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s execution of Philotas and his general Parmenion for failure to pass along details of a plot against him. However, this may have been more prudence than paranoia.
Modern Alexandrists continue to debate these same issues, among others, in modern times. One unresolved topic involves whether Alexander was actually attempting to better the world by his conquests, or whether his purpose was primarily to rule the world.
Partially in response to the ubiquity of positive portrayals of Alexander, an alternate character is sometimes presented which emphasizes some of Alexander's negative aspects. Some proponents of this view cite the destructions of [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], [[Tyre]], [[Persepolis]], and [[Gaza]] as examples of atrocities, and argue that Alexander preferred to fight rather than negotiate. It is further claimed, in response to the view that Alexander was generally tolerant of the cultures of those whom he conquered, that his attempts at cultural fusion were severely practical and that he never actually admired Persian art or culture. To this way of thinking, Alexander was, first and foremost, a general rather than a statesman.
Alexander's character also suffers from the interpretation of historians who themselves are subject to the bias and idealisms of their own time. Good examples are [[W. W. Tarn]], who wrote during the late [[19th century]] and early [[20th century]], and who saw Alexander in an extremely good light, and [[Peter Green (historian)|Peter Green]], who wrote after [[World War II]] and for whom Alexander did little that was not inherently selfish or ambition-driven. Tarn wrote in an age where world conquest and warrior-heroes were acceptable, even encouraged, whereas Green wrote with the backdrop of [[the Holocaust]] and [[nuclear weapon]]s. As a result, Alexander's character is skewed depending on which way the historian's own culture is, and further muddles the debate of who he truly was.
===Stories and legends===
According to one story, the philosopher [[Anaxarchus]] checked the vainglory of Alexander, when he aspired to the honors of divinity, by pointing to Alexander's wound, saying, "See the blood of a mortal, not the [[ichor]] of a god." In another version, Alexander himself pointed out the difference in response to a [[sycophant]]ic soldier. A strong oral tradition, although not attested in any extant primary source, lists Alexander as having [[epilepsy]], known to the Greeks as the Sacred Disease and thought to be a mark of divine favor.
Alexander had a legendary horse named [[Bucephalus]] (meaning "ox-headed"), supposedly descended from the [[Mares of Diomedes]]. Alexander himself, while still a young boy, tamed this horse after experienced horse-trainers failed to do so.
There is an apocryphal tale, appearing in a redaction of the pseudo-historical [[Alexander Romance]], which details another end for the last true Pharaoh of Egypt. Soon after Alexander's divinity was confirmed by the Oracle of Zeus Ammon, a rumor was begun that [[Nectanebo II]] did not travel to [[Nubia]] but instead to the court of Philip II of Macedon in the guise of an Egyptian magician. He coupled with Phillip's wife [[Olympias]] and from his issue came Alexander. This myth would hold strong appeal for Egyptians who desired continuity in rule and harbored a strong dislike for foreign rule.
Another legend tells of Alexander's campaign down into the Syrian world toward Egypt. On the way, he planned to lay siege to the city of [[Jerusalem]]. As the victorious armies of the Greeks approached the city, word was brought to the Jews in Jerusalem that the armies were on their way. The high priest at that time, who was a godly old man by the name of Jaddua (mentioned also in the [[Bible]] [[book of Nehemiah]]) took the sacred writings of [[Daniel the prophet]] and, accompanied by a host of other priests dressed in white garments, went forth and met Alexander some distance outside the city.
All this is from the report of [[Josephus]], the Jewish historian, who tells us that Alexander left his army and hurried to meet this body of priests. When he met them, he told the high priest that he had had a vision the night before in which God had shown him an old man, robed in a white garment, who would show him something of great significance to himself, according to the account, the high priest then opened the prophecies of Daniel and read them to Alexander.
In the prophecies Alexander was able to see the predictions that he would become that notable goat with the horn in his forehead, who would come from the West and smash the power of Persia and conquer the world. He was so overwhelmed by the accuracy of this prophecy and, of course, by the fact that it spoke about him, that he promised that he would save Jerusalem from siege, and sent the high priest back with honors.
==Ancient sources==
The ancient sources for Alexander's life are, from the perspective of ancient history, relatively numerous. Alexander himself left only a few inscriptions and some letter-fragments of dubious authenticity, but a large number of his contemporaries wrote full accounts. The key contemporary historians are considered [[Callisthenes]], his general [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]], [[Aristobulus of Cassandreia|Aristobulus]], [[Nearchus]] and [[Onesicritus]]. Another influential account was penned by [[Cleitarchus]], who, while not a direct witness of Alexander's expedition, used the sources which had just been published. His work was to be the backbone of that of [[Timagenes]], who heavily influenced many surviving historians. Unfortunately, all these works were lost. Instead, the modern historian must rely on authors who used these and other early sources.
The five main accounts are by Arrian, Curtius, Plutarch, Diodorus, and Justin.
* ''[[Anabasis Alexandri]]'' (''The Campaigns of Alexander'' in Greek) by the Greek historian [[Arrian]] of [[Nicomedia]], writing in the [[2nd century AD]], and based largely on Ptolemy and, to a lesser extent, Aristobulus and Nearchus. It is considered generally the most trustworthy source.
* ''Historiae Alexandri Magni'', a biography of Alexander in ten books, of which the last eight survive, by the Roman historian [[Quintus Curtius Rufus]], written in the [[1st century AD]], and based largely on Cleitarchus through the mediation of Timagenes, with some material probably from Ptolemy;
* ''Life of Alexander'' (see ''[[Parallel Lives]]'') and two orations ''On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great'' (see ''[[Moralia]]''), by the Greek historian and biographer [[Plutarch]] of [[Chaeronea]] in the second century, based largely on Aristobulus and especially Cleitarchus.
* ''Bibliotheca historia'' (''Library of world history''), written in Greek by the [[Sicilian]] historian [[Diodorus Siculus]], from which Book 17 relates the conquests of Alexander, based almost entirely on Timagenes's work. The books immediately before and after, on Philip and Alexander's "Successors," throw light on Alexander's reign.
* The ''Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus'' by [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]], which contains factual errors and is highly compressed. It is difficult in this case to understand the source, since we only have an epitome, but it is thought that also [[Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus|Pompeius Trogus]] may have limited himself to use Timagenes for his Latin history. To these five main sources some like to add the ''[[Metz Epitome]]'', an anonymous late Latin work that narrates Alexander's campaigns from [[Hyrcania]] to India. Much is also recounted incidentally in other authors, including [[Strabo]], [[Athenaeus]], [[Polyaenus]], [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]], and others.
The "problem of the sources" is the main concern (and chief delight) of Alexander-historians. In effect, each presents a different "Alexander," with details to suit. Arrian is mostly interested in the military aspects, while Curtius veers to a more private and darker Alexander. Plutarch can't resist a good story, light or dark. All, with the possible exception of Arrian, include a considerable level of fantasy, prompting Strabo to remark, "All who wrote about Alexander preferred the marvellous to the true." Nevertheless, the sources tell us much, and leave much to our interpretation and imagination.
==Alexander's legend==
Alexander was a legend in his own time. His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in [[Cilicia]] as drawing back from him in [[proskynesis]]. Writing after Alexander's death, another participant, [[Onesicritus]], went so far as to invent a [[tryst]] between Alexander and [[Thalestris]], queen of the mythical [[Amazons]]. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King [[Lysimachus]], Lysimachus reportedly quipped "I wonder where I was at the time."
In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in [[Alexandria]], a quantity of the more legendary material coalesced into a text known as the ''[[Alexander Romance]]'', later falsely ascribed to the historian Callisthenes and therefore known as ''Pseudo-Callisthenes''. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the [[Middle Ages]], exhibiting a plasticity unseen in "higher" literary forms. Latin and [[Syriac]] translations were made in Late Antiquity. From these, versions were developed in all the major languages of [[Europe]] and the [[Middle East]], including [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Slavic languages|Slavonic]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[German language|German]], [[English language|English]], [[Italian language|Italian]], and [[French language|French]]. The " |
p>2006-02-28T08:34:58Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Can a severed head think? */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name =Antoine Lavoisier
| image = Antoine_lavoisier_color.jpg
| caption = [[List of people known as the father or mother of something|Father of modern chemistry]]
| birth_date = [[August 26]] [[1743]]
| birth_place = [[Paris]],[[France]]
| death_date = [[May 8]] [[1794]]
| death_place = [[Paris]],[[France]]
| occupation = [[Chemist]], [[economics|economist]] and [[nobility|nobleman]].
| salary =
| networth =
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
'''Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier''' ([[August 26]] [[1743]] &ndash; [[May 8]] [[1794]]) was a [[France|French]] [[nobility|nobleman]] prominent in the histories of [[chemistry]], [[finance]], [[biology]], and [[economics]]. The "''[[List of people known as the father or mother of something|father of modern chemistry]]''", he stated the first version of the [[Law of Conservation of Matter]], recognized and named [[oxygen]] ([[1778]]), disproved the [[phlogiston theory]], and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. He was also an investor and administrator of the ''[[Ferme Générale]]'', a private tax collection company; chairman of the board of the [[Discount Bank]] (later the [[Banque de France]]); and a powerful member of a number of other aristocratic administrative councils. Due to his prominence in the pre-revolutionary government in [[France]], he was [[Decapitation|beheaded]] at the height of the [[French Revolution]].
==Early life==
[[Image:David_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier.jpg|thumb|200px|left|''Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and his Wife'', by [[Jacques-Louis David]].]]
Born to a wealthy family in [[Paris]], Antoine Laurent Lavoisier inherited a large fortune when his mother died. He attended the [[College Mazarin]] from [[1754]] to [[1761]], studying [[chemistry]], [[botany]], [[astronomy]], and [[mathematics]]. His education was filled with the ideals of the French [[The Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] of the time, he felt fascination for [[Maquois|Maquois's]] dictionary. His devotion and passion for chemistry was largely influenced by [[Étienne Condillac]], a prominent French scholar of the [[18th century]]. His first chemical publication appeared in [[1764]]. In [[1767]] he worked on a geological survey of [[Alsace-Lorraine]]. He was elected a member of the [[French Academy of Sciences]], France's most elite scientific society, at the age of 25 in [[1768]] for an essay on street lighting and in recognition for his earlier research. In [[1769]] he worked on the first geological map of [[France]].
In [[1771]], he married 13-year-old [[Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze]], the daughter of a co-owner of the Ferme. With time, she proved to be a scientific colleague to her husband. She translated documents from English for him, including [[Richard Kirwan]]'s "''Essay on Phlogiston''" and [[Joseph Priestley]]'s research. She created many [[drawing|sketches]] and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier and his colleagues. She also edited and published Lavoisier’s memoirs and hosted many parties during which eminent scientists would discuss new chemical theories. As a result of her close work with her husband, it is difficult to separate her individual contributions from his, but it is correctly assumed that much of the work accredited to him bears her fingerprints.
==Contributions to chemistry==
[[Image:Antoine_lavoisier.jpg|thumb|100px|right|[[Portrait]] of Antoine Lavoisier in his youth.]]
===Background===
Beginning in [[1775]], he served in the [[Royal Gunpowder Administration]], where his work led to improvements in the production of [[gunpowder]] and the use of [[agricultural chemistry]] by designing a new method for preparing [[saltpeter]].
[[Image:Hidrogenexp1.jpg|thumb|180px|left|[[Drawing|Hand sketch]] design aparatus for hydrogen combustion experiment made by Lavoisier in the [[1780s]].]]
===Major works===
Some of Lavoisier's most important experiments examined the nature of [[combustion]], or burning. Through these experiments, he demonstrated that burning is a process that involves the combination of a substance with oxygen. He also demonstrated the role of oxygen in metal rusting, as well as its role in animal and plant respiration: working with [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]], Lavoisier conducted experiments that showed that respiration was essentially a slow combustion of organic material using inhaled oxygen. Lavoisier's explanation of combustion replaced the [[phlogiston]] theory, which postulates that materials release a substance called phlogiston when they burn.
===Research on hydrogen and role disproving Phlogiston theory===
[[Image:Hidrogenexp2.gif|thumb|170px|right|Aparatus for hydrogen combustion experiment made from Lavoisier's sketch by Jean Baptiste Meusnier in [[1783]].]]
He also discovered that the inflammable air of [[Henry Cavendish]] which he termed ''[[hydrogen]]'' ([[Ancient Greek|Greek]] for "water-former"), combined with oxygen to produce a dew, as [[Joseph Priestley]] had reported, which appeared to be water. Lavoisier's work was partly based on the work of Priestley (he corresponded with Priestley and fellow members of the [[Lunar Society]]). However, he tried to take credit for Priestley's discoveries. This tendency to use the results of others without acknowledgment, then draw conclusions is said to be characteristic of Lavoisier. In ''Sur la combustion en general'' (''On Combustion in general'', [[1777]]) and ''Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides'' (''General Considerations on the Nature of Acids''), [[1778]]), he demonstrated that the "air" responsible for combustion was also the source of acidity. In [[1779]], he named this part of the air ''oxygen'' (Greek for "acid-former"), and the other ''azote'' (Greek for "no life"). In ''Reflexions sur le Phlogistique'' (''Reflections on Phlogiston'', [[1783]]), Lavoisier showed the [[phlogiston theory]] to be inconsistent.
===Pioneer of [[Stoichiometry]]===
[[Image:Instruments_lavoisier.jpg|thumb|175px|left|[[Laboratory equipment|Laboratory instruments]] used by Lavoisier circa [[1780s]].]]
Lavoisier's experiments were among the first truly quantitative chemical experiments ever performed; that is, he carefully weighed the reactants and products involved, a crucial step in the advancement of chemistry. He showed that, although matter changes its state in a chemical reaction, the quantity of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical reaction. He burnt phosphorus and sulfur in air, and proved that the products weighed more than the original. Nevertheless, the weight gained was lost from the air. These experiments provided evidence for the law of the conservation of matter, or in other words, '''the law of conservation of mass .'''
===Major works on analytical chemistry and chemical nomenclature===
Lavoisier also investigated the composition of water and air, which at the time were considered elements. He discovered the components of water were oxygen and hydrogen, and that air was a mixture of gases - primarily [[nitrogen]] and oxygen. With the French chemists [[Claude-Louis Berthollet]], Antoine Fourcroy and Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier devised a chemical nomenclature, or a system of names describing the structure of chemical compounds. He described it in ''Méthode de nomenclature chimique'' (''Method of Chemical Nomenclature'', [[1787]]). Their system facilitated communication of discoveries between chemists of different backgrounds and is still largely in use today, including names such as sulfuric acid, sulfates, and sulfites.
[[Image:Lavoisiers_lab.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A replica of Lavoisier's laboratory at the ''Deutsches Museum'' in [[Munich]], [[Germany]].]]
His ''Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elementary Treatise of Chemistry'', [[1789]], translated into English by [[Robert Kerr (writer)|Robert Kerr]]) is considered to be the first modern chemical [[textbook]], and presented a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear statement of the [[Law of Conservation of Mass]], and denied the existence of phlogiston. Also, Lavoisier clarified the concept of an element as a simple substance that could not be broken down by any known method of chemical analysis, and he devised a theory of the formation of chemical compounds from elements.
[[Image:Lentilles_ardentes.jpg|thumb|170px|left|Combustion, generated by focusing sun light over [[flammable]] materials using lenses, experiment conducted by Lavosier circa [[1770s]].]]
In addition, it contained a list of elements, or substances that could not be broken down further, which included oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, [[phosphorus]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]], [[zinc]], and [[sulphur]]. It also forms the basis for the modern list of elements. His list, however, also included light and [[Caloric theory|caloric]], which he believed to be material substances. While many leading chemists of the time refused to believe Lavoisier's new revelations, the ''Elementary Treatise'' was written well enough to convince the younger generation.
[[Image:Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg|thumb|180px|right|Lavoisier while conducting combustion experiment.]]
===Aftermath===
Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort to fit all experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established the consistent use of [[chemical balance]], used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen was an essential constituent of all acids (which later turned out to be erroneous). Lavoisier also made introductory research on physical chemistry and thermodynamics in joint experimen |
anal ran next to the Mohawk River all the way to [[Rome (NY)|Rome]], the new canal generally ran through the river, straightened or widened where necessary. At [[Ilion (NY)|Ilion]] the new canal left the river for good, but continued to run on a new alignment parallel to both the river and the old canal to Rome. From Rome the new route continued almost due west, merging with [[Fish Creek (New York)|Fish Creek]] just east of its entry into [[Oneida Lake]].
On the west side of Oneida Lake, the new canal left along the [[Oneida River]], with cutoffs to shorten the route. At [[Three Rivers, New York|Three Rivers]] the Oneida River turns northwest, and was deepened for the [[Oswego Canal]] to [[Lake Ontario]]. The new Erie Canal turned south there along the [[Seneca River (New York)|Seneca River]], which turns west near [[Syracuse (NY)|Syracuse]] and continues west to a point in the [[Montezuma Marsh]] ({{coor d|43.00296|N|76.73115|W|}}). There the [[Cayuga and Seneca Canal]] continued south with the Seneca River, and the Erie Canal began to run once again parallel to the old canal along the bottom of the [[Niagara Escarpment]], in some places running along the [[Clyde River (New York)|Clyde River]], and in some places replacing the old canal. At [[Pittsford, New York|Pittsford]], southeast of [[Rochester (NY)|Rochester]], the canal turned west to run around the south side of Rochester, rather than through downtown, rejoining the old path near [[North Gates, New York|North Gates]]. From there it was again roughly an upgrade to the original canal, running west to [[Lockport (NY)|Lockport]] and southwest to [[Tonawanda (NY)|Tonawanda]], where the new alignment simply emptied into the [[Niagara River]].
Abandoned sections of the old Erie Canal were filled by most communities to create parks, recreational trails, and roads such as Erie Boulevard in [[Syracuse (NY)|Syracuse]], and Broad Street and the [[Rochester Subway]] in [[Rochester (NY)|Rochester]]. Some communities elected to keep their sections of the canal in the interest of historic preservation.
Due to the growth of the highway system, railroads, and the [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]], commercial traffic on the canal declined dramatically during the second half of the twentieth century. In the [[1990s]], a series of legislation renamed the [[New York State Barge Canal]] back to the Erie Canal, and its use was restricted to recreational traffic. The Erie Canal is open to small craft and some larger vessels for most of the year. During the winter, water is drained from parts of the canal, enabling repairs and maintenance.
Today the [[Erie Canal Corridor]] covers 524 miles (843 km) of navigable water from [[Lake Champlain]] to the [[Capital Region, New York|Capital Region]] and west to Lake Erie. The area has a population of 2.7 million, and it has been estimated that about 75% of upstate New York's population lives within 25 miles (40 km) of the Erie Canal. The current New York State Canal System includes the Erie, [[Cayuga-Seneca Canal|Cayuga-Seneca]], [[Oswego Canal|Oswego]] and [[Champlain Canal]]s.
==Locks and Crossings==
The following [[lock (canal)|lock]]s and crossings are provided across the new canal, from east to west:
:There is no Lock 1, though the [[Troy Lock]] at the [[Federal Dam (Troy)|Federal Dam]] on the [[Hudson River]], south of the [[112th Street Bridge]], handles Erie Canal boats to [[New York City]]
*Bridge 1 ([[North Bridge (Waterford)|North Bridge]]), originally built by the [[Rensselaer and Saratoga Railroad]] ([[Delaware and Hudson Railway]]), at [[Waterford, New York|Waterford]]
*Bridge 2 ([[Fourth Street Bridge (Waterford)|Fourth Street Bridge]]) at Waterford
*[[Lock 2, Erie Canal|Lock 2]] and Bridge 2A at Waterford (of Waterford Flight)
*[[Lock 3, Erie Canal|Lock 3]] at Waterford (Waterford Flight)
*[[Bridge 3, Erie Canal|Bridge 3]] ([[Ninth Street Bridge (Waterford)|Ninth Street Bridge]]) at Waterford
*[[Lock 4, Erie Canal|Lock 4]] at Waterford (Waterford Flight)
*Bridge 4 on the [[Albany Northern Railroad]] ([[Delaware and Hudson Railway]]) at Waterford
*Bridges 4A-4D ([[flight locks]]) at Waterford
*[[Lock 5, Erie Canal|Lock 5]] at Waterford (Waterford Flight)
*[[Lock 6, Erie Canal|Lock 6]] at Waterford (Waterford Flight)
*[[Guard Gate 1, Erie Canal|Guard Gate 1]] at Waterford
*[[Guard Gate 2, Erie Canal|Guard Gate 2]] and Bridge 5 (Riberty Lane) at Waterford
*Bridge 6 ([[Crescent Bridge (Troy)|Crescent Bridge]]) at [[Crescent, New York|Crescent]]
*Bridge 7A on [[Interstate 87]] in [[Cohoes, New York|Cohoes]]
*[[Lock 7, Erie Canal|Lock 7]] and Bridge 7B in [[Schenectady (NY)|Schenectady]]
*[[Bridge 8, Erie Canal|Bridge 8]] (Rexford Bridge) at [[Rexford, New York|Rexford]]
*[[Bridge 10, Erie Canal|Bridge 10]] on the [[Saratoga and Schenectady Railroad]] ([[Delaware and Hudson Railway]]) in Schenectady
*Bridge 11 ([[Freeman's Bridge (Schenectady)|Freeman's Bridge]]) in Schenectady
*Bridge 12 on the [[New York Central Railroad]] ([[CSX]])
*Bridge 13 ([[Western Gateway Bridge]]) in Schenectady
*[[Lock 8, Erie Canal|Lock 8]] and Bridge 14 in [[Glenville (NY)|Glenville]]
*Bridge 14A on [[New York State Route 890]] in Glenville
*Bridge 15 on the [[Boston, Hoosac Tunnel and Western Railway]] ([[Guilford Rail System]]) in [[Rotterdam, New York|Rotterdam]]
*Lock 9 and Bridge 16 ([[State Route 103 Bridge]]) in Rotterdam
*Bridge 17 on the [[Hoffman's Connection]] ([[CSX]]) in Rotterdam
*Lock 10 and Bridge 18 at [[Cranesville, New York|Cranesville]]
*Bridge 19A ([[Amsterdam Bridge (New York)|Amsterdam Bridge]]) at [[Amsterdam (NY)|Amsterdam]]
*Lock 11 and Bridge 20 in Amsterdam
*Lock 12 and Bridge 22 ([[Fort Hunter Bridge]]) between [[Tribes Hill, New York|Tribes Hill]] and [[Fort Hunter, New York|Fort Hunter]]
*Bridge 23 ([[Fonda-Fultonville Bridge]]) between [[Fonda (NY)|Fonda]] and [[Fultonville, New York|Fultonville]]
*[[Lock 13, Erie Canal|Lock 13]] and Bridge 23A at [[Randall, New York|Randall]]
*Bridge 24 ([[Palatine Bridge]]) at [[Canajoharie (NY)|Canajoharie]]
*Lock 14 and Bridge 24B at Canajoharie
*Bridge 25 between [[Fort Plain (NY)|Fort Plain]] and [[Nelliston, New York|Nelliston]]
*Lock 15 and Bridge 25A at [[Fort Plain (NY)|Fort Plain]]
*Bridge 26A ([[St. Johnsville Bridge]]) at [[St. Johnsville, New York|St. Johnsville]]
*Lock 16 at [[Mindenville, New York|Mindenville]]
*Bridge 27 at Mindenville
*Bridge 28 west of Mindenville
*Guard Gate 3 at [[Indian Castle, New York|Indian Castle]]
*Bridge 29 at Indian Castle
*Former bridge at [[Fink Basin, New York|Fink Basin]]
*Bridge 30A at [[Little Falls, New York|Little Falls]]
*Lock 17 at Little Falls
*Bridge 32A at Little Falls
*Guard Gate 4 at Little Falls
*Former bridge at Little Falls (to [[Hansen Island (Little Falls)|Hansen Island]])
*Lock 18 at [[Jacksonburg, New York|Jacksonburg]]
*Bridge 34A at [[Herkimer (NY)|Herkimer]]
*Bridge 34B ([[New York State Thruway]]) at Herkimer
*Guard Gate 5 at Herkimer
*Bridge 36 at Herkimer
*Bridge 37A at [[Ilion (NY)|Ilion]]
*Bridge 38 at [[Frankfort, New York|Frankfort]]
*Bridge 39 at Frankfort
*Bridge 40 on the [[New York Central Railroad]] ([[CSX]]) west of Frankfort
*Lock 19 west of Frankfort
*Bridge 42 at [[West Schuyler, New York|West Schuyler]]
*Bridge 43 in [[Utica (NY)|Utica]]
*Bridge 44A in Utica
*Bridges 44B-44D ([[Interstate 790]]) in Utica
*Bridge 46 on the [[Black River and Utica Railroad]] ([[Mohawk, Adirondack and Northern Railroad]]) in Utica
*Bridge 47A in Utica
*Bridge 47B ([[New York State Thruway]]) in Utica
*Lock 20 at [[Careys Corners, New York|Careys Corners]]
*Bridge 48A at Careys Corners
*Bridge 49 at [[Oriskany (NY)|Oriskany]]
*Guard Gate 6 in [[Rome (NY)|Rome]]
*Bridge 50 on the [[New York Central Railroad]] ([[CSX]]) in Rome
(continuing the list of locks, other details available in the Bridge Height Tables below)
*Lock 21 in [[Rome, New York|Rome]]
*Lock 22 in [[Rome, New York|Rome]]
*[[Oneida Lake]]
*Lock 23 East of Oneida Lake
*Lock 24 in [[Baldwinsville, New York|Baldwinsville]]
*[[Cross Lake]]
*Lock 25 near [[Seneca Falls]]
*Lock 26 near [[Clyde, New York|Clyde]]
*Lock 27 in [[Lyons,New York|Lyons]]
*Lock 28A
*Lock 28B in [[Newark, New York|Newark]]
*Lock 29 in [[Palmyra, New York|Palmyra]]
*Lock 30 in [[Macedon, New York|Macedon]]
There is no Lock 31
*Lock 32 near [[Pittsford, New York|Pittsford]]
*Lock 33 near [[Rochester, New York]]
*[[Genesee River]]
*Lock 34 in [[Lockport, New York|Lockport]]
*Lock 35 in Lockport
{{expand list}}
==See also==
*[[List of canals in New York]]
==References==
*''Wedding of the Waters: The Erie Canal and the Making of a Great Nation'', by Peter L. Bernstein, New York : W.W. Norton, 2005, ISBN 0393052338.
