text stringlengths 1.83k 10k |
|---|
ergy]]
*[[Hydro-Québec]]
===I===
*[[IDA (drug store)|IDA]] (drug store)
*[[Imperial Oil]] (Esso)
*[[Indigo Books and Music]]
*[[Investors Group]]
*[[Irving Oil]]
*[[IdentaFone Software]]
===J===
*[[Jean Coutu Group|Jean Coutu]] (pharmacies)
===K===
*[[Kruger Inc]]
===L===
*[[Labatt|Labatt's]] (now owned by Belgian brewer [[InBev]])
*[[Léger Marketing]] (polls and market research)
*[[Lions Gate Films]]
*[[Loblaws | Loblaw's]]
*[[London Life Assurance]]
*[[Look Communications]]
===M===
*[[Mac's Milk]]
*[[Magna International]]
*[[Manitoba Hydro]]
*[[Manitoba Telecom Services]] (MTS)
*[[Manulife Financial]]
*[[Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment]] (owner of Toronto Maple Leafs, Raptors)
*[[Matrox]]
*[[Mark's Work Wearhouse]]
*[[McCain Foods]] (world's largest manufacturer of French fries)
*[[MDS Inc.]]
*[[Microcell Telecommunications]] (Owner of Fido digital wireless services)
*[[Mitel]]
*[[Molson]]
*[[Money Mart]]
*[[Moosehead]]
===N===
*[[N-able Technologies]]
*[[National Bank of Canada]]
*[[Nintendo|Nintendo of Canada]]
*[[Nortel Networks]] (telecommunications)
*[[NorandaFalconbridge]] (mining)
===O===
*[[Oland, Canada|Oland]]
*[[Onex Corporation]]
*[[ONE Financial Corporation]]
*[[Ontario Swine Improvement]]
*[[Okanagan spring brewery]]
===P===
*[[Parasuco]]
*[[Persona Inc.]]
*[[Petro-Canada]]
* [[PetroKazakhstan]]
*[[PMC Sierra]]
*[[Power Corporation]]
*[[Pizza Pizza]]
===Q===
*[[Quebecor]] (printing / media)
===R===
*[[Radio Shack#Operations in Canada|RadioShack Canada]]
*[[Redpath Sugar]]
*[[Reitmans]]
*[[Research In Motion]]
*[[Rogers Communications]]
*[[Rona (company)|Rona]] (home renovations supplies)
*[[Roots Canada]]
*[[Royal Bank of Canada]]
===S===
*[[SNC-Lavalin]] (engineering)
*[[Saputo]] (dairy products)
*[[Scotiabank]] (Bank of Nova Scotia)
*[[Scott Paper Limited]]
*[[Shaw Cable]]
*[[Shell Canada]]
*[[Sierra Systems]]
*[[Sierra Wireless]]
*[[Sleeman Breweries]]
*[[Sobeys]]
*[[Softimage]]
*[[Swiss Chalet]]
*[[Sun Life Assurance]]
*[[Second Cup]]
*[[Stelco]]
===U===
===T===
*[[Telesat Canada]]
*[[Telus]]
*[[Tembec]]
*[[Tilley Endurables]]
*[[Tim Hortons]]
*[[Toronto-Dominion Bank]]
*[[Torstar]]
*[[Terasen Inc]]
**[[Terasen Gas]] (formerly BC Gas)
===V===
*[[VIA Rail]] (government-owned passenger train service)
*[[VisionWorks Solutions]] (Backup Software)
===W===
*[[WestJet]] (airline)
*[[Winners (store)|Winners]]
==Defunct companies, including acquired and merged ones==
Note: many of these companies are still operating under the same name, theyt are just owned by others
*[[Agricore]] (merged with United Grain Growers Ltd. to form [[Agricore United]])
*[[Anderson Exploration]], acquired by Devon Energy
*[[Bre-X]] (gold mining company, collapsed in fraud)
*[[Bricklin Automobile]]
*[[C-Mac Industries]], acquired by [[Solectron]]
*[[Canada 3000]]
*[[Canadian Airlines]], acquired by [[Air Canada]]
*[[Canadian Hunter Exploration]]
*[[Canada Trust]], acquired by [[Toronto-Dominion Bank]]
*[[Chapters]], acquired by [[Indigo Books and Music]]
*[[Cineplex Odeon]], acquired by [[Loews Theatres]]
*[[CTV]] (Canadian Television), acquired by [[Bell Globemedia]] (formerly [[Baton Broadcasting]], et al.)
*[[Dylex]], acquired by Hardof Wolf Group
*[[Eaton's]], bankrupt, assets acquired by [[Sears Canada]]
*[[Future Shop]], acquired by [[Best Buy]]
*[[Gulf Canada Resources]], acquired by [[Conoco]]
*[[Labatt|Labatt's]] (now owned by Belgian brewer [[InBev]])
*[[Seagram]] (spirits & wine)
*[[Union Bank of Halifax]] (now part of the [[Royal Bank of Canada]])
*[[United Grain Growers Ltd.]] (merged with Agricore to form [[Agricore United]])
*[[Videotron]] (cable; now owned by [[Quebecor]])
*[[WardAir]], acquired by [[Canadian Airlines]]
*[[Westcoast Energy]], acquired by [[Duke Energy]]
== See also ==
*[[List of economics consultancies and think tanks]]
*[[List of newspapers]]
*[[List of magazines]]
*[[Television network]]
*[[List of supermarkets]]
*[[List of restaurant chains]]
*[[Fast-food restaurant]]
*[[List of gas stations]]
*[[Toronto Stock Exchange]]
== External links ==
* [http://strategis.ic.gc.ca Strategis: Canada's Business and Consumer site]
* [http://www.cbsc.org Doing Business in Canada]
[[Category:Lists of companies by country|Canada]]
[[fr:Liste des entreprises canadiennes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chełmno Land</title>
<id>7001</id>
<revision>
<id>41831451</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:55:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ksenon</username>
<id>541820</id>
</contributor>
<comment>history expansion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chełmno Land''' or '''Culmland''' ([[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Ziemia Chełmińska'', [[German language|German]]: ''Kulmerland'') is a historical region in central [[Poland]] bounded by the [[Vistula]] and [[Drwęca]] rivers. It is named after the city of [[Chełmno]]. The largest cities in the region are [[Toruń]], [[Grudziądz]], [[Chełmno]], and [[Chełmża]]. In various times it was considered to be part of the neighbouring provinces of [[Masovia]], [[Kuyavia]], [[Greater Poland]], [[Prussia]], and [[Pomerania]]; it is currently part of the [[Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodship]]. The region is also sometimes referred to as Kulmer Land, Culmerland, or Culmer Land.
It is located on the right bank of the [[Vistula]] river, from the mouth of the [[Drwęca]] river to Chełmno. Where the Vistula river takes a sharp turn northward, the Drwęca forms the eastern border of the region, while its southern and western border is the Vistula river.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Kulmland.JPG|250px|thumb|right|Chełmno Land in [[1547]]]] -->
== History ==
In the [[10th century]] Chełmno Land was inhabited by the [[Lechitic]] Kuyavian and Masovian tribes. When this area was subdued by the rulers of the [[Polans (western)|Polans]] Chełmno became a local centre of administration (kasztelania). Chełmno Land was [[Christianised]] in the [[11th century]].
According to the will of Duke [[Boleslaus III of Poland]], after his death in [[1137]] Chełmno Land became a part of the duchy governed by his son [[Boleslaus IV the Curly]] and his descendants during the feudal fragmentation of Poland.
In the [[Middle Ages]] Chełmno Land was subject to to constant raids by the pagan [[Old Prussian|Prussians]]. In [[1226]] Duke [[Conrad I of Masovia]], enlisted the aid of the [[Teutonic Order]] to protect [[Masovia]] and help convert the Prussians to Christianity. In return, the knights were to keep Chełmno Land as a fief, although some allege the grant to have been a forgery. The land constituted the base of the [[Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights]], and its later colonization of [[East Prussia]], marking the German ''[[Drang nach Osten]]''.
The Teutonic Order obtained an Imperial bull from Emperor [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] before entering Prussia, although this document is also disputed. In [[1243]] the [[papal legate]] [[William of Modena]] divided Prussia into four dioceses under the archbishop of [[Riga]], one of which was Chełmno Land.
After the [[Thirteen Years War]] between the Prussian cities and the Teutonic Knights ended with the [[Peace of Toruń 1466|Peace of Toruń]] in [[1466]], Chełmno Land returned to the Polish crown as a part of autonomous [[Royal Prussia]] (see [[Chełmno Voivodship]]).
In [[1772]] as a result of the [[First Partition of Poland]], Chełmno Land (with the exception of [[Toruń]]) was seized by the [[Kingdom of Prussia]]. Between [[1807]] and [[1815]] Chełmno Land was a part of the [[Duchy of Warsaw]]. In 1815 it become part of the [[Grand Duchy of Poznań]], but in [[1817]] Chełmno Land was included in [[West Prussia]].
Following the [[Treaty of Versailles]] in [[1919]], Chełmno Land returned to Poland in January [[1920]]. In first days of September 1939 occupied by Germany, October 1939 annexed, January 1945 captured by Red Army and returned to Poland.
== External links ==
* [http://www.pilot.pl/index.php3?z_city_id=335&lang=pl Chełmno Town and Land on a map of Poland]
[[Category:Regions of Poland]]
[[de:Kulmerland]]
[[pl:Ziemia chełmińska]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cadinen</title>
<id>7002</id>
<revision>
<id>15905107</id>
<timestamp>2003-03-21T15:29:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Space Cadet</username>
<id>1522</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kadyny]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cauchy distribution</title>
<id>7003</id>
<revision>
<id>42081357</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:22:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>132.236.120.139</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Why the mean of the Cauchy distribution is undefined */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Probability distribution|
name =Cauchy-Lorentz|
type =density|
pdf_image =[[Image:Cauchy distribution pdf.png|325px|Probability density function for the Cauchy distribtion]]<br /><small>The green line is the standard Cauchy distribution</small>|
cdf_image =[[Image:Cauchy distribution cdf.png|325px|Cumulative distribution function for the Normal distribution]]<br /><small>Colors match the pdf above</small>|
parameters =<math>x_0\!</math> [[location parameter|location]] ([[real number|real]])<br /><math>\gamma > 0\!</math> [[scale parameter|scale]] (real)|
support =<math>x \in (-\infty; +\infty)\!</math>|
pdf =<math>\frac{1}{\pi\gamma\,\left[1 + \left(\frac{x-x_0}{\gamma}\right)^2\right]} \!</math>|
cdf =<math>\frac{1}{\pi} \arctan\left(\frac{x-x_0}{\gamma}\right)+\frac{1}{2}</math> |
mean =(not defined)|
median =<math>x_0</math>|
mode =<math>x_0</math>|
variance =(not de |
metric questions about ruler-and-compass constructions into [[abstract algebra|algebra]]. This transformation leads to the solutions of many famous mathematical problems, which defied centuries of attack.
== Geometric definitions ==
The geometric definition of a constructible point is as follows. First, for any two distinct points ''P'' and ''Q'' in the plane, let ''L''(''P'', ''Q'') denote the unique line through ''P'' and ''Q'', and let ''C''(''P'', ''Q'') denote the unique circle with center ''P'', passing through ''Q''. (Note that the order of ''P'' and ''Q'' matters for the circle.) By convention, ''L''(''P'', ''P'') = ''C''(''P'', ''P'') = {''P''}. Then a point ''Z'' is ''constructible from E, F, G and H'' if either
#''Z'' is in the [[intersection]] of ''L''(''E'', ''F'') and ''L''(''G'', ''H''), where ''L''(''E'', ''F'') &ne; ''L''(''G'', ''H'');
#''Z'' is in the intersection of ''C''(''E'', ''F'') and ''C''(''G'', ''H''), where ''C''(''E'', ''F'') &ne; ''C''(''G'', ''H'');
#''Z'' is in the intersection of ''L''(''E'', ''F'') and ''C''(''G'', ''H'').
Since the order of ''E'', ''F'', ''G'', and ''H'' in the above definition is irrelevant, the four letters may be [[permutation|permuted]] in any way. Put simply, ''Z'' is constructible from ''E'', ''F'', ''G'' and ''H'' if it lies in the intersection of any two distinct lines, or of any two distinct circles, or of a line and a circle, where these lines and/or circles can be determined by ''E'', ''F'', ''G'', and ''H'', in the above sense.
Now, let ''A'' and ''A''<nowiki>'</nowiki> be any two distinct fixed points in the plane. A point ''Z'' is ''constructible'' if either
#''Z'' = ''A'';
#''Z'' = ''A''<nowiki>'</nowiki>
#there exist points ''P''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''P''<sub>''n''</sub>, with ''Z'' = ''P''<sub>''n''</sub>, such that for all ''j'' &ge; 1, ''P''<sub>''j'' + 1</sub> is constructible from points in the set {''A'', ''A''<nowiki>'</nowiki>, ''P''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''P''<sub>''j''</sub>}.
Put simply, ''Z'' is constructible if it is either ''A'' or ''A''<nowiki>'</nowiki>, or if it is obtainable from a finite sequence of points starting with ''A'' and ''A''<nowiki>'</nowiki>, where each new point is constructible from previous points in the sequence.
The ''origin O'' is defined as follows. The circles ''C''(''A'', ''A''<nowiki>'</nowiki>) and ''C''(''A''<nowiki>'</nowiki>, ''A'') intersect in two distinct points; these points determine a unique line, and the origin ''O'' is defined to be the intersection of this line with ''L''(''A'', ''A''<nowiki>'</nowiki>).
== Transformation into algebra ==
All [[rational number]]s are constructible, and all constructible numbers are [[algebraic number]]s. Also, if ''a'' and ''b'' are constructible numbers with ''b'' &ne; 0, then ''a'' &minus; b and ''a''/''b'' are constructible. Thus, the set ''K'' of all constructible complex numbers forms a [[field (algebra)|field]], a subfield of the field of algebraic numbers.
Furthermore, ''K'' is closed under square roots and [[complex conjugation]]. These facts can be used to characterize the field of constructible numbers, because, in essence, the equations defining lines and circles are no worse than quadratic. The characterization is the following: a complex number is constructible [[if and only if]] it lies in a field at the top of a finite tower of quadratic extensions, starting with the rational field '''Q'''. More precisely, ''z'' is constructible if and only if there exists a tower of fields
<math>\mathbb{Q} = K_0 \subseteq K_1 \subseteq \dots \subseteq K_n</math>
where ''z'' is in ''K''<sub>''n''</sub> and for all 0 &le; ''j'' < ''n'', the dimension [''K''<sub>''j'' + 1</sub> : ''K''<sub>''j''</sub>] = 2.
== Impossible constructions ==
The algebraic characterization of constructible numbers provides an important ''necessary'' condition for constructibility: if ''z'' is constructible, then it is algebraic, and its minimal irreducible polynomial has degree a power of 2, or equivalently, the field extension '''Q'''(''z'')/'''Q''' has dimension a power of 2. One should note that it is true, (but not obvious to show) that the converse is false &mdash; this is not a ''sufficient'' condition for constructibility. However, this defect can be remedied by considering the normal closure of '''Q'''(''z'')/'''Q'''.
The nonconstructibility of certain numbers proves the impossibility of [[Ruler-and-compass construction#Impossible constructions|certain problems]] attempted by the philosophers of [[ancient Greece]]. In the following chart, each row represents a specific ancient construction problem. The left column gives the name of the problem. The second column gives an equivalent algebraic formulation of the problem. In other words, the solution to the problem is affirmative [[if and only if]] each number in the given set of numbers is constructible. Finally, the last column provides the simplest known [[counterexample]]. In other words, the number in the last column is an element of the set in the same row, but is not constructible.
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
! style="background:#efefef;"|Construction problem
! style="background:#efefef;"|Associated set of numbers
! style="background:#efefef;"|Counterexample
|-
|[[Duplicating the cube]]
|<math>\left \{ \sqrt[3]{x} : x \mbox{ is constructible} \right \}</math>
|<math>\sqrt[3]{2}</math> is not constructible, because its minimal polynomial has degree 3 over '''Q'''
|-
|[[Trisecting the angle]]
|<math>\left \{ \cos \left( \frac{\arccos x}{3} \right) : x \mbox{ is constructible} \right \}</math>
|<math>\cos \left( \frac{\arccos (1/2)}{3} \right) = \frac{1}{2} \left( 2\cos \left( \frac{\pi}{9} \right) \right)</math> is not constructible, because <math>2\cos \left( \frac{\pi}{9} \right)</math> has minimal polynomial of degree 3 over '''Q'''
|-
|[[Squaring the circle]]
|<math>\left \{ \sqrt{\pi} \right \}</math>
|<math>\sqrt{\pi}</math> is not constructible, because <math>\left( \sqrt{\pi} \right) ^2 = \pi</math> is not algebraic over '''Q'''
|-
|[[Constructible polygon|Constructing all regular polygons]]
|<math>\left \{ e^{2\pi i/n} : n \in \mathbb{N}, n \geq 3 \right \}</math>
|<math>e^{2\pi i/7}</math> is not constructible, because 7 is not a [[Fermat prime]]
|}
==See also==
*[[Definable number]]
[[Category:Ruler-and-compass constructions]]
[[da:Konstruerbare tal]]
[[fr:Nombre constructible]]
[[ko:작도가능한 수]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carson City, Nevada</title>
<id>7441</id>
<revision>
<id>40494484</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T23:47:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Scott5114</username>
<id>134595</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removing some info and merging it into [[Interstate 580 (Nevada)]] article.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Carson City redirects here. There is also [[Carson City, Michigan]].''
{{Infobox U.S. City|
city = Carson City |
state = Nevada|
motto = Proud of its Past...Confident of its Future|
nickname = |
flag = CarsonCityNV.gif |
seal = CarsonCityNVseal.gif |
map = Map of Nevada highlighting Carson City.svg |
map size= 250 |
map cap = Location in [[Nevada]]|
founded = [[1858]] |
incorporated = |
county = [[Independent City]] |
mayor = [[Marv Teixeira]]|
area = 403.2 [[square kilometer|km&sup2;]] (155.7 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]) |
area water = 31.9 km&sup2; (12.3 mi&sup2;) |
area percentage = 7.91%|
census yr = 2000|
city pop = 52,457|
metro pop = n/a|
density = 141|
time zone = Pacific|
utc = 8|
north_coord = 39.1609 |
west_coord = 119.7539|
web = www.carson-city.nv.us|
|}}
'''Carson City''' is the capital of the [[U.S. state|state]] of [[Nevada]] in the [[United States|United States of America]]. As of the [[2000]] census, its population is 52,457. Carson City is now an [[independent city]], not part of any county.
Like many towns in Nevada, Carson City was founded in the boom days of mining -- in the case of Carson City, [[silver]] mining. It was the [[county seat]] of the former (1861-1969) [[Ormsby County, Nevada|Ormsby County]], and was named for explorer [[Kit Carson]].
Carson City is one of only five state capitals not served by an interstate highway. [[Dover, Delaware]]; [[Jefferson City, Missouri]]; [[Juneau, Alaska]]; and [[Pierre, South Dakota]] are the other four state capitals with this distinction. This will soon change however, as [[Interstate 580 (Nevada)|Interstate 580]], currently under construction, will eventually loop around the city and end near [[US 50]] to the south. A four lane stretch between Lakeview Hill and US 50, has been completed and opened to traffic as of [[February 16]], [[2006]].
The largest nearby city to Carson City is [[Reno, Nevada|Reno]], about 30 miles to the north.
== Geography ==
Carson City is located at 39&deg;9'39" North, 119&deg;45'14" West (39.160949, -119.753877){{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], Carson City has a total area of 403.2 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (155.7 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 371.3 km&sup2; (143.4 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 31.9 km&sup2; (12.3 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 7.91% water.
== Demographics ==
[[Image:NavadaCapitolCarsonCity.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Capitol Building, 1870]]
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 52,457 people, 20,171 households, and 13,252 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 141/km& |
Imperium for any marked length of time. An exception to this rule was the reign of the Emperor Gallienus. The fact that Gallienus served as junior Emperor with his father, Valerian, from 253 to 260 may have had something to do with his successes. Father and son each wielded his authority over a smaller area, thus allowing for more flexible control and imperial presence. Another, more probable reason, lay in Gallienus's success in convincing Rome that he was the best man for the job. However, Gallienus had to handle many rebellions of the so-called "[[Gallienus usurpers]]".
In 260, Valerian was taken prisoner by [[Shapur I of Persia|Sapor]], King of [[Sassanid dynasty|Persia]] while trying to negotiate a peace settlement. Although aware that his father had been taken alive (the only Emperor to have suffered this fate), Gallienus did not make public Valerian's death until a year later. His decision hinged on the fact that Romans believed that their fate rose and fell with the fate of the Emperor, which in turn depended upon his demonstrating the proper amount of piety (Latin ''[[pietas]]'') to the [[Roman gods|gods]] and maintaining their favor. A defeated Emperor would surely have meant that the gods had forsaken Valerian and, by extension, Gallienus.
Gallienus's chief method of reinforcing his position is seen in the [[coin|coinage]] produced during his reign (see [[Roman currency]]). The coinage provides clear evidence of a successful propaganda campaign. Gallienus took pains to make sure that he was regularly represented as victorious, merciful, and pious. The people who used these coins on a daily basis saw these messages and, with little evidence to the contrary, remained supportive of their Emperor.
There were, however, those who knew better. During Gallienus' reign, there was constant fighting on the western fringes of the Empire. As early as 258, Gallienus had lost control over a large part of Gaul, where another general, [[Postumus]], had declared his own realm (typically known today as the [[Gallic Empire]]). As Gallienus' influence waned, another general came to the fore. In time-honored tradition, [[Claudius II]] Gothicus gained the loyalty of the army and succeeded Gallienus to the Imperium.
[[Image:Arco di Gallieno.jpg|thumb|left|[[Triumphal arch]] of Gallienus, [[262]]. It was built by a private citizen, Marcus Aurelius Victor, and dedicated to Gallienus and his wife Iulia Cornelia Salonina.]]
In the months leading up to his mysterious death in September of 268, Gallienus was ironically orchestrating the greatest achievements of his reign. An invasion of [[Goths]] into the province of [[Pannonia]] was leading to disaster and even threatening Rome, while at the same time, the [[Alamanni]] were raising havoc in the northern part of Italy. Gallienus halted the Allamanic progress by defeating them in battle in April of 268, then turned north and won several victories over the Goths. That fall, he turned on the Goths once again, and in September, either he or Claudius, his leading general, led the Roman army to victory (although the cavalry commander [[Aurelian]] was the real victor) at the [[Battle of Naissus]].
At some time following this battle, Gallienus was murdered during the siege of usurper [[Aureolus]] in [[Mediolanum]]; many theories abound that Claudius and Aurelian conspired to have the emperor killed. Be that as it may, Claudius spared the lives of Gallienus' family — Gallienus' wife, Iulia Cornelia Salonina, had given him three sons: [[Valerian II|Valerianus]] (who died in 258), [[Saloninus]] (died in 260 after becoming co-emperor), and Egnatius Marinianus — and had the emperor deified.
==Legacy==
Gallienus has been dealt with harshly by ancient historians, partly due to the secession of Gaul. According to the modern scholar Pat Southern, however, some historians now see him in a more positive light. Gallienus was the father of some important reforms, including the creation of a more mobile [[cavalry]], which could better deal with sudden security threats. This reform arguably created a precedent for the future emperors [[Diocletian]] and [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]]. The historian [[Aurelius Victor]] also reports that Gallienus forbade [[Roman senate|senators]] from becoming military commanders. This policy undermined senatorial power, as more reliable [[eques|equite]] commanders rose to prominence. In Southern's opinion, these reforms and the decline in senatorial influence not only helped Aurelian to salvage the Empire, but they also make Gallienus one of the great emperors most responsible for the creation of the [[dominate]], along with [[Septimius Severus]], Diocletian and Constantine.
During Gallienus' reign, the Emperor's patronage of the [[philosopher]] [[Plotinus]] allowed for the teachings of [[Neoplatonism]] to thrive. Additionally, Gallienus ordered the persecution of [[Christianity|Christians]] to cease, although he did not end the official ban on the religion. This attitude toward Christianity by the Roman government lasted until [[303]], when [[Diocletian]] launched Rome's last major persecution.
<gallery>
Image:Antoninianus Gallienus 260-leg 2 Italica.jpg|[[Antoninianus]] issued to celebrate <small>LEG II ITAL VII P VII F</small>, "[[Legio II Italica|Legio II ''Italica'']] seven times faithful and loyal."
Image:Antoninianus Gallienus 260-leg 3 Italica.jpg|Antoninianus issued to celebrate <small>LEG III ITAL VI P VI F</small>, "[[Legio III Italica|Legio III ''Italica'']] six times faithful and loyal."
Image:Antoninianus-Gallienus-l5macedonica-RIC 0345-Bj-.jpg|Antoninianus issued to celebrate <small>LEG VII MAC VI P VI F</small>, "[[Legio V Macedonica|Legio VII ''Macedonica'']] six times faithful and loyal."
Image:Antoninianus-Gallienus-l7claudia-RIC 0348-j-v.jpg|Antoninianus issued to celebrate <small>LEG VII CLA VI P VI F</small>, "[[Legio VII Claudia|Legio VII ''Claudia'']] six times faithful and loyal."
</gallery>
==References==
*Southern, Pat. ''The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine''. London and New York: Routledge, 2001.
==External links==
{{Commons|Gallienus}}
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/gallval.htm "Valerian and Gallienus"], at ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''.
{{Roman Emperor|Prev=[[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]]|CoEmperor=with [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] (253&ndash;260) and [[Saloninus]] (260)|Next=[[Claudius II]]|years=260&ndash;268}}
[[Category:218 births]]
[[Category:268 deaths]]
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Murdered Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Crisis of the Third Century]]
[[cs:Gallienus]]
[[da:Gallienus]]
[[de:Gallienus]]
[[et:Gallienus]]
[[es:Galieno]]
[[eo:Galieno]]
[[eu:Galieno]]
[[fi:Gallienus]]
[[fr:Gallien]]
[[it:Gallieno]]
[[he:גליאנוס]]
[[nl:Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus]]
[[ja:ガリエヌス]]
[[pl:Galien]]
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<title>Gambeson</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Morgan_Bible_10r_detail.jpg|thumb|100px|Depiction of a 13th century Gambeson ([[Morgan Bible]], fol. 10r)]]
A '''gambeson''' (or '''aketon''') is a padded defensive [[surcoat]], worn as [[armour]] separately, or combined with [[chainmail|mail]] or [[plate armour|plate]] armour. Gambeson were produced with a sewing technique called [[quilting]]. Usually constructed of [[linen]] or [[wool]], the stuffing varied, and could be for example scrap [[cloth]] or horse hair. During the [[14th century]], illustrations usually show buttons or laces up the front.
==Etymology==
The term ''gambeson'' is a loan from Old French ''gambeson'', ''gambaison'', originally ''wambais'', formed after the [[Middle High German]] term ''wambeis'' "doublet", in turn from [[Old High German]] ''wamba'' "stomach" ([[cognate]] to ''[[womb]]''.)
The term ''aketon'' is a loan from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''al-qutn'' "[[cotton]]".
Also known as: Aketon, acton, arming coat, auqueton, gambeson, hacketon, haqueton, wambais, wambesium, wambs
==History==
Quilted leather open jackets and trousers were worn by [[Scythian]] horsemen before the [[4th century BC]], as can be seen on [[Scythian gold]] ornaments crafted by Greek goldsmiths. The European gambeson can at least be traced to the late [[10th century]], but it is likely to have been in use in various forms for longer than that. In Europe, its use became widespread in the [[13th century]], and peaked in the [[14th century|14th]] and [[15th century|15th]] centuries.
The gambeson was used both as a complete armour unto itself and underneath mail and plate in order to cushion the body and prevent chafing. It was very insulatory and thus uncomfortable, but its protection was vital for the soldier.
For common soldiers who could not afford mail or plate armour, the gambeson, combined with a helmet as the only additional protection, remained a common sight on European battlefields during the entire Middle Ages, and its decline came only with the [[Renaissance]], just like for plate armour due to the rising importance of firearms,
and by the 17th century, it was no longer in military use.
==See also |
m "A Gadget Too Far"] at Infinity Plus
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<title>Caspar David Friedrich</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Self-portait by Caspar David Friedrich.jpg|left|thumb|125px|Self-portrait in chalk, 1810]][[Image:Caspar studio.jpg|right|thumb|125px|''C.D.Friedrich in his studio'' by fellow artist Georg Friedrich Kersting, 1812]]
'''Caspar David Friedrich''' ([[September 5]], [[1774]] &ndash; [[May 7]], [[1840]]) was a [[19th century]] [[Germany|German]] [[Romanticism|romantic]] painter, considered by many critics to be one of the finest exemplars of the movement.
== Life ==
Born in [[Greifswald]], a small town in [[Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania]] (at the time [[Sweden|Swedish]] territory, now [[Germany]]) Friedrich was the son of a candle-maker, from whom he received a religious education which would influence his work. Another possible influence on Friedrich's work was the witnessing of the premature death of one of his brothers while ice skating in the frozen [[Baltic sea]]. This incident could be a possible reason for the tragic and sometimes lugubrious visions portrayed in his art. After previous lessons of drawing and etching with a local master, Quistorp, Friedrich studied at [[Copenhagen]] from [[1794]] to [[1798]] under [[Nikolaj Abraham Abildgaard]] and [[Jens Juel]]. After leaving Copenhagen, he visited several scenic spots in Germany before settling in [[Dresden]].There he was in touch with the best cultural and artistical personalities of the time in Germany like [[Goethe]], [[Heinrich von Kleist]], [[Ludwig Tieck]], [[Novalis]], [[Schelling]] , [[Phillip Otto Runge]] and [[Carl Gustav Carus]].Fellow artists and friends described him as a mysterious and mystic character, with an almost monkish lifestyle. His studio was bare and kept only the essential tools for work. He needed solitude and introspection to achieve his visions as he wrote:"Close your bodily eye, so that you may see your picture first with your spiritual eye then bring to the light of day that which you have seen in the darkness so that it may react on others from the outside inwards."
After a long period of bachelorhood devoted to his art, he married with young Caroline Bommer in 1818 of whom he had three children (one of them, Emma, died in childhood). This led him to valorize human figure in his compositions. In 1817 he became a member of the Academy of Dresden and around 1820 [[Nicholas I]], future Czar of [[Russia]], visited his studio and became one of his patrons which led to the purchase of many paintings.[[Frederick William III]], king of [[Prussia]], was also an enthusiast of his art. Although his reserved and introspective personality was an obstacle to success, by this time he was a recognized and sucessful painter.
The years immediately prior to his death were made painful by declining health (in 1835 suffered a stroke) which prevented him from painting in oil. Caspar David Friedrich died in Dresden, [[Saxony]], almost in oblivion.
== Work ==
[[Image:Caspar_David_Friedrich_028.jpg|thumb|right|220px|''Man and Woman Contemplating the Moon'', ca. 1830-1835]]
[[Image:Monk by the sea.jpg|thumb|right|220px|''Monk by the sea'', 1809]]
[[Image:Chalk cliffs.jpg|thumb|right|220px|''Chalk cliffs on Rügen'', 1830]]
[[Image:The sea of ice.jpg|thumb|right|230px|''The sea of ice'', 1824 (mistankenly known as "The wreck of the Hope" which was destroyed in 20th century)]]
After the development of sepia drawings and watercolours (mainly naturalistic and topographical) Friedrich took up oil painting after the age of thirty. His paintings were modeled after live sketches and studies of scenic spots, like the cliffs on [[Rügen]], the surroundings of Dresden or [[Elbe]] and later composed in [[symbolic]], often symmetrically balanced, compositions. His first mature style painting is the "Tetschen Altar"(1807) in which the crucified Christ is seen in profile in the top of a mountain, alone, surrounded by nature. In his time this work was not unanimously accepted for the principal role of landscape in a religious subject, however, this was his first appraised painting.
His famous morbidly romantic painting "Mönch am Meer" (Monk by the Sea) impressed [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel]] (later [[Prussia]]'s most famous [[classicism|classicist]] architect) so much that he gave up painting and took up [[architecture]], much to the benefit of German and world architecture.
His paintings portray the untamed power of nature and the religious or [[pantheistic]] feeling within it; this is in sharp contrast to [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment-era]] painters such as [[Thomas Gainsborough]], who used nature to bring out qualities in their human subjects. In Friedrich´s case it is [[God]]; our [[existential]] solitude and smallness before Him and nature is brought up, and in some sense his work can be seen as religious. The human beings depicted in his work seem to seek [[redemption]] or spiritual dialogue in Nature in which [[God]] seems to be [[immanent]]. Some of his desolate landscapes are thought to look like a biblical apocalypse. Persons are often seen by their back, contemplating landscapes and are a "medium" between the viewer of the painting and the background lanscape which is an [[allegory]] to spirituality. This [[pantheism]] is in tune with the German philosophy of this era and the thinking of [[Hegel]], [[Schelling]] or [[Schlegel]].
His work is often read as expressing German patriotism during the time of the Napoleonic Wars and in fact Friedrich was anti-Napoleon. The occupation tortured his soul, and his political disillusionment grew worse over time. The portrayal of gothic cathedrals or churches can be seen both as a symbol of God and a statement against classicist art (common to many other romantic artists). It can also be seen as an affirmation of a genuine germanic tradition of art out of Italian or classical influences.
Friedrich´s masterpieces were almost forgotten by the general public in the second half of 19th century and only at the end of 19th and beginning of 20th century he was rediscovered by [[Symbolist painters]] for his visionary and allegorical landscapes.
For that same reason [[Max Ernst]] and other [[surrealists]] saw him as a precursor of their movement.
In an abusive and disgraceful interpretation [[Adolf Hitler]] would later cite Friedrich's work as expressing the Aryan ideals and co-opted a painting as a cover for a Nazi propaganda magazine, making some contemporary critics and art historians reluctant to promote Friedrich's high quality work.
As well as other romantic painter like [[Turner]] or [[Constable]] he made lanscape painting a major genre in western [[art]].
Friedrich's style influenced the painting of the Norwegian [[Johann Christian Dahl]] but the heirs of his painting style did not achieved his mastery and depth.
[[Arnold Böcklin]] was strongly influenced by his work and perhaps also the painters of the American [[Hudson River School]], the [[Rocky Mountain School]], and the [[Luminism (American art style)|New England Luminists]].
Friedrich also sketched monuments (a memorial) and sculptures for [[mausoleums]], which reflects his obssession with [[death]] and [[afterlife]], and some funereal art in Dresden´s cemeteries are his.
Some of his masterpieces were destroyed due to a fire in [[Munich]] Glass Palace (1931) and in [[World War II]] bombing in Dresden.
==Quotes==
"The painter should paint not only what he has in front of him, but also what he sees inside himself. If he sees nothing within, then he should stop painting what is in front of him.", ''Caspar David Friedrich''
"A mountain of ice and the debris of a ship that has been crushed by it. It is a great tragedy, not a single survivor.", ''David d´Angers'', 19th century French sculptor about "The sea of ice".
==Selected works==
*ca. 1807 - [[:Image:Tetschen altar.jpg|''Tetschen altar'']], oil on canvas
*ca. 1810 - [[:Image:Cross on the mountain.jpg|''Cross on the mountain'']], oil on canvas -Kunstmuseum at Dusseldorf, Germany
*1810 - [[:Image:Cloister Graveyard in the Snow.jpg|''Cloister Graveyard in the Snow'']], oil on canvas
*1811 - [[:Image:Winter landscape.jpg|''Winter landscape'']], oil on canvas -National Gallery, London, UK
* (date unknown) - [[:Image:Sepia Drawing by Friedrich.jpg|''View of Arkona at Moonrise'']], sepia drawing
*1817 - [[:Image:Wanderer above the sea of fog.jpg|''Wanderer above the sea of fog'']], oil on canvas -Kunsthalle Hamburg, Germany
*1822 - [[:Image:The tree of crows.jpg|''The tree of crows'']], oil on canvas -Louvre Museum, France
*ca.1830 - [[:Image:Trees in the moonlight.jpg|''Trees in the moonlight'']], oil on canvas
==External links==
*[http://www.hamburger-kunsthalle.de/start/en_start.html Hamburg Kunsthalle Collection]
*[http://www.caspar-david-friedrich-gesellschaft.de/index.htm Caspar David Friedrich Foundation]
*[http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/04/2003/hm4_2_046.html Hermitage Museum Archive]
*[http://www.wga.hu/html/f/friedric/index.html Web Gallery of Art] - comprehensive collection of Friedrich's works
*[http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/friedrich_caspar_david.html Artcyclopedia] - links to Friedrich's pictures from Image Archives, articles etc
{{Commons|Caspar David Friedrich}}
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'''[[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]]''' are two closely related [[Abrahamic religion]]s that are in some ways parallel to each other and in other ways fundamentally divergent in theology and practice. Whereas the article on the [[Judeo-Christian]] tradition emphasizes continuities and convergences between the two religions, this article emphasizes that Judaism and Christianity each have widely diverging views of their respective relationship to the other, and of elements they have in common, such as the Bible and God.
== Neither religion is monolithic ==
As with the article on the [[Judeo-Christian]] tradition, this article makes generalizations about Jewish and Christian beliefs and practices. Nevertheless, it is very important to understand that neither religion is monolithic; there is no single "Judaism", as there is no single "Christianity". Instead, there are wide variations on a theme concerning belief and practice both among ''individual'' Jews and Christians and between different Jewish and Christian ''groups''
(indeed, there exist some Christians and Jews who hold that other Christians and Jews are not in fact the same religion.)
== Raison d'être of the religion ==
Each religion has a [[mythos]], that is, an internal description of its [[raison d'être]].
That of Christianity is to provide all human beings with the only valid path to [[salvation]] (John 14:26, [[Great Commission]]). Christians believe people are by [[original sin|nature sinful]]. Christians believe that [[Jesus]] was both the [[Son of God]] and [[Nicene Creed|God the Son]], [[God]] made [[incarnate]]; that Jesus' death by [[crucifixion]] was a [[Atonement|sacrifice to atone]] for all humanity's sins, and that acceptance of Jesus as the [[Christ]] saves one from [[sin]] ([[John 3:16]]).
Judaism's raison d'être is to give concrete form to the [[covenant]] between [[God]] and the [[Jewish people]]. The Torah, both [[Torah|written]] and [[Rabbinic Judaism|oral]], both tell the story of this covenant, and provide Jews with the terms of the covenant. The Torah (teaching) thus guides Jews to walk in God's ways (Deut 30:16), to help them learn how to live a holy life on earth, and to bring holiness into the world and into every part of life so that life may be elevated to a high level of sanctity (Lev 19:2). This will allow the Jewish people as a community to be a "light unto the nations" (Isa 42:6, 49:6, 60:3) over the course of history (ie, a [[role model]]) and part of the divine intent of bringing about an [[Kingdom of God#The Kingdom in Jewish thought|age of peace and sanctity]]. Judaism does not see the [[afterlife]] as a core part of this, or a major factor needed to justify why it is necessary. Ideally a faithful life and good deeds should be ends in themselves, not means.
== The nature of religion: national versus universal ==
[[Judaism]] does not characterize itself as a religion so much as a way of life (although one can speak of the Jewish religion and religious Jews). The subject of the [[Tanakh]] (Hebrew Bible) is the history of the Children of [[Jacob|Israel]] (also called Hebrews), especially in terms of their relationship with [[God]]. Thus, Judaism has also been characterized as a culture or as a civilization. [[Rabbi]] [[Mordecai Kaplan]] defines Judaism as an evolving religious civilization. One crucial sign of this is that one need not believe, or even do, anything to be Jewish; the historic definition of 'Jewishness' requires only that one be born of a Jewish mother, or that one convert to Judaism in accord with [[halakha|Jewish law]]. (Today, [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist Jews]] also include those born of Jewish fathers and Gentile mothers if the children are raised as Jews.)
To religious [[Jew]]s, Jewish peoplehood is closely tied to their relationship with God, and thus has a strong theological component. This relationship is encapsulated in the notion that Jews are a [[chosen people]]. Although many non-Jews have taken this as a sign of arrogance or exclusivity, Jewish scholars and theologians have emphasized that a special relationship between Jews and God does not in any way preclude other nations having their own relationship with God, and does not mean Jews are superior to members of other nations. In this sense, "chosen" means chosen to undertake a duty, a responsibility or a role, rather than chosen as higher status or more deserving. For strictly observant Jews, being "chosen" fundamentally means that it was Gods wish that a group of people would exist in a [[covenant]] with Him, and would be bound to obey a certain set of laws (see [[Torah]] and [[halakha]]) as a duty of their covenant. They view their divine purpose as being ideally a "light upon the nations" and a "holy people" (ie, a people who live their lives fully in accordance with Divine will), not "the one path to God".
Jews hold that other nations and peoples are not required (or expected) to obey Jewish law. The only laws Judaism believes are automatically binding on other nations are known as the [[Noahide Laws|Seven Laws of Noah]] (which are humanitarian rather than religious). Thus, as a national religion, Judaism holds that others may have their own, different, paths to God (or holiness, or "salvation").
Christianity, on the other hand, is characterized by its claim to universality, which marks a significant break from Jewish identity and thought. Christians believe that Christianity represents the fulfillment of God's promise to Abraham and the nation of Israel, that Israel would be a blessing to all nations. Although Christians generally believe their religion to be very inclusive (since not only Jews but all gentiles can be Christian), Jews see Christianity as highly exclusive, because it views non-Christians (such as Jews) as having an incomplete or imperfect relationship with God, and therefore excluded from grace, salvation, or heaven. From this point of view, Christianity, despite its claims, is not universal.
This crucial difference between the two religions has other implications. For example, [[Religious conversion#Conversion to Judaism|conversion to Judaism]] is more like a form of adoption, or changing national citizenship (i.e. becoming a formal member of the people, or tribe), whereas [[Religious conversion#Conversion to Christianity|conversion to Christianity]] is explicitly a declaration of faith. Depending on the denomination, this conversion sometimes has a social component, as the individual is in many ways adopted into a [[Church]], with a strong family model.
Both Judaism and Christianity have been affected by the diverse cultures of their respective members. For example, what Jews from Eastern Europe and from North Africa consider "Jewish food" has more in common with the cuisines of non-Jewish Eastern Europeans and North Africans than with each other. According to non-Orthodox Jews and critical historians, Jewish law too has been affected by surrounding cultures (for example, some scholars argue that the establishment of absolute [[monotheism]] in Judaism was a reaction against the [[dualism]] of [[Zoroastrianism]] that Jews encountered when living under [[Persians|Persian]] rule; Jews rejected [[polygamy]] during the middle ages, influenced by their Christian neighbors). According to Orthodox Jews too there are variations in Jewish custom from one part of the world to another. It was for this reason that [[Joseph Karo]]'s [[Shulchan Aruch HaRav]] became established as the authoritative code of Jewish law after [[Moshe Isserlis]] added his commentary, documenting variations in local custom.
== Concepts of God ==
Both Jews and Christians believe in the [[God]] of [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]], for Jews the God of the [[Tanakh]], for Christians the God of the [[Old Testament]], the [[Creator God|creator of the universe]]. Both religions reject the view that God is entirely [[immanent]], and within the world as a physical presence, (although Christians believe in the [[incarnation]] of God). Both religions reject the view that God is entirely [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendent]], and thus separate from the world, as the pre-Christian Greek [[Unknown God]], (although this can be argued in some Judaic thought). Both religions reject [[atheism]], on the one hand, and [[polytheism]], on the other.
Both religions agree that God shares both transcendent and immanent qualities. How these religions resolve this issue is where the religions differ. Most of Christianity posits that God is the [[Trinity]]; in this view God exists as three distinct entities which share a single divine essence, or substance. In those three there is one, and in that one there are three; the one God is indivisible, while the three entities are distinct and unconfused, Abba God, Jesus and the Holy Spirit. It teaches that God became especially immanent in physical form through the [[Incarnation]] of [[Jesus]], who is believed to be at once [[Hypostatic union|fully God and fully human]]. By contrast, Judaism sees God as a [[Divine simplicity|single entity]], and views trinitarianism as both incomprehensible and a violation of the Bible's teaching that God is one. It rejects the notion that Jesus or any other object or living being could be 'God', that God could have a literal 'son' in physical form or is divisible in any way, or that God could be made to be joined to the [[Nature|material world]] in such fashion. Although Judaism provides Jews with a word to label God' |
l Society of Genetic Genealogy]
==Notes and References==
# {{note|Woden}} The mythological origin of English kings is related in a number of derivative sources, such as [http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Article/492164 The Scyldings], an article at [http://www.ancientworlds.net/ Ancient Worlds]. In this article one primary source cited is the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle". The following passage appears in the entry for A.D. 449: "Their leaders were two brothers, Hengest and Horsa; who were the sons of Wihtgils; Wihtgils was the son of Witta, Witta of Wecta, Wecta of Woden. From this Woden arose all our royal kindred, and that of the Southumbrians also." In this context "royal kindred" refers to English kings. Reference: [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Anglo/part1.html The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Part 1: A.D. 1 - 748], part of [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/ The Online Medieval & Classical Library]. Accessed 2005 Mar 11.
# {{note|RAOGK}} [http://www.raogk.org/ Homepage for "Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness"]. Accessed 2005-02-06.
# {{note|NEHGS}} [http://www.newenglandancestors.org/ Homepage for the New England Historic Genealogical Society]. Accessed 2005-02-05.
*Citation:<!--to what???--> ''Windows on Humanity'' by Conrad Phillip KOTTAK. Chapter 2, page 38.
[[Category:Genealogy|*]]
[[Category:Kinship and descent]]
[[cs:Genealogie]]
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The '''Gabonese Republic''' or '''Gabon''', is a nation of west central [[Africa]]. It borders on [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Cameroon]], [[Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Gulf of Guinea]]. Since its independence from [[France]] on [[August 17]], [[1960]], the Republic has been ruled by only two [[Autocracy|autocratic]] Presidents; the incumbent [[Omar Bongo|El Hadj Omar Bongo]] has been in power since [[1967]] and is currently (2005) Africa's longest-serving Head of State. Gabon introduced a multiparty system and a new democratic constitution in the early [[1990s]] that allowed for a more transparent electoral process and for reforms of governmental institutions. A small population, abundant natural resources, and foreign private investment have helped make Gabon one of the more prosperous countries in the region.
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Gabon]]''
The earliest inhabitants of the area were [[Pygmy]] peoples. They were largely replaced and absorbed by Bantu tribes during [[Bantu]] [[human migration|migrations]]. Several [[Bantu]] groups occupied the area that is now Gabon when [[France]] occupied it in [[1885]]. In [[1910]], Gabon became one of the four territories of [[French Equatorial Africa]], a federation that survived until [[1959]]. These territories became independent on [[August 17]], [[1960]].
The first president of Gabon, elected in 1961, was [[Léon M&#8217;ba]], with [[Omar Bongo|Omar Bongo]] as his vice president. When M'Ba died in 1967, Bongo replaced him as president, and has been the head of state ever since winning each contested election with a substantial majority.
== Politics ==
[[Image:Bongo and Bush.jpg|thumb|left| President [[Omar Bongo]] Ondimba of Gabon (left) in Washington, USA]]
''Main article: [[Politics of Gabon]]''
In March 1991 a new constitution was adopted. Among its provisions are a Western-style bill of rights, the creation of the National Council of Democracy that also oversees the guarantee of those rights and a governmental advisory board which deals with economic and social issues. Multi-party legislative elections were held in 1990-91 even though opposition parties had not been declared formally legal.
President [[Omar Bongo|El Hadj Omar Bongo Ondimba]], in power since [[1967]] and the longest-serving African head of state, was re-elected to another 7-year term according to poll results returned from elections held on [[November 27]] [[2005]]. According to figures provided by Gabon's Interior Ministry, this was achieved with 79.1% of the votes cast. In [[2003]] the President amended the [[Constitution of Gabon]] to remove any restictions on the number of terms a president is allowed to serve. The president retains strong powers, such as authority to dissolve the National Assembly, declare a state of siege, delay legislation, conduct referenda, and appoint and dismiss the prime minister and cabinet members.
In provisional results his ruling [[Gabonese Democratic Party]] (PDG) won 84 out of 120 parliamentary seats. As with previous Gabonese elections in which the opposition parties have contested, there were several accusations of electoral fraud, bribery, and calls for a boycott. There were also incidences of violence and protest, particularly in the first round of voting held two weeks prior. However, several international observers including the Economic Community of Central African States have reported that the election "met international standards" for [[democracy|democratic]] voting.
''See: [[List of Presidents of Gabon]]''
== Geography ==
''Main article: [[Geography of Gabon]]''
[[Image:Chancery.jpg|thumb|Chancery building, [[Libreville]]]]
Gabon is located on the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast of central Africa. Clockwise from the northwest, it is bounded by [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Cameroon]], and the [[Republic of Congo]].
Gabon's largest river is the [[Ogooué]]. Gabon is also noted for efforts to preserve the natural environment with what may be the largest area of [[nature parks]] in the world.
Administratively, Gabon is divided into 9 provinces and further divided into 37 departments (''départements'').
''See: [[List of places in Gabon]], [[Provinces of Gabon]], [[Departments of Gabon]]''
== Economy ==
[[Image:Gabon sm04.png|thumb|right|270px|Map of Gabon]]
''Main article: [[Economy of Gabon]]''
Gabon is more prosperous than most nearby countries, with a [[per capita income]] of four times the average for [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]. This is in large part due to offshore [[petroleum|oil]] production that has produced substantial wealth, although the distribution of income from this industry is extremely unequal. Gabon was a full member of [[Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries|OPEC]] from 1975 to 1995.
During the 1990s, [[devaluation]] of the [[CFA franc]] left Gabon struggling to pay its overseas [[Third World debt|debt]]; [[France]] and the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] have provided further loans and aid in exchange for the implementation of changes to the economy.
== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Gabon]]''
Almost all [[Gabon]]ese are of [[Bantu]] origin. Gabon has at least 40 [[ethnic group]]s with separate languages and cultures. The largest is the [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang|Fang]]. Others include the [[Myene]], [[Bandjabi]], [[Eshira]], [[Bapounou]], and [[Okande]]. Ethnic group boundaries are less sharply drawn in Gabon than elsewhere in [[Africa]]. [[French language|French]], the [[official language]], is a unifying force. More than 10,000 [[French people]] live in Gabon, and France predominates foreign cultural and commercial influences. Historical and environmental factors caused Gabon's population to decline between [[1900]] and [[1940]]. It is one of the least-densely inhabited countries in Africa, and a labor shortage is a major obstacle to development and a draw for foreign workers. The population is generally accepted to be just over 1 million but remains in dispute.
'''[[Population]]:'''
1,208,436
<br>''note:''
Estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower [[life expectancy]], higher [[infant mortality]] and [[death]] rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)
== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Gabon]]''
* [[Bwiti]]
* [[Ethnic groups of Gabon]]
* [[List of African writers (by country)#Gabon|List of writers from Gabon]]
* [[Music of Gabon]]
==Miscellaneous topics==
* [[Communications in Gabon]]
* [[Foreign relations of Gabon]]
* [[List of Gabon-related topics]]
* [[List of Gabonese companies]]
* [[Military of Gabon]]
* [[Postage stamps and postal history of Gabon]]
* [[Transportation in Gabon]]
==References==
* [[David E. Gardinier]], ''Historical Dictionary of Gabon'', 2nd ed. (The Scarecrow Press, 1994) - a comprehensive work, with a bibliography of 1,453 items
* James F. Barnes, ''Gabon: Beyond the Colonial Legacy'' (Boulder: Westview, 1992)
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Gabon}}
===Government===
*[http://www.legabon.org Le Gabon : official site of the Gabonese Republic]
*[http://www.assemblee.ga/ Assemblée Nationale du Gabon] official site
*[http://gabon.embassyhomepage.com/ Gabonese Embassy in London] governm |
o:Karbona monooksido]]
[[fr:Monoxyde de carbone]]
[[gl:Monóxido de carbono]]
[[ko:일산화 탄소]]
[[id:Karbon monoksida]]
[[it:Monossido di carbonio]]
[[he:פחמן חד חמצני]]
[[nl:Koolmonoxide]]
[[ja:一酸化炭素]]
[[no:Karbonmonoksid]]
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[[pl:Tlenek węgla]]
[[pt:Monóxido de carbono]]
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[[fi:Hiilimonoksidi]]
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[[zh:一氧化碳]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Conjecture</title>
<id>6138</id>
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<id>42075167</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:29:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Use of conjectures in conditional proofs */ tidy up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''conjecture''' is a mathematical statement which has been proposed as a true statement, but which no one has yet been able to [[mathematical proof|prove]] or disprove.
Once a conjecture has been proven, it becomes known as a [[theorem]], and it joins the realm of known mathematical facts. Until that point in time, [[mathematician]]s must be extremely careful about their use of a conjecture within logical structures.
==Famous conjectures==
Until its proof in 1995, the most famous of all conjectures was the mis-named [[Fermat's last theorem]] - this conjecture became a true theorem only after its proof. In the process, a special case of the [[Taniyama-Shimura theorem|Taniyama-Shimura conjecture]], itself a longstanding open problem, was proven; this conjecture has since been completely proven.
Other famous conjectures include:
* There are no odd [[perfect number]]s
* [[Goldbach's conjecture]]
* The [[twin prime conjecture]]
* The [[Collatz conjecture]]
* The [[Riemann hypothesis]]
* [[Complexity classes P and NP|'''P''' &ne; '''NP''']]
* The [[Poincaré conjecture]]
* The [[abc conjecture]]
The [[Langlands program]] is a far-reaching web of '[[unifying conjecture]]s' that link different subfields of mathematics, e.g. [[number theory]] and the [[representation theory]] of [[Lie group]]s; some of these conjectures have since been proved.
==Counterexamples==
Unlike the empirical sciences, mathematics is based on ''provable'' truth; one cannot apply the adage about "the exception that proves the rule". Although many of the most famous conjectures have been tested across an astounding range of numbers, this is no guarantee against a single [[counterexample]], which would immediately disprove the conjecture. For example, the [[Collatz conjecture]], which concerns whether or not certain [[sequence]]s of [[integer]]s terminate, has been tested for all integers up to 1.2 &times; 10 <sup>12</sup> (over a million millions); however, it still has only the status of a conjecture -- perhaps there is a counterexample awaiting researchers at 1.2 &times; 10<sup>12</sup> + 1.
==Use of conjectures in conditional proofs==
Sometimes a conjecture is called a ''hypothesis'' when it is used frequently and repeatedly as an assumption in proofs of other results. For example, the [[Riemann hypothesis]] is a conjecture from [[number theory]] that (amongst other things) makes predictions about the distribution of [[prime number]]s. Few number theorists doubt that the Riemann hypothesis is true (it is said that [[Atle Selberg]] was once a sceptic, and [[J. E. Littlewood]] always was). In anticipation of its eventual proof, some have proceeded to develop further proofs which are contingent on the truth of this conjecture. These are called ''[[conditional proof]]s'': the conjectures assumed appear in the hypotheses of the theorem, for the time being.
These "proofs", however, would fall apart if it turned out that the hypothesis was false, so there is considerable interest in verifying the truth or falsity of conjectures of this type. There is also something of a question mark over conditional proofs and their 'professional' status in mathematics; are they real work? In the end they must be judged as one possible problem solving technique amongst many: they amount to ''reducing a question to a question we have not already solved'', as opposed to the standard reduction to a question we already know how to solve.
==Undecidable conjectures==
Not every conjecture ends up being proven true or false. The [[continuum hypothesis]], which tries to ascertain the relative [[cardinal number|cardinality]] of certain [[Infinity|infinite]] [[set]]s, was eventually shown to be [[undecidable]] (or independent) from the generally accepted set of [[Zermelo-Fraenkel axiom|axioms of set theory]]. It is therefore possible to adopt this statement, or its negation, as a new axiom in a consistent manner (much as we can take [[Euclid]]'s [[parallel postulate]] as either true or false).
In this case, if a proof uses this statement, researchers will often look for a new proof that ''doesn't'' require the hypothesis (in the same way that it is desirable that statements in [[Euclidean geometry]] be proved using only the axioms of neutral geometry, i.e. no parallel postulate.) The one major exception to this in practice is the [[axiom of choice]] -- unless studying this axiom in particular, the majority of researchers do not usually worry whether a result requires the axiom of choice.
== Usage outside of mathematics==
'''Conjectural''' means presumed to be real, true, or genuine, mostly based on inconclusive grounds (cf. [[hypothetical]]). The term was used by [[Karl Popper]], in the context of scientific philosophy.
==See also==
*[[List of conjectures]]
[[Category:Conjectures|*]]
[[da:Formodning (matematik)]]
[[de:Vermutung]]
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[[he:השערה (מתמטיקה)]]
[[hu:Sejtés]]
[[ru:Гипотеза]]
[[sv:Förmodan]]
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[[tr:Konjektür]]
[[zh:猜想]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Christoph Ludwig Agricola</title>
<id>6139</id>
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<id>28106879</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-12T11:05:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Christoph Ludwig Agricola''' ([[November 5]], [[1667]] - [[1719]]) was a [[Germany|German]] landscape [[painter]]. He was born and died at [[Regensburg]] (Ratisbon).
He spent a great part of his life in travel, visiting [[England]], the [[Netherlands]] and[[France]], and residing for a considerable period at [[Naples, Italy|Naples]].
His numerous landscapes, chiefly cabinet pictures, are remarkable for fidelity to nature, and especially for their skilful representation of varied phases of climate. In composition his style shows the influence of [[Caspar Poussin]], while in light and colour he imitates [[Claude Lorrain]].
His pictures are to be found in [[Dresden, Germany|Dresden]], [[Braunschweig (city)|Braunschweig]], [[Vienna, Austria|Vienna]], [[Florence, Italy|Florence]], Naples and many other towns of both Germany and [[Italy]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1667 births|Agricola, Christoph Ludwig]]
[[Category:1719 deaths|Agricola, Christoph Ludwig]]
[[Category:German painters|Agricola, Christoph Ludwig]]
[[Category:Landscape artists|Agricola, Christoph Ludwig]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Claudius</title>
<id>6140</id>
<revision>
<id>42027579</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:27:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.252.188.159</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{otheruses}}
[[Image:claud_1.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A statue of Emperor Claudius]]
'''Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus''' ([[August 1]] [[10]] [[BCE]] &ndash; [[October 13]] [[54]] [[CE]]), previously '''Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus''', was the fourth [[Roman Emperor]] of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]], ruling from [[January 24]] [[41]] to his death in 54. Born in [[Lugdunum]] in [[Gaul]] (modern-day [[Lyon]], [[France]]), to [[Nero Claudius Drusus|Drusus]] and [[Antonia Minor]], he was the first Roman Emperor to be born outside [[Italia (Roman province)|Italy]].
Claudius was considered a rather unlikely man to become emperor. He was reportedly afflicted with some type of disability, and his family had virtually excluded him from public office until his [[consul]]ship with his nephew [[Caligula]] in 37. This infirmity may have saved him from the fate of many other Roman nobles during the purges of [[Tiberius]]' and Caligula's reigns. His very survival led to his being declared emperor after Caligula's assassination, at which point he was the last adult male of his family. Despite his lack of political experience, Claudius proved to be an able administrator and a great builder of public works. His reign saw an expansion of the empire, including the [[Roman conquest of Britain|conquest of Britain]]. He took a personal interest in the law, presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day. However, he was seen as vulnerable throughout his rule, particularly by the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position &mdash; resulting in the deaths of many [[Roman Senator|senators]]. He also suffered tragic setbacks in his personal life, one of which led to his murder. These events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers. More recent historians have revised this opinion.
==Claudius' affliction and personality==
[[Image:Claudiusjupiter2a.jpg|left|thumb|350px|Detail of statue of Claudius as Jupiter. Image courtesy [http://www.vroma.org The VRoma Project].]]
The historian [[Suetonius]] describes the physical manifestations of Claudius' affliction in detail<ref>Suet. ''Claud.'' 30.</ref>. His knees were weak and gave way |
he [[cartilaginous fish]] (class [[Chondrichthyes]], 800 species including [[shark]]s and [[batoidea|rays]]), with the remainder classed as [[bony fish]] (class [[Osteichthyes]]).
Fish come in different sizes, from the 16 m (51 ft) [[whale shark]] to a 7 mm (just over 1/4 of an inch) long [[stout infantfish]]. Many types of aquatic animals named "fish", such as [[jellyfish]] and [[cuttlefish]], are not true fish. Other sea dwelling creatures, like [[dolphin]]s, are actually [[mammal]]s.
Certain species of fish maintain elevated body temperatures to varying degrees. Endothermic [[teleosts]] (bony fishes) are all in the suborder Scombroidei and include the billfishes, tunas, and one species of "primitive" mackerel (''Gasterochisma melampus''). All sharks in the family [[Lamnidae]] &ndash; shortfin mako, long fin mako, white, porbeagle, and salmon shark &ndash; are known to have the capacity for endothermy, and evidence suggests the trait exists in family [[Alopiidae]] (thresher sharks). The degree of endothermy varies from the billfish, which warm only their eyes and brain, to [[bluefin tuna]] and porbeagle sharks who maintain body temperatures elevated in excess of 20 &deg;C above ambient water temperatures. ''See also [[gigantothermy]]''. Endothermy, though metabolically costly, is thought to provide advantages such as increased contractile force of muscles, higher rates of central [[nervous system]] processing, and higher rates of [[digestion]].
==Fish ecology==
Fish can be found in almost all large bodies of water in salt, [[brackish]] or [[fresh water]], at depths from just below the surface to several thousand meters. However, hyper-saline lakes like the [[Great Salt Lake]] do not support fishes. Some species of fish have been specially bred to be kept and displayed in an [[aquarium]], and can survive in the home environment.
Catching fish for the purpose of [[food]] or [[sport]] is known as [[fishing]]. The annual [[yield]] from all [[fishery|fisheries]] worldwide is about 100 [[million]] [[tonne]]s. [[Overfishing]] is a threat to many species of fish. On [[May 15]] [[2003]], the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' reported that all large [[ocean]]ic fish species worldwide had been so systematically over caught that fewer than 10% of 1950 levels remained. [http://www.globeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20030514.wfish1405/BNStory/National/] Particularly imperiled were [[shark]]s, Atlantic [[cod]], [[Bluefin tuna]], and Pacific [[sardine]]s. The authors recommended immediate drastic cutbacks in fish catches and reservation of ocean [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]] worldwide.
==Fish as food==
Fish are an important source of food in many cultures. Other water-dwelling animals such as [[mollusk]]s, [[crustacean]]s, and [[shellfish]] are often called "fish" when used as food. For more details, see [[Fish (food)]].
[[Image:bbas2.jpg|thumb|''Centropristis striata'']]
== Classification ==
Fish are a [[paraphyly|paraphyletic]] group: that is, any [[clade]] containing all fish also contains the [[tetrapod]]s, which are not fish. Fish are classified into the following major groups:
* [[Conodonta]]
* [[Hyperoartia]]
** [[Petromyzontidae]] ([[lamprey]]s)
* [[Pteraspidomorphi]] (early jawless fish)
* [[Thelodonti]]
* [[Anaspida]]
* [[Cephalaspidomorphi]] (early jawless fish)
** [[Galeaspida]]
** [[Pituriaspida]]
** [[Osteostraci]]
* [[Gnathostomata]] (jawed vertebrates)
** [[Placodermi]]
** [[Chondrichthyes]] (cartilaginous fish)
** [[Acanthodii]]
** [[Osteichthyes]] (bony fish)
*** [[Actinopterygii]] (ray-finned fish)
*** [[Sarcopterygii]] (lobe-finned fish)
**** [[Actinistia]] ([[coelacanth]]s)
**** [[Dipnoi]] ([[lungfish]])
For a fuller treatment of classification, see the [[vertebrate]] article.
==See also==
*[[:Category:Fish|The Wikipedia Fish Category page]] which provides links to all aspects of the subject from icthyology to aquariums to sharks.
*[[Animal]]
*[[Aquarium]]
*[[Deep sea fish]]
*[[Fish anatomy]]
*[[Fish farming]]
*[[Fish locomotion]]
*[[Fish migration]]
*[[Fish (singer)|Fish (singer)]]
*[[Fishing]]
*[[Fishing Light Attractors]]
*[[Fishkeeping]]
*[[Ichthyology]] (the study of fish)
*[[List of fish families]]
*[[List of fish common names]]
*[[List of freshwater aquarium fish species]]
*[[Marine aquarium fish species]]
*[[Oily fish]]
*[[Ostracoderm]] - the first fishes
*[[Prehistoric fish]]
*[[Shoal]] - the [[collective noun]] for fish (also school)
*[[Whitefish (fisheries term)|White fish]]
== External links ==
{{commons|Category:Actinopterygii}}
*[http://www.aquahobby.com Age of Aquariums - Tropical Fish] - A large aquarium hobbyist community that has been promoting responsible fishkeeping internationally since 1997.
* [http://www.fishbase.org Fish database] ([[FishBase]])
* [http://www.aworldoffish.com A World of Fish] - Species information and fish care
* Join Ray Mullet in the [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/nof/fish/ Fish Olympics]
* [http://www.aquaticcommunity.com Aquatic Community] - Site with one of the world's largest fish databases
* [http://www.fishfriend.com/ The Aquarium Fish Tank Friend] - Site with FertFriend, Online Aquarium Fert Dosing Calculator
[[Category:Fish| ]]
[[Category:Fisheries science]]
[[Category:Seafood]]
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<page>
<title>Food and drink</title>
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<timestamp>2005-12-19T20:11:26Z</timestamp>
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<username>Fplay</username>
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<comment>Sorry, this is top-level browsing category. Do not confuse new person using the browsing user interface.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Food]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Flamebait</title>
<id>10650</id>
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<id>40581978</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T16:35:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.138.152.226</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Flamebait''' is a ''[[message]]'' posted to a public [[Internet]] discussion group, such as a [[Internet forum|forum]], [[newsgroup]] or [[mailing list]], with the intent of provoking an angry response (a "[[flaming|flame]]") or argument over a topic the troll often has no real interest in.
There are various motives or explanations for this puzzling behavior. Two of the most popular are the desire for attention and the desire for entertainment at the expense of others. Another is simply a desire to observe, and learn from, human behavior in an anonymous, hence non-threatening, environment. Posted flamebait can provide the posting party with a controlled trigger-and-response setting in which to carry out social experiments.
It is often hard to determine who is really responsible for the degradation of a reasonable discussion into a [[Flaming|flamewar]]. Someone who posts a contrary opinion in a strongly focused discussion forum may be easily labeled a "[[baiter]]", "[[flaming|flamer]]" or "[[Internet troll|troll]]". Therefore, it seems especially important to make the rules and focus of a discussion forum public to avoid misconceptions about its accepted use.
'''Taking the bait''' refers to someone who responds to the original message regardless of whether they are aware the original message was intended to provoke a response.
The conclusion to a flamewar precipitated by flamebait is often determined by recourse to [[Godwin's Law]].
==See also==
*[[Internet troll]]
*[[Social software]]
==External links and references==
* [http://slashdot.org/comments.pl?sid=95824&cid=8206623 Slashdot post example of flamebait]
* [http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/F/flame-bait.html jargon file reference for Flamebait]
* [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=664%40mit-vax.UUCP&oe=UTF-8&output=gplain older flamebait reference on USENET, 1985 (via Google Groups)]
* [http://www.politicsforum.org/images/flame_warriors/ Netizens Guide to Flame Warriors... images, text, humor on the types of flamer]
[[Category:Internet culture]]
[[Category:Internet trolling]]
[[fr:Flamebait]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Floating Point</title>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Floating point]]
</text>
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<page>
<title>Fixed Point</title>
<id>10652</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fixed_point]]
</text>
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<page>
<title>Fantasy sport</title>
<id>10653</id>
<revision>
<id>37371467</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T16:07:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>N. Harmonik</username>
<id>351670</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''Fantasy sport''' is a [[game]] where fantasy owner |
ory on that city's Christmas store window displays. By tracing the serial number that appeared in the camera, the [[FBI]] was able to determine Vincendet as the original owner. The French secret service and the FBI then began working on tracing the route that the camera took between the time it was taken from Vincendet and the Massoud assassination.
Massoud is the subject of [[Ken Follett]]'s ''Lie Down With Lions,'' a novel about the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]].
==See also==
*[[History of Afghanistan since 1992]]
* ''The Carpet Wars''. Christopher Kremmer. Flamingo – an imprint of HarperCollins Publishers. Australia. 2002.
==References==
* ''The Carpet Wars''. Christopher Kremmer. Flamingo – an imprint of HarperCollins Publishers. Australia. 2002.
==External links==
*[http://www.myafghan.com/news.asp?id=191584756 Thousands Gather for Massood Funeral] from ''Afghan News Network''
*[http://www.afgha.com/?af=who&op=read&id=52 Ahmad Shah Massoud] from ''Afgha''
*[http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,333835,00.html Could 9/11 Have Been Prevented?] from ''Time'' magazine
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559967/us559969/us10006385/us10176222/us10238357/ LookSmart - Ahmed Shah Massound] directory category
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Afghanistan/Society_and_Culture/Politics/Politicians/Massoud,_Ahmed_Shah/ Open Directory Project - Ahmed Shah Massoud] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Afghanistan/Arts_and_Humanities/Humanities/History/By_Time_Period/20th_Century/People/Massoud__Ahmad_Shah__1953_2001_/ Yahoo! - Ahmed Shah Massoud] directory category
[[Category:1953 births|Massoud, Ahmed Shah]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Massoud, Ahmed Shah]]
[[Category:Afghan people|Massoud, Ahmed]]
[[Category:Assassinated people|Massoud, Ahmed]]
[[af:Ahmad Shah Massoud]]
[[ar:أحمد شاه مسعود]]
[[ca:Ahmed Shah Massoud]]
[[cs:Ahmad Šáh Masúd]]
[[de:Ahmad Schah Massoud]]
[[es:Ahmed Shah Massoud]]
[[fr:Ahmed Chah Massoud]]
[[it:Ahmad Shah Massoud]]
[[nl:Achmed Sjah Massoed]]
[[ja:アフマド・シャー・マスード]]
[[pl:Ahmad Szach Masud]]
[[sr:Ахмад Шах Масуд]]
[[sv:Ahmad Shah Massoud]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Atlantis</title>
<id>2178</id>
<revision>
<id>42137830</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:50:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TigerShark</username>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.108.112.34|66.108.112.34]] ([[User talk:66.108.112.34|Talk]]) to last version by Ollj</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Plato's island Atlantis. For other uses, see [[Atlantis (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Athanasius Kircher's.gif|thumb|right|250px|[[Athanasius Kircher|Athanasius Kircher's]] map of a possible Atlantis' location. From ''Mundus Subterraneus'' [[1669]].]]
The "[[Lost city]]" of '''Atlantis''' was an ancient [[mythical place|mythical]] island, whose existence and location have never been confirmed. The first references to Atlantis are from the [[classical Greek]] philosopher [[Plato]], who said it was engulfed by the ocean as the result of an earthquake 9,000 years before his own time. Plato claimed it was somewhere outside the [[Pillars of Hercules]], now known as the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]. While there are many theories about Atlantis, nearly all serious research shows that Atlantis never existed as Plato described it, although elements of his story may have been drawn from real events.
==Origin==
===Plato===
[[Image:Plato-raphael.jpg|thumb|right|Plato as depicted by the painter [[Raphael]].]]
Plato's accounts of Atlantis are in his works ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' and ''[[Critias (Plato)|Critias]]''; these are the earliest known references to the mythological civilization of the Atlanteans(360 BC). The Timaeus dialogue is an introduction, followed by a concise history of the universe and ancient civilizations, according to Plato's particular philosophy. In the introductory portion, [[Socrates]] muses on the perfect society (as described in Plato's Republic) and wonders if he and his guests could come up with a story which puts this society into action. Critias mentions an allegedly historical tale that he would make the perfect example, and follows up by describing Atlantis in the Critias dialogue, mainly its origins and form. (Ancient Athens represented the "perfect society," and Atlantis the opponent, representing the opposite of the "perfect" traits described in the Republic.) Critias' account is purported to have originated from a visit to Egypt by the Athenian lawgiver [[Solon]], where [[Sonchis]], priest of [[Thebes (Egypt)|Thebes]], translated it into [[Greek language|Greek]] for him.
According to Critias, the [[Hellenic]] gods of old divided the land so that each god might own a lot; Poseidon was appropriately, and to his liking, bequeathed the island of Atlantis. The island was larger than [[Libya]] and [[Asia Minor]] combined, but has since been sunk by an earthquake and became an impassable mud shoal, inhibiting travel between the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The Egyptians described Atlantis as an island approximately 700 km across, comprising mostly mountains in the northern portions and along the shore, and encompassing a great plain of an oblong shape in the south "extending in one direction three thousand [[Ancient Greek weights and measures|stadia]] [about 600 km], but across the centre inland it was two thousand stadia [about 400 km]".
Fifty [[Ancient Greek weights and measures|stadia]] inland from the middle of the southern coast was a "mountain not very high on any side". Here lived a native woman with whom Poseidon fell in love and bore five pairs of male twins. The eldest of these, [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]], was made rightful king of the entire island and the ocean (now the [[Atlantic Ocean]]), and was given the mountain of his birth and the surrounding area as his [[fiefdom]]. Atlas's twin [[Gadeirus]] or [[Eumelus]] in Greek, was given the easternmost portion of the island which also lay at its northern extreme facing [[Gades]], a town in southern Spain. The other four pairs of twins—Ampheres and Evaemon, Mneseus and Autochthon, Elasippus and Mestor, and Azaes (the [[Azores]]?) and Diaprepes—"were the inhabitants and rulers of divers islands in the open sea".
Poseidon carved the inland mountain where his love dwelt into a palace and enclosed it with three circular [[moat|moats]] of increasing width, varying from one to three stadia and separated by rings of land proportional in size. The Atlanteans then built bridges northward from the mountain, making a route to the rest of the island. They dug a great canal to the sea, and alongside the bridges carved tunnels into the rings of rock so that ships could pass into the city around the mountain; they carved docks from the rock walls of the moats. Every passage to the city was guarded by gates and towers, and a wall surrounded each of the city's rings. The walls were constructed of red, white and black rock quarried from the moats, and were covered with [[brass]], [[tin]] and [[orichalcum]], respectively.
According to Critias, 9,000 years before his lifetime, a war took place between those outside the ''Pillars of Heracles'' and those who dwelt within them. The Atlanteans had conquered the Mediterranean as far east as [[Egypt]] and the continent into [[Tyrrhenia]], and subjected its people to slavery. The Athenians led an alliance of resistors against the Atlantean empire and as the alliance disintegrated, prevailed alone against the empire, liberating the occupied lands. “But afterwards there occurred violent earthquakes and floods; and in a single day and night of misfortune all your warlike men in a body sank into the earth, and the island of Atlantis in like manner disappeared in the depths of the sea."
===Aristotle===
[[Image:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] copy of a bust of Aristotle by [[Lysippos]] in the [[Louvre Museum]].]]
[[Aristotle]] wrote of a large island in the Atlantic Ocean that the [[Carthage|Carthaginians]] knew as [[Antilia]]. [[Proclus]], the commentator of ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' mentions that [[Marcellus]], relying on ancient historians, stated in his ''[[Aethiopiaka]]'' that in the Outer Ocean (which meant all oceans, not just the Atlantic) there were seven small islands dedicated to [[Persephone]], and three large ones; one of these, comprising 1,000 ''stadia'' in length, was dedicated to [[Poseidon]]. Proclus tells us that [[Crantor]] reported that he, too, had seen the columns on which the story of Atlantis was preserved as reported by Plato: the [[Sais, Egypt|Saite]] priest showed him its history in [[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyphic]] characters. Some other writers called it ''Poseidonis'' after Poseidon. [[Plutarch]] mentions ''Saturnia'' or ''Ogygia'' about five days' sail to the west of what is called nowadays [[Britain]]. He added that westwards from that island, there were the three islands of [[Cronus]], to where proud and warlike men used to come from the continent beyond the islands, in order to offer sacrifice to the gods of the ocean.
===Other Greek accounts===
The historian [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] wrote that the [[intelligentsia]] of [[Alexandria]] considered the destruction of Atlantis a historical fact and described a class of [[earthquake]]s that suddenly, by a violent motion, opened up huge mouths and so swallowed up portions of the earth, as once in the Atlantic Ocean a large island was swallowed up. [[Diodorus Siculus]] recorded that the Atlanteans did not know the fruits of [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]]. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] called this island "Satyrides," referring to the Atlantes |
zog and Morris were arguing in a hall, with Herzog saying, "You'll never make a film, but if you do I'll come and eat my shoe at the premiere." <ref>Pred. . . Singer "[http://www.errolmorris.com/content/profile/singer_predilections.html]"</ref>
==Early career as a film-maker==
''[[Gates of Heaven]]'' was given a limited release in the spring of [[1981]]. Critic [[Roger Ebert]] was and remains today a champion of the film, including it on his top ten best films list. Morris returned to Vernon in [[1979]] and again in [[1980]], renting a house in town and conducting interviews with the town's citizens. ''[[Vernon, FL]]'' premiered at the [[1981]] [[New York Film Festival]]. ''[[Newsweek]]'' called it, "a film as odd and mysterious as its subjects, and quite unforgettable." The film, like ''[[Gates of Heaven]]'', suffered from poor distribution. It was released on video in [[1987]], and DVD in [[2005]].
After finishing ''[[Vernon, FL]]'', Morris tried unsuccessfully to get funding for a variety of projects. There was ''Road'',
a story about an interstate-highway in Minnesota; a project about Robert K. Golka, the creator of laser-induced-fireballs in Utah; and the story of Centralia, PA, a coal town in which an "inextinguishable subterranean fire" ignited in [[1962]]. He eventually got funding in [[1983]] to write a script about John and Jim Pardue, a pair of Missouri bank robbers who had killed their father and grandmother and robbed five banks. Morris' pitch went, "The great bank-robbery sprees always take place at a time when something is going wrong in the country. Bonnie and Clyde were apolitical, but it's impossible to imagine them without [[the Depression]] as a back-drop. The Pardue brothers were apolitical, but it's impossible to imagine them without [[Vietnam]]." Morris wanted Tom Waits and Mickey Rourke to play the brothers, and he wrote the script, but the project eventually failed. Morris worked on writing scripts for various other projects, including a pair of ill-fated [[Stephen King]] adaptations.
In [[1984]] he married Julia Sheehan, who he had met in Plainfield while researching [[Ed Gein]]. Morris would later recall an early conversation with Julia: "I was talking to a mass murderer but I was thinking of you," he said, and instantly regretted it, afraid that it might not have sounded as affectionate as he had wished. But Julia was actually flattered:"I thought, really, that was one of the nicest things anyone ever said to me. It was hard to go out with other guys after that."
In [[1985]], Morris became interested in Dr. James Grigson, a psychiatrist in [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]]. Under [[Texas]] law, the [[death penalty]] can only be issued if the jury is convinced that the defendant is not only guilty, but will commit further violent crimes in the future if he is not put to death. Grigson had spent 15 years testifying for such cases, and he almost invariably gave the same damning testimony, often saying that it is "one hundred per cent certain" that the defendent would kill again. This lead to Grigson being nicknamed "Dr. Death". Through Grigson, Morris would meet the subject of his next film, 36 year-old Randall Dale Adams.
Adams was on death row for the [[1976]] murder of Robert Wood, a Dallas police officer. Adams told Morris that he had been framed, and that David Harris, who was present at the time of the murder and was the principal witness for the prosecution, had in fact killed Wood. Morris began researching the case because it related to Dr. Grigson; he was at first unconvinced of Adams' innocence. After reading the transcripts of the trail and meeting David Harris at a bar, however, Morris was no longer so sure.
At the time, Morris had been making a living as a private investigator for a well-known private detective agency that specialized in Wall Street cases. Bringing together his talents as an investigator and his obsessions with murder, narration and epistomology, Morris went to work on the case in earnest. Unedited interviews in which the prosecution's witnesses systematically contradicted themselves were used as testimony in Adams' [[1986]] [[habeas corpus]] hearing to determine if he would recieve a new trial. David Harris famously confessed, in a roundabout manner, to killing Wood. Although Adams was finally found innocent after years of being processed by the legal system, the judge in the habeas corpus hearing officially stated that, "much could be said about those videotape interviews, but nothing that would have any bearing on the matter before this court." Regardless, ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'', as Morris' film would be called, was widely accepted as the main force behind getting its subject, Randall Adams, off of death row.
According to a survey by [[the Washington Post]], ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' made dozens of critics' top ten lists for [[1988]], more than any other film that year. It won the documentary of the year award from both the [[New York Film Critics Circle]] and the [[National Society of Film Critics]]. Despite its widespread acclaim, it was not nominated for an Oscar, which created a small scandal regarding the nomination practices of the Academy. The Academy cited the film's genre of "non-fiction", arguing that it was not actually a documentary. ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' is to this day one of the most critically acclaimed documentaries ever made.
[[Image:Interrotron web page.jpg|thumb|200px|a diagram of the Interrotron]]
==The Interrotron==
The name "Interrotron" was coined by Morris's wife, Julia Sheehan, who, according to Morris, "liked the name because it combined two important concepts — terror and interview." <ref>"THE FOG OF WAR: 13 Questions and Answers on the Filmmaking of Errol Morris by Errol Morris", FLM Magazine Winter 2004 "[http://www.errolmorris.com/content/eyecontact/interrotron.html]"</ref> The device is similar to a [[teleprompter]]: Errol and his subject each sit facing a camera. The image of each person's face is then projected onto the lens of the other's camera. Instead of looking at a blank lens, then, both Morris and his subject are looking directly at a human face. The feeling of the monologues that Errol captures on film is human and conversational in a way that is usually impossible when a person is talking directly to a camera. Ted Bafaloukos said of the Interrotron, ". . .the beauty of it is that it lets people do what they do best, namely watch TV." <ref>"Errol Morris Interview," Film: Beyond the Camera 1999 "[http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/phillips-film-1e/morris4.htm]"</ref>
Morris used this process to film his critically acclaimed television show, "First Person." The show engaged a varied group of individuals from civil advocates to criminals. It was cancelled after the first season due to low viewership most likely tied to its poor timeslot.
==Commercials==
Although Morris has achieved notoriety as a documentary filmmaker, he is also an accomplished director of television [[commercials]]. In 2002, Morris directed a series of television ads for [[Apple Computer]] as part of a popular "Switch" campaign. The commercials featured ex-[[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] users discussing their various bad experiences that motivated their own personal switches to Macintosh. Morris has directed hundreds of commercials for various companies and products, including [[Adidas]], [[AIG]], [[Cisco Systems]], [[Citibank]], [[Levi's]], [[Miller High Life]], [[Nike]], [[PBS]], [[The Quaker Oats Company]], [[Southern Comfort]], [[Toyota]] and [[Volkswagen]]. Many of these commercials are available on his [http://www.errolmorris.com/commercials.html website].
In 2002 Errol Morris, commercial director was comissioned to make a [http://www.errolmorris.com/content/shortfilms/oscarmovie.html short film] for the [[75th Academy Awards]]. Those interviewed range from [[Laura Bush]] to [[Iggy Pop]] to [[Kenneth Arrow]] to Morris's son Hamilton. Morris was nominated for an Emmy for this short film. He considered editing this footage into a feature length film, [http://www.errolmorris.com/content/aborted/projects_donald.html focusing] specifically on [[Donald Trump]] discussing ''[[Citizen Kane]]''.
In July 2004, Morris directed another series of commercials in the style of the "Switch" ads. This campaign featured [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] who voted for [[George W. Bush|Bush]] in the [[United States presidential election, 2000|2000 election]] giving their personal reasons for voting for [[John Kerry|Kerry]] in 2004. Upon completing more than 50 commercials, Morris had difficulty getting them on the air. Eventually the liberal advocacy group [[MoveOn]] [[Political action committee|PAC]] paid to air a few of the commercials. Morris eventually wrote an [http://www.errolmorris.com/content/editorial/nytimes105.html editorial] for ''[[the New York Times]]'' discussing the commercials and Kerry's losing campaign.
In the Fall of 2004, Morris also directed a series of noteworthy commercials for [[Sharp Electronics]]. The commercials enigmatically depicted various scenes from what appeared to be a short narrative that climaxed with a car crashing into a swimming pool. Each commercial showed a slightly different perspective on the events, and each ended with a cryptic weblink. The weblink was to a fake webpage advertising a prize offered to anyone who could discover the secret location of some valuable urns. It was in fact an [[alternate reality game]]. The original commercials can be found on Morris' [http://www.errolmorris.com/commercials/sharp.html website].
==Films by Errol Morris==
* ''[[Gates of Heaven]]'' [[1978]]
* ''[[Vernon, Florida (movie)|Vernon, Florida]]'' [[1981] |
s as a secret badge of recognition. Conservative estimates calculate that between 80,000 and 200,000 Freemasons died.<ref name="holocaust">Freemasons for Dummies, by Christopher Hodapp, Wiley Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, p.85, sec. ''Hitler and the Nazi''</ref>. It is impossible to arrive at a total figure as no one knows the number of Freemasons from Nazi occupied countries who were murdered. <ref>[http://www.hmd.org.uk/ '' Holocaust Memorial Day (UK)''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].</ref> The [[United Kingdom]] Government established [[Holocaust Memorial Day (UK)|Holocaust Memorial Day]] <ref>[http://www.hmd.org.uk/ '' Holocaust Memorial Day (UK)''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].</ref> to recognise all groups who were targets of the Nazi regime.
The little blue [[Forget-me-not|Forget Me Not]]<ref>[http://www.galenlodge.co.uk/forgetmenot.htm ''Das Vergissmeinnicht The Forget-Me-Not''] Accessed [[February 6]] [[2006]].</ref> flower, or badge, is worn in the coat lapel to remember all those that have suffered in the name of Freemasonry, and specifically those during the Nazi era.{{fact}} In [[1948]] this emblem was adopted as an official Masonic emblem at the first Annual Convention of the United Grand Lodges of Germany, Ancient Free & Accepted Masons. Two UGLE Lodges, with services connections to Germany, are named after the flower. <ref>[http://www.pglwilts.co.uk/page52.html ''History of the Forget Me Not Lodge No 9035''] Accessed [[February 6]] [[2006]].</ref>
==Charitable effort==
Freemasons collect a considerable amount of money internally which is attributed to charitable purposes. A number of structures exist within Freemasonry to disburse this money, a considerable proportion of which goes to non-Masonic charities either locally or on a provincial or national basis.
Masonic charities include
*Homes <ref>http://www.rmbi.org.uk/</ref><ref>http://www.grandlodgescotland.com/glos/FMH/info.html</ref> which provide sheltered housing or nursing care.
*Education with both educational grants<ref>http://www.rmtgb.org/</ref> or residential education<ref>http://www.royalmasonic.herts.sch.uk/pages/default.asp</ref> which are open to all and not limited to the families of Freemasons.
*Medical assistance<ref>http://www.nmsf.org</ref>
==Contemporary challenges==
As with other fraternal organisations in the 21st Century, Freemasonry in some districts of the United States, the UK and other jurisdictions has been losing members, faster than it can replenish them. In contrast, the number of Masons is generally on the rise in South America and Continental Europe{{fact}}.
A number of theories exist as to the cause of this declining membership:
*A consequence of changing social mores and recognisable in other similar organisations. {{fact}}
*A return to a more natural level following an unsustainable increase in membership following WWII. {{fact}}
Many Grand Lodges in the U.S. have tried a variety of, often-controversial, measures to address declining membership. These have included "one-day ceremonies" of all the three degrees for large groups of candidates, (as opposed to individual degree conferrals taking months or years to complete); advertising on billboards, and even active recruitment of new candidates by members, (as opposed to the tradition of considering only those who actively seek membership for themselves). Some Masons object to the traditions and principles of Freemasonry being diluted by these changes, feeling that the Fraternity has survived centuries of social change without changing itself; others cite a need for Freemasonry to modernize and make itself relevant to new generations.
==Cultural references==
* [[Kipling|Rudyard Kipling]] used Masonic symbols and characters in some of his writings, most notably ''[[The Man Who Would Be King]]'', which was later made into a film. Two adventurers are taken to be Masonic representatives of [[Alexander the Great]].
* One of the main characters in [[Edgar Allan Poe|Edgar Allan Poe]]'s ''[[The Cask of Amontillado]]'' is a Freemason.
* One of the main characters in [[Leo Tolstoy|Leo Tolstoy's]] ''[[War and Peace]]'' becomes a Freemason.
* The plot of the opera "[[Die Zauberflöte]]" ("The Magic Flute") contains several references to Masonic ideals and ceremonies. [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] and his librettist [[Emanuel Schikaneder]] were in the same Masonic "Lodge of the Nine Muses".
*[[Joseph Smith]], the founder of the [[Mormon]] religion was a Freemason, as were the first five presidents of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|the Church]]: Smith, [[Brigham Young]], [[John Taylor (1808-1887)|John Taylor]], [[Wilford Woodruff]], and [[Lorenzo Snow]].
*The [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]] was a society founded by at least one Mason who also was a member of the [[Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia]] (a research and study group focusing on symbolic [[alchemy]], the mystical [[kabbalah]], [[tarot]], and Christian Symbolism). The Golden Dawn was never a Masonic body, and was open to membership from non-Masons and women.
* The [[graphic novel]] ''[[From Hell]]'' by [[Alan Moore]], (and the movie based upon it) - feature as their basic premise - a [[Jack the Ripper royal conspiracy theories|conspiracy theory]] linking "certain Freemasons" to the [[Jack the Ripper]] murders. The story is that "Freemason" [[William Withey Gull|Sir William Gull]], the then British Royal Household's physician, covered up a child of [[Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence]] born to a Catholic shop girl - "by killing her, and all the women who knew about the baby". The story depends on the assumption that such figures as the [[Marquess of Salisbury]], Sir William Gull and [[Sir Robert Anderson]] were Freemasons - but there is no actual record of their initiation into Freemasonry in any Lodge.
* Freemasons feature heavily in [[Robert Shea|Robert Shea's]] and [[Robert Anton Wilson|Robert Anton Wilson's]] satire, ''[[The Illuminatus! Trilogy]]''.
* [[John Cleese]], and other Cast members, portray [[Parody|spoof]] Freemasons in the ''How to recognise a Freemason'' sketch of the satire ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]''.
* The Freemasons are [[Parody|spoofed]] in an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' as [[Stonecutters|The Ancient Society of Stonecutters]], a secret organisation that controls everything from [[NASA]] to the [[Academy Awards]] (thereby securing [[Steve Guttenberg]]'s stardom).
* Another episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' has a scene where [[Montgomery Burns|Mr. Burns]], obsessing with germs and becoming a "[[Howard Hughes]]"-like recluse, sees germs on [[Waylon Smithers|Smithers']] face. The germs chant "Freemasons run the country."
* [[Dan Brown|Dan Brown's]] novels, ''[[Angels and Demons]]'', ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'' and ''[[The Solomon Key]]'' draw heavily on supposed Masonic and Christian lore and symbolism.
* ''[[Foucault's Pendulum (book)|Foucault's Pendulum]]'' by [[Umberto Eco]] also deals with Freemasonic themes.
* [[The Cremaster Cycle]] films by [[Matthew Barney]] use Masonic imagery.
* The plot of the 2004 movie ''[[National Treasure (film)|National Treasure]]'' revolves heavily around the Freemasons and is somewhat unusual in that it depicts them in a benign light.
* In ''The Baron in the Trees'' Italian writer [[Italo Calvino]] includes Masonry lodges branching out into the lands of Ombrosa with the protagonist of the novel, Cosimo di Rondo, mysteriously and supposedly involved with them.
* [[Katherine Kurtz]] and Deborah Turner Harris use Freemasonry in their series ''The Adept'', most notably in ''The Adept Book Two: The Lodge of the Lynx'', and in Kurtz's [[American Revolution]] [[historical novel]] ''Two Crowns for America'', which links Freemasonry and [[Jacobitism]].
* In [[John Steinbeck]]'s novel ''[[East of Eden]]'' Adam Trask, the main character, is mentioned as becoming a Freemason later in life.
==Notes==
<references/>
== See also ==
* [[Anti-clericalism]]
* [[Anti-Freemasonry]]
* [[Anti-Masonic Party]]
* [[Catholicism and Freemasonry]]
* [[Co-Freemasonry]]
* [[Gnosticism]]
* [[List of Freemasons]]
* [[List of Masonic Grand Lodges]]
* [[Masonic Knights Templar]]
* [[Pigpen cipher]]
* [[Prince Hall Freemasonry]]
* [[Propaganda Due]] - The P2 Masonic Lodge Scandal
* [[Taxil hoax]]
=== Appendant bodies ===
* [[York Rite|York Rite]]
* [[Royal Order of Scotland]]
* [[Scottish Rite]]
* [[Shriners|Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine (Shriners)]]
* [[Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia]] in England
* [[Societas Rosicruciana in Scotia]] in Scotland
* [[Swedish Rite]]
=== Organizations with Masonic affiliations ===
* [[Ancient Egyptian Order of Sciots]]
* [[Daughters of the Nile]]
* [[DeMolay International]]
* [[International Order of Job's Daughters]]
* [[International Order of the Rainbow for Girls]]
* [[Ladies Oriental Shrine of North America]]
* [[National Sojourners]]
* [[Order of the Eastern Star]]
* [[Order of the Amaranth]]
* [[The Philalethes Society]]
* [[Tall Cedars of Lebanon]]
==External links==
*[http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/anti-masonry/anti-masonry_faq.html Anti-Masonry Frequently Asked Questions]
*[http://www.brad.ac.uk/webofhiram/ Web of Hiram]
*[http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/ PS Review of Freemasonry made by Freemasons for Free Masons]
*[http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/texts/index.html/ History and philosophy of Freemasonry.]
*[http://www.phoenixmasonry.org/the_builder_1920_june.htm James A. Garfield, "Memorials to Great Men Who Were Masons"]
*[http://www.masonicinfo.com/famous.htm Famous Freemasons]
*[http://MasonryPage.org/ A Page About Freemasonry]
*[http://www.geocities.com/stlaasr/masonic-books-online.html Masonic Books On-L |
e interesting to the market, management let it languish.
=== HyperCard 2.0 ===
In late [[1989]], [[Kevin Calhoun]], then a HyperCard engineer at Apple, lead an effort to upgrade the program. This resulted in [[1990]]'s '''HyperCard 2.0'''. The new version included an on-the-fly [[compiler]] that greatly increased performance of computationally intensive code, a new [[debugger]] and a number of improvements to the underlying HyperTalk language.
At the same time HyperCard 2.0 was being developed, a separate group within Apple developed and in [[1991]] released "HyperCard IIGS", a version of HyperCard for the [[Apple IIGS]] system. Aimed mainly at the education market, HyperCard IIGS had roughly the same feature set as the 1.x versions of Macintosh HyperCard, while adding support for the color graphics capabilities of the IIGS. Although "stacks" (HyperCard program documents) were not binary-compatible, a translator program (itself a HyperCard stack) allowed stacks to be moved from one platform to the other.
Then, Apple decided that all software, including HyperCard and the [[Mac OS]], would be the property of a wholly-owned subsidiary called [[Claris]]. Many of the HyperCard developers chose to stay at Apple rather than move to Claris, causing the development team to be split. Claris, in the business of selling software for a profit, attempted to create a business model where HyperCard could also generate revenues. They wrote a new "viewer only" version, the '''HyperCard Player''' which Apple distributed with the Macintosh operating system, while Claris sold the "full" version commercially. Many users were upset that they had to pay to use software that had traditionally been supplied free and which many considered a basic part of the Mac.
Despite the new revenue stream, Claris did little to market HyperCard. Development continued with minor upgrades, as well as the first failed attempt to create a third generation of HyperCard. During this period, HyperCard began losing market share. Without a number of important, basic features, HyperCard authors began moving to systems such as [[SuperCard]] and Macromedia's [[Authorware]]. Nevertheless HyperCard continued to be popular and used for a widening range of applications, from the game ''[[The Manhole]]'', an earlier effort by the creators of ''[[Myst]]'', to corporate information services and many thousands in between.
Apple eventually folded Claris back into the parent company, returning the Mac OS and HyperCard to Apple's core engineering group. In 1992, Apple released the eagerly anticipated upgrade of HyperCard 2.2 and made many HyperCard enthusiasts happy by including licensed versions of Color Tools and Addmotion II, adding support for color pictures and animations. However, these tools were limited and often cumbersome to use; HyperCard still continued to lack true, internal color support.
=== HyperCard 3.0 ===
Several attempts were made to restart HyperCard development once it returned to Apple. Because of the product's widespread use as a multimedia authoring tool it was rolled into the [[QuickTime]] group. A new effort to allow HyperCard to create '''QuickTime interactive''' (QTi) movies started, once again under the direction of Kevin Calhoun. QTi extended QuickTime's core multimedia playback features to provide true interactive facilities and a low-level programming language based on 68000 assembly language.
The resulting '''HyperCard 3.0''' was first presented in [[1996]] when an alpha-quality version was shown to developers at Apple's annual [[Worldwide Developers Conference]]. Demos throughout the late [[1990s]] showed many popular features such as color support, internet connectivity, and the ability to play HyperCard stacks (which were now special QuickTime movies) in a [[web browser]]. Development of HyperCard 3.0 stalled when the QuickTime team was focused away from development of QuickTime interactive to the streaming features of QuickTime 4.0. Finally in [[2000]] the HyperCard engineering team was reassigned to other tasks after [[Steve Jobs]] decided to abandon the product. Kevin Calhoun left Apple shortly after in [[2001]].
So after years of continued on-again, off-again upgrades and general mismanagement, HyperCard was finally discontinued. What started as a groundbreaking product that seemed to be changing the world died [[the death of a thousand cuts]] and slowly disappeared as users grew fed up with what was now a hopelessly outdated product. Apple finally ceased selling HyperCard in [[March 2004]].
==Description==
HyperCard is based on the concept of a "stack" of virtual "cards". Cards hold data, just as they would in a [[rolodex]]. The layout engine was similar in concept to a "form" as used in most [[Rapid Application Development]] (RAD) environments (such as the [[Delphi programming language]] or [[Visual BASIC]]).
HyperCard was not only a database system &mdash; the layout of each card could be unique, just as you can write additional non-standard information on a rolodex card. The Background of a stack contained elements that appeared on all cards of that stack. Backgrounds could include pictures (its original purpose, "background picture"), in addition to the objects also available for each card: picture fields, buttons, (static) text, (editable) text fields and other common [[GUI]] elements. Each card then could contain different data attached to the text or picture fields, thereby creating the database functionality.
For instance, an address book could be easily built by adding to the background a few text fields to hold the name and address. Once completed, the user simply adds a new card (by typing command-n) and types into the fields. The background could be modified at any time, allowing changes to be made easily. Basic operations such as search, add and delete were built into the HyperCard environment, allowing simple databases to be set up and used by anyone able to use the [[Apple Macintosh]] computer.
Scripting in the HyperTalk language allowed the system to be easily modified and extended. Unlike many scripting languages, HyperTalk proved to be usable by a wide range of users; allowable syntax included multiple versions of the same statement, all in more or less readable [[English language|English]].
For instance, <code>put the first word of the third line of field "hello" into field "goodbye"</code> would do exactly what it seems to do. Achieving this sort of simplicity and readability required considerable work. For instance, it required allowing numbers to be specified either numerically (1, 2), as [[cardinal number|cardinal]]s (one, two), or as [[ordinal number|ordinal]]s (first, second), which improves the readability of the code.
Referring to objects and the items on cards or backgrounds was easy. The example above shows how to access data within a field on a particular card, but one could refer to any object in the same basic fashion &mdash; including the stack itself. All objects could be named, as in the example above. In addition, each object (including the stack itself) had unique numeric IDs.
HyperCard's <code>find</code> command which would navigate to cards containing text. This could be made more selective with modifications such as <code>find "Bob" in card field "hello"</code>. Similarly, it had a "sort" command that allowed evaluating entire expressions to classify sort order.
Adding scripts was also easy. The user simply "command-option-clicked" (or they could click the "Script" button in the item's property dialog) on any element in the stack, and an editor would pop up. The script could then be edited, saved, and used immediately. In addition, HyperCard contained the "Message Box", an interactive command-line in a floating window that could execute single lines of script. This also included the "find" command, so it doubled as a search dialog. HyperCard 2.0 added a [[debugger]] as well.
HyperTalk was so easy to use that one of the main uses of HyperCard was not as a database, but as a programming tool. Thousands of "stacks" were written and distributed under the moniker of StackWare in the few years when HyperCard was widely available.
=== Externals ===
The power of HyperCard could be increased significantly through the use of '''external command''' and '''external function''' modules, more commonly known as '''XCMD'''s and '''XFCN'''s. These were small code fragments packaged in a [[resource fork]] that seamlessly integrated into the system and/or the [[HyperTalk]] language &mdash; an early example of the [[plugin]] concept. Unlike conventional plugins, these did not require separate installation before they were available for use; they could be included in a stack, where they were directly available to scripts in that stack.
During HyperCard's peak popularity in the late [[1980s]], a whole ecology of vendors offered thousands of these externals for everything from [[HyperTalk]] compilers to graphing systems, database access, internet connectivity, animation, and practically everything else. Many of these vendors had their businesses destroyed when HyperCard was handed to Claris.
==Applications==
HyperCard has been used for all sorts of hypertext and artistic purposes. Before the advent of [[Microsoft PowerPoint|PowerPoint]], HyperCard was often used as a general-purpose presentation program. Examples of HyperCard applications include simple databases, "[[Choose Your Own Adventure| choose your own adventure]]"&mdash;type games, educational teaching aids, and the first (off-line) [[wiki]]. The wiki idea originates from Macintosh HyperCard, via [[Ward Cunningham]].
Due to its rapid application design facilities, HyperCard was also often used |
/?
| Bridge totally destroyed
| Resulted in delay in completion of the motorway crossing of the Rhine until 1953
|-
| [[Tacoma Narrows Bridge]]
|
| USA
| [[November 7th]] [[1940]]
| Suspenion bridge, road bridge
| Aerodynamical bad form resulted to resonance
| No
| Bridge and 1 car destroyed
| Became known as "Galloping Gertie", in the first 4 months after opening up until its collapse. Since that time all new bridges have been modelled in wind tunnels.
|-
| Maracaibo bridge
| [[Maracaibo]]
| Venezuela
| [[1964]]
| Road bridge
| Ship collision
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
| [[Silver Bridge]]
|
| USA
| [[15 December]] [[1967]]
| Road bridge
| Material fault and [[Corrosion]]
| 46/9
| Bridge and 37 vehicles destroyed
| &nbsp;
|-
| [[South Bridge Koblenz]]
| [[Koblenz]]
| Germany
| [[10 November]] [[1971]]
| Road bridge
| Bridge bent into Rhine
| 13/?
| Bridge completely destroyed
| &nbsp;
|-
| [[Reichsbrücke]]
| [[Vienna]]
| Austria
| [[August 1st]], [[1976]]
| Road bridge with [[tramway]]
| Column fractured
| 1/0
| Bridge, one [[bus]] and a lorry destroyed, [[ship]]s damaged
| Concrete of the column had never been examined, was internally totally destroyed; "[[higher force]]"
|-
| [[Almö Bridge]]
| [[Stenungsund]]
| Sweden
| [[January 18]], [[1980]]
| Bridge with bow built of concrete
| Ship collision
| 8/?
| Bridge and several cars destroyed
| &nbsp;
|-
| [[Aschaffenburg Main River Freeway Bridge]]
| [[Aschaffenburg]]
| Germany
| [[1988]]
| Bridge of [[Motorway A 3]] over River Main
| Error in construction
| 1/0
| Bridge total damage
| Partial collapse at [[Repetitive sliding]]
|-
| Bridge over railway line at Eschede
| [[Eschede]]
| Germany
| [[June 3rd]], [[1998]]
| Road bridge
| Train disaster
| 101/105
| &nbsp;
| Destruction by train crashing on pillar, killed and injured people were train passangers
|-
| Motorway bridge at [[Almuñecar]], Province of [[Granada]], [[Spain]] (search correct name of bridge)
| [[Almuñecar]]
| Spain
| [[November 7th]] [[2005]]
| Motorway bridge
| Construction, accident, reason unknown
| 6/3
| &nbsp;
| A 60 metre long part fell 50 metre deep
|}
==See also==
* [[BASE jumping]]
* [[Bridges in art]]
* [[List of bridges]]
* [[List of bridges by length]]
* [[List of largest suspension bridges]]
* [[Moveable bridge]]
* [[Toll bridge]]
* [[List of bridge disasters]]
==External links==
* [http://en.structurae.de/ Structurae] - International Database and Gallery of Structures.
* [http://www.asce.org/history/hp_bridges.html American Society of Civil Engineers] History and Heritage of Civil Engineering - Bridges
* [http://www.remuseum.org.uk/rem_his_engineer.htm Royal Engineers Museum] History of British military bridge building
* [http://www.historicbridges.org/index.htm Historic Bridges of Michigan and Elsewhere] Photos, information, and maps of historic bridges in and around Michigan. Also has a links page with links to bridge databases in other regions of the U.S.A.
* [http://www.brantacan.co.uk/bridges.htm Bridge Building &mdash; Art and Science] Comprehensive explanations about bridges.
* [http://www.garrettsbridges.com/index.html Model Bridge Building]
* [http://pghbridges.com/basics.htm Bridge Basics] A guide to bridge terminology and styles
* [http://www.chinapage.com/bridge/shanghai/lupu/lupu.html Shanghai lupu] Chinese bridge site showing suspended deck arch construction and completion.
* [http://www.bridgebuilder-game.com/ BridgeBuilder] - Great game where you design a bridge and see if a train will drive over it safely.
