''[[Ultima#Ultima IV: Quest of the Avatar (1985)|Ultima IV: Quest of the Avatar]]'' ([[1985]]) by [[Lord British]], see also the ''[[Ultima]]'' series.
* ''[[Warzone 2100]]'' ([[1999]]), by [[Pumpkin Studios]], game released to public domain without music or video clips
* ''[[Wild Metal]]'' ([[1999]]), by [[Rockstar Games]], ([http://www.rockstargames.com/classics/wmc.html Get it here])
* ''[[Worms (computer game)|Worms]]'' ([[1995]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images '''only''' released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_worms_downloads.html Get it here]) - this does not include other formats of the game, as at least the PC version is still available for purchase in some countries
* ''[[Worms (computer game)|Worms: The Directors Cut]]'' ([[1997]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_wormsdc_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[Zero Tolerance (game)|Zero Tolerance]]'' ([[1994]]), by [[Technopop]]. Not in the public domain, but made available for download royalty-free. [http://www.technopop.com/ Technopop web page.]([http://www.zophar.net/roms/genesis.html Get it here])
==See also==
*[[Copynorms]]
*[[Home of the Underdogs]]
*[[Intellectual property]]
*[[Orphaned works]]
==External links==
===Discussion on legality and ethic of "abandonware"===
*[http://www.adventureclassicgaming.com/index.php/site/features/160/ Abandonwarez: the pros and the cons], Adventure Classic Gaming.
===Legal "abandonware" titles for download===
*[http://www.abandonia.com/ Abandonia] &mdash; Large site with info, tutorials and downloads. Not all of the games listed can be downloaded; for Copyright reasons.
*[http://liberatedgames.org/ Liberated Games] &mdash; A site which features software which has been freed (liberated) by its copyright owners, in some form.
*[http://www.remaininplay.com/ Remain In Play] &mdash; Features only abandonware that has been officially released by their copyright owners.
*[http://www.squakenet.com/ Squakenet] – An archive with abandonware games.
*[http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ World of Spectrum] &mdash; Large archive of legal Spectrum ZX downloads, with permission from Amstrad, the copyright holder.
{{software distribution}}
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[[sv:Abandonware]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Application layer firewalls</title>
<id>2804</id>
<revision>
<id>15901193</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-04T01:32:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deelkar</username>
<id>87057</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Application layer firewall]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Active Directory</title>
<id>2807</id>
<revision>
<id>40927938</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T23:02:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kasperd</username>
<id>687489</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Revert changes by 142.229.136.225</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Active Directory''' ([[Microsoft codenames|codename]] '''Cascade''') is an implementation of [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]] [[directory service]]s by [[Microsoft]] for use in [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] environments. Active Directory allows administrators to assign enterprise wide policies, deploy programs to many computers, and apply critical updates to an entire organization. An Active Directory stores information and settings relating to an organization in a central, organized, accessible database. Active Directory networks can vary from a small installation with a few hundred objects, to a large installation with millions of objects.
Active Directory was previewed in 1996, released first with [[Windows 2000]], and saw some revision to extend functionality and improve administration in [[Windows Server 2003]].
==Structure==
===Objects===
An '''Active Directory''' (AD) structure is a hierarchical framework of [[objects]]. The objects fall into three broad categories &mdash; resources (e.g. [[printer]]s), services (e.g. [[e-mail]]), and people (accounts, or users and groups). The AD provides information on the objects, organizes the objects, controls access, and sets security.
Each object represents a single entity &mdash; whether a user, a computer, a printer, an application, or a shared data source &mdash; and its attributes. Objects can also be containers of other objects. An object is uniquely identified by its name and has a set of attributes &mdash; the characteristics and information that the object can contain &mdash; defined by and depending on its type. The attributes, the basic structure of the object itself, are defined by a [[schema]], which also determines the kind of objects that can be stored in the AD.
The schema itself is made up of two types of objects: schema class objects and schema attribute objects. A single schema class object defines one type of object that can be created by AD &mdash; for instance, it allows a User object to be created &mdash; and a schema attribute object defines an attribute that objects can have.
Each attribute object can be used in several different schema class objects. Those objects are known as schema objects, or [[metadata]], and exist to allow the schema to be extended or modified when necessary. However, because each schema object is integral to the definition of AD objects, deactivating or changing these objects can have serious consequences because it will fundamentally change the structure of AD itself. A schema object, when altered, will automatically propagate through Active Directory and once it is created it can only be deactivated &mdash; not deleted. Changing the schema is not something that is usually done without some planning
===Forests, Trees and Domains===
The framework that holds the objects is viewed at a number of levels. At the top of the structure is the Forest - the collection of every object, its attributes and rules (attribute syntax) in the AD. The forest holds one or more transitive trust linked Trees. A tree holds one or more Domains and domai |
national Standard Book Numbers ([[ISBN]]) are group identifiers for countries, areas, or language regions.
*The first three digits of [[GS1]] Company Prefixes used to identify products, e.g. in [[barcode]]s, designate (national) numbering agencies.
==See also==
*[[language code]]
*[[numbering scheme]]
*[[ISO 639]] language codes
==External links==
*Comparison of various systems: http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/codes/country.htm
*Another comparison: http://www.statoids.com/wab.html
*[http://www.countrycallingcodes.com/ Country calling codes]
*[http://www.doublestandards.org/country/ list with flags]
[[category: country codes| ]]
[[de:Ländercode]]
[[es:Códigos de países]]
[[fr:Code pays]]
[[is:Landsnúmer]]
[[ja:国名コード]]
[[th:รหัสประเทศ]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cladistics</title>
<id>5376</id>
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<revision>
<id>41658835</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T21:38:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sheep81</username>
<id>911938</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Definitions */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:cladogram-example1.png|framed|This cladogram shows the relationship among various insect groups. In some cladograms, the length of the horizontal lines indicates time elapsed since the last common ancestor.]]
'''Cladistics''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''klados'' = branch) is a branch of [[biology]] that determines the [[evolution|evolutionary]] relationships between organisms based on ''derived'' similarities. It is the most prominent of several [[phylogenetic]] [[systematics]], which study the evolutionary relationships between organisms. Cladistics is a method of rigorous analysis, using "shared derived properties" (synapomorphies: see below) of the organisms being studied. Cladistic analysis forms the basis for most modern systems of biological classification, which seek to group organisms by evolutionary relationships. In contrast, [[phenetics]] groups organisms based on their ''overall'' similarity, while approaches that are more traditional tend to rely on key characters. [[Willi Hennig]] (1913 - 1976) is widely regarded as the founder of cladistics.
As the end result of a cladistic analysis, [[Tree_(graph_theory)|tree]]like relationship-diagrams called "cladograms" are drawn up to show different hypotheses of relationships. A cladistic analysis can be based on as much or as little information as the researcher selects. Modern systematic research is likely to be based on a wide variety of information, including DNA-sequences (so called "molecular data"), biochemical data and [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] data.
[[Image:cladogram-example2.png|framed|This representation emphasises that cladograms are [[Tree_(graph_theory)|trees]].]]
In a cladogram, all organisms lie at the leaves, and each inner node is ideally binary (two-way). The two [[taxon|taxa]] on either side of a split are called ''sister taxa'' or ''sister groups.'' Each subtree, whether it contains one item or a hundred thousand items, is called a ''clade.'' A natural group has all the organisms contained in any one clade that share a unique ancestor (one which they do not share with any other organisms on the diagram) for that clade. Each clade is set off by a series of characteristics that appear in its members, but not in the other forms from which it diverged. These identifying characteristics of a clade are called [[synapomorphy|synapomorphies]] (shared, derived characters). For instance, hardened front [[wing]]s are a synapomorphy of [[beetle]]s, while [[Vernation|circinate vernation]], or the unrolling of new fronds, is a synapomorphy of [[fern]]s.
==Definitions==
Several more terms are defined for the description of cladograms and the positions of items within them. A species or clade is '''[[basal]]''' to another clade if it diverges from the cladogram before the members of the second clade diverge from each other. The second clade is termed '''[[derived]]'''. A clade or species located within another clade can also be described as '''nested''' within that clade. In an upright cladogram (one with species listed at the top, and a "root" at the bottom), a basal clade or species branches off toward the bottom, or below the derived group.
Thus in a cladogram that includes a dog, an elephant, and a bird, the bird's branch is basal, but both dog and elephant would be nested within the mammals, which are derived relative to birds in this cladogram. Birds and mammals diverged before the dog and elephant, both mammals, diverged from each other. On the other hand, if the cladogram included a canary, an ostrich, and a mammal, both canary and ostrich would be nested within the group of birds, which are derived relative to the mammal. The mammal is considered basal in this case because the bird-mammal divergence occurred before the divergence of canary and ostrich.
Similarly, a character state (see below) that is present in both basal and derived groups is called a '''plesiomorphy''' (meaning "close form", also called ancestral state), and one that occurs only in the derived group is called an '''apomorphy''' (meaning "separate form", also called the "derived" state) for that group. The adjectives '''plesiomorphic''' and '''apomorphic''' are used instead of "primitive" and "advanced" to avoid placing value-judgements on the evolution of the character states, since both may be advantageous in different circumstances.
==Cladistic methods==
Typically, a cladistic analysis begins by collecting information on certain features of all the organisms in question. Features may come in different versions (e.g. feather-color may be blue in one species but red in another). These features are collectively called ''characters,'' and specific versions are called ''character states.'' Thus, "red feathers" and "blue feathers" are two character states of the character "feather-color."
After recording several character states, the researcher decides which ones were present ''before'' the last common ancestor of the species group (''symplesiomorphies'') and which were present ''in'' the last common ancestor (''synapomorphies''). Usually this is done by considering one or more ''outgroups'' (organisms not related closely to any of the organisms in question). Only synapomorphies are of any use in characterising cladistic divisions.
Next, different possible cladograms are drawn up and evaluated. Clades are typically drawn to have as many synapomorphies as possible. The hope is that a sufficiently large number of true synapomorphies will be large enough to overwhelm any unintended symplesiomorphies (''homoplasies''), caused by [[convergent evolution]] (i.e. characters that resemble each other because of environmental conditions or function, not because of common ancestry). A well-known example of homoplasy due to convergent evolution is the character wings. Though the wings of birds and insects may superficially resemble one another and serve the same function, each evolved independently. If a bird and an insect are both accidentally scored "POSITIVE" for the character "presence of wings", a homoplasy would be introduced into the dataset, which may cause erroneous results.
In practice, neutral features like exact ''ultrastructure'' (a term for extremely fine structure, microscopic or molecular composition of cellular structure) may be used to provide evidence for real relationships even when the appearance of organisms makes it otherwise difficult. When equivalent possibilities turn up, one is usually chosen based on the principle of ''parsimony'': the most compact arrangement is likely the best hypothesis of relationship (a variation of [[Occam's razor]]). Another approach, particularly useful in molecular evolution, is [[maximum likelihood]], which selects the optimal cladogram that has the highest likelihood based on a specific probability model of changes.
Cladistics has taken a while to settle in, and there is still wide debate over how to apply Hennig's ideas in the real world. In particular, apomorphies are not always easy to distinguish and data are often unavailable due to a sparsity of available forms or a lack of knowledge of characters, and these may invalidate cladograms. There is also concern that use of widely different data sets (for instance, structural versus genetic characteristics) may produce widely different trees. However, largely, the phylogenetic approach to systematics has proven useful and coherent and has gained general support.
As [[DNA sequencing]] has become easier, phylogenies are increasingly constructed with the aid of molecular data. [[Computational systematics]] allows the use of these large data sets to construct objective phylogenies. These can filter out true synapomorphies from parallel evolution more accurately.
Cladistics does not assume any particular theory of evolution, only the background knowledge of descent with modification. Thus, cladistic methods can be, and recently have been, usefully applied to non-biological systems, including determining language families in [[historical linguistics]] and the filiation of manuscripts in [[textual criticism]].
==Cladistic classification==
[[Image:Clade types.png|framed|Three ways to define a clade for use in a cladistic taxonomy.<br/>'''Node-based''': the most recent common ancestor of A and B and all its descendants.<br/>'''Stem-based''': all descendants of the oldest common ancestor of A and B that is not also an ancestor of Z.<br/>'''Apomorphy-based''': the most recent common ancestor of A and B possessing a certain [[Cladistics#Definitions|apomorphy]] (derived character), and all its descendants.]]
A recent trend in biology since the 1960s, called '''cla |
==Notes==
1- In the [[English language]], Constantine's official Imperial title is ''Imperator Caesar Flavius Constantine Augustus, the pious, the fortunate, the undefeated''. After 312, he added ''maximus'' ("the greatest"), and after 325 replaced ''invictus'' ("undefeated") with ''victor'', as ''invictus'' reminded of [[Sol Invictus]], the Sun God.
==See also==
*[[Ammianus Marcellinus]]
*[[Arch of Constantine]], [[triumphal arch]] to the victory at [[Battle of Milvian Bridge|Milvian Bridge]].
*[[Constantinian shift]]
*[[Donation of Constantine]]
*[[Donatist]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Constantine I (emperor)}}
*[http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Valley/8920/European/edictofmilan.htm ''The Edict of Milan AD 313'']
*Letters of Constantine: [http://www.seanmultimedia.com/Pie_Constantine_The_Great_Letters_1.html Book 1], [http://www.seanmultimedia.com/Pie_Constantine_The_Great_Letters_2.html Book 2], & [http://www.seanmultimedia.com/Pie_Constantine_The_Great_Letters_3.html Book 3]
*[http://www.roman-emperors.org/conniei.htm RomanEmperors.org ''Vita'' of Constantine]; with bibliography
*[http://odur.let.rug.nl/~drijvers/ammianus/ Ammianus Marcellinus on-line project]
*[http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/ 12 Byzantine Rulers] by Lars Brownworth of [[Stony Brook School]] (grades 7-12). 40 minute audio lecture on Constantine.
==References and further reading ==
*[[Ancient History]]
* Chuvin, Pierre, B. A. Archer, translator, ''A Chronicle of the Last Pagans'', Harvard, 1990. ISBN 0-674-12970-9
*[[Eric Robertson Dodds|Dodds, Eric Robertson]], ''The Greeks and the Irrational'', University of California, 1964.
*Dodds, Eric Robertson, ''Pagan and Christian in an Age of Anxiety: Some Aspects of the Religious Experience from Marcus Aurelius to Constantine'', Cambridge, 1965.
*Jones, A.H.M., ''Constantine and the Conversion of Europe'', Macmillan, 1949.
The Association of Ancient Historians has honored Ramsay MacMullen as being the finest ancient historian of the Roman Empire in our time. Some may find him difficult, he speaks the language of the professional scholar, but reading his works is certainly worth the time and effort.
*MacMullen, Ramsay, ''Constantine'', [[Dial Press]], 1969.
*MacMullen, Ramsay, ''Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100-400'', Yale, 1984.
*MacMullen, Ramsay, ''Changes in the Roman Empire: Essays in the Ordinary'', Princeton, 1990.
*MacMullen, Ramsay, ''Enemies of the Roman Order: Treason, Unrest, and Alienation'', Harvard, 1966.
*Wilken, Robert L., ''Christians As the Romans Saw Them'', Yale, 1984
*[[Eusebius of Caesarea]], ''The Life of the blessed Emperor Constantine'' in four books from 306 to 337.
*[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' 1911:] Constantine
*[[Lactantius]], (240-320) ''Of the Manner the in Which the Persecutors Died'',
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04295c.htm "Constantine the Great"], by [[Charles George Herbermann|Charles G. Herbermann]] and Georg Grupp. ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1908)
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05121a.htm "Donatists"], by John Chapman. ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1909)
*Sources on the Antonine Plague
**[[Galen]], ''On the Natural Faculties''
**[[Marcus Cornelius Fronto]], ''Letters of Marcus Cornelius Fronto''
*Vlassis R. Rassias, ''Es Edafos Ferein'', 2nd edition, Athens, 2000, ISBN 960-7748-20-4
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{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[Constantius Chlorus|Constantius I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Roman Emperor]]|years=306&ndash;337|regent1=[[Galerius]], [[Licinius]] and [[Maximinus|Maximinus Daia]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Constantius II]],<br/>[[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]]<br/>and [[Constans]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[King of the Britons|Mythical British Kings]]|years= }}
{{s-aft|after=[[Octavius]]}}
{{end}}
[[Category:272 births]]
[[Category:337 deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:British traditional history]]
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]
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[[Category:Constantine Dynasty]]
[[Category:Greek people]]
[[Category:Late Antiquity]]
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Common Language Infrastructure</title>
<id>7237</id>
<revision>
<id>41918879</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:47:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Common Language Infrastructure (CLI)''' is an open [[specification]] developed by [[Microsoft]] that describes the executable code and runtime environment that form the core of the '''[[.NET Framework|Microsoft .NET Framework]]'''. The specification defines an environment that allows multiple high-level languages to be used on different computer platforms without being rewritten for specific architectures.
To clarify, the CLI is a ''specification,'' not an ''implementation,'' and is often confused with the '''[[Common Language Runtime]] (CLR)''', which contains aspects outside the scope of the specification.
The CLI specification is divided into four aspects:
* '''The Common Type System (CTS)''' &mdash; A set of [[Datatype|types]] and operations that are shared by many [[programming language]]s.
* '''Metadata''' &mdash; Information about program structure is language-agnostic, so that it can be referenced between languages and tools, making it easy to work with code written in a language you are not using.
* '''Common Language Specification (CLS)''' &mdash; A set of base rules which any language targeting the CLI should conform to in order to interoperate with other CLS-compliant languages.
* '''Virtual Execution System (VES)''' &mdash; The VES loads and executes CLI-compatible programs, using the metadata to combine separately generated pieces of code at runtime.
All compatible languages compile to '''[[Common Intermediate Language]] (CIL)''', which is an '''[[intermediate language]]''' that is abstracted from the platform hardware. When the code is executed, the platform-specific VES will compile the CIL to the [[machine language]] according to the specific hardware.
==Standardization and Licensing==
In August 2000, Microsoft, [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[Intel]], and others worked to standardize CLI. By December 2001, it was ratified by the [[Ecma International|ECMA]], with [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] standardization following in April of 2003.
While Microsoft and their partners hold patents for CLI, ECMA and ISO requires that all patents essential to implementation be made available under "[[Reasonable and Non Discriminatory Licensing|reasonable and non-discriminatory (RAND) terms]]." The companies have agreed, instead, to make the patents available under "royalty-free and otherwise RAND" terms.
==Implementations==
* '''[[.NET Framework|Microsoft .NET Framework]]''' contains Microsoft's commercial implementation of the CLI for desktop systems, but also encompassing a larger collection of resources, libraries, and tools.
* '''[[Shared Source Common Language Infrastructure]]''' is a reference implementation of the CLI available from Microsoft, under the [[Shared source]] licensing program.
* '''[[.NET Compact Framework]]''' is Microsoft's commercial implementation of the CLI for portable devices.
* '''[[Mono development platform]]''' is a popular [[open source]] implementation of CLI and accompanying technologies, sponsored by [[Novell]].
* '''[[Portable.NET]]''', part of the [[dotGNU]] project, is another open-source implementation.
==External links and references==
===External links===
* [http://csharpcomputing.com/Tutorials/TOC.htm Tutorial including MSIL by Aleksey Nudelman]
===References===
* {{cite web
| title = Standard ECMA-335, Common Language Infrastructure (CLI)
| work = ECMA International
| url = http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-335.htm
| accessdate = Aug. 31
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{cite web
| title = ISO/IEC 23271, Common Language Infrastructure
| work = ISO
| url = http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=36769&ICS1=35&ICS2=60&ICS3=
| accessdate = Aug. 31
| accessyear = 2005
}}
[[Category:.NET framework]]
[[de:Common Language Infrastructure]]
[[hu:Common Language Infrastructure]]
[[it:Common Language Infrastructure]]
[[pl:Common Language Infrastructure]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cricket World Cup</title>
<id>7239</id>
<revision>
<id>41229977</id>
<timesta |
he ''New York Times'' in November 2004, Red Cross inspectors accused the U.S. military of using "humiliating acts, solitary confinement, temperature extremes, use of forced positions" against prisoners. The inspectors concluded that "the construction of such a system, whose stated purpose is the production of intelligence, cannot be considered other than an intentional system of cruel, unusual and degrading treatment and a form of torture." The United States Government has reportedly rejected the Red Cross findings. [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&storyID=6951969 Reuter], [http://nytimes.com/2004/11/30/politics/30gitmo.html?ei=5094&en=8d107165e454d8b6&hp=&ex=1101877200&adxnnl=1&partner=homepage&adxnnlx=1101843681-+nTyVVJpq8yXt1yEg4X28g ''New York Times''], [http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList4/C5667B446C9A4DF7C1256F5C00403967 ICRC comments]
[[Abdul Ghaffar]], captured in Afghanistan in December 2001, was one of the twenty-three prisoners released from Camp Delta in late January 2004. After his release, he rejoined the remnants of the Taliban and was killed in a gunfight in late September 2004[http://www.voanews.com/article.cfm?objectID=E2B743AD-19BE-4C63-9228B3E9427A6C70&title=Taleban%20Leader%20Killed%20in%20Afghanistan%20was%20in%20Guantanamo%20Bay%20Prison].
Abdullah Mehsud, also captured in Afghanistan in December 2001 after surrendering to [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]], masterminded the kidnapping of two Chinese engineers in Pakistan's South Waziristan region as well as returning to his position as an Al-Qaeda field commander. Mehsud has also claimed responsibility for the bombing at Islamabad&#8217;s Marriott Hotel in October [[2004]]. The blast injured seven people, including a U.S. diplomat, two Italians and the Pakistani prime minister&#8217;s chief security officer.
Airat Vakhitov and Rustam Akhmyarov, two Russian nationals captured in Afghanistan in [[December 2001]] and released from Guantánamo in late [[2002]], were arrested by [[Russia|Russian]] authorities on [[August 30]], [[2005]]. The two former detainees were arrested in [[Moscow]] for allegedly preparing a series of attacks in Russia. According to authorities, Vakhitov was using a local human rights group as cover for his activities. [http://www.mosnews.com/news/2005/08/30/guantanamorussians.shtml]
==International concern about the conditions in the camp==
On [[May 25]], [[2005]], [[Amnesty International]] released its annual report calling the facility the ''"[[gulag]] of our times"''[http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0505260166may26,1,671415.story?coll=chi-newsnationworld-hed] , even using the expression "''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]''" to design to the whole of the [[black site]]s:
:"''Guantánamo has become the gulag of our times, entrenching the notion that people can be detained without any recourse to the law. If Guantánamo evokes images of Soviet repression, "[[ghost detainees]]" – or the incommunicado detention of unregistered detainees - bring back the practice of "[[forced disappearances|disappearances]]" so popular with Latin American dictators in the past. According to U.S. official sources there could be over 100 ghost detainees held by the U.S.''" [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGPOL100142005]
Physical conditions for detainees at Camp Delta meet basic standards for maintaining health, but the prisoners are held in small, mesh-sided cells with little privacy, and lights are kept on day and night. Detainees are said to have rations similar to American forces, with consideration for [[Muslim]] dietary needs. [[James Yee]], a Muslim chaplain from the U.S. Navy, provided religious services, but has now resigned after unproven allegations were brought against him by the United States, following his tour of duty at Guantánamo Bay. These charges include sedition, aiding the enemy, spying (though it was never declared on whose behalf), espionage, and failure to obey a general order. He was then transferred to a United States Navy brig in Charleston, South Carolina. Later, the charges were quietly dropped. He states that he resigned because no apology was given, nor was there an acknowledgement of error by the U.S.
Detainees are kept in isolation most of the day, are [[blindfold]]ed when moving into Camp Delta and from place to place within the camp, and forbidden to talk in groups of more than three. American doctrine in dealing with prisoners of war state that isolation and silence are effective means in breaking down the will to resist [[interrogation]]. There have been allegations of [[torture]], including sleep deprivation, the use of so-called [[truth drug]]s, beatings, locking in confined and cold cells, and being forced to maintain uncomfortable postures. It has been alleged that [[SERE]] (Survival, Evasion, Resistance, Escape) program's chief psychologist, Col. [[Morgan Banks]], issued guidance in early 2003 for the "behavioral science consultants" who helped to devise Guantánamo's interrogation strategy. SERE is a program based in [[Fort Bragg, North Carolina]].
Member states of the [[European Union]] and the [[Organization of American States]], as well as non-governmental organizations such as [[Amnesty International]] have strenuously protested the legal status and physical condition of detainees at Guantánamo. In addition, British and American [[court]]s have been approached by relatives and friends of detainees to request a legal determination favorable to detainees.
[[Johan van Zyl Steyn|Lord Steyn]], a prominent British judge, was quoted in the British newspaper ''[[The Independent]]'' on [[November 26]] [[2003]] regarding the planned trial of the prisoners by military tribunal:
: ''As a lawyer brought up to admire the ideals of American democracy and justice, I would have to say that I regard this a monstrous failure of justice. The military will act as interrogators, prosecutors and defence counsel, judges, and when death sentences are imposed, as executioners. The trials will be held in private. None of the guarantees of a fair trial need be observed.''
At the beginning of [[December 2003]], there were media reports that military lawyers appointed to defend alleged terrorists being held by the U.S. at Guantánamo Bay had expressed concern about the legal process for military commissions. The UK's Guardian newspaper [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,1098523,00.html] reported that a team of lawyers was dismissed after complaining that the rules for the forthcoming military commissions prohibited them from properly representing their clients. New York's [[Vanity Fair magazine]] reported that some of the lawyers felt their ethical obligations were being violated by the process. [[The Pentagon]] strongly denied the claims in these media reports.
The ''[[Washington Post]]'' in a [[May 8]], [[2004]] [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A11017-2004May8.html article] describes a set of interrogation techniques approved for use in interrogating alleged terrorists at Guantánamo Bay which are said by [[Kenneth Roth]], executive director of [[Human Rights Watch]], to be cruel and inhumane treatment illegal under the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]].
On [[June 15]] [[Brigadier General]] [[Janis Karpinski]] at the centre of the [[Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse]] in [[Iraq]] said she was told from the top to treat detainees like dogs "as it is done in Guantánamo <nowiki>[Camp Delta]</nowiki>". The former commander of Camp X-Ray, Geoffrey Miller, was the person brought in to deal with the inquiry into the alleged abuses at Abu Ghraib in Iraq during the Allied occupation. Ex-detainees of the Camp have made serious allegations, including alleging Geoffrey Miller's complicity in abuse at Camp X-Ray.
Camp Delta is also unpopular with some in the U.S.; columnist [[Thomas Friedman]] urged [[George W. Bush]] to "[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/27/opinion/27friedman.html?ex=1270785600&en=37bef79604f97228&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland just shut it down]":
: [The Camp Delta] ''has become worse than an embarrassment. I am convinced that more Americans are dying and will die if we keep the Gitmo prison open than if we shut it down. So, please, Mr. President, just shut it down.''
Later, another ''New York Times'' editorial [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/05/opinion/05sun1.html] supported Friedman's proposal:
: ''What makes Amnesty's gulag metaphor apt is that Guantánamo is merely one of a chain of shadowy detention camps that also includes Abu Ghraib in Iraq, the military prison at Bagram Air Base in Afghanistan and other, secret locations run by the intelligence agencies. Each has produced its own stories of abuse, torture and criminal homicide. These are not isolated incidents, but part of a tightly linked global detention system with no accountability in law. Prisoners have been transferred from camp to camp. So have commanding officers. And perhaps not coincidentally, so have specific methods of mistreatment.''
On [[19 November]], [[2005]], a group of experts from the [[United Nations]] called off their visit to Camp Delta, originally scheduled for [[6 December]], saying that the United States was not allowing them to conduct private interviews with the prisoners. "Since the Americans have not accepted the minimum requirements for such a visit, we must cancel [it]," [[Manfred Nowak]], the UN envoy in charge of investigating torture allegations around the world, told AFP. However, the group is still intending to write a report on conditions at the prison, based on eyewitness accounts from released detainees, meetings with lawyers and information from human rights groups. [http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/afp_world/view/179382/1/.html]
On [[February 16]], [ |
005]] - Dennis Rader is sentenced to 175 years in prison for the [[BTK killer|BTK serial killings]].
*2005 - [[2005 Java Blackout|Massive power blackout]] hits the [[Indonesia]]n island of [[Java (island)|Java]], affecting almost 100 million people.
*2005 - [[Starbucks]] opens its first outlet in [[Ireland]], in [[Dundrum Town Centre]], south County [[Dublin]].
==Births==
*[[1414]] - [[Jami]], Persian poet (d. [[1492]])
*[[1450]] - [[Marko Marulić]], Croatian poet (d. [[1524]])
*[[1587]] - [[Virginia Dare]], first English child born in North America (d. [[1588]])
*[[1596]] - [[Jean Bolland]], Flemish Jesuit writer (d. [[1665]])
*[[1605]] - [[Henry Hammond]], English churchman (d. [[1660]])
*[[1685]] - [[Brook Taylor]], English mathematician (d. [[1731]])
*[[1692]] - [[Louis Henri, Duc de Bourbon]], [[Prime Minister of France]] (d. [[1740]])
*[[1720]] - [[Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers]], English murderer (d. [[1760]])
*[[1750]] - [[Antonio Salieri]], Italian composer (d. [[1825]])
*[[1774]] - [[Meriwether Lewis]], American explorer (d. [[1809]])
*[[1822]] - [[Isaac P. Rodman]], American Union General (d. [[1862]])
*[[1830]] - Emperor [[Franz Josef I of Austria]] (d. [[1916]])
*[[1841]] - [[William Halford]], American naval officer and [[Medal of Honor]] recipient
*[[1857]] - [[Libert H. Boeynaems]], Belgian Catholic prelate (d. [[1926]])
*[[1890]] - [[Walther Funk]], German Nazi politician (d. [[1960]])
*[[1896]] - [[Jack Pickford]], Canadian-born actor (d. [[1933]])
*[[1902]] - [[Adamson-Eric]] (Eric Adamson), Estonian painter (d. [[1968]])
*[[1904]] - [[Max Factor]], Polish-born cosmetics entrepreneur (d. [[1996]])
*[[1917]] - [[Caspar Weinberger]], [[United States Secretary of Defense]]
*[[1918]] - [[Walter Joseph Hickel]], Governor of Alaska and [[US Secretary of the Interior]]
*[[1920]] - [[Bob Kennedy]], baseball player and manager (d. [[2005]])
*[[1922]] - [[Shelley Winters]], American actress
*1922 - [[Alain Robbe-Grillet]], French writer
*[[1925]] - [[Brian Aldiss]], English writer
*[[1927]] - [[Rosalynn Carter]], [[First Lady of the United States]]
*[[1928]] - [[Marge Schott]], baseball team owner (d. [[2004]])
*[[1929]] - [[Hugues Aufray]], French singer
*[[1932]] - [[William R. Bennett]], Premier of British Columbia
*[[1933]] - [[Roman Polanski]], Franco-Polish director and actor
*1933 - [[Just Fontaine]], French footballer
*[[1934]] - [[Vincent Bugliosi]], American attorney
*1934 - [[Roberto Clemente]], Puerto Rican [[Major League Baseball]] player (d. [[1972]])
*1934 - [[Ronnie Carroll]], British singer
*[[1935]] - [[Rafer Johnson]], American athlete
*1935 - Sir [[Howard Morrison]], New Zealand entertainer
*[[1937]] - [[Robert Redford]], American actor and director
*[[1939]] - [[Robert Horton| Sir Robert Horton]], UK businessman
*[[1943]] - [[Martin Mull]], American comedian and actor
*1943 - [[Carl Wayne]], English singer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1945]] - [[Barbara Harris (singer)|Barbara Harris]], American singer ([[The Toys|Toys]])
*[[1952]] - [[Patrick Swayze]], American actor
*[[1953]] - [[Louie Gohmert]], American politician
*[[1955]] - Dr. [[Taher ElGamal]], Egyptian scientist
*[[1957]] - [[Carole Bouquet]], French actress
*1957 - [[Denis Leary]], American comedian and actor
*[[1958]] - [[Madeleine Stowe]], American actress
*[[1960]] - [[Fat Lever]], American basketball player
*[[1965]] - [[Koji Kikkawa]], Japanese singer
*[[1969]] - [[Masta Killa]], American rapper
*1969 - [[Everlast]], American musician
*1969 - [[Edward Norton]], American actor
*1969 - [[Christian Slater]], American actor
*[[1970]] - [[Malcolm-Jamal Warner]], American actor
*[[1971]] - [[Richard D James]], Irish-born musician
*[[1972]] - [[Leo Ku]], Hong Kong singer
*[[1974]] - [[Shivnarine Chanderpaul]], West Indian cricketer
*[[1979]] - [[Selena Silver]], pornographic film actress
*[[1980]] - [[Esteban Cambiasso]], Argentine footballer
*[[1984]] - [[Robert Huth]], German footballer
*[[1985]] - [[Spencer Bailey]], symbol of survival, [[United Airlines Flight 232]] crash
==Deaths==
*[[472]] - [[Ricimer]], Roman general
*[[849]] - [[Walafrid Strabo]], German monk and theologian
*[[1227]] - [[Genghis Khan]], Mongol leader
*[[1276]] - [[Pope Adrian V]]
*[[1430]] - [[Thomas de Ros, 9th Baron de Ros]], English soldier and politician (drowned) (b. [[1406]])
*[[1503]] - [[Pope Alexander VI]] (b. [[1431]])
*[[1559]] - [[Pope Paul IV]] (b. [[1476]])
*[[1563]] - [[Étienne de La Boétie]], French judge and writer (b. [[1530]])
*[[1613]] - [[Giovanni Artusi]], Italian composer
*[[1620]] - [[Wanli]], [[Emperor of China]] (b. [[1563]])
*[[1642]] - [[Guido Reni]], Italian painter (b. [[1575]])
*[[1645]] - [[Eudoxia Streshneva]], Tsarina of [[Mikhail I of Russia]] (b. [[1608]])
*[[1683]] - [[Charles Hart (17th-century actor)|Charles Hart]], English actor (b. [[1625]])
*[[1707]] - [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire]], English soldier and statesman (b. [[1640]])
*[[1712]] - [[Richard Savage, 4th Earl Rivers]], English soldier
*[[1765]] - [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1708]])
*[[1809]] - [[Matthew Boulton]], English manufacturer and engineer (b. [[1728]])
*[[1815]] - [[Chauncey Goodrich]], U.S. Senator from Connecticut (b. [[1759]])
*[[1842]] - [[Louis de Freycinet]], French explorer (b. [[1779]])
*[[1850]] - [[Honoré de Balzac]], French writer (b. [[1799]])
*[[1940]] - [[Walter P. Chrysler]], American automobile executive (b. [[1875]])
*[[1949]] - [[Paul Mares]], American musician (b. [[1900]])
*[[1963]] - [[Clifford Odets]], American playwright (b. [[1906]])
*[[1981]] - [[Anita Loos]], American screenwriter, playwright, and author (b. [[1889]])
*[[1983]] - [[Nikolaus Pevsner]], German-born art historian (b. [[1902]])
*[[1990]] - [[Grethe Ingmann]], Danish singer (b. [[1938]])
*[[1994]] - [[Richard Laurence Millington Synge]], English chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1914]])
*[[1998]] - [[Persis Khambatta]], Indian actress (b. [[1950]])
*[[2004]] - [[Elmer Bernstein]], American composer (b. [[1922]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[List of saints|RC saints]] - Saint [[Helena of Constantinople]]
* [[Buhe]] in the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/18 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[August 17]] - [[August 19]] - [[July 18]] - [[September 18]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:18 Augustus]]
[[ar:18 أغسطس]]
[[an:18 d'agosto]]
[[ast:18 d'agostu]]
[[bg:18 август]]
[[be:18 жніўня]]
[[bs:18. august]]
[[ca:18 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 18]]
[[cv:Çурла, 18]]
[[co:18 d'aostu]]
[[cs:18. srpen]]
[[cy:18 Awst]]
[[da:18. august]]
[[de:18. August]]
[[et:18. august]]
[[el:18 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:18 de agosto]]
[[eo:18-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 18]]
[[fo:18. august]]
[[fr:18 août]]
[[fy:18 augustus]]
[[ga:18 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:18 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 18일]]
[[hr:18. kolovoza]]
[[io:18 di agosto]]
[[id:18 Agustus]]
[[ia:18 de augusto]]
[[ie:18 august]]
[[is:18. ágúst]]
[[it:18 agosto]]
[[he:18 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:18 Agustus]]
[[ka:18 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:18 zélnika]]
[[ku:18'ê gelawêjê]]
[[la:18 Augusti]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 18]]
[[lb:18. August]]
[[li:18 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 18]]
[[mk:18 август]]
[[ms:18 Ogos]]
[[nap:18 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:18 augustus]]
[[ja:8月18日]]
[[no:18. august]]
[[nn:18. august]]
[[oc:18 d'agost]]
[[pl:18 sierpnia]]
[[pt:18 de Agosto]]
[[ro:18 august]]
[[ru:18 августа]]
[[se:Borgemánu 18.]]
[[sco:18 August]]
[[sq:18 Gusht]]
[[scn:18 di austu]]
[[simple:August 18]]
[[sk:18. august]]
[[sl:18. avgust]]
[[sr:18. август]]
[[fi:18. elokuuta]]
[[sv:18 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 18]]
[[tt:18. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 18]]
[[th:18 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:18 tháng 8]]
[[tr:18 Ağustos]]
[[uk:18 серпня]]
[[wa:18 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 18]]
[[zh:8月18日]]
[[pam:Agostu 18]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 19</title>
<id>1497</id>
<revision>
<id>41777696</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:59:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Deaths */ added birth year</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=19}}
|}
'''[[August 19]]''' is the 231st day of the year (232nd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 134 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[293 BC]] - Oldest known [[Roman temple]] to [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] ''Libitina'' founded on the [[Esquiline Hill]]; institution of [[Vinalia Rustica]] begins.
*[[1388]] - [[Battle of Otterburn]][http://www.thenortheast.fsnet.co.uk/Redesdale.htm#BATTLE%20OF%20OTTERBURN], border skirmish between the [[Scottish people|Scottish]] and the [[English people|English]] in Northern [[England]].
*[[1561]] - Queen [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Stuart]] returns to [[Scotland]].
*[[1692]] - [[Salem Witch Trials]]: In [[Salem, Massachusetts]] five women and a clergyman are executed after being convicted of [[witchcraft]].
*[[1745]] - [[Jacobite Rising]], [[Prince Charles Edward Stuart]] lands from a French warship in [[Glenfinnan]], raises his standard and marches on [[London]] - the start of the Second Jacobite Rebellion known as "the 45"
*[[1768]] - [[Saint Isaac's Cathedral]] is founded in [[Saint Petersburg, Russia|Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]]
*[[1782]] - [[Battle of Blue Licks]]: the last major battle of the [[American Revolutionary War]], almost ten months after the surrender of the British commander [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]] following the [[Battle of Yorktown (1781)|Battle of Yorktown]].
*[[1812]] - [[War of 1812]]: American frigate ''[[USS Constitution]]'' defeats the [[Royal Navy|British]] frigate ''[[HMS Guerriere (1806)|HMS Guerrière]]'' off the coast of [[Nova Scotia]].
*[[1813]] - [[Gervasio Antonio de Posadas]] joins [[Argentina]]'s second triumvirate.
*[[1839]] - Presentation of [[Louis Da |
ce="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
{{lowercase|title=ed}}
The [[text editor]] '''ed''' was the original standard on the [[Unix]] operating system. ed was originally written by [[Ken Thompson]] and he implemented [[regular expression]] in ed for the first time. Prior to that implementation, the concept of regular expressions was only formalized in a mathematical paper, which Ken Thompson had read. ed was influenced by an earlier editor known as [[QED (text editor)|QED]] from University of California at Berkeley, where Ken Thompson had graduated from. ed went on to influence [[Ex (editor)|ex]], which in turn spawned [[vi]]. The non-interactive Unix commands [[grep]] and [[sed]] were inspired by common special uses of ed; their influence is visible in the design of the programming language [[AWK programming language|AWK]], which in turn inspired aspects of [[Perl programming language|Perl]].
Famous for its terseness, ed has almost no visual feedback. For example, the message that ed will produce in case of error, or when it wants to make sure you want to quit without saving, is "?". It does not report the current filename or line number, or even display the results of a change to the text, unless requested. This terseness was appropriate in the early versions of Unix, when consoles were [[teletype]]s, [[modem]]s were slow, and [[hard disk]] and [[random Access Memory|memory]] were precious, but these advantages ceased to apply when more interactive editors became the standards.
In current practice ed is rarely used interactively, but it does find use in some [[shell script]]s. For interactive use, ed was subsumed by [[sam (program)|sam]], [[vi]] and [[Emacs]] editors in the [[1980s]]. ed can be found on virtually every version of Unix and [[Linux]] available; people who have to work with multiple versions of Unix often know at least the basic ed commands. If something goes wrong, and the OS is somehow not fully loaded, ed is sometimes the only editor available. This is often the only time when it is used interactively, aside maybe from torturing first year students.
The ed commands are often imitated in other line-based editors. For example, [[edlin|EDLIN]] in early [[MS-DOS]] versions had somewhat similar syntax, and text editors in many [[MUD]]s ([[LPMud]] and descendants, for example) use ed-like syntax. These editors, however, are typically more limited in function.
==Example session==
Here is an example transcript of an ed session:
a
ed is the standard Unix text editor.
This is line number two.
.
2i
&nbsp;
.
1,$l
ed is the standard Unix text editor.$
$
This is line number two.$
3s/two/three/
1,$l
ed is the standard Unix text editor.$
$
This is line number three.$
w text
65
q
The end result is a simple text file containing the following text:
ed is the standard Unix text editor.
&nbsp;
This is line number three.
== Explanation of the example ==
Here we started with an empty file, and used ''a'' to append text (all ed commands are single letters). That put us into ''insert mode'', which is terminated by a singular dot on a line. The two lines that we entered before the dot end up in the file buffer. ''2i'' goes into insert mode, and will insert the entered text (a single empty line in our case) before line two. All commands may be prefixed by a line number and will operate on that line.
In ''1,$l'' the l stands for the list command. This time we prefixed the command by a range, two lines separated by a comma ($ means the last line). In return, ed is listing all lines, from first to last. These lines are ended with dollar signs, so that white space at the end of lines is clearly visible.
We will correct the error in line 3 with ''3s/two/three/'', a substitution command. The 3 will apply it to the right line, following the command is the text to be replaced, and then the replacement. Listing all lines again with ''1,$l'' we see that the line is correct now.
''w text'' writes the buffer to the file "text". ed responds with ''65'', which is the number of characters that it wrote to the file. ''q'' will end our ed session.
== Bill Joy, vi, and ed ==
In the [[editor wars]], [[emacs]] proponents used to say, "even [[Bill Joy]] doesn't use vi anymore."
In a [[1985]] interview Bill Joy explained that, at Sun, he used an early desktop publishing program, called '''interleaf'''; when visiting labs outside Sun, he used plain old ed. Although vi was almost ubiquitous, he could not count on the local version working the way he expected. However, ed was never modified, so he could count on making it work without making himself look like a fool.
==External links==
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/ed/ed.html GNU ed homepage]
*[http://snap.nlc.dcccd.edu/learn/nlc/ed.html Unix Editors I]
*[http://www.gnu.org/fun/jokes/ed.msg.html ed Humor]
*[http://www.linuxmanpages.com/man1/ed.1.php The program's [[manpage]]]
[[Category:Linux text editors]]
[[Category:Mac OS text editors]]
[[Category:Unix software]]
[[cs:Ed]]
[[de:Ed]]
[[fr:Ed (logiciel)]]
[[it:Ed]]
[[pl:Ed]]
[[ru:Ed]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edlin</title>
<id>9772</id>
<revision>
<id>42001386</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:39:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.73.154.80</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Edlin''' is a [[line editor]] included with [[MS-DOS]] and later [[Microsoft]] operating systems. It provides rudimentary capabilities for editing plain text files through a command-driven interface. Line numbers are specified using numerals, and operations are specified using single-character alphabetic commands (e.g. "5d" instructs the program to delete the 5th line of the file).
It was the only [[text editor]] provided with MS-DOS before version 5.0 of that system, when it was superseded by the full screen [[Edit (MS-DOS)|edit]] editor. However, Edlin is still available in [[Microsoft Windows]] operating systems up to and including at least [[Windows Server 2003]] and [[Windows XP]]. Unlike most other external DOS commands, it has not been transformed into a native, [[Win32]] program. Its persistence can probably be explained by the fact that it can be invoked to automatically perform small modifications on text files, by piping a [[script (computer programming)|script]] of commands to it through standard input.
MS-DOS actually did contain another visual editor: [[GW-BASIC]], [[Microsoft BASIC]]'s interpreter and development environment. Unsurprisingly, the EDIT editor of later MS-DOS versions actually invoked [[QBasic]], which over time replaced GW-BASIC and had a more modern user interface.
Edlin is probably modelled after the line editors [[QED (text editor)|QED]] or [[ed]].
Edlin was created by [[Tim Paterson]] in two weeks in 1980, and was expected to have a six-month shelf life. [http://www.patersontech.com/Dos/Byte/History.html]. Edlin was actually originally written for [[Seattle Computer Products]]'s [[QDOS]], which only later got bought by Microsoft in order to become MS-DOS.
[[Gregory Pietsch]] has written a [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]'d [[clone (computer science)|clone]] of Edlin. The clone is available for download as part of the [[FreeDOS]] project, and runs on operating systems such as [[Linux]] or [[Unix]] as well as MS-DOS. The clone's outputted messages can also be customized for a variety of European languages and can be compiled with a variety of [[C programming language|C]] compilers.
==External links==
*http://www.computerhope.com/edlin.htm - MS-DOS edlin command help
[[Category:DOS software]]
[[Category:Windows text editors]]
[[fr:EDLIN]]
[[nl:EDLIN]]
[[sv:EDLIN]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EBCDIC</title>
<id>9773</id>
<revision>
<id>41615031</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:05:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Suruena</username>
<id>140178</id>
</contributor>
<comment>wikified some words</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''EBCDIC''' (Extended [[Binary Coded Decimal#IBM and BCD|Binary Coded Decimal]] Interchange [[Code]]) is an 8-[[bit]] [[character encoding]] ([[code page]]) used on [[IBM mainframe]] [[operating systems]], like [[z/OS]], [[OS/390]], [[VM (Operating system)|VM]] and [[VSE]], as well as [[IBM minicomputer]] operating systems like [[OS/400]] and [[i5/OS]]. It is also employed on various non-IBM platforms such as [[Fujitsu]]-[[Siemens AG|Siemens]]' [[BS2000|BS2000/OSD]], [[HP]] [[MPE/iX]], and [[Unisys]] [[Master Control Program|MCP]]. It descended from [[punched card]]s and the corresponding six bit [[binary-coded decimal]] code that most of IBM's computer peripherals of the late [[1950s]] and early [[1960s]] used.
==History==
EBCDIC was devised in [[1963]] and [[1964]] by [[IBM]] and was announced with the release of the [[System/360|IBM System/360]] line of mainframe [[computer]]s. It was created to extend the [[Binary-coded_decimal#IBM_and_BCD|Binary-Coded Decimal]] that existed at the time. EBCDIC was developed separately from [[ASCII]]. EBCDIC is an 8-bit encoding, versus the 7-bit encoding of ASCII.
All IBM mainframe [[peripheral]]s and [[operating system]]s use EBCDIC. Their operating systems provide ASCII and [[Unicode]] modes for translating between different encodings. Translation can occur within the hardware peripheral or in the software as required by the application.
At the time it was devised, EBCDIC made it relatively easy to enter data into a computer with punch cards. Since punch cards are almost never used on mainframes anymore, EBCDIC is used in modern mainframes solely for backwards compatibility. It has no technical advantage over ASCII-based code pages such as the [[ISO-8859]] series or [[Unicode]]. As with single-byte [[extended ASCII]] codepages, most EBCDIC codepages o |
first disagreeable"; more recent descriptions by westerners can be more graphic. <!-- Source for this one? -- Westerners have described the experience of eating the durian as "like eating custard in a public [[lavatory]]".--> Travel and food writer Richard Sterling says:
<blockquote>''... its odor is best described as pig-shit, turpentine and onions, garnished with a gym sock. It can be smelled from yards away. Despite its great local popularity, the raw fruit is forbidden from some establishments such as hotels, subways and airports, including public transportation in Southeast Asia''<ref>{{cite book | author=Winokur, Jon (Editor) | title=The Traveling Curmudgeon: Irreverent Notes, Quotes, and Anecdotes on Dismal Destinations, Excess Baggage, the Full Upright Position, and Other Reasons Not to Go There | publisher=Sasquatch Books | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1570613893}} p. 102.</ref>.
</blockquote>
The unusual odour has prompted many people to search for an accurate description. Comparisons have been made with the [[civet cat]], [[sewage]], stale vomit, and used surgical swabs.<ref>Davidson, p. 263.</ref> What is known about the chemical property of durian is that the ripe flesh is a complex hybrid of volatile [[organosulfur compound]]s, including [[ethyl mercaptan]] (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>S), and some of which are unidentified. These compounds oxidise upon exposure to air and are responsible for the unusual odours that develop. Due to this odour, it is forbidden to bring durians as hand luggage onto aircraft belonging to some airlines, to carry them on [[Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore)|Singapore's Mass Rapid Transit system]], or to store or eat them in many hotels.
This strong odour can be detected half a mile away by animals, thus luring them. In addition, the fruit is extremely appetizing to a variety of animals, from squirrels to [[Chevrotain|mouse deer]], [[pig]]s, and [[orangutan]]. While some of these animals eat the fruit and dispose of the seed under the parent plant, others swallow the seed with the fruit and then transport it some distance before excreting it, the seed being dispersed as the result.<ref>Marinelli, p.691.</ref> The thorny armored covering of the fruit may have evolved to discourage smaller animals, since larger animals are more likely to transport the seeds far from the parent tree.<ref>{{cite book | author=McGee, Harold | title=On Food and Cooking (Revised Edition) | publisher=Scribner | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-684-80001-2}} p. 379</ref>
==Selection==
Many regular durian-eaters have their own methods of selecting the best fruit from a given pile. In the past such methods were important given that the durian is a seasonal fruit which used to be [[harvest]]ed once a year. Nowadays it is harvested about twice a year and it is not so important to always be able to choose the best fruit available. Due to increased supply the retailers have become more competitive in their approach.
Knowing how to pick the right fruit was imperative when retailers sold the fruit "as is", without dissection. Today resellers usually dissect the fruit and sell only the edible parts inside. This has made it much easier for the customers to discern the quality of the fruit they are buying.
Selection of durians in an orchard is simpler. Fruit from the same tree will generally have the same properties, and fruit is generally allowed to ripen and fall from the tree so the ripeness of the fruit is not a matter of concern.
Selection of fruit outside of a farm setting is slightly trickier. The following are some of the basic methods used:
* Generally the freshness of a fruit can be ascertained from the [[stalk]]. Once a fruit has been removed from the tree the stalk starts to dry off. Unscrupulous merchants may seek to wrap or paint the stalk to prevent easy detection. Other merchants may even remove the stalks.
* Most customers enjoy the fruit when the pulp is dry and mature. An easy way to tell if the pulp is dry without opening the fruit is to shake the fruit and listen for a slight rattling. Moist pulp sticks to the inside of the fruit, while dry pulp tends to be separate from the inside walls of the fruit. Care must be taken that one is not injured by the thorns of the fruit during this operation.
* Durians may be attacked by [[insect]] [[Pest (animal)|pest]]s which lay [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s in the fruit. These develop into worm-like [[larva]]e, which burrow into the flesh of the fruit. It is important in purchasing whole fruit to avoid buying fruit with any holes in them, as this indicates the presence of insect infestation. On the other hand, some customers knowingly buy durians with "worms" present, in the belief that the presence of worms is a sign that the fruit will be sweet and tasty.
The exact state of ripeness for a durian to be enjoyed varies from country to country in southeast Asia. As a general rule of thumb, people in southern Thailand like their durians relatively young; that is to say, the fruit has to be plucked from the tree. Eaten in this state, the clusters of fruit within the shell are still crisp in texture and mild in both flavour and aroma. In northern Thailand, the preference is for the fruit to be as soft and pungent in aroma as possible.