*''The Artificial River: The Erie Canal and the Paradox of Progress, 1817-1862'', by Carol Sheriff, New York : Hill and Wang, 1996, ISBN 0809027534.
*[http://www.canals.state.ny.us/exvac/boating/bridgeheights.html Bridge Height Tables]
==External links==
*[http://www.ptny.org/canalway/ Canalway Trail]
*[http://www.eriecanal.org/ The Erie Canal]
*[http://www.canals.state.ny.us/ New York State Canals]
*[http://www.flickr.com/photos/upstateny/ Photos of historic Erie Canal structures]
*[http://www.flickr.com/photos/ohlhous/sets/1122986/comments/ Photos of historic Erie Canal Locks]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/learn/lessons/00/canal/aqueduct.html Photos of some Erie Canal aqueducts]
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al piece of prose and valued as a historical source on [[16th century]] Ireland, the "View" is seen today as [[genocidal]] in intent. He also siphoned Ireland's Celtic tradition for poetic source material. Spenser was driven from his home by Irish rebels during the [[Nine Years War (Ireland)|Nine Years War]] in 1598. He died in 1599, aged approximately 46.
==Poetry==
The first poem to earn Spenser notability was a collection of [[eclogues]] called ''[[The Shepheardes Calendar]],'' written from the point of view of various [[shepherds]] throughout the months of the year. The poem is an allegory symbolizing the state of humanity. The diversity of forms and meters, ranging from accentual-syllabic to purely accentual, and including such departures as the [[sestina]] in "August," gave Spenser's contemporaries a clue to the range of his powers and won him praise in his day.
''[[The Faerie Queene]]'' is his major contribution to English [[poetry]]. The poem is a long, dense [[allegory]], in the [[Epic poetry|epic]] form, of [[Christianity|Christian]] virtues, tied into [[England]]'s [[mythology]] of [[King Arthur]].
Spenser intended to complete twelve books of the poem, but managed only six before his death. The work remains the longest epic poem in the English language, and has inspired writers from [[John Milton]] and [[John Keats]] through [[James Joyce]] and [[Ezra Pound]]. He devised a verse form for ''[[The Faerie Queene]]'' that has come to be known as the "[[Spenserian stanza]]," and which has since been applied in poetry by the likes of [[William Wordsworth]], [[John Keats]], and [[Alfred Lord Tennyson]].
The language of his poetry is purposely archaic. It reminds readers of earlier works as ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'' of [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], whom Spenser greatly admired. Spenser's '''Epithalamion''' is the most admired of its type in the English language. It was written for his wedding to his young bride, Elizabeth Boyle. Spenser is often overshadowed by [[William Shakespeare]]. For a modern take at Spenser, see Camille Paglia's [[Sexual Personae]].
'''Poetic Extracts'''
''Faerie Queene. Book v. Proem. St. 3.''
:Let none then blame me, if in discipline
:Of vertue and of civill uses lore,
:I doe not forme them to the common line
:Of present dayes, which are corrupted sore,
:But to the antique use which was of yore,
:When good was onely for it selfe desyred,
:And all men sought their owne, and none no more;
:When Justice was not for most meed out-hyred,
:But simple Truth did rayne, and was of all admyred.
''Faerie Queene. Book iii. Canto xi. St. 54.''
:And as she lookt about, she did behold,
:How over that same dore was likewise writ,
:Be bold, be bold, and every where be bold,
:That much she muz'd, yet could not construe it
:By any ridling skill, or commune wit.
:At last she spyde at that roomes upper end,
:Another yron dore, on which was writ,
:Be not too bold; whereto though she did bend
:Her earnest mind, yet wist not what it might intend.
==Trivia==
*''Blatant Beast'' was a phrase Spenser coined for the ignorant, slanderous, clamour of the mob. However, the Blatant Beast from ''The Faerie Queene'' is clearly shown to indicate slander in general, and a large part of the final complete book (Book VI, although the Blatant Beast first appears towards the end of Book V) is showing how thoroughly the Blatant Beast ravages the world, first spreading from the Court (not the villages or slums) and causing havoc everywhere it goes until it even penetrates into the monestaries and causes great distress there. Only Calidore, the most courteous of knights, was able to tame, chain, and imprison the Blatant Beast, which eventually would break free and, as ''[[The Faerie Queene]]'' concludes by saying, still ravages the world today since only two Arthurian knights ever even came close to doing what Calidore did and even ''The Faerie Queene'', the text asserts, shall become a target for the Blatant Beast.
==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
*{{gutenberg author | id=Edmund+Spenser | name=Edmund Spenser}}
*[http://www.english.cam.ac.uk/spenser/main.htm The Edmund Spenser Home Page]
* Project Gutenberg edition of ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/6937 Biography of Edmund Spenser]'' by John W. Hales
* [http://www.sanjeev.net/poetry/spenser-edmund/index.html Poetry Archive: 154 poems of Edmund Spenser]
{| border=2 align="center"
|-
|width="30%" align="center"|Preceded by:<br />'''[[John Skelton]]'''
|width="40%" align="center"|'''English [[Poet Laureate]]'''
|width="30%" align="center"|Succeeded by:<br />'''[[Samuel Daniel]]'''
|}
[[Category:1552 births|Spenser, Edmund]]
[[Category:1599 deaths|Spenser, Edmund]]
[[Category:Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge|Spenser, Edmund]]
[[Category:English Poets Laureate|Spenser, Edmund]]
[[cs:Edmund Spenser]]
[[cv:Спенсер Эдмунд]]
[[de:Edmund Spenser]]
[[es:Edmund Spenser]]
[[fr:Edmund Spencer]]
[[nl:Edmund Spenser]]
[[os:Спенсер, Эдмунд]]
[[ru:Спенсер, Эдмунд]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edward Marlborough FitzGerald</title>
<id>9537</id>
<revision>
<id>39253259</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T21:51:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Whouk</username>
<id>400286</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám of Naishápur */ +moving finger</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Edward Marlborough FitzGerald''' ([[March 31]], [[1809]]&ndash;[[June 14]], [[1883]]) was an [[England|English]] [[writer]], best known as the [[poet]] of the first and most famous English translation of [[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam|Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám]].
He was born '''Edward Purcell''', at [[Bredfield House]] in [[Suffolk]]. His father, John Purcell, assumed in 1818 the name and arms of his wife's family, the FitzGeralds. From 1816 the family lived at [[St Germain]] and at [[Paris]], but in 1821 Edward was sent to school at [[Bury St Edmunds]]. In [[1826]] he went to [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], where he joined the [[Cambridge Apostles]]. He became acquainted with [[William Makepeace Thackeray]] and [[William Hepworth Thompson]]. His friendship with [[Alfred Tennyson]], also an Apostle, began in about 1835. In 1830 FitzGerald left for Paris, but in 1831 was living in a farm-house on the [[Battle of Naseby|battlefield of Naseby]].
With no employment, FitzGerald lived quietly, moving to his native county of Suffolk, and never again leaving it for more than a week or two. Until 1835 the FitzGeralds lived at Wherstead; from that year until 1853 the poet resided at Boulge, near [[Woodbridge, Suffolk|Woodbridge]]; until 1860 at [[Farlingay Hall]]; until 1873 in the town of Woodbridge; and then until his death at his own house close by, called Little Grange. During most of this time FitzGerald was preoccupied with flowers, music and literature. He allowed friends like Tennyson and Thackeray to surpass him, and for a long time showed no intention of emulating their literary success. In [[1851]] he published his first book, ''Euphranor'', a [[Plato]]nic dialogue, born of memories of the old happy life at Cambridge. In 1852 he published ''Polonius'', a collection of "saws and modern instances", some of them his own, the rest borrowed from the less familiar English classics. FitzGerald began the study of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] poetry in 1850 at [[Elmsett]] and that of [[Persian language|Persian]] at the [[University of Oxford]] with Professor [[Edward Byles Cowell]] in 1853. In middle life, he married Lucy, the daughter of [[Bernard Barton]], the [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] poet.
In [[1853]], he issued ''Six Dramas of Calderon'', freely translated. He now turned to Oriental studies, and in [[1856]] he anonymously published a version of the ''Sálamán'' and ''Absál'' of Jámi in [[John Milton|Miltonic]] verse. In March [[1857]] Cowell discovered a set of Persian quatrains by [[Omar Khayyám]] in the [[Asiatic Society]] library, [[Calcutta]], and sent them to FitzGerald. At this time the name with which he has been so closely identified first occurs in FitzGerald's correspondence--"Hafiz and [[Omar Khayyám]] ring like true metal." On [[January 15]] [[1859]] a little anonymous pamphlet was published as ''The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam''. In the world at large, and in the circle of FitzGerald's particular friends, the poem seems at first to have attracted no attention. The publisher allowed it to gravitate to the fourpenny or even (as he afterwards boasted) to the penny box on the bookstalls.
But in [[1860]] [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti|Rossetti]] discovered it, and [[Algernon Swinburne|Swinburne]] and Lord Houghton quickly followed. The ''Rubaiyat'' became slowly famous, but it was not until 1868 that FitzGerald was encouraged to print a second and greatly revised edition. Meanwhile he had produced in 1865 a version of the ''Agamemnon'', and two more plays from [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca|Calderón]]. In 1880&ndash;1881 he issued privately translations of the two [[Oedipus]] tragedies; his last publication was ''Readings'' in Crabbe, 1882. He left in manuscript a version of Attar's ''Mantic-Uttair'' under the title of ''The Bird Parliament''.
From [[1861]] onwards FitzGerald's greatest interest had been in the sea. In June 1863 he bought a [[yacht]], "The Scandal," and in 1867 he became part-owner of a herring-lugger, the "Meum and Tuum." For some years, till [[1871]], he spent the summer months "knocking about somewhere outside of [[Lowestoft]]." In this way, and among his books and flowers, FitzGerald gradually became an old man. He passed away painlessly in his sleep. He was "an idle fellow, but one whose friendships were more like loves." In [[1885]] his fame was increased by the f |
)
===Football (Soccer)===
*[[Shaun Bartlett]], soccer player (1972 - )
*[[Doctor Khumalo]], soccer player
*[[Benni McCarthy]], soccer player (1977 - )
*[[Lucas Radebe]], former [[South Africa national football team|Bafana Bafana]] soccer captain
*[[Jomo Sono]], soccer coach
===Golf===
*[[Ernie Els]], golfer (1969 - )
*[[Retief Goosen]], golfer (1969 - )
*[[Gary Player]], golfer (1936 - )
*[[Sewsunker "Papwa" Sewgolum]], golfer
===Motorsport===
*[[Jody Scheckter]], [[Formula One]] world champion (1950 - )
===Swimming===
*[[Natalie du Toit]], disabled swimmer
*[[Penny Heyns]], swimmer
===Tennis===
*[[Kevin Curren]], tennis player (1958 - )
*[[Cliff Drysdale]], tennis player and television commentator (1941 - )
*[[Johan Kriek]], tennis player (1958 - )
==Writers==
'''See:''' [[List of South African writers]]
==Other==
*[[Denise Darvall]] ? donor of first human [[heart transplant]]
*[[Nkosi Johnson]], child who died of [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]] (1989 - 2001)
*[[Hector Pieterson]], young boy whose death became a symbol of the [[Soweto riots]] (1964 - 1976)
*[[Mrs. Ples]], [[homonid]] [[fossil]] (born circa 2.6 to 2.8 million years ago)
*[[Rosenkowitz sextuplets]], first known set of sextuplets to survive their infancy (1974 - )
*[[Louis Washkansky]] ? recipient of first human [[heart transplant]]
==Ranked lists==
Every so often in the history of South Africa lists of notable people are created and ranked according to some criteria. Such as:
*[[SABC3's Great South Africans]] compiled by the [[SABC]] in 2004
==See also==
*[[List of people by nationality]]
*[[List of South African politicians]]
[[Category:Lists of people by nationality|South Africans]]
[[Category:South African people]]
[[Category:South Africa-related lists|South Africans]]
[[fr:100 Greatest South Africans]]
[[ja:南アフリカ人の一覧]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>File manager</title>
<id>11382</id>
<revision>
<id>38155061</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T15:43:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.58.30.114</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''file manager''' is a [[computer program]] that provides a [[user interface]] to work with [[file system]]s. They are very useful for speeding up interaction with files. The most common operations on files are create, open, edit, [[file viewer|view]], [[computer printer|print]], [[streaming media|play]], rename, move, [[file copying|copy]], [[file deletion|delete]], attributes, properties, search/find, and permissions.
Typically files are displayed in a [[hierarchy]]. File managers may contain features inherited from [[web browser]]s, including forward and back navigational buttons.
Some browsers may also provide [[computer network|network]] connectivity, e.g. via [[File transfer protocol|FTP]], [[Network File System|NFS]] or [[Samba software|Samba]].
==See also==
*[[Navigational file manager]]
*[[Spatial file manager]]
*[[Orthodox File Manager]]
*[[List of file managers]]
*[[Comparison of file managers]]
{{software-stub}}
[[Category:File managers]]
[[de:Dateimanager]]
[[es:Gestor de archivos]]
[[fr:Gestionnaire de fichiers]]
[[pl:Mened&#380;er plik&#243;w]]
[[ru:Файловый менеджер]]
[[sv:Filhanterare]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FM</title>
<id>11384</id>
<revision>
<id>15909131</id>
<timestamp>2005-03-13T18:20:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Georgia guy</username>
<id>161456</id>
</contributor>
<comment>All of the links that point to this capitalization format appear to be frequency modulation. Please do not revert without checking to see for any counter-examples.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frequency modulation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>File viewer</title>
<id>11385</id>
<revision>
<id>39388338</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T21:10:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ian Pitchford</username>
<id>230605</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''file viewer''' is a piece of [[computer software]] that displays the data stored in a [[computer file]] in a human-friendly form. The file contents are displayed on the [[display device|screen]], or they may be [[computer printer|printed]]. Also, they may be read aloud using [[speech synthesis]].
File viewers do not edit files, still it is common for them to be able to save data in a different [[file format]], or to copy information from the viewed file to [[clipboard]].
File viewers have to have sufficient knowledge about the [[file format|format]] of the file to be viewed. Even [[plain text]] files are not so simple &mdash; file viewers may have to handle different [[codepage]]s and [[newline]] styles.
The simplest file viewers are [[filter (Unix)|filter]]s that translate binary files into plain text (one example [[antiword]]). However, in this way some information may be lost. [[Disassembler]]s also fall in this category.
Another common type of file viewer is picture viewer that can display [[graphics file format|picture files of various formats]]. Common features here are [[thumbnail]] preview and zooming.
==Proprietary viewers==
For more complex file formats, file viewers are usually provided by the same companies that make editing software that use these formats (viewers may be distributed free of charge, while editors have to be bought). For some complex file formats, third parties develop viewers, e.&nbsp;g. [http://www.steelray.com] for MS Project.
A file viewer is a limited-functionality software in a sense that it does not have a capability to create a file, or modify the content of an existing one. Instead, it is used only to display or print the content.
The primary reason behind this missing functionality is due to marketing considerations. For example, a popular software program, [[Adobe Acrobat]], can be used to create a content for most computer platforms, under various operating systems. To ensure that people can access the documents created with Adobe Acrobat the software publisher created a viewer software, the [[Acrobat Reader]], and made it available for free. This viewer software ensures that people can create content that is readable on all supported platform, free of charge, thus making it a more attractive solution.
There are many products that can qualify as a file viewer: [[Microsoft Word]] or [[Microsoft PowerPoint]] viewer are additional examples. In a sense, a [[web browser]] is a type of file viewer, which translates, or renders, the [[HTML]] markups. Although HTML is plain text, viewing an HTML file in a browser or in a text editor can produce significantly different result.
Although web browser are arguably the best file viewer, since they support many graphic, multimedia and document formats, they are still lacking the output quality and the performance of today's leading software packages such as Microsoft PowerPoint or Adobe Acrobat, so creating and using alternative publishing systems and accompanying file viewers still make a lot of business sense.
==Streaming media==
There also types of data that are not intended for static display &mdash; they have the [[time]] dimension. Viewers for such formats are named players. But the essence is the same &mdash; presenting file contents in human-friendly form (i.e. displaying video on the screen as intended or playing sound through loudspeakers). And the same problem of different file formats is present.
==See also==
*[[Document viewer]]
*[[Electronic document]]
*[[Image viewer]]
*[[Media player]]
*[[Web browser]]
[[de:Dateibetrachter]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>1st Timothy</title>
<id>11386</id>
<revision>
<id>15909133</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-17T13:24:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Notcarlos</username>
<id>152211</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Merge complete; redirect in progress.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pastoral Epistles]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First Epistle of Peter</title>
<id>11387</id>
<revision>
<id>42049240</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:14:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>58.91.157.144</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ja</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
In [[Christianity]], the '''''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/kjv/co1.htm First Epistle of Peter]''''' is a book of the [[New Testament]]. Doubt has been cast on the ''[[Second Epistle of Peter]]'' since early times, but this ''First Epistle'' was accepted with less difficulty into the [[Biblical canon]].
==Authorship and date==
author identifies himself in the opening verse as "Peter, an apostle of Jesus", but modern scholars are skeptical that the [[apostle Peter|apostle Simon Peter]], the fisherman on the [[Sea of Galilee]], actually wrote it, because of the urbane cultured style of the [[Greek language|Greek]] and the lack of any personal detail suggesting contact with the historical Jesus of Nazareth. It contains about thirty-five references to the [[Old Testament]], all of which, however, come from the [[Septuagint]] translation, an inconceivable source for historical Peter the apostle. The Septuagint was a Greek translation created at [[Alexandria]] for the use of those Jews who could not easily read the Hebrew and Aramaic of the [[Tanakh]]. The historical Simon Peter in Galilee would not have heard Scripture in this form. Peter's own amanuensis was the evangelist [[Mark the Evangelist|Mark]], according to [[Clement of Alexandria]] and other early Christian writers.
One theory is that it was written by the [[Silas|Silvanus]] who is mentioned towards the end of the epistle: "By Silvanus, our faithful |
ar he was converted and Augustine was consecrated bishop at [[Arles]]. At [[Christmas]] 10,000 of the king's subjects were baptized.
Augustine sent a report of his success to Gregory with certain questions concerning his work. In [[601]] [[Mellitus]], [[Justus]] and others brought the pope's replies, with the [[pallium]] for Augustine and a present of sacred vessels, [[vestment]]s, [[relic]]s, books, and the like. Gregory directed the new archbishop to ordain as soon as possible twelve [[suffragan]] [[bishop]]s and to send a bishop to [[York]], who should also have twelve suffragans &mdash; a plan which was not carried out, nor was the primatial [[episcopal see|see]] established at [[London]] as Gregory intended. Augustine consecrated [[Mellitus]] Bishop of London and Justus Bishop of [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]].
More practicable were the pope's mandates concerning heathen temples and usages: the former were to be consecrated to Christian service and the latter, so far as possible, to be transformed into dedication ceremonies or feasts of martyrs, since "he who would climb to a lofty height must go up by steps, not leaps" (letter of Gregory to Mellitus, in [[Bede]], i, 30).
Augustine reconsecrated and rebuilt an old church at Canterbury as his cathedral and founded a monastery in connection with it. He also restored a church and founded the monastery of St. Peter and St. Paul outside the walls. He is claimed to have founded [[The King's School, Canterbury]], which would make it the world's oldest school; however there may be little more to this than that some teaching took place at the monastery.
His attempts to effect a union with the [[Old British Church]] in [[Wales]] failed.
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=Archdiocese created| title=[[Archbishop of Canterbury]] | after=[[Laurence of Canterbury|Laurence]] | years=597&ndash;605}}
{{end box}}
{{Schaff-Herzog}}
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:History of Kent]]
[[Category:Archbishops of Canterbury]]
[[Category:604 deaths|Augustine of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon Christianity]]
[[cs:Augustin z Canterbury]]
[[de:Augustinus von Canterbury]]
[[es:Agustín de Canterbury]]
[[gl:Agostiño de Canterbury]]
[[ja:カンタベリーのアウグスティヌス]]
[[nl:Augustinus van Canterbury]]
[[no:Augustin av Canterbury]]
[[ro:Augustin de Canterbury]]
[[uk:Августин Святий]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ABM treaty</title>
<id>2878</id>
<revision>
<id>15901260</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anti-Ballistic Missile</title>
<id>2880</id>
<revision>
<id>15901261</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-ballistic missile]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander of Hales</title>
<id>2881</id>
<revision>
<id>40863893</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T14:39:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ErikNorvelle</username>
<id>979555</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Added Category:Catholic philosophers</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander Hales'''
(also '''Halensis''', '''Alensis''', '''Halesius''', '''Alesius'''; called ''Doctor Irrefragabilis'' and ''Theologorum Monarcha'') was a [[scholasticism|scholastic ]] [[theology|theologian]]. He was born at [[Hales]], [[Gloucestershire]], [[England]], and died in [[Paris]] on [[August 21]], [[1245]]. He was educated in the monastery at Hales, studied and lectured at Paris, acquired great fame as a teacher in theology, and entered the [[Franciscan|Franciscan order]] in [[1222]].