* [http://finance.groups.yahoo.com/group/RRbridge/ RRbridge]- Discussion group focused on railroad bridges, trestles, and viaducts. Hosted by [[Yahoo! Groups]]
* [http://filebox.vt.edu/users/aschaeff/titlepage.html Bridge disasters]
* [http://www.nireland.com/bridgeman/Dictionary.htm A dictionary of bridge terms]
* [http://bridges.lib.lehigh.edu/BookListpage.html Digital Bridge Library at Lehigh University]
* [http://travelphotobase.com/s/BRIDGE.HTM Bridge Photos]
* [http://bobjagendorf.smugmug.com/gallery/119358 Bridge Photos]
* [http://flickr.com/photos/tags/bridge Flickr: Photos tagged with bridge]
* [http://www.i95newhaven.com/improve_projects/contracts/contract_b_extradosed.asp Extradosed Bridge]
* [http://www.i95newhaven.com/improve_projects/phmb_slides/slide1.asp How the Pearl Harbor Memorial Bridge will be built]
[[Category:Bridges| ]]
[[Category:Coastal construction]]
[[bg:Мост]]
[[ca:Pont]]
[[cs:Most (stavba)]]
[[cy:Pont]]
[[da:Bro (konstruktion)]]
[[de:Brücke]]
[[es:Puente]]
[[eo:Ponto]]
[[fr:Pont (ouvrage d'art)]]
[[ko:다리]]
[[id:Jembatan]]
[[it:Ponte]]
[[he:גשר]]
[[hu:Híd]]
[[ms:Jambatan]]
[[nl:Brug (bouwwerk)]]
[[nds:Brüch]]
[[ja:橋]]
[[no:Bro]]
[[nn:Bru]]
[[os:Хид (арæзтад)]]
[[pl:Most]]
[[pt:Ponte]]
[[ro:Pod]]
[[ru:Мост]]
[[simple:Bridge]]
[[sl:Most]]
[[sr:Мост]]
[[fi:Silta]]
[[sv:Bro]]
[[th:สะพาน]]
[[tr:Köprü]]
[[zh:橋]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beadwork</title>
<id>3398</id>
<revision>
<id>36613078</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T07:13:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pschemp</username>
<id>110252</id>
</contributor>
<comment>wl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Beadwork''' is the art or craft of attaching [[bead]]s to one another or to cloth using a needle and thread. Most beadwork takes the form of [[jewellery|jewelry]] or other [[personal adornment]], but beads are also used in wall hangings and [[sculpture]].
Beadwork techniques are broadly divided into [[Bead weaving|loom]] and [[Bead weaving|off-loom]] weaving, [[Bead stringing|stringing]], [[bead embroidery]], [[bead crochet]], and [[bead knitting]].
Most [[culture]]s have employed beads for personal adornment. [[archaeology|Archaeological]] records show that people made and used beads as long as 5000 years ago. Beads have also been used for [[religion|religious]] purposes, as good luck [[amulet|talismans]], and as curative agents.
== Beadwork traditions ==
*[[African beadwork]]
*[[Middle Eastern and Egyptian beadwork]]
*[[Scythian gold bead making]]
*[[Central Asian metalsmithing and gemstone carving]]
*[[Indian beadwork]]
*[[Chinese beadwork]]
*[[European beadwork]]
*[[Native American beadwork]]
A number of [[bead artists]] have published their work on the web. [[Beadwork projects|Projects]] and [[Beadwork patterns|patterns]] are widely available.
== External links ==
*[http://www.thebeadsite.com The Bead Site]
*[http://www.michaelstevenson.com/books/html/beadwork.htm Beadwork from South Africa]
*[http://www.guidetobeadwork.com/book/index.html Guide to Beadwork]
*[http://www.craftbits.com/viewCategory.do?categoryID=BEA Beadwork craft projects]
[[Category:Arts and crafts]]
[[Category:Beadwork|*Beadwork]]
[[he:&#1495;&#1512;&#1497;&#1494;&#1492; (&#1502;&#1500;&#1488;&#1499;&#1514; &#1497;&#1491;)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Board game</title>
<id>3401</id>
<revision>
<id>41776744</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:51:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.255.13.93|72.255.13.93]] ([[User talk:72.255.13.93|talk]]) to last version by SimonP</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''board game''' is any [[game]] played on a board (that is, a premarked surface) with counters or pieces that are moved across the board. Simple board games are often seen as ideal "family entertainment" as they can provide entertainment for all ages. Some board games, such as [[Chess]], [[Oware]], or [[Go (board game)|Go]], have intense strategic value and have become lasting classics.
There are many different types and classifications of board games. Some games are simplified simulations of real life. These are popular for they can intermingle make-believe and role playing along with the game. Popular games of this type include ''[[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]]'', which is a rough simulation of the [[real estate]] market; ''[[Cluedo]]''/''[[Cluedo|Clue]]'', which is based upon a [[murder]] mystery; and ''[[Risk (game)|Risk]]'', which is one of the best known of thousands of games attempting to simulate warfare and geo-politics.
Other games only loosely, or do not at all, attempt to imitate reality. These include [[abstract strategy]] games like [[chess]] and [[checkers]], [[word game]]s, such as ''[[Scrabble]]'', and [[trivia]] games, such as ''[[Trivial Pursuit]]''.
[[Image:Board Games.jpg|right]]
==History==
Board games have a long history and have been played in most cultures and societies; some even pre-date literacy skill development in the earliest civilizations. A number of important historical sites, artifacts and documents exist which shed light on early board games. The most of important of these include:
*[[Senet]] has been found in [[Predynastic Egypt|Predynastic]] and [[First dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]] burials of [[Egypt]], c. [[3500 BC]] and [[3100 BC]] respectively [http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Piccione/index.html]. Senet is the oldest board game known to have existed. Also see [http://www.hrejsi.cz/clanky/dama1.html ''Okno do svita deskovych her''] for a photo of the actual fresco found in [[Merknera]]'s tomb ([[33rd century BC|3300]]-[[27th century BC|2700 BC]]).
*[[Mehen]] is another ancient board game from [[Predynastic Egypt]].
*The [[Royal Tombs of Ur]] contained, among others, the [[Royal Game of Ur]]. They were excavated by [[C. Leonard Woolley]], but his books document little on the games found. Most of the games he excavated are now housed in the [[British Museum]] in [[London]].
*[[Buddha games list]] is the earliest known list of games.
=== Timeline ===
*[[3500 BC]] - [[Senet]] found in [[Predynastic Egypt]]ian burials [http://www.game |
Wiki links, such as "Recent Changes" vs. "[[Recent Changes]]". It can eliminate branching of similar pages.
* Automatically update the present (server) date. Link the date to that day's page.
** Fixed. --[[user:Damian Yerrick|Damian Yerrick]]
* When I'm editing a topic, I'd like to have the search box available at the bottom of the page. [[User:Janet Davis]]
** Works for me in the blue theme. --[[user:Damian Yerrick|Damian Yerrick]]
* Making the "redirected from" comment at the top of each page an option which is by default off, not on. This feature would clean up wikipedia pages for casual users, and leave the nuts and bolts visible to people who wish to track down the offending OdDlyCapitaliZed links, etc. Of course (if I may say so) ;-) for this option to work, the caching problem would first have to be resolved. --KQ
** Under this scheme, how could we ever visit the redirection page? By switching a preference? I dunno, seems like we have to edit redirection pages too often. This would just create confusion, wouldn't it? --[[User:LMS]]
** Yes, I think you're right. Maybe if we could just exclude them from "Random Page" results
* Provide a user preference to include the ''preview'' (formatted version of the page) when entering editing mode. (This would save me one click + wait for almost every page I edit. [[User:Buttonius]]
:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Interface and user preferences</title>
<id>11139</id>
<revision>
<id>30018866</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-03T15:12:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>219.95.27.231</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----
''Please see the [http://wikipedia.sourceforge.net/fpw/wiki.phtml PHP wikipedia] under development. Most of the requests I see here are already working there. Please help me squish the bugs so we can switch over soon. --[[user:Magnus Manske|Magnus Manske]]''
Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text
<br>______Next "semi-paragraph": Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text
<br>When I use six spaces (instead of the underlines used above) to begin a new "semi-paragraph" (a break not as strong as a &lt;p&gt;) Wikipedia leaves the paragraph unformatted. IMO it was better not to use &lt;pre&gt;text&lt;pre&gt; automatically. And I wonder why <a href="xxxx">xxx</a> doesn´t work, why it can´t become automatically translated to Wikipedia syntax. Sporadic writers like me may want to use simple things like target="_blank" - things that don´t spoil consistency nor security - why not implement better filtering? I see you´re coding Wikipedia in PHP now, so performance should not be a problem.
<br>Another thing I´d like to have is modification dates, in an extended view mainly for writers. And tables or div layers to paint colors were cool, maybe even transparent colors (CSS?) to show overlapping and several sucessive changes. [[User:Grasso]]
Requests for what goes on outside of the entries--the menubars up top and bottom, etc., user preferences.
* Currently links to entries which do not exist are formatted with a question-mark at the end. This looks unprofessional, similar to old WikiStyle, and distracts from the text. Cascading style sheets offer the possibility to have links in a color other than the ones defined in -body-. It would be nice to display, by default or as an option in the preferences, links to non-existing entries in a different color, e.g. green. If there are problems with the implementation, please add a note here and I'll try to create an HTML example.
** This should probably be a configurable option, since people using a text browser may not be able to see coloured links -[[user:Bryan Derksen|BD]]
* It should be possible to add a page from the search results page. That is, if I type "foobar" in the search, if no page with that exact name exists, the search result page (in addition to showing the matches) should offer me to "Create an entry about 'foobar' now". This way, you would still have to check for possible matches, but could add new pages easier. That's the way Everything2 does it, BTW, and it works quite nicely.
* Can we have the "edit this page right now!" link back at the top of the page? Or was that voted down? I like it.
** I second the above -- [[User:GWO]]
* I would like a link somewhere to my own personal page, since there I have linked pages that are of interest to me (in lack of a 'subscribe' feature =). I always search for my own page the first thing when I surf to wikipedia.
* I would like to have a CANCEL Button on the Edits page (Page in Edit mode) added to the two existing ones SUBMIT and PREVIEW. Just to have a clear understanding what is going on and what the system/database is up to. [[User:StefanRybo]]
** How about a "SPELL CHECK" button, too?
*** It would be helpful if the spell checking also check for variations of Wiki links, such as "Recent Changes" vs. "[[Recent Changes]]". It can eliminate branching of similar pages.
* Automatically update the present (server) date. Link the date to that day's page.
* When I'm editing a topic, I'd like to have the search box available at the bottom of the page. [[User:Janet Davis]]
** Suggestion: have the search results appear in a new window, so you don't lose whatever it was you're working on. -- [[User:Gimbo]]
* Making the "redirected from" comment at the top of each page an option which is by default off, not on. This feature would clean up wikipedia pages for casual users, and leave the nuts and bolts visible to people who wish to track down the offending
:''See also :'' [[Feature requests]]<nowiki>OdDlyCapitaliZed</nowiki> links, etc. Of course (if I may say so) ;-) for this option to work, the caching problem would first have to be resolved. --KQ
** Under this scheme, how could we ever visit the redirection page? By switching a preference? I dunno, seems like we have to edit redirection pages too often. This would just create confusion, wouldn't it? --[[User:LMS]]
** Yes, I think you're right. Maybe if we could just exclude them from "Random Page" results
* Provide a user preference to include the ''preview'' (formatted version of the page) when entering editing mode. (This would save me one click + wait for almost every page I edit. [[User:Buttonius]]
* A way to do doublecolumns and/or sidebars (so we can have a list 'o links to the right of the text)
**Double columns are only natively supported by Netscape. However they could be done by using tables. [[user:chuckr30|chuckr30]]
** Maybe, if such sidebars could be created ''automatically'' and for ''all'' articles. But what's wrong with having the links at the bottom of the page? If that's reasonably acceptable, why go through the confusion of having links in a sidebar? --[[User:LMS]]
* A link to [[How does one edit a page/Quick reference]] from the editing page, to avoid me having to dive through the [[FAQ]] every time I can't remember a special character -- DrBob
** Seconded. Though in fact the quick reference is now on the main [[How does one edit a page]]. -- Tarquin
* The SEARCH field and button should be located at the top of the page, just like with search engines, because it feels more intuitive that way. At least the main page should have the SEARCH code in the upper part of the page. -- Kahuna "Pierre" Shanx
**Absolutely! The first thing I want to do if i go to Wikipedia is looking for some word. The way it is now, I always have to scroll down (yeah, my window is small...)
*** Maybe make its placement a user preference: top, bottom, or both? -- [[User:Gimbo]]
****I think both would be best: for example, take a look at the page generated by a succesful Google search, such as http://www.google.com/search?q=wikipedia
* How about a link at the bottom of each page that would automatically create a bibliography reference (works cited) for a paper? This would probably encourage students to use wikipedia more as a serious reference.
* A drop down box that allows quick and dirty machine translation into other languages on each article of each language's wikipedia.
* Could we have a user interface so that it looks like we're on a corporate webpage, so we could read Wikipedia at work without being conspicuous?
:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Wiki shortcuts</title>
<id>11140</id>
<revision>
<id>15908905</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-09T22:04:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Texture</username>
<id>31280</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>User:Hornlo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----
Should this be called Wiki code?
* HTML comments in Wiki pages. I'd like to be able to add comments to a page for authors and editors that are permanent, not like discussions on a Talk page. Things like "Note the layo |
so complained that the investment subsidies from Japanese airlines violated the accord.
On [[January 11]], the two parties (Boeing and Airbus) agreed that they would attempt to find a solution to the dispute outside of the WTO.
However, in June 2005, Boeing and the United States government reopened the trade dispute with the WTO, claiming that Airbus had received illegal subsidies from European governments. Airbus has also retaliated against Boeing, reopening the dispute and also accusing Boeing of receiving subsidies from the US government.
=== Product developments ===
[[Image:Airbus-Boeing_net_orders_2002-2005.jpg|right|thumb|350px|Airbus-Boeing competition: Plane net orders 2002-2005]]
Finally, Boeing achieved several consecutive successes, beginning with the formal launch of the 787 for delivery to [[All Nippon Airways]] and [[Air New Zealand]]. Currently, the 787 orderbook stands at over 315 airframes with orders from [[Northwest Airlines]], [[Continental Airlines]], [[Japan Airlines]], [[Qantas]], [[Icelandair]], [[Air Canada]] and a conglomeration of Chinese carriers.
Boeing also received the launch contract from the [[US Navy]] for the [[Multimission Maritime Aircraft]], an [[anti-submarine warfare]] patrol aircraft. Several orders for the [[Boeing Wedgetail|Wedgetail]] AEW&C aircraft are expected as well.
In November 2004, Boeing announced it will offer a cargo version of the popular 777 model. The freighter will be based on the 777-200LR. Customers rumored to be interested include [[Lufthansa]], [[EVA Airways]], [[ILFC]], [[GECAS]], [[Air Canada]] and [[Emirates]].
Boeing has achieved above projected orders for its 787 Dreamliner, outselling the rival [[Airbus A350]]. A large blow to Airbus came as Emirates Airlines president Tim Clark stated that his airline must be convinced that the 250 to 290-seat A350 would not repeat the "misses" by Airbus in performance and delivery. Emirates has held off ordering either aircraft as it tries to convince Boeing to build a larger version of the 787, the 787-10 - which is the airline's preferred option. Air Canada also dealt Airbus a savage blow by replacing its entire A330 and A340 fleet with 96 Boeing 777s and 787s.
Boeing officially announced in November, 2005 that it would produce a larger version of the 747, the 747-8, in two models, commencing with a model for two cargo carriers with firm orders for the aircraft. The second model, slightly shorter than the cargo version but still longer than the 747-400, dubbed the Intercontinental, would be produced for passenger airlines that Boeing expected would place orders in the near future. Both models of the 747-8 would feature a lengthened fuselage, new, advanced engines and wings, and the incorporation of other technologies developed for the 787.
Boeing's most successful new aircraft measured by recent orders remained the [[Boeing 737|737]], for which it received orders totaling 387 new units in 2005 as reported on [[August 7]]. The 737-900ER is the latest version of the venerable craft offered by Boeing and is the largest model of the 737 line at a length of 138 feet.
The 777-200LR Worldliner embarked on a well-received global demonstration tour in the second half of 2005, showing off its capacity to fly farther than any other commercial aircraft. On [[November 10]] [[2005]], the 777-200LR set a world record for the longest non-stop flight. The plane, which departed from Hong Kong traveling to London, took a longer route, which included flying over the U.S. It flew 11,664 nautical miles (21,601km) during its 22-hour 42-minute flight.
Realizing that increasing numbers of passengers have become reliant on their computers to stay in touch, Boeing is offering Connexion by Boeing, an Internet connectivity service that promises air travelers unprecedented access to the World Wide Web. The company debuted the product to journalists in 2005, receiving generally favorable reviews.
==Divisions==
<!-- Note: When you add entries here, please add them to the subpage for the appropriate division, as well. -[[User:N328KF]] -->
The two largest divisions are Boeing Commercial Airplanes and the Integrated Defense Systems group.
* [[AviationPartnersBoeing]], a 50/50 joint venture with [[Aviation Partners, Inc.]]
* [[Boeing Australia, Ltd.]]
* [[Boeing Capital]]
* [[Boeing Commercial Airplanes]]
** [[Aeroinfo Systems]]
** [[Airspace Safety Analysis Corporation]]
** [[Alteon Training]], formerly FlightSafetyBoeing
** [[Continental Datagraphics]]
** [[Jeppesen]], formerly Jeppesen Sanderson.
** [[SBS International]]
* [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems]]
** [[Boeing Phantom Works|Phantom Works]]
** [[United Launch Alliance]] (with [[Lockheed Martin]], subject to US Government approval as of 01/2006)
** [[United Space Alliance]] (with Lockheed Martin)
** [[Boeing Satellite Systems]]
** [[Sea Launch]] (40%)
* [[Boeing Realty]]
* [[Boeing Shared Services Group]]
* [[Boeing Travel Management Company]]
* [[Connexion by Boeing]]
* [[Preston Aviation Solutions]]
== Employment Numbers ==
===Employment By Location===
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="2"|Employment By Location
|-
|[[Arizona]]
|style="text-align: right;"|4,939
|-
|[[California]]
|style="text-align: right;"|31,457
|-
|[[Kansas]]
|style="text-align: right;"|3,836
|-
|[[Missouri]]
|style="text-align: right;"|16,429
|-
|[[Pennsylvania]]
|style="text-align: right;"|4,706
|-
|[[Texas]]
|style="text-align: right;"|5,376
|-
|[[Washington]]
|style="text-align: right;"|61,042
|-
|Other Locations
|style="text-align: right;"|24,955
|-
|'''Total Company'''
|style="text-align: right;"|'''152,740'''
|}
As of 10/06/2005
===Employment by Group (Division)===
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="2"|Employment By Group (Division)
|-
|[[Boeing Commercial Airplanes|Commercial Airplanes]]
|style="text-align: right;"|48,956
|-
|[[Boeing Capital|Boeing Capital Corp]]
|style="text-align: right;"|131
|-
|[[Connexion by Boeing]]
|style="text-align: right;"|753
|-
|[[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems|Integrated Defense Systems]]
|style="text-align: right;"|75,531
|-
|[[Boeing Phantom Works|Phantom Works]]
|style="text-align: right;"|4,409
|-
|[[Boeing Shared Services Group|Shared Services Group]]
|style="text-align: right;"|21,020
|-
|World Headquarters
|style="text-align: right;"|1,928
|-
|Other
|style="text-align: right;"|12
|-
|'''Total Company'''
|style="text-align: right;"|'''152,740'''
|}
As of 10/06/2005
==Corporate governance==
===Current [[Board of Directors]] ===
*[[W. James McNerney, Jr.]] - Chairman, President & CEO
*[[John H. Biggs]]
*[[John Bryson]]
*[[Linda Cook]]
*[[Kenneth M. Duberstein]]
*[[John McDonnell (businessman)|John McDonnell]]
*[[Richard Nanula]]
*[[Rozanne Ridgway]]
*[[John Shalikashvili]]
*[[Mike S. Zafirovski]]
===[[Chief executive officer]]===
{|
| 1933&ndash;1939 || Clairmont L. Egtvedt
|-
| 1939&ndash;1944 || Philip G. Johnson
|-
| 1944&ndash;1945 || Clairmont L. Egtvedt
|-
| 1945&ndash;1968 || [[William McPherson Allen|William M. Allen]]
|-
| 1969&ndash;1986 || [[Thornton Wilson|Thornton "T" A. Wilson]]
|-
| 1986&ndash;1996 || Frank Shrontz
|-
| 1996&ndash;2003 || [[Philip M. Condit]]
|-
| 2003&ndash;2005 || [[Harry Stonecipher|Harry C. Stonecipher]]
|-
| 2005&ndash;2005 || [[James A. Bell]] (acting)
|-
| 2005&ndash; || [[W. James McNerney, Jr.]]
|}
===[[Chairman of the board]]===
{|
| 1916&ndash;1934 || [[William Boeing|William E. Boeing]]
|-
| 1934&ndash;1939 || Clairmont L. Egtvedt (acting)
|-
| 1939&ndash;1944 || Clairmont L. Egtvedt
|-
| 1945&ndash;1966 || Clairmont L. Egtvedt
|-
| 1968&ndash;1972 || William M. Allen
|-
| 1972&ndash;1987 || Thornton "T" A. Wilson
|-
| 1988&ndash;1996 || Frank Shrontz
|-
| 1997&ndash;2003 || Philip M. Condit
|-
| 2003&ndash;2005 || Lew Platt
|-
| 2005&ndash; || W. James McNerney, Jr.
|}
===[[President]]===
{|
| 1922&ndash;1925 || Edgar N. Gott
|-
| 1926&ndash;1933 || Philip G. Johnson
|-
| 1933&ndash;1939 || Clairmont L. Egtvedt
|-
| 1939&ndash;1944 || Philip G. Johnson
|-
| 1944&ndash;1945 || Clairmont L. Egtvedt
|-
| 1945&ndash;1968 || William M. Allen
|-
| 1968&ndash;1972 || Thornton "T" A. Wilson
|-
| 1972&ndash;1985 || Malcolm T. Stamper
|-
| 1985&ndash;1996 || Frank Shrontz
|-
| 1996&ndash;1997 || Philip M. Condit
|-
| 1997&ndash;2005 || Harry C. Stonecipher
|-
| 2005&ndash;2005 || James A. Bell (acting for a few months)
|-
| 2005&ndash; || W. James McNerney, Jr.
|}
==See also==
* [[Airbus]]
* [[Arianespace]]
* [[Boeing Aircraft Holding Company]]
* [[Lockheed Martin]]
* [[Northrop Grumman]]
* [[Phillip G. Johnson]]
==References==
*Greider, William (1997). ''One World, Ready or Not''. Penguin Press. ISBN 0-713-99211-5.
#[http://www.defensenews.com/content/features/2005chart1.html www.defensenews.com]
==External links==
{{commons|Category:Boeing}}
*[http://www.boeing.com/ The Boeing Company]
**[http://www.boeing.com/commercial/orders/ Boeing order sheet, year-to-date]
*[http://www.generalatomic.com/jetmakers/chapter7.html Boeing's Triumph: The American Jetliner]
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/10/10221.html Yahoo! - The Boeing Company Company Profile]
*[http://www.buffalo.edu/reporter/vol35/vol35n40/articles/Boeing.html Boeing and WTO]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3722888.stm BBC]
*[http://www.generalatomic.com/jetmakers/chapter7.html Boeing's Triumph: The American Jetliner]
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:Aviation]]
[[Category:Boeing|*]]
[[Category:Aerospace companies]]
[[Category:Companies based in Washington]]
[[Category:Defense companies of the United States]]
[[Category:International aircraft manufac |
f Cato the Elder'' 18); and even if they did not enter in their books the property of a person at a higher value than he returned it, they accomplished the same end by compelling him to pay down the tax upon the property at a higher rate than others. The tax was usually one per thousand upon the property entered in the books of the censors, but on one occasion the censors compelled a person to pay eight per thousand as a punishment (Livy iv.24).
A person who voluntarily absented himself from the census was considered ''incensus'' and subject to the severest punishment. [[Servius Tullius]] is said to have threatened such individuals with imprisonment and death (Livy i.44), and in the [[Roman Republic|Republican]] period he might be sold by the state as a slave (Cicero ''[[pro Caecina Oratio]]'' 34). In the later times of the republic, a person who was absent from the census might be represented by another, and thus be registered by the censors (Varr. ''L.L.'' vi.86). Whether the soldiers who were absent on service had to appoint a representative may be questioned. In ancient times the sudden breaking out of a war prevented the census from being taken (Livy vi.31), because a large number of the citizens would necessarily be absent. It is supposed from a passage in Livy (xxix.37) that in later times the censors sent commissioners into the provinces with full powers to take the census of the Roman soldiers there, but this seems to have been only a special case. It is, on the contrary, probable from the way in which Cicero pleads the absence of [[Archias]] from [[Rome]] with the army under [[Lucullus]], as a sufficient reason for his not having been enrolled in the census (''[[pro Licinio Archia]]'' 5), that service in the army was a valid excuse for absence.
After the censors had received the names of all the citizens with the amount of their property, they then had to make out the lists of the tribes, and also of the classes and centuries; for by the legislation of Servius Tullius the position of each citizen in the state was determined by the amount of his property [Comitia Centuriata.] These lists formed a most important part of the Tabulae Censoriae, under which name were included all the documents connected in any way with the discharge of the censors' duties (Cic. de Leg. iii.3; Liv. xxiv.18; Plut. Cat. Maj. 16; Cic. de Leg. Agr. i.2). These lists, as far at least as they were connected with the finances of the state, were deposited in the aerarium, which was the temple of Saturn (Liv. xxix.37); but the regular depositary for all the archives of the censors was in earlier times the Atrium Libertatis, near the Villa publica (Liv. xliii.16, xlv.15), and in later times the temple of the Nymphs (Cic. pro Mil. 27).
Besides the arrangement of the citizens into tribes, centuries, and classes, the censors had also to make out the lists of the [[Roman Senate|senators]] for the ensuing five years, or till new censors were appointed; striking out the names of such as they considered unworthy, and making additions to the body from those who were qualified. In the same manner they held a review of the [[Equites|Equestrian]]s who received a horse from public funds (''equites equo publico''), and added and removed names as they judged proper.
After the lists had been completed, the number of citizens was counted up, and the sum total announced. Accordingly, we find that in the account of a census, the number of citizens is likewise usually given. They are in such cases spoken of as ''capita'' ("heads"), sometimes with the addition of the word ''civium'' ("of the citizens"), and sometimes not. Hence, to be registered in the census was the same thing as "having a head" (''caput habere'').
====Census beyond Rome====
A census was sometimes taken in the provinces, even under the republic (Cicero ''Verr.'' ii.53, 56); but there seems to have been no general census taken in the provinces till the time of [[Augustus]]. This emperor caused an accurate account to be taken of all persons in the Roman dominion, together with the amount of their property (Ev. Lucae, ii.1, 2; Joseph. Ant. Jud. xvii.13 §5, xviii.1 §1, 2 §1); and a similar census was taken from time to time by succeeding emperors, at first every ten, and subsequently every fifteen years (Savigny, Römische Steuerverfassung, in Zeitschrift, vol. vi pp375‑383). The emperor sent into the provinces especial officers to take the census, who were called Censitores (Dig. 50 tit.15 s4 § 1; Cassiod. Var. ix.11; Orelli, Inscr. No. 3652); but the duty was sometimes discharged by the imperial legati (Tac. Ann. i.31, ii.6). The Censitores were assisted by subordinate officers, called Censuales, who made out the lists, &c. (Capitol. Gordian. 12; Symmach. Ep. x.43; Cod. Theod. 8 tit.2). At Rome the census still continued to be taken under the empire, but the old ceremonies connected with it were no longer continued, and the ceremony of the lustration was not performed after the time of Vespasian. The two great jurists, Paulus and [[Ulpian]], each wrote works on the census in the imperial period; and several extracts from these works are given in a chapter in the Digest (50 15), to which we must refer for further details respecting the imperial census.
====Other uses of census====
The word ''census'', besides the meaning of "valuation" of a person's estate, has other significations in Rome, which must be briefly mentioned:
* the amount of a person's property, and hence we read of ''census senatorius'', the estate of a senator; ''census equestris'', the estate of an [[eques]]
* the lists of the censors
* the tax which depended upon the valuation in the census. The Lexicons will supply examples of these meanings.
===''Regimen morum''===
Keeping the public morals (''regimen morum'', or in the [[Roman Empire|empire]] ''cura morum'' or ''praefectura morum'') was the most important branch of the censors' duties, and the one which caused their office to be the most revered and the most dreaded in the Roman state; hence they were also known as ''Castigatores'' 'chastisers'. It naturally grew out of the right which they possessed of excluding unworthy persons from the lists of citizens; for, as has been well remarked, "they would, in the first place, be the sole judges of many questions of fact, such as whether a citizen had the qualifications required by law or custom for the rank which he claimed, or whether he had ever incurred any judicial sentence, which rendered him infamous: but from thence the transition was easy, according to Roman notions, to the decisions of questions of right; such as whether a citizen was really worthy of retaining his rank, whether he had not committed some act as justly degrading as those which incurred the sentence of the law."
In this manner the censors gradually became possessed of a complete superintendence over the whole public and private life of every citizen. They were constituted the conservators of public morality; they were not simply to prevent crime or particular acts of immorality, but their great object was to maintain the old Roman character and habits (''mos majorum''). The proper expression for this branch of their power was ''regimen morum'' (Cicero ''de Legibus'' iii.3; Livy iv.8, xxiv.18, xl.46, xli.27, xlii.3; Suetonius ''Life of Augustus'' 27), which was called in the times of the [[Roman Empire|empire]] ''cura'' ("supervision") or ''praefectura'' ("command"). The punishment inflicted by the censors in the exercise of this branch of their duties was called ''nota'' ("mark, letter") or ''notatio'', or ''animadversio censoria'' ("censorial reproach"). In inflicting it they were guided only by their conscientious convictions of duty; they had to take an oath that they would act neither through partiality nor favour; and, in addition to this, they were bound in every case to state in their lists, opposite the name of the guilty citizen, the cause of the punishment inflicted on him, ''Subscriptio censoria'' (Livy xxxix.42; Cicero ''[[pro Cluentio Oratio]]'' 42‑48; Gell. iv.20).
This part of the censors' office invested them with a peculiar kind of jurisdiction, which in many respects resembled the exercise of public opinion in modern times; for there are innumerable actions which, though acknowledged by every one to be prejudicial and immoral, still do not come within the reach of the positive laws of a country. Even in cases of real crimes, the positive laws frequently punish only the particular offence, while in public opinion the offender, even after he has undergone punishment, is still incapacitated for certain honours and distinctions which are granted only to persons of unblemished character.
Hence the Roman censors might brand a man with their "censorial mark" (''nota censoria'') in case he had been convicted of a crime in an ordinary court of justice, and had already suffered punishment for it. The consequence of such a nota was only ''[[ignominia]]'' and not ''[[infamia]]'' (Cicero ''[[de Re Publica]]'' iv.6) ''Infamia'' and the censorial verdict was not a ''judicium'' or ''res judicata'' (Cicero ''pro Cluentio Oratio'' 42), for its effects were not lasting, but might be removed by the following censors, or by a ''[[lex]]'' (roughly "law"). A censorial mark was moreover not valid unless both censors agreed. The ''ignominia'' was thus only a transitory reduction of status, which does not even appear to have deprived a magistrate of his office (Livy xxiv.18), and certainly did not disqualify persons labouring under it for obtaining a magistracy, for being appointed as ''[[Judex|judices]]'' by the [[praetor]], or for serving in the [[Roman army|Roman armies]]. [[Mamercus Aemilius]] was thus, notwithstanding the reproach of the censors (''animadversio censoria''), made [[Roman dictator|dictator]] (Livy iv.31).
A per |
he [[1400s]]. Some alternatives for collective nouns can be clearly traced to the evolution of [[pronunciation]] in different areas (hence a "parcel of hogs" and a "passel of hogs").
Interest in collective nouns has always remained high, and the [[neologism]] of candidate collective nouns has been a pastime of many writers ever since. Some have achieved an entry in a respected dictionary, the vast majority have not, though many collective nouns have been circulated on websites such as this one and in [[popular]] discourse for [[humor]]ous reasons or as [[trivia]]. In at least two cases (an "abomination of monks" and "a court of kangaroos") some authoritative resources allege them to be accurate, however research has proved these to be spurious as well.
Most recently, one author of a [[computer]] book invented some obviously joking collective nouns which systems developers could relate to, including a "bleat" of users; a "retreat" of consultants; and a "trough" of salespersons.
== Application ==
In [[British English]], one says "the team are..." (i.e., collectives are seen as plurals), whereas in the [[United States English|English spoken in the United States]] and at least in other [[Indo-European languages]], one says "the team is..." (seen as a singular noun, unless it is actually "teams"). See [[Differences between American and British English#Singular_and_plural_for_nouns|Differences between American and British English -Singular and plural for nouns]].
Some common collective nouns are used to refer to multiple distinct groups. "Herd" is a legitimate collective noun for dozens of animal species and the mythical [[fairy]]. "Set" and "group" are used broadly to refer to collections of concepts or objects.
Sometimes a collective noun will only apply to a group in a certain context. "Herd" can properly refer to a group of wild horses, but not to a group of domestic horses. A "paddling of ducks" only refers to ducks on water.
== See also==
===Linguistics===
*[[Mass noun]]
*[[Measure word]]s
*[[Noun class]]es
===English language===
*[[Collective nouns sorted by subject]]
*[[Collective nouns sorted by collective term]]
*[[Collective nouns for people]]
*[[Collective nouns for mammals, non-human]]
*[[Collective nouns for birds]]
*[[Collective nouns for reptiles and amphibians]]
*[[Collective nouns for fish, invertebrates and plants]]
*[[Collective nouns for objects and concepts]]
*[[List of animal names]]
== Bibliography ==
* Lipton, James. ''An Exaltation of Larks''. Penguin. 1991
== External links ==
The collection of genuine and spurious English collective nouns has proved an interesting diversion for many website writers:
* http://www.ojohaven.com/collectives/
* http://rinkworks.com/words/collective.shtml
* http://www.sanjeev.net/collective-nouns/index.html
[[Category:Grammar]]
[[Category:Rhetoric]]
[[da:Kollektivum]]
[[de:Sammelbegriff]]
[[pt:Substantivo colectivo]]
[[ru:Singularia tantum]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of collective nouns by subject</title>
<id>7149</id>
<revision>
<id>26561513</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-26T21:34:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.208.105.32</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Collective noun]]<br>
[[List of collective nouns]]
* [[List of collective nouns by subject A-H]]
* [[List of collective nouns by subject I-Z]]
'''Notes:''' <br>
The phrase "An abomination of monks" is frequently cited as a legitimate collective noun for monks. It is actually a misinterpretation of the title of a protestant treatise written by [[Jan Hus]] around 1400. A gaggle of geese in Czech would be a 'hejno hus.'
An "anthology of prostitutes" is a pun on "anthology of prose", as "pro" is a common contraction for prostitute in Britain and elsewhere.
The phrase "A court of kangaroos" is frequently thought to be legitimate, given the (quite unrelated) expression "a kangaroo court". There is no known evidence of its legitimacy as a collective noun, however.
A "ream of paper" - A ream is traditionally defined as 480 sheets (twenty [[quire|quires]] of twenty-four sheets each); the more usual modern count is 500 sheets to the ream. This is more a measure of paper than a collective noun, however.
[[Category:Lists of collective nouns|Subject]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Collective nouns sorted by collective term</title>
<id>7150</id>
<revision>
<id>15905230</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-01T22:25:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to List of collective nouns by collective term</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of collective nouns by collective term]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of collective nouns for non-human mammals</title>
<id>7151</id>
<revision>
<id>38757105</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T12:50:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UtherSRG</username>
<id>33145</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{disputed}}
{| border = 0
! SUBJECT
!COLLECTIVE TERM
! <center>STATUS</center>
|-
! [[aardvark|aardvarks]]
| An armory of aardvarks
| <center>Spurious</center>
|-
! [[antelope|antelope]]
| A herd of antelope
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[ape|apes]]
| A shrewdness of apes
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[ape|apes]]
| A troop of apes
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[donkey|asses]]
| A pace of asses
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[baboon|baboons]]
| A congress of baboons
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[baboon|baboons]]
| A troop of baboons
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[baboon|baboons]]
| A flange of baboons
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[badger (animal)|badgers]]
| A cete of badgers
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[bat]]s
| A colony of bats
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[bear|bears]]
| A sloth of bears
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[beaver|beavers]]
| A colony of beavers
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[beaver|beavers]]
| A lodge of beavers
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[boar|boars]]
| A singular of boars
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[boar|boars]]
| A sounder of boars
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[bovine|buffalo]]
| A herd of buffalo
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[bovine|buffalo]]
| An obstinacy of buffalo
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[camel|camels]]
| A complaint of camels
| <center>Uncertain</center>
|-
! [[camel|camels]]
| A flock of camels
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[cat|cats (feral or wild)]]
| A destruction of cats (feral or wild)
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[cat|cats]]
| A clowder of cats
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[cat|cats]]
| A cluster of cats
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[cat|cats]]
| A clutter of cats
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[cat|cats]]
| A colony of cats
| Andrew Lang, www.vetclinpathjournal.org, www.humane-so-arizona.org
|-
! [[cat|cats]]
| A glaring of cats
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[cat|cats]]
| A pounce of cats
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[cattle|cattle]]
| A drove of cattle
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[cattle|cattle]]
| A herd of cattle
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[cattle|cattle]]
| A kine of cattle
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[chamois|chamois]]
| A herd of chamois
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[horse|colts]]
| A rag of colts
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[horse|colts]]
| A rake of colts
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[rabbit|conies]]
| A bury of conies
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[cattle|cows]]
| A flink of cows
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[cattle|cows]]
| A herd of cows
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[dog|curs]]
| A cowardice of curs
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[deer|deer]]
| A herd of deer
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[deer|deer]]
| A leash of deer
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[deer|deer]]
| A parcel of deer
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[dog|dogs]]
| A pack of dogs
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[dolphin|dolphins]]
| A pod of dolphins
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[elephant|elephants]]
| A herd of elephants
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[elephant|elephants]]
| A parade of elephants
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[moose|elk]]
| A gang of elk
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713;}}</center>
|-
! [[ferret|ferrets]]
| A business of ferrets
| <center>{{unicode|&#x2713 |
was the final [[prophet of Islam]].
==Etymology==
In Arabic, Islām derives from the three-letter root {{ArabDIN|[[Sīn]]-[[Lām]]-[[Mīm]]}} ({{ar|'''س'''-'''ل'''-'''م'''}}), which means "submission; to surrender; to obey; peace". Islām is a verbal abstract to this root, and literally means "submission/obedience," referring to submission to [[Allah]]. Compare that root with the [[cognate]] word in Hebrew, ''[[shalom]]'', which derives from the root shin-lamedh-mem ({{Ivrit|'''ש'''-'''ל'''-'''ם'''}}), which has cognates in many [[Semitic languages]], and means completeness, fulfillment, wellbeing, a concept usually encapsulated by translation in the word peace.
Other Arabic words derived from {{ar|'''س'''-'''ل'''-'''م'''}}:
* [[Salām]], meaning "peace", which is also part of a common salutation, [[Salam aleikum|As-Salāmu alaykum]] (Peace be upon you).
* As-Salām (The Peace) is one of the [[99 names of God]] found in the [[Qur'an]].
* [[Muslim]], a follower of Islam, an agentive noun meaning "one who surrenders" or "submits" to God.
* Salāmah, meaning "safety," which is used in saying "goodbye" with "ma' as-salāmah" ([go] with safety).
==Beliefs==
The basis of Islamic belief is found in the [[shahada|''shah&#257;dat&#257;n'']] ("two testimonies", Arabic:''' لا إله إلا الله محمد رسول الله '''): ''l&#257; il&#257;h&#257; ill&#257;-ll&#257;hu; muhammadur-ras&#363;lu-ll&#257;h''&mdash;"There is no god but The God and Muhammad is the messenger of God." In order to become a Muslim, one needs to recite and believe in these statements under witness. One who wishes to convert must be truly willing and must have given thought to the meaning of the shahāda before reciting the words and becoming a Muslim.
Muslims believe that [[God]] (or, in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Allah|''All&#257;h'']]; also in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] ''Alaha'') revealed his direct word for mankind to [[Muhammad]] (c. [[570]]&ndash;[[632]]) and other [[Prophets of Islam|prophets]], including [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], and [[Jesus]]. Muslims believe that Muhammad is the Last or the ''seal'' of the prophets. Thus, his preachings for humankind will last until [[Qiyamah]] (The Day of the Resurrection). Muslims assert that the main written record of revelation to humankind is the [[Qur'an]] (see [[Islam#The Qur'an|below]]), which they believe to be flawless, immutable, and the final revelation of God to humanity. Muslims believe that parts of the Gospels, [[Torah]] and Jewish prophetic books have been forgotten, misinterpreted, incorrectly edited by humans, or distorted by their followers and thus their original message has been corrupted over time ''([[tahrif]])''. With that perspective, Muslims view the Qur'an as a correction of Jewish and Christian scriptures, and a final revelation.
Muslims hold that Islam is essentially the same belief as that of all the messengers sent by God to mankind since Adam, with the Qur'an (the text used by all sects of the Muslim faith) codifying the final revelation of God. Islamic texts depict [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]] as derivations of the teachings of the prophet Abraham and thus acknowledge common [[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic]] roots. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians (and sometimes people of [[People of the Book#Application of term|other faiths]]) "[[People of the Book]]." Historically, the second Caliph Umar ibn Khattab created what came to be known as "the Pact of Umar" in establishing that any people of the book who submitted to Muslim authority as [[dhimmi]]s during the wars of Muslim expansion retained their freedom of religion and their existing churches.
Islām is described as a [[Din (Islamic term)|dīn]], meaning "way of life" and/or "guidance".
[[Image:Good kaabah pic.JPG|300px|thumb|''[[Kaaba]]'' , the holiest site in Islam]]
===Seven articles of belief===
There are seven basic beliefs shared by all Muslims:
#Belief in God (Allah), the one and only one worthy of all worship (''[[tawhid]]'').
#Belief in the Angels (''[[Angels#Islamic views|mala'ika]]'').
#Belief in the books (''[[kutub]]'') sent by God:
#: The [[Suhuf-i-Ibrahim]] (Scrolls of Abraham).
#: The [[Tawrat]] sent to [[Musa]] (Moses).
#: The [[Zabur]] sent to [[Daud]] (David).
#: The [[Injil]] sent to [[Isa]] (Jesus).
#: The [[Qur'an]] sent to Muhammad.
#Belief in all the prophets ([[Prophet#The Islamic concept of prophet|''nabi'']]) and messengers (''[[rasul]]'') sent by God (see [[Prophets of Islam]]).
#Belief in the Day of Judgement (''[[qiyama]]'').
#Belief in Fate (''[[qadar]]'').
#Belief in life after death - heaven (''[[jannah]]'') and hell (''[[jahannam]]'').
The Muslim creed in [[English language|English]]:
:: "I testify that there is no god but Allah Almighty, Who is One (and only One) and there is no associate with Him; and I testify that Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), is His Messenger."
:: "I believe in Allah; and in His Angels; and in His Scriptures; and in His Messengers; and in The Final Day; and in Fate, that All things are from Allah, and Resurrection after death be Truth."
===The tenets of Islam===
''Main articles: [[Five Pillars of Islam]], [[Branches of Religion]], [[Roots of Religion]]''
[[Image:Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram. Mecca, Saudi Arabia.jpg|300 px|thumb|right|The Pilgrimage ([[Hajj]]) to [[Kaaba]], [[Masjid al Haram]], Mecca, is one of the five pillars of Islam or one of the roots of religion (for the Shi'a).]]
The two largest subgroups of the Muslims are the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and the [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]]. Sunni Muslims make up a large percentage of the Muslim world, although one can find large majorities of Shi'a Muslims in Middle Eastern countries such as Iran and Iraq. However, in countries such as Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, and Pakistan, Sunni Muslims are the majority.
Sunni Islam's fundamental tenets are referred to as the [[Five Pillars of Islam]]<sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup>, while Shia Islam has a slightly different terminology, encompassing five core beliefs, the [[Roots of Religion]] and ten core practices, the [[Branches of Religion]]. All Muslims agree on the following five basic obligations of believers, which Sunnis term the Five Pillars of Islam, and which Shia would consider to be elements of the Roots of Religion and the Branches of Religion.
*[[Shahada|Shahādah]]: Testifying that there is none worthy of worship except God ([[Tawheed]]) and that [[Muhammad]] is his servant and messenger ([[Nubuwwah]]).
*[[Salah]]: Performing the five daily prayers.
*[[Sawm]]: Fasting from dawn to dusk in the month of [[Ramadan]].
*[[Zakat|Zakāt]]: Giving ''Zakaah'' (charity).
*[[Hajj]]: The Pilgrimage to [[Mecca]] during the month of ''Dhul Hijjah'', which is compulsory once in a lifetime for one who has the ability to do it.
Shi'a and Sunni also agree on the following beliefs, although they classify them differently:
*[[Adl]]: The justice of God.
*[[Qiyamah]]: The Day of Resurrection.
*[[Amr-Bil-Ma'rūf]]: Commanding what is good.
*[[Nahi-Anil-Munkar]]: Forbidding what is evil.
*[[Jihad|Al Jihad fi sabilillah]]: Striving to seek God's approval.
Distinctive Shi'a beliefs, not held by the Sunni, include:
*[[Imamah]]: Leadership. The belief in the divinely appointed and guided [[imam]]ate of [[Ali]] and some of his descendants.
*[[Tawalla]]: To love the [[Ahl al-Bayt]] and their followers.
*[[Tabarra]]: To disassociate from the enemies of the Ahl al-Bayt.
*[[Khums]]: Paying the tax on profit.
Many Muslims, however, do not fall into any of the denominations listed above. These Muslims believe that the following extract from the Qu'ran bans the formation of sects within Islam, and therefore classify themselves as simply 'Muslims'.
"[6:159] Those who divide themselves into sects do not belong with you. Their judgment rests with GOD, then He will inform
them of everything they had done."
===God===
:''Main articles: [[Allah]] / [[God]]
The fundamental concept in Islam is the oneness of [[God]] (''[[tawhid]]''). This monotheism is absolute, not relative or pluralistic in any sense of the word. God is described in [[Sura]] [[al-Ikhlas]], (chapter 112) as follows:
:''Say "He is God, the one and only. Allah, the Eternal, Absolute the Self-Sufficient master. He begetteth not, nor is he begotten. And there is none like unto Him."
In Arabic, God is called ''Allāh''. The word is etymologically connected to ''ʾilāh'' "[[deity]]", ''Allāh'' is also the word used by Christian and Jewish Arabs, translating ''ho theos'' of the [[New Testament]] and [[Septuagint]]; it predates Muhammad and in its origin does not specify a "God" different from the one worshipped by Judaism and Christianity, the other [[Abrahamic]] religions.
The name "Allah" shows no plural or gender, unlike the word "God" that may take plural sense "Gods" and feminine form "Goddesses". In Islam "Allah" Almighty as the Qur’an says:
:''"(He is) the Creator of the heavens and the earth: He has made for you pairs from among yourselves, and pairs among cattle: by this means does He multiply you: there is nothing whatever like unto Him, and He is the One that hears and sees (all things)" (42:11).
The implicit usage of the [[definite article]] in ''Allah'' linguistically indicates the divine unity. Muslims believe that the God they worship is the same as the Judeo-Christian God, i.e. the God of Abraham. However, Muslims reject the Christian theology concerning the trinity of God (the doctrine of the [[Trinity]] which regards Jesus as the eternal [[Son of God]]), seeing it as akin to [[polytheism]]. Quoting from the Qur'an,
[[sura]] [[An-Nisa]](4) :171:
:''"O |
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<page>
<title>Atacama</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-26T02:25:29Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.238.242.131|68.238.242.131]] ([[User talk:68.238.242.131|talk]]) to last version by Golbez</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the politico-administrative region of [[Chile]], see'' [[Atacama Region]].
[[Image:Atacama1.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Atacama]]
The '''Atacama''' [[desert]] of [[Chile]] and [[Peru]] is a virtually rainless [[plateau]] made up of [[salt]] basins (''salares''), sand, and [[lava]] flows, extending from the [[Andes]] mountains to the [[Pacific Ocean]].
The average width (east-and-west) is less than 160 kilometers (100 miles) but it extends from the [[Peru|Peruvian]] border 1000 kilometers (600 miles) south to the [[Bolivia]]n [[Altiplano]]. The mountains nearest to the ocean are the Pacific coastal range, with an average elevation of 800 meters (2500 feet). The [[Cordillera Domeyko]], a range of foothills of the [[Andes]] Mountains, lies east.
The Atacama Desert is the driest desert on [[Earth]] (except perhaps for the [[McMurdo Dry Valleys]] in [[Antarctica]]) and is virtually sterile because it is blocked from moisture on both sides by the Andes mountains and by coastal mountains. The average rainfall in [[Antofagasta (region)|Antofagasta]] &mdash; a region in Chile which is part of the Atacama &mdash; is just 3mm per year, and there was a period of time where no rain fell there for 40 years. The Atacama is 15 million years old and 50 times more arid than California's [[Death Valley]]. It is so arid, in fact, that mountains that reach as high as 6885 metres (22590 feet) are completely free of [[glacier]]s and, in the southern part from 25&deg;S to 27&deg;S, have possibly been glacier-free throughout the [[Quaternary]], though [[permafrost]] extends down to an altitude of 4400 metres and is continuous above 5600 metres. The Atacama north of 25&deg;S is arid and receives very little rain. However many locations in the desert receive marine fog, providing sufficient moisture for hypolithic algae, lichens and even cacti. In the region south of Antofagasta the coastal range blocks the marine fog. The crest-line of the coastal range averages 3000 m for about 100 km south of Antofagasta. The driest part of the Atacama is between the coastal mountains and the [[Cordillera Domeyko]], an area called the 'double [[rain shadow]].' In this region, the Andes block moisture from the east, the [[Cordillera Domeyko]] block runoff from the Andes and the Coastal mountains block marine fog from the ocean. The region that is in the "fog shadow" of this high coastal crest-line is the region that contains the driest soils - the soil has been compared to that of Mars.
In 2003, a team of researchers published a report in [[Science magazine]] titled "Mars-like Soils in the Atacama Desert, Chile, and the Dry Limit of Microbial Life" in which they duplicated the tests used by the [[Viking 1]] and [[Viking 2]] [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] landers to detect life, and were unable to detect any signs in Atacama Desert soil. The region may be unique on Earth in this regard and is being used by NASA to test instruments for future Mars missions. Alonso de Ercilla characterized it in ''La Araucana'', published in 1569: "Towards Atacama, near the deserted coast, you see a land without men, where there is not a bird, not a beast, nor a tree, nor any vegetation" (quoted Braudel 1984 p 388).
The Atacama has rich deposits of [[copper]] and other [[mineral]]s, and the world's largest natural supply of [[sodium nitrate]], which was mined on a large scale until the early [[1940s]]. The [[Atacama border dispute]] between Chile and Bolivia began in the 1800s over these resources.
The Atacama is inhabited, though sparsely populated. The [[Pan-American Highway]] runs through the Atacama. In an [[oasis]], in the middle of the desert, at an [[altitude]] of some 2000 meters, is the village of [[San Pedro de Atacama]]. Its [[church]] was built by the [[Spain|Spanish]] in [[1577]], but archeological evidence indicates that the San Pedro area was the center of a [[Paleolithic]] civilization that built rock fortresses on the steep mountains encircling the valley. The [[Escondida Mine]] and [[Chuquicamata]] are also located within the Atacama.The Atacama Desert of Chile is a sparsely populated virtually rainless plateau, running from the Pacific Ocean to the Andes Mountains. The average width is less than 100 miles but it extends 600 miles south from the Peruvian border. The mountains nearest the ocean are the Pacific coastal range, with an average elevation of 2500 feet. The Cordillera Domeyko, a range of foothills of the Andes Mountains, lies east. The Atacama is made up of salt basins (salars) sand and lava flows. The landscape is so desolate it is sometimes described as "moon like". In fact the Atacama has been chosen as a good site to test the prototype of a future lunar rover.
The [[European Southern Observatory]] operates two major [[observatory|observatories]] in the Atacama desert:
* The [[La Silla Observatory]]
* The [[Paranal Observatory]], which includes the [[Very Large Telescope]].
==External links==
* [http://amesnews.arc.nasa.gov/releases/2003/03_87AR.html news article on "Mars-like Soils in the Atacama Desert, Chile, and the Dry Limit of Microbial Life"]
* [http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0308/feature3/ National Geographic feature about Atacama]
* [http://science.slashdot.org/science/05/03/19/1943236.shtml?tid=216&tid=191&tid=14 Autonomous Robot Finds Life in Atacama Desert]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4437153.stm Atacama's Super-Dry History]
==Reference==
*[[Fernand Braudel|Braudel, Fernand]], ''The Perspective of the World,'' vol. III of ''Civilization and Capitalism'' 1984 (in French 1979).
[[Category:Deserts of South America]]
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<page>
<title>Alice Sheldon</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[James Tiptree, Jr]]
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<page>
<title>Airshow</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:air.show.utterly.arp.500pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The UK Utterly Butterly wing-walking display team flying Boeing Stearman PT-17 biplanes]]
An '''airshow''' is an event at which [[aviator]]s display their flying skills and the capabilities of their flying machines, normally to the public, but occasionally to selected invited guests, or employees and their families only.
Many airshows are held for commercial motives, gaining income from onlookers or from companies hoping to sell [[aircraft]]. Others are held on military bases and are mostly paid for by recruiting budgets, and some are held to raise funds for charities. Usually they are arranged at [[airfield]]s in which case a variety of static aircraft and [[helicopter]]s might also be on view. Less often shows are held over the sea near coastal cities or resorts. Where space allows, other entertainments and market stalls may add to the attractions on offer at an airshow.
The year's airshow schedule is usually defined during the end of the preceding year. The lineup of pilots and aircraft to be in attendance at each airshow is tentatively determined around February and March, but can change at any time. With a handful of exceptions (such as the mid-winter airshow at [[Marine Corps Air Station Yuma|MCAS Yuma]], AZ), the airshow "season" starts in early spring and ends around mid-fall (mid-autumn). Magazines aimed at aircraft enthusiasts will normally include a list of airshows in their February, March or April editions. Shows at military bases are liable to be cancelled or postponed during periods of international tension.
Before the second world war, airshows were associated with long distance air races, often lasting many days and covering thousands of miles. While the [[Reno Air Races]] keep this tradition alive, most airshows today primarily feature a series of aerial demos of relatively short duration.
[[Germany]] remains the only nation to ban airshows as a result of a disaster involving an aircraft [[collision]] (See ''[[Ramstein airshow disaster]]'').
==Safety==
Airshows, while spectacular to watch, present an increased risk to both spectators and aviators. Accidents occur, sometimes with a large loss of life, such as the [[Ramstein airshow disaster|1988 disaster at Ramstein Air Base]] in [[Germany]] and the [[Sknyliv (Ukraine) airshow disaster|2002 airshow crash at Lviv]], [[Ukraine]]. Because of these accidents safety regulations govering airshows have b |
ructions, "tell" the ALU what operation to perform on those inputs, and send the results back to the memory or to the I/O devices. One key component of the control system is a counter that keeps track of what the address of the current instruction is; typically, this is incremented each time an instruction is executed, unless the instruction itself indicates that the next instruction should be at some other location (allowing the computer to repeatedly execute the same instructions).
Since the 1980s the ALU and control unit (collectively called a [[central processing unit]] or CPU) have typically been located on a single [[integrated circuit]] called a [[microprocessor]].
The functioning of such a computer is in principle quite straightforward. Typically, on each clock cycle, the computer fetches instructions and data from its memory. The instructions are executed, the results are stored, and the next instruction is fetched. This procedure repeats until a ''halt'' instruction is encountered.
Larger computers, such as some [[minicomputer]]s, [[mainframe computer]]s, [[server]]s, differ from the model above in one significant aspect; rather than one CPU they often have a number of them. [[Supercomputer]]s often have highly unusual architectures significantly different from the basic stored-program architecture, sometimes featuring thousands of CPUs, but such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks.
==Digital circuits==
The conceptual design above could be implemented using a variety of different technologies. As previously mentioned, a stored program computer could be designed entirely of mechanical components like Babbage's. However, [[digital circuits]] allow [[Boolean logic]] and [[binary arithmetic|arithmetic using binary numerals]] to be implemented using [[relay]]s — essentially, electrically controlled switches. Shannon's famous thesis showed how relays could be arranged to form units called [[logic gate]]s, implementing simple Boolean operations. Others soon figured out that [[vacuum tube]]s — electronic devices, could be used instead. Vacuum tubes were originally used as a signal [[amplifier]] for radio and other applications, but were used in digital electronics as a very fast switch; when electricity is provided to one of the pins, current can flow through between the other two.
Through arrangements of logic gates, one can build digital circuits to do more complex tasks, for instance, an [[adder (electronics)|adder]], which implements in electronics the same method — in computer terminology, an [[algorithm]] — to add two numbers together that children are taught — add one column at a time, and carry what's left over. Eventually, through combining circuits together, a complete ALU and control system can be built up. This does require a considerable number of components. [[CSIRAC]], one of the earliest stored-program computers, is probably close to the smallest practically useful design. It had about 2,000 valves, some of which were "dual components", so this represented somewhere between 2 and 4,000 logic components.
Vacuum tubes had severe limitations for the construction of large numbers of gates. They were expensive, unreliable (particularly when used in such large quantities), took up a lot of space, and used a lot of electrical power, and, while incredibly fast compared to a mechanical switch, had limits to the speed at which they could operate. Therefore, by the 1960s they were replaced by the [[transistor]], a new device which performed the same task as the tube but was much smaller, faster operating, reliable, used much less power, and was far cheaper.
[[Image:InternalIntegratedCircuit2.JPG|thumb|[[Integrated circuit]]s are the basis of modern digital computing hardware.]]
In the 1960s and 1970s, the transistor itself was gradually replaced by the [[integrated circuit]], which placed multiple transistors (and other components) and the wires connecting them on a single, solid piece of silicon. By the 1970s, the entire ALU and control unit, the combination becoming known as a [[CPU (computer)|CPU]], were being placed on a single "chip" called a [[microprocessor]]. Over the history of the integrated circuit, the number of components that can be placed on one has grown enormously. The first IC's contained a few tens of components; as of 2005, modern microprocessors such from [[AMD]] and [[Intel]] contain over 100 million transistors. Furthermore, The 45nm SRAM chip announced in 2006 by Intel has more than 1 billion transistors.
Tubes, transistors, and transistors on integrated circuits can be used as the "storage" component of the stored-program architecture, using a circuit design known as a [[Flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flop]], and indeed flip-flops are used for small amounts of very high-speed storage. However, few computer designs have used flip-flops for the bulk of their storage needs. Instead, earliest computers stored data in [[Williams tube]]s — essentially, projecting some dots on a TV screen and reading them again, or [[mercury delay line]]s where the data was stored as sound pulses traveling slowly (compared to the machine itself) along long tubes filled with mercury. These somewhat ungainly but effective methods were eventually replaced by magnetic memory devices, such as [[magnetic core memory]], where electrical currents were used to introduce a permanent (but weak) magnetic field in some ferrous material, which could then be read to retrieve the data. Eventually, [[DRAM]] was introduced. A DRAM unit is a type of integrated circuit containing huge banks of an electronic component called a [[capacitor]] which can store an electrical charge for a period of time. The level of charge in a capacitor could be set to store information, and then measured to read the information when required.
===I/O devices===
I/O (short for input/output) is a general term for devices that send computers information from the outside world and that return the results of computations. These results can either be viewed directly by a user, or they can be sent to another machine, whose control has been assigned to the computer: In a [[robot]], for instance, the controlling computer's major output device is the robot itself.
The first generation of computers were equipped with a fairly limited range of input devices. A [[punch card]] reader, or something similar, was used to enter instructions and data into the computer's memory, and some kind of printer, usually a modified [[teletype]], was used to record the results. Over the years, a huge variety of other devices have been added. For the personal computer, for instance, [[computer keyboard|keyboard]]s and [[computer mouse|mice]] are the primary ways people directly enter information into the computer; and [[Computer monitor|monitor]]s are the primary way in which information from the computer is presented back to the user, though printers, speakers, and headphones are common, too. There is a huge variety of other devices for obtaining other types of input. One example is the [[digital camera]], which can be used to input visual information. There are two prominent classes of I/O devices. The first class is that of [[secondary storage]] devices, such as [[hard disk]]s, [[CD-ROM]]s, [[USB flash drive|key drives]] and the like, which represent comparatively slow, but high-capacity devices, where information can be stored for later retrieval; the second class is that of devices used to access [[computer network]]s. The ability to transfer data between computers has opened up a huge range of capabilities for the computer. The global [[Internet]] allows millions of computers to transfer information of all types between each other.
====Instructions====
The instructions interpreted by the control unit, and executed by the ALU, are not nearly as rich as a human language. A computer responds only to a limited number of instructions, which are precisely defined, simple, and unambiguous. Typical sorts of instructions supported by most computers are "copy the contents of memory cell 5 and place the copy in cell 10", "add the contents of cell 7 to the contents of cell 13 and place the result in cell 20", "if the contents of cell 999 are 0, the next instruction is at cell 30". All computer instructions fall into one of four categories: 1) moving data from one location to another; 2) executing arithmetic and logical processes on data; 3) testing the condition of data; and 4) altering the sequence of operations.
Instructions are represented within the computer as [[Binary numeral system|binary]] code — a base two system of counting. For example, the code for one kind of "copy" operation in the Intel line of microprocessors is 10110000. The particular instruction set that a specific computer supports is known as that computer's [[machine language]].
To slightly oversimplify, if two computers have CPUs that respond to the same set of instructions identically, software from one can run on the other without modification. This easy portability of existing software creates a great incentive to stick with existing designs, only switching for the most compelling of reasons, and has gradually narrowed the number of distinct [[instruction set architecture]]s in the marketplace.
===Programs===
[[Computer program]]s are simply lists of instructions for the computer to execute. These can range from just a few instructions which perform a simple task, to a much more complex instruction list which may also include tables of data. Many computer programs contain millions of instructions, and many of those instructions are executed repeatedly. A typical modern [[personal computer|PC]] (in the year 2005) can execute around 3 billion instructions per second. Computers do not gain their extraordinary capabilities through the ability to execute complex instructions. Rather, they do million |
were into the peace movement and the hippie culture, Sabbath chose to distinguish themselves by dealing with heavier issues. In their music, they also conveyed a sense of anger and anti-establishment, the likes of which had never been heard before. The band also dealt with issues such as drugs (to which they were developing a growing dependence).
The newly-named Black Sabbath adopted darker lyrical themes, and a slower, ominous style - a significant element in the genre that would later be known as [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]], often ranked above [[Deep Purple]] and [[Judas Priest]] in importance and influence in the genre.
Even though [[Judas Priest]], [[Cream (band)|Cream]], and [[Deep Purple]] may have had a profound influence on the emergence of hard rock and heavy metal music, Black Sabbath is generally considered, along with [[Led Zeppelin]], one of the primary forces of the genre.
The group found its signature sound almost by accident. When the group was rehearsing in a studio which was situated opposite a cinema showing a horror movie, Osbourne recalls that [[Tony Iommi]] said to the rest of the band, "If people pay to see scary movies, why wouldn't they pay to listen to scary music?" The band began to purposely write dark, ominous riffs in an attempt to be music's answer to horror movies.
However, much of the group's material featured an acoustic guitar, piano, symphony orchestras, keyboards, and even horns. After the band's first four albums, the group became increasingly experimental and progressive, leaving much of their dark metal roots behind.
They were ranked number 2 in [[VH1]]'s "100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock" ( Led Zeppelin was number 1).
== History ==
=== 1970s ===
With an extremely gifted [[rhythm section]] and the extraordinary on-stage antics of Ozzy Osbourne, the band enjoyed success with memorable songs and brutal [[riff]]s beginning with their first album, the eponymous ''[[Black Sabbath (album)|Black Sabbath]]'' ([[1970]]). Their follow-up album, ''[[Paranoid (album)|Paranoid]]'' (also 1970), was a tremendous success, bringing them even greater attention in America and the UK. ''Paranoid'' was in part a protest against the Vietnam war (particularly British involvment); the song "War Pigs" was originally intended to be the title song.
The content of the songs (both originals and [[cover version]]s) from both albums demonstrated a tongue in cheek interest in the [[occult]] and [[magic (paranormal)|black magic]]. This was a crucial step in establishing the 'darkness' and 'heaviness' of later heavy metal lyrics, and Black Sabbath was the first group to feature such lyrical content, almost to the exclusion of other topics. [[Led Zeppelin]], [[The Doors]] and some others might have hinted at magic or the occult, but few contemporaries could match Black Sabbath for directness, such as "My name is [[Lucifer]]/Please take my hand" (from '''Black Sabbath''''s "N.I.B."). Butler wrote most of the [[lyrics]].
Another innovation was the by-product of an accident: Iommi's [[fret]]ting fingers were injured in an industrial accident slightly before his early tenure with Earth. He was working in a sheet metal factory at the time and the tops of the two middle fingers on his right hand were sliced off. Initially, he forged himself [[prosthesis|prosthetics]] from a melted plastic detergent bottle. The injured fingers were understandably tender, so Iommi [[guitar#tuning|downtuned]] his Gibson guitar from standard E to C#. The resultant slackness of the string allowed him to play with less bother to his fingertips. Butler also downtuned his bass guitar to more easily follow Iommi's playing. The lower pitch often seemed "heavier" or more substantive, and Black Sabbath were perhaps the first popular group to downtune. The practice of downtuning is now common &mdash; perhaps even standard &mdash; among [[metal]] groups.
Black Sabbath released another smash hit in 1971, ''[[Master of Reality]].'' This was the first Sabbath album to feature a significant amount of acoustic material ("Solitude" contained a flute solo by Iommi). This was a crucial and often overlooked switch in style by Sabbath, as they are largely known only for their simple, dark riffs from their earlier releases. By the time the band released ''[[Black Sabbath, Vol. 4]]'' in ([[1972]]), they were a full-fledged progressive rock group. Featuring the hit "Changes" (containing only vocal, bass, piano, and strings) and sonic rock anthems like "Supernaut" and "Snowblind," ''Black Sabbath, Vol. 4'' was the group's most mature record to date.
By this point, the band were one of the most popular bands in the world, and were a major concert attraction. ''[[Sabbath Bloody Sabbath]]'' ([[1973]]) saw the band work with [[Yes (band)|Yes]] keyboardist [[Rick Wakeman]] (who remains a close friend of the band today). The album contains some of the best known Black Sabbath material, including the space rock voyage, "Spiral Architect," and the haunting prog-rock workout, "A National Acrobat". which is one of the best songs on the album, the riff is almost identical to the song "Sabbath Bloody Sabbath", but with a slightly stronger and catchier tune to it.
The band was heavily addicted to drugs and for over two years Osbourne and Ward took [[LSD]] every day. Towards the end of Osbourne's tenure in [[1978]], he was so embroiled in drugs that he claims he was "very unhappy and got drunk and stoned every day". Many of the band's songs address drugs, both explicitly and implicitly.
The band was suffering major management problems (the group was managed by Osbourne's future father-in-law, [[Don Arden]]). The management problems and then a label change from Vertigo to WWA disrupted the release schedule of the band's new album. Despite the troubles, ''[[Sabotage (album)|Sabotage]]'' was released in [[1975]] with continued success. However, drug problems, continued experimentation in their music style ([[Gregorian]] chants and a chorale of monks highlighted "Supertzar"), the hard rock scene's changing environment, and some internal issues were affecting the stability and output of the band.
''[[Technical Ecstasy]]'' ([[1976]]) turned out to be a commercial failure. The album was laden with symphony orchestras, synthesizers, and even drummer [[Bill Ward]] singing a [[Beatles]]-esque pop song. Some consider it one of the group's most ambitious records, yet fans of the classic Sabbath formula were alienated. After the [[1977]] tour, Ozzy Osbourne stopped turning up at band rehearsals. The remaining band members even recorded music with singer [[Dave Walker]], formerly of [[Fleetwood Mac]], but Osbourne continued on with Sabbath, releasing the highly controversial ''[[Never Say Die!]]'' ([[1978]]). By far the band's most experimental release, ''Never Say Die!'' is widely regarded as an excellent album (some hardcore fans call it their best), but a poor Black Sabbath album ("Breakout" featured a 15-piece horn section). Like the previous album, its sales were poor.
Due to internal conflicts and an evident lack of commitment, Osbourne was asked to leave the band in [[1979]], leading to a successful solo career - he went on to become one of the most successful solo artists in the history of heavy metal. The definitive tale is told in the book "How Black was our Sabbath". Osbourne was replaced by former [[Rainbow (band)|Rainbow]] singer [[Ronnie James Dio]].
=== 1980s ===
Black Sabbath's next album (and first with singer [[Ronnie James Dio]]), ''[[Heaven and Hell (Black Sabbath)|Heaven and Hell]]'', proved to be a success, and saw the band's highest charting since 1975's ''[[Sabotage (album)|Sabotage]]''. It was on this tour that Dio popularised the "[[devil horns]]" hand gesture, which has since become a symbol of heavy metal music in general. The album also marked the inclusion of [[Quartz]]'s guitarist-turned-keyboardist [[Geoff Nicholls]] (Nicholls has not been consistently credited as an official member, and has often been forced to play live shows from backstage for supposed aesthetic purposes, but he has co-written many songs and has stayed with Black Sabbath through all subsequent incarnations). Also during the tour, drummer [[Bill Ward]] quit the band for personal reasons (both his parents died within a rather short period, and Ward was struggling with [[alcoholism]] and other addictions). Drummer [[Vinny Appice]] joined to complete the tour and then record the next album ''[[Mob Rules]]'', whose title track appeared in the movie ''[[Heavy Metal (movie)|Heavy Metal]]''. ''[[Mob Rules]]'' is considered to be the last widely respected studio release for the band.
The unauthorised release in [[1980]] of the live bootleg ''[[Live at Last (Black Sabbath album)|Live at Last]]'' (recorded in the [[Ozzy Osbourne]] era during the [[1973]] Sabbath Bloody Sabbath tour) prompted the band to properly record a live album on the Mob Rules tour, titled ''[[Live Evil]]''. However, during the mixing of Live Evil, internal band problems and nasty accusations developed, which led to Dio and Appice quitting the band to form [[Dio]]. Bill Ward returned to the drum throne and [[Ian Gillan]] of [[Deep Purple]] fame became the new singer. To quote the singer ; "I had no plans to join Black Sabbath. I went out with Geezer and Tony and we got drunk, and I found out the next day that I agreed to join the band. And they're such nice guys. It was great fun and it paid the bills, I had a lovely year with them and that was it." This line-up recorded the album ''[[Born Again (Black Sabbath)|Born Again]]'', but [[Bill Ward]] dropped out of the band before the tour, being replaced by [[Bev Bevan]] of [[Electric Light Orchestra]]. Although the album surprisingly ended up |
Carriers in Fiction|aircraft carriers in fiction]] for more information.
==See also==
* [[List of aircraft carriers]]
** [[List of aircraft carriers by country]]
** [[List of aircraft carriers by type]]
** [[List of aircraft carrier classes of the United States Navy]]
** [[List of aircraft carrier deployments]]
* [[List of amphibious warfare ships]]
* [[Project Habbakuk]]
* [[CATOBAR]]
* [[STOL]]
* [[STOBAR]]
* [[STOVL]]
* [[VSTOL]]
==References==
# {{note|India}}[http://www2.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-04/12/content_433517.htm Article on India's indegeniously-built aircraft carrier.]
# {{note|China}}[http://english.www.gov.tw/index.jsp?action=cna&cnaid=11087 CNA report]
==External links==
* {{note|China}}[http://english.www.gov.tw/index.jsp?action=cna&cnaid=11087 CNA report]
* [http://www.hazegray.org/navhist/carriers/ Haze Gray & Underway, World Aircraft Carrier Lists] comprehensive and detailed listings of all the world's aircraft carriers and [[seaplane tender]]s from 1913-2001, with photo gallery.
* [http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_display.asp?cid=4200&tid=200&ct=4 Aircraft carriers of the USN]
{{commons|Category:Aircraft carriers}}
[[Category:Aircraft carriers|*]]
[[Category:Ship types]]
{{Link FA|pt}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Acts</title>
<id>2220</id>
<revision>
<id>15900652</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Acts of the Apostles]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apicomplexa</title>
<id>2221</id>
<revision>
<id>41023650</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T15:35:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: pt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = khaki
| name = Apicomplexa
| regnum = [[Protista]]
| phylum = '''Apicomplexa'''
| subdivision_ranks = Classes & subclasses
| subdivision =
Class [[Conoidasida]]<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Gregarinasina]]<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Coccidiasina]]<br />
Class [[Aconoidasida]]<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Haemosporasina]]<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[Piroplasmasina]]
}}
The '''Apicomplexa''' are a large group of [[protozoa]], characterized by the presence of an apical complex at some point in their life-cycle. They are exclusively parasitic, and completely lack [[flagellum|flagella]] or [[pseudopod]]s except for certain [[gamete]] stages. Diseases caused by Apicomplexa include:
* [[Babesiosis]] (''[[Babesia]]'')
* [[Cryptosporidiosis]] (''[[Cryptosporidium]]'')
* [[Malaria]] (''[[Plasmodium]]'')
* [[Toxoplasmosis]] (''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]'')
Most members have a complex life-cycle, involving both asexual and sexual reproduction. Typically, a host is infected by ingesting cysts, which divide to produce ''[[sporozoite]]s'' that enter its cells. Eventually, the cells burst, releasing ''[[merozoites]]'' which infect new cells. This may occur several times, until ''gamonts'' are produced, forming gametes that fuse to create new cysts. There are many variations on this basic pattern, however, and many Apicomplexa have more than one host.
The apical complex includes vesicles called rhoptries and micronemes, which open at the anterior of the cell. These secrete enzymes that allow the parasite to enter other cells. The tip is surrounded by a band of [[microtubule]]s, called the polar ring, and among the Conoidasida there is also a funnel of rods called the conoid. Over the rest of the cell, except for a diminished mouth called the micropore, the membrane is supported by vesicles called alveoli, forming a semi-rigid pellicle.
The presence of alveoli and other traits place the Apicomplexa among a group called the [[alveolate]]s. Several related flagellates, such as ''[[Perkinsus marinus|Perkinsus]]'' and ''Colpodella'' have structures similar to the polar ring and were formerly included here, but most appear to be closer relatives of the [[dinoflagellate]]s. They are probably similar to the common ancestor of the two groups.
Another similarity is that apicomplexan cells contain a single [[plastid]], called the apicoplast, surrounded by either 3 or four membranes. Its functions are thought to include tasks such as lipid synthesis, it appears to be necessary for survival. They are generally considered to share a common origin with the chloroplasts of dinoflagellates, although some studies suggest they are ultimately derived from [[green alga|green]] rather than [[red algae]].
The Apicomplexa comprise the bulk of what used to be called the Sporozoa, a group for parasitic protozoans without flagella, pseudopods, or cilia. Most of the Apicomplexa are motile however. The other main lines were the [[Ascetosporea]], the [[Myxozoa]] (now known to be derived from [[animal]]s), and the [[Microsporidia]] (now known to be derived from [[fungus|fungi]]). Sometimes the name Sporozoa is taken as a synonym for the Apicomplexa, or occasionally as a subset.
[[Category:Protista]][[Category:Parasites]][[Category:Apicomplexa|*]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cuisine of Argentina</title>
<id>2222</id>
<revision>
<id>41131741</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T06:20:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PurnimaAnand</username>
<id>988588</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine}}
:''This article was a former [[Wikipedia:Spanish Translation of the Week|Spanish Translation of the Week]]. Portions of the [[#Central region and las Pampas]] and [[#Northwest region]] sections still need to be translated. The Spanish text has been commented out; to translate, simply click "edit" on the specific sections. You can also help by copyediting and proofreading.''
Argentine cuisine has evolved distinctly from the rest of the Latin American culinary landscape because of the heavy influence of [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] and [[Spanish cuisine]]. These European traditions have been complemented by indigenous influences, most notably those of [[Andean]] origin (including [[Quechua]] and [[Mapuche]]) and those of Amazonic origin (such as the [[Guaraní]]). The influx of Italian, Spanish and even some Near Eastern dishes makes the typical Argentine diet is a variation on what is often called the [[Mediterranean diet]].
Another determining factor in Argentine cuisine is that Argentina is one of the world's major food producers. It is a major producer of [[wheat]], beans, [[maize]] and corn, [[meat]] (especially [[beef]]), [[milk]] and, since the [[1970s]], [[soybean]]s. Given the country's vast production of beef, red meat is an exceedingly common part of the Argentine diet (in many periods of Argentine history the annual consumption of beef has been above 100 kg per capita and during the 19th century, neared 180 kg per capita.) Similarly, the enormous quantities of domestically-harvested wheat have made white bread (made with wheat flour) the most commonly found on the table. This explains, to a great deal, the populariity of wheat-based Italian dishes, as well as the fact that Argentine pizza uses more dough than Italian pizza.
Besides the regional disparities addressed in this article, there exist at least two other comparisons which are important in understanding Argentine cuisine: the first distinguishes a cuisine that is essentially urban and cosmopolitan (highly influenced by the "globalization" of food and eating patterns) from a more traditional, idiosyncratic rural cuisine. The second comparison is made on the basis of socioeconomic differences.
While certain foods can be found in all corners of the country (barbecued meat; dulce de leche; empanadas; yerba mate,) one can map out four broad gastronomical regions based on major trends.
==Typical foods==
Argentines are famous for their high [[protein]] diet, particularly [[beef]]. Grilled meat (''parrilla'') from the ''[[asado]]'' is a staple, with [[steak]] and beef ribs especially common. ''[[Chorizo]]'', ''[[black pudding|morcilla]]'', ''[[chinchulines]]'', ''[[mollejas]]'', and other parts of the animal are enjoyed. In [[Patagonia]], lamb and [[chivito]] &mdash; goat &mdash; are eaten more than beef. Whole lambs and goats can be seen on the asado. ''[[Chimichurri]]'', a sauce of herbs and chili, is usually the only seasoning for steak and chorizo.
[[Image:Spaghetti-prepared.jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Fideos'' and other Italian dishes are features of Argentine cuisine]]
Breaded and fried meat &mdash; ''[[milanesa]]s'' &mdash; are used as snacks, in sandwiches or eaten warm with mashed [[potato]]es &mdash; ''puré''. ''[[Empanadas]]'' &mdash; pastries of meat, cheese, sweet corn and a hundred other varieties &mdash; are a common sight for parties, starters and [[picnic]]s across Argentina. Vegetables and salads are important too for Argentines, even beyond the fried or mashed potato. [[Tomato]]es, [[onions]], [[lettuce]], [[eggplant]]s, [[squash]]es and [[zucchini]] are common sides.
Just as much as beef, [[Italy|Italian]] staples, suc |
gh their positions were substantially different at the time. As the [[Atlantic Ocean]] widened and [[South America]] drifted westwards, [[Gondwana]] itself broke up as [[Antarctica]] and [[Australia]] rifted away from [[Africa]] (though [[India]] and [[Madagascar]] remained attached). Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising [[sea level|eustatic sea level]]s worldwide. To the north of Africa the [[Tethys Sea]] continued to narrow. Within the continents, a broad shallow sea advanced across central [[North America]] (the [[Western Interior Seaway]]) and then started to recede, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between [[coal]] beds.
Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in [[Europe]] and [[China]]. In the area that is now India, massive lava beds called the [[Deccan Traps]] were laid down in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene. Climates were warm, and even polar regions had no permanent [[ice]].
==Flora==
[[Angiosperm|Flowering plant]]s first appeared, although they did not become predominant until near the end of the period ([[Campanian|Campanian age]]). Their evolution aided by the appearance of [[bee]]s, in fact angiosperms and insects are a good example of mutual evolution. The first representatives of many modern trees, including [[fig]]s, [[Platanus|planes]] and [[magnolia]]s for example, appear in the Cretaceous. At the same time, some earlier Mesozoic [[gymnosperm]]s, like [[Conifer]]s continued to thrive, although other taxa like [[Bennettitales]] died out before the end of the period.
==Fauna==
===Land animals===
On land, [[mammal]]s were a small and still relatively minor component of the [[Fauna (animals)|fauna]]. The fauna was dominated by [[archosaur]]ian [[reptile]]s, especially [[dinosaur]]s, which were at their most diverse. [[Pterosaur]]s were common in the early and middle Cretaceous, but as the Cretaceous proceeded faced growing competition from the [[adaptive radiation]] of [[bird]]s, and by the end of the period only two highly specialised [[Family (biology)|families]] remained.
A fascinating glimpse of life in the Early Cretaceous is provided by the [[Liaoning]] [[Lagerstatte|lagerstätte]] ([[Chaomidianzi formation]]) in China, where the beautifully preserved remains of a number of types of small dinosaurs, birds, and mammals have been found. The [[coelurosaur]] dinosaurs found there represent a number of types of the group [[maniraptor]]a, which is transitional between dinosaurs and birds, and are remarkable for the presence of hair-like [[feather]]s.
During the Cretaceous the [[insect]]s began to diversify, and the oldest known [[ant]]s, [[termite]]s and [[Butterfly|butterflies]] appeared. [[Aphid]]s, [[grasshopper]]s, and [[gall wasp]]s appeared. Another important insect to evolve was the [[eusocial]] bee, which was integral to the [[ecology]] and evolution of flowering plants.
===Marine animals===
In the seas, [[batoidea|rays]], modern [[shark]]s and [[teleost]]s became common. Marine reptiles included [[ichthyosaur]]s in the early and middle of the Cretaceous, [[plesiosaur]]s throughout the entire period, and [[mosasaur]]s in the late Cretaceous.
[[Baculite]]s, a straight-shelled form of [[ammonite]], flourished in the seas. The [[Hesperornithiformes]] were flightless, marine diving birds that swam like [[grebe]]s. Globotruncanid [[Foraminifera]] thrived. The Cretaceous also saw the first radiation of the [[diatom]]s in the oceans (freshwater diatoms did not appear until the [[Miocene]]).
===Extinction===
''Main article: [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]]''
In the [[extinction event]] that defines the end of the Cretaceous, a significant number of species (~50%) and known families (~25%) disappeared. Plants were nearly unscathed, while marine organisms were hit the hardest. These include a large number (~95%) of types of [[Foraminifera|planktic foraminifers]] (excepting the [[Globigerinida]]), an even larger number of [[Coccolithophore]]s, all the [[ammonite]] and [[belemnite]] [[cephalopod]]s, and all reef-forming [[rudists|rudist]] [[Mollusca|molluscs]]), as well as all marine reptiles except [[turtle]]s and [[crocodile]]s. [[Dinosaur]]s are the most famous victims of the Cretaceous extinction. Dinosaurs that were unique to the very end of the period (such as ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'', ''[[Triceratops]]'', and ''[[Ankylosaurus]]'') were wiped out. The last of the [[pterosaur]]s went extinct and the vast majority of birds did as well, including the [[Enantiornithes]] and [[Hesperornithiformes]].
==See also==
*[[Chalk Formation]]
*[[Gault Clay]]
*[[Western Interior Seaway]]
==References and further reading==
Neal L Larson, Steven D Jorgensen, Robert A Farrar and Peter L Larson. ''Ammonites and the other Cephalopods of the Pierre Seaway''. Geoscience Press, 1997.
{{Cretaceous Footer}}
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[[he:קרטיקון]]
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[[nl:Krijt (tijdvak)]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Creutzfeld-Jacob Disease</title>
<id>5616</id>
<revision>
<id>15903817</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-01T00:32:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease</title>
<id>5617</id>
<revision>
<id>41939856</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:41:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease |
ICD10 = A81.0, F02.1 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|046.1}} |
}}
'''Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease''' (CJD) is a very rare and incurable [[brain]] [[disease]] that is ultimately fatal. It is the most common of the [[transmissible spongiform encephalopathy|transmissible spongiform encephalopathies]] (TSEs). It is a progressive neurological disorder which belongs to a group of degenerative [[neurology|neurologic]] [[disease]]s known as [[subacute spongiform encephalopathy|subacute spongiform encephalopathies]].
==Causes==
[[Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy]] diseases (also known as [[prion]] diseases) are caused by a unique type of infectious agent called prions, an abnormally [[protein structure|structured]] form of a [[protein]] found in the brain. Other prion diseases include [[Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome]] (GSS), [[fatal familial insomnia]] (FFI) and [[kuru (disease)|kuru]] in humans, as well as [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy|BSE]] and [[scrapie]] in animals.
The prion that is believed to cause Creutzfeldt-Jakob exhibits at least two stable [[chemical conformation|conformations]]. One, the native state, is water-soluble and present in healthy cells. [[As of 2006]], its biological function is unknown. The other conformational state is very poorly water-soluble and readily forms protein aggregates.
The CJD prion is dangerous because it promotes refolding of native proteins into the diseased state. The number of misfolded protein molecules will [[exponential growth|increase exponentially]], and the process leads to a large quantity of insoluble prions in affected [[cell (biology)|cells]]. This mass of insoluble proteins disrupts cell function and causes cell death. Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain and get produced in a self-sustaining [[feedback loop]], causing exponential spread of the prion, and the patient dies within a few months; a few patients live as long as two years.
==Incidence and prevalence==
Although CJD is the most common human [[prion]] disease, it is still extremely rare and only occurs in about one out of every one million people. It usually affects people aged 45&ndash;75, most commonly appearing in people between the ages of 60&ndash;65. The exception to this is the more recently-recognised 'variant' CJD (vCJD), which occurs in younger people.
[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] monitors the occurrence of CJD in the United States through periodic reviews of national mortality data: According to the CDC:
* CJD occurs worldwide at a rate of about 1 case per million population per year.
* On the basis of mortality surveillance from [[1979]] to [[1994]], the annual [[incidence]] of CJD remained stable at approximately 1 case per [[million]] persons in the United States.
* In the United States, CJD deaths among persons younger than 30 years of age are extremely rare (fewer than 5 deaths per [[billion]] per year).
* The disease is found most frequently in patients 55&ndash;65 years of age, but cases can occur in persons older than 90 years and younger than 55 years of age.
* In more than 85 percent of cases, the duration of CJD is less than 1 year (median: 4 months) after onset of symptoms.
==Symptoms==
The first [[symptom]] of CJD is rapidly progressive [[dementia]], leading to [[memory]] loss, [[personality]] changes and [[hallucinations]]. This is accompanied by physical problems such as [[speech]] impairment, jerky movements ([[myoclonus]]), balance and coordination dysfunction ([[ataxia]]), changes in [[gait (human)|gait]], rigid [[posture]], and [[seizures]]. The duration of the disease varies greatly, but sporadic (non-inherited) CJD can be fatal within months or even weeks (Johnson, 1998). In most patients, these symptoms ar |
==
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/96.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Curium]
* ''Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele096.html It's Elemental - Curium]
* [http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/curium.pdf Human Health Fact Sheet on Curium]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Curium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Cm/index.html WebElements.com - Curium]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Actinides]]
[[Category: curium compounds]]
[[ar:كوريوم]]
[[bs:Curium]]
[[ca:Curi]]
[[cs:Curium]]
[[de:Curium]]
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[[fr:Curium]]
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[[it:Curio]]
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[[nl:Curium]]
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[[ru:Кюрий]]
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[[zh:锔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Californium</title>
<id>5676</id>
<revision>
<id>42040506</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:24:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Femto</username>
<id>96285</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Rm sketch. US-specific, fictional, nonnotable. Should go into its own "In popular culture" section instead of "History", still would be unencyclopedic IMO.</comment>
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'''Californium''' is a [[synthetic element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol Cf and [[atomic number]] 98. A [[Radioactive decay|radioactive]] [[transuranic element]], californium has very few uses and was discovered by bombarding [[curium]] with [[alpha particle]]s ([[helium]] [[ion]]s).
== Notable characteristics ==
Weighable amounts of californium make it possible to determine some of its properties using macroscopic quantities.
Californium-252 (2.6 year [[half-life]]) is a very strong [[neutron]] emitter and is thus extremely [[radioactive]] and harmful (one [[microgram]] spontaneously emits 170 million neutrons per minute). The decay of californium-254 (55-day half-life) may have been detected through [[telescope]]s in [[supernova]]e remnants. Californium-249 is formed from the [[beta decay]] of [[berkelium]]-249 and most other californium isotopes are made by subjecting berkelium to intense neutron radiation in a [[nuclear reactor]].
The element does have some specialist applications dealing with its radioactivity but otherwise is largely too difficult to produce to have widespread useful significance as a material. Some of its uses are:
*neutron startup source for some [[nuclear reactor]]s, calibrating instrumentation
*treatment of certain [[Cervical cancer|cervical]] and [[brain cancer]]s where other [[radiation therapy]] is ineffective
*[[radiography]] of aircraft to detect [[metal fatigue]]
*airport neutron-activation detectors of explosives
*[[neutron moisture gauges]] used to find [[water]] and [[petroleum]] layers in [[oil well]]s
*portable neutron source in [[gold]] and [[silver]] prospecting for on-the-spot analysis
Californium has no biological role and only a few californium [[compound (chemistry)|compound]]s have been made and studied. Included among these are: californium oxide (Cf[[oxygen|O]]<sub>3</sub>), californium trichloride (Cf[[Chlorine|Cl]]<sub>3</sub>) and californium oxychloride (CfOCl). The only californium ion that is stable in [[aqueous solution]] is californium (III).
==Military use ''(or non use)''==
Californium-251 is famous for having a very small [[Critical mass (nuclear)|critical mass]], high lethality, and short period of toxic environmental irradiation relative to radioactive elements commonly used for radiation explosive weaponry, creating speculation about possible use in [[pocket nuke]]s. This [[urban legend]] is unfounded since it would be very difficult to make a Californium-251 bomb weighing less than 2&nbsp;kg, and the costs of such a bomb would be prohibitive. Other weaponry uses, such as showering an area with Californium, are not impossible but are seen as inhumane and are subject to inclement weather conditions and porous terrain considerations. Often cited as a consideration is the cost of producing Californium in quantity, but the cost citations are usually due to extra fees that laboratory materials companies insert for sake of caution and market needs. A government need not consider these as prohibitive.
==[[Nuclear fuel cycle]]==
It is important to make sure that the [[curium]] concentration in MOX [[Nuclear fuel]] is kept low, as [[neutron]] irradation of curium will convert some of it to californium. The californium will then cause the used fuel to be more difficult to handle as the californium is a strong [[neutron]] emitter (through spontainous fission). Hence the concentration of curium and californium among the [[Minor actinides]] are important.
== History ==
Californium was [[discovery of the chemical elements|first synthesized]] by [[University of California, Berkeley]] researchers Stanley Thompson, Kenneth Street, Jr., [[Albert Ghiorso]] and [[Glenn T. Seaborg]] in [[1950]]. It was the sixth [[transuranium element]] to be discovered and the team announced their discovery on [[March 17]], 1950. It was named after the [[U.S. state]] of [[California]] and for the [[University of California]] system.
To produce element 98, the team bombarded a microgram-sized target of [[curium]]-242 with 35 MeV [[alpha particle]]s in the 60-inch Berkeley [[cyclotron]] which produced atoms of californium-245 (half-life 44 minutes) and a [[free neutron]].
== Isotopes ==
19 [[radioisotope]]s of californium have been characterized, with the most stable being Cf-251 with a [[half-life]] of 898 years, Cf-249 with a half-life of 351 years, and Cf-250 with a half-life of 13 years. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 2.7 years, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 20 minutes. The isotopes of californium range in [[atomic weight]] from 237.062 [[atomic mass unit|amu]] (Cf-237) to 256.093 amu (Cf-256).
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/98.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Californium]
*[http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele098.html It's Elemental - Californium]
*''Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1
== External links ==
{{Commons|Californium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Cf/index.html WebElements.com - Californium]
*[http://www.nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq6.html#nfaq6.2 NuclearWeaponArchive.org - Californium]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
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enerally indicating that human beings are, like all animals, evolved, and that this account of the origins of humankind is squarely at odds with many religious interpretations. The idea that humans are "merely" animals, and are genetically very closely related to other [[primate]]s, has been independently argued as a repellent notion by generations of detractors.
Others also interpreted the truth of the theory to imply varying types of social changes &mdash; one prominent example is the idea of [[eugenics]], formulated by Darwin's cousin [[Francis Galton]], which argues for the improvement of human heredity by means of political policies. Others have found different political interpretations which have been used as arguments both for and against the theory.
The questions raised about the relation of evolution to the origins of humans have made it an especially tenacious issue with some [[origin belief]]s. It is viewed by some Judeo-Christians as contradicting their beliefs on the origins of humankind as described in the book of [[Genesis]]. In some countries &mdash; notably in the [[United States]] &mdash; this has led to what has been called the [[Creation-evolution controversy|creation-evolution controversy]], which has focused primarily on struggles over teaching curriculum. While many other fields of science, such as [[physical cosmology|cosmology]] and [[earth science]], also conflict with a literal interpretation of religious texts, evolutionary studies have borne the brunt of these controversies.
==See also==
<p></p>
{| style="background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}"
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| width="50%" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
*[[Abiogenesis]]
*[[Altruism in animals]]
*[[Anagenesis]]
*[[Argument from evolution]]
*[[Atavism]]
*[[Animal evolution]]
*[[Behavioral ecology]]
*[[Catagenesis (biology)|Catagenesis]]
*[[Cladistics]]
*[[Cladogenesis]]
*[[Convergent evolution]]
*[[Creation-evolution controversy]]
*[[Dual inheritance theory]]
*[[Endosymbiont]]
*[[Eugenics]]
*[[Evolution of sex]]
*[[Evolutionary algorithm]]
*[[Evolutionary art]]
*[[Evolutionary biology]]
*[[Evolutionary medicine]]
*[[Evolution of multicellularity]]
*[[Evolutionary psychology]]
*[[Evolutionary tree]]
*[[Evolvability]]
<p></p>
| width="50%" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
*[[Experimental evolution]]
*[[Fitness landscape]]
*[[Genetic algorithm]]
*[[Genetics]]
*[[Gradualism]]
*[[Human behavioral ecology]]
*[[Human evolution]]
*[[Instinct]]
*[[List of publications on evolution and human behavior]]
*[[Modern evolutionary synthesis]]
*[[Natural science]]
*[[Natural selection]]
*[[Neutral theory of molecular evolution]]
*[[Niche construction]]
*[[Origin of life]]
*[[Parallel evolution]]
*[[Punctuated equilibrium]]
*[[Quantum evolution]]
*[[Quasispecies model]]
*[[Scientific method]]
*[[Sexual selection]]
*[[Social effect of evolutionary theory]]
*[[Teratogenesis]]
<p></p>
|}
==Notes and references==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
<references />
*Zimmer, Carl. ''Evolution: The Triumph of an Idea''. Perennial (October 1, 2002). ISBN 0060958502
*Larson, Edward J. ''Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory'' (Modern Library Chronicles). Modern Library (May 4, 2004). ISBN 0679642889
*Mayr, Ernst. ''What Evolution Is''. Basic Books (October, 2002). ISBN 0465044263
*Menand, Louis. 2001 ''The Metaphysical Club''. New York: Farar, Straus and Giraux. ISBN0374199639
*Gigerenzer, Gerd, et al., ''The empire of chance: how probability changed science and everyday life'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
*Smith, D. C. 1988. Heritable divergence of Rhagoletis pomonella host races by seasonal asynchrony. ''Nature'' '''336''': 66-67.
*Williams, G.C. (1966). Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of some Current Evolutionary Thought . Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
*[[Sean B. Carroll]], 2005, ''Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of Evo Devo and the Making of the Animal Kingdom'', W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393060160
*[[Natalia S. Gavrilova]] & [[Leonid A. Gavrilov]], 2002, ''[http://health.families.com/evolution-of-aging-458-467-eoa Evolution of Aging]'', In: David J. Ekerdt (ed.) Encyclopedia of Aging, New York, Macmillan Reference USA, 2002, vol.2, 458-467.ISBN 0028654722
*[[Bill Bryson]], ''A Short History of Nearly Everything,'' Black Swan Books (2004), ISBN 0-552-99704-8
</div>
==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Evolution.ogg|2005-04-18}} <!-- updated changed sections 2005-04-18 -->
* [http://www.talkorigins.org Talk.Origins Archive] — see also [[talk.origins]]
* [http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ Understanding Evolution] from [[University of California, Berkeley]]
* [http://nationalacademies.org/evolution/ National Academies Evolution Resources]
* [http://www.evowiki.org/index.php/Main_Page EvoWiki] — A wiki whose goal is to promote general evolution education, and provide mainstream scientific responses to the arguments of antievolutionists.
* [http://www.chains-of-reason.org/chains/evolution-by-natural-selection/introduction.htm Evolution by Natural Selection] — An introduction to the logic of evolution by natural selection
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/index.html Evolution] — Provided by ''[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]''.
* [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/evolution Everything you wanted to know about evolution] — Provided by ''[[New Scientist| New Scientist]]''.
* [http://evol.allenpress.com/evolonline/?request=index-html International Journal of Organic Evolution]
* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/evolution.htm/printable Howstuffworks.com — How Evolution Works]
* [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin/ Charles Darwin's writings]
* [http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/categories/index/genome/evolution.php Evolution News from Genome News Network (GNN)]
* [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309063647/html/ National Academy Press: Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science]
* [http://www.evolution.mbdojo.com/evolution-for-beginners.html Evolution for beginners]
* [http://www.rmcybernetics.com/science/cybernetics/ai.htm RMCybernetics - AI] Evolution can create emergent behavior in a computer program.
* [http://www.sciencefriday.com/pages/2005/Nov/hour2_111805.html NPR - Science Friday: links to museums, articles and books.]
*[http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/lenski.html "Evolution: Fact and Theory" by Richard E. Lenski]
*[http://www.2think.org/evolutionbylevel.shtml Evolution by level] Book reviews of books on evolution by knowledge level.
;Evolution Simulators
* [http://www.truthtree.com/evolve.shtml Isolated species evolves to interact more efficiently with its environment (java applet)]
* [http://obermuhlner.com/public/Projects/Applets/Blobs/index.html Evolution in a predator-prey relationship (java applet)]
{{evolution}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Ernst Mayr</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-25T17:14:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>John H, Morgan</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Mayr.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Ernst Mayr]]
'''Ernst Mayr''' ([[July 5]], [[1904]], [[Kempten im Allgäu|Kempten]], [[Germany]] &ndash; [[February 3]], [[2005]], [[Bedford, Massachusetts]] [[USA]]), was one of the 20th century's leading evolutionary [[biologists]]. He was at the same time a naturalist, an explorer, an [[ornithologist]] and science historian. His work contributed to the conceptual revolution that led to the [[modern evolutionary synthesis]] of [[Gregor Mendel|Mendelian]] [[genetics]] and [[Charles Darwin|Darwinian]] [[evolution]], and to the development of the [[biology|biological]] [[species]] concept.
Neither [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] nor anyone else in his time knew the answer to the 'species problem': how could different [[species]] evolve from one common ancestor. Ernst Mayr approached the problem with a new definition for the concept 'species'. In his book '[[Systematics and the Origin of Species]]' (1942) he wrote that a species is not a group of [[Morphology (biology)|morphologically]] similar individuals, but a group that can breed only among themselves, excluding all others. When groups of identical individuals get isolated, the sub-populations will start to differ by [[genetic drift]] and natural selection over a period of time, and thereby evolve into new species.
His theory of [[peripatric speciation]] (a more precise term for the subset of [[allopatric speciation]] he supported) based on his work on birds is considered as one typical mode of [[speciation]], and is the basis of the theory of [[punctuated equilibrium]]. Apart from biological subjects, his prolific writings include works on the [[philosophy of science|philosophy]] and [[history of science]] in general, and of [[philosophy of biology|biology]] in particular.
==Biograph |
when you know for yourselves -- these things are moral, these things are blameless, these things are praised by the wise, these things, when performed and undertaken, conduce to well-being and happiness -- then do you live acting accordingly.''
:: -- the [[Kalama Sutta]], [[Anguttara Nikaya]] III.65
=== Metaphysics and phenomenology ===
====Issues arising from the doctrine of anatta====
In [[earliest Buddhism]] and today still in [[Theravada|Therav&#257;da]] and the [[Madhyamaka]], any metaphysical essence or [[being]] underlying the play of phenomenal experience is rejected. No "[[soul]]" or permanent self was recognized, and the perception of a continuous identity was held to be an illusion.
:''Any feeling whatsoever, any perception whatsoever, any mental processes whatsoever, any consciousness whatsoever -- past, future, or present; internal or external; blatant or subtle, common or sublime, far or near; every consciousness -- is to be seen as it actually is with right discernment as "This is not mine. This is not my self. This is not what I am."''
:: -- the Anattalakkhana Sutta, [[Samyutta Nikaya]] XXII.59
From within the context of the Madhyamaka, we find [[Candrakirti]]:
:"''[[Atman (Buddhism)|Self]] is an essence of things that does not depend on others; it is an intrinsic nature. The non-existence of that is [[Anatta|selflessness]]''".
::-- Bodhisattvayogacaryācatuḥśatakaṭikā 256.1.7
This anti-essentialist teaching, known as [[anatta]], brought up many questions. If there is no [[Atman (Buddhism)|&#257;tman]] or Brahman underlying the objects and events of the universe, how ''could'' they be explained? What gave them their existence? And if there was no "self", who makes the decisions we think we make, and what gets reincarnated?
Early Buddhist philosophers and exegetes created a [[Pluralism (philosophy of mind)|pluralist]] metaphysical and phenomenological system in which all experiences of people, things, and events, can be broken down into smaller and smaller perceptual or perceptual-ontological units called [[Dharma#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]]. These dharmas (roughly synonymous with "phenomena") were interpreted differently by different schools: some held they were real, some held only some were real, some held all were illusory, some held they were [[Shunyata|empty]], some held they were intrinsically associated with suffering, etc.
Other debates in metaphysics and phenomenology include the issue of the [[Pudgala]], or "person", which was inserted by the [[Pudgalavada]] school to replace the &#257;tman as that which transmigrates and that which carries the burden of karma from one life to another. Other schools made unsurprising objection to this. There were further sub-debates regarding whether the pudgala was real or illusory or something in between. The [[Yogacara]] school, somewhat later, would later elevate the mind to act as a substitute for Brahman, much as the Pudgala replaces the &#257;tman.
In many or all of these debates, some would point out the irony of pursuing questions which the Buddha was often prone to refuse to answer, on the grounds that they were non-conducive to enlightenment.
For more detailed information, see [[Schools of Buddhism]] and the individual schools themselves.
====Dependent Origination====
The original positive Buddhist contribution to the field of metaphysics is ''[[Pratitya-samutpada|prat&#299;tyasamutp&#257;da]]'', which arises from the Buddhist critique of Indian theories of [[causality]]. It states that events are not [[Predestination|predetermined]], nor are they [[random]], and it rejects notions of direct causation owing to the need for such theories in the Indian context to be undergirded by a substantialist metaphysics. Instead, it posits the arising of events under certain conditions which are inextricable, such that the units in question at no time have independent existence.
:''This being, that becomes.''
:''From the arising of this, that arises.''
:''This not being, that does not become.''
:''From the ceasing of this, that ceases.''
:: -- [[Samyutta Nikaya]] ii.28
''Pratitya-samutpada'' goes on to posit that certain specific events, concepts, or realities are always dependent on other specific things. Craving, for example, is always dependent on, and caused by, emotion. Emotion is always dependent on contact with our surroundings. This chain of causation purports to show that the cessation of decay, death, and sorrow is indirectly dependent on the cessation of craving, and ultimately dependent on an all-encompassing stillness.
[[Nagarjuna|{{nagarjuna}}]], one of the most influential Buddhist philosophers, asserted a direct connection between, even identity of, dependent origination, anatta, and śūnyatā. He pointed out that implicit in the early Buddhist concept of dependent origination is the lack of any substantial being (anatta) underlying the participants in origination, so that they have no independent existence, a state identified as emptiness (śūnyatā), or emptiness of a nature or essence (sva-bh&#257;va). This element of {{nagarjuna}}'s thought is relatively uncontroversial, but it opens the way for his identification of [[samsara | sa{{M}}s&#257;ra]] and [[nirvana]], which was revolutionary.
===Interpenetration===
This doctrine comes from the [[Avatamsaka Sutra]] and its associated schools. It holds that all phenomena are intimately connected. Two images are used to convey this idea. The first is known as Indra's net. The net is set with jewels which have the extraordinary property that they reflect all of the other jewels. The second image is that of the world text. This image portrays the world as consisting of an enormous text which is as large as the universe itself. The 'words' of the text are composed of the phenomena that make up the world. However, every atom of the world contains the whole text within it. It is the work of a Buddha to let out the text so that beings can be liberated from suffering.
This idea was enormously influential on the [[Japan|Japanese]] monk [[Kukai|k&#363;kai]] in founding the [[Shingon Buddhism|Shingon]] school of Buddhism.
===Ethics===
Although there are many ethical tenets in Buddhism that differ depending on whether one is a monk or a layman, and depending on individual schools, the Buddhist system of ethics can always be summed up in the [[Eightfold Path]].
:''And this, monks, is the noble truth of the way of practice leading to the cessation of suffering -- precisely this Noble Eightfold Path -- right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.''
:: -- [[Samyutta Nikaya]] LVI.11
The purpose of living an ethical life is to escape the suffering inherent in (unenlightened) worldly life. Although early Buddhism ([[Hinayana]]) is contrasted with later Buddhism ([[Mahayana]]) in that the latter emphasizes striving for the enlightenment of all (apparent) beings rather than simply oneself, in neither case can the motivation for ethical living be called 'selfish', because Buddhist doctrine holds the notion of a 'self' to be illusory.
Buddhist teachings claim that there is no real difference between ourselves and others; therefore one should attempt to increase the happiness of all living things as eagerly as one's own. This is why many Buddhists choose to be [[vegetarianism|vegetarians]].
== Historical development of Buddhist philosophy ==
=== Early development ===
The philosophical outlook of [[Earliest Buddhism]] was primarily negative, in the sense that it focused on what doctrines to ''reject'' more than on what doctrines to ''accept''. This dimension has been preserved by the [[Madhyamaka]] school. It includes critical rejections of all views, which is a form of philosophy, but it is reluctant to posit its own. Only knowledge that is useful in achieving [[enlightenment (Buddhism)|enlightenment]] is valued. The cycle of philosophical upheavals that in part drove the diversification of Buddhism into its many schools and sects only began once Buddhists began attempting to make explicit the implicit philosophy of the Buddha and the early Suttas.
After the death of the Buddha, attempts were made to gather his teachings and transmit them in a commonly agreed form, first orally, then also in writing (The [[Tripitaka]]). In addition to collecting the Buddha's speeches and rules for monastic life ([[Vinaya]]), monks soon undertook to condense what they considered the essential elements of Buddhist doctrine into lists of categories, provided with extensive commentary.
This process took shape from about the [[2nd century BCE]] to probably the [[2nd century CE]].
===Later developments===
{{expandsect}}
Very soon after, additional teachings began to be added to the list of important Buddhist texts. Many of these altered and refined Buddhist philosophy.
== Comparison with other philosophies ==
* [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] in his "World as Will and Idea" presented a description of suffering and its cause in a [[Western world|Western]] garb.
* [[Baruch Spinoza]], though he argued for the existence of a permanent reality, asserts that all phenomenal existence is transitory. In his opinion sorrow is conquered "by finding an object of knowledge which is not transient, not ephemeral, but is immutable, permanent, everlasting." Buddhism teaches that such a quest is bound to fail.
* [[David Hume]], after a relentless analysis of the mind, concluded that consciousness consists of fleeting mental states. Hume's [[Bundle theory]] is a very similar concept to [[anatta]].