In [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]] however, durian [[aficionado]]s prefer the fruit to fall from the tree and may even risk allowing the fruit to continue ripening before opening it. Eaten in this state, the flesh becomes richly creamy, the aroma more pronounced and the flavour highly complex. It is often said amongst Malaysians and Singaporeans that a balance between the bitter and sweet flavours signifies the perfect state of ripeness but to the Thais in the south, this level of ripeness can be excessive. What is agreed however, is that when the flesh starts to ferment and becomes alcoholic, the point of ripeness has been exceeded and the fruit should not be eaten.
==Opening==
[[Image:Durianpack01.JPG|thumb|Sections of durian, sold in a styrofoam container. One section is broken open, showing the seed.]]
Opening a whole durian can be a difficult operation, especially with a fruit that has not ripened to the point where its husk has started to split open &mdash; a point some cultures call overripe and some call perfect. These splits occur along natural weak lines in the husk; there are usually five such lines, mirroring the segments of fruit inside. Using tools or bare hands, it is possible to force the fruit open along a pair of these lines.
Many vendors in south-east Asia sell durian segments already removed from the husk, often packed in [[styrofoam]] boxes. Other vendors will open the fruit as a service once the buyer has agreed to purchase it. However, a durian once opened has to be consumed within a few hours as opened fruit will quickly begin to exude moisture. This will cause the fruit to lose much of its flavour and become rather tasteless.
==Culinary uses==
Durian fruit is used to flavour sweets such as candy, rose biscuits, cakes and ice cream. Some modern variants of [[mooncake]]s are filled with durian paste. [[Glutinous rice]] can be steamed with coconut milk and served with ripened durian. ''Tempoyak'' refers to fermented durian, usually made from lower quality durian that is unsuitable for direct consumption.<ref>http://www.ecst.csuchico.edu/~durian/rec/recipe.htm (Accessed 3 March 2006)</ref> ''Tempoyak'' can be eaten either cooked or uncooked, is normally eaten with rice, and can also be used for making [[curry]].
{{cookbook}}
Unripe durians may be cooked as vegetable, except in the Philippines, where all uses are sweet rather than savoury. Malaysians make both sugared and salted preserves from durian. When durian is minced with salt and onions and vinegar, it is called ''boder''. The durian seeds, which are the size of chestnuts, can be eaten whether they are boiled, roasted or fried in coconut oil, with a texture that is similar to taro or yam, but stickier.
In some Asian countries, Durian is believed to have warming properties, liable to cause sweating. The traditional method to counteract this is to pour salt water from the empty shell of the fruit, after the pulp has been entirely consumed, and drink it. Washing hands with this water also helps remove the strong odour. Another method is to eat the durian in accompaniment with [[mangosteen]]s, considered to have cooling properties. The [[Javanese]] believe durian to have [[aphrodisiac]] qualities, and impose a strict set of rules on what may or may not be consumed with the durian or shortly after.<ref>Davidson, p. 263</ref> People with [[high blood pressure]] are traditionally advised not to consume durian due to its richness. Many durian eaters also advise against eating durian while consuming alcoholic beverages.
==Durian dangers==
[[Image:ARS Durian.jpg|left|thumb|A durian fruit with its sharp thorns.]]
A durian falling on a person's head can cause serious injuries or death because it is heavy, spiky, and may fall from high up, so a [[hardhat]] is recommended when collecting the fruit. For this reason the durian is sometimes called the most dangerous fruit in the world, along with its name in [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], ''sau rieng'' meaning "private sorrow". However, there are actually few reports of people getting hurt from falling durians. While there is a belief among locals that the durian "has eyes" and will not fall on a person, it is probably because the fruits on a durian tree don't ripen and fall at the same time. From observation, most of the fruits drop from the tree late in the evening or after dark. Even then, it is extremely rare to find a whole bunch of durians falling at the same time. The Malay saying ''Durian runtuh'', which can be translated as "Durian |
on production and trade. The [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]] of 1961 could not regulate the many newly discovered psychotropics, since its scope was limited to drugs with [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]]-, [[coca]]-, and [[opium]]-like effects.
On [[February 21]], [[1971]], a conference of [[plenipotentiary|plenipotentiaries]] in [[Vienna]] signed a new Convention worded to include almost any conceivable mind-altering substance. The Convention, which contains import and export restrictions and other rules aimed at limiting drug use to scientific and medical purposes, came into force on [[August 16]], [[1976]]. Today, 175 nations are Parties to the treaty. Many laws have been passed to implement the Convention, including the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Psychotropic Substances Act (United States)|Psychotropic Substances Act]], the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971]], and the [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Controlled Drugs and Substances Act]]. Like the treaty itself, these statutes usually divide drugs into several classes or Schedules.
Provisions to end the international trafficking of drugs covered by this Convention are contained in the [[United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances]]. This treaty, signed in 1988, regulates [[precursor]] chemicals to drugs controlled by the Single Convention and the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. It also strengthens provisions against [[money laundering]] and other drug-related crimes.
[[Adolf Lande]], under the direction of the [[United Nations Office of Legal Affairs]], prepared the Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The Commentary, published in 1976, is an invaluable aid to interpreting the treaty and constitutes a key part of its [[legislative history]].
==History==
International drug control began with the 1912 [[International Opium Convention]], a treaty which adopted import and export restrictions on the [[poppy]]'s psychoactive derivatives. Over the next half-century, several additional treaties were adopted under [[League of Nations]] auspices, gradually expanding the list of controlled substances to encompass [[cocaine]] and other drugs and granting the [[Permanent Central Opium Board]] power to monitor compliance. After the [[United Nations]] was formed in 1945, those enforcement functions passed to the UN.
In 1961, a conference of plenipotentiaries in [[New York]] adopted the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]], which consolidated the existing drug control treaties into one document and added [[cannabis]] to the list of prohibited plants. In order to appease the pharmaceutical interests, the Single Convention's scope was sharply limited to the list of drugs enumerated in the Schedules annexed to the treaty and to those drugs determined to have similar effects.
During the 1960s, a wave of drug use spread across Western developed nations, to the point where it appeared to alarmed policymakers to be reaching epidemic proportions. Inspired by [[Aldous Huxley]], [[Timothy Leary]], and a host of other psychedelic avatars, young people began using hallucinogenic, stimulant, and other drugs on a widespread scale. In many jurisdictions, police had no laws under which to prosecute users and traffickers of these new drugs; [[LSD]], for instance, was not prohibited federally in the U.S. until 1967.
In 1968, "[d]eeply concerned at reports of serious damage to health being caused by [[LSD]] and similar hallucinogenic substances," the [[UN Economic and Social Council]] passed a resolution calling on nations to limit the use of such drugs to scientific and medical purposes and to impose import and export restrictions{{ref|LSD-resolution}}. Later that year, the [[UN General Assembly]] requested that ECOSOC call upon the [[Commission on Narcotic Drugs]] to "give urgent attention to the problem of the abuse of the psychotropic substances not yet under international control, including the possibility of placing such substances under international control"{{ref|internationalcontrolresolution}}.
Circa 1969, with use of [[stimulant]]s spiraling out of control, ECOSOC noted with considerable consternation that the Commission "was unable to reach agreement on the applicability of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 to these substances"{{ref|stimulantresolution}}. The language of the Single Convention and its legislative history precluded any interpretation that would allow international regulation of these drugs under that treaty. A new convention, with a broader scope, would be required in order to bring those substances under control. Using the Single Convention as a template, the Commission prepared a draft convention which was forwarded to all UN member states. The [[UN Secretary-General]] scheduled a conference for early 1971 to finalize the treaty{{ref|conference-resolution}}.
Meanwhile, countries had already begun passing legislation to implement the draft treaty. In 1969, [[Canada]] added Part IV to its [[Food and Drugs Act]], placing a set of "restricted substances," including [[LSD]], [[Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]], and [[3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine|MDA]], under federal control. In 1970, the [[United States]] completely revamped its existing drug control laws by enacting the [[Controlled Substances Act]] (amended in 1978 by the [[Psychotropic Substances Act (United States)|Psychotropic Substances Act]], which allows the U.S. drug control Schedules to be updated as needed to comply with the Convention). In 1971, the [[United Kingdom]] passed the [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971]]. A host of other nations followed suit. A common feature shared by most implementing legislation is the establishment of several classes or Schedules of controlled substances, similarly to the Single Convention and the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, so that compliance with international law can be assured simply by placing a drug into the appropriate Schedule.
The conference convened on [[January 11]], [[1971]]. Nations split into two rival factions, based on their interests. According to a [[Canadian Senate]] report, "One group included mostly developed nations with powerful pharmaceutical industries and active psychotropics markets . . . The other group consisted of developing states...with few psychotropic manufacturing facilities"{{ref|cansenrpt}}. The organic drugmaking states that had suffered economically from the Single Convention's restrictions on [[cannabis]], [[coca]], and [[opium]], fought for tough regulations on synthetic drugs. The synthetic drug-producing states opposed those restrictions. Ultimately, the developing states' lobbying power was no match for the powerful pharmaceutical industry's, and the international regulations that emerged at the conference's close on [[February 21]] were considerably weaker than those of the Single Convention.
The Convention's adoption marked a major milestone in the development of the global drug control regime. Over 59 years, the system had evolved from a set of loose controls focused on a single drug into a comprehensive regulatory framework capable of encompassing almost any mind-altering substance imaginable.
==Schedules of Controlled Substances==
:''The list of Schedules and the substances presently therein can be found on the International Narcotics Control Board's website{{ref|incb.org-substances}}.''
The Convention has four Schedules of controlled substances, ranging from Schedule I (most restrictive) to Schedule IV (least restrictive). A list of psychotropic substances, and their corresponding Schedules, was annexed to the 1971 treaty. A 2002 European Parliament report describes the Schedules as follows{{ref|europarlreport2}}:
*'''Schedule I''' includes supposedly dangerous drugs claimed to create a serious risk to public health, and whose therapeutic value is doubtful or nil. It includes synthetic [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogens]] such as [[LSD]] and [[Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]]. [[Heroin]] and [[cannabis]], which are of great thereaputic value, are also included in this category.
*'''Schedule II''' includes stimulants of the [[amphetamine]] type, of limited therapeutic value, as well as some [[analgesic]]s such as [[phencyclidine]].
*'''Schedule III''' includes [[barbiturate]] products with fast or average effects, which have been the object of serious abuse even though useful therapeutically.
*'''Schedule IV''' includes [[hypnotic]]s, [[tranquilizer]]s ([[benzodiazepine]]) and analgesics, which engender an appreciable dependence, but are mainly used in therapy.
A 1999 UNODC report notes that Schedule I is a completely different regime from the other three. According to that report, Schedule I mostly contains [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogenic drug]]s such as [[LSD]] that are produced by illicit laboratories, while the other three Schedules are mainly for licitly produced pharmaceuticals. The UNODC report{{ref|unodc.org-report}} also claims that the Convention's Schedule I controls are stricter than those provided for under the Single Convention, a contention that seems to be contradicted by the 2002 [[Canadian Senate]]{{ref|parl.gc.ca|report2}} and 2003 [[European Parliament]] reports{{ref|europarl.eu.int-report}}.
Although estimates and other controls specified by the Single Convention are not present in the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, the [[International Narcotics Control Board]] corrected the omission by asking Parties to submit information and statistics not required by the Convention, and using the initial positive responses from various organic drug producing states to convince others to follow{{ref|parl.gc.ca-adherence}}. In addition, the Convention does impose tighter restrictions on imports and exports of Schedule I substances. A 1970 [[Bulletin on Narcotics]] report notes{{ref|unodc.org-report2}}:
:''L |
around the center, but they do so with constant [[angular velocity]]. That means that stars pass in and out of spiral arms. The spiral arms are thought to be areas of high density or density waves. As stars move into an arm, they slow down, thus creating a higher density; this is akin to a "wave" of slowdowns moving along a highway full of moving cars. The arms are visible because the high density facilitates star formation and they therefore harbor many bright and young stars.
Despite the prominence of large elliptical and spiral galaxies, most galaxies in the universe appear to be [[dwarf galaxy|dwarf galaxies]]. These tiny galaxies are about 100 times smaller than the Milky Way, containing only a few billion stars. Many dwarf galaxies may orbit a single larger galaxy; the Milky Way has at least a dozen such satellites. Dwarf galaxies may also be classified as [[dwarf elliptical galaxy|elliptical]], [[dwarf spiral galaxy|spiral]] or [[dwarf irregular galaxy|irregular]]. Since small dwarf ellipticals bear little resemblance to large ellipticals, they are often called [[dwarf spheroidal galaxy|dwarf spheroidal galaxies]] instead.
== Larger scale structures ==
Only a few galaxies exist by themselves; these are known as ''field galaxies''. Most galaxies are gravitationally bound to a number of other galaxies. Structures containing up to about 50 galaxies are called [[groups and clusters of galaxies|groups of galaxies]], and larger structures containing many thousands of galaxies packed into an area a few [[megaparsec]]s across are called [[groups and clusters of galaxies|clusters]]. Clusters of galaxies are often dominated by a single giant [[elliptical galaxy]], which over time tidally destroys its satellite galaxies and adds their mass to its own. [[Supercluster]]s are giant collections containing tens of thousands of galaxies, found in clusters, groups and sometimes individually; at the [[large-scale structure of the cosmos|supercluster scale]], galaxies are arranged into [[Great Wall (astronomy)|sheets]] and [[filament (astronomy)|filaments]] surrounding vast empty [[void (astronomy)|voids]]. Above this scale, the universe appears to be [[isotropy|isotropic]] and [[homogeneity|homogeneous]].
Our galaxy is a member of the [[Local Group]], which it dominates together with the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]; overall the Local Group contains about 30 galaxies in a space about [[1 E22 m|one megaparsec]] across. The Local Group is part of the [[Virgo Supercluster]], which is dominated by the [[Virgo Cluster]] (of which our Galaxy is not a member).
==Galaxy Formation==
{{Main|Galaxy formation and evolution}}
The method of galaxy formation is a major open question in astronomy. Theories may be divided into two categories: top-down and bottom-up. In top-down theories such as the Eggen–Lynden-Bell–Sandage (ELS) model, [[protogalaxy|protogalaxies]] form in a large-scale simultaneous collapse lasting about 100 million years. In bottom-up theories such as the Searle-Zinn (SZ) model, [[globular cluster]]s form first, and then a number of such bodies accrete to form a larger galaxy. Modern theories must be modified to account for the probable presence of large [[dark matter]] halos. A sketch of a galaxy formation model follows.
Shortly after recombination, [[baryon]]ic matter begins to condense around cold dark matter halos. Zero-[[metallicity|metal]] high-velocity [[halo star]]s (called [[Population III stars]]) are the first to develop around a protogalaxy as it starts to contract. These huge stars quickly [[supernova]], releasing heavy elements into the [[interstellar medium]]. Within the next billion years, [[globular cluster]]s, the central [[supermassive black hole]] and [[galactic bulge]] of metal-poor [[Population II stars]] form. Within two billion years, the remaining material settles into a [[galactic disk]]. The galaxy will continue to absorb infalling material from [[high velocity cloud]]s and [[dwarf galaxy|dwarf galaxies]] throughout its life; the cycle of stellar birth and death will increase the abundance of heavy elements, eventually allowing the formation of [[planet]]s.
[[Image:Pr3 400galaxypix.jpg|225px|thumb|Galaxy Abell 1835 IR1916 is seen as a tiny dot in this photo of distant galaxies. Image courtesy of [[European Southern Observatory|ESO]].]]
The oldest galaxy yet found was discovered in 2004 by scientists at [[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]] using the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] and the [[Keck telescope]]s. This protogalaxy, imaged when the universe was about 750 million years old, contains only about 1 million stars. It is visible from this vast distance thanks to [[gravitational lens]]ing due to the [[Abell 2218]] cluster. The great mass of this galaxy cluster bends and focuses the light passing through it, acting as a natural lens in space. (See [http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/08feb_gravlens.htm].) This galaxy was displaced by galaxy [[Abell 1835 IR1916]] as the most distant galaxy ever seen by humans.
The existence of such old protogalaxies suggests that they must have grown in the so-called "Dark Ages" (before the first generation of stars) from [[anisotropy|anisotropic]] irregularities present during the era of [[recombination]], some 300,000 years after the [[Big Bang]]. Such irregularities of the right scale were observed using the [[Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe]] (WMAP) in 2003.
More evidence for this model of galaxy formation comes from detection of ancient [[Population III stars]]. The giant star, [[HE0107-5240]], discovered in 2002 researchers at the [[University of Hamburg]], is believed to be the oldest yet discovered star in the Milky Way, since unlike younger stars, it is virtually metal-free. (See [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2381935.stm].) Since then, other very old stars (like HE 1327) have also been found.
==Galaxy Evolution==
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:NCG250collision.jpg|thumb|NGC 250 is a result of two spiral galaxies colliding, in a fashion similar to that expected for the Andromeda and Milky Way. Image courtesy of Gemini.]] -->
Studies show that the Milky Way Galaxy is moving towards the nearby [[Andromeda Galaxy]] at about 130&nbsp;km/s, and depending upon the lateral movements, the two may collide in about 5–6 billion years. Such galaxy collisions are fairly common, especially in dense [[galaxy cluster]]s. Given the distances between the stars, the great majority of star systems in colliding galaxies will be unaffected. However, gravitational stripping of the [[interstellar gas]] and dust that makes up the spiral arms will produce a long train of stars, similar to that seen in NGC 250 or the [[Antennae Galaxies]].
Although the Milky Way has never collided with a galaxy as large as Andromeda before, evidence of past collisions of the Milky Way with smaller [[dwarf galaxy|dwarf galaxies]] is increasing.
[[Spiral galaxies]], like the Milky Way, only produce new generations of stars as long as they continue to have dense [[molecular cloud]]s of interstellar [[hydrogen]] in their spiral arms. [[Elliptical galaxies]] are already largely devoid of this gas and so form no new stars. However, the supply of star-forming material is finite; as stars convert hydrogen into heavier elements, fewer stars will form.
After the end of star formation in under 100 billion years, the "stellar age" will come to an end after about 10 trillion to 100 trillion years (10<sup>13</sup>–10<sup>14</sup> years), as the smallest longest-lived stars in the universe, tiny [[red dwarf]]s begin to fade. At the end of the stellar age galaxies will comprise [[compact object]]s: [[brown dwarf]]s, [[black dwarf]]s, cooling [[white dwarf]]s, [[neutron star]]s, and [[black hole]]s. Eventually, as a result of [[relaxation time|gravitational relaxation]], eventually all stars will either fall into the central [[supermassive black hole]] of the galaxies, or be flung into the depths of intergalactic space as a result of collisions.
== Etymology ==
The word ''galaxy'' was derived from the Greek term for our own galaxy, ''kyklos galaktikos'' meaning "milky circle" for the system’s appearance in the sky. When astronomers speculated that certain objects previously classified as spiral nebulae were actually vast congeries of stars, this was called the "island universe theory"; but this was an obvious misnomer, since [[universe]] means everything there is. Consequently, this term fell into disuse, replaced by applying the term galaxy generically to all such bodies.
== History ==
This account of the history of the investigation of our own and other galaxies is largely taken from [1].
In 1610, [[Galileo Galilei]] used a telescope to study the bright band on the night sky known as the [[Milky Way]] and discovered that it was composed of a huge number of faint stars. In a treatise in 1755, [[Immanuel Kant]], drawing on earlier work by [[Thomas Wright (astronomer)|Thomas Wright]], speculated (correctly) that the Galaxy might be a rotating body of a huge number of stars, held together by [[gravitational force]]s akin to the [[solar system]] but on much larger scales. The resulting disk of stars would be seen as a band on the sky from our perspective inside the disk. Kant also conjectured that some of the [[nebula]]e visible in the night sky might be separate galaxies.
Towards the end of the 18th century, [[Charles Messier]] compiled a [[Messier object|catalog]] containing the 109 brightest nebulae, later followed by a larger catalog of 5000 nebulae assembled by [[William Herschel]]. In 1845, [[William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse|Lord Rosse]] constructed a new [[telescope]] and was able to distinguish between elliptical and spiral nebulae. He also managed to make out individual point sources in some of these nebulae, lending credence to Kant's earlier conje |
mission, the ''Mission Interafricaine de Surveillance des Accords de Bangui'' (MISAB). Mali's former president, [[Amadou Touré]], served as chief mediator and brokered the entry of ex-mutineers into the government on [[7 April]] [[1997]]. The MISAB mission was later replaced by a U.N. peacekeeping force, the ''Mission des Nations Unis en RCA'' (MINURCA).
In 1998 parliamentary elections resulted in Kolingba' RDC winning 20 out of 109 seats, which constituted a comeback, but in 1999 Patassé won free elections to become president for a second term. On [[28 May]] [[2001]] rebels stormed stategic buildings in Bangui in an unsuccessful coup attempt. The army chief of staff, Abel Abrou, and General Francois N'Djadder Bedaya were shot, but Patassé regained the upper hand by bringing in at least 300 troops of the rebel leader [[Bemba]] from over the river in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and by Libyan soldiers.
In the aftermath of this failed coup, militias loyal to Patassé sought revenge against rebels in many neighborhoods of the capital, Bangui, that resulted the destruction of many homes as well as the torture and murder of many opponents. Eventually Patassé came to suspect that General [[François Bozizé]] was involved in another coup attempt against him and so Bozizé fled with loyal troops to Chad. On [[25 October]] [[2002]] Bozizé launched a surprise attack against Patassé, who was out of the country. Libyan troops and some 1,000 soldiers of Bemba's Congolese rebel organization failed to stop the rebels, who took control of the country and thus succeeded in overthrowing Patassé.
François Bozizé suspended the constitution and named a new cabinet which included most opposition parties. Abel Goumba, "Mr. Clean", was named vice-president, which gave Bozizé's new government a positive image. Bozizé established a broad-based National Transition Council to draft a new constitution and announced that he would step down and run for office once the new constitution was approved. A national dialogue was held from [[15 September]] to [[27 October]] [[2003]], and Bozizé won a fair election as president, on a second ballot, in May 2005.
== Politics ==
{{Politics of Central African Republic}}
The country is currently under the rule of [[François Bozizé]]. A new constitution was approved by voters in a referendum held on [[December 5]] [[2004]]. Full multiparty [[Central African Republic elections, 2005|presidential and parliamentary elections]] were held in March 2005, [http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/IRIN/87ba6e292f78b0bc6dbbaeb9c2ef6bd9.htm] with a second round in May. Bozizé was declared the winner after a [[Runoff voting|run off vote]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1067615.stm].
== Prefectures ==
{{main|Prefectures of the Central African Republic}}
The territory is divided into 14 administrative [[prefecture]]s, along with 2 economic prefectures and one autonomous [[commune (subnational entity)|commune]]. The prefectures are further divided into 71 sub-prefectures.
== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of the Central African Republic}}
[[Image:central african republic sm04.png|thumb|left|Map of the Central African Republic]]
This is an entirely land-locked nation within the interior of the African continent. Much of the country consists of flat, or rolling plateau [[savanna]], typically about 1,640&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (500&nbsp;m) above sea level. In the northeast are the Fertit Hills, and there are scattered hills in southwest part of the country. To the northwest is the Yade Massif, a [[granite]] plateau with an altitude of 3,750 feet (1,143&nbsp;m).
Much of the southern border is formed by tributaries of the [[Congo River]], with the [[Mbomou River]] in the east merging with the [[Uele River]] to form the [[Ubangi River]]. In the west, the [[Sangha River]] flows through part of the country. The eastern border lies along the edge of the [[Nile river]] [[watershed]].
Estimates of the amount of the country covered by forest ranges up to 75%, with the densest parts in the south. The forest is highly diverse, and includes commercially important species of Ayous, Sapelli and Sipo.[http://www.forestsmonitor.org/reports/solddownriver/car.htm] The current deforestation rate is 0.4% per annum, and lumber poaching is commonplace.<!-- http://carpe.umd.edu/products/carpe_cd_02/CARPE_Briefs/congo_06.html -->
The climate of the C.A.R. is generally [[tropic]]al. The northern areas are subject to [[harmattan]] winds, which are hot, dry, and carry dust. The northern regions have been subject to [[desertification]], and the northeast is desert. The remainder of the country is prone to flooding from nearby rivers.
== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of the Central African Republic}}
The economy of the CAR is dominated by the cultivation and sale of foodcrops such as [[cassava]], [[peanut]]s, [[maize]], [[sorghum]], [[millet]], [[sesame]] and [[plantain]]s. The importance of foodcrops over exported [[cash crops]] is indicated by the fact that the total production of cassava, the staple food of most Central Africans, ranges between 200,000 and 300,000 [[ton]]s a year, while the production of [[cotton]], the principal exported cash crop, ranges from 25,000 to 45,000 tons a year. Foodcrops are not exported in large quantities but they still constitute the principal cash crops of the country because Central Africans derive far more income from the periodic sale of surplus foodcrops than from exported cash crops such as cotton or [[coffee]]. Many rural and urban women also transform some foodcrops into alcoholic drinks such as sorghum beer or hard liquor and derive considerable income from the sale of these drinks. Much of the income derived from the sale of foods and alcohol is not "on the books" and thus is not considered in calculating per capita income, which is one reason why official figures for per capita income are not accurate in the case of the CAR. The [[per capita income]] of the CAR is often listed as being around $300 a year, said to be one of the lowest in the world, but this figure is based mostly on reported sales of exports and largely ignores the more important but unregistered sale of foods, locally-produced [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], [[diamond]]s, [[ivory]], [[bushmeat]], and [[traditional medicines]], for example. The informal economy of the CAR is more important than the formal economy for most Central Africans.
Diamonds constitute the most important export of the CAR, frequently accounting for 40-55% of export revenues, but an estimated 30-50% of the diamonds produced each year leave the country clandestinely.
The CAR is heavily dependent upon [[multilateral foreign aid]] and the presence of numerous [[NGO]]'s which provide numerous services which the government fails to provide. As one [[UNDP]] official put it, the CAR is a country "sous serum," or a country hooked up to an IV. (Mehler 2005:150) The very presence of numerous foreign personnel and organizations in the country, including peacekeepers and even refugee camps, provides an important source of revenue for many Central Africans.
The country is self-sufficient in food crops, but much of the population lives at a subsistence level. [[Livestock]] development is hindered by the presence of the [[tsetse fly]].
Export trade is hindered by poor economic development, and the location of this country far from the coast.
The natural wilderness regions of this country had good potential as [[ecotourist]] destinations. The country is noted for its population of [[forest elephant]]s. In the southwest, the [[Dzanga-Sangha National Park]] is a rain forest area. To the north, the [[Saint Florist National Park]] has been well-populated with wildlife, including [[leopard]]s, [[lion]]s, and [[Rhinoceros|rhino]]s. To the northeast the [[Bamingui-Bangoran National Park]]. However the population of wildlife in these parks has severely diminished over the past 20 years due to poaching, particularly from the neighboring [[Sudan]].
== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of the Central African Republic}}
The population has tripled since independence. In [[1960]] the population was 1,232,000.
The nation is divided into over 80 ethnic groups, each having its own language. The largest ethnic groups are the [[Baya]] 33%, [[Banda people|Banda]] 27%, [[Mandjia]] 13%, [[Sara people|Sara]] 10%, [[Mboum]] 7%, [[M'Baka]] 4%, and [[Yakoma]] 4%, with 2% others, including [[Europe]]ans. Of the religions, 35% are indigenous beliefs, 25% [[Protestant]], 25% [[Roman Catholic]], and 15% [[Muslim]].
== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of the Central African Republic}}
''See also'':
*[[List of African writers (by country)#Central African Republic|List of writers from the Central African Republic]]
*[[Music of the Central African Republic]]
*[[Public holidays in the Central African Republic]]
== Miscellaneous topics ==
*[[Communications in the Central African Republic]]
*[[Foreign relations of the Central African Republic]]
*[[Military of the Central African Republic]]
*[[Transportation in the Central African Republic]]
*[[List of people on stamps of Central African Republic]]
== External links==
{{sisterlinks|Central African Republic}}
===Government===
*[http://www.kodro.net/ Republique Centrafricaine] official government site (in French)
===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/centralafricanrepublic/ allAfrica - ''Central African Republic''] news headline links
===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1067518.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: Central African Republic'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ct.html CIA World Factbook - ''Central African Republic'']
===Directories===
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559909/ LookSmart - ''Central African Republic''] directory |
. People so employed are known as '''[[Falling (forestry)|Fallers]]'''
* '''fall''', a rope that straightly "falls" at the mast that hoists and lowers the sail, see [[halyard]]
* [[astrological]] [[astrological fall|fall]] is a term for a planet in a form of debilitated [[essential dignity]].
{{disambig}}</text>
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<page>
<title>Feudal society</title>
<id>11681</id>
<revision>
<id>37297401</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T02:11:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adam Bishop</username>
<id>13008</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.237.218.198|70.237.218.198]] ([[User talk:70.237.218.198|talk]]) to last version by Adam Bishop</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry mars.jpg|thumb|250px|Peasants plowing in front of a castle, French manuscript c. 1415]]
'''Feudal society''' is a sometimes debated term used to describe the [[Middle Ages|medieval]] social order of western and central [[Europe]] and sometimes Japan (particularly in the 14th to 16th centuries) characterised by the legal subjection of a large part of the peasantry to a hereditary landholding elite exercising administrative and judicial power on the basis of reciprocal private undertakings.
The term's validity is questioned by many medieval historians who consider the description "feudal" appropriate only to the specifically voluntary and personal bonds of mutual protection, loyalty and support among members of the administrative, military or ecclesiastical elite, to the exclusion of involuntary obligations attached to tenure of "unfree" land. This stricter concept is discussed under [[Feudalism]], and the bonds which it excludes under [[Manorialism]]. Examples of feudalism are helpful to fully understand feudalism and feudal society. Some useful particular examples may be seen at [[Feudalism (examples)]].
===Conception of feudal society===
In the broader conception of feudal society, as developed in the 1930s by the French [[Annales School|''Annaliste'']] historian [[Marc Bloch]], the prevailing features include:
# The absence of a strong central authority, and the diffusion of governmental power through the granting of administrative and legal authority over particular lands (fiefs) by higher lords (including the king) to vassals sworn by voluntary oath to support or serve them, usually (though not exclusively) by military means.
# The obligation attached to particular holdings of land that the peasant household should supply the lord with specified labour services or a part of its output (or cash in lieu thereof) subject to the custom of the holding.
===Common features of feudal societies===
Features common among feudal societies, but which do not necessarily define them, include:
# An overwhelmingly agrarian economy, with limited money exchange, necessitating the dispersion of political authority and the substitution of arrangements involving economic support from local resources;
# The strength of the Church as an ally and counterpart to the civil-military structure, supported by its right to a share (tithe) of society's output as well as substantial landholdings, and endowed with specific authority and responsibility for moral and material welfare.
# The existence of structures and phenomena not of themselves explicitly feudal (urban and village organisations, royal executive power, free peasant holdings, financial and commercial activity) but each incorporated into the whole.
Alongside such broad similarities, it is important to note the divergences both within and between feudal societies (in forms or complexity of noble association, the extent of peasant dependency or the importance of money payments) as well as the changes which occurred over time within the overall structure (as in Bloch's characterisation of the 11th-century onset of a "second feudal age").
In particular, one should avoid envisaging the social order in terms of a regular "feudal pyramid", with each man bound to one superior lord and the rank of each clearly defined, in a regular chain of allegiances extending from the king at the top to the peasantry at the bottom: aside from the contrast between free and unfree obligation, allegiance was often given to more than one lord, while an individual might possess attributes of more than one rank.
Nor should the medieval theory of the "three estates" of society - "those who make war, those who pray and those who labour" (''bellatores'', ''oratores'', ''et'' ''laboratores'') be considered a full description of the social order: while those excluded from the first two came over time to be counted among the third, nobles and clerics alike assumed administrative functions in the feudal state, while financial support was relied upon increasingly as a substitute for direct military service.
While few would deny that most of [[France]], [[England]], parts of [[Spain]] and the [[Low Countries]], western and central [[Germany]] and (at least for a time) northern and central [[Italy]] satisfied Bloch's criteria over much of the period, the concept remains of greatest use as an interpretive device for comparative study of local phenomena, rather than as a blanket definition of the medieval social order.
==Historical development==
Reaching its most developed form in the Latin [[kingdom of Jerusalem]] in the 12th and 13th centuries, feudal society evolved in its developed form in the northern French heartland of the [[Carolingians|Carolingian]] monarchy of the 8th-10th centuries, but has its antecedents also in late Roman practice.
[[fr:Système féodal]]
[[nl:Feodale stelsel]]
[[zh:&#23553;&#24314;&#31038;&#20250;]]
[[Category:Middle Ages]]
[[Category:Feudalism]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Fermions</title>
<id>11682</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fermion]]
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<page>
<title>Fergus McDuck</title>
<id>11683</id>
<revision>
<id>37486202</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T07:29:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>sequence template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Fergus McDuck''' ([[1835]]-[[1902]]) is a [[fictional character]] of the [[Scrooge McDuck universe]]. He was born in [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]] on [[1835]] to [[Dingus McDuck|"Dirty" Dingus McDuck]] and [[Molly Mallard]], both working as [[coal]] miners at the time. He spent most of his life as a mill worker.
He at some point had an affair with [[Vera O'Drake]]. This would result in the birth of [[Rumpus McFowl]], an illegitimate son. He later married [[Downy O'Drake]] ([[1840]]- [[1897]]), either a sister or a cousin of Vera, who became the mother of three of his children. Those are:
*[[Scrooge McDuck]] born [[1867]], sometimes he died [[1967]]
*[[Matilda McDuck]], born [[1871]]
*[[Hortense McDuck]], born [[1876]].
On [[1877]] he encouraged his son to work to have his own money. Scrooge's obvious intelligence, skill at hard work and ambition made his father believe that Scrooge would be able to restore [[The Clan McDuck]] to its former glory.
In [[1885]] the Clan's hereditary lands would have been seized due to Fergus' inability to pay his taxes. But Scrooge spend his savings at the time, 10,000 dollars, to pay the taxes and became the new owner of their lands. While Scrooge was away Fergus and his family moved back to the clan's castle, abandoned for centuries, in Dismal Downs. The family continued to work to pay for the taxes and Scrooge sent them most all of the money he earned while traveling.
Fergus became a widower on [[1897]]. [[Gideon McDuck]], the Italian character who has been used for decades as Scrooge's brother, was presumably born some time after that as an ilegitimate son of Fergus.
Scrooge became rich in the [[Klondike, Yukon|Klondike]] and returned to Scotland in [[1902]] as a bilionaire. Scrooge's intention was originally to settle in Dismal Downs but he quickly changed his mind and decided to settle in the [[United States]]. He wanted to take his family with him. His sisters accepted but Fergus decided to stay. He died during the night, aged 67, and his three children left Scotland.
Fergus McDuck is probably the first (main) character to die in a [[The Walt Disney Company|Walt Disney]] cartoon.
In the [[NES]] game [[DuckTales 2]], Scrooge and his nephews found a piece of a treasure map that apparently belonged to Fergus. It claimed to lead to Fergus' lost treasure. However, due to Fergus' inability to pay taxes, it is presumed that this map is not canonical to the [[Scrooge McDuck universe]], unless such treasure was obtained later in his life.
{{sequence|
prev=[[Dingus McDuck]]|
list=Important members of [[the Clan McDuck]]|
next=[[Scrooge McDuck]]
}}
[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|McDuck, Fergus]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|McDuck, Fergus]]
[[Category:Fictional Scots|McDuck, Fergus]]
[[da:Frederik von And]]
[[fr:Fergus McPicsou]]
[[it:Fergus de Paperoni]]
[[nl:Fergus McDuck]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Fundamental analysis</title>
<id>11684</id>
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<id>41141598</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T08:17:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Solarcaine</username>
<id>125221</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Mergefrom|Fundamentals analysis}}
'''Fundamental analysis''' is a [[stock valuation]] m |
802
|-
| Niger, length about 2600 mi (4200 km) || 808,000 || 2.093
|-
| Zambezi, length about 2000 mi (3200 km) || 513,500 || 1.330
|-
| Lake Chad || 394,000 || 1.020
|-
| Orange, length about 1300 mi (2100 km) || 370,505 || 0.9596
|-
| Orange (actual drainage area) || 172,500 || 0.447
|}
The area of the Congo basin is greater than that of any other river except the Amazon, while the African inland drainage area is greater than that of any continent but Asia, in which the corresponding area is 4,000,000 square miles (10 Mm²).
The principal African lakes have been mentioned in the description of the East African plateau, but some of the phenomena connected with them may be spoken of more particularly here. As a rule the lakes which occupy portions of the great rift-valleys have steep sides and are very deep. This is the case with the two largest of the type, Tanganyika and Nyasa, the latter of which has depths of 430 [[fathom]]s (790 m).
Others, however, are shallow, and hardly, reach the steep sides of the valleys in the dry season. Such are [[Lake Rukwa]], in a subsidiary depression north of Nyasa, and Eiassi and Manyara in the system of the eastern rift-valley. Lakes of the broad type are of moderate depth, the deepest sounding in [[Lake Victoria]] being under 50 fathoms (90 m).
Besides the East African lakes the principal are: - [[Lake Chad]], in the northern area of inland drainage; [[Lake Bangweulu|Bangweulu]] and [[Lake Mweru|Mweru]], traversed by the head-stream of the Congo; and [[Lake Mai-Ndombe]] and Ntomba (Mantumba), within the great bend of that river. All, except possibly Mweru, are more or less shallow, and Chad appears to by drying up. The altitudes of the African lakes have already been stated.
Divergent opinions have been beld as to the mode of origin of the East African lakes, especially [[Lake Tanganyika|Tanganyika]], which some geologists have considered to represent an old arm of the sea, dating from a time when the whole central Congo basin was under water; others holding that the lake water has
accumulated in a depression caused by subsidence. The former view is based on the existence in the lake of organisms of a decidedly marine type. They include a jelly-fish, molluscs, prawns, crabs, etc.
=== Islands ===
With one exception - [[Madagascar]] - the African islands are small. Madagascar, with an area of 229,820 square miles (595,230 km²), is, after [[Greenland]], [[New Guinea]] and [[Borneo]], the largest island of the world. It lies off the S.E. coast of the continent, from which it is separated by the deep Mozambique channel, 250 miles (400 km) wide at its narrowest point. Madagascar in its general structure, as in flora and fauna, forms a connecting link between Africa and southern Asia. East of Madagascar are the small islands of [[Mauritius]] and [[Réunion]]. [[Socotra]] lies E.N.E. of Cape Guardafui. Off the north-west coast are the [[Canary Islands|Canary]] and [[Cape Verde]] archipelagoes. which, like some small islands in the Gulf of Guinea, are of volcanic origin.
=== Climate and health ===
Lying almost entirely within the tropics, and equally to north and south of the equator, Africa does not show excessive variations of temperature.
Great heat is experienced in the lower plains and desert regions of North Africa, removed by the great width of the continent from the influence of the ocean, and here, too, the contrast between day and night, and between summer and winter, is greatest. (The rarity of the air and the great radiation during the night cause the temperature in the Sahara to fall occasionally to freezing point.)
Farther south, the heat is to some extent modified by the moisture brought from the ocean, and by the greater elevation of a large part of the surface, especially in East Africa, where the range of temperature is wider than in the Congo basin or on the Guinea coast.
In the extreme north and south the climate is a warm temperate one, the northern countries being on the whole hotter and drier than those in the southern zone; the south of the continent being narrower than the north, the influence of the surrounding ocean is more felt.
The most important climatic differences are due to variations in the amount of
rainfall. The wide heated plains of the Sahara, and in a lesser degree the corresponding zone of the Kalahari in the south, have an exceedingly scanty rainfall, the winds which blow over them from the ocean losing part of their moisture as they pass over the outer highlands, and becoming constantly drier owing to the heating effects of the burning soil of the interior; while the scarcity of mountain ranges in the more central parts likewise tends to prevent condensation. In the inter-tropical zone of summer precipitation, the rainfall is greatest when the sun is vertical or soon after. It is therefore greatest of all near the equator, where the sun is twice vertical, and less in the direction of both tropics.
The rainfall zones are, however, somewhat deflected from a due west-to-east direction, the drier northern conditions extending southwards along the east coast, and those of the south northwards along the west. Within the equatorial zone certain areas, especially on the shores of the Gulf of Guinea and in the upper Nile basin, have an intensified rainfall, but this rarely approaches that of the rainiest regions of the world. The rainiest district in all Africa is a strip of coastland west of [[Mount Cameroon]], where there is a mean annual rainfall of about 390 in (9.91 m) as compared with a mean of 458 in (11.63 m) at [[Cherrapunji]], in [[Meghalaya]], [[India]].
The two distinct rainy seasons of the equatorial zone, where the sun is vertical at half-yearly intervals, become gradually merged into one in the direction of the tropics, where the sun is overhead but once. Snow falls on all the higher mountain ranges, and on the highest the climate is thoroughly Alpine.
The countries bordering the Sahara are much exposed to a very dry wind, full
of fine particles of sand, blowing from the desert towards the sea. Known in [[Egypt]] as the [[khamsin]], on the Mediterranean as the [[sirocco]], it is called on the Guinea coast the [[harmattan]]. This wind is not invariably hot; its great dryness causes so much evaporation that cold is not infrequently the result. Similar dry winds blow from the [[Kalahari Desert]] in the south. On the eastern coast the monsoons of the Indian Ocean are regularly felt, and on the southeast hurricanes are occasionally experienced.
==Extreme points==
This is a list of the '''extreme points of [[Africa]]''', the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location on the continent.
'''''Africa'''''
* Northernmost Point &mdash; [[Ra's al Abyad]] ([[Cape Blanc]]), [[Tunisia]]
* Southernmost Point &mdash; [[Cape Agulhas]], [[South Africa]] (34°51'15"S) ¹
* Westernmost Point &mdash; [[Santo Antão]], [[Cape Verde]] Islands (25°25'W)
* Easternmost Point &mdash; [[Rodrigues (island)|Rodrigues]], [[Mauritius]] (63°30'E)
'''''Africa (mainland)'''''
* Northernmost Point &mdash; [[Ra's al Abyad]] ([[Cape Blanc]]), [[Tunisia]]
* Southernmost Point &mdash; [[Cape Agulhas]], [[South Africa]] ({{coor dms|34|51|15|S|17|33|22|E|}})
* Westernmost Point &mdash; [[Pointe des Almadies]], [[Cap Vert]] Peninsula, [[Senegal]] (17°33'22"W)
* Easternmost Point &mdash; [[Ras Hafun]] (Raas Xaafuun), [[Somalia]] (51°27'52"E)
*¹ If the [[Prince Edward Islands]] are included in Africa, then [[Marion Island]] is the southernmost point at 46°54'S.
-----
{{1911}}
==See also==
===Articles===
*[[Africa]]
===External links===
*[http://plasma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0509/feature1/zoomify/index.html Africa: The Human Footprint]. Interactive map of human impact on Africa by [[National Geographic]].
{{Africafooter}}
{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Africa]]
[[fr:Géographie de l'Afrique]]
[[he:גאוגרפיה של אפריקה]]
[[pl:Geografia Afryki]]
[[pt:Geografia da África]]
[[sr:Географија Африке]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Africa/History</title>
<id>1855</id>
<revision>
<id>15900317</id>
<timestamp>2003-10-30T12:13:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removing 'see also' from redirect page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Africa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Africa/North Africa</title>
<id>1856</id>
<revision>
<id>15900318</id>
<timestamp>2003-10-30T12:13:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removing 'see also' from redirect page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[North Africa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Approval voting</title>
<id>1857</id>
<revision>
<id>40976664</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T06:02:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Commadot</username>
<id>951397</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Effect on elections */ balanced fallacious spin against AV by conflicting interests</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Approval ballot.svg|thumb|right|On an approval ballot, the voter can vote for any number of candidates.]]
'''Approval voting''' is a [[voting system]] used for [[election]]s, in which each voter can vote for as many or as few candidates as the voter chooses. It is typically used for single-winner elections, but can be extended to multiple winners. (However, multi-winner Approval voting does not return [[proportional representation|proportional]] results.) Approval voting is a limited form of [[range voting]], where the range that voters are allowed to expr |
that a search engine based on a mathematical analysis of the relationships between websites would produce better results than the basic techniques then in use. It was originally nicknamed "BackRub" because the system checked [[backlinks]] to estimate a site's importance.
Convinced that the pages with the most links to them from other highly relevant web pages must be the most relevant ones, Page and Brin decided to test their thesis as part of their studies, and laid the foundation for their search engine. The web site called "Google!" (with an exclamation mark) went live at the [[domain name]] ''google.com''. They formally founded their company of the same name, Google Inc., on [[September 7]], [[1998]] in a friend's garage in [[Menlo Park, California]]. Brin's lack of interest in writing [[HTML]] code used for designing web pages meant that the site's design used a minimal interface.
Google introduced advertisements in 2000, which were sold by the [[keyword]] so that they would be more relevant to the end user, and the ads were text-based in order to reduce loading time and to keep the page uncluttered. In September 2001, Google's ranking mechanism [[PageRank]] was awarded a [[United States|U.S.]] [[patent]]. The patent was officially awarded to Stanford University and lists Lawrence Page as the inventor. At its peak in early 2004, Google handled upwards of 80 percent of all search requests on the Internet through its website and clients like [[Yahoo!]], [[AOL]], and [[CNN]]. {{fn|1}} Google's share of web search fell in 2004 when Yahoo! dropped Google's search technology in favor of their own.
The Google search site includes humorous features such as cartoon modifications (called "[[Google Doodle]]s") of their logo for special occasions, the option to display the site in fictional or humorous languages such as [[Klingon language|Klingon]] and [[Leet]], and April Fool's Day jokes about the company.
It has been conjectured that Google's future is personalized searches, using the data that is gathered from their Orkut, Gmail, and Froogle products to give results based on an individuals previous actions. In fact, there is a Personalized Google Search Beta in [[Google Labs]], the experimental section of the site. {{fn|2}}
==The name "Google"==
===Etymology===
The name "Google" is an accidental misspelling of the word ''[[googol]]'', which was coined in [[1938]] by [[Milton Sirotta]], nephew of [[mathematician]] [[Edward Kasner]], to refer to the number represented by 1 followed by a hundred zeros, <math>10^{100}</math>. Google's use of the term reflects the company's mission to organize the immense amount of information available on the Web.
===Trademark and domain names===
"[[Google (verb)|To google]]," as a [[verb]], has come to mean "to search for something on Google"; because of Google's popularity (in January [[2005]], 52 percent of all web searches {{fn|3}} , but was as high as 80 percent) it has also generically come to mean "to search the web." Google officials have discouraged this usage of the company's name out of fear of [[trademark dilution]], as it could lead to their name becoming a [[genericized trademark]].
To prevent [[domain hijacking]] by unaffiliated third parties, Google has purchased the redirecting rights to several similar-sounding [[domain names]] like ''gogle.com'', ''googel.com'', etc. See [[#External links|external links]] below for other domain names owned by Google. The registration of other domain names to prevent hijacking and for humorous purposes is by no means restricted to Google.
==The search engine==
===Index size===
* ~ [[1998]]: ~ 25,000,000
* August [[2000]]: 1,060,000,000
* January [[2002]]: 2,073,000,000
* February [[2003]]: 3,083,000,000
* September [[2004]]: 4,285,000,000
* November 2004: 8,058,044,651 web pages, 880,000,000 images, 845,000,000 Usenet messages, 4,500 news sources
*June [[2005]]: 8,058,044,651 web pages, 1,187,630,000 images, 1 billion Usenet messages, 6,600 print catalogs, 4,500 news sources
(source: [[Internet Archive]] {{fn|4}}, GoogleBlog {{fn|5}}, [[Google Groups]] {{fn|6}}, [[Google Catalogs]] {{fn|7}})
===Physical structure===
Google employs [[data center]]s full of low-cost commodity computers running a custom [[Red Hat Linux]] in several locations around the world to respond to search requests and to index the web. The [[server farm]]s in the data centers are built using a [[shared nothing architecture]]. The indexing is performed by a program named Googlebot, which periodically requests new copies of web pages it already knows about. The more often a page updates, the more often Googlebot will visit. The links in these pages are examined to discover new pages to be added to its internal database of the web. This index database and web page cache is several terabytes in size. Google has developed its own file system called [[Google File System]] for storing all this data.
Please see [[Google platform]] regarding the number of Google's servers and their hard- and software.
===PageRank and indexing===
Google uses an [[algorithm]] called [[PageRank]] to rank web pages that match a given search string. The PageRank algorithm computes a recursive figure of merit for web pages, based on the weighted sum of the PageRanks of the pages linking to them. The PageRank thus derives from [[human]]-generated links, and correlates well with human concepts of importance. Previous keyword-based methods of ranking search results, used by many search engines that were once more popular than Google, would rank pages by how often the search terms occurred in the page, or how strongly associated the search terms were within each resulting page. In addition to PageRank, Google also uses other secret criteria for determining the ranking of pages on result lists.
Google not only indexes and caches [[HTML]] files but also 13 other file types {{fn|8}}, which include [[Portable Document Format|PDF]], [[Word document]]s, [[Excel spreadsheet]]s and plain text files. Except in the case of text files, the cached version is a conversion to HTML, allowing those without the corresponding viewer application to read the file.
Google may have difficulty indexing some websites, in particular those that use frames, links embedded within JavaScript or Java, or complex URLs with more than six variables in the query string. Google offers an explanation why some web pages haven't been included {{fn|8}}.
Users can customize the search engine somewhat. They can set a default language, use "SafeSearch" filtering technology (which is on 'moderate' setting by default), and set the number of results shown on each page. Google has been criticized for placing long-term [[HTTP cookie|cookies]] on users' machines to store these preferences, a tactic which also enables them to track a user's search terms over time. For any query (of which only the 32 first keywords are taken into account), up to the first 1000 results can be shown with a maximum of 100 displayed per page.
Despite its immense index, there is also a considerable amount of data in databases, which are accessible from websites by means of queries, but not by links. This so-called [[deep web]] is minimally covered by Google and contains, for example, [[catalog]]ues of [[library|libraries]], official [[legislative]] documents of governments, [[phone book]]s, etc.
As an April Fool's parody of PageRank, Google introduced an explanation of something called "PigeonRank" {{fn|10}}
===Google optimization===
[[Image:Miserable failure.png|thumb|300px|The webpage that shows the results of a search for [[Miserable failure]]. This is an example of [[Google bomb]]ing.]]
Since Google is the most popular search engine, many [[webmaster]]s have become eager to influence their websites' Google rankings. An industry of consultants has arisen to help websites raise their rankings on Google and on other search engines. This field, called [[search engine optimization]], attempts to discern patterns in search engine listings, and then develop a methodology for improving rankings.
One of Google's chief challenges is that as its algorithms and results have gained the trust of web users, the profit to be gained by a commercial web site in subverting those results has increased dramatically. Some search engine optimization firms have attempted to inflate specific Google rankings by various artifices, and thereby draw more searchers to their clients' sites. Google has managed to weaken some of these attempts by reducing the ranking of sites known to use them.
Search engine optimization encompasses both "on page" factors (like body copy, title tags, H1 heading tags and image [[alt attribute]]s) and "off page" factors (like anchor text and PageRank). The general idea is to affect Google's relevance algorithm by incorporating the keywords being targeted in various places "on page," in particular the title tag and the body copy (note: the higher up in the page, the better its keyword prominence and thus the ranking). Too many occurrences of the keyword, however, cause the page to look suspect to Google's spam checking algorithms.
One "off page" technique that works particularly well is [[Google bomb]]ing in which websites link to another site using a particular phrase in the anchor text, in order to give the site a high ranking when the word is searched for.
Google publishes a set of guidelines for a website's owners who would like to raise their rankings when using legitimate optimization consultants {{fn|11}}. The New Zealand DMA offers a more comprehensive guide to SEO ethics standards {{fn|12}}.
==Services and tools==
:''Main article: [[List of Google services and tools]]''
Google offers a number of tools and services. Some, such as Google's [[calculator]], stock quotes and weather |
e of amber costs more than a healthy slave. [[Tacitus]] in his ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'' talks about the [[Aesti]] people as the only ones to gather amber from the [[Baltic Sea]].
During the 14th century, the [[Teutonic Knights]] controlled the production of amber in Europe, forbidding its unauthorised collection from beaches on the Baltic coastline under their jurisdiction, and punishing breakers of this ordinance with death.