Alexander was the first to write a commentary on the [[Sentences]] of [[Peter Lombard]], before him theologians had always commented upon the scriptures. His ''Summa universae theologiae'' (first printed at [[Venice, Italy|Venice]], [[1475]]) was undertaken at the request of [[Pope Innocent IV]], and received his approbation. It was finished by Alexander's scholars after his death. It is an independent work giving a triple series of authorities-- those who say yes, those who say no, and then the reconciliation or judgment. The authorities are chosen not only from the [[Bible]] and the Fathers, but also among Greek, Latin, and Arabic poets and philosophers, and later theologians. It treats in its first part the doctrines of [[God]] and his attributes; in its second, those of [[creation (theology)|Creation]] and [[sin]]; in its third, those of [[redemption]] and [[atonement]]; and, in its fourth and last, those of the [[sacrament]]s. In recognition of his efforts, Alexander was given the title of "Doctor Irrefragabilis".
Among the doctrines which were specially developed and, so to speak, fixed by Alexander of Hales, are those of the ''[[thesaurus supererogationis perfectorum]]'', and of the ''[[sacramental character|character indelibilis]]'' of [[baptism]],
[[confirmation (sacrament)|confirmation]], and [[Holy Orders|ordination]]. That doctrine had been written about much earlier by [[Augustine of Hippo]] and was eventually defined a [[dogma]] by the [[Council of Trent]].
John Gerson tells us “The doctrine of Alexander is of a wealth surpassing all expression. It is said that someone asked St. Thomas what was the best manner of studying theology; he replied that it was by attaching oneself to a Master. And to which Doctor? he was asked again. To Alexander of Hales, the [[Thomas Aquinas|Angelic Doctor]] replied." (Gerson, Opera omnia.Epistola Lugdunum missa cuidam fratri Minori, vol. 1, p. 554.)
Compare [[Hailes Abbey]], Gloucestershire, founded in 1245/6.
{{Medieval_Philosophy}}
[[Category:1245 deaths|Alexander of Hales]]
[[Category:Catholic philosophers|Alexander of Hales]]
[[Category:English theologians|Alexander of Hales]]
[[Category:Franciscans|Alexander of Hales]]
[[Category:Scholastic philosophers|Alexander of Hales]]
[[Category:Natives of Gloucestershire|Alexander of Hales]]
[[sk:Alexander z Halesu]]
[[fi:Aleksanteri Halesilainen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Active Server Pages</title>
<id>2883</id>
<revision>
<id>41508476</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:06:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Quarl</username>
<id>59118</id>
</contributor>
<comment>null edit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings, see [[ASP]].''
'''Active Server Pages''' ('''ASP''') is [[Microsoft]]'s [[Server (computing)|server]]-side technology for dynamically-generated web pages that is marketed as an add-on to [[Internet Information Services]] (IIS).
Programming ASP [[website]]s is made easier by various [[Wiktionary:built-in|built-in]] [[Object (computer science)|objects]]. Each object corresponds to a group of frequently-used functionality useful for creating [[dynamic web page]]s. In ASP 3.0 there are six such built-in objects: Application, ASPError, Request, Response, Server and Session. Session, for example, is a [[cookie]]-based [[Session (computer science)|session]] object that maintains [[variable]]s from page to page. [[Application Center Test]] is also available for load testing.
Most ASP pages are written in [[VBScript]], but any other [[Active Scripting]] engine can be selected instead by using the <tt>@Language</tt> directive. [[JScript]] (Microsoft's implementation of [[ECMAScript]]) is the other language that is usually available. PerlScript ([[Perl]]) and others are available as third-party installable Active Scripting engines.
==Versions==
ASP has gone through four major releases:
* ASP 1.0 (distributed with IIS 3.0) in December 1996,
* ASP 2.0 (distributed with IIS 4.0) in September 1997,
* ASP 3.0 (distributed with IIS 5.0) in November 2000,
* [[ASP.NET]] (part of the [[.NET Framework|Microsoft .NET platform]]) in January 2002 (the pre-.NET versions are currently referred to as "classic" ASP)
* ASP.NET version 2.0 (released on November 7th, 2005).
ASP.NET introduced the ability to replace in-HTML scripting with full-fledged support for [[.NET Framework|.NET]] languages such as [[Visual Basic .NET]] and [[C Sharp programming language|C#]]. In-page scripting can still be used (and is fully supported), but now pages can use VB.NET and C# classes to generate pages instead of code in HTML pages.
==Apache::ASP==
[http://www.apache-asp.org/ Apache::ASP] provides an Active Server Pages port to the Apache Web Server with Perl scripting only, and enables developing of dynamic web applications with session management and embedded Perl code.
==See also==
*[[ASP Examples]]
*[[Active Server Pages/Hints|ASP Hints]]
*[[ASPX]]
*[[ASP.NET]]
[[ar:ASP]]
[[ca:ASP]]
[[da:Active Server Pages]]
[[de:Active Server Pages]]
[[es:Active Server Pages]]
[[fi:ASP]]
[[fr:Active server pages]]
[[he:ASP]]
[[hu:Active Server Pages]]
[[it:Active Server Pages]]
[[ja:Active Server Pages]]
[[nl:Active Server Pages]]
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[[Category: Template engines]]
[[Category: Web server software]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amoxicillin</title>
<id>2885</id>
<revision>
<id>42126077</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:10:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Davidruben</username>
<id>101637</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Proprietary Preparations */ move of yet another proprietary name to list</comment |
ecruiser is either a ship specifically in-between a [[Heavy Cruiser]] and a [[Battleship]] in design, without the specific requirement that it can either outgun or evade any other capital ship, or the term is interchangable with "heavy cruiser," with the distinction that the "good guys" use heavy cruisers and the "bad guys" use battlecruisers.
==See also==
* [[Protected cruiser]]
* [[Armored cruiser]]
* [[Light cruiser]]
* [[Cruiser]]
* [[Heavy cruiser]]
* [[List of cruisers]]
* [[Crossing the T]]
==Further reading==
*Bernard Ireland, Tony Gibbons, ''Jane's Battleships of the 20th Century'' (HarperCollins, New York, 1996) also covers battlecruisers
*David Miller, ''The Illustrated Directory of Warships from 1860 to the Present Day'' (Salamander, London, 2004) ISBN 0-86288-677-5
==External links==
*[http://www.bobhenneman.info/Homepage.htm ALL THE WORLD'S BATTLECRUISERS]
[[Category:Ship types]]
[[de:Schlachtkreuzer]]
[[hu:Csatacirkáló]]
[[ja:巡洋戦艦]]
[[no:Slagkrysser]]
[[pl:Krążownik liniowy]]
[[ru:Линейный крейсер (тип корабля)]]
[[sl:Bojna križarka]]
[[sv:Slagkryssare]]
[[zh:战列巡洋舰]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bob Hawke</title>
<id>4059</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>40961419</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T03:27:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ianbrown</username>
<id>28190</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox PM
| name=Hon Bob Hawke
| image=Latham-Hawke.jpg
| country=Australia
| term=[[5 March]], [[1983]]&ndash;[[20 December]], [[1991]]
| before=[[Malcolm Fraser]]
| after=[[Paul Keating]]
| date_birth=[[9 December]] [[1929]]
| place_birth=[[Bordertown, South Australia|Bordertown]], [[South Australia]]
| party=[[Australian Labor Party|Labor]]
}}
'''Robert James Lee Hawke''' (born [[9 December]] [[1929]]) was an [[Australia]]n trade union leader and politician and the 23rd [[Prime Minister of Australia]].
After a decade as leader of the Australian union movement, he entered politics and was Prime Minister within three years. He became by far the longest-serving [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] Prime Minister, and was second-longest-serving Prime Minister overall until December [[2004]], when [[John Howard]] overtook him. Despite his record, critics continued to dismiss him as a [[populist]], whose focus on "consensus" has resulted in the abandonment of many traditional Labor values.
==Early life==
Hawke was born in [[Bordertown, South Australia|Bordertown]], a small town in [[South Australia]] near the Victorian border. His father was a [[Congregationalist]] minister; his uncle, [[Albert Hawke]], was Labor [[Premier of Western Australia]] between [[1953]] and [[1959]] and was a close friend of Labor Prime Minister [[John Curtin]], who was in many ways Bob Hawke's [[role model]]. Hawke's mother, Ellie, had an almost messianic belief in her son's destiny and this contributed to his supreme self-confidence throughout his career.
Hawke was raised in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] and attended the high school [[Perth Modern School]] and completed undergraduate degrees in Law and Arts (economics) at the [[University of Western Australia]]. He joined the Labor Party in [[1947]], selected as a [[Rhodes Scholarship|Rhodes Scholar]] in [[1953]] and went to [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] to complete a Bachelor of Letters at [[University College, Oxford|University College]] with a thesis on wage-fixing in Australia.
His academic achievements were possibly outweighed by the notoriety he achieved as the holder of a world record for the fastest consumption of beer: two and a half pints in eleven seconds. In his memoirs, Hawke suggested that this single feat may have contributed to his political success more than any other, by endearing him to a voting population with a strong beer culture.
On his return to Australia in [[1956]], Hawke married [[Hazel Hawke|Hazel Masterton]], with whom he had three children. They moved to [[Canberra]] while Hawke started studying for a doctorate at the [[Australian National University]], but he abandoned the degree in [[1958]] when he was offered a post as research officer at the [[Australian Council of Trade Unions]] (ACTU) headquarters in [[Melbourne]]. His ambition, self-belief and [[larrikin]] nature were already obvious. [[John Button]], Industry Minister in the Hawke Labor government, recalled Hawke holding court in the bar of a dingy pub that served as a Labor and union hangout, and offering him the post of [[Attorney-General]] in a future Hawke government.
==Trade union leader==
Part of Hawke's work at the ACTU was the presentation of its annual case for higher wages to the national wages tribunal, the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission. He attained such success and prominence in this role that in 1969 he was encouraged to run for ACTU President, despite the fact that he had never held office in a trade union, or indeed ever worked for a wage.
He was elected to the presidency of the ACTU in [[1969]] on a modernising platform, by a narrow margin (399 to 350) and with the support of the left of the union movement, including some associated with the [[Communist Party of Australia|Communist Party]].
Hawke decalared publicly that "socialist is not a word I would use to describe myself" and his approach to government was pragmatic .He concerned himself with making improvements to workers' lives from within the traditional institutions of government, rather than to any idealogical theory. He opposed the [[Vietnam war]], but was a strong supporter of the US-Australian alliance, and also an emotional supporter of [[Israel]].
In industrial matters, Hawke continued to demonstrate a preference for and considerable skill at negotiation, and was generally liked and respected by employers as well as the unions he advocated for. As early as [[1972]] speculation began that he would soon enter Parliament and become Labor leader. But while his career continued successfully, his heavy use of alcohol and his notorious womanising placed considerable strains on his family life.
In [[1973]] Hawke became Federal President of the Labor Party. When the [[Gough Whitlam|Whitlam government]] was defeated in [[1975]], Whitlam initially offered the Labor leadership to Hawke, although it was not within Whitlam's power to decide who would succeed him. Hawke decided not to enter Parliament at that time, a decision he soon regretted. The strain of this period took its toll, and in [[1979]] he suffered a physical collapse.
This shock led Hawke to make a sustained and ultimately successful effort to conquer his [[alcoholism]] - [[John Curtin]] was his inspiration in this as in other things. He was helped in this by his relationship with the writer [[Blanche d'Alpuget]], who in [[1982]] published an admiring biography of Hawke. His popularity with the public was unaffected, and polling suggested that he was a far more popular politician than either [[Bill Hayden]], the new Labor leader, or the incumbent [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] Prime Minister [[Malcolm Fraser]]. Indeed Hawke had been the most popular man in Australia for nearly ten years by the time he entered Parliament.
When in [[1975]], in one of the most controversial political actions since federation, the [[Whitlam]] government was [[Australian_constitutional_crisis_of_1975|dismissed by the Governor General]], Hawke was influential in averting national strike action.
Hawke was elected to the [[Australian_House_of_Representatives|House of Representatives]] for the Melbourne seat of [[Division of Wills|Wills]] at the [[1980]] election, and was immediately elected to the Opposition front bench. Hayden's failure to defeat Fraser at that election gave Hawke his opportunity. He enlisted the support of the powerful [[New South Wales]] right-wing Labor "machine" to undermine Hayden, whom he famously described as "a lying cunt with a limited future." In July [[1982]] Hawke made his first challenge for the Labor leadership, losing by four votes.
By the end of [[1982]], however, it was obvious that Fraser was planning an early election, and Labor MPs began to fear that with Hayden as leader they would lose. In February [[1983]], on the same day that Fraser called an election for [[5 March]], Hayden was persuaded to resign and Hawke became Labor leader without opposition. He went on to win the election in a landslide, becoming Prime Minister less than three years after entering Parliament.
==Prime Minister==
The inagural days of the Hawke government were distinctly different from those of the Whitlam era. Rather than immediately initiating extensive reform programmes, Hawke announced that Fraser's pre-election concealment of the budget deficit meant that many of Labor's election commitments would have to be deferred. Hawke managed to persuade the Labor caucus to divide the ministry into two tiers, with only the most important Ministers attending regular cabinet meetings. This was to avoid what Hawke viewed as the unwieldy nature of the 27-member Whitlam cabinet. The caucus under Hawke also exhibited a much more formalised system of parliamentary [[political faction|factions]], which significantly altered the dynamics of caucus operations.
Hawke used his great authority to carry out a substantial set of policy changes. Accounts from ministers indicate that while Hawke was not usually the driving force for economic reform (that impetus coming from the Treasurer [[Paul Keating]] and Industry Minister [[John Button]]), he took the role of reaching consensus and providing political guidance on what was electorally feasible and how best to sell it to the public, at which he was highly successful.
Keating and Hawke provided a study in contrasts. Hawke was a Rhodes Scholar; Keatin |
so studied with [[Lee Strasberg]]. She is of [[Czech people|Czech]], French-Canadian, [[English people|English]], and [[Iroquois]] descent. As a teenager, Jolie dreamed of becoming a funeral director.[http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/_/id/5938014] She attended the [[Lee Strasberg]] Theatre Institute from the age of 11, later attending [[Beverly Hills High School]]. Though she enrolled at the film school at [[New York University]] after finishing ''[[Gia]]'', she did not complete her studies.
Jolie has been long estranged from her father, though a reconciliation was attempted by his appearing with her in ''[[Lara Croft: Tomb Raider]]''. In the October 2004 issue of ''[[Premiere Magazine]]'', Jolie indicated that she was no longer interested in pursuing a relationship with her father, but that she did not hate him because she realised that "...we only have so much energy in this life". Soon afterwards, he claimed that she has "serious emotional problems" on ''[[Access Hollywood]]'', and she legally dropped Voight as her last name, taking "Angelina Jolie" as her legal name.
===Career===
Her first starring role came in the [[1995]] film ''[[Hackers_%28film%29|Hackers]].''
In [[1998]] she achieved a major critical success, starring in the TV film ''[[Gia]]'', the true story of 1970-80s supermodel [[Gia Carangi]], who died of [[AIDS]]. Jolie won [[Golden Globe]], [[Screen Actors Guild]] and Golden Satmifie awards, and was nominated for an [[Emmy]].
She had roles in several box-office flops until [[1999]], when she co-starred in ''[[The Bone Collector]]'' with [[Denzel Washington]] and won an Oscar for ''[[Girl, Interrupted (film)|Girl, Interrupted]]''. Her first headlining blockbuster role came from [[2001]]'s video-game-based ''[[Lara Croft: Tomb Raider]]''.
Several of her subsequent films, such as ''[[Life or Something Like It]]'', ''[[Alexander (movie)|Alexander]]'', and ''[[Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow ]]'', were box-office disappointments, although Jolie herself usually received good notices. She did provide the voice of Lola in the successful animated film ''[[Shark Tale]]''. Nonetheless, she has become one of [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]]'s most "in-demand" actresses. Following the success of ''[[Mr. & Mrs. Smith (2005 film)|Mr. & Mrs. Smith]]'', she's set to earn up to $15 million to star in the film ''[[The_Good_Shepherd_%28film%29|The Good Shepherd]]''.
Apart from her acting and humanitarian endeavours, Jolie has worked as a professional model in [[London]], [[New York City|New York]] and Los Angeles and appeared in numerous music videos, including those of [[Korn]], [[Meat Loaf]], [[Lenny Kravitz]], and [[The Rolling Stones]].
==Relationships==
[[Image:Angelina jolie lugar.jpg|thumb|right|Angelina Jolie]]
On [[March 28]], [[1996]] she married [[United Kingdom|British]] actor [[Jonny Lee Miller]], with whom she had co-starred in the film ''[[Hackers (movie)|Hackers]]''. Jolie attended her wedding in black leather trousers and a white shirt, which had her husband's name painted in her blood on the back. Jolie and Miller subsequently divorced on [[February 3]], [[1999]]. Jolie then married American actor [[Billy Bob Thornton]] on [[May 5]], [[2000]]. As a result of their frequent public declarations of passion and gestures of love (most famously wearing one others' blood in vials around their necks), their relationship became a favourite topic of the entertainment media. Jolie and Thornton divorced on [[May 27]], [[2003]].
Jolie has said in interviews that she is [[bisexual]]. In an interview with [[Barbara Walters]], Jolie said "If I fell in love with a woman tomorrow, would I feel that it's okay to want to kiss and touch her? If I fell in love with her? Absolutely! Yes!"[http://www.nydailynews.com/front/story/387860p-329048c.html] In an interview with a British [[tabloid]], model [[Jenny Shimizu]] claimed to have enjoyed a long-standing romantic and sexual relationship with her former ''[[Foxfire (1996 film)|Foxfire]]'' co-star.
===Brad Pitt===
In early [[2005]], Jolie found herself in the middle of a well-publicised Hollywood [[Sex scandal|scandal]] when she was accused of being the "other woman" in the [[divorce|marital break-up]] of [[Brad Pitt]] and [[Jennifer Aniston]]. The allegation was that she and Pitt had started an [[affair]] during filming of the spy comedy ''[[Mr. & Mrs. Smith]]''. However, in several interviews she has denied starting an affair with Pitt. In an interview with ''[[Marie Claire]]'' magazine recently she stated that she could never have a relationship with a married man because she has seen what relationships like that did to her mother. Her father has acknowledged that he cheated on Jolie's mother when they were married. Jolie stated that she "could not look herself in the mirror" if she had an affair with a married man.
Thanks to a mixture of generally good reviews, advance [[publicity]] and the rumours, ''[[Mr. & Mrs. Smith]]'' opened in the No. 1 position at the box-office after it was released in early June 2005, providing Jolie with her first box-office success in several years.
In late June 2005, the ''[[New York Post]]'' reported a claim that Jolie was [[pregnant]] - a report republished on [[June 30]] by Britain's [[Sky TV]], [[Sun Media Corporation]] in [[Canada]], and the [[Asia|Asian]] ''[[Hindustan Times]]'', among others. Her publicist denied this report, which would ultimately prove to be premature.
Speculation over the nature of Jolie and Pitt's relationship continued throughout the summer of 2005. On [[August 22]], the ''[[Calgary Herald]]'' ran a front-page story with a photo of Jolie taken during a surprise visit she made to [[Calgary, Alberta]] a couple of days earlier, accompanied by her adopted daughter Zahara. Pitt was at that time filming in Calgary, as was her father, [[Jon Voight]]. It was later reported that Jolie and Pitt visited the [[Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology]] in [[Drumheller, Alberta]] together[http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,17225,00.html], and sources reported in [[September]], 2005 that they had visited [[West Edmonton Mall]] together.[http://jam.canoe.ca/Movies/2005/09/22/1230579-sun.html]
On [[September 30]], the ''Calgary Sun'' reported that Pitt and Jolie had rented a house together in the city of [[Spruce Grove, Alberta]], west of [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] where Pitt was filming; the same issue printed a photograph of the couple, now dubbed "Brangelina", leaving an Edmonton grocer's.
On [[January 11]], [[2006]], both Jolie's and Pitt's representatives confirmed, through ''[[People Magazine]]'', that the two were expecting their first child in Summer [[2006]], thus indirectly confirming for the first time that they were in a relationship.[http://people.aol.com/people/articles/0,19736,1145171,00.html]
==Humanitarian Work==
[[Image:NotesFromMyTravels.jpg|right|180px|thumb|In 2003, Jolie published a collection of journals made during missions for the UNHCR. Her proceeds from the book went to the UNHCR.]]
Jolie has been a [[UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador|Goodwill Ambassador]] for the [[United Nations High Commission for Refugees]] since [[2001]], and frequently travels to countries in order to draw attention to the plight of people in developing countries. In [[2003]], she published ''[[Notes from My Travels]]'', a collection of journal entries that chronicled her early work with the [[United Nations|U.N.]].
In a January 2005 [http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/europe/01/29/davos.jolie.reut/index.html interview] with [[Reuters]], Jolie criticised fellow actors and actresses for not being committed enough in helping others, and stated that she gives one-third of her income to charitable institutions. On [[October 12]], [[2005]], Jolie was awarded the Global Humanitarian Award by the [[UNA-USA]].
Jolie was also one of the first [[celebrity|celebrities]] to accept an invitation to be one of the bearers of the [[Olympic Torch]] during the [[2004 Olympic Games]], though she was ultimately unable to participate because of filming commitments.
Since taking on her goodwill ambassador duties, Jolie has on numerous occasions made public statements that she wants to quit acting and concentrate on her UN work (for example, see ''Ireland On-Line'' in June 2005 [http://breakingnews.iol.ie/entertainment/story.asp?j=145628738&p=y456z9444]). However, she has also stated that her work provides her with the income necessary for her to continue travelling the world on behalf of the UN.
Jolie continues to balance the demands of being a film-star with that of being a humanitarian, despite an apparently gruelling schedule. On [[June 7]], 2005, the [[Associated Press]] wire service reported on Jolie giving a presentation in [[Islamabad]], [[Pakistan]]. That same day, she attended the premiere of ''Mr. & Mrs. Smith'' in [[Los Angeles]]. She now lives full-time in [[Buckinghamshire]], [[England]], and owns property in [[Cambodia]], which she had to have demined. Angelina Jolie spent the new year of 2005 by going abroad to film a documentary called "A Moment in the World". She called on several actors and actresses to film in various locations around the world at the same time for three minutes. This was done in order to capture random moments that are happening across the world at the same time. Some confusion has arisen between this project and the independent endeavour [http://www.momentonearth.com A Moment on Earth], in which 60 film-makers around the world captured two separate moments on 5th and 6th August, 2004. No release dates for either project are known at this time.
In August 2005, Cambodia's King [[Norodom Sihamoni]] awarded Jolie Cambodian [[citizenship]] for her [[conservation ethic|conservation]] work in the country.
In September 2005 Jolie |
tal [[Saunders-Roe SR.53]] [[interceptor aircraft|interceptor]], with clipped [[delta wing]]s and small [[canard]] foreplanes. It was powered by a two-chamber [[Armstrong Siddeley]] Stentor Mark 101 rocket engine, burning a combination of [[hydrogen peroxide]] and [[kerosene]]. This was a considerable operational problem, because fueling the missile before launch took nearly a half an hour, and was quite hazardous. The warhead was a [[Red Snow]] one-[[megaton]] device.
On launch the rocket engine's first chamber would power the missile along a predetermined course to the target at around [[Mach number|Mach]] 1.5. Once close to the target, the second chamber of the engine would accelerate the missile to Mach 3. Over the target the engine would cut out and the missile would free-fall before detonating its warhead as an [[airburst]].