==Reference==
* Elías Capriles. ''The Four Schools of Buddhist Philosophy: Clear Discrimination of Views Pointing at the Definitive Meaning. The Four Philosophical Schools of the Sutrayana Traditionally Taught in Tibet wit |
be the chakras, most notably the [[Theosophists]]. Many new age writers, such as the Danish author and musician [[Peter Kjaerulff]] in his book, ''The Ringbearers Diary'', or [[Anodea Judith]] in her book ''Wheels of Life'', have written their opinions about the chakras in great detail, including the reasons for their appearance and their functions.
The seven chakras are said by some to reflect how the unified consciousness of man (the immortal human being or the soul), is divided to manage different aspects of earthly life (body/instinct/vital energy/deeper emotions/communication/having an overview of life/contact to [[God]]). The chakras are placed at differing levels of spiritual subtlety, with [[Sahasrara]] at the top being concerned with pure consciousness, and [[Muladhara]] at the bottom being concerned with matter, which is seen simply as crudified consciousness.
==The seven basic chakras==
The following table sets forth some of the concepts associated with each chakra:
<table border=2>
<tr><td>'''Chakra'''</td><td>'''Color'''</td><td>'''Primary Functions'''</td><td>'''Associated [[classical element|Element]]'''
</td></tr><tr><td>Root<br />m&#363;l&#257;dh&#257;ra, &#2350;&#2370;&#2354;&#2366;&#2343;&#2366;&#2352;</td><td>red</td><td>instinct, survival, security</td><td>earth
</td></tr><tr><td>[[Sacrum]] (Hara)<br />sv&#257;dhi&#7779;&#7789;h&#257;na, &#2360;&#2381;&#2357;&#2366;&#2343;&#2367;&#2359;&#2381;&#2336;&#2366;&#2344;</td><td>orange</td><td>emotion, sexual energy, creativity</td><td>water
</td></tr><tr><td>[[Solar plexus]]<br />ma&#7751;ip&#363;ra, &#2350;&#2339;&#2367;&#2346;&#2370;&#2352;</td><td>yellow</td><td>mental functioning, power, control, freedom to be oneself, career</td><td>fire
</td></tr><tr><td>[[Heart]]/[[Lung]]<br />an&#257;hata, &#2309;&#2344;&#2366;&#2361;&#2340;</td><td>emerald green or pink</td><td>devotion, love, compassion, healing</td><td>air
</td></tr><tr><td>Throat<br />vi&#347;uddha, &#2357;&#2367;&#2358;&#2369;&#2342;&#2381;&#2343;</td><td>blue</td><td>speech, self-expression</td><td>life
</td></tr><tr><td>[[Third eye]]<br />&#257;jñ&#257;, &#2310;&#2332;&#2381;&#2334;&#2366;</td><td>indigo</td><td>intuition, [[Extra-sensory perception]]</td><td>time
</td></tr><tr><td>Crown<br /><small>(just above the head)</small><br />sahasr&#257;ra, &#2360;&#2361;&#2360;&#2381;&#2352;&#2366;&#2352;</td><td>violet; may assume color of dominant chakra</td><td>connection to the divine</td><td>space
</td></tr></table>
For a discussion on chakra petals see [[Petal (chakra)]]
Additionally, there is a [[Transpersonal chakra]] above the crown chakra. There are also many minor chakras, for example between the major chakras.
==Origins and development==
The earliest known mention of chakras is found in the later [[Upanishads]], including specifically the [[Brahma Upanishad]] and the [[Yogatattva Upanishad]]. These vedic models were adapted in [[Tibetan Buddhism]] as [[Vajrayana]] theory, and in the [[Tantra|Tantric]] [[Shakta]] theory of chakras.
It is the [[shakta]] theory of 7 main chakras that most people in the West adhere to, either knowingly or unknowingly, largely thanks to a translation of two indian texts, the ''Sat-Cakra-Nirupana'', and the ''Padaka-Pancaka'', by Sir [[John Woodroffe]], alias Arthur Avalon, in a book entitled ''The Serpent Power''.
This book is extremely detailed and complex, and later the ideas were developed into what is predominant western view of the Chakras by the [[theosophy|Theosophists]], and largely the controversial (in theosophical circles) [[Charles Webster Leadbeater|C. W. Leadbeater]] in his book ''The Chakras'', which are in large part his own meditations and insights on the matter.
That said, many present-day Indian gurus that incorporate chakras within their systems of philosophy do not seem to radically disagree with the western view of chakras, at least on the key points, and both these eastern and western views have developed from the Shakta Tantra school.
There are various other models of chakras in other traditions, notably in Chinese medicine, and also in Tibetan Buddhism. Even in Jewish [[kabbalah]], the different [[Sephirah (Kabbalah)|Sephiroth]] are sometimes associated with parts of the body. In [[Islam|Islamic]] [[Sufism]] , [[Lataif-e-Sitta]] ( Six Subtleties ) are considered as psychospiritual "organs" or faculties of sensory and suprasensory perception , activation of which makes a man complete . Attempts are made to try and reconcile the systems with each other, and notably there are some successes, even between such diverged traditions as Shakta Tantra , Sufism and Kabbalism, where chakras , lataif and Sephiroth can seemingly represent the same [[archetype|archetypal]] spiritual concepts. In [[Surat Shabd Yoga|Surat Shabda Yoga]], [[Initiation rite|initiation]] by an Outer Living [[Satguru]] (Sat - true, [[Guru]] - teacher) is required and involves reconnecting soul to the Shabda and stationing the Inner Shabda Master (the Radiant Form of the Master) at the [[Mind's eye|third eye]] chakra.
==Chakras and the endocrine system==
Parallels have often been drawn, by supporters of the existence of chakras, between the positions and functions of the chakras, and of the various organs of the endocrine system.
[[Image:Illu_endocrine_system.jpg]]
'''The highest crown chakra''' is said to be the chakra of consciousness, the master chakra that controls all the others. Its role would be very similar to that of the [[pituitary gland]], which secretes hormones to control the rest of the endocrine system, and also connects to the [[central nervous system]] via the [[hypothalamus]]. The [[thalamus]] is thought to have a key role in the physical basis of [[consciousness]].
'''The Ajna Chakra, or third eye''', is linked to the [[pineal gland]]. Ajna is the chakra of time and awareness and of light. The pineal gland is a light sensitive gland, that produces the hormone [[melatonin]], which regulates the instincts of going to sleep and awakening. It has been conjectured that it also produces trace amounts of the psychedelic chemical [[dimethyltryptamine]].
(Note: some argue that the pineal and pituitary glands should be exchanged in their relationship to the Crown and Brow chakras, based on the description in Arthur Avalon's book on [[kundalini]] called ''Serpent Power'')
'''The throat chakra, Vishuddha''', is said to be related to communication and growth, growth being a form of expression. This chakra is paralleled to the [[thyroid]], a gland that is also in the throat, and which produces [[thyroid hormone]], responsible for growth and maturation.
'''The heart chakra, Anahata''', is related to love, equilibrium, and well-being. It is related to the [[thymus]], located in the chest. This organ is part of the [[immune system]], as well as being part of the endocrine system. It produces [[T cells]] responsible for fighting off disease, and is adversely affected by [[stress (medicine)|stress]].
'''The solar plexus chakra, Manipura''', is related to energy, assimilation and digestion, and is said to correspond to the roles played by the [[pancreas]] and the outer [[adrenal glands]], the adrenal cortex. These play a valuable role in [[digestion]], the conversion of food matter into energy for the body.
'''The sacral chakra, Swadhisthanna''', is located in the groin, and is related to [[emotion]], [[sexuality]] and creativity. This chakra is said to correspond to the testes or the ovaries, that produce the various [[sex hormones]] involved in the [[reproductive cycle]], which can cause dramatic [[mood swings]].
'''The base or root chakra, Muludhara,''' is related to security, survival and also to basic human potentiality. It is said the [[kundalini]] lies coiled here, ready to uncoil and bring man to his highest spiritual potential in the crown chakra. This centre is located in the region between the genitals and the anus. Although no endocrine organ is placed here, it is said to relate to the inner [[adrenal glands]], the adrenal medulla, responsible for the fight and flight response when survival is under threat. In this region is located a muscle that controls ejaculation in the sexual act. A parallel is drawn between the [[sperm cell]] and the [[ovum]], where the [[genetic code]] lies coiled, and the legendary [[kundalini]], ready to express itself as a fully developed human being.
==Various models==
'''Chakrology''' is a [[neologism]] sometimes employed by [[Alternative Medicine]] practitioners or [[Esotericism|esoteric]] philosophers for the study of chakras. There are many different chakrologies, some of them based on ancient [[India]]n Hindu [[Tantra|Tantric]] esoteric traditions, [[New Age]] interpretations, or Western [[Occultism|occult]] analyses, as well as ancient Greek and [[Christianity|Christian]] references.
===The tantric chakras===
{{Tantric chakras}}
[[Tantra]] (Shakta or Shaktism) describes eight primary inner chakras:
# [[Sahasrara]] ([[Sanskrit]]: &#2360;&#2361;&#2360;&#2381;&#2352;&#2366;&#2352;)
# [[Ajna]] ([[Sanskrit]]: &#2310;&#2332;&#2381;&#2334;&#2366;)
# [[V |
/ EverQuest Vault]
*[http://www.magelo.com/ Magelo] - The most popular site for creating character profiles in EQ
*[http://mobhunter.com Mobhunter] EverQuest news and editorials
*[http://eqwire.com EQWire.com] Automated EverQuest news including an [[Really Simple Syndication|RSS 2.0]] feed
*[http://www.eqnewbie.com/ Eqnewbie] Everquest Information site, geared towards new players.
*[http://www.it-c.dk/people/tosca/everquest.htm The Everquest Speech Community] - a conference paper on the topic of ''EverQuest'' speech.
===Game Archive and Review sites===
*{{moby game|id=/windows/everquest|name=''EverQuest''}}
*[http://www.gamefaqs.com/computer/doswin/data/145131.html ''EverQuest'' at [[GameFaqs]]]
*[http://www.gamespot.com/pc/rpg/everquest/index.html ''EverQuest'' at [[GameSpot]]]
===Humor===
*[http://lanys.evercrest.com/bardslog/ Bard's Log!] - One of the first and most humorous Everquest Web Comics
*[http://www.fanfiction.net/s/553082/1/ Many Misadventures of Fry] Considered by many to be one of the funniest EQ Fanfictions.
*[http://ironloaf.com/everquest_ding_youre_65.htm Iron Loaf's "Ding! You're 65!"] - Parody Music Video about EverQuest addiction
*[http://www.gucomics.com/ GU Comics] - Gaming comics (originally EQ only) by Woody Hearn
*[http://www.wtfcomics.com/ WTF Comics] - EQ Comic depicting the adventures of Straha, Anna and a familiar cast of friends as they explore Norrath, by Jeremy Waller
*[http://www.thenoobcomic.com/daily/strip001.html The Noob] - Hilarious comic poking fun at EQ
*[http://www.norrathian.net/ Norrathian] - Satirical humor based on EverQuest by [http://www.samsmith.co.uk Sam Smith]
*[http://www.geocities.com/wazu_tz/ Wazu's Underground Peace Movement] - Humorous site dedicated to the [[Player versus player|player killing]] adventures of a character on a PvP server
*[http://www.notacult.com/fansythefamous.htm Fansy the Famous Bard] - An invulnerable level 5 bard on the now defunct [[EverQuest special servers|Sullon Zek]] (PvP) server.
*[http://chuma.cas.usf.edu/~dking3/IronChef/ Iron Chef of Norrath!] - An EverQuest parody of the TV show [[Iron Chef]]
*[http://www.guildmirage.com/ Guild Mirage] - Several amusing EQ flash animations
*[http://tarskstavern.com/groupee/forums Tarsk's Tavern] Humorous EQ music ([[MP3]]s)
*[http://www.uojohproductions.com/ Uojoh Productions] EQ Videos
*[http://eq.crgaming.com/skater/ Skater Gnome] - Humorous stories of adventures both in and out of the world of EverQuest.
*[http://everquest.freshlinks.net/everquest/index.aspx/eqdennys/ EQ Denny's] - Denny's dining experience via EQ interface
===Economy===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/2345933.stm BBC News] - Inflation threatens EverQuest economy
*[http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=02/01/23/2131259&mode=thread Norrath Economic Report Now Available - Slashdot.org on Castronova's report]
*[http://www.walrusmagazine.com/04/05/06/1929205.shtml The Walrus Magazine]: "On-line fantasy games have booming economies and citizens who love their political systems. Are these virtual worlds the best place to study the real one?"
* [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=294828 SSRN]: "Virtual Worlds: A First-Hand Account of Market and Society on the Cyberian Frontier (2001)" by [[Edward Castronova]]
[[Category:1999 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category:EverQuest|*]]
[[Category:EverQuest games and expansions]]
[[Category:Massively multiplayer online role-playing games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]
[[Category:Virtual communities]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EverCrack</title>
<id>10323</id>
<revision>
<id>15908141</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-19T17:26:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Damian Yerrick</username>
<id>1</id>
</contributor>
<comment>On Wikipedia, one-liners should be REDIRECTs to the main article =&gt; EverQuest</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[EverQuest]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Evolution of homo sapiens</title>
<id>10325</id>
<revision>
<id>15908143</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-28T09:00:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lexor</username>
<id>5364</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Human evolution]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Human evolution]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Human evolution</title>
<id>10326</id>
<revision>
<id>41668704</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:22:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Castjean</username>
<id>370512</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* ''Homo sapiens'' */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Primitive man redirects here; for the album, see [[Primitive Man]]''
'''Human evolution''' is the process of change and development, or [[evolution]], by which [[Human|human beings]] emerged as a distinct [[species]]. It is the subject of a broad [[science|scientific inquiry]] that seeks to understand and describe how this change and development occurred. The study of human evolution encompasses many scientific disciplines, most notably [[physical anthropology]] and [[genetics]]. The term 'human', in the context of human evolution, refers to the genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'', but studies of human evolution usually include other [[hominid]]s, such as the [[Australopithecus|australopithecines]].
==History of paleoanthropology==
The modern field of [[paleoanthropology]] began with the discovery of '[[Neanderthal]] man'; and evidence of other '[[cave men]]' in the [[19th century]]. The idea that humans are similar to certain [[great ape]]s had been obvious to people for some time, but the idea of the biological evolution of species in general was not legitimized until after [[Charles Darwin]] published ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' in [[1859]]. Though Darwin's first book on evolution did not address the specific question of human evolution&mdash; "light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history," was all Darwin wrote on the subject&mdash; the implications of evolutionary theory were clear to contemporary readers. Debates between [[Thomas Huxley]] and [[Richard Owen]] focused on the idea of human evolution, and by the time Darwin published his own book on the subject, ''[[Descent of Man]]'', it was already a well-known interpretation of his theory&mdash; and the interpretation which made the theory highly controversial. Even many of Darwin's original supporters (such as [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] and [[Charles Lyell]]) balked at the idea that human beings could have evolved their apparently boundless mental capacities and moral sensibilities through [[natural selection]].
Since the time of [[Carolus Linnaeus]], the great apes were considered the closest relatives of human beings, based on morphological similarity. In the 19th century, it was speculated that our closest living relatives were [[chimpanzee]]s and [[gorilla]]s, and based on the natural range of these creatures, it was surmised humans share a [[common ancestor]] with [[Africa]]n apes and that fossils of these ancestors would ultimately be found in Africa.
It was not until the [[1920s]] that fossils other than ''neanderthalensis'' were discovered. In [[1924]], [[Raymond Dart]] described ''[[Australopithecus africanus]]''. The [[type specimen]] was the [[Taung Child]], an [[australopithecine]] infant discovered in [[Taung]], [[South Africa]]. The remains were a remarkably well-preserved tiny skull and an [[endocranial cast]] of the individual's brain. Although the brain was small (410 cm&sup3;), its shape was rounded, unlike that of chimpanzees and gorillas, and more like a modern human brain. Also, the specimen exhibited short [[Canine tooth|canine teeth]], and the position of the [[foramen magnum]] was evidence of [[bipedal]] locomotion. All of these traits convinced Dart that the Taung baby was a bipedal human ancestor, a transitional form between apes and humans. Another 20 years would pass before Dart's claims were taken seriously, following the discovery of more fossils that resembled his find. The prevailing view of the time was that a large brain evolved before bipedality. It was thought that intelligence on par with modern humans was a prerequisite to bipedalism.
The australopithecines are now thought to be the immediate ancestors of the genus ''Homo'', the group to which modern humans belong. Both australopithecines and ''Homo sapiens'' are part of the tribe [[Hominini]], but recent data has brought into doubt the position of ''A. africanus'' as a direct ancestor of modern humans; it may well have been a dead-end cousin. The australopithecines were originally classified as either [[gracile]] or [[robust]]. The robust variety of ''Australopithecus'' has since been reclassified as ''[[Paranthropus]]''. In the [[1930s]], when the robust specimens were first described, the ''Paranthropus'' genus was used. During the [[1960s]], the robust variety was moved into ''Australopithecus''. The recent trend has been back to the original classification as a separate genus.
{{:Human evolution/Species chart}}
== Before ''Homo''==
*The earliest [[hominid]]s
**''[[Aegyptopithecus]]''
**''[[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]]''
**''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]''
**''[[Ardipithecus kadabba]]''
**''[[Ardipithecus ramidus]]''
*The ''[[Australopithecus]]'' genus
**''[[Australopithecus anamensis]]''
**''[[Australopithecus bahrelghazali]]''
**''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]''
**''[[Australopithecus africanus]]''
**''[[Australopithecus garhi]]''
*The ''[[Paranthropus]]'' genus
**''[[Paranthropus aethiopicus]]''
**''[[Paranthropus boisei]]''
**''[[Paranthropus robustus]]''
==The |
[Helen, Georgia]]
*[[Helen, Maryland]]
*[[Helen, West Virginia]]
===Other namesakes===
*[[Admiral Helena Cain]], a character on the [[science-fiction]] [[television]] series [[Battlestar Galactica]].
*[[Helen (play)]] by [[Euripides]]
*[[Hellen]] (son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, the ancestor of the Greeks)
*[[Helenus]], son of King Priam of Troy.
*[[Helen (unit)]]
*[[Helena (Dead or Alive character)|Helena]], a character from the ''Dead or Alive'' video game series
*[[Helena (song)]], by My Chemical Romance
*''[[The Ellen DeGeneres Show]], a [[television syndication|syndicated]] [[television]] [[talk show]]
*[[Ellen (Mary Poppins character)|Ellen]], a [[servant (domestic)|servant]] of the Banks family in the [[Mary Poppins]] books and film.
*''[[Ellen (novel)|Ellen]]'' is a [[1986]] novel by [[Ita Daly]].
*''[[Ellen West (psychology)|Ellen West]]'' Ludwig Binswanger study case.
*[[USS Ellen (1861)|USS Ellen]], a U.S. steamship during the Civil War
'''''Helena''' may also be'' [[St. Elmo's Fire]].
==External links==
* [http://www.behindthename.com/php/extra.php?extra=r&terms=helen Foreign related names]
* [http://www.behindthename.com/top/search.php?terms=helen Name popularity in the United States]
[[de:Helena]]
[[es:Helena]]
[[fr:Helena]]
[[ko:헬레네]]
[[nl:Helene]]
[[pl:Helena]]
[[pt:Helena]]
[[sv:Helena]]
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Human name disambiguation]]
[[Category:Given names]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hyperion</title>
<id>14193</id>
<revision>
<id>40797783</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T02:08:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JeremyA</username>
<id>170381</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>delinst deleted article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hyperion''' may refer to,
* [[Hyperion (mythology)]], a Titan from Greek mythology
* [[Hyperion (moon)]], a moon of Saturn
Arts:
* [[Hyperion (poem)]], unfinished epic poem by John Keats
* [[Hyperion (Longfellow)]], book by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
* [[Hyperion (Hölderlin)]], a novel by Friedrich Hölderlin
* [[Hyperion (journal)]], short-lived 1908 German literary journal
* [[Hyperion Cantos]], four science fiction novels by Dan Simmons
* [[Hyperion class (Babylon 5)]], class of heavy cruisers in the Babylon 5 universe
* [[Hyperion (comics)]], various Marvel Comics characters
* [[Hyperion (Supreme Power)]], one such Marvel Comics character
* [[Hyperion (StarCraft)]], a battlecruiser in the StarCraft universe
* [[Gradius]] video game series (Hyperion used as a name in the MSX installments)
* [[Hyperion Hotel]], office in the ''Angel'' TV series.
* Emperor Hyperion, villain in the [[Gekigangar 3]]
* Hyperion, robotic unit in ''[[Empire Earth]]''
* Hyperion, [[Seifer Almasy]]'s gunblade
* [[CAT1-X Hyperion Gundam series]] fictional weapon
Organizations:
*[[Hyperion Solutions Corporation]], business software maker
*[[Hyperion Entertainment]], games software maker
*[[Hyperion Records]], classical record label
*[[Hyperion (publisher)]], a book publishing division of Disney Corporation
Other:
*[[HMS Hyperion (H97)]] (1936-1940), British warship
*[[Hyperion (computer)]], Canadian computer from the 1980s
*[[Hyperion sewage treatment plant]], large Los Angeles sewage treatment plant
{{disambig}}
[[als:Hyperion]]
[[da:Hyperion]]
[[de:Hyperion]]
[[es:Hiperión (desambiguación)]]
[[fr:Hypérion]]
[[it:Iperione]]
[[lb:Hyperion]]
[[nl:Hyperion]]
[[ja:ハイペリオン]]
[[pl:Hyperion]]
[[sl:Hiperion (razločitev)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of medicine</title>
<id>14194</id>
<revision>
<id>41010364</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T13:31:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ian Pitchford</username>
<id>230605</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">All human societies have [[medicine|medical]] beliefs that provide explanations for, and responses to, [[childbirth|birth]], [[death]], and [[disease]]. Throughout the world, illness has often been attributed to [[witchcraft]], [[demons]], averse [[Astrology|astral influence]], or the will of the [[gods]], ideas that retain some power, with [[faith healing]] and [[shrine]]s still common, although the rise of scientific medicine in the past two centuries has altered or replaced many historic health practices.
{{histOfScience}}
==General review of the history of medicine ==
===Egyptian medicine===
''See main article: [[Ancient Egyptian medicine]].''
Medical information contained in the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]] date as early as [[3000 BC]] ([http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8.htm]). The earliest known [[surgery]] was performed in [[History of Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] around [[2800 BC|2750 BC]] (see [[surgery]]). [[Imhotep]] in the [[Third dynasty of Egypt|3rd dynasty]] is credited as the founder of ancient Egyptian medicine and as the original author of the Edwin Smith [[papyrus]], detailing cures, ailments and [[anatomical]] observations. The Edwin Smith papyrus is regarded as a copy of several earlier works and was written circa [[1600s BC|1600 BC]]. It is an ancient textbook on surgery and describes in exquisite detail the ''examination, diagnosis, treatment,'' and ''prognosis'' of numerous ailments ([http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9032043&query=Edwin%20Smith%20papyrus&ct=]).
Additionally, the [[Ebers papyrus]] (c. [[16th century BC|1550 BC]]) is full of incantations and foul applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons and other superstition, in it there is evidence of a ''long tradition of empirical practice and observation.''{{fact}} The Ebers papyrus also provides our earliest documentation of a [[prehistory|prehistoric]] awareness of [[tumor]]s{{fact}}.
Medical institutions are known to have been established in [[ancient Egypt]] since as early as the [[First dynasty of Egypt|1st Dynasty]]{{fact}}. By the time of the [[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt|19th Dynasty]] their employees enjoyed such benefits as [[medical insurance]], [[pensions]] and [[sick leave]]. Employees worked 8 hours per day [http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8c.htm].
The earliest known physician is also credited to [[History of Ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]]: [[Hesyre]], “Chief of Dentists and Physicians” for King [[Djoser]] in the [[27th century BC]] [http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8c.htm]. Also, the earliest known woman physician, [[Peseshet]], practiced in [[Ancient Egypt]] at the time of the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|4th dynasty]]. Her title was “Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians.” In addition to her supervisory role, Peseshet graduated midwives at an ancient Egyptian medical school in [[Sais]] (see [http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8c.htm ''Medicine In Ancient Egypt, page 3'']).
See also the article on ancient Egyptian medicine posted at [http://www.indiana.edu/~ancmed/egypt.HTM ''Indiana University: Medicine in Ancient Egypt''].
===Indian medicine===
{{Main|Ayurveda}}
[[Ayurveda]] (the science of living), the [[Vedic science|Vedic]] system of medicine originating over 3000 years ago, views health as harmony between body, mind and spirit. Its two most famous texts belong to the schools of [[Charaka]] and [[Sushruta]]. According to [[Charaka]], health and disease are not predetermined and life may be prolonged by human effort. [[Sushruta]] defines the purpose of medicine to cure the diseases of the sick, protect the healthy, and to prolong life.
Āyurveda speaks of eight branches: kāyāchikitsā ([[internal medicine]]), shalyachikitsā ([[surgery]] including [[anatomy]]), shālākyachikitsā ([[eye]], [[ear]], [[nose]], and [[throat]] diseases), kaumārabhritya ([[pediatrics]]), bhūtavidyā ([[psychiatry]], or [[demonology]]), and agada tantra ([[toxicology]]), rasāyana
(science of rejuvenation), and vājīkarana (the science of [[fertility]]).
Apart from learning these, the student of Āyurveda was expected to know ten arts that were indispensable in the preparation and application of his medicines: distillation, operative skills, cooking, horticulture, metallurgy, sugar manufacture, pharmacy, analysis and separation of minerals, compounding of metals, and preparation of alkalis. The teaching of various subjects was done during the instruction of relevant clinical subjects. For example, teaching of anatomy was a part of the teaching of surgery, [[embryology]] was a part of training in pediatrics and [[obstetrics]], and the knowledge of [[physiology]] and [[pathology]] was interwoven in the teaching of all the clinical disciplines.
At the closing of the initiation, the [[guru]] gave a solemn address to the students where the guru directed the students to a life of chastity, honesty, and [[vegetarianism]]. The student was to strive with all his being for the health of the sick. He was not to betray patients for his own advantage. He was to dress modestly and avoid strong drink. He was to be collected and self-controlled, measured in speech at all times. He was to constantly improve his knowledge and technical skill. In the home of the patient he was to be courteous and modest, directing all attention to the patient's welfare. He was not to divulge any knowledge about the patient and his family. If the patient was incurable, he was to keep this to himself if it was likely to harm the patient or others.
The normal length of the student's training appears to have been seven years. Before graduation, the student was to pass a test. But the physician was to continue to learn through texts, direct observation ([[pratyaksha]]), and through inference ([[anumāna]]). In addition, the [[vaidyas]] attended meetings where knowledge was exchanged. The doctors were also enjoined to gain knowledge of unusual remedies from hillsmen, herdsmen, and forest-dwellers. Ancient Indian cultures also cultivated systems of healing such as [[Pranic healing]].
In [[2001]], archaeol |
ght be confused with Baldwin as both had long hair and were of slight build.
Twelve-year-old Christy VanVickle testified that she heard Echols say he "killed the three boys." Fifteen-year-old Jackie Medford testified that she heard Echols say, "I killed the three little boys and before I turn myself in, I'm going to kill two more, and I already have one of them picked out." The testimony of these two independent witnesses was direct evidence of the statement by Echols. These witnesses were cross-examined by Echols's counsel.
Lisa Sakevicius, a criminalist from the State Crime Laboratory, testified that she compared fibers found on the victim's clothes with clothing found in Echols's home, and the fibers were microscopically similar.
Dr. Frank Peretti, a State Medical Examiner, testified that there were serrated wound patterns on the three victims. On November 17, 1993, a diver found a knife in a lake behind Baldwin's parents' residence. The large knife had a serrated edge and had the words "Special Forces Survival Roman Numeral Two" on the blade. Dr. Peretti testified that many of the wounds on the victims were consistent with, and could have been caused by, that knife.
Deanna Holcomb testified that she had seen Echols carrying a similar knife, except that the one she saw had a compass on the end. James Parker, owner of Parker's Knife Collector Service in Chattanooga, Tennessee, testified that a company distributed this type of knife from 1985-87. A 1987 catalog from the company was shown to the jury, and it had a picture of a knife like the knife found behind Baldwin's residence. The knife in the catalogue had a compass on the end, and it had the words "Special Forces Survival Roman Numeral Two" on the blade.
The State's theory of motive was that the killings were done in a satanic ritual. On cross-examination, Echols admitted that he has delved deeply into the occult and was familiar with its practices. Various items were found in his room, including a funeral register upon which he had drawn a pentagram and upside-down crosses and had copied spells. A journal was introduced, and it contained morbid images and references to dead children. Echols testified that he wore a long black trench coat even when it was warm. One witness had seen Echols, Baldwin, and Misskelley together six months before the murders, wearing long black coats and carrying long staffs. Dr. Peretti testified that some of the head wounds to the boys were consistent with the size of the two sticks that were recovered by the police.
Dr. Dale Griffis, an expert in occult killings, testified in the State's case-in-chief that the killings had the "trappings of occultism." He testified that the date of the killings, near a pagan holiday, was significant, as well as the fact that there was a full moon. He stated that young children are often sought for sacrifice because "the younger, the more innocent, the better the life force." He testified that there were three victims, and the number three had significance in occultism. Also, the victims were all eight years old, and eight is a witches' number. He testified that sacrifices are often done near water for a baptism-type rite or just to wash the blood away. The fact that the victims were tied ankle to wrist was significant because this was done to display the genitalia, and the removal of Byers's testicles was significant because testicles are removed for the semen. He stated that the absence of blood at the scene could be significant because cult members store blood for future services in which they would drink the blood or bathe in it. He testified that the "overkill" or multiple cuts could reflect occult overtones. Dr. Griffis testified that there was significance in injuries to the left side of the victims as distinguished from the right side: People who practice occultism will use the midline theory, drawing straight down through the body. The right side is related to those things synonymous with Christianity while the left side is that of the practitioners of the satanic occult. He testified that the clear place on the bank could be consistent with a ceremony. In sum, Dr. Griffis testified that there was significant evidence of satanic ritual killings.
Lisa Sakevicius, the criminalist who testified about the fibers, stated that Byers's white polka-dot shirt had blue wax on it and that the wax was consistent with candle wax.
Detective Bryn Ridge testified that Echols said he understood the victims had been mutilated, with one being cut up more than the others, and that they had drowned. Ridge testified that when Echols made the statement, the fact that Christopher Byers had been mutilated more than the other two victims was not known by the public.
When Echols was asked about his statement that one victim was mutilated more than the others, he said he learned the fact from newspaper accounts. His attorney showed him the newspaper articles about the murders. On cross-examination, Echols admitted that the articles did not mention one victim being mutilated more than the others, and he admitted that he did not read such a fact in a newspaper.
[[Pink Floyd]] lyrics from the suspect's notebooks, [[Stephen King]] novels and Echols' interest in [[heavy metal music]] and [[Wicca]] were also presented in court as evidence against the teenagers. The state's [[expert witness]] on "occult crime" had obtained his degree via mail order, and had taken no [[college]] or [[university]] classes on the subject.
Misskelley's videotaped confession was played for the jury.
By early 1994, all three had been convicted of the murders. Echols was sentenced to death, Baldwin received life without parole, and Misskelley received life plus 40 years.
==Aftermath==
Mark Byers--victim Christopher Byers's stepfather--gave a hunting knife to documentarians Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofky while they were filming the first ''Paradise Lost'' feature. After noting what they thought was blood, Berlinger and Sinofsky gave the knife to police, who determined that the blood was human and matched Christopher Byers' [[blood type]]. Mark Byers had initially claimed the knife had never been used, then after blood was found on it, he claimed he'd used it only once, to butcher a deer. When told the blood matched his son's type, Mark Byers said he had no idea how that blood might have gotten on the knife. During interrogation, West Memphis police suggested to Mark Byers that he might have left the knife out accidentally, and Byers agreed with this.
There has been speculation that Mark Byers killed the victims, as he had his teeth removed after the first trial - supposedly to avoid their being matched with numerous bite marks found on his stepson's body, as he never offered a consistent reason for their removal. Echols, Misskelley and Baldwin had imprints of their teeth taken (after their imprisonment) and compared to the marks on Chris Byers's body; no matches were found. Mark Byers had revealed to the police that he beat his stepson shortly before the boy disappeared, and had a previous conviction for beating his wife, Melissa Byers. Incidentally, she had contacted Christopher's school a few weeks before the murders. She expressed concerns that her son was being sexually abused.
A violent nature was deemed a major factor in the hypothetical culprits' personality by an expert criminal profiler that examined the case. The profiler also noted that the culprit was likely to have been close to the child that was assaulted with the most violence - Chris Byers.
A fact not revealed until after the trial was that Mark Byers had acted as a police informant for some time, and had several criminal convictions, including the one for domestic abuse. Unusually, these convictions were sealed, and were expunged following probation. Leveritt says that the "involvement of the police and the courts with him (Byers) prior to the murders is very intriguing."[http://www.popmatters.com/books/interviews/leveritt-mara-030610.shtml]
Christopher Byers was the only victim that had been drugged with Carbamazepine, suggesting again that he was the main focus of the attack. The drug was one that Mark Byers was taking at the time of the murders as part of a tumour treament he was undergoing. Christopher had access to the drug himself, as part of an ADD treatment, but the Byers's said that he had not taken it on the day of his death.
In October, [[2003]] [[Vicki Hutcheson]], whose testimony was used to convict the suspects, gave an interview to the [[Arkansas Times]] in which she stated that every word she had given to the police was a fabrication. She further asserted that the police had insinuated if she did not cooperate with them they would take away her child. She noted that when she visited the police station they had photographs of the suspects on the wall and were using them as dart targets. She also claims that an audio tape the police claimed was "unintelligible" (and eventually lost) was perfectly clear and contained no incriminating statements.
Today, although many of the people directly involved with the case believe the West Memphis Three to be guilty of the crimes they were convicted of (for example, Michael Moore's elder sister, who assaulted Jessie Misskelley's father in early 2005), some called for further investigation into the verdict. The biological father of Christopher Byers, Rick Murray, described his doubts in 2000 on the West Memphis Three website - [http://www.wm3.org/live/thevictims/letter.php]. Many of the controversial elements of the trials have been examined in appeals throughout the Arkansas legal system, with the rulings almost unanimously favoring the prosecution.
At the time of writing, primary forensic evidence tests are underway.
==Documentaries and studies==
Two films, ''[[Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at R |
orts certain [[piste|pistes]] are left un-pisted (un-groomed) to allow moguls to develop.
Many [[skiers]] enjoy the challenge of attacking a mogul run. [[Snowboarders]] typically favour them less, although more advanced or technical riders do sometimes enjoy the prospect.
==Mogul Skier==
*[[Toby Dawson]] (Bronze [[2006 Winter Olympics|2006]])
*[[Jennifer Heil]] (Gold [[2006 Winter Olympics|2006]])
*[[Dale Begg-Smith]] (Gold [[2006 Winter Olympics|2006]])
*[[Janne Lahtela]] (Gold [[2002 Winter Olympics|2002]])
*[[Jonny Moseley]] (Gold [[1998 Winter Olympics|1998]])
*[[Kari Traa]] (Gold [[2002 Winter Olympics|2002]], Silver [[2006 Winter Olympics|2006]], Bronze [[1998 Winter Olympics|1998]])
==See also==
*[[Freestyle skiing]]
*[[Skiing|Skiing and Skiing Topics]]
[[Category:Freestyle skiing]]
[[Category:Alpine skiing]]
[[de:Buckelpiste]]
[[ja:&#12514;&#12540;&#12464;&#12523;]]
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[[it:gobbe]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Slalom skiing</title>
<id>8508</id>
<revision>
<id>40870027</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T15:36:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>204.39.176.49</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Innovation and Rule Changes */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Slalom''' (from [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] slalåm: "sla," meaning steep hillside, and "låm," meaning track after skis.) is an [[alpine skiing]] discipline. It involves skiing between poles (gates) spaced much closer together than in [[Giant Slalom skiing | Giant Slalom]], [[Super Giant Slalom skiing | Super-G ]] or [[Downhill]], thereby causing quicker and shorter turns. It is regarded as the most technically challenging of the [[Alpine skiing|alpine ski]] disciplines.
== Definition ==
Slalom and [[Giant Slalom skiing | Giant Slalom]] make up the "technical events" in alpine ski racing. This category separates them from the "speed events" like [[Super Giant Slalom skiing | Super-G ]] and [[Downhill]].
A course is constructed by laying out a series of gates. Gates are generally formed by alternating two red poles and two blue poles. The skier must pass between the two poles forming the gate. (Strictly speaking, the tips of both skis and the skier's feet must pass between the poles.) A course will have between 55 to 75 gates for men and 40 to 60 gates for women.
For slalom the vertical offset between gates is around 9m and the horizontal offset around 2m, although these figures have changed in recent times because of significant technical developments in ski equipment which have revolutionized the sport. The gates are arranged in a variety of different configurations to challenge the competitor. The worldwide governing body, [[International Ski Federation|FIS]] (Federation Internationale de Ski) has a set of regulations detailing what configurations are allowed or mandated for an official course.
Because the offsets are relatively small in slalom, skiers take a fairly direct line and often knock the poles out of the way as they pass, which is known as cross-blocking (the right hand hits the gate on the skier's left side). In modern slalom, a variety of protective equipment is used such as shin pads, hand guards, helmets and face guards.
==History==
The rules for the modern slalom were developed by Sir [[Arnold Lunn]] in [[1922]] for the British National Ski Championships, tried by the FIS in [[1928]], and adopted for the [[1936]] Winter Olympics. Under his rules, the gates were marked by pairs of flags rather than single ones, were arranged so that the racers had to use a variety of turn lengths to negotiate them, and scoring was on the basis of time alone, not time and style.
==Innovation and Rule Changes==
In the early 1980's, bamboo poles were replaced by hard plastic hinged poles known as "rapid gates" or "breakaway gates." The new gates allowed skiers to take a much more direct path down a slalom course through the process of "[[cross-blocking]]" or "as
shinning" the gates. The rigid nature of bamboo gates had forced skiers to maneuver their entire body around each gate, while the hinged gates require only that the skis and boots of the skier (as the FIS rules state) go around each gate, with the body passing through or on the inside of the pole. In the early 1990's, flags were removed completely from slalom gates in international competition.
==Equipment==
With the innovation of shaped skis (or parabolic skis) around the turn of the century, equipment used for slalom in international competition changed drastically. World Cup skiers commonly skied on skis at a length of 203-207 centimeters in the 1980's and 1990's but by the [[2002 Winter Olympics]] in [[Salt Lake City]], the majority of competitors were using skis measuring 160 centimeters or shorter.
Over concern for the safety of athletes, the [[International Ski Federation|FIS]] began to set minimum ski lengths for international slalom compeition. The minimum was initially set at 155 cm for men and 150 cm for women, but was increased to 165 cm for men and 155 cm for women for the 2003-2004 season.
American [[Bode Miller]] hastened the shift to the shorter, more radical sidecut skis when he achieved unexpected success after becoming the first world class athlete to adopt the equipment in 1996.
==See also==
*[[Sondre Norheim]]
*[[Skiing|Skiing and Skiing Topics]]
*[[Downhill]]
*[[Super Giant Slalom skiing | Super-'''G''' ]]
*[[Giant Slalom]]
*[[Alpine skiing combined]]
[[Category:Alpine skiing]]
<!-- interwiki -->
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[[sv:Slalom]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Druidism</title>
<id>8510</id>
<revision>
<id>15906499</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-16T23:36:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Redwolf24</username>
<id>243237</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Bad Link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Druid]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dedham</title>
<id>8512</id>
<revision>
<id>30262484</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-05T21:46:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Morwen</username>
<id>17287</id>
</contributor>
<comment>turn redirect into dab page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dedham''' could be
*[[Dedham, Essex]]
*[[Dedham, Massachusetts]]
{{geodis}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Database management system</title>
<id>8513</id>
<revision>
<id>40058079</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T20:53:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
<id>241538</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Key]] to [[Primary key]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}
A '''database management system''' ('''DBMS''') is a [[computer program]] (or more typically, a suite of them) designed to manage a [[database]] (a large set of structured [[data]]), and run operations on the data requested by numerous clients. Typical examples of DBMS use include [[accounting]], [[human resources]] and customer support systems. Originally found only in large organizations with the [[computer]] hardware needed to support large data sets, DBMSs have more recently emerged as a fairly standard part of any company [[back office]].
DBMS's are found at the heart of most [[database application]]s. Sometimes DBMSs are built around a private [[computer multitasking|multitasking]] [[Kernel (computers)|kernel]] with built-in [[Computer network|networking]] support although nowadays these functions are left to the [[operating system]].
==Terminology== <!-- needs merging with the above text -->
A '''database management system''' ('''DBMS''') is a system, usually automated and computerized, for the management of any collection of compatible, and ideally [[Database normalization|normalized]], data.
A '''[[database application]]''' is [[computer software]] written to manage the data of a particular application or problem.
==History==
Databases have been in use since the earliest days of electronic computing, but the vast majority of these were custom programs written to access custom databases. Unlike modern systems which can be applied to widely different databases and needs, these systems were tightly linked to the database in order to gain speed at the expense of flexibility.
===Navigational DBMS===
As computers grew in capability, this tradeoff became increasingly unnecessary and a number of general-purpose database systems emerged; by the mid-[[1960s]] there were a number of such systems in commercial use. Interest in a standard began to grow, and [[Charles Bachman]], author of one such product, '''[[Integrated Data Store|IDS]]''', founded the ''[[Database Task Group]]'' within [[CODASYL]], the group responsible for the creation and standardization of [[COBOL]]. In [[1971]] they delivered their standard, which generally became known as the '''[[Codasyl approach]]''', and soon there were a number of commercial products based on it available.
The Codasyl approach was based on the "manual" navigation of a linked dataset which was formed into a large network. When the database was first opened, the program was handed back a link to the first [[database record|record]] in the database, which also contained [[pointer]]s to other pieces of data. To find any particular record the programmer had to step through these pointers one at a time until the required record was returned. Simple queries like "find all the people in Sweden" required the program to walk the entire data set and collect the matching res |
t.
=== Uses in literature ===
* ''[[The Decameron]]'' by [[Giovanni Boccaccio]] (1350). Takes place in Florence in [[1348]], during the outbreak of the "[[Black Death]]", widely believed to be Bubonic Plague.
* ''[[The Plague]]'' by [[Albert Camus]] (1947). An [[existentialism|existentialist]] novel centered around an outbreak of the plague.
* ''[[A Journal of the Plague Year]]'' by [[Daniel Defoe]] (1722). A fictional first hand account of the [[London]] outbreak of [[1665]].
* ''[[The Masque of the Red Death]]'' (1842) by [[Edgar Allan Poe]] includes a vivid description of pestilence conventionally agreed to be septemic plague.
* ''[[Doomsday Book]]'' by [[Connie Willis]] (1992). A [[Hugo award]] and [[Nebula award]]-winning historical [[science fiction]] novel, in which a time-traveler inadvertently ends up in the plague-ridden [[England]] of [[1348]].
* ''[[The Years of Rice and Salt]]'' by [[Kim Stanley Robinson]] (2002). Presents an alternate history of the world where the population of Europe is obliterated by the ''[[Black Death]]'' setting the stage for a world without Europeans and Christianity.
== References ==
*Biraben, Jean-Noel. ''Les Hommes et la Peste'' The Hague 1975.
*Cantor, Norman F., ''In the Wake of the Plague: the Black death and the World It Made'' New York: Harper 2001.
* de Carvalho, Raimundo Wilson; Serra-Freire, Nicolau Maués; Linardi, Pedro Marcos; de Almeida, Adilson Benedito; and da Costa, Jeronimo Nunes (2001). [http://memorias.ioc.fiocruz.br/965/4152.html Small Rodents Fleas from the Bubonic Plague Focus Located in the Serra dos Órgãos Mountain Range, State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil]. ''Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz'' '''96'''(5), 603&ndash;609. PMID 11500756. ''this manuscript reports a census of potential plague vectors (rodents and fleas) in a Brazilian focus region (i.e. region associated with cases of disease); free PDF download'' Retrieved 2005-03-02
* Gregg, Charles T. ''Plague!: The shocking story of a dread disease in America today''. New York, NY: Scribner, 1978, ISBN 0684153726.
* Kelly, John. ''The Great Mortality: An Intimate History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague of All Time''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 2005. ISBN 0060006927.
* McNeill, William H. ''Plagues and People''. New York: Anchor Books, 1976. ISBN 0385121229. Reprinted with new preface 1998.
* Orent, Wendy. ''Plague: The Mysterious Past and Terrifying Future of the World's Most Dangerous Disease''. New York: Free Press, 2004. ISBN 0743236858.
* Patrick, Adam. "Disease in Antiquity: Ancient Greece and Rome," in ''Diseases in Antiquity'', editors: [[Don Brothwell]] and A. T. Sandison. Springfield, Illinois; Charles C. Thomas, 1967.
*Platt, Colin. ''King Death: The Black Death and its Aftermath in Late-Medieval England'' Toronto University Press, 1997.
* Simpson, W. J. ''A Treatise on Plague''. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1905.
* Speilvogal, Jackson J. ''Western Civilization: A Brief History Vol. 1: to 1715''. Belmont, Calif.: West/Wadsworth, 1999, Ch. 3, p. 56, paragraph 2. ISBN 0534560628.
* ABC News, [http://abcnews.go.com/Health/story?id=1128953 Plague Infected Mice Missing From N.J. Lab], [[2005-09-15]]
==See also==
*[[Plague]] ''(disambiguation page)''
*[[Black Death]]
*[[Epidemic]]
*[[Medieval demography]]
*[[Plague of Justinian]]
*[[Third Pandemic]]
*[[Ring around the rosey]]
*[[List of Bubonic plague outbreaks]]
*[[Plague columns]]
==External links==
{{wikinewspar|Plague kills scores in Democratic Republic of Congo}}
*[[World Health Organization]]
**[http://www.who.int/topics/plague/en/ Health topic]
**[http://www.who.int/csr/disease/plague/en/ Communicable Disease Surveillance & Response] - Impact of plague & Information resources
*[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]
**[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/plague/index.htm CDC Plague] map world distribution, publications, information on bioterrorism preparedness and response regarding plague
**[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/submenus/sub_plague.htm Infectious Disease Information] more links including travelers' health
*[http://www.emedicine.com/EMERG/topic428.htm Symptoms, causes, pictures of bubonic plague]
*[http://www.twoop.com/medicine/archives/2005/10/bubonic_plague.html Bubonic Plague] Timeline
* [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_plague/ Secrets of the Dead . Mystery of the Black Death] [[PBS]]
[[Category:Infectious diseases]]
[[Category:Epidemics]]
[[Category:Pandemics]]
[[Category:Biological weapons]]
[[Category:Zoonoses]]
<!-- interwiki -->
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[[hr:Kuga]]
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[[he:דבר]]
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[[no:Pest]]
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[[uk:Чума]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Blue Tac</title>
<id>4747</id>
<revision>
<id>15903004</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-21T23:43:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dtcdthingy</username>
<id>140524</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Blu-Tack]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baudot code</title>
<id>4748</id>
<revision>
<id>41777432</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:57:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Haham hanuka</username>
<id>111674</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Baudot code''', named after its [[inventor]] [[Émile Baudot]], is a [[character encoding|character set]] predating [[EBCDIC]] and [[ASCII]] and used originally and primarily on [[teleprinter|teleprinters]].
Baudot's original code, developed around [[1874]] is known as International Telegraph Alphabet No 1, and is no longer used. It was sent using a five-key [[alphanumeric keyboard|keyboard]] where each key represented one [[bit]] of the five state signal. A mechanical wiper would scan the keyboard state and unlock the keys allowing the operator to enter the next character.
Around [[1901]] Baudot's code was modified by Donald Murray (1865-1945) by re-ordering the characters, adding extra characters and shift codes. Murray's re-ordering of the characters was prompted by his development of a typewriter-like keyboard. Since the layout of the bits was now disassociated from the keypress of the operator, Murray could arrange his code-set so that the most-used characters resulted in the fewest state transitions, minimizing wear on the equipment.
A further modification of Murray's code mostly by [[Western Union]] consisted of dropping some characters. This final modification is what is generally known as the 'Baudot code', also known as the '''International Telegraph Alphabet No 2''' ('''ITA2'''). ITA2 is still used in [[Telecommunications_devices_for_the_deaf|TDD]]s and some [[ham radio]] applications, such as [[radioteletype]] ("RTTY").
NOTE: This table presumes the space called "1" by Baudot and Murray is rightmost, and least significant. The actual order of transmission varied by manufacturer.
[[image:Ita2.png|right|frame|Table of ITA2 codepoints (hexadecimal)]]
In ITA2, characters are expressed using five bits. ITA2 uses two code sub-sets, the "letter shift" (LTRS), and the "figure shift" (FIGS). The FIGS character (11011) signals that the following code is to be interpreted as being in the FIGS set, until this is reset by the LTRS (11111) character. "ENQuiry" will trigger the other machine's answerback. It means "Who are you?"
CR is [[carriage return]], LF is [[line feed]], BEL rang a small [[bell (instrument)|bell]] (often used to alert operators to an incoming message), SP is space, and NUL is the [[null character]] (blank tape).
Note: the binary conversions of the codepoints are often shown in reverse order, depending on (presumably) which side you are viewing the papertape from. Note further that the [[control character|"control" character]]s were chosen so that they were either symmetric or in useful pairs so that inserting a tape "upside down" did not result in problems for the equipment and the resulting printout could be deciphered. Thus FIGS (11011), LTRS (11111) and space (00100) are invariant, while CR (01000) and LF (00010), generally used as a pair, result in the same output when the tape is reversed. LTRS could also be used to overpunch characters to be deleted on a [[punched tape|paper tape]] (much like DEL in 7-bit [[ASCII]]). The sequence ''RYRYRY...'' was often used in test messages. Since R is 01010 and Y is 10101, the sequence exercises much of a teleprinter's mechanical components at maximum stress.
US American implementations of Baudot code may differ in the use of ENQ, +, and f,g,h on the FIGS layer. The above table represents the official ITA2 code.
The Russian version of Baudot code ([[MTK-2]]) used three shift modes, the [[Cyrillic letter]] mode was activated by the character (00000) unused in original ITA2.
==References==
*[http://www.nadcomm.com/fiveunit/fiveunits.htm Five-unit codes]
*[http://www.wps.com/projects/codes/index.html#BAUDOT An examination of Baudot code in respect to other character codes] by [[Tom Jennings]]
*[http://www.sensi.org/~alec/locale/other/mtk-2.html MTK-2 code table]
== See also ==
*[[quinary]]
{{FOLDOC}}
[[Category:Radio modulation modes]]
[[Category:Character sets]]
[[Category:Telecommunications history]]
[[de:Baudot-Code]]
[[es:Código Baudot]]
[[fr:Code Baudot]]
[[he:קוד בודו]]
[[it:Codice Baudot]]
[[nl:Baudotcode]]
[[ja:Baudot Code]]
[[ru:Код Бодо]]
[[fi:Baudot-koodi]]
[[sv:CCITT nr 2]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Blu-Ta |
ol | 14.39 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 62.7 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1239 | 1356 | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | &nbsp; | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | hexagonal }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 6, 5, 4, '''3'''<br />([[amphoteric]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.3 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies1 | 578 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|175]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 10 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-35-9 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=americium | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=241 | sym=Am
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E10 s|432.2 y]]
| dm1=[[spontaneous fission|SF]] | de1=- | pn1= | ps1=-
| dm2=[[alpha decay|&alpha;]] | de2=5.638 | pn2=237 | ps2=[[neptunium|Np]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 | mn=242[[nuclear isomer|m]] | sym=Am
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=141 [[year|y]]
| dm1=[[Isomeric transition|IT]] | de1=0.049 | pn1= | ps1=-
| dm2=&alpha; | de2=5.637 | pn2=238 | ps2=[[neptunium|Np]]
| dm3=SF | de3=- | pn3= | ps3=- }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=243 | sym=Am
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E11 s|7370 y]]
| dm1=SF | de1=- | pn1= | ps1=-
| dm2=&alpha; | de2=5.438 | pn2=239 | ps2=[[neptunium|Np]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
'''Americium''' is a [[synthetic element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol Am and [[atomic number]] 95. A [[radioactive decay|radioactive]] [[metal]]lic element, americium is an [[actinide]] that was obtained by bombarding [[plutonium]] with [[neutron]]s and was the fourth [[transuranic element]] to be discovered. It was named for the [[The Americas|America]]s, by analogy with [[europium]].
== Notable characteristics ==
Freshly prepared americium [[metal]] has a white and silvery [[luster]], at [[room temperature]]s it slowly tarnishes in dry air. It is more silvery than [[plutonium]] or [[neptunium]] and apparently more malleable than neptunium or [[uranium]]. [[Alpha emission]] from Am-241 is approximately three times [[radium]]. [[Gram]] quantities of Am-241 emit intense [[gamma ray]]s which creates a serious exposure problem for anyone handling the element.
== Applications ==
This element can be produced in [[kilogram]] amounts and has some uses (mostly Am-241 since it is easier to produce relatively pure samples of this isotope). Americium has found its way into the household, where one type of [[smoke detector]] contains a tiny amount of Am-241 as a source of [[ionizing radiation]]. Am-241 has been used as a portable gamma ray source for use in [[radiography]]. The element has also been employed to gauge [[glass]] thickness to help create flat glass. Am-242 is a neutron emitter and has found uses in [[neutron radiography]]. However this isotope is extremely expensive to produce in usable quantities.
== History ==
Americium was [[discovery of the chemical elements|first synthesized]] by [[Glenn T. Seaborg]], Leon O. Morgan, Ralph A. James, and [[Albert Ghiorso]] in late [[1944]] at the wartime Metallurgical Laboratory at the [[University of Chicago]] (now known as [[Argonne National Laboratory]]). The team created the [[isotope]] Am-241 by subjecting [[plutonium]]-239 to successive [[neutron capture]] reactions in a [[nuclear reactor]]. This created Pu-240 and then Pu-241 which in turn decayed into Am-241 via [[beta decay]]. Seaborg was granted [[patent]] 3,156,523 for "Element 95 and Method of Producing Said Element". The discovery of americium and [[curium]] was first announced informally on a children's quiz show in 1945. [http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/print/americiumprint.html]
== Isotopes ==
18 [[radioisotope]]s of americium have been characterized, with the most stable being Am-243 with a [[half-life]] of 7370 years, and Am-241 with a half-life of 432.2 years. All of the remaining [[radioactive decay|radioactive]] isotopes have half-lives that are less than 51 hours, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 100 minutes. This element also has 8 [[meta state]]s, with the most stable being Am-242m (t<sub>½</sub> 141 years). The isotopes of americium range in [[atomic weight]] from 231.046 [[atomic mass unit|amu]] (Am-231) to 249.078 amu (Am-249).
== Chemistry ==
In aqueous systems the most common oxidation state is +3, it is very much harder to oxidise Am(III) to Am(IV) than it is to do the same oxidation for Pu(III).
Currently the [[solvent extraction]] chemistry of americium is important as in several areas of the world [[scientists]] are working on reducing the medium term [[radiotoxicity]] of the waste from the reprocessing of used [[nuclear fuel]].
See [[liquid-liquid extraction]] for some examples of the solvent extraction of americium.
Americium like other actinides readily forms a dioxide americyl core (AmO<sub>2</sub>)[http://fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/pubs/00818038.pdf]. In the environment, this americyl core readily complexes with carbonate as well as other oxygen moeities (OH<sup>-</sup>, NO<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup>, NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>, and SO<sub>4</sub><sup>-2</sup>) to form charged complexes which tend to be readily mobile with low affinities to soil.
*AmO<sub>2</sub>(OH)<sup>+1</sup>
*AmO<sub>2</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub><sup>+2</sup>
*AmO<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>1</sub><sup>+1</sup>
*AmO<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub><sup>-1</sup>
*AmO<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub><sup>-3</sup>
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/95.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Americium]
*''Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele095.html It's Elemental - Americium]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Americium}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Am/index.html WebElements.com - Americium] (also used as a reference)
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Actinides]]
[[Category:Americium compounds]]
[[ca:Americi]]
[[cs:Americium]]
[[da:Americium]]
[[de:Americium]]
[[et:Ameriitsium]]
[[el:Αμερίκιο]]
[[es:Americio]]
[[eo:Americio]]
[[fr:Américium]]
[[ko:아메리슘]]
[[io:Americio]]
[[it:Americio]]
[[he:אמריציום]]
[[lt:Americis]]
[[lb:Americium]]
[[hu:Amerícium]]
[[nl:Americium]]
[[ja:アメリシウム]]
[[nn:Americium]]
[[pl:Ameryk]]
[[pt:Amerício]]
[[ru:Америций]]
[[sr:Америцијум]]
[[fi:Amerikium]]
[[sv:Americium]]
[[th:อะเมริเซียม]]
[[tr:Amerikyum]]
[[uk:Америцій]]
[[zh:镅]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Astatine</title>
<id>901</id>
<revision>
<id>41310430</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T13:18:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rune.welsh</username>
<id>240649</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Notable characteristics */ this is a conditional clause</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=85 | symbol=At | name=astatine | left=[[polonium]] | right=[[radon]] | above=[[iodine|I]] | below=([[Uus]]) | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[halogen]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=17 | period=6 | block=p }}
{{Elementbox_appearance | metallic }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(210)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&#93; 4f<sup>14</sup> 5d<sup>10</sup> 6s<sup>2</sup> 6p<sup>5</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 7 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=575 | c=302 | f=576 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=? 610 | c=? 337 | f=? 639}}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | ca. 40 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 361 | 392 | 429 | 475 | 531 | 607 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | no data }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | &plusmn;1, 3, 5, 7 }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.2 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies1 | (est.) 920 }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 1.7 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-68-8 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=astatine | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=210 | sym=At
| na=100% | hl=8.1 [[hour|h]]
| dm1=[[electron capture|Epsilon]] | de1=3.981 | pn1=210 | ps1=[[polonium|Po]]
| dm2=[[alpha decay|Alpha]] | de2=5.631 | pn2=206 | ps2=[[bismuth|Bi]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
'''Astatine''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''At''' and [[atomic number]] 85. This [[radioactive]] element occurs naturally from [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] decay and is the heaviest of the [[halogen]]s.
== Notable characteristics ==
This highly [[radioactive]] element has been confirmed by [[mass spectrometer]]s to behave chemically much like other [[halogen]]s, especially [[iodine]] (it would probably accumulate in the [[thyroid]] gland like iodine). Astatine is thought to be more [[metal]]lic than iodine. Researchers at the [[Brookhaven National Laboratory]] have performed experiments that have identified and measured elementary reactions that involve astatine.
With |
lcons]] 24-6. Unfourtunately, the Bucs would come to town a week later and get revenge with a final of 20-10. Despite going to LSU's [[Tiger Stadium]] and winning against the Saints 27-10, they would lose a close game to the [[Dallas Cowboys]] 24-20.
After losing to the Cowboys in the season's penultimate game, the Panthers needed a victory to secure a spot in the 2005 playoffs. They responded with a dominating [[New Years Day]] performance at the [[Georgia Dome]], a 44-11 victory over the Falcons, making the score the largest margin of victory in franchise history. This was the first time since 1997 that the Panthers were able to beat the Falcons in the Georgia Dome. With that victory, the Panthers secured themselves the NFC's #5 seed. The Panthers began their post-season play on Sunday [[January 8]], [[2006]] at [[Giants Stadium]] against the [[New York Giants]]. After both sides failed to score in the first quarter, the trifecta of [[Jake Delhomme]], [[DeShaun Foster]], and [[Steve Smith (NFL)|Steve Smith]] showed dominance as they shut-out the Giants 23-0. Carolina's coach, John Fox, used to be the defensive coordinator for the Giants when they went to the Super Bowl earlier in the decade. New York was the nation's number one television market, and the shut out in the playoffs was significant.
Their next opponent was the [[Chicago Bears]], home to the nation's third largest television market, who started off the week by reminding the Panthers about their regular season victory over them. The Panthers responded with a victory, beating the Bears at [[Soldier Field]] with a final score of 29-21. Unaffected by the major media hype of the Bears' defense, the Panthers led throughout starting with an incredible touchdown reception by Steve Smith on the second play from scrimmage. With that victory, the Panthers advanced to the [[NFC Championship Game]] for the third time in the franchise's 11-year history. They played against the [[Seattle Seahawks]] for the NFC Championship title, but mounting injuries and having to play on the road for the fourth straight week took its toll and the Panthers lost 34-14.
===Fight song===
Many of the legendary NFL football teams have fight songs. The New Orleans Saints use ''When the Saints Go Marching In;'' the Green Bay Packers have ''Go, You Packers, Go!''; the Chicago Bears sing ''Bear Down, Chicago Bears;'' and the Washington Redskins have ''Hail to the Redskins;'' to name just a few. When the Panthers started in 1995, fans would sing the official ''Carolina Panther Fight Song'' every time the team would score. As the first season was played at Clemson, many fans felt that the song was reminiscent of the collegiate atmosphere those games had.
The fight song only lasted a few years before being officially retired. Officials with the Panthers organization said that they received a large number of fan complaints regarding the fight song. As of 2005, the team does not have an official song.
There has been an unofficial Panthers song recorded by the Charlotte hip-hop group [[Q.C. Riders]] that proved somewhat popular during the team's first Super Bowl run. Ted Nugent's "Cat Scratch Fever" is an often-played song at home games at Bank of America stadium.
===Season-by-season records===
{{Start NFL SBS|#0088D4|#FFFFFF}}
|-
| 1995 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
| 1996 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1996-97|Conference Championship]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]])
|-
| 1997 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || --
|-
| 1998 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
| 1999 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || --
|-
| 2000 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
| 2001 || 1 || 15 || 0 || 5th NFC West || --
|-
| 2002 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC South || --
|-
| 2003 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st NFC South || Lost [[Super Bowl XXXVIII]] ([[New England Patriots|Patriots]])
|-
| 2004 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd NFC South || --
|-
| 2005 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 2nd NFC South ||Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2005-06|Conference Championship]] ([[Seattle Seahawks|Seahawks]])
{{end box}}
^So far, at the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Panthers All-Time season record is 88-97-0 (including Playoffs).
==Players of note==
===Current players===
{{Carolina Panthers roster}}
===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
*[[Reggie White]]
===Retired numbers===
("Hall of Honor")
* [[Sam Mills]] - #51 retired at the beginning of the [[2005 NFL season]]
* [[Mike McCormack]] - Executive Manager, General Manager & Consultant
* PSL Owners
===Not to be forgotten===
* [[Steve Beuerlein]], QB
* [[Blake Brockermeyer]], LT
* [[Brentson Buckner]], DT
* [[Kerry Collins]], QB
* [[Stephen Davis]], RB
* [[Kevin Greene]], LB
* [[Lamar Lathon]], LB
* [[Anthony Johnson]], RB
* [[Mark Carrier]], WR
* [[Rodney Peete]], QB
* [[Muhsin Muhammad]], WR (a.k.a. Moose)
* [[Tyrone Poole]], CB
* [[Todd Sauerbrun]], P
* [[Rod Smart]], RB/KR
* [[Esera Tuaolo]], NT
* [[Wesley Walls]], TE
* [[Reggie White]], DL
* [[Dom Capers]] (coach)
* [[George Seifert]] (coach)
===10-Year Anniversary Team===
:''Source: [http://www.panthers.com/team/hist-10anniversary.jsp 10 Year Anniversary], Panthers.com (URL last accessed February 27, 2006)''
====Offense====
* Quarterback - [[Jake Delhomme]]
* Running Back - [[Stephen Davis]]
* Fullback - [[Brad Hoover]]
* Wide Receiver - [[Muhsin Muhammad]]
* Wide Receiver - [[Steve Smith (NFL)|Steve Smith]]
* Center - [[Jeff Mitchell]]
* Tackle - [[Jordan Gross]]
* Tackle - [[Todd Steussie]]
* Guard - [[Kevin Donnalley]]
* Guard - [[Jeno James]]
* Tight End - [[Wesley Walls]]
====Defense====
* Defensive End - [[Julius Peppers]]
* Defensive End - [[Mike Rucker]]
* Defensive Tackle - [[Brentson Buckner]]
* Defensive Tackle - [[Kris Jenkins]]
* Linebacker - [[Kevin Greene]]
* Linebacker - [[Sam Mills]]
* Linebacker - [[Dan Morgan]]
* Cornerback - [[Eric Davis (NFL)|Eric Davis]]
* Cornerback - [[Tyrone Poole]]
* Safety - [[Chad Cota]]
* Safety - [[Mike Minter]]
====Special Teams====
* Placekicker - [[John Kasay]]
* Punter - [[Todd Sauerbrun]]
* Kick/punt Returner - [[Michael Bates (NFL)|Michael Bates]]
==Head Coaches==
*[[Dom Capers]] (1995-1998)
*[[George Seifert]] (1999-2001)
*[[John Fox (NFL)|John Fox]] (2002-present)
===Current Staff===
*Head Coach - [[John Fox (NFL)|John Fox]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Dan Henning]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Mike Trgovac]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Danny Crossman]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Mike McCoy]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Jim Skipper]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Richard Williamson (football coach)|Richard Williamson]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Dave Magazu]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[Mike Maser]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Sal Sunseri]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Ken Flajole]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[Rod Perry]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[Jerry Simmons]]
==External links==
*[http://www.panthers.com/ Carolina Panthers official web site]
*[http://thisboardrocks.com/forum/forumdisplay.php?f=19 Panthers Fans forum]
*[http://www.pantherfrenzy.com/ Panthers Frenzy Message Board]
*[http://sports.groups.yahoo.com/group/carolinapanthersfanclub/ Carolina Panthers Fan Club (on Yahoo)]: established in 1998, the oldest online Carolina Panthers fan club
*[http://www.panthersfanz.com/ The Panthers Fans Forum on the Net]
*[http://panthershuddle.com/phpportal/ Panthers Huddle fan site]
*[http://www.dcpanthersfans.com/ Washington, D.C. Area Panthers Fans]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/carolina/panthers.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]
{{NFL}}
[[Category:Carolina Panthers| ]]
[[Category:Charlotte, North Carolina]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[Category:1995 establishments]]
[[de:Carolina Panthers]]
[[fr:Panthers de la Caroline]]
[[it:Carolina Panthers]]
[[ja:カロライナ・パンサーズ]]
[[pt:Carolina Panthers]]
[[sv:Carolina Panthers]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chicago Bears</title>
<id>6611</id>
<revision>
<id>41918073</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:40:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Footnotes */ take out white-space, fix footnote linking</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Chicago Bears
| logo = ChicagoBears_100.png
| founded = 1919
| city = Chicago, Illinois
| colors = Navy Blue, Orange and White
| coach = [[Lovie Smith]]
| owner = McCaskey Family
| general manager = [[Jerry Angelo]]
| mascot = [[Staley Da Bear]]
| song = [[Bear Down, Chicago Bears]]
| nicknames = Da Bears, The [[Monsters of the Midway]]
| stations = [[WBBM (AM)|WBBM (780 AM)]]
| announcers = Jeff Joniak, [[Tom Thayer]] and Zach Zaidman
| hist_yr = 1922
| hist_misc =
* Decatur Staleys (1919-1920)
* Chicago Staleys (1921)
| affiliate_old =
Independent (1919)<br>
| NFL_start_yr = 1920
| division_hist =
*Western Division (1933-1949)
*National Conference (1950-1952)
*Western Conference (1953-1969)
**Central Division (1967-1969)
*'''[[National Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**[[NFC Central]] (1970-2001)
**'''[[NFC North]] (2002-present)'''
| no_league_champs = 9
| no_sb_champs = 1
| no_conf_champs = 3
| no_div_champs = 16
| league_champs =
*'''[[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] (8)'''<br>1921, 1932, 1933, 1940, 1941, 1943, 1946, 1963
| sb_champs = 1985&nbsp;([[Super Bowl XX|XX]])
| conf_champs =
*'''NFL Western:''' 1956, 1963
*'''NFC:''' 1985
| div_champs =
*'''NFL West:''' 1933, 1934, 1937, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943, 1946
*'''NFC Central:''' 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1990, 2001
*'''NFC North:''' 2005
| stadium_years =
*[[Staley Field]] (1919-1920)
*[[Wrigley Field]] (1921-1970)
*[[Soldier Field|Soldier Field (I)]] (1971-2001)
*[[Memorial Stadium (Champaign)]] (2002)
*'''[[Soldier Field|Soldier Field (II)]] (2003-present)'''
}}
The '''Chicago Bears''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. They currently |
1982. The Constitution Act of 1982 was enacted as Schedule B (i.e. appendix B) of the Canada Act of 1982.
With the introduction of the Canada Act and the accompanying Charter, much of Constitutional law in Canada has changed. The Canada Act has entrenched many constitutional conventions and has made amendments significantly more difficult (see [[Amendments to the Constitution of Canada|amendment formula]]). The Charter has shifted the focus of the Constitution to individual and collective rights of the inhabitants of Canada. Before the enactment of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in [[1982]], civil rights and liberties had no solid constitutional protection in Canada. Whenever one level of government passed a law that seemed oppressive to civil rights and liberties, Canadian constitutional lawyers had to argue creatively, such as by saying that the oppressive law violates division of federal and provincial powers or by citing some other technical flaw that had little to do with the concept of civil rights and liberties. Since 1982, however, the Charter has become the most often cited part of the Constitution and has thus far solidified the protection of rights for people in Canada.
[[Image:Fathersofconfederation.jpg|frame|150px|left|A painting depicting negotiations that would lead to the enactment of the [[Constitution Act, 1867|British North America Act, 1867]]]]
==Constitution Act, 1867==
{{seealso|Constitution Act, 1867}}
This was an Act of the British Parliament, originally called the British North America Act 1867, that created the Dominion of Canada out of three separate provinces in British North America and allowed for subsequent provinces and colonies to join this union in the future. It outlined Canada's system of government, which combines Britain's Westminster model of parliamentary government with division of powers ([[Canadian federalism|federalism]]). Although it is one of many ''[[British North America Acts]]'' to come, it is still the most famous of these and is understood to be the document of Canadian Confederation (i.e. union of provinces and colonies in British North America). With the patriation of the Constitution in 1982, this Act was renamed '''Constitution Act, 1867'''. In recent years, the Constitution Act, 1867 has mainly served as the basis on which the division of powers between the provinces and federal government have been analyzed.
==Constitution Act, 1982==
{{seealso|Constitution Act, 1982}}
[[Image:Canada Act signing.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The [[Constitution Act, 1982]], which included the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]], was brought into force in [[Ottawa]] on [[April 17]], [[1982]].]]
This was an Act by the Canadian Parliament requesting full political independence from Britain. Part V of this Act created a constitution-amending formula that did not require an Act by the British Parliament. Further, Part I of this Act is the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] which outlines the civil rights and liberties of every citizen in Canada, such as freedom of expression, of religion, of mobility, etc. Part II deals with the rights of Canada's Aboriginal peoples.
===Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms===
{{seealso|Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms}}
As noted above, this is Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982. The Charter is the constitutional guarantee of collective and individual rights. It is a relatively short document and written in plain language in order to ensure accessibility to the average citizen. It is said that it is the part of the constitution that has the greatest impact on Canadians' day-to-day lives, and has been the fastest developing area of constitutional law for many years.
===Amending formula ===
{{seealso|Amendments to the Constitution of Canada}}
With the Constitution Act, 1982, amendments to the constitution must be done in accordance with Part V of the Constitution Act, 1982 which provides for five different amending formulas. Amendments can be brought forward under section 46(1) by any province or either level of the federal government. The general formula is set out in section 38(1), known as the "7/50 formula", requires: (a) assent from both the House of Commons and the Senate; (b) the approval of two-thirds of the provincial legislatures (at least seven provinces), representing at least 50% of the population (effectively, this would include at least Quebec or Ontario, as they are the most populous provinces). This formula specifically applies to amendments related to the proportionate representation in Parliament, powers, selection, and composition of the Senate, the Supreme Court, the addition of provinces or territories.
The other amendment formulas are for exceptional cases as provided by in the Act:
*In the case of an amendment related to the Office of the Queen, the number of senators, the use of either official language (subject to section 43), or the composition of the Supreme Court, the amendment must be adopted by unanimous consent of all the provinces in accordance with section 41.
*However, in the case of an amendment related to provincial boundaries or the use of an official language within a province alone, the amendment must be passed by the legislatures affected by the amendment (section 43).
*In the case of an amendment that affects the federal government alone, the amendment does not need approval of the provinces (section 44). The same applies to amendments affecting the provincial government alone (section 45).
== Unwritten Sources of the Canadian Constitution ==
The existence of an unwritten constitution was reaffirmed by the Supreme Court in ''[[Reference re Secession of Quebec]]''.
<blockquote>
''The Constitution is more than a written text. It embraces the entire global system of rules and principles which govern the exercise of constitutional authority. A superficial reading of selected provisions of the written constitutional enactment, without more, may be misleading.''
</blockquote>
In practice, there have been three sources of constitutional law:
'''Conventions:''' Constitutional conventions form part of the Constitution, but they are not legally enforceable. They include the existence of the Prime Minister and Parliamentary Cabinet, the fact that the Governor General is required to give assent to Bills, and the requirement that the Prime Minister call an election upon losing a vote of non-confidence.
'''Royal Prerogative:''' Reserve powers of the [[Monarchy in Canada|Canadian Crown]]; being remnants of the powers once held by the British Crown, reduced over time by the Parliamentary system. Primarily, these are the [[Order-in-Council|Orders-in-Council]] which give the Government the authority to declare war, conclude treaties, issue passports, make appointments, make regulations, incorporate, and receive lands that escheat to the Crown.
'''Unwritten Principles:''' Principles that are incorporated into the Canadian Constitution by reference from the preamble of the ''Constitution Act, 1867''. Unlike conventions, they are legally binding. Amongst the recognized Constitutional principles are federalism, democracy, constitutionalism and the [[rule of law]], and respect for minorities{{ref|secession}}. Other principles include [[responsible government]] and judicial independence.
== External links ==
{{wikibookspar||Canadian_law:Constitutional_law}}
* [http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/ Full text of the Constitution]
* [http://www.canadiana.org/citm/ Canada in the Making] - a comprehensive history of the Canadian Constitution with digitized primary sources.
* [http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/Proposals/MeechLake.html Meech Lake Accord, 1987]
* [http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/Proposals/CharlottetownConsensus.html Charlottetown Accord, 1992]
* [http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/Proposals/charlottetown-res.html Results of Referendum on the Charlottetown Accord, 1992]
== Reference ==
#{{note|ConstList}} see [[list of Canadian constitutional documents]] for details.
#{{note|NBBC}} ''[[New Brunswick Broadcasting Co. v. Nova Scotia (Speaker of the House of Assembly)|New Brunswick Broadcasting Co. v. Nova Scotia]]'' [1993] 1 S.C.R. 319
#{{note|secession}} these were identified in [[Reference re Secession of Quebec]] [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217
{{Constitution of Canada}}
[[Category:Constitution of Canada| ]]
[[fr:Constitution du Canada]]
[[pl:Konstytucja Kanady]]
[[pt:Constituição do Canadá]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Constitution of Canada/1867 Preamble</title>
<id>7412</id>
<revision>
<id>40082053</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T00:17:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CanadianCaesar</username>
<id>290432</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Constitution Act, 1867]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constitution Act, 1867]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Constitution of Canada/1867 I Preliminary</title>
<id>7413</id>
<revision>
<id>40082083</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T00:17:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CanadianCaesar</username>
<id>290432</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Constitution Act, 1867]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constitution Act, 1867]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Constitution of Canada/1867 II Union</title>
<id>7414</id>
<revision>
<id>40082116</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T00:18:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CanadianCaesar</username>
<id>290432</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Constitution Act, 1867]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constitution Act, 1867]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Constitution of Canada/1867 III Exec |
ffered extensively from [[arteriosclerosis]] later in life.
The [[popularity]] of the Hornblower series, built around a central character who was heroic but not ''too'' heroic, has continued to grow over time. It is perhaps rivalled only by the much later [[Aubrey–Maturin series]] of seafaring novels by [[Patrick O'Brian]]. Interestingly, both Hornblower and Aubrey are based in part on the historical figure, [[Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald|Admiral Lord Dundonald]] of [[Great Britain]] (known as '''Lord Cochrane''' during the period when the novels are set). Brian Perett has written a book ''The Real Hornblower: The Life and Times of Admiral Sir James Gordon, GCB'', ISBN 1557509689, presenting the case for a different inspiration, namely [[James Alexander Gordon]].
The original conception of the popular [[United States|American]] [[television]] series ''[[Star Trek]]'' was based in large measure on the Hornblower books, and was pitched as such to [[NBC]] [[television]] by creator [[Gene Roddenberry]].
Forester also had a life outside the ''Hornblower'' series, writing many other novels, among them ''[[The African Queen (novel)|The African Queen]]'' (1935) and ''[[The General (novel)|The General]]'' (1936); [[Peninsular War]] novels in ''[[Death to the French]]'' and ''[[The Gun (novel) | The Gun]]''; [[detective fiction|detective novels]] like ''[[Payment Deferred]]'' ([[1926 in literature|1926]]) and ''[[Plain Murder]]'' ([[1930 in literature|1930]]); and seafaring stories that did not involve Hornblower, such as ''[[Brown on Resolution]]'' ([[1929 in literature|1929]]), ''[[The Ship (novel) | The Ship]]'' ([[1943 in literature|1943]]) and ''[[Sink the Bismarck!]]'' ([[1959 in literature|1959]]). Several of his works were filmed, most notably the [[1951 in film|1951 film]] ''[[The African Queen]]'' directed by [[John Huston]]. Forester is also credited as story writer for several movies not based on his published fiction, including ''[[Commandos Strike at Dawn]]'' ([[1942 in film|1942]]).
==See also==
* [[El Ferrol]] (where Hornblower is taken prisoner of war by the Spaniards ([[Napoleonic Wars]])
*[[The African Queen#Correlations between the British World War I campaign in German East Africa and The African Queen|Correlations between the British World War I campaign in German East Africa and ''The African Queen'']]
==References==
* [[John Forester]]: ''Novelist & Storyteller. The Life of C. S. Forester'', ISBN 0-940558-04-1 ([http://www.csforester.org/info.asp excerpt]).
==External links==
*[http://www.csforester.org CS Forester Society]
*[http://mwilden.com/forester/checklist.htm CS Forester Checklist]
*[http://www.ar.com.au/~jriddler/hh/hh.html Horatio Hornblower television series 2001]
*[http://ferrol.historia.tripod.com/elferrol1780/ Map of the Naval Station of '''El Ferrol''' where Hornblower is taken prisoner of war by the Spaniards, by the Dutch pilot '''Hugh Debbieg''' (1731-1810)]
[[Category:1899 births|Forester, C. S.]]
[[Category:1966 deaths|Forester, C. S.]]
[[Category:English novelists|Forester, C. S.]]
[[Category:Historical novelists|Forester, C. S.]]
[[de:C. S. Forester]]
[[fr:Cecil Scott Forester]]
[[pl:Cecil Scott Forester]]
[[ru:Форестер, Сесил Скотт]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of country calling codes</title>
<id>5770</id>
<revision>
<id>41689019</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:57:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.105.22.46</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External Links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:04c093 rotary dial abc.jpg|right|thumb|A telephone dial]]
This is a '''list of country calling codes''' defined by [[ITU-T]] recommendation [[E.164]].
==At a glance==
{| border="1" celspacing="1"
|-
| width="100%" align="center" colspan="10" |<tt>'''+0:''' Not used</tt>
|-
| width="100%" align="center" colspan="10" |<tt>'''+1:''' ([[North American Numbering Plan|NANP]]) [[United States|US]], [[Canada|CA]], [[Anguilla|AI]], [[Antigua and Barbuda|AG]], [[American Samoa|AS]], [[Barbados|BB]], [[Bahamas|BS]], [[British Virgin Islands|VG]], [[U.S. Virgin Islands|VI]], [[Cayman Islands|KY]], [[Bermuda|BM]], [[Grenada|GD]], [[Turks and Caicos Islands|TC]], [[Montserrat|MS]], [[Northern Mariana Islands|MP]], [[Guam|GU]], [[St. Lucia|LC]], [[Dominica|DM]], [[St. Vincent and the Grenadines|VC]], [[Puerto Rico|PR]], [[Dominican Republic|DO]], [[Trinidad and Tobago|TT]], [[St. Kitts and Nevis|KN]], [[Jamaica|JM]]</tt>
|-
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+20:''' [[Egypt|EG]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+210:''' --<br>
'''+211:''' --<br>
'''+212:''' [[Morocco|MA]], ''[[Western Sahara|EH]]''<br>
'''+213:''' [[Algeria|DZ]]<br>
'''+214:''' --<br>
'''+215:''' --<br>
'''+216:''' [[Tunisia|TN]]<br>
'''+217:''' --<br>
'''+218:''' [[Libya|LY]]<br>
'''+219:''' --</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+220:''' [[The Gambia|GM]]<br>
'''+221:''' [[Senegal|SN]]<br>
'''+222:''' [[Mauritania|MR]]<br>
'''+223:''' [[Mali|ML]]<br>
'''+224:''' [[Guinea|GN]]<br>
'''+225:''' [[Côte d'Ivoire|CI]]<br>
'''+226:''' [[Burkina Faso|BF]]<br>
'''+227:''' [[Niger|NE]]<br>
'''+228:''' [[Togo|TG]]<br>
'''+229:''' [[Benin|BJ]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+230:''' [[Mauritius|MU]]<br>
'''+231:''' [[Liberia|LR]]<br>
'''+232:''' [[Sierra Leone|SL]]<br>
'''+233:''' [[Ghana|GH]]<br>
'''+234:''' [[Nigeria|NG]]<br>
'''+235:''' [[Chad|TD]]<br>
'''+236:''' [[Central African Republic|CF]]<br>
'''+237:''' [[Cameroon|CM]]<br>
'''+238:''' [[Cape Verde|CV]]<br>
'''+239:''' [[São Tomé and Príncipe|ST]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+240:''' [[Equatorial Guinea|GQ]]<br>
'''+241:''' [[Gabon|GA]]<br>
'''+242:''' [[Republic of Congo|CG]]<br>
'''+243:''' [[Democratic Republic of Congo|CD]]<br>
'''+244:''' [[Angola|AO]]<br>
'''+245:''' [[Guinea-Bissau|GW]]<br>
'''+246:''' [[British Indian Ocean Territory|IO]]<br>
'''+247:''' [[Ascension Island|AC]]<br>
'''+248:''' [[Seychelles|SC]]<br>
'''+249:''' [[Sudan|SD]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+250:''' [[Rwanda|RW]]<br>
'''+251:''' [[Ethiopia|ET]]<br>
'''+252:''' [[Somalia|SO]]<br>
'''+253:''' [[Djibouti|DJ]]<br>
'''+254:''' [[Kenya|KE]]<br>
'''+255:''' [[Tanzania|TZ]]<br>
'''+256:''' [[Uganda|UG]]<br>
'''+257:''' [[Burundi|BI]]<br>
'''+258:''' [[Mozambique|MZ]]<br>
'''+259:''' --</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+260:''' [[Zambia|ZM]]<br>
'''+261:''' [[Madagascar|MG]]<br>
'''+262:''' [[Réunion|RE]]<br>
'''+263:''' [[Zimbabwe|ZW]]<br>
'''+264:''' [[Namibia|NA]]<br>
'''+265:''' [[Malawi|MW]]<br>
'''+266:''' [[Lesotho|LS]]<br>
'''+267:''' [[Botswana|BW]]<br>
'''+268:''' [[Swaziland|SZ]]<br>
'''+269:''' [[Comoros|KM]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+27:''' [[South Africa|ZA]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+28:''' Not used</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+290:''' [[Saint Helena|SH]]<br>
'''+291:''' [[Eritrea|ER]]<br>
'''+292:''' --<br>
'''+293:''' --<br>
'''+294:''' --<br>
'''+295:''' --<br>
'''+296:''' --<br>
'''+297:''' [[Aruba|AW]]<br>
'''+298:''' [[Faroe Islands|FO]]<br>
'''+299:''' [[Greenland|GL]]</tt>
|-
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+30:''' [[Greece|GR]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+31:''' [[Netherlands|NL]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+32:''' [[Belgium|BE]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+33:''' [[France|FR]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+34:''' [[Spain|ES]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+350:''' [[Gibraltar|GI]]<br>
'''+351:''' [[Portugal|PT]]<br>
'''+352:''' [[Luxembourg|LU]]<br>
'''+353:''' [[Republic of Ireland|IE]]<br>
'''+354:''' [[Iceland|IS]]<br>
'''+355:''' [[Albania|AL]]<br>
'''+356:''' [[Malta|MT]]<br>
'''+357:''' [[Cyprus|CY]]<br>
'''+358:''' [[Finland|FI]]<br>
'''+359:''' [[Bulgaria|BG]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>'''+36:''' [[Hungary|HU]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+370:''' [[Lithuania|LT]]<br>
'''+371:''' [[Latvia|LV]]<br>
'''+372:''' [[Estonia|EE]]<br>
'''+373:''' [[Moldova|MD]]<br>
('''+373 533:''' [[Transnistria|PMR]]) <br>
'''+374:''' [[Armenia|AM]]<br>
'''+375:''' [[Belarus|BY]]<br>
'''+376:''' [[Andorra|AD]]<br>
'''+377:''' [[Monaco|MC]]<br>
'''+378:''' [[San Marino|SM]]<br>
'''+379:''' [[Vatican City|VA]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="center" |<tt>
'''+380:''' [[Ukraine|UA]]<br>
'''+381:''' [[Serbia and Montenegro|CS]]<br>
'''+382:''' --<br>
'''+383:''' --<br>
'''+384:''' --<br>
'''+385:''' [[Croatia|HR]]<br>
'''+386:''' [[Slovenia|SI]]<br>
'''+387:''' [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|BA]]<br>
'''+388:''' [[European Telephony Numbering Space|EU]]<br>
'''+389:''' [[Republic of Macedonia|MK]]</tt>
| width="10%" align="cent |
ategory:1954 deaths|Vertov, Dziga]]
[[Category:Russian and Soviet film directors|Vertov, Dziga]]
[[de:Dsiga Wertow]]
[[cs:Dziga Vertov]]
[[es:Dziga Vertov]]
[[eo:Dziga VERTOV]]
[[fr:Dziga Vertov]]
[[lv:Dziga Vertovs]]
[[hu:Dziga Vertov]]
[[ja:ジガ・ヴェルトフ]]
[[pl:Dziga Wiertow]]
[[ru:Вертов, Дзига]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Deimos</title>
<id>8932</id>
<revision>
<id>40399991</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T07:30:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Silence</username>
<id>84942</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Deimos''', a [[Greek language|Greek]] word for "fear" or "terror", may refer to:
*[[Deimos (mythology)]], one of the sons of Ares and Aphrodite in Greek mythology.
*[[Deimos (moon)]], the smaller and outermost of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]' two [[natural satellite|moons]].
{{disambig}}
[[bg:Деймос]]
[[cs:Deimos]]
[[de:Deimos]]
[[es:Deimos]]
[[fr:Déimos]]
[[he:דימוס]]
[[lt:Deimas (reikšmės)]]
[[nl:Deimos]]
[[ja:ダイモス]]
[[ru:Деймос]]
[[uk:Деймос]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Delaware corporation</title>
<id>8933</id>
<revision>
<id>41512578</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:36:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David.Monniaux</username>
<id>22449</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv spam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''Delaware corporation''' is a [[corporation]] chartered in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Delaware]].
Delaware is well known as a [[corporate haven]], and many major corporations are chartered in Delaware. Critics of the predominance of Delaware [[corporate law]] believe that its [[law]]s and [[court]]s are excessively friendly to corporations. Proponents point out that many states' laws are more friendly to corporations than Delaware's, especially in offering protection from [[Takeover#Forms of takeover|hostile takeovers]]; they believe that Delaware's popularity has other reasons, such as the fact that, because of the large number of major corporations chartered in Delaware, the courts in that state are more experienced in the application of corporate law than the courts of other states. Disputes over the internal affairs of Delaware corporations are usually filed in the Delaware [[Court of Chancery]], which is a separate court of [[equity]] (as opposed to a [[court of law]]). Because it is a court of equity, there are no juries, and its cases are heard by the judges, called [[chancellor]]s. There is currently one Chancellor and four Vice Chancellors. The court is a trial court, with one chancellor hearing each case. Chancery litigants may appeal to the Delaware Supreme Court.
It is sometimes said that Delaware's preeminance is related to the fact that Delaware charges no [[income tax]] on corporations not operating within the state. However, in this respect Delaware is no different from other states, as no state charges income tax on out-of-state income. A state does levy a [[franchise tax]] on corporations incorporated in it. Franchise taxes in Delaware are actually far higher than in most other states, which typically charge little or nothing beyond corporate income taxes on the portion of the corporation's business done in that state. Delaware's franchise taxes supply about one-fifth of its state revenue.
Over half of publicly-traded corporations in the United States and 58% of the [[Fortune 500]] companies are incorporated in Delaware.
A similar strategy is used for financial institutions. Many U.S. states have [[usury]] laws limiting the amount of [[interest]] a lender can charge, but Federal law allows corporations to 'import' these laws from their home state. Delaware (amongst others) has relatively lax interest laws, in effect allowing banks to charge as much as they want, hence the preponderance of [[credit card]] companies in the state.
==External links==
* [http://www.state.de.us/corp Delaware Division of Corporations]
* [http://courts.state.de.us/chancery/ Delaware Court of Chancery]
* [http://corporate-law.widener.edu/ctofchan.htm Delaware Corporate Law Clearinghouse]
<!-- WARNING: NO COMMERCIAL LINKS HERE -->
[[Category:United States law]]
[[Category:Companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Government of Delaware|Corporation]]
[[Category:Corporations law]]
[[Category:Types of corporations]]
[[de:Delaware-AG]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Detroit River</title>
<id>8935</id>
<revision>
<id>39308124</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T06:15:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.9.115.61</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Lake st clair landsat.jpeg|thumb|250px|Landsat satellite photo, showing [[Lake Saint Clair (North America)|Lake Saint Clair]], as well as [[St. Clair River]] connecting it to Lake Huron (to the North) and Detroit River connecting it to [[Lake Ontario]] (to the South)]]
[[Image:DSCN4732 grosseilewaterfront e.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Detroit River seen from [[Grosse Ile Township, Michigan]]]]
The '''Detroit River''' is about 51 km (32 miles) long and 1 to 4 km (0.5 to 2.5 miles) wide in the [[Great Lakes]] system. The name comes from [[French language|French]] ''Rivière du Détroit'', i.e. "River of the [[Strait]]". The name is a reference to the fact that the river connects [[Lake Saint Clair (North America)|Lake St. Clair]] to [[Lake Erie]]. However, it is not a strait by definition. The boundary between [[Canada]] and the [[United States|United States of America]] passes through the river lengthwise. Its [[elevation]] is 175 meters (579 feet) above [[sea level]].
==Geography==
===Tributaries===
While primarily a lake outlet, the Detroit River does have a few tributaries of its own which drain 2,000 km² (772 mi²). These include the [[River Rouge (Michigan)|Rouge River]], [[Ecorse River]], Conner Creek and Marsh Creek in the U.S., and Turkey Creek, [[Little River (Ontario)|Little River]] and [[Canard River]] in Canada.
===Islands===
Islands in the Detroit River include [[Peche Island]], [[Belle Isle (Michigan)|Belle Isle]], [[Zug Island]], [[Fighting Island]], [[Grosse Ile Township, Michigan|Grosse Ile]], and [[Bois Blanc Island (Ontario)|Bois Blanc]] (a.k.a. Boblo) Island. The islands of the lower Detroit River are part of the [[Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge]].
==History==
Historical events concerning the Detroit River began with the arrival of the [[French people|French]] [[Coureur des bois|voyageurs]], the first non-natives to navigate the river and land on Detroit's shores. [[Canoe]]s made of [[birch]] or [[elm]] bark were a common mode of travel across the river, although the [[pirogue]] and [[bateaux]] were also used. The [[War of 1812]] was partially fought along the Detroit River front, and by [[1850]], the [[United States Census, 1850|census]] showed 21,019 people populated Detroit. [[Ferry|Ferries]], [[schooner]]s and [[steamboat]]s were found traveling along the river. During the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], the river was patrolled in case of a [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] attack from the [[Canada|Canadian]] north. As [[commerce]] grew, Detroit was becoming the busiest port in the world, and was dubbed "the Greatest Commercial Artery on Earth." 67,292,504 [[tonnage]] had passed through the Detroit River in [[1907]], compared with 18,727,230 through [[London]], and 20,390,953 through [[New York|New York City]]. When [[prohibition]] outlawed alcohol, the Detroit River, [[Lake St. Clair]] and the [[St. Clair River]] carried 75 percent of all liquor smuggled into the United States[http://info.detnews.com/history/story/index.cfm?id=186&category=locations].
==Bridges and crossings==
[[Image:DetroitSkyline.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Downtown Detroit as seen from the river]]
The Detroit River is spanned by three crossings between [[Detroit, Michigan]] and [[Windsor, Ontario]]. The southernmost is the [[Ambassador Bridge]], connecting [[Interstate 75|I-75]] to [[Ontario provincial highway 3|Highway 3]]. The [[Michigan Central Railway Tunnel]] carries rail traffic between the two nations, and the [[Detroit-Windsor Tunnel]] connects [[Interstate 375 (Michigan)|I-375]] and [[Michigan State Highway 10|M-10]] to [[Ontario provincial highway 3B|Highway 3B]]. Two bridges connect Grosse Ile to the mainland U.S. and one bridge connects Belle Isle to Detroit.
==Modern uses==
The Detroit River supplies the drinking water for over five million people and was designated an [[American Heritage Rivers|American Heritage River]] in [[1998]]. A shipping channel for the [[Great Lakes Waterway]] system is maintained in the river. The river flows past the American towns of [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[River Rouge, Michigan|River Rouge]], [[Ecorse, Michigan|Ecorse]], [[Wyandotte, Michigan|Wyandotte]], [[Grosse Ile Township, Michigan|Grosse Ile]], [[Riverview, Wayne County, Michigan|Riverview]], [[Trenton, Michigan|Trenton]], and [[Gibraltar, Michigan|Gibraltar]] and the Canadian towns of [[Windsor, Ontario|Windsor]], [[LaSalle, Ontario|LaSalle]] and [[Amherstburg, Ontario|Amherstburg]].
==See also==
*[[List of Michigan rivers]]
*[[List of Ontario rivers]]
==External links==
*[http://www.chrs.ca/Rivers/Detroit/Detroit_e.htm Detroit River, Canadian Heritage River site]
*[http://www.epa.gov/rivers/98rivers/detroit.html US EPA page on Detroit RIver]
*[http://www.greenwaycollab.com/images/DET_RIV/DROM.gif External link with map and satellite photo]
[[Category:American Heritage Rivers]]
[[Category:Detroit River| ]]
[[de:Detroit River]]
[[et:Detroiti jõgi]]
[[ja:デトロイト川]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Drunkeness</title>
<id>8936</id>
<revision>
<id>32808681</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-26T22:55:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nikai</username>
<id>9759</id>
</ |
ed how fast dinosaurs could run,{{ref|gaitdinospeed}}{{ref|speedcalculator}} whether [[diplodocid]]s could create [[sonic boom]]s via [[whip]]-like tail snapping,{{ref|boom}} whether giant theropods had to slow down when rushing for food to avoid fatal injuries,{{ref|hastydino}} and if sauropods could float.{{ref|floatingdino}}
==Study of dinosaurs==
Knowledge about dinosaurs is derived from a variety of fossil and non-fossil records, including [[fossil]]ized [[bone]]s, [[feces]], [[trackway]]s, [[gastrolith]]s, [[feather]]s, impressions of [[skin]], [[Viscus|internal organs]] and [[soft tissue]]s.{{ref|softtissue}}{{ref|trextissue}} Many fields of study contribute to our understanding of dinosaurs, including [[physics]], [[chemistry]], [[biology]], and the [[earth sciences]] (of which [[paleontology]] is a sub-discipline).
Dinosaur remains have been found on every continent on Earth, including [[Antarctica]]. Numerous fossils of the same dinosaur species have been found on completely different continents, corroborating the generally-accepted theory that all land masses were at one time connected in a super-continent called [[Pangaea]]. Pangaea began to break apart during the [[Triassic]] period roughly 230 million years ago.{{ref|joined}}
===The current "dinosaur renaissance"===
The field of dinosaur research has enjoyed a surge in activity that began in the 1970s and is ongoing. This was triggered, in part, by [[John Ostrom]]'s discovery of ''[[Deinonychus]]'', an active, vicious [[predator]] that may have been [[warm-blooded]] (homeothermic), in marked contrast to the prevailing image of dinosaurs as sluggish and [[cold-blooded]]. [[Vertebrate paleontology]], arguably the primary scientific discipline involved in dinosaur research, has become a global [[science]]. Major new dinosaur discoveries have been made by paleontologists working in previously unexploited regions, including [[India]], [[South America]], [[Madagascar]], [[Antarctica]], and most significantly in [[China]] (the amazingly well-preserved [[feathered dinosaurs]] in [[China]] have further solidified the link between dinosaurs and their living descendants, modern [[bird]]s). The widespread application of [[cladistics]], which rigorously analyzes the relationships between biological organisms, has also proved tremendously useful in [[scientific classification|classifying]] dinosaurs. Cladistic analysis, among other modern techniques, helps to compensate for an often incomplete and fragmentary [[fossil record]].
===Classification===
''Main article'': [[List of dinosaur classifications|Dinosaur classification]]
Dinosaurs (including birds) are [[archosaur]]s, like modern [[crocodilia|crocodilian]]s. Archosaurs' [[diapsid]] skulls have two holes located where the jaw muscles attach, called [[temporal fenestrae]]. Most reptiles (including birds) are diapsids; mammals, with only one temporal fenestra, are called [[synapsid]]s; and [[turtle]]s, with no temporal fenestra, are [[anapsid]]s. Anatomically, dinosaurs share many other archosaur characteristics, including teeth that grow from sockets rather than as direct extensions of the jawbones. Within the archosaur group, dinosaurs are differentiated most noticeably by their gait. Dinosaur legs extend directly beneath the body, whereas the legs of lizards and crocodylians sprawl out to either side. All dinosaurs were land animals.
Many other types of reptiles lived at the same time as the dinosaurs. Some of these are commonly, but incorrectly, thought of as dinosaurs, including [[plesiosaur]]s (which are not closely related to the dinosaurs) and [[pterosaurs]], which developed separately from reptilian ancestors in the late Triassic period.
Dinosaurs are divided into two [[Order (biology)|orders]], the ''[[Saurischia]]'' and the ''[[Ornithischia]]'', on the basis of their hip structure. Saurischians (from the Greek meaning "[[lizard]] hip") are dinosaurs that originally retained the hip structure of their ancestors. They include all the [[Theropoda|theropods]] (bipedal [[carnivore]]s) and [[Sauropoda|sauropod]]s (long-necked [[herbivore]]s). Ornithischians (from the Greek meaning "bird-hip") is the other dinosaurian order, most of which were [[quadruped]]al herbivores.
<center>
{|
| width=50% valign=top|
[[Image:Saurischia.png|thumb|220px|[[Saurischia]]n pelvis structure.]]
| width=50% valign=top|
[[Image:Ornithischia.png|thumb|220px|[[Ornithischia]]n pelvis structure.]]
|}
</center>
The following is a simplified classification of dinosaurs familes. A more detailed version can be found at [[List of dinosaur classifications]].
The dagger (&dagger;) is used to indicate taxa that are [[extinct]].
===Order [[Saurischia]]===
* &dagger;(unranked) [[Herrerasauria]]
* Suborder [[Theropoda]]
** &dagger;Superfamily [[Coelophysoidea]]
** &dagger;Infraorder [[Ceratosauria]]
*** &dagger;Family [[Abelisauridae]]
** (unranked) [[Tetanurae]]
*** &dagger;Superfamily [[Megalosauroidea]]
*** &dagger;Infraorder [[Carnosauria]]
*** Infraorder [[Coelurosauria]]
**** &dagger;Family [[Coeluridae]]
**** &dagger;Superfamily [[Tyrannosauridae|Tyrannosauroidea]]
**** &dagger;(unranked) [[Ornithomimidae|Ornithomimosauria]]
**** (unranked) [[Maniraptora]]
***** &dagger;(unranked) Oviraptoriformes
****** &dagger;Superfamily [[Therizinosauria]]
****** &dagger;Superfamily [[Oviraptorosauria]]
***** &dagger;(unranked) [[Deinonychosauria]]
****** &dagger;Family [[Troodontidae]]
****** &dagger;Family [[Dromaeosauridae]]
***** Class [[Aves]] (birds)
* &dagger;Suborder [[Sauropodomorpha]]
** &dagger;''[[Thecodontosaurus]]''
** &dagger;Infraorder [[Prosauropoda]]
** &dagger;Infraorder [[Sauropoda]]
*** &dagger;Superfamily [[Diplodocoidea]]
*** &dagger;(unranked) [[Macronaria]]
**** &dagger;Superfamily [[Titanosauriformes]]
***** &dagger;Family [[Brachiosauridae]]
***** &dagger;(unranked) [[Titanosauria]]
=== Order [[Ornithischia]] ===
* &dagger;Suborder [[Thyreophora]]
** &dagger;Superfamily [[Stegosauria]]
** &dagger;Superfamily [[Ankylosauria]]
* &dagger;(unranked) [[Cerapoda]]
** &dagger;Family [[Heterodontosauridae]]
** &dagger;Suborder Marginocephalia
*** &dagger;Superfamily [[Pachycephalosauria]]
*** &dagger;Superfamily [[Ceratopsia]]
**** &dagger;Family [[Psittacosauridae]]
**** &dagger;Family [[Protoceratopsidae]]
**** &dagger;Family [[Ceratopsidae]]
** &dagger;Suborder [[Ornithopoda]]
*** &dagger;Family [[Hypsilophodontidae]]
*** &dagger;Superfamily [[Iguanodontia]]
**** &dagger;Family [[Iguanodontidae]]
**** &dagger;Family [[Hadrosauridae]]
===Evolution===
[[Image:Eoraptor.jpg|right|thumb|210px|A reconstruction of [[Eoraptor]], an early dinosaur.]]
Dinosaurs split off from their [[archosaur]] ancestors approximately 230 million years ago during the early [[Triassic]] period, roughly 20 million years after the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]] wiped out an estimated 95 percent of all life on Earth.{{ref|permian1}} {{ref|permian2}} [[Radiometric dating]] of fossils from the early dinosaur species [[Eoraptor]] establishes its presence in the fossil record at this time. Paleontologists believe Eoraptor resembles the [[Common descent|common ancestor]] of all dinosaurs; {{ref|evolution}} if this is true, its traits suggest that the first dinosaurs were small, bipedal predators.{{ref|eoraptor}}
Also among the earliest dinosaurs was the primitive [[Lagosuchus]]; [[Saltopus]], which was barely larger than a human hand, appeared slightly later. The first few lines of primitive dinosaurs diversified rapidly through the rest of the Triassic period; dinosaur species quickly evolved the specialized features and range of sizes needed to exploit nearly every terrestrial [[ecological niche]]. During the period of dinosaur predominance, which encompassed the ensuing [[Jurassic]] and [[Cretaceous]] periods, nearly every known land animal larger than [[1 E0 m|1 meter]] in length was a dinosaur.
The [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]], which occured approximately 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period, caused the extinction of all dinosaurs except for the line that had already given rise to the first birds. Other [[diapsid]] species related to the dinosaurs also survived the event.
==Areas of debate==
===Warm-blooded?===
[[Image:ROM dinosaurs.jpg|thumb|right|210px|Dinosaur models at the [[Royal Ontario Museum]].]]
A vigorous debate on the subject of temperature regulation in dinosaurs has been ongoing since the 1960s. Originally, scientists broadly disagreed as to whether dinosaurs were capable of regulating their body temperatures at all. More recently, dinosaur [[endotherm]]y has become the consensus view, and debate has focused on the mechanisms of temperature regulation.
After dinosaurs were discovered, paleontologists first posited that they were [[ectotherm]]ic creatures: "terrible [[lizard]]s" as their name suggests. This supposed cold-bloodedness implied that dinosaurs were relatively slow, sluggish organisms, comparable to modern reptiles, which need external sources of heat in order to regulate their body temperature. Dinosaur ectothermy remained a prevalent view until [[Robert T. Bakker|Robert T. "Bob" Bakker]], an early proponent of dinosaur endothermy, published an influential paper on the topic in 1968.
Modern evidence indicates that dinosaurs thrived in cooler temperate climates, and that at least some dinosaur species must have regulated their body temperature by internal biological means (perhaps aided by the animals' bulk). Evidence of [[endotherm]]ism in dinosaurs includes the discovery of [[polar dinosaurs in Australia]] and [[Antarctica]] (where they would have experienced a cold, dark six-month winter), the discovery of dinosaurs whose feathers may have |
]]'', and ''[[World of Warcraft]]'', Gnomes are a short race of humanoids closely related to [[Dwarves]], and are exceptionally adept at tinkering and mechanics. This often results in they and their allies having technologies not normally found in fantasy settings, such as firearms or robot-like beings. See also [[Gnome (Warcraft)]].
*[[Dave Duncan (writer)|Dave Duncan]] has gnomes in his ''A Handful of Men'' tetralogy, where they are depicted as filth-eating tunnel-grubbers, somewhat like [[Dragonlance]]'s gully dwarves.
*The ''[[Harry Potter]]'' novels also contain references to gnomes. In chapter three of ''[[Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets]]'' Harry Potter and Ron, Fred, and George [[Weasley]] had to de-gnome their garden by picking up the gnomes by the feet, spinning them around, and throwing them as far away as they could. The gnomes are described as "small and leathery looking, with a large, knobby, bald head exactly like a potato." They also have "horny little feet" and "razor sharp teeth." They live in holes in the ground called "gnome holes."
*The seminal psychedelic band [[Gong (band)|Gong]] first shared with the world news of "Radio Gnome", the means by which we may communicate with the Planet Gong.
*The Washington, DC based vaudeville/rock n' roll band The Cassettes are known for their songs about Gnomes in particularly their song "Rogue Gnome" based off Romanian and Scandinavian folklore.
* [http://gnome-world-domination.drinspaek.com/ Gnome World Domination] is a cult effort to propel gnomes into positions of social power
* [http://www.bifrost.com.au/hosting/gnomes/ Die Screaming With Sharp Things in Your Head] is an organization that mutilates garden gnomes and displays the results for all to see
* [http://www.garden-gnomes-need-homes.com/history-of-garden-gnomes-1.htm A History of Garden Gnomes]
* [http://www.gardengnomefromhell.com/ Garden Gnome From Hell] exists to warn mankind about evil gnomes.