==Composition==
Amber is [[heterogeneous]] in composition, but consists of several [[resin]]ous bodies more or less soluble in [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[diethyl ether|ether]] and [[chloroform]], associated with an insoluble [[Bitumen|bituminous]] substance. Amber is a [[macromolecule]] by free [[radical polymerization]] of several precursors in the labdane family, communic acid, cummunol and biformene {{Ref|1}}. Labdanes are tetrameric [[terpene]]s (C<sub>20</sub>H<sub>32</sub>) and trienes which means that the organic skeleton has three [[alkene]] groups available for [[polymerization]]. As amber matures over the years, more polymerization will take place as well as [[isomerization]] reactions, [[Cross-link|crosslinking]] and cyclization. The average composition of amber leads to the general formula [[Carbon|C]]<sub>10</sub>[[Hydrogen|H]]<sub>16</sub>[[Oxygen|O]].
Heating amber will soften it and eventually it will burn, which is why the [[German language|German]] word for amber is ''bernstein''. Heated rather below 300°C, amber suffers decomposition, yielding an "oil of amber", and leaving a black residue which is known as "amber colophony", or "amber pitch"; when dissolved in oil of [[turpentine]] or in [[linseed oil]] this forms "amber varnish" or "amber lac".
True amber yields on dry distillation [[succinic acid]], the proportion varying from about 3 to 8%, and being greatest in the pale opaque or ''bony'' varieties. The aromatic and irritating fumes emitted by burning amber are mainly due to this acid. True Baltic amber is distinguished by its
yield of succinic acid, for many of the other fossil resins which are often termed amber contain either none of it, or only a very small proportion; hence the name ''succinite'' proposed by Professor [[James Dwight Dana]], and now commonly used in scientific writings as a specific term for the real Prussian amber. Succinite has a hardness between 2 and 3, which is rather greater than that of many other fossil resins. Its specific gravity varies from 1.05 to 1.10. An effective tool for Amber analysis is [[IR spectroscopy]]. It enables the distinction between baltic amber and non-Baltic varieties because of a specific [[carbonyl]] absorption and it can also detect the relative age of an amber sample.
== Amber in Geology ==
The Baltic amber or succinite is found as irregular nodules in a marine glauconitic sand, known as ''blue earth,'' occurring in the Lower [[Oligocene]] strata of [[Sambia (Baltic)|Sambia]] in [[Kaliningrad Oblast]], where it is now systematically mined. It appears, however, to have been partly derived from yet earlier [[Tertiary]] deposits ([[Eocene]]); and it occurs also as a derivative [[mineral]] in later formations, such as the drift. Relics of an abundant flora occur as inclusions trapped within the amber while the resin was yet fresh, suggesting relations with the flora of Eastern [[Asia]] and the southern part of [[North America]]. [[H. R. Goppert]] named the common amber-yielding pine of the Baltic forests ''Pinites succiniter'', but as the wood, according to some authorities, does not seem to differ from that of the existing genus it has been also called ''Pinius succinifera''. It is improbable, however, that the production of amber was limited to a single species; and indeed a large number of conifers belonging to different genera are represented in the amber-flora.<!--antique text-->
==Amber inclusions ==
[[image:amber.insect.800pix.050203.jpg|thumb|250px|An insect trapped in amber. The amber piece is 10 mm (0.4 inches) long. In the enlarged picture, the insect's antennae are easily seen.]]
The resin contains, in addition to the beautifully preserved plant-structures, numerous remains of insects, spiders, annelids, crustaceans and other small organisms which became enveloped while the exudation was fluid. In most cases the organic structure has disappeared, leaving only a cavity, with perhaps a trace of [[chitin]]. Even hair and feathers have occasionally been represented among the enclosures. Fragments of wood frequently occur, with the tissues well-preserved by impregnation with the resin; while leaves, flowers and fruits are occasionally found in marvellous perfection. Sometimes the amber retains the form of drops and stalactites, just as it exuded from the ducts and receptacles of the injured trees. The abnormal development of resin has been called ''succinosis''. Impurities are quite often present, especially when the resin dropped on to the ground, so that the material may be useless except for varnish-making, whence the impure amber is called ''firniss''. Enclosures of [[pyrites]] may give a bluish colour to amber. The so-called ''black amber'' is only a kind of [[Jet (lignite)|jet]]. ''Bony amber'' owes its cloudy opacity to minute bubbles in the interior of the resin. In the [[Dominican Republic]] exists a type of amber known as the [[Blue Amber]].
==Locations and utilization==
Although amber is found along the shores of a large part of the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]], the great amber-producing country is the promontory of [[Samland]], now part of [[Russia]]. Pieces of amber torn from the sea-floor are cast up by the waves, and collected at ebb-tide. Sometimes the searchers wade into the sea, furnished with nets at the end of long poles, by means of which they drag in the sea-weed containing entangled masses of amber; or they dredge from boats in shallow water and rake up amber from between the boulders. Divers have been employed to collect amber from the deeper waters. Systematic dredging on a large scale was at one time carried on in the Kurisches Haff by Messrs Stantien and Becker, the great amber merchants of [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]]. At the present time extensive mining operations are conducted in quest of amber. The ''pit amber'' was formerly dug in open works, but is now also worked by underground galleries. The nodules from the ''blue earth'' have to be freed from matrix and divested of their opaque crust, which can be done in revolving barrels containing sand and water. The sea-worn amber has lost its crust, but has often acquired a dull rough surface by rolling in sand.
Amber is extensively used for beads and other ornaments, and for cigar-holders and the mouth-pieces of pipes. It is regarded by the [[Turkey|Turks]] as specially valuable, inasmuch as it is said to be incapable of transmitting infection as the pipe passes from mouth to mouth. The variety most valued in the East is the pale straw-coloured, slightly cloudy amber. Some of the best qualities are sent to [[Vienna]] for the manufacture of smoking appliances. In working amber, it is turned on the [[Lathe (tool)|lathe]] and polished with whitening and water or with rotten stone and oil, the final lustre being given by friction with flannel. During the working much electricity is developed.
When gradually heated in an oil-bath, amber becomes soft and flexible. Two pieces of amber may be united by smearing the surfaces with [[linseed oil]], heating them, and then pressing them together while hot. Cloudy amber may be clarified in an oil-bath, as the oil fills the numerous [[pore]]s to which the turbidity is due. Small fragments, formerly thrown away or used only for varnish, are now utilized on a large scale in the formation of "ambroid" or "pressed amber". The pieces are carefully heated with exclusion of air and then compressed into a uniform mass by intense hydraulic pressure; the softened amber being forced through holes in a metal plate. The product is extensively used for the production of cheap jewellery and articles for smoking. This pressed amber yields brilliant interference colours in polarized light. Amber has often been imitated by other resins like [[copal]] and [[kauri]], as well as by [[celluloid]] and even [[glass]]. True amber is sometimes coloured artificially.
Amber was much valued as an ornamental material in very early times. It has been found in [[Mycenae]]an tombs; it is known from lake-dwellings in [[Switzerland]], and it occurs with [[neolithic]] remains in [[Denmark]], whilst in [[England]] it is found with interments of the [[bronze age]]. A remarkably fine cup turned in amber from a bronze-age [[tumulus|barrow]] at [[Hove]] is now in the [[Brighton Museum]]. Beads of amber occur with [[Anglo-Saxon]] relics in the south of England; and up to a comparatively recent period the material was valued as an [[amulet]]. It is still believed to possess a certain medicinal virtue.
Rolled pieces of amber, usually small but occasionally of very large size, may be picked up on the east coast of England, having probably been washed up from deposits under the North Sea. [[Cromer]] is the best-known locality, but it occurs also on other parts of the [[Norfolk, England|Norfolk]] coast, as well as at [[Great Yarmouth]], [[Southwold]], [[Aldeburgh]] and [[Felixstowe]] in [[Suffolk]], and as far south as [[Walton-on-the-Naze]] in [[Essex, England|Essex]], whilst northwards it is not unknown in [[Yorkshire]]. On the other side of the North Sea, amber is found at various localities on the coast of the [[Netherlands]] and Denmark. On the shores of the Baltic it occurs not only on the German and Polish coast but in the south of [[Sweden]], in [[Bornholm]] and other islands, and in southern [[Finland]]. Amber has indeed a very wide distribution, extending over a large part of northe |
.
*[[Hereford United F.C.|Hereford United]] in 1972, who famously defeated [[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]].
*[[Wrexham A.F.C.|Wrexham]] in 1992, when they defeated the league champions [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] in the Third Round, Wrexham having finished bottom of the [[Football League]] the previous season.
*[[Wycombe Wanderers F.C.|Wycombe Wanderers]] in 2001, when they famously reached the semi-finals while still in the [[Football League Second Division|Second Division]] (today's League One), beating such sides as then [[FA Premier League|Premiership]] club [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]], before crashing out in the semi-finals after a 2-1 loss to eventual champions [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]].
*Kidderminster Harriers were the last non-league team to reach the 5th Round of the FA Cup. They defeated Birmingham City and Preston North End before eventually falling to Premiership side West Ham United by the narrow margin of 1-0 infront of nearly 8,000 at Aggborough.
===Famous Shock Results===
*Cardiff City 2 Oldham Athletic 0 (1919-1920, Round 1)
*Walsall 2 Arsenal 0 (1932-1933, Round 3)
*Colchester United 1 Hudderfield Town 0 (1947-1948, Round 3)
*Colchester United 3 Bradford City 2 (1947-1948, Round 4)
*Yeovil Town 2 Sunderland 1 aet (1948-1949, Round 4)
*Worcester City 2 Liverpool 1 (1950-1951, Round 3)
*Everton 1 Leyton Orient 3 (1951-1952, Round 3 replay)
*Birmingham City 0 Leyton Orient 1 (1951-1952, Round 4)
*Arsenal 1 Norwich City 2 (1953-1954, Round 4)
*Wolverhampton Wanderers 0 Bournemouth 1 (1956-1957, Round 3)
*Bournemouth 3 Tottenham Hotspur 1 (1956-1957, Round 4)
*Oldham Athletic 1 South Shields 2 (1969-1970, Round 1)
*Colchester United 3 Leeds United 2 (1970-1971, Round 5)
*Hereford United 2 Newcastle United 1 (1971-1972, Round 3 replay)
*Sunderland 1 Leeds United 0 (1972-1973, Final)
*Burnley 0 Wimbledon 1 (1974-1975, Round 3)
*Southampton 1 Manchester United 0 (1975-1976, Final)
*Blyth Spartans 3 Stoke City 2 (1977-1978, Round 3)
*Bournemouth 2 Manchester United 0 (1983-1984, Round 3)
*Brighton & Hove Albion 2 Liverpool 0 (1983-1984, Round 4)
*York City 1 Arsenal 0 (1984-1985, Round 4)
*Birmingham City 1 Altrincham 2 (1985-1986, Round 3)
*Tottenham Hotspur 2 Coventry City 3 (1986-1987, Final)
*Wimbledon 1 Liverpool 0 (1987-1988, Final)
*Middlesbrough 1 Grimsby Town 2 (1988-1989, Round 3)
*Sutton United 2 Coventry City 1 (1988-1989, Round 3)
*Oldham Athletic 2 Everton 1 (1989-1990, Round 5)
*Oldham Athletic 3 Aston Villa 0 (1989-1990, Quarter-Final)
*Wrexham 2 Arsenal 1 (1991-1992, Round 3)
*Liverpool 0 Bolton Wanderers 2 (1992-1993, Round 3 replay)
*Liverpool 0 Bristol City 1 (1993-1994, Round 3 replay)
*Stockport County 2 Queens Park Rangers 1 (1993-1994, Round 3)
*Birmingham City 1 Kidderminster Harriers 2 (1993-1994, Round 3)
*Kidderminster Harriers 1 Preston North End 0 (1993-1994, Round 4)
*Barnsley 3 Manchester United 2 (1997-1998, Round 5 replay)
*Leicester City 1 Wycombe Wanderers 2 (2000-2001, Quarter-Final)
*Cardiff City 2 Leeds United 1 (2001-2002, Round 3)
*Shrewsbury Town 2 Everton 1 (2002-2003, Round 3)
*Liverpool 0 Crystal Palace 2 (2002-2003, Round 4 replay)
*Oldham Athletic 1 Manchester City 0 (2004-05, Round 3)
*Burscough 3 Gillingham 2 (2005-2006, Round 1)
*Fulham 1 Leyton Orient 2 (2005-2006, Round 3)
*Brentford 2 Sunderland 1 (2005-2006, Round 4)
==Notable events in the FA Cup==
*On [[July 20]], [[1871]], [[C. W. Alcock]] proposed that 'a Challenge Cup should be established in connection with [[the Football Association|the Association]]', giving birth to the FA Cup.
*On [[March 16]], [[1872]], [[Wanderers F.C.|Wanderers]] became the first winners of the FA Cup, beating [[Royal Engineers A.F.C.|Royal Engineers]] 1-0 at [[The Oval]]. Only 15 clubs enter, 12 play and there are 13 games in total.
*In [[1873]], for the first and only time the competition lives up to the name ''Challenge Cup''. The Wanderers beat Oxford University in a one off challenge match to retain the Cup. The rules change for the following season.
*The record score in an FA Cup tie was set in [[1887]] when [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]] defeated [[Hyde United F.C.|Hyde United]] 26-0.
*[[William Townley]] scores the first hattrick the history of the FA Cup final in the match between [[Blackburn Rovers]] and [[Sheffield Wednesday]] (6-1)
* In 1901 [[Tottenham Hotspur]] became the only non-League team to win the FA Cup with a 3-1 replay victory over [[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]].
*In [[1903]] [[Bury F.C.|Bury]] defeated [[Derby County F.C.|Derby County]] 6-0, in what is still the highest score in an FA Cup final.
*In [[1914]], [[George V]] became the first monarch to watch the FA Cup Final between [[Burnley F.C.|Burnley]] and [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] in the last cup final played at [[Crystal Palace]].
*In [[1915]] [[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]] beat [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] 3-0 at [[Old Trafford]], to win a Final often refered to as "The Khaki Cup final",
*In [[1922]], [[England national amateur football team|England amateur]] international [[Wilfred Minter]] scores 7 goals for [[St Albans City F.C.|St Albans City]] against [[Dulwich Hamlet F.C.|Dulwich Hamlet]]. Dulwich win 8-7.
*In [[1923]] the first FA Cup final was played at Wembley, and saw [[West Ham United]] lose to [[Bolton Wanderers]]. The match drew an over-capacity crowd of more than 200,000 and was played with spectators lining the edge of the pitch. Spectators spilled onto the field, but were moved back by [[mounted police]]men, resulting in the final being nicknamed the "[[White Horse Final]]"
* The 1927 final resulted in a [[Cardiff City F.C.|Cardiff City]] victory over [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]. To the present day, Cardiff City are the only non-English based team to win the trophy.
* The [[1945-46 in English football|1945-1946]] FA Cup was the first played since the competition was suspended during [[World War II]]. As the intermediate [[Football League North and South|Football League North and Football League South]] were of variable quality, to boost clubs' income each tie was played over two legs (one home, one away with the scores being added together to decide who went through) to increase the number of matches in the season. Matches that were level at the end of both legs were replayed at the stadium of whichever team had played the second leg away. The semi-finals and final (both played at neutral venues) remained single match affairs.
* The final of [[1953]] is known as the [[Matthews Final]]. The match between [[Blackpool F.C.|Blackpool]] and [[Bolton Wanderers F.C.|Bolton Wanderers]] saw [[Stanley Matthews]], at the age of 38, in his third attempt to win an FA cup winners medal for Blackpool. Bolton were 3-1 up with 22 minutes remaining and looked set to win the match when Blackpool's [[Stan Mortensen]] scored from a Matthews cross. With less than five minutes remaining Blackpool equalised from a Mortensen free kick and shortly after the restart, with everybody anticipating extra time, Matthews passed to [[Bill Perry]] who put the ball in the back of the net securing a 4-3 victory for Blackpool.
* The final of [[1956]] saw Manchester City win 3-1 against Birmingham City. Roughly 15 minutes before the end of the game, Man City's goalkeeper [[Bert Trautmann]] (a German who had been taken as a [[prisoner of war]] by the British in [[1945]]) injured his neck when he made a save at the feet of Birmingham's Peter Murphy. Despite being in terrible pain he continued to play till the end of match and collected his winners' medal still clutching his neck. An [[x-ray]] later revealed that he had broken his neck.
* [[1956]]-57 also the record for highest number of rounds played in set, when former League club [[New Brighton F.C.|New Brighton]] played in nine rounds. They started in the preliminary round, and progressed through four qualifying rounds to the fourth round proper, where they lost to [[Burnley F.C.|Burnley]]. They had just one replay - for their first round tie.
*[[1958]] saw Leeds United beaten 2-1 at home to Cardiff City in the third round for the third consecutive year.
*[[1961]] saw [[Tottenham Hotspur]] become the first club in the 20th century to win the FA cup and league championship in the same season, known famously as the double.
* In [[1967]] the first substitutes were allowed after many years of finals proving unbalanced due to injuries which forced players into leaving the field early. Players had suffered broken bones in the [[1957]], [[1959]], [[1960]], [[1961]] and [[1965]] finals.
* [[1970]] saw the first Wembley final to go to a replay. The replayed final was played at [[Old Trafford (football)|Old Trafford]] and contested between Chelsea and Leeds United. It was the last final to be played outside of Wembley before it was moved to the Millennium Stadium in 2001.
* [[1971]] saw the longest tie in Cup history. [[Oxford City F.C.|Oxford City]] and [[Alvechurch F.C.|Alvechurch]] play 6 games for a total of 660 minutes. Alvechurch won the final game 1-0 to progress to the first round proper.
* In [[1972]] the FA Cup celebrated its 100th birthday (though not its 100th season, due to interruptions for the two world wars). [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]] won the final against holders [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]].
* In [[1973]], [[Sunderland A.F.C.]] created the biggest ever upset in a final when they beat holders Leeds United 1-0. At that time, Leeds were one of Europe's best club sides, whereas Sunderland had been struggling in the [[Football League Second Division|Second Division]]. The goal was scored by [[Ian Porterfield]], but the incredible double save by Sunderland goalkeeper [[Jimmy Montgomery]] is probably even better remembered.
* The [[1973]]-74 compitition saw the record set for the highest number of games played by one club. [[Bideford F.C|Bideford]] played 13 games over five rounds: one for the 1st qualifying round, tw |
Pavel Vozenilek</username>
<id>87110</id>
</contributor>
<comment>details on origin of the name, rm ambiguous category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dvořák''' is common [[Czechs|Czech]] surname (feminine form is '''Dvořáková'''). Spelling vithout diacritics is '''Dvorak'''.
It can refer to:
* [[Antonín Dvořák]], Czech composer
* [[Dvorak Simplified Keyboard]], an alternative to the QWERTY keyboard layout, Named after August Dvorak
* [[August Dvorak]], co-creator of the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard
* [[John C. Dvorak]], computer industry columnist
* [[Dvorak (game)]], a customizable card game
* [[Dvorak encoding]], a special kind of cryptography
* [[Ann Dvorak]], American actress
* [[Bill Dvorak]], whitewater rafter
* [[Max Dvořák]], Czech-born Austrian art historian
* [[Radek Dvořák]], Czech NHL ice hockey player
Other spellings:
* [[Thomas Dworzak]], a member of Photo Magnum
[[Category:Surnames]]
{{disambig}}
[[af:Dvorak]]
[[de:Dvorak]]
[[es:Dvorak]]
[[eo:Dvorak]]
[[nl:Dvorak]]
[[pl:Dvorak]]
[[pt:Dvorak]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dana Falkenberg</title>
<id>8448</id>
<revision>
<id>15906445</id>
<timestamp>2004-06-05T11:57:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[sep11:Dana Falkenberg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Developmental biology</title>
<id>8449</id>
<revision>
<id>38108080</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T05:51:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Egfr</username>
<id>881507</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Sources */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Developmental biology''' is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop. Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of [[cell growth]], [[cellular differentiation|differentiation]] and "[[morphogenesis]]," which is the process that gives rise to [[biological tissue|tissue]]s, [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s and [[anatomy]].
[[Embryology]] is a subfield, the study of organisms between the one-cell stage (generally, the [[zygote]]) and the end of the embryonic stage, which is ''not'' necessarily the beginning of free living. Embryology was originally a more descriptive science until the [[20th century]]. Embryology and developmental biology today deal with the various steps necessary for the correct and complete formation of the [[body]] of a living organism.
The related field of [[evolutionary developmental biology]] was formed largely in the [[1990s]] and is a [[synthesis]] of findings from molecular developmental biology and [[evolutionary biology]] which considers the diversity of organismal form in an evolutionary context.
The findings of developmental biology can help to understand developmental malfunctions such as [[chromosomal aberration]]s, for example, [[Down syndrome]]. An understanding of the specialization of [[Cell (biology)|cells]] during embryogenesis may shield information on how to specialize [[stem cell]]s to specific tissues and organs, which could lead to the specific [[cloning]] of organs for medical purposes. Another biologically important process that occurs during development is [[apoptosis]] - cell "suicide". For this reason, many developmental models are used to elucidate the [[physiology]] and molecular basis of this cellular process.
==Molecular mechanisms of development==
During the second half of the 20th century the types of molecules involved in embryonic development were identified. [[Transcription factor]]s are the key regulators of which [[gene]]s are expressed in cells. Transcriptional control in the various differentiated cell types allows each [[Cell_type|type of cell]] (epithelial, muscle, neuron, etc) to express different amounts of the possible proteins. The transcription factors are regulated by [[signal transduction]] pathways that relay signals from outside of cells to the cell nucleus. Signal transduction pathways often involve [[receptor]]s, receptor [[ligand#Biochemical ligands|ligands]] and enzymes such as [[protein kinase]]s. One key class of genes that are differentially regulated by transcription factors in different cell types are genes for [[cell adhesion]] proteins. Cell adhesion proteins are among the key regulators of [[morphogenesis]].
:''Concepts in developmental biology''
:[[allantois]], [[amnion]], [[blastocyst]], [[blastomere]], [[blastula]], [[blastulation]], [[chorion]], [[chrysalis]], [[cleavage (embryo)|cleavage]], [[embryo]], [[embryogenesis]], [[embryogeny]], [[embryology]], [[extra-embryonic membrane]], [[fetus ]](or [[fetus|foetus]]), [[gastrula]], [[gastrulation]], [[germ layer]], [[germ plasm]], [[germination]], [[induction (biology)|induction]], [[juvenile]], [[larva]], [[maternal effect]], [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]], [[genome]], [[morphogenesis]], [[morula]], [[neoteny]], [[neural development]], [[nymph (biology)|nymph]], [[ontogeny]], [[oosperm]], [[ovism]], [[paedogenesis]], [[pangenesis]], [[phylogeny]], [[primordium]], [[pupa]], [[rudiment]], [[seed]], [[teratology]], [[zygote]]
==Developmental model organisms==
Often used [[model organism]]s in developmental biology include the following:
* Chordates
**[[Lancelet]] ''Branchiostoma lanceolatum''
** Zebrafish ''[[Danio rerio]]''
** Medakafish ''[[Oryzias latipes]]''
** Fugu ''[[Takifugu rubripes]]''
** [[Frog]]s ''[[Xenopus laevis]]''
** Chicken ''[[Gallus gallus]]''
** Mouse ''[[Mus musculus]]'' ([[Mammalian embryogenesis]])
* Invertebrates
** [[Sea urchin]]
** Round worm ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]''
** Fruit fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'' ([[Drosophila embryogenesis]])
* Plants ([[Plant embryogenesis]])
** ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]''
** [[Maize]]
** [[Snapdragon]]
==Developmental systems biology==
Computer simulation of multicellular development is a research methodology to understand the function of the very complex processes involved in the development of organisms. This includes simulation of cell signaling, multicell interactions and regulatory genomic networks in development of multicellular structures and processes. ''Minimal genomes'' for minimal multicellular organisms may pave the way to understand such complex processes ''in vivo'' (see [[Genomes#Minimal genomes]]).
==See also==
* [[List_of_publications_in_biology#Developmental biology|Important publications in developmental biology]]
* [[morphogenesis]], [[embryogenesis]]
* [[auxology]]
==Sources==
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=dbio.TOC&depth=2 Developmental Biology] by Scott Gilbert. (online textbook)
*[http://www.sdbonline.org/Other/VL_DB.html Virtual Library - Developmental Biology]
*[http://www.bionews.in/index.php/archives/category/developmental-biology/ Latest Developmental Biology News]
[[Category:Developmental biology|*]]
{{Biology-footer}}
[[de:Entwicklungsbiologie]]
[[es:biología del desarrollo]]
[[fr:Biologie du développement]]
[[he:ביולוגיה התפתחותית]]
[[hu:Fejlődéstan]]
[[mk:Развојна биологија]]
[[nl:Ontwikkelingsbiologie]]
[[ja:発生生物学]]
[[lb:Entwécklungsbiologie]]
[[pl:Embriologia]]
[[pt:Biologia do desenvolvimento]]
[[simple:Developmental biology]]
[[sl:razvojna biologija]]
[[tr:Gelişim biyolojisi]]
[[zh:发育生物学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 27</title>
<id>8452</id>
<revision>
<id>41820285</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:27:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dale Arnett</username>
<id>25667</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ + Mark Few</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[December 27]] is the 361st day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. (362nd in a leap year). There are 4 days remaining in the year.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[537]] - The [[Hagia Sophia]] is completed.
*[[1703]] - [[Portugal]] and [[England]] sign the [[Methuen Treaty]] which gives preference to Portuguese imported [[wine]]s into England.
*[[1831]] - [[Charles Darwin]] embarks on his journey aboard the [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']], where he will formulate the theory of [[evolution]].
*[[1836]] - The worst ever [[avalanche]] in [[England]] occurs at [[Lewes]], [[Sussex]], killing 8 people.
*[[1845]] - [[diethyl ether|Ether]] [[anesthetic]] is used for childbirth for the first time (Dr. [[Crawford Williamson Long]] in [[Jefferson, Georgia]]).
*[[1904]] - [[James Barrie]]'s play ''[[Peter Pan]]'' premieres in [[London]].
*1904 - The [[Abbey Theatre]] opens.
*[[1918]] - The [[Great Poland Uprising]] against the Germans begins.
*[[1932]] - [[Radio City Music Hall]] opens.
*[[1945]] - The [[World Bank]] is created with the signing of an agreement by 28 nations.
*[[1947]] - [[Howdy Doody]], a children's [[television]] program, makes its debut ([[NBC]]).
*[[1949]] - [[Indonesian National Revolution]]: Queen [[Juliana of the Netherlands]] grants [[Indonesia]] sovereignty.
*[[1968]] - The long-running radio program ''[[The Breakfast Club (radio)|The Breakfast Club]]'' signs off for the last time ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] radio).
*[[1978]] - [[Spain]] becomes a [[democracy]] after 40 years of [[dictatorship]].
*[[1979]] - The [[Soviet Union]] seizes control of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Babrak Karmal]] replaces overthrown and executed President [[Hafizullah Amin]].
*[[1985]] - [[Palestinian]] guerrillas [[Rome and Vienna airport attacks|kill eighteen people]] inside [[Rome]] and [[Vienna]] airports.
*[[1996]] - [[Taliban]] forces retake the strategic [[Bagram air base]] which solidifies their buffer zone around [[Kabul]].
*[[1997]] - Protestant paramilitary leader [[Billy Wright (terrorist)|Billy Wright]] is assassinated in Northern Ireland.
*[[2001]] - The [[People's Republic of China]] is g |
into various sectors, which include:
*[[Retail]] - ''Jewellery shops, Cash & Carry's''
*[[Residential]] - ''Estate Agencies in [[Dubai]]''
*[[TV Channels]] - ''[[ARY Digital]], [[ARY One World]], The Musik, Q TV & ARY Sports, which are shown worldwide on six satelites.''
{{retail-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arapawa Island</title>
<id>2559</id>
<revision>
<id>24062331</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-26T08:28:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Grutness</username>
<id>117878</id>
</contributor>
<comment>map added</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:NZ-Arapawa I.png|thumb|160px|right|Location of Arapawa Island]]
'''Arapawa Island''' is a small [[island]] located in the [[Marlborough Sounds]], at the north east tip of the [[South Island]] of [[New Zealand]].
The island has a land area of 75 km<sup>2</sup> (18500 acres). [[Queen Charlotte Sound, New Zealand|Queen Charlotte Sound]] defines its western side, while to the south lies [[Tory Channel]], which is on the sea route from [[Wellington]] in the [[North Island]] to [[Picton, New Zealand|Picton]]).
It was from a hill on Arapawa Island in 1770 that Captain [[James Cook]] first saw the sea passage from the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the [[Tasman Sea]], which was named [[Cook Strait]].
This discovery banished the fond notion of geographers that there existed a great southern [[continent]].
From the late [[1820s]] until the mid [[1960s]], Arapawa Island was a base for [[whaling]] in the Sounds.
Perano Head on the east coast of the island was the principal whaling station for the area.
The houses built by the Perano family are now operated as tourist accommodation.
Arapawa Island is known for the breeds of pigs, sheep and goats found only on the island. The origin of these breeds is unknown, and is a matter of some speculation. Common suggestions are that they are old English breeds introduced by the early whalers, or by Captain Cook or other early explorers, which are now extinct in [[England]].
==External links==
*[http://www.arapawahomestead.co.nz/ Perano Homestead]
[[Category:Islands of New Zealand]]
[[category: Marlborough, New Zealand]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Administrative law</title>
<id>2560</id>
<revision>
<id>42042059</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:46:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KnightRider</username>
<id>430793</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Administrative law''' is the body of [[law]] that arises from the activities of [[government agency | administrative agencies]] of [[government]]. [[Government agency ]] action can include [[rulemaking]], [[adjudication]], or the [[enforcement]] of a specific [[regulation | regulatory]] agenda. Administrative law is considered a branch of [[public law]]. As a body of law, administrative law deals with the decision-making of administrative units of government (e.g., [[tribunal]]s, [[board]]s or [[commission]]s) that are part of a state [[regulation |regulatory scheme]] in such areas as [[international trade]], [[manufacturing]], the [[natural environment|environment]], [[tax|taxation]], [[broadcasting]], [[immigration]] and [[transport]]. Administrative law expanded greatly during the [[twentieth century]], as legislative bodies world-wide created more [[government agency | government agencies]] to regulate the increasingly complex social, economic and political spheres of human interaction.
==Administrative law in common law countries==
Generally speaking, most countries that follow the principles of [[common law]] have developed procedures for [[judicial review]] that limit the reviewability of decisions made by administrative law bodies. Often these procedures are coupled with legislation or other [[common law]] doctrines that establish standards for proper [[rulemaking]].
Administrative law may also apply to review of decisions of so-called quasi-public bodies, such as non-profit corporations, disciplinary boards, and other decision-making bodies that effect the legal rights of members of a particular group or entity.
While administrative decision-making bodies are often controlled by larger governmental units, their decisions could be reviewed by a [[court]] of general [[jurisdiction]] under some principle of [[judicial review]] based upon [[due process]] (United States) or [[fundamental justice]] (Canada). Judicial review of administrative decision, it must be noted, is different from an appeal. When sitting in review of a decision, the Court will only look at the method in which the decision was arrived at, whereas in appeal the correctness of the decision itself will be under question. This difference is vital in appreciating administrative law in common law countries.
The scope of [[judicial review]] may be limited to certain questions of [[fairness]], or whether the administrative action is [[ultra vires]]. In terms of ultra vires actions in the broad sense, a reviewing court may set aside an administrative decision if it is [[patently unreasonable]] (under Canadian law), [[Wednesbury unreasonableness |'' Wednesbury '' unreasonable]] (under British law), or arbitrary and capricious under (U.S. [[Administrative Procedure Act]] and New York State law). Administrative law, as laid down by the Supreme Court in India, has also recognized two more grounds of judicial review which were recognized but not applied by English Courts viz. [[legitimate expectation]] and [[proportionality]].
The powers to review administrative decisions are usually established by statute, but were originally developed from the royal [[prerogative writ]]s of [[English law]], such as the writ of [[mandamus]] and the writ of [[certiorari]]. In certain [[Common Law]] jurisdictions, such as [[India]] or [[Pakistan]], the power to pass such writs is a Constitutionally guaranteed power. This power is seen as fundamental to the power of [[judicial review]] and an aspect of the independent [[judiciary]].
=== Administrative law in the United States===
''Main Article: [[American administrative law]]''
[[Image:250px-HQFTC.jpg|thumb|right|Administrative law in the United States often relates to, or arises from, so-called "independent agencies"- such as the Federal Trade Commission ("FTC"). Here is FTC's headquarters in Washington D.C.]]
In the [[United States]] legal system, many [[government agency | government agencies]] are organized under the [[executive branch]] of [[government]], rather than the [[judicial branch|judicial]] or [[legislative branch]]es. The [[United States Federal Executive Departments|departments]] under the control of the [[executive branch]], and their sub-units, are often referred to as [[government agency | executive agencies]]. The so-called [[government agency | executive agencies]] can be distinguished from the many important and powerful [[Independent Agencies of the United States Government|independent agencies]], that are created by [[statutes]] enacted by the [[U.S. Congress]]. Congress has also created [[Article I and Article III tribunals|Article I judicial tribunals]] to handle some areas of administrative law.
The actions of [[government agency | executive agencies]] [[Independent Agencies of the United States Government|independent agencies]] are the main focus of American administrative law. In response to the rapid creation of new [[Independent Agencies of the United States Government|independent agencies]] in the early [[twentieth century]] (see discussion below),[[U.S. Congress | Congress]] enacted the [[Administrative Procedure Act]] (APA) in [[1946]]. Many of the [[Independent Agencies of the United States Government| independent agencies]] operate as miniature versions of the [[Federal Government of the United States | tripartite federal government]], with the authority to "legislate" (through [[rulemaking]]), [[adjudication | "adjudicate"]] (through administrative hearings), and to [[Executive (government)|"execute"]] administrative goals (through agency enforcement personnel). Because the [[United States Constitution]] sets no limits on this tripartite authority of [[government agency |administrative agencies]],[[U.S. Congress | Congress]] enacted the [[Administrative Procedure Act|APA]] to establish fair administrative law procedures to comply with the requirements of [[United States Constitution | Constitutional]] [[due process]].
The dominant [[U.S. Supreme Court]] case in the field of American administrative law is ''[[Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc.|Chevron U.S.A. v. Natural Resources Defense Council]]'', {{ussc|467|837|1984}}.
[[es:Derecho administrativo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American political scandals</title>
<id>2561</id>
<revision>
<id>15900960</id>
<timestamp>2004-02-10T07:31:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jengod</username>
<id>12028</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Political scandals of the United States]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>States and territories of Australia</title>
<id>2562</id>
<revision>
<id>38402980</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T02:31:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tobias Conradi</username>
<id>10784</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cats</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Australian States and Territories''' make up the [[Australia|Commonwealth of Australia]] under a [[federalism|federal]] system of government.
[[Image:AustraliaNumbered.png|States and Territories of mainland Australia: 1. Australian Capital Territory; 2. New South Wales; 3. Victoria; 4. Queensland; |
nter with a dyke named "Freddie" would never get airplay in the US, but it reached the top of
the charts in Norway and Austria, was Top Ten in Germany and remains a favorite in territories where English is not the primary language. Said Zappa to [[Matt Groening]] in a 1992 Guitar World interview, "I don't think anything has outsold Sheik Yerbouti, partly because "Bobby Brown" keeps becoming a hit every ten years... I think it was back on the charts again in Norway. For no apparent reason, it was back."
==1980s==
[[Image:Zappa_You_Are_What_You_Is.jpg|''[[You Are What You Is]]'', 1981|thumb]]
In [[1980]], Zappa helped former band members [[Warren Cuccurullo]], [[Terry Bozzio]] and [[Patrick O'Hearn]] launch their new band, [[Missing Persons]], by letting them record their 4-song demo EP in his brand new UMRK (Utility Muffin Research Kitchen) studios. In [[1981]], the double album ''[[You Are What You Is]]'' was released, featuring 19 songs, which included such complex instrumentals as "Theme from the 3rd Movement of Sinister Footwear", but mainly focused on rock songs with Zappa's sardonic social commentary. "Dumb All Over", is an example of this, being a devastating tirade on religion, as is "Heavenly Bank Account", wherein Zappa objurgates people such as [[Jerry Falwell]] for relying upon the US administration to finance the religious organization, the 'Moral Majority', whilst simultaneously embezzling the funds. The album is also notable for the presence of guitar virtuoso [[Steve Vai]].
In the same year, ''[[Tinsel Town Rebellion]]'' was released, a mixture of songs taken from a [[1979]] tour, one studio track and the rest were taken from the last tour of [[1980]]. The album is a mixture of complicated instrumentals, of which "The Blue Light" is a salient example, demonstrating [[Vinnie Colaiuta]]'s dexterity around a [[drum kit]], and Zappa's use of ''[[sprechstimme]]'' (speaking voice), a compositional technique utilized by such composers as [[Arnold Schoenberg]], and [[Alban Berg]].
[[Image:Zappadrowningwitch.jpeg|''[[Ship Arriving Too Late to Save a Drowning Witch]]'', 1982|thumb]]
In May of [[1982]], Zappa released [[Ship Arriving Too Late to Save a Drowning Witch]], which featured his biggest selling single, ''Valley Girl'' (topping out at #32 on the ''[[Billboard magazine|Billboard]]'' charts). In her improvised "lyrics" to the song, Zappa's daughter [[Moon Unit Zappa|Moon Unit]] satirized the vapid speech of teenage girls from the [[San Fernando Valley]]. Naturally, this led to the [[meme]]-like propagation of "Valspeak" such as ''gag me with a spoon'' and ''barf out''. In 1983, [[The Man From Utopia]] was released, which was striking for its album cover, portraying Zappa as a muscle-bound, demonic guitarist. The album itself is eclectic, featuring the vocal-led 'Dangerous Kitchen' & 'The Jazz Discharge Party Hats', continuations of the ''sprechstimme'' excursions shown on "You Are What You Is". "Tink Walks Amok" is a piece to exhibit Arthur Barrow's capabilities on the [[bass guitar]], and doo-wop songs such as the title track and "Mary Lou".
[[Image:The Man From Utopia.jpg|''[[The Man from Utopia]]'', 1983|thumb]]
After a break Zappa returned, and much of his later work was influenced by his use of the [[synclavier]] as a compositional and performance tool and his mastery of studio techniques for producing specific instrumental effects. His work was also more explicitly political satirising the rise of [[television evangelist]]s and the [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] party.
On [[September 19]], [[1985]], Zappa testified before the [[United States Senate|US Senate]] Commerce, Technology, and Transportation committee, attacking the Parents Music Resource Center or [[PMRC]], a music [[censorship]] (though others would say [[watchdog]]) organization founded by then-Senator [[Al Gore]]'s wife [[Tipper Gore]] and including many other political wives, including the wives of five members of the committee. He said;
:"The PMRC proposal is an ill-conceived piece of nonsense which fails to deliver any real benefits to children, infringes the civil liberties of people who are not children and promises to keep the courts busy for years dealing with the interpretational and enforcemental problems inherent in the proposal's design.
:"It is my understanding that, in law, First Amendment issues are decided with a preference for the least restrictive alternative. In this context, the PMRC's demands are the equivalent of treating dandruff by decapitation."
Zappa put some of the PMRC hearings to music in his song ''Porn Wars''. Zappa is heard interacting with Senators [[Fritz Hollings]], [[Slade Gorton]], [[Al Gore]] (who admitted to being a Zappa fan), and, most notably, a funny exchange with Florida Senator [[Paula Hawkins]] over what toys the Zappa children played with. Zappa would also go on to argue with PMRC representatives on the [[CNN]]'s [[Crossfire (TV series)|Crossfire]] in [[1986]] and [[1987]]. [http://blog.wfmu.org/freeform/2006/02/frank_zappa_ver.html]
His last tour in a "[[rock band]] format" took place in [[1988]] with a 12-piece group which was reported to have a repertoire of over 800 (mostly Zappa) compositions, but which split acrimoniously before the tour was completed. The tour was documented on the albums ''[[The Best Band You Never Heard In Your Life]]'' (Zappa "standards" and obscure cover tunes), ''[[Make a Jazz Noise here]]'' (mostly [[instrumental]] and [[experimental music]]), and ''[[Broadway The Hard Way]]'' (new original material), with bits also to be found on ''You Can't Do That On Stage Anymore Volume 6.''
==1990s==
In the early 1990s Zappa devoted almost all of his energy to modern orchestral and [[synclavier]] works. In 1991 he was diagnosed with [[prostate cancer]]. Although ill, in [[1992]] he appeared as a guest conductor with the ''[[Ensemble Modern]]'' in a series of concerts in Germany devoted to his compositions, recordings from which appeared on ''[[The Yellow Shark]]''.
[[Image:Zappa Civilization Phaze III.jpg|thumb|''[[Civilization, Phaze III]]'', 1994]]
During these years, he edited numerous CD collections of concert recordings made throughout his career. In 1993, he completed ''[[Civilization, Phaze III]]'', a major synclavier work he had begun in the 1980s. He stated in interviews that he was working on hundreds of synclavier pieces, most of which remained unfinished.
Frank Zappa died on [[December 4]], [[1993]], aged 52 of [[prostate cancer]], and was interred in the [[Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery]] in [[Westwood, Los Angeles, California|Westwood, California]].
His grave is unmarked, although its location is known among fans and can be found on the Internet.
Zappa was inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in 1995. That same year the only known cast of Zappa was installed in the center of [[Vilnius]], the capital of [[Lithuania]]. Zappa was immortalized by [[Konstantinas Bogdanas]], the famous Lithuanian sculptor who had previously cast portraits of [[Vladimir Lenin]].
In 2002 a bronze bust was installed in a square in [[Bad Doberan]], a small town in the north of [[Germany]], where, since 1990, there has been an international Festival celebrating the music of Frank Zappa, the "[[Zappanale]]". Zappa received a posthumous [[Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award]] in 1997.
==Trivia==
[[Image:Frank Zappa Statue.jpg|thumb|250px|One public statue of Frank Zappa, in Vilnius, Lithuania. Another one can be seen in Bad Doberan (Germany)]]
* Zappa was married twice, once to Kay Sherman (1959&ndash;1964; no children), and then to Gail (Sloatman) Zappa, with whom he remained until his death. They have four children: [[Moon Unit Zappa|Moon Unit]], [[Dweezil Zappa|Dweezil]] (born Ian Donald Calvin Euclid Zappa, (the names of his band members) because the hospital refused to put Dweezil on the birth certificate; Dweezil later legally changed his name to "Dweezil") ("Dweezil" is also the name Frank had given to one of Gail's toes), [[Ahmet Zappa|Ahmet Emuukha Rodan]], and [[Diva Zappa|Diva Muffin]]. As a guest on ''[[The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson|The Tonight Show]]'', chatting with guest-host [[Jay Leno]], Zappa was asked why he had given his children such unusual names. Zappa answered, in a casual tone of voice, "Because I wanted to!" Zappa once said in an interview that if their names ever gave them problems, it would be because of the ''last'' name.
* He made an appearance on a show hosted by Steve Allen in about 1959. ([http://www.youtube.com/w/FRANK-ZAPPA-1963-ON-STEVE-ALLEN?v=JGITyGUHrdg&search=zappa The clip can be found on YouTube]) This appearance featured Frank demonstrating the wide scope of percussion by playing the spokes of a spinning bicycle wheel with drum sticks. Steve Allen commented years later, after Frank was well known, that Frank was on his show once and had destroyed an automobile on stage. .
* An old [[rumor]] states that at some point in the [[1960]]s, Zappa once won a gross-out contest by eating his own [[excrement]] on stage. [[Snopes.com]] has said the instance never occurred, and Zappa himself refutes the claim, noting, "For the record, folks: I never took a shit on stage, and the closest I ever came to eating shit anywhere was at a [[Holiday Inn]] buffet in Fayetteville, North Carolina, in 1973." [http://www.snopes.com/music/artists/grossout.htm]
* Zappa made a [[cameo appearance]] in the [[1968 in film|1968 film]] starring the [[Monkees]], ''[[Head (movie)|Head]]'' with a talking [[cow]]. He also made a cameo appearance on an episode of the Monkees TV series. Here, he was shown destroying a car in a Monkees style montage after being interview |
and glossary about Afghanistan]
* [http://www.whatisindia.com/issues/afghanis/index.html Afghanistan Portal on The Indian Analyst] Index of News, Analysis, and Opinion from many sources
* [http://www.bh.org.il/Communities/Archive/Afghanistan.asp The Jews of Afghanistan]
* [http://www.akdn.org AKDN]
* [http://www.faizani.com Islam Way Online - Your Religion and Spirituality Portal] Books written by the celebrated Afghan Scholar [[Mawlana Faizani]]
* [http://www.auaf.edu.af American University of Afghanistan]
* [http://numismondo.com/pm/afg Afghanistan Paper Money]
{{SAARC}}
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[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern countries]]
[[Category:Near Eastern countries]]
[[Category:SAARC members]]
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[[gd:Afghanistan]]
[[gl:Afganistán - افغانستان]]
[[gu:અફઘાનિસ્તાન]]
[[he:אפגניסטן]]
[[hi:अफगानिस्तान]]
[[hr:Afganistan]]
[[ht:Afganistan]]
[[hu:Afganisztán]]
[[ia:Afghanistan]]
[[id:Afganistan]]
[[io:Afganistan]]
[[is:Afganistan]]
[[it:Afghanistan]]
[[ja:アフガニスタン]]
[[ka:ავღანეთი]]
[[ko:아프가니스탄]]
[[ku:Afganistan]]
[[la:Afgania]]
[[lb:Afghanistan]]
[[li:Afganistan]]
[[lt:Afganistanas]]
[[lv:Afganistāna]]
[[ml:അഫ്ഗാനിസ്ഥാന്]]
[[mo:Афганистан]]
[[ms:Afghanistan]]
[[na:Afganistan]]
[[nds:Afghanistan]]
[[nl:Afghanistan]]
[[nn:Afghanistan]]
[[no:Afghanistan]]
[[os:Афгъанистан]]
[[pl:Afganistan]]
[[ps:افغانستان]]
[[pt:Afeganistão]]
[[ro:Afganistan]]
[[ru:Афганистан]]
[[sa:अफगानस्थान]]
[[scn:Afganistàn]]
[[se:Afghanistan]]
[[simple:Afghanistan]]
[[sk:Afganistan]]
[[sl:Afganistan]]
[[sq:Afganistani]]
[[sr:Авганистан]]
[[sv:Afghanistan]]
[[ta:ஆப்கானிஸ்தான்]]
[[tg:Афғонистон]]
[[th:ประเทศอัฟกานิสถาน]]
[[tk:Owganystan]]
[[tl:Afghanistan]]
[[tr:Afganistan]]
[[udm:Афганистан]]
[[uk:Афганістан]]
[[vi:Afghanistan]]
[[zh:阿富汗]]
[[zh-min-nan:Afghanistan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albania</title>
<id>738</id>
<revision>
<id>42150547</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:47:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.43.190.132</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country|
|native_name = Republika e Shqipërisë
|common_name = Albania
|image_flag = Flag of Albania.svg
|image_coat = Albania state emblem.png|150px
|image_map = LocationAlbania.png
|national_motto = (not verified) Feja e Shqiptarit është Shqiptaria ([[Albanian language|Albanian]]: The faith of the Albanian is Albanianism)
|national_anthem = [[Hymni i Flamurit]]
|official_languages = [[Albanian language|Albanian]]
|capital = [[Tirana]]
|latd=41 |latm=20 |latNS=N |longd=19 |longm=48 |longEW=E
|largest_city = [[Tirana]]
|government_type = emerging [[democracy]]
|leader_titles = &bull; [[List of Presidents of Albania|President]] <br>&bull; [[List of Prime Ministers of Albania|Prime Minister]]
|leader_names = &bull; [[Alfred Moisiu]] <br>&bull; [[Sali Berisha]]
|area_rank = 139th
|area_magnitude = 1 E10
|area = 28,748
|areami² = 11,100 <!--Do not remove-->
|percent_water = 4.7
|population_estimate = 3,563,112
|population_estimate_year = 2005
|population_estimate_rank = 126
|population_census =
|population_census_year =
|population_density = 123
|population_densitymi² = 318.6 <!--Do not remove-->
|population_density_rank = 63
|GDP_PPP_year = 2003
|GDP_PPP = $15.7 billion
|GDP_PPP_rank = 112th
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $4,900
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 105th
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI = 0.780
|HDI_rank = 72nd
|HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events =
|established_dates = From [[Ottoman Empire]] <br>&nbsp;[[November 28]], [[1912]]
|currency = [[Lek (currency)|Lek]]
|currency_code = ALL
|country_code = al
|time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]]
|utc_offset = +1
|time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
|utc_offset_DST = +2
|cctld = [[.al]]
|calling_code = 355
|footnotes =
}}
''This article is about Albania, the country on the Adriatic coast of the Balkans. For other historic uses, see [[Albania (disambiguation)]].
'''Albania''' ([[Albanian language|Albanian]]: ''Republika e Shqipërisë'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[ɾɛpublika ɛ ʃciəpəɾisə]}}) is a [[Mediterranean]] country in southeastern [[Europe]]. It is bordered by [[Serbia and Montenegro]] in the north, the [[Republic of Macedonia]] in the east, and [[Greece]] in the south; it has a coast on the [[Adriatic Sea]] in the west, and a coast on the [[Ionian Sea]] in the southwest. The country is an emerging [[democracy]] and is formally named the '''Republic of Albania'''.
== History ==
''Main articles: [[Illyria]], [[Illyricum]], [[Dalmatia]], [[History of Albania]].''
The earlier inhabitants were probably part of the pre-Indo-European populace that occupied the coastline of most parts of the Mediterranean. Their physical remains are scarce though, and concentrated on the coastal region. Soon, these first inhabitants were overrun by the Proto-Hellenic tribes that gradually occupied modern-day Greece, southern parts of what is now the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and the south of present-day Albania. This process was completed over the second millennium BC and did not really affect northern or central Albania, an area that at the time presented the image of a political vacuum (in essence a historical paradox).
Historians do not agree over the origin of the [[Illyrians]]. Some of them maintain that the Illyrians descended from the pre-Indo-European [[Pelasgians]], while most scholars place them in the later wave of Indo-European invasions. Their presence can be traced back to 900 BC, when their political structure was formulated in the [[7th century BC|7th]] and [[6th century BC|6th]] centuries BC. Excellent metal craftsmen and fierce warriors, the Illyrians formed warlord based kingdoms that fought amongst themselves for most of their history. Only during the 6th century did the Illyrians venture significant raids against their immediate neighbours: the kingdom of the [[Molossians]] in southern Albania, the kingdom of [[Macedon]], and the kingdom of [[Paionia]].
Besides warfare, the [[Illyrians]] were also peaceful traders of agricultural products and metal works. The [[Illyrian]] culture was heavily influenced by the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] culture (mainly the south Illyrian tribes). Albania is also the site of several ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] colonies.
=== Macedonian Rule ===
Probably their most important success was the slaughter of [[Perdiccas III of Macedon|Perdiccas III]], king of Macedon. Unfortunately for the [[Illyrians]], [[Perdiccas]] was succeeded by [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]], father of [[Alexander the Great]], who effectively terminated the [[Illyrian]] aggression, effectively ending any dominant control by the [[Illyrians]] in the region.
=== Roman and Byzantine Rule ===
After being conquered by the [[Roman Empire]], [[Illyria]] was reorganized as a [[Roman]] province, [[Illyricum]], later divided into the provinces of [[Dalmatia]] and [[Pannonia]], the lands comprising Albania mostly being included in [[Dalmatia]]. Later, the [[Byzantine Empire]] governed the region. It was also ruled by the [[Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian]] and [[Serbian Empire]]. After centuries, use of the name ''Illyria'' to denote the region fell out of fashion.
=== Ottoman Rule ===
In the middle ages, the name ''Albania'' (see ''[[Origin and history of the name Albania]]'') began to be increasingly applied to the region now comprising the nation of Albania. From [[1443]] to [[1468]] [[Skanderbeg|Gjergj Kastrioti Skenderbeu]] led a successful resistance against the invading [[Ottomans]]. After the death of [[Skenderbeg]], resistance continued until [[1478]], although with only moderate success. The loyalties and alliances created and nurtured by [[Skenderbeg]] faltered and fell apart, and the [[Ottomans]] conquered the territory of Albania shortly after the fall of the [[castle]] [[Kruje]]. '''Albania''' then became part of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Following this, many Albanians fled to neighboring [[Italy]], and the majority of the '''Albanian''' population that remained converted to [[Islam]]. They would remain a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] until [[1912]].