Blue Steel finally entered service in February [[1963 in aviation|1963]], being carried by [[Avro Vulcan|Vulcan]]s and [[Handley Page Victor|Victor]]s, although its limitations were already apparent. The short range of the missile meant that the V bombers were still vulnerable to enemy [[Surface-to-air missile|SAM]]s. A replacement for Blue Steel, the Mark 2, was planned with increased range and a [[ramjet]] engine but this was cancelled in [[1960 in aviation|1960]] due to difficulties in developing the Mark 1. The UK sought to acquire the much longer-ranged [[United States Air Force]] [[AGM-48 Skybolt]] air-launched ballistic missile, and was greatly frustrated when that weapon was cancelled in late [[1962 in aviation|1962]]. With no effective long-range weapon the original Blue Steel served on, even though it usefulness in a hot war was likely limited.
Blue Steel officially retired [[21 December]] [[1969 in aviation|1969]], with the United Kingdom's chief nuclear capacity passing to the [[submarine]] fleet.
==Specifications==
* '''Length''': 10.7 m (35 ft)
* '''Wingspan''': 4 m (13 ft)
* '''Diameter''': 0.71 m (28 in)
* '''Launch Weight''': 7,270 kg (16,000 lb)
* '''Speed''': Mach 3
* '''Ceiling''': 21,500 m (70,500 ft)
* '''Maximum Range''': 240 km (150 miles)
* '''Guidance''': inertial
* '''[[circular error probable|CEP]]''': N/A
* '''Warhead''': W-28 [[thermonuclear]] (1.1 MT)
==Related Content==
'''Similar Weapons'''
[[AGM-28 Hound Dog]] - [[Raduga KS-1 Komet]]
===External links===
*http://www.spaceuk.org/bsteel/bsteel.htm
*http://www.skomer.u-net.com/projects/bluesteel.htm
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:Cold War air-to-surface missiles of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Nuclear air-to-surface missiles]]
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[[de:Avro_Blue_Steel]]
[[id:Peluru kendali Blue Steel]]
[[ms:Peluru berpandu Blue Steel]]
[[pl:Blue Steel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Branch Davidian</title>
<id>4778</id>
<revision>
<id>41521701</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:43:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>WacoKid</username>
<id>788267</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved sentence to intro</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Unreferenced}}
The '''Branch Davidians''' are a religious group originating from the [[Seventh-day Adventist]] church. From its inception, the group inherited Adventism's [[Apocalypse|apocalypticism]], in that they believed themselves to be living in a time when Christian prophecies of a final divine judgment were coming to pass. They are best known for the [[1993]] [[Waco Siege|siege]] of their [[Mount Carmel]] Center near [[Waco, Texas]], by the [[FBI]] and the [[BATF]], which resulted in the deaths of eighty-two of the church's members, including head figure [[David Koresh]]. However, by the time of the siege, Koresh had encouraged his followers to think of themselves as "students of the Seven Seals" rather than Branch Davidians, while other Branch Davidian factions never accepted his leadership.
== History ==
In [[1929]], [[Victor Houteff]], a [[Bulgaria]]n immigrant, claimed that he had a new message for the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]]. It was submitted in the form of a book entitled "The Shepherd's Rod". His claims were not accepted and were considered divisive by the leadership because he pointed out what he saw as their departures from basic church teachings and standards. Therefore, he was disfellowshipped ([[excommunicate]]d) from the church.
In 1935, Houteff established his headquarters outside [[Waco, Texas]]. Up to 1942, his movement was known as the Shepherd's Rod, but when Houteff found it necessary to formally incorporate so members could claim conscientous objector status, he named his association the ''Davidian Seventh-day Adventists''. The term "Davidian" refers to the restoration of the Davidic kingdom. Houteff directed Davidians to focus exclusively on converting Adventists. Under Houteff's heavily [[Typology (theology)|typological]] system, Davidians believed prophesy to foretell a cyclic series of events, described as a spiral, with history returning to prophetically foretell events but each time, advance in terms of cosmological progress.
In [[1955]], after Houteff's death, a split of this movement formed the ''Branch Davidian Seventh-day Adventists'', headed initially by [[Benjamin Roden|Benjamin L. Roden]]. "Branch" refers to the new name of Christ. The group established a settlement outside of [[Waco, Texas|Waco]], [[Texas]], on the property previously occupied by the Davidian group. In 1977, [[Benjamin Roden]]'s wife [[Lois Roden|Lois]] claimed to have a message of her own, one element of which was that the [[Holy Spirit]] is feminine in gender, causing much controversy in the group. When Ben Roden died the next year, their son George tried to assume leadership, claiming that he was the rightful prophet of the group, but she beat back his attempt.
In [[1981]] [[Vernon Howell]] (later renamed David Koresh) joined the group as a regular member. In [[1983]] Lois Roden allowed Howell to begin to teach his own message, opening the door for him to build a following before their split in early [[1984]]. Lois also faced dissent from Canadian Charles Pace. There was a general meeting at Mt. Carmel of all Branch Davidians over [[Passover]] [[1984]] and the end result was that the group split into several factions, one of which was loyal to Howell. At this time George Roden forced Howell and Pace to leave the property.
Howell took his followers to [[Palestine, Texas]], while Pace went to [[Gadsden, Alabama]]. But by [[1988]], George Roden's support had dwindled, and while he was in jail for contempt of court, Howell took charge of the disputed land in his absence. Meanwhile, Lois Roden had passed away in [[1986]], and her will appointed Teresa Moore as her successor.
In [[1990]] Howell changed his name to [[David Koresh]], invoking the biblical Kings [[David]] and [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus]]. Koresh centered his teachings around the Seven Seals and his ability as the "Lamb" to open them. Koresh supported his beliefs with detailed [[Bible|biblical]] interpretation, using the [[Book of Revelation]] as the lens through which the entire Bible was viewed.
==Raid and Siege==
Defectors from Koresh's group alleged that he practiced polygamy with underage brides, physically abused children, and stockpiled illegal weapons. Eventually, legal authorities investigated their charges.
On [[February 28]] [[1993]], the [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms]] (ATF) raided Mount Carmel, resulting in the deaths of four agents and six Davidians. The subsequent 51-day siege ended on [[April 19]] when the complex was completely consumed by fire killing seventy-six people, including Koresh.
The government put some of the survivors on trial. All were acquitted of conspiring to murder federal agents, but some were convicted of [[voluntary manslaughter]]. Skeptics continue to dispute official government inquiries that claim to definitively prove that the fire was set on the inside by Davidians.
''For more information, see [[Waco Siege]].''
==Today==
Survivor Clive Doyle and supporter Ron Goins live at Mt. Carmel Center and run a small visitor museum as well as hold weekly Bible studies on the Sabbath.
Charles Pace, a Davidian who leads a non-Koresh group, also lives on the property and holds his own worship services.
In 1996 the court ruled that the land belongs to the Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventist Church. However, the court has until this point refused to rule on who exactly constitutes "the church". Currently [[Amo Bishop Roden]], George's former wife, is attempting to sue for ownership and access to the land. Most survivors and supporters recognize Clive Doyle as the trustee of the organization and the land.
Also in 1996 a number of Koresh's remaining followers filed an [[civil action|action]] to gain quiet title to the church's property under a claim of [[adverse possession]]. Adverse possession requires that the claimant file it against a party that holds [[Title owner|title]] to the property. However, they filed this suit as the "Trustees" of the church. Thus they were claiming to be the Trustees of the church, while on the other they were claiming that they possessed the property adversely against the Trustees of the Church; the two positions are contradictory. With opposition from a church member (Doug Mitchell) who did not join Howell's faction, and who joined the case in 1998, they dropped their claim for adverse possession the day before the trial began, proceeding only on their claims of being the Trustees of the church. In 2000, the jury ruled against them, and also against Amo Roden, another claimant to the ownership of the property.
In spite of this court ruling, they and others still continue to assume the identity of the true church, and its property. For reasons not explained by the judge, Alan Mayfield, Doug Mitchell's c |
ecision problem, and a string ''C'' which is a "proposed certificate", and such that A produces a YES/NO answer in at most ''n''<sup>''k''</sup> steps (where ''n'' is the length of ''w'' and ''k'' doesn't depend on ''w''). Suppose furthermore that
: ''w'' is a YES instance of the decision problem if and only if there exists ''C'' such that A(''w'',''C'') returns YES.
Then we say that the problem can be solved in ''non-deterministic polynomial time'' and we place it in the class '''NP'''. We think of the algorithm A as a verifier of proposed certificates which runs reasonably fast. (Note that the abbreviation '''NP''' stands for "'''N'''on-deterministic '''P'''olynomial" and ''not'' for "'''N'''on-'''P'''olynomial".)
==NP-complete==
To attack the '''P''' = '''NP''' question, the concept of [[NP-complete|'''NP'''-completeness]] is very useful. Informally, the '''NP'''-complete problems are the "toughest" problems in '''NP''' in the sense that they are the ones most likely not to be in '''P'''. [[NP-hard|'''NP'''-hard]] problems are those into which ''any'' problem in '''NP''' can be transformed, in polynomial time. '''NP'''-complete problems are those '''NP'''-hard problems which are in '''NP'''. For instance, the decision problem version of the [[traveling salesman problem]] is '''NP'''-complete. So ''any'' instance of ''any'' problem in '''NP''' can be transformed mechanically into an instance of the traveling salesman problem, in polynomial time. So, if the traveling salesman problem turned out to be in '''P''', then '''P ''' = '''NP'''! The traveling salesman problem is one of many such '''NP'''-complete problems. If any '''NP'''-complete problem is in '''P''', then it would follow that '''P''' = '''NP'''. Unfortunately, many important problems have been shown to be '''NP'''-complete and not a single fast algorithm for any of them is known.
==Still harder problems==
Although it is unknown whether '''P'''='''NP''', problems outside of '''P''' are known. The problem of finding the best move in [[Chess]] or [[Go (board game)|Go]] (on an ''n'' by ''n'' board) is [[EXPTIME|EXPTIME-complete]]. Because it can be shown that P &ne; EXPTIME, these problems are outside '''P''', and so require more than polynomial time. In fact, by the [[time hierarchy theorem]], they cannot be solved in significantly less than exponential time.
The problem of deciding the truth of a statement in [[Presburger arithmetic]] is even harder. Fischer and [[Michael O. Rabin|Rabin]] proved in [[1974]] that every algorithm which decides the truth of Presburger statements has a runtime of at least 2^(2^(''cn'')) for some constant ''c''. Here, ''n'' is the length of the Presburger statement. Hence, the problem is known to need more than exponential run time. Even more difficult are the [[List of undecidable problems|undecidable problems]], such as the [[halting problem]]. They cannot be solved in general given any amount of time.
== Is P really tractable? ==
All of the above discussion has assumed that '''P''' means "easy" and "not in '''P'''" means "hard". While this is a common and reasonably accurate assumption in complexity theory, it is not always true in practice, for several reasons:
*It ignores constant factors. A problem that takes time 10<sup>1000</sup>''n'' is in '''P''' (it is linear time), but is completely intractable in practice. A problem that takes time 10<sup>-10000</sup>2<sup>''n''</sup> is not in '''P''' (it is exponential time), but is very tractable for values of ''n'' up into the thousands.
*It ignores the size of the exponents. A problem with time ''n''<sup>1000</sup> is in '''P''', yet intractable. Problems have been proven to exist in '''P''' that require arbitrarily large exponents (see [[time hierarchy theorem]]). A problem with time 2<sup>''n''/1000</sup> is not in '''P''', yet is tractable for ''n'' up into the thousands.
*It only considers worst-case times. There might be a problem that arises in the real world such that most of the time, it can be solved in time ''n'', but on very rare occasions you'll see an instance of the problem that takes time 2<sup>''n''</sup>. This problem might have an average time that is polynomial, but the worst case is exponential, so the problem wouldn't be in '''P'''.
*It only considers deterministic solutions. There might be a problem that you can solve quickly if you accept a tiny error probability, but a guaranteed correct answer is much harder to get. The problem would not belong to '''P''' even though in practice it can be solved quickly. This is in fact a common approach to attack problems in '''NP''' not known to be in '''P''' (see '''[[RP (complexity)|RP]]''', '''[[BPP]]'''). Even if '''P'''='''BPP''', as many researchers believe, it is often considerably easier to find [[probabilistic algorithm]]s.
*New computing models such as [[quantum computer]]s may be able to quickly solve some problems not known to be in '''P'''; however, none of the problems they are known to be able to solve are '''NP'''-hard. However, it should be noted that the ''definition'' of '''P''' and '''NP''' are in terms of classical computing models like Turing machines. Therefore, even if a quantum computer algorithm were discovered to efficiently solve an '''NP'''-hard problem, we would only have a way of physically solving difficult problems quickly, not a proof that the mathematical classes '''P''' and '''NP''' are equal.
==Why do computer scientists think P &ne; NP?==
Most computer scientists believe that '''P'''&ne;'''NP'''. A key reason for this belief is that after decades of studying these problems, nobody has been able to find a polynomial-time algorithm for an NP-hard problem. Moreover, these algorithms were sought long before the concept of NP-completeness was even known ([[Karp's 21 NP-complete problems]], among the first found, were all well-known existing problems). Furthermore, the result P = NP would imply many other startling results that are currently believed to be false, such as NP = [[co-NP]] and P = [[PH (complexity)|PH]].
It is also intuitively argued that the existence of problems that are hard to solve but for which the solutions are easy to verify matches real-world experience.
On the other hand, some researchers believe that we are overconfident in '''P''' &ne; '''NP''' and should explore proofs of '''P''' = '''NP''' as well. For example, in 2002 these statements were made: [http://www.cs.umd.edu/~gasarch/papers/poll.ps]
: The main argument in favor of P&ne;NP is the total lack of fundamental progress in the area of exhaustive search. This is, in my opinion, a very weak argument. The space of algorithms is very large and we are only at the beginning of its exploration. [ . . . ] The resolution of [[Fermat's last theorem|Fermat's Last Theorem]] also shows that very simply [sic] questions may be settled only by very deep theories.
: &mdash; Moshe Vardi, [[Rice University]]
: Being attached to a speculation is not a good guide to research planning. One should always try both directions of every problem. Prejudice has caused famous mathematicians to fail to solve famous problems whose solution was opposite to their expectations, even though they had developed all the methods required.
: &mdash; Anil Nerode, [[Cornell University]]
==Results about difficulty of proof==
A million dollar prize and a huge amount of dedicated research with no substantial results are enough to show the problem is difficult. There have also been some formal results demonstrating why the problem might be difficult to solve.
One of the most frequently-cited is a result involving [[oracle machine|oracles]]. Imagine you have a magical machine called an ''oracle'' that can solve only one problem, such as determining if a given number is prime, but can solve it in constant time. Our new question is now, if we're allowed to use this oracle as much as we want, are there problems we can verify in polynomial time that we can't solve in polynomial time? It turns out that, depending on the problem that the oracle solves, with certain oracles one has '''P''' = '''NP''', while for other oracles one has '''P''' &ne; '''NP'''. The practical consequence of this is that any proof which can be modified to account for the existence of these oracles cannot solve the problem. Unfortunately, most known methods and nearly all classical methods can be modified in such a way (we say they are ''relativizing'').
As if this weren't bad enough, a 1993 result by [[Alexander Razborov]] and [[Steven Rudich]] showed that, given a certain credible assumption, proofs that are "natural" in a certain sense cannot solve the '''P''' = '''NP''' problem (see [[natural proof]]). This demonstrated that some of the most seemingly-promising methods of the time were also unlikely to succeed. As more theorems of this kind are proved, a potential proof of the theorem has more and more traps to avoid.
This is actually another reason why NP-complete problems are useful: if a polynomial-time algorithm, or the lack of one, can be demonstrated for an NP-complete problem, this would solve the '''P''' = '''NP''' problem in a way which is not believed to be excluded by the above results.
==Polynomial-time algorithms==
No one knows whether polynomial-time algorithms exist for NP-complete languages. But if such algorithms do exist, we already know some of them! For example, the following algorithm correctly accepts an NP-complete language, but no one knows how long it takes in general. This is a polynomial-time algorithm if and only if '''P''' = '''NP'''.
// Algorithm that accepts the NP-complete language [[subset sum problem|SUBSET-SUM]].
//
// This is a polynomial-time algorithm if and only if P=NP.
//
// "P |
total vote each party received.
Greece uses a complex reinforced proportional representation electoral system which discourages splinter parties and makes a parliamentary majority possible even if the leading party falls short of a majority of the popular vote. Under the current electoral law, any single party must receive at least a 3% nationwide vote tally in order to elect Members of Parliament (the so-called "3% threshold"). The law in its current form favors the [[first past the post]] party to achieve a simple (151 parliamentary seats) majority, provided there is at least a roughly 1% tally advantage of the first party over the second one. This is touted to enhance governmental stability. The electoral law can be changed by simple parliamentary majority (151 or more votes), but a law so changed only becomes enforced in the election following the upcoming one.
==Political parties and leaders==
{{elect|List of political parties in Greece|Elections in Greece}}
{{main|Greek legislative election, 2004}}
{{Greek parliamentary election, 2004}}
==Judicial branch==
Greece has a Supreme Judicial Court, judges appointed for life by the president after consultation with a judicial council; Special Supreme Tribunal, judges appointed for life by the president after consultation with a judicial council.
== Administrative divisions ==
Greece is divided in [[Peripheries of Greece|13 peripheries]], further divided into [[Prefectures of Greece|51 prefectures]]. The prefectures are each headed by a prefect (nomarch), who is elected by direct popular vote. The thirteen regional administrative districts ([[Peripheries of Greece|peripheries]]), each including a number of prefectures are headed by a regional governor (periferiarch), appointed by the Minister of the Interior. In northern Greece and in greater [[Athens]], three areas have an additional administrative position between the nomarch and periferiarch. This official, known as the president of the prefectural local authorities or "super nomarch," is elected by direct popular vote. Although municipalities and villages have elected officials, they do not have an adequate independent tax base and must depend on the central government for a large part of their financial needs. Consequently they are subject to numerous central government controls. This also leads to extremely low municipal taxes (usually around 0.2% or less).
Greece includes 1 autonomous region ([[Mount Athos]]).
==International organization participation==
Greece is member of the Australia Group, BIS, BSEC, [[Council of Europe|CE]], CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, [[EU]], FAO, G- 6, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, [[Interpol]], IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, NAM (guest), [[NATO]], NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), [[OECD]], OPCW, OSCE, PCA, [[Southeast European Cooperative Initiative|SECI]], [[UN]], UNCTAD, [[UNESCO]], UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNOMIG, UPU, [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[WEU]], WFTU, [[World Health Organization|WHO]], WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, [[Zangger Committee]]
==Politicians of Greece==
* [[Alekos Alavanos]]
* [[Dimitris Avramopoulos]]
* [[Maria Damanaki]]
* [[Manolis Glezos]]
* [[Konstantinos Karamanlis]]
* [[Costas Karamanlis]]
* [[Georgios Karatzaferis]]
* [[Nikos Konstantopoulos]]
* [[Vassilis Leventis]]
* [[Andreas Papandreou]]
* [[George Papandreou, junior]]
* [[George Papandreou, senior]]
* [[Aleka Papariga]]
* [[Karolos Papoulias]]
* [[Antonis Samaras]]
* [[Costas Simitis]]
* [[Costis Stephanopoulos]]
* [[Dimitris Tsovolas]]
* and others...
== Political issues==
=== Education ===
Under the Greek constitution, education is the responsibility of the state. Most Greeks attend public primary and secondary schools. There are a few private schools, which must meet the standard curriculum of and are supervised by the Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Education oversees and directs every aspect of the public education process at all levels, including hiring all teachers and professors and producing all required textbooks.
=== Religion ===
The [[Greek Orthodox Church]] is under the protection of the State, which pays the clergy's salaries, and [[Orthodox Christianity]] is the "''prevailing''" religion of Greece according to the Constitution. The Greek Orthodox Church is self-governing but under the spiritual guidance of the Ecumenical Patriarch in [[Constantinople]]. About 98% of Greek citizens consider themselves members of the Orthodox Church.
The [[Muslim]] minority, concentrated in [[Thrace]], was given legal status by provisions of the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] in 1923 and is Greece's only officially recognized religious minority. There are small [[Catholic]] communities on some of the [[Cyclades]], remnants of the long [[Venetian]] rule over the islands. The recent influx of (mostly illegal) immigrants from Eastern Europe and the Third World has an expectedly varied multi-religious profile ([[Catholic]], [[Muslim]], [[Hindu]] etc).
Under the [[2000]] constitutional amendment, complete separation of church and state is being attempted, which clashes with both the population and the clergy. For example, numerous protests have occurred for the removal of the Religious Denomination entry from the National ID card. However, outside the Orthodox majority, many believe that Greece had and still has a serious problem of religious freedom. [http://www.highbeam.com/library/doc0.asp?docid=1P1:2238149&dtype=0~0&dinst=&author=Jean%20Cohen&title=GREEK%20PARLIAMENT%20REJECTS%20PLAN%20TO%20END%20RELIGION%20LISTING%20ON%20I.D.&date=04/09/1993&refid=ency_botnm] [http://www.highbeam.com/library/doc0.asp?docid=1P1:42775936&dtype=0~0&dinst=&author=PATRICK%20QUINN%2C%20AP&title=Greek%20archbishop%20blames%20Jews%20in%20ID%20dispute&date=03/16/2001&refid=ency_botnm]
<!-- Christodoulos is a fucking moron, anyway. Project2501a -->
=== Media ===
In comparative [[Reporters_Without_Borders| NGO studies]] , Greece ranks among the highest in press freedom worldwide.
The Greek [[Mass media|media]], collectively, is a very influential institution &mdash; usually aggressive, sensationalist. As with many countries, most of the media are owned by businessmen with commercial interests in other sectors of the economy. There are often accusations of newspapers, magazines, and radio and TV channels being used to promote their commercial enterprises as well as to seek political influence.
In 1994, the Ministry of Press and Information was established to deal with media and communication issues. ERT S.A., a public corporation supervised by the Minister of Press, operates three national television channels and five national radio channels. The Minister of Press also serves as the primary government spokesperson.
The Secretary General of Press and Information prepares the semi-official Athens News Agency (ANA) Bulletin. Along with [[Associated Press|AP]] and [[Reuters]], this is a primary source of information for the Greek press. The Ministry of Press and Information also issues the semi-official Macedonian News Agency (MPE) Bulletin, which is distributed throughout the Balkan region. For international news, [[CNN]] is a particular influence in the Greek market; the major TV channels often use it as a source. State and private TV stations also use [[Eurovision]] and [[Visnews]] as sources. While few papers and stations have overseas correspondents, those few correspondents abroad can be very influential.
In 1988, a new law provided the legal framework for the establishment of private radio stations and, in 1989, private TV stations. According to the law, supervision of radio and television is exercised by the National Radio and Television Council. In practice, however, official licensing has been delayed for many years. Because of this, there has been a proliferation of private radio and TV stations, as well as European satellite channels, including [[Euronews]]. More than 1,000 radio stations were operating before March 2002, when the government implemented plans to reallocate TV frequencies and issue licenses as authorized by the 1993 Media Law, effectively reducing this number.
=== Military Service ===
12 months for all males of 18 years of age; Compulsory with fines and imprisonment if denied. Members of families with 3 children serve a reduced time of 9 months. Military Service denial can also be substituted by a longer public service.
Limited steps have been taken to turn the Greek military into a semi-professional army in the last years, leading to the gradual decrease of the service from 18 to 12 months and the insertion of a great number of "professional" military personnel in most vertices of the force.