* [http://www.gnomereserve.co.uk The Gnome Reserve and Wildflower Garden ]in North Devon 4 acres open to the public, fun for all ages. Also housing a museum of antique gnomes.
* In an [[Gnomes (South Park episode)|episode]] of [[South Park]], the Underpants Gnomes are a community of underground gnomes who steal underpants as part of an ill-formed business plan.
==See also==
{{Commons|Category:Garden gnomes|Garden gnomes}}
*[[Dwarf]]
*[[Erdgeist]]
*[[German folklore]]
*[[Kallikantzaroi]]
*[[Leprechaun]]
*[[Lord Gnome]]
*[[Sprite (creature)]]
*[[Tomte]]
*[[Troll]]
*[[Vetter]]
[[Category:European folklore]]
[[Category:Legendary creatures]]
[[de:Gnom (Mythologie)]]
[[eo:Gnomo]]
[[es:Gnomo]]
[[fr:Gnome (créature fantastique)]]
[[it:Gnomo]]
[[ja:&#12494;&#12540;&#12512;]]
[[nl:Kabouter]]
[[nn:Hagenisse]]
[[pl:Gnom]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GNOME</title>
<id>12362</id>
<revision>
<id>42155544</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:38:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.223.113.196</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the GNOME project and desktop environment. For other uses of the term, see [[Gnome (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox_Software
| name = The GNOME Project
| logo = [[Image:gnomelogo.png|75px]]
| screenshot = [[Image:gnome-screenshot2.png|300px]]
| caption = GNOME screenshot showing the [[Evince]] PDF Viewer and [[Totem (media player)|Totem]] media player
| developer = GNOME developers
| latest_release_version = 2.12
| latest_release_date = [[September 7]], [[2005]]
| operating_system = [[Cross-platform]]
| genre = [[Desktop environment]]
| license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] and [[GNU Lesser General Public License|LGPL]] | website = [http://www.gnome.org/ www.gnome.org]
}}
The '''GNOME''' project is an international effort to create an easy-to-use computer [[desktop environment]] built entirely from software considered [[free software|free]] by the [[Free Software Foundation]].
A great deal of software is created or hosted under the umbrella of the GNOME project, some of which is collected and released together as '''The GNOME Desktop'''. The Desktop is then further combined with other software (such as a [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]]) to create a fully functional computer system, such as a [[GNU/Linux]] distribution or [[Sun Microsystems]]' [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]].
GNOME is the official desktop of the [[GNU Project]] and the correct [[IPA chart for English|pronunciation]] of the name is {{IPA|/gəˈnəʊm/}}. The name was created as an acronym of '''GNU Network Object Model Environment''', but usage of the full expansion is now considered obsolete.
==Aims==
According to the GNOME website,
:''"The GNOME project provides two things: The GNOME desktop environment, an intuitive and attractive desktop for end-users, users, and the GNOME development platform, an extensive framework for building applications that integrate into the rest of the desktop. "'' {{ref|aboutgnome}}
The GNOME project puts heavy emphasis on simplicity, usability and making things "just work". As a consequence of this, two things are given prominence:
* [[Computer accessibility|Accessibility]] &mdash; ensuring the desktop can be used by everyone, regardless of technical skill or physical disability
* [[Internationalization and localization|Internationalisation]] &mdash; ensuring the desktop is available in many languages
In addition to providing an easy-to-use desktop for users, the GNOME project also aims to make the development of application software easier by providing many of the services expected in a modern environment and promoting the reuse of code.
==Origin==
The GNOME project was started in August 1997 by [[Miguel de Icaza]] and [[Federico Mena]] in response to licensing concerns over software used by [[KDE]], a free software desktop environment that relies on the [[Qt (toolkit)|Qt]] [[widget toolkit]]. At the time, Qt did not use a [[free software license]] and members of the GNU project became concerned about the use of such a toolkit for building a free software desktop and applications. Two projects were started: [[Harmony toolkit|Harmony]], to create a Free replacement for the Qt libraries, and the GNOME project to create a new desktop without Qt and built entirely on top of free software.{{ref|harmonyandgnome}}
In November 1998, the Qt toolkit was licensed under the open source [[Q Public License]] (QPL), but debate continued about compatibility with the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL). In September 2000, Trolltech made the [[GNU/Linux]] version of the Qt libraries available under the GPL, in addition to the QPL, thereby removing most of the objections that had fuelled years of licensing debates.{{ref|gplcompat}} The licensing of Qt is still controversial for some because the use of the GPL for a library imposes restrictions on the licensing of code [[linker|linking]] to it, such as applications and libraries using the KDE/Qt framework. In particular, in order to develop [[proprietary software]] with KDE and Qt, it is necessary to purchase a commercial license from Trolltech.
[[Image:GNOME-Screenshot-2.13-Jp.png|thumb|right|300px|GNOME 2.13.3 (development version) using the [[Japanese language]], with [[Tango Desktop Project]] pre-release icons.]]
In place of the Qt toolkit, the [[GTK+]] toolkit was chosen as the base of the GNOME desktop. GTK+ uses the [[GNU Lesser Public License]] (LGPL), a free software license that allows software linking to it, such as applications written for GNOME, to use a much wider set of licenses, including proprietary software licenses.{{ref|reverseengineering}} The GNOME desktop itself is licensed under the LGPL for its libraries, and the GPL for applications that are part of the GNOME project itself.
The GNOME desktop is written in the [[C programming language]]. A number of language bindings are available, allowing GNOME applications to be written in a variety of languages, such as [[C++]], [[Java programming language|Java]], [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]], [[C Sharp|C#]], [[Python programming language|Python]], [[Perl]] and many others.
The name "GNOME" was proposed by Elliot Lee, one of the authors of [[ORBit]] and the [[Object Activation Framework]] (OAF). It refers to the possibilities that people, at the time, thought [[CORBA]] would bring to a desktop environment &mdash; a Network Object Model. Since that no longer reflects the core vision of the GNOME project, many members of the project advocate dropping the acronym and re-naming "GNOME" to "Gnome".
==Organisation==
<!-- please do not change the spelling of "Organisation", see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:GNOME/Archive1#Spelling_-_copied_from_my_.28Motor.29_talk_page -->
In common with most free software projects, the GNOME project is loosely organised. Discussion occurs on a number of mailing lists that are open to anyone.{{ref|mailinglists}} In August 2000 the [[GNOME Foundation]] was set up to deal with administrative tasks, press interest and to act as a contact point for companies interested in developing GNOME software. The foundation, while not directly involved in technical decisions, does coordinate releases and decide which projects will be part of GNOME. According to the foundation's website, the qualifications for membership are,
:''"Per the GNOME Foundation's charter, any contributor to GNOME is eligible for membership. Although it is difficult to specify a precise definition, a contributor generally must have contributed to a non-trivial improvement of the GNOME Project. Contributions may be code, documentation, translations, maintenance of project-wide resources, or other non-trivial activities which benefit the GNOME Project."''{{ref|founda |
ith the maleable nature of human behaviour, it will be some time before the history and nature of all forms of human sexual behaviour are truly known.
==Psychological factors relating to sexuality==
''Main article'': [[Sexual orientation]]
A broad array of opinion holds that much human behavior ultimately is explainable in terms of [[natural selection]]. From this point of view, the shifting social balance between heterosexual and homosexual desire has evolved as a fitter survival strategy for the species than either an exclusively heterosexual or homosexual configuration of desire.
In traditional societies individuals are often under heavy social pressure to marry and have children, irrespective of their sexual orientation. In modern society, many homosexual people who wish to have children have found a way to satisfy their nurturing instincts, either through fostering or adopting children, or through [[Artificial insemination|artificial]] or [[sexual intercourse|natural insemination]].
Not all people who are attracted to, or have sexual relationships with members of the opposite sex identify themselves as heterosexual: people who do not identify primarily as heterosexual may sometimes engage in heterosexual behaviour. Similarly, some people frequently have sex with members of the same sex yet still see themselves as heterosexual. (See ''bisexuality'')
According to [[American Psychiatric Association]] (APA), there are numerous theories about the origins of a person's sexual orientation, but some believe that "sexual orientation is most likely the result of a complex interaction of environmental, cognitive and biological factors", and that genetic factors play a "significant role" in determining a person's sexuality.[[Heterosexuality#References|<nowiki>[5]</nowiki>]] The APA currently officially states that sexual orientation is not chosen and cannot be changed, a radical reversal from the recent past, when non-normative sexuality was considered a deviancy or mental ailment treatable through institutionalization or other radical means.
==Slang==
The term "''straight''" is a mid-20th century [[gay slang]] term for heterosexuals, ultimately coming from the phrase "''to go straight''" (as in "straight and narrow"), or stop being gay [[Heterosexuality#References|<nowiki>[3]</nowiki>]]. One of the first uses of the word in this way was in [[1941]] by author [[G. W. Henry]]. Henry's book concerned conversations with homosexual males and used this term in connection with the reference to ''[[ex-gay]]s''. Though not originally intended to refer to heterosexuals, like the meanings of many words, its primary usage has changed over time.
The term ''breeder'', a word which is [[Animal husbandry|normally applied to non-human animals]], is sometimes used as an offensive slur to describe heterosexuals.
==References==
# "''[http://www.hyperdictionary.com/dictionary/heterosexualism Heterosexualism]''". [[Dictionary#List of online dictionaries|HyperDictionary]].com, Webnox Corp. (Cited February 13, 2004)
# Wikholm, Andrew, "''[http://www.gayhistory.com/rev2/words/heterosexual.htm Words: Heterosexual]''". Gay History.com. (Cited February 14, 2004)
# "''[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A412570 Straight, Ex-gay]''". Descriptors for Sexual Minorities. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/hitchhikers/ The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy], [[H2G2]]. [[BBC]]. (Cited February 14, 2004)
# "''[http://www.apa.org/pubinfo/answers.html Answers to Your Questions About Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality]''" [[American Psychiatric Association]]. (Cited February 9, 2004)
# "''[http://www.worldsexexplorer.com/heterosexual-sex.html Heterosexual Sex]''". World Sex Explorer. (Cited February 14, 2004)
# Katz, Jonathan Ned (1995) ''The Invention of Heterosexuality''. NY, NY: Dutton (Penguin Books). ISBN 0525938451.
==See also==
* [[Heteronormativity]]
* [[Sexual orientation]]
** [[Bisexuality]]
** [[Demographics of sexual orientation]]
** [[Environment, choice, and sexual orientation]]
** [[Genetics and sexual orientation]]
** [[Homosexuality]]
** [[:Category:Sexual orientation and society]]
** [[:Category:Ex-gay movement]]
** [[:Category:LGBT]]
* [[Human sexuality]]
** [[Critiques of sexual behavior]]
** [[:Category:Sexuality]]
** [[:Category:Sexology]]
** [[:Category:Marriage]]
** [[:Category:Sexual fidelity]]
** [[:Category:Group sex]]
** [[:Category:Intimate relationships]] (dating, courtship, etc.)
==Books==
* Kinsey, Alfred C., et al., "''Sexual Behavior in the Human Male''". Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253334128
* Kinsey, Alfred C., et al., "''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female''". Indiana University Press. ISBN 025333411X
* Musser, Trevor J., a well known heterosexual wrote "Loving women". Ohio University Press. ISBN 12243637134
==External links==
* Keel, Robert O., "''[http://www.umsl.edu/~rkeel/200/hetsex.html Heterosexual Deviance]''". (Goode, 1994, chapter 8, and Chapter 9, 6th edition, 2001.) Sociology of Deviant Behavior: FS 2003, University of Missouri - St. Louis.
* "''[http://www.yaledailynews.com/article.asp?AID=24682 Heterosexual partner rights raise questions]''". The News' View, Yale Daily News Publishing Company. [[January 27]], [[2004]].
* Coleman, Thomas F., "''[http://www.unmarriedamerica.org/dp-wrong.html What's Wrong with Excluding Heterosexual Couples from Domestic Partner Benefits Programs]?''". [http://www.unmarriedamerica.org/ Unmarried America], American Association for Single People.
* "''[http://male101.com/heterosexuality.html Confidential Heterosexuality]''". Heterosexual Experience Stories. Raw Psychology Productions.
[[Category:Sexual orientation]]
[[Category:Sexual orientation and identity]]
[[ar:مغايرة]]
[[cs:Heterosexualita]]
[[de:Heterosexualität]]
[[fr:Hétérosexualité]]
[[gd:Comhair-mhiannachd]]
[[he:הטרוסקסואליות]]
[[ja:異性愛]]
[[nl:Heteroseksualiteit]]
[[pl:Heteroseksualizm]]
[[pt:Heterossexualidade]]
[[ro:Heterosexualitate]]
[[ru:Гетеросексуальность]]
[[simple:Heterosexual]]
[[fi:Heteroseksuaalisuus]]
[[sv:Heterosexualitet]]
[[tr:Heteroseksüel]]
[[zh:异性恋]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hopewell Centre, Hong Kong</title>
<id>14086</id>
<revision>
<id>39308605</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T06:20:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gsblo</username>
<id>324458</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HKHopewellCentre.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hopewell Centre with the ruins of an old mansion in the foreground.]]
'''Hopewell Centre''' (合和中心) is a [[skyscraper]] in [[Hong Kong]]. It is located at 183 [[Queen's Road]] East, in [[Wan Chai]] on [[Hong Kong Island]]. It is the first circular skycraper in Hong Kong.
The 64-storey building is 216 metres tall. Construction started in [[1977]] and was completed in [[1980]]. Upon completion, Hopewell Centre replaced [[Jardine House]] as Hong Kong's tallest building. It was also the second tallest building in Asia. It kept its title in Hong Kong until [[1989]], when the [[Bank of China Tower]] was completed.
The building uses a circular [[floor plan]]. Although the front entrance is on the 'ground floor', commuters are taken through a set of escalators to the 3rd floor elevator lobby. Hopewell Center stands on the slope of a hill so steep that the building has its back entrance on the 17th floor towards [[Kennedy Road, Hong Kong|Kennedy Road]]. There is a circular private swimming pool on the roof of the building.
A [[revolving restaurant]] located on the 62nd floor, called [http://www.r66.com.hk/main.html Revolving 66 (aka R66)], overlooks other tall buildings below and [[Victoria Harbour|the harbour]]. It was originally called Revolving 62, but soon changed its name as locals kept calling it Revolving 66. It serves a buffet lunch for [[Hong Kong dollar|HK$]]168 (as of 2000) and rotates once per hour. Passengers take either office elevators (faster) or the scenic elevators (with a view) to the 56/F, where they transfer to smaller elevators up to the 62/F.
The building comprises of several groups of elevators manufactured and maintained by Schindler Elevator Corporation. Lobbies are on the 3rd and 17th floor, and are connected to Queen's Road East and Kennedy Road respectively. A mini-skylobby is on the 56th floor and serves as a transfer floor for eaters heading to the 60/F and 62/F restaurants. Hopewell head Wu Ying Sheung has his office on the top floor.
The building's white 'bumps' between the windows have built in window-washer guide rails.
This skyscraper was the filming location for R&B group [[Dru Hill]]'s music video for "How Deep Is Your Love," directed by [[Brett Ratner]], who also directed the movie [[Rush Hour]], whose soundtrack features the song.
==Access==
* [[MTR]] [[Wan Chai (MTR)|Wan Chai Station]] Exit A3, followed by a 5-10 minute walk south through the Wan Chai market.
==See also==
* [[Hopewell Holdings Ltd]]
* [[Central Plaza, Hong Kong]]
* [[The Center, Hong Kong]]
* [[List of buildings and structures in Hong Kong]]
==External links==
* [http://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=244 Description at skyscraperpage.com]
* [http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=121026 Description at emporis.com]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Hong+Kong&ll=22.274761,114.171295&spn=0.003575,0.005667&t=k&hl=en Satellite view of the site]
[[Category:Skyscrapers in Hong Kong]]
[[category:Wan Chai]]
[[zh:合和中心]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heliopause</title>
<id>14087</id>
<revision>
<id>41269017</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T04:45:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MattKingston</username>
<id>78102</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>when things rel |
PA|ɴ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" colspan="6" style="background:#ccc" | &nbsp;
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
| class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless bilabial plosive|{{IPA|p}}]] [[voiced bilabial plosive|{{IPA|b}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless labiodental plosive|*]] [[voiced labiodental plosive|*]]
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" |[[voiceless alveolar plosive|{{IPA|t}}]] [[voiced alveolar plosive|{{IPA|d}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless retroflex plosive|{{IPA|ʈ}}]] [[voiced retroflex plosive|{{IPA|ɖ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless palatal plosive|{{IPA|c}}]] [[voiced palatal plosive|{{IPA|ɟ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless velar plosive|{{IPA|k}}]] [[voiced velar plosive|{{IPA|ɡ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" | [[voiceless uvular plosive|{{IPA|q}}]] [[voiced uvular plosive|{{IPA|ɢ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" | &nbsp;
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" | [[epiglottal plosive|{{IPA|ʡ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" style="width: 1em;" | [[glottal stop|{{IPA|ʔ}}]]
| style="width: 1em; background:#ccc" | &nbsp;
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless bilabial fricative|{{IPA|ɸ}}]] [[voiced bilabial fricative|{{IPA|β}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless labiodental fricative|{{IPA|f}}]] [[voiced labiodental fricative|{{IPA|v}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless dental fricative|{{IPA|θ}}]] [[voiced dental fricative|{{IPA|ð}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless alveolar fricative|{{IPA|s}}]] [[voiced alveolar fricative|{{IPA|z}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʃ}}]] [[voiced postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʒ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless retroflex fricative|{{IPA|ʂ}}]] [[voiced retroflex fricative|{{IPA|ʐ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless palatal fricative|{{IPA|ç}}]] [[voiced palatal fricative|{{IPA|ʝ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless velar fricative|{{IPA|x}}]] [[voiced velar fricative|{{IPA|ɣ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" style="width: 1em;" | [[voiceless uvular fricative|{{IPA|χ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" rowspan="2" style="width: 1em;" | [[voiced uvular fricative|{{IPA|ʁ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" style="width: 1em;" | [[voiceless pharyngeal fricative|{{IPA|ħ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" rowspan="2" style="width: 1em;" | [[voiced pharyngeal fricative|{{IPA|ʕ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" style="width: 1em;" | [[voiceless epiglottal fricative|{{IPA|ʜ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" rowspan="2" style="width: 1em;" | [[voiced epiglottal fricative|{{IPA|ʢ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" rowspan="2" colspan="2" | [[voiceless glottal fricative|{{IPA|h}}]] [[voiced glottal fricative|{{IPA|ɦ}}]]
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | [[Approximant consonant|Approx&shy;imant]]
| class="nounderlines" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[bilabial approximant|{{IPA|β̞}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[labiodental approximant|{{IPA|ʋ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[alveolar approximant|{{IPA|ɹ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[retroflex approximant|{{IPA|ɻ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[palatal approximant|{{IPA|j}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[velar approximant|{{IPA|ɰ}}]]
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
| class="nounderlines" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[bilabial trill|{{IPA|ʙ}}]]
|
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[alveolar trill|{{IPA|r}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[retroflex trill|{{IPA|*}}]]
|
| class="nounderlines" style="background:#ccc" |
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[uvular trill|{{IPA|ʀ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[epiglottal trill|*]]
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" | &nbsp;
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | [[Flap consonant|Tap or Flap]]
| class="nounderlines" |&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[bilabial flap|*]]
| class="nounderlines" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[labiodental flap|ѵ]]<small><sup>†</sup></small>
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" |&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[alveolar tap|{{IPA|ɾ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[retroflex flap|{{IPA|ɽ}}]]
| &nbsp;
| class="nounderlines" style="background:#ccc" |
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" | &nbsp;
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[epiglottal flap|*]]
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" | &nbsp;
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral Fricative]]
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" | [[voiceless alveolar lateral fricative|{{IPA|ɬ}}]] [[voiced alveolar lateral fricative|{{IPA|ɮ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless retroflex lateral fricative|*]]&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
| class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless palatal lateral fricative|*]]&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
| class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless velar lateral fricative|*]]&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| class="nounderlines" colspan="7" style="background:#ccc" | &nbsp;
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral Approx&shy;imant]]
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" style="background:#ccc" |
| class="nounderlines" colspan="3" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[alveolar lateral approximant|{{IPA|l}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[retroflex lateral approximant|{{IPA|ɭ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[palatal lateral approximant|{{IPA|ʎ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[velar lateral approximant|{{IPA|ʟ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| class="nounderlines" colspan="7" style="background:#ccc" |
|- style="font-size: 120%;"
! style="font-size: x-small; text-align:left" | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral Flap]]
| class="nounderlines" colspan=2 style="background:#ccc" | &nbsp;
| class="nounderlines" colspan=3 | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[alveolar lateral flap|{{IPA|ɺ}}]]
| class="nounderlines" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[retroflex lateral flap|*]]
| class="nounderlines" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[palatal lateral flap|*]]
| class="nounderlines" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[[velar lateral flap|*]]
| class="nounderlines" colspan="2" | &nbsp;
| class="nounderlines" colspan="7" style="background:#ccc" | &nbsp;
|}
Notes:
* Asterisks (*) mark reported sounds that do not (yet) have official IPA symbols. See the articles for ''ad hoc'' symbols found in the literature.
* Daggers (†) mark IPA symbols that do not yet have official [[Unicode]] support. Since May 2005, this is the case of the [[labiodental flap]], symbolized by a right-hook ''v'': [[Image:Labiodental flap (Gentium).png|20px|Labiodental flap]] [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/N2945.pdf]. In the meantime the similarly shaped [[izhitsa]] (ѵ) is used here.
* In rows where some symbols appear in pairs (the ''[[obstruent]]s''), the symbol to the right represents a [[voiced consonant]] (except for [[breathy voice|breathy-voiced]] {{IPA|[ɦ]}}). However, {{IPA|[ʔ]}} cannot be voiced. In the other rows (the ''[[sonorant]]s''), the single symbol represents a voiced consonant.
* Although there is a single symbol for the coronal places of articulation for all consonants but fricatives, when dealing with a particular language, the symbols are treated as specifically alveolar, post-alveolar, ''etc.'', as appropriate for that language.
* Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible.
* The symbols {{IPA|[ʁ, ʕ, ʢ]}} represent either voiced fricatives or approximants.
* It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives {{IPA|[ʃ ʒ]}}, {{IPA|[ɕ ʑ]}}, and {{IPA|[ʂ ʐ]}}. |
best known for his work at Bell Labs, where he was a member of the Unix team and was involved in the creation of the Plan 9 and Inferno operating systems.
*[[Richard Stallman]], the founder of the free software movement and the GNU project, and wrote the early versions of Emacs and gcc.
*[[Ken Thompson]] and [[Dennis Ritchie]], who created Unix in 1969. Ritchie is also notable for having created the C programming language.
*[[Guido van Rossum]], the creator of the Python programming language.
*[[Wietse Venema ]], best known for writing the Postfix mail system.
*[[Larry Wall]], the creator of the Perl programming language.
*[[Steve Wozniak]], a co-founder of Apple Computer (with [[Steve Jobs]]). Got his start making devices for phone phreaking, with a hand from [[John Draper]].
===Security Experts===
*[[Fyodor]] — The author of Nmap & STC.
*[[Johan Helsingius|Johan "Julf" Helsingius]] — Operated the world's most popular anonymous remailer, the Penet remailer (called penet.fi), until he closed up shop in September 1996.
*[[Horatio Huxham]] — Made public a security hole in a South African banking system.
*[[Tsutomu Shimomura]] — Shimomura helped catch [[Kevin Mitnick]], the United States' most infamous computer intruder, in early 1994. He is the co-author of a book about the Mitnick case, ''Takedown: The Pursuit and Capture of Kevin Mitnick, America's Most Wanted Computer Outlaw-By the Man Who Did It'' (ISBN 0786889136).
*[[Solar Designer]] — Founder of the [[Openwall Project]].
*[[Bruce Schneier]] - Founder and [[Chief Technical Officer|CTO]] of [[Counterpane Internet Security, Inc.]]
*[[Michal Zalewski]] (lcamtuf) — Prominent security researcher.
*[[Zaraza (hacker)|Zaraza]] (3APA3A) — Russian security researcher who has located various flaws in Microsoft Windows and Unix
*[[Adrian Lamo]] - American greyhat hacker who gained notoriety by hacking high-profile organizations using common flaws in their webpages. Hacks include [[The New York Times]], [[America Online|AOL]], [[MCI Worldcom]], [[Cingular]], [[Google]], and the [[NSA]].
===Hardware modifiers===
*[[Don Lancaster]] &mdash; author of the ''Hardware Hacker'' column in [[Radio Electronics]] magazine.
*[[Stephen Wozniak]] &mdash; co-founder of [[Apple Computers]], credited with contributing greatly to the [[personal computer]] revolution of the 1970s.
===Hacker media personalities===
Listed below are individuals who, while fitting in one or more of the above categories, are more widely famous (especially among the general public) for their media presence than their technical accomplishments.
*[[Eric Gorden Corley|Eric Corley]] (a.k.a [[Emmanuel Goldstein]]) &mdash; Long standing publisher of [[2600 The Hacker Quarterly|2600: The Hacker Quarterly]] and founder of the [[H.O.P.E.]] conferences. He has been part of the hacker community since the late '70s.
* [[Cult of the Dead Cow|CULT OF THE DEAD COW]] &mdash; A high profile hacker group that has both made news and been consulted by the media on numerous occasions.
* [[Eric S. Raymond]] &mdash; One of the founders of the [[Open Source Initiative]]. He wrote the famous text [[The Cathedral and the Bazaar]] and many other essays. He also maintains the [[Jargon File]] for the [[Hacker culture]], which was previously maintained by [[Guy L. Steele, Jr.]].
* [[Bruce Perens]] &mdash; Also one of the founders of the [[Open Source Initiative]]. He was the former [[Debian GNU/Linux]] Project Leader, and is the primary author of the [[Open Source Definition]].
==See also==
*'''General'''
**[[Computer crime]]
**[[Hacker culture]]
**[[Hacker ethic]]
**[[Hacker Emblem]]
**[[Hacker Manifesto]]
**[[Biohacker]]
**[[Reality hacker]]
**[[Wetware hacker]]
**[[Information wants to be free]]
*'''Related'''
**[[Quick-and-dirty]]
**[[The Hacker Test]]
*'''Lists'''
**[[List of fictional hackers]]
== Related books ==
* {{cite book | authorlink = Steven Levy | last = Levy | first = Steven | title = [[Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution]] | year = 1984 | id = ISBN 0385191952 | publisher = Doubleday }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Bruce Sterling | last = Sterling | first = Bruce | title = The Hacker Crackdown | year = 1992 | id = ISBN 055308058X | publisher = Bantam }}
* {{cite book | last = Slatalla | first = Michelle | coauthors = Joshua Quittner | title = [[Masters of Deception]]: The Gang That Ruled Cyberspace | year = 1995 | id = ISBN 0060170301 | publisher = HarperCollins }}
* {{cite book | last = Dreyfus | first = Suelette | url = http://www.underground-book.com/ | title = Underground: Tales of Hacking, Madness and Obsession on the Electronic Frontier | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 1863305955 | publisher = Mandarin }}
==External links==
{{Sisterlinks|Hacker}}
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/faqs/hacker-howto.html How To Become A Hacker] -(a popular essay by [[Eric S. Raymond]])
*[http://www.hackerslegion.com/ Legion of Ethical Hacking]
*[http://www.hackr.org hackr.org - Hacking Challenges]
*[http://www.2600.com 2600: The Hacker Quarterly]
*[http://www.precisesecurity.com/computer-articles/ca-0001-hackingmail.htm Hacking Yahoo, Hotmail, AOL and more. Beware!]
*[http://rootboot.net Hacking related database (rootboot.net)]
*[http://stallman.org/articles/on-hacking.html On Hacking - essay by Richard Stallman]
*[http://www.hackwire.com/ Hacker News]
*[http://www.hackers.com/ Hackers.com]
*[http://www.hackergames.net/ Hacker Games]
*[http://www.hacker-dictionary.com The Hacker Dictionary]
*[http://www.thebroken.org The Broken video series on hacking]
*[http://hacks.mit.edu/ The MIT Gallery of Hacks]
*[http://www.whitedust.net/article/39/Hacking:_Art_or_Science?/ Hacking: Art or Science?] by [[Mark Hinge]]
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon The Jargon File]
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/story-of-mel.html The Story of Mel]
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/hacker-emblem The Hacker Emblem]
*[http://www.safemode.org/interviews.html Hacker Interviews]
*[http://www.benwiggy.com/hacking Hacking Information]
*[http://www.paulgraham.com/hp.html Paul Graham's ''Hackers & Painters'' Essay]
*[http://www.paulgraham.com/gh.html Paul Graham's ''Great Hackers'' Essay]
*[http://www.wpi.edu/~trb/hacker70s.html WPI Hackers of the '70s]
*[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/raymond00brief.html A Brief History of Hackerdom (2000)}]
*[http://www.learntohack.org/ Learn To Hack - Hacking Challenges]
*[http://www.wheels.org/spacewar/stone/rolling_stone.html SPACEWAR: Fanatic Life and Symbolic Death Among the Computer Bums] [[Stewart Brand]]'s 1972 article
*[http://groups-beta.google.com/group/net.flame/msg/d819f568a30ecf57 Use of the Word "Hacker" post on newsgroup net.flame]
*[http://binrev.com/ Binary Revolution] Magazine, Online Radio Show, Online TV Show, Etc.
*[http://www.hackthissite.org HackThisSite.org] A community dedicated to informing and teaching others about popular vulnerabilities in networks and websites, particularly through the use of "challenges" aimed at exploiting a simulation of a website.
*[http://www.hackcanada.com hackcanada.com] A fairly large collection of original files written mostly by canadian hackers.
*[http://www.kde.nl/people/fullarchive.html The People Behind KDE] -(a series of interviews covering a number of open-source programmers)
*[http://wikihost.org/wikis/newjargonfile/ The New Jargon File] An effort to establish an open hacker culture document, in the tradition of the Jargon File
[[Category:Computer hacking]]
[[Category:Computing culture]]
[[ar:Hacker]]
[[bs:Hacker]]
[[ca:Hacker]]
[[cs:Hacker]]
[[da:Hacker]]
[[de:Hacker]]
[[es:Hacker]]
[[fi:Hakkeri]]
[[fr:Hacker]]
[[gl:Hacker]]
[[he:האקר]]
[[hu:Hacker]]
[[it:Hacker]]
[[ja:ハッカー]]
[[ko:해커]]
[[lt:Hakeris]]
[[nl:Hacker]]
[[no:Hacker]]
[[pl:Haker]]
[[pt:Hacker]]
[[ru:Хакер]]
[[simple:Hacker]]
[[sl:Heker]]
[[sv:Hackare]]
[[th:แฮกเกอร์]]
[[tr:Hacker]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Halting Problem</title>
<id>13534</id>
<revision>
<id>15911133</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Halting problem]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heart of Darkness</title>
<id>13535</id>
<revision>
<id>41511099</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:25:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vontafeijos</username>
<id>517160</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv vandalism... and this isn't a stub, it's a very fleshed-out article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''''Heart of Darkness''''' is a [[novella]] (published [[1902]]) by [[Joseph Conrad]]. Before publication, it appeared in a three-part series in ''[[Blackwood's Magazine]]'' (1899). This highly [[symbol]]ic [[story]] is actually a story within a story, or [[frame tale]], narrated by a man named [[Marlow]] to a group of men on a ship at dusk and on into the evening. It details an incident earlier in Marlow's life, a visit up what we can assume is the [[Congo River]] (although the name of the country Marlow is visiting is never specified in the text) to investigate the work of [[Kurtz (Heart of Darkness)|Kurtz]], a [[Belgium|Belgian]] trader in [[ivory]] in the [[Congo Free State]].
The [[story within a story]] [[literary device|device]] actually descends three levels: Conrad writes the story we read, which is the account of an unnamed narrator relating Marlow's yarn of his journey down the Congo river to meet and examine the [[protagonist|central character]] Kurtz. ([[Emily Brontë]]'s ''[[Wuthering Heights]]'' and [[Mary Shelley]]'s ''[[Frankenstein]]'' used a similar device, but the most influential example remains [[Don Quixote]] by [[Miguel de Cervantes]])
==Background==
To write ''Heart of Darkness'', Conrad drew heavily from his own exper |
''<br>
[[Town]]s in [[Italy]]:
* [[Castiglion Fibocchi]], in the [[province of Arezzo ]]
* [[Castiglion Fiorentino]], in the [[province of Arezzo ]]
* [[Castiglione a Casauria]], in the [[province of Pescara]]
* [[Castiglione Chiavarese]], in the [[province of Genova]]
* [[Castiglione Cosentino]], in the [[province of Cosenza]]
* [[Castiglione d'Adda]], in the [[province of Lodi]]
* [[Castiglione dei Genovesi]], in the [[province of Salerno ]]
* [[Castiglione dei Pepoli]], in the [[province of Bologna ]]
* [[Castiglione del Lago]], in the [[province of Perugia ]]
* [[Castiglione della Pescaia]], in the [[province of Grosseto ]]
* [[Castiglione delle Stiviere]], in the [[province of Mantova ]]
* [[Castiglione di Garfagnana]], in the [[province of Lucca ]]
* [[Castiglione di Sicilia ]], in the [[province of Catania]]
* [[Castiglione d'Intelvi]], in the [[province of Como ]]
* [[Castiglione d'Orcia]], in the [[province of Siena ]]
* [[Castiglione Falletto]], in the [[province of Cuneo ]]
* [[Castiglione in Teverina]], in the [[province of Viterbo ]]
* [[Castiglione Messer Marino]], in the [[province of Chieti ]]
* [[Castiglione Messer Raimondo]], in the [[province of Teramo ]]
* [[Castiglione Marittimo]], in the [[province of Catanzaro]]
* [[Castiglione Olona]], in the [[province of Varese ]]
* [[Castiglione Tinella]], in the [[province of Cuneo ]]
* [[Castiglione Torinese]], in the [[province of Torino ]]
[[Castiglione, Haute-Corse]] is a commune of the [[Haute-Corse]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' in [[France]], on the island of [[Corsica]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Castiglione]]
[[fr:Castiglione]]
[[it:Castiglione]]
[[ru:Кастильоне]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crowley on egolessness</title>
<id>7430</id>
<revision>
<id>15905498</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-22T21:30:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stevertigo</username>
<id>4099</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect:[[Egolessness#Crowley on egolessness]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Counter-Strike</title>
<id>7431</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42102307</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:14:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.184.57.182</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>In the paragraph starting "The 'Counter-Strike' team was formed by Minh Le"... the *word* 'alot' was used, but it's two words. So I put a <space> in between.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[military tactic]] used in [[Defense (military)|defense]], see [[counterattack]].''
:''For the [[African]] [[musical group]], see [[Counter Strike]].''
{{Infobox CVG| title = Counter-Strike
| image = [[Image:Counter-Strike Box.jpg|250px|]]
| developer = [[Valve Software]]
| publisher = [[Vivendi Universal]] (PC)<br> [[Microsoft Game Studios]] (Xbox)
| designer =
| engine = [[Half-Life]] engine ([[GoldSrc]])
| released = [[June 19]] [[1999]] (Original Half-Life MOD)<BR> [[November 8]] [[2000]] (PC)<br>[[March 25]] [[2004]] (Xbox)
| genre = [[First-person shooter]]
| modes = [[Single player]], [[multiplayer]]
| ratings = [[ESRB]]: Mature 17+ (M)
| platforms = [[Personal computer|PC]], [[Xbox]]
| media = [[Compact disc|CD]] or [[Steam (content delivery)|Steam]] download
| requirements = 133 MHz [[Central processing unit|processor]], 24 MB [[RAM]]
| input =
}}
'''''Counter-Strike''''' ('''CS''') is the common name given to a series of team-based [[tactical shooter]] [[computer and video games|games]] which originate with '''''Counter-Strike''''', a [[Mod_%28computer_gaming%29#Total_conversion|total conversion mod]] of [[Valve Software]]'s [[first-person shooter]] ''[[Half-Life (computer game)|Half-Life]]''. The series also includes '''''[[Counter-Strike: Condition Zero]]''''' and '''''[[Counter-Strike: Source]]'''''.
''Counter-Strike'' pits a team of [[counter-terrorist]]s against a team of [[terrorism|terrorists]] in rounds of competition won by completing an objective or eliminating the opposing team. The latest incarnation of the game, ''[[Counter-Strike: Source]]'' (CS:S), is based on the [[Source engine]] developed for ''[[Half-Life 2]]''. CS is widely acknowledged as the most successful and popular of the [[tactical shooter]] genre. Signs of CS's wide influence can be found in mods for ''[[Quake III Arena]]'', ''[[Unreal Tournament]]'', and other standalone shooters such as ''Global Operations'' and ''[[Soldier of Fortune|Soldier of Fortune II]]''.
''CS'' has been the most widely played online FPS for the past few years and has over 19.5 million legal owners. In [[2002]] there were over 30,000 ''Counter-Strike'' servers on the [[Internet]] (second place was ''[[Unreal Tournament]]'' with about 9,800). In [[2004]], [[GameSpy]] statistics showed over 85,000 players simultaneously playing ''Counter-Strike'' at any point in time, accounting for almost 70 percent of the online FPS audience. According to statistics gathered by Valve's content-delivery platform, [[Steam (content delivery)|Steam]] ([http://steampowered.com/status/game_stats.html 1]), these players contribute to over 4.5 billion minutes of playing time each month, making it the most popular online FPS in history. CS was originally played online through the [[WON]] gaming service, but it was shut down in [[2004]], forcing players to switch to Steam (although some players responded by creating their own WON network, dubbed [[WON2]]).
==Gameplay==
''Counter-Strike'' is a team-based FPS in which players join either the Terrorists (Ts) or the Counter-Terrorists (CTs). Server settings may automatically balance when one team has more players than the other. Each round starts with the two teams [[spawning (computer gaming)|spawning]] simultaneously, as one of eight different default character models (four to choose from for both Counter-Terrorist and Terrorist. ''[[Counter-Strike: Condition Zero]]'' added two extra models, bringing the total to ten). Each player generally starts with $800, two magazines of ammunition, a knife, and a pistol: a [[Heckler & Koch USP]] .45 Tactical for CTs or a [[GLOCK 18]]c for Ts. Players are generally given a few seconds before the round begins (known as Freeze Time) to buy equipment but not move. Players may buy equipment whenever they are in a buy zone for their team (some of which can be for both teams) and the round has not been in session for longer than a specified time (90 seconds is default). Surviving players retain their equipment in the next round; those who have died begin anew with pistol and knife.
[[Image:Counterstrike-comparison.jpg|right|thumb|412px|Picture of a Terrorist using a [[Desert Eagle]] on the map de_dust in the original (left) and Source (right) versions]]
Standard bonuses in the game are:
* Win a round: $3500
* Lose a round: $1500
* Kill an enemy: $300
* Talk to a hostage: $150
* Rescue a hostage: $1000
* Plant the bomb: $800
The scoreboard shows team scores plus data for each player: name, score, deaths, and ping/latency (ms) on the map. The scoreboard also shows whether each player is dead, carrying the bomb (in bomb defusal maps), or the VIP (in assassination maps), although the player must be dead during the round to obtain this information of players on the opposing team.
Players killed become "ghosts" for the duration of the round; they cannot change their names, nor can their chat/voice messages be received by the live players (unless the [[CVAR|cvar]] sv_alltalk is set to 1). They are generally able to watch the rest of the round from multiple selectable views, although some servers disable some of these views to prevent dead players from relaying information about living players to their teammates through alternative media (most notably voice in case of [[Internet cafe]]s and players in the same rooms of their own homes, playing on the same server). This technique, known as "ghosting", is considered cheating in many tactical shooters.
''Counter-Strike'' is meant to be more realistic than futuristic FPSs such as ''[[Quake III Arena]]'' and ''[[Unreal Tournament]]'', but is also built to keep the action flowing faster than more realistic tactical shooters such as the ''[[Rainbow Six]]'' and ''[[Ghost Recon]]'' series. For example, relatively few shots will kill a player, and shots to different parts of the body inflict varying amounts of damage, but damage has no permanent bearing on ability to run or jump, allowing a player with just a few hit points remaining to keep fighting just as well as any other player. Movement, however, is restricted while taking damage from gunfire, and a player cannot run at full speed whilst taking damage.
There are several game types in ''Counter-Strike'' which define the objectives of each team in the game, and rules which determine which team wins. Each map is of a single game type.
===Bomb Defusal===
One randomly selected Terrorist begins the round carrying a bomb. The Terrorists' objective is to plant the bomb at a bomb site (of which there usually are two in a map, Bombsite-A or Bombsite-B), and ensure its detonation. If the bomb has not been planted, if all the members of one team have been eliminated, then the surviving team wins. If the bomb has been planted and proceeds to explode, the Terrorists win, but if a Counter-Terrorist defuses the bomb (Counter-Terrorists can purchase an optional kit to speed up defusal times), the Counter-Terrorists win. When the round time expires, the Counter-Terrorists win. Deaths due to the detonation of the bomb do not increment the player's death count. Maps of this type are prefixed with ''de_'' (e.g. [[de_dust]] and [[de_inferno]]). Professional tournaments are normally only played in Bomb Defusal maps.
===Hostage Rescue===
The map has [[Hostage|hostages]] (usually four) generally placed near the Te |
by the [[List of American Samoa Governors |Governor]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[American Samoa]] is a unincorporated and [[unorganized territory]] of the [[United States]], administered by the [[Office of Insular Affairs]], [[US Department of the Interior]]. Its constitution was ratified [[1966]] and came into effect [[1967]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in the two chambers of the legislature. The party system is a copy of the United States party system. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|President of the United States
|[[George W. Bush]]
|[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|[[20 January]] [[2001]]
|-
|[[List of American Samoa Governors |Governor]]
|[[Togiola Tulafono]]
|[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]
|[[26 March]] [[2003]]
|}
The [[governor]] and the [[lieutenant governor]] are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms.
==Legislative branch==
The '''Legislature''' or ''Fono'' has two [[bicameralism|chambers]]. The [[American Samoa House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] has eighteen members, elected for a two year term, seventeen in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] and one by a public meeting on [[Swain Island]]. The [[American Samoa Senate|Senate]] has eighteen members, elected for a four year term by and from the chiefs of the islands.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in American Samoa|Elections in American Samoa}}
{{American Samoa governor election, 2004}}
{{American Samoa legislative election, 2004}}
At the [[2 November]] [[2004]] election Eni F. H. Faleomavaega of the [[Democratic Party (United States)]] defeated the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] candidate and was re-elected.
==Judicial branch==
The High Court ([[chief justice]] and [[associate justices]] are appointed by the [[US Secretary of the Interior]])
===International organization participation===
ESCAP (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, SPC
{{Oceania in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Politics of American Samoa]]
[[he:&#1508;&#1493;&#1500;&#1497;&#1496;&#1497;&#1511;&#1492; &#1513;&#1500; &#1505;&#1502;&#1493;&#1488;&#1492; &#1492;&#1488;&#1502;&#1512;&#1497;&#1511;&#1488;&#1497;&#1514;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of American Samoa</title>
<id>1112</id>
<revision>
<id>35304727</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T20:06:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Natalya</username>
<id>154294</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Numbers */ disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Economy - overview:'''
This is a traditional [[Polynesia]]n economy in which more than 90% of the land is communally owned. Economic activity is strongly linked to the [[United States|US]], with which American Samoa conducts the great bulk of its foreign trade. [[Tuna]] [[fishing]] and tuna processing plants are the backbone of the private sector, with canned tuna the primary export. Transfers from the [[US Government]] add substantially to American Samoa's economic well-being. Attempts by the government to develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by Samoa's remote location, its limited transportation, and its devastating hurricanes. Tourism, a developing sector, may be held back by the current financial difficulties in East Asia.
==Numbers==
'''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]:'''
purchasing power parity - $500 million (2000 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
NA%
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $8,000 (2000 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
NA%
<br>''industry:''
NA%
<br>''services:''
NA% (2002)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA% (2002 est.)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
NA% (2003 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
14,000 (1996)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
government 33%, tuna canneries 34%, other 33% (1990)
'''Unemployment rate:'''
6% (2000)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$121 million (37% in local revenue and 63% in US grants)
<br>''expenditures:''
$127 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY96/97)
'''Industries:'''
tuna canneries (largely dependent on foreign fishing vessels), handicrafts
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%
'''Electricity - production:'''
130 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
100%
<br>''hydro:''
0%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (2001)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
120.9 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (2001)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (2001)
'''Oil - production:'''
0 barrel/day (2001 est.)
'''Oil - consumption:'''
3,800 barrel/day (604 m&sup3;/d) 2001
'''Oil - exports:'''
NA
'''Oil - imports:'''
NA
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[banana]]s, [[coconut]]s, vegetables, [[taro]], [[breadfruit]], [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]], [[copra]], [[pineapple]]s, [[papaya]]s; dairy products, livestock
'''Exports:'''
$30 million (2002)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
canned tuna 93%
'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Indonesia]] 70%, [[Australia]] 6.7%, [[Japan]] 6.7%, [[Samoa]] 6.7% (2002)
'''Imports:'''
$123 million (2002)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
materials for canneries 56%, food 8%, petroleum products 7%, machinery and parts 6%
'''Imports - partners:'''
[[Australia]] 36.6%, [[New Zealand]] 20.3%, [[South Korea]] 16.3%, [[Mauritius]] 4.9% (2002)
'''Debt - external:'''
$NA (2002 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$NA; note - important financial support from the US, more than $40 million in 1994
'''Currency:'''
US dollar (USD)
'''Currency code:'''
USD
'''Exchange rates:'''
US dollar is used
'''Fiscal year:'''
[[1 October]] - [[30 September]]
==See also==
*[[American Samoa]]
[[Category:American Samoa]]
[[Category:Economies by country|American Samoa]]
[[he:&#1499;&#1500;&#1499;&#1500;&#1514; &#1505;&#1502;&#1493;&#1488;&#1492; &#1492;&#1488;&#1502;&#1512;&#1497;&#1511;&#1488;&#1497;&#1514;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in American Samoa</title>
<id>1113</id>
<revision>
<id>39121003</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T21:20:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluemoose</username>
<id>178836</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Stamp-us-samoa.jpg|frame|Oceangoing canoe]]
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
15,000 (2001)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
2,377 (1999)
'''Telephone system:'''
<br>''domestic:''
good [[teleprinter|telex]], telegraph, facsimile and cellular telephone services; domestic satellite system with 1 [[Comsat]] earth station
<br>''international:''
country code - 1 684; satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Pacific Ocean]])
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
57,000 (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
14,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
Samoa Teleco
'''[[Internet country code]]:'''
.as
'''[[Internet]] users:'''
NA
:''See also :'' [[American Samoa]]
[[Category:American Samoa]]
[[Category:Communications by country|American Samoa]]
[[he:תקשורת בסמואה האמריקאית]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in American Samoa</title>
<id>1114</id>
<revision>
<id>41267637</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T04:32:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rt66lt</username>
<id>275075</id>
</contributor>
<comment>List of highways in AS</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''Railways:'''
0 km
'''[[Highway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
350 km
<br>''paved:''
150 km
<br>''unpaved:''
200 km
'''Ports and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Aunuu|Aunu&lsquo;u]], [[Auasi]], [[Tau, Samoa|Fale&#257;sao]], [[Ofu]], [[Pago Pago]]
'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
none (1999 est.)
'''[[Airport]]s:'''
3 (2003 est.)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
3
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''under 914 m:''
2 (2005 est.)
'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
0
:''See also :'' [[American Samoa]], [[List of highways in American Samoa]]
{{Oceania in topic|Transport in}}
[[Category:American Samoa]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|American Samoa]]
[[he:&#1514;&#1495;&#1489;&#1493;&#1512;&#1492; &#1489;&#1505;&#1502;&#1493;&#1488;&#1492; &#1492;&#1488;&#1502;&#1512;&#1497;&#1511;&#1488;&#1497;&#1514;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Samoa/Military</title>
<id>1116</id>
<revision>
<id>15899620</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-09T02:02:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>-- April</username>
<id>166</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge with main page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[American Samoa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Australia/Geography</title>
<id>1117</id>
<revision>
<id>15899621</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T10:23:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Geography of Australia</com |
in film|1959]]'s ''[[The Tingler]]'') drawing audiences in week after week for bigger and better scares. The classier horror films of this period, including ''[[The Thing from Another World]]'' ([[1951 in film|1951]]; attributed on screen to [[Christian Nyby]] but widely considered to be the work of [[Howard Hawks]]) and [[Don Siegel]]'s ''[[Invasion of the Body Snatchers]]'' ([[1956 in film|1956]]) managed to channel the [[paranoia]] of the [[Cold War]] into atmospheric creepiness without resorting to direct exploitation of the events of the day. Filmmakers would continue to merge elements of science fiction and horror well into the future. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0412/is_1_29/ai_73036226]
The late 1950s and early [[1960s]] saw the rise of studios centered specifically around horror. Notable were [[United Kingdom|British]] production company [[Hammer Horror|Hammer Films]], which specialized in bloody remakes of classic horror stories often starring [[Peter Cushing]] and [[Christopher Lee]], including ''[[The Curse of Frankenstein]]'' ([[1957 in film|1957]]) and ''[[Dracula (1958 film)|Dracula]]'' ([[1958 in film|1958]]). Hammer, and director [[Terence Fisher]], are widely acknowledged as pioneers of the modern horror movie.
[[American International Pictures]] (AIP) also made a series of [[Edgar Allan Poe]] themed films produced by [[Roger Corman]] and starring [[Vincent Price]]. These sometimes controversial productions paved the way for more explicit violence in both horror and mainstream films.
=== 1960s ===
[[image:Nightofthelivingdead_screenshot.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A young [[zombie]] and her victim, from ''[[Night of the Living Dead]]'' (1968)]]
In the 1960s the genre moved towards "[[psychological horror]]", with thrillers such as [[Alfred Hitchcock]]'s ''[[Psycho]]'' ([[1960 in film|1960]]) using all-too-human monsters rather than [[supernatural]] ones to scare the audience; [[Michael Latham Powell|Michael Powell]]'s ''[[Peeping Tom (film)|Peeping Tom]]'' (1960) was a notable example of this. Psychological horror films would continue to appear sporadically, with [[1991 in film|1991]]'s ''[[The Silence of the Lambs]]'' a later highlight of the subgenre (although these films can also be considered [[crime film]]s or [[thriller film|thrillers]]).
[[Ghost]]s and [[monster]]s still remained popular: ''[[The Innocents (movie)|The Innocents]]'' ([[1961 in film|1961]]) and ''[[The Haunting (1963 film)|The Haunting]]'' ([[1963 in film|1963]]) were two supernaturally-tinged psychological horror films from the early 1960s, with high production values and [[gothic novel|gothic]] atmosphere. Hitchcock's ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963) had a more modern backdrop; it was a prime example of "nature-goes-mad" menace combined with psychological horror.
Low-budget [[splatter film|gore-shock]] films from the likes of [[Herschell Gordon Lewis]] also appeared. Examples included 1963's ''[[Blood Feast]]'' (a [[devil]]-cult story) and [[1964 in film|1964]]'s ''[[Two Thousand Maniacs]]'' (a [[ghost town]] run by the shades of [[Southern United States|Southerners]]), which featured splattering blood and bodily [[dismemberment]].
One of the most influential horror films of the late 1960s was [[George Romero]]'s ''[[Night of the Living Dead]]'' ([[1968 in film|1968]]). This [[zombie]] film was later deemed "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant" enough to be preserved by the [[National Film Registry]]. Blending psychological thriller with gore, it moved the genre even further away from the gothic horror trends of earlier eras and brought horror into the lives of ordinary modern people. [http://www.loc.gov/film/titles.html]
=== 1970s ===
With the demise of the [[Production Code|Production Code of America]] in [[1964 in film|1964]], and the financial successes of the low-budget gore films churned out in the ensuing years, plus an increasing public fascination with the [[occult]], the genre was able to be reshaped by a series of intense, often gory horror movies with sexual overtones, made as "A-movies" (as opposed to "[[B-movie]]s"). Many of these films were made by respected [[auteur]]s. [http://www.filmsite.org/horrorfilms2.html]
[[Roman Polanski]]'s ''[[Rosemary's Baby]]'' (1968) was a critical and popular success, and a precursor to the [[1970s]] occult explosion, which included ''[[The Exorcist]]'' ([[1973 in film|1973]]) (directed by [[William Friedkin]] and written by [[William Peter Blatty]], who also wrote the novel), and scores of other horror films in which the [[Satan|Devil]] became the supernatural evil, often by impregnating women or possessing children. [[Devil-child movies|Evil children]] and [[reincarnation]] became popular subjects (such as [[Robert Wise]]'s [[1977 in film|1977]] [[United Artists]] film ''[[Audrey Rose]]'', which dealt with a man who claims his daughter is the reincarnation of another dead person). Another well recognized religious horror movie was ''[[The Omen]]'' (1976), where a man realizes that his five year old adopted son is the [[Antichrist]]. Being by [[doctrine]] invincible to solely human intervention, Satan-villained films also cemented the relationship between horror film, [[postmodernism|postmodern]] style and a [[dystopian]] worldview.
The "[[new age]]" ideas of the [[1960s]] [[hippies]] began to influence horror films, as the youth previously involved in the [[counterculture]] began exploring the medium. [[Wes Craven]]'s ''[[The Last House on the Left]]'' ([[1972 in film|1972]]) and [[Tobe Hooper]]'s ''[[The Texas Chain Saw Massacre]]'' ([[1974 in film|1974]]) both recalled the horrors of the [[Vietnam war]] and pushed comfortable liberal boundaries to the edge; [[George Romero]] examined the rise of the new [[consumer]] society in his [[1978 in film|1978]] zombie [[sequel]], ''[[Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)|Dawn of the Dead]]''; Canadian director [[David Cronenberg]] updated the "[[mad scientist]]" movie subgenre by exploring contemporary fears about technology and society, and reinventing "[[body horror]]", starting with ''[[Shivers (movie)|Shivers]]'' ([[1975 in film|1975]]). [http://www.acmi.net.au/1F6B9E88D95C48FCA5239678F1BBC8C6.htm]
[[Image:halloween2.jpg|left|thumb|Michael Myers, unstoppable psycho-killer from ''[[Halloween (movie)|Halloween]]'' (1978)]]
Also in the [[1970s]], horror author [[Stephen King]], a child of the 1960s, first arrived on the film scene. Adaptations of many of his books came to be filmed for the screen, beginning with [[Brian DePalma]]'s adaptation of King's first published novel, ''[[Carrie]]'' ([[1976 in film|1976]]), which went on to be nominated for [[Academy Awards]], although it has often been noted that its appeal was more for its psychological exploration as for its capacity to scare. And [[John Carpenter]], who had previously directed [[stoner film|stoner comedy]] ''[[Dark Star (film)|Dark Star]]'' ([[1974 in film|1974]]), created the hit ''[[Halloween (film)|Halloween]]'' ([[1978 in film|1978]]), introducing the teens-threatened-by-invincible-superhuman-evil theme, and kick-starting the "[[slasher film]]". This subgenre would be mined by dozens of increasingly violent movies throughout the subsequent decades.
[[1979 in film|1979]]'s ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' combined the naturalistic acting and graphic violence of the 1970s with the monster movie plots of earlier decades, and re-acquainted horror with [[science fiction film|science fiction]]. It spawned a long-lasting franchise, and countless imitators, over the next 30 years.
At the same time, there was an explosion of horror films in [[Europe]], particularly from the hands of [[Cinema of Italy|Italian filmmakers]] like [[Mario Bava]], [[Dario Argento]] and [[Lucio Fulci]], and [[Cinema of Spain|Spanish filmmakers]] like [[Jacinto Molina]] (aka Paul Naschy) and [[Jesus Franco]], which were dubbed into English and filled [[drive-in theater]]s that could not necessarily afford the expensive rental contracts of the major American producers. These films generally featured more traditional horror subjects - e.g. [[vampires]], [[werewolves]], [[serial killer|psycho-killers]], [[demons]], [[zombies]] - but treated them with a distinctive European style that included copious gore and sexuality (of which mainstream American [[film producer|producers]] overall were still a little skittish). Notable national outputs were the "[[giallo]]" films from Italy, the [[Jean Rollin]] romantic/erotic films from [[Cinema of France|France]], and the anthology films of [[Amicus Productions|Amicus]] from the [[Cinema of the United Kingdom|UK]]. [http://www.brightlightsfilm.com/32/eurohorror.html]
Meanwhile, in [[Cinema of Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], filmmakers were starting to be inspired by Hammer and Euro-horror to produce exploitation horror with a uniquely Asian twist. [[Shaw Studios]] produced ''Legend of the Seven Golden Vampires'' ([[1973 in film|1973]]) in collaboration with Hammer, then went on to start creating their own more original films. The genre boomed at the start of the [[1980s]], with [[Sammo Hung]]'s ''Close Encounters of the Spooky Kind'' ([[1981 in film|1981]]) launching the sub-genre of "kung-fu comedy horror", a sub-genre prominently featuring [[hopping corpse]]s and tempting ghostly females known as [[fox spirit]]s, of which the best known examples were ''[[Mr. Vampire]]'' ([[1985 in film|1985]]) and ''[[A Chinese Ghost Story]]'' ([[1987 in film|1987]]). [http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/asianhorror1.jsp]
=== 1980s ===
Almost any successful [[1980s]] horror film received sequels. [[1982 in film|1982]]'s ''[[Poltergeist movies|Poltergeist]]'' (directed by [[Tobe Hooper]]) was followed by two sequels and a television series. The endless sequels to ''[[Halloween]]'', ''[[Friday the 13th (film)|Friday the 13t |
Johnson]] and former [[Canadian Football League]] star [[Doug Flutie]]. Despite many Bills fans wanting Flutie to get the starting job, Phillips named Johnson to the position. After Johnson and the Bills stumbled to begin the season, Flutie came in and led the Bills to a playoff spot and 10&ndash;6 record. They faltered in their first playoff game against the [[Miami Dolphins]].
Flutie's popularity continued into the 1999 season, with the Bills finishing 11&ndash;5, two games behind the [[Indianapolis Colts]] in the [[AFC East]] standings. [[Wade Phillips]] gave Rob Johnson the starting [[quarterback]] job in the first round playoff game against the [[Tennessee Titans]] even though Flutie had won many games and had gotten the Bills into the playoffs. The Bills scored a field goal with 16 seconds left to give them a 16&ndash;15 lead. But the [[Music City Miracle]], a lateral from [[Frank Wycheck]] to [[Kevin Dyson]] that led to a Tennessee [[touchdown]] on the ensuing kickoff won the game for the Titans. The Titans went on to advance to the Super Bowl.
The final ties to the Bills' Super Bowl years were severed in 2000, when Thurman Thomas, Andre Reed and Bruce Smith were all cut. [[Antowain Smith]], [[Eric Moulds]], and [[Marcellus Wiley]] respectively had long since eclipsed them on the depth chart. After an 8&ndash;8 season, and the team still caught up in the Johnson vs. Flutie controversy, general manager [[John Butler (football)|John Butler]] departed for the [[San Diego Chargers]]&mdash;and took Flutie and Wiley with him. Doug Flutie left the Bills with a .677 winning percentage in 31 starts. Antowain Smith also left as a free agent for the New England Patriots, where he was the starting running back on their first two Super Bowl championship teams. Both Flutie and Smith were dominant in their final game as Bills, in a 42-23 victory over the [[Seattle Seahawks]]. Smith would be quickly replaced by rookie [[Travis Henry]].
Titans defensive coordinator [[Gregg Williams]] took over as head coach for the 2001 season, which proved to be the worst in recent memory for the Bills. [[Rob Johnson]] went down in mid-season with an injury and [[Alex Van Pelt]] took over. Buffalo finished 3&ndash;13. The Bills even lost a much-hyped mid-season match up with "Bills West" (the Flutie-led Chargers). After the season they traded for quarterback [[Drew Bledsoe]], deemed expendable by the Patriots after [[Tom Brady]] led them to a Super Bowl victory.
Bledsoe revived the Bills for the 2002 season, leading them to an 8&ndash;8 record, setting 10 team passing records in the process. However, in a tough division with all other teams finishing 9&ndash;7, they were still in last place. Another Patriots castoff, safety [[Lawyer Milloy]], joined the Bills days before the 2003 season began and gave the team an immediate boost on defense. After beating eventual champions New England 31&ndash;0 in the first game, and crushing the Jaguars in their second game, the Bills stumbled through the rest of the season, finishing 6&ndash;10. In one game, however, the Bills' fans gained a small measure of satisfaction when the defense sacked Rob Johnson multiple times in his relief effort for the [[Washington Redskins]]. Gregg Williams was fired as head coach after the 2003 season and replaced with [[Mike Mularkey]]. The Bills also drafted another quarterback, [[J.P. Losman]], to be used if Bledsoe continued to struggle in 2004. <!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:mularkey.jpg|thumb|Head Coach Mike Mularkey, 2004&ndash;present]] -->
Bledsoe did continue to struggle in 2004. The Bills started the 2004 season 0&ndash;4, with Bledsoe and his offense struggling in their run-first offense, averaging only 13 points per game. Additionally, each loss was heartbreakingly close. The team finally managed to turn things around with a victory at home against the also winless Miami Dolphins. This, along with the emergence of [[Willis McGahee]] taking over the starting running back role from the injured [[Travis Henry]], and emergence of [[Lee Evans (football player)|Lee Evans]] to give the Bills a second deep threat, sparked the Bills to go 7&ndash;2 in their next nine games. This string of victories allowed the Bills to be in the hunt for a final AFC wildcard playoff spot. Though they would lose to the Pittsburgh Steelers in the final game of the season, costing them a playoff berth, the late season surge gave the team a positive direction to approach 2005.
The Bills released quarterback [[Drew Bledsoe]], who then signed with the [[Dallas Cowboys]]&mdash;reuniting him with former coach [[Bill Parcells]]. Many fans hoped that replacement J.P. Losman could lead the Bills to the playoffs in the 2005 season.
Losman's development did not proceed as quickly as the Bills had hoped it would. He began the 2005 season 1-3 as a starter, prompting [[Kelly Holcomb]] to replace him. Losman would not see action again until Holcomb was injured in Week 10 against the [[Kansas City Chiefs]]. He led the Bills to a win in that game, but would again be replaced by Holcomb after losing the next several games. Buffalo's 2005 campaign resulted in a 5-11 record and the firing of General Manager [[Tom Donahoe]] in January 2006. Marv Levy was named as his replacement, with hopes that he would improve a franchise that failed to make the playoffs during Donahoe's tenure. That same month, Mike Mularkey resigned as head coach, citing family reasons along with disagreement over the direction of the organization. Former [[Chicago Bears]] coach, and [[Detroit Lions]] assistant, [[Dick Jauron]], was hired as his replacement.
===Logo and uniforms===
[[Image:BuffaloBillsOldLogo.png|left|framed|Bills logo (1960&ndash;1973)]]
[[Image:BuffaloBills 100.png|right|framed|Bills logo (1974&ndash;present)]]
When the Bills began playing in 1960, the team's colors were light blue, white, and silver. The team wore blue jerseys with gray numbers and white jerseys with blue numbers. The helmets were all silver with blue numbers on the side. [http://hometown.aol.com/bkbubco/60-Buf.html]
In 1962, the team's colors changed to red, white, and blue. The team started to wear blue jerseys with red and white stripes on the shoulders. A red stationary bison logo was also put on the helmets, which became white with a red center stripe. [http://hometown.aol.com/bkbubco/62-Buf.html] By 1965, red and blue center stripes were put on the helmets. [http://hometown.aol.com/bkbubco/65-Buf.html]
In 1974, the standing bison logo was replaced by a blue charging one with a red slanting stripe streaming from its horn. Ten years later, the color of their helmets were switched to red. Then in 2002, a darker shade of blue was introduced, along with red and white pipe trimming on the jerseys in pants.
Since 2005, the Bills have used the 1960s uniforms as the team's alternate jerseys.
===Fight Songs===
*1980-1987 - "Talkin' Proud" - Alden Schutte
*1988-present - "Buffalo Bills Shout" - Buffalo Bills All-Stars
*1994-1995 - "Go Bills!" - [[Marv Levy]] (unofficial)
===Season-by-season records===
{{Start NFL SBS}}
|-
|1960 || 5 || 8 || 1 || 3rd East (AFL) || --
|-
|1961 || 6 || 8 || 0 || 4th East (AFL) || --
|-
|1962 || 7 || 6 || 1 || 3rd East (AFL) || --
|-
|1963 || 7 || 6 || 1 || 2nd East (AFL) || Lost [[AFL playoffs#1963 playoffs|Eastern Division playoff]] ([[Boston Patriots|Patriots]])
|-
|1964 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st East (AFL) || '''Won [[AFL playoffs#1964 Championship|AFL Championship]]''' ([[San Diego Chargers|Chargers]])
|-
|1965 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 1st East (AFL) || '''Won [[AFL playoffs#1965 Championship|AFL Championship]]''' ([[San Diego Chargers|Chargers]])
|-
|1966 || 9 || 4 || 1 || 1st East (AFL) || Lost [[AFL playoffs#1966 Championship|AFL Championship]] ([[Kansas City Chiefs|Chiefs]])
|-
|1967 || 4 || 10 || 1 || 3rd East (AFL) || --
|-
|1968 || 1 || 12 || 0 || 5th East (AFL) || --
|-
|1969 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 4th East (AFL) || --
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | '''Merged into NFL'''
|-
|1970 || 3 || 10 || 1 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1971 || 1 || 13 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1972 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1973 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || --
|-
|1974 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1974-75|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1975 || 8 || 6 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
|-
|1976 || 2 || 12 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1977 || 3 || 11 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1978 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1979 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1980 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1980-81|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[San Diego Chargers|Chargers]])
|-
|1981 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1981-82|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Cincinnati Bengals|Bengals]])
|-
|1982 || 4 || 5 || 0 || 9th AFC Conf. || --
|-
|1983 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
|-
|1984 || 2 || 14 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1985 || 2 || 14 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1986 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1987 || 7 || 8 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1988 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1988-89|AFC Championship]] ([[Cincinnati Bengals|Bengals]])
|-
|1989 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1989-90|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Cleveland Browns|Browns]])
|-
|1990 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[Super Bowl XXV]] ([[New York Giants|Giants]])
|-
|1991 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[Super Bowl XXVI]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]])
|-
|1992 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[Super Bowl XXVII]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1993 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[Super Bowl XXVIII]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1994 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1995 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 1st AFC East | |
pound it may be in), this usage is in disfavor amongst contemporary chemists, and sees restricted, mostly historical, use. This definition was motivated by the observation that these elements could not be dissociated by chemical means into other compounds. For example, water could be converted into hydrogen and oxygen, but hydrogen and oxygen could not be further decomposed, thus "elemental". There are also many counterexamples (for example "elemental oxygen" (O<sub>2</sub>) can be decomposed by solely chemical means into oxygen ions and atoms which have drastically different chemical properties). There are currently 116 known elements in existence.
The remainder of this article will not concern itself with the first definition.
==Description==
The [[atomic number]] of an element, ''Z'', is equal to the number of protons which defines the element. For example, all [[carbon]] atoms contain 6 protons in their [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]], so for carbon Z=6. These atoms may have different amounts of neutrons, and are known as [[isotope]]s of the element. The [[atomic mass]] of an element, ''A'', is measured in [[unified atomic mass unit]]s (u) is the average mass of all the atoms of the element in an environment of interest (usually the earth's crust and atmosphere). Since electrons are light, and neutrons are barely more than the mass of the proton, this usually corresponds to the sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the most abundant isotope, though this is not always the case (notably chlorine, which is about three-quarters <sup>35</sup>Cl and a quarter <sup>37</sup>Cl).
Some isotopes are [[radioactive]] and decay into other elements upon radiating an alpha or beta particle. Some elements have no nonradioactive isotopes, in particular all elements with Z >= 84.
The lightest elements are [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]]. Hydrogen is thought to have been the first element to appear after the [[Big Bang]]. All the heavier elements are made naturally and artificially through various methods of [[nucleosynthesis]]. [[As of 2005]], there are 116 known elements: 93 occur naturally on earth (including [[technetium]] and [[plutonium]]), and 94 (including [[promethium]]) have been detected so far in the universe. The 23 elements not found on earth are derived artificially; the first purportedly synthesized element was [[technetium]], in 1937, although the trace amounts of naturally occurring technetium were not known then. All artificially derived elements are radioactive with short [[half-life|half-lives]] so that any such atoms that were present at the formation of Earth are extremely likely to have already decayed.
Lists of the elements [[List of elements by name|by name]], [[List of elements by symbol|by symbol]], [[List of elements by number|by atomic number]], [[List of elements by density|by density]], [[List of elements by melting point|by melting point]], and [[List of elements by boiling point|by boiling point]] as well as [[Ionization energies of the elements]] are available. The most convenient presentation of the elements is in the [[periodic table]], which groups elements with similar chemical properties together.
==Nomenclature==
The naming of elements precedes the atomic theory of matter, although at the time it was not known which chemicals were elements and which compounds. When it was learned, existing names (''e.g.,'' gold, mercury, iron) were kept in most countries, and national differences emerged over the names of elements either for convenience, linguistic niceties, or nationalism. For example, the Germans use "Wasserstoff" for "hydrogen" and "Sauerstoff" for "oxygen," while some [[romance language]]s use "natrium" for "sodium" and "kalium" for "potassium," and the French prefer the obsolete but historic term "azote" for "nitrogen."
But for international trade, the [[Table of chemical elements|official names]] of the chemical elements both ancient and recent are decided by the [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]], which has decided on a sort of international English language. That organization has recently prescribed that "aluminium" and "caesium" take the place of the US spellings "aluminum" and "cesium," while the US "sulfur" takes the place of the British "sulphur." But chemicals which are practicable to be sold in bulk within many countries, however, still have national names, and those which do not use the [[Latin alphabet]] cannot be expected to use the IUPAC name. According to IUPAC, the full name of an element is not capitalized, even if it is derived from a proper noun (unless it would be capitalized by some other rule, for instance if it begins a sentence).
In the second half of the twentieth century physics laboratories became able to produce nuclei of chemical elements that have too quick a decay rate to ever be sold in bulk. These are also named by IUPAC, which generally adopts the name chosen by the discoverer. This can lead to the controversial question of which research group actually discovered an element, a question which delayed the naming of elements with atomic number of 104 and higher for a considerable time. (See [[element naming controversy]]).
Precursors of such controversies involved the nationalistic namings of elements in the late nineteenth century (''e.g.,'' as "lutetium" refers to Paris, France, the Germans were reticent about relinquishing naming rights to the French, often calling it "cassiopeium"). And notably, the British discoverer of "niobium" originally named it "columbium," after the [[New World]], though this did not catch on in Europe. The Americans had to accept the international name just when it was becoming an economically important material late in the twentieth century.
==Chemical symbols==
===Specific chemical elements===
Before chemistry became a science, [[alchemy|alchemists]] had designed arcane symbols for both metals and common compounds. These were however used as abbreviations in diagrams or procedures; there was no concept of one atoms combining to form molecules. With his advances in the atomic theory of matter, [[John Dalton]] devised his own simpler symbols, based on circles, which were to be used to depict molecules. These were superseded by the current typographical system in which chemical symbols are not used as mere abbreviations though each consists of letters of the [[Latin alphabet]] - they are symbols intended to be used by peoples of all languages and alphabets.
The first of these symbols were intended to be fully universal; since Latin was the common language of science at that time, they were abbreviations based on the [[Latin]] names of metals - Fe comes from Ferrum, Ag from Argentum. The symbols were not followed by a period (full stop) as abbreviations were. Later chemical elements were also assigned unique chemical symbols, based on the name of the element, but not necessarily in English. For example, [[sodium]] has the chemical symbol 'Na' after the Latin ''natrium''. The same applies to "W" (wolfram) for [[Tungsten]] , "Hg" ([[Hydrargyrum]]) for mercury and "K" (kalium) for [[potassium]]. Strictly taken, a symbol like Tu for tungsten or M or Me for mercury seems to be more logical.
Chemical symbols are understood internationally when element names might need to be translated. There are sometimes differences; for example, the Germans have used "J" instead of "I" for iodine, so the character would not be confused with a [[roman numeral]].
The first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized, as in the preceding examples, and the subsequent letters, if any, are always lower case (small letters).
===General chemical symbols===
There are also symbols for series of chemical elements, for comparative formulas. These are one capital letter in length, and the letters are reserved so they are not permitted to be given for the names of specific elements. For example, an "X" is used to indicate a variable group amongst a class of compounds (though usually a [[halogen]]), while "R" is used for a radical (not to be confused with [[radical_(chemistry)]], meaning a compound structure such as a hydrocarbon chain. The letter "Q" is reserved for "heat" in a chemical reaction. "Y" is also often used as a general chemical symbol, although it is also the symbol of [[Yttrium]]. "Z" is also frequently used as a general variable group. "L" is used to represent a general [[ligand]] in inorganic and organometallic chemistry. "M" is also often used in place of a general metal.
===Nonelement symbols===
Nonelements, especially in organic and organometallic chemistry, often acquire symbols which are inspired by the elemental symbols. A few examples:
Cy - [[Cyclohexane|cyclohexyl]]; Ph - [[Phenyl|phenyl]]; Bz - [[Acyl|benzoyl]]; Bn - [[Benzyl|benzyl]]; Cp - [[Cyclopentadiene]]; Pr - [[propyl]]; Me - [[methyl]]; Et - [[ethyl]]; Tf - [[triflate]]; Ts - [[Tosyl|tosyl]].
== See also ==
* [[Abundance of the chemical elements]]
* [[Chemical compound|Compound]]
* [[Chemical elements named after people]]
* [[Chemical elements named after places]]
* [[Chemistry]]
* [[Discovery of the chemical elements]]
* [[Elements song]]
* [[Fictional element]]
* [[Periodic table]]
* [[Systematic element name]]
* [[Chemistry resources]]
* [[Table of chemical elements]]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Chemical elements}}
*[http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/ Elementymology & Elements Multidict] word history and language dictionary
=== Chemical information ===
*[http://www.webelements.com/ WebElements]
*[http://www.vc |
. Although there is some variation among sources, mixed beers generally fall into the following categories:
[[Image:Grafenwalder.jpg|thumb|right|Grafenwalder]]
* [[Fruit beer]]s and [[vegetable beer]]s are mixed with some kind of fermentable [[fruit]] or [[vegetable]] [[adjunct (beer)|adjunct]] during the fermentation process, providing obvious yet harmonious qualities.
* [[Herb beer|Herb]] and [[spiced beer]]s add [[herb]]s or [[spice]]s derived from [[root]]s, [[seed]]s, [[leaf|leaves]], fruits, vegetables, or [[flower]]s instead of, or in addition to, [[hop (plant)|hops]].
* Wood-aged beers are any traditional or experimental beer that has been aged in a wooden [[barrel]], or have been in contact with wood (in the form of chips, cubes, or "beans") for a period of time ([[Oak]] is the most common). Oftentimes, the barrel or wood will be treated first with some variety of spirit or other alcoholic beverage--usage of bourbon, scotch and sherry are common.
* [[Smoked beer]]s are any beer whose malt has been smoked. A smoky aroma and flavour is usually present. The most traditional examples of this style are the [[Rauchbier]]s of Bamberg, Germany. However, many brewers outside of Germany--most notably American craft brewers--have been adding smoked malt to porters, Scotch ale and a variety of other styles.
* [[Specialty beers]] are a catch-all category used to describe any beers brewed using unusual fermentable sugars, grains and starches.
==Draught and keg beers==
[[Image:Keg Fonts.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Draught beer keg fonts at the Delirium Café in Brussels]]
{{main articles|[[Draught beer]], [[Widget (beer)]] and [[Keg beer]]}}
'''Draught beer''' from a pressurised [[keg]] is the most common dispense method in bars around the world. A metal keg is pressurised with [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) gas which drives the beer to the dispensing tap or faucet. Some beers, such as [[Guinness]], may be served with a nitrogen/carbon dioxide mixture, rather than standard carbon dioxide, in order to obtain what many feel is a creamier [[mouthfeel]]. These beers may be served in two stages, with a pause to allow settling.
In the 1980s Guinness introduced the [[Widget (beer)|beer widget]], a nitrogen pressurised ball inside a can which imitates the foamy head created by draught beer. Other breweries followed, using the words "draft" and "draught" as marketing terms to describe such [[aluminum can|canned]] or [[bottle]]d beers containing a beer widget.
==Cask ales==
[[Image:GravityTap.jpg|left|thumb|Schlenkerla Rauchbier direct from the cask]]
{{Main|Cask ale}}
'''Cask ales''' are unfiltered and unpasteurised. When the landlord feels the beer has settled, and he is ready to serve it, he will knock a soft [[spile]] into a [[bunghole]] on the side of the cask. The major difference in appearance between a keg and a cask is the bunghole. A keg does not have a bunghole on the side.
The soft spile in the bunghole allows gas to vent off. This can be seen by the bubbles foaming around the spile. The landlord will periodically check the bubbles by wiping the spile clean and then watching to see how fast the bubbles reform. There still has to be some life in the beer otherwise it really will taste flat, but too much life and the beer will taste hard or fizzy. When the beer is judged to be ready, the landlord will replace the soft spile with a hard one (which doesn’t allow air in or gas out) and let the beer settle for 24 hours. He will also knock a tap into the end of the cask. This might simply be a tap if the cask is stored behind the bar. The beer will then be served simply under gravity pressure: turn on the tap, and the beer comes out. But if the cask is in the cellar, the beer needs to travel via tubes, or beer lines, up to the bar area using a beer engine.
==Bottle conditioned beers==
'''[[Bottle conditioned]]''' beers are unfiltered and unpasteurised. It is usually recommended that the beer is poured slowly, leaving any yeast sediment at the bottom of the bottle. However, some drinkers prefer to pour in the yeast, and this practise is customary with [[wheat beer]]s. Typically when serving a [[hefeweizen]] 90% of the contents is poured and the remainder swirled to dissolve the sediment before pouring it into the glass.
==Beer culture==
[[Image:Gambrinus.jpg|right|thumb|[[Gambrinus]] - king of beer]]
=== Beer in a social context ===
{{see also|Pub games|Pub crawl|Public house}}
Beer is considered to be a social lubricant in many societies. Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking, such as beer bongs, beer pong, and quarters. Consumption in isolation and excess may be associated with people "drowning their sorrows," while drinking in excess in company may be associated with [[binge drinking]].
===Beer around the world===
Beer is consumed in countries all over the world. There are breweries in Middle Eastern countries such as Iraq and Syria as well as African countries and remote countries such as Mongolia. For more details see:-
:''Main article: [[Beer and nationality]]''
===Serving===
====Temperature====
The conditions of serving have an influence on a drinker's experience. An important factor is [[temperature]]: colder temperatures start to inhibit the chemical senses of the [[tongue]] and [[throat]], which narrow down the flavour profile of a beer, allowing delicate, fully attenuated beers such as Pilsners and Pale lagers to be appreciated for their crispness, but preventing the more rounded flavours of an ale or a stout to be perceived. While there are no firmly agreed principles for all cases, a general approach is that lighter coloured beers, such as Pale lagers, are best served cold (40-45F/4-7C), while dark, strong beers such as Imperial Stouts should be served at cellar temperature (54-60F/12-16C) and then allowed to warm up in the room to individual taste. And beers between these two extremes should be served at temperatures between these extremes.
====Glassware====
An appropriate glass is considered desirable by some beer drinkers. Some drinkers of beer may sometimes drink straight from the bottle or can, while others may pour their beer into a vessel before imbibing. Drinking out of a bottle inhibits [[aroma]]s picked up by the [[nose]], so if a drinker wishes to appreciate a beer's aroma, the beer is first poured into a glass, mug, tankard, or [[beer stein|stein]]. As with wine, there are specialized styles of glassware for some styles of beer, and some breweries even produce glassware intended for their own beers. Some aficionados claim that the shape and material of the vessel influences the perception of the aroma and the way in which the beer settles, similar to claims by drinkers of [[brandy]] or [[Cognac (drink)|cognac]]. Some drinkers in Britain prefer their ale to be served in [[Pewter|pewter]] [[Tankard|tankards]], while in Europe it is common for glasses to be rinsed just before beer is poured into them. While glass is completely non-porous, its surface can retain oil from the skin, aerosolized oil from nearby cooking, and traces of fat from food. When these oils come in contact with beer there is a significant reduction in the amount of head (foam) that is found on the beer, and the bubbles will tend to stick to the side of the glass rather than rising to the surface as normal.
[[Image:Manet, Edouard - La Serveuse de Bocks (The Waitress), 1879.jpg|thumb|''The Waitress'' (1879) by [[Edouard Manet]].]]
====Pouring====
The pouring process has an influence on a beer's presentation. The rate of flow from the [[Tap (valve)|tap]] or other serving vessel, tilt of the glass, and position of the pour (in the center or down the side) into the glass all influence the end result, such as the size and longevity of the head, lacing (the pattern left by the head as it moves down the glass as the beer is drunk), and [[turbulence]] of the beer and its release of [[carbonation]]. Heavily carbonated beers such as German pilsners or weissbiers may need settling time before serving, however many Weissbiers are served with the addition of the remaining yeast at the bottom of the bottle to add both flavor and color.
A recent advertising campaign states that "it takes 119.6 seconds to pour the perfect pint" of [[Guinness]]. While this method of slow pouring is done in Ireland and the UK, some American bars seem to ignore the customers requisite for a 'slow pour'.
===Rating beer===
{{main|Rating beer}}
Rating beer is a recent craze that combines the enjoyment of [[beer]] drinking with the hobby of [[collecting]]. People drink beer and then record their scores and comments on various internet websites. This is a worldwide activity and people in the [[USA]] will swap bottles of beer with people living in [[New Zealand]] and [[Russia]]. People's scores may be tallied together to create lists of the most popular beers in each country as well as the most highly rated beers in the world.
=== Health effects ===
{{main articles|[[Alcohol consumption and health]] and [[Beer belly]]}}
Beer contains alcohol which has a number of health risks and benefits. However, beer includes a wide variety of other agents that are currently undergoing scientific evaluation.
Nutritionally, beer can contain significant amounts of [[magnesium]], [[selenium]], [[potassium]], [[phosphorus]], [[biotin]], and [[B vitamins]]. Typically, the darker the brew, the more nutrient dense.
A 2005 Japanese study found that [[non-alcoholic beer]] may possess strong anti-cancer properties. [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6853732/]. Another study found non-alcoholic beer to mirror the cardiovascular benefits associated with moderate consumption of alcoholic beverages. [http://www.foodnavigator.com/news/ng.asp?id=52157-double-benefit-from]
It is considered that over-eating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a [[beer belly]], rather t |
body becomes oversensitive to [[adenosine]], causing the blood pressure to drop dramatically, which causes headaches and other symptoms.
Caffeine is metabolized in the [[liver]] by the [[cytochrome P450 oxidase]] enzyme system into three [[metabolism|metabolic]] [[xanthine|dimethylxanthines]], which each have their own effects on the body:
* [[Paraxanthine]] (84%) &ndash; Has the effect of increasing [[lipolysis]], leading to elevated [[glycerol]] and free [[fatty acid]] levels in the [[blood plasma]].
* [[Theobromine]] (12%) &ndash; Dilates [[blood vessel]]s and increases [[urine]] volume. Theobromine is also the principal alkaloid in [[cocoa]], and therefore [[chocolate]].
* [[Theophylline]] (4%) &ndash; Relaxes [[smooth muscle]]s of the [[bronchus|bronchi]], and is used to treat [[asthma]]. The therapeutic dose of theophylline, however, is many times greater than the levels attained from caffeine metabolism.
Each of these metabolites is further metabolised and then excreted in the urine.
===Mechanism of Action===
The caffeine molecule is structurally similar to [[adenosine]], and binds to adenosine receptors on the surface of cells without activating them. This effect, called [[competitive inhibition]], interrupts a pathway that normally serves to regulate nerve conduction by suppressing post-synaptic potentials. The result is an increase in the levels of [[epinephrine]] (adrenaline) and [[norepinephrine]] released from the [[pituitary gland]] [http://pharmrev.aspetjournals.org/cgi/content/full/51/1/83]. Epinephrine, the natural [[endocrine system|endocrine]] response to a perceived threat, stimulates the [[sympathetic nervous system]], leading to an increased heart rate, [[blood pressure]] and [[blood]] flow to [[muscle]]s, a decreased blood flow to the [[skin]] and inner [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]]s and a release of [[glucose]] by the [[liver]].
Caffeine is also a known competitive inhibitor of the enzyme [[phosphodiesterase|cAMP-phosphodiesterase]] (cAMP-PDE), which converts [[cAMP|cyclic AMP]] (cAMP) in cells to its noncyclic form, allowing cAMP to build up in cells. Cyclic AMP participates in the messaging cascade produced by cells in response to stimulation by epinephrine, so by blocking its removal caffeine intensifies and prolongs the effects of [[epinephrine]] and epinephrine-like drugs such as [[amphetamine]], [[methamphetamine]], or [[methylphenidate]].
The metabolites of caffeine contribute to caffeine's effects. [[Theobromine]], is a [[vasodilation|vasodilator]] that increases the amount of oxygen and nutrient flow to the brain and muscles. [[Theophylline]], the second of the three primary metabolites, acts as a smooth [[muscle relaxant]] that chiefly affects [[bronchioles]] and acts as a [[chronotrope]] and [[inotrope]] that increases heart rate and efficiency. The third metabolic derivative, [[paraxanthine]], is responsible for an increase in the [[lipolysis]] process, which releases [[glycerol]] and [[fatty acids]] into the blood to be used as a source of fuel by the muscles (Dews et al. 1984).
With these effects, caffeine is an [[ergogenic]], increasing the capacity for mental or physical labor. A study conducted in [[1979]] showed a 7% increase in distance cycled over a period of two hours in subjects who consumed caffeine compared to control tests (Ivy et al. 1979). Other studies attained much more dramatic results; one particular study of trained runners showed a 44% increase in "race-pace" endurance, as well as a 51% increase in cycling endurance, after a dosage of 9 milligrams of caffeine per kilogram of body weight (Graham & Spriet 1991). The extensive boost shown in the runners is not an isolated case; additional studies have reported similar effects. Another study found 5.5 milligrams of caffeine per kilogram of body mass resulted in subjects cycling 29% longer during high intensity circuits (Trice & Hayes 1995).
=== Side effects of caffeine ===
The minimum lethal dose of caffeines ever reported is 3,200 mg, administered intravenously. The [[LD50|LD]]<sub>50</sub> of caffeine is estimated between 13 and 19 grams for oral administration for an average adult. The LD<sub>50</sub> of caffeine is dependent on weight and individual sensitivity and estimated to be about 150 to 200 mg per kg of body mass, roughly 140 to 180 cups of coffee for an average adult taken within a limited timeframe that is dependent on [[Half-life#Half-life_in_chemistry|half-life]]. The half-life, or time it takes for the amount of caffeine in the blood to decrease by 50%, ranges from 3.5 to 10 hours. In adults the half-life is generally around 5 hours. However, contraceptive pills increase this to around 12 hours, and, for women over 3 months pregnant, it varies from 10 to 18 hours. In infants and young children, the half-life may be longer than in adults. With common coffee and a very rare half-life of 100 hours, it would require 3 cups of coffee every hour for 100 hours just to reach LD<sub>50</sub>. Though achieving lethal dose with coffee would be exceptionally difficult, there have been many reported deaths from intentional overdosing on caffeine pills.
Too much caffeine, especially over an extended period of time, can lead to a number of physical and mental conditions. The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition ([[DSM-IV]])'' states: "The 4 caffeine-induced psychiatric disorders include ''caffeine intoxication'', ''caffeine-induced anxiety disorder'', ''caffeine-induced sleep disorder'', and ''caffeine-related disorder not otherwise specified (NOS)''."
An overdose of caffeine can result in a state termed ''caffeine intoxication'' or ''caffeine poisoning''. Its symptoms are both physiological and psychological. Symptoms of caffeine intoxication include: restlessness, nervousness, excitement, [[insomnia]], flushed face, [[diuresis]], [[muscle twitching]], rambling flow of [[thought]] and [[speech]], paranoia, [[cardiac arrhythmia]] or [[tachycardia]], and [[psychomotor agitation]], [[gastroenterology|gastrointestinal]] complaints, [[hypertension|increased blood pressure]], [[tachycardia|rapid pulse]], [[vasoconstriction]] (tightening or constricting of superficial blood vessels) sometimes resulting in cold hands or fingers, increased amounts of [[fatty acid]]s in the blood, and an increased production of [[gastric acid]]. In extreme cases [[mania]], [[depression]], lapses in judgment, [[disorientation]], loss of social inhibition, [[delusions]], [[hallucinations]] and [[psychosis]] may occur. [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002579.htm]
It is commonly assumed that only a small proportion of people exposed to caffeine develop symptoms of caffeine intoxication. However, because it mimics organic mental disorders, such as [[panic disorder]], [[generalized anxiety disorder]], [[bipolar disorder]], and [[schizophrenia]], a growing number of medical professionals believe caffeine-intoxicated people are routinely misdiagnosed and unnecessarily medicated. Shannon ''et al'' (1998) point out that:
:"Caffeine-induced psychosis, whether it be delirium, manic depression, schizophrenia, or merely an anxiety syndrome, in most cases will be hard to differentiate from other organic or non-organic psychoses....The treatment for caffeine-induced psychosis is to withhold further caffeine." A study in the ''British Journal of Addiction'' declared that "although infrequently diagnosed, caffeinism is thought to afflict as many as one person in ten of the population" (JE James and KP Stirling, 1983).
Because caffeine increases the production of stomach acid, high usage over time can lead to [[peptic ulcer]]s, erosive [[esophagitis]], and [[gastroesophageal reflux disease]].{{citeneeded}} Furthermore, it can also lead to nervousness, irritability, anxiety, [[Tremor|tremulousness]], muscle twitching, [[insomnia]], [[heart palpitation]]s and [[hyperreflexia]] [http://www.coffeefaq.com/caffaq.html#CaffeineAndHealth].
=== Withdrawal ===
Individuals who consume caffeine regularly develop a reduction in sensitivity to caffeine; when such individuals reduce their caffeine intake, their body becomes oversensitive to [[adenosine]], with the result that blood pressure drops dramatically, leading to an excess of blood in the head (though not necessarily on the brain), causing a [[headache]]. Other symptoms may include nausea, fatigue, drowsiness, anxiety and irritability; in extreme cases symptoms may include depression, inability to concentrate and diminished motivation to initiate or to complete daily tasks at home or at work.
[[Withdrawal]] symptoms may appear within 12 to 24 hours after discontinuation of caffeine intake, peak at roughly 48 hours, and usually lasts from one to five days. [[Analgesic]]s, such as [[aspirin]], can relieve the pain symptoms, as can a small dose of caffeine.
===Effects on fetuses and newborn children===
There is some evidence that caffeine may be dangerous for fetuses and newborn children. In animal studies, caffeine intake during pregnancy has been demonstrated to have [[teratogenic]] effects and increase the risk of learning problems and hyperactivity in [[rat]]s and [[mouse|mice]], respectively. The applicability of these results to human infants is disputed since the concentrations involved were high and [[rodent]]s are more susceptible to most mutagens. In a [[1985]] study conducted by scientists of [[Carleton University]], [[Canada]], children born by mothers who had consumed more than 300 mg/d caffeine (about 3 cups of coffee or 6 cups of tea) were found to have, on the average, lower birth weight and head circumference than the children of mothers who had consumed little or no caffeine. In addition, use of large amounts of caffeine by the mother during pregnancy may cause problems with the heart rhythm of the fetus. For these reasons, some d |
emia: what's normal and what's low?==
Although 70 mg/dl (3.9 mmol/l) is commonly cited as the lower limit of normal glucose, different values may be defined as low for different populations, purposes, or circumstances. The precise level of glucose considered low enough to define hypoglycemia is dependent on (1) the measurement method, (2) the age of the person, (3) presence or absence of effects, and (4) the purpose of the definition. This article expresses glucose in milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl or mg/100 ml) as is customary in the United States, while millimoles per liter (mmol/l or mM) are the [[SI]] (International System) units used in most of the rest of the world. Values in mg/dl can be converted to mmol/l by dividing by 18 (e.g., 90 mg/dl = 5 mmol/l or 5 mM).
===Measurement method: different methods can yield different values===
Glucose levels discussed in this article are [[vein|venous]] [[Blood plasma|plasma]] or [[serum]] levels measured by standard [[glucose oxidase]] methods used in [[medical laboratory|medical laboratories]]. For clinical purposes, plasma and serum levels are similar enough to be interchangeable. [[Artery|Arterial]] plasma or serum levels are slightly higher than venous levels, and [[capillary]] levels typically in between. This difference between arterial and venous levels is small in the fasting state but is amplified and can be greater than 10% in the postprandial state. On the other hand, whole blood glucose levels (e.g., by [[glucose meter|fingerprick meters]]) are about 10-15% lower than venous plasma levels. Furthermore, available [[fingerstick]] [[glucose meter]]s are only warranted to be accurate to within 15% of a simultaneous laboratory value. In other words, a meter glucose reading of 39 mg/dl could be properly obtained from a person whose serum glucose was 55 mg/dl.
Two other factors significantly affect glucose measurement. The disparity between venous and whole blood concentrations is greater when the [[hematocrit]] is high, as in newborns. High neonatal hematocrits are particularly likely to confound meter glucose measurement. Second, unless the specimen is drawn into a [[sodium fluoride|fluoride]] tube or processed immediately to separate the serum or plasma from the cells, the measurable glucose will be gradually lowered by ''in vitro'' metabolism of the glucose.
===Age differences: normal glucose levels vary by age===
Surveys of healthy children and adults show that fasting blood glucoses below 60 mg/dl (3.3 mM) or above 100 mg/dl (5.6 mM) are found in less than 5% of samples. In infants and young children up to 10% have been found to be below 60 mg/dl after an overnight fast. In other words, many healthy people can occasionally have glucose levels in the hypoglycemic range without symptoms or disease.
The normal range of newborn blood sugars continues to be debated. Surveys and experience have revealed blood sugars often below 40 mg/dl (2.2 mM), rarely below 30 mg/dl (1.7 mM), in apparently healthy full-term infants on the first day of life. It has been proposed that newborn brains are able to use alternate fuels when glucose levels are low more readily than adults. Experts continue to debate the significance and risk of such levels, though the trend has been to recommend maintenance of glucose levels above 60-70 mg/dl after the first day of life. In ill, [[IUGR|undersized]], or [[prematurity|premature]] newborns, low blood sugars are even more common, but there is a consensus that sugars should be maintained at least above 50 mg/dl (2.8 mM) in such circumstances. Some experts advocate 70 mg/dl as a therapeutic target, especially in circumstances such as [[hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia|hyperinsulinism]] where alternate fuels may be less available.
===Presence or absence of effects: are symptoms more important than the number?===
Research in healthy adults shows that mental efficiency declines slightly but measurably as blood glucose falls below 65 mg/dl (3.6 mM) in many people. [[hormone|Hormonal]] defense mechanisms ([[adrenaline]] and [[glucagon]]) are activated as it drops below a threshold level (about 55 mg/dl for most people), producing the typical [[symptom]]s of shakiness and [[dysphoria]]. On the other hand, obvious impairment does not often occur until the glucose falls below 40 mg/dl, and up to 10% of the population may occasionally have glucose levels below 65 in the morning without apparent effects. Brain effects of hypoglycemia, termed [[neuroglycopenia]], determine whether a given low glucose is a "problem" for that person, and hence some people tend to use the term ''hypoglycemia'' only when a moderately low glucose is accompanied by symptoms.
Even this criterion is complicated by the facts that hypoglycemic symptoms are vague and can be produced by other conditions, that people with persistently or recurrently low glucose levels can lose their threshold symptoms so that severe neuroglycopenic impairment can occur without much warning, and that many of our measurement methods (especially [[glucose meter]]s) are imprecise at low levels.
[[Diabetic hypoglycemia]] represents a special case with respect to the relationship of measured glucose and hypoglycemic symptoms for several reasons. Although home [[glucose meter]] readings are sometimes misleading, the probability that a low reading accompanied by symptoms represents real hypoglycemia is higher in a person who takes insulin. Second, the hypoglycemia has a greater chance of progressing to more serious impairment if not treated, compared to most other forms of hypoglycemia that occur in adults. Third, because glucose levels are above normal most of the time in people with diabetes, hypoglycemic symptoms may occur at higher thresholds than in people who are normoglycemic most of the time. For all of these reasons, people with diabetes usually use higher meter glucose thresholds to determine hypoglycemia.
===Purpose of definition: different levels are used for different purposes===
For all of the reasons explained in the above paragraphs, deciding whether a blood glucose in the borderline range of 45-75 mg/dl (2.5-4.2 mM) represents clinically problematic hypoglycemia is not always simple. This leads people to use different "cutoff levels" of glucose in different contexts and for different purposes.
==Pathophysiology: why low blood sugar primarily affects the brain==
Like most animal tissues, [[brain]] [[metabolism]] depends primarily on glucose for fuel in most circumstances. A limited amount of glucose can be derived from [[glycogen]] stored in [[astrocyte]]s, but it is consumed within minutes. For most practical purposes, the brain is dependent on a continual supply of glucose diffusing from the blood into the interstitial tissue within the [[central nervous system]] and into the [[neuron]]s themselves.
Therefore, if the amount of glucose supplied by the blood falls, the brain is one of the first organs affected. In most people subtle reduction of mental efficiency can be observed when the glucose falls below 65 mg/dl (3.6 mM). Impairment of action and judgement usually becomes obvious below 40 mg/dl (2.2 mM). [[Seizure]]s may occur as the glucose falls further. As blood glucose levels fall below 10 mg/dl, most neurons become electrically silent and nonfunctional, resulting in [[coma]]. These brain effects are collectively referred to as [[neuroglycopenia]].
The importance of an adequate supply of glucose to the brain is apparent from the number of [[central nervous system|nervous]], [[hormone|hormonal]] and metabolic responses to a falling glucose. Most of these are defensive or adaptive, tending to raise the blood sugar via [[glycogenolysis]] and [[gluconeogenesis]] or provide alternative fuels.
==Signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia==
Hypoglycemic symptoms and manifestations can be divided into those produced by the counterregulatory hormones ([[adrenaline]] and [[glucagon]]) triggered by the falling glucose, and the neuroglycopenic effects produced by the reduced brain sugar.
=== Adrenergic Manifestations ===
*Shakiness, anxiety, nervousness, tremor
*Palpitations, [[tachycardia]]
*[[Sweat]]ing, feeling of warmth
*Pallor, coldness, clamminess
*Dilated [[pupil]]s
=== Glucagon Manifestations ===
*[[Hunger]], [[borborygmus]]
*[[Nausea]], [[vomit]]ing, [[abdominal pain|abdominal discomfort]]
=== Neuroglycopenic Manifestations ===
*Abnormal mentation, impaired judgement
*Nonspecific [[dysphoria]], [[anxiety]], moodiness, depression, crying, fear of dying
*Negativism, irritability, belligerence, combativeness, [[Rage (emotion)|rage]]
*[[Personality]] change, emotional lability
*[[fatigue (physical)|Fatigue]], weakness, apathy, [[lethargy]], daydreaming, [[sleep]]
*Confusion, [[amnesia]], dizziness, [[delirium]]
*Staring, "glassy" look, blurred vision, [[diplopia|double vision]]
*Automatic behavior, also known as [[automatism (medical)|automatism]]
*Difficulty speaking, slurred speech
*[[Ataxia]], incoordination, sometimes mistaken for "drunkenness"
*Focal or general motor deficit, [[paralysis]], [[hemiparesis]]
*[[Paresthesia]]s, [[headache]]
*Stupor, [[coma]], abnormal breathing
*Generalized or focal [[seizure]]s
Not all of the above manifestations occur in every case of hypoglycemia. There is no consistent order to the appearance of the symptoms. Specific manifestations vary by age and by severity of the hypoglycemia. In young children vomiting often accompanies morning hypoglycemia with [[ketosis]]. In older children and adults, moderately severe hypoglycemia can resemble [[mania]], mental illness, [[drug intoxication]], or drunkenness. In the elderly, hypoglycemia can produce focal [[stroke]]-like effects or a hard-to-define malaise. The symptoms of a single person do tend to be similar from episode to episode.
In newborns, hypoglycemia can produce irritability, jitters, [[myoclonic jerk]]s, [[cyanosis]], respiratory distress, [[apn |
:58:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dewet</username>
<id>88048</id>
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<comment>Revert to revision 41151222 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Afrikaans
|familycolor=Indo-European
|states=[[South Africa]] and [[Namibia]]
|region=[[Southern Africa]]
|speakers=Native speakers: 6,000,000+<br>Secondary speakers: 10,000,000+
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|fam4=[[Low Germanic languages|Low Germanic]]
|fam5=[[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]]
|fam6=[[Dutch language|Dutch]]
|nation=[[South Africa]]
|iso1=af|iso2=afr|iso3=afr}}
'''Afrikaans''' is a [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic language]] mainly spoken in [[South Africa]] and [[Namibia]] with smaller numbers of speakers in [[Botswana]], [[Lesotho]], [[Swaziland]], [[Zimbabwe]] and [[Zambia]]. Due to the [[emigration]] of many White South Africans, there are an additional estimated 300,000 Afrikaans-speakers in the UK, with other substantial communities found in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], [[Australia]]; [[Toronto]], [[Canada]]; and [[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]]. It is the primary language used by two related ethnic groups: the [[Afrikaners]] (including [[Boers]]) and the [[Coloureds]] or ''kleurlinge''/''bruinmense'' (including [[Basters]], [[Cape Malays]] and [[Griqua]]). These two groups are collectively known as '''''Afrikaanses'''''<!-- please STOP replacing Afrikaanses with Afrikaners or worse yet "Afrikaaners" -->, roughly meaning "the language community of Afrikaans-speakers".
Many Afrikaans speakers do not consider themselves either Afrikaners or Coloureds, but simply Afrikaans-speaking South Africans. Geographically, the Afrikaans language is the majority language of the western one-third of South Africa ([[Northern Cape|Northern]] and [[Western Cape]], spoken at home by 69% and 58%, respectively). It is also the largest first language in the adjacent southern one-third of Namibia ([[Hardap]] and [[Karas]], where it is the first language of 43% and 41%, respectively). It is the most widely used second language throughout both of these countries for the population as a whole, although the younger generation has better proficiency in [[English language|English]].
The name ''Afrikaans'' is simply the Dutch word for ''African'', i.e. the African form of the Dutch language. The dialect became known as "[[Cape Dutch]]". Later, Afrikaans was sometimes also referred to as "African Dutch" or "Kitchen Dutch", although some now consider these terms [[pejorative]]. Afrikaans was considered a [[Dutch language|Dutch]] [[Dialect|dialect]] until the late [[19th century]], when it began to be recognised as a distinct language, and it gained equal status with Dutch and English as an official language in South Africa in 1925. But Dutch remained an official language until the new 1961 constitution finally stipulated that the two official languages in South Africa to be Afrikaans and English only (although, curiously, the 1961 constitution still had a sub-clause stipulating that the word "Afrikaans" was also meant to be referring to the Dutch language). But the 1925 decision has led practical Dutch to be in disuse and for it to be replaced by Afrikaans for all purposes.
There are basically three dialects, of which the [[Oosgrens-Afrikaans|northeastern variant]] (which developed into a literary language in the [[Transvaal]]) forms the basis of the [[orthography|written standard]]. Within the Dutch-speaking zones of the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]] and [[Suriname]], there is greater divergence among the dialects than there is between standard Dutch and standard Afrikaans.
It was originally the dialect that developed among the [[Afrikaner]] [[Protestant]] [[settler]]s and the indentured or [[slavery|slave]] workforce brought to the [[Cape Colony|Cape]] area in southwestern South Africa by the [[Dutch East India Company]] ([[Dutch language]]: ''Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie'' - VOC) between [[1652]] and [[1705]]. A relative majority of these first settlers were from the [[Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands|United Provinces]] (now [[Netherlands]]), though there were also many from [[Germany]], a considerable number from [[France]], some from [[Portugal]], a few from [[Scotland]], and various other countries. The indentured workers and slaves were [[South Indian]]s, [[Malay people|Malay]]s, and [[Malagasy people|Malagasy]] in addition to the indigenous [[Khoi]] and [[Bushmen]].
== History ==
Afrikaans is [[linguistics|linguistically]] closely related to [[17th century]]/[[18th century]] Dutch dialects spoken in North and South [[Holland]] and, by extension, to modern Dutch. Today, speakers of each language can today make themselves fairly easily understood by speakers of the other. Some find the accents associated with Dutch or Flemish to be softer than Afrikaans (which is sometimes described as guttural), but there is no general agreement on this, with some Afrikaans speakers experiencing Dutch accents as harsh.
Afrikaans grammar and spelling is simpler than that of Dutch, in the same sense and to approximately the same degree that English grammar is simpler than German grammar. Afrikaans also has a more diverse vocabulary, including words of English, Indian, Malay, Malagasy, Khoi, San and Bantu origins. Other closely related languages include [[Low German]] spoken in northern Germany and the Netherlands, [[German language|German]], and [[English language|English]]. Cape Dutch vocabulary diverged from the Dutch vocabulary spoken in the Netherlands over time as Cape Dutch absorbed words from other European [[settler]]s, slaves from East India and Indonesia's [[Malay people|Malay]], and native African languages. Research by [[J. A. Heese]] indicates that until [[1807]], 36.8% of the ancestors of the White Afrikaans speaking population were Dutch, 35% were German, 14.6% were French and 7.2% non-white (of African and/or Asian origins). Heese's figures are questioned by other researchers, however, and especially the non-white component quoted by Heese is very much in doubt.
The linguist Paul Roberge suggests that the earliest 'truly "Afrikaans"' texts are doggerel verse from 1795 and a dialogue transcribed by a Dutch traveller in 1825. Printed material among the Afrikaners at first used only proper European Dutch. By the mid-19th century, more and more was appearing in Afrikaans, which was very much still regarded as a set of spoken regional dialects. The first Afrikaans grammars and dictionaries were published in [[1875]] by the ''[[Genootskap vir Regte Afrikaners]]'' (Society for Real Afrikaners) in [[Cape Town]]. The [[Boer Wars]] further strengthened the position of the new Dutch-like language. The [[official language]]s of the Union of South Africa were English and Dutch until 1925 when Afrikaans replaced Dutch.
Besides vocabulary, the most striking difference from Dutch is its much more regular grammar, which is likely the result of extensive contact with one or more [[Creole language|creole languages]] based on the Dutch language spoken by the relatively large number of non-Dutch speakers ([[Khoikhoi language|Khoikhoi]], German, French, [[Cape Malays|Cape Malay]], and speakers of different African languages) during the formation period of the language in the second half of the 17th century. In 1710, slaves outnumbered free settlers, and the language was developing among speakers who had little occasion to write or analyse their new dialect.