=== Effects of the Balkan Wars ===
After the [[Balkan Wars|Second Balkan War]], the [[Ottomans]] were removed from Albania and there was a possibility of the lands being absorbed by [[Serbia]], and the southern tip by [[Greece]]. This decision angered the [[Italians]] who did not want [[Serbia]] to have an extended coastline, and it angered the [[German people|Germans]] who could build a railway to reach the Orient. [[Berlin]] then held discussions with [[Russia]] (the superpower in charge of [[Serbia]]) and with [[Greece]]. Eventually, it was decided that the country should not be divided but instead consolidated into the [[Principality]] of Albania under a German [[prince]],[[William of Wied]]. When the German [[prince]] was expelled by the [[Albanian]] people after 6 months as the self named "King of Albania", [[Great Britain]], [[France]], and [[Italy]], as members the [[League of Nations]], wanted to divide the territory once and for all. Intervention by [[United States of America]] [[president]] [[Woodrow Wilson]] vetoed the vote and allowed Albania to retain its status. From [[1928]], the country was ruled by [[Zog of Albania|King Zog I]] until [[1938]] when it became a puppet of [[Italy]].
=== World War II |
t regime in 1932).
* [[Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia|Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia]] (1857-1905). Assassinated. Married [[Grand Duchess Elizabeth Fyodorovna|Elisabeth]] of [[Hesse-Darmstadt]], who was murdered by the Bolsheviks in Alapaevsk in 1918. They had no children.
* [[Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia|Paul Alexandrovich of Russia]] (1860-1919). Married first [[Alexandra Yurievna of Greece|Alexandra of Greece]] (daughter of [[George I of Greece]]) and second Olga Karnovich von Pistolkors, [[Princess Paley]], and had issue by both. Both Grand Duke Paul and his son Prince [[Vladimir Paley]] (1897-1918), a remarkable poet, were killed by the Bolsheviks.
On [[July 6]] [[1880]], less than a month after Tsarina Maria's death on [[June 8]], Alexander formed a [[morganatic marriage]] with his mistress Princess [[Catherine Dolgoruki]], with whom he already had three children. A fourth child would be born to them before his death.
* George Alexandrovich Romanov Yurievsky (1872-1913). Married Countess Alexandra Zarnekau and had issue. They later divorced.
* Olga Alexandrovna Romanov Yurievsky (1873-1925). Married Count George von [[Merenberg]].
* Boris Alexandrovich Yurievsky (1876-1876).
* Catherine Alexandrovna Romanov Yurievsky (1878-1959). Married first Prince Alexander V. Bariatinsky and second Prince Serge Obolensky, whom she later divorced.
==Emperor==
[[Image:AlexanderII_of_Russia(monument).jpg|thumb|200px|New monument to Alexander II in front of the [[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]] in Moscow.]]
Alexander succeeded to the throne upon the death of his father in 1855. The first year of his reign was devoted to the prosecution of the [[Crimean War]], and after the fall of [[Sevastopol]] to negotiations for peace, led by his trusted counselor, [[Alexander Gorchakov|Prince Gorchakov]]. Then he began a period of radical reforms, encouraged by public opinion but carried out with autocratic power. All who had any pretensions to enlightenment declared loudly that the country had been exhausted and humiliated by the war, and that the only way of restoring it to its proper position in Europe was to develop its natural resources and thoroughly to reform all branches of the administration. The government therefore found in the educated classes a new-born public spirit, anxious to assist it in any work of reform that it might think fit to undertake.
Fortunately for Russia the autocratic power was now in the hands of a man who was impressionable enough to be deeply influenced by the spirit of the time, and who had sufficient prudence and practicality to prevent his being carried away by the prevailing excitement into the dangerous region of [[Utopia|utopian]] dreaming. Unlike some of his predecessors, he had no grand, original schemes of his own to impose by force on unwilling subjects, and no pet projects to lead his judgment astray. He looked instinctively with a suspicious, critical eye upon the panaceas which more imaginative and less cautious people recommended. These character traits, together with the peculiar circumstances in which he was placed, determined the part which he was to, in great measure, brought to fruition the reform aspirations of the educated classes.
However, the growth of a revolutionary movement to the "left" of the educated classes led to an abrupt end to Alexander's changes when he was assassinated by a bomb in 1881. It is interesting to note that after Alexander became czar in 1855, he maintained a generally liberal course at the helm while providing a target for numerous assassination attempts (1866,1873,1880).
==Emancipation of the serfs==
:''Main article: [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia]].''
Though he carefully guarded his autocratic rights and privileges, and obstinately resisted all efforts to push him farther than he felt inclined to go, Alexander for several years acted somewhat like a constitutional sovereign of the continental type. Soon after the conclusion of peace, important changes were made in legislation concerning industry and commerce, and the new freedom thus afforded produced a large number of [[limited liability company|limited liability companies]]. At the same time, plans were formed for building a great network of [[railroad|railways]] &mdash; partly for the purpose of developing the natural resources of the country, and partly for the purpose of increasing its power for defense and attack. [[Image:Chenstokhov.jpg|thumb|275px|A monument to Alexander II in [[Jasna Góra Monastery|Chestochowa]].]]
Then it was found that further progress was blocked by a formidable obstacle: the existence of [[serfdom]]. Alexander showed that, unlike his father, he meant to grapple boldly with this difficult and dangerous problem. Taking advantage of a petition presented by the [[Poland|Polish]] [[landed proprietor]]s of the [[Lithuania|Lithuanian]] provinces, and hoping that their relations with the serfs might be regulated in a more satisfactory way (meaning in a way more satisfactory for the proprietors), he authorized the formation of committees "for ameliorating the condition of the peasants," and laid down the principles on which the amelioration was to be effected.
This step was followed by one still more significant. Without consulting his ordinary advisers, Alexander ordered the Minister of the Interior to send a circular to the provincial governors of European Russia, containing a copy of the instructions forwarded to the governor-general of Lithuania, praising the supposed generous, patriotic intentions of the Lithuanian landed proprietors, and suggesting that perhaps the landed proprietors of other provinces might express a similar desire. The hint was taken: in all provinces where serfdom existed, emancipation committees were formed.
The deliberations at once raised a host of important, thorny questions. The emancipation was not merely a humanitarian question capable of being solved instantaneously by imperial ''[[ukase]]''. It contained very complicated problems, deeply affecting the economic, social and political future of the nation.
Alexander had little of the special knowledge required for dealing successfully with such problems, and he had to restrict himself to choosing between the different measures recommended to him. The main point at issue was whether the serfs should become agricultural labourers dependent economically and administratively on the landlords, or whether they should be transformed into a class of independent communal proprietors. The emperor gave his support to the latter project, and the Russian peasantry became one of the last groups of peasants in Europe to shake off serfdom.
The architects of the emancipation manifesto were Alexander's brother [[Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich of Russia|Konstantin]], [[Yakov Rostovtsev]], and [[Nikolay Milyutin]]. On [[March 3]] [[1861]], the sixth anniversary of his accession, the emancipation law was signed and published.
==Other reforms==
[[Image:AlexII.JPG|thumb|left|200px|A portrait of Alexander II in St. Petersburg]]
Other reforms followed: [[army]] and [[navy]] re-organization (1874); a new judicial administration based on the [[France|French]] model (1864); a new [[penal code]] and a greatly simplified system of civil and criminal procedure; an elaborate scheme of local self-government for the rural districts (1864) and the large towns (1870), with elective assemblies possessing a restricted right of [[taxation]], and a new rural and municipal [[police]] under the direction of the [[MVD|Minister of the Interior]].
However, the workers wanted better worker conditions; national minorities wanted freedom. When radicals began to resort to the formation of secret societies and to revolutionary agitation, Alexander II felt constrained to adopt severe repressive measures.
Alexander II resolved to try the effect of some moderate liberal reforms in an attempt to quell the revolutionary agitation, and for this purpose he instituted a [[ukase]] for creating special commissions, composed of high officials and private personages who should prepare reforms in various branches of the administration.
==Suppression of national movements==
At the beginning of his reign, Alexander expressed the famous statement "No dreams" addressed for Poles, populating [[Congress Poland]], Western [[Ukraine]], [[Lithuania]], [[Livonia]] and [[Belarus]]. The result was the [[January Uprising]] of 1863-4 that was suppressed after eighteen months of fighting. Thousands of Poles were executed, tens of thousands were deported to [[Siberia]]. The price for suppression was Russian support for Prussian-united Germany. Twenty years later, Germany became the major enemy of Russia on continent.
All territories of the former [[Poland-Lithuania]] were excluded from liberal polices introduced by Alexander. The martial law in Lithuania, introduced in 1863, lasted for the next 50 years. Native languages, [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] and [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] were completely banned from printed texts, see, e.g., [[Ems Ukase]]. The [[Polish language]] was banned in both oral and written form from all provinces except [[Congress Kingdom]], where it was allowed in private conversations only .
==Assassination attempts==
In [[1866]] there was an attempt on his life in [[Petersburg]] by [[Dmitry Karakozov]]. To commemorate his narrow escape from death (that he referred to only as "the event of April 4, 1866") he held a competition to design a great gate for the city. Architect, painter and costume designer [[Viktor Hartmann]] won the competition. The design was well-received and Hartmann thought it was his finest work, but it would never be built. The painting of the design later became [[Modest Mussorgsky|Mussorgsky's]] inspiration for ''The Great Gate of Kiev'' from ''[[Pictures at an Exhibition]]''.
On the morn |
Jensen, A. R. (1989). The relationship between learning and intelligence. ''Learning and Individual Differences, 1,'' 37-62.
Kranzler, J. H., & Jensen, A. R.(1989). Inspection time and intelligence: A meta-analysis. ''Intelligence, 13,'' 329-347.
Jensen, A. R. (1974). Ethnicity and scholastic achievement. ''Psychological Reports, 34,'' 659-668.
Jensen, A. R. (1974). Kinship correlations reported by Sir Cyril Burt. ''Behavior Genetics, 4,'' 1-28.
==External links==
*[http://www.individualdifferences.info/LondonJensen.htm The London School of Differential Psychology: Arthur R. Jensen]
*[http://www.missouri.edu/~aab2b3/JensenPresentation.ppt Powerpoint presentation of Jensen's biography]
*[http://www.debunker.com/texts/jensen.html Jensen's Response to Gould's Criticisms]
[[Category:1923 births|Jensen, Arthur]]
[[Category:Living people|Jensen, Arthur]]
[[Category:Psychologists|Jensen, Arthur]]
[[category:London School of Differential Psychology|Jensen, Arthur]]
[[Category:Race and intelligence controversy|Jensen, Arthur]]
[[de:Arthur Jensen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum</title>
<id>3032</id>
<revision>
<id>41726050</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:49:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SamuelWantman</username>
<id>68446</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Richard Lester</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:A-Funny-Thing-Happened-on-the-Way-to-the-Forum.jpg|thumb|right|300px|"A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum" (CD)]]
'''''A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum''''' is a [[musical theater|musical]] with music and lyrics by [[Stephen Sondheim]] and a book by [[Burt Shevelove]] and [[Larry Gelbart]].
Based on the comedies of the [[ancient Roman]] playwright [[Plautus]], it tells the story of a [[slavery|slave]] named Pseudolus and his attempts to win his freedom by encouraging the romance between his master's son Hero and a young virgin named Philia who is owned by Marcus Lycus, a dealer in [[courtesan]]s, and promised to a swaggering soldier named [[Miles Gloriosus]]. The humor is broad and bawdy and fast-paced.
Sondheim's score was coolly received when ''Forum'' opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] on [[May 8]], [[1962]], at the [[Alvin Theatre]], and the score was not even nominated for a [[Tony Award]] even though the show won the award for [[Tony Award for Best Musical|Best Musical]]. Starring [[Zero Mostel]], [[Jack Gilford]], [[David Burns (actor)|David Burns]], [[Ruth Kobart]], and [[John Carradine]] (who was replaced by [[Erik Rhodes]]), the original production was directed by Broadway legend [[George Abbott]] and played 966 performances--Sondheim's longest Broadway run to date.
''A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum'' was made into a [[musical film|film]] in 1966 directed by [[Richard Lester]] with [[Zero Mostel]], [[Jack Gilford]], [[Buster Keaton]], a very young [[Michael Crawford]] and [[Phil Silvers]] (who also starred in a critically well-received Broadway [[revival (play)|revival]] in [[1972]]). It was also revived with great success in [[1996]] with [[Nathan Lane]] as Pseudolus, replaced later in the run by [[Whoopi Goldberg]], and also [[David Alan Grier]].
The show was presented twice in London's West End starring [[Frankie Howerd]] as Pseudolus. At the [[Strand Theatre]] in 1963 and the [[Piccadilly Theatre]] in 1986.
==Characters==
*Pseudolus &ndash; A Roman slave, owned by Hero, who seeks to win his freedom by helping his young master win the heart of a virgin in the house of Marcus Lycus.
*Hero &ndash; Young son of Senex who falls in love with the virgin, Philia.
*Philia &ndash; A virgin in the house of Marcus Lycus, and Hero's love interest.
*Senex &ndash; A [[Roman Senator]] living in a less fashionable suburb of Rome.
*Marcus Lycus &ndash; A purveyor of courtesans, who operates from the house to the left of Senex.
*Domina &ndash; The wife of Senex.
*Erronius &ndash; The elderly neighbor to the right of Senex who is searching for his two children, kidnapped in infancy by pirates.
*Gymnasia &ndash; A mute courtesan from the house of Senex (she is mute only in the film).
*Miles Gloriosus &ndash; A conceited captain in the Roman army.
*Hysterium &ndash; The chief slave in the house of Senex.
*Fertilla the Populator &ndash; A female "Breeding Slave" (film only).
*Crassus &ndash; A merchant at the docks (film only).
*Tintinabula &ndash; A courtesan in the house of Lycus.
*Vibratta &ndash; A courtesan in the house of Lycus.
*Gemini &ndash; Twin courtesans in the house of Lycus.
*Panacea &ndash; A courtesan in the house of Lycus.
*Domina's Mother &ndash; Senex's [[whip]]-wielding mother-in-law (talked of in the play but seen only in the film).
==Songs==
* "Comedy Tonight"--Pseudolus and Company
* "Love, I Hear"--Hero
* "Free"--Pseudolus and Hero
* "The House of Marcus Lycus"--Lycus and Pseudolus
* "Lovely"--Philia and Hero
* "Pretty Little Picture"--Pseudolus, Hero, and Philia
* "Everybody Ought to Have a Maid"--Pseudolus, Senex, Lycus, and Hysterium
* "I'm Calm"--Hysterium
* "Impossible"--Senex and Hero
* "Bring Me My Bride"--Miles Gloriosus and Company
* "That Dirty Old Man"--Domina
* "That'll Show Him"--Philia
* "Lovely" (reprise)--Psedolus and Hysterium
* "Funeral Sequence"--Pseudolus, Miles Gloriosus and Company
* "Finale"--Company
Note: The songs "Love, I Hear", "Free", "The House of Marcus Lycus", "Pretty Little Picture", "I'm Calm", "Impossible", "That Dirty Old Man" and "That'll Show Him" were all cut from the film.
==External links==
*[http://www.stageagent.com/cb/info.pl?title=A%2BFunny%2BThing%2BHappened%2Bon%2Bthe%2BWay%2Bto%2Bthe%2BForum ''A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum Plot Summary and Character Descriptions''] on [http://www.stageagent.com StageAgent.com]
*[http://www.ibdb.com/show.asp?ID=1102 ''A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum''] at the [[Internet Broadway Database]]
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0060438/ ''A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum''] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]
[[Category:Musicals|Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, A]]
[[Category:1966 films|Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, A]]
[[Category:Roman novels|Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, A]]
[[Category:Films directed by Richard Lester|Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, A]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antenna theory</title>
<id>3033</id>
<revision>
<id>15901403</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-03T23:55:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jh51681</username>
<id>71006</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to [[Antenna (radio)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Antenna (radio)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aleut</title>
<id>3034</id>
<revision>
<id>40456116</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T18:12:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ca</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{ethnic group|
|group=Aleut
|image=
|poptime=17,000-18,000
|popplace=[[United States]]<br>17,000 (incl. 5,000 part-Aleut)<br>[[Russia]]<br>700
|rels=[[Christianity]], [[Shamanism]]
|langs=[[English language|English]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Aleut language|Aleut]]
|related=[[Inuit]], [[Yupik]]s
}}
The '''Aleuts''' ([[autonym|self-denomination]]: '''Unangax''', '''Unangan''' or '''Unanga''') are the [[Alaska Natives|indigenous people]] of the [[Aleutian Islands]] of [[Alaska]], [[United States|U.S.A.]] and [[Chukotka]], [[Russia]].
==Location==
The homeland of the Aleuts includes the Aleutian Islands, the [[Pribilof Islands]], the [[Shumagin Islands]], and the far western part of the [[Alaska Peninsula]].
:''For specific tribal village names, see [[List of Native Alaskan Tribal Entities]].''
==History==
After the arrival of [[missionary|missionaries]] in the late [[18th century]], many Aleuts became [[Christianity|Christians]] by joining the [[Russian Orthodox Church]]. One of the earliest [[Christianity|Christian]] martyrs in [[North America]] was Saint [[Peter the Aleut]].
It has been stated that before the advent of the [[Russia]]ns there were 25,000 Aleuts on the archipelago, but that the barbarities of the traders and foreign diseases eventually reduced the population to one-tenth of this number. Further declines led to a [[1910]] [[Census]] count of 1491 Aleuts.
In [[1942]] Japanese forces occupied [[Attu Island|Attu]] and [[Kiska]] Islands in the western Aleutians, and later transported captive Attu Islanders to [[Hokkaido]], where they were held as [[Prisoner of war|POW]]s. Hundreds more Aleuts from the western chain and the Pribilofs were evacuated by the United States government during [[World War II]] and placed in internment camps in southeast Alaska, where many died. The [[Aleut Restitution Act of 1988]] was an attempt by [[Congress]] to compensate the survivors.
The [[World War II: Aleutian Islands|World War II campaign to retake Attu and Kiska]] was a significant component of the operations of the Asian theater.
==Culture and technology==
[[Image:AleuWinterHouse.jpg|right|thumb|333px|The traditional Aleut winter house, called a barabara or, in Aleut, an ulax.]]
Aleuts constructed ''barabaras'', partially underground houses that functioned well, as [[Lillie McGarvey]], a [[20th-century]] Aleut leader, wrote &#8220;keeping occupants dry from the frequ |
(northern) was
added later on, to contrast with [[Corona Australis]], the southern crown.
==Notable features==
It has no first magnitude stars. Its brightest star, [[Alpha Coronae Borealis|&alpha; CrB]] (Alphecca, also known as Gemma) is of magnitude 2.2 (slightly [[variable star|variable]]) and is considered a member of the diffuse [[Ursa Major Moving Group]]. The constellation contains several interesting variable stars: two of the best known are [[R Coronae Borealis]] and [[T Coronae Borealis]].
==Notable deep sky objects==
Corona Borealis contains no bright deep sky objects. [[Abell 2065]] is a
a highly concentrated [[galaxy cluster]] containing over 400 members, the
brightest of which are of [[apparent magnitude|16th magnitude]].
==Mythology==
Corona Borealis was sometimes considered to represent a crown that was given by [[Dionysus]] to [[Ariadne]], the daughter of [[Minos]] of Crete. At other points it was considered to belong, in a sense, to [[Boötes]], whomever that might represent.
==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* ([[Alpha Coronae Borealis|5/&alpha; CrB]]) 2.22 '''Alphecca''' [''Alphacca, Alphekka''] or '''''Gemma''''' or '''''Gnosia''''' [''Gnosia Stella Coronae''] or '''''Asteroth''''' [''Ashtaroth'']
:*: < &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1603;&#1617;&#1577; ''an-na´ir al-fakkah'' The bright one of the broken (ring of stars)
:*: < ''gemma'' The jewel
:*: < ''gn&#333;sia stella cor&#333;næ'' Star of Ariadne's ("of Knossos's") crown
:*: < &#1506;&#1513;&#1514;&#1512;&#1494;&#1514; ''<sup>c<sup>ašterôt'', Astarte (idols) [plural of ''Ashtoreth'' Astarte/Ishtar, the Semitic fertility goddess]
:* ([[Beta Coronae Borealis|3/&beta; CrB]]) 3.66 '''Nusakan'''
:*: < ? ''an-nasaqan'' The (two) series
:Stars with Bayer designations:
::[[Gamma Coronae Borealis|8/&gamma; CrB]] 3.81; [[Delta Coronae Borealis|10/&delta; CrB]] 4.59; [[Epsilon Coronae Borealis|13/&epsilon; CrB]] 4.14; [[Zeta1 Coronae Borealis|7/&zeta;<sup>1</sup> CrB]] 6.00; [[Zeta2 Coronae Borealis|7/&zeta;<sup>2</sup> CrB]] 5.07; [[Theta Coronae Borealis|4/&theta; CrB]] 4.14; [[Eta Coronae Borealis|2/&eta; CrB]] &ndash; double 4.99, 6.08; [[Iota Coronae Borealis|14/&iota; CrB]] 4.98; [[Kappa Coronae Borealis|11/&kappa; CrB]] 4.79; [[Lambda Coronae Borealis|12/&lambda; CrB]] 5.43; [[Mu Coronae Borealis|6/&mu; CrB]] 5.14; [[Nu1 Coronae Borealis|20/&nu;<sup>1</sup> CrB]] 5.20; [[Nu2 Coronae Borealis|21/&nu;<sup>2</sup> CrB]] 5.40; [[Xi Coronae Borealis|19/&xi; CrB]] 4.86; [[Omicron Coronae Borealis|1/&omicron; CrB]] 5.51; [[Pi Coronae Borealis|9/&pi; CrB]] 5.57; [[Rho Coronae Borealis|15/&rho; CrB]] 5.39 &ndash; has a planet; [[Sigma Coronae Borealis|17/&sigma; CrB]] &ndash; double 5.23, 6.66; [[Tau Coronae Borealis|16/&tau; CrB]] 4.73; [[Upsilon Coronae Borealis|18/&upsilon; CrB]] 5.80
:Other notable stars:
:* [[R Coronae Borealis|R CrB]] 5.85 - 14.8 &ndash; [[R Coronae Borealis variable|R CrB variable]] prototype
{{astro-stub}}
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}
== External links ==
{{Commons|Corona Borealis}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/coronaborealis/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Corona Borealis]
[[Category:Corona Borealis constellation|*]]
[[ca:Corona Boreal]]
[[cs:Severní koruna (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Nordlige Krone]]
[[de:Nördliche Krone (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Corona Borealis]]
[[fr:Couronne boréale]]
[[ko:북쪽왕관자리]]
[[it:Corona Borealis]]
[[la:Corona Borealis (sidus)]]
[[lt:Šiaurės Vainikas]]
[[hu:Északi Korona (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Noorderkroon]]
[[ja:かんむり座]]
[[nn:Nordlege krone]]
[[pt:Corona Borealis]]
[[ru:Северная Корона (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Severná koruna]]
[[fi:Pohjan kruunu]]
[[sv:Norra kronan]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวมงกุฎเหนือ]]
[[zh:北冕座]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cygnus (constellation)</title>
<id>6421</id>
<revision>
<id>39312946</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T07:13:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.188.172.165</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Cygnus |
abbreviation = Cyg |
genitive = Cygni |
symbology = the [[Swan]] |
RA = 20.62 |
dec= +42.03 |
areatotal = 804 |
arearank = 16th |
numberstars = 4 |
starname = [[Deneb]] (&alpha; Cyg) |
starmagnitude = 1.25 |
meteorshowers =
*[[October Cygnids]]
*[[Kappa Cygnids]] |
bordering =
*[[Cepheus (constellation)|Cepheus]]
*[[Draco (constellation)|Draco]]
*[[Lyra]]
*[[Vulpecula]]
*[[Pegasus (constellation)|Pegasus]]
*[[Lacerta]] |
latmax = 90 |
latmin = 40 |
month = September |
notes=}}
''For the software company, see [[Cygnus Solutions]].''
'''Cygnus''' (from the [[Latin]] for "swan") is a northern [[constellation]]. It was one of [[Ptolemy]]'s 48 constellations, and is also one of the 88 modern constellations. Because of the pattern of its main [[star|stars]], it is sometimes known as the '''Northern Cross''' (in contrast to the [[Crux|Southern Cross]]).
The bird extends over the [[Milky Way]], appearing to fly south.
==Notable features==
Cygnus contains several bright [[star]]s.
[[Deneb]], &alpha; Cygni, is an extremely brilliant star, very prominent despite its distance (1 800 light years). The [[blue supergiant]] forms the swan's tail, the upper end of the Northern Cross, and one of the [[vertex|vertices]] of the [[Summer Triangle]] [[asterism (astronomy)|asterism]].
[[Albireo]], &beta; Cygni, is at the swan's beak. It is one of the most beautiful [[double star]]s of the sky, a golden star easily distinguishable in a small telescope from its blue companion.
Another interesting star is [[61 Cygni]]. In [[1838]], this star had the highest known [[proper motion]] of any star in the sky; this was taken as evidence that it was relatively nearby and it was accordingly chosen as the first star (other than the [[Sun]]) to have its distance measured. It is 11.4 light years away, one of the closest stars to our solar system.
The star [[16 Cygni B]] is an [[extrasolar planet|extrasolar planetary system]] with one confirmed planet 1.5 times the mass of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]].
Cygnus also contains the [[X-ray]] source [[Cygnus X-1]], which is considered to be one of the most likely [[black hole]] candidates.
In addition, Cygnus has a variety of [[variable stars]], including [[XX Cygni|XX Cyg]] and [[V508 Cygni|V508 Cyg]].
==Notable [[deep sky object]]s==
Several [[star cluster]]s and [[nebula]]e are found in Cygnus due to its position on the Milky Way. [[NGC 7000]], the [[North America Nebula]], is found a bit to the east of Deneb. Its resemblance to the continent is best appreciated in photographs. The [[North America Nebula|Pelican Nebula]] (IC 5070) is nearby.
==History and mythology==
[[Image:Cygnus constellation drawing.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Drawing of Cygnus by Hevelius, 1690]]
The constellation bears a resemblance to a wide winged, long necked bird, in graceful flight [http://borghetto.astrofili.org/costellazioni/cygnus.JPG]. In [[Greek mythology]], the constellation represents several different legendary swans. [[Zeus]] disguised himself as a swan to rape [[Leda (mythology)|Leda]], who gave birth to the [[Gemini]], [[Helen of Troy]], and [[Clytemnestra]].
[[Orpheus]] was transformed into a swan after his murder, and was said to have been placed in the sky next to his [[lyre]] ([[Lyra]]).
Finally, it is said that a youth named Cygnus was the boyfriend of the ill-fated [[Phaethon]]. After Phaethon was killed trying to drive the chariot of the sun, Cygnus searched desperately for his body in the river [[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]] where it had fallen. He dove so many times into the river that Zeus took pity on him and changed him into the waterbird that has since borne his name.
Cygnus, together with other constellations in the [[Zodiac]] sign of [[Sagittarius]] (specifically [[Lyra]] and [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]], together with [[Sagittarius]] itself), may be a significant part of the origin of the myth of the [[Stymphalian Birds]], one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]].
In [[Chinese mythology]], the constellation Cygnus is the site of the once-a-year [[magpie]] bridge which connects the lovers Niu Lang and Zhi Nu (see [[Qi Xi]]).
==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* (50/&alpha; Cyg) 1.25 '''[[Deneb]]''' [''Deneb el Adige''] or '''''Deneb Cygni''''' or '''''Arided''''' [''Aridif, Arrioph''] or '''''Gallina'''''
:*: Deneb, Deneb el Adige < &#1584;&#1606;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1580;&#1575;&#1580;&#1577; ''ðanab ad-daj&#257;ja[h]'' Tail of the hen
:*: Gallina < ''gall&#299;na'' hen
:* (6/&beta; Cyg) &ndash; double 3.05, 5.12 '''[[Albireo]]''' or '''''Al Minhar al Dajajah'''''
:*: Albireo < ''ab ireo'' is a mistranslation of ''Al Minhar al Dajajah''. See the article for the history.
:*: Al Minhar al Dajajah < &#1605;&#1606;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1580;&#1575;&#1580;&#1577; ''minq&#257;r ad-daj&#257;ja[h]'' Beak (''lit.'' peak) of the hen
:* ([[Gamma Cygni|37/&gamma; Cyg]]) 2.23 '''Sadr''' [Sador, Sadir]
:*: < &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1583;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1580;&#1575;&#1580;&#1577; ''a&#351;-&#351;adr ad-daj&#257;jah'' The breast of the hen
:* ([[Epsilon Cygni|53/&epsilon; Cyg]]) 2.48 '''Gienah''' [Gienah Cygni]
:*: < &#1580;&#1606;&#1575;&#1581; ''jan&#257;&#295;'' wing
:* ([[Pi1 Cygni|80/&pi;<sup>1</sup> Cyg]]) 4.69 '''Azelfafage'''
:*: < ? Tortoise |
otnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body.
4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step 3. No need to re-number anything!
5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for a how-to.
NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
-->
# {{note|www.irinnews.org.319}} {{cite web | title=DJIBOUTI: Guelleh sworn in for second presidential term | url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=47007 | accessdate=December 4 | accessyear=2005 }}
{{Africa}}
{{CIAfb}}
[[Category:Djibouti|*]]
[[Category:Arab League]]
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:East Africa]]
[[an:Yibuti]]
[[ar:جيبوتي]]
[[bg:Джибути]]
[[bn:জিবুতি]]
[[bs:Džibuti]]
[[ca:Djibouti]]
[[cs:Džibutsko]]
[[da:Djibouti]]
[[de:Dschibuti]]
[[eo:Ĝibutio]]
[[es:Yibuti]]
[[et:Djibouti]]
[[fa:جیبوتی]]
[[fi:Djibouti]]
[[fr:Djibouti]]
[[gl:Xibutí - Djibouti]]
[[he:ג'יבוטי]]
[[hi:जिबूती]]
[[hr:Džibuti]]
[[ht:Djibouti (peyi)]]
[[hu:Dzsibuti]]
[[ia:Djibouti]]
[[id:Djibouti]]
[[io:Djibouti]]
[[is:Djíbútí]]
[[it:Gibuti]]
[[ja:ジブチ]]
[[ko:지부티]]
[[la:Dzibutum]]
[[li:Djiboeti]]
[[lt:Džibutis]]
[[lv:Džibuti]]
[[ms:Djibouti]]
[[na:Djibouti]]
[[nds:Dschibuti]]
[[nl:Djibouti]]
[[nn:Djibouti]]
[[no:Djibouti]]
[[oc:Categoria:Giboti]]
[[pl:Dżibuti]]
[[pt:Djibouti]]
[[ro:Djibouti]]
[[ru:Джибути]]
[[simple:Djibouti]]
[[sk:Džibutsko]]
[[sl:Džibuti]]
[[sq:Xhibuti]]
[[sr:Џибути]]
[[sv:Djibouti]]
[[sw:Djibouti]]
[[th:ประเทศจิบูตี]]
[[tl:Djibouti]]
[[tr:Cibuti]]
[[uk:Джибуті]]
[[zh:吉布提]]
[[zh-min-nan:Djibouti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Djibouti</title>
<id>8041</id>
<revision>
<id>33305850</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-30T22:42:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FireFox</username>
<id>358536</id>
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<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[Djibouti|Republic of Djibouti]] gained its independence on [[June 27]], [[1977]]. It is the successor to [[French Somaliland]] (later called the [[Afars and Issas|French Territory of the Afars and Issas]]), which was created in the first half of the 19th century as a result of French interest in the [[Horn of Africa]]. However, the history of Djibouti, recorded in poetry and songs of its nomadic peoples, goes back thousands of years to a time when Djiboutians traded hides and skins for the perfumes and spices of ancient [[Egypt]], [[India]], and [[China]]. Through close contacts with the Arabian peninsula for more than 1,000 years, the Somali and Afar tribes in this region became among the first on the [[African]] continent to adopt [[Islam]].
==French Interest==
[[Image:Djibouti-c1905.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Place Menelik, Djibouti, c1905.]]It was [[Rochet d'Hericourt]]'s exploration into [[Shoa, Ethiopia|Shoa]] (1839-42) that marked the beginning of French interest in the African shores of the [[Red Sea]]. Further exploration by [[Henri Lambert]], French Consular Agent at Aden, and Captain [[Fleuriot de Langle]] led to a treaty of friendship and assistance between France and the sultans of [[Raheita]], [[Tadjoura]], and [[Gobaad]], from whom the French purchased the anchorage of [[Obock]] in [[1862]].
Growing French interest in the area took place against a backdrop of British activity in Egypt and the opening of the [[Suez Canal]] in 1869. In 1884-85, [[France]] expanded its protectorate to include the shores of the [[Gulf of Tadjoura]] and the [[Somaliland]], installing [[Léonce Lagarde]] as governor of this protectorate. Boundaries of the protectorate, marked out in 1897 by France and [[Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia]], were reaffirmed by agreements with [[Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia]] in 1945 and 1954.
The administrative capital was moved from Obock to Djibouti in [[1896]]. [[Djibouti, Djibouti|Djibouti]], which has a good natural harbor and ready access to the Ethiopian highlands, attracted trade caravans crossing East Africa as well as Somali settlers from the south. The [[Franco-Ethiopian railway]], linking Djibouti to the heart of Ethiopia, was begun in 1897 and reached [[Addis Ababa]] in June 1917, increasing the volume of trade passing through the port.
==World War II==
During the Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia in the 1930s and during World War II, constant border skirmishes occurred between French and Italian forces. The area was ruled by the [[Vichy France|Vichy (French) government]] from the fall of France until December 1942, and fell under British blockade during that period. Free French and the Allied forces recaptured Djibouti at the end of 1942. A local battalion from Djibouti participated in the liberation of France in 1944.
==Reform==
On July 22, 1957, the colony was reorganized to give the people considerable self-government. On the same day, a decree applying the Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of [[June 23]], [[1956]], established a territorial assembly that elected eight of its members to an executive council. Members of the executive council were responsible for one or more of the territorial services and carried the title of minister. The council advised the French-appointed governor general.
In a September 1958 constitutional referendum, French Somaliland opted to join the French community as an overseas territory. This act entitled the region to representation by one deputy and one senator in the [[French Parliament]], and one counselor in the [[French Union]] Assembly.
The first elections to the territorial assembly were held on November 23, 1958, under a system of proportional representation. In the next assembly elections (1963), a new electoral law was enacted. Representation was abolished in exchange for a system of straight plurality vote based on lists submitted by political parties in seven designated districts. [[Ali Aref Bourhan]], allegedly of Turkish origin, was selected to be the president of the executive council. French President [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s August 1966 visit to Djibouti was marked by 2 days of public demonstrations by Somalis demanding independence. On [[September 21]], [[1966]], [[Louis Saget]], appointed governor general of the territory after the demonstrations, announced the French Government's decision to hold a referendum to determine whether the people would remain within the French Republic or become independent. In March 1967, 60% chose to continue the territory's association with France.
In July of that year, a directive from Paris formally changed the name of the region to the French Territory of Afars and Issas. The directive also reorganized the governmental structure of the territory, making the senior French representative, formerly the governor general, a high commissioner. In addition, the executive council was redesignated as the council of government, with nine members.
==Independence==
In 1975, the French Government began to accommodate increasingly insistent demands for independence. In June 1976, the territory's citizenship law, which favored the [[Afar (ethnicity)|Afar]] minority, was revised to reflect more closely the weight of the Issa Somali. The electorate voted for independence in a May 1977 referendum, and the Republic of Djibouti was established June that same year. [[Hassan Gouled Aptidon]] became the country's first president.
In 1981, Aptidon turned the country into a one party state by declaring that his party, the Rassemblement Populaire pour le Progrès (RPP) ([[People's Rally for Progress]]), was the sole legal one. Civil war broke out in 1991, between the government and a predominantly [[Afar (ethnicity)|Afar]] rebel group, the [[Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy]] (FRUD). The FRUD signed a peace accord with the government in December 1994, ending the conflict. Two FRUD members were made cabinet members, and in the presidential elections of 1999 the FRUD campaigned in support of the RPP.
Aptidon resigned as president 1999, at the age of 83, after being elected to a fifth term in 1997. His successor was his nephew, [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]].
On May 12, 2001, President Ismail Omar Guelleh presided over the signing of what is termed the final peace accord officially ending the decade-long civil war between the government and the armed faction of the FRUD. The peace accord successfully completed the peace process begun on February 7, 2000 in Paris. Ahmed Dini Ahmed represented the FRUD.
==External links==
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5482.htm Background Note: Djibouti]
* [http://www.historyofnations.net/africa/djibouti.html History of Djbouti]
==See also==
* [[Djibouti]]
{{Africa in topic|History of}}
{{Former French colonies}}
[[Category:Djibouti]]
[[Category:History by country|Djibouti]]
[[es:Historia de Yibuti]]
[[fr:Histoire de Djibouti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Djibouti</title>
<id>8042</id>
<revision>
<id>40559254</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T12:31:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lupo</username>
<id>34978</id>
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<comment>Fixed the map</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Djibouti Map.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map of Djibouti]]
[[Djibouti]] is in Eastern [[Africa]], bordering the [[Gulf of Aden]] and the [[Red Sea]], between [[Eritrea]] and [[Somalia]]. Its coordinates are {{coor dm|11|30|N|43|00|E|type:country_scale:1000000}}.
Djibouti shares 113 km of border with [[Eritrea]], 337 with [[Ethiopia]] and 58 with [[Somalia]] (total 506 km). It also has 314 km of coastline.
Its climate is mostly hot, dry [[desert]]. Mountains in the center of the country separate a [[coastal plain]] and a [[plateau]]. The lowest point is [[Lac Assal]] (&minus;155 m) and the highest is [[Moussa Ali]] (2,028 m). [[Natural resource]]s include [[geothermal energy]]. There is no [[arabl |
'
The revolution brought about a massive shifting of powers from the [[Roman Catholic Church]] to the state. Although, under the ''ancien régime'', the Church had been the largest landowner in the country, legislation enacted in [[1790]] abolished the Church's authority to levy a [[tax]] on crops known as the ''[[tithe|dîme]]'', cancelled special privileges for the clergy, and confiscated Church property. [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy|Subsequent legislation]] attempted to subordinate the clergy to the state, making them state employees. The ensuing years saw violent repression of the clergy, including the imprisonment and massacre of [[priest]]s throughout France. The [[Concordat of 1801]] between Napoleon and the Church ended the dechristianisation period and established the rules for a relationship between the Catholic Church and the French State that lasted until it was abrogated by the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]] via the [[separation of church and state]] on [[December 11]], [[1905]].
==== The Appearance of Factions ====
''For a more detailed discussion, please see [[National Constituent Assembly]].''
Factions within the Assembly began to become clearer. The [[aristocracy|aristocrat]] [[Jacques Antoine Marie Cazalès]] and the abbé [[Jean-Sifrein Maury]] led what would become known as the [[right-wing politics|right wing]], the opposition to revolution. The "Royalist democrats" or ''monarchiens'', allied with Necker, inclined toward organising France along lines similar to the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|British constitution]]al model: they included [[Jean Joseph Mounier]], the [[Comte de Lally-Tollendal]], the [[Comte de Clermont-Tonnerre]], and [[Pierre Victor Malouet]], Comte de Virieu.
The "National Party", representing the centre or centre-left of the assembly, included [[Honoré Mirabeau]], Lafayette, and Bailly; while [[Adrien Duport]], [[Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie Barnave|Barnave]] and [[Alexander Lameth]] represented somewhat more extreme views. Almost alone in his radicalism on the left was the [[Arras]] lawyer [[Maximilien Robespierre]].
The abbé [[Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès|Sieyès]] led in proposing legislation in this period and successfully forged consensus for some time between the political centre and the [[left-wing politics|left]].
In Paris, various committees, the mayor, the assembly of representatives, and the individual districts each claimed authority independent of the others. The increasingly middle-class [[National Guard (France)|National Guard]] under Lafayette also slowly emerged as a power in its own right, as did other self-generated assemblies.
Looking to the [[United States Declaration of Independence]] for a model, on [[August 26]], 1789, the Assembly published the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]]. Like the U.S. Declaration, it comprised a statement of principles rather than a [[constitution]] with legal effect.
==== Toward a Constitution ====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[French Revolution from the abolition of feudalism to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy#Toward a Constitution|Toward a Constitution]].''
The National Constituent Assembly functioned not only as a [[legislature]], but also as a body to draft a new constitution.
Necker, Mounier, Lally-Tollendal and others argued unsuccessfully for a [[senate]], with members appointed by the crown on the nomination of the people. The bulk of the nobles argued for an aristocratic [[upper house]] elected by the nobles. The popular party carried the day: France would have a single, unicameral assembly. The king retained only a "suspensive veto": he could delay the implementation of a law, but not block it absolutely.
The people of Paris thwarted Royalist efforts to block this new order: they marched on Versailles on [[October 5]] 1789. After various scuffles and incidents, the king and the royal family allowed themselves to be brought back from Versailles to Paris.
The Assembly replaced the historic [[Provinces of France|provinces]] with eighty-three ''[[département in France|département]]s'', uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in extent and population.
Originally summoned to deal with a financial crisis, to date the Assembly had focused on other matters and only worsened the deficit. Mirabeau now led the move to address this matter, with the Assembly giving Necker complete financial dictatorship.
==== Toward the Civil Constitution of the Clergy ====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy]].''
To no small extent, the Assembly addressed the financial crisis by having the nation take over the property of the Church (while taking on the Church's expenses), through the law of [[December 2]], 1789. In order to rapidly monetise such an enormous amount of property, the government introduced a new paper currency, ''[[assignat]]s'', backed by the confiscated church lands.
Further legislation on [[February 13]], 1790, abolished [[monastic vows]]. The [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy]], passed on [[July 12]], 1790 (although not signed by the king until [[December 26]], [[1790]]), turned the remaining clergy into employees of the State and required that they take an oath of loyalty to the constitution. The [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy]] also made the Catholic church an arm of the secular state.
In response to this legislation, the archbishop of Aix and the bishop of Clermont led a walkout of clergy from the National Constituent Assembly. The [[pope]] never accepted the new arrangement, and it led to a schism between those clergy who swore the required oath and accepted the new arrangement ("jurors" or "constitutional clergy") and the "non-jurors" or "refractory priests" who refused to do so.
==== From the Anniversary of the Bastille to the Death of Mirabeau ====
''For a more detailed discussion of the events of [[July 14]], [[1790]]&ndash;[[September 30]], [[1791]], see [[French Revolution from the summer of 1790 to the establishment of the Legislative Assembly#From the Anniversary of the Bastille to the Death of Mirabeau|From the Anniversary of the Bastille to the Death of Mirabeau]].''
The Assembly abolished the symbolic paraphernalia of the ''ancien régime'', armorial bearings, liveries, etc., which further alienated the more conservative nobles, and added to the ranks of the ''[[émigré]]s''.
On [[July 14]], [[1790]], and for several days following, crowds in the [[Champ-de-Mars]] celebrated the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille; Talleyrand performed a mass; participants swore an oath of "fidelity to the nation, the law, and the king"; and the king and the royal family actively participated.
The electors had originally chosen the members of the [[French Estates-General|Estates-General]] to serve for a single year. However, by the time of the [[Tennis Court Oath]], the ''communes'' had bound themselves to meet continuously until France had a constitution. Right-wing elements now argued for a new election, but Mirabeau carried the day, asserting that the status of the assembly had fundamentally changed, and that no new election should take place before completing the constitution.
In late 1790, several small counter-revolutionary uprisings broke out and efforts took place to turn all or part of the army against the revolution. These uniformly failed. The royal court, in [[François Mignet]]'s words, "encouraged every anti-revolutionary enterprise and avowed none." [http://www.outfo.org/literature/pg/etext06/8hfrr10.txt]
The army faced considerable internal turmoil: General [[François Claude Amour, marquis de Bouillé|Bouillé]] successfully put down a small rebellion, which added to his (accurate) reputation for counter-revolutionary sympathies.
The new military code, under which promotion depended on seniority and proven competence (rather than on nobility) alienated some of the existing officer corps, who joined the ranks of the émigrés or became counter-revolutionaries from within.
This period saw the rise of the political "clubs" in French politics, foremost among these the [[Jacobin Club]]: according to the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]], one hundred and fifty-two clubs had affiliated with the Jacobins by [[August 10]], 1790. As the Jacobins became more of a broad popular organisation, some of its founders abandoned it to form the [[Club of '89]]. Royalists established first the short-lived ''[[Club des Impartiaux]]'' and later the ''[[Club Monarchique]]''. The latter attempted unsuccessfully to curry public favour by distributing bread. Nonetheless, they became the frequent target of protests and even riots, and the Paris municipal authorities finally closed down the Club Monarchique in January [[1791]].
Amidst these intrigues, the Assembly continued to work on developing a constitution. A new judicial organisation made all magistracies temporary and independent of the throne. The legislators abolished hereditary offices, except for the monarchy itself. Jury trials started for criminal cases. The king would have the unique power to propose war, with the legislature then deciding whether to declare war. The Assembly abolished all internal trade barriers and suppressed guilds, masterships, and workers' organisations: any individual gained the right to practice a trade through the purchase of a license; strikes became illegal.
In the winter of 1791, the Assembly considered, for the first time, legislation against the ''émigrés''. The debate pitted the safety of the State against the liberty of individuals to leave. Mirabeau carried the day against the measure, which he referred to as "worthy of being placed in the code of [[Draco]]." [http://www.outfo.org/literature/pg/etext06/8hfrr10.txt]
However, Mirabeau died on [[March 2]] [[1791]]. In Mignet's words, "No |
Sigma Phi]] fraternity is founded in at [[City College of New York]].
*[[1901]] - The first [[Nobel Prize]]s are awarded.
*[[1904]] - The [[Pi Kappa Phi]] fraternity is founded in [[Charleston, South Carolina]].
*[[1906]] - [[U.S. President]] [[Theodore Roosevelt]] wins the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], becoming the first American to win a [[Nobel Prize]] of any kind.
*[[1936]] - [[Abdication Crisis]]: [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Edward VIII]] signs his ''Instrument of Abdication''.
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: [[Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse]] - The [[Royal Navy]] ships ''[[HMS Prince of Wales (1939)|HMS Prince of Wales]]'' and ''[[HMS Repulse (1916)|HMS Repulse]]'' are sunk by [[ Imperial Japanese Navy]] [[torpedo bombers]].
*1941 - World War II: [[Battle of the Philippines (1941-42)|Battle of the Philippines]] - [[Imperial Japan]]ese forces under the command of General [[Masaharu Homma]] land on the Philippine mainland.
*[[1948]] - The [[UN General Assembly]] adopts the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]].
*[[1949]] - [[Chinese Civil War]]: The [[People's Liberation Army]] begins its siege of [[Chengdu]], the last [[Kuomintang]]-held city in [[mainland China]], forcing [[ President of the Republic of China]] [[Chiang Kai-shek]] and his government to retreat to [[Taiwan]].
*[[1953]] - Dr. [[Albert Schweitzer]] is awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for his humanitarian work.
*[[1963]] - The [[United States Air Force]]'s [[X-20 Dyna-Soar]] [[spaceplane]] program is cancelled by [[Robert McNamara]].
*[[1965]] - [[The Grateful Dead]] play their first concert, at [[the Fillmore]] in [[San Francisco]].
*[[1970]] - Agricultural scientist [[Norman Borlaug]], "father of the [[Green Revolution]]", is awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].
*[[1975]] - Activist [[Andrei Sakharov]] is awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], accepted by his wife, [[Yelena Bonner]].
*[[1978]] - [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]: [[Prime Minister of Israel]] [[Menachem Begin]] and [[President of Egypt]] [[Anwar Sadat]] are jointly awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].
*[[1981]] - The [[United Nations General Assembly]] approves [[Pakistan]] proposal for establishing nuclear free-zone in [[South Asia]].
*[[1983]] - [[Democracy]] was restored on [[Argentina]] with the assumption of President [[Raúl Alfonsín]].
*[[1983]] - ''[[Solidarity]]'' leader [[Lech Wa&#322;&#281;sa]] is awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], accepted by his wife, Danuta.
*[[1984]] - [[Apartheid]]: Cleric and activist [[Desmond Tutu]] is awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].
*[[1986]] - [[The Holocaust]]: [[Elie Wiesel]] is awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].
*1993 - First release of [[Doom]], one of the most popular shoot-em'up PC videogames
*[[1996]] - [[Rwandan Genocide]]: Military Advisor to the [[United Nations Secretary-General]] and head of the Military Division of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations of the United Nations [[Maurice Baril]] recommends that the [[UN]] multi-national forces in [[Zaire]] stand down.
*[[2002]] - The [[High Court of Australia]] hands down its judgement in the [[internet]] [[defamation]] case of ''[[Gutnick v Dow Jones]]''.
*[[2004]] - A tombstone commemorating the 35th anniversary of the death of [[Brazilian]] [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] [[Carlos Marighella]] is inaugurated in [[Salvador, Bahia]].
*2004 - [[Anil Kumble]] becomes [[Indian national cricket team|India's]] highest [[Dismissal (cricket)|wicket-taker]], surpassing [[Kapil Dev]]'s total of 435.
*[[2005]] - [[Sosoliso Airlines Flight 1145]] crashes in [[Nigeria]].
*2005 - [[Xbox 360]] console released in [[Japan]].
*2005 - [[Nene Tamayo]] became the Big Winner in [[Pinoy Big Brother]].
==Births==
*[[1394]] - King [[James I of Scotland]] (d. [[1437]])
*[[1452]] - [[Johannes Stöffler]], German mathematician and astronomer (d. [[1531]])
*[[1588]] - [[Isaac Beeckman]], Dutch scientist and philosopher (d. [[1637]])
*[[1750]] - [[Tipu Sultan]], ruler of the [[Kingdom of Mysore]] (d. [[1799]])
*[[1787]] - [[Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet]], American educator (d. [[1851]])
*[[1805]] - [[Josef Skoda]], Bohemian physician (d. [[1881]])
*[[1815]] - [[Ada Lovelace]], British computer programmer (d. [[1852]])
*[[1822]] - [[César Franck]], Belgian composer and organist (d. [[1890]])
*[[1824]] - [[George MacDonald]], British writer and preacher (d. [[1905]])
*[[1830]] - [[Emily Dickinson]], American poet (d. [[1886]])
*[[1851]] - [[Melvil Dewey]], American librarian (d. [[1931]])
*[[1870]] - [[Pierre Louÿs]], French author
*1870 - [[Adolf Loos]], Austrian architect (d. [[1933]])
*[[1872]] - [[Don Lorenzo Perosi]], Italian composer (d. [[1956]])
*[[1882]] - [[Otto Neurath]], Austrian philosopher (d. [[1945]])
*[[1884]] - [[Zinaida Serebryakova]], Russian-born painter (d. [[1967]])
*[[1886]] - [[Marco Minghetti]], Italian statesman (b. [[1813]])
*[[1891]] - [[Nelly Sachs]], German-born writer and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1970]])
*[[1903]] - [[Una Merkel]], American actress (d. [[1986]])
*[[1907]] - [[Rumer Godden]] (Margaret Rumer Godden), British writer (d. [[1998]])
*1907 - [[Lucien Laurent]], [[France national football team|French]] international footballer (d. [[2005]])
*[[1908]] - [[Olivier Messiaen]], French composer and ornithologist (d. [[1992]])
*[[1909]] - [[Hermes Pan (choreographer)|Hermes Pan]], American choreographer and dancer (d. [[1990]])
*[[1911]] - [[Chet Huntley]], American journalist (d. [[1974]])
*[[1912]] - [[Philip A. Hart]], U.S. Senator (d. [[1976]])
*[[1913]] - [[Morton Gould]], American composer (d. [[1996]])
*[[1914]] - [[Dorothy Lamour]], American actress (d. [[1996]])
*[[1917]] - [[Sultan Yahya Petra]], King of Malaysia (d. [[1979]])
*[[1920]] - [[Reginald Rose]], American writer (d. [[2002]])
*[[1928]] - [[Dan Blocker]], American actor (d. [[1972]])
*[[1934]] - [[Howard Martin Temin]], American geneticist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1994]])
*[[1947]] - [[Douglas Kenney]], American humorist (d. [[1980]])
*1947 - [[Rasul Guliyev]], Azerbaijani politician and chairman of the Azerbaijan Democratic Party.