==External links==
*[http://ekloges.ypes.gr/en/ Greek election results], via the Greek Ministry of Internal Affairs
*[http://www.ekloges.gr/ ekloges.gr] Greek Elections
*[http://www.primeminister.gr Official website of the Prime Minister of Greece]
{{NATO}}
[[Category:Politics of Greece| ]]
[[he:&#1508;&#1493;&#1500;&#1497;&#1496;&#1497;&#1511;&#1492; &#1513;&#1500; &#1497;&#1493;&#1493;&#1503;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Greece</title>
<id>12113</id>
<revision>
<id>41792045</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:01:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Skartsis</username>
<id>993617</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 width=300 style="float:right; border:1px solid gray; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:90%; margin:0 0 .5em 1em;"
!align="center" bgcolor="darkblue" colspan="3"|<big>Economy of Greece</bi |
in his pocket wins the game. The game requires far more defensive strategy than offensive strategy, much unlike 8-ball, 9-ball, or straight pool. It has been said that if 8-ball is checkers, one-pocket is chess.
=== Bank pool ===
Bank pool has been gaining popularity in recent years. Bank pool can be played with a full rack, but is more typically played with nine balls (sometimes called "9-ball bank") &mdash; the balls are racked in 9-ball formation, but in no particular order. The object of the game is simple: to be the first player to bank 5 balls in any order. Bank pool is one of the "cleanest" (no "slop") billiards games &mdash; no "kick" shots (you must hit the object ball directly without hitting the rail first); no caroms (you must hit the object ball directly without hitting another ball first); no combinations (cue ball to the object ball then object ball to the ''called'' pocket); the object ball can't hit another ball on the way (no "kisses"). Any ball pocketed on a foul, or in the wrong pocket, is spotted. If the cue ball is sunk (or knocked off the table), you must spot (place on or as nearly behind the head spot as possible) any balls that were sunk on that shot, and you "owe" a ball which you must spot as well. If you scratch and you haven't made a ball, you will owe the next one you sink. After a scratch, the cue ball must be shot from ''behind'' the headstring. Any ball sunk other that the object ball is spotted after your turn. Technically, fouling during three successive turns means a loss of game, but that rule is largely ignored (players are advised to make sure the rules are clear and agreed-upon before play begins).
[[Image:Snooker.png|right|thumb|200px|Snooker table in starting position]]
===Snooker===
{{main|Snooker}}
A pocket billiards game originated by British Officers stationed in India during the 19th century. The name of the game became generalized to also describe of one of its prime strategies; to 'snooker'. That is, when necessary, one will attempt to 'snooker' the opposing player, to cause that player to foul or leave an opening to be exploited (see [[Glossary of pool and billiards terms]] - "[[Glossary of pool and billiards terms#Snooker|Snooker]]) .
In the United Kingdom, Snooker is by far the most popular form of billiards at the competitive level. It is played in many other countries as well. Snooker is far rarer in the U.S., where pocket billiards games such as eight ball and nine ball dominate.
==Carom and pocket billiards games==
===Carom===
*[[18.1 Balkline]]
*[[18.2 Balkline]]
*[[Artistic Billiards]]
*[[Carambole billiards]]
*[[Four ball]]
*[[Straight rail]]
*[[Three cushion billiard]]
===Pocket===
*[[Banks (billiards)|Banks]]
*[[bowliards]]
*[[Chicago (billiards)|Chicago]]
*[[Chinese Eight Ball]]
*[[Cowboy (billiards)|Cowboy]]
*[[Cribbage (billiards)|Cribbage]]
*[[Cutthroat]]
*[[Eight ball]]
*[[English billiards]]
*[[Equal offense]]
*[[Internet Equal Offense]]
*[[Flanges]]
*[[Golf (billiards)|Golf]]
*[[Indian (billiards)|Indian]]
*[[Nine ball]]
*[[One Pocket]]
*[[Rotation (billiards)|Rotation]]
*[[Russian Billiards]]
*[[Seven Ball]]
*[[Six pocket]]
*[[Snooker]]
*[[Straight pool]]
*[[Ten ball]]
===Other variants===
*[[Bar billiards]]
*[[Bumper pool]]
*[[Face Off]]
*[[Hexapool]]
==Notable pool and billiards enthusiasts==
*[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]];
*[[Abraham Lincoln]];
*[[Mary, Queen of Scots]];
*[[King Louis XIV of France]];
*[[Marie Antoinette]];
*[[Mark Twain]];
*[[George Custer]];
*[[George Washington]];
*[[Napoleon Bonaparte]];
*[[Charles Dickens]];
*[[Lewis Carroll]];
*[[Thomas Jefferson]];
*[[W.C. Fields]];
*[[Jackie Gleason]];
*[[Perry Como]];
*[[Bob Hope]];
*[[Babe Ruth]];
*[[Fred Astaire]];
*[[Humphrey Bogart]];
*[[Paul Sorvino]];
*[[Jerry Orbach]];
*[[Sir Donald Bradman]];
* and [[Spencer Gollan]] among others.
==More information==
*[[Glossary of pool and billiards terms]]
*[[Billiard_Congress of America Hall of Fame|BCA Hall of Fame]]
*[[Pool hustling]]
*A Billiards category encompassing pool, snooker and carom was featured in the 2005 [[World Games]], held in [[Duisburg]], [[Germany]].
==References==
*{{note|Stein}} {{cite book
| first = Victor and Rubino, Paul | last = Stein
| authorlink = Victor Stein and Paul Rubino
| year = [[1996]]
| title = The Billiard Encyclopedia - An Illustrated History of the Sport (2nd ed.)
| publisher = Blue Book Publications, June 1996
| id = ISBN 1886768064
}}, Specific page reference needs to be filled in!
*{{note|Shamos}} {{cite book
| first = Mike | last = Shamos
| authorlink = Mike Shamos
| year = [[1991]]
| title = Pool
| publisher = Hotho & Co., June, 1991
| id = ISBN 9993870439
}}, Specific page reference needs to be filled in! (also the reference should be added to indicate what the origin of green originally was)
*{{note|Harris}} {{cite book
| first = Walt | last = Harris
| authorlink = Walt Harris
| year = [[1991]]
| title = The Billiard Atlas on Systems & Techniques
| location = [[Cocoa Beach, Florida]]
| publisher = Billiard Atlas, December 1991
| id = ISBN 0963120409
}}, Introduction at XVII.
# Byrne, Robert. 1998. Byrne's New Standard Book of Pool and Billiards. ISBN 0156005549.
==Patents==
* {{US patent|50359}} -- ''Billiard ball''
* {{US patent|76765}} -- ''Billiard ball''
* {{US patent|88634}} -- ''Billiard ball''
* {{US patent|114945}} -- ''Billiard ball''
==External links==
*[http://www.bca-pool.com/ Billiard Congress of America] - The BCA website, which also sells books listing many popular billiard games and their rules.
*[http://www.easypooltutor.com/ easypooltutor.com] - Offering billiards lessons and helpful tips.
*[http://www.billiardresource.com/forum/forum-3.html The Billiard Resource: Pool Games Forum] - A forum discussing billiard games and their rules.
*[http://www.azbilliards.com/vbulletin/upload/index.php The A to Z of Billiards and Pool] - A forum of cue enthusiasts and makers - a great base of knowledge
*[http://www.cuecare.com/history.htm A History of Billiards]
*[http://www.bca-pool.com/aboutus/history/start.shtml A Brief History of the Noble Game of Billiards]
*[http://www.tradgames.org.uk/games/Billiard-Family.htm The Billiards Family]
*[http://library.thinkquest.org/C006300/ Physics of Pool] - How-to-play tutorial with Flash animations
*[http://billiards.port5.com/ billiards.port5.com]- A page dedicated to offering rules for billiard games.
*[http://www.arlman.demon.nl/pool/en_gen.html General Rules] - Additional rules needed to play properly
*[http://www.americanpool-network.co.uk/ American Pool Network] - UK Based Cuesports resource portal and shop, servicing Pool players needs in the UK and Europe
[[Category:Billiards]]
[[Category:Ball games]]
[[Category:Indoor sports]]
[[Category:Pool billiards]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[bg:Билярд]]
[[ca:Billar]]
[[de:Billard]]
[[es:Billar]]
[[fr:Billard]]
[[ko:당구]]
[[it:Biliardo]]
[[he:ביליארד]]
[[lt:Biliardas]]
[[nl:Biljart]]
[[ja:ビリヤード]]
[[no:Biljard]]
[[pl:Bilard]]
[[ro:Biliard]]
[[ru:Биллиард]]
[[fi:Biljardi]]
[[sv:Biljard]]
[[tr:Bilardo]]
[[uk:Більярд]]
[[zh:台球]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bulldogging</title>
<id>3448</id>
<revision>
<id>25593839</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-15T16:54:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wesley</username>
<id>63</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merged with steer wrestling</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Steer wrestling]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Big Dipper (disambiguation)</title>
<id>3449</id>
<revision>
<id>38236559</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T01:32:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rogerthat</username>
<id>537209</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Big Dipper''' may refer to:
*In astronomy - [[Big Dipper]]
*In basketball - [[Wilt Chamberlain]]
*In leisure - the [[Roller coaster]] ride, especially in the United Kingdom
*In music - the [[Big Dipper (record label)]]
*In [[Australian rules football]] - [[Robert DiPierdomenico]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bursa, Turkey</title>
<id>3450</id>
<revision>
<id>39820108</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T02:01:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gilgamesh</username>
<id>47947</id>
</contributor>
<comment>linguistics</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Riza Husmen Altiparmak1.jpg|thumb|Bursa]]
'''Bursa''' is the capital of the [[Bursa Province]] in northwestern [[Turkey]]. With a population of 1,194,687 ([[2000]] census), it is Turkey's fourth largest city. The city is famous for its ski resorts (on the mountain of Uluda&#x11F;), the mausoleums of Ottoman sultans, and the surrounding fertile plain. It is also the home of some important [[Cuisine of Turkey|Turkish foods]], especially [[chestnut]] desserts and a meat dish called [[iskender kebap|İskender kebap]].
Bursa is the center of the Turkish [[automobile]] industry, where [[FIAT]] and [[Renault]] have located their factories.
The former names for Bursa are '''Brusa''' and '''Prusa''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''Προύσσα''). The earliest known site at this location was [[Cius]], which [[Philip V of Macedon]]ia granted to the [[Bithynia]]n king [[Prusias I of Bithynia|Prusias I]] in [[202 BC]], for his help against [[Pergamum]] and [[Heraclea Pontica]] (modern [[Karadeniz Eregli|Karadeniz Ereğli]]). Prusias renamed the city for himself, Prusa.
It was later a major city, located on the westernmost end of the famous [[Silk Road]], and was the capital of the [[Ottoman Empire]] following its capture from the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] in [[1326]] until the capture of [[Edirne]] in 1365 and remained an important administrative and commercial center even after it |
xecution and then passes it to the next stage for its step. Modern processors can even do some of the steps of out of order as decoding on several instructions is done in parallel.
Decoding the [[opcode]] in the instruction register includes determining the instruction, determining where its operands are in memory, retrieving the operands from memory, allocating processor resources to execute the command (in [[superscalar]] processors), etc.
[[Category:Digital electronics]]
[[Category:Computer hardware]]
[[Category:Computer architecture]]
{{compu-hardware-stub}}
[[ja:命令レジスタ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of islands</title>
<id>15073</id>
<revision>
<id>36184931</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T05:51:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alanmak</username>
<id>166025</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* List of islands of Asia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of [[island]]s in the world grouped by [[ocean]]s and by [[continent]]s.
== List of islands by continent ==
*[[List of islands of Africa]]
*[[List of islands of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean]]
*[[List of islands of Australia]]
*[[List of islands of Asia]]
*[[List of islands of Europe]]
*[[List of islands of North America]]
*[[List of islands of Central America]]
*[[List of islands of South America]]
== List of islands by ocean or sea ==
*[[List of islands in the Adriatic Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Aegean Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Arctic Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Atlantic Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Baltic Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Black Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Caribbean]]
*[[List of islands in the East China Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Indian Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Ionean Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Mediterranean Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Pacific Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Persian Gulf]]
*[[List of islands in the Sea of Crete]]
*[[List of islands in the Sea of Marmara]]
*[[List of islands in the South China Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Southern Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea]]
== List of islands of Asia ==
*[[List of islands of Cambodia]]
*[[List of islands of the People's Republic of China]]
**[[Islands of Hong Kong|List of islands of Hong Kong]]
**[[List of islands of Macau]]
*[[List of islands of the Republic of China|List of islands of the Republic of China (Taiwan)]]
*[[List of islands of India]]
*[[List of islands of Indonesia]], [[Islands of Indonesia]]
*[[List of islands of Iran]]
*[[List of islands of Japan]]
*[[List of islands of Kuwait]]
*[[List of islands of Malaysia]]
*[[Maldives]]
*[[List of islands of Myanmar]]
*[[List of islands of the Philippines]]
*[[List of islands of Russia]]
*[[List of islands of Singapore]]
*[[List of islands of South Korea]]
*[[List of islands of Sri Lanka]]
*[[List of islands of Thailand]]
*[[List of islands of Vietnam]]
*Disputed islands
**[[South China Sea Islands]]
***[[Paracel Islands]]
****[[Duncan Island]]
****[[Woody Island]]
***[[Spratly Islands]]
***[[Pratas Islands]]
***[[Macclesfield Bank]]
**[[Kuril Islands dispute|Northern territories (southern Kurile islands)]]
***[[Kunashir]]
***[[Iturup]]
***[[Shikotan]]
***[[Habomai]]
**[[Senkaku Islands|Senkaku Islands / Tiaoyutai Islands]]
**[[Liancourt Rocks]]
== List of islands of Europe ==
*[[List of islands of Albania]]
*[[List of islands of Bulgaria]]
*[[List of islands of Croatia]]
*[[List of islands of Cyprus]]
*[[List of islands of Denmark]]
*[[List of islands of the Faroe Islands]]
*[[List of islands of Estonia]]
*[[List of islands of Finland]]
*[[List of islands of France]]
*[[List of islands of Germany]]
*[[List of islands of Greece]]
*[[List of islands of Hungary]]
*[[List of islands of Iceland]]
*[[List of islands of Ireland]]
*[[List of islands of Italy]]
*[[List of islands of Malta]]
*[[List of islands of the Netherlands]]
*[[List of islands of Norway]]
*[[List of islands of Poland]]
*[[List of islands of Portugal]]
*[[List of islands of Romania]]
*[[List of islands of Spain]]
*[[List of islands of Sweden]]
*[[List of islands of Switzerland]]
*[[List of islands of Turkey]]
*[[List of islands of the United Kingdom]]
== List of islands of North and Central America ==
*[[List of islands of Belize]]
*[[List of islands of Canada]]
*[[List of islands of Honduras]]
*[[List of islands of Mexico]]
*[[List of islands of Panama]]
*[[List of islands of the United States]]
*[[Islands of the Great Lakes]]
== List of islands of Oceania ==
*[[List of islands in the Pacific Ocean]]
*[[List of islands of Australia]]
*[[Islands of New Zealand|List of islands of New Zealand]]
== See also ==
*[[List of islands by name]]
*[[List of islands by population]]
*[[List of islands by size]]
*[[List of uninhabited islands]]
*[[List of artificial islands]]
*[[Phantom island]]
[[Category:Islands| ]]
[[Category:Lists of islands| ]]
[[ang:Getalu īega]]
[[ca:Illes del món]]
[[de:Liste der Inseln]]
[[et:Maailma saarte loend]]
[[fr:Liste des listes d'îles]]
[[ja:島の一覧]]
[[pl:Wyspy świata]]
[[pt:Listas de ilhas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>INTERCAL</title>
<id>15075</id>
<revision>
<id>39767104</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T19:12:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Emurphy42</username>
<id>587537</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>clarify commentary on IOCCC etc.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''INTERCAL''', [[programming language]] [[parody]], is the [[canonical]] [[esoteric programming language]] created by [[Don Woods]] and [[James Lyon]], two [[Princeton University]] students, in [[1972]]. It satirizes aspects of the [[FORTRAN]] and [[COBOL]] [[programming language]]s, as well as the proliferation of proposed language constructs and notations in the 1960s. Consequently, the humour may appear rather dated to modern readers brought up with [[C programming language|C]] or [[Java programming language|Java]].
The current version, C-INTERCAL, is maintained by [[Eric S. Raymond]]. INTERCAL is said by the original authors to stand for "Compiler Language With No Pronounceable Acronym".
INTERCAL is purposely different from all other computer languages. Common operations in other languages have cryptic and redundant syntax in INTERCAL. From the INTERCAL Reference Manual:
:It is a well-known and oft-demonstrated fact that a person whose work is incomprehensible is held in high esteem. For example, if one were to state that the simplest way to store a value of 65536 in a 32-bit INTERCAL variable is:
::<pre>DO :1 <- #0&cent;#256</pre>
:any sensible programmer would say that that was absurd. Since this is indeed the simplest method, the programmer would be made to look foolish in front of his boss, who would of course have happened to turn up, as bosses are wont to do. The effect would be no less devastating for the programmer having been correct.
The INTERCAL manual also contains many paradoxical, nonsensical, or otherwise humorous instructions:
:Caution! Under no circumstances confuse the mesh with the interleave operator, except under confusing circumstances!
INTERCAL has many other features designed to make it even more aesthetically unpleasing to the programmer: it uses statements such as "READ OUT", "IGNORE", "FORGET" and "PLEASE". The INTERCAL manual gives unusual names for all non-alphanumeric [[ASCII]] characters: single and double quotes are "sparks" and "rabbit ears" respectively. The equivalent of a "half mesh" or equals sign in most programming languages is a "<-", referred to as "gets" and made up of an "angle" and a "worm".
The original Princeton implementation used [[punched card]]s and the [[EBCDIC]] character set. In order to allow INTERCAL to run on computers using [[ASCII]], substitutions for two characters had to be made: $ substituted for &cent; as the mingle operator to "represent the increasing cost of software in relation to hardware" and ? was substituted for &forall; as the unary exclusive-or operator to "correctly express the average person's reaction on first encountering exclusive-or".
The [[Usenet]] newsgroup [http://groups.google.com/groups?q=alt.lang.intercal alt.lang.intercal] is devoted to the study and appreciation of INTERCAL and other esoteric languages.
Despite the language's being intentionally obtuse and wordy, INTERCAL is nevertheless [[Turing-complete]]: given enough memory, INTERCAL can solve any problem that a universal [[Turing machine]] can solve. It does this very slowly, however. A [[Sieve of Eratosthenes]] benchmark, computing all prime numbers less than 65536, was tested on a [[Sun Microsystems|Sun]] SPARCStation-1. In C, it took less than 0.5 seconds; the same program in INTERCAL took over seventeen hours. (Stross, 1992)
It should be noted that almost any programming language allows [[notation]]al horrors as great as or greater than INTERCAL's, as demonstrated in contests such as the [[International Obfuscated C Code Contest]]. However, these are generally intentional efforts to create unreadable code, in contrast to INTERCAL's design forcing virtually all code to be unreadable.
According to the INTERCAL manual, "the aim in designing INTERCAL was to have no precedents", supposedly neither in flow control features, nor in data manipulation operators. The designers were partially successful; the only known precedent is a machine instruction in a Soviet mainframe computer [[BESM-6]], released in [[1967]], that is effectively equivalent to INTERCAL's "select" operator.
== Dialects ==
The original Woods-Lyon INTERCAL was very limited in its [[input/output]] capabilities: the only acceptable input was numbers with t |
1=#a0ffa0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=12 | sym=C | na=98.9% | n=6 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=13 | sym=C | na=1.1% | n=7 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=14 | sym=C | na=[[trace radioisotope|trace]] | hl=5730 [[year|y]] | dm=[[beta emission|beta<sup>-</sup>]] | de=0.156 | pn=14 | ps=[[nitrogen|N]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#a0ffa0 | color2=black }}
'''Carbon''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''C''' and [[atomic number]] 6. An abundant [[nonmetal]]lic, [[wiktionary:tetra-|tetra]][[Valency (chemistry)|valent]] element, carbon has several [[Allotropes of carbon|allotropic forms]]:
* [[Diamond]] : [[hardness|Hardest]] known natural [[mineral]]. Structure: each atom is bonded [[tetrahedron|tetrahedrally]] to four others, making a 3-dimensional network of [[pucker]]ed six-membered rings of atoms.
* [[Graphite]] : One of the softest substances. Structure: each atom is bonded [[trigonally]] to three other atoms, making a 2-dimensional network of flat six-membered rings; the flat sheets are loosely bonded.
* [[Fullerene]]s : Structure: comparatively large molecules formed completely of carbon bonded trigonally, forming [[spheroid]]s (of which the best-known and simplest is the [[buckminsterfullerene]] or buckyball).
* [[Chaoite]] : A mineral believed to be formed in [[meteorite]] impacts.
* [[Lonsdaleite]] : A corruption of [[diamond]]. Structure: similar to diamond, but forming a [[hexagonal]] [[crystal]] lattice.
* [[Amorphous carbon]] : A [[glass]]y substance. Structure: an assortment of carbon molecules in a non-crystalline, irregular, glassy state.
* [[Carbon nanofoam]] : An extremely light [[magnetic]] web. Structure: a low-density web of graphite-like clusters, in which the atoms are bonded trigonally in six- and seven-membered rings.
* [[Carbon nanotubes]] : Tiny tubes. Structure: each atom is bonded trigonally in a curved sheet that forms a hollow [[cylinder]].
* [[Aggregated diamond nanorods]] : The most recently discovered allotrope and the hardest substance known to man. <!--So, what is the hardest substance, then? Diamond or "aggregated diamond nanorods"?-->
* [[Lamp black]] : Consists of small graphitic areas. These areas are randomly distributed, so the whole structure is isotropic.
* '[[Glassy carbon]]' : An [[isotropic]] substance that contains a high proportion of closed [[porosity]]. Unlike normal graphite, the graphitic layers are not stacked like pages in a book, but have a more random arrangement.
Carbon fibers are similar to glassy carbon. Under special treatment (stretching of organic fibers and carbonization) it is possible to arrange the carbon planes in direction of the fiber. Perpendicular to the fiber axis there is no orientation of the carbon planes. The result are fibers with a higher [[specific strength]] than steel.
Carbon occurs in all organic [[life]] and is the basis of [[organic chemistry]]. This nonmetal also has the interesting chemical property of being able to bond with itself and a wide variety of other elements, forming nearly 10 million known compounds. When united with [[oxygen]] it forms [[carbon dioxide]] which is absolutely vital to [[plant]] growth. When united with [[hydrogen]], it forms various compounds called [[hydrocarbon]]s which are essential to industry in the form of [[fossil fuel]]s. When combined with both oxygen and hydrogen it can form many groups of compounds including [[fatty acid]]s, which are essential to life, and [[ester]]s, which give flavor to many fruits. The [[isotope]] [[carbon-14]] is commonly used in [[radioactive dating]].
==Notable characteristics==
Carbon is a remarkable element for many reasons. Its different forms include one of the softest (graphite) and one of the hardest (diamond) substances known. Moreover, it has a great affinity for [[chemical bond|bond]]ing with other small [[atom]]s, including other carbon atoms, and its small size makes it capable of forming multiple bonds. Because of these properties, carbon is known to form nearly ten million different compounds, the large majority of all chemical compounds. Carbon compounds form the basis of all life on [[Earth]] and the [[carbon-nitrogen cycle]] provides some of the energy produced by the [[sun]] and other [[star]]s. Moreover, carbon has the highest melting/sublimation point of all elements. At atmospheric pressure it has no actual melting point as its [[triple point]] is at 10 MPa (100 [[bar (unit)|bar]]) so it [[Sublimation (physics)|sublimates]] above 4000 K. Thus it remains solid at higher temperatures than the highest melting point metals like [[tungsten]] or [[rhenium]],
regardless of its allotropic form.