There are many different theories about how Afrikaans came to be. The Afrikaans School has long seen Afrikaans as a natural development from the South-Hollandic Dutch dialect, but has also only considered the Afrikaans as spoken by the Whites. The Afrikaans School has also rejected all alternative ideas.
Most linguistics scholars today are certain that Afrikaans has been influenced by [[Creole language|creole languages]] based on the South-Holland Dutch dialect. It is very hard to find out how this influence took place, since there is almost no material written in the Dutch-based creole languages: only a few sentences found in unrelated books often written by non-speakers.
Although much of the vocabulary of Afrikaans reflects its origins in 17th century South-Hollandic Dutch, it also contains words borrowed from Asian [[Malay language|Malay]] (the oldest known written Afrikaans uses Arabic script and was intended for use among Cape Town's Muslims), [[Malagasy language|Malagasy Malay]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[French language|French]], [[Khoisan languages|Khoi and San dialects]], [[English language|English]], [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] and many other languages. Consequently, many words in Afrikaans are very different from Dutch, as demonstrated by the names of different fruits:
{| cellspacing="7px"
|-
| '''AFRIKAANS''' || '''DUTCH''' || '''ENGLISH'''
|-
| piesang* || banaan || banana
|-
| lemoen || sinaasappel || orange
|-
| suurlemoen** || citroen || lemon
|}
<br />* from Malay ''pisang'' (a word that is known to the Dutch through their [[Dutch East Indies]] history)
<br />** suur = sour (which is essentially the same as the Dutch word 'zuur').<br>
(''Pisang'' is also a lesser used Dutch word for ''banana'')
== Grammar ==
''See separate article on [[Afrikaans grammar]]''.
==Orthography==
Written Afrikaans differs from Dutch in that the spelling reflects a phonetically simplified language, and so many consonants are dropped (see also the grammar section for a description of how consonant dropping affects the morphology of Afrikaans adjectives and nouns). The spelling is also considerably more phonetical than the Dutch counterpart. A notable featu |
the Father is supreme over Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. However, [[Trinity|Trinitarian]] Christians strongly reject the view that the three persons of the Godhead are three distinct gods. Rather, they describe the three persons as having a single "substance", thus counting as one god. The [[Council of Nicea]] (325 C.E.) affirmed that God was "One Substance (Greek ''Ousia'') and three Persona (Greek ''[[Hypostasis]]'')".
The Christian Trinity, like the Classical Pagan Hypostasis and Hindu [[Trimurti]], has an impersonal divine substance as its unifying principle.
In addition, many Christians believe in what some consider to be a "pantheon" of [[angel]]s, [[demon]]s, and/or [[Saint]]s that are inferior to the [[Trinity]]. Christians do not label these beings as "gods", although they are attributed with supernatural powers, and are sometimes the object of prayer.
When Christianity was adopted by Greco-Roman pagans or African slaves, the new converts often [[Saint#Historicity|attributed to these saints features]] of their previous polytheistic figures. In some cases, these beliefs have developed out of the Catholic church and form [[syncretism]]s like [[Santeria]]. (These beliefs are somewhat similar to [[Hinduism]] which distinguishes between God in the form of [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]], and [[deva]]s which are subordinate to God and who supervise forces of nature such as [[Agni]] (i.e., [[fire]]) or [[Vayu]] (i.e., [[wind]].)
Some [[non-trinitarian]] Christian denominations are more clearly henotheistic:
*Christian [[Gnosticism]] is generally henotheistic.
*In addition, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]] (Mormonism, or the LDS Church) views the members of the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]] as three distinct beings, where [[God the Father]] is supreme. Though not explicitly mentioned in cannonical LDS scripture, some [[Latter Day Saint]]s also infer the existence of numerous other [[god]]s and [[goddess]]es who have no direct relevance to this Earth or humanity. ''See'' [[Godhead (Mormonism)]]. Though not explicitly discussed in canonical scripture, some [[Latter Day Saint]]s also acknowledge a [[Heavenly Mother]] in addition to [[God the Father]]. However, Mormons worship one God; this view is most easily described as worshipping God the Father ''through'' the conduit of the Son, Jesus Christ. Whereas other Christians speak of "One God in Three Persons," the LDS scripture speaks instead of three persons in one God. See the [[Book of Mormon]]'s Mosiah 15:4 [http://scriptures.lds.org/mosiah/15/4#4] ("they are one God"), and LDS interpretation of John 17:11 [http://scriptures.lds.org/john/17] (Jesus asks the Father in prayer that his disciples "may be one, ''as we are''").
===Israelite Beliefs and Judaism===
It is generally uncontroversial that many of the Iron Age religions found in the land of Israel were henotheistic in practice. For example, the [[Moab|Moabites]] worshipped the god, [[Chemosh]], the [[Edom|Edomites]], [[Qaus]], both of whom were part of the greater [[Canaan|Canaanite]] pantheon, headed by the chief god, [[El (Canaanite god)|El]]. The Canaanite pantheon consisted of El and [[Asherah|Asherat]] as the chief deities, with 70 sons who were said to rule over each of the nations of the earth. These sons were the national gods worshipped within each region.
More recently, M.S. Smith's synthesis of the [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] religion in the Iron Age has put forward the case that it, like those around it, was also henotheistic. The discovery of artifacts at Kuntillet 'Ajrud and Khirbet El-Qom have arguably shown that in at least some sections of Israelite society, [[Yahweh]] and Asherah were believed to coexist as a divine couple. Further evidence of an understanding of Yahweh existing within the Canaanite pantheon derives from [[syncretism|syncretistic]] [[Mythology|myths]] found within the [[Hebrew Bible]] itself. Various battles between Yahweh and [[Leviathan]], [[Mot]], the [[tannin|tanninim]], and [[Yamm]] are already attested in the 14th century B.C.E. texts found at [[Ugarit]] (ancient Ras-Shamra). In some cases, Yahweh had replaced Baal, and in others, he had taken El's roles.
According to Genesis, [[Abraham]] is revered as the one who overcame the idol worship of his family and surrounding people by recognizing the Hebrew God and establishing a covenant with him and creating the foundation of what has been called by scholars "[[Ethical]] [[Monotheism]]". The first of the [[Ten commandments]] can be interpreted to forbid the Children of Israel from worshiping any other god but the one true God who had revealed himself at Mount Sinai and given them the [[Torah]], however it can also be read as henotheistic, since it states that they should have "no other gods before me", not that there ''are'' no other gods. Unfortunately, as recorded in the [[Tanakh]] ("Old Testament" Bible), in defiance of the Torah's teachings, the patron god [[Tetragrammaton|YHWH]] was frequently worshipped in conjunction with other gods such as [[Baal]], [[Asherah]], and [[El (Canaanite god)|El]]. Over time, this tribal god may have assumed all the appellations of the other gods in the eyes of the people. The destruction of the [[Jewish Temple in Jerusalem]] and the exile to Babylon was considered a divine reprimand and punishment for the mistaken worship of other deities. By the end of the [[Babylonian captivity of Judah]] in the [[Tanakh]], Judaism is strictly [[monotheism|monotheistic]]. There are still seeming elements of "polytheism" in certain biblical books, such as [[God]]'s reference to himself as "us" in [[Genesis]] 1:26 and 3:22, in [[Daniel]]'s frequent use of the honorific "God of gods" and especially in the Psalms. However, the word God, in Hebrew, "Elohim," is also a general term for "mighty one" or "ruler." This is true in Hebrew as well as other related Canaanite languages. So this assertion is also very questionable, and "Elohim" can refer to any number of "rulers," such as angels, false gods (as defined by Torah), or even human rulers within Israel, as described in [[Exodus]] 21:6; 22:8-8, without violating the parameters of monotheism. Some scholars believe that [[Exodus]] 3:13-15 describes the moment when YHWH first tells [[Moses]] that he is the same god as [[El (Canaanite god)|El]], the supreme being. This could be the recounting, in [[Mythology|myth]]ical form, of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]]'s conversion to monotheism.
==See also==
*[[Kathenotheism]]
*[[Monolatry]]
*[[Monotheism]]
*[[Polytheism]]
*[[Polydeism]]
*[[Comparative religion]]
[[Category:Monotheism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Polytheism]]
[[Category:Ancient Israel and Judah]]
[[bg:&#1055;&#1088;&#1080;&#1084;&#1086;&#1090;&#1077;&#1080;&#1079;&#1098;&#1084;]]
[[de:Henotheismus]]
[[fr:Hénothéisme]]
[[ja:&#21336;&#19968;&#31070;&#25945;]]
[[nl:Henotheïsme]]
[[pl:Henoteizm]]
[[pt:Henoteísmo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hedwig of Andechs</title>
<id>14431</id>
<revision>
<id>34338473</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-08T06:49:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>YurikBot</username>
<id>271058</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: uk</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the [[13th century|13th-century]] saint. For the [[14th century|14th-century]] namesake queen and saint, St. Hedwig the Queen of Poland (''Święta Jadwiga Królowa Polski''), see [[Jadwiga Angevin]].''
'''Saint Hedwig of Andechs''' ([[1174]] - October [[1243]]; [[Polish language|Polish]]: '''Święta Jadwiga Śląska''') was born at Castle [[Andechs]], [[Bavaria]], the daughter of [[Berthold III]], Count of [[Tirol]] and Duke of [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]] and [[Istria]] (Andechs-Meran), and his wife Agnes.
One of Hedwig's sisters married [[Andrew II of Hungary|Andrew, King of Hungary]]. Their daughter was Saint [[Elisabeth of Hungary]], also known as Elizabeth of [[Thuringia]].
Another of Hedwig's sisters was abbess at the [[Benedictine]] convent of [[Lutzingen Nunnery|Lutzingen]] in [[Franconia]], where Hedwig received her education.
At age 18, Hedwig married [[Henryk I the Bearded]] of [[Głogów]]. In [[1233]] Henryk also became Duke of [[Greater Poland]]. He died in battle with the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] in [[1238]]. Upon his death, Hedwig entered the [[Cistercian]] [[convent]] of [[Trzebnica]].
Hedwig and [[Henryk I the Bearded]] had a son, [[Henryk II]]. In [[1241]] he was also killed in battle with the Mongols, who had attacked [[Eastern Europe]] and come all the way to [[Silesia]] and [[Brandenburg]]. The Mongols' aim was to reach the [[Baltic Sea]], subjugating all the peoples in their path. The Mongol army was turned back by German and Polish forces under [[Gotthart Brandis]].
Hedwig and Henryk had lived a very pious life, and Hedwig had great zeal for religion. She always helped the poor, went [[barefoot]] even in winter, and donated all her fortune to the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]] and the poor.
She died in October [[1243]] and was buried at Trzebnica, while [[relic]]s of her are preserved at [[Andechs|Andechs Abbey]].
Hedwig was [[canonized]] in [[1267]].
Hedwig is the patron saint of [[Brandenburg]], [[Berlin]], [[Silesia]] and its capital [[Wrocław]], of [[Trzebnica]], the Diocese of [[Goerlitz]], of [[Andechs]] and of [[Kraków]]. [[St. Hedwig's Cathedral]] is the mother church of the [[Archdiocese]] of [[Berlin]].
[[Category:Polish saints]]
[[category:German people]]
[[Category:Cistercians]]
[[de:Hedwig von Andechs]]
[[fr:Sainte Hedwige de Silésie]]
[[pl:Jadwiga Śląska]]
[[uk:Ядвіґа Сілезька]]</text>
</revisi |
Baldrick's cunning plan of sticking his head into the toilet and seeing where the switches were when his life flashes before his eyes.
After returning home to a French-ruled Britain where no-one's heard of Shakespeare or Robin Hood, Blackadder quickly returns to the machine and restores history. Upon his second return, the others comment that a machine like that could be dangerous in the wrong hands. This gives Blackadder a very cunning plan indeed, and he excuses himself while the others watch the Millennium celebrations on television.
The television shows King Edmund III and Queen Marian of Sherwood arriving at the Millennium Dome to be greeted by Prime Minister Baldrick. The Blackadders have finally achieved their destiny.
===="The Jubilee Girl"====
''The Jubilee Girl'' was a [[29 December]] [[2002]] BBC special about [[Queen Elizabeth II]]'s Golden Jubilee. It featured Sir Osmond-Darling Blackadder (Keeper of Her Majesty's Lawn Sprinklers) and [[Dame Edna Everage]]. Earlier, a BBC "advertisement" for the celebrations also featured this incarnation of Blackadder.
==Anachronism==
''Main article:'' [[Historical anomalies in Blackadder]]
The Blackadder series contain many instances of anachronism or anachronistic references. For example:
*In ''The Black Adder'', the [[Duke of Edinburgh]] is one of Edmund's titles. However, [[Scotland]] had a separate monarchy at this point, and this title had not yet been created.
*''Blackadder The Third'' encompasses many historical persons and events from throughout the reign of [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] (1760&ndash;1820) and even beyond, despite the appearance of taking place over a relatively short period of time. For example, Samuel Johnson completed his dictionary in 1755, which is the premise for the second episode. In the same instalment, Dr Johnson is seen hanging out with Lord Byron, despite the fact that in real life, the latter was born four years after the former died. The most common setting appears to be during the [[Regency]] (1811&ndash;20) despite the fact that Prince George is portrayed as thin and young, when actually, by this point, he was in his early fifties and very, very fat. (Despite this disparity, jokes are made about Prince George's great weight.) There are also a number of references to [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] throughout the series, yet the [[French Revolution]] only takes place in the third episode.
*In the earlier episodes ("Dish and Dishonesty" and possibly "Ink and Incapability"), Edmund has an [[iron maiden (torture device)|iron maiden]] torture and execution device in his bedroom. The only known example of such an instrument was located in Nuremberg.
==Cast==
''Main article:'' [[List of characters in Blackadder]]
The main recurring members of the cast (whose characters -despite being having the same name and characteristics, had various titles throughout the different series) were:
* [[Edmund Blackadder]]: ([[Rowan Atkinson]])
* [[Baldrick|Sodoff Baldrick]]: ([[Tony Robinson]])
* [[Lord Percy Percy]]/[[Captain Kevin Darling]]: ([[Tim McInnerny]])
* [[Queenie|Queen Elizabeth I]]/[[Amy Hardwood]]/Nurse Mary Fletcher-Brown: ([[Miranda Richardson]])
* [[Prince George (Blackadder character)|Prince George]]/[[Lieutenant The Honourable George Colthurst St. Bartleigh]]/Prince Ludwig the Indestructible/Simon "Farters Parters" Partridge )(a.k.a. Mr [[Ostrich]]): ([[Hugh Laurie]])
* [[Melchett]]/[[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|The Duke of Wellington]]: ([[Stephen Fry]])
[[Patsy Byrne]] received huge plaudits for her crucial role as Nursie in all six episodes of ''Blackadder II'' but never featured in either of the subsequent series, either as a regular character or one-off. Her only future roles in Blackadder were in ''Blackadder Back and Forth'' and ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol'', when she briefly reprised Nursie during scenes set in the ''Blackadder II'' era and then in ''Carol's'' Christmas future scenes, also playing the "triple husbandoid" to Queen Asphyxia. Similarly, Helen Atkinson-Wood was a welcome addition to the cast for the role of Mrs Miggins in all six episodes of ''Blackadder the Third'', but did not appear again in the programme.
[[Ben Elton]]'s arrival after the first series heralded the more frequent recruitment of comic actors from the famed "alternative" era for guest appearances, including [[Robbie Coltrane]], [[Rik Mayall]] (who had actually appeared in the final episode of the first series as Mad Gerald), [[Adrian Edmondson]], [[Nigel Planer]], [[Mark Arden]], [[Stephen Frost]], [[Chris Barrie]] and [[Jeremy Hardy]]. Elton himself played an anarchist in ''Blackadder the Third''.
However, aside from the regular cast listed above, only one actor - [[Lee Cornes]] - appeared in an episode of all three Curtis-Elton series. He appeared as a guard in the episode ''Chains'' of ''Blackadder II''; as the poet [[Percy Bysshe Shelley|Shelley]] in the episode ''Ink and Incapability'' of ''Blackadder the Third''; and as firing squad soldier [[Private (rank)|Private]] Fraser in the episode ''Corporal Punishment'' of ''Blackadder Goes Forth''.
More 'establishment'-style actors, some at the veteran stage of their careers, were also recruited for roles. These included [[John Grillo]], [[Tom Baker]], [[Jim Broadbent]], [[Hugh Paddick]], [[Kenneth Connor]], [[Bill Wallis]], [[Ronald Lacey]], [[Roger Blake]], [[Denis Lill]], [[Warren Clarke]], [[Miriam Margolyes]] and, perhaps most famously, [[Geoffrey Palmer (actor)|Geoffrey Palmer]] who played [[Douglas Haig|Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig]] in ''Goodbyeeee...'', the final, fatal episode of ''Blackadder Goes Forth''.
Unusually for a sitcom based loosely on factual events and in the historical past, a man was recruited for one episode essentially to play himself. Political commentator [[Vincent Hanna]] played a character billed as "his own great-great-great grandfather" in the episode ''Dish and Dishonesty'' of ''Blackadder the Third''. Hanna was asked to take part because the scene was of a [[by-election]] in which Baldrick was a candidate and, in the style of modern television, Hanna gave a long-running "live" commentary of events at the count (and interviewed candidates and election agents) to a resident through the [[town hall]] window.
==Quotes==
The following comes from a scene in "Beer" (''Blackadder II''), when there is a knock at the door.
:'''Blackadder''': Get the door, Baldrick.
:[There is a crash and Baldrick enters with the door]
:'''Blackadder''': Baldrick, I would advise you to make the explanation you are about to give, phenomenally good.
:'''Baldrick''': You said get the door.
:'''Blackadder''': Not good enough, you're fired.
:'''Baldrick''': But, my lord, I've been in your family since 1532.
:'''Blackadder''': So has syphilis. Now get out.
The following comes from a scene in "Sense and Senility" (''Blackadder III''), as Blackadder is preparing to leave.
:'''Blackadder''': Baldrick, I would like to say how much I will miss your honest and friendly companionship.
:'''Baldrick''': Ah, thank you, Mr B.
:'''Blackadder''': But as we both know, that would be an utter lie.
The following comes from a scene in "Private Plane" (''Blackadder Goes Forth''), when Lord Flasheart is beginning lessons on flying a "kite" (slang for airplane).
:'''Lord Flasheart''': Always treat your plane like you treat your woman.
:'''Lieutenant George''': What do you mean, sir, take her home at the weekend to meet your mother?
:'''Lord Flasheart''': No, I mean get inside her five times a day and take her to heaven and back!
The following comes from a scene in "Goodbyeee" (''Blackadder Goes Forth''), when Captain Darling meets Blackadder in the trenches shortly before 'going over the top'.
:'''Captain Darling''': I made a short note in my diary on the way over here. Simply says... "Bugger."
==References and tie-ins==
All series and many of the specials are available on [[DVD]] and [[VHS|video]], as well as many available on BBC Audio Cassette.
Some books of particular note are:
* Curtis, Richard, Ben Elton, and [[Rowan Atkinson]]. ''Blackadder: The Whole Damn Dynasty 1485–1917''. Penguin Books, 2000. ISBN 0140296085. Being the—almost—complete scripts of the four regular series.
* Howarth, Chris, and Steve Lyons. ''Cunning: The Blackadder Programme Guide''. Virgin Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0753504472. An unofficial guide to the series, with asides, anecdotes and observations.
* Curtis, Richard, Ben Elton. ''Blackadder: Back & Forth''. Penguin Books, 2000. ISBN 0140291350. A script book with copious photographs from the most recent outing.
==Precursors==
The plot device of a 'modern' man in ancient times is not new, and has a venerable history in fiction.
In TV comedies, perhaps the most obvious 'ancestor' of the ''Blackadder'' series is ''[[Up Pompeii]]''. The series, starring [[Frankie Howerd]] as Lurcio, was set in ancient Rome and made similar play with historical characters. Even the apparent '[[reincarnation]]' device found in ''Blackadder'' [http://members.aol.com/trogrann/blackadder.htm] is also used.
The TV series inspired four feature films, the first two of which, ''Up Pompeii'' and ''Further Up Pompeii'', were also set in Imperial Rome with Howerd as Lurcio. The first film ended with the eruption of Vesuvius and had a final scene set in the present day, in which the actors all played tourists closely resembling their ancient roles, with Howerd being a tour guide, showing them around the ruins of Pompeii.
The third was set in medieval times and called ''Up the Chastity Belt'', with Howerd's character as 'Lurkalot' (cf '''''The Black Adder'''''). In this, Howerd's character is discovered to be a double of [[Richard Lionheart]], and later |
ian version of the Hummer as far back as the late [[1980s]]. In [[1990]], two matching white Hummers were driven from [[London]], [[United Kingdom|UK]] to [[Beijing]], [[People's Republic of China]] over the rough roads of the central [[Soviet Union]]. The Hummers made the drive with ease, and highlights of this journey were broadcast on [[ESPN]] in the [[United States]]. The publicity would pale in comparison to the attention that the [[HMMWV]] received for its service in [[Operation: Desert Storm]] the following year.
In [[1991]], [[AM General]] began selling a civilian version of the M998 [[High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle]] (HMMWV or Hum-Vee) vehicle to the public under the brand name '''Hummer'''. In [[1999]], AM General sold the brand name to General Motors but continued to manufacture the vehicles, which GM then re-sold. In the next few years, GM introduced two new homegrown models, the [[Hummer H2|H2]] and [[Hummer H3|H3]], and renamed the original vehicle to H1. AM General continues to build the H1 and is contracted by GM to produce the H2. The H3 is built in Shreveport, LA.
As of 2004, Hummer has gone international with selected importers and distributors in Europe and other markets. It has only been sold in small volumes, but some celebrities and business people have bought Hummers to satisfy their curiosity. Markets such as Australia have taken interest to Hummers with importers converting the latest H3 to right hand drive despite GM not officially selling the brand in Australia.
From 2006, GM will be building/assembling the Hummer H3 at the Port Elizabeth plant in South Africa to make Hummers internationally available. Hummers at the Port Elizabeth plant will be built for local South African consumption and exported to Australia, the United Kingdom and Japan.
==Evaluation==
The first two Hummer models are large, heavy vehicles with large engines and complex drivelines. The third one, the [[Hummer H3|H3]], is smaller and geared more towards people who want an everyday SUV. They also feature aggressive styling and advertising, setting them apart from competing models. This has made them a target of criticism, as many people view Hummers as ill-suited for use as a passenger vehicle on public streets. As fuel prices have risen, detractors have also singled out the Hummer as an egregious waster of resources—a charge based largely on the Hummer's fuel consumption and size.
Since both the H1 and H2 can weigh over 8,500&nbsp;lb (GVWR), the United States fuel economy regulations do not apply to them. GM does not disclose their expected fuel economy ratings, and the company is not required to display a [[Monroney sticker]] on the vehicles. However, expected [[Miles_per_gallon|mpg]] ratings can be derived from their fuel capacity and range ratings. These metrics show that the [[Diesel]] H1 is expected to reach 16&nbsp;[[Miles_per_gallon|mpg]] (U.S.), while the H2 should get 9.6&nbsp;mpg. ''[[Car and Driver]]'' magazine observed 12&nbsp;mpg with their H2 SUV. These ratings are similar to those of other heavy trucks and SUVs.
==Models==
<!--[[Image:Hummer20Limo206.jpg|thumb|right|Hummer Limo]]-->
There are three current and possibly two future models in the Hummer line:
* [[Hummer H1]]
* [[Hummer H2]]
** Hummer H2 [[Sports Utility Truck|SUT]]
* [[Hummer H3]]
** Hummer H3T
* [[Hummer H4]]
* Hummer Hx
==Licensing==
General Motors has been very active in licensing the Hummer brand. Various companies have licensed the Hummer trademarks for use on [[Eau de Cologne|colognes]], [[flashlight]]s, [[bicycle]]s [http://www.hummerbikes.com], [[laptop]]s [http://www.hummerlaptops.com], [[apparel]], [[jewelry]], [[CD player]]s and other items. [http://www.hummerstuff.com]
==Hummers in popular culture==
*[[Governor of California|California governor]] [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] was the first private citizen to own a Hummer and continues to own several.
==External links==
''' Official Site '''
* [http://www.amgeneral.com AM General official site]
* [http://www.hummer.com GM's HUMMER homepage]
''' Enthusiast Forums and Sites '''
* [http://www.humvee.net A HUMMER enthusiast site]
* [http://www.hummernetwork.com The HUMMER Network] - HUMMER enthusiast site, Parent site of above
* [http://www.amghummer.com A Hummer Technical Info site]
* [http://www.hummerforums.com Hummer Forums]
* [http://www.i3ds.com/hummer/index2.html Hummer License Plates, Jokes and much more]
''' Criticism Sites '''
* [http://www.blogsnotbombs.com/leftwingnut/hummerhome.htm A Hummer criticism site] <!-- please do not remove negative/criticism links without discussion -->
* [http://greenhummerproject.org/ Green Hummer Project] <!-- please do not remove negative/criticism links without discussion -->
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<page>
<title>High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle</title>
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<username>BohicaTwentyTwo</username>
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<comment>/* Usage in Iraq and political implications */ M114 was in prduction before December 2004</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><div style="float: right; margin-top: 0px; background-color: #white; border: 0px solid #black; padding-left: 40px; width:210px; clear: both;">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="200px">
<tr><td align="center" colspan=2>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
<tr><td align="center" width="200px">[[Image:Img hmmwv.jpg|HMMWV fording a stream]] </td></tr>
</table></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2">'''General Characteristics''' (M998)</tr>
</tr>
<tr><td>Manufacturer:</td><td>[[AM General]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>Length:</td><td>4.57–5.13&nbsp;m </td></tr>
<tr><td>Width:</td><td>2.16&nbsp;m</td></tr>
<tr><td>Height:</td><td>1.75–2.59&nbsp;m</td></tr>
<tr><td>Ground clearance:</td><td>0.4&nbsp;m (axle), 0.6&nbsp;m (chassis)</td></tr>
<tr><td>Mass:</td><td>1,587–2,061&nbsp;kg</td></tr>
<tr><td>Speed:</td><td>88.5&nbsp;km/h</td></tr>
<tr><td>Range:</td><td>440–540&nbsp;km</td></tr>
<tr><td>Crew:</td><td>2–4&nbsp;men</td></tr>
</table>
</div>
:''This article refers to the Military HMMWV, not the civilian [[Hummer]] sold by [[General Motors]]''
The '''M998 High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle''' ('''HMMWV''' or '''Hum-Vee''') is a highly durable [[military]] motor [[vehicle]]. It has largely supplanted the role formerly served by the [[jeep]] and other light trucks with the [[United States]] military, and is also used by a number of other countries and organizations.
== Features ==
There are at least 17 variants of the HMMWV in service with the [[United States armed forces]]. HMMWV serve as cargo/troop carriers, automatic weapons platforms, [[ambulance]]s (four litter patients or eight ambulatory patients), M220 [[BGM-71 TOW|TOW missile]] carriers, [[M119 howitzer]] prime movers, [[M-1097 Avenger]] [[surface-to-air missile]] platforms, MRQ-12 direct [[air support]] vehicles, S250 shelter carriers among many others. It is capable of [[Wiktionary:Ford|fording]] 0.762&nbsp;m normally, or 1.5&nbsp;m with deep-water fording kit.
Optional equipment includes a winch (maximum load capacity 6000&nbsp;lb. (2700&nbsp;kg)), and supplemental armor. The M1025 and M1043/M1044 armament carriers provide mounting and firing capabilities for the [[MK19 grenade launcher]], the [[M2 machine gun]], the [[M240G]] machine gun and [[M249]] SAW. The newly introduced M1114 "up-armored" HMMWV also features a similar weapons mount.
== History ==
[[image:Hmmwv-036.jpg|thumb|A HMMWV firing a [[BGM-71_TOW|TOW]] missile]]
In the [[1970s]], the [[United States Army]] concluded that the militarized civilian [[truck]]s in use no longer satisfied their requirements. In [[1979]], the Army drafted specifications for a High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle, or HMMWV. In July of that year, [[AM General]] began preliminary design work, and less than a year later, the first prototype, the M998, was in testing.
In June [[1981]], the Army awarded AM General a contract for development of several more prototype vehicles to be delivered to the U.S. government for another series of tests, and the company was later awarded the initial production contract for 55,000 HMMWVs to be delivered in [[1985]]. HMMWVs first saw combat in the [[Gulf war|First Gulf War]].
They have become the backbone of U.S. forces around the world. Over 10,000 were used during [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]] by U.S. forces as well as some other countries in during [[2003 invasion of Iraq]].
== Usage in Iraq and political implications ==
[[Image:Destroyed humvee.jpg|thumb|A destroyed Humvee following an [[Rocket_propelled_grenade|RPG]] attack]]
[[Image:Marine humvee with bolt-on armor |
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<comment>shortcut Relation (mathematics)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''isomorphism class''' is a collection of mathematical objects [[isomorphic]] with a certain mathematical object. A mathematical object usually consists of a [[set]] and some [[Relation (mathematics)|mathematical relation]]s and operations defined over this set.
Isomorphism classes are often defined if the exact identity of the elements of the set is considered irrelevant, and the properties of the structure of the mathematical object are studied. Examples of this are [[ordinal]]s and [[graph theory|graphs]]. However, there are circumstances in which the isomorphism class of an object conceals vital internal information about it; for example, in [[homotopy theory]], the [[fundamental group]] of a space <math>X</math> at a point <math>p</math>, though technically denoted <math>\pi_1(X,p)</math> to emphasize the dependence on the base point, is often written lazily as simply <math>\pi_1(X)</math> if <math>X</math> is [[connected space#Path_connectedness|path connected]]. The reason for this is that the existence of a path between two points allows one to identify loops at one with loops at the other; however, unless <math>\pi_1(X,p)</math> is [[abelian group|abelian]] this isomorphism is non-unique. Furthermore, the classification of [[covering space]]s makes strict reference to particular subgroups of <math>\pi_1(X,p)</math>, specifically distinguishing between isomorphic but [[conjugacy class|conjugate]] subgroups, and therefore amalgamating the elements of an isomorphism class into a single featureless object seriously decreases the level of detail provided by the theory.
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[[es:Clase de isomorfismo]]
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<title>Isomorphic</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[isomorphism]]
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<title>Isomorphism</title>
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<comment>rv last anon edit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the term in sociology, see [[isomorphism (sociology)]].''
In [[mathematics]], an '''isomorphism''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]:''isos'' "equal", and ''morphe'' "shape") is a [[bijective]] map ''f'' such that both ''f'' and its [[inverse function|inverse]] ''f''<sup>&nbsp;&minus;1</sup> are [[homomorphism]]s, i.e. ''structure-preserving'' mappings.
Informally, an isomorphism is a kind of [[Map (mathematics)|mapping]] between objects, which shows a relationship between two properties or operations. If there exists an isomorphism between two structures, we call the two structures '''isomorphic'''. In a certain sense, Isomorphic sets are '''structurally identical''', if you choose to ignore finer-grained differences that may arise from how they are defined.
According to [[Douglas Hofstadter]]:
:"''The word "isomorphism" applies when two complex structures can be mapped onto each other, in such a way that to each part of one structure there is a corresponding part in the other structure, where "corresponding" means that the two parts play similar roles in their respective structures.''" ([[Gödel, Escher, Bach]], p. 49)
==Purpose==
Isomorphisms are frequently used by mathematicians to save themselves work. If a good isomorphism can be found from a relatively unknown part of mathematics into some well studied division of mathematics, where many theorems are already proved, and many methods are already available to find answers, then the function can be used to map whole problems out of unfamiliar territory over to "solid ground," where the problem is easier to understand and work with.
==Physical analogies==
Here are some everyday examples of isomorphic structures:
* A solid cube made of wood and a solid cube made of lead are both solid cubes; although their matter differs, their geometric structures are isomorphic.
* A standard deck of 52 playing cards with green backs and a standard deck of 52 playing cards with brown backs; although the colours on the backs of each deck differ, the decks are structurally isomorphic &mdash; if we wish to play cards, it doesn't matter which deck we choose to use.
* The Clock Tower in London (that contains [[Big Ben]]) and a wristwatch; although the clocks vary greatly in size, their mechanisms of reckoning time are isomorphic.
* A six-sided die and a bag from which a number 1 through 6 is chosen; although the method of obtaining a number is different, their random number generating abilities are isomorphic. This is an example of functional isomorphism, without the presumption of geometric isomorphism.
==Practical example==
The following are examples of isomorphisms from ordinary [[algebra]].
<ul><li>
Consider the [[logarithm]] function: For any fixed base ''b'', the [[logarithm]] function log<sub>''b''</sub> maps from the positive [[real number]]s <math>\mathbb{R}^+</math> onto the real numbers <math>\mathbb{R}</math>; formally:
:<math>\log_b : \mathbb{R}^+ \to \mathbb{R} \!</math>
This mapping is [[injective function|one-to-one]] and [[surjective function|onto]], that is, it is a [[bijection]] from the [[domain (mathematics)|domain]] to the [[codomain]] of the logarithm function.
In addition to being an isomorphism of sets, the logarithm function also preserves certain operations. Specifically, consider the [[group (mathematics)|group]] <math>(\mathbb{R}^+,\times)</math> of positive real numbers under ordinary multiplication. The logarithm function obeys the following identity:
:<math>\log_b(x \times y) = \log_b(x) + \log_b(y) \!</math>
But the real numbers under addition also form a group. So the logarithm function is in fact a group isomorphism from the group <math>(\mathbb{R}^+,\times)</math> to the group <math>(\mathbb{R},+)</math>.
</li>
<li> Consider the group '''Z'''<sub>6</sub>, the numbers from 0 to 5 with addition [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] 6. Also consider the group '''Z'''<sub>2</sub> &times; '''Z'''<sub>3</sub>, the ordered pairs where the ''x'' coordinates can be 0 or 1, and the y coordinates can be 0, 1, or 2, where addition in the ''x''-coordinate is modulo 2 and addition in the ''y''-coordinate is modulo 3.
These structures are isomorphic under addition, if you identify them using the following scheme:
::(0,0) -> 0
::(1,1) -> 1
::(0,2) -> 2
::(1,0) -> 3
::(0,1) -> 4
::(1,2) -> 5
or in general (''a'',''b'') -> ( 3''a'' + 4 ''b'' ) mod 6.
For example note that (1,1) + (1,0) = (0,1) which translates in the other system as 1 + 3 = 4.
Even though these two sets "look" different, they are indeed '''isomorphic'''. More generally, the [[direct product]] of two [[cyclic group]]s '''Z'''<sub>''n''</sub> and '''Z'''<sub>''m''</sub> is cyclic if and only if ''n'' and ''m'' are [[coprime]].
</li>
</ul>
==Abstract examples==
===A relation-preserving isomorphism===
For example, if one object consists of a set ''X'' with an ordering &le; and the other object consists of a set ''Y'' with an ordering <math>\sqsubseteq</math> then an isomorphism from ''X'' to ''Y'' is a bijective function ''f''&nbsp;:&nbsp;''X''&nbsp;→&nbsp;''Y'' such that
: <math>f(u) \sqsubseteq f(v)</math> [[iff]] ''u'' &le; ''v''.
Such an isomorphism is called an ''[[order isomorphism]]''.
===An operation-preserving isomorphism===
Suppose that on these sets ''X'' and ''Y'', there are two [[binary operation]]s <math>\star</math> and <math>\Diamond</math> which happen to constitute the [[group (mathematics)|groups]] (''X'',<math>\star</math>) and (''Y'',<math>\Diamond</math>). Note that the operators operate on elements from the [[Domain (mathematics)|domain]] and [[Range (mathematics)|range]], respectively, of the "one-to-one" and "onto" function ''f''. There is an isomorphism from ''X'' to ''Y'' if the [[bijective]] function ''f'' : ''X''&nbsp;→&nbsp;''Y'' happens to produce results, that sets up a correspondence between the operator <math>\star</math> and the operator <math>\Diamond</math>.
: <math>f(u) \Diamond f(v) = f(u \star v)</math>
for all ''u'', ''v'' in ''X''.
==Applications==
In [[abstract algebra]], two basic isomorphisms are defined:
* [[Group isomorphism]], an isomorphism between [[group (mathematics)|groups]]
* [[Ring isomorphism]], an isomorphism between [[ring (mathematics)|rings]]. (Note that isomorphisms between [[field (mathematics)|fields]] are actually ring isomorphisms)
In [[Analysis (mathematics)|Analysis]], the [[Legendre transform]] maps hard [[differential equations]] into easier [[algebra]]ic equations.
In [[universal algebra]], one can provide a general definition of isomorphism that covers these and many other cases. For a more general definition, see [[category theory]].
In [[graph theory]], an isomorphism between two graphs ''G'' and ''H'' is a [[bijective |
y of the Gospel of Barnabas can be re-expressed as debating whether specific highly transgressive themes (from an orthodox Christian perspective) might already have been present in the source materials utilised by a 14th&ndash;16th century vernacular author, whether they might be due to that author himself, or whether they might even have been interpolated by the subsequent editor. Those students who regard these particular themes as primitive, nevertheless do not generally dispute that other parts of the Gospel may be late and anachronistic; while those students who reject the authenticity of these particular themes do not generally dispute that other parts of the Gospel could be transmitting variant readings from antiquity.
===Analysis===
This work bears strong parallels with the [[Islam]]ic faith, not only mentioning [[Muhammad]] by name, but including the ''[[shahada]]'' (chapter 39). It is strongly anti-[[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]ine and anti-[[Trinity|Trinitarian]] in tone. In this work, Jesus is described as a [[prophet]] and not the [[son of God]], while Paul is called "the deceived". Furthermore, the Gospel of Barnabas states that Jesus escaped crucifixion by being raised alive to heaven; while [[Judas Iscariot]] the traitor &mdash; miraculously transformed &mdash; was crucified in his place. These beliefs; in particular that Jesus is a prophet of God, raised alive without being crucified; conform with [[Muslim|Islamic]] beliefs. Other passages however conflict with the text/teachings of the [[Qur'an]]; as for instance in the account of the [[Virgin Mary in Islam|Nativity]], where [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]] is said to have given birth to Jesus without pain; or as in Jesus's ministry, where he permits the drinking of [[wine]] and enjoins [[marriage|monogamy]]. Narrative themes, and some highly distinctive phraseology, are shared with the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' of [[Dante]] (Ragg). If (as most students surmise) the ''Gospel of Barnabas'' is seen as an attempted synthesis of elements from both Christianity and Islam, then sixteenth and seventeenth century parallels can be suggested in [[Morisco]] and [[nontrinitarianism|anti-Trinitarian]] writings; but there are no known earlier precursors.
The Spanish version includes an account of the discovery of the Gospel of Barnabas in the private study of [[Pope Sixtus V]] ([[1585]]-[[1590]]), an account which appears to many students to be historically incongruous; and this, together with [[paleography|paleographic]] inconsistencies in the surviving Italian manuscript, has led a number of scholars to conclude that the two known manuscripts may have been prepared in support of an exercise in forensic [[falsification]], intended to discredit or incriminate some leading [[Catholic]] ecclesiastic in the [[Roman Curia]] of the [[1590]]s (David Sox; ''The Gospel of Barnabas'' 1984). There are a number of contemporary parallels for such an exercise - most notably the "Casket Letters" supposedly forged to incriminate [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Queen of Scots]]. Some scholars who maintain this view consequently dismiss the entire Gospel as a [[hoax]]; but the majority would consider it more likely that the supposed forgers made use of a pre-existing [[heterodox]] text.
==Religious themes==
The Gospel of Barnabas was little known outside academic circles until recent times, when a number of Muslims have taken to publishing it in order to argue against the orthodox Christian conception of Jesus. It resonates better with existing Muslim views than with [[Christianity]] in several respects: it foretells the coming of Muhammad by name; rather than describing the crucifixion of Jesus, it describes him being raised up into heaven, similar to the description of [[Elijah]] in [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]], Chapter 2; and it calls Jesus a "prophet" whose mission was restricted to the "house of [[Israel]]". However, it differs from Islamic conceptions in at least two important respects; it reports that Muhammad, not Jesus, was the [[Messiah]], whereas the Qur'an and [[Hadith]] both describe Jesus as the Messiah, and no orthodox variety of Islam calls Muhammad the Messiah. In addition, it explictly denies the Islamic (and Christian) doctrines of [[qiyamah|God's absolute judgment]] and foreknowledge &mdash; in asserting that, in the matter of salvation: "Our God waits for man to be penitent" (Chapter 114); such that the souls of the wicked in Hell could nevertheless be saved at the [[end times]], if they become converted to [[repentance|penitence]] (Chapter 113); whereas the righteous &mdash;even the saints and prophets&mdash; cannot be safe from the fear of damnation; as the possibility cannot be excluded that they might at some future time, through confidence in their own righteousness, fall into [[pride]] (Chapter 112).
It contains an extended polemic against the doctrine of [[predestination]] (Chapter 164), and in favour of [[justification by faith]]; arguing that the eternal destination of the soul to [[Heaven]] or [[Hell]] is neither pre-determined by God's [[divine grace|grace]] (as in [[Calvinism]]), nor the judgement of God, in his mercy, on the faith of believers on Earth (as in orthodox Islam). Instead it states that all those condemned at the [[last judgment]], but who subsequently respond in faith, who demonstrate unfeigned penitence, and who make a free choice of blessedness, will eventually be offered salvation (Chapter 137). Only those whose persistent pride prevents them from sincere repentance will remain forever in Hell. Such radically [[Pelagianism|Pelagian]] beliefs in the sixteenth century were found amongst the anti-Trinitarian Protestant traditions later denoted as [[Unitarianism]]. Some sixteenth century anti-Trinitarian divines sought to reconcile Christianity, Islam and Judaism; on the basis of very similar arguments to those presented in the Gospel of Barnabas, arguing that if salvation remains unresolved until the end times, then any one of the three religions could be a valid path to heaven for their own believers. The Spaniard, [[Michael Servetus]] denounced the orthodox Christian formulation of the [[Trinity]] (demonstrating the only explicit reference to the Trinity in the New Testament to be a later interpolation); and hoped thereby to bridge the doctrinal divide between Christianity and Islam. In 1553 he was executed in [[Geneva]] under the authority of [[John Calvin]], but his teachings remained very influential amongst Italian Protestant exiles. In the late sixteenth century many anti-Trinitarians, persecuted both by Calvinists and by the Inquisition, sought refuge in [[History of Transylvania|Transylvania]]; then under Turkish overlordship and with close links to Istanbul. (Christopher J. Burchill:''The Heidelberg Antitrinitarians'' Bibliotheca Dissidentium: vol XI, Baden-Baden 1989,308p).
Included in chapter 145 is "The little book of [[Elijah]]"; which sets out instructions for a righteous life of [[Asceticism|ascetisim]] and [[hermit|eremetic]] spirituality. Over the succeeding 47 chapters, Jesus is recorded as developing the theme that the ancient [[Prophet|prophets]], specifically [[Obadiah]], [[Haggai]] and [[Hosea]], were holy hermits following this religious rule; and contrasting their followers - termed "true Pharisees" - with the "false [[Pharisees]]" who lived in the world, and who constituted his chief opponents. The "true Pharisees" are said to congregate on [[Mount Carmel]]. This accords with the teaching of the medieval [[Carmelites]], who lived as an eremetic congregation on Carmel in the [[13th Century]]; but who claimed (without any evidence) to be direct successors of Elijah and the [[Old Testament]] prophets. In [[1291]] the [[Mamluk]] advance into [[Syria]] compelled the friars on Carmel to abandon their monastery; but on dispersing through Western Europe they found that the Western Carmelite congregations - especially in Italy - had largely abandoned the eremetic and ascetic ideal, adopting instead the conventual life and mission of the other [[Mendicant orders]]. Some students consider that the ensuing 14th-16th Century controversies can be found reflected in the text of the Gospel of Barnabas.
The Gospel also takes a strongly anti-Pauline tone at times, saying in the Italian version's beginning: "many, being deceived of Satan, under pretence of piety, are preaching most impious doctrine, calling Jesus son of God, repudiating the circumcision ordained of God for ever, and permitting every unclean meat: among whom also Paul has been deceived."
===Prediction of Muhammad===
The Gospel of Barnabas claims that Jesus predicted the advent of Muhammad, thus conforming with the Qur'an which mentions:
: "And remember, Jesus, the son of Mary, said: O Children of Israel! I am the apostle of Allah (sent) to you, confirming the Law (which came) before me, and giving Glad Tidings of an Messenger to come after me, whose name shall be Ahmad. But when he came to them with Clear Signs, they said, this is evident sorcery!" ([[Sura 61]]:[http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/QURAN/61.htm 6])
(Ahmad is another name of Muhammad.) More traditionally, Muslim scholars regard the New Testament's mentions of the Paraclete (John 14:16, 14:26, 15:26, 16:7) as referring to Muhammad. The Greek word "[[paraclete]]" is translated "Counsellor" and refers to the [[Holy Spirit]]. This similar to the Greek "periklutos" which can be translated as "Ahmad."
The name of "Muhammad" is frequently mentioned verbatim in the Gospel of Barnabas, as in the following quote:
: "Jesus answered: `The name of the Messiah is admirable, for God himself gave him the name when he had created his soul, and placed it in a celestial splendour. God said: "Wait Mohammed; |
ymarket]] in [[1867]]. It was followed by other light comedies. His pieces include numerous burlesques and pantomimes, the libretti of "Savonarola" ([[Hamburg]], [[1884]]) and of "The Canterbury Pilgrims" (Drury Lane, [[1884]]) for the music of Dr. (afterwards Sir) [[C.V. Stanford]]. "The Happy Land" (Court Theatre, [[1873]]), a political burlesque of [[W. S. Gilbert]]'s "Wicked World," was written in collaboration with [[F.L. Tomline]]. For the last ten years of his life he was on the regular staff of ''[[Punch magazine|Punch]]''.
His health was seriously affected in [[1889]] by the death of his only son, and he died in [[1891]].
[[Category:1837 births|Beckett, Gilbert Arthur à]]
[[Category:1891 deaths|Beckett, Gilbert Arthur à]]
[[sv:Gilbert Arthur A'Beckett]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glaucus</title>
<id>12875</id>
<revision>
<id>42155871</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:41:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.115.162.67</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Soldier */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Greek myth (sea)}}
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Glaucus''' ("shiny" or "bright" or "bluish-green") referred to several different people.
*Alternative: [[Glaukos]], [[Glacus]]
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Glaucus and Scylla.jpg|thumb|left|Glaucus and [[Scylla]]; painting made by [[Laurent de La Hyre]] between 1640 and 1644.]] -->
===God===
'''Glaucus''' was a [[Greek mythology|Greek]] sea-god, the son of [[Anthedon]] and [[Alcyone]]. The story of his origin is made into a Roman entertainment by [[Ovid]], that he began as a mortal fisherman living in the Boeotian city of Anthedon and one day he caught and landed some fish at a place where there grew an [[herb]] with the magic property of resuscitating fish and allowing them to return to the water. Seeing this effect the herb had on the fish, Glaucus ate some of it too. The herb made him immortal, but it also gave him fins and caused his legs to transform into a fish's tail, forcing him to dwell forever in the sea. Glaucus was initially upset by this side-effect, but [[Oceanus]] and [[Tethys (mythology)|Tethys]] received him well and he was quickly accepted among the deities of the sea, learning the art of [[prophecy]] at which they were skilled.
Glaucus fell in love with the sea-goddess [[Scylla]], who rejected him due to his piscine form. He consulted with [[Circe]] for a solution but she became passionately in love with him herself. Since Glaucus cared only for Scylla, however, Circe turned her into a fishlike monster from the waist down, with a row of vicious dog's heads round her loins. She went to live alone in a submerged cave overlooking a narrow channel of water, but Glaucus remained in love with her and mourned her transformation.
[[Euripides]] wrote in his play ''Orestes'' that Glaucus was a son of [[Nereus]] and says that he assisted [[Menelaus]] on his homeward journey with good advice. He also helped the [[Argonauts]]. It was believed that he commonly came to the rescue of sailors in storms, having once been one himself.
A statue of Glaucus was installed in 1911 in the middle of the [[Fontana delle Naiadi]], [[Mario Rutelli's]] fountain of four naked bronze nymphs, located in the [[Piazza Repubblica]], [[Rome]].
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Glaucus (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|right|Glaucus; a name attributed to a child, a soldier, a king, and a god.]] -->
===King===
'''Glaucus''' was a [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]]ian king, son of [[Merope]] and [[Sisyphus]]. He angered [[Aphrodite]] and she made her horses angry during the funeral games of King [[Pelias]]. They tore him apart. His ghost supposedly frightened horses during the [[Isthmian Games]]. He was also the father of [[Bellerophon]].
===Soldier===
'''Glaukos''' was a son of [[Hippolochus]] and a grandson of [[Bellerophon]]. He was a captain in the [[Lycian]] army under the command of his close friend and cousin [[Sarpedon]]. The Lycians in the [[Trojan War]] were allies of [[Troy]]. During the war Glaukos fought valiantly. In the ''[[Iliad]]'' he met [[Diomedes]] in the field of battle in face to face combat. In response to Diomedes challenge to him, Glaukos said that as a grandson of Bellerophon he would fight anybody. On learning of Glaukos' ancestry Diomedes planted his spear in the ground and told of how his grandfather [[Oeneus]] was a close friend of Bellerophon, and declared that the two of them despite being on opposing sides should continue the friendship. As a sign of friendship Diomedes took off his bronze armour and gave it to Glaukos. Glaukos then had his wits taken by [[Zeus]] and gave Diomedes his gold armour. Glaukos was in the division of Sarpedon and [[Asteropaios]] when the Trojans assaulted the greek wall. Their division fought valiantly causing Hector to break through the wall. During this assult Glaukos was wounded from an arrow shot by [[Teucer]] forcing him to withdrawal from combat. Later, upon seeing Sarpedon mortally wounded, Glaukus asked for [[Apollo]] to help him rescue the body of his dying friend. Apollo cured his wound and Glaukus rallied the Trojans around the body as they fought off the Greeks until the gods took the body away. Later in the war, when fighting over [[Achilles]] corpse took place, Glaukos was killed by [[Odysseus]]. His body however, was rescued by [[Aeneas]] and was then taken by Apollo to Lycia for funeral rites.
There is also an [[astroid]] named after the Trojan hero.
''[[Iliad]] II, 876; VI, 199.''
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Glaucus II (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|left|Picture of Glaucus from a book by [[Kingsley]] (1819 - 1875) entitled ''Glaucus, or the wonders of the shore.'']] -->
===Child===
'''Glaucus''' was a son of [[Minos]] and [[Pasiphae]].
One day, Glaucus was playing with a ball or [[mouse]] and suddenly disappeared. His parents went to the [[Oracle]] at [[Delphi]] who told them "A marvelous creature has been born amongst you: whoever finds the true likeness for this creature will also find the child."
They interpreted this to refer to a newborn calf in Minos' herd. Three times a day, the calf changed color from white to red to black. [[Polyidus]] observed the similarity to the ripening of the fruit of the [[blackberry]] plant and Minos sent him to search for Glaucus.
Searching for Glaucus, Polyidus saw an [[owl]] driving [[bee]]s away from a wine-cellar in Minos' palace. Inside the wine-cellar was a cask of honey, with Glaucus dead inside. Minos demanded Glaucus be brought back to life, though Polyidus objected. As Minos hugged his son's corpse, a [[snake]] appeared nearby; Polyidus killed it with Minos' sword. Another snake came for the first, and after seeing the dead snake, the second serpent left and brought back an [[herb]] which then brought the first snake back to life. Following this example, Polyidus used the same herb to resurrect Glaucus.
Minos refused to let Polyidus leave [[Crete]] until he taught Glaucus everything he knew. Polyidus did so, but then, at the last second before leaving, he asked Glaucus to spit in his mouth. Glaucus did so, giving Polyidus back everything he had been taught.
Glaucus later led an army that attacked [[Italy]], introducing to them the military girdle and shield. This was the source of his Italian name, [[Labicus]], meaning "girdled".
[[Category:Greek gods]]
[[Category:Greek mythological people]]
[[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]]
[[Category:Sea and river gods]]
[[Category:Trojans]]
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[[fr:Glaucos (dieu)]]
[[it:Glauco (Poseidone)]]
[[lt:Glaukas]]
[[nl:Glaucus (mythologie)]]
[[pl:Glaukos]]
[[pt:Glauco]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Gordon, 1st Earl of Aberdeen</title>
<id>12878</id>
<revision>
<id>39249084</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T21:12:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>George Burgess</username>
<id>205776</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Succession box</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[The Right Honourable]] '''George Gordon, 1st [[Earl of Aberdeen]]''' ([[October 6]] [[1637]]&ndash;[[April 20]] [[1720]]), [[List of Lord Chancellors of Scotland|Lord Chancellor of Scotland]], was the son of Sir John Gordon, 1st baronet of [[Haddo]], [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]], executed by the Presbyterians in 1644, and his wife, Mary Forbes.
He graduated M.A., and was chosen professor at [[Aberdeen University|King's College, Aberdeen]], in 1658. Subsequently he travelled and studied civil law abroad. At the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] the sequestration of his father's lands was annulled, and in [[1665]] he succeeded by the death of his elder brother to the baronetcy and estates. He returned home in 1667, was admitted advocate in [[1668]] and gained a high legal reputation. He represented Aberdeenshire in the [[Parliament of Scotland]] of [[1669]] and in the following assemblies, during his first session strongly opposing the projected union of the two legislatures. In [[November]] [[1678]] he was made a [[Privy Council of Scotland|Privy Counsellor]] for [[Scotland]], and in [[1680]] was raised to the [[Court of Session|bench]] as Lord Haddo. He was a leading member of the [[duke of York]]'s administration, was created a [[Lords of the Articles|Lord of the Articles]] in [[June]] and in [[November]] [[1681]] [[Privy Council of Scotland|Lord President of the Privy Council]]. The same year he is reported as moving in the council for the torture of witnesses.
In [[1682]] he was made Lord Chancellor of Scotland, and was created, on the 13th of [[November]], earl of [[Aberdeen, Scotland| |
otball League]] and regularly checks on the website for news about them.
John has long been associated with [[AIDS]] charities after the deaths of his friends [[Ryan White]] and [[Freddie Mercury]], raising large amounts of money and using his public profile to raise awareness of the disease. For example, in [[1986]] he joined with [[Dionne Warwick]], [[Gladys Knight]], and [[Stevie Wonder]] to record the single "[[That's What Friends Are For]]", with all profits being donated to the [[American Foundation for AIDS Research]]. The song won Elton and the others the [[Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal]] (as well as [[Grammy Award for Song of the Year|Song of the Year]] for its writers, [[Burt Bacharach]] and [[Carole Bayer Sager]]).
John founded the [http://www.ejaf.org/ Elton John AIDS Foundation] in 1992 as a charity to fund programmes for HIV/AIDS prevention, for the elimination of prejudice and discrimination against HIV/AIDS-affected individuals, and for providing services to people living with or at risk of contracting HIV/AIDS.
Aside from his main home in Windsor, England, John splits his time in his various residences in [[Atlanta, Georgia]]; [[Nice, France]]; [[London, England]]; and [[Venice, Italy]].
During his career, John has battled addictions to [[cocaine]] and rumoured financial difficulties caused by his profligate spending. In the mid-late [[1990s]], John formed a friendship with colleague [[Michael Jackson]]. Because of the help John gave him during his addiction to [[morphine|painkillers]], Jackson dedicated the [[1997]] album ''[[Blood on the Dance Floor]]'' to him.
Elton John is a noted [[art collector]], and is believed to have one of the largest private [[photography]] collections in the world.
== Musical style and voice ==
In the [[1970s]], Elton John's sound immediately set him apart from most others by being piano-based in a rock 'n' roll world dominated by guitars. Another early characteristic was a set of dynamic [[string instrument|string]] [[arrangement]]s by [[Paul Buckmaster]]. Coupled with Taupin's often opaque but emotionally resonant lyrics, the results were unique in the history of music. Songs in this style included "Sixty Years On", "Burn Down the Mission", "Take Me to the Pilot", "[[Levon]]", "Madman Across the Water", and the best-known of these, "[[Tiny Dancer]]".
"[[Your Song]]", one of his earliest popular hits, incorporates some other features found in many of his songs:
* It is in [[binary form]], with the verse repeated before the chorus begins;
* The piano accompaniment is prominent, though the song also features an [[orchestra]];
* It uses a slowly building [[crescendo]] that brings the song to a ''[[tutti]]'' climax. Other songs that follow this pattern include "[[Don't Let the Sun Go Down On Me]]" and "[[Rocket Man]]".
John also has a distinctive vocal style. In particular, his phrasing is often a bit metronomic and sometimes has a curiously off-kilter, "rushed" quality especially at the end of lines (example: the phrase "like a puppy child" in the song "Amoreena"). He also, at least in his classic period in the 1970s, would sometimes sweep up from his normal tenor into a [[Four Seasons]]-like falsetto.
Elton John underwent throat surgery to remove potentially cancerous nodules from his vocal chords in January 1987 while on tour, a necessity he originally said was due to an infection, but later said was the result of excessive [[drug abuse]]. The problems with his voice can clearly be heard in his raspy singing on the ''[[Live in Australia with the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra|Live In Australia]]'' album (released 1987). He made a full recovery from the surgery, but he continued to endulge in [[illegal drugs]] for a few more years. The surgery in 1987 also had an after-effect on John's voice, and he found that he could no longer sing in falsetto as well as he previously could, and that he now sang in a lower range.
The change in Elton John's voice has been largely played down, with Elton commenting fifteen years after the surgery that he was "singing better than ever." Studio effects were evidently added to his voice on his first UK #1 Hit "Sacrifice" (1990). The release of ''[[Songs From The West Coast]]'', his 2001 album, showed very clearly how different his voice is to his prime. It is a matter of opinion which singing style is better, but few would deny that Elton John remains an excellent singer.
== Quotations ==
*"You can call me a fat, balding, talentless, old queen who can't sing—but you can't tell lies about me." (After successfully winning a libel case against [[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]] in [[1987]] for alleged underage sex.)
*"I haven't made a good album in a long while. Not since [[1976]] and [[Blue Moves]]."
*"If there is a better singer in England than [[Craig David]], then I am [[Margaret Thatcher]]."
*(After being asked about his sexuality in the 1970s) "I think people should be free to engage in any sexual practices they choose; they should draw the line at goats, though."
*"Nowadays, record companies want the quick buck from the Backstreet Boys, Britney Spears, Travis Miscia, S Club Seven, Steps. They've always been around, I'm not knocking the music perhaps, but it's like packets of cereal. There are too many of them, too many of them are just mediocre. And I think it damages real people's chance, real talent, of getting airplay. It's just fodder."
*"There's so much you're expected to do and you follow a pattern. You make a record, you do a video. I like to break the rules a little bit more and I did in the 70s, I should try a little bit more now."
*"Anyone who lip-synchs in public on stage when you pay £75 to see them should be shot. That's me off her Christmas card list. But do I give a toss? No." (about [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]])
*"If I had one finger left, I'd play for you." (After breaking his fingernails by playing too hard)
*"I thought it was a bit of an anti-climax, to be honest. The thought behind it was fantastic, but Hyde Park is a charisma-free zone. There was no sense of occasion and from a musical point, I didn't think there were too many highlights. I was very pleased to be a part of it, but I didn't think it was anywhere near as good as the first one. How could it be?" (about [[Live 8]])
*"The great thing about rock and roll is that someone like me can be a star."
*"Well, [[Oprah Winfrey]]'s fat / [[Phil Donahue]] just take a hike / Why won't they let Howard Stern on TV?" (A tribute song he sang for [[Howard Stern]] in the late 1980s.)
*"But you'll have to perform a [[fellatio]]us sex act." (Joking around with [[Howard Stern]] about putting Stern in his will during a December 16, 1998 interview.)
== Discography ==
''For a complete discography, see [[Elton John discography]].''
==Band==
===Current members===
* '''Elton John''' - [[piano]], [[lead]] [[vocals]]
* [[Guy Babylon]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]
* [[Bob Birch]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]]
* [[Davey Johnstone]] - [[guitar]], [[musical director]], [[vocals]]
* [[John Mahon]] - [[percussion instrument|percussion]], [[vocals]]
* [[Nigel Olsson]] - [[drums]], [[percussion instrument|percussion]], [[vocals]]
==Previous band members==
* [[Jeff "Skunk" Baxter]] - [[guitar]]
* [[Jack Bruno]] - touring [[drums]]
* [[Ray Cooper]] - [[percussion instrument|percussion]]
* [[John Jorgenson]] - [[guitar]], [[saxophone]], [[mandolin]], [[pedal steel]], [[vocals]]
* [[John Lennon]] - [[guitar]]
* [[Jody Linscott]] - [[percussion instrument|percussion]]
* [[Jonathan Moffett]] - [[drums]]
* [[Charlie Morgan]] - [[drums]]
* [[Dee Murray]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]]
* [[James Newton Howard]] - [[Conducting|conductor]]
* [[Kiki Dee]] - vocals
* [[Pino Palladino]] - [[bass guitar]]
* [[Kenny Passarelli]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]]
* [[David Paton]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]]
* [[Roger Pope]] - [[drums]]
* [[Gentry Pruett]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]
* [[Caleb Quaye]] - [[guitar]]
* [[Tim Renwick]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]]
* [[Toni Tennile]] - [[vocals]], [[keyboards]]
* [[Ken Stacey]] - additional [[guitar]], [[vocals]]
* [[Mark Taylor (keyboardist)|Mark Taylor]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]
* [[Billy Trudel]] - [[vocals]]
* [[Romeo Williams]]- [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]]
* [[Ritchie Zito]] - [[drums]]
== See also ==
*[[List of best selling music artists]]
*[[List of number-one hits (United States)]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.)]]
*[[List of number-one dance hits (United States)]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart]]
==References and notes==
===Notes===
*{{note|hercules}} This middle name appears little used (it only receives [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22Elton+Hercules+John%22 981 Google results as of 20/01/06]), however [http://www.bartleby.com/65/jo/John-Elt.html The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.] uses the name in its entry. It is officially part of his name. An image of his deed poll certificate is available [[:Image:Deed poll certificate for Elton John.jpg|here]].
===References===
*[http://entertainment.iafrica.com/news/617345.htm "Elton and David to tie the knot"]. (Nov. 25, 2005). ''iAfrica.com''.
== External links ==
* [http://www.eltonjohn.com Elton John's official website]
* [http://www.eltonfan.com Fan site]
* [http://www.eltonography.com Elton John Discography and Lyrics]
* [http://p211.ezboard.com/bthecrazywaterezboard The Crazy Water Forum - an Elton John message board]
* [http://crazywaterejnews.blogspot.com Elton John News Blog from The Crazy Water Site]
* [http://www.soundtrackinfo.com/composer.asp?id=490&a |
s;&nbsp;''e'') fraction of the nodes on the right (i.e. more than (1&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;''e'')''M'' nodes).
An [[extractor]] is a related graph that guarantees an even stronger property. Every '''(''N'', ''M'', ''D'', ''K'', ''e'')-extractor''' is also an '''(''N'', ''M'', ''D'', ''K'', ''e'')-disperser'''.
'''Disperser''' may also mean a high-speed mixing devise used to disperse pigments and other solids into a liquid phase. Also used for dissolving solids in a solvent.
{{Combin-stub}}
[[Category:Graphs]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Devonian</title>
<id>7992</id>
<revision>
<id>41921044</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:04:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''Disambiguation: "Devonian" is sometimes used to refer to the [[Southwestern Brythonic language]], and the people of the county of [[Devon]] are sometimes referred to as "Devonians"''
The '''Devonian''' is a [[geologic period]] of the [[Paleozoic]] era. It is named after [[Devon]], [[England]], where rocks from this period were first studied.
During the Devonian Period the first [[fish]] evolved [[Leg (anatomy)|legs]] and started to [[Landform|walk on land]] as [[amphibian]]s, and the first [[arthropod]]s like [[insect]]s and [[spider]]s also started to colonize terrestrial [[Habitat (ecology)|habitats]]. The first [[gymnosperm|seed-bearing plants]] spread across dry land, forming huge [[forest]]s. In the [[ocean]]s, fish diversified into the first [[shark]]s, and the first [[Sarcopterygii|lobe-finned]] and [[bony fish]]. The first [[ammonite]] [[mollusk]]s appeared, and [[trilobite]]s, the mollusc-like [[brachiopod]]s, as well as great [[coral reef]]s were still common. The [[Late Devonian extinction]] severely affected marine life. The [[paleogeography]] was dominated by the [[supercontinent]] of [[Gondwana]] to the south, the [[continent]] of [[Siberia (continent)|Siberia]] to the north, and the early formation of the small supercontinent of [[Euramerica]] in the middle.
{{Paleozoic Footer}}
==Naming==
The period is named after [[Devon]], England where Devonian outcrops are common. While the [[stratum|rock bed]]s that define the start and end of the period are well identified, the exact dates are uncertain. According to the [[International Commission on Stratigraphy]] ([[#References|Ogg, 2004]]), the Devonian extends from the end of the [[Silurian]] Period 416.0 ± 2.8 [[million years ago]] (Mya), to the beginning of the [[Carboniferous]] Period 359.2 ± 2.5 Mya (in [[North America]], the beginning of the [[Mississippian]] subperiod of the Carboniferous) (ICS 2004).
The Devonian is also known as the '''Age of Fishes''', but the term is out of favor. While fish underwent a major radiation it was only one of several major [[evolution]]ary landmarks during the period, and other lifeforms were more common.
The Devonian has also erroneously been characterized as a '''Greenhouse Age''', due to [[sampling bias]]: most of the early Devonian-age discoveries came from the [[stratum|strata]] of [[western Europe]] and eastern [[North America]], which at the time straddled the [[Equator]] as part of the supercontinent of Euramerica where [[fossil]] signatures of widespread reefs indicate tropical [[climate]]s that warm and moderately humid.
Even more rarely the Devonian is also known as the '''Old Red Age''', after the red and brown terrestrial deposits known in Britain as the "[[Old Red Sandstone]]" in which these early discoveries were found.
==Devonian subdivisions==
The Devonian is usually broken into lower, middle, and upper subdivisions. The [[faunal stage]]s from youngest to oldest are:
===Upper (most recent)===
*[[Famennian|Famennian/Chautauquan/Canadaway/Conneaut/Conneautan/Conewango/Conewangan]]
*[[Frasnian|Frasnian/Senecan/Sonyea/Sonyean/West Falls]]
===Middle===
*[[Cazenovian|Caenovia/Cazenovian]]
*[[Givetian|Givetian/Erian/Senecan/Tioughniogan/Tioughnioga/Taghanic/Taghanican/Genesee/Geneseean]]
*[[Eifelian|Eifelian/Southwood]]
===Lower (oldest)===
*[[Helderberg]]
*[[Emsian|Emsian/Sawkill/Deer Park]]
*[[Pragian|Pragian/Siegenian]]
*[[Lochkovian|Lochkovian/Gedinnian]]
Devonian rocks are oil and gas producers in some areas.
==Devonian palaeogeography==
The Devonian period was a time of great [[Plate tectonics|tectonic]] activity, as [[Laurasia]] and [[Gondwana]]land drew closer together. The continent [[Euramerica]] (or Laurussia) was created in the early Devonian by the collision of [[Laurentia]] and [[Baltica]], which rotated into the natural dry zone along the [[Tropic of Cancer]], which is formed as much in Paleozoic times as nowadays by the convergence of two great airmasses, the [[Hadley cell]] and the [[Ferrel cell]]. In these near-deserts, the [[Old Red Sandstone]] sedimentary beds formed, made red by the oxidized iron ([[hematite]]) characteristic of drought conditions.
Near the [[equator]], [[Pangaea]] began to consolidate from the [[Tectonic plates|plate]]s containing [[North America]] and [[Europe]], further raising the northern [[Appalachian Mountains]] and forming the [[Caledonide orogeny|Caledonides]] in [[Britain]] and [[Scandinavia]]. The west coast of Devonian North America, by contrast, was a passive margin with deep silty embayments, river deltas and estuaries, in today's Idaho and Nevada; an approaching volcanic [[island arc]] reached the steep slope of the continental shelf in late Devonian times and began to uplift deep water deposits, a collision that was the prelude to the mountain-building episode of Mississippian times called the [[Antler orogeny]] [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/devpaleo.html]. cj is agy
The southern [[continent]]s remained tied together in the [[supercontinent]] of Gondwana. The remainder of modern Eurasia lay in the Northern Hemisphere. Sea levels were high worldwide, and much of the land lay submerged under shallow seas, where tropical [[reef]] organisms lived. The deep, enormous [[Panthalassa]] (the "universal ocean") covered the rest of the [[planet]].
==Devonian fauna==
[[Image:Trilobite Ductina.jpg|thumb|Fossil trilobite ''Ductina vietnamica'' from the Devonian of China]]
===Marine biota===
Sea levels in the Devonian were generally high. Marine faunas continued to be dominated by [[bryozoa]], diverse and abundant [[brachiopoda|brachiopods]] and [[coral|corals]]. Lily-like [[crinoid]]s were abundant, and [[trilobites]] were still fairly common, but less diverse than in earlier periods. The [[ostracoderm]]s were joined in the mid-Devonian by the first jawed [[fish]]es, the great armored [[placoderm]]s, as well as the first [[shark]]s and [[ray-finned fish]]. The first shark, the ''[[Cladoselache]]'', appeared in the oceans during the Devonion period. They became abundant and diverse. In the late Devonian the [[lobe-finned fish]] appeared, giving rise to the first [[tetrapod]]s.
===Reefs===
A great barrier reef, now left high and dry in the [[Kimberley Basin]] of northwest [[Australia]], once extended a thousand kilometers, fringing a Devonian continent. Reefs in general are built by various [[carbonate]]-secreting organisms that have the ability to erect wave-resistant frameworks close to sea level. The main contributors of the Devonian reefs were unlike modern reefs, which are constructed mainly by corals and calcareous [[algae]]. They were composed of calcareous algae and coral-like [[Stromatopore|stromatoporoids]], and tabulate and [[Rugosa|rugose corals]], in that order of importance.
===Terrestrial biota===
By the Devonian Period, life was well underway in its colonization of the land. The [[bacterium|bacteria]]l and algal mats were joined early in the period by primitive [[plant]]s that created the first recognizable [[soil]]s and harbored some [[arthropod]]s like [[mite]]s, [[scorpion]]s and [[myriapod]]s. Early Devonian plants did not have roots or leaves like the plants most common today, and many had no vascular tissue at all. They probably spread largely by vegetative growth, and did not grow much more than a few centimeters tall.
By the late Devonian, forests of small, primitive plants existed: [[lycophyte]]s, sphenophytes, [[fern]]s, and progymnosperms had [[Evolution|evolved]]. Most of these plants have true roots and leaves, and many were quite tall. The tree-like ancestral fern ''[[Archaeopteris]]'', grew as a large tree with true [[wood]]. These are the oldest known trees of the world's first forests. By the end of the Devonian, the first seed-forming plants had appeared. This rapid appearance of so many plant groups and growth forms has been called the "Devonian Explosion". The primitive arthropods co-evolved with this diversified terrestrial vegetation structure. The evolving co-dependence of [[insect]]s and seed-plants that characterizes a recognizably modern world had its genesis in the late Devonian.
The 'greening' of the continents acted as a [[carbon dioxide]] [[sink]], and [[Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]] levels of this [[greenhouse gas]] may have dropped. This may have cooled the climate and led to a massive [[extinction event]]. see [[Late Devonian extinction]].
Also in the Devonian, both [[vertebrate]]s and arthropods were solidly established on the land.
== References ==
* Jim Ogg. (2004) "[http://www.stratigraphy.org Overview of global boundary stratotype sections and points (GSSP's)]". ''International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS)''.
== See also ==
* [[Geologic timescale]]
* ''[[Phacops rana]]'': a Devonian trilobite.
==External links==
*[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/devonian/devlife.html UC Berkeley site introduces the Devonian.]
*[http://www.mdgekko.com/devonian/index.h |
mäki, Okanmäki, Voinmäki)-river (Tohmajoki)-line.
As Jänisjoki valley was cleared of the enemy, the remainder of the 7th division turned to the south-west. On July 25 they crossed Tohmajoki. The advancement was slow, as Soviets managed to hold their prepared strongpoints on hills, forcing Finns to encircle them. At July 28, 7 Division found a hole in Soviet defences and IR30/7 Division quickly poured through and captured Voinmäki. The advanced Finnish troops managed to ambush a car, which was transporting the Chief of Staff of Soviet 198 Division Lt. Col. Sinyk. The documents captured contained the order for a Soviet counterattack, which was to start next day, so all Finnish units were ordered to stop their offensive operations and prepare for defence.
The Soviet 23rd Army transferred 198 Division from Karelian Isthmus to Sortavala with an order to join the counteroffensive with 168 Division. The target of the attack was the recapture of the isthmus between Jänisjärvi and Lake Ladoga, as that would create a difficult situation for Finnish forces at the North side of the Lake Ladoga. When the offensive started July 29, it failed to gain ground anywhere, as available forces were too few against the Finns, and the captured information had given the Finns time to prepare for the offensive beforehand. Finns continued their offensive August 3 against the remaining Tirimäki and Okanmäki strongpoints (which prevented advancement towards Sortavala) and they were captured August 5.
Meanwhile Finnish II Corps had started its own offensive July 31 at the narrowest point between Lake Ladoga and the Finnish border and quickly managed to break through Soviet defences and advanced towards the coast of Lake Ladoga, threatening Soviet forces with encirclement. The Soviet 23rd Army cancelled the offensive and ordered 198 Division southward for a counteroffensive against advancing Finnish II Corps. 168 Division was ordered to withdraw towards Lake Ladoga starting August 5. Soviet IR367 was given the responsibility to defend Sortavala.
Although Sortavala was militarily insignificant, and had been neutralized when Finns captured islands which controlled access to Lake Ladoga on July 27, it was politically important. So, instead of pursuing 168 Division relentlessly, Finns concentrated forces to capture the city. On August 12 Sortavala was reached by 7 Division and the city was cleared of Soviets at August 15. Only small groups of defending soldiers managed to escape from the city.
Finnish II Corps had cut railroads between Viipuri and Sortavala August 6, and on August 8 Mannerheim formed the new I Corps from 19 Division, 7 Division and 2 Division, with the task to clear the western shore of Lake Ladoga. The II Corps reached Lake Ladoga August 8 at Lahdenpohja, (thus capturing the harbour 168 Division had been instructed to use for evacuation on July 23).
Soviet 168 Division, with a number of separate regiments and battalions, continued its retreat towards the shores of Lake Ladoga, with Finnish 2 Division pressing from the south-west and 19 Division from the north, while 7 Division continued its offensive against Sortavala. On August 17, Soviets controlled only a 12 km wide and 10 km deep bridgehead, but during the following days Soviets concentrated naval and air units to protect the evacuation of 168 Division and other units. This evacuation was a great success, and Finns could only capture small booty from the motti, including 40 artillery pieces, 8 tanks, 310 cars, 35 tractors and 1500 live or dead horses.
At the northern side of the Finnish main offensive group, Oinonen, with the Cavalry Brigade and 2 Jaeger Brigade, was ordered to advance to the old border. Opposing them was parts of IR52/71 Division, 80 Border Guard detachment and IR126/71 Division, which was commanded by Maj. Valli (a Finnish-born communist who emigrated to the Soviet Union during the Finnish Civil War). Many Karelian, Ingern and Finnish-born communists served in its ranks, as well as many veterans from Kuusinen's people's army of the Winter War.
The probing attacks started on July 7, then the main attack started, with the southernmost 2 J. Br. reaching Tolvajärvi by July 14. From there the brigade started a northern encirclement towards Ägläjärvi. The attack of the Cav. Br. didn't succeed as well, and the Finns were forced to encircle well prepared Soviet hill-forts, which Finns were unable to capture directly, due to lack of artillery and air support.
By that time German 163 Division (Lt. Gen. Engelbrecht) (lacking one brigade and part of the artillery, which was diverted to Salla during transport) had reached the front at Tolvajärvi and tried to breach Soviet positions there on July 21, with only one brigade, but failed as their opponents turned out to be stronger than expected.
A new offensive started July 25, when two battalions from German IR310 and one from Finnish IR56 started attacking along the railroad, near the Näätäoja station. At Tolvajärvi, Engelbrecht decided to use the route 2 J. Br. had opened, and ordered them, and one German infantry battalion from IR307, to capture Ägläjärvi village, to sever the Soviet supply route to Tolvajärvi. The attack failed and Soviets managed to keep the road open through Ägläjärvi, although they lost a supply depot during fighting.
Lt. Gen. Engelbrecht exchanged Cav. Br. with a couple of infantry battalions which were ordered in defence, and ordered Cav. Br. to cut the road between Tolvajärvi and Ägläjärvi, by advancing through the forests. The attack started August 2 and by August 4 they reached the road and started advancing towards Tolvajärvi and Ägläjärvi. On August 3, 2 J. Br. and German I/IR307 started attacking Ägläjärvi village, which they captured on August 5. On August 6 they contacted Cav. Br. south of Ägläjärvi. The Soviets continued their retreat to Aittojoki, where they blew up the bridges and dug in. Also, their northern forces feared encirclement from Ägläjärvi, and left their fortified positions there August 8, retreating east of Kuolismaa.
On July 20, 11 Division had been relieved from Jänisjoki and it was moved first to the reserve and then to the area between German 163 Division and 1 Division, against Hyrsylä, on August 11. The Soviets reinforced their forces in the area with the new 272 Division, August 10, and they immediately started attacking towards Vieljärvi against Finnish 1 Division, but they managed, in only a few places, to advance two kilometres in five days, before the attack was stopped.
On August 19, 11 Division started the attack from Hyrsylä northwards and reached Petrozavodsk railroad, and the main road, the next day. From there they continued northeast towards Suvilahti, which they captured August 21, and northwards towards Tsalkki, the location of the last usable supply road for Soviet defenders. Also on August 19, 2 J. Br., Cav. Br. and German IR307 stormed over the Aittojoki. Cav. Br. tried to encircle defending Soviet forces, but recognized their precarious situation and quickly withdrew, managing to retreat most of their forces eastward before the 11 Division cut their retreat route at Tsalkki on August 23. With the capture of Suojärvi, the last town in Ladoga Karelia had been reconquered.
=== Reconquest of Karelian Isthmus ===
Between the Army of Karelia and Gulf of Finland there were three Finnish corps: II Corps (2.D, 15.D and 18.D) north of river [[Vuoksi]], V Corps (10.D) and IV Corps (4.D, 12.D and 8.D) defending the coast. At the Soviet side there were XIX Corps (142.D, 115.D), L Corps (43.D, 123.D), X Mechanized Corps (21.Armored D, 24.Arm.D. and 198.Mech.D) in reserve and division strength 22. Fortification Area, which defended the coast. The Soviet X Mechanized Corps were transferred at the end of June from Karelian Isthmus to southwest of Leningrad to defend against advancing Germans but left 198.D as only reserve to Soviet forces. The Finnish V Corps were disbanded and 10.D were attached first to IV Corps (Lt.Gen. [[Karl Lennart Oesch]]) and late July to II Corps (Mj.Gen. [[Taavetti Laatikainen]]) as a reserve. Both parties were first on defensive, and only small, company or battalion size probing attacks were made both sides to improve own positions. The loss of reserves prompted Soviets to retreat to more defensible lines at the nothernmost part of the front and continued fortifying in depth, creating concrete and wooden strongpoints, digging trenches and laying minefields, although the Finns advanced to keep contact with enemy. The quiet lasted until [[July 31]], when Finnish offensive began.
The Soviet fortification works had been concentrated near river Vuoksi and along the roads, so Finns concentrated their forces to narrow, deep breakthroughs over the roadless terrains which were supported by pioneers building temporary supply roads through the forests and over the swamps. The 18.D (Col. Pajari) attacked through the forest against the northernmost section of Soviet 115.D and instead of following roads they secured a roadcrossing and advanced again over the forest to the next road where they did the same. The roadcrossings were occupied by stronger units, which had to defend against several armor supported Soviet counterattacks. During one of those counterattacks private [[Vilho Rättö]] captured Soviet AT gun and aiming through the barrel he managed to destroy four enemy tanks, earning him the first [[Mannerheim Cross]] granted to a private. Finally at August 4 Finns managed to encircle and capture Ilmee road crossing thus forcing Soviets abandon their prepared positions between Ilmee and the border. The main thrust of 15.D (Col. Hersalo) was against Soviet IR588/142.D, and concentrated the thrust against only two kilometer wide section, where most of the artillery was concentrated. After breaching the border fortifications, they advanced five kilometers through the forest before coming to the road thus bypassing Soviet defe |
h Reference to the Dzogchen Teachings.'' Published on the Web: [http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/philosophicalschools.zip http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/philosophicalschools.zip]
==Some Buddhist philosophers==
* [[Asanga]]
* [[Chandrakirti]]
* [[Dignaga]]
* [[Dogen]]
* [[Fazang]]
* [[Jinul]]
* [[Jizang]]
* [[Nagarjuna]]
* [[Vasubandhu]]
* [[Wonhyo]]
==See also==
*[[List of Buddhist terms and concepts]]
*[[List of Buddhist topics]]
*[[List of sutras]]
*[[Madhyamaka]]
*[[Buddhist polemics]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_philosophy#Buddhist philosophy | Important publications in Buddhist philosophy ]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/buddhist.htm Critical Resources: Buddha & Buddhism]
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/bps/misc/nutshell.html Buddhism in a Nutshell]
* [http://www.bswa.org Hundreds of free buddhist talks and huge forum.]
* [http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/buddha Buddha - A Hero's Journey to Nirvana]
* [http://www.lioncity.net/buddhism/index.php?showforum=24 Buddhist Philosophy Forum]
* [http://www.journalofyoga.org JOY: ''The Journal of Yoga'']
[[Category:Buddhism]]
[[Category:Religious philosophy and doctrine]]
[[nl:Boeddhistische filosofie]]
[[zh:佛教哲學]]
{{Indian Philosophy}}</text>
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<page>
<title>Billy Bob Thornton</title>
<id>4471</id>
<revision>
<id>41652915</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T20:40:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ben King</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name = Billy Bob Thornton
| image = BillyBobThornton.jpg
| caption = Thornton in the movie [[Pushing Tin]]
| birth_date = [[August 4]], [[1955]]
| birth_place = [[Hot Springs, Arkansas]], [[USA]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = [[Actor]], [[film director|director]], [[playwright]], screenwriter and [[singer]]
| salary =
| networth =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Billy Bob Thornton''' (born '''William Robert Thornton''' on [[August 4]] [[1955]], in [[Hot Springs, Arkansas]], to a father of [[Irish people|Irish]] descent and an [[Italy|Italian]]/[[Choctaw]] [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] mother) is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]], and also an occasional director, playwright, screenwriter and [[singer]]. He has married five times and his most recent ex-wife is actress [[Angelina Jolie]].
In his late twenties, Thornton settled on Los Angeles to pursue his career as an actor alongside future writing partner Tom Epperson. Like many other actors, Thornton had a difficult time succeeding as an actor while taking on several odd jobs such as telemarketing, fast food management, and any way to support himself while waiting for a big break. He suffered a bout of [[myocarditis]] (inflammation of the heart) due to a diet of potatoes, which was the only food he could afford. With his mother's encouragement, Thornton kept plugging away for his big break. It was later on while Thornton was working as a waiter for an industry event that he was serving film director Billy Wilder. Thornton struck up a conversation with the film legend who advised the actor that given his not so movie star-like looks, he should consider writing to help utilize both his looks and his skills. Thornton put this advice to good use, going on to write, direct and star in ''[[Sling Blade]]''.
He first came to semi-prominence as a cast member on the [[CBS]] [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] ''[[Hearts Afire]]'' with [[John Ritter]] and [[Markie Post]]. His role as the villain in ''[[One False Move]]'' brought him to the attention of critics. He also had small roles in films like ''[[Indecent Proposal]]'', ''[[On Deadly Ground]]'', and ''[[Tombstone (film)|Tombstone]]''.
In [[1996]], he wrote, directed, and starred in an independent film titled ''[[Sling Blade]]'', an expansion of a short film titled ''Some Folks Call It a Sling Blade''. It is the story of Karl Childers, a mentally retarded man. ''Sling Blade'' garnered international acclaim, won Thornton an [[Academy Award]] for his [[Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay|screenplay]] (as well as a nomination for his performance), which made him an overnight movie star.
Thornton is a rare celebrity in that he has [[A-list]] status, but plays both leading-man roles and character roles. His southern, small-town persona has led him to be cast in a number of down-to-earth, "regular guy" parts. Even his role as the legendary [[Davy Crockett]] in [[2004 in film|2004]]'s ''[[The Alamo (2004 film)|The Alamo]]'' made an effort to demythologize the character and bring out his human foibles.
After his success in Hollywood Thornton, who has a life-long love for music, decided to start a [[singer-songwriter]] career. The result was the dark and personal [[roots rock]] album ''Private Radio'', released in 2001. After that Thornton has released two more albums, the critically-acclaimed ''The Edge of the World'' in 2003 and ''Hobo'' in 2005. He also performed the [[Warren Zevon]] song ''The Wind'' on the tribute album ''[[Enjoy Every Sandwich: Songs of Warren Zevon]]''.
Thornton is known for various idiosyncratic behaviors, well-documented in interviews with the actor. Among these is a phobia for antique furniture, something shared by the [[Dwight Yoakam]] character in the Thornton-penned ''[[Sling Blade]]''. That trait was also added to Thornton's character in the 2001 film ''Bandits''. He and actress [[Angelina Jolie]] famously wore vials of each others' blood around their necks while married to each other.
Thornton lives in [[Los Angeles]] and has a home in [[Paris]].
See also: [[Alpine, Arkansas]]
==Partial filmography==
* ''[[The Ice Harvest]]'' ([[2005]])
* ''[[Bad News Bears]]'' ([[2005]])
* ''[[Friday Night Lights]]'' ([[2004]])
* ''[[The Alamo (2004 film)|The Alamo]]'' ([[2004]])
* ''[[Chrystal]]'' ([[2004]])
* ''[[Bad Santa]]'' ([[2003]])
* ''[[Love Actually]]'' ([[2003]])
* ''[[Intolerable Cruelty]]'' ([[2003]])
* ''[[Levity]]'' ([[2003]])
* ''[[The Man Who Wasn't There]]'' ([[2001]])
* ''[[Monster's Ball]]'' ([[2001]])
* ''[[Pushing Tin]]'' ([[1999]])
* ''[[Homegrown]]'' ([[1998]])
* ''[[A Simple Plan]]'' ([[1998]])
* ''[[Armageddon (film)|Armageddon]]'' ([[1998]])
* ''[[Primary Colors]]'' ([[1998]])
* ''[[The Apostle]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[Princess Mononoke]]'' (voice) ([[1997]])
* ''[[U-Turn]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[Sling Blade]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[Aunt Avis (Widespread Panic Music Video)]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[On Deadly Ground]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[Bound by Honor]] (Blood in Blood Out)'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[Tombstone (film)|Tombstone]]'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[Indecent Proposal]]'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[One False Move]]'' ([[1991]])
* ''[[Live At the Georgia Theater (Widespread Panic Concert Video)]]'' ([[1990]])
* ''[[Bandits]] ([[2001]])
==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0000671|name=Billy Bob Thornton}}
* [http://www.billybobthornton.net Billy Bob Thornton official site]
* [http://www.billybobmusic.com Billy Bob Music]
* [http://www.popmatters.com/music/interviews/thornton-billy-bob-051026.shtml "Billy Bob's Unlikely Muse", ''PopMatters'' interview (10/2005)]
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<page>
<title>The Big O</title>
<id>4472</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-28T08:02:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ned Scott</username>
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<comment>infobox, also, that image has receaved copywrite info, so it's back on</comment>
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'''''The Big O''''' (THE ビッグオー) is the title of an [[anime]] [[television]] series, which also has a [[manga]] adaptation. ''The Big O'' manga is published in [[English language|English]] by [[Viz Communications]]. Both seasons of the anime series have been released on DVD by [[Bandai Entertainment]]. ''The Big O'' was written by [[Chiaki J. Konaka]], who also wrote scripts for [[Bubble Gum Crisis]], [[Magic Users Club]], and [[Serial Experiments Lain]]. Producers were [[Sunrise]] and [[Cartoon Network]] (during second season).
An example of [[cultural cross-fertilization]], the artistic style of ''Big O'' is somewhat based on [[Warner Brothers]]' ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]'' and, despite being a Japanese work, it has many [[Christianity|Chr |
beliefs were only the ''Ghosts'' of the past, haunting the present.
Society's criticism of Ibsen was raised to a fever pitch at this point, but Society itself was losing its control over the mass of people, most of whom didn't live in the rarefied air of the Victorian Gentleman. They wanted to see Ibsen's plays because he showed what so many of them already knew to be the reality. The tide had turned.
In ''[[An Enemy of the People]]'' ([[1882]]), Ibsen went even further. Before, controversial elements were important and even pivotal components of the action, but they were on the small scale of individual households. In ''An Enemy'' controversy became the primary focus, and the antagonist was the entire community. One primary message of the play is that the individual, who stands alone, is more often "right" than the mass of people, who are portrayed as ignorant and sheeplike. The Victorian belief was that the community was a noble institution that could be trusted, a fiction Ibsen challenged.
The protagonist is a [[Physician|doctor]], a pillar of the community. The town is a vacation spot whose primary draw is a public bath. The doctor discovers that the water used by the bath is being contaminated when it seeps through the grounds of a local tannery. He expects to be acclaimed for saving the town from the nightmare of infecting visitors with disease, but instead he is declared ''An Enemy of the People'' by the locals, who band against him and even throw stones through his windows. The play ends with his complete ostracism. It is obvious to the reader that disaster is in store for the town as well as for the doctor, due to the community's unwillingness to face reality.
As audiences by now expected of him, his next play again attacked entrenched beliefs and assumptions -- but this time his attack was not against the Victorians but against overeager reformers and their idealism. Always the [[iconoclast]], Ibsen was as willing to tear down the ideologies of any part of the political spectrum, including his own.
''[[The Wild Duck]]'' ([[1884]]) is considered by many to be Ibsen's finest work, and it is certainly the most complex. It tells the story of Gregers Werle, a young man who returns to his hometown after an extended exile and is reunited with his boyhood friend Hjalmar Ekdal. Over the course of the play the many secrets that lie behind the Ekdals' apparently happy home are revealed to Gregers, who insists on pursuing the absolute truth, or the "Summons of the Ideal". Among these truths: Gregers' father impregnated his servant Gina, then married her off to Hjalmar to legitimize the child. Another man has been disgraced and imprisoned for a crime the elder Werle committed. And while Hjalmar spends his days working on a wholly imaginary "invention", his wife is earning the household income.
Ibsen displays masterful use of [[irony]]: despite his dogmatic insistence on truth, Gregers never says what he thinks but only insinuates, and is never understood until the play reaches its climax. Gregers hammers away at Hjalmar through innuendo and coded phrases until he realizes the truth; Gina's daughter, Hedvig, is not his child. Blinded by Gregers' insistence on absolute truth, he disavows the child. Seeing the damage he has wrought, Gregers determines to repair things, and suggests to Hedvig that she sacrifice the wild duck, her wounded pet, to prove her love for Hjalmar. Hedvig, alone among the characters, recognizes that Gregers always speaks in code, and looking for the deeper meaning in the first important statement Gregers makes which does not contain one, kills herself rather than the duck in order to prove her love for him in the ultimate act of self-sacrifice. Only too late do Hjalmar and Gregers realize that the absolute truth of the "ideal" is sometimes too much for the human heart to bear.
[[Image:Handwriting2.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Letter from Ibsen to [[Edmund Gosse]] in 1899]]
Probably Ibsen's most performed play is ''[[Hedda Gabler]]'' ([[1890]]), the leading female role being regarded as one of the most challenging and rewarding for an actress even in the present day. There are many similarities between Hedda and the character of Nora in ''A Doll's House''.
Ibsen had completely rewritten the rules of drama with a [[realism (arts)|realism]] which was to be adopted by [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov]] and others and which we see in the theater to this day. From Ibsen forward, challenging assumptions and directly speaking about issues has been considered one of the factors that makes a play ''[[Art]]'' rather than entertainment.
Finally, Ibsen returned to Norway in [[1891]], but it was in many ways not the Norway he had left. Indeed, he had played a major role in the changes that had happened across society. The Victorian Age was on its last legs, to be replaced by the rise of Modernism not only in the theater, but across public life.
With a stellar career behind him, the likes of which few authors or playwrights ever see, Ibsen passed away after a series of [[stroke]]s in [[Kristiania]] in [[1906]] at the age of 78. He did particularly well in his last words, with his nurse assuring a visitor that the playwright was a little better, only for Ibsen to splutter "On the contrary" - and die. Ibsen was a great influence on many intellectuals and activists of his time, for instance anarchist [[Emma Goldman|Emma Goldman]] and [[Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson]].
==List of Works==
* (1850) ''[[Peng(play)|Peng]]'' (''Catilina'')
* (1850) ''[[The Burial Mound]]'' (''Kjæmpehøjen'')
* (1852) ''[[St. John's Eve (play)]]'' (''Sancthansnatten'')
* (1854) ''[[Lady Inger of Oestraat]]'' (''Fru Inger til Østeraad'')
* (1855) ''[[The Feast at Solhaug]]'' (''Gildet paa Solhoug'')
* (1856) ''[[Olaf Liljekrans]]'' (''Olaf Liljekrans'')
* (1857) ''[[The Vikings at Helgeland]]'' (''Hærmændene paa Helgeland'')
* (1862) ''[[Love's Comedy]]'' (''Kjærlighedens Komedie'')
* (1863) ''[[The Pretenders (play)|The Pretenders]]'' (''Kongs-Emnerne'')
* (1865) ''[[Brand (play)|Brand]]'' (''Brand'')
* (1867) ''[[Peer Gynt]]'' (''Peer Gynt'')
* (1869) ''[[The League of Youth]]'' (''De unges Forbund'')
* (1873) ''[[Emperor and Galilean]]'' (''Kejser og Galilæer'')
* (1877) ''[[Pillars of Society]]'' (''Samfundets støtter'')
* (1879) ''[[A Doll's House]]'' (''Et dukkehjem'')
* (1881) ''[[Ghosts (play)|Ghosts]]'' (''Gengangere'')
* (1882) ''[[An Enemy of the People]]'' (''En Folkefiende'')
* (1884) ''[[The Wild Duck]]'' (''Vildanden'')
* (1886) ''[[Rosmersholm]]'' (''Rosmersholm'')
* (1888) ''[[The Lady from the Sea]]'' (''Fruen fra havet'')
* (1890) ''[[Hedda Gabler]]'' (''Hedda Gabler'')
* (1892) ''[[The Master Builder]]'' (''Bygmester Solness'')
* (1894) ''[[Little Eyolf]]'' (''Lille Eyolf'')
* (1896) ''[[John Gabriel Borkman]]'' (''John Gabriel Borkman'')
* (1899) ''[[When We Dead Awaken]]'' (''Når vi døde vågner'')
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.ibsen.net/?id=83 Ibsen.net - All about Ibsen]
* [http://www.ibsen.uio.no/his/hjemmeside/english.html Henrik Ibsen's Writings] About a new historical-critical edition.
* [http://www.odin.dep.no/odin/engelsk/norway/history/032005-990396/index-dok000-b-n-a.html Biography from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.ibsenworldwide.info/ Extensive resource in several languages from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/aut/ibsen_henrik.html Online editions of works]
* [http://www.mrrena.com/Ibsen.shtml Henrik Ibsen The Prominence of Nora: Familiar is Familial]
* [http://www.nb.no/baser/ibsen/english.html The International Ibsen Bibliography]
* {{gutenberg author|id=Henrik_Ibsen|name=Henrik Ibsen}}
* {{gutenberg|no=8152|name=Henrik Ibsen}} (the biography by [[Edmund Gosse]])
* [http://people.opera.com/howcome/2006/ibsen Online editions of plays, in Norwegian]
[[Category:1828 births|Ibsen, Henrik]]
[[Category:1906 deaths|Ibsen, Henrik]]
[[Category:Norwegian dramatists and playwrights|Ibsen, Henrik]]
[[Category:Norwegian writers|Ibsen, Henrik]]
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[[zh:亨利·易卜生]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Heinlein</title>
<id>14237</id>
<revision>
<id>15911805</id>
<timestamp>2003-08-16T21:17:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mkweise</username>
<id>7534</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Robert A. Heinlein]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>History of religion</title>
<id>14238</id>
<revision>
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<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History_of_religions]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hydrogen bomb</title>
<id>14239</id>
<revision>
<id>21999229</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-28T01:59:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Creidieki</username>
<id>68249</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{R_with_possibilities}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nuclear weapon]] {{R_with_possibilities}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hawaiian language</title>
<id>14240</id>
<revision>
<id>40883317</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T17:23:02Z</t |
lved assemblies with legislative authority in [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]]. However, Parliament still has the power over areas for which responsibility lies with the devolved institutions, but would usually ask permission of those institutions to act on its behalf. Similarly, it has granted the power to make regulations to Ministers of the Crown, and the power to enact religious legislation to the [[General Synod]] of the Church of England. (Measures of the General Synod and, in some cases, proposed [[statutory instrument]]s made by ministers must be approved by both Houses before they become law.) In every case aforementioned, however, authority has been conceded by Act of Parliament, and may be taken back in the same manner. It is entirely within the authority of Parliament to, for example, abolish the devolved governments in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland or to leave the EU. However, especially in the case of withdrawing from EU membership, the political costs (the UK's economy and reputation in Europe would most likely be hugely damaged) of such a move would surely prevent it from occurring. Legally, Parliament's sovereignty has not been curtailed; however, in a political sense, its own Acts have reduced Parliament’s sovereignty, especially the [[European Communities Act 1972|European Communities Act 1972 (UK)]], which made the UK a member of the EU.
One well-recognised exception to Parliament's power involves binding future Parliaments. No Act of Parliament may be made secure from amendment or repeal by a future Parliament. For example, although the [[Act of Union 1800]] states that the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland are to be united "forever," Parliament permitted Southern Ireland to separate into a distinct nation, the [[Irish Free State]], in [[1922]].
==Privileges==
Each House of Parliament possesses and guards various ancient privileges. The House of Lords relies on inherent right. In the case of the House of Commons, the Speaker goes to the Lords' Chamber at the beginning of each new Parliament and requests representatives of the Sovereign to confirm the Lower House's "undoubted" privileges and rights. The ceremony observed by the House of Commons dates to the reign of Henry VIII. Each House is the guardian of its privileges, and may punish breaches thereof. The extent of parliamentary privilege is based on law and custom. Sir William Blackstone states that these privileges are "very large and indefinite," and cannot be defined except by the Houses of Parliament themselves.
The foremost privilege claimed by both Houses is that of [[freedom of speech]] in debate; nothing said in either House may be questioned in any court or other institution outside Parliament. Another privilege is that of freedom from [[arrest]] except for [[high treason]], [[felony]] or [[breach of the peace]]; it applies from during a session of Parliament, as well as forty days before or after such a session. Members of both Houses are also privileged from service on [[jury|juries]].
Both Houses possess the power to punish breaches of their privilege. Contempt of Parliament &mdash; for example, disobedience of a [[subpoena]] issued by a committee &mdash; may also be punished. The House of Lords may imprison an individual for any fixed period of time, but an individual imprisoned by the House of Commons is set free upon [[prorogation]]. The punishments imposed by either House may not be challenged in any court.
==See also==
*[[History of democracy]]
*[[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005]]
*[[List of British ministries]]
*[[List of British Governments]]
*[[Parliament of England]]
*[[Parliament of Scotland]]
*[[List of Parliaments of Great Britain]]
*[[List of Parliaments of the United Kingdom]]
*[[List of Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom]]
*[[List of Parliamentary constituencies in the United Kingdom]]
==References==
*Blackstone, Sir William. (1765). ''Commentaries on the Laws of England.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press.
*[http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld/ldcomp/compso.htm Davies, M. (2003). ''Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the Proceedings of the House of Lords,'' 19th ed.]
*Farnborough, Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron. (1896). ''Constitutional History of England since the Accession of George the Third,'' 11th ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
*"Parliament." (1911). ''Encyclopædia Britannica,'' 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.
==External links==
*[http://www.parliament.uk/ The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Official website.]
*[http://www.parliamentlive.tv/ The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Parliament Live TV.]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/a-z_of_parliament/ The British Broadcasting Corporation. (2005). "A&ndash;Z of Parliament."]
*[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/commons/ ''The Guardian.'' (2005). "Special Report: House of Commons."]
*[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/lords/ ''The Guardian.'' (2005). "Special Report: House of Lords."]
*[http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/statutor.htm Parliamentary procedure site at Leeds University]
*{{gutenberg author|id=British_Parliament|name=the Parliament of the United Kingdom}}
[[Category:Parliament of the United Kingdom| ]]
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[[ru:Парламент Великобритании]]
[[sv:Storbritanniens parlament]]
[[vi:Nghị viện Vương quốc Anh]]
[[zh:英国国会]]
{{featured article}}</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Harald Bluetooth</title>
<id>13965</id>
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<timestamp>2004-08-06T07:06:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Guanaco</username>
<id>47960</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Harold I of Denmark]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Hosea</title>
<id>13966</id>
<revision>
<id>40686546</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T08:10:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.12.116.70|64.12.116.70]] ([[User talk:64.12.116.70|talk]]) to last version by Bepube</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Book of Hosea}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''''Book of Hosea''''' is a book of the Jewish [[Hebrew Bible]], known to Christians as the [[Old Testament]], written by [[Hosea]]. This book stands first in order among the "[[Minor prophets]]."
The unique contribution of Hosea is the extended allegory of marriage given in chapters 1-3. While a few commentators believe this section to be entirely symbolic, most believe that the events described did occur.
First, Hosea was directed by [[Yahweh]] to marry a [[harlot]], and he did so. This was a symbolic act, representing Yahweh's covenant with Israel. What was the nation of Israel when Yahweh chose to enter into a covenant relationship with it? It was a group of ex-slaves who chose to worship a golden calf rather than Yahweh, the God who had rescued them from slavery. Thus, Yahweh characterizes the nation as a harlot.
Second, Hosea and his wife, [[Gomer]], have a son. Yahweh commands that the son be named Jezreel. This name refers to a valley in which much blood had been shed in Israel's history, especially by the kings of the Northern Kingdom. The naming of this son was to stand as a prophecy against the reigning house of the Northern Kingdom, that they would pay for that bloodshed.
Third, the couple has a daughter. Yahweh commands that she be named No Pity or Not Pitied, to show Israel that, although Yahweh will still have pity on the [[Southern Kingdom]], He will no longer have pity on the [[Northern Kingdom]]; its destruction is imminent.
Fourth, a son is born to Gomer. It is questionable whether this child was Hosea's, for Yahweh commands that his name be Not My People, or more simply, Not Mine. The child bore this name of shame to show that the Northern Kingdom would also be shamed, for its people would no longer be known as God's People.
Following this, the prophecy is made that someday this will all be changed, that Yahweh will indeed have pity on his people, Israel.
Chapter two describes a divorce. This divorce seems to be the end of the covenant between Yahweh and the Northern Kingdom. However, it is probable that this was again a symbolic act, in which Hosea divorced Gomer for infidelity, and used the occasion to preach the message of Yahweh's rejection of the Northern Kingdom. He ends this prophecy with the declaration that Yahweh will one day renew the covenant, and will take His people back in love.
In Chapter three, at Yahweh's command, Hosea seeks out Gomer once more. Either she has sold herself into slavery for debt, or she is with a lover who demands money in order to give her up, because Hosea has to buy her back. He takes her home, but refrains from sexual intimacy with her for many days, to symbolize the fact that Israel will be without a king for many years, but that Yahweh will take Israel back, even at a cost to Himself.
Chapters 4-14 spell out the allegory at length. Chapters 4-10 contain a series of oracles, or prophetic sermons, showing exactly why Yahweh is rejecting the Northern Kingdom, what are the grounds for the divorce. Chapter 11 is Yahweh's lament over the necessity of giving up the Northern Kingdom, which is a large part of the people of Israel, whom He loves. He promises that He will not entirely give them up. Then, in Chapter 12, he pleads for their repentance. Chapter 13 foretells the destruction of the kingdom at the hands of [[Assyria]], because there has been no repentance. Chapter 14 urges them to seek forgiveness, and promises the restoration of Israel, whi |
/ Second Amendment Center]
*[http://www.timlambert.org/guns/archive Tim Lambert Gun Control Archive]
*[http://www.vpc.org/ Violence Policy Center]
===Pro gun rights===
*[http://www.packing.org/ Packing.org - concealed carry law information]
*[http://www.a-human-right.com/ A Human Right]
*[http://www.fraserinstitute.ca/admin/books/files/FailedExperiment.pdf The Failed Experiment: Gun Control and Public Safety in Canada, Australia, England and Wales]
*[http://www.gunowners.org/ Gun Owners of America]
*[http://www.abhijeetsingh.com/arms/india Gun Ownership in India]
*[http://www.guncite.com/ GunCite: Gun Control and Second Amendment Issues]
*[http://www.gunssavelives.com/ Guns Save Lives]
*[http://www.jpfo.org/ Jews for the Preservation of Firearms Ownership]
*[http://www.keepandbeararms.com/ Keep and Bear Arms]
*[http://www.lp.org/issues/gun-rights.shtml Libertarian Party]
*[http://www.nra.org/ National Rifle Association of America]
*[http://www.pinkpistols.org/ Pink Pistols]
*[http://www.saf.org/ Second Amendment Foundation]
*[http://www.stonewallshootingsportsutah.org/ Stonewall Shooting Sports of Utah]
[[Category:Firearms]]
[[Category:Gun politics| ]]
[[ja:&#37507;&#35215;&#21046;]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Shock site</title>
<id>12688</id>
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<id>41892395</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T12:13:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Silentium</username>
<id>985387</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''shock site''' is a [[website]] intended to be [[offensive]] or shocking to most viewers, usually containing frightening and/or incredibly [[taste (aesthetics)|distasteful]] and crude content. In most cases, it displays a particular picture most prominently; some shock sites also show [[animation]]s or galleries of [[image]]s, particularly ''shock images''. Shock sites are often of varying severity; for descriptions of specific shock sites, see [[list of shock sites]].
[[Hyperlink|Links]] to shock sites are often passed around via [[email]] or disguised in posts to discussion sites as a [[hoax]] in an attempt to trick readers into following the link to the website. Discussion site [[Slashdot]] has changed their software ([[Slash (weblog system)|Slash]]) to display the domain name of a linked URL in brackets following the link (example: "[http://www.wikipedia.org/ Wikipedia] [wikipedia.org]"), so that any link to [[goatse.cx]] or a similar shock site would be immediately visible as such. The change has been effective in reducing the number of links to shock sites even though people began to set up mirror sites and use public [[Common Gateway Interface|CGI]] redirect scripts run by sites such as [[Yahoo!]] or Slashdot itself in an attempt to circumvent the measure.