*1947 - [[Rainer Seifert]], German field hockey player
*[[1948]] - [[Abu Abbas]], founder of the Palestine Liberation Front (d. [[2004]])
*[[1951]] - [[Ellen Nikolaysen]], Norwegian singer
*[[1952]] - [[Clive Anderson]], British television host
*1952 - [[Susan Dey]], American actress
*[[1957]] - [[Michael Clarke Duncan]], American actor
*[[1960]] - [[Kenneth Branagh]], Northern Irish actor and director
*[[1972]] - [[Brian Molko]], Belgian-born singer and songwriter ([[Placebo (band)|Placebo]])
*[[1974]] - [[Meg White]], American drummer ([[The White Stripes]])
*[[1980]] - [[Alexa Rae]], American actress
*1980 - [[Sarah Chang]], American violinist
*1980 - [[Ledley King]], [[England football team|English]] international footballer
*[[1981]] - [[Taufik Batisah]], Singaporean singer
*1981 - [[Fabio Rochemback]], Brazilian footballer
*[[1985]] - [[Raven-Symoné]], American actress and singer
<!-- Please do not add your own birthday to this list. Thank you. -->
==Deaths==
*[[1041]] - [[Michael IV]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[1010]])
*[[1198]] - [[Averroes]], Arab physician and philosopher (b. [[1126]])
*[[1508]] - [[René II, Duke of Lorraine]] (b. [[1451]])
*[[1603]] - [[William Gilbert]], English scientist (plague) (b. [[1544]])
*[[1616]] - [[Diogo do Couto]], Portuguese historian and writer (b. [[1542]])
*[[1618]] - [[Giulio Caccini]], Italian composer
*[[1626]] - [[Edmund Gunter]], English mathematician (b. [[1581]])
*[[1665]] - [[Tarquinio Merula]], Italian composer
*[[1736]] - [[António Manoel de Vilhena]], Portuguese ruler of Malta (b. [[1663]])
*[[1831]] - [[Thomas Seebeck]], Baltic German physicist (b. [[1770]])
*[[1850]] - [[François Sulpice Beudant]], French mineralogist and geologist (b. [[1787]])
*[[1865]] - King [[Léopold I of Belgium]] (b. [[1790]])
*[[1896]] - [[Alfred Nobel]], Swedish inventor and founder of the Nobel Prize (b. [[1833]])
*[[1911]] - Sir [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]], British botanist (b. [[1817]])
*[[1917]] - Sir [[Mackenzie Bowell]], fifth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (b. [[1823]])
*[[1928]] - [[Charles Rennie Mackintosh]], British architect, designer, and illustrator (b. [[1868]])
*[[1936]] - [[Bobby Abel]], [[England cricket team|English]] test cricketer (b. [[1857]])
*1936 - [[Luigi Pirandello]], Italian writer and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1867]])
*[[1941]] - [[Colin Kelly]], American pilot
*[[1946]] - [[Walter Johnson]], American baseball player (b. [[1887]])
*1946 - [[Damon Runyon]], American writer (b. [[1884]])
*[[1951]] - [[Algernon Blackwood]], British writer (b. [[1869]])
*[[1953]] - [[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]], Indian-born scholar and translator (b. [[1872]])
*[[1967]] - [[Otis Redding]], American soul singer (b. [[1941]])
*[[1968]] - [[Thomas Merton]], American monk and author (b. [[1915]])
*1968 - [[Karl Barth]], Swiss theologian (b. [[1886]])
*[[1969]] - [[Carlos Marighella]], Brazilian politician
*[[1978]] - [[Ed Wood, Jr.]], American filmmaker (b. [[1924]])
*[[1979]] - [[Ann Dvorak]], American film actress (b. [[1912]])
*[[1982]] - [[Freeman F. Gosden]], American actor (b. [[1899]])
*[[1986]] - [[Susan Cabot]], American actress (murdered) (b. [[1927]])
*[[1987]] - [[Jascha Heifetz]], Russian-born violinist (b. [[1901]])
*[[1990]] - [[Armand Hammer]], American industrialist and art collector (b. [[1898]])
*[[1991]] - [[Headman Shabalala]], South African singer ([[Ladysmith Black Mambazo]]) (b. [[1945]])
*1991 - [[Greta Kempton]], American artist (b. [[1901]])
*[[1994]] - [[Alexander Wilson (athlete)|Alexander Wilson]], Canadian and Notre Dame athlete (b. [[1905]])
*[[1996]] - [[Faron Young]], American singer (b. [[1932]])
*[[1999]] - [[Franjo Tudjman|Franjo Tu&#273;man]], [[President of Croatia]] (b. [[1922]])
*1999 - [[Rick Danko]], Canadian bassist and singer ([[The Band]]) (b. [[1942]])
*[[20 |
able consequence, but rather is more likely to come about, if and when it does, due to popular belief in this system.
===Competitive funding===
Competitive funding is also a benefit for many countries (and companies) that adopted the euro. National and corporate [[bond]]s denominated in euro are significicantly more liquid and have lower interest rates than was historically the case when denominated in legacy currency. Likewise, companies have greater freedom to borrow competitively from cross-border banks without incurring exchange rate risk. This has forced the incumbent banks to reduce their rates to compete. <!-- Ireland provides an example of both. I'm sure that a web search will find. -->
===Macroeconomic stability===
Improved macroeconomic stability is an important benefit of the euro for the entire continent. Much of Europe has been susceptible to economic problems such as [[inflation]] throughout the last 50 years. Inflation is a very damaging phenomenon from most of society’s perspective. It discourages investment, can cause social unrest, and causes problems for those on fixed incomes and for [[tax]]ation. However, many countries have been unable or unwilling to deal with serious inflationary pressures. They often have other priorities that compromise their ability to do so. Sometimes their economic clout is simply insufficient, sometimes their parliamentary seats are at risk if they do. However, there have been models, particularly in those with largely independent central banks, that have successfully countered inflation. One such bank was the [[Bundesbank]] in Germany; since the European Central Bank is modeled on the Bundesbank, is independent of the pressures of national governments. Since it has a mandate to keep inflationary pressures low, prices in Europe have been after the euro’s introduction. ([[Eurostat]] data confirms this, nevertheless many citizens perceive it not to be the case). Unlike the [[Federal Reserve]] in the USA, it does not have a second objective to sustain growth and employment and consequently seems too conservative. This is discussed further in article [[ECB]]. <!-- Advice to editors: this article is already too long and this is only a summary, so if at all possible please develop the ECB article instead of this one -->
===Less-specific monetary policy===
Some economists are concerned about the possible dangers of adopting a single currency for a large and diverse area. Because the eurozone has a single [[monetary policy]], and so a single [[interest rate]], set by the ECB, it cannot be fine-tuned for the economic situation in each individual country (however, prior to the introduction of the euro, exchange rates volatility had reduced substantially after the European currency crisis in the early 1990s). [[Public investment]] and [[fiscal policy]] in each country is thus the only way in which government-led economic stimulus can be introduced specific to each region or nation. This inflexible interest rate might stifle growth in some areas, while over-promoting it in others. The result could be extended periods of economic depression in some areas of the continent, disadvantaged by the central interest rate. Given such a situation resentment and friction within the community, and toward the bank, might well increase. Others point out that in today's globalised economy, individual countries do not really have power to effectively manage their monetary policy, as it creates other imbalances. This effect was already visible in the last European currency crises of 1992, when the Bundesbank was effectively coordinating monetary policy for the whole continent.
Some proponents of the euro point out that the eurozone is similar in size and population to the [[United States]], which has a single currency and a single monetary policy set by the [[Federal Reserve]]. However, the individual states that make up the USA have less [[regional autonomy]] and a more homogeneous economy than the nations of the EU. Of particular concern in accordance with this theory is the notion that the economies of the EU may not all be 'in sync'&mdash; each may be at a different stage in the [[boom and bust]] cycle, or just be experiencing different inflationary pressures. [[Labour mobility]] is also much lower in the eurozone than across the United States, largely due to the vast differences in language and culture between European nations, and despite labour, capital and goods full mobility rules.
It can also be argued that a single currency works for the USA because the [[US dollar]] is a hegemonic currency. Before the euro, eighty per cent of the world's currency reserves were held in US dollars. This gives the US economy a huge subsidy in that reserve dollars are invested in US institutions or foreign institutions under US control. This subsidy helps cushion the effects of a possible strong dollar hurting certain regions of the USA.
If the euro were to become either a hegemonic currency replacing the dollar or a co-hegemonic currency equal in reserve status to the dollar, some of the subsidy the USA gains would be transferred to the EU and help balance out some of the problems of the present heterogeneous economic structure still in place.
===A new reserve currency?===
The euro will probably become one of two, or perhaps three, major global [[reserve currency|reserve currencies]]. Currently, international currency exchange is dominated by the [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] (USD). The U.S. dollar is used by banks world-wide as a stable reserve on which to ensure their liquidity and international transactions and investments are often made in U.S. dollars.
A currency is attractive for foreign transactions when it demonstrates a proven track record of stability, a well-developed financial market to dispose of the currency in, and proven acceptability to others. The euro will almost certainly be able to match these criteria at least as well as the U.S. dollar, so given some time to become accepted, it will likely begin to take its place alongside the dollar as one of the world’s major international currencies.
There are several benefits to reserve currencies of being such an internationally acceptable currency. If the euro were to become a reserve currency it would benefit member countries by lowering the service charges on their [[debt|debts]]. Since the currency would be so broadly acceptable it would make the premiums paid to debt holders lower, since the risk to the borrower is lower. It is estimated that the United States government currently saves 10-15 billion dollars a year on 2 trillion dollars of international debt because of this principle. The issuer of the reserve currency is freer to pursue macroeconomic policy adjustments to suit its own needs in terms of financing its debt, or influencing other countries. Reserve status would also lower the cost of many commodities for Europeans.
===The euro and oil===
The eurozone consumes more imported [[petroleum]] than the [[United States]]. This would mean that more euros than US dollars would flow into the [[OPEC]] nations, but oil is priced by those nations in US dollars only. There have been frequent discussions at OPEC about pricing oil in euros, which would have various effects, among them, requiring nations to hold stores of euros to buy oil, rather than the US dollars that they hold now. [[Venezuela]] under [[Hugo Chávez]] has been a vocal proponent of this scheme, despite selling most of its own oil to the United States. Another proponent was [[Saddam Hussein]] of [[Iraq]], which holds the world's second largest oil reserves. Since 2000 Iraq had used the euro as oil export currency. In 2002, Iraq changed its US dollars into euro, a few months prior to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. If implemented by the [[OPEC]], the changeover to the euro would be a transfer of a '[[Float (money supply)|float]]' that presently subsidises the United States to subsidise the European Union instead. Another effect would be that the price of oil in the eurozone would more closely follow the world price. When oil prices skyrocketed to almost 50 USD/barrel in August 2004, the oil price in euros didn't change nearly as much because of the concurrent rise in the exchange rate of the euro to the US dollar (to an exchange rate of EUR 1.00 = USD 1.33 in December 2004). Similarly, should oil prices lower significantly, together with the USD/EUR exchange rate, the oil price in the eurozone would not fall as much. On the other hand, if the exchange rate and the oil price move in different directions, oil price changes are magnified. Pricing oil in euros would nullify this dependency of European oil prices on the USD/EUR exchange rate.
On [[March 20]], [[2006]], [[Iran]] is planning to open an [[International Oil Bourse]] (IOB, exchange) for the express purpose of trading oil priced in other currencies, including [[Petroeuro|euros]].
==Euro exchange rate==
===Flexible exchange rates===
One of the implications of the [[Mundell-Fleming Model]] is the fact that when an economy combines international capital mobility with monetary autonomy, it cannot at the same time maintain a fixed exchange rate (as increasing the [[money supply]] would result in a [[depreciation]] of the currency). In the years following the [[Single European Act]] the EU has liberalized its capital markets, and as the [[ECB]] has chosen for monetary autonomy, the [[exchange rate regime]] of the euro is flexible or [[Floating exchange rate|floating]]. In other words, the ECB does not use the exchange rate instrument and in general does not intervene on the foreign exchange rate markets. This explains why the exchange rate of the euro vis-à-vis other currencies is characterized by strong fluctuations. Most notable are the fluctuations of the euro vs. the [[US dollar]], another freely floating currency.
===Against other major currencies===
After th |
s charismatic and had many connections within the military. Actually, at that time, Tojo was said to be the only person who could control the army. Also, Tojo was a loyal retainer of the emperor as Hirohito said later. Therefore, Hirohito called Tojo to come to the Imperial Palace one day before Tojo's took office. Tojo wrote in his diary, "I thought I was called because the emperor was really angry at my opinion."
The signal for war in the Pacific was given on [[August 26]] [[1941]], at a session of the [[Black Dragon Society]] in Tokyo. At this meeting, War Minister Hideki Tojo ordered that preparation be made to wage a total war against the armed forces of the United States, and that Japanese guns be mounted and supplies and munitions concentrated in the Marshalls and Caroline groups of the mandated islands by November, 1941. Approving Tojo's war orders, former Foreign Minister Koki Hirota, head of the Black Dragons secret services, discussed the advantages and consequences of a conflict with the United States. Many of those at the meeting considered December, 1941, or February, 1942, the most suitable time for Japan to attack.
During September 1941 the situation worsened with continued sanctions imposed against Japanese trade and became irreversibly worse in October when Lieutenant-General Hideki Tojo became Japanese Prime Minister with the support of the Nippon nations powerful military establishment.
After arrival, Tojo given one order from the emperor: that was to keep negotiating no matter what. The emperor of Showa said from Japanese record, "keep negotiating even if the U.S requires Japan to retreat its soldiers from China to Manchuria." Tojo accepted this order, and pledged to obey it because he was respecting the emperor. With that,Tojo then became the Prime Minister.
However, from the U.S. perspective, the new prime minister looked like as if Japan decided to begin the war because the person who strongly stated to begin the war became the prime minister. This misconception became one of the reasons to show the [[Hull Note]] to Japan.
Tojo did his best to keep negotiating. However, the results were not good for the Japanese side. Japan then made the final decision to begin the war after seeing the Hull Note. The night of [[December 7]] (The U.S was 6th), Tojo was said to have sat on a futon (Japanese bed)with his back straight and his knees together, sobbing. He might have regretted his act, or might have been apologizing to the emperor.
On [[5 November]] Prime Minister Tojo revealed to his inner circle of the offensive plans for a defensive war that he felt was increasingly certain to happen. The eventual plan drawn up by Army and Navy Chiefs of Staff envisaged such a mauling of the western powers that defence perimeter line established based on the abilities of Japanese tenaciousness, operating on interior lines for communications and western casualty counts, could not be breached.
In addition, the Japanese fleet which attacked the Pearl Harbor was ordered by admiral Isoroku Yamamoto that if the negotiation did not succeed immediately before the attack, the fleet must return to Japan without the air raid on Pearl Harbor.
Numerous theories about political forces at work during this process include conspiracy theories about a concerted effort within the military-industrial complex of Japan and the right wing to derail negotiations and forge ahead with plans for colonialism and war.
===General Tojo, diplomatic actions and politics===
This fallacy became apparent as the course of the war against Japan unfolded. Japan had come to believe that the wars in Europe had so weakened the imperialists that the Mikado could pick up an extended East Asian empire at will. The Japanese military hierarchy planned a line of defence based on islands stretching from Rabaul in the Bismarck Archipelago to the Kuriles north of Japan, intending to swallow and digest the insular possessions of France, Britain, Holland, Australia, the Portuguese, and of the United States, while finishing off the Chinese - concluding the decades-long conflict that began with the notorious "[[Twenty-One Demands]]".
The "Indies" was the Crown Jewel to the Japanese. Without it, the embargoes placed against Japan would bankrupt her. Japan had 2 years supply of oil reserve for non-military use, one year if she went to war.
===The growth of Japanese military dominance of East Asia===
The aggressive Japan's major problem lay in that with great modern industrial expansion had turned into a major manufacturing nation and required sufficient raw materials that could be obtained over eastern Asia. Hence Japan's swift advance in securing these areas which brought on an immediate conflict with the western powers, who also had considerable political and economic interests in the Far East region. The Japanese move into French Indo-China and diplomatic discourse with Siam (Thailand) constituted a threat to the security of British Malay, the American Philippines, Dutch East Indies and the southern lands of Australian and New Zealand.
On Sunday [[7 December]] the Imperial Japanese Navy hit the American military base at Pearl Harbour with an aerial onslaught. The elements of total war were clearly revealed by the surprise attack
on Pearl Harbour. Itself in line with the practices of total warfare, was also in the Japanese military tradition, for they had begun other wars previously the same way.
On [[16 February]] [[1942]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] diplomats secretly proposed a
peace deal with Japan. A possible agreement was that if Great
Britain formally recognised the authority of [[imperial Japan]] over
Northern [[China]] and [[Manchuria]], the Japanese would give Britain
sovereignty over the [[Malay Peninsula]] and Singapore.
At the same time as this diplomatic movement, a political
confrontation was in progress between the Toho kai party and the
[[Kodoha]] party. This was possibly the last internal political
power struggle in the government before the [[Midway]] and [[Coral
Sea]] defeats in 1943, which sent the Japanese [[military]] reeling.
The [[ultranationalist]] Toho kai party was led by [[Nakano Seigo]]
who appeared to have some political influence at the time
and expressed his outright support and confidence for
[[Japanese Navy]]. He anxiously awaited the approval of the
peace talks, so as to stabilize the recent conquests in
[[Southeast Asia]]. Seigo also wanted to prevented any further
sacrifices by the Japanese people towards the war effort,
and pressured the government to halt the ambitious
conquest of Asia.
On the other side was the largely pro-[[Imperialist]] faction,
which represented the [[military]] interests of Japan, was
led by Tojo. He displayed a completely different perspective
over the issue. He reasoned that the successes in recent
campaigns in [[Southeast Asia]] were extremely rapid, and
continuation of the conquests could lead to gaining most
of Asia and Australia before the United States and the
Allies could react to further develop the so-called
[[Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere]].
General Tojo rejected any form of peace processes in
the conquered lands and gave authorization for more conquests.
This angered and frustrated the Toho Kai until Seigo finally
committed suicide on [[October 27]] [[1943]]. When Japan rejected
such peace agreements, the imperial empire lost the opportunity
to mantain their new territories in [[Southeast Asia]] in the long
term Japan was unable to reinforce the defensive infantries,
which allowed the [[United States]] to launch counter-offensives
by 1943.
Elated by these early successes Admiral Yamamoto, the Chief of the Combined Fleet, convinced his superiors to expand further including the objectives of Midway, the Aleutians, and the Solomons, expanding the thin line of sea communications dangerously thinner. Individual Japanese commanders of the new Rising Sun Empire of Asia would go off on wild hunts to enhance their name after easy conquests unrelated to any overall strategic plan and was categorised as "victory disease" by the Japanese people.
===Prime Minister Tojo and the Navy plan to invade Australia===
Prime Minister Tojo believed that there were no contingency plans considered for [[Yamamoto_Isoroku|Yamamoto]]'s Invasion Plan to [[Australia]]. General Tojo was concerned that the Japanese merchant and transport fleets were extended to its limit and the [[United States|Americans]] could readily divert their [[B-17]] Flying Fortresses to [[Sydney]] to destroy the invading forces.
Emperor [[Hirohito]] decided to postpone the Invasion Plan until [[Japanese forces]] had taken [[Burma]] and joined forces with the rebel [[Indian Nationalists]]. The outcomes of the Battles of the [[Coral_Sea|Coral Sea]] and Midway ensured the Invasion Plan for [[Australia]] was never revised.
General Tojo was an ardent supporter of the [[North Strike Group]] and declared his intention to realise operations from [[Manchukuo]] and nearby areas against the Russians in the [[Soviet Far East]], [[Outer Mongolia]] and [[Siberian]] lands, as well as against the [[Kwantung Army]]. He was a fanatical [[anticommunist]] since his time leading [[Kempeitai]] forces in [[Manchukuo]].
==Postwar legacy==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Tojo-in-custody.jpg|frame|right|Tojo in custody]] -->
After Japan surrendered in [[1945]] Tojo shot himself in the chest in a [[suicide]] attempt. He survived and was arrested a short time later. He recovered from his injuries at a hospital.
He then was tried by the [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East]] for [[war crimes]]. He was '''found guilty of the following crimes:'''
*count 1 (waging wars of aggression, and war or wars in violation of international law)
*count 27 (waging unprovoked war against [[China]])
*count 29 (waging aggressive war against |
etts]], USA
*[[1962]] - [[Place Ville-Marie]], in [[Montreal, Quebec]], Canada
*[[1962]] - [[Kennedy Theatre]], [[University of Hawaii]], USA, [http://www.hawaii.edu/theatre/facilities/facilities.htm Official web page]
*[[1962]] - [[Hale Manoa Dormitory]], [[East West Center]], [[University of Hawaii]], USA
*[[1963]] - [[Luce Memorial Chapel]], [[Tunghai University]], [[Taichung]], [[Taiwan]]
*[[1964]] - [[Green Building (MIT)|Green Building]], [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
*[[1964]] - [[S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications]] at [[Syracuse University]] - [[Syracuse, New York]]
*[[1966]] - [[1968]] - Sculpture Wing of the [[Des Moines Art Center]] in [[Des Moines, Iowa]]
**[http://www.desmoinesartcenter.org/visit/v_pei.html Official page of Pei's Sculpture Wing]
*[[1966]] - [[Silver Towers]] at [[New York University]]
*[[1967]] - Hoffman Hall at [[University of Southern California]]
*[[1968]] - [[1972]] - 50 [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] [[Control tower|air traffic control towers]], in various locations throughout the [[United States]].
*[[1968]] - [[1974]] [[Christian Science Center]], in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]
*[[1968]] - [[Syracuse, New York#Arts and culture|Everson Museum of Art]], in [[Syracuse, New York]]
*[[1969]] - [[Cleo Rogers Memorial Library]], in [[Columbus, Indiana]]
*[[1969]] - Academic Center, [[State University of New York at Fredonia]], [[Fredonia, New York]]
*[[1970]] - National Airlines terminal at [[JFK Airport]] in [[New York, New York]]
*[[1971]] - [[Harbor Towers]]
*[[1972]] - [[Dallas, Texas]] City Hall
*[[1972]] - [[Paul Mellon Arts Center]] at [[Choate Rosemary Hall]] in [[Wallingford, Connecticut]]
*[[1972]] - Pei Residence Halls at [[New College of Florida]]
*[[1973]] - [[Commerce Court|Commerce Court West]] in [[Toronto, Ontario]]
*[[1973]] - [[Spelman Halls]] at [[Princeton University]]
*[[1973]] - [[Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art]], [[Cornell University]], in [[Ithaca, New York]]
*[[1974]] - [[1978]] East Building, [[National Gallery of Art]], in [[Washington, DC]]{{ref|eastnational}}
**[http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/20th_intro.htm Official East Building project webpage]
*[[1975]] - [[OCBC Centre]] in [[Singapore]].
*[[1976]] - [[John Hancock Tower]], in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] - ''Pei gives Henry Cobb the credit for [http://www.pcf-p.com/a/p/6710/s.html this building]''
*[[1976]] - [[University of Rochester]]'s Wilson Commons
*[[1978]] - [[1982]] [[Indiana University Art Museum]] in [[Bloomington, Indiana]]
*[[1979]] - [[John F. Kennedy Library]], in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]{{ref|jfktalk}}
*[[1979]] - [[Baltimore World Trade Center]], in [[Baltimore, Maryland]]
*[[1979]] - [[1986]] [[Javits Convention Center]] in [[New York, New York]]
*[[1980]] - [[1985]] [[Raffles City]] in Singapore.
*[[1981]] - [[J.P. Morgan Chase Tower, Houston|the Texas Commerce Tower]] in [[Houston, Texas]], currently J.P. Morgan Chase Tower; ([[3D/International]] cooperated with Pei on the design of this building)
*[[1982]] - [[16th Street Mall]] in [[Denver, Colorado]].
*[[1982]] - [[1990]] [[Bank of China Tower]], in [[Hong Kong]]
**[http://www.designboom.com/portrait/pei_bank.html Bank of China Tower project website]
*[[1982]] - [[Apartment]] for [[Steve Jobs]]
*[[1983]] - [[Energy Plaza]], [[Dallas, Texas]]
*[[1985]] - [[Wiesner building]], [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]], [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
*[[1986]] - [[Fountain Place]], [[Dallas, Texas]]
*[[1987]] - [[Bank_Of_America_Tower_(Miami)|CenTrust Tower]], [[Miami]], [[Florida]]
*[[1989]] - [[Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center]] in [[Dallas, Texas]]
*[[1989]] - [[Carl Icahn]] Center for Science at [[Choate Rosemary Hall]] in [[Wallingford, Connecticut]]
*[[1989]] - Headquarters for [[Creative Artists Agency]], [[Los Angeles, California]]
*[[1989]] - Pyramids of the [[Louvre]], in [[Paris]], [[France]]
**[http://www.GreatBuildings.com/buildings/Pyramide_du_Louvre.html Pyramide du Louvre website]. (See also: [[La Pyramide Inversée]].)
*[[1991]] - [[Miho Museum]], Shiga, Japan
**[http://www.miho.or.jp/english/index.htm Official museum website]
***[http://www.miho.or.jp/english/architec/architec.htm Official information on the architecture]
*[[1992]] - [[The Kirklin Clinic]] of the [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]] Health System, [[Birmingham]], [[Alabama]]
*[[1995]] - [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]], in [[Cleveland, Ohio]]
*[[2001]] - [[Friend Center for Engineering]], at [[Princeton University]].
*[[2003]] - extension building to the [[Deutsches Historisches Museum]] (''German history museum''), in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]].
*[[2005]] - [[Ferguson Center for the Performing Arts]] at [[Christopher Newport University]] in [[Newport News, Virginia]].
==Selected works==
<gallery>
Image:National Center for Atmospheric Research - Boulder, Colorado.JPG|1961 - [[National Center for Atmospheric Research]], [[Boulder, Colorado]]
Image:THU Luce Memorial Chapel.jpg|1963 - [[Luce Memorial Chapel]], [[Tunghai University]], [[Taiwan]]
Image:Green Building, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts.JPG|1964 - Green Building, [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
Image:Paul Mellon Arts Center - Choate Rosemary Hall, Wallingford, Connecticut.JPG|1972 - [[Paul Mellon Arts Center]], [[Choate Rosemary Hall]], [[Wallingford, Connecticut]]
Image:national_gallery_of_art_usa.jpg|1974 - The East Building of the [[National Gallery of Art]]
Image:artmuseu.jpg|1978 - Indiana University Art Museum at [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] in [[Bloomington, Indiana]]
Image:Bank of china night.jpg|1989 - [[Bank of China Tower]], Hong Kong
Image:DSCN4568 clevelandrockandrollhallofame e.jpg|1995 - The [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]], showing [[Lake Erie]] in the background
</gallery>
==Reference==
#[[Gero von Boehm]], ''Conversations with I.M. Pei: "Light is the Key" '' ISBN 3791321765
#[[Michael Cannell]], ''I.M. Pei : Mandarin of Modernism'' ISBN 0517799723 #([http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/im_pei.htm Excerpt])
#[[Carter Wiseman]], ''I. M. Pei: A Profile in American Architecture'' ISBN 0810934779
#{{note|jfktalk}}[http://forum.wgbh.org/wgbh/forum.php?lecture_id=1655 Conversation with I.M. Pei about JFK Museum, Boston - with Robert Campbell, critic, Boston Globe (audio/video stream)]
#{{note|eastnational}}[http://www.nga.gov/collection/eastarch1.shtm Pei's audio tour of the East Building addition to the National Gallery of Art]
# Wikipedia entry - [[Steve Jobs]]
==External links==
*[http://www.pcfandp.com/ Pei Cobb Freed & Partners website]
:*{{note|officalbio}}[http://www.pcfandp.com/a/f/fme/imp/b/b.html Official biography from Pei Cobb Freed & Partners website]
:*{{note|officalprojectslist}}[http://www.pcf-p.com/a/f/fme/imp/p/p.html Official projects list from Pei Cobb Freed & Partners website]
*[http://archrecord.construction.com/people/interviews/archives/0406IMPei-1.asp Interview with I.M. Pei (june 2004)]
*[http://www.nyc-architecture.com/ARCH/ARCH-PeiCobbFried.htm New York Architecture Images- Pei, Cobb, Freed]
*[http://architect.architecture.sk/ieoh-ming-pei-architect/ieoh-ming-pei-architect.php Ieoh Ming Pei : architect biography]
*[http://www.worldofbiography.com/9172%2DI%20M%20Pei/ Biography] (World of Biography)
<!--Interwiki-->
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:1917 births|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:American architects|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Architects|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Chinese Americans|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Living people|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Members of The American Academy of Arts and Letters|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:MIT alumni|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Modernist architects|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:National Medal of Arts recipients|Pie, I. M.]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Pei, I.M.]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Pritzker Prize winners|Pei]]
[[bs:I.M. Pei]]
[[de:Ieoh Ming Pei]]
[[es:Ieoh Ming Pei]]
[[eu:Ieoh Ming Pei]]
[[fr:Ieoh Ming Pei]]
[[he:איי אם פיי]]
[[ja:イオ・ミン・ペイ]]
[[pl:Ieoh Ming Pei]]
[[pt:Ieoh Ming Pei]]
[[sv:I.M. Pei]]
[[vi:I. M. Pei]]
[[zh:贝聿铭]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ICD</title>
<id>15156</id>
<revision>
<id>39854229</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T08:35:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Snalwibma</username>
<id>423633</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fmt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ICD''' has two distinct meanings in health care:
:*[[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]
:*[[Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator]]
*In hardware design '''ICD''' is In-Circuit Debugger
*In software engineering '''ICD''' is Interface Control Document
*'''ICD, Inc.''' computer peripherals and software developer
*ICD is also an abbreviation for [[J.C.D.|Doctor of Canon Law]].
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:ICD]]
[[fr:ICD]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ICD-CM</title>
<id>15157</id>
<revision>
<id>15912650</id>
<timestamp>2003-02-23T17:11:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MyRedDice</username>
<id>5862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Islamic Jihad</title>
<id>15158</id>
<revision>
<id>37442949</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T01:16:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Eye of Timaeus</username>
<id>855153</id>
</contributor>
<comment>responsibiliy changed to responsibility</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about particular organizations known as I |
but also of the most profound secrets of philosophy. We have much proof that Alexander profited by contact with the philosopher, and that Aristotle made prudent and beneficial use of his influence over the young prince (although [[Bertrand Russell]] disputes this). Due to this influence, Alexander provided Aristotle with ample means for the acquisition of books and the pursuit of his scientific investigation.
It is possible that Aristotle also participated in the education of Alexander's boyhood friends, which may have included for example [[Hephaestion]] and [[Harpalus]]. Aristotle maintained a long correspondence with Hephaestion, eventually collected into a book, unfortunately now lost.
According to sources such as Plutarch and [[Diogenes]], Philip had Aristotle's hometown of Stageira burned during the [[340s BC]], and Aristotle successfully requested that Alexander rebuild it. During his tutorship of Alexander, Aristotle was reportedly considered a second time for leadership of the Academy; his companion Xenocrates was selected instead.
===Founder and master of the Lyceum===
In about [[335 BC]], Alexander departed for his Asiatic campaign, and Aristotle, who had served as an informal adviser (more or less) since Alexander ascended the Macedonian throne, returned to Athens and opened his own school of philosophy. He may, as [[Aulus Gellius]] says, have conducted a school of [[rhetoric]] during his former residence in Athens; but now, following Plato's example, he gave regular instruction in philosophy in a [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]] dedicated to [[Apollo Lyceios]], from which his school has come to be known as the [[Lyceum]]. (It was also called the [[Peripatetic]] School because Aristotle preferred to discuss problems of philosophy with his pupils while walking up and down -- ''peripateo'' -- the shaded walks -- ''peripatoi'' -- around the gymnasium).
During the thirteen years ([[335 BC]]&ndash;[[322 BC]]) which he spent as teacher of the Lyceum, Aristotle composed most of his writings. Imitating Plato, he wrote ''[[Dialogue]]s'' in which his doctrines were expounded in somewhat popular language. He also composed the several treatises (which will be mentioned below) on physics, metaphysics, and so forth, in which the exposition is more [[didactic]] and the language more technical than in the ''Dialogues''. These writings show to what good use he put the resources Alexander had provided for him. They show particularly how he succeeded in bringing together the works of his predecessors in Greek philosophy, and how he pursued, either personally or through others, his investigations in the realm of natural phenomena. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] claimed that Alexander placed under Aristotle's orders all the hunters, fishermen, and fowlers of the royal kingdom and all the overseers of the royal forests, lakes, ponds and cattle-ranges, and Aristotle's works on zoology make this statement more believable. Aristotle was fully informed about the doctrines of his predecessors, and [[Strabo]] asserted that he was the first to accumulate a great library.
During the last years of Aristotle's life the relations between him and Alexander became very strained, owing to the disgrace and punishment of [[Callisthenes]], whom Aristotle had recommended to Alexander. Nevertheless, Aristotle continued to be regarded at Athens as a friend of Alexander and a representative of Macedonia. Consequently, when Alexander's death became known in Athens, and the outbreak occurred which led to the [[Lamian war]], Aristotle shared in the general unpopularity of the Macedonians. The charge of [[impiety]], which had been brought against [[Anaxagoras]] and [[Socrates]], was now, with even less reason, brought against Aristotle. He left the city, saying (according to many ancient authorities) that he would not give the Athenians a chance to sin a third time against philosophy. He took up residence at his country house at [[Chalcis]], in [[Euboea]], and there he died the following year, [[322 BC]]. His death was due to a disease, reportedly 'of the stomach', from which he had long suffered. The story that his death was due to [[hemlock]] poisoning, as well as the legend that he threw himself into the sea "because he could not explain the [[tide]]s," is without historical foundation.
Very little is known about Aristotle's personal appearance except from hostile sources. The statues and busts of Aristotle, possibly from the first years of the Peripatetic School, represent him as sharp and keen of countenance, and somewhat below the average height. His character&mdash;as revealed by his writings, his will (which is undoubtedly genuine), fragments of his letters and the allusions of his unprejudiced contemporaries&mdash;was that of a high-minded, kind-hearted man, devoted to his family and his friends, kind to his slaves, fair to his enemies and rivals, grateful towards his benefactors. When [[Platonism]] ceased to dominate the world of [[Christianity|Christian]] speculation, and the works of Aristotle began to be studied without fear and prejudice, the personality of Aristotle appeared to the Christian writers of the [[13th century]], as it had to the unprejudiced pagan writers of his own day, as calm, majestic, untroubled by passion, and undimmed by any great moral defects, "the master of those who know".
Aristotle's legacy also had a profound influence on Islamic thought and philosophy during the [[Middle Ages|middle ages]]. The likes of [[Avicenna]], [[Farabi]], and Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi<small>[http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/KINDI.html 1]</small> were a few of the major proponents of the Aristotelian school of thought during the ''[[Golden Age of Islam]]''.
== Methodology ==
{{details|Aristotle's theory of universals}}
Aristotle defines philosophy in terms of [[essence]], saying that philosophy is "the science of the universal essence of that which is [[actual]]". Plato had defined it as the "science of the [[idea]]", meaning by idea what we should call the unconditional basis of [[phenomena]]. Both pupil and master regard philosophy as concerned with the [[universal]]; Aristotle, however, finds the universal in [[particular]] things, and called it the essence of things, while Plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their [[prototype]] or [[exemplar]]. For Aristotle, therefore, philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal ideas to a contemplation of particular imitations of those ideas. In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both [[Inductive reasoning|inductive]] and [[Deductive reasoning|deductive]], while Plato's is essentially deductive.
In Aristotle's terminology, the term ''natural philosophy'' corresponds to the phenomena of the natural world, which include: [[motion]], [[light]], and the [[laws of physics]]. Many centuries later these subjects would become the basis of modern science, as studied through the [[scientific method]]. In modern times the term ''philosophy'' has come to be more narrowly understood as metaphysics, distinct from empirical study of the natural world via the physical sciences. In contrast, in Aristotle's time and use [[philosophy]] was taken to encompass all facets of intellectual inquiry.
In the larger sense of the word, he makes philosophy coextensive with [[reasoning]], which he also called "science". Note, however, that his use of the term ''science'' carries a different meaning than that which is covered by the scientific method. "All science (''dianoia'') is either practical, poetical or theoretical." By practical science he understands ethics and politics; by poetical, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; while by theoretical philosophy he means physics, mathematics, and metaphysics.
The last, philosophy in the stricter sense, he defines as "the knowledge of [[immaterial]] being," and calls it "first philosophy", "the theologic science" or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction." If logic, or, as Aristotle calls it, [[Analytic]], be regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, we have as divisions of Aristotelian philosophy (1) [[Logic]]; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including [[Metaphysics]], [[Physics]], [[Mathematics]], (3) Practical Philosophy; and (4) Poetical Philosophy.
==Aristotle's epistemology==
===Logic===
{{main|Aristotelian logic}}
{{see details|Non-Aristotelian logic}}
==== History ====
Aristotle "says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak about'" (Boche&#324;ski, [[1951]]). However, Plato reports that [[syntax]] was thought of before him, by [[Prodikos of Keos]], who was concerned by the right use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from [[dialectics]]; the earlier philosophers used concepts like ''[[reductio ad absurdum]]'' as a rule when discussing, but never understood its logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic. Although he had the idea of constructing a system for [[deduction]], he was never able to construct one. Instead, he relied on his [[dialectic]], which was a confusion between different sciences and methods (Boche&#324;ski, [[1951]]). Plato thought that deduction would simply follow from [[premise]]s, so he focused on having good premises so that the [[conclusion]] would follow. Later on, Plato realised that a method for obtaining the conclusion would be beneficial. Plato never obtained such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book ''Sophist'', where he introduced his division method (Rose, [[1968]]).
====Analytics and the ''Organon''====
{{main|Organon}}
What we call today Aristotelian logic, Aris |
*[[Disk storage]]
*[[Early IBM disk storage]]
*[[Superparamagnetic effect]]
*[[External hard drive]]
*[[Kryder's law]]
*[[File system]]
* [[PRML]]
==External links==
{{commons|Hard disk}}
* The PC Guide: [http://www.pcguide.com/ref/hdd/hist-c.html A Brief History of the Hard Disk Drive]
* [http://www.pcdoctor-guide.com/wordpress/?p=595 Inside a hard drive]
* Technical Whitepaper (non marketing): [http://www.actionfront.com/ts_whitepaper.asp Comprehensive Overview of Modern Recording Techniques and Hard Disk Drive Technologies]
*[http://www.pcguide.com/intro/fun/bindec.htm Binary versus Decimal]
*[http://www.microsoft.com/technet/archive/winntas/support/diskover.mspx Windows NT Server Resource Kit: Disk Management Basics] (See section "About Disks and Disk Organization")
*[http://www.legadoassociates.com/behold.htm Behold the God Box] - Less's Law and future implications of massive cheap hard disk storage
*[http://computer.howstuffworks.com/hard-disk.htm How Hard Disks Work]
*[http://www.digit-life.com/articles2/storage/itogi2005hdd.html Digest 2005 - State of the art hard disk drives in 2005]
[[Category:Computer storage devices]]
[[Category:Rotating disc computer storage media]]
[[Category:Computer storage media]]
[[ar:قرص صلب]]
[[bg:Твърд диск]]
[[bs:Hard disk]]
[[br:Disk kaled]]
[[ca:Disc dur]]
[[cs:Pevný disk]]
[[da:Harddisk]]
[[de:Festplatte]]
[[et:Kõvaketas]]
[[es:Disco duro]]
[[fr:Disque dur]]
[[fy:Fêste skiif]]
[[gl:Disco ríxido]]
[[ko:하드 디스크]]
[[hr:Tvrdi disk]]
[[id:Hard disk]]
[[ia:Disco duro]]
[[it:Hard disk]]
[[he:דיסק קשיח]]
[[lt:Kietasis diskas]]
[[ln:Diski ebómbelo enéne]]
[[hu:Merevlemez]]
[[ms:Cakera keras]]
[[nl:Harde schijf]]
[[nds:Fastplaat]]
[[ja:ハードディスクドライブ]]
[[no:Platelager]]
[[nn:Platelager]]
[[pl:Twardy dysk]]
[[pt:Disco rígido]]
[[ro:Hard-disc]]
[[ru:Жёсткий диск]]
[[sk:Pevný disk]]
[[sl:Trdi disk]]
[[sr:Тврди диск]]
[[fi:Kiintolevy]]
[[sv:Hårddisk]]
[[th:ฮาร์ดดิสก์]]
[[vi:Ổ cứng]]
[[tr:Sabit disk]]
[[uk:Вінчестер (диск)]]
[[zh:硬盘]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hard disk drive</title>
<id>13779</id>
<revision>
<id>15911371</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hard disk]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hard drive</title>
<id>13780</id>
<revision>
<id>15911372</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hard disk]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hebrew Calendar</title>
<id>13781</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hebrew calendar]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hebrew calendar</title>
<id>13782</id>
<revision>
<id>42134365</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:20:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Angeldeb82</username>
<id>1021097</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Names and lengths of the months */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hebrew calendar''' ({{lang-he|הלוח העברי}}) or '''Jewish calendar''' is the annual [[calendar]] used in [[Judaism]]. It determines the dates of the [[Jewish holidays]], the appropriate [[Torah]] portions for public reading, ''[[Yahrzeit]]s'' (the date to commemorate the death of a relative), and the specific daily [[Psalms]] which some customarily read. Two major forms of the calendar have been used: an observational form used prior to the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|destruction]] of the [[Second Temple]] in [[70]], and based on witnesses observing the phase of the [[moon]], and a rule-based form first fully described by [[Maimonides]] in [[1178]], which was adopted over a transition period between 70 and [[1178]].
The "modern" form is a rule-based [[lunisolar calendar]], akin to the [[Chinese calendar]], measuring months defined in lunar cycles as well as years measured in solar cycles, and distinct from the purely lunar [[Islamic calendar]] and the almost entirely solar [[Gregorian calendar]]. Because of the roughly 11 day difference between twelve lunar months and one [[solar year]], the calendar repeats in a Metonic [[Metonic cycle|19-year cycle of 235 lunar months]], with an extra lunar month added once every two or three years, for a total of seven times every nineteen years. As the Hebrew calendar was developed in the region east of the [[Mediterranean Sea]], references to seasons reflect the times and climate of the [[Northern Hemisphere]].
==History==
===Biblical period===
[[Image:Beit_Alpha.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Mosaic pavement of a zodiac in the 6th century synagogue at Beit Alpha, Israel.]]
[[Image:DetailOfMedievalHebrewCalendar.jpg|thumb|This figure, in a detail of a medieval Hebrew calendar, reminded Jews of the [[palm tree|palm branch]] ([[Lulav]]), the myrtle twigs, the willow branches, and the [[citron]] ([[Etrog]]) to be held in the hand and to be brought to the synagogue during the holiday of [[sukkot]], near the end of the autumn holiday season.]]
Jews have been using a lunisolar calendar since Biblical times, but originally referred to the months by number rather than name. Only four pre-exilic month names appear in the [[Tanakh]] (the [[Hebrew Bible]]): ''[[Aviv]]'' (first, literally "Spring"), ''Ziv'' (second), ''Ethanim'' (seventh), and ''Bul'' (eighth), and all are [[Canaan]]ite names, and at least two are also [[Phoenicia]]n. It is possible that all of the months were initially identifiable by native Jewish numbers or foreign Canaanite/Phoenician names, but other names do not appear in the Bible.
Furthermore, because solar years cannot be divided evenly into lunar months, an extra "embolismic" month must be added to prevent the starting date of the lunar cycles from "drifting" away from the Spring, although there is no mention of this in the Bible.
===Babylonian exile===
During the [[Babylonian exile]], immediately after [[580s BC|586 BCE]], Jews adopted [[Babylon]]ian names for the months, and some sects, such as the [[Essenes]], used a solar calendar during the last two centuries [[Common Era|BCE]]. The [[Babylonian calendar]] was the direct descendant of the [[Sumerian calendar]].
====Names and lengths of the months====
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Hebrew names of the months with their Babylonian analogs'''
! Number
! Hebrew name
! Length
! Babylonian analog
! Notes
|-
| 1 || [[Nisan]] || 30 days || ''Nisanu'' || called Abib in the Bible
|-
| 2 || [[Iyar]] || 29 days || ''Ayaru'' || called Ziv in the Bible
|-
| 3 || [[Sivan]] || 30 days || ''Simanu'' ||
|-
| 4 || [[Tammuz (month)|Tammuz]] || 29 days || ''Du`uzu'' ||
|-
| 5 || [[Av (month)|Av]] || 30 days || ''Abu'' ||
|-
| 6 || [[Elul]] || 29 days || ''Ululu'' ||
|-
| 7 || [[Tishrei]] || 30 days || ''Tashritu'' ||
|-
| 8 || [[Cheshvan]] || 29 or 30 days || ''Arakhsamna'' || also spelled Heshvan or Marcheshvan
|-
| 9 || [[Kislev]] || 30 or 29 days || ''Kislimu'' || also spelled Chislev
|-
| 10 || [[Tevet]] || 29 days || ''Tebetu'' ||
|-
| 11 || [[Shevat]] || 30 days || ''Shabatu'' ||
|-
| 12 || [[Adar]] || 30 or 29 days || ''Adaru'' || 30 days during leap years
|-
| 13 || [[Adar II]] || 29 days || || Only in leap years
|}
During leap years Adar is the extra month, and has 30 days. Adar II (or Adar Sheni &mdash; second Adar) would then be the "real" Adar, and has 29 days as usual. For example, in a leap year [[Purim]] is in Adar II, not Adar I.
===Second Temple era===
In [[Second Temple]] times, the beginning of each lunar month was decided by two eyewitnesses testifying to having seen the new crescent moon. Patriarch [[Gamaliel II]] (c. [[100]]) compared these accounts to drawings of the lunar phases. According to tradition, these observations were compared against calculations made by the main Jewish court, the [[Sanhedrin]]. Whether or not an embolismic month (a second Adar) was needed depended on the condition of roads used by families to come to Jerusalem for [[Passover]], on an adequate number of lambs which were to be sacrificed at the Temple, and on the earing of barley needed for first fruits.
Once decided, the beginning of each Hebrew month was first announced to other communities by signal fires lit on mountaintops, but after the [[Samaritan]]s and Boethusaeans began to light false fires, special messengers were used. The inability of the messengers to reach communities outside [[Israel]] within one day, led outlying communities to celebrate scriptural festivals for two days rather than for one, observing the "second feast-day of the [[Jewish diaspora]]."
From the times of the [[Amora]]im ([[third century|third]] to [[fifth century|fifth centuries]]), calculations were increasingly used, for example by [[Samuel the astronomer]], who stated during the first half of the third century that the year contained 365 ¼ days, and by "calculators of the calendar" ''circa'' [[300]]. Jose, an Amora who lived during the second half of the [[fourth century]], stated that the feast of [[Purim]], 14 Adar, could not fall on a Sabbath nor a Monday, lest 10 Tishri ([[Yom Kippur]]) fall on a Friday or a Sunday. This indicates a fixed number of days in all months from Adar to Elul, also implying that the extra month was already a second Adar added ''before'' the regular Adar.
===Roman Era===
The [[Jewish-Roman wars]] of [[66]]&ndash;[[74]], [[115]]&ndas |
de Oliveira]], President of Brazil (b. [[1902]])
*[[1977]] - [[Sebastian Cabot (actor)|Sebastian Cabot]], English-born actor (b. [[1918]])
*[[1978]] - [[Jomo Kenyatta]], first Prime Minister of Kenya
*[[1989]] - [[Huey P. Newton]], American activist (b. [[1942]])
*[[1991]] - [[Colleen Dewhurst]], Canadian actress (b. [[1924]])
*[[2003]] - [[Arnold Gerschwiler]], Swiss-born figure skating trainer (b. [[1914]])
*[[2004]] - [[Konstantin Aseev]], Russian chess player (b. [[1960]])
*[[2005]] - [[Luc Ferrari]], French composer (b. [[1929]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Calendar_of_saints|RC feasts]] - Mary queen of angels
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/22 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[August 21]] - [[August 23]] - [[July 22]] - [[September 22]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[ilo:Agosto 22]]
[[af:22 Augustus]]
[[ar:22 أغسطس]]
[[an:22 d'agosto]]
[[ast:22 d'agostu]]
[[bg:22 август]]
[[be:22 жніўня]]
[[bs:22. august]]
[[ca:22 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 22]]
[[cv:Çурла, 22]]
[[co:22 d'aostu]]
[[cs:22. srpen]]
[[cy:22 Awst]]
[[da:22. august]]
[[de:22. August]]
[[et:22. august]]
[[el:22 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:22 de agosto]]
[[eo:22-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 22]]
[[fo:22. august]]
[[fr:22 août]]
[[fy:22 augustus]]
[[ga:22 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:22 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 22일]]
[[hr:22. kolovoza]]
[[io:22 di agosto]]
[[id:22 Agustus]]
[[ia:22 de augusto]]
[[ie:22 august]]
[[is:22. ágúst]]
[[it:22 agosto]]
[[he:22 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:22 Agustus]]
[[ka:22 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:22 zélnika]]
[[ku:22'ê gelawêjê]]
[[la:22 Augusti]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 22]]
[[lb:22. August]]
[[li:22 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 22]]
[[mk:22 август]]
[[ms:22 Ogos]]
[[nap:22 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:22 augustus]]
[[ja:8月22日]]
[[no:22. august]]
[[nn:22. august]]
[[oc:22 d'agost]]
[[pl:22 sierpnia]]
[[pt:22 de Agosto]]
[[ro:22 august]]
[[ru:22 августа]]
[[sco:22 August]]
[[sq:22 Gusht]]
[[scn:22 di austu]]
[[simple:August 22]]
[[sk:22. august]]
[[sl:22. avgust]]
[[sr:22. август]]
[[fi:22. elokuuta]]
[[sv:22 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 22]]
[[tt:22. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 22]]
[[th:22 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:22 tháng 8]]
[[tr:22 Ağustos]]
[[uk:22 серпня]]
[[wa:22 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 22]]
[[zh:8月22日]]
[[pam:Agostu 22]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 27</title>
<id>1013</id>
<revision>
<id>42122286</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:40:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joy Stovall</username>
<id>69412</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.132.56.20|84.132.56.20]] ([[User talk:84.132.56.20|talk]]) to last version by 64.132.59.83</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=27}}
|}
'''[[August 27]]''' is the 239th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (240th in [[leap year]]s), with 126 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[479 BC]] - [[Greco-Persian Wars]]: [[Persian Empire|Persian]] forces led by [[Mardonius]] are routed by [[Pausanias (general)|Pausanias]], the [[Sparta]]n commander of the Greek army in the [[Battle of Plataea]]. Along the with the Greek victory on the same day in the [[Battle of Mycale]], the Persian invasion of [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] ended.
*[[55 BC]] - [[Julius Caesar]] lands in [[Great Britain|Britain]] for the first time.
*[[410]] - [[Visigoth]] sack of [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] ends after three days.
*[[1232]] - The [[Goseibai Shikimoku|Formulary of Adjudications]] is promulgated by [[Shikken|Regent]] [[Hojo Yasutoki]]. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: August 10, 1232)
*[[1776]] - [[Battle of Long Island]], in present day [[Brooklyn, New York]], [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] forces under General [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]] defeat Americans under General [[George Washington]]
*[[1813]] - [[Napoleon]] defeats the [[Austria]]ns, [[Russia]]ns and [[Prussia]]ns at the [[Battle of Dresden]]
*[[1828]] - The Russians defeat the Turks at Akhaltzikke.
*[[1859]] - [[Petroleum]] discovered in [[Titusville, Pennsylvania]]. World's first successful [[oil well]].
*[[1861]] - Union forces attack [[Cape Hatteras]], [[North Carolina]]
*[[1883]] - [[Krakatoa]], an [[Indonesia]]n volcano, erupts. It is one of the most violent volcanic events in modern times.
*[[1896]] - [[Anglo-Zanzibar War]]: the shortest [[war]] in world history (9:02 to 9:40) between the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Zanzibar]].
*[[1900]] - British defeat [[Boer]] commandos at [[Bergendal]]
*[[1928]] - [[Kellogg-Briand Pact]], outlawing war, signed by sixty nations
*[[1937]] - The automobile division of Toyoda Automatic Loom Works is spun off into the [[Toyota Motor Corporation]].
*[[1939]] - First [[jet aircraft]] flight
*[[1952]] - Reparation negotiations between [[West Germany]] and [[Israel]] end in [[Luxembourg]]; West Germany to pay 3 billion [[Deutschmark]]s.