Carbon was not created in the [[Big Bang]] due to the fact that it needs a triple collision of alpha particles ([[helium]] nuclei) to be produced. The universe initially expanded and cooled too fast for that to be possible. It is produced, however, in the interior of [[star]]s in the [[H-R diagram|horizontal branch]], where stars transform a [[helium]] core into carbon by means of the [[triple-alpha process]]. It was also created in a multi atomic state.
==Applications==
Carbon is a vital component of all known living systems, and without it life as we know it could not exist (see [[alternative biochemistry]]). The major economic use of carbon is in the form of hydrocarbons, most notably the [[fossil fuel]]s [[methane]] gas and [[crude oil]] (petroleum). Crude oil is used by the [[petrochemical industry]] to produce, amongst others, [[gasoline]] and [[kerosene]], through a [[distillation]] process, in [[refinery|refineries]]. Crude oil forms the raw material for many synthetic substances, many of which are collectively called [[plastic]]s.
===Other uses===
* The isotope [[carbon-14]] was discovered in [[February 27]] [[1940]] and is used in [[radiocarbon dating]].
* Graphite is combined with [[clay]]s to form the 'lead' used in [[pencil]]s.
* Diamond is used for decorative purposes, and also as drill bits and other applications making use of its hardness.
* Carbon is added to [[iron]] to make [[steel]].
* Carbon is used as a [[neutron moderator]] in [[nuclear reactor]]s.
* Graphite carbon in a powdered, caked form is used as [[charcoal]] for [[cooking]], [[art]]work and other uses.
* Activated charcoal is used in medicine (as powder or compounded in tablets or capsules) to [[absorption|absorb]] toxins or poisons from the digestive system.
The chemical and structural properties of fullerenes, in the form of [[carbon nanotube]]s, has promising potential uses in the nascent field of nanotechnology. Nanoparticles might however be toxic.
==History and Etymology==
Carbon was discovered in prehistory and was known to the ancients, who manufactured it by burning organic material in insufficient oxygen (making [[charcoal]]). [[Diamond]]s have long been considered rare and beautiful. One of the last-known allotropes of carbon, [[fullerene]]s, were discovered as byproducts of molecular beam experiments in the 1980s.
The name comes from [[French language|French]] ''charbone'', which in turn came from [[Latin]] ''carbo'', meaning charcoal. In [[German language|German]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]], the names for carbon are ''Kohlenstoff'' and ''koolstof'' respectively, both literally meaning "[[coal]]-stuff".
==Allotropes==
[[Image:Eight_Allotropes_of_Carbon.png|thumb|300px|right|Eight allotropes of carbon: diamond, graphite, lonsdaleite, C60, C540, C70, amorphous carbon and a carbon nanotube.]]
[[Image:carbon basic phase diagram.png|thumb|300px|right|Basic [[phase diagram]] of carbon, which shows the state of matter for varying temperatures and pressures. The hashed regions indicate conditions under which one phase is [[metastability|metastable]], so that two phases can coexist. ]]
The [[allotropes]] of carbon are the different molecular configurations that pure [[carbon]] can take.
The three relatively well-known allotropes of carbon are [[amorphous carbon]], [[graphite]], and [[diamond]]. Several exotic allotropes have also been synthesized or discovered, including [[fullerene]]s, [[carbon nanotube]]s, [[lonsdaleite]] and [[aggregated diamond nanorods]].
In its amorphous form, carbon is essentially [[graphite]] but not held in a crystalline macrostructure. It is, rather, present as a powder which is the main constituent of substances such as [[charcoal]], [[lamp black]] ([[soot]]) and [[activated carbon]].
At normal pressures carbon takes the form of [[graphite]], in which each atom is bonded to three others in a plane composed of fused [[hexagon]]al rings, just like those in [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s. The two known forms of graphite, alpha (hexagonal) and beta ([[rhombohedron|rhombohedral]]), both have identical physical properties, except for their crystal structure. Graphites that naturally occur have been found to contain up to 30% of the beta form, when synthetically-produced graphite only contains the alpha form. The alpha form can be converted to the beta form through mechanical treatment and the beta form reverts back to the alpha form when it is heated above 1000 °[[Celsius|C]].
Because of the delocalization of the [[pi-cloud]], graphite conducts [[electricity]]. The material is soft and the sheets, frequently separated by other atoms, are held together only by [[van der Waals force]]s, so easily slip past one another.
At very high pressures carbon forms an allotrope called [[diamond]], in which each atom is bonded to four others. Diamond has the same cubic structure as [[silicon]] and [[germanium]] and, thanks to the strength of the carbon-carbon [[chemical bond|bond]]s, is together with the [[isoelectronic]] [[boron nitride]] (BN) the hardest substance in terms of resistance to scratching. The transition to [[graphite]] at room temperature is so slow as to be unnoticeable. Under some conditions, ca |
(law)|acting]])||align="left"|15.11.1862&ndash;22.11.1862
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[James Seddon]]'''||align="left"|22.11.1862&ndash; 5. 2.1865
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[John C. Breckinridge]]'''||align="left"| 6. 2.1865&ndash;1865
|-
|align="left"|[[Confederate States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align="left"|'''[[Stephen Mallory]]'''||align="left"|16.10.1861&ndash;(20. 5.)1865
|-
|align="left"|[[Postmaster General of the Confederate States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[John H. Reagan]]'''||align="left"|16.10.1861&ndash;(10. 5.)1865
|-
|align="left"|[[Attorney General of the Confederate States|Attorney General]]||align="left"|'''[[Judah P. Benjamin]]'''||align="left"|25.02.1861&ndash;17. 9.1861
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Wade Keyes]]''' ([[Acting (law)|acting]])||align="left"|17. 9.1861&ndash;21.11.1861
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Thomas Bragg]]'''||align="left"|21.11.1861&ndash;18. 3.1862
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Thomas H. Watts]]'''||align="left"|18. 3.1862&ndash; 1.10.1863
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[George Davis (politician)|George Davis]]'''||align="left"| 4. 1.1864&ndash;24. 4.1865
|-
|}
<br clear="all">
====Legislative====
{{main|Confederate Congress}}
The [[legislative branch]] of the Confederate States of America was the [[Confederate Congress]]. Like the [[United States Congress]], the Confederate Congress consisted of two houses: the [[Confederate Senate]], whose membership included two senators from each state (and chosen by the state legislature), and the [[Confederate House of Representatives]], with members popularly elected by residents of the individual states.
'''Speaker of the Provisional Congress'''
* [[Robert Woodward Barnwell]] of [[South Carolina]] - February 4, 1861
* [[Howell Cobb|Howell Cobb, Sr.]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] - February 4, 1861-February 17, 1862
* [[Thomas Stanhope Bocock]] of [[Virginia]] - [[February 18]], [[1862]]-[[March 18]], [[1865]]
'''President pro tempore'''
* [[Howell Cobb|Howell Cobb, Sr.]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
* [[Robert Woodward Barnwell]] of [[South Carolina]]
* [[Josiah Abigail Patterson Campbell]] of [[Mississippi]]
* [[Thomas Stanhope Bocock]] of [[Virginia]]
'''Tribal Representatives to Confederate Congress'''
* Elias Cornelius Boudinot 1862-65 - [[Cherokee]]
* Robert McDonald Jones 1863-65 - [[Choctaw]] and [[Chickasaw]] nations
* Samuel Benton Callahan 1864-65 - [[Cree]]
=====Sessions of the Confederate Congress=====
*[[Provisional Confederate Congress]]
*[[First Confederate Congress]]
*[[Second Confederate Congress]]
====Judicial====
A Judicial branch of the government was outlined in the [[C.S. Constitution]] but the would-be "Supreme Court of the Confederate States" was never created or seated because of the ongoing war.[http://www.als.edu/lib/editor.cfm?ID=223] Some Confederate district courts were, however, established within some of the individual states of the Confederate States of America; namely, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Virginia (and possibly others). At the end of the war, U.S. district courts resumed jurisdiction.[http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/021.html]
The state and local courts generally continued to operate as they had been, simply recognizing the CSA, rather than the USA, as the national government.[http://www.als.edu/lib/editor.cfm?ID=223]
'''Supreme Court''' - not established
'''District Court'''
* Asa Biggs 1861-1865
* John White Brockenbrough 1861
* Alexander Mosby Clayton 1861
* Jesse J. Finley 1861-1862
==Geography==
[[Image:Map_of_CSA 3.png|right|thumb|550px|Map of the states and territories claimed by the Confederate States of America]]
The Confederate States of America had a total of 2,919 miles (4,698 kilometers) of coastline. A large portion of its territory lay on the sea coast, and with level and sandy ground. The interior portions were hilly and mountainous and the far western territories were deserts. The lower reaches of the [[Mississippi River]] bisected the country, with the western half often referred to as the [[Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War|Trans-Mississippi]]. The highest point (excluding Arizona and New Mexico) was [[Guadalupe Peak]] in [[Texas]] at 8,750 feet (2,667 meters).
Most of the area of the Confederate States of America had a humid subtropical climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. The climate varied to semiarid steppe and arid desert west of longitude 96 degrees west.
The Confederate States of America were less urbanized than the northern states, with only [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] showing up in the list of top 10 U.S. cities in the 1860 census. Only 15 cities (excluding those in Kentucky and Missouri) ranked among the top 100 US cities in 1860. The population of [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] swelled after it became the national capital, reaching an estimated 128,000 in 1864.
<br clear="all">
{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! # !! City !! 1860 Population !! [[List of United States metropolitan statistical areas by population|US Rank]]
|-
| style="background: #efefef;" | 1.
| [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 168,675
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 6
|-
| style="background: #efefef;" | 2.
| [[Charleston, South Carolina]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 40,522
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 22
|-
| style="background: #efefef;" | 3.
| [[Richmond, Virginia]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 37,910
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 25
|-
| style="background: #efefef;" | 4.
| [[Mobile, Alabama]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 29,258
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 27
|-
| style="background: #efefef;" | 5.
| [[Memphis, Tennessee]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 22,623
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 38
|-
| style="background: #efefef;" | 6.
| [[Savannah, Georgia]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 22,292
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 41
|-
| style="background: #efefef;" | 7.
| [[Petersburg, Virginia]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 18,266
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 50
|-
| style="background: #efefef;" | 8.
| [[Nashville, Tennessee]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 16,988
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 54
|-
| style="background: #efefef;" | 9.
| [[Norfolk, Virginia]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 14,620
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 61
|-
| style="background: #efefef;" | 10.
| [[Wheeling, West Virginia|Wheeling, Virginia]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 14,083
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 63
|-
| style="background: #efefef;" | 11.
| [[Alexandria, Virginia]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 12,652
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 74
|-
| style="background: #efefef;" | 12.
| [[Augusta, Georgia]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 12,493
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 77
|-
| style="background: #efefef;" | 13.
| [[Columbus, Georgia]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 9,621
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 97
|-
| style="background: #efefef;" | 14.
| [[Atlanta, Georgia]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 9,554
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 99
|-
| style="background: #efefef;" | 15.
| [[Wilmington, North Carolina]]
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 9,553
| style="text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;" | 100
|}
{{-}}
==Economy==
{{main|Economy of the Confederate States of America}}
The Confederate States of America had an agrarian-based economy that relied heavily on slave-run plantations. The main products of the C.S.A. were [[cotton]], [[rice]], [[tobacco]] and [[sugar cane]], with some [[cattle]] and much [[grain]]. The states that formed the C.S.A. (excluding [[Missouri]] and [[Kentucky]]) produced $155 million in manufactured goods in 1860; their main products were [[flour]] and meal, lumber, processed tobacco, cotton goods and [[naval stores]]. The CSA adopted a [[free trade]] policy, but this was undermined by the Union [[blockade]]. The lack of adequate financial resources led the Confederacy to finance the war through printing money, which in turn led to high [[inflation]].
==Armed Forces==
The military armed forces of the Confederacy comprised the following three branches:
* [[Confederate States Army]]
* [[Confederate States Navy]]
* [[Confederate States Marine Corps]]
The Confederate military leadership included many veterans from the [[United States Army]] and [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] who had resigned the |
* [http://www.nice.org.uk/page.aspx?o=home NICE]
* [http://www.rational.org.nz/ Rational.org New Zealand]
* [http://www.nacbt.org/whatiscbt.htm NACBT Online - What is CBT?]
* [http://counsellingresource.com/types/cognitive-therapy/index.html An Introduction to Cognitive Therapy & Cognitive Behavioural Approaches]
* [http://counsellingresource.com/types/rational-emotive/ An Introduction to Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy]
* [http://www.cognitivetherapy.com/ New York Institute for Cognitive and Behavioral Therapies]
* [http://moodgym.anu.edu.au/ Moodgym] - Training CBT for preventing depression
* [http://www.patient.co.uk/showdoc/40000658/ Patient.co.uk article on CBT]
[[Category:Cognitive therapy| ]]
[[Category:Psychotherapy]]
[[Category:Psychology]]
[[Category:Therapy]]
[[de:Verhaltenstherapie]]
[[es:Terapia cognitiva]]
[[is:Atferlismeðferð]]
[[ja:認知療法]]
[[no:Kognitiv terapi]]
[[sv:Kognitiv terapi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese language</title>
<id>5751</id>
<revision>
<id>42160753</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:35:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chisamna</username>
<id>1026816</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Resources on Chinese in general */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Chinese
|nativename=汉语 ''Hànyǔ'', 中文 ''Zhōngwén''
|caption=Zhōngwén in written Chinese
|image=[[Image:Zhongwen.png|center|150px|"Chinese (written) language" (pinyin: zhōngwén) written in Chinese characters]]
|states=[[People's Republic of China]] ([[mainland China]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Macao]]), [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]] and other [[list of islands of the Republic of China|islands]]), [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], [[Burma]], [[Cambodia]], [[Singapore]], also parts of [[Japan]], [[North Korea]], [[South Korea]], [[Philippines]] & other Chinese communities around the world
|region=(majorities): Eastern [[Asia]] & parts of Southern [[Asia]]<br>(minorities): Chinese communities in Western [[Asia]], the [[Americas]], [[Africa]], [[Europe]] and [[Pacific]]
|speakers=more than 1.3 billion
|rank=1, if considered a single language (Mandarin and Cantonese are most common sub-types)
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
|nation=[[People's Republic of China|PRC]], [[Republic of China|ROC]], [[Singapore]], [[United Nations]]
|agency=In the PRC: [http://www.china-language.gov.cn/ various agencies](in Chinese)<br>In the ROC: [[Mandarin Promotion Council]]<br>In Singapore: [[Promote Mandarin Council]]/[[Speak Mandarin Campaign]] [http://mandarin.org.sg/html/home.htm]
|iso1=zh|iso2b=chi|iso2t=zho
|lc1=cdo|ld1=Min Dong|ll1=Min (linguistics)
|lc2=cjy|ld2=Jinyu|ll2=Jin (linguistics)
|lc3=cmn|ld3=Mandarin|ll3=Mandarin (linguistics)
|lc4=cpx|ld4=Pu-Xian|ll4=Min (linguistics)
|lc5=czh|ld5=Huizhou|ll5=Hui (linguistics)
|lc6=czo|ld6=Min Zhong|ll6=Min (linguistics)
|lc7=dng|ld7=Dungan|ll7=Dungan language
|lc8=gan|ld8=Gan|ll8=Gan (linguistics)
|lc9=hak|ld9=Hakka|ll9=Hakka (linguistics)
|lc10=hsn|ld10=Xiang|ll10=Xiang (linguistics)
|lc11=mnp|ld11=Min Bei
|lc12=nan|ld12=Min Nan|ll12=Min-nan
|lc13=wuu|ld13=Wu|ll13=Wu (linguistics)
|lc14=yue|ld14=Yue|ll14=Cantonese (linguistics)}}
'''Chinese''' (汉语/漢語, [[Pinyin]]: ''Hànyǔ'', 华语/華語, ''Huáyǔ'' or 中文, ''Zhōngwén'') is a [[language]] (or [[language family]]) that forms part of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] family of languages. About one-fifth of the people in the world speak some form of Chinese as their native language.
In general, all varieties of Chinese are [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal]] and [[Analytic language|analytic]]. However, Chinese is also distinguished for a high level of internal diversity. Regional variation between different variants/dialects is comparable to the [[Romance languages|Romance language family]]; many variants of spoken Chinese are different enough to be mutually incomprehensible. It could be argued that there are more native "Romance" (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, etc.) speakers than "Chinese" speakers. There are between six and twelve main regional groups of Chinese (depending on classification scheme), of which the most populous by far is [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] (c. 800 million), followed by [[Wu (linguistics)|Wu]] (c. 90 million), and [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] (c. 80 million). The [[identification of the varieties of Chinese]] as "languages" or "dialects" is a controversial issue. If Chinese is classified as a language rather than a dialect, it is the most widely spoken language in the world.
The standardized form of spoken Chinese is based on the [[Beijing dialect]], a member of the [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] group; it is described in the article "[[Standard Mandarin]]". Standard Mandarin is the official language of the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]], as well as one of four official languages of [[Singapore]] (together with [[English language|English]], [[Malay language|Malay]], and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]). Chinese—''de facto'', Standard Mandarin—is one of the six official languages of the [[United Nations]] (alongside English, [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[French language|French]], [[Russian language|Russian]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]]). Spoken in the form of [[Standard Cantonese]], Chinese is one of the official languages of [[Hong Kong]] (together with English) and of [[Macau]] (together with [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]).
==Spoken Chinese==
{{main|spoken Chinese}}
<!--This is a summary. Please add new information to [[Chinese spoken language]].-->
The map on the right depicts the subdivisions ("languages" or "dialect groups") within Chinese. The traditionally recognized seven main groups, in order of population size are:
* [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] 北方话/北方話 or 官話/官话 (old name), (c. 800 million)
* [[Wu (linguistics)|Wu]] 吳/吴 , which includes [[Shanghainese]], (c. 90 million)
* [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] 粵/粤, (c. 80 million)
* [[Min (linguistics)|Min]] 閩/闽, which includes [[Taiwanese language|Taiwanese]],(c. 50 million),
* [[Xiang (linguistics)|Xiang]] 湘, (c. 35 million),
* [[Hakka (linguistics)|Hakka]] 客家 or 客, (c. 35 million)
* [[Gan (linguistics)|Gan]] 贛/赣, (c. 20 million)
Chinese linguists have recently distinguished 3 more groups from the traditional seven:
* [[Jin (linguistics)|Jin]] 晉/晋 from Mandarin
* [[Hui (linguistics)|Hui]] 徽 from Wu
* [[Pinghua (linguistics)|Ping]] 平話/平话 partly from Cantonese
There are also many smaller groups that are not yet classified, such as: [[Danzhou dialect]], spoken in [[Danzhou]], on Hainan Island; [[Xianghua]] (乡话), not to be confused with Xiang (湘), spoken in western [[Hunan]]; and [[Shaozhou Tuhua]], spoken in northern [[Guangdong]]. The [[Dungan language]], spoken in Central Asia, is very closely related to Mandarin. However, it is not generally considered "Chinese", because it is written in Cyrillic and spoken by [[Dungan|people]] outside [[China]] who are not considered [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] in any sense. See [[List of Chinese dialects]] for a comprehensive listing of individual dialects within these large, broad groupings.
[[Image:Sinitic_Languages0.gif|right|thumb|280px|The varieties of spoken Chinese in [[China]] (CLICK double rectangle image to the right for a larger map.)]]
In general, the above languages / dialect groups do not have sharp boundaries. As with many areas that were linguistically diverse for a long time, it is not always clear how the speeches of various parts of China should be classified. The [[Ethnologue]] lists a total of [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90151 14], but the number varies between seven and seventeen depending on the classification scheme being followed. In any case, some dialects belonging to the same group may nevertheless be mutually unintelligible, while other dialects split up among several groups may in fact share many similarities due to geographical proximity.
In general, mountainous South China displays more linguistic diversity than the flat North China. In parts of south China, a major city's dialect may be marginally intelligible to close neighbours. For instance, [[Wuzhou]] is about 120 miles upstream from [[Guangzhou]], but its dialect is more like [[Standard Cantonese]] spoken in Guangzhou, than is that of [[Taishan]], 60 miles southwest of Guangzhou and separated by several rivers from it (Ramsey, [[1987]]).
==== Standard Mandarin and diglossia ====
{{main|Standard Mandarin}}
<!--This is a SUMMARY. Please add new information to [[Standard Mandarin]].-->
[[Standard Mandarin]] is the official [[standard language]] used by the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[Republic of China]], and [[Singapore]]. It is based on the [[Beijing dialect]], which is the dialect of [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] as spoken in [[Beijing]]. The governments intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. It is therefore used in government, in the media, and in instruction in schools.
The situation in China is a complex and interesting case of [[diglossia]]: it is common for speakers of Chinese to be able to speak several varieties of the language, typically Standard Mandarin, the local dialect, and occasionally a regional [[lingua franca]], such as [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]]. Such polyglots frequently [[code-switching|code switch]] between Standard Mandarin and the local dialect(s), depending on the situation. A person living in [[Taiwan]], for example, may commonly mix pronunciations, phrases, and words from [[Standard Mandarin]] and [[Taiwanese (linguistics)|Taiwanese]], and this mixture is considered socially appropriate under many circumstances. Similarly in Hong Kong, |
ile covering the [[U.S. presidential election, 1972|election campaigns]] of President [[Richard M. Nixon]] and his unsuccessful opponent, Senator [[George McGovern]]. The book focuses largely on the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]'s primaries and its breakdown due to splits between the different candidates; McGovern was extolled while [[Ed Muskie]] and [[Hubert Humphrey]] were ridiculed. Thompson would go on to become a fierce critic of Nixon, both during and after his presidency. After Nixon's death in [[1994]], Thompson famously described him in ''Rolling Stone'' as a man who "could shake your hand and stab you in the back at the same time" and said "his casket [should] have been launched into one of those open-sewage canals that empty into the ocean just south of Los Angeles. He was a swine of a man and a jabbering dupe of a president."
Thompson debuted in ''Rolling Stone'' with an article describing his [[1970]] bid for [[sheriff]] of [[Pitkin County, Colorado]] on the "Freak Power" ticket. Thompson narrowly lost the election, having run on a platform promoting drugs decriminialization (but for use only, not trafficking, as he disapproved of profiteering), tearing up the streets and turning them into [[bike path]]s, and renaming [[Aspen, Colorado]] to "Fat City" &mdash; . The incumbent [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] sheriff whom he ran against had a crew cut, prompting Thompson to shave his head bald and refer to his opposition as "my long-haired opponent."
==Later years==
One of Thompson's last books, ''[[Kingdom of Fear]]'', is an angry commentary on the passing of the [[American Century]]. Thompson also wrote a web column, "Hey Rube," for [[ESPN]] "Page 2," which was later compiled into a book of the same name. He had at times also toured on the lecture circuit, once with [[John Belushi]].
Thompson was fond of [[firearms]] and was known to keep a keg of [[gunpowder]] in his basement.
Thompson's brother James (born [[1949]] and died from [[AIDS]] complications in [[1994]]) claimed Thompson was offended by his [[homosexuality]], and the two were never close. James complained how the burden of caring for their drunken mother fell to him over the many years Hunter was away, including sometimes having to take a taxi to pick her up off the pavement where she had passed out.
Hunter married Anita Bejmuk, his long-time assistant, on [[24 April]], [[2003]].
==Death==
Thompson died at his fortified compound in [[Woody Creek, Colorado|Woody Creek]], [[Colorado]], at 5:42 pm on [[February 20]], [[2005]] from a [[suicide|self-inflicted]] gunshot wound to the head. He was 67 years old.
Thompson's son (Juan), daughter-in-law (Jennifer Winkel Thompson), and grandson (Will Thompson) were visiting for the weekend at the time of his suicide. Will and Jennifer were in the adjacent room when they heard the gunshot. They reported to the press that they do not believe his suicide was out of desperation, but was a well thought out act resulting from Thompson's many painful medical conditions.{{fn|2}} Thompson's wife, Anita, who was at the gym at the time of her husband's death, was on the phone with Thompson when he ended his life.