==Anti-shock sites==
In recent times many [[Internet troll|trolls]], instead of linking to shock sites (which can lead to disciplinary consequences, such as banishment from the board in which the link was posted), prefer a tradition known as the ''anti-shock'' tradition, where trolls link to traditionally non-offensive material, disguised as shocking or pornographic material. The anti-shock site [http://www.oralse.cx oralse.cx] (which features images of a [[kitten]] and [[dachshund]]), a parody of [[Goatse.cx]], is among the most well-known examples of this. More recent cases of the anti-shock phenomenon involve links to images of family pets and to [http://www.mary-kateandashley.com/ mary-kateandashley.com], the web site of [[Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen|the Olsen twins]].
==See also==
*[[List of shock sites]]
*[[Prank flash|Prank flash]]
*[[Internet troll]]
[[Category:Shock sites|*]]
[[Category:Internet culture]]
[[Category:Controversial entertainment media]]
[[de:Schockerseite]]
[[fr:Site Web choc]]
[[pl:Strona szokująca]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Geography of Albania</title>
<id>12691</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:08:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gene Nygaard</username>
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<comment>/* Climate */ identify "degrees"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Albania]] has a total area of [[1 E10 m²|28,750 square kilometers]]. It shares a 287-kilometre border with [[Serbia and Montenegro]] to the north, a 151-kilometre border with the [[Republic of Macedonia]] to the north and east, and a 282-kilometre border with [[Greece]] to the south and southeast. Its coastline is 362 kilometres long. The lowlands of the west face the [[Adriatic Sea]] and the strategically important [[Strait of Otranto]], which puts less than 100 kilometers of water between Albania and the heel of the Italian "boot" (links [[Adriatic Sea]] to [[Ionian Sea]] and [[Mediterranean Sea]]).
Albania has coastline on the [[Adriatic Sea]] and the [[Ionian Sea]].
==Borders==
[[Image:Albania space.jpg|thumb|200px|Satellite image of Albania.]]
With the exception of the coastline, all Albanian borders are artificial. They were established in principle at the [[1912]]-[[1913]] conference of ambassadors in [[London]]. The country was occupied by [[Italy|Italian]], [[Serbia|Serbian]], Greek, and [[France|French]] forces during [[World War I]], but the 1913 boundaries were essentially reaffirmed by the victorious states in [[1921]]. The original principle was to define the borders in accordance with the best interests of the Albanian people and the nationalities in adjacent areas. The northern and eastern borders were intended, insofar as possible, to separate the Albanians from the Serbs and Montenegrins; the southeast border was to separate Albanians and Greeks; the valuable western Macedonia lake district was to be divided among the three states-- Albania, Greece, and [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] --whose populations shared the area. When there was no compromise involving other factors, borderlines were chosen to make the best possible separation of national groups, connecting the best marked physical features available.
Allowance was made for local economic situations, for example, to prevent separation of a village from its animals' grazing areas or the markets for its produce. Political pressures also were a factor in the negotiations, but the outcome was subject to approval by powers having relatively abstract interests, most of which involved the balance of power rather than specific economic ambitions.
Division of the lake district among three states required that each of them have a share of the lowlands in the vicinity. Such an artificial distribution, once made, necessarily affected the borderlines to the north and south. The border that runs generally north from the lakes, although it follows the ridges of the eastern highlands, stays sixteen to thirty-two kilometers west of the [[watershed]] divide. Because negotiators at the London conference declined to use the watershed divide as the northeast boundary of the new state of Albania, Albanian population of [[Kosovo]] was incorporated into [[Serbia]].
In Albania's far north and the northeast mountainous sections, the border connects high points and follows mountain ridges through the largely inaccessible [[North Albanian Alps]], andn further south ''Bjeshkët e Namunës''. For the most part, there is no natural boundary from the highlands to the Adriatic, although [[Shkoder Lake]] and a portion of the [[Buna River]] south of it were used to mark Albania's northwest border. From the lake district south and southwest to the Ionian Sea, the country's southeast border goes against the grain of the land, crossing a number of ridges instead of following them.
==Climate==
With its coastline facing the Adriatic and Ionian seas, its highlands backed upon the elevated Balkan landmass, and the entire country lying at a latitude subject to a variety of weather patterns during the winter and summer seasons, Albania has a high number of climatic regions for so small an area. The coastal lowlands have typically Mediterranean weather; the highlands have a Mediterranean continental climate. In both the lowlands and the interior, the weather varies markedly from north to south.
[[image:Coastline in Albania.jpg|thumb|200px|Coastline in southern Albania]]
The lowlands have mild winters, averaging about 7 °C. Summer temperatures average 24 °C, humidity is high, and the weather tends to be oppressively uncomfortable. In the southern lowlands, temperatures average about five degrees Celsius higher throughout the year. The difference is greater than five degrees Celsius during the summer and somewhat less during the winter.
Inland temperatures are affected more by differences in elevation than by latitude or any other factor. Low winter temperatures in the mountains are caused by the continental air mass that dominates the weather in [[Eastern Europe]] and the [[Balkan]]s. Northerly and northeasterly winds blow much of the time. Average summer temperatures are lower than in the coastal areas and much lower at higher elevations, but daily fluctuations are greater. Daytime maximum temperatures in the interior basins and [[river valley]]s are very high, but the nights are almost always cool.
Average [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] is heavy, a result of the convergence of the prevailing airflow from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the continental air mass. Because they usually meet at the point where the terrain rises, the heaviest rain falls in the central uplands. Vertical currents initiated when the Mediterranean air is uplifted also cause frequent thunderstorms. Many of these storms are accompanied by high local winds and torrential downpours.
When the continental air mass is weak, Mediterranean winds drop their moisture farther inland. When there is a dominant continental air mass, cold air spills onto the lowland areas, which o |
= [[.bi]] |
calling_code = 257 |
footnotes = <sup>1</sup> Estimate is based on regression; other PPP figures are extrapolated from the latest International Comparison Programme benchmark estimates.
}}
The '''Republic of Burundi''' (formerly '''Urundi''') is a small country in the [[Great Lakes (Africa)|Great Lakes]] region of [[Africa]]. It is bordered by [[Rwanda]] on the north, [[Tanzania]] on the south and east, and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] on the west. Although the country is [[landlocked]], much of its western border is adjacent to [[Lake Tanganyika]]. The country's name derives from its [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] language, [[Kirundi]].
Geographically isolated, facing population pressures and having sparse resources, Burundi is one of the poorest and most conflict-ridden countries in Africa and in the world. Its small size belies the magnitude of the problems it faces in reconciling the claims of the [[Tutsi]] minority with the [[Hutu]] majority.
== History ==
{{main|History of Burundi}}
The earliest inhabitants of the area were [[Pygmy]] peoples. They were largely replaced and absorbed by Bantu tribes during [[Bantu]] [[human migration|migrations]].
Burundi existed as an independent [[List of Kings of Burundi|kingdom]] from the [[16th century]]. In [[1903]], it became a [[Germany|German]] colony and passed to [[Belgium]] in [[World War I]]. It was part of the Belgian [[League of Nations]] mandate of [[Ruanda-Urundi]] in [[1923]], later a [[United Nations]] Trust Territory under Belgian administrative authority following [[World War II]].
The origins of Burundi monarchy are veiled in myth. According to some legends, Ntare Rushatsi, founder of the original dynasty, came to Burundi from Rwanda in 17th century; other, more reliable sources, suggest that Ntare came from Buha, in the south-east, and laid the foundation for his kingdom in the Nkoma region.
Until the downfall of the monarchy in 1966, kingship remained one of last links that bound Burundi with its past.
From independence in [[1962]], until the elections of 1993, Burundi was controlled by a series of military dictators, all from the Tutsi minority. These years saw extensive ethnic violence including major incidents in [[1964]], [[1972]] and the late 1980s. In 1993, Burundi held its first [[Burundi presidential election, 1993|democratic elections]], which were won by the Hutu-dominated [[Front for Democracy in Burundi]] (FRODEBU). FRODEBU leader [[Melchior Ndadaye]] became Burundi's first Hutu President, but a few months later he was assassinated by a group of Tutsi army officers. The killing plunged Burundi into a vicious [[Burundi Civil War|civil war]].
In retaliation for Ndadaye's killing, Hutu extremists massacred hundreds of thousands of Tutsi civilians. The Tutsi-dominated army responded by massacring thousands of Hutus. Years of instability followed until 1996, when former president [[Pierre Buyoya]] took power in a coup. In August 2000, a peace-deal agreed by all but two of Burundi's political groups laid out a timetable for the restoration of democracy. After several more years of violence, a cease-fire was signed in 2003 between Buyoya's government and the largest Hutu rebel group, CNDD-FDD. Later that year, FRODEBU leader [[Domitien Ndayizeye]] replaced Buyoya as President. Yet the most extreme Hutu group, Palipehutu-FNL (commonly known as "FNL"), continued to refuse negotiations. In August 2004, the group massacred 152 Congolese Tutsi refugees at the [[Gatumba]] refugee camp in western Burundi. In response to the attack, the Burundian government issued arrest warrants for the FNL leaders Agathon Rwasa and Pasteur Habimana, and declared the group a terrorist organisation.
In May 2005 a cease-fire was finally agreed between the FNL and the Burundian government, but fighting continued. Renewed negotiations are now under way, amid fears that the FNL will demand a blanket amnesty in exchange for laying down their arms. A series of [[Burundi elections, 2005|elections]], held in mid-2005 were won by the former Hutu rebel [[National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy]] (CNDD-FDD).
== Politics ==
[[Image:Pierre Nkurunziza.jpg|thumb|[[Pierre Nkurunziza]], president of Burundi]]
{{main|Politics of Burundi}}
The political landscape of Burundi has been dominated in recent years by the [[civil war]] and a long [[peace process]] and move to [[democracy]]. The current [[President of Burundi]] is [[Pierre Nkurunziza]], a former rebel leader of the [[Hutu]] [[National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy]] who was [[Burundi elections, 2005|elected unopposed]] as the new [[Rulers and heads of state of Burundi|President of Burundi]] by the [[Parliament of Burundi|parliament]] on [[19 August]] [[2005]]. Nkurunziza was the first president chosen through democratic means since the start of the [[Burundi Civil War|civil war]] in 1993 and was sworn in on [[26 August]], replacing transitional president [[Domitien Ndayizeye]].
== Geography ==
[[Image:By-map.png|thumb|left|250px|Map of Burundi]]
[[Image:Satellite image of Burundi in February 2003.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Burundi]]
[[Image:Bujumbura 29.36607E 3.37443S.jpg|thumb|NASA photo of Burundi]]
{{main|Geography of Burundi}}
Burundi is a [[landlocked]] country with an [[equatorial climate]]. It lies on a rolling [[plateau]], with [[Lake Tanganyika]] in its south west corner. The average elevation of the central plateau is 5,600 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]], with lower elevations at the borders. The highest peak, [[Mount Karonje]], at 8,809 feet (2,685 [[metre|m]]), lies to the southeast of the capital, Bujumbura. The southeastern and southern borders are at roughtly 4,500 feet (1,370&nbsp;m). A strip of land along the [[Ruzizi River]], north of Lake Tanganyika, is the only area below 3,000 feet (915&nbsp;m): this area forms part of the [[Albertine Rift]], the western extension of the [[Great Rift Valley]].
The land is mostly [[agricultural]] or [[pasture]], the creation of which has led to [[deforestation]], [[soil erosion]] and [[habitat loss]]. There are two [[national park]]s, [[Kibira National Park]] to the northwest (a region of [[montane rainforest]], adjacent to [[Nyungwe National Park]] in Rwanda), [[Rurubu National Park]] to the north east (along the [[Rurubu River]], also known as Ruvubu or Ruvuvu).
The farthest headstream of the [[Nile]] is in Burundi. Although [[Lake Victoria]] is commonly considered to be the source of the Nile, the [[Kagera River]] flows for 429 [[mile]]s (690 km) before reaching Lake Victoria. The source of the [[Ruvyironza River]], an upper branch of the Kagera River, is at [[Mount Kikizi]] in Burundi.
Burundi is divided into 16 administrative [[Provinces of Burundi|provinces]]. The [[capital city]], [[Bujumbura]], has by far the largest population. Smaller [[List of cities in Burundi|cities of Burundi]] include [[Gitega]], [[Muyinga]], [[Ngozi]] and [[Ruyigi]].
== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Burundi}}
Burundi's largest industry is [[agriculture]], which accounted for 58% of GDP in 1997. [[Coffee]] is the nation's biggest revenue earner with 78% of all exported goods. Other agriculture products include [[cotton]], [[tea]], [[maize]], [[sorghum]], [[sweet potato]]es, [[banana]]s, [[manioc]] (tapioca); beef, milk, and hides. Besides agriculture, other industries include light consumer goods such as blankets, shoes, soap; assembly of imported components; public works construction; food processing. The currency is the [[Burundian franc]] (BIF).
Burundi is the poorest country in the world, in terms of GDP per capita: [[United States dollar|US$]]106 as of [[2005]]. The economy is supported by foreign aid from Western Europe and other parts of the world. In 2000 this amount reached [[US$]]92.7 million. 68% of the population lived below the poverty line in 2002. The country's estimated gross domestic product (GDP) was US$700 million in 2001.
== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Burundi}}
[[As of 2004|As of July 2004]], Burundi had an estimated population of 6,231,221, approximately half of whom are aged 14 or less. This estimate explicitly takes into account the effects of [[AIDS]], which has a significant effect on the demographics of the country. Roughly 85% of the population are of [[Hutu]] ethnic origin; most of the remaining population are [[Tutsi]], with a minority of [[Twa]] ([[Pygmy]]), and a few thousand Europeans and South Asians. The population density of around 206 persons per square kilometre (534/sq.&nbsp;mi) is the second highest in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], behind only Rwanda. The Twa are thought to be the original inhabitants of the area, with Hutu and then Tutsi settlers arriving in the [[1300s]] and [[1400s]] respectively.
The largest religion is [[Roman Catholic]]ism (62%), followed by indigenous beliefs (31%) and a minority of [[Protestant]]s (5%) and [[Muslim]]s (2%). The official languages are [[Kirundi language|Kirundi]] and [[French language|French]], although [[Swahili]] is spoken along the western border.
Recent reports indicate the Christian population may be as high as 90% with most of the remainder being Muslim. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4402974.stm]
== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Burundi}}
The culture of Burundi is related to that of neighbouring countries and its prominence has been limited by the [[civil war]]. The [[Master Drummers of Burundi]] are the most famous performing group from the nation, and [[football (soccer)]] is the most popular sport.
*[[Football in Burundi]]
*[[List of African writers (by country)#Burundi|List of writers from Burundi]]
*[[Music of Burundi]]
== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Burundi]]
* [[Foreign relations of Burundi]]
* [[Military of Burundi]]
* [[Transportation in Burundi]]
''Mu |
decline in the most lethal diseases was more due to improvements in public health and nutrition than to medicine. It was not until the 20th century that there was a true breakthrough in medicine, with great advances in [[pharmacology]] and surgery.
The 20th century witnessed a shift from a master-apprentice paradigm of teaching of clinical medicine to a more "democratic" system of medical schools. With the advent of the [[evidence-based medicine]] and great advances of information technology the process of change is likely to evolve further.
[[Evidence-based medicine]], the application of modern scientific method to ask and answer clinical questions, has had a great impact on practice of medicine throughout the world of modern medicine.
Modern, ''western'' medicine has proven uniquely effective and widespread compared with all other medical forms, but has fallen far short of what once seemed a realistic goal of conquering all disease and bringing health to even the poorest of nations. It is notably secular and material, indifferent to ideas of the supernatural or the spirit, and concentrating on the body to determine causes and cures - an emphasis that has provoked something of a backlash in recent years.
==Special history of medicine==
* [[History of abortion]]
* [[History of anatomy]]
* [[History of alternative medicine]]
* [[History of brain imaging]]
* [[History of cancer chemotherapy]]
* [[History of intersex surgery]]
* [[History of immunology]]
* [[History of internal medicine]]
* [[History of legal medicine]]
* [[History of microbiology]]
* [[History of neurology]]
* [[History of ophthalmology]]
* [[History of mental illness]]
* [[History of neurology]]
* [[History of pharmacology]]
* [[History of physiology]]
* [[History of psychiatry]]
* [[History of parapsychology]]
* [[History of traditional Chinese medicine]]
* [[History of veternary medicine]]
* [[Ophthalmology in medieval Islam|History of Islamic medieval ophthalmology]]
==Museums and collections of health and medicine==
*[[The London Museums of Health & Medicine]]
*[[Osler Library of the History of Medicine]]
*[[National Library of Medicine]]
==See also==
*[[History of science]]
*[[History of technology]]
*[[Medicine]]
:*[[Alternative medicine]]
*[[Timeline of medicine and medical technology]]
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10122a.htm History of Medicine @ Catholic Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=325&letter=M&search=medicine Medicine @ JewishEncyclopedia.com]
*[http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/vatican/medicine.html Exhibition of the Vatican Library's Medical Holdings @ The Library of Congress]
==Bibliography==
* {{cite book | title = The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present | last = Porter | first = R. | year = 1997 | publisher = Harper Collins | id = ISBN 0002151731 }}
[[Category:History by topic|Medicine]]
[[Category:History of medicine|*]]
[[de:Medizingeschichte]]
[[es:Historia de la medicina]]
[[fr:Histoire de la médecine]]
[[ja:医学の歴史]]
[[pl:Historia medycyny]]
[[pt:História da medicina]]
[[zh:医学史]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hamoaze</title>
<id>14196</id>
<revision>
<id>40786021</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T00:27:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Necrothesp</username>
<id>64853</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added image</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Devonport Dockyard.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[HMNB Devonport|Devonport Dockyard]] and the Hamoaze from the [[Rame Peninsula]], [[Cornwall]]]]
The '''Hamoaze''' is an [[estuary|estuarine]] stretch of [[water]] at the point where the tidal [[River Tamar]], the [[River Tavy]], and the [[River Lynher]] enter [[Plymouth Sound]]. It flows past [[HMNB Devonport|Devonport Dockyard]], and the presence of [[naval craft]] presents particular hazards to [[small craft]].
{{Devon-geo-stub}}
[[no:Hamoaze]]
[[de:Hamoaze (England)]]
[[Category:Rivers in Devon]]
[[Category:Rivers in Cornwall]]
[[Category:Plymouth]]
[[Category:Estuaries in England]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hanover</title>
<id>14197</id>
<revision>
<id>41479018</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T17:08:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.140.57.60</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to the city. For other uses, see [[Hanover (disambiguation)]]''
{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Hanover|
name_local = Hannover|
image_coa = hannover coa.jpg|
image_map = Hannover-Position.png|
state = [[Lower Saxony]]|
regbzk = [[Hanover (region)]] (disbanded [[1 January]] [[2005]])|
district = [[Hanover (district)]]|
population = 515,772|
population_as_of = [[2005]]|
population_ref = [http://www.nls.niedersachsen.de/Download/StatistischeBerichte/AI2_hj1_2005Gesamt.pdf source]|
pop_dens = 2528|
area = 204.01|
elevation = 55|
lat_deg = 52|
lat_min = 22|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 9|
lon_min = 43|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 30001 - 30669|
area_code = 0511|
licence = H|
mayor = Dr Herbert Schmalstieg ([[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]])|
website = [http://www.hannover.de/ www.hannover.de]|
}}
'''Hanover''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Hannover'' [{{IPA|haˈnoːfɐ}}]), on the river [[Leine]], is the capital of the federal state of [[Lower Saxony]] (''Niedersachsen''), [[Germany]]. It is also the capital of the surrounding [[Hanover (district)|Hanover district]] and was the capital of the [[Hanover (region)|Hanover region]] until Lower Saxony's regions were disbanded at the beginning of 2005.
==History==
The town was founded in medieval times on the bank of the river Leine (the original name ''Honovere'' may be translated as "high bank"). It was a small village of ferrymen and fishermen, which became a comparatively large town in the [[13th century]]. In the [[14th century]] the main [[church]]es of Hanover were built, as well as a [[city wall]] with three [[town gates]] to secure the city.
In [[1636]] the Duke of [[Calenberg]] decided to move his residence to Hanover. His [[duchy]] was afterwards known as the Duchy of Hanover (see: [[House of Hanover]]). His descendants would later become kings of the [[United Kingdom]]; the first of them was [[George I of the United Kingdom|George I]], who ascended to the British throne in [[1714]]. Three kings of the United Kingdom were at the same time [[prince-elector|Electoral Princes]] of Hanover.
During the [[Seven Years' War]] on [[July 26]], [[1757]] the [[Battle of Hastenbeck]] took place. The [[France|French]] army defeated the [[Hanoverian Army of Observation]], leading to the occupation of Hanover.
[[Image:New town hall Hannover.jpg|thumb|left|New Town Hall in Hanover]]
After [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] imposed the [[Convention of Artlenburg]] (Convention of the Elbe) on [[July 5]], [[1803]] about 30,000 French soldiers occupied Hanover. The convention also meant the disbanding of the army of Hanover. [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] did not recognize the Convention of the Elbe and made an effort to recruit foreign troops. As a result a great number of soldiers of Hanover eventually emigrated to [[England]] leading to the [[King's German Legion]] which later played an important role in the [[Battle of Waterloo]]. At the [[Congress of Vienna]] in [[1814]] [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] elevated the electorate to the [[Hanover (state)|Kingdom of Hanover]]. The capital town Hanover expanded to the western bank of the Leine and grew considerably.
In [[1837]] the [[personal union]] of the United Kingdom and Hanover ended as [[William IV of the United Kingdom|William IV's]] [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|heir in the United Kingdom]] was female, and Hanover could be [[Salic Law|inherited only by males]]. Hanover continued as a kingdom until [[1866]], when it was annexed by [[Prussia]]. After the annexation, the people of Hanover opposed the Prussian regime. Nevertheless, the growth of Hanover continued until [[World War II]], when two thirds of the town was bombed to ruins. After the war, Hanover was in the British zone of occupation of Germany, and later became famous for hosting commercial expositions such as the [[CeBIT]] and the [[Hanover Fair]]. In [[2000]], Hanover hosted the [[Expo 2000]].
==Sights==
[[Image:Kroepke 1895.jpg|thumb|Kröpke, 1895]]
[[Image:Hannover - Hauptbahnhof Eingangsportal 1.jpg|thumb|Ernst August memorial, railway station]]
[[Image:Marketchurchhannover.jpg|thumb|Market Church in Hanover]]
[[Image:Oldtownhallhannover.JPG|thumb|Old Town Hall]]
* [[Kröpcke]] (the most central square in Hanover and a favourite city-centre meeting place)
* [[Market Square, Hanover|Market Square]] (oldest square in Hanover and the very centre of urban expansion)
* [[Ballhof Square]] (created in the [[1930s]] during a re-development process)
* [[Old Town]] (during the rebuilding of Hannover after World War II, parts of the remaining buildings, mainly the façades, were relocated and accumulated in this area)
* [[Kreuzkirche]] (Church of the Holy Cross, built in the [[14th century]])
* [[Marktkirche]] (church at the market square, built in the [[14th century]])
* [[Aegidienkirche]] (built in the [[14th century]], destroyed in [[1943]], today a memorial for victims of war and violence)
* [[Leineschloss]] (castle on the river Leine, today the seat of Lower Saxony's parliament)
* [[Altes Rathaus]] (old town hall at the marketplace, build in the [[15th century]])
* [[Herrenhäuser Gärten]] (baroque garden and park ensemble, founded in [[1666]] by Duke Johann Friedrich of Calenberg)
* [[Mausoleum]] (last resting place of the royal family, built [[1846]] by Laves)
* [[Opernhaus]] (opera house, built 1845-1852 based on a plan drawn by Laves)
* [[Welfenschloss]] (guelfs castle, built 1857-1866 as residence of king George V, rebuilt 1875-1879 as s |
g on the number of cats in a household and the type of litter—clumping litter stays cleaner longer, but has been reported to cause health problems in some cats. <ref>{{cite web | title=Suspected bentonite toxicosis in a cat from ingestion of clay cat litter | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=8888544&dopt=Abstract | accessdate=September 10 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref>) A litterbox is recommended for indoor-outdoor cats as well. Litterboxes may pose a risk of [[toxoplasmosis]] transmission to susceptible pregnant women and immuno-compromised individuals. Transmission risk may be reduced by daily litterbox cleaning.
[[Image:Toilet_Trained_Cat_22_Aug_2005.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Toilet-trained cat]]
In addition, some cats may be toilet trained, eliminating the litterbox and its attending expense and odor. Training involves two or three weeks of incremental moves, such as moving and elevating the litterbox until it is near the toilet. For a short time, an adapter, such as a bowl or small box, may be used to suspend the litter above the toilet bowl. When training is complete, the cat uses the toilet by perching over the bowl. <ref>{{cite web | title=Cat toilet-training | url=http://www.karawynn.net/mishacat/toilet.html | accessdate=August 8 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref>
Indoor cats will also benefit from being provided with a [[scratching post]] so they are less likely to ruin furniture with their claws.<ref>{{cite web | title=Scratching or clawing in the house | url=http://www.fabcats.org/scratching.html | accessdate=August 14 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref> Nails can be trimmed, but care should be taken to avoid cutting a vein in the [[Wiktionary:quick#Noun|quick]] of the claw.
====Declawing====
{{main|onychectomy}}
Declawing is a major surgery known as ''onychectomy'', performed under [[anesthesia]], that removes the tip of each digit (from the first knuckle out) of the cat's forepaws. There is a slight chance of death in the surgery, and a declawed cat may have an increased risk of infection and life-long discomfort in its paws. This surgery is not recommended for an adult animal.
People generally have cats declawed to prevent them from hunting and from damaging furniture. Rarely, vicious cats are declawed. In the United States, some landlords require that tenants' cats be declawed.
Veterinarians are generally critical of the procedure and some refuse to perform it because the absence of claws in a cat:
[[Image:CatClaws.jpg|right|thumb| A cat brandishing its claws]]
#Deprives it of its main defense abilities, including escaping from predators by climbing trees;
#Impairs its stretching and exercise habits, leading to muscle atrophy;
#Compromises its ability to balance on thin surfaces such as railings and fence tops, leading to injury from falls;
#Can cause insecurity and a subsequent tendency to bite.
This operation is rare outside of North America. In [[Germany]] and [[Switzerland]], declawing is forbidden by the laws against [[cruelty to animals]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Swiss Federal Act on Animal Protection, 1978, Section 8: Prohibited Practices, §22(g) | url=http://www.animallaw.info/nonus/statutes/stchapa1978.htm | accessdate=August 22 | accessyear=2005 }}</ref> In many other European countries, it is forbidden under the terms of the [[European Convention for the Protection of Pet Animals]], unless "a [[veterinarian]] considers [such] non-curative procedures necessary either for veterinary medical reasons or for the benefit of (the) animal". <ref>{{cite web | title=European Convention for the Protection of Pet Animals, Chapter II - Principles for the keeping of pet animals, Article 10(1) | url=http://www.animallaw.info/treaties/itceceets125.htm | accessdate=August 22 | accessyear =2005 }}</ref> In Britain, animal shelters find it difficult to place imported cats that have been declawed and subsequently most are [[euthanized]].
An alternative to declawing is the application of blunt, vinyl nail caps that are affixed to the claws with nontoxic glue, requiring periodic replacement when the cat sheds its claw sheaths (about every four to six weeks). However, the cat will still experience difficulties because the capped nails are not as effective as claws.
===Environment===
The [[wild cat]], ancestor of the domestic cat, is believed to have evolved in a [[desert]] [[climate]], as evident in the behavior common to both the domestic and wild forms. Wild cats are native to all [[continent]]s other than [[Australasia]] and [[Antarctica]]. Their feces are usually dry, and cats prefer to bury them in [[sand]]y places. They are able to remain motionless for long periods, especially when observing prey and preparing to pounce. In [[North Africa]] there are still small wildcats that are probably related closely to the ancestors of today's domesticated breeds.
Cats enjoy heat and solar exposure, often sleeping in a warm area during the heat of the day. Cats like to be a lot warmer than humans do. People start to feel uncomfortable when their skin's temperature gets higher than about 44.5&nbsp;°C (112&nbsp;°F), but cats don't start to show signs of discomfort until their skin reaches about 52&nbsp;°C (126&nbsp;°F).
Being closely related to desert animals, cats can withstand the heat and cold of a [[temperate]] [[climate]], but not for long periods. Although certain breeds such as the [[Norwegian Forest Cat]] and [[Maine Coon]] have developed more protection than others, they have little resistance against fog, [[rain]] and [[snow]] and struggle to maintain their 39&nbsp;&deg;C (102&nbsp;&deg;F) body temperature when wet. Most cats dislike immersion in water, but one exception is the [[Turkish Van]] cat. If a cat is continually exposed to water from a very young age, often it will develop a fondness for it; however, this rarely if ever occurs naturally.
==Reproduction and genetics==
[[Image:White_Cat_Nursing_Four_Kittens_HQ.jpg|thumb|Four kittens being [[breastfeeding|nursed]]]]
Cats are seasonally [[polyestrous]], <!-- I created a redirect to the [[Estrus cycle]] article - but that claims cats are diestrous. Copyediting for consistency needed between the two articles! -->which means they may have many heat periods over the course of a year. A heat period lasts about 4 to 7 days if the female is bred; if she is not, the heat period lasts longer and recurs at regular intervals.
The male cat's [[penis]] has spines which point backwards. Upon withdrawal of the penis, the spines rake the walls of the female's vagina. The female needs this stimulation for ovulation to begin. Because of this, females are rarely impregnated by the first male with which they mate. Furthermore, cats are [[superfecundation|superfecund]]; that is, a female may mate with more than one male when she is in heat, meaning different kittens in a litter may have different fathers.
The [[gestation]] period for cats is approximately 60 days. The size of a [[Litter (animal)|litter]] averages three to five kittens, with the first litter usually smaller than subsequent litters. Kittens are weaned at between six and seven weeks, and cats normally reach sexual maturity at six months (females) to seven months (males).
Cats are ready to go to new homes at about 7 weeks old, or when they are ready to leave their mother. Cats reach maturity at about 6 months, when some people may choose to spay or neuter their cat. After the surgery, the cat will not be able to have kittens. This eliminates some undesired behavior, such as spraying in males and yowling (calling) in females.
[[Image:Manx Dante blue eyes.jpg|left|thumb|220px|Blue-eyed cats with white fur have a higher [[genetics|genetic]] incidence of [[deafness]].]]
==Domestication==
Like some other domesticated animals, cats live in a [[mutualism|mutualistic]] arrangement with humans. Cats, however, have done so for a much shorter time than almost all other domesticated animals, and the degree of domestication of cats is somewhat disputed. Since the benefit of removing rats and [[mouse|mice]] from humans' food stores outweighed the cost of allowing a formerly wild animal to enjoy the relative safety of a human settlement, the relationship between cat and human flourished. Unlike the dog, which also kills rodents, the cat did not eat grains, fruits, or vegetables. A cat that is good at hunting rodents is referred to as a mouser.
The venerable [[simile]] "like herding cats" refers to the seeming intractability of the ordinary house cat to be trained in the manner of the dog. Despite occasional cohabitation in colonies, cats are lone hunters. It is no coincidence that cats are also "clean" animals, the chemistry of their saliva, expended in frequent grooming, acting as a natural deodorant. The "purpose" of this cleanliness is to help hide the cat's presence while stalking prey. A dog's odor, on the other hand, is an advantage, for a dog is a pack hunter; part of the pack stations itself upwind, and its odor drives prey towards the rest of the pack stationed downwind. This requires a cooperative effort, which in turn requires communications skills. No such communications skills are required of the lone hunter. Thus, communicating with such an animal is problematic, and cats in particular are labelled as opaque or inscrutable, if not obtuse, as well as aloof and self-sufficient. However, cats can be very affectionate towards their humans, especially if they [[Imprinting (psychology)|imprint]] on them at a very young age and are treated with consistent affection.
[[Image:Cat&Pigeon.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A cat carrying a caught [[pigeon]]]]
Human attitudes toward cats vary widely. Some humans keep cats for companionship as [[pet]]s. Some people (known as cat lovers) go to great lengths to pamper their ca |
ny decided that the TRS-80 was a great computer but it lacked in several areas. The display logic and resulting display 'snow' was bothersome, the CPU speed could be improved, and the floppy disk capacity and reliability was low. Also the more interesting software offered for CP/M systems was lacking. So they decided they could do better and designed the Aster CT-80.
Soon the little shop became too small and they moved to a much larger factory building nearby, and started mass producing the Aster for a period of a few years.
To enhance and modernise the Aster CT-80 the company also designed three alternative video display adapters to supplement or replace the TRS-80 compatible video card.
* A very High resolution monochrome video card with [[blitter]] and hardware line drawing capability.
* A colour video card with [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]] capability based on the same video chip (the [[Texas Instruments TMS9918|TMS9918]]) as the [[Texas Instruments TI-99/4A|TI99/4]] and [[MSX]] computers.
* A color video card that had high resolution capability because it could reprogram the [[character set]] of the 80 x 24 display and could provide a separate programmable character for all of the 1920 (80 x 24) characters on the screen. Because the characters were 8 x 12 pixels this would allow for a resolution of 640 x 288 pixels, which was quite high for the time. This video card also supported 16 foreground and 16 background colors per character (one byte per character position).
A hard disk interface was also in the works.
Finally a replacement for the aging [[Z80]] processor was also being developed in the form of an [[Intel 8086]] board, and 16 bit memory boards.
Such replacements of main system components were possible because the Aster CT-80 was designed to use a backplane that supported 8 and 16 bit processors, and used the modular Eurocard design.
Unfortunately none of these extensions to the system became available because the company folded before they came to fruition.
Perhaps the Aster computer inspired another [[Netherlands|Dutch]] computer firm to name their computer after another typical Dutch flower &mdash; the [[Tulip Computers NV|Tulip]].
==External links==
*[http://www.digidome.nl/mcp_hall.htm Some pictures of the Aster CT-80] &ndash; From www.digidome.nl
[[Category:Home computers]]
[[Category:Personal computers]]
[[nl:Aster CT-80]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arthur Wellesley</title>
<id>2138</id>
<revision>
<id>15900576</id>
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<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
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<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Animated television series</title>
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<id>42003479</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:57:13Z</timestamp>
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<ip>65.7.64.81</ip>
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<comment>/* [[1980s]] */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{backlink|Animation}}
An '''animated series''' or '''cartoon series''' is a [[television series]] produced by means of [[animation]].
A note on usage: The duration of an individual episode varies from series to series. While some series may be produced as complete half hour programs, many cartoons are produced as short subjects of 15 minutes or less. These cartoons are grouped and mixed together according to network programming demands. Thus a particular animated series may appear in a number of formats, often anonymously, e.g. ''The Cartoon Hour''.
Below is a sample list of animated series (the list omits most animated series from [[Japan]], also known as [[anime]], which number in the thousands[http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/anime.php?list=9]):
==[[1940s]]==
*''[[Crusader Rabbit]]'' (1949&ndash;1957)
==[[1950s]]==
*''[[Captain Pugwash]]'' (1957&ndash;1966)
*''[[Felix the Cat]]'' (new TV episodes) (1958&ndash;1960)
*''[[Tom Terrific]]'' (1957&ndash;1959)
*''[[The Space Explorers]]'' (1958&ndash;1960)
*''[[Huckleberry Hound]]'' (1958&ndash;1962)
*''[[Yogi Bear]]'' (1958&ndash;1988)
*''[[Clutch Cargo]]'' (1959)
==[[1960s]]==
*''[[The Alvin Show]]'' (1961&ndash;1962)
*''[[The Archie Show]]'' (1968&ndash;1978)
*''[[Batfink]]'' (1967)
*''[[Beany and Cecil]]'' (1961&ndash;1970)
*''[[The Beatles]]'' (1961&ndash;1970)
*''[[Birdman]]'' (1967&ndash;1969)
*''[[Casper and Friends]]''
*''[[The Flintstones]]'' (1960&ndash;1966)
*''[[The Herculoids]]'' (1967&ndash;1969)
*''[[The Jetsons]]'' ('''1962&ndash;1963''', 1984&ndash;1985, 1987)
*''[[Jonny Quest]]'' (1964&ndash;1965)
*''[[Mary Mungo & Midge]]'' (1969)
*''[[The Mighty Hercules]]'' (1964&ndash;1966)
*''[[The Mighty Mightor]]'' (1967&ndash;1969)
*''[[Peter Potamus]]'' (1964&ndash;1965)
*''[[Rocket Robin Hood]]'' (1966&ndash;1969)
*''[[The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show|Rocky & Bullwinkle]]'' (1961&ndash;1973)
*''[[Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!]]'' (1969&ndash;1972; renewed under various other names through 1986)
*''[[Shazzan]]'' (1967&ndash;1969)
*''[[Space Ghost]]'' (1966&ndash;1968)
*''[[Speed Racer]]'' (1967&ndash;1968)
*''[[Spider-Man]]'' (1967&ndash;1970)
*''[[Top Cat]]'' (1961&ndash;1962)
*''[[Young Samson and Goliath]]'' (1967&ndash;1968)
*''[[Underdog]]'' (1964&ndash;1973)
*''[[Wacky Races]]'' (1969&ndash;1970)
==[[1970s]]==
[[Image:Tv_I_Am_the_Greatest_The_Adventures_of_Muhammad_Ali.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''I Am the Greatest: The Adventures of Muhammad Ali'']]
*''[[Bagpuss]]'' (1974)
*''[[Battle of the Planets]]'' (1978)
*''[[Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids]]'' (1972&ndash;1984)
*''[[Hanna-Barbera's Cartoon Corral]]''
*''[[Hong Kong Phooey]]'' (1974&ndash;1975)
*''[[I Am the Greatest: The Adventures of Muhammad Ali]]'' (1977)
*''[[Il était une fois l'homme]]'' (''Once Upon a Time...Man'')
*''[[Jabberjaw]]'' (1976&ndash;1978)
*''[[The Jackson 5ive (cartoon)|The Jackson 5ive]]'' (1971&ndash;1973)
*''[[Josie and the Pussycats (cartoon)|Josie and the Pussycats]]'' (1970&ndash;1972)
*''[[The Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm Show]]'' (1971&ndash;1972)
*''[[Princess Knight]]''
*''[[Roobarb]]'' (1974)
*''[[Scooby's All-Star Laff-a-Lympics]]'' (1977&ndash;1979)
*''[[Schoolhouse Rock]]'' (1973)
*''[[Speed Buggy]]'' (1973&ndash;1983)
*''[[Star Trek: The Animated Series]]'' (1973&ndash;1974)
*''[[SuperFriends]]'' (1973&ndash;1985)
*''[[Tom and Jerry (MGM)|The Tom & Jerry/Grape Ape/Mumbly Show]]'' (1975&ndash;1977)
*''[[Wait Till Your Father Gets Home]]'' (1972&ndash;1974)
==[[1980s]]==
[[Image:galaxyhigh.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Galaxy High, 1986'']]
*''[[Alvin and the Chipmunks]]'' (1983&ndash;1991)
*''[[The Adventures of Teddy Ruxpin|Adventures of Teddy Ruxpin]]'' (1987&ndash;1988)
*''[[Around the World with Willy Fog]]''
*''[[Bananaman]]'' (1983&ndash;1986)
*''[[Beetlejuice (TV series)|Beetlejuice]]'' (1989&ndash;1991)
*''[[The Berenstain Bears]]'' (1985)
*''[[Bertha]]'' (1986&ndash;1987)
*''[[Beverly Hills Teens]]'' (1987)
*''[[Bionic Six]]'' (1987)
*''[[BraveStarr]]''
*''[[The Centurions (TV series)|The Centurions]]'' (1985&ndash;1987)
*''[[Peanuts|The Charlie Brown & Snoopy Show]]'' (1983&ndash;1985)
*''[[Care Bears]]'' (1985&ndash;1990)
*''[[Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers]]'' (1989&ndash;1990)
*''[[Central_Organization_of_Police_Specialists|C.O.P.S.]]'' (1988&ndash;1989)
*''[[Count Duckula]]'' (1988&ndash;1993)
*''[[Dangermouse]]'' (1981&ndash;1992)
*''[[Dennis the Menace (US)]]''
*''[[Denver, the Last Dinosaur]]'' (1988&ndash;1989)
*''[[Drak Pack]]'' (1980)
*''[[Star Wars: Droids]]'' (1985&ndash;1986)
*''[[DuckTales]]'' (1987&ndash;1990)
*''[[Dungeons & Dragons Animated Series|Dungeons & Dragons]]'' (1983&ndash;1986)
*''[[Star Wars: Ewoks]]'' (1985&ndash;1987)
*''[[Galaxy High]]''
*''[[Galaxy Rangers]]''
*''[[Garfield and Friends]]'' (1988&ndash;1994)
*''[[G.I. Joe]]'' (1985&ndash;1986)
*''[[Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears|Adventures of the Gummi Bears]]'' (1985&ndash;1990)
*''[[He-Man|He-Man and the Masters of the Universe]]'' (1983&ndash;1985)
*''[[Henry's Cat]]'' (1982&ndash;1986)
*''[[Il était une fois... l'espace]]'' (''Once Upon a Time...Space'') (1982)
*''[[Il était une fois... la vie]]'' (''Once Upon a Time...Life'') (1986)
*''[[Inhumanoids]]''
*''[[Inspector Gadget]]'' (1983&ndash;1986)
*''[[Jayce and the Wheeled Warriors]]''
*''[[Jem (animated)|Jem]]'' (1985&ndash;1988)
*''[[The Jetsons]]'' (new episodes from 1984&ndash;1985 and 1987)
*''[[Kidd Video]]'' (1984&ndash;1987)
*''[[The Littles]]'' (1983&ndash;1986)
*''[[M.A.S.K.]]'' (1985)
*''[[Monchhichis]]'' (1983)
*''[[Muppet Babies]]'' (1984&ndash;1991)
*''[[Mighty Mouse: The New Adventures]]''
*''[[The Moon Dreamers]]
*''[[The Mysterious Cities of Gold]]'' (''Les Mystérieuses Cités d'Or'') (1982)
*''[[My Little Pony Tales]]''
*''[[The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh]]'' (1988&ndash;1991)
*''[[The New Archies]]'' (1987&ndash;1989)
*''[[Ovide and the Gang]]''
*''[[Pac-Man]]'' (1982&ndash;1984)
*''[[Pingu]]'' (1986)
*''[[A Pup Named Scooby-Doo]]'' (1988&ndash;1991)
*''[[The Raccoons]]'' (1985&ndash;1991)
*''[[Rainbow Brite]]'' (1984&ndash;1985)
*''[[Real Ghostbusters]]'' (1986&ndash;1992)
*''[[Richie Rich (1980 TV series)|Richie Rich]]'' (Hanna-Barbera version) (1980&ndash;1984)
*''[[Robostory]]'' (1985)
*''[[Rude Dog and the Dweebs]]''
*''[[Sharky and George]]''
*''[[She-Ra: Princess of Power]]'' (1985&ndash;1986)
*''[[Shirt Tales]]'' (1982&ndash;1984)
*''[[Silverhawks]]'' (1986)
*''[[The Simpsons]]'' (1989&mdash;)
*''[[T |
on other issues. Of particular importance to anarcho-capitalists and the individualists are the ideas of private property, "sovereignty of the individual", a market economy, and the opposition to [[collectivism]]. In addition, like the individualists, anarcho-capitalists believe that land may be originally appropriated by, and only by, occupation or use; however, most traditional individualists believe it must ''continually'' be in use to retain title. Notable 19th-century American individualist anarchists include [[Lysander Spooner]] and [[Benjamin Tucker]].
Lysander Spooner's articles, such as [http://www.lysanderspooner.org/notreason.htm ''No Treason''] and the [http://www.lysanderspooner.org/LetterToBayard.htm ''Letter to Thomas Bayard''], were widely reprinted in early anarcho-capitalist journals, and his ideas — especially his individualist critique of the state and his defense of the right to ignore or withdraw from it — were often cited by anarcho-capitalists. Spooner was staunchly opposed to government interference in economic matters, and supported a "right to acquire property [...] as one of the natural, inherent, inalienable rights of men [...] one which government has no power to infringe [...]".<ref>Spooner, Lysander (1843) [http://www.lysanderspooner.org/constitutionallaw.htm ''Constitutional law, Relative to Credit, Currency, and Banking''] Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]</ref> Like all anarchists, he opposed government regulation: "All legislative restraints upon the rate of interest are arbitrary and tyrannical restraints upon a man's natural capacity amid natural right to hire capital, upon which to bestow his labor."<ref>Spooner, Lysander (1846) [http://www.lysanderspooner.org/Poverty.htm ''Poverty: Its Illegal Causes and Cure''] Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]</ref> He was particularly vocal, however, in opposing any collusion between banks and government, and argued that the monopolistic privileges that the government granted to a few bankers were the source of many social and economic ills.
Benjamin Tucker supported private ownership of the product of labor, which he believed entailed a rejection of both collective and capitalist ownership. He was a staunch advocate of the [[mutualist]] form of recompensing labor, which holds to "[[Cost the limit of price]]". He also advocated a free [[market economy]], which he believed was prohibited by capitalist monopoly of credit and land backed by the state. He believed that anyone who wishes should be allowed to engage in the banking business and issue their private currency without needing special permission from government, and that unused land should not be restricted to those who wished to use it. He believed that if these and other coercive actions were eliminated that profit in economic transactions would be rendered nearly impossible because of increased availability of capital to all individuals and resulting increased competition in business. Accepting the [[labor theory of value]] and the resulting "cost principle" as a premise marks one of mutualism's main conflicts with anarcho-capitalism. Although his self-identification as a socialist and sympathy for the [[labor movement]] led to hostility from some early anarcho-capitalists such as [[Robert LeFevre]], others, such as Murray Rothbard, embraced his critique of the state and claimed that he defined his "socialism" not in terms of opposition to a free market or private property, but in opposition to government privileges for business. However, individualists argue that capitalism cannot be maintained in the absence of the state. For example, Kevin Carson argues, "As a mutualist anarchist, I believe that expropriation of surplus value — i.e., capitalism — cannot occur without state coercion to maintain the privilege of usurer, landlord, and capitalist. It was for this reason that the free market mutualist Benjamin Tucker — from whom right-libertarians selectively borrow — regarded himself as a libertarian socialist." Tucker characterized the economic demands of Proudhon and Warren by saying, "though opposed to socializing the ownership of capital, they aimed nevertheless to socialize its effects by making its use beneficial to all instead of a means of impoverishing the many to enrich the few [...] Absolute Free Trade; free trade at home, as well as with foreign countries; the logical carrying out of the Manchester doctrine; ''laissez-faire'' the universal rule."<ref>[[Benjamin Tucker|Tucker, Benjamin]] (1888) [http://praxeology.net/BT-SSA.htm ''State Socialism and Anarchism: How Far They Agree, and Wherein They Differ''] Liberty 5.16, no. 120 ([[10 March]] [[1888]]), pp. 2-3.Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]</ref>
Anarcho-capitalism is sometimes viewed by those sympathetic to it as a form of individualist anarchism, despite the fact that the original individualist anarchists universally rejected capitalism (i.e., they opposed profit, which is seen as a fundamental characteristic of capitalism). Organizations such as mutualist.org remain dedicated to "free market anticapitalism," while individualists like [[Larry Gambone]] explicitly state that all capitalism is state capitalism. Nonetheless, anarcho-capitalist Wendy McElroy considers herself to be an individualist, while admitting that the original individualists were universally anticapitalist. In addition, historian Guglielmo Piombini refers anarcho-capitalism as a form of individualist anarchism, though he offers no support for this statement. Collectivist anarchist author Iain McKay and historian Peter Sabatini both argue that anarcho-capitalism is fundamentally opposed to individualist anarchism.
The similarity to anarcho-capitalism in regard to private defense of liberty and property is probably best seen in a quote by 19th-century individualist anarchist [[Victor Yarros]]:
<blockquote>Anarchism means no government, but it does not mean no laws and no coercion. This may seem paradoxical, but the paradox vanishes when the Anarchist definition of government is kept in view. Anarchists oppose government, not because they disbelieve in punishment of crime and resistance to aggression, but because they disbelieve in compulsory protection. Protection and taxation without consent is itself invasion; hence Anarchism favors a system of voluntary taxation and protection.<ref>Yarros, Victor ''Our Revolution; Essays and Interpretations'' p.80</ref></blockquote>
===The Austrian School ===
{{main|Austrian School}}
[[Image:Murray Rothbard Smile.JPG|thumb|right| [[Murray Rothbard]] (1926–95)]]
The Austrian School of economics was founded with the publication of [[Carl Menger]]'s 1871 book ''[[Principles of Economics]]''. Members of this school approach economics as an ''a priori'' system like logic or mathematics, rather than as an empirical science like geology. It attempts to discover axioms of human action (called "[[praxeology]]" in the Austrian tradition) and make deductions therefrom. Some of these praxeological axioms are:
:*Humans act purposefully.
:*Humans prefer more of a good to less.
:*Humans prefer to receive a good sooner rather than later.
:*Each party to a trade benefits ''[[ex ante]]''.
These are macro-level generalizations, or [[heuristics]], which are true for the many, but not necessarily true for any particular person.
Even in the early days, Austrian economics was used as a theoretical weapon against socialism and statist socialist policy. [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]], a colleague of Menger, wrote one of the first critiques of socialism ever written in his treatise ''The Exploitation Theory of Socialism-Communism''. Later, [[Friedrich Hayek]] wrote ''[[The Road to Serfdom]]'', asserting that a [[command economy]] destroys the information function of prices, and that authority over the economy leads to [[totalitarianism]]. Another very influential Austrian economist was [[Ludwig von Mises]], author of the praxeological work ''Human Action''.
Murray Rothbard, a student of Mises, is the man who attempted to meld Austrian economics with classical liberalism and individualist anarchism, and is credited with coining the term "anarcho-capitalism". He was probably the first to use "libertarian" in its current (U.S.) pro-capitalist sense. He was a trained economist, but also knowledgeable in history and political philosophy. When young, he considered himself part of the [[Old Right]], an anti-statist and anti-[[interventionist]] branch of the [[Republican Party (United States)|U.S. Republican]] party. When interventionist [[cold warrior]]s of the ''[[National Review]]'', such as [[William Buckley]], gained influence in the Republican party in the 1950s, Rothbard quit that group and formed an alliance with [[left-wing]] [[antiwar]] groups. Later, Rothbard was a founder of the U.S. Libertarian Party. In the late 1950s, Rothbard was briefly involved with [[Ayn Rand]]'s [[objectivist philosophy|objectivism]] group, but later had a falling out. Rothbard's books, such as ''[[Man, Economy, and State]]'', ''[[Power and Market]]'', ''The Ethics of Liberty'', and ''For a New Liberty'', are considered by some to be classics of natural law libertarian thought.
''See also:'' Roberta Modugno Crocetta: [http://www.mises.org/journals/scholar/Modugno.PDF The anarcho-capitalist political theory of Murray N. Rothbard in its historical and intellectual context]
<!-- All this is not cited.
===Objectivism===
Though [[Ayn Rand]] was opposed to anarcho-capitalism, some anarcho-capitalist and libertarian followers, including Rothbard, see Ayn Rand as one of their most vocal and visible champions. Through her philosophy of [[objectivist philosophy|objectivism]], Rand firmly grounded laissez-faire capitalism on her ethical system of Reason, Self-interes |
hey weren't able to see before in the former framework. Kuhn also questioned whether scientific experimentation is truly unbiased and neutral since the experimenter had previous theories and preconceptions which could affect what experiments are chosen and the way in which the results are interpreted. Kuhn also questioned whether we can trust the reliability of our senses, and cited the famous illusions printed in Hanson's 1958 book.
=== [[Constructivist epistemology|Constructivism]] ===
Knowledge and reality is actively constructed by the individual, not passively received from the environment. There are many forms of constructivism, such as [[social constructivism]] and [[cultural constructivism]].
=== [[Quantum mechanics]] ===
Addresses the question whether experience can be used to determine an [[ontological]] reality. For example, the [[Many-worlds interpretation]], one of the answers to the [[EPR paradox]], argues that there are multiple versions of every observed object in every possible observable state, existing in a state of [[Quantum superposition]]. If every observable entity within our reality has a counterpart in an alternate state, then our experience of these entities does not indicate any ontological reality.
== See also ==
* [[Behaviorism]]
* [[Continental rationalism]]
* [[Empirical formula]]
* [[Empirical knowledge]]
* [[Empirical method]]
* [[Empirical relationship]]
* [[Empirical research]]
* [[Empirical validation]]
* [[Instrumentalism]]
* [[Logical positivism]]
* [[Methodological naturalism]]
* [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]]
* [[Objectivity (philosophy)|Objectivity]] (philosophy)
* [[Philosophy of science]]
* [[Philosophical naturalism]]
* [[Quasi-empirical methods]]
* [[Rationalism]] (modern)
* [[Scientific method]]
== External links ==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Rationalism vs. Empiricism]
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<page>
<title>Estampie</title>
<id>10175</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Estampie''' is both a [[medieval dance]] and musical form.
There are no surviving dance manuals describing the estampie as a dance. [[Illumination]]s and paintings from the period seem to indicate that the estampie involves fairly vigorous hopping. The [[etymology]] of the name is disputed; an alternative name of the dance is ''stantipes'', which suggests that one foot was stationary during the dance; but the more widely accepted etymology relates it to ''estamper'', to stamp the feet.
The estampie musical form consists of a series of verses, often of different lengths, and two [[refrain]]s, sometimes called "open" and "closed", which alternate. The various verses can be of different lengths, and are often only faintly related in theme to the preceding and following verses. There can be any number of verses, though there must be at least three.
The two refrains typically open with the same phrase. The first, or "open" ending, begins with that phrase and concludes with a short passage. The second, or "closed" ending, is usually longer than the first ending, and concludes with a longer passage. Thus, where A, B, C. . . represent the various verses, R(o) the open ending, and R(c) the closed ending, the structure of an estampie is:
:A &mdash; R(o)
:A &mdash; R(c)
:B &mdash; R(o)
:B &mdash; R(c)
:C &mdash; R(o)
:C &mdash; R(c)
:.
:.
:.
A similar structure was shared with the [[saltarello]], another medieval dance. Some estampies, such as the famous ''Tre fontane'' ("Three Fountains") estampie, contain florid and [[virtuoso|virtuosic]] instrumental writing; they may have been intended as abstract performance music rather than actual dance music.
==For further reading==
* Timothy McGee, ''Medieval Instrumental Dances''.
''Estampie is also a German medieval band with a web site [http://www.estampie.de]''.
[[Category:Historical dance]]
[[Category:Musical forms]]
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<page>
<title>Experimental cancer treatment</title>
<id>10176</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-24T15:58:34Z</timestamp>
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<username>DabMachine</username>
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<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Hypoxia]] to [[Hypoxia (medical)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Experimental cancer treatments''' are [[medicine|medical]] therapies intended or claimed to treat [[cancer]] (see also ''[[tumor]]'') by improving on, supplementing or replacing conventional methods ([[surgery]], [[chemotherapy]], [[Radiation therapy|radiation]], and [[immunotherapy]]).
The entries listed below vary between theoretical therapies to unproven controversial therapies. Many of these treatments are alleged to only help against specific forms of cancer. It is ''not'' a list of treatments widely available at hospitals!
==Angiostatic-based treatments ==
Every solid [[tumor]] (in contrast to liquid tumors like [[leukemia]]) needs to generate [[blood vessel]]s to keep it alive once it reaches a certain size. Usually, blood vessels are not built elsewhere in an adult body unless tissue repair is actively in process. The anti-[[angiogenesis]] (angiostatic) agent ''[[endostatin]]'' and related chemicals can suppress the building of blood vessels, preventing the cancer from growing indefinitely. In tests with patients, the tumor became inactive and stayed that way even after the endostatin treatment was finished. The treatment has very few side effects but appears to have very limited selectivity. Other angiostatic agents like [[thalidomide]] and natural plant-based substances are being actively investigated.
== Bacterial treatments ==
[[Chemotherapy|Chemotherapeutic]] [[medication|drugs]] have a hard time penetrating tumors to kill them at their core because these cells may lack a good [[blood]] supply. Researchers have been using [[Anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] [[bacterium|bacteria]], such as ''Clostridium novyi'', to consume the interior of oxygen-poor tumours. These should then die when they come in contact with the tumour's oxygenated sides, meaning they would be harmless to the rest of the body. A major problem has been that bacteria don't consume all parts of the malignant tissue. However combining the therapy with chemotheraputic treatments can help to solve this problem. Another strategy is to use anaerobic bacteria that have been transformed with an enzyme that can convert a non-toxic [[prodrug]] into a toxic drug. With the proliferation of the bacteria in the [[necrosis|necrotic]] and [[Hypoxia (medical)|hypoxic]] areas of the tumour the enzyme is expressed solely in the tumour. Thus a systemically applied prodrug is metabolised to the toxic drug only in the tumour. This has been demonstrated to be effective with the non pathogenic anaerobe ''Clostridium sporogenes''.
==[[Gene therapy]]==
Introduction of [[tumor suppressor gene]]s into rapidly dividing cells has been thought to slow down or arrest tumor growth. Another use of gene therapy is the introduction of [[enzyme]]s into these cells that make them susceptible to particular chemotherapy agents; studies with introducing [[thymidine kinase]] in [[glioma]]s, making them susceptible to [[aciclovir]], are in their experimental stage.
==Telomerase therapy==
Because most malignant cells rely on the activity of the protein [[telomerase]] for their immortality, it has been proposed that a drug which inactivates telomerase might be effective against a broad spectrum of malignancies. At the same time, most healthy tissues in the body express little if any telomerase, and would function normally in its absence.
A number of research groups have experimented with the use of telomerase inhibitors in animal models, and as of [[2005]] phase I and II human clinical trials are underway.
==Thermal therapy==
Localized application of heat has been proprosed as a technique for the treatment of malignant tumours. Intense heating will cause [[denaturation (biochemistry)|denaturation]] and coagulation of [[cell (biology)|cellular]] [[protein]]s, rapidly killing cells within a tumour.
More prolonged moderate heating to temperatures just a few degrees above normal can cause more subtle changes. A mild heat treatment combined with other stresses can cause cell death by [[apoptosis]]. There are many biochemical consequences to the [[heat shock protein|heat shock response]] within in cell, including slowed cell division and increased sensitivity to ionizing [[radiation therapy]].
There are many techniques by which heat may be delivered. Some of the most common involve the use of focused [[ultrasound]] (FUS), [[microwave]] heating, [[electromagnetic induction|induction]] heating, or direct application of heat through the use of heated saline pumped through catheters.
One of the challenges in thermal therapy is delivering the appropriate amount of heat to the correct part of the patient's body. A great deal of current research focuses on precisely positioning heat delivery devices (catheters, microwave and ultrasound applicators, etc.) using ultra |
ses of their own choosing. Usually between two and five students graduate with an IPS degree each year. Finally, students may choose an off-campus major offered by any of the other [[Claremont Colleges]], provided they also complete a minor in one of the technical fields that Mudd offers majors.
Because of its [[mission statement]], Harvey Mudd places an unusually strong emphasis on general science education outside one's major, with a full one-third of courses in this area, known as the "common core." Students are required to take another one-third of their courses in the humanities, keeping with the school's tradition of science with a conscience. The final one-third is composed of courses in the student's major. The integration of research and education is an important component of the educational experience at Harvey Mudd; by the time they graduate, every student has had some kind of research experience, in the form of a senior thesis or a Clinic Program experience. The undergraduate focus of HMC means that, unlike many other science and engineering institutions, undergraduates at HMC get unique access to research positions over the summer and during the school year.
A unique aspect of an HMC education is the Clinic Program, in which teams of students work for a year on a project supplied by a company, make regular reports to the company, and, at the end of the year, deliver a product. There are Clinic projects in engineering, computer science, mathematics, physics, and other majors. This kind of real-world experience gives students a first-hand look at a particular industry, and gives the company an inexpensive team of four students, many of whom they recruit after graduation.
===Reputation===
The college is one of the most selective in the nation; the median entering SAT score is about 770 (out of 800) in mathematics, and 1470 (out of 1600) overall [http://www.hmc.edu/admin/admission/numbers.html]. A third of the student body are [[National Merit Scholar]]s, and about 40 percent of graduates go on earn a [[Ph.D.]]—the highest rate of any college or university in the nation [http://www.amatecon.com/etext/cac/cac-ch03.html][http://www.math.hmc.edu/program/dept-intro.html].
==Student life==
===Harvey Mudd College dormitories===
The official names for the dormitories are Mildred E. Mudd Hall ("East"), West Hall ("West"), North Hall ("North"), Marks Residence Hall ("South"), J. L. Atwood Residence Hall ("Atwood"), Case Residence Hall ("Case"), Ronald and Maxine Linde Residence Hall ("Linde"), and Frederick and Susan Sontag Residence Hall ("Sontag"). Atwood and Case were occasionally referred to as New Dorm and New Dorm II up until the addition of Linde and Sontag; Mildred E. Mudd Hall and Marks Hall are almost invariably referred to as East and South.
When Case was being built some students decided as a [[prank]] to move all of the survey stakes exactly six inches to the north. They did such a precise job that the construction crew didn't notice until after they had laid the foundation, but California earthquake law forced them to reinspect the new location at some significant expense. Furthermore, the plumbing has never worked quite right. Case is also very occasionally known as Seventh dorm (despite being the sixth dorm built) or as the Pink Dorm due to the fact that the cinder blocks used in its construction are rather shrimp-colored.
It is notable that South Dorm is in the northwest corner of the quad. "East" was the first dorm, but it wasn't until West was built to the west of it that it was actually referred to as East. Then North was built, north of East. When the fourth dorm (Marks) was built, there was one corner of the quad available (the northwest) and one directional name (South) left. It got both, and to this day South is more 'north' on the compass than North dorm is.
The fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth dorms are Atwood, Case, Linde, and Sontag, respectively. They were collectively referred to as "the Colonies" by some students, a reference to the fact that they are newer and are at the far end of the campus, a full two blocks away from the academic buildings; these dorms are now more commonly referred to as "the Outer Dorms." The college purchased an apartment building adjacent to the newer dorms to house additional students, but it was demolished to make room for the newest dorm, Sontag.
Due to the fact that students from all four classes can live in each of the dormitories, several of the dorms have accumulated long-standing traditions and even 'personalities.' Two examples of these traditions are the parties Long Tall Glasses (a formal affair thrown by North) and TQ Nite (a tequila-centered party thrown by West). However, the personalities of the dorms morph over time as Mudd alumni are apt to find out upon visiting their [[alma mater]] years after they've graduated.
===Athletics===
Athletics teams from [[Claremont McKenna College]], Harvey Mudd College, and [[Scripps College]] compete as one team. Male athletic teams are called the Stags, and women's teams are called the Athenas. The teams participate in the [[NCAA]]'s Division III and in the [[Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]].
==Architecture==
The original buildings of campus were designed by [[Edward Durell Stone]]. Most are covered with thousands of square [[concrete]] features, called "warts" by the students, which would be perfectly suited to [[buildering]] except that, while some are set into the wall, others are simply glued on. In addition, these warts have the unusual usefulness of being great 'shelves' for unicycles and skateboards. One can walk towards Galileo Hall and see the warts (especially those on the inside of the buildings) being used to stack unicycles and skateboards. Interestingly enough, the unofficial mascot of Harvey Mudd (featured on many college handbooks and other publications) is one of these concrete blocks with a smile, arms, and legs, named "Wally the Wart."
Most of the computer labs and many classrooms are located in the basements (called the Libra Complex) of the concrete-block buildings.
==Transportation on campus==
In the early [[1970s]] the first [[unicycle]]s appeared on campus. By 1972 there were four of them. The notion caught on, and for a time there were dozens on campus. For many students it was a "rite of passage" to learn to ride. The unicycling club, known as Gonzo Unicycle Madness, was formed and to this day organizes an annual eight mile plus ride (each way) known as "The Foster's Run," to "The Donut Man" donut shop in [[Glendora, California|Glendora]] (originally known as "Foster's Donuts" hence the name of the event) for strawberry donuts. Upon return to the campus, the ritual of the "shakedown" takes place (dismounting and then repeatedly jumping up and down in the dormitory courtyard); a necessary procedure after a unicycle ride of nearly twenty miles, especially for those riders of the masculine gender. At irregular intervals club members also meet to play [[unicycle hockey]]. In the early [[1990s]] though the ridership of unicycles waned at the college. Currently there is a very small number of Mudders who continue to ride unicycles. However, despite this drop in popularity, unicycling continues to be an integral part of the Mudd mythos.
Other than walking, the leading form of transportation among Mudders is skateboarding. Because the paths of Mudd are smooth and the route to the academic building on one side of campus from the dorms is so straightforward, skateboarding to class is very popular&mdash;and Mudders as a whole skate more than the students of any of the nearby Claremont Colleges.
==Rivalry with Caltech==
There is a long-standing rivalry between Harvey Mudd and the nearby [[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]]; except this rivalry is basically unacknowledged by Caltech. For example, in one prank, students from Mudd [http://people.bu.edu/fmri/somers/cannon.html stole a memorial cannon from Fleming House at Caltech] (originally from the [[United States National Guard|National Guard]]) by dressing as maintenance people and carting it off on a flatbed truck for "cleaning;" Though thought a coup by the Mudd students, most Caltech students were in fact happy to see the cannon gone, as Fleming House is considered unpopular and obnoxious by most of the campus. Fleming students got it back by having their school President threaten legal action. In another prank, Mudd students made a slight modification to a freeway sign that read as follows:
<center>''California Institute of Technology ''
''Pasadena City College''
''Next Exit'' </center>
Their prank was quite subtle; they put parentheses around "[[Pasadena City College]]," so it read:
<center>''California Institute of Technology''
''(Pasadena City College)''
''Next Exit''</center>
The modified sign therefore implied that Caltech was in fact the same as Pasadena City College, a much less prestigious institution.
==Pranks==
Pranks at Harvey Mudd are known for being clever, amusing, technically precise, and reversible (by policy, pranksters must leave contact information, and reverse the prank within 24 hours if told to do so).
* One student returned from a long weekend away to discover his room filled from floor to ceiling with inflated plastic garbage bags. The pranksters had used high-powered fans to inflate them.
* Once the Dean of Faculty discovered that some Mudders had moved everything in his office to the other side of campus placing it on the grass in front of the newly opened Linde Dorm. Everything in his office was perfectly organized and functional &mdash; even his telephone and Internet connection worked. It was a pleasan |
cts.org England-Expects.org Comprehensive website detailing current and historical information about the national team]
*[http://www.england-afc.co.uk England AFC - England Fansite]
*[http://www.england06.net England06.net : A Guide To The England Football Team in the build up to the 2006 World Cup]
*[http://www.englandfootballonline.com/Match.html Archive of England national team results 1874-]
*[http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/eng-recintlp.html RSSSF archive of most capped players and highest goalscorers]
*[http://www.englandfanzine.co.uk The England Fanzine]
*[http://www.planetworldcup.com/NATIONS/eng.html Planet World Cup archive of results in the World Cup]
*[http://www.planetworldcup.com/NATIONS/eng_qualify.html Planet World Cup archive of squads in the World Cup]
*[http://www.planetworldcup.com/NATIONS/eng_squads.html Planet World Cup archive of results in the World Cup qualifiers]
{{Football in England}}
{{fb start}}
{{International football}}
{{UEFA teams}}
{{fb end}}
[[Category:European national football teams]]
[[Category:England national football team| ]]
[[ar:منتخب إنجلترا لكرة القدم]]
[[cs:Anglická fotbalová reprezentace]]
[[de:Englische Fußballnationalmannschaft]]
[[et:Inglismaa jalgpallikoondis]]
[[es:Selección nacional de fútbol de Inglaterra]]
[[fr:Équipe d'Angleterre de football]]
[[gl:Selección nacional de fútbol de Inglaterra]]
[[he:נבחרת אנגליה בכדורגל]]
[[hu:Angol labdarúgó-válogatott]]
[[nl:Engels voetbalelftal]]
[[no:Englands herrelandslag i fotball]]
[[pl:Reprezentacja Anglii w piłce nożnej]]
[[pt:Seleção Inglesa de Futebol]]
[[sv:Englands herrlandslag i fotboll]]
[[zh:英格兰足球代表队]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eureka, Missouri</title>
<id>9907</id>
<revision>
<id>28010109</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-11T08:51:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mithridates</username>
<id>293296</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+ido</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:MOMap-doton-Eureka.png|right|Location of Eureka, Missouri]]
'''Eureka''' is a city located in [[St. Louis County, Missouri]], between [[Saint Louis, Missouri|Saint Louis]] and [[Pacific, Missouri|Pacific]] along [[Interstate 44]]. As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 census]], the city had a total population of 7,676.
It is two miles west of the former site of [[Times Beach, Missouri|Times Beach]], the site of [[dioxin]] contamination discovered in the [[1980s]]; the area was cleaned up and became [[Route 66 State Park]].
Since [[1970]], Eureka is best known in the region as the home of the [[amusement park]] formerly known as Six Flags Over Mid-America and now called [[Six Flags Saint Louis]].
Local news coverage for the town and some of its neighbors is provided by the ''[[Tri County Journal]]'' and the ''[[Washington Missourian]]''.
== History ==
The village of Eureka was platted in [[1858]] along the route of the [[Missouri Pacific Railroad]]. By [[1890]], the village consisted of about 100 homes.
In 1898, Eureka became home to the St. Louis Children's Industrial Farm, established to give children from St. Louis [[tenement]] neighborhoods a chance to experience life in a rural setting. It later became known as Camp Wyman, now a part of [[Wyman Center]], and [[as of 2004]] is one of the oldest camps in the United States.
Eureka was incorporated as a fourth-class city on [[April 7]], [[1954]].
The nearby railroad town of Allenton, older than Eureka, was annexed by Eureka in [[1985]]. Allenton and other parts of Eureka have become part of a $500 million redevelopment plan proposed by a partnership including The Jones Company and American Heritage Homes. The redevelopment proposal would include land and homes purchased by Eureka as part of a previously proposed redevelopment plan.
== Geography ==
Eureka is located at 38&deg;30'10" North, 90&deg;38'42" West (38.502736, -90.645075){{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 26.2 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (10.1 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 26.0 km&sup2; (10.1 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 0.2 km&sup2; (0.1 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 0.59% water.
== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 7,676 people in the city, organized into 2,487 households and 2,064 families. Its [[population density]] is 294.9/km&sup2; (763.7/mi&sup2;). There are 2,622 housing units at an average density of 100.7/km&sup2; (260.9/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 97.38% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.82% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.57% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.20% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], no Pacific Islanders, 0.26% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.77% from two or more races. 1.22% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 2,487 households out of which half have children under the age of 18 living with them, 71.6% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 8.2% have a female householder with no husband present, and 17.0% are non-families. 13.8% of all households are made up of individuals and 4.3% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.98 and the average family size is 3.30.
In the city the population is spread out with 31.9% under the age of 18, 5.7% from 18 to 24, 34.4% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 8.5% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 34 years. For every 100 females there are 94.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.6 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $74,301, and the median income for a family is $80,625. Males have a median income of $51,799 versus $33,269 for females. The per-capita income for the city is $27,553. 2.2% of the population and 1.3% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 3.1% of those under the age of 18 and 5.9% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
== External links ==
*[http://www.eureka.mo.us/ City of Eureka's website]
*[http://www.efpd.org/ Eureka Fire Protection District Website]
*[http://www.eurekachamber.us/ Eureka website] for its [[Chamber of commerce|Chamber of Commerce]]
*[http://www.sixflags.com/parks/stlouis/ Six Flags St. Louis]
*[http://www.wymancenter.org/kcwsum.htm Camp Wyman]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|38.502736|-90.645075}}
[[Category:Cities in Missouri]]
[[Category:St. Louis County, Missouri]]
[[Category:Communities on U.S. Highway 66]]
[[io:Eureka, Missouri]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Equation of state</title>
<id>9908</id>
<revision>
<id>41614952</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:04:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gene Nygaard</username>
<id>146986</id>
</contributor>
<comment>factor of 1000, header capitalization, other capitalization, parallelism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[physics]] and [[thermodynamics]], an '''equation of state''' is a [[constitutive equation]] describing the state of matter under a given set of physical conditions. It provides a mathematical relationship between two or more [[state function]]s associated with the matter, such as its [[temperature]], [[pressure]], [[volume]], or [[internal energy]]. Equations of state are useful in describing the properties of [[fluid]]s, mixtures of fluids, [[solid]]s, and even the interior of [[star]]s.
The most prominent use of an equation of state is to predict the state of gases and liquids. One of the simplest equations of state for this purpose is the [[ideal gas law]], which is roughly accurate for gases at low pressures and high temperatures. However, this equation becomes increasingly inaccurate at higher pressures and lower temperatures, and fails to predict condensation from a gas to a liquid. Therefore, a number of much more accurate equations of state have been developed for gases and liquids. At present, there is no single equation of state that accurately predicts the properties of all substances under all conditions.
In addition to predicting the behavior of gases and liquids, there are also equations of state for predicting the volume of [[solid]]s, including the transition of solids from one crystalline state to another. There are equations that model the interior of [[star]]s, including [[neutron star]]s. A related concept is the [[perfect fluid]] [[equation of state (cosmology)|equation of state used in cosmology]].
== Examples of equations of state ==
In the following equations the variables are defined as follows, any consistent set of units can be used although [[SI]] units are preferred:
:''P'' = pressure
:''V'' = volume
:''n'' = number of moles of a substance
:''V<sub>m</sub>'' = ''V''/''n'' = '''[[molar volume]]''', the volume of 1 mole of gas or liquid
:''T'' = temperature (K)
:''R'' = [[gas constant|ideal gas constant]] (8.314472 J/(mol·K))
=== Classical [[ideal gas law]] ===
The classical ideal gas law may be written:
:<math>PV = nRT\,</math>
The ideal gas law may also be expressed as follows
:<math> P=\rho (\gamma-1) e\,</math>
where <math>\rho</math> is the density, <math>\gamma</math> the adiabatic index, and ''e'' the internal energy. This form is purely in terms of intensive quantities and is useful when simulating the [[Euler equations]] because it
expresses the relationship between internal energy and other forms of energy (such as kinetic), thus allowing simulations to obey the First Law.
=== [[Van der Waals equation]] of state ===
:<math>\left(P + \frac{a}{V_m^2}\right)\left(V_m-b\right) = RT</math>, note that ''V<sub>m</sub>'' is molar volu |
speak [[dialects]] of [[Flemish (linguistics)|Flemish]] and [[Walloon language|Walloon]]. These dialects, along with some other ones like [[Picard language |Picard]] or [[Limburgish]],{{ref|ethnologue}} are not used in public life.
The ''[[laicite|laïque]]'' constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right in practice. According to the ''2001 Survey and Study of Religion'',{{ref|religion}} about 47% of the population identify themselves as belonging to the Catholic Church. According to these figures, the Muslim population is the second largest religious community, at 3.5% (see [[Religion in Belgium]]). Since independence, Catholicism, counterbalanced by strong [[freethought]] and especially [[freemason]] movements, has had an important role in Belgium's politics, in particular via the Christian trade union ([[CSC/ACV]]) and the Christian Democrat parties ([[CD&V]], [[CDH]]).
The vast majority of Belgians are [[Flemings|Flemish]] and [[Walloon]]. Together, they constitute a little over 85%. There are many other European populations who constitute a large and growing fraction like [[Italy|Italian]], [[France|French]], and [[Germany|German]] (majorities) who number 11.1%. Arab immigrants, mostly from [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]], and [[Turkey|Turkish]] immigrants number over 3% of the total population.
98% of the adult population is [[literate]].{{ref|ethnologue}} Education is compulsory from the ages of six to 18, but many Belgians continue to study until the age of about 23. Among the [[OECD]] countries in 1999, Belgium had the third highest proportion of 18&ndash;21-year-olds enrolled in [[postsecondary education]], at 42%.{{ref|edu}} Nevertheless, in recent years, concern is rising over certain forms of [[illiteracy]], such as [[functional illiteracy]]. In the period 1994&ndash;98, 18.4% of the population lacks functional literacy skills.{{ref|undp}} Mirroring the historical political conflicts between the freethought and Catholic segments of the population, the Belgian educational system in each communities is split into a ''[[laicite|laïque]]'' branch controlled by the communities, the provinces, or the municipalities, and a [[subsidy|subsidised]] religious—mostly Catholic—branch controlled by both the communities and the religious authorities—usually the [[diocese]]s. It should however be noted that - at least for the Catholic schools - the religious authorities have very limited power over these schools.
==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Belgium}}
Belgian cultural life has tended to concentrate within each community. The shared element is less important, because there are no bilingual universities, except the royal military academy, no common media, and no single, common large cultural or scientific organisation where both main communities are represented. Aside from these differences, Belgium is well-known for its fine art and architecture.
The region corresponding to today's Belgium has seen the flourishing of major artistic movements that have had tremendous influence over European art. The [[Mosan art]], the [[Early Netherlandish painting|Early Netherlandish]], the Flemish [[Renaissance]] and [[Baroque]] painting, and major examples of [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]], [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]], [[Renaissance architecture |Renaissance]] and [[Baroque architecture]], and the Renaissance [[vocal music]] of the [[Dutch School (music) |Dutch School]] developed in the southern part of the Low Countries, are milestones in the history of art.
[[Image:Entry_in.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Entry of Christ into Brussels, [[James Ensor]], 1888, [[Malibu]]. This painting is inspired by the many folk festivals in Belgium.]]
This rich artistic production, often referred to as a whole as [[Flemish art]], gradually declined during the second half of the 17th century. However, in the 19th and 20th centuries, many original artists appeared. In music, [[Adolphe Sax]] invented the [[saxophone]] in 1846. [[Eugène Ysaÿe]] was a major 19th- and 20th-century Belgian violinist (See also [[Music of Belgium]]). In architecture, [[Victor Horta]] was a major initiator of the [[Art Nouveau]] style. Belgium has produced famous [[romanticism |romantic]], [[expressionism |expressionist]] and [[surrealism |surrealist]] painters; these include [[Egide Charles Gustave Wappers |Egide Wappers]], [[James Ensor]], [[Constant Permeke]] and [[René Magritte]]. In literature, Belgium has produced several well-known authors, such as the poets [[Emile Verhaeren]], [[Jacques Brel]] and novelists [[Hendrik Conscience]] and [[Georges Simenon]]. The poet and playwright [[Maurice Maeterlinck]] won the [[Nobel Prize in literature]] in 1911. The best known [[Franco-Belgian comics]] are ''[[The Adventures of Tintin]]'' by [[Hergé]] but many other major authors of comics have been Belgian, including [[Edgar P. Jacobs]] and [[André Franquin]].
More recently, notable cinema directors have emerged, most of them strongly influenced by [[French cinema]]. The absence of a major Belgian cinema company has forced them to emigrate or participate in low-budget productions. Belgian directors include [[Stijn Coninx]], [[Luc Dardenne | Luc]] and [[Jean-Pierre Dardenne]]; actors include [[Jan Decleir]], [[Marie Gillain]]; and films include ''[[Man Bites Dog]]'' and ''[[The Alzheimer Affair]]''. In the 1980s, Antwerp's [[Royal Academy of Fine Arts]] has produced the important fashion trendsetters, the [[Antwerp Six]].
Belgium has also contributed to the development of science and technology. The [[mathematics |mathematician]] [[Simon Stevin]], the [[anatomy |anatomist]] [[Andreas Vesalius]] and the [[cartography |cartographer]] [[Gerardus Mercator]] are among the most influential scientists from the beginning of [[Early Modern]] in the Low Countries. More recently, at the end of the 19th century, in [[applied science]], the [[chemist]] [[Ernest Solvay]] and the [[engineering |engineer]] [[Zenobe Gramme]] have given their names to the [[Solvay process]] and the [[Gramme dynamo]]. [[Georges Lemaître]] is a famous Belgian [[cosmology |cosmologist]] credited with proposing the [[Big Bang]] theory of the origin of the universe in 1927. Three [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine |Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine]] have been awarded to Belgians: [[Jules Bordet]] in 1919, [[Corneille Heymans]] in 1938, and [[Albert Claude]] and [[Christian De Duve]] in 1974. [[Ilya Prigogine]] was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in 1977.
On [[December 1]], [[2005]], [[Father Damien]] was chosen as the Greatest Belgian of all time by the Flemish [[VRT]], whereas the [[Walloons]] chose [[Jacques Brel]].
One could not understand Belgian cultural life without considering the folk festivals, which play a major role in the country's cultural life. Examples are the Carnival of [[Binche]], the Ducasse of [[Ath]], the procession of the Holy Blood in Bruges, the 15th-of-August festival in Liège, and the Walloon festival in Namur. A major non-official holiday is the [[Saint Nicholas Day]], which commemorates the festival of the children and, in Liège, of the students.
Belgium is well represented in the world of sport—[[football (soccer)]] and [[cycling]] are especially popular. The [[Belgium national football team|national football team]] is the [[Red Devils]]. Among the well known cyclists, [[Eddy Merckx]], won five [[Tour de France|Tours de France]]. Belgium also has two current female tennis champions: [[Kim Clijsters]] and [[Justine Henin-Hardenne]].
Many highly ranked restaurants can be found in the high-impact gastronomic guides, such as the [[Michelin Guide]]. Brands of Belgian chocolate, like [[Chocolatier Neuhaus|Neuhaus]], are world renowned and widely sold; even the cheapest and most popular brand, [[Leonidas (chocolate maker)|Leonidas]], has earned a reputation for its quality. Belgium produces over 500 varieties of beer ([[ale]]s, [[pils]]) (see [[Belgian beer]]). Belgians have a reputation for loving [[Belgian waffle|waffles]] and [[French fries]] aka Belgian chips, both originally from Belgium; the national food is steak (or mussels) with French fries.
==See also==
{{sisterlinks|Belgium}}
* [[Communications in Belgium]]
* [[Education in Belgium]]
* [[Football in Belgium]]
* [[Foreign relations of Belgium]]
* [[List of Belgian municipalities by population]]
* [[List of Belgians]]
* [[List of Belgium-related topics]]
* [[Military of Belgium]]
* [[Public holidays in Belgium]]
* [[Tourism in Belgium]]
* [[Transportation in Belgium]]
==External links==
*[http://www.Belgium.be/ Official site of the Belgian federal government]
*[http://www.belgiumtheplaceto.be/ Official site of Belgian tourist office]
*[http://www.goldenpages.be/ Telephone directory online]
*[http://www.mediatico.com/en/newspapers/europe/belgium Belgian Newspapers]
* {{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.175-25.be/ Belgium is celebrating the 175th anniversary of its independence and the 25th anniversary of the federal state]
* [http://www.bruessel-gui.de/bruessel/bildergalerien.html bruessel-gui.de - Images: Brussels & Belgium]
==References==
*[http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/xbelgium.html World history at KLMA]
*[http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/europe/belgiqueacc.htm L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde] in French by Jacques Leclerc, [[University of Laval]], [[Canada]]
*[http://statbel.fgov.be/port/cou_eu_en.asp#BE Portal of the INS to statistical publications about Belgium]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/be.html CIA World Fact Book]
*[http://www.fed-parl.be/constitution_uk.html Constitution of Belgium]
==Notes==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
1.{{note|nuttall}} [[Nuttall encyclopedia]]</br>
2.{{note|language_BBC}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4545433.stm Language dispute divides Belgium, BBC News, 13 May, 2005]</br>
3.{{note|turnout}} [[Voter turnout |Ele |
niques have a range of side effects mainly affecting the fast-dividing cells of the body. Important common side-effects include (dependent on the agent):
* [[Alopecia | Hair loss]]
* [[Nausea]] and [[vomiting]]
* [[Diarrhea]] or [[constipation]]
* [[Anemia]]
* Depression of the [[immune system]] hence (potentially lethal) [[infection]]s and [[sepsis]]
* [[Hemorrhage]]
* [[Secondary neoplasm]]s
* [[Cardiotoxic]]ity
* [[Hepatotoxic]]ity
* [[Nephrotoxic]]ity
* [[Ototoxic]]ity
===Immunosuppression and myelosuppression===
Virtually all chemotherapeutic regimens can cause depression of the [[immune system]], often by paralysing the [[bone marrow]] and leading to a decrease of [[white blood cell]]s, [[red blood cell]]s and [[platelet]]s. The latter two, when they occur, are improved with [[blood transfusion]]. [[Neutropenia]] (a decrease of the [[neutrophil granulocyte]] count below 0.5 x 10<sup>9</sup>/[[litre]]) can be improved with synthetic [[G-CSF]] ([[granulocyte]]-colony stimulating factor, e.g. filgrastim, lenograstim, Neupogen®, Neulasta®.)
In very severe ''myelosuppression'', which occurs in some regimens, almost all the bone marrow [[stem cell]]s (cells which produce [[white blood cells|white]] and [[red blood cell]]s) are destroyed, meaning ''allogenic'' or ''[[autologous]]'' [[bone marrow transplant|bone marrow cell transplants]] are necessary. (In autologous BMTs, cells are removed from the patient before the treatment, multiplied and then re-injected afterwards; in ''allogenic'' BMTs the source is a donor.) However, some patients still develop diseases because of this interference with bone marrow.
===Nausea and vomiting===
Nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy; stomach upset may trigger a strong urge to vomit, or forcefully eliminate what is in the stomach.
Stimulation of the vomiting center results in the coordination of responses from the diaphragm, salivary glands, cranial nerves, and gastrointestinal muscles to produce the interruption of respiration and forced expulsion of stomach contents known as retching and vomiting. The vomiting center is stimulated directly by afferent input from the vagal and splanchnic nerves, the pharynx, the cerebral cortex, cholinergic and histamine stimulation from the vestibular system, and efferent input from the chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ). The CTZ is in the area postrema, outside the blood-brain barrier, and is thus susceptible to stimulation by substances present in the blood or cerebral spinal fluid. The neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin stimulate the vomiting center indirectly via stimulation of the CTZ.
The 5-HT3 inhibitors are the most effective antiemetics and constitute the single greatest advance in the management of nausea and vomiting in patients with cancer. These drugs are designed to block one or more of the signals that cause nausea and vomiting. The most sensitive signal during the first 24 hours after chemotherapy appears to be 5-HT3. Blocking the 5-HT3 signal is one approach to preventing acute emesis (vomiting), or emesis that is severe, but relatively short-lived. Approved 5-HT3 inhibitors include: dolasetron (Anzemet®), granisetron (Kytril®), and ondansetron (Zofran®). The newest 5-HT3 inhibitor, Aloxi® (palonosetron), has a distinct advantage over the other 5-HT3 inhibitors because, in addition to preventing acute nausea and vomiting, Aloxi® also prevents delayed nausea and vomiting, which occurs during the 2-5 days after treatment. Aloxi® is the only drug in its class that is approved by the FDA for the treatment of delayed nausea and vomiting.
Some studies{{ref|marijuana}} and patient groups claim that the use of [[cannabinoid]]s derived from [[marijuana]] during chemotherapy greatly reduces the associated nausea and vomiting, and enables the patient to eat. Some synthetic derivatives of the active substance in marijuana ([[tetrahydrocannabinol]] or THC) are in development for this indication.
===Other side effects===
In particularly large tumors, such as large [[lymphoma]]s, some patients develop [[tumor lysis syndrome]] from the rapid breakdown of malignant cells. Although prophylaxis is available and is often initiated in patients with large tumors, this is a dangerous side-effect which can lead to death if left untreated.
Chemotherapy may increase the risk of [[cardiovascular disease]] and occasionally leads to secondary [[cancer]].
Some patients report [[Attention Deficit Disorder|attention deficit]] especially when attempting tasks like driving a car that require continued concentration. The informal term "[[Chemo Head|chemo head]]" is often used to describe the feeling. This may be a secondary symptom due to the effects of anemia.
== See also ==
* [[Cancer]]
* [[Gene therapy]]
* [[Experimental cancer treatments]]
* [[Chemotherapy regimens]]
== References ==
* {{note|marijuana}} Tramer MR, Carroll D, Campbell FA, Reynolds DJ, Moore RA, McQuay HJ. ''Cannabinoids for control of chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting: quantitative [[systematic review]].'' [[British Medical Journal|BMJ]] 2001;323:16-21. PMID 11440936.
== External links ==
* [http://www.thedoctorslounge.net/oncolounge/regimens/index.htm Chemotherapy Regimens Database]
* [http://www.chemocare.com/ Chemocare.com chemotherapy drug information]
* [http://www.chemotherapy.com/ Chemotherapy.com Educational and support information about chemotherapy and associated side effects]
{{Chemotherapeutic agents}}
{{Tumors}}
[[Category:Cancer treatments]]
[[Category:Chemotherapeutic agents| ]]
[[Category:Oncology]]
[[de:Chemotherapie]]
[[es:Quimioterapia]]
[[fr:Chimiothérapie]]
[[he:כימותרפיה]]
[[id:Kemoterapi]]
[[lt:Chemoterapija]]
[[nl:Chemotherapie]]
[[ja:化学療法]]
[[pl:Chemioterapia]]
[[pt:Quimioterapia]]
[[ru:Химиотерапия]]
[[fi:Kemoterapia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Codex argenteus</title>
<id>7173</id>
<revision>
<id>15905252</id>
<timestamp>2003-03-28T22:32:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nixdorf</username>
<id>5771</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Codex Argenteus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese historiography</title>
<id>7174</id>
<revision>
<id>39473687</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T10:35:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bathrobe</username>
<id>125728</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Recent trends in Chinese historical scholarship */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chinese [[historiography]]''' refers to the study of methods and assumptions made in studying [[Chinese history]].
== Narratives and Interpretations of Chinese history ==
=== Dynastic Cycle ===
China's traditionalist view of history sees the rise and fall of dynasties as passing the [[mandate of heaven]]. In this view, a new dynasty is founded by a moral uprighteous founder. Over time, the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute. The immorality of the dynasty is reflected in natural disasters, rebellions, and foreign invasions. Eventually, the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty. This theory became popular during the [[Zhou dynasty]]. It is not entirely cyclical because it claims the [[golden age]] has passed and history is gradually descending towards decadence. This theory also claims there can be only one rightful sovereign ruling [[all under heaven]] at a time but throughout Chinese history there have been many contentious and long periods of disunity where the question of legitimacy is moot. Another problem arises if the dynasty falls even if it was virtuous. The last ruler of a dynasty is always castigated as evil even if that was not the case.
=== Marxist Interpretations of Chinese history ===
Most Chinese history that is published in the [[People's Republic of China]] is based on a [[Marxism|Marxist]] interpretation of history.
The Marxist view of history is that history is governed by universal laws and that according to these laws, a society moves through a series of stages with the transition between stages being driven by class struggle. These stages are
* slave society
* feudal society
* capitalist society
* socialist society
* world communist society
The official historical view within the People's Republic of China associates each of
these stages with a particular era in Chinese history as well as making some subdivisions.
* slave society - [[Xia dynasty|Xia]] to [[Shang dynasty|Shang]]
* feudal society - decentralized feudalism - [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] to [[Sui dynasty|Sui]]
* feudal society - bureaucratic feudalism - [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] to [[Opium War]]
* feudal society - semicolonial era - Opium War to end of [[Qing dynasty]]
* capitalist society - [[History of the Republic of China|Republican era]]
* socialist society - [[People's Republic of China|PRC]] [[1949]] to ???
* socialist society - primary stage of socialism - [[1978]] to 2050 (?)
* world communist society - ?
Because of the strength of the [[Communist Party of China]] and the importance of the Marxist interpretation of history in legitimizing its rule, it is difficult for historians within the PRC to actively argue in favor of non-Marxist and anti-Marxist interpretations of history. However, this political restriction is less confining as it may first appear in that the Marxist historical framework is surprisingly flexible, and a rather simple matter to modify an alternative historical theory to use language that at least does not challenge the Marxist interpretation of history.
There are several problems associated Marxist interpretation. First, slavery existed throughout China's history and has never been the primary mode of production. While the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] can be labelled as [[feudalism|feudal]], others were centralized states. To account for the discrepancy, Chinese Marxists invented th |
ch of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
==References==
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2821.htm Background Notes on Burundi] - This is the source for most of the material in this article.
==Further reading==
* ''Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide'' Reni Lemarchand and Lee H. Hamilton
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Burundi}}
===News===
*[http://www.abp.info.bi/ Agence Burundaise de Presse (ABP)] (in French)
*[http://allafrica.com/burundi/ allAfrica - Burundi]
*[http://www.isanganiro.org/ Radio Isanganiro] Burundi's independent radio station, one of the few independent sources of daily news in Burundi. You can listen online in French and Kirundi.
*[http://www.umuco.com/ umuco.com] Burundian-run news site, with detailed news and analysis, mainly in French
*[http://www.BurundiRealite.Org/ Burundi Réalités] News and analysis, French&English
===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1068873.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: Burundi'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/by.html CIA World Factbook - ''Burundi'']
===Directories===
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065675/us559906/ LookSmart - ''Burundi''] directory category
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Burundi/ Open Directory Project - ''Burundi''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/burundi.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Burundi''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Burundi.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Burundi''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Burundi/ Yahoo! - ''Burundi''] directory category
===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
===Other===
* [http://www.ligue-iteka.africa-web.org/index.php3 Burundian Human Rights Organisation "Ligue Iteka"] - with up-to-date news in English and French
* [http://agathonrwasa.blogspot.com Campaign for the prosecution of FNL leader Agathon Rwasa]
* [http://www.hrw.org/doc?t=africa&c=burund Human Rights Watch reports on Burundi]
* [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1417&fuseaction=topics.documents&group_id=92370 Woodrow Wilson Center Reports on Burundi]
* [http://hrw.org/backgrounder/africa/burundi/2004/0904/1.htm#_Toc81987410 Human Rights Watch special report on the August 2004 Gatumba massacre]
* [http://www.icg.org/home/index.cfm?id=1172&l=1 Links to political analyses from 1998 on] by the [[International Crisis Group]]
* [http://www.alertnet.org/thefacts/countryprofiles/152653.htm Reuters Alertnet - Burundi] humanitarian news
* [http://www.irinnews.org/frontpage.asp?SelectRegion=Great_Lakes&SelectCountry=Burundi Updated humanitarian news] from the [[United Nations]] [[Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]]
{{Africa}}
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Burundi|*]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[af:Burundi]]
[[ar:بوروندي]]
[[an:Burundi]]
[[bg:Бурунди]]
[[zh-min-nan:Burundi]]
[[bn:বুরুন্ডি]]
[[bs:Burundi]]
[[ca:Burundi]]
[[cs:Burundi]]
[[da:Burundi]]
[[de:Burundi]]
[[et:Burundi]]
[[es:Burundi]]
[[eo:Burundo]]
[[eu:Burundi]]
[[fr:Burundi]]
[[gl:República de Burundi - Republika y'u Burundi]]
[[ko:부룬디]]
[[hr:Burundi]]
[[io:Burundi]]
[[ilo:Burundi]]
[[id:Burundi]]
[[is:Búrúndí]]
[[it:Burundi]]
[[he:בורונדי]]
[[ks:बुरुंडी]]
[[rn:Burundi]]
[[sw:Burundi]]
[[ku:Bûrûndî]]
[[lv:Burundi]]
[[lt:Burundis]]
[[li:Boeroendi]]
[[hu:Burundi]]
[[ms:Burundi]]
[[na:Burundi]]
[[nl:Burundi]]
[[nds:Burundi]]
[[ja:ブルンジ]]
[[no:Burundi]]
[[nn:Burundi]]
[[pl:Burundi]]
[[pt:Burundi]]
[[ro:Burundi]]
[[ru:Бурунди]]
[[sa:बुरुंडी]]
[[sq:Burundi]]
[[simple:Burundi]]
[[sk:Burundi]]
[[sl:Burundi]]
[[sr:Бурунди]]
[[fi:Burundi]]
[[sv:Burundi]]
[[tl:Burundi]]
[[tr:Burundi]]
[[uk:Бурунді]]
[[zh:蒲隆地]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bahamas/History</title>
<id>3473</id>
<revision>
<id>15901805</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of the Bahamas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bahamas/Geography</title>
<id>3474</id>
<revision>
<id>15901806</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T08:44:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Geography_of_the_Bahamas]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography_of_the_Bahamas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bahamas/People</title>
<id>3475</id>
<revision>
<id>15901807</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-20T15:39:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
<id>90</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>oops</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of the Bahamas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Government of the Bahamas</title>
<id>3476</id>
<revision>
<id>15901808</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T12:06:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to Politics of the Bahamas</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of the Bahamas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of the Bahamas</title>
<id>3477</id>
<revision>
<id>35587293</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T21:05:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluemoose</username>
<id>178836</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[Bahamas]] is a stable, developing nation with an economy heavily dependent on [[tourism]] and [[offshore banking]]. Steady growth in tourism receipts and a boom in construction of new hotels, resorts, and residences had led to solid GDP growth in recent years, but the slowdown in the US economy and the attacks of [[11 September]] [[2001]] held back growth in these sectors in 2001-03. Financial services constitute the second-most important sector of the Bahamian economy, accounting for about 15% of GDP. However, since December 2000, when the government enacted new regulations on the financial sector, many international businesses have left The Bahamas. Manufacturing and agriculture together contribute approximately a tenth of GDP and show little growth, despite government incentives aimed at those sectors. Overall growth prospects in the short run rest heavily on the fortunes of the tourism sector, which depends on growth in the US, the source of more than 80% of the visitors. In addition to tourism and banking, the government supports the development of a "third pillar," e-commerce.
==Basic Ingredients of the Bahamian Economy==
The '''Bahamian economy''' is almost entirely dependent on tourism and financial services to generate foreign exchange earnings. Tourism alone provides an estimated 60% of the [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) and employs about half the Bahamian work force. In 2004, over 5 million tourists visited The Bahamas, most of whom are from the [[United States]].
A major contribution to the recent growth in the overall Bahamian economy is Kerzner International's Atlantis Resort and Casino, which took over the former Paradise Island Resort and has provided a much needed boost to the economy. In addition, the opening of Breezes Super Club and Sandals Resort also aided this turnaround. The Bahamian Government also has adopted a proactive approach to courting foreign investors and has conducted major investment missions to the [[Far East]], [[Europe]], [[Latin America]], and [[Canada]]. The primary purpose of the trips was to restore the reputation of The Bahamas in these markets.
Financial services constitute the second-most important sector of the Bahamian economy, accounting for up to 15% of GDP, due to the country's status as a tax haven and offshore banking center. As of December 1998, the government had licensed 418 banks and trust companies in The Bahamas. The Bahamas promulgated the International Business Companies (IBC) Act in January 1990 to enhance the country's status as a leading financial center. The act served to simplify and reduce the cost of incorporating offshore companies in The Bahamas. Within 9 years, more than 84,000 IBC-type companies had been established. In February 1991, the government also legalized the establishment of Asset Protection Trusts in The Bahamas. In December 2000, the government enacted a legislative package to better regulate the financial sector, including creation of a Financial Intelligence Unit and enforcement of "know-your-customer" rules.
[[Agriculture]] and fisheries industry together account for 5% of GDP. The Bahamas exports lobster and some fish but does not raise these items commercially. There is no largescale agriculture, and most agricultural products are consumed domestically. The Bahamas imports more than $250 million in foodstuffs per year, representing about 80% of its food consumption. The government aims to expand food production to reduce imports and generate foreign exchange. It actively seeks foreign investment aimed at increasing agricultural exports, particularly specialty food items. The government officially lists beef and pork production and processing, fruits and nuts, dairy production, winter vegetables, and mariculture (shrimp farming) as the areas in which it wishes to encourage foreign investment.
The Bahamian Government maintains the value of the Bahamian dollar on a par with the U.S. dollar. The Bahamas i |
one who took use of the nickname at a later timestamp would be knocked off of the other server via "Nickname Collision." This method is used in many IRC2 IRCds such as Bahamut, Unreal and Hybrid.
The other method is known as ''nickhold'' and involves disallowing the use of recently split nicknames. It is known to cause fewer kills (naturally through the way it works) but causes more inconvenience to users. For this reason, the TS protocol is generally more common.
===Other Methods===
Channel creation during [[netsplit]]s is not the only kind of takeover attempt. Other methods include [[cracking]] the computers of channel operators, compromising channel [[IRC bot|bots']] [[shell account]], or obtaining [[IRC services|services]] password through [[Social engineering (computer security)|social engineering]].
==Conclusion==
As time has passed, various measures have been implemented to prevent takeovers in different kinds of IRC server software. Channel and nickname timestamping are now standard on all current IRC servers, and many have implemented [[IRC services|Services]] or automated [[IRC bot|bots]] with special status to protect channel operators and prevent takeover wars.
[[Category:IRC]]
[[fr:Takeover]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IRC channel operator</title>
<id>14721</id>
<revision>
<id>41112456</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T03:11:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dhp1080</username>
<id>884053</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''IRC channel operator''' (commonly shortened to '''op''') is a user that moderates an [[Internet relay chat|IRC]] channel on a given IRC network. They are responsible for maintaining the modes of the channel, the banlist, and moderating any unwanted activity. IRC channel operators should not be confused with [[IRC operator]]s, who enforce network, rather than channel, rules.
The person that first joins a channel automatically gets operator status, and is later referred to as the ''channel founder'', which usually gives them further privileges on networks with [[ChanServ]]. Channel operators can also voice (+v) and op (+o) other users in the channel. On networks with no channel services, abuse of netsplits is common to gain operator status in certain channels.
Some servers feature ''halfops''. These users are privileged in a certain channel, though not as powerful as ops. Halfops may kick other users out of the channel and set most channel modes. They are not allowed to make other users ops or halfops. This is supported on [[IRCD | IRCd]]s such as UnrealIRCd. Other IRCds, such as Bahamut and IRCu, do not have halfops. On one IRCd, Webmaster ConferenceRoom, halfops are known as userops.
==See also==
* [[IRC operator]]
[[Category:IRC]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irssi</title>
<id>14722</id>
<revision>
<id>40189037</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T21:11:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ian Pitchford</username>
<id>230605</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:irssi.png|thumb|right|A screenshot of Irssi.]]
'''Irssi''' is an [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] [[Client (computing)|client]] program originally written by [[Timo Sirainen]] with a [[Command line interface|text-mode]] user interface. Written in the [[C programming language]] for [[Unix-like]] operating systems, it is licensed under the terms of the [[GNU General Public License]]. Irssi also runs under [[Microsoft Windows]] with the aid of [[Cygwin]], and may acquire a [[graphical user interface|graphical]] front-end sometime in the future. Additionally, Irssi is available on [[Mac OS X]] with [[Fink]] or natively with [[MacIrssi]] or the [[Cocoa (software)|Cocoa]]-client [[Colloquy (IRC client)|Colloquy]].
Irssi was written from scratch, unlike many similar clients based on the older [[ircII]]. This frees the developers from having to deal with the constraints of an existing codebase, allowing them to maintain tighter control over issues like [[computer security|security]] and customization. The latter is exemplified by the numerous [[module]]s and [[Perl]] [[script (computer programming)|script]]s available for the program; Irssi's scripting facilities are considered by many of its devoted users to be the most powerful around. Although the program's interface usually precludes the need to manually edit [[configuration file]]s, one may do so using a [[Syntax|syntax]] resembling Perl data structures.
Customization is Irssi's chief advantage over BitchX and other text-based IRC clients. Irssi's [[documentation]] makes it somewhat easier for the novice to use than BitchX or ircii.
Some [[purist]]s prefer Irssi simply because they consider its overall "feel" to be "cleaner" than other clients, many of which implement features like [[file server|file serving]], auto-rejoining channels after being kicked, and automatically kicking and banning users, oftentimes enabling these by default. This argument has also been used by those who prefer the more spartan ircII.
During the late 90s and early 21st century, Irssi assumed a cult-like following on several IRC networks, especially [[QuakeNet]]. At this time, using Irssi was seen as a display of competence above those who used [[mIRC]]. Many Windows users purchased remotely accessible Unix shells in order to run Irssi.
Many users switch from [[BitchX]] to Irssi in order to fine-tune their client better, or because Irssi's support for features like connecting to multiple [[server]]s and via [[IPv6]] is more mature, or because it supports scripting in Perl. Unlike BitchX, Irssi also supports [[UTF-8]]. Others merely want to avoid BitchX's use of profanity in its kick and quit messages, and in the name itself.
In May 2002 Irssi's [[autoconf]] "configure" script was found to have been [[backdoor|backdoored]] for at least two months. This was extremely embarrassing for many Irssi users who cited security as the main reason they chose Irssi above Windows clients such as [[mIRC]]. However, the binary was never backdoored - only the script, and the problem was immediately fixed.
== External links ==
* [http://irssi.org/ Official website]
* [http://www.g1m0.se/macirssi/ MacIrssi's home page]
* [http://ai.onetrix.net/#irssi Cygwin/Windows binaries]
* [http://f0rked.com/articles/irssidoc Unofficial Irssi Documentation and Resources]
* [[Colloquy (IRC client)]]&mdash;Mac OS X GUI Irssi based client
[[Category:Free software]]
[[Category:IRC clients for Unix-like systems]]
[[Category:Linux software]]
[[de:Irssi]]
[[es:Irssi]]
[[fi:Irssi]]
[[fr:Irssi]]
[[hu:Irssi]]
[[nl:Irssi]]
[[no:Irssi]]
[[pl:Irssi]]
[[pt:Irssi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Infinitesimal calculus</title>
<id>14723</id>
<revision>
<id>15912259</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-23T21:19:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Peter Grey</username>
<id>268253</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[calculus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intellectual property</title>
<id>14724</id>
<revision>
<id>41586696</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T08:55:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>165.123.169.249</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Overview */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{intellectual property}}
'''Intellectual property''' (IP) refers to a legal entitlement which sometimes attaches to the [[idea-expression divide|expressed form]] of an [[idea]], or to some other [[intangible asset|intangible]] subject matter. This legal entitlement generally enables its holder to exercise [[exclusive right]]s of use in relation to the subject matter of the IP. The term ''intellectual property'' reflects the idea that this subject matter is the product of the [[mind]] or the intellect, and that IP rights may be protected at law in the same way as any other form of [[property (ownership right)|property]].
Intellectual property laws are territorial such that the registration or enforcement of IP rights must be pursued separately in each jurisdiction of interest. However, these laws are becoming increasingly [[harmonisation|harmonised]] through the effects of international treaties such as the 1994 [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] (TRIPs), while other treaties may facilitate registration in more than one jurisdiction at a time. This global harmonisation of intellectual property legislation under the WTO has been criticized, for example by the [[alter-globalization]] movement.
==Overview==
Intellectual property laws confer a [[bundle of rights|bundle]] of [[exclusive right]]s in relation to the particular form or manner in which ideas or information are expressed or manifested, and not in relation to the ideas or concepts themselves (see [[idea-expression divide]]). It is therefore important to note that the term "intellectual property" denotes the specific legal rights which authors, inventors and other IP holders may hold and exercise, and not the intellectual work itself.