*[[1962]] - [[Mariner 2]] launched
*[[1969]] - The first installment of the [[Otoko wa tsurai yo|''Otoko wa Tsurai yo'']] (''It's Tough Being a Man'') movies is released in [[Japan]]. Director and screenplay writer [[Yoji Yamada]] went on to make 48 installments of the series, which is recognized in the [[Guinness Book of World Records]] as the longest running movie series.
*[[1979]] - An [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] bomb kills [[Louis Mountbatten|Lord Mountbatten]] and 3 others on holiday in [[Sligo]], [[Republic of Ireland]]. Another near [[Warrenpoint]], [[Northern Ireland]] kills 18 [[British Army|British soldiers]].
*[[1985]] - The [[Nigeria]]n government is peacefully overthrown by Army Chief of Staff Maj. Gen. [[Ibrahim Babangida]].
*[[1990]] - The [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] launches [[BBC Radio Five Live]] at 9am GMT with a mixture of sports, news, and children's programming. The station broadcasts for eighteen hours per day.
*[[1991]] - The [[European Community]] recognizes the independence of the [[Baltic state]]s: [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]].
*1991 - [[Moldova]] declares independence from the [[Soviet Union|USSR]].
*[[1993]] - The [[Florida]] DOT decides to cease producing its distinctive colored [[U.S. Highway shield|U.S. Highway shields]] so that it can make use of Federal funds for those signs.
*1993 - The [[Rainbow Bridge (Tokyo)|Rainbow Bridge]], connecting [[Tokyo|Tokyo's]] [[Shibaura]] and the island of [[Odaiba]], is completed.
*[[2000]] - [[Ostankino Tower]] in [[Moscow]] catches fire, three people are killed.
*[[2003]] - [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] makes its closest approach to [[Earth]] in nearly 60,000 years, passing approximately 34,646,416 miles (55,758,006 kilometers) from Earth.
==Births==
*[[1407]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshikazu]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1425]])
*[[1471]] - [[George, Duke of Saxony]] (d. [[1539]])
*[[1637]] - [[Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore]], Governor of the Province of Maryland (d. [[1715]])
*[[1665]] - [[John Hervey, 1st Earl of Bristol]], English politician (d. [[1751]])
*[[1677]] - [[Otto Ferdinand Graf von Abensperg und Traun]], Austrian field marshal (d. [[1748]])
*[[1724]] - [[John Joachim Zubly]], Swiss-born Continental Congressman (d. [[1781]])
*[[1730]] - [[Johann Georg Hamann]], German philosopher (d. [[1788]])
*[[1770]] - [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], German philosopher (d. [[1831]])
*[[1809]] - [[Hannibal Hamlin]], [[Vice President of the United States of America]] (d. [[1891]])
*[[1858]] - [[Giuseppe Peano]], Italian mathematician (d. [[1932]])
*[[1865]] - [[James Henry Breasted]], American Egyptologist (d. [[1935]])
*1865 - [[Charles G. Dawes]], 30th [[Vice President of the United States]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1951]])
*[[1870]] - [[Amado Nervo]], Mexican poet (d. [[1919]])
*[[1871]] - [[Theodore Dreiser]], American author (d. [[1945]])
*[[1874]] - [[Carl Bosch]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1940]])
*[[1875]] - [[Katharine McCormick]], American women's rights activist (d. [[1967]])
*[[1886]] - [[Rebecca Clarke]], English composer and violist (d. [[1979]])
*1886 - [[Eric Coates]], English composer (d. [[1957]])
*[[1890]] - [[Man Ray]], photographer and artist (d. [[1976]])
*[[1899]] - [[C.S. Forester]], British author (d. [[1966]])
*1899 - [[Byron Foulger]], American character actor (d. [[1970]])
*[[1904]] - [[Norah Lofts]], British author (d. [[1983]])
*[[1906]] - [[Ed Gein]], American serial killer (d. [[1984]])
*[[1908]] - [[Sir Donald Bradman|Don Bradman]], Australian cricketer (d. [[2001]])
*1908 - [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], 36th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1973]])
*1908 - [[Kurt Wegner]], German artist (d. [[1985]])
*[[1909]] - [[Lester Young]], American musician (d. [[1959]])
*[[1910]] - [[Mother Teresa]], Albanian missionary and humanitarian, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1997]])
*[[1911]] - [[Kay Walsh]], British actress (d. [[2005]])
*[[1915]] - [[Norman F. Ramsey]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1916]] - [[Martha Raye]], American actress (d. [[1994]])
*[[1921]] - [[Leo Penn]], American film director-actor (d. [[1998]])
*[[1926]] - [[Kristen Nygaard]], Norwegian mathematician, computer scientist, and politician (d. [[2002]])
*[[1928]] - [[Mangosuthu Buthelezi]], South African politician
*[[1929]] - [[Ira Levin]], American author
*[[1932]] - [[Antonia Fraser]], British author
*[[1935]] - [[Frank Yablans]], American film producer
*[[1937]] - [[Tommy Sands]], American actor and singer
*[[1940]] - [[Sonny Sharrock]], American jazz guitarist (d. [[1994]])
*[[1942]] - [[B. J. Thomas]], American singer
*[[1943]] - [[Tuesday Weld]], American actress
*[[1945]] - [[G.W. Bailey]], American actor
*[[1947]] - [[Barbara Bach]], American actress
*1947 - [[Harry Reems]], American actor
*[[1950]] - [[Charles Fleischer]], American actor
*[[1951]] - [[Buddy Bell]], baseball player-manager
*[[1952]] |
<minor />
<comment>merged from [[SPAAG]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:SIDAM.JPG|thumb|The [[Italian Army]]'s [[SIDAM]] anti-aircraft vehicle, based on a U.S. M113 carrier]]
A '''self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon''' (SPAA, also ''self-propelled air defense'', SPAD) is an [[anti-aircraft]] gun or missile mounted on a vehicle [[chassis]].
Specific weapon systems include [[machine gun]]s, [[autocannon]], larger guns, or [[missile]]s, and some mount both guns and longer-ranged missiles. The vehicle mount may be based on a [[truck]]. Weapons meant for deployment in the forward battle area may be mounted on [[armoured fighting vehicles]], such as an [[armoured personnel carrier|APC]] or [[tank]], for protection from aircraft, artillery, and small arms fire.
Anti-aircraft guns are usually mounted in a quickly-traversing [[turret]] with a high range of elevation, for tracking fast-moving aircraft. They are often in dual or quadruple mounts, allowing a high rate of fire. The concept was pioneered mainly by [[Germany]] during [[World War II]], with their [[flakpanzer]] series. Today, [[missile]]s have largely replaced medium and heavy antiaircraft guns.
The [[Russian language|Russian]] equivalent of ''SPAAG'' is ''ZSU'', for ''zenitnaya samokhodnaya ustanovka'', ("anti-aircraft self-propelled mount").
German WWII self-propelled anti-aircraft guns include [[Möbelwagen]], [[Wirbelwind]], [[Ostwind]], [[Kugelblitz]], ''Coelian''. Modern weapons include the [[Russia|Russian]] [[ZSU-23-4 Shilka]], [[China|Chinese]] [[Type 88 SPAAG]], [[United States|American]] [[M163 VADS]], German [[Flugabwehrkanonenpanzer Gepard|Gepard]] and similar versions with the British Marksman turret (which was also adapted for a number of other users), [[Italy|Italian]] [[SIDAM-25]] and [[Otomatic]] and versions of the [[France|French]] [[AMX-13]]. Older post-war examples include the [[ZSU-57-2]], the failed [[M247 Sergeant York]], [[M16 Quad Fifty]] and [[M42 40 mm Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun|M42 Duster]].
Other examples include:
* [[ZSU-23-4 Shilka]], Soviet Union
* [[Gepard]], Germany
* [[PZA Loara]], Poland
{{mil-vehicle-stub}}
[[Category: Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapons |*]]
[[Category:Armored fighting vehicles by type]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AZ Alkmaar</title>
<id>2289</id>
<revision>
<id>40437181</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T15:17:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dale Arnett</username>
<id>25667</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
clubname = AZ|
image = [[Image:Az alkmaar.png|105px|Logo]]|
fullname = Alkmaar Zaanstreek |
nickname = |
founded = [[May 10]], [[1967]] |
ground = [[Alkmaarder Hout]], [[Alkmaar]] |
capacity = 8,914 |
chairman = [[Dirk Scheringa]] |
manager = [[Louis van Gaal]] |
league = [[Eredivisie]] |
season = 2004-05 |
position = [[Eredivisie]], 3rd |
shirtsupplier= |
shirtsponsors= |
pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=|
leftarm1=FF0000|body1=FF0000|rightarm1=FF0000|shorts1=FFFFFF|socks1=FF0000|
pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=_redwhitevertical|pattern_ra2=|
leftarm2=0000ff|body2=0000ff|rightarm2=0000ff|shorts2=0000ff|socks2=0000ff|
}}
'''AZ Alkmaar''' is a [[Football (soccer)|football]] club from [[Alkmaar]], [[the Netherlands]]. It was founded on [[May 10]], [[1967]] as '''AZ '67''', the result of a merger of ''Alkmaar '54'' and ''FC Zaanstreek''. In the Netherlands the club is known as just ''AZ'', but in Europe ''Alkmaar'' is often added. However, very few people outside the Netherlands know the meaning of AZ and it might be better to call the club ''Alkmaar Zaanstreek'' and not ''AZ Alkmaar''.
Owing to the commitment of businessmen Cees and Klaas Molenaar, AZ '67 was successful in the late seventies and early eighties. In 1981 they became Dutch champions and UEFA Cup finalists. After the Molenaar brothers left the club, things went downhill. In 1988 AZ were relegated from the "Eredivisie" (Dutch premier league).
The involvement of businessman [[Dick Scheringa]] in the late nineties marked the revival of the club. AZ returned to the Eredivisie in 1998. In 2004-05 they reappeared in the UEFA Cup tournament, advancing to the semifinals. They also finished third in the Eredivisie that season, again qualifying for the UEFA Cup, after spending most of the season in the top two spots. That is a remarkable achievement, since AZ is not a very big club and it does not have a very large fanbase, even by Dutch standards. AZ's home ground is the [[Alkmaarder Hout]] which has a spectator capacity of 8390. AZ is the only club in the Dutch top flight that does not yet play in a new or renovated stadium. The Alkmaarderhout is an old but very romantic stadium and a reminder of times long gone. It is however not appropiate for a club that has managed to become a force to be reckoned with in recent years, both in the Netherlands and in Europe. The average attendance in 2004/05 was 8,300, but in the summer of 2006 the club will finally move to a new 13,500 (or 16,000) capacity stadium which, due to a much larger demand than expected, will probably be expanded to 30,000 in 2008 by adding a second tier.
The club manager is [[Louis van Gaal]], who succeeded [[Co Adriaanse]] after the 2004-05 season. One of the starting eleven of the team were locally born in [[Alkmaar]]. This season the team is performing very well, and some people even think they might reach the [[Champions League]] next season.
==2005/2006 squad==
{{Fs start}}
{{Fs player|no=1|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Henk Timmer (football)|Henk Timmer]]|pos=GK}}
{{Fs player|no=2|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Kew Jaliens]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=3|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Joris Mathijsen]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=4|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Barry Opdam]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=5|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Tim de Cler]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=6|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Denny Landzaat]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=7|nat=Georgia|name=[[Shota Arveladze]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=8|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Michael Buskermolen]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=9|nat=Belgium|name=[[Stein Huysegems]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=10|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Barry van Galen]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=11|nat=Denmark|name=[[Kenneth Perez]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=12|nat=Finland|name=[[Juha Reini]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs mid}}
{{Fs player|no=14|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Demy de Zeeuw]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=15|nat=Morocco|name=[[Tarik Sektioui]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=16|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Theo Zwarthoed]]|pos=GK}}
{{Fs player|no=17|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Martijn Meerdink]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=18|nat=Iceland|name=[[Grétar Steinsson]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=19|nat=Morocco|name=[[Adil Ramzi]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=20|nat=Nigeria|name=[[Pius Ikedia]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=21|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Danny Koevermans]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=22|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Danny Mathijssen]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=23|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Stijn Schaars]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=24|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Haris Medunjanin]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs end}}
==Achievements==
*Dutch championship: 1981.
*[[KNVB Cup|Dutch cup]]: [[1978]], [[1980]] and 1982.
*Champion Dutch first division: 1996 and 1998.
*[[UEFA Cup]] runner-up: 1981.
*[[UEFA Cup]] semi-finals: 2004.
==Notable players==
*[[Bert van Marwijk]] (1975-1979)
*[[Jan Kromkamp]] (2000-2005)
*[[Ron Vlaar]] (2002-2006jan)
==See also==
*[[Dutch Football League teams]]
==External links==
*{{nl icon}} {{en icon}} [http://www.az-alkmaar.nl/ Website of AZ]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.epitch.co.uk/eredivisie/az-alkmaar/ AZ Alkmaar News]
{{Eredivisie}}
{{UEFA Cup 2005/06}}
[[Category:Dutch football clubs]]
[[de:AZ Alkmaar]]
[[fi:AZ Alkmaar]]
[[he:איי זי אלקמאר]]
[[fr:AZ Alkmaar]]
[[ja:AZアルクマール]]
[[nl:AZ Alkmaar]]
[[pl:AZ Alkmaar]]
[[pt:AZ 67 de Alkmaar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Autochthones</title>
<id>2290</id>
<revision>
<id>15900720</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-03T03:33:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>212.181.86.76</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Indigenous peoples]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antoni Gaudí</title>
<id>2293</id>
<revision>
<id>41968533</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:11:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.34.164.38</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Birth and childhood */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Catalan-speaking world|align=right|image=[[Image:Antonigaudí.jpg|Antoni Gaudí]]|caption=Antoni Gaudí}}
'''Antoni Gaudí i Cornet''' ([[25 June]] [[1852]] – [[10 June]] [[1926]]) was a [[Catalonia|Catalan]] [[architecture|architect]] famous for his unique style and highly individualistic designs.
==Gaudí's Life==
===Birth and childhood=== <font color=FF3399> &hearts; elh </font color=FF3399>
Gaudí was born in [[Tarragona]], [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]], in [[1852]] though no one knows exactly where. While many believe his birthplace to be the town of [[Reus]], others claim it was in fact [[Riudoms]].{{ref|birth}} It is known, however, that he was [[baptism|baptized]] in Reus a day after his birth. The artist's parents, Francesc Gaudí Serra and Antonia Cornet Bertran, both came from families of metalsmiths.
Gaudí, the youngest of five, found himself unable to play with friends his age because of [[rheumatism]]. Being in such pain, he was rarely able to walk on foot and was forced to ride a donkey when he wanted to go anywhere outside his home. That he remained close to home allowed him substantial free time to observe [[nature]] and its design.{{ref|rheumatism}} It has been hypothesized that it was this exposure to nature at an early age that began to hone two of his greatest qualities: observation and the analysis of nature.{{ref|observe-nature |
task as the Celtic calendar is incredibly accurate, but required manual correction about every 40 years, meaning lengthy mathematic discourse.
Druids also carried out sacrifices of crops, animals, and during specific festivals, humans. In a Celtic society, people were not executed for crimes, except during these festivals. Such executions varied, depending on what god the execution was dedicated to. Among the most famous is the human sacrifices practiced in the course of Essus worship. Essus was, more or less, a benevolent law god to many Celts, particularly Gauls. However, Essus worship also intoned a sense of merciless behavior toward repeated criminals, rapists, traitors, and other societal dregs. The offender, if found guilty, would be taken to the temple of Essus, where an oak would be growing through an opening in the temple roof. His stomach would be cut open, and he would be hung from an oak branch.
The Celts' gods were often named after natural things. For example the source of rivers would often have their own goddesses, though rarely many gods. Another theme with Celt gods were triple deities; not only goddesses, but numerous gods. For example the Mothers of Britain, or Cromm Cruach's slovenly, deific, and humanistic forms. The main deities of Celtic religion, contrary to much misconception, were usually male. The world in some remaining myths is often depicted as having been forged by a god with a hammer, such as Dagda or Sucellos, who then poured all life from a magic cauldron or cup; a source of pre-Christian 'Holy Grail' myths in Celtic societies.
While deities varied, several constant deities or demigods existed over a wide area. A great example is Lugos, a heroic sun god from Gaul and the southern, Gallic parts of Britain. He is also known as Lugh (in Ireland), Lleu (in Wales), and Lug (among Celtiberians, who were not culturally true Celts). Early depictions of him exist as early as the Hallstatt era, suggesting him as one of the longest existing gods of Celtic religion. Similar is the horse and fertility goddess, Epona, who was also worshipped by the Romans when they came to rule Gaul. She also seems to have existed from the early era. Finally, there is Sucellos, who is argued by some to have been the 'creator of the universe' in some Celtic religions. He is party to Dagda of Ireland, and was worshipped over an enormous area, including by non-Celtic peoples such as the Lusitani. He was the patron god of the Ordovices tribe of Britain, and was built up by the Arverni and their allies to replace the druidic god Cernunnos, as the Gallic druids were allies of their enemies in the rule for Gaul; the Aedui.
Other religious practices also existed; Celts seem to have universally removed body hair. Some postulate this as religious, but was more realistically part of the Celtic propensity for cleanliness. Body hair kept dirt close to the body, and Celts were an extremely cleanly people, so this was unacceptable. However, Celts also took heads from dead enemies. This was definitely a religious practice in origin. However, even post-Christian Gaels continued this practice into the middle ages; some Irish even took to scalping the heads that they took, so they could braid the scalp through rings on their weapons. The religious connotations by that point were slim, but it does imply that taking heads had incredible cultural importance to have persisted so long after the religious background had been removed. To our understanding, Celts believed the soul resided in the head, and that capturing a head meant that one captured the soul of an opponent, and that when a Celt died, the dead whom he had collected would serve him as slaves for eternity.
== Celts as head-hunters ==
"Amongst the Celts the human head was venerated above all else, since the head was to the Celt the soul, centre of the emotions as well as of life itself, a symbol of divinity and of the powers of the other-world." - Paul Jacobsthal, ''Early Celtic Art''.
The Celtic cult of the severed head is documented not only in the many sculptured representations of severed heads in [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] carvings, but in the surviving Celtic mythology, which is full of stories of the severed heads of heroes and the saints who carry their decapitated heads, right down to ''[[Sir Gawain and the Green Knight]]'' who picks up his own severed head after Gawain has struck it off, just as [[St. Denis]] carried his head to the top of [[Montmartre]]. Separated from the mundane body, although still alive, the animated head acquires the ability to see into the mythic realm.
[[Diodorus Siculus]], in his 1st century ''History'' had this to say about Celtic head-hunting:
"They cut off the heads of enemies slain in battle and attach them to the necks of their horses. The blood-stained spoils they hand over to their attendants and carry off as booty, while striking up a paean and singing a song of victory; and they nail up these first fruits upon their houses, just as do those who lay low wild animals in certain kinds of hunting. They embalm in cedar oil the heads of the most distinguished enemies, and preserve them carefully in a chest, and display them with pride to strangers, saying that for this head one of their ancestors, or his father, or the man himself, refused the offer of a large sum of money. They say that some of them boast that they refused the weight of the head in gold; thus displaying what is only a barbarous kind of magnanimity, for it is not a sign of nobility to refrain from selling the proofs of one's valour. It is rather true that it is bestial to continue one's hostility against a slain fellow man."
The Celts also believed that if they attached the head of their enemy to a pole or a fence near their house, the head would start crying when the enemy was near.
The Celtic headhunters venerated the image of the severed head as a continuing source of spiritual power. If the head is the seat of the soul, possessing the severed head of an enemy, honorably reaped in battle, added prestige to any warrior's reputation. According to tradition the buried head of a god or hero named [[Bran the Blessed]] protected [[Britain]] from invasion across the [[English Channel]].
== Names for Celts ==
The origin of the various names used since classical times for the people known today as the Celts is obscure and has been controversial. It appears that none of the terms recorded were ever used by Celtic speakers of themselves. In particular, there is no record of the term "Celt" being used in connection with the inhabitants of Ireland and Britain prior to the 19th century.
===The name "Gauls"===
English Gaul(s), French Gaulois(es), Spanish Galo(s), Latin Gallus or Galli, German Gallier might be from an originally Celtic ethnic or tribal name (perhaps borrowed into Latin during the early [[400s BC]], Celtic expansions into Italy). Its root may be the Common Celtic ''*galno'', meaning "power" or "strength". Greek ''Galatai'' (see [[Galatia]] in Anatolia) seems to be based on the same root, borrowed directly from the same hypothetical Celtic source which gave us ''Galli'' (the suffix -atai is simply an ethnic name indicator).
===The word "Welsh"===
The word Welsh is a Germanic word, yet it may ultimately have a Celtic source. It may be the result of an early borrowing (in the [[4th century BC]]) of the Celtic tribal name [[Volcae]] into early Germanic (becoming the [[Proto-Germanic]] [[Walh|*Walh-]], "Foreigner" and the suffixed form *Walhisk-).
The Volcae were one of the Celtic peoples that barred, for two centuries, the southward expansion of the German tribes in central Germany on the line of the [[Hartz mountains]] and into [[Saxony]] and [[Silesia]].
In the middle ages certain districts of what is now Germany were known as "Welschland" as opposed to "Deutschland", and the word is cognate with [[Vlach]] (see: [[Etymology of Vlach]]) and [[Walloons|Walloon]] as well as the 'wall' in Cornwall. During the early Germanic period, the term seems to have been applied to the peasant population of the Roman Empire, most of whom were, in the areas immediately settled by the Germans, of ultimately Celtic origin.
===The name "Celts"===
English Celt(s), Latin Celtus pl. Celti (Celtae), Greek Κέλτης pl. Κέλτες seem to be based on a native Celtic ethnic name (singular *Celtos or *Celta with plurals *Celtoi or *Celta:s), of unsure etymology. The root would seem to be a Primitive Indo-European *kel- or (s)kel-, but there are several such roots of various meanings to choose from (*kel- "to be prominent", *kel- "to drive or set in motion", *kel- "to strike or cut" etc.)
==See also==
*[[Saka]]
*[[Ancient Britain]]
*[[Celtic mythology]]
*[[Celtic language]]
*[[Celtic law]]
*[[Celtic art]]
*[[Celtic music]]
*[[Celtic knot]]
*Celtic [[High Cross]]es
*[[Celtic Christianity]]
*[[List of Celts]]
*[[List of Celtic tribes]]
*[[Celtic nations]]
*[[Modern Celts]]
*[[Pronunciation of Celtic]]
*[[Pan-Celticism]]
*[[Celtic League (political organisation)]]
*[[Celtic Congress]]
*[[Anglo-Celtic]]
==References==
<references/>
==Bibliography==
* Collis, John. ''The Celts - Origins, Myths & Inventions.'' Stroud: Tempus Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0752429132.
* Cunliffe, Barry. ''The Ancient Celts.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0198150105.
* Cunliffe, Barry. ''Iron age Britain.'' London: Batsford, 2004. ISBN 0713488395
* Freeman, Philip Mitchell ''The earliest classical sources on the Celts: A linguistic and historical study.'' Diss. Harvard University, 1994. [http://proquest.umi.com.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu/pqdweb?did=740970711&sid=1&Fmt=2&clientId=3959&RQT=309&VName=PQD (link)]
* James, Simon. ''The Atlantic Celts - Ancient People Or Modern Invention?'' Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, Au |
mment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cyprinids
| image = Harlequin rasbora.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = A harlequin rasbora
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Actinopterygii]]
| ordo = [[Cypriniformes]]
| familia = '''Cyprinidae'''
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision =
(many, see text)
}}
The [[Family (biology)|family]] '''Cyprinidae''', named after the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for [[goldfish]], consists of the [[carp]]s and [[minnow]]s. It is the largest family of fresh-water fish, with over 2000 species of '''cyprinids''' in over 200 [[genus|genera]]. The family belongs to the order [[Cypriniformes]]. The fish in this family originate from [[North America]], [[Africa]], and [[Eurasia]]. The largest fish in this family is the [[Catlocarpio siamensis|Giant Barb]] (''Catlocarpio siamensis''), which may grow up to 3&nbsp;[[metre|m]] (10&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) while many species are smaller than 5&nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]] (2&nbsp;[[inch|in]]). All fish in this family are egg-layers and the breeding habits of most is one of non-guarding of the eggs, however, there are a few species that build nests and/or guard the eggs.
A great many familiar fish belong here:
* [[Barbus|Barbs]] (''Barbus'' spp., etc.)
* [[Carp]]s (''Cyprinus'' spp., etc.)
** ''[[Carassius carassius]]'' (crucian carp)
** ''[[Carassius auratus]]'' (goldfish)
** ''[[Cyprinus carpio]]'' (common carp, koi)
* [[Chub]]s (''Gila'' spp., etc.)
* [[Danionin]]s (''[[Danio]]'' ''[[Devario]]'' spp. etc.)
* [[Rasbora]]s (''Boraras'', ''Rasbora'', ''Trigonostigma'' spp.)
* [[Roach]] (''Rutilus'' spp.)
* [[Dace]] (various ''Leuciscus'', ''Rhinichthys'', etc)
==Genera==
*'''Acheilognathinae''' (bitterling-like cyprinids)
*''[[Acanthorhodeus]]''
*''[[Acheilognathus]]''
*''[[Paracheilognathus]]''
*''[[Rhodeus]]''
*''[[Tanakia]]''
*'''Alburninae'''
*''[[Acanthalburnus]]''
*''[[Alburnoides]]''
*''[[Alburnus]]''
*''[[Chalcalburnus]]''
*''[[Hemiculter]]''
*''[[Pseudolaubuca]]''
*'''Cultrinae'''
*''[[Culter]]''
*''[[Cyprinella]]''
*''[[Ischikauia]]''
*''[[Megalobrama]]''
*''[[Parabramis]]''
*''[[Sinibrama]]''
*'''Cyprininae'''
*''[[Acrossocheilus]]''
*''[[Aulopyge]]''
*''[[Barbodes]]''
*''[[Barbus]]''
*''[[Capoeta]]''
*''[[Carassius]]''
*''[[Catla]]''
*''[[Cirrhinus]]''
*''[[Ctenopharyngodon]]''
*''[[Cyclocheilichthys]]''
*''[[Cyprinion]]''
*''[[Cyprinus]]'' (common carp)
*''[[Epalzeorhynchos]]''
*''[[Garra]]''
*''[[Gymnocypris]]''
*''[[Kosswigobarbus]]''
*''[[Labeo (carp)|Labeo]]''
*''[[Morulius]]''
*''[[Mylopharyngodon]]''
*''[[Osteobrama]]''
*''[[Pseudobarbus]]''
*''[[Puntius]]''
*''[[Salmostoma]]''
*''[[Sawbwa]]''
*''[[Schizothorax]]''
*''[[Squaliobarbus]]''
*''[[Tor (genus)|Tor]]'' (mahseers)
*''[[Varicorhinus]]''
*'''Danioninae'''
*''[[Chela (fish)|Chela]]''
*''[[Danio]]'' (''[[Brachydanio]]'' is no longer valid)
*''[[Danionella]]''
*''[[Devario]]''
*''[[Esomus]]''
*''[[Inlecypris]]''
*''[[Microrasbora]]''
*''[[Parachela]]''
*''[[Sundadanio]]''
*'''[[Dionda]]'''
*'''Gobioninae'''
*''[[Abbottina]]''
*''[[Biwia]]''
*''[[Coreius]]''
*''[[Gobio]]'' (gudgeons)
*''[[Gobiobotia]]''
*''[[Hemibarbus]]''
*''[[Pseudogobio]]''
*''[[Pungtungia]]''
*''[[Rhinogobio]]''
*''[[Sarcocheilichthys]]''
*''[[Saurogobio]]''
*''[[Squalidus]]''
*''[[Xenophysogobio]]''
*'''Leuciscinae'''
*''[[Aaptosyax]]''
*''[[Abramis]]''
*''[[Acrocheilus]]''
*''[[Anaecypris]]''
*''[[Aspius]]''
*''[[Blicca]]''
*''[[Campostoma]]''
*''[[Chondrostoma]]''
*''[[Couesius]]''
*''[[Cyprinella]]''
*''[[Distoechodon]]''
*''[[Eremichthys]]''
*''[[Ericymba]]''
*''[[Erimystax]]''
*''[[Exoglossum]]''
*''[[chub|Gila]]''
*''[[Hesperoleucus]]''
*''[[Hybognathus]]''
*''[[Hybopsis]]''
*''[[Hypophthalmichthys]]''
*''[[Ladigesocypris]]''
*''[[Lavinia]]''
*''[[Lepidomeda]]''
*''[[Leucaspius]]''
*''[[Leuciscus]]''
*''[[Luxilus]]''
*''[[Lythrurus]]''
*''[[Macrhybopsis]]''
*''[[Margariscus]]''
*''[[Mylocheilus]]''
*''[[Nocomis]]''
*''[[Notemigonus]]''
*''[[Notropis]]''
*''[[Ochetobius]]''
*''[[Opsopoeodus]]''
*''[[Orthodon]]''
*''[[Phenacobius]]''
*''[[Phoxinellus]]''
*''[[Phoxinus]]''
*''[[Pimephales]]''
*''[[Platygobio]]''
*''[[Pogonichthys]]''
*''[[Pseudophoxinus]]''
*''[[Pteronotropis]]''
*''[[Ptychocheilus]]''
*''[[Relictus]]''
*''[[Rhinichthys]]''
*''[[Rhynchocypris]]''
*''[[Richardsonius]]''
*''[[Rutilus]]''
*''[[Scardinius]]''
*''[[Semotilus]]''
*''[[Siphateles]]''
*''[[Snyderichthys]]'' (leatherside chub)
*''[[Tribolodon]]''
*''[[Tropidophoxinellus]]''
*''[[Vimba]]''
*''[[Xenocypris]]''
*'''Rasborinae'''
*''[[Amblypharyngodon]]''
*''[[Aphyocypris]]''
*''[[Barilius]]''
*''[[Boraras]]''
*''[[Opsariichthys]]''
*''[[Oxygaster]]''
*''[[Pseudorasbora]]''
*''[[Raiamas]]''
*''[[Rasbora]]''
*''[[Tanichthys]]''
*''[[Trigonostigma]]''
*''[[Zacco]]''
*'''Unclassified'''
*''[[Acanthobrama]]''
*''[[Aristichthys]]''
*''[[Clinostomus]]''
*''[[Discogobio]]''
*''[[Gobiocypris]]''
*''[[Hemigrammocypris]]''
*''[[Hemitremia]]''
*''[[Iberocypris]]''
*''[[Meda]]''
*''[[Moapa]]''
*''[[Mylopharodon]]''
*''[[Mystacoleucus]]''
*''[[Oregonichthys]]''
*''[[Pachychilon]]''
*''[[Plagopterus]]''
*''[[Pseudobrama]]''
*''[[Rohtee]]''
*''[[Semilabeo]]''
*''[[Sinocyclocheilus]]''
*''[[Spinibarbichthys]]''
*''[[Spinibarbus]]''
*''[[Telestes]]''
*''[[Tiaroga]]''
*''[[Xenocyprioides]]''
*''[[Yaoshanicus]]''
==References==
*{{ITIS|taxon=Cyprinidae|year=2004|date=28 April|ID=163342}}
*{{FishBase_family|family=Cyprinidae|year=2004|month=September}}
[[Category:Cyprinidae| ]]
[[Category:Cypriniformes]]
==External links==
*[http://mblaquaculture.com/content/organisms/cyprinella_leedsi.php ''Cyprinella leedsi'' Photo and Information at MBL Aquaculture]
*[http://mblaquaculture.com/content/organisms/pimephales_promelas.php ''Pimephales promelas'', Fathead Minnow, Photo and Information at MBL Aquaculture]
[[de:Karpfenfische]]
[[es:Cyprinidae]]
[[fr:Cyprinidae]]
[[it:Cyprinidae]]
[[lt:Karpinės]]
[[nl:Eigenlijke karpers]]
[[pl:Karpiowate]]
[[sl:Krapovci]]
[[sv:Karpfiskar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Complementary DNA</title>
<id>7330</id>
<revision>
<id>41631604</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:35:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[genetics]], '''complementary DNA''' ('''cDNA''') is [[DNA]] synthesized from a mature [[mRNA]] template. cDNA is often used to clone [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[gene]]s in [[prokaryote]]s.
== Overview ==
The [[central dogma of molecular biology]] outlines that in synthesizing [[protein]]s, [[DNA]] is [[transcription (genetics)|transcribed]] into [[mRNA]], which is [[translation (genetics)|translated]] into protein. One difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic mRNA is that eukaryotic mRNA can contain [[intron]]s (intervening sequences), which are not coding sequences, ''per se'', and must be [[splicing|spliced]] out of the mRNA before it is translated into protein. Prokaryotic mRNA has no introns, so it is not subject to [[splicing (genetics)|splicing]].
Often it is desirable to express eukaryotic genes in prokaryotic cells. A simplified method of doing so would include the addition of eukaryotic DNA to a prokaryotic host, which would transcribe the DNA to mRNA and then translate it to protein. However, as eukaryotic DNA has introns, and since prokaryotes lack the machinery to splice them, the splicing of eukaryotic DNA must be done prior to adding the eukaryotic DNA into the host (as well, before placing the eukaryotic DNA into the prokaryote, it must be methylated and a prokaryotic promoter region must be added). This spliced DNA is called complementary DNA.
== Synthesis ==
Though there are several methods for doing so, cDNA is most often synthesized from mature (fully spliced) mRNA using the enzyme [[reverse transcriptase]]. This enzyme operates on a single strand of mRNA, generating its complementary DNA based on the pairing of RNA [[base pair]]s (A, U, G, C) to their DNA complements (T, A, C, G).
To obtain eukaryotic cDNA whose introns have been spliced:
# A eukaryotic cell transcribes the DNA (from a gene) into RNA (pre-mRNA).
# The same cell processes the pre-mRNA strand by splicing out introns, and adding a [[Polyadenylation|poly-A tail]] and GTP cap.
# This mature mRNA strand is extracted from the cell.
# A poly-[[thymine|T]] [[oligonucleotide]] is hybridized onto the poly-[[adenosine|A]] tail of the mature mRNA template. (Reverse transcriptase requires this double-stranded segment as a primer to start its operation.)
# Reverse transcriptase is added, along with deoxynucleotide triphosphates (A, T, G, C).
The reverse transcriptase scans the mature mRNA and synthesizes a sequence of DNA that complements the mRNA template. This strand of DNA is complementary DNA.
Note that the [[central dogma of molecular biology]] is broken in this process.
== Applications ==
Complementary DNA is often used in [[clone (genetics)|gene cloning]] or as [[gene probe]]s or in the creation of a [[cDNA library]].
== External links ==
* [http://www.h-invitational.jp/ H-Invitational Database]
* [http://fantom.gsc.riken.jp/ Functional Annotation of the Mouse database]
[[Category:DNA]]
[[de:CDNA]]
[[es:ADN complementario]]
[[he:CDNA]]
[[nl:CDNA]]
[[ja:CDNA]]
[[pl:CDNA]]
[[sv:CDNA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cellular digital packet data</title>
<id>7331</id>
<revision>
<id>35747164</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T00:07:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MSTCrow</username>
<id>53133</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Removed d ead link.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Mobile phone standards}}
'''Cellular Digital Packet Data''' ('''CDPD''') uses unused [[bandwidth]] normally used by |
For the same reason, most of its fur disappeared, reducing the resistance of the giant body to the water. The cetacean's original tail was replaced by a pair of flukes that acted like a propeller.
As part of this streamlining process, the bones in the cetacean's front limbs fused together. In time, what had been the forelegs became a solid mass of bone, blubber and tissue, making very effective flippers that balance the cetacean's tremendous bulk.
After the cetacean's hair disappeared, it needed some way of preserving body heat. This came in the form of blubber, a thick layer of fat between the skin and the flesh that also acts as an emergency source of energy. In some cetaceans the layer of blubber can be more than a foot thick.
The ear bone called the hammer (malleus) is fused to the walls of the bone cavity where the ear bones are, making hearing in air as good as impossible. Instead sound are transmitted through their jaws and skull bones.
==Breathing, seeing, hearing and echolocation==
Since the cetacean is a mammal, it needs air to breathe. Because of this, it needs to come to the water's surface to exhale its carbon dioxide and inhale a fresh supply of oxygen. Naturally it cannot breathe under water, so as it dives a muscular action closes the [[blowhole (biology)|blowholes]] (nostrils), which remain closed until the cetacean next breaks the surface. When it does, the muscles open the blowholes and warm air is exhaled.
To make this easier, the cetacean's blowholes have moved to the top of its head, giving it a quicker chance to expel the stale air and inhale fresh air. When the stale air, warmed from the lungs, is exhaled it condenses and vapourises as it meets the cold air outside. This is rather like when you breathe out on a cold day and a small cloud of warm air appears. This is called the 'blow', or 'spout', and each cetacean's blow is different in terms of shape, angle and height. This is how cetaceans can be identified at a distance by experienced whalers or whale-watchers.
The cetacean's eyes are set well back and to either side of its huge head. This means that cetaceans with pointed 'beaks' (such as dolphins) have good binocular vision forward and downward, but others with blunt heads (such as the Sperm Whale) can see either side but not directly ahead or directly behind. The eyes shed greasy tears which protect them from the salt in the water. Cetaceans also have an almost spherical lens in their eyes, which is most efficient at focusing what little light there is. However, their vision is generally quite poor (with the exception of the dolphin), which cetaceans make up with their excellent hearing abilities
Akin to the eyes, the cetacean's ears are also small. Life in the sea accounts for the cetacean's loss of its external ears, whose function is to collect sound waves and focus them in order for them to become strong enough to hear well. However, sound waves travel faster through the water than in the air, and so the external ear was no longer needed, and is no more than a tiny hole in the skin, just behind the eye. The inner ear, however, has become so well developed that the cetacean can not only hear sounds tens of miles away, but it can also discern from which direction the sound comes.
Some cetaceans are capable of [[echolocation]]. Mysticeti have little need of it, as they prey upon small fish that would be impractical to locate with echolocation. Some members of Odontoceti, such as dolphins and porpoises, perform echolocation. Many toothed whales emit clicks similar to those in echolocation, but we have yet to prove that they echolocate. Cetaceans use sound in the same way as bats - they emit a sound (called a click), which then bounces off an object and returns to them. From this, cetaceans can discern the size, shape, surface characteristics and movement of the object, as well as how far away it is. With this ability cetaceans can search for, chase and catch fast-swimming prey in total darkness. It is so advanced that most cetaceans can discern between prey and non-prey (such as humans or boats), and captive cetaceans can be trained to distinguish between, for example, balls of different sizes or shapes.
Cetaceans also use sound to communicate, whether it be groans, moans, whistles, clicks or the complex 'singing' of the Humpback Whale that is becoming so popular on wildlife documentaries and relaxation tapes.
==Feeding==
When it comes to food and feeding, cetaceans can be separated into two distinct groups. The 'toothed whales' or Odontoceti usually have lots of teeth that they use for catching fish, squid or other marine life. They do not chew their food, but swallow it whole. In the rare cases that they catch large prey, such as Killer Whales (''Orcinus orca'') catching a fur seal, they tear 'chunks' of it that in turn are swallowed whole. Some examples of the cetaceans in this group include sperm whales, beluga whales, dolphins and porpoises.
The 'baleen whales' or Mysticeti do not have teeth. Instead they have plates made of keratin (the same substance as our fingernails) which hang down from the upper jaw. These plates act like a giant filter, straining small animals (such as [[krill]] and fish) from the seawater. Cetaceans included in this group include the Blue Whale, the Humpback Whale, the Bowhead Whale and the Minke Whale.
It is a fallacy to believe that all Mysticeti feed on plankton, because for some species their prey animals are not plankton. The larger whales tend to eat small shoaling fish, such as herrings and sardine. These fish are called micronecton, and not plankton. One species of Mysticeti, the Gray Whale (''Escrichtius robustus''), is a [[Benthos|benthic]] feeder, primarily eating sea floor [[crustaceans]].
==Misconceptions==
A common misconception about cetaceans is that they are [[fish]]. They're not&mdash;they are [[mammals]].
As mammals, cetaceans have these characteristics that are common to all mammals:
* They are [[warm-blooded]] animals.
* They breathe in air through their [[lungs]].
* They bear their young alive and suckle them on their own [[milk]].
* They have [[hair]] - though generally only a few 'whiskers'.
Another way of discerning a cetacean from a fish is by the shape of the tail. The tail of a fish is vertical and moves from side to side when the fish swims. The tail of a cetacean - called a "fluke" - is horizontal and moves up and down, as cetaceans' spines bend in the same manner as a human spine.
==Taxonomic listing==
The classification here closely follows "Marine Mammals of the World: Systematics and Distribution" by Dale W. Rice (1998). The work has become the standard taxonomy reference in the field. Differences reflect usage of common names and further discoveries since the publication of that work.
* '''ORDER CETACEA'''
** '''Suborder [[Mysticeti]]''': Baleen whales
*** Family [[Balaenidae]]: [[Right whale]]s and [[Bowhead Whale]]
**** Genus ''[[Balaena]]''
***** [[Bowhead Whale]], ''Balaena mysticetus''
**** Genus ''[[Eubalaena]]''
***** [[Atlantic Northern Right Whale]], ''Eubalaena glacialis''
***** [[Pacific Northern Right Whale]], ''Eubalaena japonica''
***** [[Southern Right Whale]], ''Eubalaena australis''
*** Family [[Balaenopteridae]]: Rorquals
**** Subfamily [[Balaenopterinae]]
***** Genus ''[[Balaenoptera]]''
****** [[Fin Whale]], ''Balaenoptera physalus''
****** [[Sei Whale]], ''Balaenoptera borealis''
****** [[Bryde's Whale]], ''Balaenoptera brydei''
****** [[Pygmy Bryde's Whale]], (Eden's Whale) ''Balaenoptera edeni''
****** [[Blue Whale]], ''Balaenoptera musculus''
****** [[Northern Minke Whale]], ''Balaenoptera acutorostrata''
****** [[Southern Minke Whale]], (Antarctic Minke Whale) ''Balaenoptera bonaerensis''
****** ''[[Balaenoptera omurai]]'', discovery announced November 2003. No common name yet in usage
**** Subfamily [[Megapterinae]]
***** Genus ''[[Megaptera]]''
******[[Humpback Whale]], ''Megaptera novaeangliae''
*** † Genus ''Eobalaenoptera''
**** † ''[[Eobalaenoptera harrisoni]]'', fossil species first discovered June 2004. No common name.
*** Family [[Eschrichtiidae]]
**** Genus ''[[Eschrichtius]]''
***** [[Gray Whale]], ''Eschrichtius robustus''
*** Family [[Neobalaenidae]]: Pygmy Right Whale
**** Genus ''[[Caperea]]''
***** [[Pygmy Right Whale]], ''Caperea marginata''
** '''Suborder [[Odontoceti]]''': toothed whales
*** '''Superfamily [[Platanistoidea]]''': River dolphins
**** Family [[Iniidae]]
***** Genus ''[[Inia]]''
****** [[Amazon River Dolphin]], ''Inia geoffrensis''
**** Family [[Lipotidae]]
***** Genus ''[[Lipotes]]''
****** [[Chinese River Dolphin]], ''Lipotes vexillifer''
**** Family [[Platanistidae]]
***** Genus ''[[Platanista]]''
****** [[Ganges and Indus River Dolphin]], ''Platanista gangetica''
**** Family [[Pontoporiidae]]
***** Genus ''[[Pontoporia]]''
****** [[La Plata Dolphin]], ''Pontoporia blainvillei''
*** Family [[Monodontidae]]
**** Genus ''[[Monodon]]''
***** [[Narwhal]], ''Monodon monoceros''
**** Genus ''[[Delphinapterus]]''
***** [[Beluga]], ''Delphinapterus leucas''
*** Family [[Phocoenidae]]: [[Porpoise]]s
**** Genus ''[[Neophocaena]]''
***** [[Finless Porpoise]], ''Neophocaena phocaenoides''
**** Genus ''[[Phocoena]]''
***** [[Harbour Porpoise]], ''Phocoena phocaena''
***** [[Vaquita]], ''Phocoena sinus''
***** [[Spectacled Porpoise]], ''Phocoena dioptrica''
***** [[Burmeister's Porpoise]], ''Phocoena spinipinnis''
**** Genus ''[[Phocoenoides]]''
***** [[Dall's Porpoise]], ''Phocoenoides dalli''
*** Family [[Physeteridae]]: [[Sperm Whale family]]
**** Genus ''[[Physeter]]''
***** [[Sperm Whale]], ''Physeter macrocephalus''
*** Family [[Kogiidae]]
**** Genus ''[[Kogia]]''
***** [[Dwarf Sperm Whale]], ''Kogia sima''
***** [[Pygmy Sperm Whale]], ''Kogia breviceps''
*** Family [[Ziphidae]], Beaked whales
**** Genus ''[[Ziphius]]''
***** [[Cuvier's Beaked Whale]], ''Ziphius cavirostris''
**** Genus ''[[Berardius]]' |
m?
* Provide a [[batch job]] that searches for and lists all links along with the page the link is contained in so that we can look for duplicate/slightly different versions of the same link and fix them. Please make this a weekly batch job so that it does not take too much time.
* Is it possible to invent something to sort lists alphabetically? Take a look at pages like [[Actresses]] and you know why this would be helpful...
* Plagiarism-bot. A bot that goes through Wikipedia pages on a regular basis, does Google searches, and flags pages that it suspects might be plagiarized.
* Spell check [[batch job]] for newly created articles once a week with a link at the end of the article to the incorrectly spelled words. Even better would be one that worked as the "preview" button, before saving, and that marked somehow the suspicious words.
* Let's have contributors of a given Wikipedia page listed either in the header or in the footer. IP's are skipped of course and if there are more than, say, 10 contributors make a link to a special subpage &quot;Contributors&quot;.[[User:Kpjas]]
** If people wish to be listed, can't they simply include their name at the end of the text?
* Provide a way to search for all the changes made by one user in Wikipedia. For example, if I contributed to numerous pages over a long period of time, then 2 years later, I would need a way to find out whether someone else added to the subject I once touched.
:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Naming conventions</title>
<id>11132</id>
<revision>
<id>19583382</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-25T16:57:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jnc</username>
<id>18024</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Page now retrieved to Wikipedia:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----
<h3>Naming conventions (this is all done, but not yet implemented on Wikipedia)</h3>
* The wiki software could be written so that, for example, if I write <code>[[andy jewell]]</code>, <code>[[Andy jewell]]</code>, <code>[[andy Jewell]]</code>, or <code>[[Andy Jewell]]</code>, the page linked to will always be <code>Andy_Jewell</code>. In that case, one would be able to capitalize or not in the text of wiki articles at one's pleasure, and only the titles of articles would look strange (in some cases, e.g., <code>Ich_Bin_Ein_Berliner</code>). But that situation would be preferable to the current situation, in which some people are capitalizing second and third words of article titles, when, in referring to the subject of the article, one doesn't ordinarily capitalize those words. (For discussion, see [[naming conventions]].) -- [[User:Larry Sanger]]
** This has been done in version 0.92. The canonical form of a page will have all words capitalized, and links can have arbitrary words capitalized. This will be a little strange sometimes, but it seems to be the best solution for now.
** Ooh, that sounds awful. I hope that's not what'd going to happen, since it violates the [[naming conventions]]. --[[User:The Cunctator]]
* Now that we have [[Wikipedia:Free Links|Free Links]], can we have the canonization software allow parentheses, so we can use titles with short glosses rather than awkward compounds, e.g., [[Nirvana (musical group)]] rather than [[NirvanaBand]]? The downside of this is a little more typing to make a link; the upside is that we get to have titles in plain English. --[[User:Lee Daniel Crocker]] and [[User:Larry Sanger]] (see [[Wikipedia:Disambiguation]])
** This is in version 0.92. I was surprised to see that parentheses ''are'' allowed in URIs/URLs according to RFC 2396, so it shouldn't be hard to add them. --CliffordAdams
* There's a good reason why we can't use single quotes in titles, right? It sure would be handy to have the use of them, though.
** After more thought, I've given in on this request also. Single quotes are allowed in 0.92. Please don't ask for any more punctuation, however, or I may scream. :-) --CliffordAdams
*** How about backticks and semicolons? (joke!)
*Can we please turn off automatic subpages? I'm not suggesting we ''disallow'' subpages, only that the software not assume that anything following a slash, even if it's not in brackets, should be a subpage: currently aspirin/Tylenol; Marat/Sade; and Face/Off all want to make a subpage of [[Feature requests]]. CSCE/OSCE did want to make one on one of the Hungary pages, but for some reason doesn't do it here. I know the <nowiki> < [[Feature_requests/nowiki|/nowiki]] > trick; I just think links should be links when in brackets and not otherwise. --KQ</nowiki></text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Cookies, logins, and privacy</title>
<id>11133</id>
<revision>
<id>15908898</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-19T07:31:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Guanabot</username>
<id>82928</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Guanaco - robot: converting HTML tags to proper wiki markup and removing excess newlines</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----
<h3>[[Feature_requests/Cookies, logins, and privacy|Cookies, logins, and privacy]]</h3>
* In addition, given that the certain cookies have stopped working, can't I have a "log in" to confirm my id? Everytime I hit "preferences" otherwise, I get a new user ID.
* I noticed last weekend that I can set my ID in Preferences to anybody else's, certainly, if they are not using it. I would not care if people had mutlyiple IDs. But, I do see a problem in my setting my ID to, say [[Larry Sanger]] and entering content all over which will wrongly be identified as his in recent changes. And possibly elsewhere. RoseParks
** There is a secure user-ID already--it is the "User ID number" shown on the Preferences page. If you are using recent versions of MSIE or Netscape you can see the ID number and the IP address by moving the mouse over the user name. (A popup saying something like "ID 1622 from 165.79.13.xxx" should appear.) It should be non-trivial for anyone else to use that ID number, since it protected by a random number in the user's cookie (which is compared with a copy on the server). Eventually a more conventional username/password combination may become an option, but this is unlikely to happen soon. --CliffordAdams (or somebody with ID 1675 :-)
** I second the request for a more conventional username/password combination. This is one thing necessary to make the website fully scaleable. --[[User:LMS]]
* The ".xxx" bit in dynamic IP addresses is commendable, but is there a way to do something similar for people logging in from institutions with static IP addresses ending in letters? The last one I saw listed the entire address. Certainly anyone with a static IP should have a firewall, but I think we've seen enough mischievous people wander through that the precaution of masking the IP still has merit. And no that's not a rhetorical question, as I'll be logging on from a static IP starting in early June 2002. --KQ
I'm not sure "privacy" is a good thing here. The price one pays for freedom is accountability: anyone should be able to edit anything, but I don't think they should be able to do so without being identified (at least with their chosen pseudonym--they can still hide behind whatever anonymity their Internet connection gives them). When I find some vandalism, for example, I look back in the Recent Changes list for that same IP and check those pages--I usually find more. Likewise, when I get to know certain posters, I get to know what might be interesting or important to read. If someone is concerned about privacy, that's ''his'' problem, and he should take the burden of using software to anonymize himself (and there's plenty of software available to do that). --[[User:Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]
* I, for one, do not care about [[anonymity]] here, but [[pseudonymity]] would be fine. We almost have the latter with userids, were it not for the "from IP-Address" misfeature. LDC, if you know that userid 715 broke a page, is it really harder to find all other pages touched by them without knowing three octets of their IP? The main use I see for that is correlating pseudonyms to realnames, which is mainly useful for prosecution (I don't assume that we want to criminalize WikiVandals, though), or ... direct marketing. --Robbe
I think you've misunderstood. What I'm talking about specifically is not having the ''entire'' static IP address shown of someone logging in from an address ending in letters. All it would take is to .xxx a portion of it so that the firewall is not constantly fending off requests. This is the same courtesy already extended to people logging in from any IP address ending in numerals. My concern for it stems from the fact that it identifies where the person works or attends school, which if you'll pardon my saying so, is not necessarily anyone's business. If it's not workable then you can |
(e.g., LiI is ionic but has some covalent character). The '''Polarizing Power''' depends on the ratio of charge and size of the ion, often called the '''charge density'''.
==Ionic Structure==
[[Ionic compound]]s in the solid state form a continuous ionic lattice structure in an [[ionic crystal]]. When all the ions are approximately the same size, they can form a structure that is [[Cubic (crystal system)|face-centered cubic]], but, when the ions are different sizes, the structure is often [[Close-packing|body-centered cubic]]. In ionic lattices the [[coordination number]] refers to the number of ions that each is connected, too.