Artist and friend [[Ralph Steadman]] wrote:
:"...He told me 25 years ago that he would feel real trapped if he didn't know that he could commit suicide at any moment. I don't know if that is brave or stupid or what, but it was inevitable. I think that the truth of what rings through all his writing is that he meant what he said. If that is entertainment to you, well, that's OK. If you think that it enlightened you, well, that's even better. If you wonder if he's gone to Heaven or Hell &mdash;rest assured he will check out them both, find out which one Richard Milhous Nixon went to &mdash;and go there. He could never stand being bored. But there must be Football too &mdash;and Peacocks..." {{fn|3}}
Three months later, ''Rolling Stone'' released what was claimed to be Thompson's final written words, written with a marker four days before his death, The title was "Football Season is over":
:"No More Games. No More Bombs. No More Walking. No More Fun. No More Swimming. 67. That is 17 years past 50. 17 more than I needed or wanted. Boring. I am always bitchy. No Fun&mdash;for anybody. 67. You are getting Greedy. Act your old age. Relax&mdash;This won't hurt."
===Funeral===
On [[August 20]], [[2005]], in a private ceremony, Thompson's ashes were fired from a cannon atop a 153-foot tower of his own design (in the shape of a double-thumbed fist clutching a [[peyote]] button) to the tune of [[Bob Dylan]]'s "[[Mr. Tambourine Man]]," known to be the song most-respected by the late writer. Red, white, blue and green fireworks were launched along with his ashes. As the city of Aspen would not allow the cannon to remain for more than a month, the cannon has been dismantled and put into storage until a suitable permanent location can be found. There is talk of a public party sometime in the summer of [[2006]]. [[Johnny Depp]], a close friend of Thompson (and who portrayed Thompson in the movie adaptation of [[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]]), financed the funeral, according to widow Anita Thompson. Depp told the [[Associated Press]], ''"All I'm doing is trying to make sure his last wish comes true. I just want to send my pal out the way he wants to go out."'' [http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001018730]
Other famous attendees at the funeral included US [[Senator]] [[John Kerry]] and former-US Senator [[George McGovern]]; [[60 Minutes]] correspondent [[Ed Bradley]]; actors [[Bill Murray]] (who portrayed Hunter S. Thompson in the movie [[Where the Buffalo Roam]]), [[Sean Penn]], and [[Josh Hartnett]]; singers [[Lyle Lovett]] and [[John Oates]] as well as numerous other friends of Thompson. An estimated 280 people attended the funeral.
The plans for this impressive monument were initially drawn by Thompson and [[Ralph Steadman]], and were shown as part of an "[[Omnibus]]" program on the [[BBC]], titled "Fear and Loathing in Gonzovision" (1978). It is included as a special feature on the second disc of the 2003 [[Criterion Collection]] DVD release of ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas''. The video footage of Steadman and Thompson drawing the plans and outdoor footage showing where he wanted the cannon constructed were played prior to the unveiling of his cannon at the funeral.
[[Douglas Brinkley]], a friend and now the family's spokesman, said of the ceremony: "If that's what he wanted, we'll see if we can pull it off." {{fn|4}}
==Legacy==
===Writing Style and Persona===
As a writer, Thompson is remembered most for his flamboyant and humorous style, employing [[action verbs]] to comically spin outlandish tales that were completely unbelievable, yet provided a unique viewpoint to accurately describe the underlying reality at hand. Thompson almost always wrote in [[first person]] narrative, and his stories became so colorfully contrived that they easily slipped into the realm of [[fiction]]; however, the basic framework of the story he told was very often true.
Thompson’s writing style has been widely imitated; his influence on [[American literature|American Writers]] of the latter half of the 20th century is undeniable.
In his writing, he cultivated the persona of a dangerously absurd, drug-crazed journalist bent on comic self-destruction. While his fictional persona largely mirrored his actual life, Thompson noted during the aforementioined BBC interview that he sometimes felt obligated to live up to the fictional self that he had created.
===Popular slogans===
A slogan of Thompson's, "When the going gets weird, the weird turn pro," appears as a chapter heading in both ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'' and ''Kingdom of Fear''. He was also quoted as saying, "I hate to advocate drugs, alcohol, violence or insanity to anyone, but they've always worked for me." Another one of his favorite sayings, "Buy the ticket, take the ride," is easily applied to virtually all of his exploits. "Too weird to live, too rare to die", a phrase applied to Oscar Zeta Acosta (Dr. Gonzo from ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas''), has been widely used to qualify the "Good Doctor" after his death.
The Hawaiian word "[[mahalo]]" also frequently appears in Thompson's works and correspondence. Loosely translated, it means "may you be in divine breath." On more than one occasion, "mahalo" followed Thompson's usage of "buy the ticket, take the ride."
===Letters===
Thompson was a prolific letter writer; letters served as Thompson's primary avenue for personal conversation. Beginning in his teenage years, Thompson made [[carbon copy|carbon copies]] of all his letters, which were almost always typed. Thompson's letters include all of his noted flamboyancy, and were sent to both dear friends and unsuspecting public officials and reporters.
Some of his letters have begun to be published in a series of books called ''The Fear and Loathing Letters''. The first volume, ''The Proud Highway: Saga of a Desperate Southern Gentleman 1955 - 1967'', is over 650 pages, while the second volume ''Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist'' passed 700. [[Douglas Brinkley]], who edits the letter series, said that for every letter included, fifteen were cut. Brinkley estimated Thompson’s own archive contains over 20,000 letters. The last of the three planned volumes of Thompson’s letters has yet to be published; according to [[Amazon.com]] it will be released October 1, 2006 as ''The Mutineer: Rants, Ravings, and Missives from the Mountaintop 1977-2005''. |
he EMU and will receive the right to issue Bulgarian euro coins. The early accession to the EMU is due to existing [[currency board]] agreement that was signed in 1997 to help put an end to the deep financial crisis and foreign debt reimbursement problems. The agreement effectively binds the Bulgarian lev to the euro (between 1997 and 1999, before the euro came into existence, the lev was bound to the German mark). As a consequence, [[Bulgaria]] has fulfilled the great majority of the EMU membership criteria.
* In [[Romania]], the [[National Bank of Romania|National Bank]] retained its monetary policy attributes throughout the financial crisis of the 1990s (which gradually ended). Hence, [[Romania]]'s accession to the EMU will take more time. It is likely that [[Romania]] will join the eurozone in the 2010&ndash;12 period, and strategies have been established to this end. To simplify future adjustments to [[Automatic teller machine|ATMs]] at the adoption of the euro, when the Romanian new Leu was adopted in 2005 (at 10,000 old Lei to 1 new Leu) the new banknotes were issued to the same physical proportions as euro banknotes, the old leu notes being substantially longer in relation to their width.
====Public opinion after the European Constitution referenda====
Although the failure of the [[European Constitution]] to be ratified would have no direct impact on the status of the euro, some debate regarding the euro arose after the negative outcome of the French and Dutch referenda in mid 2005.
*A poll by Stern magazine released [[1 June]] [[2005]] found that 56% of Germans would favour a return to the mark. [http://www.stern.de/presse/vorab/?id=541124&q=eichel%20category:presse]
*Members of the [[Northern League (Italy)|Northern League]] Italian nationalist political party have discussed calling a referendum to return Italy to the Lira. [http://washingtontimes.com/world/20050614-114629-8803r.htm]
*Members of the [[Movement for France]] political party have proposed holding a referendum to return France to the Franc. [http://news.scotsman.com/international.cfm?id=664902005]
*In contrast to Germany a poll in Austria on [[7 June]] [[2005]] showed the overwhelming support of the euro: 73 percent of the sample said they preferred to keep the common currency with only 21 percent in favour of returning to the old currency the schilling. [http://www.vienna.at/engine.aspx/page/vienna-article-detail-page/cn/vol-news-willie-20050607-011305/dc/tp:vol:oesterreich]
However, soon after these suggestions were made, the [[European Commission]] issued a statement denying any possibility of this, stating "the euro is here to stay". <!-- personal views on this go in Discussion page -->
==Eurozone as an Optimal Currency Area?==
{{main|Optimal Currency Area - Eurozone}}
In economic theory the degree of fullfillment of the following four criteria indicate whether an area is optimal for a monetary union. These criteria are often called the [[Optimal Currency Area]] (OCA) criteria. Although these criteria are not exhaustive and far from absolute, they are generally accepted as a sufficient measure. There are three economic criteria (labour and capital mobility, product diversification, and openness) and one political criterion (fiscal transfers). All these criteria stand in relation to the ability to deal with asymmetric shocks (i.e. shocks that only hit one area). Symmetric shocks are less problematic in a currency area as the currency will depreciate or appreciate to the needed level for all areas (as this level is the same for all areas), while asymmetric shocks will create an exchange rate that is too high for one area and one that is too low for the other. This causes wage and price changes and unemployment problems.
*[[Robert A. Mundell]] formulated the idea that perfect [[capital]] and [[labour mobility]] would mitigate the adverse consequences of asymmetric shocks in a currency area. While capital is quite mobile in the eurozone, labour mobility is relatively low, especially when compared to the [[USA]] and [[Japan]].
*[[Peter Kenen]] formulated the idea that widely diversified production and export structures that are similar between the areas that form the currency area lower the effect and probability of asymmetric shocks. The eurozone scores quite well on this criterion, and monetary integration seems to further improve the diversification of production structures.
*[[Ronald McKinnon]] formulated the idea that areas which are very open to [[trade]] and trade heavily with each other form an optimum currency area. This is because the high trade intensity will lower the significance of the distinction between domestic and foreign [[goods]] as [[competition]] will equalize the [[prices]] of most goods, independently of [[exchange rate]]s. The eurozone members trade heavily with each other, and all evidence so far seems to indicate that the monetary union has at least doubled trade between members.
*The term [[fiscal]] transfers refer to the transfer of money between areas. This could decrease the adverse consequences of asymmetric shocks as the areas that are hit, would receive money. This would create a counter [[Business cycle|cyclical]] effect and thus lower the price and wage changes and unemployment wouldn't rise as much. In reality however there is a no-bail out clause in the [[Stability and Growth Pact]], meaning that fiscal transfers are not allowed.
In general, economic research state that is impossible to say whether eurozone members would benefit from a currency area, as two important criteria support a monetary union, while at the same time two important criteria oppose such an union.
==Effects of the single currency==
[[Image:La2-euro.jpg|thumb|left|180px|The euro Light Sculpture in [[Frankfurt]]]]
The introduction of a single currency for many separate countries presents a number of advantages and disadvantages for the participating nations. Opinions differ on the actual effects of the euro so far, as most of them will take years to understand. Theories and predictions abound.
===Removal of exchange rate risk===
One of the most important benefits of the euro will be lowered [[exchange rate]] risks, which will make it easier to invest across borders. The risks of changes in the value of respective currencies has always made it risky for companies or individuals to invest or even import/export outside their own currency zone. Profits could be quickly eliminated as a result of exchange rate fluctuations. As a result, most investors and importers/exporters have to either accept the risk or [[Hedging|"hedge"]] their bets, resulting in further costs on the financial markets. Consequently, it is less appealing to invest outside one’s own currency zone. The eurozone greatly increases the potentially "exchange-risk free" investment area. Since Europe’s economy is heavily dependent on intra-European exports, the benefits of this effect can hardly be overstated. This is particularly important for countries whose currencies have traditionally fluctuated a great deal such as the Mediterranean nations.
At the same time, this is likely to increase foreign investment in countries with more liberal markets and reduce that in those with rigid markets. Some people worry that thus will see profits flowing away from particular member states to the detriment of their traditional social values. It might also result in the reduction of local decision makers in businesses.
===Removal of conversion fees===
A benefit is the removal of [[bank]] transaction charges that previously were a cost to both individuals and [[business]]es when exchanging from one national currency to another. Although not an enormous cost, multiplied thousands of times, the savings add up across the entire economy.
For electronic payments (e.g. [[credit cards]], [[debit cards]] and [[cash machine]] withdrawals), banks in the [[eurozone]] must now charge the same for intra-member cross-border transactions as they charge for domestic transactions. Banks in [[France]] have attempted to circumvent this regulation by charging for all bank transfers (domestic and cross-border) unless the transfer is instructed via [[online banking]] &mdash; a method through which they do not offer cross-border payments. In this way, banks in [[France]] continue to charge more for cross-border transfers than for domestic transfers.{{fact}}
===Deeper financial markets===
Another significant advantage of switching to the euro is the creation of deeper financial markets. Financial markets on the continent are expected to be far more [[market liquidity|liquid]] and flexible than they were in the past. There will be more competition for, and availability of financial products across the union. This will reduce the financial servicing costs to businesses and possibly even individual consumers across the continent. The costs associated with public debt will also decrease. It is expected that the broader, deeper markets will lead to increased stock market [[capitalisation]] and investment. Larger, more internationally competitive financial and business institutions may arise.
===Price parity===
Another effect of the common European currency is that differences in prices&mdash;in particular in price levels&mdash;should decrease. Differences in prices can trigger [[arbitrage]], e.g. artificial trade in a commodity between countries purely to exploit the price differential, which will tend to equalise prices across the euro area. It is held that this is supposed to result in increased competition or consolidation of companies, which should help to contain inflation and which therefore will be beneficial to consumers. Similarly, price transparency across borders is said to benefit consumers find lower cost goods or services. There is no universally accepted scientific theory based on firm evidence that this is an inevit |
in France, Henri becoming a naturalized citizen of the Republic.
Bergson's life was the quiet and uneventful one of a French professor, the chief landmarks in it being the publication of his four principal works, first, in [[1889]], the ''[[Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience]]'' (Time and Free Will), then ''[[Matière et Mémoire]]'' (Matter and Memory) in [[1896]], ''[[L'Evolution créatrice]]'' (Creative Evolution) in [[1907]] and finally ''[[Les deux sources de la morale et de la religion]]'' (The Two Sources of Morality and Religion) in [[1932]].
== Education and career ==
In Paris from [[1868]] to [[1878]] Bergson attended the ''[[Lycée Fontaine]]'', now known as the ''[[Lycée Condorcet]]''. While there he won a prize for his scientific work and another, when he was eighteen, for the solution of a mathematical problem. This was in [[1877]], and his solution was published the following year in ''[[Annales de Mathématiques]].'' It is of interest as being his first published work. After some hesitation over his career, as to whether it should lie in the sphere of the sciences or that of "the humanities," he decided in favour of the latter, and when nineteen years of age, he entered the famous ''[[École Normale Supérieure]]''. While there he obtained the degree of ''[[Licence-ès-Lettres]]'', and this was followed by that of ''[[agrégation|Agrégation de philosophie]]'' in [[1881]].
The same year he received a teaching appointment at the ''[[Lycée]]'' in [[Angers]], the ancient capital of [[Anjou]]. Two years later he settled at the ''[[Lycée Blaise-Pascal]]'' in [[Clermont-Ferrand]], ''[[préfecture]]'' (capital) of the [[Puy-de-Dôme]] ''[[département in France|département]]'', a town whose name is usually more of interest for motorists than for philosophers, it being the home of [[Michelin]] tyres and the [[Charade Circuit]] racing track.
The year after his arrival at [[Clermont-Ferrand]] Bergson displayed his ability in the humanities by the publication of an excellent edition of extracts from [[Lucretius]], with a critical study of the text and the philosophy of the poet ([[1884]]), a work whose repeated editions are sufficient evidence of its useful place in the promotion of classical study among the youth of France. While teaching and lecturing in this part of his country (the [[Auvergne (province)|Auvergne]] region), Bergson found time for private study and original work. He was engaged on his ''Essai sur les données immediates de la conscience''. This essay, which, in its English translation, bears the more definite and descriptive title ''Time and Free Will'', was submitted, along with a short [[Latin]] thesis on [[Aristotle]], for the degree of ''[[Docteur-ès-Lettres]]'', to which he was admitted by the [[University of Paris]] in 1889. The work was published in the same year by [[Felix Alcan]], the Paris publisher, in his series ''[[La Bibliothèque de philosophie contemporaine]]''.
It is interesting to note that Bergson dedicated this volume to [[Jules Lachelier]], then public education minister, who was an ardent disciple of [[Felix Ravaisson]] and the author of a rather important philosophical work ''Du fondement de l'Induction'' (On the Founding of Induction, 1871). Lachelier endeavoured "to substitute everywhere force for inertia, life for death, and liberty for fatalism." (Note: Lachelier was born in [[1832]], Ravaisson in [[1813]]. Bergson owed much to both of these teachers of the ''Ecole Normale Supérieure''. Cf. his memorial address on Ravaisson, who died in [[1900]].)
Bergson now settled again in Paris, and after teaching for some months at the [[Municipal College]], known as the ''College Rollin'', he received an appointment at the [[Lycée Henri-Quatre]], where he remained for eight years. In 1896 he published his second large work, entitled ''Matière et Mémoire''. This rather difficult, but brilliant, work investigates the function of the brain, undertakes an analysis of [[perception]] and [[memory]], leading up to a careful consideration of the problems of the relation of body and mind. Bergson had spent years of research in preparation for each of his three large works. This is especially obvious in ''Matière et Memoire'', where he shows a very thorough acquaintance with the extensive amount of pathological investigation which had been carried out during the period, and for which France is justly entitled to a very honourable mention.
In [[1898]] Bergson became ''[[Maître de conférences]]'' at his [[Alma Mater]], ''L'Ecole Normale Supérieure'', and was later promoted to a Professorship. The year [[1900]] saw him installed as Professor at the [[Collège de France]], where he accepted the Chair of [[Greek Philosophy]] in succession to [[Charles L'Eveque]].
At the [[First International Congress of Philosophy]], held in Paris during the first five days of August, 1900, Bergson read a short, but important, paper, ''Sur les origines psychologiques de notre croyance à la loi de causalité'' (Psychological origins of the belief in the law of causality). In [[1901]] [[Felix Alcan]] published a work which had previously appeared in the [[Revue de Paris]], entitled ''[[Le rire (H. Bergson)|Le rire]]'' (Laughter), one of the most important of Bergson's minor productions. This essay on the meaning of "the comic" was based on a lecture which he had given in his early days in the Auvergne. The study of it is essential to an understanding of Bergson's views of life, and its passages dealing with the place of the artistic in life are valuable.
In [[1901]] Bergson was elected to the [[Académie des sciences morales et politiques]], and became a member of the Institute. In [[1903]] he contributed to the ''Revue de metaphysique et de morale'' a very important essay entitled ''[[Introduction à la metaphysique]]'' (Introduction to Metaphysics), which is useful as a preface to the study of his three large books.
On the death of [[Gabriel Tarde]], the eminent sociologist, in [[1904]], Bergson succeeded him in the Chair of Modern Philosophy. From the 4th to the 8th of September of that year he was at [[Geneva]] attending the [[Second International Congress of Philosophy]], when he lectured on ''Le Paralogisme psycho-physiologique'', or, to quote its new title, ''Le Cerveau et la Pensée: une illusion philosophique'' (The Mind and Thought: A Philosophical Illusion). An illness prevented his visiting [[Germany]] to attend the [[Third International Congress of Philosophy|Third Congress]] held at [[Heidelberg]].
His third major work, ''L'Evolution créatrice'', appeared in [[1907]], and is undoubtedly the most widely known and most discussed. It constitutes one of the most profound and original contributions to the philosophical consideration of the [[theory of evolution]]. ''"Un livre comme L'Evolution créatrice,"'' remarks [[Imbart de la Tour]], ''"n'est pas seulement une œuvre, mais une date, celle d'une direction nouvelle imprimée à la pensée."'' (A book such as Creative Evolution is not so much a work, but a milestone in print of a new direction of thought.) By [[1918]], [[Alcan]], the publisher, had issued twenty-one editions, making an average of two editions per annum for ten years. Following the appearance of this book, Bergson's popularity increased enormously, not only in academic circles, but among the general reading public.
== Relationship with James and pragmatism ==
Bergson came to London in [[1908]] and visited [[William James]], the American philosopher of [[Harvard]], who was Bergson's senior by seventeen years, and who was instrumental in calling the attention of the Anglo-American public to the work of the French professor. This was an interesting meeting and we find James's impression of Bergson given in his Letters under date of October 4, 1908. "So modest and unpretending a man but such a genius intellectually! I have the strongest suspicions that the tendency which he has brought to a focus, will end by prevailing, and that the present epoch will be a sort of turning point in the history of philosophy."
As early as [[1880]] James had contributed an article in French to the periodical ''La Critique philosophique'', of Renouvier and Pillon, entitled ''[[Le Sentiment de l'Effort]]''. Four years later a couple of articles by him appeared in "Mind: What is an Emotion?" and "On some Omissions of Introspective Psychology." Of these articles the first two were quoted by Bergson in his work of 1889, ''Les données immédiates de la conscience''. In the following years 1890-91 appeared the two volumes of James's monumental work, [[The Principles of Psychology]], in which he refers to a pathological phenomenon observed by Bergson. Some writers, taking merely these dates into consideration and overlooking the fact that James's investigations had been proceeding since [[1870]] (registered from time to time by various articles which culminated in "The Principles"), have mistakenly dated Bergson's ideas as earlier than James's.
It has been suggested that Bergson owes the root ideas of his first book to the [[1884]] article by James, "On Some Omissions of Introspective Psychology," which he neither refers to nor quotes. This article deals with the conception of thought as a [[stream of consciousness]], which [[intellect]] distorts by framing into concepts. Bergson replied to this insinuation by denying that he had any knowledge of the article by James when he wrote ''Les données immédiates de la conscience''. The two thinkers appear to have developed independently until almost the close of the century. They are further apart in their intellectual position than is frequently supposed. Both have succeeded in appealing to audiences far beyond the purely academic sphere, but only in their mutual rejection of "intellectualism" as final is there real unanimity. Although James was sl |
Scrooge McDuck returned to Scotland to fetch Hortense and their sister Matilda McDuck. When Scrooge established [[Duckburg]], [[Calisota]], [[United States]] as his homebase he started journeying the world trying to expand his financial empire. From [[1902]] till [[1930]] his sisters ran his empire from his homebase while he was away. During these years she met her boyfriend [[Quackmore Duck]] whom she married on [[1920]]. Later the same year she gave birth to twins. Her son was named [[Donald Duck]] and her daughter [[Della Thelma Duck]]. Of the two only the boy inherited his mother's temper. A fight with Scrooge in [[1930]] ended all relationships between him and his family and she retired. She was thought deceased by [[1948]], because in this year Scrooge claimed he was the last McDuck. However, Mathilda has since turned up alive and well, and Hortense may yet do so also.
==External links==
*[http://goofy313g.free.fr/calisota_online/trees/barks.html Carl Barks' version of the family tree]
*[http://goofy313g.free.fr/calisota_online/trees/worden.html Mark Worden's version of the family tree]
*[http://duckman.pettho.com/tree/v_american.html Don Rosa's version of the family tree]
[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|McDuck, Hortense]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|McDuck, Hortense]]
[[Category:Fictional Scots|McDuck, Hortense]]
[[da:Hortensia von And]]
[[fr:Hortense Picsou]]
[[it:Ortensia de Paperoni]]
[[nl:Hortensia Duck]]
[[fi:Hortensia MacAnkka]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hammurabi</title>
<id>14358</id>
<revision>
<id>41629852</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:20:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kmf164</username>
<id>94080</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Pvlasov|Pvlasov]] ([[User talk:Pvlasov|talk]]) to last version by Magnus Manske</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hammurabi_Face.jpg|thumb|200px|right|This [[diorite]] head is believed to represent king Hammurabi]]'''Hammurabi''' ([[Akkadian]] '''Khammurabi''', from [[Amorite language|Amorite]] '''Ammurapi''', "''The Kinsman is a Healer''"; ''Ammu'', paternal kinsman + ''Rapi'', to heal; also transliterated '''Ammurapi''', '''Hammurapi''', or '''Khammurabi''') was the sixth king of [[Babylon]]. Achieving the conquest of [[Sumer]] and [[Akkad]], and ending the last [[Sumerian dynasty]] of [[Isin]], he was the first king of the [[Babylonia|Babylonian Empire]].