Intellectual property laws are designed to protect different forms of intangible subject matter, although in some cases there is a degree of overlap.
*[[copyright]] may subsist in creative and artistic works (eg. books, movies, music, paintings, photographs and software), giving a copyright holder the exclusive right to control reproduction or adaptation of such works for a certain period of time.
*A [[patent]] may be granted in relation to an [[invention]] that is new, useful and not simply an obvious advancement over what existed when the application was filed. A patent gives the holder an exclusive right to commercially exploit the in |
o be designed for use while sitting in front of a console or terminal). Its IDE (part of the [[Dartmouth Time Sharing System]]) was command-based, and therefore didn't look much like the menu-driven, graphical IDEs of today. However it seamlessly integrated editing, file management, compilation, debugging and execution in the manner characteristic of modern IDE
Today, the term "IDE" is a contrast to unrelated command-line tools, such as [[vi]], [[emacs]], or [[make]]. While one ''could'' think of [[Unix]] as an IDE, most developers think of an IDE as being (or having the appearance of) a single program in which all development is done. This program provides typically large numbers of features for authoring, modifying, compiling, deploying and debugging software. The idea being that the IDE abstracts the configuration necessary to piece together command line utilities in a cohesive unit, which theoretically reduces the time to learn a language, and increases developer productivity. It is also thought that the tight integration of various development tasks can lead to further productivity increases (for example, code can be compiled while being written, providing instant feedback on syntax errors). While most modern IDEs are graphical, IDEs in use before the advent of windowing systems (such as [[Microsoft Windows]] or [[X11]]) were text-based, using function keys or [[hotkeys]] to perform various tasks ([[Turbo Pascal]] is a common example).
An interesting development is the emergence and popularization of [[Open Source]] IDE such as [[Eclipse]] and [[NetBeans]] in recent years. The combination of the Open Source philosophy with an open, extensible framework, encourages the creation of a community of people to extend the capabilities of the IDE, allowing even exotic languages and applications to be supported by the environment.
==Visual programming==
There is also growing interest in [[visual programming]] (not to be confused with [[Visual Basic]] or [[Visual C++]]). These IDEs allow users to create new applications by moving programming building blocks or code nodes to create flowcharts or structure diagrams which are then compiled or interpreted. These flowcharts often are based on the [[Unified Modeling Language]].
This interface has been popularized with the [[Lego Mindstorms|LEGO Mindstorms]] system, and is being actively pursued by a number of companies wishing to capitalize on the power of custom browsers like those found at [[Mozilla]] and the power of [[distributed programming]] (cf. [[LabVIEW]] software). One of the first Visual Programming systems, [[Max]], was modelled after analog [[synthesizer]] design and has been used to develop real-time music performance software since the 1980s.
This approach is also used in specialist software such as [[Openlab]], where the end users want the flexibility of a full programming language, without the traditional learning curve associated with one.
A semi-free and Open Source alternative is the visual programing language Mindscript, with extended functionallity for cryptology, interfacing databases, etc.
==Arguments==
Many [[Linux]] programmers argue that the existing [[command-line]] [[GNU]] tools are in themselves an IDE, though with a different style of interface and under the Linux environment, many programmers still use [[makefile]]s and their derivatives. But even on Linux, graphical IDEs are becoming increasingly popular, although almost all of them are built on top of the text-based utilities (which makes them more compatible with each other somehow). Linux programs that use the standard GNU tools are easily ported to other operating systems, including [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] and [[Mac OS X]], because most of these tools have been ported, using [[Cygwin]] or some other method like [[MinGW]] on Windows. Similarly, many Linux programmers use [[Emacs]] or [[Vim (text editor)|Vim]] (an advanced text editor that seeks to provide the power of the Unix editor [[Vi]]), which integrates support for many of the standard Unix/Linux build tools in what its users believe is an extremely elegant manner. [[Data Display Debugger]] is intended to be an advanced graphical front-end for many text-based [[Debugger|debugger standard tools]], even if Emacs itself has many plug-ins for debugging.
Under Windows, command-line tools for development are not well known, probably because Windows emphasises a graphical approach. As a result, there are multiple commercial and non-commercial solutions, but each of them has a different design and as a result they tend to have compatibility problems. That said, all the major compiler vendors for Windows provide free copies of their command-line tools, including [[Microsoft]] ([[Visual C Plus Plus|Visual C++]] free version, [[Platform SDK]], Microsoft [[.NET Framework]] SDK, [[nmake]] utility), [[Borland]] ([[bcc32]] compiler, [[make]] utility), and [[GNU]] ([[GNU Compiler Collection|gcc]], [[gdb]], GNU [[make]]).
IDEs have always been popular on the Mac, going back to [[Macintosh Programmer's Workshop]], [[Turbo Pascal]] and [[THINK C]] environments in the mid-[[1980s]].
==See also==
*[[List of integrated development environments]]
*[[Comparison of integrated development environments]]
*[[Software development kit]] (SDK)
*[[Utility program]]
*[[Software engineering]]
*[[List of software engineering topics]]
*[[Computer-aided software engineering]]
*[[IDDE]]
*[[Rapid application development]]
*[[Read Eval Print Loop]]
*[[Sybase]]
==External Links==
*'''[http://www.sybase.com/products/developmentintegration/workspace Sybase Workspace]'''
[[Category:Integrated development environments|*]]
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[[ja:統合開発環境]]
[[pl:Zintegrowane środowisko programistyczne]]
[[ru:Среда разработки программного обеспечения]]
[[fi:Ohjelmointiympäristö]]
[[uk:Інструментальна система]]
[[zh:集成开发环境]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Integrated Drive Electronics</title>
<id>15306</id>
<revision>
<id>15912784</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-28T11:39:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Uriyan</username>
<id>64</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Redirect to the proper name, description will follow</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Advanced Technology Attachment]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Injection system</title>
<id>15307</id>
<revision>
<id>15912785</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-15T00:58:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aaronmz</username>
<id>220928</id>
</contributor>
<comment>no useful content entered on this page since 2002; redirect to more robust article [[Fuel injection]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fuel injection]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ian McKellen</title>
<id>15308</id>
<revision>
<id>42023878</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:40:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>YiantheGreat</username>
<id>926502</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Youth and early career */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ian McKellen.jpg|thumb|right|thumb|Sir Ian McKellen at the premiere of ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (film)|The Return of the King]]'' in [[Wellington, New Zealand]], [[December 1]], [[2003 in film|2003]]]]
'''Sir Ian Murray McKellen''', [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (born [[May 25]], [[1939]]) is a highly acclaimed [[Academy Award|Oscar]] nominated [[actor]] on both [[theatre|stage]] and [[film|screen]]. His roles have spanned genres from serious [[Shakespeare]]an and modern theatre to popular action movies. He is also known as an activist for the [[gay rights|rights]] of [[gay]]s and [[lesbian]]s.
==Youth and early career==
McKellen was born in [[Burnley]], [[Lancashire]], [[England]], shortly before the outbreak of [[World War II]], and has indicated that this had some impact on him. In an interview with ''[[The Advocate]]'' magazine ([[December 25]], [[2001]]), when an interviewer remarked that he seemed quite calm in the aftermath of the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack|September 11]] terrorist attack, he said: "Well, darling, you forget &mdash; I slept under a steel plate <nowiki>[</nowiki>during the [[Battle of Britain]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> until I was four years old." (Quotes in this article are from the Advocate interview unless otherwise noted.)
McKellen's father, Denis Murray McKellen, a [[civil engineer]], was a [[laity|lay]] preacher, and both of his grandfathers were preachers as well. His home environment was strongly [[Christianity|Christian]], but non-orthodox. "My upbringing was of low nonconformist Christians who felt that you led the Christian life in part by behaving in a Christian manner to everybody you met." When he was 12, his mother, Margery Lois McKellen (née Sutcliffe) died; his father died when he was 24.
When he [[Coming out|came out]] of the closet to his stepmother, Gladys McKellen, who was a [[Religious Society of Friends|Friend]] (Quaker): "Not only was she not fazed, but as a member of a society which declared its indifference to people's sexuality years back, I think she was just glad for my sake that I wasn't lying any more."
McKellen's acting career started while he was still a boy. He won a scholarship to [[St Catharine's College, Cambridge|St. Catharine's College]], [[University of Cambridge]], when he was 18, where he developed an intense crush on [[Derek Jacobi]]. He has characterized i |
ce-fiction movie", and the novel was still being written while the film was being made. This resulted in one of the truly unique collaborations in media history.
Clarke has written numerous other books, including the [[Rendezvous with Rama|Rama]] novels and several sequels to ''2001'', and many short stories, including "[[The Star]]", about a Jesuit priest's spiritual dilemma.
An [[asteroid]] is named in Clarke's honour, [[4923 Clarke]], as is a species of [[Ceratopsian]] [[dinosaur]], ''[[Serendipaceratops arthurcclarkei]]'', discovered in [[Inverloch, Victoria|Inverloch]] in [[Australia]]. The [[2001 Mars Odyssey]] orbiter is named in honor of Sir Arthur's works.
In the [[1940s]] he forecast that man would reach the [[Moon landing|moon]] by the year [[2000]], an idea experts dismissed as rubbish. When [[Neil Armstrong]] landed in [[1969]], the United States said Clarke "provided the essential intellectual drive that led us to the moon." ([http://today.reuters.co.uk/news/newsArticleSearch.aspx?storyID=221763+14-Nov-2005+RTRS&srch=clarke] [http://www.taborcommunications.com/archives/3047.html])
He lives in [[Sri Lanka]], and survived the [[tsunami]]s of the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]], but lost his diving school on [[Hikkaduwa]] ([http://sify.com/news/fullstory.php?id=13638567] [http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2004/12/30/latest/20462ArthurC&sec=latest]). Clarke holds citizenship of both the [[UK]] and [[Sri Lanka]] [http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2005/12/11/new27.html].
==Biography==
Clarke was born in [[Minehead]] in [[Somerset]], [[England]], and as a boy enjoyed stargazing and enthusiastically read old American science-fiction magazines (many of which made their way to England as ballast in ships). After secondary school, and studying at [[Richard Huish College, Taunton]] he was unable to afford a university education and consequently acquired a job as an auditor in the pensions section of the Board of Education.
During the [[World War II|Second World War]], he served in the [[Royal Air Force]] as a [[radar]] specialist and was involved in the early warning radar defense system which contributed to the RAF's success during the [[Battle of Britain]]. He retired in the rank of [[Flight Lieutenant]]. After the war, he obtained a first class [[academic degree|degree]] in mathematics and physics at [[King's College London]].
His most important contribution may be the idea that [[geostationary satellite]]s would be ideal [[telecommunication]]s relays. He proposed this concept in a paper titled "[http://www.lsi.usp.br/~rbianchi/clarke/ACC.ETRelaysFull.html Extra-Terrestrial Relays] - Can Rocket Stations Give Worldwide Radio Coverage?", published in ''[[Wireless World]]'' in October [[1945]]. The [[geostationary orbit]] is now sometimes known as the Clarke orbit in his honour. However, it is not clear that his article was actually the inspiration for modern telecommunications satellites. [[John R. Pierce]], of [[Bell Labs]], arrived at the idea independently in 1954, and he was actually involved in the [[Echo satellite]] and [[Telstar]] projects. However, Pierce stated that the idea was "in the air" at the time and certain to be developed regardless of Clarke's publication.
Clarke's first professional sale was in [[1946]] to ''[[Astounding Science Fiction]]'', the still memorable short story "Rescue Party". Along with his writing, Clarke worked briefly as Assistant Editor of ''[[Science Abstracts]]'' ([[1949]]) before devoting himself to writing full-time from 1951. Clarke also contributed to the ''[[Dan Dare]]'' series and his first three published novels were for a juvenile audience. He has been chairman of the [[British Interplanetary Society]] and a member of the [[Underwater Explorers Club]]. His work is marked by its optimistic view of science empowering mankind's exploration of the solar system and an obvious influence was the work of [[Olaf Stapledon]].
In [[1951]], he wrote "The Sentinel" for a [[BBC]] competition. Though the story was rejected, it changed the course of Clarke's career. Not only the basis for ''2001'', ''The Sentinel'' introduced a more mystical and cosmic element to Clarke's work. Many of Clarke's later works feature a technologically advanced but prejudiced mankind being confronted by a superior alien intelligence. In the cases of ''[[The City and the Stars]]'', ''[[Childhood's End]]'', and the ''2001'' series, this encounter produces a conceptual breakthrough that accelerates humanity into the next stage of its evolution.
He has lived in [[Sri Lanka]] since [[1956]], immigrating when it was still called [[Ceylon]], first in [[Unawatuna]] on the south coast, and then in [[Colombo]]. This inspired the locale for his novel ''[[The Fountains of Paradise]]'', in which he describes a [[space elevator]]. This, he figures, will ultimately be his legacy, more so than [[geostationary satellite]]s, once space elevators make space shuttles obsolete.
Early in his career, Clarke had a fascination with the [[paranormal]], and has stated that it was part of the inspiration for his novel ''Childhood's End''. He has also said that he was one of several who were fooled by a [[Uri Geller]] demonstration at [[Birkbeck, University of London|Birkbeck College]]. Although he has long since dismissed and distanced himself from nearly all [[pseudoscience]], he still advocates for research into purported instances of [[psychokinesis]] and other similar phenomena.
Following the release of ''2001'', Clarke became much in demand as a commentator on science and technology, especially at the time of the [[Apollo space program]]. He also signed a three-book publishing deal, a record for a science fiction writer. The first of the three was ''[[Rendezvous with Rama]]'' in [[1973]], which won him all the main genre awards and has spawned sequels that, along with the ''2001'' series, formed the backbone of Clarke's later career.
In [[1975]], his short story ''The Star'' was not included as prose in a new high school [[English Language|English]] textbook in [[Sri Lanka]], because it was felt that it might offend [[Roman Catholics]], although it had been selected. The textbook caused controversy because it replaced [[Shakespeare]]'s work with that of [[Bob Dylan]], [[John Lennon]] and [[Isaac Asimov]].
Clarke is also well known to many for his television programmes ''[[Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World]]'' ([[1981]]) and ''[[Arthur C. Clarke's World of Strange Powers]]'' ([[1984]]).
In [[1986]], Clarke provided a grant to fund the prize money (initially £1,000) for the [[Arthur C. Clarke Award]] for the best science fiction novel published in Britain in the previous year. In [[2001]] the prize was increased to £2001, and its value now matches the year (i.e., £2005 in [[2005]]).
In [[1988]], he was diagnosed with [[post-polio syndrome]] and has since needed to use a wheelchair.
His [[British honours system|knighthood]] was first announced in [[1998]], but then the British [[tabloid]] ''[[The Daily Mirror|The Sunday Mirror]]'' published accusations of [[pedophilia|paedophilia]] against him ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/52598.stm]). The award was delayed while the allegations were investigated, although by [[2000]] the BBC reported that he had been cleared ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/765385.stm]). Clarke's health did not allow him to travel to [[London]] to receive the honour personally from the [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen]], so the UK [[High Commissioner]] to [[Sri Lanka]] awarded him the title of [[Knight Bachelor]] at a ceremony in [[Colombo]].
He is currently the Honorary Board Chair of the [[Institute for Cooperation in Space]], founded by [[Carol Rosin]] and on the [[Board of Governors]] of the [[National Space Society]], a [[space advocacy]] organization originally founded by Dr. [[Wernher von Braun]].
He was the first Chancellor of the [[International Space University]], serving from [[1989]] to [[2004]] and Chancellor of [[Moratuwa University]], [[Sri Lanka]], from [[1979]] to [[2002]].
In [[2005]] he lent his name to the first ever annual [http://www.clarkeawards.org Sir Arthur Clarke Awards] - dubbed "the Oscars for Space". His brother attended the awards ceremony, and presented an award specially chosen by Arthur (and not by the panel of judges who chose the other awards).
On [[14 November]] [[2005]] Sri Lanka awarded Arthur C. Clarke its highest civilian award, the Lankabhimanaya ''(Pride of Lanka)'' award, for his contributions to science and technology and his commitment to his adopted country.
==Partial Bibliography==
===Novels===
* ''[[Prelude to Space]]'' (1951)
* ''[[The Sands of Mars]]'' (1951)
* ''[[Islands in the Sky]]'' (1952)
* ''[[Against the Fall of Night]]'' (1953)
* ''[[Childhood's End]]'' (1953)
* ''[[Earthlight]]'' (1955)
* ''[[The City and the Stars]]'' (1956)
* ''[[The Deep Range]]'' (1957)
* ''[[A Fall of Moondust]]'' (1961)
* ''[[Dolphin Island]]'' (1963)
* ''[[Glide Path]]'' (1963)
* ''[[2001:_A_Space_Odyssey_(novel)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' (1968)
* ''[[The Lion of Comarre & Against the Fall of Night]]'' (1968)
* ''[[Report on Planet Three]]'' (1972)
* ''[[Rendezvous with Rama]]'' (1973)
* ''[[Imperial Earth]]'' (1975)
* ''[[The Fountains of Paradise]]'' (1979)
* ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]'' (1982)
* ''[[The Songs of Distant Earth]]'' (1986)
* ''[[2061: Odyssey Three]]'' (1988)
* ''[[A Meeting With Medusa]]'' (1988)
* ''[[Cradle (book)|Cradle]]'' (1988, with [[Gentry Lee]])
* ''[[Rama II]]'' (1989, with [[Gentry Lee]])
* ''[[Beyond the Fall of Night]]'' (1990, [[Gregory Benford]])
* ''[[The Ghost from the Grand Banks]]'' (1990)
* ''[[The Garden of Rama]]'' (1991, with [[Gentry Lee]])
* ''[[Rama Revealed]]'' (1993, with [[Gentry Lee]])
* ''[[The Hammer of God]]'' (1993)
* ''[[Richter 10]]'' (1996, with [[Mike McQuay]])
* ''[[3001: The F |
d.
*Many [[computer role-playing game]]s such as the ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' series incorporate a weapon named Excalibur, usually as one of the top-tier items.
*The sword [[Soul Calibur (sword)|Soul Calibur]] in the [[Category:Soul Series|''Soul'' Series]] of [[Fighting game|fighting games]] is probably named in honor of Excalibur, combining the word ''soul'' with the latter part of the sword's name ''calibur''. You can also wield Excalibur with the Sword and Shield discipline for created characters in [[Soul Calibur III]].
*In the game [[Onimusha: Dawn of Dreams]] one of the weapons is a sword called Excaliber, it is considered the second most powerful sword damage wise and the most useful for clearing large amounts of opponents by most players.
==See also==
*''[[Excalibur (movie)|Excalibur]]'', a [[1981 in film|1981]] film about the legend of King Arthur.
*[[List of fictional swords]]
*[[Kusanagi]]
==External links==
*[http://www.timelessmyths.com/arthurian/excalibur.html Timeless Myths website: Legend of "Excalibur"]
*[http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/swrdmenu.htm The Camelot Project at the University of Rochester: Excalibur and The Sword In The Stone]
*[http://www.geocities.com/dagonet_uk/weapdata.htm#sword%20here Background on King Arthur's weapons].
[[Category:Mythical objects]]
[[Category:Arthurian legend]]
[[Category:Mythic weapons]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eva Braun</title>
<id>9718</id>
<revision>
<id>42123428</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:49:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Str1977</username>
<id>244946</id>
</contributor>
<comment>portraying a certain, not generally accepted thesis as most likely is POV</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Evabraun.jpg|thumb|Eva Braun and Adolf Hitler]]
'''Eva Anna Paula Braun''' ([[February 6]], [[1912]] &ndash; [[April 30]], [[1945]]) was the longtime companion (and ultimately, wife for a night and a day) of [[Adolf Hitler]].
==Background==
Born in [[Munich]], [[Germany]], Braun was the daughter of a school teacher and educated at a [[lyceum]], then for one year at a business school in a [[convent]] where she had average grades, a talent for [[athletics]] and is said to have had the "dreamy beauty" of a "farmer's daughter." She worked for several months as a receptionist in a medical office, then at age seventeen took a job as office and lab assistant for [[Heinrich Hoffmann]] (the official [[photographer]] for the [[Nazi Party]]). She met Hitler there in [[1929]] and is said to have slipped a love letter into his pocket. He had been introduced to her as "Herr Wolff" (a childhood nickname he used during the [[1920s]] for security purposes). She described him to friends as a "gentleman of a certain age with a funny moustache and carrying a big felt hat." Both of their families were strongly against the relationship and little is known about its first two years. Her father had both political and moral objections while Hitler's half-sister, [[Angela Hitler|Angela Raubal]], refused to address Eva other than as a social inferior.
==Relationship and turmoil==
Hitler saw more of Braun after the [[suicide]] of Angela's daughter [[Geli Raubal]] in [[1931]] (some historians suggest Raubal killed herself because she was distraught over Hitler's relationship with Braun, while others speculate Hitler killed her, or had her murdered). Hitler was seeing other women such as actress [[Renate Müller]] (whose early death was also termed a suicide). Braun attempted suicide in [[1932]] by shooting herself in the neck. She attempted suicide a second time in [[1935]] by taking an [[overdose]] of [[sleeping pills]].
After Braun's recovery Hitler became more committed to her and bought her a villa in Wasserburgerstrasse, a [[Munich]] [[suburb]], providing her with a [[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]] and a chauffeur.
[[Image:Eva_berghof.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Braun and Hitler on the veranda of the Berghof]]
In [[1936]] she came to his household at the [[Berghof (Hitler)|Berghof]] near [[Berchtesgaden]]. Her political influence on Hitler is unknown and as a result is generally presumed to have been minimal. Some historians have inferred she was aware of at least some sordid details concerning the [[Third Reich]]'s inner workings. By all accounts she led a sheltered and privileged existence and seemed uninterested in politics. They never appeared as a couple in public and there is some indication that this, along with their not having married early in their relationship, was due to a fear Hitler might lose some of his popularity among female voters. The German people were entirely unaware of Braun and her relationship with Hitler until after the war.
[[Albert Speer]] described the relationship in his book ''[[Inside the Third Reich]]'':
:''Eva Braun was allowed to be present during visits from old party associates. She was banished as soon as other dignitaries of the Reich, such as cabinet ministers, appeared at the table ... Hitler obviously regarded her as socially acceptable only within strict limits. Sometimes I kept her company in her exile, a room next to Hitler's bedroom. She was so intimidated that she did not dare leave the house for a walk. Out of sympathy for her predicament I soon began to feel a liking for this unhappy woman, who was so deeply attached to Hitler.''
==Lifestyle==
[[Image:Evabrown-by-Hitler.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Sketch of Eva Braun by Hitler]]
Even during [[World War II]] Braun apparently lived a life of leisure spending her time exercising, reading [[romance novels]], watching films and early German [[television]] (at least until around 1943) along with later helping to host gatherings of Hitler's inner circle. Her affection for nude [[sunbathing]] (and being photographed at it) is known to have infuriated him. She had a lifelong interest in photography and their closest friends called her the ''[[Rolleiflex]] Girl'' (after the well-known [[camera]] model). She did her own [[darkroom]] processing and most of the colour stills and movies of Hitler in existence are her work.
[[Otto Gunsche]] and [[Heinz Linge]], during extensive debriefings by Soviet intelligence officials after the war, said Braun was at the centre of Hitler's life for most his twelve years in power. It was said that in 1936,
''He was always accompanied by her. As soon as he heard the voice of his lover he became jollier. He would make jokes about her new hats. He would take her for hours on end into his study where there would be champagne cooling in ice, chocolates, cognac, and fruit.''
The interrogation report adds that when Hitler was too busy for her, "Eva would often be in tears."
Linge said that before the war, Hitler ordered an increase of the police guard at Braun's house in Munich after she reported to the Gestapo that a woman had said to her face she was the ''Führer-whore''.
Hitler is known to have been opposed to women wearing cosmetics (in part because they were made from animal by-products) and sometimes brought the subject up at mealtime. Linge (who was his valet) said Hitler once laughed at traces of Braun's lipstick on a napkin and to tease her, joked, "Soon we will have replacement lipstick made from dead bodies of soldiers."
In 1944 Braun invited her cousin [[Gertraud Weisker]] to visit her at the [[Berghof (Hitler)|Berghof]] near [[Berchtesgaden]]. Decades later, Weisker recalled that although women in the [[Third Reich]] were expected not to wear make-up, drink or smoke, Eva did all of these things. "She was the unhappiest woman I have ever met," said Weisker, who informed Braun about how poorly the war was going for Germany, having illegally listened to [[BBC]] news broadcasts in German. Weisker also claimed neither of them knew anything about the [[Holocaust|concentration camps]], although both were keenly aware that [[Jew]]s in Germany were severely persecuted.
Also in [[1944]], Eva Braun's sister Gretl married a member of Hitler's entourage, [[Hermann Fegelein]], who served as [[Heinrich Himmler]]'s liaison. Hitler used the marriage as an excuse to allow Braun to appear at official functions. When Fegelein was caught in the closing days of the war trying to escape to [[Sweden]] with another woman, Hitler personally ordered his [[execution (legal)|execution]] and Braun is said to have deliberately refrained from interceding on her brother-in-law's behalf.
==Marriage and suicide==
By early April [[1945]] she had driven to [[Berlin]] from [[Munich]] to be with Hitler at the ''[[Führerbunker]]''. She refused to leave as the [[Red Army]] closed in, insisting she was one of the only people loyal to him left in the world and Hitler married her on [[April 29]], 1945 during a brief civil ceremony (the bride wore a blue [[silk]] dress) witnessed by [[Joseph Goebbels]] and [[Martin Bormann]], after which staff were instructed to address her as ''Frau Hitler'' instead of ''[[Fräulein]] Braun''. There was gossip among the Führerbunker staff that Eva was carrying Hitler's child although there has never been any evidence to support this claim. They committed [[suicide]] together on the 30th, she by swallowing a [[cyanide]] capsule first. She was 33. Their [[corpse]]s were burned with [[gasoline]] in the [[Reich Chancellery]] garden.
Their charred remains were soon discovered by the Russians and secretly buried at the [[SMERSH]] compound in [[Magdeburg]], [[East Germany]] along with the bodies of [[Joseph Goebbels|Joseph]] and [[Magda Goebbels]] and their six children before being exhumed in [[1970]], completely [[cremation|cremated]] and disper |
Second marriage ===
* Emma Ulvaeus
* Anna Ulvaeus
== External links ==
* [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&&sql=11:85320r5ar48p~T0 Björn Ulvaeus] on the [[All Music Guide]]
* [http://www.geocities.com/summernightcity2001/bjorn.html Profile]
''See also: [[List of Swedes in music]]''
[[Category:1945 births|Ulvaeus, Björn]]
[[Category:Living people|Ulvaeus, Björn]]
[[Category:ABBA members|Ulvaeus, Björn]]
[[Category:Musical theatre composers|Ulvaeus, Björn]]
[[Category:Swedish songwriters|Ulvaeus, Björn]]
[[de:Björn Ulvaeus]]
[[es:Björn Ulvaeus]]
[[nl:Björn Ulvaeus]]
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[[sv:Björn Ulvaeus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Benny Andersson</title>
<id>3741</id>
<revision>
<id>41453028</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T12:44:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.198.114.35</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Benny Andersson.jpg|thumb|200px|Benny Andersson]]
'''Benny Bror Göran Andersson''' (born in [[Stockholm]] on [[December 16]] [[1946]]) is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[musician]], [[composer]] and a member of the Swedish musical group, ABBA.
Benny's musical background came from his father and grandfather; both enjoyed playing the accordion. At the age of six Benny got an accordion of his own. Father Gösta and grandfather Efraim taught him Swedish [[folk music]].
When he was ten he had one or two piano lessons but found it rather boring. He left school at the age of fifteen and began to perform at youth clubs. This is when he met his first girlfriend Christina Grönvall. They never got married but did have two children: Peter in [[1963]] and Helen in [[1965]].
[[Image:Bennyearly.jpg|thumb|140px|left|Benny in ABBA's early days]]
In [[1964]] Benny became the [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]] player of the rock 'n roll group [[Hep Stars]]. In 1965 Benny started to write material for the band, such as the number one hit ''Sunny Girl''.
In the summer of [[1969]] Benny met [[Anni-Frid Lyngstad]] at the same time as [[Björn Ulvaeus]] met [[Agnetha Fältskog]]. The personal relationships and Benny and Björn's composition has led quite naturally to the very close co-operation which the four friends have had during the previous two years.
After being a member of [[Hep Stars]] and later [[ABBA]] he has created the musicals ''[[Chess (musical)|Chess]]'', ''[[Kristina från Duvemåla|Kristina från Duvemåla]]'' (based on the Immigrant novels by Swedish writer [[Vilhelm Moberg]]), and ''[[Mamma Mia!]]'' (based on existing ABBA songs), all of these together with [[Björn Ulvaeus]].
Andersson believes folk music to be an essential heritage of any nation which must be kept alive and continuously developed, and to that end he performs [[folk music]] on the [[accordion]] together with [[Orsa Spelmän]]. Since the late nineties he mostly plays with his band ''Benny Anderssons orkester'' (Benny Andersson's orchestra/band) with [[Helen Sjöholm]] from ''Kristina from Duvemåla'' on vocals.
== Children ==
* [[Peter Grönvall]]
* [[Helene Grönvall]]
* [[Ludvig Andersson]]
== Discography ==
===Solo albums===
* [[Klinga mina klockor]] ([[1987]])
* [[November 1989 (album)|November 1989]] ([[1989]])
===With Benny Anderssons Orkester===
* [[Benny Anderssons Orkester]] ([[2001]])
* [[BAO!]] ([[2004]])
===With Orsa Spelmän===
*[[Orsa Spelmän (album)|Orsa Spelmän]] ([[1988]])
*[[Fiolen Min]] ([[1990]])
*[[Ödra]] ([[1998]])
==External links==
* [http://members.home.nl/union.songs/html/benny.html Profile]
* [http://www.webmaster.ru/~dale/ABBA/MEMBERS/abi_benn.htm Fact File]
* [http://www.geocities.com/summernightcity2001/benny.html Profile Page]
* [http://www.setasign.net/bennyen.html Biography]
== See also ==
*[[List of Swedes in music]]
*[[ABBA discography]]
[[Category:1946 births|Andersson, Benny]]
[[Category:Living people|Andersson, Benny]]
[[Category:ABBA members|Andersson, Benny]]
[[Category:Musical theatre composers|Andersson, Benny]]
[[Category:Swedish songwriters|Andersson, Benny]]
[[Category:Swedish pianists|Andersson, Benny]]
[[Category:Pop pianists|Andersson, Benny]]
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[[fr:Benny Andersson]]
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[[no:Benny Andersson]]
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[[sv:Benny Andersson]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bluetooth</title>
<id>3742</id>
<revision>
<id>42158890</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:15:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>220.225.137.242</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Bluetooth 1.0 and 1.0B */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bluetooth-logo.svg|right|Bluetooth logo]]
:''This article is about the Bluetooth wireless specification. For King Harold Bluetooth, see [[Harold I of Denmark]]''
'''Bluetooth''' is an industrial specification for wireless [[personal area network]]s (PANs). Bluetooth provides a way to connect and exchange information between devices like [[personal digital assistant]]s (PDAs), mobile phones, [[laptop]]s, [[Personal computer|PC]]s, [[computer printer|printer]]s and [[digital camera]]s via a secure, low-cost, globally available short range [[radio frequency]].
The name Bluetooth was born from the 10th century king of Denmark, [[Harold I of Denmark|King Harold Bluetooth]] who engaged in diplomacy which led warring parties to negotiate with each other. The inventors of the Bluetooth technology thought this a fitting name for their technology which allowed different devices to talk to each other [http://www.abc.net.au/newsradio/txt/s1551796.htm].
== Introduction ==
[[Image:Bluetooth headset.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A typical Bluetooth [[mobile phone]] [[headset]].]]
Bealo is a [[radio]] standard primarily designed for low power consumption, with a short [[range]] (power class dependent: 10 [[centimeter]]s, 10 [[meter]]s, 100 meters) and with a low-cost [[transceiver]] [[microchip]] in each device.
Bluetooth lets these devices talk to each other when they come in range, even if they are not in the same room, as long as they are within up to 100 meters of each other, dependent on the power class of the product. Products are available in one of three power classes:
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! Class !! Power<br>([[milliwatt|mW]]) !! Power<br>([[DBm|dBm]]) !! Range<br>(approximate)
|-
! Class 1
| 100 mW || 20 dBm || ~100 meters
|-
! Class 2
| 2.5 mW || 4 dBm || ~10 meters
|-
! Class 3
| 1 mW || 0 dBm || ~10cm (1 meter max)
|}
== Bluetooth applications ==
[[Image:Bluetooth Mouse.jpg|thumb|A Bluetooth [[computer mouse|mouse]].]]
*Wireless networking between desktops and laptops, or desktops in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required
*Bluetooth [[peripherals]] such as [[computer printer|printers]], [[computer mouse|mice]] and [[computer keyboard|keyboards]]
*Bluetooth [[cell phone]]s have been sold in large numbers, and are able to connect to [[computers]], [[personal digital assistant]]s (PDAs), certain automobile [[handsfree]] systems and various other devices. The standard also includes support for more powerful, longer-range devices suitable for constructing [[wireless LAN]]s.
*Transfer of files (images, mp3s, etc) between mobile phones, [[Personal digital assistant]]s (PDAs) and [[computer]]s via [[OBEX]]
*Certain [[mp3 player]]s and [[digital camera]]s to transfer files to and from computers
*Bluetooth headsets for mobile phones and [[smartphone]]s
*Some testing equipment is Bluetooth enabled
*Some medical applications are under development
*Certain GPS receivers transfer [[NMEA]] data via Bluetooth
*Bluetooth car kits — [[Acura]], with the 2004 Acura TL, was the first motor vehicle manufacturer to install handsfree Bluetooth technology. Later, [[BMW]] added it as an option on its [[BMW 3-Series|3 Series]], [[BMW 5-Series|5 Series]], [[BMW 7-Series|7 Series]] and [[BMW X5|X5]] vehicles. Since then, other manufacturers have followed suit, with many vehicles, including the 2004 [[Toyota Prius]] and the 2004 [[Lexus]] LS 430. The Bluetooth car kits allow users with Bluetooth-equipped cell phones to make use of some of the phone's features, such as making calls, while the phone itself can be left in a suitcase or in the boot/trunk, for instance. Companies like Parrot or Motorola manufacture Bluetooth hands-free car kits for well-known brand car manufacturers.
*Certain data logging equipment transmits data to a computer via Bluetooth.
*For remote controls where infrared was traditionally used.
*Hearing aids — [[Starkey Laboratories]] have created a device to plug into some hearing aids [http://www.elihearing.com]
*[[Nintendo Revolution]] and Sony's Playstation 3 will use Bluetooth technology for its wireless controllers. Also Hip Gear has already released a Bluetooth controller for the Xbox.
*Newer model [http://www.zoll.com Zoll] Defibrilators for the purpose of transmitting Defibrilation Data and Patient Monitoring/ECG data between the unit and a reporting PC using Zoll Rescue Net software.
*The upcoming [[Mindstorms#Lego_Mindstorms_NXT|LEGO Mindstorms NXT]] will use Bluetooth as an alternative way to receive programs from the computer.
== Specifications and Features ==
The Bluetooth specification was first developed by [[Ericsson]], and was later formalized by the [[Bluetooth SIG|Bluetooth Special Interest Group]] (SIG). The SIG was formally announced on [[May 20]], [[1999]]. It was established by [[Sony Ericsson]], [[IBM]], [[Intel]], [[Toshiba]] and [[Nokia]], and later joined by many other companies as Associate or Adopter members. Bluetooth is also known as [[IEEE 802.15.1]].
'''''=== Bluetooth 1.0 and 1.0B ===Versions 1.0 and 1.0B had numerous problems and the various manufacturers had great difficulties in making their products interoperable. 1.0 and 1.0B also had mandatory Blueto |
eve. For instance, [[cold fusion]] or [[anti-gravity]] devices are sometimes characterized as the "holy grail" of applied physics. ''(See: [[list of holy grails]])''
===Modern retellings===
{{spoiler}}
[[Image:holygrail.jpg|frame|right|''The Holy Grail'', by [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]]]]
The story of the Grail and of the quest to find it became increasingly popular in the nineteenth century, referred to in literature such as [[Alfred Tennyson]]'s Arthurian cycle the ''[[Idylls of the King]]''. The combination of hushed reverence, chromatic harmonies and sexualised imagery in [[Richard Wagner]]'s late opera ''[[Parsifal]]'' gave new significance to the grail theme, for the first time associating the &ndash; now periodically blood-producing &ndash; grail directly with female sexual fertility. The high seriousness of the subject was also epitomized in [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]]'s painting (''illustrated''), in which a woman modelled by [[Jane Morris]] holds the Grail with one hand, while adopting a [http://www.ou.edu/class/ahi4263/byzhtml/p02-09.html gesture of blessing] with the other. Other artists, including [[George Frederic Watts]] and [[William Dyce]] also portrayed grail subjects.
The Grail later turned up in movies; it debuted in a silent ''Parsifal''. In ''The Light of Faith'' ([[1922]]), [[Lon Chaney]] attempted to steal it, for the finest of reasons. ''[[The Silver Chalice]]'', a [[novel]] about the Grail by [[Thomas B. Costain]] was made into a [[1954]] movie (in which [[Paul Newman]] débuted), that is considered notably bad by several critics, including Newman himself. ''[[Lancelot du Lac (film)|Lancelot du Lac]]'' ([[1974]]) is [[Robert Bresson]]'s gritty retelling. In vivid contrast, ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'' ([[1975]]) deflated it and all pseudo-Arthurian posturings.
''[[Excalibur (movie)|Excalibur]]'' attempted to restore a more traditional heroic representation of an Arthurian tale, in which the Grail is revealed as a mystical means to revitalise Arthur himself, and of the barren land to which his depressive sickness is connected. ''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]]'' and ''[[The Fisher King (movie)|The Fisher King]]'' place the quest in modern settings, one as a modern-day treasure hunt/quest, the other robustly self-parodying. Science fiction has taken the Quest into interstellar space, figuratively in [[Samuel R. Delany]]'s 1968 novel ''[[Nova_(novel)|Nova]]'', and literally in the [[1994]] episode "[[Grail (Babylon 5)|Grail]]" of the television series ''[[Babylon 5]]''.
Understandably the Grail has figured into much modern Arthurian literature, such as the works of poet [[Charles Williams]] (''[[Taliessin]] Through Logres'' and ''Region of the Summer Stars'') and [[feminist]] author [[Rosalind Miles]] (''[[Child of the Holy Grail]]''), but it has also been treated in works of [[non-fiction]], generally of dubious scholarship, which tend to separate it from the Arthurian mythos. In ''[[The Sign and the Seal]]'', [[Graham Hancock]] asserts that the Grail story is a coded description of the stone tablets stored in the [[Ark of the Covenant]]. For the authors of ''[[Holy Blood, Holy Grail]]'', who assert that their research ultimately reveals that Jesus may not have died on the cross, but lived to marry [[Mary Magdalene]] and father children whose [[Merovingian]] bloodline continues today, the Grail is a mere sideshow.
[[Dan Brown]]'s bestselling novel ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'' is likewise based on the idea that the real Grail is not a cup but the earthly remains of [[Mary Magdalene]] (again cast as Jesus' wife), plus a set of ancient documents telling the "true" story of Jesus, his teachings and descendants. In Dan Brown's novel, it is hinted that the Grail was long buried beneath [[Rosslyn Chapel]] just like one tradition claims, but in recent decades its guardians had it relocated to a secret chamber embedded in the floor beneath the Inverted Pyramid near the [[Louvre Museum]]. Of course, the latter location has never been mentioned in real Grail lore. Yet such was the public interest in even a fictionalized Grail that the museum soon had to rope off the exact location mentioned by Brown, lest visitors inflict any damage in a more or less serious attempt to access the supposed hidden chamber. (See: [[La Pyramide Inversée]].)
==See also==
*[[List of ancient mysteries]]
*[[Cornucopia]] and [[sampo]] are other mythical vessels with [[magic (paranormal)|magical]] powers.
*[[Relics attributed to Jesus]]
*''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'' for "something completely different"
==Further reading==
*[[Roger Sherman Loomis]], ''[http://print.google.com/print?id=DGQcsXGYII4C The Grail: From Celtic Myth to Christian Symbol]'', 1991. ISBN 0691020752
*Joseph Goering, ''The Virgin and the Grail : Origins of a Legend'', Yale University Press, 2005, ISBN 0300106610 [http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=0300106610]
* Richard Barber, ''The Holy Grail: Imagination and Belief'', Harvard University Press, 2004. ISBN 0674013905[http://www.holygrail.ws]
==External links==
{{commonscat|Holy Grail}}
* [http://historymedren.about.com/cs/holygrail/ About: Medieval History Net: The Holy Grail] A list of links to 6 important sites of reference on the Holy Grail
[[Category:Arthurian legend]]
[[Category:Christian legend and folklore]]
[[Category:Christian mythology]]
[[Category:Indiana Jones artifacts]]
[[Category:Medieval legends]]
[[Category:Metaphors]]
[[Category:Mythical objects]]
[[Category:Relics attributed to Jesus]]
[[af:Heilige Graal]]
[[bg:Свещен Граал]]
[[da:Den hellige gral]]
[[de:Heiliger Gral]]
[[el:Άγιο Δισκοπότηρο]]
[[es:Grial]]
[[fi:Graalin malja]]
[[fr:Graal]]
[[gl:Grial]]
[[he:הגביע הקדוש]]
[[it:Graal]]
[[ja:聖杯]]
[[nl:Heilige Graal]]
[[pl:Legenda o świętym Graalu]]
[[pt:Santo Graal]]
[[ro:Graal]]
[[ru:Святой Грааль]]
[[sk:Svätý grál]]
[[sv:Graal]]
[[zh:圣杯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hunt the Wumpus</title>
<id>14323</id>
<revision>
<id>41428253</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T06:28:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tawker</username>
<id>212671</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.81.123.98|207.81.123.98]] ([[User talk:207.81.123.98|Talk]]) to last version by Seancdaug</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Hunt the Wumpus''''' was an important early [[computer game]]. It was based on a simple hide-and-seek format, featuring a mysterious monster (the Wumpus) that lurked deep inside a network of rooms. Using a [[command line]] text interface, the player would enter commands to move through the rooms, or shoot arrows along crooked paths through several adjoining rooms. There were twenty rooms, each connecting to three others, arranged like the vertices of a [[dodecahedron]] (or the faces of an [[icosahedron]]). Hazards included bottomless pits, super bats (which would drop the player in a random location) and the Wumpus itself. When the player had deduced from hints which chamber the Wumpus was in without entering it, he would fire an arrow into the Wumpus' chamber to slay it. However, firing the arrow into the wrong chamber would startle the Wumpus, which might then devour the player.
Originally written by [[Gregory Yob]] in [[BASIC programming language | BASIC]] while attending the [[University of Massachusetts Dartmouth]], and noticed on mainframes at least by 1972, ''Hunt the Wumpus'' was first published in the "[[Peoples Computer Company]]"{{fn|1}} journal in 1973, again in 1975 in "[[Creative Computing]]", and finally in 1979 in the book ''MORE BASIC Computer Games''. Building on several grid-based games of the "[[Battleship (game)|Battleship]]" variety, Yob injected adversarial humor into the computer's hints, prefiguring the "voice" of the [[Infocom]] narrator. [http://jerz.setonhill.edu/if/canon/Hunt_the_Wumpus.htm 1] Later versions of the game offered more hazards and other cave layouts. An implementation of Hunt the Wumpus was typically included with [[MBASIC]], Microsoft's BASIC interpreter for CP/M and one of the company's first products.
== Other versions ==
A simple version of the game has also become a classic way of illustrating the concept of [[Knowledge Based Agents]], a kind of computer program in the field of [[Artificial Intelligence]], where the program would take the role of the player, and usually play very well.
An early [[home computer]] version of ''Hunt the Wumpus'' with color graphics and randomized cave layouts appeared on the [[TI-99/4A]] in [[1981]].
Versions of ''Hunt the Wumpus'' are currently available all over the [[Internet]], for almost all operating systems and machines, including [[Linux]], the [[iPod]] [[Palm Pilot]] [[personal digital assistant|handheld]] computers, and [[mobile phone]]s. The first [[IRC bot]], named "GM" (for "[[game master]]") was a multiplayer ''Hunt the Wumpus'' game, in which firing an arrow into a room with other players caused another player to be killed: "[[Metasyntactic variable|Foo]] is hit in the back with an arrow!" Unfortunately, the "Wumpus-o-Matic" player never made it off the drawing board. See also [[Rog-O-Matic]].
Wumpus have made an appearance in the [[collectible card game]] [[Magic: The Gathering]], specifically in the 1999 Mercadian Masques expansion. They appear mainly in the art for green cards in the set, though two are playable creatures: the appropriately named Hunted Wumpus, and also Thrashing Wumpus. Wumpus are also featured in the [[Roguelike | ''Rogue-''like]] game [[Nethack]] as a ceiling-clinging monster, and as the elusive Mountain Wumpus in the classic [[M.U.L.E.]], being a nod from one very old game to another.
A version of Hunt the Wumpus appeared in [[Google Talk]] August 2005, as a bot |
ced [[George Orwell]] in the writing of [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]] (''The Napoleon of Notting Hill'' being partially set in 1984). However, Orwell himself gave no indication that this was the case.
* Chesterton's work has inspired lyricists like [[Daniel Amos]]'s [[Terry Scott Taylor]] from the [[1970s]] to the [[2000s]]. Daniel Amos mentioned Chesterton by name in the title track from [[2001]]'s ''[[Mr. Buechner's Dream]]''.
* His physical appearance and apparently some of his mannerisms were a direct inspiration for the character of [[Dr. Gideon Fell]], a well-known fictional [[detective]] created in the early [[1930s]] by the Anglo-American [[Mystery fiction|mystery]] [[writer]] [[John Dickson Carr]].
* The author [[Neil Gaiman]] has stated that ''The Napoleon of Notting Hill'' was an important influence on his own book ''[[Neverwhere]]''. Gaiman also based the character Gilbert, from the comic book <cite>[[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|The Sandman]]</cite>, on Chesterton.
* [[Ingmar Bergman]] considered Chesterton's little known play ''Magic'' to be one of his favourites and even staged a production in Swedish. Later he reworked ''Magic'' into his movie ''[[The Magician (1958 film)|The Magician]]'' in 1958. Also known as ''Ansiktet'' the movie and the play are both roughly similar although the two should not be compared. Both are essentially the work of two authors with widely different world views.
* Some conservatives today have been influenced by his support for [[distributism]]. [[Arthur Chesterton|A. K. Chesterton]], the right-wing journalist and the first chairman of the [[British National Front|National Front]], was a cousin.
* ''[[The Innocence of Father Brown]]'' is cited by [[Guillermo Martinez]] as one of the inspirations for his thriller ''[[The Oxford Murders]]''. Martinez explicitly quotes from Chesterton's story in Chapter 25 of ''The Oxford Murders''.
==See also==
*[[List of books by G. K. Chesterton]]
*[[Christian apologetics]] (field of study concerned with the defence of Christianity)
== Literature and biographies on Chesterton ==
* Ward, M., ''Gilbert Keith Chesterton'' Sheed & Ward, 1944
* [[Michael Coren]], "Gilbert - the Man Who Was G. K. Chesterton'".
* [[Joseph Pearce]], "Wisdom and Innocence - A Life of G.K.Chesterton", Hodder & Stoughton, London, 1996. ISBN: 0-340-67132-7
* [[Marshall McLuhan ]] wrote an article on G.K. Chesterton, titled "G.K. Chesterton: A Practical [[Mystic]]" (''Dalhousie Review'' 15 (4), 1936).
* Chesterton's writings have been praised by such authors as [[Ernest Hemingway]], [[Graham Greene]], [[Frederick Buechner]], [[Evelyn Waugh]], [[Jorge Luis Borges]], [[Gabriel García Márquez]], [[Karel Capek|Karel Čapek]], [[Paul Claudel]], [[Dorothy L. Sayers]], [[Agatha Christie]], [[Sigrid Undset]], [[Ronald Knox]], [[C. S. Lewis]], [[Kingsley Amis]], [[W. H. Auden]], [[Anthony Burgess]], [[E. F. Schumacher]], [[Neil Gaiman]], [[Orson Welles]], [[Dorothy Day]] and others.
== References ==
* ''The Oxford Dictionary of 20th Century Quotations'' by [[Oxford University Press]] (ISBN 0-19-860103-4)
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author|Gilbert Keith Chesterton|G. K. Chesterton}}
* [http://www.chesterton.org The American Chesterton Society]
* {{gutenberg author|id=G._K._Chesterton|name=G. K. Chesterton}}
* [http://www.dur.ac.uk/martin.ward/gkc/books/ An extensive collection of e-text links]
* [http://greatsfandf.com/AUTHORS/GKChesterton.shtml G. K. Chesterton]: notes on his novel ''The Man Who Was Thursday''
* [http://www.classiccrimefiction.com/chestertonbib.htm Bibliography of detective fiction 1st Editions ]
* [http://www.chesterton.ru/ G. K. Chesterton in Russian]
* [http://www.gilbertmagazine.com/ Gilbert Magazine]: a magazine about Chesterton and topics of interest
* [http://www.chestertonhouse.org Chesterton House: A Center for Christian Studies at Cornell University]
* [http://academic.shu.edu/chesterton/chestertonreview.htm The Chesterton Review]: published by the [http://academic.shu.edu/chesterton/ Chesterton Institute for Faith and Culture] at Seton Hall University
* [http://www.littleflower.co.uk/chesterton.htm His Parish Church in Beaconsfield where he is buried]
* [http://chestertonandfriends.blogspot.com/ Chesterton and Friends], a little blog dedicated to Chesterton
[[Category:1874 births|Chesterton, G. K.]]
[[Category:1936 deaths|Chesterton, G. K.]]
[[Category:British journalists|Chesterton, G.K.]]
[[Category:English mystery writers|Chesterton, G. K.]]
[[Category:English novelists|Chesterton, G. K.]]
[[Category:English short story writers|Chesterton, G.K.]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic writers|Chesterton, G.K.]]
[[Category:World War I poets|Chesterton, G. K.]]
[[Category:UCL alumni|Chesterton, G. K.]]
[[Category:Londoners|Chesterton, G. K.]]
[[Category:Old Paulines|Chesterton, G. K.]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>God Save the Queen</title>
<id>12334</id>
<revision>
<id>42105226</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:34:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Peter T.S.</username>
<id>519128</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Use elsewhere */ copyedit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is on the British patriotic anthem. For the [[Sex Pistols]] song, see [[God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)]].''
'''''God Save the Queen''''' is a [[Patriotism|patriotic]] song whose origin remains a matter of speculation. It is traditionally used as the [[national anthem]] of the [[United Kingdom]], one of the two national anthems of [[New Zealand]], and the [[royal anthem]] of [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and the other [[Commonwealth Realm]]s, as well as the royal anthem of the [[British Royal Family]]. When the [[British monarch]] is male it becomes '''''God Save the King'''''. ''God Save the King'' (or ''... Queen'') is also the royal anthem (but not the [[national anthem]]) of [[Norway]] &ndash; sung there in [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] &ndash; as the Norwegian and British royal familes both descend from [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]].
There is no single authorised version of the song; indeed, the anthem has never been officially adopted by [[Royal Proclamation]] nor [[Act of Parliament]]. In general only one, or on rare occasions two, verses are ever sung [http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/page317.asp].
<div id="section_SpokenWikipedia" class="noprint toccolours" style="clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 90%; text-align: left; float: right;">
<div style="float: left; margin-left: 5px;">[[Image:Sound-icon.png|24px|Icon of loudspeaker]]</div>
<div style="margin-left: 50px; margin-top: 2px;">[http://www.shakespeare-w.com/sounds/uksong.ram '''Listen to anthem'''] ([[Wikipedia:Media help|audio help]])</div>
</div>
==History==
The origin of the tune is surrounded by uncertainty, speculation and a certain amount of misinformation. In the ''Oxford Companion to Music'', [[Percy Scholes]] devotes about four pages to this subject. He points out the similarities to an early [[plainsong]] melody, although he points out that the rhythm is very distictly that of a [[galliard]] and gives examples of several such dance tunes that bear a striking resemblance to ''God Save the Queen''. He quotes a keyboard piece by Dr. [[John Bull (composer)|John Bull]] (1619) which has some strong similarities to the modern tune (rather more or less like it, depending on the placing of [[accidental (music)|accidentals]] which, at that time, were, in certain cases, unwritten and left to the discretion of the player&mdash;see ''[[Musica ficta]]''). He also points to several pieces by [[Henry Purcell]], one of which includes the opening notes of the modern tune, set to the words ''God save the King''.
The first definitive published version of the present tune appeared in ''Thesaurus Musicus'', in [[1744]], as a setting of the familiar first verse. Undoubtedly, the song was popularized in the following year (with the landing of the [[Young Pretender]]). It was certainly sung in London theatres in 1745 with, for example, [[Thomas Arne]] writing a setting of the tune for the [[Drury Lane Theatre]].
Scholes' analysis includes mention of "untenable" and "doubtful" claims, as well as "an American misattribution". Some of these are:
* A tale, widely believed in France, that the tune was written by [[Jean-Baptiste Lully|Lully]] for [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], then pirated by [[George Frideric Handel|Handel]]. Scholes points out gross errors of date which render these claims untenable, and they have been ascribed to a 19th-century forgery, the ''Souvenirs'' of the [[Marquise de Créquy]].
* [[James Oswald]]. He is a possible author of the ''Thesaurus Musicus'' so may certainly have played a part in this story, but is not a strong enough candidate to be cited as the composer of the tune.
* Dr. [[Henry Carey]]. Scholes refutes this attribution, firstly, on the grounds that Carey himself never made such a claim. Secondly, when the claim was made by Carey's son (as late as 1795), it was accompanied by a request for a pension from the British Government on that score; thirdly, that the younger Carey claimed that his father had written parts of it in 1745 (despite the fact that the older Carey had died in 1743!). It has also been claimed that the first public performance of |
ry:History of the Levant]]
[[Category:History of the Middle East]]
[[Category:Israel and Zionism]]
[[Category:Jewish history]]
[[Category:Jews by country]]
[[Category:Palestinian history|*]]
[[Category:Roman Roads in Syria and Palestina provinces]]
[[ar:&#1578;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1582; &#1601;&#1604;&#1587;&#1591;&#1610;&#1606;]]
[[fr:Histoire de la Palestine]]
[[he:היסטוריה של ארץ ישראל]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hammer</title>
<id>13802</id>
<revision>
<id>41220672</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T21:51:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Monkeyman</username>
<id>79245</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ link format correction</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the sport, see [[Hammer throw]]. For other uses see [[Hammer (disambiguation)]]''.
[[image:hammer2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A claw hammer]]
A '''hammer''' is a [[tool]] meant to deliver blows to a target, causing it to move or deform. The most common uses are for driving [[nail (engineering)|nail]]s, fitting parts, and breaking up objects. Hammers are often designed for a specific purpose, and so their design varies quite a lot. Usual features are a handle and a head, with most of the weight in the head. The basic design is hand-operated, but there are also many mechanically operated models for heavier uses.
The hammer is a basic tool of many professions, and can also be used as [[weapon]]. Either way, it is perhaps the oldest human tool, perhaps even older than the earliest ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'' [[species]].
By analogy, the name '''hammer''' has also been used for many mechanical parts and devices that are designed to deliver blows, e.g. in the [[caplock mechanism]] of [[firearm]]s.
==Basic design and variations==
The essential part of a hammer is the head, a compact solid mass that is able to deliver the blows to the intended target without itself breaking up.
The head usually has a flat striking surface on one side. The opposite side of the head may have a second striking surface; or a claw or wedge to pull nails, or may be shaped like a ball as in the [[ball-peen hammer]]. Some upholstery hammers have a magnetized appendage, to pick up [[tack]]s.
Popular hand-powered variations include:
* carpenter's hammers (used for [[nail (engineering)|nailing]]), such as the [[framing hammer]] and the [[claw hammer]]
* [[upholstery hammer]]
* construction hammers, including the [[sledgehammer]]
* drilling hammer - a lightweight, short handled sledgehammer
* [[ball-peen hammer]], or mechanic's hammer
* [[cross-peen hammer]], or Warrington hammer
* [[mallet]]s, including the [[rubber hammer]] and [[dead blow hammer]].
* [[maul]]
* [[stonemason's hammer]]
* [[lump hammer]], or club hammer
* [[gavel]], used by judges and presiding authorities in general
<gallery>
image:hammer2.jpg|[[Claw hammer]]
Image:Framing hammer.jpg|[[Framing hammer]]
Image:Hammer tapissier.jpg|[[Upholstery hammer]]
Image:Ball-peen hammer 380mm.JPG|[[Ball-peen hammer]]
Image:Mallet.jpg|Rubber [[mallet]]
Image:Wooden mallet.JPG|Wooden [[mallet]]
Image:Sledgehammer.jpg|[[Sledgehammer]]
</gallery>
Mechanically-powered hammers often look quite different from the hand tools, but nevertheless most of them work on the same principle. They include:
*[[jackhammer]]
*[[steam hammer]]
*[[hammer drill]], that combines a jackhammer-like mechanism with a [[drill]]
In professional [[framing (construction)|framing]] [[carpentry]], the hammer has almost been completely replaced by the [[nail gun]]. In professional [[upholstery]], its chief competitor is the [[staple gun]].
==War hammers==
The concept of putting a handle on a weight to make it more convenient to use may well have led to the very first weapons ever invented. The [[club (weapon)]] is basically a variant of a hammer. In the [[Middle Ages]], the [[war hammer]] became popular when edged weapons could no longer easily penetrate some forms of armour.<!--IS THIS A FACT, OR JUST SPECULATION?-->
==Hammers used in Symbolism==
The hammer, being one of the most used tools to the [[Homo Sapiens]], has been used very much in symbols and arms. In the middle ages it was used often in blacksmith guild logos, as well as in many family symbols. The most recognised symbol with a hammer in it is the [[Hammer and Sickle]], which is the symbol of socialism or communism. The hammer in this symbol symbolises the working class, for obvious reasons. The hammer is used in some coat of arms in (former) socialist (or pseudo socialist) countries like [[East Germany]].
In the 1982 film [[Pink Floyd The Wall]], a circular logo featuring two crossed hammers was used on armbands, flags, and banners during the fascist rally scene. These hammers were also featured in the infamous "marching hammers" animation loop
==The physics of hammering==
===Hammer as a force amplifier===
A hammer is basically a [[force]] [[amplifier]], that works by converting [[mechanical work]] into [[kinetic energy]] and back.
In the swing that precedes each blow, a certain amount of kinetic energy gets stored in the hammer's head, equal to the length ''D'' of the swing times the force ''f'' produced by the [[muscle]]s of the arm and by [[gravity]]. When the hammer strikes, the head gets stopped by an opposite force coming from the target; which is equal and opposite to the force applied by the head to the target. If the target is a hard and heavy object, or if it is resting on some sort of [[anvil]], the head can travel only a very short distance ''d'' before stopping. Since the stopping force ''F'' times that distance must be equal to the head's kinetic energy, it follows that ''F'' will be much greater than the original driving force ''f''—roughly, by a factor ''D''/''d''. In this way, even the feeblest person can produce a force strong enough to bend steel, or crack the hardest stone.
===Effect of the head's mass===
The only essential part for this process is the hammer's head. The hitting force generally increases with the head's [[mass]], chiefly because a more massive head will store more gravitational energy during a downward swing. However, if the swing is horizontal (as when driving nails into a wall), there is little advantage in increasing the head's mass beyond a certain point, since the kinetic energy stored into it depends only on the product ''D'' ''f''. For upward swings, in fact, a heavy head is actually counter-productive. On the other hand, the head must have a minimum weight, because the arm cannot keep pushing with full force an object that is moving too fast.
===Effect of the handle===
Adding an handle helps on two counts: (1) it increases the length ''D'' of the swing (meaning more gravitational energy can be stored on a downward swing), and (2) allows the hammer's head to move faster than the hand (meaning the muscles can keep pushing at full force throughout the swing). However, because of the [[lever]] effect, a longer handle applies a smaller force ''f'' to the head; so there is a maximum useful length for the handle, at least for horizontal swings.
===Avoiding bent nails===
When driving a nail, the hammer must be manoeuvered so that its flat face strikes the nail's head at a right angle to the nail's axis, with the head moving parallel to that axis. Failure to achieve either condition will result in a sideways force on the nail's head, that may bend it. Also, one should relax the muscles of the hand and arm momentarily when the hammer strikes.
==Hammers in arts and entertainment==
Hammer blows feature in [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]]'s [[Symphony No. 6 (Mahler)|sixth symphony]], representing blows of fate. A hammer is also used in the third of [[Alban Berg]]'s Three Pieces for Orchestra, in tribute to Mahler.
==Hammers in popular culture==
The use of a hammer to fix broken machinery is jokingly referred to as ''percussive maintenance''.
A famous [[adage]] states that "When all you've got is a hammer, everything looks like a nail."
==See also==
*[[Club (weapon)]]
*[[Anvil]]
*[[Antique_Tools]]
{{Metalworking - Metalworking hand tools - Mini}}
[[Category:Hammers| ]]
[[Category:Metalworking hand tools]]
[[ang:Hamor]]
[[bg:Чук]]
[[ca:Martell]]
[[cs:Kladivo]]
[[da:Hammer (redskab)]]
[[de:Hammer]]
[[el:Σφυρί]]
[[es:Martillo]]
[[eo:Martelo]]
[[fr:Marteau]]
[[io:Martelo]]
[[he:פטיש]]
[[lv:Āmurs]]
[[nl:Hamer (gereedschap)]]
[[no:Hammer (redskap)]]
[[pl:Młotek]]
[[simple:Hammer]]
[[sr:Чекић]]
[[fi:Vasara]]
[[zh:鎚子]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hiragana</title>
<id>13804</id>
<revision>
<id>42106109</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:40:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.74.66.121</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Japanese writing}}
'''{{nihongo|Hiragana|平仮名|}}''' are a [[Japanese language|Japanese]] [[syllabary]], one of the four [[Japanese writing system]]s, along with [[katakana]], [[kanji]] and [[romaji|rōmaji]] (i.e., the [[Latin alphabet]]). Hiragana and katakana are both [[kana]] systems, in which each symbol represents one [[mora (linguistics)|mora]]. Each ''kana'' is either a vowel (such as ''a'' あ); a consonant followed by a vowel (such as ''ka'' か); or ''n'' ん, a [[nasal consonant|nasal]] [[sonorant]] which, depending on the context, sounds either like English ''m'', ''n'', or ''ng'' ([[IPA]] {{IPA|ŋ}}), or like the [[nasal vowel]]s of [[French language|French]].
Hiragana are used for words for which there are no [[kanji]], such as [[Japanese particles|particles]] like ''kara'' から "from," and suffixes such as ''~san'' さん "Mr., Mrs., Miss." Hiragana are also used for words for which the kanji form is not known to the writer, is not expected to be known to the readers, or is too formal for the writing purpose. [[Okurigana|Verb and adjective |
is spreading into the more suburban parts of East London, and into the parts of the counties of [[Kent]] and [[Essex]] which abut the [[Thames Estuary]]. See [[Thames Gateway]] and [[Lower Lea Valley]] for further information on this trend.
== See also ==
* [[Deal porters]]
* [[Pool of London]]
* [[Port of London Authority]]
==External links==
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/beforelddc/index.html History of Docklands redevelopment]
* [http://www.michaelpead.co.uk/photography/london/docklands.shtml Michael Pead :: Photos of the Docklands]
[[Category:Districts of London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]
[[Category:Newham]]
[[de:Docklands]]
[[ja:ドックランズ]]
[[nl:Docklands]]
[[no:Docklands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diesel multiple unit</title>
<id>8840</id>
<revision>
<id>38830110</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T22:43:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Radomil</username>
<id>32828</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Szynobus Wlkp..JPG|thumb|right|250px|DMU, type SA108 of [[Great Poland Voivodship]] in [[Poznan]], [[Poland]]]]
[[Image:Baureihe_628_in_lorsch_100_1938.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Deutsche Bahn AG|German]] DMU of [[DB Class 628|class 628]]]]
A '''diesel multiple unit''' (DMU) can be:
*a [[multiple unit]] powered by a [[diesel engine]]. (A multiple unit car contains both passenger accommodations and propulsion systems.)
*to a lesser extent, a combination of [[Diesel_(disambiguation)|diesel]] powered [[locomotive]]s operating under the control of one engine-driver, coupled together consecutively, usually at the head end of the train, which further consists of [[wagon]]s or [[carriage]]s.
== Basics ==
DMU classification is subdivided into the form of the transmission: Diesel Mechanical Multiple Unit has a mechanical transmission; Diesel Hydraulic Multiple Unit has a hydraulic transmission; [[Diesel-electric multiple unit|Diesel Electrical Multiple Unit]] has an electrical transmission.
The diesel engine may be overboard or underslung. When underslung, it is also referred to as [[Railcar]].
A [[regional rail]] train composed of DMU cars "scales" well (I.e. adding additional cars automatically adds power). Distribution of the propulsion among the cars also results in a system that is less vulnerable to single-point-of-failure outages. Because they operate on diesel, there is no need to run overhead electric lines or electrified track, which can result in lower system construction costs.
More rugged than [[light rail]], DMU systems can be safely operated within freight rail corridors, though safety regulations in the U.S., and scheduling concerns, require that they be operated on separate tracks.
== Situation in the USA ==
In the USA, Federal Railway Administration rules effectively prohibit the type of lightweight DMUs used elsewhere in the world.
When used with diesel locomotives, the connections typically consist of seven air hoses and one electrical cable. The largest hose, located next to the [[coupling (railway)|coupler]] is the main air brake line. Outboard of this are two smaller hoses which link the air compressors on the locomotives. Further out are two hoses which control the brakes on the locomotives independently of the rest of the train. The two outermost hoses control the application of sand to the rails. An electrical cable above the coupler transmits throttle information from one locomotive to the next. Locomotives set up to use [[slug (railroad)|slugs]] have extra connections for transmitting electricity.
== Elsewhere in the world ==
== Manufacturers ==
DMU manufacturers include:
* [[Bombardier Transportation]] of [[Montreal]], [[Canada]]
* [http://www.coloradorailcar.com/ Colorado Railcar]
* [[Rotem]] of [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]]
* [[Siemens AG|Siemens]] [[Desiro]] DMU
* [[Integral Coach Factory]] of [[Chennai]], [[India]]
== See also ==
* [[Railways]]
{{rail-stub}}
[[Category:Rail transport]]
[[Category: Multiple units]]
[[ja:&#27671;&#21205;&#36554;]]
[[pl:Szynobus]]
[[de:Verbrennungstriebwagen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Disneyland</title>
<id>8842</id>
<revision>
<id>42091654</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:48:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>137.190.86.149</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Disneyland in California, an American-based theme park. For other Disney parks and attractions see [[Walt Disney Parks and Resorts]] or [[:category:Disney parks and attractions|Category:Disney parks and attractions]]. For the television series originally titled'' Disneyland'', see [[Walt Disney anthology series]].''
{{Disneyparkinfo|
image= [[Image:Disneyland_Park.jpg|200px]]<br>[[Image:SBC50.jpg|200px]]<br /><small>[[Sleeping Beauty Castle]] is decorated for the park's [[Happiest Homecoming on Earth|fiftieth birthday]]|
bgcolor=#fc0|
fgcolor=#000|
name=Disneyland Park|
location=[[Anaheim, California]], [[USA]]|
opening=[[July 17]], [[1955]]|
resort=[[Disneyland Resort]]|
theme=Magic Kingdom|
website=[http://www.disneyland.com Disneyland Resort Homepage]|
operator=[[The Walt Disney Company]]|
}}
'''Disneyland Park''' is a [[amusement park|theme park]] at the [[Disneyland Resort]] in [[Anaheim, California]], USA. It is owned and operated by [[The Walt Disney Company]]. Disneyland Park has become the world's most famous theme park and one of the most visited sites in the world. An estimated 515 million visitors have visited the park since its opening on [[July 17]], [[1955]]. A worldwide celebration began in commemoration of Disneyland's [[#Fiftieth anniversary|50th anniversary]] on [[May 5]], [[2005]]. It is renowned for being the only one of the eleven worldwide Disney theme parks personally developed by [[Walt Disney]].
==Dedication==
''"To all who come to this happy place &ndash; welcome. Disneyland is your land. Here age relives fond memories of the past and here youth may savor the challenge and promise of the future. Disneyland is dedicated to the ideals, dreams and the hard facts that have created America&hellip; with the hope that it will be a source of joy and inspiration to all the world."'' [[Walter E. Disney]], July 17, 1955
==History==
===Concept and construction===
'''Walt Disney''' and his brother '''Roy''' already headed one of Hollywood's more successful studios founded in [[1923]], long before the idea of a park even began to form. Walt's original concept was of a permanent family fun park without the negative element which traveling [[carnival]]s often attracted. He developed the idea during his many outings with his daughters Diane and Sharon, when he realized that there were no parks with activities that parents and children could enjoy together.
While many people had written letters to Walt Disney about visiting the Disney Studio lot and meeting their favorite Disney character, Walt realized that a functional movie studio had little to offer to the visiting fan. He then began to foster ideas of building a site at or near his Burbank studios for tourists to visit and perhaps take pictures with Disney characters set in statue form. His ideas then evolved to a small play park with a boat ride and other themed areas. Walt's initial concept, his "[[Mickey Mouse Park]]," grew bigger and bigger into a concept for a larger enterprise which was to become Disneyland.
Disneyland Park was partially inspired by [[Tivoli Gardens, Copenhagen|Tivoli Gardens]] (built in [[1843]] in [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]]), [[Greenfield Village]] (built in [[1929]] in [[Dearborn, Michigan]]), and [[Children's Fairyland]] (built in [[1950]] in [[Oakland, California]]). Disney's original modest plans called for the park to be built on eight acres (32,000&nbsp;m&sup2;) on Riverside Drive next to the [[Walt Disney Studios (Burbank)|Disney Studios]] in [[Burbank, California]] as a place where his employees and families could go to relax.
Early in development, during the early [[1950s]], it became clear that more area would be needed. Difficulties in obtaining funding caused Disney to investigate new ways of raising money. He decided to use television to get the ideas into people's homes, and so he created a show named [[Disneyland TV show|Disneyland]] which was broadcast on the fledgling [[American Broadcasting Company]] (ABC) television network. In return, the network agreed to help finance the new park.
[[Image:Disneyland_Concepts.jpg|thumb|250px|Walt Disney showing the concepts of Disneyland]]
On the suggestion of researchers at [[Stanford Research Institute]] who correctly envisioned the area's potential growth, Disney acquired 160 acres (730,000&nbsp;m&sup2;) of orange groves and walnut trees in [[Anaheim, California|Anaheim]], south of [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] in neighboring [[Orange County, California|Orange County]]. [http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/news/bmag/sbsm0405/feature_alumnibks_price.shtml] [http://www.justdisney.com/disneyland/history.html] Construction began on [[July 18]], [[1954]] and would cost [[United States dollar|USD$]]17 million to complete. [[U.S. Highway 101]] (later [[Interstate 5]]) was under construction at the same time just to the north of the site; in preparation for the traffic which Disneyland was expected to bring, two more lanes were added to the freeway even before the park was finished.
Because of his brother Roy's distrust of the project, and because of financial considerations, Walt Disney was forced to turn to outside financing for his theme park. He first turned to long-time licensee [[Western Publishing]] which invested in the park. ABC as part of the deal to broadcast the Disneyland television show also became an investor. For the first five years of its operation, Disneyland was o |
nita: The Mind"]
:* "Universes", lecture of [[April 6]] [[1954]]
* Lee, John A.: ''Sectarian Healers and Hypnotherapy'', 1970, Ontario [http://www.xenu.net/archive/audit/lee.html#evaluation (Excerpt)]
* Miller, Russell: ''Bare-Faced Messiah'', 1987
* Miscavige, David: Speech to the [[International Association of Scientologists]], [[October 8]] [[1993]]
* O'Brien, Helen: ''Dianetics in Limbo''. Whitmore, Philadelphia, 1966
* Streissguth, Thomas: ''Charismatic Cult Leaders''. The Oliver Press, Inc, 1995
* van Vogt, A.E.: ''Dianetics and the Professions'', 1953
* Williamson, Jack: ''Wonder's Child: my life in science fiction''. Bluejay Books, New York, 1984
* Winter, J.A.: ''A Doctor's Report on DIANETICS Theory and Therapy'', 1951 [http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/e510000.htm]
===Further Reading - Chronology of Dianetic Texts by Hubbard===
*1949 ''Terra Incognita: The Mind'', an article originally in ''The Explorers Journal'' magazine, winter 1949/spring 1950 edition. Republished in ''The Technical Bulletins of Dianetics and Scientology'' volume I, page 4, published by Bridge Publications, Inc. ISBN 088404475 [http://www.dianetics.org/en_US/l-ron-hubbard/articles/terra/]
*1950 ''[[Dianetics: the Modern Science of Mental Health]]'' Bridge Publications ISBN 0884044165
*1951 ''Advanced Procedure and Axioms'' Bridge Publications ISBN 8773366048
*1951 ''Child Dianetics, Dianetic Processing for Children'' Bridge Publications ISBN 0884044211
*1951 ''Dianetics: The Original Thesis'', Bridge Publications, ISBN 088404002X. Republished in 1983 with the title ''The Dynamics of Life'' by Bridge Publications ISBN 0884043436
*1951 ''Handbook for Preclears'' Bridge Publications ISBN 0884044203
*1951 ''Notes on the Lectures of L. Ron Hubbard'' Bridge Publications ISBN 088404422X
*1951 ''Science of Survival: Prediction of Human Behavior'' (original title: ''Science of Survival: Simplified, Faster Dianetic Techniques'') Bridge Publications ISBN 0884044181
*1951 ''Self Analysis'' Bridge Publications ISBN 0884044491
*1954 ''Dianetics 55!'' Bridge Publications ISBN 0884044173
*1955 ''Dianetics: The Evolution of a Science'' (Original publication 1950, as an article) Bridge Publications ISBN 1403105448
*1975 ''Dianetics Today'' Bridge Publications ISBN 0884040364
==External links==
* [http://www.dianetics.org The official web site of Dianetics]
* [http://www.xenu.net/archive/lrhbare/ "The Hubbard is Bare"], Jeff Jacobsen
* [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a4_134.html Straightdope.com on Dianetics and Scientology]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Scientology]]
[[es:Dianética]]
[[fr:Dianétique]]
[[hu:Dianetika]]
[[sv:Dianetik]]
[[zh:通灵术]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Data warehouse</title>
<id>7990</id>
<revision>
<id>42162453</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:54:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antonrojo</username>
<id>580046</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added information on real v. virtual Data Warehouses</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''data warehouse''' is a logical collection of information gathered from many different operational databases used to create business intelligence that supports business analysis activities and decision-making tasks, primarily, a record of an enterprise's past transactional and operational information, stored in a [[database]] [[database design|designed]] to favour efficient data analysis and reporting (especially [[OLAP]]). Genearlly, data warehousing is not meant for current &quot;live&quot; data, although 'virtual' or 'point-to-point' data warehouses can access operational data. A 'real' data warehouse is generally prefered to a virtual DW because stored data has been validated and is set up to provide reliable results to common types of queries used in a business.
== History of data warehousing ==
In the 1990's as organizations of scale began to need more timely data about their business, they found that traditional information systems technology was simply too cumbersome to provide relevant data efficiently and quickly. Completing reporting requests could take days or weeks using antiquated reporting tools that were designed more or less to 'execute' the business rather than 'run' the business.
From this idea, the data warehouse was born as a place where relevant data could be held for completing strategic reports for management. The key here is the word 'strategic' as most executives were less concerned with the day to day operations than they were with a more overall look at the model and business functions.
As with all technology, over the course of the latter half of the 20th century, we saw increased numbers and types of databases. Many large businesses found themselves with data scattered across multiple platforms and variations of technology, making it almost impossible for any one individual to use data from multiple sources. A key idea within data warehousing is to take data from multiple platforms/technologies (As varied as spreadsheets, DB2 databases, IDMS records, and VSAM files) and place them in a common location that uses a common querying tool. In this way operational databases could be held on whatever system was most efficient for the operational business, while the reporting / strategic information could be held in a common location using a common language. Data Warehouses take this even a step farther by giving the data itself commonality by defining what each term means and keeping it standard. (An example of this would be gender which can be referred to in many ways, but should be standardized on a data warehouse with one common way of referring to each sex).
All of this was designed to make decision support more readily available and without affecting day to day operations. One aspect of a data warehouse that should be stressed is that it is NOT a location for ALL of a businesses data, but rather a location for data that is 'interesting'. Data that is interesting will assist decision makers in making strategic decisions relative to the organization's overall mission.
== Design of data warehouses ==
Data warehouses often hold large amounts of [[information]] which are sometimes subdivided into smaller logical units called [[data mart|dependent data marts]]. Dependent Datamarts allow for easier reporting by keeping relevant data together in one location.
Usually, two basic ideas guide the creation of a data warehouse:
* '''Integration''' of data from distributed and differently structured databases, which facilitates a global overview and comprehensive analysis in the data warehouse.
* '''Separation''' of data used in daily operations from data used in the data warehouse for purposes of reporting, decision support, analysis and controlling.
Periodically, one imports [[data]] from [[enterprise resource planning]] (ERP) systems and other related business software systems into the data warehouse for further processing. It is common practice to "stage" [[data]] prior to merging it into a data warehouse. In this sense, to "stage data" means to queue it for preprocessing, usually with an [[Extract, transform, load|ETL]] tool. The preprocessing program reads the staged data (often a [[business]]'s primary [[OLTP]] databases), performs qualitative preprocessing or filtering (including [[denormalization]], if deemed necessary), and writes it into the warehouse.
=== Dimensions and measures ===
A data warehouse is created by analyzing ways to categorize data using [[dimension (data warehouse)|dimensions]] and ways to summarize data using [[measure (data warehouse)|measures]]. Dimensions can be used to filter data by excluding results or by displaying data in different cells of a presentation. Measures are used to create averages and totals using precomputed aggregates.
== Reporting ==
[[Business Intelligence]] reports (e.g., [[Management Information Systems|MIS]] reports) may then be generated from the data managed by the warehouse. In this way the data warehouse supplies the data for and supports the business intelligence tools that an organization might use.
== See also ==
*[[Business intelligence]]
*[[Business performance management]]
*[[Chief Performance Officer]]
*[[Data mart]]
*[[Data mining]]
*[[Database management system]]
*[[Executive information system]]
*[[Extract, transform, load]]
*[[Intelligent document]]
*[[Master Data Management]]
*[[OLAP]]
*[[OLTP]]
*[[Operational data store]]
*[[Snowflake schema]]
*[[Star schema]]
==References==
*[[Bill Inmon|William H. Inmon]], [[Richard D. Hackathorn]]: ''Using the Data Warehouse'', John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-05966-8
*Pyle, Dorian. ''Business Modeling and Data Mining''. Morgan Kaufmann, [[2003]]. ISBN 155860653X
[[Category:Data management]]
[[Category:Information technology management]]
[[Category:Business intelligence]]
[[bg:Склад данни]]
[[ru:Хранилище данных]]
[[ca:Magatzem de dades]]
[[de:Data-Warehouse]]
[[es:Almacén de datos]]
[[fr:Entrepôt de données]]
[[it:Data warehouse]]
[[nl:Datawarehouse]]
[[ja:データウェアハウス]]
[[pl:Hurtownia danych]]
[[pt:Armazém de dados]]
[[th:คลังข้อมูล]]
[[zh:資料倉儲]]
==Vendor List==
[http://www.crossflo.com/ Crossflo Systems - DataExchange]
[[Data Infinity]] - http://www.datainfinity.com
[[DataMirror]] - http://www.datamirror.com</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Disperser</title>
<id>7991</id>
<revision>
<id>41837619</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:46:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.83.158.37</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''(''N'', ''M'', ''D'', ''K'', ''e'')-disperser''' is a [[bipartite]]
[[graph theory|graph]] with ''N'' nodes on the left side, each with degree ''D'', and ''M'' nodes on the right side, such that every [[subset]] of ''K'' nodes on the
left side is connected to more than (1&nbsp;&minu |
90 on the same list.
Every film, except ''Dr. No'' (1962) and "Thunderball" (1965), has the line: "James Bond will return. . ." or "James Bond will be back" during or after the final credits. Up until ''Octopussy'' (1983) the end-credit line would also name the next title in the film series ("James Bond will return in..."). Over the years the films have incorrectly named the sequel three times. The first, 1964's ''Goldfinger'', in early prints announced Bond to return in ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service'', however, the producers changed their mind shortly after release and subsequently made the correction in future prints of the film. In 1977, ''The Spy Who Loved Me'' stated Bond would return in ''For Your Eyes Only'', however, EON Productions had decided to instead take advantage of the ''[[Star Wars]]'' space craze and release a film adaptation of Fleming's ''Moonraker'', which was changed to a plot involving outer space. Thirdly, ''Octopussy'' (1983) incorrectly states the title of the next film as ''From A View To A Kill'', the original literary title of ''A View to a Kill''.
Every aficionado has a favourite James Bond: Sean Connery&mdash;the tough guy, his machismo ready beneath the polished persona, George Lazenby&mdash;the controversial ultra-macho man, equally loved and despised, Roger Moore&mdash;the sophisticate, a perfect gentleman, rarely mussing his hair whilst saving the world, Timothy Dalton&mdash;the hard-edged literary character, and Pierce Brosnan&mdash;the polished man of action. On [[October 14]], [[2005]], EON Productions announced that Daniel Craig would be the sixth official James Bond and will star in the latest 007 adventure, ''Casino Royale'' in 2006. Work is also already underway on the script for the follow-up film, currently referred to by its working title, ''Bond 22''
There's also lively debate on the best Bond movie, with most major film critics giving the top mark to either ''From Russia with Love'' (Connery's favourite, as he re-asserted in a 2002 [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] interview with [[Sam Donaldson]]) or its brassy followup, ''Goldfinger.'' Despite George Lazenby's short tenure in the tuxedo, some reviewers have also warmed to ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service'' (with [[Leonard Maltin]]'s ''Movies on TV'' review book stating it might have been the best Bond film ever had Connery appeared in it).
[[Image:007Connery.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Sean Connery]]]]
[[Image:007Lazenby.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[George Lazenby]]]]
[[Image:007Moore.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Roger Moore]]]]
[[Image:007Dalton.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Timothy Dalton]]]]
[[Image:007Brosnan.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Pierce Brosnan]]]]
[[Image:007DanielCraig.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Daniel Craig]]]]
<br style="clear: left"/>
<!--DO NOT add Never Say Never Again or the 1967 Casino Royale to this list. They are unofficial films and are listed in the unofficial films list, below!-->
{| class="wikitable"
!No.
!width="215"|Title
!Year
!width="115"|James Bond
!U.S. Box Office
!Total Box Office
!Total Admissions
|-
|1
|''[[Dr. No]]''
|[[1962 in film|1962]]
|'''[[Sean Connery]]'''
|$16,100,000
|$59,600,000
|72.1 million
|-
|2
||''[[From Russia with Love]]''
|[[1963 in film|1963]]
|Sean Connery
|$24,800,000
|$78,900,000
|95.3 million
|-
|3
|''[[Goldfinger]]''
|[[1964 in film|1964]]
|Sean Connery
|$51,100,000
|$124,900,000
|130.1 million
|-
|4
|''[[Thunderball]]''
|[[1965 in film|1965]]
|Sean Connery
|$63,600,000
|$141,200,000
|166 million
|-
<!--DO NOT add The 1967 Casino Royale to this list. It is an unofficial film and is listed in the unofficial films list, below!-->
|5
|''[[You Only Live Twice]]''
|[[1967 in film|1967]]
|Sean Connery
|$43,100,000
|$111,600,000
|81.7 million
|-
|6
|''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]''
|[[1969 in film|1969]]
|'''[[George Lazenby]]'''
|$22,800,000
|$87,400,000
|62.4 million
|-
|7
|''[[Diamonds Are Forever]]''
|[[1971 in film|1971]]
|Sean Connery
|$43,800,000
|$116,000,000
|70.3 million
|-
|8
|''[[Live and Let Die]]''
|[[1973 in film|1973]]
|'''[[Roger Moore]]'''
|$35,400,000
|$161,800,000
|91.6 million
|-
|9
|''[[The Man with the Golden Gun]]''
|[[1974 in film|1974]]
|Roger Moore
|$21,000,000
|$97,600,000
|51.6 million
|-
|10
|''[[The Spy Who Loved Me]]''
|[[1977 in film|1977]]
|Roger Moore
|$46,800,000
|$185,400,000
|83.1 million
|-
|11
|''[[Moonraker]]''
|[[1979 in film|1979]]
|Roger Moore
|$70,300,000
|$210,300,000
|85.1 million
|-
|12
|''[[For Your Eyes Only]]''
|[[1981 in film|1981]]
|Roger Moore
|$54,800,000
|$195,300,000
|70.3 million
|-
|13
|''[[Octopussy]]''
|[[1983 in film|1983]]
|Roger Moore
|$67,900,000
|$187,500,000
|59.5 million
|-
<!--DO NOT add Never Say Never Again to this list. It is an unofficial film and is listed in the unofficial films list, below!-->
|14
|''[[A View to a Kill]]''
|[[1985 in film|1985]]
|Roger Moore
|$50,300,000
|$152,400,000
|42.9 million
|-
|15
|''[[The Living Daylights]]''
|[[1987 in film|1987]]
|'''[[Timothy Dalton]]'''
|$51,200,000
|$191,200,000
|48.9 million
|-
|16
|''[[Licence to Kill]]''
|[[1989 in film|1989]]
|Timothy Dalton
|$34,700,000
|$156,200,000
|39.1 million
|-
|17
|''[[GoldenEye]]''
|[[1995 in film|1995]]
|'''[[Pierce Brosnan]]'''
|$106,400,000
|$353,400,000
|81.2 million
|-
|18
|''[[Tomorrow Never Dies]]''
|[[1997 in film|1997]]
|Pierce Brosnan
|$125,300,000
|$346,600,000
|75.5 million
|-
|19
|''[[The World Is Not Enough]]''
|[[1999 in film|1999]]
|Pierce Brosnan
|$126,900,000
|$390,000,000
|77.1 million
|-
|20
|''[[Die Another Day]]''
|[[2002 in film|2002]]
|Pierce Brosnan
|$160,900,000
|$456,000,000
|78.6 million
|-
|21
|''[[Casino Royale (2006 film)|Casino Royale]]''
|[[2006 in film|2006]]
|'''[[Daniel Craig]]'''
|
|
|
|}
===Unofficial===
In 1954, [[CBS]] paid Ian Fleming $1,000 [[United States dollar|USD]] for the rights to adapt ''Casino Royale'' into a one hour [[television]] adventure as part of their ''[[Climax! (television)|Climax!]]'' series. The episode featured [[United States|American]] [[Barry Nelson]] in the role of "Jimmy Bond", an agent for the fictional "Combined Intelligence" agency. The rights to ''Casino Royale'' were subsequently sold to producer [[Charles K. Feldman]] who turned Fleming's first novel into a [[Parody|spoof]] featuring actor [[David Niven]] as one of ''six'' James Bonds. The instrumental theme music was a hit for [[Herb Alpert|Herb Alpert and the Tijuana Brass]]. For more information, see [[Casino Royale#Adaptation history|the history of ''Casino Royale'']].
When plans for a James Bond film were scrapped in the late 1950s, a story treatment entitled ''Thunderball'', written by Ian Fleming, [[Kevin McClory]] and [[Jack Whittingham]], was adapted as Fleming's ninth Bond novel. Initially the novel only credited Fleming. McClory filed a lawsuit that would eventually award him the film rights to the novel in 1963. Afterwards McClory made a deal with EON Productions to produce a film adaptation starring Sean Connery. The deal specifically stated that McClory couldn't reproduce another adaptation until a set period of time had elapsed. McClory did so in 1983 by producing the film ''Never Say Never Again'', which featured Sean Connery for a seventh time as 007. ''Never Say Never Again'' was not made by Broccoli's production company, [[EON Productions]], and is, therefore, not considered a part of the official film series. A second attempt by McClory to remake ''Thunderball'' in the 1990s with [[Sony Pictures]] was halted by legal action which resulted in Sony Pictures abandoning their aspirations for a rival James Bond series. McClory to this day still claims to own the film rights to ''Thunderball'', though MGM and EON claim those rights have expired. For more in-depth information, see [[Thunderball#The controversy over the novel|the controversy over ''Thunderball'']].
{|
|[[Image:Barry Nelson autograph.JPG|thumb|none|125px|[[Barry Nelson]]]]
|[[Image:DavidNiven.jpg|thumb|none|125px|[[David Niven]]]]
|[[Image:Sean Connery 1983NSNA.jpg|thumb|none|130px|[[Sean Connery]]]]
|}
{| class="wikitable"
!width="200"|Title
!Year
!width="150"|James Bond
!U.S. Box Office
!Total Box Office
!Total Admissions
|-
|''[[Casino Royale#The 1954 television episode|Casino Royale]]'' &mdash; TV episode
|[[1954 in television|1954]]
|'''[[Barry Nelson]]'''
|not applicable
|not applicable
|not applicable
|-
||''[[Casino Royale (1967 film)|Casino Royale]]'' &mdash; Film spoof
|[[1967 in film|1967]]
|'''[[David Niven]]'''
|$25,000,000
|$44,000,000
|36.1 million
|-
|''[[Never Say Never Again]]''
|[[1983 in film|1983]]
|'''[[Sean Connery]]'''
|$55,400,000
|$160,000,000
|50.8 million
|}
===Other films pertaining to James Bond===
{{main|James Bond parodies}}
James Bond has long been a household name and remains a huge influence within the cinematic spy film genre. The ''[[Austin Powers]]'' series by writer and actor [[Mike Myers (actor)|Mike Myers]] and other parodies such as ''[[Johnny English]]'' (2003), the "[[Our Man Flint|Flint]]" series starring [[James Coburn]] as Derek Flint, and ''Casino Royale'' (1967) are testaments to Bond's prominence in popular culture. 1960s TV imitations of James Bond such as ''[[I Spy]]'', ''[[Get Smart]]'', ''[[The Wild Wild West]]'', and ''[[The Man from U.N.C.L.E.]]'' went on to become popular successes in their own right. The latter having had contributions by Fleming towards its creation; the show's lead character, "[[Napoleon Solo]]," was named after a character in Fleming's novel ''Goldfinger'' and Fleming also suggested the character name April Dancer, which was later used in the spinoff series ''[[The Girl from U.N.C.L.E.]]''. A reunion television movie, ''[[The Return of the Man from U.N.C.L.E.]]'' (1983), is notable for featuring a cameo by George Lazenby as James Bon |
}}
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}
== References ==
* {{1911}}
== External links ==
{{Commons|Aquarius}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/aquarius/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Aquarius]
* [http://www.nightskyinfo.com/constellations/aquarius/ NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Aquarius]
[[Category:Aquarius constellation|Aquarius constellation]]
[[Category:Astrological signs]]
[[ca:Aquari (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Vodnář (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Vandmanden (stjernebillede)]]
[[de:Wassermann (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Aquarius]]
[[eo:Akvisto]]
[[fr:Verseau]]
[[ga:An tUisceadóir]]
[[ko:물병자리]]
[[id:Aquarius]]
[[it:Acquario (astronomia)]]
[[ka:მერწყული]]
[[la:Aquarius (sidus)]]
[[lt:Vandenis]]
[[nl:Waterman]]
[[ja:みずがめ座]]
[[nn:Vassmannen]]
[[pl:Wodnik (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Aquarius]]
[[ru:Водолей (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Vodnár]]
[[fi:Vesimies]]
[[sv:Vattumannen]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวคนแบกหม้อน้ำ]]
[[zh:寶瓶座]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anime</title>
<id>800</id>
<revision>
<id>42138622</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:57:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gmcfoley</username>
<id>416367</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Portalpar|Anime and manga}}
'''Anime''' (アニメ) is a style of [[animated cartoon|cartoon animation]] originating in [[Japan]]. Anime is characterized by character and background styles which may be created by hand or may be assisted by computers. Storylines may feature a variety of [[Fictional character|characters]] and may be set in different locations and in different eras. Anime is aimed at a broad range of audiences because there are a wide range of different [[genre]]s that any series may be categorised under. Anime may be broadcast on [[television]], distributed on media, such as [[DVD]]s, or published as [[console]] and [[computer]] [[games]]. Anime is often influenced by Japanese [[comics]] known as [[manga]]. Anime may also be adapted into [[live action]] television programs.
[[Image:Cowboy_bebop01.jpg|frame|A scene from ''[[Cowboy Bebop]]'' (1998)]]
__TOC__
<br style="clear:both" />
==History==
[[Image:Astroboy.png|right|thumb|Atom, star of the long-running science fiction series ''[[Astro Boy|Mighty Atom]]'' (also known as [[Astro Boy]] to Western audiences).]]
{{main|History of anime}}
The '''history of [[anime]]''' begins at the start of the 20th century, when [[Japan]]ese [[filmmaker]]s experimented with the [[animation]] techniques that were being explored in the West. During the 1970s, anime developed further, separating itself from its Western roots, and developing unique genres such as [[mecha]]. In the 1980s, anime was accepted in the [[mainstream]] in Japan, and experienced a [[boom]] in production. The 1990s and 2000s saw an increased acceptance of anime in overseas markets.
==Terminology==
The [[Japanese language|Japanese]] term for animation is アニメーション
(''animēshon'', pronounced: {{IPA|/ɑnimɛːʃɔn/}}), written in [[katakana]]. It is a direct [[transliteration]] and reborrowed [[loanword]] of the English term "[[animation]]." The Japanese term is abbreviated as アニメ (''anime'', pronounced: {{IPA|/ɑnimɛ/}} ). Both the original and abbreviated forms are valid and interchangeable in Japanese, but as could be expected the abbreviated form is more commonly used. The term is a broad one, and does not specify an animation's nation of origin or style.
'''Pronunciation'''
The [[English language|English]] word ''anime'' is a [[transliteration]] of the abbreviated version of this Japanese term, and it is typically pronounced as {{IPA|/ˈænɪˌmei/}}, or "ANN ih may" ("AH nee may" is a less common variant).
Some theorize the word comes from the [[French language|French]] ''animé'' ("animated") or "les dessins animés" (animated drawings) and pronounce it as "ah nee MAY", though the Japanese themselves deny this theory, and the fact that it is written in Japanese syllables as アニメ (''anime'') rather than アニメイ (''animei'') further lowers its credibility.
As with a few other Japanese words such as ''[[Pokémon]]'' and [[Kobo Abe|Kobo Abé]], ''anime'' is sometimes spelled as ''animé'' in English with an [[acute accent]] over the final ''e'' to cue the reader that the letter is pronounced as {{IPA|[e]}}. Hence, the pronunciations "ah NEEM" and "uh NEEM" are generally considered incorrect.
'''Syntax'''
''Anime'' can be used as a common [[noun]], ''"Do you watch anime?"'' or as a suppletive [[adjective]], ''"The anime Guyver is different from the movie Guyver."'' It may also be used as a [[mass noun]], as in ''"How much anime have you collected?"'' and therefore is never pluralized "animes" (nouns are never pluralized in Japanese).
'''Synonyms'''
Anime is sometimes referred to by the [[blend (linguistics)|blend word]] '''Japanimation''', but this term has fallen into disuse. It saw the most usage during the 1970s and 1980s, which broadly comprise the first and second waves of anime [[fandom]]. The term survived at least into the early 1990s but seemed to fade away shortly before the mid-1990s anime resurgence. In general, the term now only appears in nostalgic contexts. The term is much more commonly used within Japan to refer to domestic animation. Since ''anime'' or ''animēshon'' is used to describe all forms of animation, ''Japanimation'' is used to distinguish Japanese work from that of the rest of the world.
In more recent years, anime has also frequently been referred to as ''manga'' in Europe, a practice that may stem from the Japanese usage: In Japan, ''[[manga]]'' can refer to both animation and comics (although the use of ''manga'' to refer to animation is mostly restricted to non-fans). Among English speakers, ''manga'' usually has the stricter meaning of "Japanese comics". An alternate explanation is that it is due to the prominence of [[Manga Entertainment]], a distributor of anime to the US and UK markets; because Manga Entertainment started out in the UK, this use of the term is much more common in Europe.
==Characteristics==
[[Image:Dragonballz.jpg|thumb|230px|right|[[Dragon Ball Z]] is one of the most popular [[shōnen]] anime.]]
Anime features a wide variety of artistic styles which vary from artist to artist and is characterized by stark, colorful graphics and stylized, colorful images depicting vibrant characters in a variety of different settings and storylines, aimed at a wide range of audiences.
===Genres===
Anime has many genres, with as many as traditional, [[live action]] cinema. Such genres include adventure, [[science fiction]], children's stories, [[Romantic love|romance]], medieval [[fantasy]], [[erotica]] ([[hentai]]), occult/horror, action, and [[drama]].
Most anime includes content from several different genres, as well as a variety of thematic elements. This can make categorizing some titles very difficult. A show may have a seemingly simple surface plot, but at the same time may feature a far more complex, deeper storyline and character development. It is not uncommon for a strongly action themed anime to also involve humor, romance, and even poignant [[social commentary]]. The same can be applied to a romance themed anime in that it may involve a strong action element.
Genres and designations that are specific to anime and manga:
:''(For other possible genres, see [[list of movie genres]].)''
*[[Bishōjo]]: Japanese for 'beautiful girl', blanket term that can be used to describe any anime that features pretty girl characters, for example ''[[Magic Knight Rayearth]]''
*[[Bishōnen]]: Japanese for 'beautiful boy' blanket term that can be used to describe any anime that features "pretty" and elegant boys and men, for example ''[[Fushigi Yūgi]]''
*[[Ecchi]]: Japanese for 'indecent sexuality'. Contains mild sexual humor, for example ''[[Love Hina]]''.
*[[Hentai]]: Japanese for 'abnormal' or 'perverted', and used by Western Audiences to refer to pornographic anime or [[erotica]]. However, in Japan the term used to refer to the same material is typically ''Poruno'' or ''Ero''.
*[[Josei]]: Japanese for 'young woman', this is anime or manga that is aimed at young women, and is one of the rarest forms.
*[[Kodomo]]: Japanese for 'child', this is anime or manga that is aimed at young children, for example ''[[Doraemon]]''.
*[[Mecha]]: Anime or manga featuring giant robots, example ''[[Mobile Suit Gundam]]''.
*[[Moé]]: Anime or manga featuring characters that are extremely perky or cute, for example ''[[Little Snow Fairy Sugar]]''.
*[[progressive anime|Progressive]]: "Art films" or extremely stylized anime, for example ''[[Voices of a Distant Star]]''.
*[[Seinen]]: Anime or manga similar to Shōnen, but targeted at teenage or young male adults, for example ''[[Oh My Goddess!]]''.
*[[Super Sentai|Sentai/Super Sentai]]: Literally "fighting team" in Japanese, refers to any show that involves a superhero team, for example ''[[Cyborg 009]]''.
*[[Shōjo]]: Japanese for 'young lady' or 'little girl', refers to anime or manga targeted at girls, for example ''[[Fruits Basket]]''.
**[[Magical girl|Mahō Shōjo]]: Subgenre of Shoujo known for 'Magical Girl' stories, for example ''[[Sailor Moon]]''.
*[[Shōjo-ai]]: Japanese for 'girl-love', refers to anime or manga that focus on love and romance between female characters, for example ''[[Revolutionary Girl Utena]]''.
*[[Shōnen]]: Japanese for 'boys', refers to anime or manga targeted at boys, for example ''[[Dragon Ball Z]]''.
*[[Shōnen-ai]]: Japanese for 'boy-love', refers to anime or manga that focus on love and romance between male characters. This term is being phased out in Japan due to references to [[pedophilia]], and is being replaced by the term "Boys Love&quo |
lopment they foreshadow. They are law-code and executive power -- or, to use another simile, they are architect's plan and builder's craft -- in one." He conceived of these dual functional elements as being woven into the molecular structure of chromosomes. By understanding the exact molecular structure of the chromosomes one could hope to understand both the "architect's plan" and also how that plan was carried out through the "builder's craft." Three groups took up Schrödinger's challenge to work out the structure of the chromosomes and the question of how the segments of the chromosomes that were conceived to relate to specific traits could
possibly do their jobs.
Just how the presence of specific features in the molecular structure of chromosomes could produce traits and behaviors in living organisms was unimaginable at the time. Because chemical dissection of DNA samples always yielded the same four nucleotides, the chemical composition of DNA appeared simple, perhaps even uniform. Organisms, on the other hand, are fantastically complex individually and widely diverse collectively. Geneticists did not speak of genes as conveyors of "information" in such words, but if they had, they would not have hesitated to quantify the amount of information that genes need to convey as vast. The idea that information might reside in a chemical in the same way that it exists in text--as a finite alphabet of letters arranged in a sequence of unlimited length--had not yet been conceived. It would emerge upon the discovery of DNA's structure, but few researchers imagined that DNA's structure had much to say about genetics.
===Discovery of the structure of DNA===
In the 1950s, three groups made it their goal to determine the structure of DNA. The first group to start was at [[King's College London]] and was led by [[Maurice Wilkins]] and was later joined by [[Rosalind Franklin]]. Another group consisting of [[Francis Crick]] and [[James D. Watson]] was at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]]. A third group was at [[Caltech]] and was led by [[Linus Pauling]]. Crick and Watson built physical models using metal rods and balls, in which they incorporated the known chemical structures of the nucleotides, as well as the known position of the linkages joining one nucleotide to the next along the polymer. At King's College Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin examined [[crystallography|X-ray diffraction]] patterns of DNA fibers. Of the three groups, only the London group was able to produce good quality diffraction patterns and thus produce sufficient quantitative data about the structure.
[[Image:DNA-labels.png|thumb|200px|The chemical structure of DNA]]
====Helix structure====
In 1948 Pauling discovered that many proteins included helical (see [[alpha helix]]) shapes. Pauling had deduced this structure from X-ray patterns. (Pauling was also later to suggest an incorrect three chain helical structure based on Astbury's data.) Even in the initial diffraction data from DNA by Maurice Wilkins, it was evident that the structure involved helices. But this insight was only a beginning. There remained the questions of how many strands came together, whether this number was the same for every helix, whether the bases pointed toward the helical axis or away, and ultimately what were the explicit angles and coordinates of all the bonds and atoms. Such questions motivated the modeling efforts of Watson and Crick.
====Complementary nucleotides====
In their modeling, Watson and Crick restricted themselves to what they saw as chemically and biologically reasonable. Still, the breadth of possibilities was very wide. A breakthrough occurred in 1952, when [[Erwin Chargaff]] visited Cambridge and inspired Crick with a description of experiments Chargaff had published in 1947. Chargaff had observed that the proportions of the four nucleotides vary between one DNA sample and the next, but that for particular pairs of nucleotides -- adenine and thymine, guanine and cytosine -- the two nucleotides are always present in equal proportions.
====Watson and Crick's model====
[[Image:DNA Model Crick-Watson.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Crick and Watson DNA model built in 1953, currently on display at the [[National Science Museum]] in London.]]
[[James D. Watson|Watson]] and [[Francis Crick|Crick]] had begun to contemplate double helical arrangements, but they lacked information about the amount of twist (pitch) and the distance between the two strands. [[Rosalind Franklin]] had to disclose some of her findings for the [[Medical Research Council]] and Crick saw this material through [[Max Perutz|Max Perutz's]] links to the MRC. Franklin's work confirmed a double helix that was on the outside of the molecule and also gave an insight into its symmetry, in particular that the two helical strands ran in opposite directions.
Watson and Crick were again greatly assisted by more of Franklin's data. This is controversial because Franklin's critical X-ray pattern was shown to Watson and Crick without Franklin's knowledge or permission. Wilkins showed the famous Photo 51 to Watson at his lab immediately after Watson had been unsuccessful in asking Franklin to collaborate to beat Pauling in finding the structure.
From the data in photograph 51 Watson and Crick were able to discern that not only was the distance between the two strands constant, but also to measure its exact value of 2 nanometres. The same photograph also gave them the 3.4 nanometre-per-10 bp "pitch" of the helix.
The final insight came when Crick and Watson saw that a complementary pairing of the bases could provide an explanation for Chargaff's puzzling finding. However the structure of the bases had been incorrectly guessed in the textbooks as the [[enol]] [[tautomer]] when they were more likely to be in the [[keto]] form. When [[Jerry Donohue]] pointed this fallacy out to Watson, Watson quickly realised that the pairs of adenine and thymine, and guanine and cytosine were almost identical in shape and so would provide equally sized 'rungs' between the two strands. With the base-pairing, the Watson and Crick quickly converged upon a model, which they announced before Franklin herself had published any of her work.
Franklin was two steps away from the solution. She had not guessed the base-pairing and had not appreciated the implications of the symmetry that she had described. However she had been working almost alone and did not have regular contact with a partner like Crick and Watson, and with other experts such as Jerry Donohoe. Her notebooks show that she was aware both of Jerry Donohue's work concerning tautomeric forms of bases (she had used the keto forms for three of the bases) and of Chargaff's work.
The disclosure of Franklin's data to Watson has angered some people who believe Franklin did not receive due credit at the time and that she might have discovered the structure on her own before Crick and Watson. In Crick and Watson's famous paper in Nature in 1953, they said that their work had been stimulated by the work of Wilkins and Franklin, whereas it had been the basis of their work. However they had agreed with Wilkins and Franklin that they all should publish papers in the same issue of Nature in support of the proposed structure.
===="Central Dogma"====
Watson and Crick's model attracted great interest immediately upon its presentation. Arriving at their conclusion on [[February 21]] [[1953]], Watson and Crick made their first announcement on [[February 28]]. Their paper [http://www.nature.com/genomics/human/watson-crick/ 'A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid'] was published on April 25. In an influential presentation in 1957, Crick laid out the "[[Central Dogma]]", which foretold the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, and articulated the "sequence hypothesis." A critical confirmation of the replication mechanism that was implied by the double-helical structure followed in 1958 in the form of the [[Meselson-Stahl experiment]]. Work by Crick and coworkers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of codons, and [[Har Gobind Khorana]] and others deciphered the [[genetic code]] not long afterward. These findings represent the birth of [[molecular biology]].
[[James D. Watson|Watson]], [[Francis Crick|Crick]], and [[Maurice Wilkins|Wilkins]] were awarded the 1962 [[Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine]] for discovering the molecular structure of DNA, by which time [[Rosalind Franklin|Franklin]] had died from cancer, at the age of 37. Nobel prizes are not awarded posthumously; had she lived, the difficult decision over whom to jointly award the prize would have been complicated as the prize can only be shared between two or three.