==Ionic versus covalent bonds==
'''In an ionic bond,''' the atoms are bound by attraction of opposite ions, whereas, in a [[covalent bond]], atoms are bound by sharing electrons. In covalent bonding, the [[molecular geometry]] around each atom is determined by [[VSEPR]] rules, whereas, in ionic materials, the geometry follows maximum [[close-packing|packing]] rules. '''Thus''', a compound can be classified as ionic or covalent based on the '''geometry of the atoms'''.
== External links ==
* [http://www.chem.ufl.edu/~chm2040/Notes/Chapter_11/types.html ionic bonding tutorial I]
* [http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Bonding/Ionic-Bond.html ionic bonding tutorial II]
* [http://neon.chem.uidaho.edu/~honors/electneg.html ionic bonding tutorial III]
[[Category:Chemical bonding]]
[[bg:Йонна химична връзка]]
[[de:Ionische Bindung]]
<!--[[en:Ionic bond]]-->
[[et:Iooniline side]]
[[es:Enlace iónico]]
[[fr:Liaison ionique]]
[[it:Legame ionico]]
[[he:קשר יוני]]
[[nl:Ionaire binding]]
[[ja:イオン結合]]
[[nn:Ionebinding]]
[[pt:Ligação iônica]]
[[sl:Ionska vez]]
[[fi:Ionisidos]]
[[sv:Jonbindning]]
[[th:พันธะไอออน]]
[[zh:离子键]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IBF</title>
<id>14952</id>
<revision>
<id>38247507</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T02:48:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Korg</username>
<id>263660</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>interwikis</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">*[[International Boxing Federation]] ('''IBF''') is one of several [[boxing]] organisations. The IBF's first world champion was cruiserweight [[Marvin Camel]].
*[[International Basketball Federation]] (FIBA) governs [[basketball]] worldwide.
*[[International Badminton Federation]] (IBF) governs [[badminton]] worldwide.
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:IBF]]
[[sv:IBF]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IOC/Presidents</title>
<id>14953</id>
<revision>
<id>15912472</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-05T02:31:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RedWolf</username>
<id>27822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>-> International Olympic Committee</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Olympic Committee]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Individual Films</title>
<id>14956</id>
<revision>
<id>23232184</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-14T18:21:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hurricane111</username>
<id>99272</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fixed double redirect; [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20050713|You can help!]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Lists of films]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Immune system</title>
<id>14958</id>
<revision>
<id>41956561</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:45:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michelus</username>
<id>918490</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Other factors that affect immune response */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''immune system''' is the [[organ system|system]] of specialized [[cell (biology)|cell]]s and [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] that protect an [[organism]] from outside [[biology|biological]] influences. (Though in a broad sense, almost every organ has a protective function - for example, the tight seal of the [[skin]] or the acidic environment of the [[stomach]].) When the immune system is functioning properly, it protects the body against [[bacteria]] and [[virus|viral]] [[infection]]s, destroying [[cancer cell]]s and foreign substances. If the immune system weakens, its ability to defend the body also weakens, allowing [[pathogen]]s, including viruses that cause [[common cold]]s and [[flu]], to grow and flourish in the body. The immune system also performs surveillance of tumor cells, and immune suppression has been reported to increase the risk of certain types of [[cancer]].
The immune system is often divided into two sections:
* '''Innate immunity:''' Comprised of [[Heredity|hereditary]] components that provide an immediate "first-line" of defense to continuously ward off pathogens.
* '''Adaptive (acquired) immunity:''' By manufacturing antibodies (a type of protein) and T-cells specifically designed to target particular pathogens, the body can develop a specific immunity to particular pathogens. This response takes days to develop, and so is not effective at preventing an initial invasion, but it will normally prevent any subsequent infection, and also aids in clearing up longer-lasting infections.
==Structure==
Most multicellular organisms possess an "innate immune system", generally comprising a set of germ-line encoded receptors to pathogens, that does not change during the lifetime of the organism. ''Adaptive immunity'', in which the responses to pathogens change and develop during the lifetime of an individual, seems to have appeared somewhat abruptly in [[evolutionary timeline|evolutionary time]], with the appearance of [[chondrichthyes]] (cartilaginous or jawed fish).
Organisms that possess an adaptive immunity also possess an innate immunity, and with many of the mechanisms between the systems being common, it is not always possible to draw a hard and fast boundary between the individual components involved in each, despite the clear difference in operation. Higher [[vertebrate]]s and all [[mammal]]s have both an innate and an adaptive immune system.
===Innate immune system===
The adaptive immune system may take days or weeks after an initial infection to have an effect. However, most organisms are under constant assault from pathogens that must be kept in check by the faster-acting innate immune system. Innate immunity defends against pathogens by rapid responses coordinated through "innate" receptors that recognize a wide spectrum of conserved pathogenic components. [[Plant]]s and many lower animals do not possess an adaptive immune system, and rely instead on their innate immunity.
The study of the innate immune system has recently flourished. Earlier studies of innate immunity utilized [[model organism|model organisms]] that lack adaptive immunity, such as the plant ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]'', the fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'', and the worm ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]''. Recent advances have been made in the field of innate immunology with the discovery of [[toll-like receptor]]s (TLRs) and the intracellular nucleotide-binding site leucine-rich repeat proteins (NODs), which are receptors in mammal cells that are responsible for a large proportion of the innate immune recognition of pathogens.
In 1989, prior to the discovery of mammalian TLRs, [[Charles Janeway]] conceptualized and proposed that evolutionarily conserved features of infectious organisms were detected by the immune system through a set of specialized receptors, which he termed pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), respectively. This was a remarkable insight at the time but was only fully appreciated after the discovery of TLRs by the Janeway lab in 1997. The TLRs now comprise the largest family of innate immune receptors (or PRRs). Janeway’s hypothesis has come to be known as the ‘stranger model’ and substantial debate in the field persists to this day as to whether or not the concept of PAMPs and PRRs, as described by Janeway, is truly suitable to describe the mechanisms of innate immunity. The competing ‘danger model’ was proposed in 1994 by [[Polly Matzinger]] and argues against the focus of the stranger model on microbial derived signals, suggesting instead that endogenous danger/alarm signals from distressed tissues serve as the principle purveyors of innate immune responses.
Both models are supported in the current literature, with discoveries that substances of both microbial and non-microbial sources are able to stimulate innate immune responses, which has led to increasing awareness that perhaps a blend of the two models would best serve to describe the currently known mechanisms governing innate immunity.
The innate immune system, when activated, has a wide array of effector cells and mechanisms. There are several different types of phagocytic cells, which ingest and destroy invading pathogens. The most common [[phagocytes]] are [[neutrophils]], [[macrophages]], and [[dendritic cells]]. Another cell type, [[natural killer cells]] are especially adept at destroying cells infected with viruses. Another component of the innate immune system is known as the [[complement system]]. Complement proteins are normally inactive components of the blood. However, when activated by the recognition of a pathogen or antibody, the various proteins are activated to recruit inflammatory cells, coat pathogens to make them more easily phagocytosed, and to make destructive pores in the surfaces of pathogens.
====First-line defense: physical and chemical barrier====
The first-line defense includes barriers to infection, such as [[skin]] and [[mucus]] coating of the [[gut]] and [[airways]], physically preventing the interaction between the host and the pathogen. Pathogens, which |
tain]], though often used to refer specifically to [[England]]. Occasionally it instead refers to only [[Scotland]], whose name in [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]] is ''[[Alba]]'' (and similarly, in [[Irish language|Irish]], and ''Yr Alban'' in Welsh{{ref|welsh}}). [[Pliny the Elder]], in his ''Natural History'' (iv.xvi.102) applies it unequivocally to Great Britain, "It was itself named Albion, while all the islands about which we shall soon briefly speak were called the Britanniae." The name ''Albion'' was taken by medieval writers from Pliny and [[Ptolemy]].
The name is perhaps of [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] origin or older, from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root that denotes both "white" and "mountain", but the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] took it as connected with ''albus'' (white), in reference to the chalk "[[White Cliffs of Dover]]", and Alfred Holder's ''Alt-Keltischer Sprachschatz,'' (1896) unhesitatingly translates it ''Weissland'' ("whiteland"). The early writer ([[6th century BC]]) whose [[periplus]] was translated by [[Avienus]] at the end of the 4th century AD (see ''[[Massaliote Periplus]]'') does not use the name ''Britannia''; he speaks of ''nesos 'Iernon kai 'Albionon'' (island of the Ierni and the Albiones). So [[Pytheas of Massilia]] ([[4th century BC]]) speaks of ''Albion and 'Ierne''. From the fact that there was a tribe called the ''Albiones'' on the north coast of [[Spain]] in [[Asturias]], some scholars have placed Albion in that neighbourhood (see G. F. Unger, ''Rhein. Mus.'' xxxviii., 1883, pp. 156-196).
The pejorative [[sobriquet]] ''[[perfidious Albion]]'' takes its meaning from this old name for Britain.
==References==
#{{note|welsh}}[http://www.cs.cf.ac.uk/fun/welsh/LexiconForms.html Welsh Lexicon Forms]. [[Cardiff University]], [[Cardiff School of Computer Science]]. Retrieved [[19 January]] [[2006]].
[[Category:Ancient Roman provinces]]
[[Category:British Isles]]
{{UK-stub}}
[[da:Albion]]
[[de:Albion]]
[[es:Albión]]
[[nl:Albion]]
[[ja:アルビオン]]
[[no:Albion]]
[[pl:Albion (Anglia)]]
[[sv:Albion]]
[[uk:Альбіон]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alboin</title>
<id>1575</id>
<revision>
<id>40359123</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:16:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alboin''' or '''Alboïn''' (d. [[572]] or [[573]]), king of the [[Lombards]], and conqueror of [[Italy]], succeeded his father [[Audoin]] about [[565]]. The Lombards were at that time dwelling in [[Noricum]] and [[Pannonia]] (the plain of eastern Austria south and east of the Danube, modern-day Slovenia and Istria). In alliance with the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]], an Asiatic people who had invaded central Europe, Alboin defeated the Lombards' hereditary enemies, the [[Gepids]], a powerful nation on his eastern frontier, slew their new king
[[Cunimund]], whose skull he fashioned into a drinking-cup, and whose daughter [[Rosamund]] he carried off and made his wife.
Three years later, in April, [[568]], on the alleged invitation of [[Narses]], who was irritated by the treatment he had received from the emperor [[Justin II]], Alboin invaded [[Italy]], with the women and children of the tribe and all their possessions, with 20,000 Saxon allies and the subject tribe of the Gepids and a mixed host of other barbarians, probably marching over the pass of the [[Predil]] and crossing the great plain at the head of the Adriatic into Italy. The [[Gothic War]], which had ended in the downfall of the Goths, had exhausted Italy, which was wracked with famine and plague, and the Eastern Emperor's government at Constantinople was powerless to retain the Italian province which [[Belisarius]] and [[Narses]] had recently recovered for it. Alboin's horde overran [[Venice|Venetia]] and the wide district which we now call [[Lombardy]], took Milan in 569, meeting with but feeble resistance till he came to the city of [[Ticinum]] ([[Pavia]]), which for three years ([[569]]-[[572]]) kept the Lombards at bay and then became the new capital. Where the Lombards did meet with resistance, retribution was savage beyond anything Italy had experienced before. The bishops, who were virtually the leaders of the late antique Roman cities, fled, like the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|bishop of Milan]], or compounded with the barbarians for gentler treatment of their people.
While the siege of Pavia was in progress Alboin was also engaged in other parts of Italy, and at Pavia's capitulation he was probably master of [[Lombardy]], [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]] and [[Tuscany]], as well as of the regions which afterwards went by the name of the duchies of [[Spoleto]] and [[Benevento]].
In [[572]], according to [[Paul the Deacon]] (Paulus Diaconus), the [[8th century]] Lombard chronicler, Alboin fell a victim to the revenge of his wife Rosamund, the daughter of the king of the Gepids, whose skull Alboin had turned into a drinking cup (worn at his belt) and out of which he forced Rosamund to drink. Rosamund immediately went to [[Helemechis]] (or ''Helmgis''), the king's [[squire]] (''scilpor'') or armour-bearer and foster brother, who advised her to seek out [[Peredeo]], a very strong man. Peredeo refused to involve himself in such a crime. So the queen went to the bed of the dressing-maid with whom Peredeo was having an affiar and, unbeknownst to Peredeo, slept with him. When the deed was done, the queen revealed her identity to Peredeo and said
:''"...surely now you have perpetrated such a deed, Peredeo, that either you must kill Alboin or he will slay you with his sword."''
Letting Paul the Deacon continue:
:''Then he learned the evil thing he had done, and he who had been unwilling of his own accord, assented, when forced in such a way, to the murder of the king. Then Rosemund, while Alboin had given himself up to a noon-day sleep, ordered that there should be a great silence in the palace, and taking away all other arms, she bound his sword tightly to the head of the bed so it could not be taken away or unsheathed, and according to the advice of Peredeo, she, more cruel than any beast, let in Helmechis the murderer. Alboin suddenly aroused from sleep perceived the evil which threatened and reached his hand quickly for his sword, which, being tightly tied, he could not draw, yet he seized a foot-stool and defended himself with it for some time. But unfortunately alas! this most warlike and very brave man being helpless against his enemy, was slain as if he were one of no account, and he who was most famous in war through the overthrow of so many enemies, perished by the scheme of one little woman.''[http://www.northvegr.org/lore/langobard/index.php]
So Peredeo and the queen fled to the protection of the Byzantine representative at Ravenna.
In these few years the Lombards had established themselves in the north of Italy (henceforth [[Lombardy]]). But they had little practice in governing large provinces. Lombard warlords (which Latin chroniclers called 'dukes') were established in all the strongholds and passes, and this arrangement became increasingly characteristic of the Lombard settlement. Their power extended tenuously across the Apennines into Liguria and Tuscany, and southwards to the outlying Lombard dukedoms of [[Spoleto]] and [[Benevento]]. The invaders failed to secure any maritime ports or any territory that was conveniently commanded from the sea, such as Byzantine [[Ravenna]]. Local inhabitants fled into the marshes and lagoons, where [[Venice]] had its beginnings.
After his death and the short reign of his successor [[Cleph]] the Lombards remained for more than ten years without a king, ruled by the various dukes.
The authorities for the history of Alboin are first of all [[Paul the Deacon]], the Byzantine [[Procopius]], and [[Agnellus]] (in his history of the church of [[Ravenna]]).
===Sources===
*[[Charles Oman]], ''The [[Dark Ages]] [[476]]-[[918]]''. [[1914]]. Rivingtons, [[London, England|London]].
*{{1911}}
===External links===
*[http://www.northvegr.org/lore/langobard/index.php A translation of Historia Langobardorum]
{| border="2" align="center"
|width="30%" align="center"|Preceded by:<br>'''[[Audoin]]'''
|width="40%" align="center"|'''[[Lombard|King of the Lombards]]'''
|width="30%" align="center" rowspan="2"|Followed by:<br>'''[[Cleph]]'''
|}
[[Category:Lombard kings]]
[[de:Alboin]]
[[fr:Alboïn]]
[[it:Alboino]]
[[nl:Alboin van de Langobarden]]
[[zh:阿尔博因]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Afonso de Albuquerque</title>
<id>1576</id>
<revision>
<id>40877178</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T16:37:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Caps in section headings</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:afonso_albuquerque3.jpg|thumb|right|Afonso de Albuquerque|125px]]'''Afonso de Albuquerque''', '''Afonso d'Albuquerque''' or '''Alfonso de Albuquerque''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su dɨ aɫ.βu.'kɛɾ.kɨ}}) ([[1453]] - [[December 16]], [[1515]]) was a noted [[Portugal|Portuguese]] naval general whose activities helped establish the Portuguese colonial empire in India.
==Early life==
Born in Alhandra in the year of 1453, near [[Lisbon]], [[Portugal]], he was for some time known as ''The Great'', and as ''The Portuguese Mars''. Through his father, Gonçalo, who held an important position at court, he was connected by illegitimate descent with the royal family of Portugal. He was |
st Church]]: 900,000
: Promise Adventist Church: 150,000. Indigenous Pentecostal Adventists.
: Reform Seventh Day Adventist Church: 50,000
: Other Adventists: 100,000
* [[Lutheran]]s: 1 Million
: Evangelical Church of Lutheran Confission
: Evangelical Lutheran Church of Brazil
: Other Lutherans
* [[Calvinist]]s: 1 Million
: Presbyterian Church of Brazil: 450,000
: Independent Presbyterian Church: 300,00
: Congregationalists: 100,000
: Other Calvinists:150,000
* [[Jehovah's Witness]]es: 570,000
* God is Love Pentecostal Church: 700,000. Divine Healing movement.
* Independent Catholics: 600,000
: Groups like Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church and many other small ones.
* [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] ("LDS Church"; see also [[Mormon]]) About 800,000 members
* [[Islam in Brazil]] 0.016% or 27,239 people according to the last census, mostly recent Arab immigrants)
The non-religious people, [[atheism|Atheists]] and [[Agnostics]], number about 7.3%.
===Languages===
[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] is the official language and spoken by the entire population. [[Spanish language|Spanish]] is understood in various degrees by most people. [[English language|English]] is part of the official high school curriculum, but very few people achieve any usable degree of fluency in it.
Brazil is the only [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]-speaking nation in [[the Americas]], giving it a distinct national culture separate from its [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-speaking neighbors.
Portuguese is the only language with full official status in Brazil; it is virtually the only language used in schools, newspapers, radio and TV, and for all business and administrative purposes.
However, many minority languages are spoken daily throughout the vast national territory of Brazil. Some of these languages are spoken by indigenous peoples. Others yet are spoken by people who are for the most part bilingual (i.e. speakers of Portuguese and English, French, German, and/or Italian, etc.).
Many of the indigenous people speak languages like: [[Guaraní language|Guaraní]], [[Kaingang language|Kaingang]], [[Nadëb language|Nadëb]], [[Carajá language|Carajá]], [[Caribe language|Caribe]], [[Tucano language|Tucano]], [[Arára language|Arára]], [[Terêna language|Terêna]], [[Borôro language|Borôro]], [[Apalaí language|Apalaí]], [[Canela language|Canela]] and many others. Not all [[Amerindian|Amerindians]] desire to become part of the mainstream culture of [[Brazil]]. Even though [[minority|minorities]] are what they are, that is minorities, cultural conflicts cannot be dismissed as insignificant or unimportant based what percentage of the national population they are.
Interestingly enough some of these minority languages recently have obtained local ''co-official status'' &mdash; e.g. [[Tupi|Nheengatu]], [[Tukano language|Tukano]], and [[Baniwa language|Baniwa]] in [[São Gabriel da Cachoeira]], [[Amazonas State, Brazil|Amazonas]] (2003).
The Brazilian language [[Língua Geral]] which is now almost extinct, at one time, until the late 1800s, was the common language used by a large number of indigenous, [[African]], and [[African-Brazilian|African-descendant]] peoples throughout the coast of [[Brazil]] &mdash; it was spoken by the majority of the population in the land. It was proscribed by the [[Marquis of Pombal]] for its association with the Jesuit missions. Today, in the [[Amazon Basin]], political campaigning is still printed in this now rare [[language]].
Other languages such as [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Polish language|Polish]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] are spoken in southern [[Brazil]]. There are whole regions in southern Brazil where people speak both [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and one or more of these languages. For example, it is reported that more than 90% of the residents of the small city of [[Presidente Lucena]], located in the state of [[Rio Grande do Sul]], speak [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch]], a Brazilian form of the [[Hunsrückisch]] [[dialect]] of German (see [http://www.rotaromantica.com.br/cid_presidente_lucena01.htm this website]).
Although they have been rapidly replaced by [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] in the last few decades &mdash; partly by a government decision to integrate immigrant populations &mdash;, today states like [[Rio Grande do Sul]] are trying to reverse that trend and [[Immigrant Languages]] such as [[German language|German]] and [[Italian language|Italian]] are being reintroduced into the curriculum again in communities where they originally thrived. Meanwhile, on the [[Argentina|Argentinian]] and [[Uruguay|Uruguayan]] border regions, Brazilian students are being introduced (formally) to the [[Spanish language]].
More and more people are realizing in [[Brazil]] that a person can master and carry more than one language throughout their lives. In other words, integration into mainstream society does not mean that one has to become [[monolingual]]. More and more the reasoning is that if languages are a [[human capital]] of great value to some, perhaps they should be considered valuable to one all.
Some immigrant communities in southern [[Brazil]], chiefly the [[Ethnic German|German]] and the [[Italians|Italian]] ones, have lasted long enough to develop distinctive dialects from their original European sources. For example, [[Brazilian German]], [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch]] or [[Hunsrückisch]] and [[Talian]] or Italiano Riograndense. These are not languages per se but distinct dialects (from their original European counterparts).
Other transplanted [[German language|German]] [[dialect|dialects]] to this part of the world have not under gone the same level of changes. For example, the [[Austria|Austrian]] dialect spoken in [[Dreizehnlinden]] or [[Treze Tílias]] in the state of [[Santa Catarina State|Santa Catarina]]; or the dialect of the [[Donauschwaben]] spoken in [[Entre Rios Municipality|Entre Rios]], in the state of [[Paraná]]; or the [[Pomeranian language|Pomeranian]] (Pommersch) dialect spoken in many different parts of southern Brazil (in the states of [[Rio Grande do Sul]], [[Santa Catarina State|Santa Catarina]], [[Paraná]], [[Espírito Santo]], etc.). [[Plautdietsch]] is spoken by the descendants of [[Russian Mennonites]].
A Japanese-language newspaper, the ''[[São Paulo Shinbun]]'', is published in the city of [[São Paulo]]. There is a significant community of [[Japanese speakers]] in [[Paraná]] and [[Amazonas State, Brazil|Amazonas]]. Much smaller groups exist in [[Santa Catarina]], [[Rio Grande do Sul]] and other parts of [[Brazil]].
Many Chinese, especially from Macau, speak a [[Portuguese creole]], the [[Macanese language]] (''Patuá'' or ''Macaista''), aside from Portuguese, [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]], and [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]].
In [[São Paulo]], the [[Deutschbrasilianer|German-Brazilian]] newspaper [[Brasil-Post]] has been published for over fifty years. The [[Livraria Alemã]] of [[Blumenau]] was a fixture in the city for a long time. There are many other media organizations throughout the land specializing either in church issues, music, language, etc. The German-Brazilian community in Brazil is estimated to be in the millions.
The Italian online newspaper [[La Rena]] offers [[Brazilian-Italian]] or [[Talian]] lessons.
There are many other non-Portuguese publications, bilingual web sites, radio and television programs throughout the country. For example, [[TV GALEGA]] from [[Blumenau]] shows German-language programming on their channel on a weekly basis.
The [[English-language]] daily ''[[Brazil Herald]]'' is directed mostly to [[tourist|tourists]], foreign executives and expatriates.
Most major foreign newspapers can be obtained in larger Brazilian cities ([[Frankfurter Allgemeine]]; [[Le Monde]]; [[The New York Times]]; etc.)
==Demographic Breakdown==
[[Image:Brazil-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Brazil, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
===Population===
:186,112,794
:''Note'': Brazil took a count in August 2000, which reported a population of 169,799,170; that figure was about 3.3% lower than projections by the US Census Bureau, and is close to the implied underenumeration of 4.6% for the 1991 census; estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.). However, there is also a dramatic decrease in fertility rates since the 70's
===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 26.1% (male 24,789,495/female 23,842,715)
:15-64 years: 67.9% (male 62,669,392/female 63,719,631)
:65 years and over: 6% (male 4,549,552/female 6,542,009) (2005 est.)
===Median age===
:Total: 27.81 years
:Male: 27.06 years
:Female: 28.57 years (2005 est.)
===Population growth rate===
:1.06% (2005 est.)
===Birth rate===
:16.83 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Death rate===
:6.15 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Net migration rate===
:-0.03 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.7 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 29.61 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 33.37 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 25.66 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 71.69 years
:Male: 67.74 years
:Female: 75.85 years (2005 est.)
===Total fertility rate===
:1.93 children born/woman (2005 est.)
===Nationality===
:Noun: Brazilian(s)
:Adjective: Bra |
er 7
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{cite web
| title = The National First Ladies' Library
| url = http://www.firstladies.org/
| accessdate = October 7
| accessyear = 2005
}}
[[Category:Presidency of the United States]]
[[Category:First Ladies of the United States|*]]
[[de:First Lady]]
[[fr:Première dame des États-Unis]]
[[pt:Primeira-Dama dos Estados Unidos da América]]
[[sv:USA:s första dam]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fallopian tubes</title>
<id>10848</id>
<revision>
<id>15908639</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-22T17:51:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[fallopian tube]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[fallopian tube]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fantasy authors</title>
<id>10849</id>
<revision>
<id>15908640</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T10:05:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Khendon</username>
<id>438</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Redirect to [[Fantasy author]] instead</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fantasy author]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of French proverbs</title>
<id>10850</id>
<revision>
<id>19423110</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-23T05:03:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Renata3</username>
<id>320236</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect[[Wikiquote:French proverbs]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fundamental Theorem of Algebra</title>
<id>10851</id>
<revision>
<id>15908642</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-05T14:52:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[fundamental theorem of algebra]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[fundamental theorem of algebra]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frank Herbert</title>
<id>10852</id>
<revision>
<id>42112532</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:25:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.162.139.57</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Continuation of the series */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Frank Herbert.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Frank Herbert (1920 - 1986)]]
'''Frank Patrick Herbert''' ([[October 8]], [[1920]] &ndash; [[February 11]], [[1986]]) was a critically and commercially successful American [[science fiction author]]. He is best known for the novel ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'', and the five other novels in the series that followed it. The Dune saga dealt with themes such as human survival and [[evolution]], [[ecology]], and the intersection of [[religion]], [[politics]], and [[power (sociology)|power]], and is considered to be one of the greatest science fiction tales ever written, as well as an undeniable classic of literature in general.
== Biography ==
Frank Herbert was born in [[1920]] in [[Tacoma, Washington]]. He knew from an early age that he wanted to be a writer, and in [[1939]] he lied about his age in order to get his first [[newspaper]] job on the ''[[Glendale Star]]''.
There was a temporary hiatus to his writing career as he served in the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] as a photographer during [[World War II]]. He married Flora Parkinson in [[1941]], but divorced her in [[1945]] after fathering a daughter.
After the war he attended the [[University of Washington]], where he met Beverly Ann Stuart at a [[writing|creative writing]] class in [[1946]]. They were the only students in the class who had sold any work for publication&mdash;Herbert had sold two pulp adventure stories to magazines, and Stuart had sold a story to ''Modern Romance'' magazine. They married in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] on [[June 20]], [[1946]]. Their first son, [[Brian Herbert]], was born in [[1947]]. Frank Herbert did not graduate from college, according to Brian, because he only wanted to study what interested him and so didn't complete the required courses.
After college he returned to journalism and worked at the ''[[Seattle Star]]'' and the ''[[Oregon Statesman]]''; he was also a writer and editor for the ''[[San Francisco Examiner|San Francisco Examiner's]]'' ''California Living'' magazine for a decade.
Herbert began reading [[science fiction]] in the forties and in the 1950s began to write it, with short stories appearing in ''[[Startling Stories]]'' and other magazines. During the next decade he published nearly 20 short stories.
His career as a novelist began with the publication of ''[[The Dragon in the Sea]]'' in [[1955]], where he used the environment of a 21st-century submarine as a way to explore sanity and madness. The book predicted worldwide conflicts over [[petroleum|oil]] consumption and production. It was a critical success but not a major commercial one.
Herbert began researching ''Dune'' in [[1959]] and was able to devote himself more wholeheartedly to his writing career because his wife returned to work full time as an advertising writer for department stores, becoming the main breadwinner during the sixties. Herbert later related in an interview with Willis E. McNeilly that the novel originated when he was supposed to do a magazine article on sand dunes in [[Florence, Oregon]], but he got too involved in it and ended up with far more raw material than needed for a single article. The article was never written, but it did serve as the seed for the ideas that led to ''Dune''.
After six years of research and writing, ''Dune'' was completed by [[1965]]. Far longer than commercial science fiction of the time was supposed to be, it was serialized in [[Analog (magazine)|Analog]] magazine in two separate parts, in 1963 and 1965. It was then rejected by nearly twenty book publishers before finally being accepted. One editor prophetically wrote back "''I might be making the mistake of the decade, but...,''" before rejecting the manuscript. But Chilton, a minor publishing house in Philadelphia, gave Herbert a $7500 advance, and ''Dune'' was soon a critical success. It won the [[Nebula Award]] for Best Novel in 1965 and shared the [[Hugo Award]] in [[1966]]. ''Dune'' was the first [[ecology|ecological]] science fiction novel, containing a multitude of big, inter-relating themes and multiple character viewpoints, a method that ran through all Herbert's mature work.
The book was not an instant best seller. By [[1968]] Herbert had made $20,000 from it, far more than most science-fiction novels of the time were generating, but this was not enough to let him take up full-time writing. However, the publication of ''Dune'' did open doors for him. He was the ''[[Seattle Post-Intelligencer|Seattle Post-Intelligencer's]]'' education writer from [[1969]] to [[1972]] and lecturer in general and interdisciplinary studies at the University of Washington ([[1970]]&ndash;2). He worked in [[Vietnam]] and [[Pakistan]] as social and ecological consultant in [[1972]]. In [[1973]] he was director-photographer of the television show ''The Tillers''.
{{QuoteSidebar|40%|#eeffff|right|Quotation|''A man is a fool not to put everything he has, at any given moment, into what he is creating. You're there now doing the thing on paper. You're not killing the goose, you're just producing an egg. So I don't worry about inspiration, or anything like that. It's a matter of just sitting down and working. I have never had the problem of a writing block. I've heard about it. I've felt reluctant to write on some days, for whole weeks, or sometimes even longer. I'd much rather go fishing. for example. or go sharpen pencils, or go swimming, or what not. But, later, coming back and reading what I have produced, I am unable to detect the difference between what came easily and when I had to sit down and say, "Well, now it's writing time and now I'll write." There's no difference on paper between the two.''|Frank Herbert}}
By 1972 he was able to become a full-time writer and during the 1970s and 1980s he enjoyed considerable commercial success as an author. He lived between [[Hawaii]] and [[Washington]] state. During this time he wrote numerous books and pushed ecological and philosophical ideas. He continued his ''Dune'' saga, following it with ''[[Dune Messiah]]'', ''[[Children of Dune]]'' and ''[[God Emperor of Dune]]''. Other highlights were ''[[The Dosadi Experiment]]'', ''[[The Godmakers]]'', ''[[The White Plague]]'' and the books he wrote in partnership with [[Bill Ransom]]: ''[[The Jesus Incident]]'', ''[[The Lazarus Effect]]'' and ''[[The Ascension Factor]]''.
But his change in fortune was shaded by tragedy. In [[1974]], Beverly underwent an operation for [[cancer]] that gave her ten more years of life, but adversely affected her health. She died on [[February 7]], [[1984]]. In his afterword to ''[[Chapterhouse Dune]]'', Herbert wrote a moving eulogy for his wife.
1984 was a tumultuous year in Herbert's life. In the same year that his wife died, his career took off with the release of [[David Lynch]]'s film version of ''Dune''. Despite high expectations, a big-budget production design and an A-list cast, the movie drew mostly poor reviews in the [[United States]]. However, despite a disappointing response in the USA, the film was a critical and commercial success in [[Europe]] and [[Japan]]. The same year Herbert published the fifth book in the Dune saga, ''[[Heretics of Dune]]''. Finally, following the death of Beverly, Herbert married Theresa Shackelford later in the year.
In 1986 Herbert published ''[[Chapterhouse Dune|Chapterhouse: Dune]]'', which tied up many of the saga's story threads. This was to be Herbert's final single work &mdash; he died of [[pancreatic cancer]] on |
.
*Finnish [p] corresponds to Hungarian [f] (just like Latin [p] in ''pater'' corresponds to English [f] in ''father''):
{|
! Finnish !! Hungarian !! meaning
|-
| {{IPA|[puː]}} || {{IPA|[fɒ]}} || "tree"
|-
| {{IPA|[purki]}} || {{IPA|[forr]}} <!-- what is this word?? -->|| "snow flurry"
|}
*Finnish [k] corresponds to Hungarian [k] before front vowels
{|
! Finnish !! Hungarian !! meaning
|-
| {{IPA|[keri]}} || {{IPA|[keːrɛg]}} || "bark" (of a tree)
|-
| {{IPA|[kyːnel]}} || {{IPA|[køɲɲ]}} || "a tear"
|}
*Finnish [k] corresponds to Hungarian [h] before back vowels (just like Latin [k] in ''canine'' corresponds to English [h] in ''hound'')
{|
! Finnish !! Hungarian !! meaning
|-
| {{IPA|[kota]}} || {{IPA|[haːz]}} || "house, hut" (Khanty [xot])
|-
| {{IPA|[kala]}} || {{IPA|[hɒl]}} || "fish"
|}
*Finnish [t] corresponds to Hungarian [t] at the beginning of a word
{|
! Finnish !! Hungarian !! meaning
|-
| {{IPA|[tunte-]}} || {{IPA|[tud]}} || "to know"
|-
| {{IPA|[talvi]}} || {{IPA|[teːl]}} || "winter"
|}
*Finnish [l] corresponds to Hungarian [l]
{|
! Finnish !! Hungarian !! meaning
|-
| {{IPA|[kuole-]}} || {{IPA|[hɒl]}} || "to die"
|-
| {{IPA|[lintu]}} || {{IPA|[luːd]}} || "bird, goose"
|}
This is just a sample. Even in the small number of words above, other regular sound correspondances are evident, such as Finnish [nt] and Hungarian [d] in "to know" and "bird/goose".
== Geographic distribution ==
Hungarian is spoken in the following countries:
{|
!Country!!Speakers
|-
|[[Hungary]]||align="right"|9,546,374 ([http://www.nepszamlalas.hu/eng/volumes/06/00/tabeng/2/load01_10_0.html census 2001])
|-
|[[Romania]]<br/><small>(mainly [[Transylvania]])</small>||align="right"| 1,443,970 ([http://www.insse.ro/rpl2002rezgen/17.pdf census 2002])
|-
|[[Slovakia]]||align="right"|520,528 ([http://www.statistics.sk/webdata/slov/scitanie/tab/tab3a.htm census 2001])
|-
|[[Serbia and Montenegro]]<br/><small>(mainly [[Vojvodina]])</small>||align="right"|285,000 ([http://www.statserb.sr.gov.yu/Ter/epop.htm census 2002])
|-
|[[Ukraine]] <br/><small>(mainly [[Zakarpattia Oblast|Zakarpattia]])</small>||align="right"|149,400 ([http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/general/language/ census 2001])
|-
|[[Canada]]||align="right"|75,555 ([http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=55670&APATH=3&GID=431515&METH=1&PTYPE=55430&THEME=41&FOCUS=0&AID=0&PLACENAME=0&PROVINCE=0&SEARCH=0&GC=0&GK=0&VID=0&FL=0&RL=0&FREE=0 census 2001])
|-
|[[Israel]]||align="right"|70,000
|-
|[[Austria]]||align="right"|22,000
|-
|[[Croatia]]||align="right"|16,500
|-
|[[Slovenia]]||align="right"|9,240
|}
:''Source: National census, [[Ethnologue]]''
Hungarian speakers are also found in [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Belgium]], [[Brazil]], [[Canada]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[The Netherlands]], [[Italy]], [[Switzerland]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], and in other parts of the world, adding an additional million speakers.
=== Official status ===
Hungarian is the [[official language]] of Hungary, and thus an official language of the [[European Union]].
Hungarian is also one of the official languages of [[Vojvodina]] and an official language of three municipalities in [[Slovenia]] ([[Hodos]], [[Dobronak]] and [[Lendva]]), along with [[Slovene language|Slovene]].
Hungarian is officially recognized as a [[minority language|minority]] or [[regional language]] in [[Austria]], [[Croatia]] and [[Slovakia]].
In [[Romania]], it is an official language at local level in all communes, towns and municipalities with an ethnic-Hungarian population of over 20%.
=== Dialects ===
The [[dialects]] of Hungarian identified by [[Ethnologue]] are: Alföld, West Danube, Danube-Tisza, King's Pass Hungarian, Northeast Hungarian, Northwest Hungarian, Székely and West Hungarian. These dialects are all [[mutually intelligible]]. The Hungarian [[Csángó]] dialect, which is not listed by Ethnologue, is spoken mostly in [[Bacău County]], [[Romania]]. The Csángó minority group has been largely isolated from other Hungarians, and they therefore preserved a dialect closely resembling medieval Hungarian.
==Phonology==
{{main|Hungarian phonology}}
Hungarian has 14 vowel phonemes and 25 consonant phonemes. The vowel phonemes are pairs of long and short vowels. Most of these pairs have similar vowel qualities, but the pairs written with <a> and <e> do not.
Consonant length is also distinctive in Hungarian. Most of the consonant phonemes can occur [[Gemination|geminate]].
The sound [[voiced palatal plosive]] {{IPA|/ɟ/}}, written <gy>, is unlike any in [[English language|English]]. It occurs in the name of the country, "Magyarország" (Hungary), pronounced {{IPA|/ˈmɒɟɒrorsaːg/}}.
Primary stress is always on the first [[syllable]] of a word. There is sometimes secondary stress on other syllables, especially in compounds, ''e.g.'' "viszontlátásra" (see you later) pronounced {{IPA|/ˈvisontˌlaːtaːʃrɒ/}}.
Front-back [[vowel harmony]] is an important feature of Hungarian phonology.
== Grammar ==
{{main|Hungarian grammar}}
Hungarian is an [[agglutinative language]]. Most grammatical information is given through [[suffix]]es. For example: at the table = ''az asztal'''nál''''' (space relation), at 5 o'clock = ''öt óra'''kor''''' (time relation). There is also one grammatical [[prefix]] (leg- for superlatives).
An unusual feature of Hungarian are the 2 verb conjugations. The "definite" conjugation is used for a [[transitive verb]] with a [[Definiteness|definite]] [[Object (grammar)|object]]. The "indefinite" conjugation is used for an [[intransitive verb]] or for a transitive verb with an [[Definiteness|indefinite]] object.
== Lexicon ==
Giving an exact estimate for the total word count is difficult, since it is hard to define what to call "a word" in [[agglutination|agglutinating]] languages, due to the existence of compound words. To have a meaningful definition of compound words, we have to exclude such compounds whose meaning is the mere sum of its elements. The largest dictionaries from Hungarian to another language contain 120,000 words and phrases (but this may include redundant phrases as well, because of translation issues). Hungarian lexicon is usually estimated to comprise 60,000 to 100,000 words. (Independently of specific languages, speakers actively use at most 10,000 to 30,000 words.)
Hungarian words are built around so called word-bushes, for example ''kör-köröz-körös-kering-kerge-kurta'' (originally related to "circle", "round"). Due to this feature words with similar meaning often arise from the same root.
The lexicon of Hungarian contains words borrowed from various [[Turkic languages]], including [[Turkish language|Turkish]], as well as several loan words from [[German language|German]] and [[Slavic languages|Slavic]].
The basic vocabulary shares 1000-1200 words from [[Uralic languages]] like [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Estonian language|Estonian]] (e.g., the numbers ''egy ~ yksi ~ üks'' (1), ''kettő ~ kaksi ~ kaks'' (2), ''három ~ kolme ~ kolm'' (3), ''négy ~ neljä ~ neli'' (4); ''víz ~ vesi ~ vesi'' (water); ''kéz ~ käsi ~ käsi'' (hand); ''vér ~ veri ~ veri'' (blood); ''fej ~ pää ~ pea'' (head) which have [[Comparative method|regular sound correspondences]], so most linguists classify them as [[Finno-Ugric languages]], a subgroup of the Uralic language family.
These 1000-1200 original word roots, however, account for about 80-90% of the words in an average present-day text, due to their wide-ranging compounds, derivations and formations, several dozens of words from a single root.
The proportion of the word roots in Hungarian lexicon is as follows: Finno-Ugric 21 %, [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] 20 %, [[German language|German]] 11 %, [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] 9.5 %, [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] 6 %, [[Romance languages|Romance]] 2.5 %, Other of known origin 1 %, Other of uncertain origin 30%. Except for a few Latin and Greek loan-words, these are undiscernible for native speakers; they were entirely adapted into Hungarian lexicon.
===Word formation===
Words can be compound (as in [[German language|German]]) and derived (with [[suffix]]es).
There are also compound words using verbs which have their individual meanings, for example ''egyedülálló'' single (eg. person), whereas ''egyedül álló'' means something which stands alone.
===Noteworthy lexical items===
====Two words for "red"====
There are two basic words for "red" in Hungarian. (They are basic in the sense that you can't say one is a sub-type of the other, like "scarlet" is a kind of "red".) ''Piros'' is used for lighter or vivid red, and often for inanimate, artificial things, as well as for things seen as cheerful or neutral. ''Vörös'' is used for darker red, and often for animate things, as well as for serious or emotionally involved/affected things. Since these attributes don't overlap in every case, their usage is not entirely regular or predictable. – According to Berlin, B and Kay, P (1969) ''Basic Color Terms'', Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, Hungarian is unique in having two basic colour words for red.
====Kinship terms====
In Hungarian there exist separate words for brothers and sisters depending on relative age:
{| class="wikitable"
| ||younger||elder||no relative<br>age given||no gender<br>given
|-
|brother||''öcs''||''báty''||''fivér''||rowspan=2|''te |
[Category:Nuremberg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb</title>
<id>8695</id>
<revision>
<id>42139878</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:08:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobo55</username>
<id>352641</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Popular Culture References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = Dr. Strangelove <BR \>or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb |
image = drstrangeloveCover.jpg |
director = [[Stanley Kubrick]] |
producer = [[Stanley Kubrick]] |
writer = [[Terry Southern]], [[Stanley Kubrick]] <BR \> (based on the novel ''[[Red Alert (book)|Red Alert]]'' by [[Peter George]]) <BR /> |
starring = [[Peter Sellers]] <BR \> [[George C. Scott]] <BR \> [[Sterling Hayden]] <BR \> [[Keenan Wynn]] <BR /> [[Slim Pickens]] |
distributor = [[Columbia Pictures]]|
released = [[January 29]], [[1964]] |
runtime = 94 min. |
language = English |
music = |
awards = |
budget = $1,800,000 |
imdb_id = 0057012 |
|}}
{{Redirect|Strangelove}}
'''''Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb''''' is a [[1964]] [[Stanley Kubrick]] [[film]] based loosely upon the straight-faced thriller novel ''[[Red Alert (book)|Red Alert]]'' by [[Peter George]]. Refashioned as a [[black comedy]] from the source material by screenwriter [[Terry Southern]], ''Dr. Strangelove's'' subject matter [[satire|satirizes]] the fragile nature of the [[Cold War]] conflict and the doctrine of [[mutual assured destruction|mutually assured destruction]]. The film opens at the fictional Burpelson Air Force Base, where the insane [[General]] Jack D. Ripper has just ordered a preemptive [[nuclear warfare|nuclear attack]] on the [[Soviet Union]]. The rest of ''Dr. Strangelove'' follows the [[US President|American President]] and his advisors, the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], and a [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] officer as they all scramble to recall Ripper's bomb-wing in order to prevent a nuclear [[Apocalypse]].
==Cast and crew==
''Dr. Strangelove'' stars British actor/comedian [[Peter Sellers]], who actually improvised much of his dialogue during filming. Sellers plays three roles:
* '''Group Captain Lionel Mandrake'''&mdash;the sane, well-meaning, "by-the-book" [[United Kingdom|British]] exchange officer with an upper-class [[English accent]]. It is said that Sellers' experience mimicking his uptight superiors as an [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] airman during [[World War II]] aided him in creating this character.
* '''President Merkin Muffley'''&mdash;the [[Adlai Stevenson]]-esque American [[Commander in Chief]]&mdash;a decent, but flustered and spineless character. The President's first and last name each crudely imply that he is a ''[[pussy]]'' by nature ("merkin" and "muff" are both associated with the female genitalia). This fundamental quality becomes evident during the famous Hotline scene, in which he seems overly cautious in dealing with [[Soviet Premier]] Dmitri Kisof. For the role, Sellers flattened his natural English accent to sound like an American [[Midwestern United States|Midwesterner]] (another reference to Stevenson, who was from [[Illinois]]), and faked [[common cold|cold]] symptoms to further add to the character's inherent weakness.
* '''Dr. Strangelove'''&mdash;the sinister German title-character&mdash;an amalgamation of [[RAND Corporation]] strategist [[Herman Kahn]], [[National Socialist German Workers Party|Nazi]]-turned-[[NASA]] rocket scientist [[Wernher von Braun]], "father of the [[hydrogen bomb]]" [[Edward Teller]], and [[John F. Kennedy|JFK]]'s [[Secretary of Defense]], [[Robert McNamara]]. [[Henry Kissinger]] has also been cited as one of the Strangelove character's influences. However, this assertion is highly unlikely, as Kissinger was not a prominent figure in American politics at the time of the film's production. Dr. Strangelove serves as President Muffley's scientific advisor in the War Room, presumably making use of prior expertise as a Nazi physicist. The accent used by Sellers is reportedly based on that of [[Weegee]] (pseudonymn of [[Austrian]] photographer [[Arthur Fellig]]), who was hired by Kubrick as a special effects consultant. Throughout the film, the speeches made by the character of Dr. Strangelove are interrupted by his erratic fits of [[alien hand syndrome]]. At one point, Strangelove's hand reaches out in an attempt to strangle his neck; at another it thrusts itself out in a [[Hitler salute|Nazi salute]]. Strangelove's sinister black glove was actually Kubrick's; Sellers saw Kubrick using it to handle the hot lights on the set one day and thought it would be a good addition to his costume.
At the start of ''Dr. Strangelove'' 's production, Sellers was set to play a fourth role; that of Air Force Major T. J. "King" Kong, the [[B-52 Stratofortress]] bomber captain. However, Sellers fractured his leg during filming, and was prevented from playing the role because of a technical constraint that would have confined him to cramped space of the cockpit set. It has been suggested that Sellers, who was concerned about correctly reproducing the Texan accent required, contrived the injury&mdash;or at least exaggerated it to make it seem worse than it really was. As fate would have it, [[Slim Pickens]], a real-life Texan, was quickly tapped to replace Sellers as Major Kong. It is no coincidence that his performance turned out so authentic; fellow actor James Earl Jones recalls, "He was Major Kong on and off the set&mdash;he didn't change a thing&mdash;his temperament, his language, his behavior." For the entire course of filming, Pickens was apparently unaware that ''Strangelove'' was to be a comedy, and instead played the role straight, thereby adding to the humor. Kubrick biographer John Baxter further explains in the documentary "Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove": <blockquote>As it turns out, Slim Pickens had never left the United States. He had to hurry and get his first passport. He arrived on the set, and somebody said, "Gosh, he's arrived in costume!," not realizing that that's how he always dressed… With the cowboy hat and the fringed jacket and the cowboy boots&mdash;and that he wasn't putting on the character&mdash;that's the way he talked.</blockquote>
Also appearing in the film is [[George C. Scott]] as General Buck Turgidson, a [[strategic bombing]] enthusiast who serves as the thinly-disguised avatar of General [[Curtis LeMay]], the Air Force Chief of Staff who advocated a pre-emptive strike against bases in [[Cuba]] during the [[Cuban Missile Crisis|Missile Crisis]] of 1962, against Kennedy's better judgement. [[Sterling Hayden]] plays General Jack D. Ripper; a young [[James Earl Jones]] plays bombardier Lieutenant Lothar Zogg; [[Keenan Wynn]] plays a Colonel "Bat" Guano, and [[Tracy Reed]] plays Gen. Turgidson's seductive secretary Miss Scott, the film's only female character.
Photography: [[Gilbert Taylor]]
Editor: [[Anthony Harvey]]
Production design: [[Ken Adam]]
Special effects: [[Wally Veevers]]
==Synopsis==
{{spoiler}}
Jack D. Ripper, a delusional [[US Air Force]] general, plans to strike the [[Soviet Union]] with a nuclear [[knockout blow]] in order to thwart a [[Communist]] conspiracy which threatens to "sap and impurify" the "precious bodily fluids" of the American people with [[water fluoridation|fluoridated water]]. Exceeding his authority, he convinces everyone at Burpelson Air Force Base that the [[United States]] is in a "shooting war" with the [[Soviet Union]], and orders the 843rd Bomb Wing (which was in the air at the time as part of a training exercise called "Operation Dropkick") past its [[fail-safe]] points and into [[Russia]]. The provisions of a military protocol known as "Plan R" ('R for Robert') allows lower-echelon commanders to authorize the use of nuclear weapons without Presidential authority during a "time of conflict." It was apparently put in place after a certain Senator by the name of Buford pointed out that the nuclear deterrence plan of the United States lacked credibility, in that if only the President could authorize a nuclear strike, retaliation could be avoided if the USSR succeeded in wiping him out in the first strike.
From the script:
:'''''Ripper:''''' Mandrake, I suppose it never occurred to you that while we're chatting here so enjoyably, a decision is being made by the President and the Joint Chiefs in the war room at the Pentagon. And when they realize there is no possibility of recalling the wing, there will be only one course of action open: total commitment... Mandrake, do you recall what [[Georges_Clemenceau|Clemenceau]] once said about war?
:'''''Mandrake:''''' No. I don't think I do sir, no.
:'''''Ripper:''''' He said war was too important to be left to the Generals. When he said that, fifty years ago, he might have been right. But today, war is too important to be left to politicians. They have neither the time, the training, nor the inclination for strategic thought. I can no longer sit back and allow communist infiltration, communist indoctrination, communist subversion, and the international communist conspiracy to sap and impurify all of our precious bodily fluids.
General Ripper is unaware that the Soviets have constructed a so-called "[[doomsday device]]" which automatically detects any nuclear attack on the Soviet Union, whereupon it destroys all life on Earth via massive [[nuclear fallout]]. Dr. Strangelove explains to the staff assembled in t |
lengths. Other activists, especially those from the more established tradition, view the safety, practicality, and intent of many [[segregated cycle facilities]] with suspicion. They favour a more holistic approach based on [[Traffic psychology#Accident prevention and improvement of traffic safety|the 4 'E's]]; ''education'' (of everyone involved), ''encouragement'' (to apply the education), ''enforcement'' (to protect the rights of others), and ''engineering'' (to facilitate travel while respecting every person's equal right to do so). In some cases this opposition has a more ideological basis: some members of the [[Vehicular cycling|Vehicular Cycling movement]] oppose segregated public facilities, such as on-street [[segregated cycle facilities|bike lanes]], on principle. Some groups offer [[Vehicular cycling#VC Education|training courses]] to help cyclists integrate themselves with other traffic. This is part of the ongoing [[cycle path debate]].
A recent focus, especially for European bicycle activists, has been opposition to compulsory [[bicycle helmet]] legislation. They cite evidence suggesting that compulsory helmet laws and helmet promotion have been associated with significant reductions in bicycle use and with increases in the risk of death or injury to individual cyclists. As a consequence, activists from both sides have put aside their differences in order to fight the helmet lobby.
[[Critical Mass]] is a worldwide activist movement of mass bicycle protest rides. It incorporates the themes of increasing the road- and mind-share given to bicycle transport, and has drawn support from environmentally minded campaigners and other schools of political thought. According to participants in Critical Mass, "We aren't blocking traffic, we ''are'' traffic!" However, their particular forms of protest has drawn criticism from the broader streams of activism.
==Types of bicycle==
There are many different types of bicycle. See also [[:Category:Cycle types]].
====By function====
* ''[[Mountain bicycle]]s'' are designed for off-road cycling, and include other sub-types of off-road bicycles such as Cross Country (i.e."XC"), Downhill , and to a lesser extent Freeride bicycles. All mountain bicycles feature sturdy, highly durable frames and wheels, wide-gauge treaded tires, and cross-wise handlebars to help the rider resist sudden jolts. Some mountain bicycles feature various types of suspension systems (e.g. coiled spring, air or gas shock), and hydraulic or mechanical disc brakes. Mountain bicycle gearing is very wide-ranging, from very low ratios to high ratios, typicaly with 21 to 30 gears.