==References==
* ''DNA: The Secret of Life'', by James D. Watson. ISBN 0-375-41546-7
* ''[[The Double Helix|The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA (Norton Critical Editions)]]'', by James D. Watson. ISBN 0393950751
*Chomet, S. (Ed.), D.N.A. Genesis of a Discovery, 1994, Newman-Hemisphere Press, London.
* Delmonte, C. S., http://www.notahelix.com/delmonte/new_struct_mol_biol.pdf
* Delmonte, C. S. and Mann, L. R. B., http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/dec102003/1564.pdf
==External links==
*[http://www.genome.gov/10506367 U.S. National DNA Day] Watch videos and participate in real-time chat with top scientists
*[http://www.genome.gov/10506718 Genetic Education Modules for Teachers] ''DNA from the Beginning'' Study Guide
*[http://www.genome.gov/glossary.cfm Talking Glossary of Genetic Terms] In Spanish, too
*[http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick.pdf Watson & Cricks original nature publication]
*Listen to Francis Crick and James Watson talking on the BBC in 1962, 1972, and 1974:http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/audiointerviews/profilepages/crickwatson1.shtml
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/ |
cs.umaine.edu/~chaitin/ Chaitin's online publications]
* [http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/ray.html Solomonoff's IDSIA page]
* [http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/kolmogorov.html Schmidhuber's generalizations of algorithmic information]
* [http://homepages.cwi.nl/~paulv/kolmogorov.html Li & Vitanyi's textbook]
* [http://homepages.cwi.nl/~tromp/cl/cl.html Tromp's lambda calculus computer model offers a concrete definition of K()]
* [http://www3.oup.co.uk/computer_journal/hdb/Volume_42/Issue_04/pdf/420270.pdf Minimum Message Length and Kolmogorov Complexity] (by [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld/CSWallacePublications C.S. Wallace] and [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld D.L. Dowe], Computer Journal, Vol. 42, No. 4, 1999).
* [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld David Dowe]'s [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld/MML.html Minimum Message Length (MML)] and [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld/Occam.html Occam's razor] pages.
* P. Grunwald, M. A. Pitt and I. J. Myung (ed.), [http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?sid=4C100C6F-2255-40FF-A2ED-02FC49FEBE7C&ttype=2&tid=10478 Advances in Minimum Description Length: Theory and Applications], M.I.T. Press, April 2005, ISBN 0-262-07262-9.
* [http://nms.lcs.mit.edu/~gch/kolmogorov.html Kolmogorov Complexity] provides a simple explanation of Kolmogorov complexity.
[[Category:Algorithmic information theory|*]]
[[Category:Information theory|*]]
[[de:Kolmogorow-Komplexität]]
[[fa:نظریه الگوریتمی اطلاعات]]
[[gl:Complexidade de Kolmogorov]]
[[ja:コルモゴロフ複雑性]]
[[pl:Złożoność Kołmogorowa]]
[[pt:Complexidade de Kolmogorov]]
[[ru:Колмогоровская сложность]]
[[zh:算法信息论]]
[[he:סיבוכיות קולמוגורוב]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antoine de Saint-Exupery</title>
<id>1636</id>
<revision>
<id>15900103</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-31T05:11:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Heron</username>
<id>2954</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hymn to Proserpine</title>
<id>1637</id>
<revision>
<id>40359152</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:16:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">"'''Hymn to Proserpine'''" is a [[poem]] by [[Algernon Swinburne|Algernon Charles Swinburne]], published in [[1866]].
The poem opens with the words ''Vicisti, Galilæe'', [[Latin]] for "You have conquered, O Galilean," the apocryphal [[Famous last words|dying words]] of the Emperor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]]. He had tried to reverse the official endorsement of [[Christianity]] by the [[Roman Empire]]. The poem is cast in the form of a [[lament]] by a person professing the [[paganism]] of [[classical antiquity]] and lamenting its passing, and expresses regret at the rise of [[Christianity]]:
:''Thou hast conquered, O pale Galilean; the world has grown grey from thy breath;''
:''We have drunken of things [[Lethe]]an, and fed on the fullness of death.''
The poem is addressed to the [[goddess]] [[Proserpina]], the Roman equivalent of [[Persephone]].
==External links==
*[http://eir.library.utoronto.ca/rpo/display/poem2088.html Full text]
[[Category:British poems]]
{{poetry-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Triumph of Time</title>
<id>1638</id>
<revision>
<id>30776356</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-10T01:10:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Djnjwd</username>
<id>9595</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>ext link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''The Triumph of Time''' is a poem by [[Algernon Swinburne]], published in [[1866]]. It is in adapted [[ottava rima]] and is full of elaborate use of literary devices, particularly [[alliteration]]. The theme, which purports to be autobiographical, is that of rejected love. The (male) speaker deplores the ruin of his life, and in tones at times reminiscent of ''[[Hamlet]]'', craves oblivion, for which the sea serves as a constant metaphor.
==External links--
*[http://eir.library.utoronto.ca/rpo/display/poem2104.html Complete text]
*[http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/swinburne/swinburne9.html#1 ''Victorian Web'' article]
[[Category:British poems]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 28</title>
<id>1639</id>
<revision>
<id>41531580</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T23:55:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.142.181.128</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=28}}
|}
'''April 28''' is the 118th day of the year (119th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], with 247 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1253]] - [[Nichiren]], a [[Japan]]ese [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monk, propounds ''[[Nam Myoho Renge Kyo]]'' for the first time and declares it to be the essence of Buddhism, in effect founding [[Nichiren Buddhism]].
*[[1788]] - [[Maryland]] becomes the 7th state to ratify the [[Constitution of the United States]].
*[[1789]] - [[Mutiny]] on the [[Mutiny on the Bounty (history)|HMS ''Bounty'']]. Captain [[William Bligh]] and 18 sailors are set adrift and the rebel crew sets sail for [[Pitcairn Island]].
*[[1796]] - The [[Armistice of Cherasco]] is signed by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] and [[Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia|Vittorio Amedeo III]], the [[King of Sardinia]], expanding French territory along the [[Mediterranean]] coast.
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Admiral]] [[David Farragut]] captures [[New Orleans, Louisiana]].
*[[1867]] - [[Pi Beta Phi]] Fraternity for Women founded at [[Monmouth College]] in Monmouth, [[Illinois]]
*[[1920]] - [[Azerbaijan]] is added to the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1930]] - The first night game in organized baseball history takes place in [[Independence, Kansas]].
*[[1932]] - A [[vaccine]] for [[yellow fever]] is announced for use on [[human]]s.
*[[1945]] - [[Benito Mussolini]] and his mistress [[Clara Petacci]] are executed by members of the [[Italian resistance movement]].
*[[1947]] - [[Thor Heyerdahl]] and five crewmates set out from [[Peru]] on the ''[[Kon-Tiki]]'' to prove that Peruvian natives could have settled [[Polynesia]].
*[[1950]] - King of Thailand, [[Bhumibol Adulyadej]], got married with his queen,[[Queen Sirikit]], after their quiet engagement in Lausanne, Switzerland on July 19, 1949.
*[[1952]] - [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] resigns as Supreme Commander of [[NATO]] in order to run for [[President of the United States]].
*1952 - [[Occupied Japan]]: The [[United States]] occupation of [[Japan]] ends.
*[[1965]] - [[United States]] troops land in the [[Dominican Republic]] to "forestall establishment of a [[Communist]] dictatorship" and to evacuate U.S. citizens.
*[[1967]] - [[Expo 67]] opens in [[Montréal]], Québec, Canada
*[[1969]] - [[Charles de Gaulle]] resigns as [[President of France]].
*[[1970]] - [[Vietnam War]]: U.S. President [[Richard M. Nixon]] formally authorizes [[United States|American]] combat troops to fight [[communist]] sanctuaries in [[Cambodia]].
*[[1977]] - The [[Red Army Faction]] trial ends, with [[Andreas Baader]], [[Gudrun Ensslin]] and [[Jan-Carl Raspe]] found guilty of four counts of [[murder]] and more than 30 counts of [[attempted murder]].
*1977 - The [[Budapest Treaty|Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure]] is signed.
*[[1978]] - [[President of Afghanistan]] [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]] is overthrown and [[assassin]]ated in a [[coup]] led by pro-communist rebels.
*[[1981]] - [[Galicia (Spain)|Galician]] current [[Galician Statute of Autonomy|Statute of Autonomy]]
*[[1987]] - [[United States|U.S.]] engineer [[Ben Linder]] is killed in an ambush by US-funded [[Contras]] in northern [[Nicaragua]].
*[[1988]] - Near [[Maui, Hawaii]], a [[flight attendant]] is sucked out of [[Aloha Flight 243]], a [[Boeing 737]], and falls to her death when an upper part of the plane's cabin area rips off in mid-flight. Metal fatigue is later found to be the cause of the failure.
*[[1990]] - After 6,237 performances, the [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] musical ''[[A Chorus Line]]'' closes.
*[[1994]] - Former [[Central Intelligence Agency]] official [[Aldrich Ames]] pleads guilty to giving [[United States|U.S.]] secrets to the [[Soviet Union]] and later [[Russia]].
*[[1996]] - [[Whitewater scandal]]: President [[Bill Clinton]] gives 4 1/2 hour videotaped testimony for the defense.
*1996 - [[Port Arthur massacre]]: [[Martin Bryant]] kills 35 people and wounds another 18 in [[Tasmania]], [[Australia]].
*[[1997]] - The [[1993]] [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] goes into effect. [[Russia]], [[Iraq]] and [[North Korea]] were notable nations who had not ratified the treaty.
*[[2001]] - Millionnaire [[Dennis Tito]] becomes the world's first [[space tourism|space tourist]].
*[[2003]] - [[Apple Computer]]'s [[iTunes Music Store]] launches, selling 1 million songs in its first week.
*2003 - Iraq: 15 unarmed teenagers were killed by American forces in front of a school during a demostration; marking the beginning of the [[Falluja]] riots that took place during [[April 2003]].
*[[2004]] - Pictures of abuse and torture of prisoners by U.S. armed forces at [[Abu Ghraib prison]] are first shown on [[60 Minutes]].
*[[2005]] - The [[Patent Law Treaty]] goes into effect.
==Births==
*[[1442]] - King [[Edward IV of England]] (d. [[1483]])
*[[1630]] - [[Charles Cotton]], English poet (d. [[1687]])
*[[1686]] - [[Michael Brokoff]], Czech sculptor (d. [[1721]])
*[[1715]] - [[Franz Sparry]], composer |
90 degrees)
*Angles larger than a right angle are called '''obtuse angles''' (more than 90 degrees, less that 180).
*Angles equal to two right angles are called '''straight angles''' (equal to 180 degrees).
*Angles large than two right angles are called '''relex angles''' (more than 180 degrees).
*The difference between an acute angle and a right angle is termed the '''complement''' of the angle
*The difference between an angle and two right angles is termed the '''supplement''' of the angle.
==Some facts==
In [[Euclidean geometry]], the inner angles of a [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]] add up to &pi; radians or 180°; the inner angles of a [[quadrilateral]] add up to 2&pi; radians or 360°. In general, the inner angles of a [[polygon|simple polygon]] with ''n'' sides add up to (''n''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;2)&nbsp;&times; &nbsp; &pi; radians or (''n''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;2)&nbsp; &times; &nbsp;180°.
If two [[straight line]]s intersect, four angles are formed. Each one has an equal measure to the angle across from it; these congruent angles are called vertical angles.
If a straight [[transversal line]] intersects two [[Parallel (geometry)|parallel]] lines, corresponding (alternate) angles at the two points of intersection are equal; [[adjacent angles]] are [[supplementary angles|supplementary]], that is they add to &pi; radians or 180°.
==A formal definition==
A Euclidean angle is completely determined by the corresponding right triangle. In particular, if <math>\theta</math> is a Euclidean angle, it is true that
:<math>\cos \theta = \frac{x}{\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}}</math>
and
:<math>\sin \theta = \frac{y}{\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}}</math>
for two numbers <math>x</math> and <math>y</math>. So an angle can be legitimately given by two numbers <math>x</math> and <math>y</math>.
To the ratio <math>\frac{y}{x}</math> there correspond two angles in the geometric range <math>0 < \theta < 2\pi </math>, since
:<math>\frac{\sin \theta }{\cos \theta } = \frac{\frac{y}{\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}}}{\frac{x}{\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}}} = \frac{y}{x} = \frac{-y}{-x} = \frac{\sin (\theta + \pi)}{\cos (\theta + \pi) } </math>
==Angles in different contexts==
In the [[Euclidean space|Euclidean plane]], the angle &theta; between two [[vector (spatial)|vector]]s '''u''' and '''v''' is related to their [[dot product]] and their lengths by the formula
:<math>\mathbf{u} \cdot \mathbf{v} = \cos(\theta)\ \|\mathbf{u}\|\ \|\mathbf{v}\|.</math>
This allows one to define angles in any real [[inner product space]], replacing the Euclidean dot product · by the [[Hilbert space]] inner product <·,·>.
The angle between a line and a [[curve]] (mixed angle) or between two intersecting curves (curvilinear angle) is defined to be the angle between the [[tangent]]s at the point of intersection. Various names (now rarely, if ever, used) have been given to particular cases:&#8212;amphicyrtic (Gr. &#7936;&#956;&#966;&#8055;, on both sides, &#954;&#965;&#961;&#964;&#8057;&#963;, [[convex]]) or cissoidal (Gr. &#954;&#953;&#963;&#963;&#8057;&#963;, ivy), biconvex; xystroidal or sistroidal (Gr. &#958;&#965;&#963;&#964;&#961;&#8055;&#963;, a tool for scraping), concavo-convex; amphicoelic (Gr. &#954;&#959;&#8055;&#955;&#951;, a hollow) or angulus lunularis, biconcave.
Two intersecting [[plane (mathematics)|planes]] form an angle, called their '''[[dihedral angle]]'''. It is defined as the angle between two lines normal to the planes.
Also a plane and an intersecting line form an angle. This angle is equal to [[pi|&pi;]]/2 radians minus the angle between the intersecting line and the line that goes through the point of intersection and is [[perpendicular]] to the plane.
==Angles in Riemannian geometry==
In [[Riemannian geometry]], the [[metric tensor]] is used to define the angle between two [[tangent]]s. Where ''U'' and ''V'' are tangent vectors and ''g''<sub>''ij''</sub> are the components of the metric tensor ''G'',
:<math>
\cos \theta = \frac{g_{ij}U^iV^j}
{\sqrt{ \left| g_{ij}U^iU^j \right| \left| g_{ij}V^iV^j \right|}}.
</math>
==Angles in astronomy==
In [[astronomy]], one can measure the ''angular separation'' of two [[star]]s by imagining two lines through the [[Earth]], each one intersecting one of the stars.
Then the angle between those lines can be measured; this is the angular separation between the two stars.
Astronomers also measure the [[apparent size]] of objects.
For example, the [[full moon]] has an angular measurement of approximately 0.5°, when viewed from Earth.
One could say, "The Moon subtends an angle of half a degree."
The [[small-angle formula]] can be used to convert such an angular measurement into a distance/size ratio.
==Angles in maritime navigation==
The modern format of angle used to indicate [[longitude]] or [[latitude]] is '''hemisphere degree minute.decimal''', where there are 60 minutes in a degree, for instance '''N 51 23.438''' or '''E 090 58.928'''.
The obsolete (but still commonly used) format of angle used to indicate [[longitude]] or [[latitude]] is '''hemisphere degree minute' second"''', where there are 60 minutes in a degree and 60 seconds in a minute, for instance '''N 51 23&prime;26&Prime;''' or '''E 090 58&prime;57&Prime;'''
==See also==
*[[Central angle]]
*[[Complementary angles]]
*[[Inscribed angle]]
*[[Supplementary angles]]
*[[solid angle]] for a concept of angle in three dimensions.
*[[Astrological aspect]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/triangle/ABisector.shtml Angle Bisectors] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Geometry/PerpBiInQuadri.shtml Angle Bisectors and Perpendiculars in a Quadrilateral] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Geometry/CyQuadri.shtml Angle Bisectors in a Quadrilateral] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/triangle/TriangleFromBisectors.shtml Constructing a triangle from its angle bisectors] at [[cut-the-knot]]
[[Category:Elementary geometry]]
[[Category:Trigonometry]]
[[Category:Angle|*]]
{{Link FA|nl}}
[[ar:زاوية]]
[[bg:Ъгъл]]
[[ca:Angle]]
[[cs:Úhel]]
[[da:Vinkel (matematik)]]
[[de:Winkel (Geometrie)]]
[[es:Ángulo]]
[[eo:Angulo]]
[[fa:زاویه]]
[[fr:Angle]]
[[ko:각도]]
[[io:Angulo]]
[[is:Bogagráða]]
[[it:Angolo]]
[[he:זווית]]
[[nl:Hoek (meetkunde)]]
[[ja:角度]]
[[pl:Kąt]]
[[pt:Ângulo]]
[[ru:Угол]]
[[simple:Angle]]
[[sl:Kot]]
[[sr:Угао (математика)]]
[[fi:Kulma]]
[[sv:Vinkel]]
[[ta:கோணம்]]
[[vi:Góc]]
[[zh:角]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Asa</title>
<id>1197</id>
<revision>
<id>40967640</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T04:18:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Royalbroil</username>
<id>299408</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Asa''' may be any of the following:
*'''[[Asa of Judah]]''', king of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], the son of [[Abijam]], and grandson of [[Rehoboam]].
*Asa, god of the '''[[Akamba]]''' people of [[Kenya]].
*'''[[Asa Dotzler]]''', the founder and coordinator of [[Mozilla]]'s Quality Assurance and Testing Program.
*Ása - the [[genitive]] of '''[[Æsir]]''', the predominant group among the [[Norse mythology|Norse]] gods.
*[[United States Army Security Agency]]
*[[United States]] [[Adult Soccer Association]]
*[[American Speed Association]], was a second-tier [[stock car racing]] circuit in the [[United States]]
''See also'': [[ASA]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acoustics</title>
<id>1198</id>
<revision>
<id>41752280</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:14:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>158.111.4.26</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Measurement methods */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Acoustics''' is a branch of [[physics]] and is the study of [[sound]], mechanical [[wave]]s in [[gas]]es, [[liquid]]s, and [[solid]]s. A [[scientist]] who works in the field of acoustics is an '''acoustician'''. The application of acoustics in [[technology]] is called [[acoustical engineering]]. There is often much overlap and interaction between the interests of acousticians and acoustical engineers.
"... acoustics is characterized by its reliance on combinations of physical principles drawn from other sources; and that the primary task of modern physical acoustics is to effect a fusion of the principles normally adhering to other sciences into a coherent basis for understanding, measuring, controlling, and using the whole gamut of vibrational phenomena in any material Phillip." ''Origins in Acoustics''. F.V. Hunt. Yale University Press, 1978
The main sub-disciplines of acoustics are
* [[Aeroacoustics]] is the study of aerodynamic [[sound]], generated when a fluid flow interacts with a solid surface or with another flow. It has particular application to [[aeronautics]], examples being the study of sound made by jets and the physics of [[shock wave]]s ([[sonic boom]]s).
* [[Architectural acoustics]] is the study of how sound and buildings interact including the behavior of sound in [[concert hall]]s and auditoriums but also in office buildings, factories and homes.
* [[Bioacoustics]] is the study of the use of sound by [[animal]]s such as [[whale]]s, [[dolphin]]s and [[bat]]s.
* [[Biomedical acoustics]] is the study of the use of sound in [[medicine]], for example the use of [[ultrasound]] for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
* [[Loudspeaker acoustics]] is an engineering discipline behind the design of the [[loudspeaker]]
* [[Psychoacoustics]] is the study of how people react to sound, [[ |
roup level to battalion-level special forces training, assigning officers to each other's armed services, and standardizing equipment and operational doctrine. The two countries also operate several joint defence facilities in Australia, mainly ground stations for [[spy satellite|early warning satellites]], and signals intelligence gathering in South-East Asia and East Asia as part of the [[ECHELON]] network.
==History==
===Origins===
The treaty came about following the close cooperation of the United States, Australia and New Zealand during [[World War II]], during which time Australia had come perilously close to invasion by [[Japan]]. Following the end of World War II, the United States was eager to normalize relations with Japan, particularly as the [[Korean War]] was still raging a short distance from Japan. With the involvement of China and possibly the [[Soviet Union]] in Korea, the [[Cold War]] was threatening to become a full-scale war. However, Australia and New Zealand in particular were extremely reluctant to finalize a peace treaty with Japan which would allow for Japanese rearmament. Both countries relented only when an Australian and New Zealand proposal for a three-way security treaty was accepted by the United States.
The resulting treaty was concluded at [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] on [[1 September]] [[1951]], and entered into force on [[29 April]] [[1952]]. The treaty bound the signatories to recognize that an armed attack in the Pacific area on any of them would endanger the peace and safety of the others. It committed them to consult in the event of a threat and, in the event of attack, to meet the common danger in accordance with their respective constitutional processes. The three nations also pledged to maintain and develop individual and collective capabilities to resist attack.
It is interesting to note the treaty itself was not a source of debate for 30 years, though in this period New Zealand and Australia commited forces to the [[Malayan Emergency]] and subsequently the ANZUS nations fought together in the [[Vietnam War]].
===Malaya, Korea, and Vietnam===
New Zealand also fought alongside the United States in the Korea and Vietnam, and sent transport aircraft, maritime patrol aircraft and frigates to the Gulf, as well as a very small number of soldiers, [[Special Air Service of New Zealand|SAS]] soldiers, medical and assorted and peace-keeping forces in Afghanistan &mdash; and despite Prime Minister [[Helen Clark]] being openly critical of American justifications for the war, New Zealand did send engineers and troops to protect them to Iraq. An opinion poll in New Zealand in 2001 [http://www.greenleft.org.au/back/1991/15/15p18b.htm] showed 54% of those sampled preferred to let the treaty lapse rather than accept visits again by nuclear-armed/powered vessels. It seems from the United States point of view there is no need to rely upon ANZUS to obtain New Zealand military support.
===Australian reservations about the MX===
In [[1983]], the United States approached Australia with proposals for testing the new generation of American [[intercontinental ballistic missile]]s, the [[LG-118A_Peacekeeper|MX missile]]. American test ranges in the Pacific were insufficient for testing the new long-range missiles and the United States military wished to use the [[Tasman Sea]] as a target area. Australian Prime Minister [[Malcolm Fraser]] of the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] had agreed to provide monitoring sites near [[Sydney]] for this purpose. However in 1985 the new Prime Minister [[Bob Hawke]] of the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]] withdrew the offer of assistance after protests from within the Left faction of the Labor Party.
===New Zealand bans nuclear ships===
In [[1985]], the nature of the ANZUS alliance changed significantly. Tensions had long been present between Australia, New Zealand and the declared nuclear powers the United States and [[France]] which had conducted nuclear tests on South Pacific islands. Following the victory of the New Zealand Labour Party in elections in [[1984]], Prime Minister [[David Lange]] enacted laws which barred [[nuclear power|nuclear-powered]] or [[nuclear weapon|nuclear-armed]] ships from using New Zealand ports, citing the dangers of nuclear weapons, continued nuclear testing in the South Pacific, and opposition to US President [[Ronald Reagan]]'s policy of aggressively confronting the Soviet Union. Given that the United States Navy refused to confirm or deny the presence of nuclear weapons aboard ships, these laws in effect refused access to New Zealand ports for all ships of the United States Navy. In February 1985, a port-visit request by the United States for the [[USS Buchanan (DDG-14)|USS ''Buchanan'']] was refused by New Zealand, as the ''Buchanan'' was capable of launching nuclear [[depth charge]]s.
On [[10 July]] [[1985]], the French [[DGSE]] bombed the [[Greenpeace]] protest vessel [[Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior|Rainbow Warrior]] in [[Auckland]]. This event strengthened the nation's resolution to oppose in any form the military application of nuclear technology.
===The United States suspends ANZUS obligations to New Zealand===
After consultations with Australia and after negotiations with New Zealand broke down, the United States announced that it was suspending its treaty obligations to New Zealand until United States Navy ships were re-admitted to New Zealand ports, citing that New Zealand was "a friend, but not an ally". The crisis made front-page headlines for weeks in many American newspapers, while many American cabinet members were quoted as expressing a deep sense of "betrayal". It is still often incorrectly stated that David Lange withdrew New Zealand from ANZUS &mdash; he did no such thing; his government's policy may well have led to the US's decision to suspend its treaty obligations to New Zealand, but that was still a decision of the US government, not the New Zealand government.
While the crisis with navy visits was prominent, the United States proved to be more forgiving of Australia's refusal to assist with the Peacekeeper missile. Fearing the total collapse of the ANZUS treaty, the US government decided to accommodate Australian domestic politics, particularly after [[NATO]] countries and other allies such as Japan showed little interest in taking a similar stance against nuclear weapons such as the [[MGM-31 Pershing |Pershing missile]].
===September&nbsp;11, 2001 attacks===
Whilst Australia and New Zealand has fought alongside the United States before the treaty signing including in the [[Korean War]], the [[Vietnam War]], the [[Gulf War]] (Australia only) and elsewhere the ANZUS treaty's provisions for assistance when a member nation comes under threat were officially invoked for the first time by Australia after the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack|September&nbsp;11, 2001 terrorist attacks]]. Australia is also a contributor to the [[National Missile Defense]] system. [http://usembassy-australia.state.gov/ausmin/2004/missile-defense.html] [http://www.foreignminister.gov.au/releases/2003/fa151_03.html]
===East Timor===
Between 1999 and 2003 the armed forces of Australia and New Zealand deployed together in a large scale operation in [[East Timor]], to prevent pro-Indonesian Militia from overturning a vote for independence and conducting ethnic cleansing on the island. The United States provided only limited logistical support. The operation was taken over by the [[United Nations]].
===Taiwan===
One topic that became prominent in the early 2000s are its implications in the case of a hypothetical attack by the [[People's Republic of China]] against [[Taiwan]] with the [[Republic_of_China|ROC]] (Taiwan) receiving American support. While Australia has strong cultural and economic ties with the United States, it also has an increasingly important trade relationship with [[mainland China]].
In August 2004, Foreign Minister [[Alexander Downer]] implied in Beijing that the treaty would likely not apply to that situation, but he was quickly corrected by Prime Minister [[John Howard]]. In March 2005, after an official of the [[People's Republic of China]] stated that it may be necessary for Australia to reassess the treaty and after the PRC passed an [[Anti-Secession Law]] regarding the ROC, Downer stated that in case of a PRC attack on the ROC, the treaty would come into force, but that the treaty would require only consultations with the United States and not necessarily commit Australia to war.
===The alliance today===
Annual bilateral meetings between the US Secretary of State and the Australian Foreign Minister replaced annual meetings of the ANZUS Council of Foreign Ministers. The first bilateral meeting was held in [[Canberra]] in 1985. At the second, in [[San Francisco]] in [[1986]], the United States and Australia announced that the United States was suspending its treaty security obligations to New Zealand pending the restoration of port access. Subsequent bilateral Australia-US Ministerial (AUSMIN) meetings have alternated between Australia and the United States.
The alliance engenders some political controversy in Australia. Particularly after Australian involvement in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 war on Iraq]], some quarters of Australian society have called for a re-evaluation of the relationship between the two nations. Nonetheless the alliance enjoyed broad support during the [[Cold War]] [http://assda.anu.edu.au/polls/M0004.html] and continues to enjoy broad support in Australia. [http://www.australianpolitics.com/foreign/anzus/01-06-30gnehm.shtml] [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/03/29/1080544419833.html?oneclick=true] One commentator in Australia has argued that the treaty should be re-negotiated in the context of terrorism, the modern role of the United Nations and as a purely US-Australian alliance. [http:/ |
rg railway station|Brussels Luxembourg/Luxemburg]]
* [[Schuman station|Brussels Schuman]]
The last two stations located in the municipality of Brussels (they also are on the North-South Junction and operate only in rush hours) are:
* Brussels Congress (French: ''Bruxelles-Congrès'', Dutch:''Brussel-Congres'')
* Brussels Chapel (French: ''Bruxelles-Chapelle'', Dutch: ''Brussel-Kapellekerk'')
Other railway stations in other Brussels municipalities include :
* Schaarbeek (French: ''Schaerbeek'')
* Etterbeek
* Ukkel Stalle (French: ''Uccle Stalle'')
* Ukkel Kalevoet (French: ''Uccle Calevoet'')
* Jette
* [[Mérode station|Merode]]
* [[Delta station|Delta]]
* Sint-Job (French: ''Saint-Job'')
* Vorst Oost (French: ''Forest Est'')
* Vorst Zuid (French: ''Forest Midi'')
* Sint-Agatha-Berchem (French: ''Berchem Sainte-Agathe'')
* Sint-Gillis (French: ''Saint-Gilles'')
* Watermaal (French: ''Watermael'')
* Bosvoorde (French: ''Boitsfort'')
* Boondaal (French: ''Boondael'')
* Meiser
===Road network===
Brussels has an [[beltway|orbital]] [[motorway]], numbered ''R0'' (R-zero) and commonly referred to as the "ring" (French : ''ring'' Dutch: ''grote ring''). It is pear-shaped as the southern side was never built as originally conceived, owing to residents' objections.
The city centre, sometimes known as "the pentagon", is surrounded by the "small ring" (Dutch: ''kleine ring'', French: ''petite ceinture''), a sequence of boulevards formally numbered ''R20''. These were built upon the site of the second set of city walls following their demolition. Metro line 2 runs under much of these.
On the eastern side of the city, the ''R21'' (French: ''grande ceinture'', no particular name in Dutch) is formed by a string of boulevards that curves round from Laken ([[Laeken]]) to Ukkel ([[Uccle]]). Some ''premetro'' stations (see [[Brussels metro]]) were built on that route. A little further out, a stretch numbered R22 leads from [[Zaventem]] to [[Sint-Job]].
==Conferences and world fairs==
Brussels hosted the third ''[[Congrès international d'architecture moderne]]'' in [[1930]].
Two world fairs took place in Brussels, the ''[[1935 world fair|Exposition universelle et internationale]]'' (1935) and the [[Expo '58]] in [[1958]]. The [[Atomium]], a 103 metre representation of an [[iron]] crystal was built for the Expo '58, and is still there.
Throughout [[2003]], Brussels celebrated native son [[Jacques Brel]] on the 25th anniversary of his death.
==See also==
===Places of interest===
{{Commons|Brussel|Brussels}}
*[[Atomium]]
*[[Mini-Europe]]
*''[[La Bourse]]'' (Dutch: ''De Beurs'')
*''[[Grand-Place]]'' (Dutch: ''Grote Markt'')
*[[Heysel]] (Dutch: ''Heizel'')
*[[Jeanneke Pis]]
*[[Basilica of the Sacred Heart, Belgium|Basilica of the Sacred Heart]] in Koekelberg
*[[The Jubilee Arch]] (French: ''Les Arcades du Cinquantenaire'', Dutch: ''Triomfboog'')
*[[Manneken Pis]]
*[[De Munt]] (French: ''[[La Monnaie]]'')
*[[Saint Michael and Saint Gudula Cathedral]]
*[[The Floral Carpet]] (not permanent)
*[[Tour et Taxis]]
*[[Palais Stoclet]] (Dutch: Stoclethuis)
*[[Maison Horta]] (Dutch: Hortahuis)
===Notable parks===
[[Image:Brussels - Grand Place, Floral Carpet - 20040813 modified.jpg|thumb|right|The Floral Carpet on the "Grote Markt" in 2004]]
* ''[[Parc de Bruxelles (Brussels)|Parc de Bruxelles]]'' (Dutch: ''Warandepark''), wrongly called ''Parc Royal'' (Dutch: ''Koninklijk Park'')
* ''[[Bois de la Cambre]]'' (Dutch: ''Ter Kamerenbos'')
* ''[[Cinquantenaire]]'' (Dutch: ''Jubelpark'')
* ''[[Parc de Laeken]]'' (Dutch: ''Park van Laken'')
* ''[[Parc de Woluwe]]'' (Dutch: ''Park van Woluwe'')
* ''[[Parc Josaphat]]''
* ''[[Parc Roi Baudouin]]'' (Dutch: ''Koning Boudewijnpark'')
* ''[[Kauberg]]''
* ''[[Jardin botanique]]''
* ''[[Parc Léopold]]'' (Dutch: ''Leopoldpark'')
* ''[[Jardins du Maelbeek]]''
* ''[[Parc Duden]]''
* ''[[Parc Astrid]]''
===Notable people from Brussels===
See also: [[Notable people from Brussels]]
* [[Pierre Alechinsky]], artist
* [[Plastic Bertrand]], musician
* [[Jacques Brel]], musician
* [[Michel De Ghelderode]], dramatist
* [[Marc Didden]], film director
* [[Gudula|Saint Gudulae of Brussels and Eibingen]], Saint of the city and national saint of Belgium
* [[Audrey Hepburn]], actress
* [[Hergé]], [[Franco-Belgian comics|comics]] writer
* [[Victor Horta]], [[Art Nouveau]] architect
* [[Jacky Ickx]], racing driver
* [[Paul-Emile Janson]], politician, former Prime Minister of [[Belgium]]
* [[René Magritte]], painter
* [[Amélie Nothomb]], writer
* [[Peyo]] (Pierre Culliford), illustrator and creator of the [[Smurfs]]
* [[François Schuiten]], [[Franco-Belgian comics|comics]] artist
* [[Paul-Henri Spaak]], politician, several times Minister of Foreign Affairs and Prime Minister of [[Belgium]], former Secretary General of the [[NATO]]
* [[Toots Thielemans]], jazz musician
* [[Jean-Claude Van Damme]], actor; nickname: "The Muscles from Brussels"
* [[Marguerite Yourcenar]], writer and first female member of [[Academie Française]]
===Sports clubs===
* [[R.S.C. Anderlecht]], [[football (soccer)|football]]
* [[F.C. Molenbeek Brussels Strombeek]], football
* [[R. Union Saint-Gilloise]], football
* [[R.R.B.C. Brussels]], [[basketball]]
===Concert halls===
* [http://www.abconcerts.be Ancienne Belgique]
* [http://www.beursschouwburg.be Beursschouwburg]
* [http://www.botanique.be Botanique]
* [http://www.botanique.be Cirque Royal (Dutch: Koninklijk Circus), a dependency of Botanique]
* [http://www.senghor.be Espace Senghor]
* [http://www.flagey.be Flagey]
* [http://www.vorstnationaal.be Vorst Nationaal (French: Forest National)]
* [http://www.halles.be Halles de Schaerbeek (Dutch: Hallen van Schaarbeek)]
* [http://vaartkapoen.vgc.be/ Vaartkapoen]
===Museums===
* Royal Museums of Fine Arts
* Palace of Fine Arts (Paleis voor Schone Kunsten - Palais de beaux-arts)
* Film Museum
* Musical Instrument Museum (MiM)
* National Army Museum
* National Museum for Arts and History
* Comic Book Museum (Musée de la BD - Stripmuseum)
* [[Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences]]
* [[Royal Museum for Central Africa]] (in [[Tervuren]])
* [http://www.museedujouet.be''Brussels' toys museum'] (only available in French at the moment)
===Other===
* [[List of Minister-Presidents of Brussels]]
* [[Brussels sprout]] - the vegetable named after the city
* [[Art Nouveau]]
* [[List of metro stations of Brussels]]
* [[Sonian Forest]]
* [[Memorial van Damme]]
* [[Eurovision Song Contest 1987]]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Brussels}}
* [http://www.bruxelles.irisnet.be/ Brussels-Capital Region], official site
* {{wikitravelpar|Brussels}}
* [http://www.brussels.org/ Brussels.org], Useful addresses for tourists in Brussels.
* [http://www.500.be Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Brussels] (French: ''Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie de Bruxelles'' or ''CCIB'', Dutch: ''Kamer voor Handel en Nijverheid van Brussel'' or ''KHNB'')
* Transport
** [http://www.brusselsairport.be/ Brussels Airport], at Zaventem
** [http://www.charleroi-airport.com/BSCA/siteEN.nsf/.Accueil?Readform Brussels South Airport], near Charleroi
** [http://www.planitram.be/ Planitram] Public transport in the Region of Brussels Capital, unofficial site (in English and French)
* Maps
**[http://www.hot-maps.de/europe/belgium/brussels/homeen.html Map]
**[http://www.ilotsacre.be/site/en/default_en.htm Interactive map of Brussels city centre]
* Museums
**[http://www.fine-arts-museum.be/ Royal Museums of Fine Art of Belgium]
*Dialect
**[http://www.avhb.be/publicaties/publicaties.asp Academie van het Brussels]
**[http://www.cyberbruxelles.be/cyberbruxelles/ADIPB.html Académie pour la Défense et l'Illustration du Parler Bruxellois] (Marollien)
* [http://20kmdebruxelles.be/20km/set_en.htm 20km of Brussels] - every year there is a spectacular run with 25,000 runners running 20km
* [http://www.ommegang.be/ Ommegang Festival]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boeing</title>
<id>3709</id>
<revision>
<id>42140955</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:18:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.182.143.126</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = The Boeing Company |
company_logo = [[Image:Boeing-Logo.svg|240px|center|The 1997 logo combines the Boeing typeface with the McDonnell Douglas logo]] |
company_type = [[Public company|Public]] ([[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=BA BA]) |
company_slogan = "Forever new frontiers" |
foundation = 1916 (in 1917, company took on current name), [[Seattle, W |
ess)
===Floating point stack registers===
Initially, IA-32 included floating-point capabilities only on add-on processors (8087, 80287 and 80387.) With the
introduction of the 80486, these 8 80x87 floating point registers, known as ST(0) through ST(7) are built in to the CPU. Each register is 80 bits wide and stores numbers in the extended precision format of the [[IEEE floating-point standard]].
These registers are not accessible directly, but are accessible like a [[LIFO]] stack. The register numbers are not fixed, but are relative to the top of the stack; '''ST(0)''' is the top of the stack, '''ST(1)''' is the next register below the top of the stack, '''ST(2)''' is two below the top of the stack, etc. That means that data is always pushed down from the top of the stack, and operations are always done against the top of the stack. So you couldn't just access any register randomly, it has to be done in the stack order.
===SIMD registers===
[[MMX]], [[3DNow!]], and [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]] also added new registers of their own to the IA-32 instruction set.
====MMX registers====
'''MMX''' added 8 new "registers" to the architecture, known as MM0 through MM7 (henceforth referred to as ''MMn''). In reality, these new "registers" were just aliases for the existing x87 FPU stack registers. Hence, anything that was done to the floating point stack would also affect the MMX registers. Unlike the FP stack, these MMn registers were fixed not relative, and therefore they were randomly accessible.
Each of the MMn registers are 64-bit integers. However, one of the main concepts of the MMX instruction set is the concept of ''packed data types'', which means instead of using the whole register for a single 64-bit integer ([[quadword]]), two 32-bit integers ([[Integer (computer science)|doubleword]]), four 16-bit integers ([[Integer (computer science)|word]]) or eight 8-bit integers ([[Integer (computer science)|byte]]) may be used.
Also because the MMX's 64-bit MMn registers are aliased to the FPU stack, and each of the stack registers are 80-bit wide, the upper 16-bits of the stack registers go unused in MMX, and these bits are set to all ones, which makes it look like NaN's or infinities in the floating point view. This makes it easier to tell whether you are working on a floating point data or MMX data.
====3DNow! registers====
'''3DNow!''' was designed to be the natural evolution of MMX from integers to floating point. As such, it uses the exact same register naming convention as MMX, that is MM0 through MM7. The only difference is that instead of packing byte to quadword integers into these registers, one would pack [[single precision]] floating points into these registers.
The advantage of aliasing registers with the FPU registers is that the same instruction and data structures used to save the state of the FPU registers can also be used to save 3DNow! register states. Thus no special modifications are required to be made to operating systems which would otherwise not know about.
====SSE registers====
'''SSE''' discarded all legacy connections to the FPU stack. This also meant that this instruction set discarded all legacy connections to previous generations of SIMD instruction sets like MMX. But it freed the designers up, allowing them to use larger registers, not limited by the size of the FPU registers. The designers created eight 128-bit registers, named XMM0 through XMM7. (''Note'': in [[AMD64]], the number of SSE XMM registers has been increased from 8 to 16.)
But the downside is that operating systems had to have an awareness of this new set of instructions in order to be able to save their register states. So Intel created a slightly modified version of Protected mode, called Enhanced mode which enables the usage of SSE instructions, whereas they stay disabled in regular Protected mode. An OS that is aware of SSE will activate Enhanced mode, whereas an unaware OS will only enter into traditional Protected mode.
SSE is a SIMD instruction set that works only on floating point values, like 3DNow!. However, unlike 3DNow! it severs all legacy connection to the FPU stack. Because it has larger registers than 3DNow!, SSE can pack twice the number of [[single precision]] floats into its registers. The original SSE was limited to only single-precision numbers, like 3DNow!. The SSE2 introduced the capability to pack [[double precision]] numbers too, which 3DNow! had no possibility of doing since a double precision number is 64-bit in size which would be the full size of a single 3DNow! MMn register. At 128-bit, the SSE XMMn registers could pack two double precision floats into one register. Thus SSE2 is much more suitable for scientific calculations than either SSE1 or 3DNow!, which were limited to only single precision.
==Instructions==
The full listing of the x86 machine language [[mnemonic]]s including integer, floating point, and SIMD instructions can be found in the [[X86 instruction listings]] link. They are categorized into a chronological and hierarchal format showing when the instructions first became available, and what category of instructions they are.
The original IA-32 instruction set has been evolved over time with the addition of the multimedia instruction updates. However, the ultimate evolution of IA-32 was when it was extended again to 64-bits, but of course at that point it cannot be called IA-32 anymore; the 64-bit extension is called [[x86-64]]. It could not be called [[IA-64]] as Intel had already used this label for the [[Itanium]] design (a design which is not really an evolution of the IA-32 architecture). AMD's [[AMD64]] was the first x86-64 instruction set designed. Later, Intel followed by imitating AMD's design with what they call [[EM64T]].
===SIMD Multimedia Instruction Set updates===
Various generations of IA-32 CPUs since have added several extensions to the original instruction set. They were known technically as ''SIMD'' instruction sets. However, more colloquially they were known as ''Multimedia'' instruction sets, because they were mainly used in multimedia entertainment software applications.
* The [[MMX]] extensions were the first major upgrade. This was a set of integer-only [[SIMD]] instructions. This was co-introduced by Intel and AMD in their [[Pentium MMX]] and [[AMD K6|K6]] processors, in 1997. It shared its registers with the '''x87''' FPU; therefore operating systems did not have to be modified to accept these instructions, they automatically worked if the OS also supported x87 state-saving.
* MMX was further upgraded with the addition of floating-point SIMD capabilities, with the introduction of [[3dnow!|3DNow!]] in early 1999. Like '''MMX''', this set shared its registers with the '''x87''' FPU too. This extension was introduced by AMD in the [[K6-2]] processor, but it was never picked up by Intel.
* [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]] was single precision floating point SIMD introduced by Intel in late 1999, with the introduction of the [[Pentium III]] processor. Unlike '''3DNow!''', it was not an extension to the '''MMX''' extension, nor did it share its registers with the '''x87''' FPU. It required some modifications to operating systems for them to work. This added programming inconvenience was made up for by the fact that SSE worked unencumbered by any of the old limitations of the '''x87''' FPU. This instruction set was adopted eventually by AMD starting with its [[Athlon]] XP processor; all further extensions to SSE will likely be adopted by AMD from now on, as it will no longer make any extensions to its own '''3DNow!''' instructions.
* [[SSE2]] was introduced in early 2001 with the introduction of the [[Pentium 4]] processor. This was a further upgrade to the original '''SSE''', adding double precision operations to its bag of tricks.
* [[SSE3]] was introduced in early 2004, in an upgraded version of the Pentium 4, codenamed Prescott. It featured some minor tweaks to the '''SSE2''' extensions.
===Next-generation 64-bit Instruction Sets===
Two new instruction sets can claim to be the 64-bit successor to IA-32. One of them builds on top of IA-32 but has a different name, while the other one discards IA-32 completely but has a similar name.
====IA-64====
Intel's [[IA-64]] architecture is not directly compatible with the IA-32 instruction set. It completely discards all IA-32 instructions, and starts from scratch with a completely different instruction set as well as using a [[Very long instruction word|VLIW]] design instead of [[out-of-order execution]]. IA-64 is the architecture used by their [[Itanium]] line of processors. The Itanium has hardware-support for IA-32, though very slow because of the different approach. IA-32 execution mode is set by the [[Extensible Firmware Interface|EFI]] program loaded on boot-up. The nomenclature "IA-64" means "Intel Architecture, 64-bit", but the connection with IA-32 is only in the name.
====AMD64====
[[AMD]]'s [[AMD64]] instruction set, aka [[x86-64]], is largely built on top of IA-32, and thus maintains the [[x86]] family heritage. While extending the instruction set, AMD took the opportunity to clean up some of the odd behaviour of this instruction set that has existed (plagued?) since its earliest 16-bit days, while the processor is operating in 64-bit mode. They also doubled the number of general purpose registers from 8 to 16; and the general purpose registers are now much more truly general-purpose registers. They also doubled the number of SSE registers from 8 to 16 as well. They have also deprecated most of the functionality of the segment registers, since their usage has steadily declined even during the IA-32 days.
=====EM64T=====
By February 2004, Intel implicitly acknowledged the logic of the AMD64 instruction set, deriving from it the [[EM64T]] instruction set, which is very similar to AMD64. This extension is compatible with code written |
emissions &mdash; whether the "accidental" byproducts of a radio capable civilization, or deliberate radio broadcasts (like [[Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence|CETI's]] [[Arecibo message]]) &mdash; may yield evidence of extraterrestrial civilizations. Careful analysis of radio emissions from space, searching for signals that cannot be attributed to natural processes, may lead to detection of such alien civilizations.
Such a search is not as easy as might be thought. It is a popular notion that broadband, omnidirectional transmissions such as radio and television shows could be detected over a distance of light years. However, it has been estimated [http://setifaq.org/faq.html#1.2.3] that with a radio telescope as sensitive as the [[Arecibo Observatory]], Earth's television and radio broadcasts would only be detectable at distances up to 0.3 [[light year]]s (the closest star to our sun is [[Proxima Centauri]] at 4.3 light years).
The detectability of signals is vastly improved if the signal energy is focused in either a narrow range of frequencies ([[Narrowband]] transmissions), and/or concentrated directionally at a specific part of the sky. Such signals ''can'' be detected at ranges of hundreds to tens of thousands of light-years distance [http://setifaq.org/faq.html#1.6]. This increase in range is offset by a requirement for more finely tuned receivers (listening to the ''specific'' bandwidth the signal is in), and/or the receiver existing in the direction that a more narrowly focused beam is sent.
If we expect to detect alien civilizations through their radio emissions, we either need to create much more sensitive instruments, hope that the broadband radio emissions of alien radio technology are much stronger than our own, hope that one of our SETI programs are listening to the correct frequencies from the right regions of space, or hope that aliens are sending focused transmissions such as the Arecibo message in our general direction.
==== Direct planetary observation ====
[[Image:Earthlights dmsp.jpg|333px|thumb|right|A composite picture of Earth at night. Human civilization is detectable from space.]]
Relatively recent developments in astronomical instruments, and methods of analyzing astronomical data, have led to the detection of [[Extrasolar planet|planets outside our solar system]]. While this is a new field in astronomy, it is hoped that we may eventually be able to find planets which are likely to be able to support some form of life, or perhaps even find direct observational evidence for the existence of life such as the [[absorption spectrum]] of [[chlorophyll]] in light filtered through a planet's atmosphere. Such location of potential or actual "life bearing" planets would help narrow the search for ''intelligent'' life, and perhaps even find direct observational evidence of an alien technological civilization (see right).
<br style="clear: both;"/>
==== Alien constructs ====
===== Probes, colonies, and other artifacts =====
As already noted, if we assume that technologically advanced extraterrestrial life exists (or has existed) in our galaxy, then given the age of the universe, and the relative rapidity at which dispersion of intelligent life can occur &mdash; even at sub-light speeds &mdash; it may be that some day we will find evidence of alien colonization attempts. While it is clear that there are no ''obvious'' alien colonies nearby, perhaps we should try to find evidence of such colonization behavior, both within our solar system and abroad.
Additionally, we might look for evidence of "unbeinged" exploration in the form of probes and information gathering devices. Some theoretical exploration techniques such as the [[Von Neumann probe]] could exhaustively explore a [[galaxy]] the size of the [[Milky Way]] in as little as half a million years, with relatively little investment in materials and energy compared to the results. If even a ''single'' civilization in our galaxy attempt this, such probes would spread throughout the ''entire'' galaxy. We might eventually find evidence of such probes in our solar system &mdash; perhaps in the [[asteroid]]s where raw materials would be plentiful and easily accessed.
Another possibility for contact with an alien probe &mdash; one that would be trying to find ''us'' &mdash; is an alien [[Bracewell probe]] [http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/B/Bracewellprobes.html]. Such a device would be an autonomous space probe whose purpose is to seek out and communicate with alien civilizations (as opposed to Von Neumann probes, which are usually described as purely exploratory). These were proposed as an alternative to carrying a slow speed-of-light dialog between vastly distant neighbors. Rather than contending with the long delays a radio dialog would suffer, a probe housing an [[artificial intelligence]] would seek out an alien civilization to carry on a close range dialog with the discovered civilization. The findings of such a probe would still have to be transmitted to the home civilization at light speed, but an information-gathering dialog could be conducted in real time. There have been attempts to scan for such probes lying dormant within our solar system by scientists [[Robert Freitas]] and Francisco Valdes [http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/S/SETV.html].
===== Advanced stellar scale artifacts =====
Dr. [[Freeman Dyson]] observed that every developing human civilization constantly ''increases'' its energy consumption. Theoretically, a civilization of sufficient age would need '''all''' the energy produced by its sun. The [[Dyson Sphere]] was the [[thought experiment]] solution that he derived. A Dyson sphere is a shell or cloud of objects (there are several variants of the Dyson sphere) enclosing a star to harness as much of the radiant energy of that star as possible. Were such a feat of [[astroengineering]] accomplished by an advanced civilization, it would consume energy from the star and reradiate a portion into space as waste energy. A star surrounded by such an object (or objects) would thus emit a distinctive altered spectrum; it would be at least partly a [[blackbody|black body]] [[spectroscopy|spectrum]] without the strong [[emission line]]s of a natural [[stellar atmosphere]]. Dyson himself speculated that advanced alien civilizations might be detected by examining the spectra of stars, searching for such an altered spectrum.
However, it may be that such constructs are more difficult to detect than originally thought. Dyson spheres may have different emission spectra depending on the desired internal environment. For example, life based on high-temperature reactions may require high internal temperatures for their Dyson sphere that would result in "waste radiation" in the visible spectrum, not the infrared. Additionally, variants on the Dyson sphere have been proposed that might be almost undetectable: the multiple concentric spheres of a [[Matrioshka Brain]] &mdash; each one radiating less energy per area than the next smallest one, with the outermost sphere radiating at close to the background radiation &mdash; would be difficult to observe from any great distance.
It is also possible that civilizations may find alternate solutions to their energy demands, using technology that is beyond our current theoretical understanding, or engineering capability to realize. Such a civilization would not need to construct a Dyson sphere.
Other stellar-scale artifacts, that might be created by civilizations high on the [[Kardashev scale]] (see [[Ringworld]]s, [[Alderson disk]]s, [[Shkadov thruster]]s, and [[Stellar engine]]s) might also be directly observable at interstellar distances.
=== How we have been looking ===
==== Radio and signal emissions: SETI ====
''Main article:'' [[SETI]].
===== Assumptions behind SETI searches =====
Given the sheer size of the radio search needed to look for signals from extraterrestrial civilizations &mdash; searching an entire ''galaxy'' is a big job &mdash; and the limited amount of resources committed to [[SETI]], most SETI programs have tried to narrow their search by making some assumptions about alien life.
* SETI assumes that most alien life will occur around planets that orbit [[main sequence]] stars &mdash; and concentrates on [[Yellow dwarf|Sun like stars]] in particular.
* SETI assumes that extraterrestrial intelligent life will most likely be based on [[carbon]], and will most likely be found on water bearing worlds.
* Many SETI searches assume that extraterrestrial civilizations will be broadcasting a ''deliberate'' signal (like our own [[Arecibo message]]), in order to be found. Project SENTINAL went so far as to assume that a signal might be beamed ''directly and deliberately'' at our own Sun.
* SETI assumes that such signals will be a [[sine wave]] based [[carrier wave]] with no complex [[modulation]], and using a narrow band transmission.
Essentially, SETI is only searching for simple deliberate signals, from carbon/water based life-forms, living on Earth-like planets, orbiting Sun-like stars.
SETI programs are doing what they can given the resources allocated for such a large problem, but these assumptions might very well be incorrect. It may be that there are civilizations in space that do not match SETI's profile, and which we will not detect until the form of our search changes.
===== A brief history of SETI searches =====
Radio and observational data have for several decades been collected and analyzed by such projects as [[Project Ozma]], the [[SETI|Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence]] (SETI), and the various projects searching for [[extrasolar planet|extrasolar planets]]. So far the SETI data show no known main sequence stars with unusually bright radio emissions.
====== OZMA ======
In [[1960]], [[Cornell University]] astronomer |
decoration: underline"|''[[Non-breaking space|NBSP]]''
|[[exclamation mark|&#161;]]
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|[[copyright|&#169;]]
|[[ª]]
|[[angle quotes|&#171;]]
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|style="text-decoration: underline"|''[[soft hyphen|SHY]]''
|[[trademark|®]]
|[[macron|&#175;]]
|-
!Bx
|[[degree (symbol)|°]]
|[[plus-minus sign|&#177;]]
|[[square (algebra)|²]]
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|[[acute accent|&#180;]]
|[[micro sign|&#181;]]
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|[[¹]]
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|[[¼]]
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|[[question mark|&#191;]]
|-
!Cx
|[[À]]||[[Á]]||[[Â]]||[[Ã]]||[[Ä]]||[[Å]]||[[Æ]]||[[cedilla|Ç]]||[[È]]||[[É]]||[[Ê]]||[[Ë]]||[[Ì]]||[[Í]]||[[Î]]||[[Ï]]
|-
!Dx
|[[Ð]]||[[Ñ]]||[[Ò]]||[[Ó]]||[[Ô]]||[[Õ]]||[[Ö]]||[[×]]||[[Ø]]||[[Ù]]||[[Ú]]||[[Û]]||[[Ü]]||[[Ý]]||[[Þ]]||[[ß]]
|-
!Ex
|[[à]]||[[á]]||[[â]]||[[ã]]||[[ä]]||[[å]]||[[æ]]||[[ç]]||[[è]]||[[é]]||[[ê]]||[[ë]]||[[ì]]||[[í]]||[[î]]||[[ï]]
|-
!Fx
|[[ð]]||[[ñ]]||[[ò]]||[[ó]]||[[ô]]||[[õ]]||[[ö]]||[[÷]]||[[ø]]||[[ù]]||[[ú]]||[[û]]||[[ü]]||[[ý]]||[[þ]]||[[ÿ]]
|}
Code values 00&ndash;1F, 7F, and 80&ndash;9F are not assigned to characters by ISO/IEC 8859-1.
== Related character maps ==
The ISO/IEC 8859-1 standard has long been the basis of a number of ''character maps'', also known as ''character sets'', ''charsets'', or ''code pages'', the most popular being '''ISO-8859-1''' (note the extra hyphen) and [[Windows-1252]]. Both of these maps are a superset of ISO/IEC 8859-1; they supplement the standard's 191 character assignments by mapping additional characters to at least some portion of the code value ranges 00&ndash;1F, 7F, and 80&ndash;9F.
=== ISO-8859-1 ===
In [[1992]], the [[IANA]] registered the character map '''ISO_8859-1:1987''', more commonly known by its preferred [[MIME]] name of ISO-8859-1 (note the extra hyphen over ISO 8859-1), a superset of ISO 8859-1, for use on the [[Internet]]. This map assigns the [[C0 and C1 control character]]s to the code values 00&ndash;1F, 7F, and 80&ndash;9F. It thus provides for 256 characters via every possible 8-bit value.
ISO-8859-1 is (according to the standards at least) the default encoding of documents delivered via [[HTTP]] with a [[MIME type]] beginning with "text/". It is the default encoding of the values of certain descriptive HTTP headers, and is the standard encoding used by the [[X Window System]] on most [[Unix]] machines. It was also the basis of the repertoire of characters allowed in [[HTML]] 3.2 documents (HTML 4.0, however, is based on [[unicode]]).
Escape sequences (from ISO/IEC 6429 or [[ISO/IEC 2022]]) are not to be interpreted in documents labeled as ISO-8859-1 encoded. As well as the canonical name and preferred MIME name mentioned above, the following other aliases are registered for ISO-8859-1: '''ISO_8859-1''', '''ISO-8859-1''', '''iso-ir-100''', '''csISOLatin1''', '''latin1''', '''l1''', '''IBM819''', '''CP819'''. ISO-8859-1 was also incorporated as the first 256 code points of [[unicode]].
In the table below only the rows affected by the IANA's additions are shown; for the rest please refer to the main table at the start of the article.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! !!-0!!-1!!-2!!-3!!-4!!-5!!-6!!-7!!-8!!-9!!-A!!-B!!-C!!-D!!-E!!-F
|-
!0-
|[[Null character|NUL]]||[[Start of Heading|SOH]]||[[Start of Text|STX]]||[[End of Text|ETX]]||[[End of Transmission|EOT]]||[[Enquiry|ENQ]]||[[Acknowledge|ACK]]||[[Bell character|BEL]]||[[Backspace|BS]]||[[Tab|TAB]]||[[Line Feed|LF]]||[[Vertical Tab|VT]]||[[Form Feed|FF]]||[[Carriage Return|CR]]||[[Shift Out|SO]]||[[Shift In|SI]]
|-
!1-
|[[Data Link Escape|DLE]]||[[Device Control 1|DC1]]||[[Device Control 2|DC2]]||[[Device Control 3|DC3]]||[[Device Control 4|DC4]]||[[Negative-acknowledge character|NAK]]||[[Synchronous Idle|SYN]]||[[End of Transmission Block|ETB]]||[[Cancel character|CAN]]||[[End of Medium|EM]]||[[Substitute (character)|SUB]]||[[Escape character|ESC]]||[[File Separator|FS]]||[[Group Separator|GS]]||[[Record Separator|RS]]||[[Unit Separator|US]]
|-
!7-
|p||q||r||s||t||u||v||w||x||y||z||{||&#124;||}||~||[[Delete|DEL]]
|-
!8-
|[[Padding Character|PAD]]||[[High Octet Preset|HOP]]||[[Break Permitted Here|BPH]]||[[No Break Here|NBH]]||[[Index|IND]]||[[Next Line|NEL]]||[[Start of Selected Area|SSA]]||[[End of Selected Area|ESA]]||[[Character Tabulation Set|HTS]]||[[Character Tabulation with Justification|HTJ]]||[[Line Tabulation Set|VTS]]||[[Partial Line Forward|PLD]]||[[Partial Line Backward|PLU]]||[[Reverse Line Feed|RI]]||[[Single Shift 2|SS2]]||[[Single Shift 3|SS3]]
|-
!9-
|[[Device Control String|DCS]]||[[Private Use 1|PU1]]||[[Private Use 2|PU2]]||[[Set Transmit State|STS]]||[[Cancel Character|CCH]]||[[Message Waiting|MW]]||[[Start of Guarded Area|SPA]]||[[End of Guarded Area|EPA]]||[[Start of String|SOS]]||[[Single Graphic Character Introducer|SGCI]]||[[Single Character Introducer|SCI]]||[[Control Sequence Introducer|CSI]]||[[String Terminator|ST]]||[[Operating System Command|OSC]]||[[Privacy Message|PM]]||[[Application Program Command|APC]]
|}
===The ISO-8859-1/Windows-1252 mixup===
It is very common to mislabel text data with the charset label ISO-8859-1, even though the data is really [[Windows-1252]] encoded. In Windows-1252, codes between 0x80 and 0x9F are used for letters and punctuation, whereas they are control codes as in ISO-8859-1. Many web browsers and e-mail clients will interpret ISO-8859-1 control codes as Windows-1252 characters in order to accommodate such mislabeling.
== Similar character sets ==
{{main|Western Latin character sets (computing)}}
The [[Apple Macintosh]] computer introduced a character encoding called Mac Roman, or [[Mac-Roman]], in [[1984]]. It was meant to be suitable for Western European [[desktop publishing]]. It is a superset of ASCII, like ISO-8859-1, and has most of the characters that are in IS0-8859-1 but in a totally different arrangement. A later version, registered with IANA as "Macintosh", replaced the generic currency symbol with the [[euro symbol]]. The few printable characters that are in ISO 8859-1 but not in this set are often a source of trouble when editing text on websites using older Macintosh browsers (including the last version of [[Internet Explorer for Mac]]).
DOS had [[code page 850]], which had all printable characters that ISO-8859-1 had (albeit in a totally different arrangement) plus the most widely used [[graphics character]]s from [[code page 437]].
== External links ==
* [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n411.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-1:1998] final draft of the standard (PDF)
* [http://www.microsoft.com/globaldev/reference/WinCP.asp Windows Codepages]
* [http://www.alanwood.net/demos/charsetdiffs.html Differences between ANSI, ISO-8859-1 and MacRoman Character Sets]
* [http://www.eki.ee/letter/ The Letter Database]
* [http://www.bbsinc.com/iso8859.html ASCII - ISO 8859-1 Table with HTML Entity Names]
* [http://czyborra.com/charsets/iso8859.html The ISO 8859 Alphabet Soup] - Roman Czyborra's history of ISO character sets
[[Category:ISO 8859|ISO 8859-01]]
[[Category:IEC standards]]
[[da:ISO 8859-1]]
[[de:ISO 8859-1]]
[[es:ISO 8859-1]]
[[eo:ISO 8859-1]]
[[fr:ISO 8859-1]]
[[nl:ISO 8859-1]]
[[no:ISO-8859-1]]
[[pl:ISO 8859-1]]
[[ru:ISO 8859-1]]
[[fi:ISO 8859-1]]
[[sv:ISO/IEC 8859-1]]
[[tt:ISO 8859-1]]
[[zh:ISO 8859-1]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ISO/IEC 8859</title>
<id>15020</id>
<revision>
<id>40759681</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T21:09:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.135.199.3</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>added /IEC to ISO links, avoiding redirection</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ISO 8859''', more formally '''ISO/IEC 8859''', is a joint [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] and [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] standard for 8-bit [[character encoding]]s for use by computers. The standard is divided into numbered, separately published parts, such as ISO/IEC 8859-1, ISO/IEC 8859-2, etc., each of which may be informally referred to as a standard in and of itself. There are currently 15 parts.
== Introduction ==
While the bit patterns of the 95 printable [[ASCII]] characters are sufficient to exchange information in modern [[English language|English]], most other languages that use the [[Roman alphabet]] need additional symbols not covered by ASCII, such as ''[[ß]]'' ([[German language|German]]), ''[[ñ]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]) and ''[[å]]'' ([[Swedish (language)|Swedish]] and other [[Nordic language]]s). ISO 8859 sought to remedy this problem by utilizing the eighth bit in an 8-bit [[byte]] in order to allow positions for another 128 characters. (This bit was previously used for data transmission protocol information, or was left unused.) However, more characters were needed than could fit in a single 8-bit character encoding, so several mappings were developed, including at least 10 just to cover the Latin script.
The ISO 8859-''n'' encodings only contain printable characters, and were designed to be used in conjunction with [[control characters]] mapped to the unassigned bytes. To this end a series of encodings registered with the [[IANA]] add the [[C0 and C1 control codes|C0]] control set (control characters mapped to bytes 0 to 31) from [[ISO/IEC 646|ISO 646]] and the [[C0 and C1 control codes|C1]] control set (control characters mapped to bytes 127 to 159) from [[ISO 6429]], resulting in full 8-bit character maps with most, if not all, bytes assigned. These sets have ISO-8859-''n'' as their preferred [[MIME]] name or, in cases where a preferred MIME name isn |
oduct_no=SH95357 Purchase 802.11-2003]
[[Category:IEEE 802]]
[[Category:Wi-Fi]]
[[Category:Wireless networking]]
[[de:IEEE 802.11]]
[[es:IEEE 802.11]]
[[fi:802.11]]
[[fr:IEEE 802.11]]
[[he:IEEE 802.11]]
[[it:IEEE 802.11]]
[[ja:IEEE802.11]]
[[ko:IEEE 802.11]]
[[nl:IEEE 802.11]]
[[pl:802.11]]
[[pt:IEEE 802.11]]
[[ru:IEEE 802.11]]
[[sv:IEEE 802.11]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Initialism</title>
<id>14740</id>
<revision>
<id>28001973</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-11T06:26:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RoyBoy</username>
<id>94806</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/199.172.228.242|199.172.228.242]] to last version by Nohat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Acronym and initialism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irn-Bru</title>
<id>14741</id>
<revision>
<id>41366063</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:01:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.53.125.5</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Exports and foreign markets */ Canadian bru is also missing quinine which greatly affects the taste</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For a Cuban soft drink with a similar name, see [[Ironbeer]]''
[[Image:Irn-Bru logo.jpg|175px|right|Irn-Bru logo]]
[[Image:Fm_irnbru.jpg|thumb|200px|Irn-Bru]]
'''Irn-Bru''' (pronounced "Iron Brew") was the most popular [[caffeine|caffeinated]] [[soft drink]] in [[Scotland]] until 2005 when both Coca Cola and Diet Coke outsold it. It is made by [[A.G. Barr plc]], of [[Glasgow]]. Barr's Irn-Bru is available in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], [[Russia]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and throughout much of [[Europe]]. The original spelling was '''Iron Brew''', and versions from other manufacturers continue to use the older name (see [[Irn-Bru#History|below]]).
Irn-Bru's advertising slogan used to be "Made in Scotland from [[girder]]s", though the closest one can come to substantiating this claim is the 0.002% ammonium ferric citrate listed in the ingredients.
It has long been the most popular soft drink in Scotland, outselling even [[Coca-Cola]], but recent fierce competition between the two brands has brought their sales to roughly equal levels (perhaps leaning to [[Coca-Cola]]) [http://business.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=639&id=1081882003]. This success in defending its home market (a feat claimed only by Irn-Bru, [[South Australia]]'s [[Farmers Union Iced Coffee]], [[Peru]]'s [[Inca Kola]] and [[Sweden]]'s [[Julmust]]) has led to ongoing speculation that either Coke, or its arch-rival [[PepsiCo, Inc.]], would attempt to buy A.G. Barr [http://scotlandonsunday.scotsman.com/business.cfm?id=244962005].
==The drink==
Irn-Bru is most famous for its eccentric bright orange colour, making it easily recognisable even when not in its packaging. The 'Iron-Brew' produced by other manufacturers is a similar shade, but merely approximates Irn-Bru in taste. The formula for Irn-Bru is a closely guarded secret, known only by two of Barr's board members.
Bru is widely reputed to be an excellent cure for [[hangover]]s. This claim has some foundation in truth &mdash; all caffeinated drinks will soothe headaches to an extent, and sugary drinks will replace lost fluids and sugars.
Some believe that it makes an excellent mixer with [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic beverages]] &mdash; mainly [[vodka]] and [[whisky]]. Indeed, the popular [[Britain|British]] [[alcopop]] [[WKD]] was originally launched as an alcoholic version of Irn-Bru. Barr retaliated by launching a drink combining Irn-Bru and Bell's whisky, though this proved to be somewhat unpopular and was quickly discontinued. A later attempt came in the form of an official Irn-Bru flavour in the Red Square line-up of vodka-based drinks; this too has been discontinued.
==Packaging and marketing==
[[Image:DietIrnBru.jpg|thumb|200px|Diet Irn-Bru]]
Irn-Bru is available in both canned and bottled form. Many Bru aficionados are known to prefer the drink from chilled, glass bottles rather than cans or plastic containers. The reported difference in taste may be due to mild contamination from plasticisers, or in the difference in water used in different manufacturing plants.
Irn-Bru and other Barr brands including [[Tizer]], [[Red Kola]], [[Barr Cola]], and [[Limeade]] are still available in refundable glass bottles. The empty bottles can be returned to any shop which sells them, and theoretically exchanged for the deposit of 20 pence. Many retailers, however, will only offer store credit.
Barr also produce Irn-Bru bars, chewy, fizzy, bright orange bars which taste very strongly of Irn-Bru. Irn-Bru sorbet is available some speciality ice cream shops in Scotland (e.g. ''Divitos'' of Crossgates or ''Janettas'' of [[St Andrews]], both in [[Fife]] and also ''S. Luca'' of [[Musselburgh]]).
Irn-Bru's [[advertising]] campaigns have always been very different from those of other commercial soft drinks. Perhaps the best-remembered are the long running series of television and billboard adverts in [[black-and-white]], including the billboard with the [[grim reaper]] saying "Don't be scared. You'll still get Irn-Bru on the other side." and the supposed-advert for a cleaning product called "Jef", which consists of a small boy in a box, who sucks Irn-Bru stains out of clothes.
Another of the best remembered TV adverts has the settings of [[1950s]] type entertainment. The father played the [[piano]], while the mother and two children sat down [[singing]] a song which ends with the mother singing: "Even though I used to be a man."
This advertisment originally aired in 2000, but when it was re-aired in 2003, it received seventeen complaints, claiming it was offensive to transsexuals. Issue A14 of the [[Ofcom]] Advertising Complaints bulletin reports that the children's response to their mother's claim was not in fact offensive. The advertisement was meant to be a joke about changing points of view over time. However, the scene involving the mother shaving at the end of the advertisement was deemed to be potentially offensive to transsexuals, and so it was taken off the air.
==History==
The drink was first produced in [[1901]] under the name Iron-Brew. During [[World War II]] the [[British Government]] reined in production of 'non-essential' products, causing Iron-Brew to vanish from retailers' shelves until [[1946]]. Around this time there was a move to tighten up legislation on product labelling, in order to make it factually descriptive. In 1946 Barr registered the new name 'Irn-Bru' for their product. It is unknown whether this was a move to circumvent the labelling laws, as other soft drink manufacturers in Scotland (such as Hays or Sangs), produce their own versions of Iron-Brew and keep the original spelling to this day.
In [[1972]] Barr acquired [[Tizer]] Ltd and began producing Irn-Bru at this company's plant in Atherton, near [[Manchester]]. This perhaps explains the drink's extraordinary popularity in the northwest region of [[England]], compared with other areas (where it does not sell so well, despite heavy marketing).
When [[McDonald's]] restaurants first opened for trading in [[Glasgow]] they did not serve Irn-Bru. This was seen as an insult by some Scots, and a campaign to correct this oversight was launched. After many of their restaurants were picketed, McDonalds relented and began to stock Irn-Bru alongside their other soft drinks.
==Exports and foreign markets==
[[Image:RussianIrnBru.jpg|thumb|200px|Russian Irn-Bru]]
Irn-Bru is currently manufactured in five factories in [[Russia]], and is also manufactured under licence in [[Canada]]. Bru and various other Barr products are exported to [[Spain]], [[The Netherlands]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], and [[Cyprus]], as well as parts of [[Africa]] and [[Asia]]. It is available sporadically in [[Ireland]].
The legal status of Irn-Bru in the [[United States]] is unclear. Several American companies import Irn-Bru, yet it is currently listed as a banned substance by the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]]. The FDA website[http://www.fda.gov/ora/fiars/ora_import_ia4502.html] lists Irn-Bru and Diet Irn-Bru as containing the banned [[Carcinogen|carcinogenic]] colouring [[Ponceau 4R]], and [[Sunset Yellow FCF]], which the FDA has to approve on a per-batch basis[http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~comm/cp09006.html]. One importer, Great Scots International [http://www.irn-bru-usa.com/], modifies the drink to conform to FDA requirements.
The food colouring Ponceau 4R is also banned in [[Norway]], and Sunset Yellow FCF is banned in both Norway and [[Finland]], although Irn-Bru can still be purchased in certain Finnish shops specializing in imported goods.
Irn-Bru sold in Canada contains no caffeine, as only dark coloured drinks were permitted to contain caffeine. As a result of this and the omission of quinine the taste is noticeably different, and the restorative effect is almost nil. This law has recently changed, however, as evidenced by the introduction in Canada of a caffeinated [[Mountain Dew]]; it is unknown whether this new legislation will lead to the production of caffeinated Irn-Bru.
==Irn-Bru mythology==
There is an [[urban legend]], often heard in Scotland when discussing the drink, that states variously that Irn-Bru is more popular in Russia than it is in Scotland, or that it is more popular than [[Coca-Cola]] in Russia. This is untrue. Barr's first venture in Russia, with a Russian company backed by [[United States|American]] [[venture capitalists]], failed in August 2001. A second attempt at cracking the Russian market began in June 2002, backed by the [[Pepsi]] Bottling Group of Russia. Robin Barr, AG Barr chairman, said of the legend "Maybe I could sit here and hope that it [was more popular than Coke], but Coke was introd |
parently being drowned by Chancellor Goth in ''[[The Deadly Assassin]]'', and the supposedly negative portrayal of Chinese immigrants in ''[[The Talons of Weng-Chiang]]''.
It has been said that watching ''Doctor Who'' from a position of safety "[[behind the sofa]]" (as the ''Doctor Who'' exhibition at the [[Museum of the Moving Image]] in London was titled) and peering cautiously out to see if the scary bit was over is one of the great shared experiences of British childhood. The phrase has become a common phrase in association with the programme and occasionally elsewhere.
A wide selection of serials is available from BBC Video on [[VHS]] and [[DVD]], on sale in the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States. Every fully extant serial has been released on VHS, and BBC Worldwide continues to release serials on DVD on a regular basis. One disc of episodes from the 2005 series is even available on [[Universal Media Disc|UMD]], with more releases planned.
As of February 2006, the new series has been, or is currently, broadcast weekly in [[Canada]] (in English on CBC and in French on [[Ztélé]]), [[Australia]] ([[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]]), [[France]] ([[France 4]]), [[Italy]] ([[Jimmy (Italian television channel)|Jimmy]]), [[New Zealand]] ([[Prime Television New Zealand|Prime TV]]), [[Norway]] ([[Norsk Rikskringkasting|NRK]]), [[Belgium]] ([[Één TV Station|één]]), [[Spain]] ([[People+Arts]]), [[Israel]] ([[Yes Weekend]]), [[Hungary]] ([[RTL Klub]]-owned COOL TV), [[Hong Kong]] ([[Asia Television Limited|ATV World]]), the [[Arabian Peninsula]] / [[North Africa]] ([[Style UK]]), and [[KBS]] in [[South Korea]] &mdash; the first time a British drama series has been sold to a Korean public station. The series has also been sold to, but not yet shown in, [[Germany]] ([[Pro 7]]), [[Denmark]] ([[Denmarks Radio]]), [[Finland]] ([[Yleisradio|TV2]]), [[Sweden]] ([[Sveriges Television|SVT]]), the [[Netherlands]] ([[Nederland 3|NED 3]]), the [[United States]] ([[Sci Fi Channel (United States)|Sci-Fi Channel]]), [[Japan]] (broadcaster not yet announced) and [[Greece]] ([[SKAI]]).
The 2006 series has been purchased by the CBC in Canada, though no airdate has yet been announced. The 2005 series episodes aired in Canada a couple of weeks after their UK broadcast, a situation made possible by the cancellation of the 2004-2005 [[National Hockey League]] season which left vast gaps in CBC's programming schedule. The [http://www.dwin.org/ Doctor Who Information Network] has indicated the CBC may air the series in the fall of 2006.
==Missing episodes==
{{main|Doctor Who missing episodes}}
[[Image:10thplanet.jpg|thumb|180px|right|The First Doctor (William Hartnell) collapses prior to his regeneration. (From the surviving clip of ''The Tenth Planet'', episode 4.)]]
Sometime between about 1967 and 1978, large amounts of older material stored in the BBC's video tape and film libraries were destroyed or [[Wiping (magnetic tape)|wiped]]. This included many old episodes of ''Doctor Who'', and mostly affects stories featuring the first two Doctors &mdash; [[William Hartnell]] and [[Patrick Troughton]]. Archival holdings are complete from the programme's move to colour television (starting from [[Jon Pertwee]]'s time as the Doctor), although a few Pertwee episodes have required substantial restoration work and a handful have only been recovered in black and white. In all, [[List of incomplete Doctor Who serials|108]] of 253 episodes produced during the first six years of the programme are not currently held in the BBC's archives.
Some episodes have been returned to the BBC from the archives of other countries who bought copies for broadcast, or by private individuals who came into possession of them by various means. Early colour videotape recordings made off-air by fans have also been retrieved, as well as small excerpts recovered on 8mm [[cine film]] from clips shown on other programmes. Audio versions of all of the lost episodes exist from home viewers making tape recordings of the show.
In addition to these, there also exist photographs made by photographer [[John Cura]], who was hired by the BBC to document the filming of many of their most popular programmes during the 1950s and 1960s, including ''Doctor Who''. These have been used in fan reconstructions of the serials. These amateur reconstructions have been tolerated by the BBC, provided they are not sold for profit and distributed as low quality VHS copies.
The most sought-after lost episode is Part Four of the last William Hartnell serial, ''[[The Tenth Planet]]'', which ends with the [[First Doctor]] transforming into the [[Second Doctor|Second]]. The only portion of this still in existence, bar a few poor quality silent 8mm clips, is the few seconds of the regeneration scene. With the approval of the BBC, efforts are now under way to restore as many of the episodes as possible from the extant material.
Starting in the early 1990s, the BBC began to release existing audio recordings of missing serials on audio cassette and compact disc, with linking narration provided by former series actors. "Official" reconstructions have also been released by the BBC on VHS as well as [[MP3]] [[CD-ROM]].
==Adaptations and other appearances==
''Doctor Who'' has appeared on stage numerous times. In the early 1970s, [[Trevor Martin]] played the role in ''[[Doctor Who and the Daleks in the Seven Keys to Doomsday]]'' which also featured former companion actress [[Wendy Padbury]] (Pertwee's Doctor made a cameo appearance via film). In the early 1990s, Jon Pertwee and Colin Baker both played the Doctor at different times during the run of a musical play entitled ''[[Doctor Who - The Ultimate Adventure]]''. For two performances while Pertwee was ill, [[David Banks]] (best known for playing various [[Cyberman|Cybermen]]) played the Doctor. Other original plays have been staged as amateur productions, with other actors playing the Doctor, while [[Terry Nation]] wrote ''[[Curse of the Daleks]]'', a stage play mounted in the late 1960s, but without the Doctor.
The Doctor has also appeared in two cinema films: ''[[Dr. Who and the Daleks]]'' in 1965 and ''[[Daleks - Invasion Earth 2150 AD]]'' in 1966. Both were essentially retellings of existing stories on the big screen, with a larger budget and numerous alterations to the series concept. In these films, [[Peter Cushing]] played a human scientist named [[Cushing Doctor|Dr. Who]], who travelled with his two granddaughters and other companions in a time machine he invented. Due to this and numerous other changes (not to mention the storylines that duplicated televised episodes), the movies are not regarded as part of the ongoing continuity of the series, although the Cushing version of the character would reappear in both comic strip and literary form, the latter attempting to reconcile the film continuity with that of the series.
A pilot episode for a potential spin-off series, ''[[K-9 and Company]]'', was aired in 1981 with [[Elisabeth Sladen]] reprising her role as companion [[Sarah Jane Smith]] and [[John Leeson]] as the voice of [[K-9 (Doctor Who)|K-9]], but was not picked up as a regular series.
''Doctor Who'' books have been published from the mid-sixties through to the present day. The Doctor has also appeared in many audio plays and webcasts. See [[Doctor Who spin-offs|''Doctor Who'' spin-offs]] for more details.
On [[17 October]] [[2005]], ''[[The Independent]]'' reported that the BBC had commissioned Davies to produce a 13-part spin-off series titled ''[[Torchwood]]'' (an [[anagram]] of "Doctor Who"), set in modern-day Britain and investigating alien activities and crime. The series will star [[John Barrowman]], playing his ''Doctor Who'' character of [[Jack Harkness]], and will premiere in Summer 2006. [http://news.independent.co.uk/media/article320110.ece]
===Charity episodes===
[[Image:Curseoffataldeath.jpg|thumb|180px|right|[[Rowan Atkinson]] as the Doctor and [[Julia Sawalha]] as Emma in the [[parody]] ''[[Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death|The Curse of Fatal Death]]''.]]
In 1993, coinciding with the series' 30th anniversary, a charity special entitled ''[[Dimensions in Time]]'' was produced in aid of Children in Need, featuring all of the surviving actors who played the Doctor and a number of previous companions. Not taken seriously by many, the story had the [[Rani (Doctor Who)|Rani]] opening a hole in time, cycling the Doctor and his companions through his previous incarnations and menacing them with monsters from the show's past. It also featured a crossover with the soap opera ''[[EastEnders]]'', the action taking place in the latter's [[Albert Square]] location and around [[Greenwich]], including the ''[[Cutty Sark]]''. The special was one of several special 3D programmes the BBC produced at the time, using a 3D system that made use of the [[Pulfrich effect]] requiring glasses with one darkened lens.
In 1999, another special, ''[[Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death]]'', was made for [[Red Nose Day]] and later released on [[VHS]]. An affectionate [[parody]] of the television series, it was split into four segments, mimicking the traditional serial format, complete with [[cliffhanger]]s. (The version released on [[video]] was split into only two episodes.) In the story, the Doctor ([[Rowan Atkinson]]) encounters both [[Master (Doctor Who)|the Master]] ([[Jonathan Pryce]]) and the [[Dalek]]s. During the special the Doctor is forced to regenerate several times, with his subsequent incarnations played by, in order, [[Richard E. Grant]], [[Jim Broadbent]], [[Hugh Grant]], and [[Joanna Lumley]]. The script was written by comedy writer [[Steven Moffat]], who contributed two scripts to the 2005 series and will write one script for the 2006 series.
As noted above, on [[November 18]], [[2005]], an untitled [[Doctor Who Children in Need special (2005)|7-minute " |
the construction was the Anglo-French [[TransManche Link]], a consortium of ten construction companies and five banks of the two countries. Engineers used large [[tunnel boring machine]]s (TBMs), mobile excavation factories that combined drilling, material removal, and the process of shoring up the soft and permeable tunnel walls with a concrete liner. After the British and French TBMs met near the middle, the French TBM was dismantled while the British one was diverted into the rock and abandoned. Almost 4 million cubic metres of chalk were excavated on the British side, much of which was dumped below Shakespeare Cliff near Folkestone to reclaim 90 acres (360,000 m&sup2;) of land from the sea. Called Samphire Hoe, the area is now a popular park. In all, 8 million m³ of soil were removed, at an average rate of 2400 tonnes/hour.
The Channel Tunnel consists of three parallel tunnels: two rail tunnels, which carry trains north and south, and a smaller access tunnel. The access tunnel, served by narrow rubber-tyred vehicles, is connected by cross-passages to the main tunnels at intervals of approximately 375&nbsp;m. It allows maintenance workers access to the rail tunnels and provides a safe route for escape during emergencies. The two running tunnels are directly linked every 250&nbsp;m by pressure relief ducts (PRDs) that pass over the top of the service tunnel and do not connect to it. The PRDs alleviate the piston effect of trains by allowing airflow from moving trains to pass into the other running tunnel. Both types of cross-connection (cross-passage and PRD) can be seen in the schematic at the top of this page.
===Completion===
[[Image:Channel_Tunnel_Opening_Ceremony.jpg|thumb|300px|Opening of the Channel Tunnel by Queen [[Elizabeth II]] and French President [[François Mitterrand]].]]
The British and French efforts, which had been guided by laser surveying methods, met first with the completion of the undersea service ( access ) tunnel. The difference in the centrelines of the two ends of the tunnel was surveyed as just 358 mm horizontally and 58 mm vertically.
When the two ends of the undersea service tunnel met 40 m beneath the English Channel seabed on [[1 December]] [[1990]] it became possible to walk on dry land from Great Britain to continental Europe for the first time since the end of the [[Wisconsin glaciation|last ice age]] 8,500 years ago. The tunnel was officially opened by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] and French President [[François Mitterrand]] in a ceremony held in [[Calais]] on [[6 May]] [[1994]].
===Statistics===
The Channel Tunnel is 50 km (31 miles) long, of which 39 km (24 miles) are undersea. The average depth is [[1 E1 m|45 m]] (150 ft) underneath the seabed. It opened for business in late 1994, offering three principal services: a shuttle for vehicles, [[Eurostar]] passenger service linking London with [[Paris]] and [[Brussels]], and through freight trains.
In 2004, 7,276,675 passengers travelled through the tunnel on [[Eurostar]] while in the same year Eurotunnel carried 2,101,323 cars, 1,281,207 trucks and 63,467 coaches on its shuttle trains.
Rail freight carried through the Channel Tunnel increased by 8% to 1,889,175 t in 2004.
A journey through the tunnel lasts about 20 minutes; from start to end a shuttle train journey totals about 35 minutes, including travelling a large loop to turn the train round. Eurostar trains travel considerably slower than their top speed while going through the tunnel, in part to fit in with the shuttle trains.
At completion, it was estimated that the whole project cost around £10 billion.
The [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] has declared the tunnel to be one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World#Modern Wonders|Seven Wonders of the Modern World]].
===Operation===
[[Image:ETunnelhoch.jpg|thumb|200px|Interior of Eurotunnel shuttle (vehicle train)]]
The tunnel is operated by [[Eurotunnel]] (Eurotunnel plc in England, and Eurotunnel SA in France).
Four types of train services operate:
* ''[[Eurostar]]'' [[high-speed rail|high speed]] passenger trains. These connect [[London]]'s [[Waterloo station]] (named after the Napoleonic [[Battle of Waterloo|battle]] between the UK and France) with the [[Gare du Nord]] station in [[Paris]] and [[Brussels]] Midi/Zuid station, with stops at [[Ashford, Kent|Ashford]], [[Calais]]-Frethun and [[Lille]]. Eurostar services will switch from Waterloo to [[St Pancras railway station]] when the new [[Channel Tunnel Rail Link]] railway line is completed between the tunnel and London in 2007.
* ''[[Eurotunnel Shuttle]]'' passenger shuttle trains. These carry cars, coaches and vans between Sangatte (Calais/Coquelles) and Folkestone. Enclosed rail wagons, some double-deck, with minor amenities permit drive-on and drive-off operation; passengers stay with their vehicles. Formerly marketed as ''Le Shuttle''.
* Eurotunnel freight shuttle trains. These carry lorries on open rail wagons, with the lorry drivers travelling in a separate passenger coach.
* Rail freight trains. These trains carry conventional rail freight or [[Containerization|container]] loads between Europe and Great Britain.
Eurostar trains travel at high speeds in France and on the [[Channel Tunnel Rail Link]], where the tracks are modern and custom-made for the standard [[TGV]] cruising speed of 300 km/h (186 mph), and within the tunnel at up to 160 km/h (100 mph). The first section of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link, between the tunnel & [[Ebbsfleet]] in North Kent, opened in 2003. Until the second section between Ebbsfleet and St Pancras opens in 2007 Eurostar trains use 'traditional' lines for the final part of the journey into Waterloo, running at much lower speeds.
There have been proposals for local passenger rail services linking Kent with towns in the [[Pas de Calais]], along the lines of the local trains that run between [[Zealand]] and southern [[Sweden]] across the [[Oresund Bridge]], but such a service remains unlikely.
===Fire===
The Channel Tunnel's only serious operational incident was a fire on [[18 November]] [[1996]] aboard a shuttle train carrying trucks and trailers. With rescue crews already alerted, the Folkestone-bound train came to an emergency stop halfway through the tunnel. Amid acrid smoke, truck drivers were evacuated to a train headed the other way. Fire crews managed to extinguish the superheated fire in a number of hours, battling low water pressure, high-velocity wind from the emergency actions of the ventilation fans and intense heat. 650 ft (200 m) of the tunnel lining was seriously damaged, and another 650 ft was significantly damaged. In some areas the concrete lining was thinned by spalling from the heat to only 50 mm of its original 450 mm thickness. The rear wagons and rear locomotive of the train were destroyed. No lives were lost, due in large part to the safety of the tunnel design and the response of safety crews from France and the UK.
The tunnel was re-opened for limited use on [[21 November]] [[1996]], only three days after the fire. With only one rail tunnel in operation, safety rules prohibited passenger services from using the tunnel. All freight services used the normally France-bound tunnel until the damaged tunnel had been repaired. Passenger services resumed on [[4 December]] [[1996]], and full service was restored on [[6 January]] [[1997]].
The tunnel's operators faced criticism for mishandling the incident. The train had been observed to be on fire when entering the tunnel, and much of the incident's complexity could have been avoided if the train had stayed above ground. Once it was decided to have the train proceed to Folkestone, much of the trouble could again have been avoided if this plan had been completed, but the train driver decided to stop in the tunnel due to concern about a possible derailment. There were also miscommunications in the fire-fighting response. [http://www.writer-tech.com/pages/summaries/summchunnel.htm]
===Sovereignty===
As one of the first international rail tunnels, the Channel Tunnel required an inventive approach to border controls. The official border between France and the United Kingdom is a painted line roughly halfway through the tunnel (the UK side is somewhat longer). The British half is part of the [[District of Dover]] and the [[Counties of England|English county]] of [[Kent]]. As a practical matter border controls are handled at boarding or on the train. A detailed three-way treaty between the United Kingdom, France, and Belgium governs border controls, with the establishment of ''control zones'' wherein the officers of the other nation may exercise limited customs and law enforcement powers. For most purposes these are at either end of the tunnel; for certain city-to-city trains the train itself represents a control zone.
In an unusual move, the British and French governments agreed to provide immigration staff at opposite ends of the tunnel; thus the French immigration control posts are located in the United Kingdom, while the British ones are in France.
===Asylum seekers===
The tunnel has become a means by which [[Asylum seeker|asylum seekers]] enter the United Kingdom. A few attempt to walk through the tunnel or to cling to the trains, but most try to hide in freight containers or trucks using the tunnel. In 2002, British immigration authorities added sophisticated listening and imaging equipment to their post in Kent, hoping to hear the heartbeats or sense the breathing of such stowaways. In early 2003 the British government persuaded the French authorities to close the controversial centre for asylum seekers at [[Sangatte]], which they felt encouraged such clandestine travel, and to surround the portal with barbed-wire fencing.
===Financial trouble===
Eurotunnel, the company that built and funded the project and currently runs the shuttle services, has been in financial difficulties almost |
the military hide anything that could disclose [[sexual orientation]], commanders will not try to investigate their sexuality. Many see the policy as a failure and it is opposed by some pro- and anti-gay advocates alike.
:''"Sexual orientation will not be a bar to service unless manifested by homosexual conduct. The military will discharge members who engage in homosexual conduct, which is defined as a homosexual act, a statement that the member is homosexual or bisexual, or a marriage or attempted marriage to someone of the same gender."'' — quoted in "The Pentagon's New Policy Guidelines on Homosexuals in the Military", ''[[The New York Times]]'' ([[July 20]][[1993]]), p.A14.
More generally, "Don't ask, don't tell" has come to describe any instance in which one person must keep their sexual orientation and any related attributes, including their family, a [[secret]], but where deliberate lying would be undesirable.
==History==
In 1994 gay journalist [[Randy Shilts]] published what is considered to be a definitive history of homosexuals in the armed forces, from the American Revolutionary War to the first Persian Gulf War. The book's extensive interviews with numerous servicemen and women, along with historical research of the armed forces treatment of homosexuality in terms of sodomy, security clearances, witch hunts, women and ethnic minorities in the military, the AIDS-HIV pandemic, and the court challenges is considered to be solid scholarly research.
The early American revolutionary war armed forces did treat sodomy (then broadly defined as oral or anal sexual conduct) as grounds for being dishonorably discharged. The first recordered effort of such a discharge, was in 1778 where Lieutenant Gotthold Frederick Enslin was dishonorably discharged, with the approval of General George Washington, for a conviction of homosexual sodomy and later perjury for lying about it. However, the American revolutionary army relied heavily on the training of the [[Prussian]] drill master [[Baron von Steuben]], who was a confirmed bachelor and was secretly fleeing a charge in Europe for having sex with a man. The [[Articles of War]] kept the crime of sodomy, but it was not until 1942 that armed forces ruled that homosexual status was considered grounds for being separated from the military, through a process of recruitment screening, and internal investigations that some historians have seen as being witch-hunts. Thus homosexuals and bisexuals in the armed forces were subject to criminal sanctions under the sodomy prohibition or they could be given a dishonorable discharge, often a [[Section 8 (military)|Section 8]] and returned to civilian life where they would not receive veterans benefits and often had difficulty finding employment because most civilian employers knew what a Section 8 discharge meant.
The success of the armed forces in pre-screening out homosexuals and bisexuals from the 1940s - 1981 remains in dispute, and during the Vietnam Conflict some heterosexuals would try to pretend to be gay in order to avoid the draft. However, a significant number of gay men and women did manage to avoid the pre-screening process and serve in the military, some with special distinction. For example, in the 1950s - 1960s the Navy medical doctor [[Tom Dooley (humanitarian)|Tom Dooley]] received national fame for his anti-Communist and humanitarian efforts in Vietnam. His homosexuality was something of an open secret in the Navy, but eventually he was forced to resign and the Navy conducted the first official study on sexual orientation and the Navy regulations and rules. The 1957 reported, titled ''Report of the Board Appointed to Prepare and Submit Recommendations to the Secretary of the Navy for the Revision of Policies, Procedures and Directives Dealing With Homosexuals'' (aka the Crittenden Report) found that homosexuals were no more likely to be a security risk than heterosexuals and found there were no rational basis for excluding homosexuals from the Navy, although it stopped short of recommending a change in the regulations because of society's social mores.
Beyond the official regulations, homosexuals were often the target of various types of harassment by their fellow heterosexual servicemen, designed to persuade them to resign from the military or turn themselves in to investigators. The most infamous type of such harassment was called a "blanket party" and involved several other service members during the night in the barracks, who first covered the face of the victim with a blanket and then committed assault, often quite severely and occasionally even fatally. The introduction of "Don't Ask, don't tell" with the later amendment of "don't harass, don't pursue" has officially prohibited such behavior but reports suggest that such harassment is still commonplace. A common tactic aimed at women is [[lesbian baiting]], where a man will demand sexual relations with women, and if she does not comply, he will turn her in as a [[lesbian]]. The degree of official and unofficial attempts to separate homosexuals from the armed forces seems to be directly related to the personnel needs of the armed forces. Hence, during wartime, it has not been uncommon for the rules regarding homosexuality to be relaxed, and up until 1981 it was the policy of all branches of the armed forces to retain a homosexual, at their discretion, thus promoting the "queen for a day" rule. This especially became the case during the Vietnam War, where some heterosexuals would fake homosexuality in an attempt to avoid being drafted or to be discharged rather than be shipped to Vietnam.
However, during the 1970s several high-profile court challenges to the military's regulations on homosexuality occurred, with little success, and when such successes did occur it was when the plaintiff had been open about his homosexuality from the beginning or due to the existence of the "queen for a day" rule. In 1981 the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] issued a new regulation on homosexuality that was designed to ensure to withstand a court challenge by developing uniform and clearly defined regulations and justifications that made homosexual status and conduct grounds for discharge (DOD Directive 1332.14 (Enlisted Administrative Separations), January, 1981):
"Homosexuality is incompatible with military service. The presence in the military environment of persons who engage in homosexual conduct or who, by their statements, demonstrate a propensity to engage in homosexual conduct, seriously impairs the accomplishment of the military mission. The presence of such members adversely affects the ability of the armed forces to maintain discipline, good order, and morale; to foster mutual trust and confidence among service members; to insure the integrity of the system of rank and command; to facilitate assignment and worldwide deployment of service members who frequently must live and work in close conditions affording minimal privacy; to recruit and retain members of the armed forces; to maintain the public acceptability of military service; and to prevent breaches of security."
The directive justifed the policy and removed the "queen for a day" rule that had prompted some courts to rule against the armed forces. However, the intent of the policy had also been to treat homosexuality as being akin to a disability discharge and thus ensure that homosexuals would be separated with an honorable discharge. The DOD policy has since withstood most court challenges, although the [[United States Supreme Court]] has refused to weigh in on the constitutionality of the policy, preferring to allow lower courts and the [[United States Congress]] to settle the matter.
However, in the 1980s many of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] presidential candidates had expressed an interest in changing the regulations concerning homosexuality in the armed forces, and, as American society's social mores changed, public opinion began to express more sympathy with homosexuals in armed foces, at least to the extent that investigations into a serviceman or womans's sexual orientation were seen as a witch-hunt. When Democratic Presidential candidate Bill Clinton won the election in 1992, the issue of "gays in the military" became a national issue.
In 1992 the United States General Accounting Office published a report titled ''Defense Force Management: DOD’s Policy on Homosexuality. GAO/NSAID-92-98'', that outlined the DOD policy on homosexuality and the reasons for it. The also included excerpts from a previously unpublished 1988 DOD study on homosexuality that made similar conclusions as the 1957 Crittenden Report. In 1993 the two reports were published alongside an argument by an armed forces general who argued against lifting the ban on homosexuals based on a belief that homosexuals pose a security risk, will erode unit cohesion and morale alongside the argument that most homosexuals are [[pedophile]]s who engage in a self-destructive and immoral life-style.
Congressional opposition to lifting the ban on homosexuals in the armed forces was led by [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] Senator [[Sam Nunn]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] who organized Congressional hearings that largely buffed the armed forces position that has remained unchanged since the 1981 directive. While Congressional support for reform was led by Democrat Congressmen [[Barney Frank]] of [[Massachusetts]], who fought for a compromise, and retired [[Republican Party (US)|Republican]] Senator [[Barry Goldwater]], who argued for a complete repeal of the ban. Social conservative interest groups successfully flooded the Congressional phone lines with oppositions to lifting the ban, and for his part, President Clinton soon backed off on his campaign p |
August)
* [http://www.filkcontinental.de/ FilkCONtinental] (Germany) (early October)
* [http://www.ovff.org Ohio Valley Filk Fest, OVFF] (Ohio) (late October)
===Audio files for downloading (some may require registration)===
* [http://www.filk.com/radio.htm Filk Radio]
* [http://filkarchive.scrumpy.org Filkarchive] (requires registration)
* [http://www.dnaco.net/~mobrien/filk/filkmp3.html Maureen O'Brien collection of filk MP3 links]
* [http://www.filk.biz/eli/virtual.html Virtual Filksing] (Prometheus Music page of free downloads)
* [http://www.filk.com/ DAG Productions] (also a retailer)
* [http://www.tomsmithonline.com/freestuff.htm Tom Smith free download page] (also has pay downloads)
* [http://www.google.com/search?q=filk+mp3 Google search for "filk+MP3"]
===Recording companies===
(sorted alphabetically)
* [http://www.bedlamhouse.com/ Bedlam House] (US)
* [http://www.filk.com/ DAG Productions] (US)
* [http://www.edition-pegasus.de/ Edition Pegasus] (Germany)
* [http://www.firebirdarts.com/ Firebird Arts and Music] (US)
* [http://www.prometheus-music.com/ Prometheus Music] (US)
* [http://www.lovesong.com/ Love Song Productions] (US)
* [http://www.filk.com/ DAG Publications] (US)
===Specialty retailers who carry filk===
In the US, sorted alphabetically:
* [http://www.firebirdarts.com/ Firebird Arts and Music]
* [http://www.pegasuspublishing.com/ Pegasus Publishing]
* [http://www.random-factors.com/ Random Factors]
* [http://www.geocities.com/sffilk/sffilk.htm Southern Fried Filk]
In Europe, sorted alphabetically:
* [http://www.edition-pegasus.de/shop/ Edition Pegasus Online Shop] (Germany)
* [http://www.filklore.co.uk/phpstore/index.php Filklore Music Store] (UK)
===Community===
* [news:rec.music.filk rec.music.filk newsgroup]
* [news:alt.music.filk alt.music.filk newsgroup] (much spam, but occasionally used for filk that's too bawdy for rec.music.filk)
* [http://www.livejournal.com/community/filk/ Livejournal filk community]
* [http://www.filknet.org/irc.html Filkhaven IRC chat]
===Awards and Funds===
* [http://www.filkontario.ca/HallofFame.htm Filk Hall of Fame] honouring contributions to filk music and the filk community, awarded at FKO
* [http://www.ovff.org/pegasus/ Pegasus Awards] for best song/writer, awarded at OVFF
* [http://www.interfilk.org/filk.htm Interfilk] inter-regional travel support fund
===Miscellaneous===
* [http://filk.info/filkdb/ Filk Database] listing CDs, songs and artists
* [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Music/Styles/Filk/ Open Directory Category: Filk]
* [http://thestarport.org/xeno/xeno.html Xenofilkia], a bimonthly [[Fanzine|fanzine]] (amateur ephemeral periodical) that has printed filks and related material since 1988; the website contains a complete index
* [http://o.webring.com/hub?ring=filk Filker's Bardic Ring], a webring of filkers
[[Category:Musical genres|Filk]]
[[Category:Filkers|*]]
[[Category:Science fiction fandom]]
[[Category:Fandom|Filk]]
[[Category:Fan fiction]]
[[Category:Subcultures]]
[[Category:Fandom]]
[[de:Filk]]
[[ru:Филк]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Film Noir</title>
<id>10686</id>
<revision>
<id>15908484</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Film noir]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frisbee</title>
<id>10687</id>
<revision>
<id>40539631</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T07:52:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Welsh</username>
<id>310131</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Add link to Suzy Sticks</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:frisbee-1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A [[Wham-O]] Professional Frisbee]]
While the word '''Frisbee''' is a registered [[trademark]] of the [[Wham-O]] toy company, the term is often used [[genericized trademark|generically]] to describe '''flying discs''' similar to those made by the company. They are generally [[plastic]], roughly 20 to 25 centimeters (8&ndash;10&nbsp;in) in [[diameter]], with a lip. They are designed to fly [[aerodynamic]]ally when thrown with [[rotation]] and can be caught by hand.
A wide range of Frisbee (flying Discs) variants are available commercially. [[Disc golf]] discs are usually smaller but denser and are tailored for particular flight profiles to increase/decrease stability and distance. When it was discovered that [[dog]]s enjoyed chasing and retrieving the slow-moving discs, special discs were designed with more pliable material that would better resist a dog's bite. [[Disc dog]] competitions, in which dogs' disc-catching skills are judged, have become quite popular as well. Ring-like discs shaped like a [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]'s ring, known as [[Aerobie]]s, typically fly significantly farther than any traditional flying disc. The evolution has continued with the advancement of lighting a flying disc for evening and night-time play. By using a [[Flashflight]] disc, players can extend the throw and catch playing time after the sun goes down.
==History==
The modern day frisbees are developed from the "Flying-Saucer", originally invented by [[Walter Frederick Morrison]] and codeveloped and financed by [[Warren Franscioni]] in [[1948]]. However, that initial disc was largely unsuccessful. A later model made by Morrison in [[1955]] and sold as the "Pluto Platter" was bought by Wham-O on [[January 13]], [[1957]]. In the next year, Wham-O renamed the toy "Frisbee", a (probably deliberate) misspelling of the name of the [[Frisbie Pie Company]] of [[Bridgeport, Connecticut]], whose [[pie]] tins had been used by [[Yale University]] students in the campus for similar purposes.
==Games using flying discs==
* [[Ultimate (sport)|Ultimate]]
* [[Freestyle frisbee]]
* [[Guts]]
* [[Disc Golf]] - the traditional game of [[Golf]] played with flying discs (frisbees) instead of clubs and balls.
* [[Durango Boot]]
* [[DDC]]
* [[Flutterguts]], also known as [[Flutter Frisbee]]
* [[Friskee]]
* [[Disc dog]]
* [[Dodge Frisbee]]
* [[Goaltimate]]
* [[Schtick (Disc Game)|Schtick]]
* [[Fricket]], also known as Cups
* [[Hot Box]]
* [[Suzy Sticks]]
==Physics==
The rotating flying disc has [[angular momentum]] perpendicular to the horizontal plane, stabilizing the disc's attitude <!-- "attitude" is the correct term here; pls don't change to "altitude". -elf Dec 05 --> in high-speed flight. Small ridges near the leading edge act as turbulators, reducing flow separation by forcing the airflow to become [[turbulent]] after it passes over the ridges. [[Lift (force)|Lift]] is generated in primarily the same way as a traditional asymmetric [[airfoil]], that is, by accelerating upper airflow such that a pressure difference gives rise to a lifting force.
[[Richard Feynman]] in his book ''[[Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!]]'' suggests that watching the wobble of a plate tossed in the [[MIT]] cafeteria stimulated him to develop mathematics that eventually led to his Nobel prize winning work in [[quantum electrodynamics]] [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/03/AR2005110301924.html].
==See also==
*Descriptions of [[Frisbee throws]]
*[[Frisbeetarianism]]
*In the animated motion picture [[The Secret of NIMH]], the main character's name was changed in post-production from "Frisby" to "Brisby" to avoid potential trademark infringements.
==Further reading==
*''Frisbee, A Practitioner's Manual and Definitive Treatise'' Stancil E.D. Johnson, M.D. Workman Publishing Company, New York (July, 1975) ISBN 0-911104-53-4
*''The Official Frisbee Handbook'' Goldy Norton, Bantam Books, Toronto/New York/London (July, 1972) no ISBN
*''Frisbee Players' Handbook'' Mark Danna, Dan Poynter, Parachuting Publications, Santa Barbara, California (1978) ISBN 0-015516-19-5
*''Frisbee Sports & Games'' Charles Tips, Dan Roddick, Celestial Arts, Millbrae, California (March 1979) ISBN 0-89087-233-3
*''Frisbee by the Masters'' Charles Tips, Celestial Arts, Millbrae, California (March 1977) ISBN 0-89087-142-6
==External links==
*[http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aa980218.htm Frisbee, about.com]
*[http://www.frisbeedisc.com/ Wham-O Frisbee disc website]
*[http://www.ukultimate.com/ UK Ultimate Association]
*[http://www2.upa.org/index.php/ Ultimate Players Association]
*[http://www.frisbeecollective.com frisbeecollective.com]
[[Category:Frisbee]]
[[Category:National Toy Hall of Fame]]
[[Category: Toys]]
[[Category:Yale University]]
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[[ja:フライングディスク]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Falkland Islands</title>
<id>10688</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41968581</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:12:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Icairns</username>
<id>64875</id>
</contributor>
<comment>original -> earlier</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="infobox bordered" cellpadding="4" style="width: 20em; font-size: 95%;"
|+ style="margin-left: inherit; font-size: medium;" | '''Falkland Islands'''
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" |
{| style="width: 280px; background: none; text-align: center;"
|- style="vertical-align: middle;"
| style="border: 0;" | <span style="display:table-cell; border-collapse:collapse; border: solid 1px #BBBBBB;">[[Image:Flag of the Falkland Islands.svg|125px|Flag of the Falkland Islands]]</span>
| style="border: 0;" | [[Image:Falklands_Coat_of_Arms.png|70px|Coat |
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