* ''[[Racing bicycle]]s'' are designed for speed, and include road, time trial, and track bicycles. They have lightweight frames and components with minimal accessories, ''dropped'' handlebars to allow for an aerodynamic riding position, narrow high-pressure tires for minimal rolling resistance and multiple gears. Racing bicycles have a relatively narrow gear range, and typically varies from medium to very high ratios, distributed across 18, 20, 27 or 30 gears. The narrow gear ratios allow racers to fine tune their gear selection so as to produce an efficient pedalling cadence.
** ''[[Time trial bicycle]]s'' are similar to road bicycles but are differentiated by a more aggressive frame geometry that throws the rider into a more compact (i.e "aero") riding position. They also feature aerodynamic frames, wheels, and handlebars.
** ''[[Track bicycle]]s'', intended for indoor racing circuits, are exceptionally simplified to reduce weight. They have a single gear mounted to a fixed hub (i.e. no freewheel), no brakes, and are minimally adorned with other components that would otherwise be typical for a racing bicycle.
* Messenger bikes, as ridden by some riders especially in US, resemble track bikes, having fixed gears and no brakes, but are riden by messengers hustling packages for law firms, advertising firms, etc.
[[Image:Bike refelector safety flash.JPG|thumb|A modern ''touring bicycle'', with accessories and baggage]]
* ''[[Randonneur]]'' or ''Audax bicycles'' are designed for [[randonnée]]s or brevet rides, and fall in between racing bicycles and those intended for touring.
* ''[[Touring bicycle]]s'' are designed for [[bicycle touring]] and long journeys. They are durable and comfortable, capable of transporting baggage, and may feature any type of gearing system.
* ''[[Utility bicycle]]s'' are designed for commuting, shopping and running errands. They employ middle or light weight frames and tires, internal [[hub gear]]ing, and a variety of helpful accessories.
====By number of riders====
* A ''[[tandem bicycle|tandem]]'' or ''twin'' has two riders.
* A ''triplet'' has three riders; a ''quadruplet'' has four.
* The largest ''multi-bike'' had 40 riders.
In most of these types the riders ride one behind the other. Exceptions are "The Companion", or "sociable," a side-by-side two-person bike (that converted to a single-rider) built by the Punnett Cycle Mfg. Co. in Rochester, N. Y. in the 1890s. Another bicycle rented to tourists in [[Berlin]] carries eight people seated in a circle.
====By general construction====
* A ''[[penny-farthing]]'' or ''ordinary'' has one high wheel directly driven by the pedals and one small wheel.
* On an ''[[upright bicycle]]'' the rider sits astride the saddle. This is the most common type.
* On a ''[[recumbent bicycle]]'' the rider reclines or lies supine.
* A ''Pedersen'' bicycle has a bridge truss frame.
* A ''[[folding bicycle]]'' can be quickly folded for easy carrying, for example on public transport.
* A ''[[Moulton Bicycle]]'' has a traditional seating position, and utilises small diameter, high pressure tires and front and rear suspension.
* An ''[[exercise bicycle]]'' remains stationary; it is used for exercise rather than propulsion.
====By gearing====
* ''[[hub gear|Internal hub gearing]]'' is most common in European utility bicycles, usually ranging from [[three-speed bicycle]]s to five and seven speed options. But hub gears with eight and fourteen speeds are available as well.
* ''[[Shaft-driven bicycle]]s'' use a [[driveshaft]] rather than a chain to power the rear wheel. These are often used as commuter bikes because they eliminate inconveniences associated with chains and pant-legs, but they are less efficient than chain-driven bicycles. Shaft- driven bicycles usually employ internal hub gearing.
* ''[[Derailleur gears]]'', featured on most racing and touring bicycles, offering from 5 to 30 speeds
* ''[[Single-speed bicycle]]s'' and ''[[Fixed-gear bicycle]]s'' have only one gear, and include all [[BMX]] bikes, children's bikes, crowded city messenger bikes, and many others. The fixed gear has no [[freewheel]] mechanism, so whenever the bike is in motion the pedals continue to spin. An advantage of this is the pedals can also be used to slow down.
* ''[[Retro-Direct]] bicycles'' have two [[sprockets]] on the rear wheel. By backpedaling, the secondary, usually lower, gear is engaged.
[[Image:Velo acrobatique 2.jpg|thumb|[[Flatland_BMX|Flatland]] rider on a BMX bike]]
====By sport====
* ''[[Track bicycle]]s'' are ultra-simple, lightweight [[Fixed-gear bicycle|fixed-gear]] bikes with no brakes, designed for [[track cycling]] on purpose-built cycle tracks, often in [[velodrome]]s.
* ''[[Time trial bicycle]]s'' are similar to road bicycles with an extremely aerodynamic design for use in a cycling [[time trial]].
* ''[[Cyclo-cross]] bicycles'' are lightweight enough to be carried over obstacles, and robust enough to be cycled through mud.
* ''Down-hill racers'' are a specialized type of mountain bike with a very strong frame, altered geometry, and long travel suspension. They are designed for use only on downhill tracks.
* ''[[BMX]]'' (bicycle motocross) bicycles have small wheels and are used for [[BMX racing]], as well as for [[wheelie]]s, jumps, and other acrobatics.
* ''[[Triathlon]]'' bicycles have seat posts that are closer to vertical than the seat posts on road racing bicycles. This concentrates the effort of cycling in the [[quadriceps]] muscles, sparing the other large muscles of the leg for the running segment of the race. Triathlon bicycles also have specialized handlebars known as [[triathlon bars]] or aero bars.
====By means of propulsion====
* A ''pedal cycle'' is driven by pedals.
* A ''hand-cranked bicycle'' is driven by a hand crank.
* A ''rowing bicycle'' is driven by a rowing action using both arms and legs.
* A ''[[Motorized bicycle]]'' provides motor assistance.
* A ''[[moped]]'' propels the rider with a motor, but includes bicycle pedals for human propulsion.
* ''Shaft drive'' bicycles connect the pedals to the rear hub with a shaft instead of a chain.
* a "Flywheel" uses stored kinetic energy.
====Other types====
* ''[[Hybrid bicycle]]s'' are a compromise between the mountain and racing style bicycles which replaced European-style ''utility bikes'' in North America in the early 1990s. They have a light frame, medium gauge wheels, and derailleur gearing, and feature straight or curved-back, ''touring'' handlebars for more upright riding.
* ''[[Cruiser bicycle]]s'' are designed for comfort, with curved back handlebars, padded seats, and ''balloon'' tires. Cruisers typically have minimal gearing and are often available for rental at beaches and parks which feature flat terrain.
* ''[[Freight bicycle]]s'' are designed for transporting large or heavy loads.
* ''[[Cycle rickshaw]]s'' (also called ''pedicabs'' or ''trishaws'') are used to transport passengers for hire.
* ''[[Velomobile]]s'' or ''bicycle cars'' provide enclosed pedal-powered transportation.
* ''[[Clown bicycle]]s are designed for comedic effect or stunt riding. Some types of clown bicycles are:
** ''bucking bike'' (with one or more eccentric wheels)
**''[[tall bike]]'' (often called an ''upside down bike'', constructed so |
following few years.
The party's central locus of power is the Politburo Standing Committee. The process for selecting Standing Committee members, as well as Politburo members, occurs behind the scenes in a process parallel to the National Congress. The new power structure is announced obliquely through the positioning of portraits in the ''[[People's Daily]]'', the official newspaper of the Party. The number of Standing Committee members varies and has tended to increase over time. The Committee was expanded to nine at the 16th Party National Congress in 2002.
There are two other key organs of political power in the People's Republic of China: the formal government and the [[People's Liberation Army]].
There are, in addition to decision-making roles, advisory committees, including the [[People's Political Consultative Conference]]. During the 1980s and 1990s there was a [[Central Advisory Commission]] established by [[Deng Xiaoping]] which consisted of senior retired leaders, but with their passing this has been abolished.
==Criticism and support==
There is a variety of opinions about the Communist Party of China, and opinions about the CPC often create unexpected political alliances and divisions. For example, many [[chief executive officer]]s of Western companies tend to have favorable impressions of the CPC, while many revolutionary [[Maoism|Maoists]] and other [[Marxism|Marxists]] have strongly negative opinions. A few [[Trotskyists]] argue that the party lost its Marxist credentials in the 1920s and adhered to a [[state capitalist]] political doctrine. Opinions about the CPC also create very strong divisions among groups normally ideologically united such as [[conservatism|conservatives]] in the [[United States]].
Many of the unexpected opinions about the CPC result from its rare combination of attributes as a party formally based on [[Marxism]] which has overseen a dynamic [[market economy]], yet maintains an authoritarian political system.
Supporters of [[Tibetan nationalism]], the [[Republic of China|Republic of China on Taiwan]], and [[Taiwan independence]], [[Neoconservatism (United States)|neoconservative]]s in the [[United States]] and [[Japan]], along with most [[left-wing politics|left-wing]] forces in those same countries, are among the groups which have opposed the CPC government as a [[single-party state]] regime.
In addition, American neoconservatives sometimes argue that the Communist Party of China is a grave threat to peace because of its authoritarian nature, its adherence to a military build up, and threats made to Taiwan.
Some of the opponents of the Party within the [[Chinese democracy movement]] have tended not to argue that a strong Chinese state is inherently bad, but rather that the Communist leadership is corrupt. [[Chinese Neo-Leftism]], meanwhile, is a current within China that seeks to "revert China to the [[socialist]] road" -- i.e., to return China to the days after [[Mao]] but before the reforms of [[Deng Xiaoping]] and his successors.
Another school of thought argues that the worst of the abuses took place decades ago, and that the current leadership is not only unconnected with them, but were actually victims of that era. They have also argued that while the modern Communist Party may be flawed, it is comparatively better than previous regimes, with respect to improving the general standard of living, than any other government that has governed China in the past century and can be put in more favorable light against most governments of the [[developing nation]]s. However, farmers and other rural people have been marginalized, and their standard of living and national influence have been greatly reduced.
Finally, some supporters have been argued that despite its flaws, the Communist Party is better than its alternatives, and that a sudden transition to [[democracy]] would result in the economic and political upheaval that occurred in [[Russia]] in the 1990s, and that by focusing on economic growth, China is setting the stage for a more gradual but more sustainable transition to a more liberal system. This group sees Mainland China as being similar to [[Spain]] in the 1960s, and [[South Korea]] and [[Taiwan]] during the 1970s.
As with the first group, this school of thought brings together some unlikely political allies. Not only are most members of the Chinese government members of this school of thinking, but it also include business concerns in the United States and pro-[[free trade]] liberals.
==Current members of the Central Committee==
The Members of the [[Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China]] are (as of 2003):
* [[Hu Jintao]] - [[President of the People's Republic of China]], [[General Secretary of the CPC]].
* [[Wu Bangguo]] - Chairman of the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]]
* [[Wen Jiabao]] - [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|Premier]] of the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Jia Qinglin]] - Chairman of the [[People's Political Consultative Conference]]
* [[Zeng Qinghong]] - [[Vice President of the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Huang Ju]] - Vice Premier, State Council
* [[Wu Guanzheng]] - Secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection
* [[Li Changchun]] - no other positions held, known to many as the propaganda chief
* [[Luo Gan]] - Political and Legislative Affairs Committee secretary
Members of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central committee:
[[Wang Lequan]], [[Wang Zhaoguo]], [[Hui Liangyu]], [[Liu Qi]], [[Liu Yunshan]], [[Li Changchun]], [[Wu Yi]], [[Wu Bangguo]], [[Wu Guanzheng]], [[Zhang Lichang]], [[Zhang Dejiang]], [[Chen Liangyu]], [[Luo Gan]], [[Zhou Yongkang]], [[Hu Jintao]], [[Yu Zhengsheng]], [[He Guoqiang]], [[Jia Qinglin]], [[Guo Boxiong]], [[Huang Ju]], [[Cao Gangchuan]], [[Zeng Qinghong]], [[Zeng Peiyan]], [[Wen Jiabao]].
Alternate member of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee: [[Wang Gang]]
Members of Secretariat of the CPC Central Committee: Zeng Qinghong, [[Liu Yunshan]], [[Zhou Yongkang]], He Guoqiang, [[Wang Gang]], [[Xu Caihou]], [[He Yong]].
==List of leaders of the Communist Party of China==
===List of [[Chairman of the Communist Party of China|Chairmen of the Communist Party of China]]===
*[[Chen Duxiu]] (1922-1925)
*[[Mao Zedong]] (1945-1976)
* [[Hua Guofeng]] (1976-1981)
*[[Hu Yaobang]] (1981-1982)
:''The list ends here because the position was abolished in 1982. Since 1980, the General Secretary has been the most powerful position in the party.''
===List of [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of China|General Secretaries of the CPC Central Committee]]===
* [[Chen Duxiu]] (1921-1922; 1925-1928)
* [[Xiang Zhongfa]] (1928-1931)
* [[Li Lisan]], acting (1929-1930)
* [[Wang Ming]], acting (1931)
* [[Bo Gu]], aka Qin Bangxian (1932-1935)
* [[Zhang Wentian]], aka Luo Fu (1935-1943)
* [[Deng Xiaoping]] (1956-1966)
* [[Hu Yaobang]] (1980-1987)
* [[Zhao Ziyang]] (1987-1989)
* [[Jiang Zemin]] (1989-2002)
* [[Hu Jintao]] (since 2002)
:''Prior to the abolition of the post of Chairman in 1982, the General Secretary served more of a bureaucratic role subordinate to the Chairman.''
===CCP Renunciations and Controversy===
[[The Epoch Times]] claims that over 7.8 million CCP members have "resigned" from the party, due to the publication of "Nine Commentaries on the CCP" and its subsequent call to CCP members to "erase the beastly brand". This number is widely disputed, as anyone regardless of Chinese citizenship or CCP membership can resign more than once, and has been accused by some to be an online petition rather than serious political activity. Submissions include anonymous and unverifiable online signatures and public declarations for people inside mainland China unable to access the online website due to censorship. The count actually includes any renunciations of past or current association with any CCP-affiliated organization. At their Chinese language renunciation website [http://tuidang.epochtimes.com], it was stated that 'the evils of the Communist Cult will be punished by God at Judgment Day', and called members of the CCP to burn Communist memorabilia. However such renunciations are not recognised as valid by the CCP, as they are not conducted through the proper channels via the party.
The Epoch Times has also reported severe unrest in China as a direct result of the publication of their "Commentaries", but no major news outlet has verified the paper's claims concerning the effects of the "Commentaries". The extent of the paper's effect on Chinese politics is unclear, as no major CCP official in either the central or regional governments has ever resigned because of the "Commentaries".
== See also ==
* [[Chinese Anarchism]]
* [[Communist Party]]
* [[List of Communist Parties]]
==External links==
{{commons|Communist Party of China}}
*[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn Official newspaper]
*[http://english.gov.cn/ Official website]
*[http://www.etext.org/Politics/MIM/classics/mao/index.html#CPC Mao-era Communist Party of China books and articles in English]
*[http://ninecommentaries.com/ Nine Commentaries on the Chinese Communist Party] (Falun Gong sponsored)
[[Category:Communist Party of China]]
[[Category:Mainland China]]
[[Category:People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:Political parties in the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:Single-party system parties]]
[[Category:Political parties in China]]
[[Category:1921 establishments]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tiong-kok Kiōng-sán-tóng]]
[[de:Kommunistische Partei Chinas]]
[[es:Partido Comunista de China]]
[[fa:حزب کمونیست چین]]
[[fr:Parti communiste chinois]]
[[gl:Partido Comunista de China]]
[[ko:중국공산당]]
[[id:Partai Komunis Tiongkok]]
[[it:Partito Comunista Cinese]]
[[nl:Communistische Partij van China]]
[[ja:中国共産党]]
[[no:Det kinesiske kommunistparti]]
[[pl:Komunisty |
raged.
Polygamy is described as "not in accord with the moral law". Conjugal communion is radically contradicted by polygamy; this, in fact, directly negates the plan of God which was revealed from the beginning, because it is contrary to the equal personal dignity of men and women who in matrimony give themselves with a love that is total and therefore unique and exclusive." Roman Catholic teaching holds that even the Patriarchs were breaking the natural law with their polygamy, although God created an exception for them.
[http://www.saveoursacrament.org/home.html Information on Roman Catholic annullments] -
[http://www.dsj.org/tribunal/annulment.htm Diocese of San Jose Annulment Tribunal] -
[http://www.sdnewsnotes.com/ed/articles/1998/0698tb.htm Catholic divorce] - [http://www.familyland.org/ Catholic Familyland] - In Vatican website, [[catechism]] contents about [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/subject_index/subject-index-cat_marriage_en.html marriage] and [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/subject_index/subject-index-cat_divorce_en.html divorce]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07695a.htm Canonical Impediments] - From the Catholic Encyclopedia
== View of Orthodox Christians ==
In [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], marriage is also treated as a sacrament, and as an ordination, and (like all ordinations) like a martyrdom, as each spouse learns to die to himself or herself for the sake of the other. Like all ordinations, it is viewed as revealing and sealing the relationship that has formed between the couple. In addition, marriage is an icon or image of the relationship between [[Jesus]] and the Church. This is somewhat akin to the [[Old Testament]] prophets' use of marriage as an analogy to describe the relationship between God and Israel. Divorce is discouraged, but allowed, in some cases to acknowledge that the relationship no longer exists. A lay member may obtain permission to remarry under the counsel of a priest, but the ceremony and prayers would be different, less joyful and more sober and sombre.
A married man may be ordained as a priest or deacon. However,
a priest or deacon is not permitted to enter into matrimony after ordination, whether he has become divorced or widowed, or even if he had not been married at the time of ordination. Bishops are always celibate.
Overall, there is a far less legislative approach regarding married life than in Roman Catholicism.
Orthodox Christians are......
== View of [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Christians ==
Protestant denominations tend to have their own individually applicable doctrines, which represent only the churches in communion with one another. However, some beliefs are typical of almost all Protestants. And, there are intra-denominational and cross-denominational movements, within which the beliefs and practices of adherents are more narrowly defined.
Protestants typically acknowledge a difference between the sacraments of ([[Baptism]] and [[Eucharist|Communion]]), and all other ordinances of God by which the favor of God is shown to men. Almost all Protestant denominations hold marriage to be ordained by God for the union between a man and a woman, based on the passage from Matthew above. Most of them also hold that the primary purpose of this union is to glorify God by demonstrating his love to the world; other purposes of marriage include the raising of children and bringing help to enable both husband and wife to fulfill their life callings. Most Protestants are less likely to hold a negative view of [[birth control]] and many see sexual pleasure within marriage as a gift of God.
See also:
* [[Baptist]]
* [[Methodist]]
* [[Assembly of God]]
* [[Presbyterian]]
=== [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] [[Protestantism|Protestant]] View ===
In addition to the limitations on who may marry (discussed above), evangelicals take a strict view of the nature of [[marriage]]. For evangelicals, marriage is the only appropriate channel for sexual expression and [[divorce]] is permissible, if at all, only in very specific circumstances such as infidelity. Marriage is seen as a solemn covenant between the couple and [[God]]. The man is seen as the head of the household and his wife is expected to submit to him. However, there are two views within evangelicalism of how this should work out in practice:
* The traditionalist or complementarian view sees the husband as having loving authority over the wife as the servant-leader of the household. The wife's role is to cheerfully submit to this authority where it does not conflict with her conscience or with biblical teaching.
* The egalitarian view sees the husband's headship as meaning he is the source who works to ensure his wife's growth and development as a person. The wife's submission is seen in the context of Paul's injunction (in Ephesians 5:21) for all Christians to submit to one another.
Proponents of both views emphasise that headship and submission are worked out in the context that a husband is expected to protect and care for his wife and put her needs before his own. These principles reflect the concept that Christ is the head of the Church, or those who call themselves His followers, and loves her even to the point of dying for her.
=== [[Liberal Christianity|Liberal Christian]] [[Protestantism|Protestant]] View ===
[[Liberal Christianity|Liberal christians]], almost by definition, give a great deal of consideration to cultural norms. In the [[Western world]], the primary place where liberal Protestantism is found, pre-marital sex, [[same-sex marriage]] (and to some extent [[homosexuality]] in general) and [[divorce]] are increasingly becoming the norm and so liberal Protestants have become increasingly accepting of these practices. While liberals view divorce as regrettable, they generally do not believe it to be sinful. Likewise, pre-marital sex may be considered to be unwise, but since it is not unusual it is often considered to be acceptable. Since the rise of [[feminism]] liberals also generally reject any claim of male headship and see the [[Marriage|husband]] and [[wife]] as an equal team.
== View of non-Protestant, non-Catholic Christians ==
In [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] ("LDS Church"; see also [[Mormon]]), "[[Eternal Marriage]]" is a sacred covenant between a man, a woman and God performed by a [[priesthood (Mormonism)|priesthood]] authority in the [[Temple (Mormonism)|temples]] of the Church. Eternal Marriage is legally recognized, but unlike other civil marriages, Eternal Marriage is intended to continue into the [[afterlife]] after the [[resurrection]] if the man and woman do not break their covenants. Eternally married couples are often referred to as being "[[sealing (Mormonism)|sealed]]" to each other. Sealed couples who keep their covenants are also promised to have their posterity sealed to them in the after life. Thus, the slogan of the LDS Church: "families are forever". The LDS Church encourages its members to be in good standing with it so that they may marry in the temple. "Cancellation of a sealing", sometimes incorrectly called a "temple divorce", is uncommon and is granted only by the highest authority in the Church. Civil divorce and marriage outside the temple is somewhat of a stigma in the [[Latter-day Saint]] culture although currently the Church itself directs its local leaders not to advise members about divorce one way or another.
In the [[New Church]] (or [[Swedenborgianism]]), marriage is considered a sacred covenant between one man, one woman and the [[Lord]]. The doctrine of the New Church teaches that married love (sometime translated ''[[conjugal love]]'') is "the precious jewel of human life and the repository of the Christian religion" because the love shared between a husband and a wife is the source of all peace and joy ([http://www.theheavenlydoctrines.org/static/d6295/457.htm see ''Married Love'' 457]). Marriage is also meant to be eternal and divorce is only allowable when the spiritual union is broken by adultery. When a husband and wife work together to become [[angels]] in [[heaven]], their marriage continues uninterrupted even after the death of their bodies, living together in heaven to eternity. [[Emanuel Swedenborg]] spoke to [[angels]] who had been married for thousands of years. Those who are never married on earth will find a spouse in heaven. <!--please insert other denominational views here-->
==See also==
[http://www.nd.edu/~theo/research/jhy_2/writings/mardiv%26sex/oneflesh.htm An essay on the Christian view of the meaning and permanence of Marriage].
<br>[[Religious aspects of marriage]] (for all religions).
[[Category:Christian liturgy, rites, and worship services|Marriage, Christian view of]]
[[Category:Christian viewpoints]]
[[Category:Marriage and religion]]
[[Category:Catholic marriage]]
[[eo:Nupto]]
==External links==
* [http://www.catholic.net/rcc/Periodicals/Homiletic/2001-10/orchard.html Bernard Orchard, ''The Betrothal and Marriage of Mary to Joseph'', Part 1;] [http://www.catholic.net/rcc/Periodicals/Homiletic/2001-11/orchard.html Part 2]
* [http://uk.geocities.com/ducatumevangelii@btinternet.com/Maryandjoseph1a.htm Bernard Orchard, Summary of ''The Betrothal and Marriage of Mary to Joseph'' and chronological chart]
*[http://www.annulmentfaq.com www.annulmentfaq.com – Annulment guide (Catholic Annulments)]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Class (computer science)</title>
<id>7392</id>
<revision>
<id>42033027</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T09:39:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluemoose</username>
<id>178836</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/61.95.208.194|61.95.208.194]] ([[User talk:61.95.208.194|talk]]) to |
e. Heathrow is also the set of the BBC/Discovery show [[Airport (television show)|Airport]].
A more surprising appearance of the airport was in the [[1964]] movie [[Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb|Dr. Strangelove]]. General Ripper's office at the fictitious Burpelson [[United States Air Force|Air Force Base]] is decorated with a large aerial photo, presumably of the base; but in fact this is Heathrow Airport, in its old 6-runway configuration.
The 2003 [[BBC]] Docu-Drama [[The Day Britain Stopped]] focused on how a poorly maintained transport infrastructure could cause major disaster, culminating in a major aircraft collision at Heathrow.
==Base Terminals of Airlines==
The current terminal system at Heathrow sees [[British Airways]] having operations in Terminals 1, 3 and 4, and does little to align airline partnerships within terminal buildings. This should change once T5 is opened (as detailed above).
===Terminal 1===
* [[Aer Lingus]] (Cork, Dublin, Shannon)
* [[Air Sahara]] (Delhi)
* [[Air Seychelles]] (Seychelles)
* [[Bmi (airline)|bmi]] (Aberdeen, Ajaccio, Alicante, Amsterdam, Belfast City, Brussels, Cagliari, Catania, Corfu, Dublin, Durham Tees Valley, Edinburgh, Geneva, Glasgow, Hanover, Inverness, Kefalhnia, Leeds/Bradford, Madrid, Manchester (UK), Milan-Linate, Mumbai, Naples, Nice, Palermo, Palma de Mallorca, Paris-CDG, Riyadh, Tenerife, Venice)
* [[British Airways]] (Aberdeen, Barcelona, Belgrade, Berlin-Tegel, Bucharest, Budapest, Cologne/Bonn, Dusseldorf, Edinburgh, Frankfurt, Glasgow, Hamburg, Helsinki, Hong Kong, Istanbul, Johannesburg, Kiev, Larnaca, Lisbon, Los Angeles, Madrid, Manchester (UK), Milan-Linate, Milan-Malpensa, Moscow-Domododevo, Munich, Newcastle, Nice, Prague, Munich, Rome-Fiumicino, St. Petersburg (RU), San Francisco, Sofia, Stockholm-Arlanda, Stuttgart, Tripoli, Tokyo-Narita, Warsaw)
** [[GB Airways]] (Casablanca, Gibraltar, Málaga, Marrakech, Tangiers)
* [[Cyprus Airways]] (Larnaca)
* [[EL AL]] (Tel Aviv)
* [[Finnair]] (Helsinki)
* [[LOT Polish Airlines]] (Warsaw)
* [[South African Airways]] (Cape Town, Johannesburg)
* [[Sundor]] (Tel Aviv)
===Terminal 2===
* [[Aeroflot]] (Moscow-Sheremetyevo, Tokyo-Narita)
* [[Air Algerie]] (Algiers)
* [[Air Astana]] (Almaty)
* [[Air France]] (Lyon, Paris-Charles de Gaulle)
* [[Alitalia]] (Milan-Linate, Milan-Malpensa, Rome-Fiumicino)
* [[Austrian Airlines]] (Vienna)
* [[Bellview Airlines (Sierra Leone)|Bellview Airlines]] (Freetown)
* [[Bmi (airline)|bmi]] (Hanover)
* [[China Eastern Airlines]] (Shanghai-Pudong)
* [[Croatia Airlines]] (Rijeka, Split, Zagreb)
* [[CSA Czech Airlines]] (Prague)
* [[Helios Airways]] (Larnaca)
* [[Iberia Airlines|Iberia]] (Barcelona, Bilbao, Madrid, Málaga, Santiago de Compostela, Seville, Valencia)
* [[Icelandair]] (Keflavik)
* [[Jat Airways]] (Belgrade, Tivat)
* [[Libyan Arab Airlines]] (Benghazi, Tripoli)
* [[Lufthansa]] (Cologne/Bonn, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Stuttgart)
* [[Luxair]] (Luxembourg)
* [[Malév Hungarian Airlines]] (Budapest)
* [[Olympic Airlines]] (Athens)
* [[Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise]] (St. Petersburg (RU))
* [[Royal Air Maroc]] (Casablanca, Marrakesh, Tangiers)
* [[Swiss International Airlines]] (Sion, Zürich)
* [[Syrian Arab Airlines]] (Damascus)
* [[TAP Portugal]] (Faro, Funchal, Lisbon, Porto)
* [[Tarom|TAROM]] (Bucharest)
* [[Tunisair]] (Tunis)
* [[Uzbekistan Airways]] (Tashkent)
* [[Yemenia]] (Sanaa)
===Terminal 3===
[[Image:LHR Terminal 3 waiting area.jpg|thumb|right|330px|Terminal 3 has a large centralized waiting/shopping area]]
* [[Air Baltic]] (Riga)
* [[Air Canada]] (Calgary, Halifax, Montréal, Ottawa, St. John's, Toronto, Vancouver)
* [[Air China]] (Beijing)
* [[Air India]] (Ahmedabad, Chicago-O'Hare, Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, New York-JFK)
* [[Air Jamaica]] (Kingston, Montego Bay)
* [[Air Mauritius]] (Mauritius)
* [[Air New Zealand]] (Auckland, Los Angeles)
* [[All Nippon Airways]] (Tokyo-Narita)
* [[American Airlines]] (Boston, Chicago-O'Hare, Los Angeles, Miami, New York-JFK)
* [[Biman Bangladesh]] (Dhaka, Dubai)
* [[British Airways]] (Miami)
* [[British West Indian Airways]] (Antigua, Bridgetown Barbados, St Lucia, Port of Spain)
* [[Cathay Pacific]] (Hong Kong)
* [[Egyptair]] (Cairo, Luxor)
* [[Emirates]] (Dubai)
* [[Etihad]] (Abu Dhabi)
* [[Ethiopian Airlines]] (Addis Ababa)
* [[EVA Air]] (Bangkok, Taipei-Chiang Kai Shek)
* [[Gulf Air]] (Abu Dhabi, Bahrain, Muscat)
* [[Iran Air]] (Tehran)
* [[Japan Air Lines]] (Osaka-Kansai, Tokyo-Narita)
* [[Jet Airways]] (Mumbai, Delhi)
* [[Kıbrıs Türk Hava Yolları]] (Izmir)
* [[Korean Air]] (Seoul-Incheon)
* [[Kuwait Airways]] (Kuwait, New York-JFK)
* [[Malaysia Airlines]] (Kuala Lumpur, Langkawi, Penang)
* [[Middle East Airlines Liban]] (Beirut)
* [[Pakistan International Airlines]] (Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore)
* [[Qatar Airways]] (Doha)
* [[Royal Brunei]] (Bandar Seri Begawan)
* [[Royal Jordanian]] (Amman, Agada)
* [[Scandinavian Airlines System|SAS]] (Copenhagen, Gothenburg-Landvetter, Oslo, Stavanger, Stockholm-Arlanda)
* [[Saudi Arabian Airlines]] (Jeddah, Riyadh)
* [[Singapore Airlines]] (Singapore)
* [[Thai Airways International]] (Bangkok)
* [[Turkish Airlines]] (Antalya, Istanbul, Izmir)
* [[Turkmenistan Airlines]] (Ashkhabad)
* [[United Airlines]] (Chicago-O'Hare, Denver, Los Angeles, New York-JFK, San Francisco, Washington-Dulles)
* [[Varig]] (Copenhagen, São Paulo-Guarulhos)
* [[Virgin Atlantic Airways]] (Boston, Cape Town, Delhi, Dubai (Starting on: [[27 March]] [[2006]]), Hong Kong, Johannesburg, Kuala Lumpur, Lagos, Los Angeles, Miami, Mumbai, New York-JFK, Newark, San Francisco, Shanghai-Pudong, Singapore, Sydney, Tokyo-Narita, Washington-Dulles)
===Terminal 4===
* [[Air Malta]] (Luqa/Gudja)
* [[Asiana Airlines]] (Seoul-Incheon)
* [[British Airways]] (Abu Dhabi, Abuja, Accra, Amsterdam, Athens, Bahrain, Baltimore/Washington, Bangalore,Bangkok, Basel, Beijing, Boston, Brussels, Buenos Aires-Ezeiza, Cairo, Cape Town, Chennai, Chicago-O'Hare, Copenhagen, Dacca, Dar es Salaam, Delhi, Denver, Detroit, Doha, Dubai, Entebbe, Geneva, Grand Cayman, Harare, Houston-Intercontinental, Islamabad, Jeddah, Kolkata, Kuwait, Lagos, Lilongwe, Luanda, Lusaka, Lyon, Mauritius, Melbourne, Mexico City, Montréal, Mumbai, Muscat, Nairobi, Nassau, Newark, New York-JFK, Oslo, Paris-Charles de Gaulle, Philadelphia, Phoenix, Providenciales, Riga, Rio de Janeiro-Galeão, Riyadh, São Paulo-Guarulhos, Seattle/Tacoma, Seychelles, Shanghai, Singapore, Sydney, Tel Aviv, Toronto, Vancouver, Vienna, Washington-Dulles, Zürich)
** [[British Mediterranean Airways]] (Addis Ababa, Aleppo, Alexandria, Almaty, Amman, Ankara, Baku, Beirut, Bishkek, Damascus, Ekaterinburg, Khartoum, Tashkent, Tbilisi, Tehran, Yerevan)
* [[Kenya Airways]] (Nairobi)
* [[KLM]] (Amsterdam, Eindhoven, Rotterdam)
* [[Qantas]] (Bangkok, Hong Kong, Melbourne, Perth, Singapore, Sydney)
* [[SN Brussels Airlines]] (Brussels)
* [[SriLankan]] (Colombo, Male)
===Terminal 5===
Terminal 5 is under construction, and is scheduled for completion in [[2008]]. It will be used by [[British Airways]].
==External links==
{{commons|Category:London Heathrow Airport}}
* [http://www.heathrowairport.com/ Heathrow Airport official website]
* [http://www.baa.com BAA plc] - company that owns Heathrow
* [http://www.aviation.dft.gov.uk/index.htm Department for Transport - Aviation]
* [http://www.hacan.org.uk Heathrow Association for the Control of Aircraft Noise (HACAN Clearskies)]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3324701.stm BBC News report on the go-ahead for the third runway]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=51.469402,-0.454559&spn=0.078441,0.120352&t=k Heathrow Airport at Google Maps]
{{UKAirports}}
[[Category:Airports in England]]
[[Category:Airports of the London region]]
[[Category:Hillingdon|Heathrow]]
[[Category:Public inquiries]]
[[cs:Letiště Heathrow]]
[[de:Flughafen London-Heathrow]]
[[es:Aeropuerto Heathrow de Londres]]
[[fa:فرودگاه هیثرو]]
[[fr:Aéroport de Londres Heathrow]]
[[id:Bandara London Heathrow]]
[[he:לונדון הית'רו]]
[[nl:Heathrow]]
[[ja:ロンドン・ヒースロー空港]]
[[no:London Heathrow Airport]]
[[pt:Aeroporto de Heathrow]]
[[ru:Хитроу]]
[[fi:Heathrow]]
[[sv:London Heathrow Airport]]
[[zh:倫敦希斯路機場]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heat Film</title>
<id>13596</id>
<revision>
<id>24821126</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-05T16:27:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Reedy Boy</username>
<id>449918</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>updated redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Heat (film)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hypercomplex numbers</title>
<id>13597</id>
<revision>
<id>15911194</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-05T16:15:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Hypercomplex number]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Hypercomplex number]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HPV</title>
<id>13598</id>
<revision>
<id>34037411</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-05T23:32:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.3.182.214</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''HPV''' is an [[initialism]] that can mean :
* [[Human Powered Vehicle]]
* [[Human papillomavirus]] a virus which causes warts, including, but not limited to genital warts, a type of [[Sexually Transmitted Disease|STD]]
* [[High Production Volume Chemicals]]
* [[Health Purchasing Victoria]]
* [[Hypoxic Pulmonary Vasoconstriction]], a physiological phenomenon of the lungs
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hipparchus (astronomer)</title>
<id>13600</id>
<revision>
<id>42065757</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:58:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pmanderson</username>
<id>646 |
found) for becoming and existing, respectively.
*'''Swedish''': ''Vem vill '''bli''' miljonär?'' &mdash; ''Who wants ''to be'' a millionaire?''. &mdash; [[Bengt Magnusson]]
*'''Swedish''': ''Varför bestiga Mt. Everest? Därfor att det '''finns''' där.'' &mdash; ''Why climb Mt. Everest? Because it ''is'' there''. &mdash; [[George Mallory]]
In [[ontology]], philosophical discussions of the word "be" and its conjugations takes place over the meaning of the word ''is,'' the third person singular form of 'be', and whether the other senses can be [[reduction|reduced]] to one sense. For example, it is sometimes suggested that the "is" of existence is reducible to the "is" of property attribution or class membership; to be, [[Aristotle]] held, is to be ''something''. Of course, the gerund form of "be", ''being'', is its own (vexed) topic: see [[being]] and [[existence]].
==Copula as subset relator==
From one perspective, the copula always relates two things as subsets. Take the following examples:
#''John is a doctor.''
#''John and Mary are doctors.''
#''Doctors are educated.''
#''Mary is running.''
#''Running is fun.''
Example 1 includes John in the set of all doctors. Example 2 includes John and Mary both in the set of all doctors. Example 3 includes the set of doctors in the set of those who are educated.
Example 4 is different. Example 4 includes Mary's [[Stative verb|state]] at the time of utterance in the [[Dynamic verb|set of states consistent with running]]. Example 5 then includes the set of states consistent with running in the set of states consistent with fun.
[[Category:Parts of speech]]
[[Category:Verb types]]
[[de:Kopula]]
[[et:Koopula]]
[[ga:Copail]]
[[hr:Pomoćni glagoli]]
[[hu:Kopula]]
[[ja:コピュラ]]
[[sv:Kopula]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cheese/Gruyere</title>
<id>5631</id>
<revision>
<id>32008359</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-19T20:54:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Esprit15d</username>
<id>379272</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixed redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gruyère (cheese)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Venezuelan Beaver cheese</title>
<id>5632</id>
<revision>
<id>20868705</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-12T18:15:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MakeRocketGoNow</username>
<id>71825</id>
</contributor>
<comment>dab link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Venezuelan Beaver cheese''' is a variety of [[cheese]] referred to in the "[[Cheese Shop sketch]]" from ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]''. Although this delicacy appears to be entirely fictional, various recipes for Venezuelan Beaver cheese have in fact been published. The active ingredients generally include [[beaver]] milk (Venezuelan beavers apparently preferred, though [[Venezuela]] has no native beavers), [[rennet]] and salt.
Venezuelan Beaver cheese also makes an appearance in [[Sierra Entertainment|Sierra]]'s computer adventure game ''[[Leisure Suit Larry|Leisure Suit Larry VII]]'', and in the webcomic ''[[Triangle and Robert]]''.
[[Category:Cheeses]]
[[Category:Monty Python]]
[[Category:Fictional foods]]
[[da:Venezuelansk bæverost]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Centuries</title>
<id>5634</id>
<revision>
<id>39470910</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T09:45:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.145.133.223</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">These pages contain the trends of [[millennium|millennia]] and [[century|centuries]]. The individual century pages contain lists of decades and years. See [[history]] for different organizations of historical events. See [[calendar]] and [[list of calendars]] for other groupings of years.
For earlier time periods, see [[cosmological timeline]], [[geologic timescale]], [[evolutionary timeline]], [[pleistocene]], and [[logarithmic timeline]].
* '''[[Paleolithic]]'''
* '''[[10th millennium BCE]]''' | '''[[9th millennium BCE]]''' | '''[[8th millennium BCE]]'''
* '''[[7th millennium BCE]]''' | '''[[6th millennium BCE]]''' | '''[[5th millennium BCE]]'''
{|
! style="background-color:#efefef;" | Millennium || align="center" colspan="10" | Century
|-
| style="background-color:#efefef;" | '''[[4th millennium BCE|4th BCE]]''':
| align=right | [[40th century BCE|40th BCE]]
| align=right | [[39th century BCE|39th BCE]]
| align=right | [[38th century BCE|38th BCE]]
| align=right | [[37th century BCE|37th BCE]]
| align=right | [[36th century BCE|36th BCE]]
| align=right | [[35th century BCE|35th BCE]]
| align=right | [[34th century BCE|34th BCE]]
| align=right | [[33rd century BCE|33rd BCE]]
| align=right | [[32nd century BCE|32nd BCE]]
| align=right | [[31st century BCE|31st BCE]]
|-
| style="background-color:#efefef;" | '''[[3rd millennium BCE|3rd BCE]]''':
| align=right | [[30th century BCE|30th BCE]]
| align=right | [[29th century BCE|29th BCE]]
| align=right | [[28th century BCE|28th BCE]]
| align=right | [[27th century BCE|27th BCE]]
| align=right | [[26th century BCE|26th BCE]]
| align=right | [[25th century BCE|25th BCE]]
| align=right | [[24th century BCE|24th BCE]]
| align=right | [[23rd century BCE|23rd BCE]]
| align=right | [[22nd century BCE|22nd BCE]]
| align=right | [[21st century BCE|21st BCE]]
|-
| style="background-color:#efefef;" | '''[[2nd millennium BCE|2nd BCE]]''':
| align=right | [[20th century BCE|20th BCE]]
| align=right | [[19th century BCE|19th BCE]]
| align=right | [[18th century BCE|18th BCE]]
| align=right | [[17th century BCE|17th BCE]]
| align=right | [[16th century BCE|16th BCE]]
| align=right | [[15th century BCE|15th BCE]]
| align=right | [[14th century BCE|14th BCE]]
| align=right | [[13th century BCE|13th BCE]]
| align=right | [[12th century BCE|12th BCE]]
| align=right | [[11th century BCE|11th BCE]]
|-
| style="background-color:#efefef;" | '''[[1st millennium BCE|1st BCE]]''':
| align=right | [[10th century BCE|10th BCE]]
| align=right | [[9th century BCE|9th BCE]]
| align=right | [[8th century BCE|8th BCE]]
| align=right | [[7th century BCE|7th BCE]]
| align=right | [[6th century BCE|6th BCE]]
| align=right | [[5th century BCE|5th BCE]]
| align=right | [[4th century BCE|4th BCE]]
| align=right | [[3rd century BCE|3rd BCE]]
| align=right | [[2nd century BCE|2nd BCE]]
| align=right | [[1st century BCE|1st BCE]]
|-
| style="background-color:#efefef;" | '''[[1st millennium|1st]]''':
| align=left | &nbsp;&nbsp;[[1st century|1st]]
| align=left | &nbsp;&nbsp;[[2nd century|2nd]]
| align=left | &nbsp;&nbsp;[[3rd century|3rd]]
| align=left | &nbsp;&nbsp;[[4th century|4th]]
| align=left | &nbsp;&nbsp;[[5th century|5th]]
| align=left | &nbsp;&nbsp;[[6th century|6th]]
| align=left | &nbsp;&nbsp;[[7th century|7th]]
| align=left | &nbsp;&nbsp;[[8th century|8th]]
| align=left | &nbsp;&nbsp;[[9th century|9th]]
| align=left | [[10th century|10th]]
|-
| style="background-color:#efefef;" | '''[[2nd millennium|2nd]]''':
| align=left | [[11th century|11th]]
| align=left | [[12th century|12th]]
| align=left | [[13th century|13th]]
| align=left | [[14th century|14th]]
| align=left | [[15th century|15th]]
| align=left | [[16th century|16th]]
| align=left | [[17th century|17th]]
| align=left | [[18th century|18th]]
| align=left | [[19th century|19th]]
| align=left | [[20th century|20th]]
|-
| style="background-color:#efefef;" | '''[[3rd millennium|3rd]]''':
| align=left | [[21st century|21st]]
| align=left | [[22nd century|22nd]]
| align=left | [[23rd century|23rd]]
| align=left | [[24th century|24th]]
| align=left | [[25th century|25th]]
| align=left | [[26th century|26th]]
| align=left | [[27th century|27th]]
| align=left | [[28th century|28th]]
| align=left | [[29th century|29th]]
| align=left | [[30th century|30th]]
|-
| style="background-color:#efefef;" | '''[[4th millennium|4th]]''':
| align=left | [[31st century|31st]]
| align=left | [[32nd century|32nd]]
| align=left | [[33rd century|33rd]]
| align=left | [[34th century|34th]]
| align=left | [[35th century|35th]]
| align=left | [[36th century|36th]]
| align=left | [[37th century|37th]]
| align=left | [[38th century|38th]]
| align=left | [[39th century|39th]]
| align=left | [[40th century|40th]]
|-
|}
* '''[[5th millennium]]''' | '''[[6th millennium]]''' | '''[[7th millennium]]'''
* '''[[8th millennium]]''' | '''[[9th millennium]]''' | '''[[10th millennium]]'''
* '''[[11th millennium and beyond]]'''
[[Category:Centuries|*]]
[[be:&#1057;&#1090;&#1072;&#1075;&#1086;&#1076;&#1079;&#1100;&#1076;&#1079;&#1110;]]
[[ca:Segle]]
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[[uk:&#1030;& |
ut the decade. Events in West European relations, as well as political, economic, or even military matters, were topics of concern to most Japanese commentators because of the immediate implications for Japan. The major issues centered on the effect of the coming West European economic unification on Japan's trade, investment, and other opportunities in Western Europe. Some West European leaders were anxious to restrict Japanese access to the newly integrated [[European Union]] (until November 1993, the [[European Community]]), but others appeared open to Japanese trade and investment. In partial response to the strengthening economic ties among nations in Western Europe and to the United States-[[Canada]]-[[Mexico]] [[North American Free Trade Agreement|North American Free Trade Agreement]], Japan and other countries along the Asia-Pacific rim began moving in the late 1980s toward greater economic cooperation.
On July 18, 1991, after several months of difficult negotiations, Prime Minister [[Toshiki Kaifu]] signed a joint statement with the [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands|Dutch prime minister]] and head of the [[European Community Council]], [[Ruud Lubbers]], and with the [[European Commission]] president, [[Jacques Delors]], pledging closer Japanese-European Community consultations on foreign relations, scientific and technological cooperation, assistance to developing countries, and efforts to reduce trade conflicts. Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs officials hoped that this agreement would help to broaden Japanese-European Community political links and raise them above the narrow confines of trade disputes.
===Other countries===
Beyond its immediate neighbors, Japan has pursued a more active foreign policy in recent years, recognizing the responsibility that accompanies its economic strength. It has expanded ties with the [[Middle East]], which provides most of its oil. Japan increasingly is active in [[Africa]] and [[Latin America]] and has extended significant support to development projects in both regions. And a Japanese-conceived peace plan became the foundation for nationwide elections in [[Cambodia]] in 1998.
==Debates and frictions==
Japan's has formally [[List of war apology statements issued by Japan|issued statements]] for its military occupations during and before [[World War II]] but it has done little in helping to improve her relationships with neighboring countries, especially the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[People's Democratic Republic of Korea]] and [[South Korea]]. Despite the formal statements of regret from Prime Ministers [[Hosokawa Morihiro]] and [[Murayama Tomiichi]], these countries still insist that Japan has yet to formally express remorse for its wrongdoings in the 20th century. In regards to the statements however, it is more of a debate about compensation and war reparations than over the symbolic nature of words and acknowledgments of wrongdoing and regret. Japan&rsquo;s official stance is that all war related reparation claims have been resolved (except for North Korea). Unofficial visits to the controversial [[Yasukuni Jinja]] by past and present Prime Ministers belonging to the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] and the exclusion or generalisation some elements of Japan&rsquo;s military history in a number school textbooks have also clouded the issue.
In [[2004]] the People&rsquo;s Republic of China, North Korea, and South Korea also criticized Japan for sending its Ground Self Defence Forces to [[Iraq]], which was seen as a return to [[militarism]]. The government of Japan insisted that its forces would only participate in reconstruction and humanitarian aid missions.
There is a widespread [[anti-Japanese sentiment]] in many Asian countries, particularly the People&rsquo;s Republic of China, the People's Democratic Republic of Korea, and South Korea. However, division is not always the case. South Korea and Japan successfully dual-hosted the [[2002]] [[Football World Cup 2002|Football World Cup]] together bridging a physical and political gap between the two countries. The popularity of [[Bae Yong Joon]], a South Korean actor, in Japan was also seen as a sign that the two cultures had moved closer together.
==Disputed territories==
Islands of Etorofu, Kunashiri, Shikotan, and the Habomai group occupied by the [[Soviet Union]] in 1945, now administered by Russia, claimed by Japan; [[Tokdo]] administered by [[South Korea]], claimed by Japan as [[Liancourt Rocks/Takeshima]]; Senkaku-shoto ([[Senkaku Islands]]) claimed by the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]].
==See also==
*[[Anglo-Japanese relations]]
*[[Franco-Japanese relations]]
*[[Japanese-German relations]]
*[[Japanese-Russian relations]]
*[[Japanese-Vietnamese relations]]
*[[List of war apology statements issued by Japan]]
*[[Philippine-Japanese relations]]
*[[Sino-Japanese relations]]
==Reference==
{{loc}}
==External links==
*Various articles and discussion papers on Japan's foreign relations in the [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies'']
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Japan, Foreign affairs of]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Japan| ]]
[[de:Außenpolitik_Japans]]
[[ja:日本の国際関係]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Japan/History</title>
<id>15583</id>
<revision>
<id>15913046</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-22T13:51:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>-- April</username>
<id>166</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>move text to History of Japan</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[History of Japan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Japanese expansionism</title>
<id>15585</id>
<revision>
<id>15913047</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-24T04:10:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TakuyaMurata</username>
<id>6707</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Japanese nationalism]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Japanese nationalism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Joshua Jackson</title>
<id>15587</id>
<revision>
<id>39037483</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T07:20:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lightdarkness</username>
<id>130135</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Oceanpre2.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''Joshua Carter Jackson''' (born [[June 11]], [[1978]]) is an actor in American television and movies. He was born in [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]] to an [[United States|American]] father and an [[Ireland|Irish]]-born mother. He currently divides his time between [[Los Angeles]] and [[Vancouver]]. Previously he lived in [[Wilmington, North Carolina|Wilmington]], [[North Carolina]], where the television program ''[[Dawson's Creek]]'' was filmed.
Jackson grew up in [[California]] until age 8, when his family moved back to [[Vancouver]]. Soon after he took up acting, landing a role in a commercial for [[Keebler]]'s Potato Chips. He is best known for the role of Pacey Witter on ''[[Dawson's Creek]]'', but he has also appeared in several movies
including ''[[Cruel Intentions]]'', ''[[The Mighty Ducks (movies)|The Mighty Ducks]]'' series, ''[[Apt Pupil]]'', ''[[Scream 2]]'', ''[[The Laramie Project]]'' and ''[[The Skulls]]''. He will next appear in the all-star ensemble drama ''[[Bobby]]'', directed by [[Emilio Estevez]], Jackson's co-star from ''[[The Mighty Ducks (movies)|The Mighty Ducks]]''.
Joshua is left-handed and is 6 foot 2. He is rumored to hold dual U.S./Canadian citizenship.
Joshua dated two of his Dawson's Creek co-stars: actress [[Katie Holmes]] in 1998, and actress [[Brittany Daniel]] in 1999-2000. Jackson also dated & was rumored to be engaged to [[Rosario Dawson]].
==Selected filmography==
*''[[CBS TV pilot]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])([[TV series]])
*''[[Meet the Devil (movie)|Meet the Devil]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
*''[[Bobby (movie)|Bobby]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
*''[[Shadows in the Sun (movie)|Shadows in the Sun]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]])
*''[[Aurora Borealis (movie)|Aurora Borealis]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]])
*''[[Americano (movie)|Americano]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]])
*''[[Racing Stripes]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]]) ([[voice actor|voice]])
*''[[Cursed (film)|Cursed]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]])
*''[[I Love your Work]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]])
*''[[The Laramie Project]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])
*''[[Lone Star State of Mind]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])
*''[[The Safety of Objects]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]])
*''[[Ocean's Eleven (2001 film)|Ocean's Eleven]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]])
*''[[The Skulls]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]])
*''[[Gossip]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]])
*''[[Muppets From Space]]'' ([[1999 in film|1999]]) (uncredited)
*''[[Cruel Intentions]]'' ([[1999 in film|1999]])
*''[[Urban Legend (film)|Urband Legend]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]])
*''[[Apt Pupil]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]])
*''[[Dawson's Creek]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]]) ([[TV series]])
*''[[Scream 2]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]])
*''[[The Mighty Ducks (movies)|The Mighty Ducks]]''
{{Canada-actor-stub}}
[[Category:1978 births|Jackson, Joshua]]
[[Category:Living people|Jackson, Joshua]]
[[Category:American film actors|Jackson, Joshua]]
[[Category:Canadian film actors|Jackson, Joshua]]
[[Category:American child actors|Jackson, Joshua]]
[[Category:Canadian child actors|Jackson, Joshua]]
[[Category:Irish-American actors|Jackson, Joshua]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Jackson, Joshua]]
[[Category:Canadian stage actors|Jackson, Joshua]]
[[Category:American television actors|Jackson, Joshua]]
[[Category:Canadian television actors|Jacks |
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