Hammurabi reigned over the [[Babylonian Empire]] from [[1792 BC]] until his death in [[1750 BC]] ([[middle chronology]]; [[1728 BC|1728]]-[[1686 BC]] [[short chronology]]; dates highly uncertain). He was born in [[1800s BC|1810]]. It was he who first gave the city of Babylon [[hegemony]] over [[Mesopotamia]].
The first few decades of his reign were relatively peaceful. In the 30th year of his reign, Hammurabi crushed an invading army consisting of [[Elam]]ite and other forces in a decisive battle, and drove them out of Babylonia. The next two years were occupied in adding [[Larsa]] and Yamutbal to his dominion, and he formed Babylonia into a single monarchy centred on Babylon. A great literary revival followed the recovery of Babylonian independence, and the rule of Babylon was obeyed as far as the shores of the Mediterranean. Vast numbers of contract tablets, dated in the reigns of Hammurabi and his successors, have been discovered, as well as their autographed letters. Among them is one ordering the dispatch of 240 soldiers from [[Assyria]] and Situllum, a proof that Assyria was at the time a Babylonian dependency.
Hammurabi expanded the rule of Babylon by first conquering cities towards the south, before his conquest expanded to cover most parts of Mesopotamia. His military conquests came late in his reign, perhaps brought on by the fall of [[Shamshi-Adad]]'s empire.
[[Image:Milkau Oberer Teil der Stele mit dem Text von Hammurapis Gesetzescode 369-2.jpg|thumb|left|150px|The upper part of the stela of Hammurapis' code of laws]]
He is perhaps best known for [[Wiktionary:promulgate|promulgating]] his code of [[law]]s, known as the [[Code of Hammurabi]]. This was written on a [[stela]] and placed in a public place, so that all could see it, even though very few could read. This stela was removed as plunder to the Elamite capital [[Susa]], where it was rediscovered in [[1901]], and it now stands in the [[Louvre]] museum. While the penalties of his laws may seem cruel to modern readers, the fact that he not only put into writing the laws of his kingdom, but attempted to make them a systematic whole, is considered an important step forward in the evolution of [[civilization]]. The "innocent until proven guilty" idea comes from his laws.
One fairly new theory is that the modern designation of it as a law code is wrong: it is thus seen merely as a monument "presenting Hammurabi as an exemplary king of justice." While dealing with many areas of life, the entries do not, by far, cover all possible crimes, and the stele may actually contain contradictions. While the code was applied and studied extensively in later Babylonian law (as seen in the library of [[Ashurbanipal]]), there as of yet have been no contemporary records discovered that record its use as an actual functioning law code during Hammurabi's own time.
:{{seealso|Babylonian law}}
Hammurabi also did other things in order to make Babylon a better place, such as helping to improve the [[irrigation]] process.
Following Hammurabi's successors, the Babylonian Empire collapsed due to military pressure from the [[Hittites]], led by their king [[Mursilis I]]. However it was the [[Kassites]], led by their king [[Agumkakrine]], who eventually ruled Babylon. Although there were many rebellious cities, the Kassites ruled for 400 years, and respected the [[Code of Hammurabi]].
== References ==
* Van De Mieroop, Marc. ''A History of the Ancient Near East''. Blackwell Publishing: Malden, 2005. ISBN 0-631-22552-8
*[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/AUD_BAI/BABYLONIAN_LAW.html Babylonian Law]. Britannica, 1911.
==See also==
*[[Ur-Nammu]]
== External links ==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Hammurabi | name=Hammurabi}}
{| align="center" cellpadding="2" border="2"
|-
| width="30%" align="center" | Preceded by:<br>'''[[Sin-muballit]]'''
| width="40%" align="center" | '''[[Kings of Babylon]]'''
| width="30%" align="center" | Succeeded with:<br>'''[[Samsu-Iluna]]'''
|}
[[Category:1686 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Legislators]]
[[Category:Babylonia]]
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<page>
<title>Huygens' principle</title>
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<comment>"Diffraction" on image label incorrect: changed to "Refraction".</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Wellen-Brechung.png|thumb|300px|Wave Refraction in the manner of Huygens.]]
'''Huygens' principle''' (named for Dutch [[physicist]] [[Christiaan Huygens]]) is a method of analysis applied to problems of [[wave]] propagation in the [[Far-field diffraction pattern|far field limit]]. It recognizes that each point of an advancing wave front is in fact the center of a fresh disturbance and the source of a new train of waves; and that the advancing wave as a whole may be regarded as the sum of all the secondary waves arising from points in the medium already traversed. This view of wave propagation helps better understand a variety of wave phenomena, such as [[diffraction]].
For example, if two [[room]]s are connected by an open [[door]]way and a [[sound]] is produced in a remote corner of one of them, a person in the other room will hear the sound as if it originated at the doorway. As far as the second room is concerned, the vibrating air in the doorway is the source of the sound. The same is true of [[light]] passing the edge of an obstacle, but this is not as easily observed because of the short [[wavelength]] of visible light.
== Diffraction ==
The most common application of Huygens' principle is for the case of a [[Plane wave]] (usually light) incident on an [[aperture]] of arbitrary shape. In this case, Huygens' principle simply states that a large hole can be approximated with many small slits, each of which generates waves as a point source. A point source generates waves that emerge traveling spherically outward, like the waves caused by dropping stones in a pond. Consider the case of [[diffraction|single slit diffraction]], where we have one long slit through which we shine light onto a distant screen. We then try to approximate this long slit with an increasing number of short ones, in order to locate the diffraction minima. We know from the [[double-slit experiment]] that two slits [[interference|interfere destructively]] when their path lengths differ by <math>\lambda/2</math>. We can calculate using [[Phasor (physics)|phasors]] or a similar technique that for three slits the first and last slit must differ by <math>2\lambda/3</math>, and so forth. We find the pattern to be that the waves traveling from the first and last slit must differ in their path lengths by <math>(n-1)\lambd |
nalty. If it cannot be played from the hazard for any reason, it may be removed by hand and dropped outside the hazard with a penalty of one stroke. If a ball in a hazard cannot be found, it may be replaced by dropping another ball outside the hazard, again with one stroke penalty. Exactly where a ball may be dropped outside a hazard is governed by strict rules. [[Bunker]]s (or ''sand traps'') are hazards from which the ball is more difficult to play than from grass. As in a water hazard, a ball in a sand trap must be played without previously touching the sand with one's club.
The [[lawn|grass]] of the ''putting green'' (or more commonly the ''green'') is cut very short so that a ball can roll easily over distances of several yards. To ''putt'' means to play a stroke, usually but not always on the green, wherein the ball does not leave the ground. The direction of growth of individual blades of grass often affects the roll of a golf ball and is called the ''grain''. The cup is always found within the green, and must have a diameter of 108 mm and a depth of at least 100 mm. Its position on the green is not static and may be changed from day to day. The cup usually has a flag on a pole positioned in it so that it may be seen from some distance, but not necessarily from the tee. This flag and pole combination is often called the ''pin''.
The borders of a course are marked as such, and beyond them is ''out of bounds'', that is, ground from which a ball must not be played. Some areas on the course may be designated as ''ground under repair'', meaning that a ball coming to rest in them may be lifted and then played from outside such ground without penalty. Certain man-made objects on the course are defined as ''obstructions'', and specific rules determine how a golfer may proceed when the play is impeded by these.
Every hole is classified by its ''par''. The par of a hole is primarily but not exclusively determined by the distance from tee to green. Typical lengths for par three holes range from 100 to 224 m, for par four holes from 225 to 434 m, and for par five holes 435 m and greater. Par is the theoretical number of strokes that an expert golfer should require for playing the ball into any given hole. The expert golfer is expected to reach the green in two strokes under par (''in regulation'') and then use two putts to get the ball into the hole. Many 18-hole courses have approximately four par-three, ten par-four, and four par-five holes. The total par of an 18-hole course is usually around 72. In many countries, courses are classified by a ''course rating'' in addition to the course's par. This rating describes the difficulty of a course and may be used to calculate a golfer's playing handicap for that individual course (see [[golf handicap]]).
At most golf courses there are additional facilities that are not part of the course itself. Often there is a ''practice range'', usually with practice greens, bunkers, and a driving area (where long shots can be practiced). There may even be a practice course (which is often easier to play or shorter than other golf courses). A golf school is often associated with a course or club.
==Play of the game==
Every game of golf is based on playing a number of holes in a given order. A ''round'' typically consists of 18 holes that are played in the order determined by the course layout. On a nine-hole course, a standard round consists of two successive nine-hole rounds. A hole of golf consists of hitting a ball from a tee on the ''[[teeing ground]]'' (a marked area designated for the first shot of a hole), and, once the ball comes to rest, striking it again, and repeating this process until the ball at last comes to rest in the cup. Once the ball is on the ''green'' (an area of finely cut grass) the ball is usually ''putted'' (hit along the ground) into the hole. The aim of holing the ball in as few strokes as possible may be impeded by various hazards, such as bunkers and [[water hazard]]s.
Players walk (or in some countries, often drive in motorized electric carts) over the course, either singly or in groups of two, three, or four, sometimes accompanied by [[caddie]]s who carry and manage the players' equipment and give them advice. Each player plays a ball from the tee to the hole, except that in the mode of play called ''foursomes'', two teams of two players compete, and the members of each team alternate shots using only one ball, until the ball is holed out. When all individual players or teams have brought a ball into play, the player or team whose ball is the farthest from the hole is next to play. In some team events, a player whose ball is farther from the hole may ask his partner to play first. When all players of a group have completed the hole, the player or team with the best score on that hole has the ''honor'', that is, the right to play first on the next tee.
Each player acts as ''marker'' for one other player in the group, that is, he or she records the score on a ''score card''. In stroke play (see below), the score consists of the number of strokes played plus any ''penalty strokes'' incurred. Penalty strokes are not actually strokes but penalty points that are added to the score for violations of rules or for making use of relief procedures in certain situations.
===Scoring===
In every form of play, the aim is to play as few shots per round as possible. Scores for each hole can be described as follows:
<center>
{|class="wikitable"
!bgcolor=#dfdfdf align="center"|Term on a <br>scoreboard
!bgcolor=#dfdfdf align="center"|Specific term
!bgcolor=#dfdfdf|Definition
|-
|bgcolor=#EFEFEF align="center"|-3
|align="center"| albatross (double-eagle)
|three strokes under par
|-
|bgcolor=#EFEFEF align="center"|-2
|align="center"|eagle
|two strokes under par
|-
|bgcolor=#EFEFEF align="center"|-1
|align="center"|birdie
|one stroke under par
|-
|bgcolor=#EFEFEF align="center"| 0
|align="center"|par or even
|strokes equal to par
|-
|bgcolor=#EFEFEF align="center"|+1
|align="center"|bogey
|one stroke more than par
|-
|bgcolor=#EFEFEF align="center"|+2
|align="center"|double bogey
|two strokes over par
|-
|bgcolor=#EFEFEF align="center"|+3
|align="center"|triple bogey
|three strokes over par
|}
</center>
The two basic forms of playing golf are [[match play]] and [[stroke play]].
*In match play, two players (or two teams) play every hole as a separate contest against each other. The party with the lower score wins that hole, or if the scores of both players or teams are equal the hole is "halved" (drawn). The game is won by the party that wins more holes than the other. In the case that one team or player has taken a lead that cannot be overcome in the number of holes remaining to be played, the match is deemed to be won by the party in the lead, and the remainder of the holes are not played. For example, if one party already has a lead of six holes, and only five holes remain to be played on the course, the match is over. At any given point, if the lead is equal to the number of holes remaining, the match is said to be "dormie", and is continued until the leader increases the lead by one hole, thereby winning the match, or until the match ends in a tie. When the game is tied after the predetermined number of holes have been played, it may be continued until one side takes a one-hole lead, and thereupon immediately wins by one hole.
*In stroke play, every player (or team) counts the number of shots taken for the whole round or tournament to produce the total score, and the player with the lowest score wins. A variant of stroke play is ''Stableford'' scoring, where a number of points (two for the target score) are given for each hole, and the fewer shots taken, the more points obtained, so the aim is to have as many points as possible. Another variant of stroke play, the ''Modified Stableford'' method, awards points on each hole in relation to par and then adds the points over a round; for more details on this method, see the article on [[The INTERNATIONAL]], a tournament that uses Modified Stableford scoring.
There are many variations of these basic principles, some of which are explicitly described in the "Rules of Golf" and are therefore regarded "official". "Official" forms of play are, among others, ''foursome'' and ''four-ball'' games.
===Team play===
A ''foursome'' (defined in Rule 29) is played between two teams of two players each, in which each team has only one ball and players alternate playing it. For example, if players A and B form a team, A tees off on the first hole, B will play the second shot, A the third, and so on until the hole is finished. On the second hole, B will tee off (regardless who played the last putt on the first hole), then A plays the second shot, and so on. Foursomes can be played as match play or stroke play.
A ''four-ball'' (Rules 30 and 31) is also played between two teams of two players each, but every player plays his own ball and for each team, the lower score on each hole is counted. Four-balls can be played as match play or stroke play.
There are also popular unofficial variations on team play. In a ''scramble'', or ''ambrose'', each player in a team tees off on each hole, and the players decide which shot was best. Every player then plays his second shot from where the best ball has come to rest, and the procedure is repeated until the hole is finished.
In a ''greensome'' both players tee off, and then pick the best shot as in a scramble. The player who did not shoot the best first shot plays the second shot. The play then alternates as in a foursome.
===Fees===
If one wishes to play on a golf course, one has to pay a certain fee. There are two different fees: the range fee, w |
e cover melts and freezes. Ice covers most of the ocean surface year-round, causing subfreezing temperatures much of the time. The Arctic is a major source of very cold air that inevitably moves toward the [[equator]], meeting with warmer air in the middle [[latitude]]s and causing [[rain]] and [[snow]]. Little marine life exists where the ocean surface is covered with ice throughout the year. Marine life abounds in open areas, especially the more southerly waters. The ocean's major ports are the [[Russia]]n cities of [[Murmansk]] and [[Arkhangelsk]] (Archangel). The Arctic Ocean is important as the shortest air route between the Pacific coast of North America and Europe overflies it.
Major chokepoint is the southern Chukchi Sea (northern access to the Pacific Ocean via the Bering Strait); strategic location between North America and Russia; shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia; floating research stations operated by the US and Russia; maximum snow cover in March or April about 20 to 50 centimeters over the frozen ocean; snow cover lasts about 10 months.
Geographic coordinates: {{coor dm|90|00|N|0|00|E|}}
==Climate==
[[image:north pole september ice-pack 1978-2002.png|thumb|Extent of the Arctic ice-pack in September, 1978-2002]]
[[image:north pole february ice-pack 1978-2002.png|thumb|Extent of the Arctic ice-pack in February, 1978-2002]]
[[Polar climate]] characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges; winters characterized by continuous darkness, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers characterized by continuous daylight, damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow.
There is considerable seasonal variation in how much [[pack ice]] covers the Arctic Ocean.
==Elevation extremes==
* ''lowest point:'' [[Fram Basin]] &minus;4,665 m (according to [http://www.marianatrench.com/mariana_trench-oceanography.htm], the Arctic Ocean's Eurasian Basin deepest point is at &minus;5,450 m (17,881 ft))
* ''highest point:'' sea level 0 m
==Natural resources==
Oil and gas fields, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, sand and gravel aggregates, [[fish]], marine mammals ([[Seal (mammal)|seals]] and [[Whale|whales]]).
The political dead zone near the center of the sea is also at the center of a mounting dispute between the [[United States]], [[Russia]], [[Canada]], [[Norway]], and [[Denmark]]. It is considered significant because of its potential to contain as much as or more than a quarter of the world's oil and gas resources, the tapping of which could greatly alter the flow of the global energy market. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4354036.stm#map The Arctic's New Gold Rush - BBC]
==Natural hazards==
Ice islands occasionally break away from northern [[Ellesmere Island]]; icebergs calved from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern [[Canada]]; permafrost on islands; virtually ice locked from October to June; ships subject to superstructure icing from October to May.
==Environment - current issues==
Endangered marine species include [[Walrus|walruses]] and whales; fragile [[ecosystem]] slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage; thinning polar icepack; seasonal hole in [[ozone layer]] over the [[North Pole]].
Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice will have an effect on the planet's [[albedo]], thus possibly affecting [[global warming]]. Many scientists are presently concerned that warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh, Arctic Ocean meltwater to enter the North Atlantic, possibly disrupting global [[thermohaline circulation|ocean current patterns]]. Potentially severe changes in the Earth's climate might then ensue.
==Ports and harbors==
[[Image:Arctic Ocean Seaports.png|thumb|250px|Arctic Ocean Seaports, Churchill, Inuvik, Prudhoe Bay, Barrow, Pevek, Tiksi, Dikson, Dudinka, Arkhangelsk, Murmansk]]
[[Churchill, Manitoba]] (Canada),
[[Inuvik]], (Canada)
[[Prudhoe Bay]], (US)
[[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]], (US)
[[Pevek]], (Russia)
[[Tiksi]], (Russia),
[[Dikson]] (Russia),
[[Dudinka]], (Russia),
[[Murmansk]] (Russia),
[[Arkhangelsk]] (Russia)
[[Kirkenes]], (Norway)
[[Vardø]], (Norway)
==Transportation - note==
Sparse network of air, ocean, river, and land routes; the [[Northwest Passage]] (North America) and [[Northern Sea Route]] ([[Eurasia]]) are important seasonal waterways.
==Exploration==
The first surface crossing of the Arctic Ocean was led by Wally Herbert in [[1969]], in a dogsled expedition from [[Alaska]] to [[Svalbard]] with air support. See also [[Northwest Passage]], [[Open Polar Sea]].
==References==
Bibliography:
*Neatby, Leslie H., ''Discovery in Russian and Siberian Waters'' [[1973]] ISBN 0821401246
*Ray, L., and Stonehouse, B., eds., ''The Arctic Ocean'' [[1982]] ISBN 0333310179
*Thorén, Ragnar V. A., ''Picture Atlas of the Arctic'' [[1969]] ISBN 0821401246
Based on public domain text by US Naval Oceanographer: http://oceanographer.navy.mil/arctic.html
==See also==
*[[North Pole]]
==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://www.arctic-council.org Arctic Council]
*[http://www.northernforum.org The Northern Forum]
*[http://vitalgraphics.grida.no/arcticmap Arctic Environmental Atlas] Interactive map of the Greater Arctic, including shaded relief and bathymetry of the Arctic Ocean.
*[http://www.arctic.noaa.gov NOAA Arctic Theme Page] Comprehensive Arctic Resource with data, photos, maps, essays on key Arctic issues, and much more.
* [http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/ NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer] Plot and download ocean observations
*[http://www.unaami.noaa.gov Arctic time series: The Unaami Data collection] Viewable interdisciplinary, diverse collection of Arctic variables from different geographic regions and data types.
*[http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/gallery_np.html NOAA North Pole Web Cam] Images from Web Cams deployed in Spring on an ice floe in the middle of the Arctic Ocean.
*[http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/gallery_np_weatherdata.html NOAA Near-realtime North Pole Weather Data] Data from instruments deployed on an ice floe in the middle of the Arctic Ocean.
*[http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,63980,00.html ''Search for Arctic Life Heats Up'' by Stephen Leahy]
[[Category:Oceans]]
[[Category:Seas]]
[[Category:Arctic]]
[[ar:محيط متجمد شمالي]]
[[an:Ozián Artico]]
[[zh-min-nan:Pak-ke̍k-iûⁿ]]
[[bn:উত্তর মহাসমুদ্র]]
[[br:Meurvor skornek Arktika]]
[[ca:Oceà Àrtic]]
[[cv:Çурçĕр Пăрлă океан]]
[[cs:Severní ledový oceán]]
[[cy:Cefnfor Arctig]]
[[da:Ishavet]]
[[de:Arktischer Ozean]]
[[et:Põhja-Jäämeri]]
[[el:Αρκτικός Ωκεανός]]
[[es:Océano Glacial Ártico]]
[[eo:Arkta Oceano]]
[[fr:Océan Arctique]]
[[gl:Océano Ártico]]
[[ko:북극해]]
[[io:Arktika Oceano]]
[[id:Samudra Arktik]]
[[ia:Oceano Arctic]]
[[it:Mare Glaciale Artico]]
[[he:אוקיינוס הקרח הצפוני]]
[[la:Oceanus Arcticus]]
[[lt:Arkties vandenynas]]
[[hu:Jeges-tenger]]
[[mk:Арктички Океан]]
[[nl:Arctische Oceaan]]
[[ja:北極海]]
[[no:Nordishavet]]
[[nn:Nordishavet]]
[[pl:Ocean Arktyczny]]
[[pt:Oceano Ártico]]
[[ru:Северный Ледовитый океан]]
[[simple:Arctic Ocean]]
[[sk:Severný ľadový oceán]]
[[sl:Arktični ocean]]
[[sr:Северни ледени океан]]
[[fi:Pohjoinen jäämeri]]
[[sv:Norra ishavet]]
[[ta:ஆர்க்டிக் பெருங்கடல்]]
[[th:มหาสมุทรอาร์กติก]]
[[tr:Arktik Okyanusu]]
[[uk:Північний Льодовитий океан]]
[[zh:北冰洋]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Android</title>
<id>713</id>
<revision>
<id>40868805</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T15:24:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>138.251.155.236</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|gynoid}}
[[Image:Data2.jpg|thumbnail|200px|The android [[Data (Star Trek)|Data]], portrayed by [[Brent Spiner]], from the TV series ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'']]An '''android''' is an [[artificial]]ly created [[robot]], an [[automaton]], that resembles a [[human]] being usually both in appearance and behavior. The word derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''andr-'', " meaning "[[man]], male", and the suffix ''-eides'', used to mean "of the [[species]]; alike" (from ''eidos'' "species"). The word ''[[droid]]'', a robot in the ''[[Star Wars]]'' universe, is derived from this meaning.
In the semantic sense the word "android" is a misnomer. The intended meaning is "an artificial human being like being", while the literal translation is "an artificial male being". The word ''andros'' has definite meaning of "male human being" in Greek, while the word ''man'' can mean either "male human being" or "human being in general". The gender-neutral word for human being in Greek is ''anthropos'', and the correct word for an artificial human being-like automaton would be [[anthropoid]].
__TOC__
== Usage and distinctions ==
Unlike the terms ''[[robot]]'' (a "[[mechanics|mechanical]]" being) and ''[[cyborg]]'' (a being that is partly [[organic compound|organic]] and partly mechanical), the word ''android'' has been used in literature and other media to denote several different kinds of [[artificial life|artificially constructed beings]]:
* a robot that closely resembles a human
* a cyborg that closely resembles a human
* an artificially created, yet primarily organic, being that closely resembles a human
Although human morphology is not necessarily the ideal form for working robots, the fascination in developing robots that can mimic it can be found historically in the assimilation of two concepts: ''[[simulacra]]'' (devices that exhibit likeness) and ''[[automata]]'' (devices that have independence).
The term android was first used by the French author [[Mathias Villiers de l'Isle-Adam]] (1838-1889) in his work ''[[Tomorrow's Eve]]'', featuring an artificial human-like robot named Hadaly. As said by the officer in the story, |
astaYaLD}} ''ETA pide el tercer grado para sus presos'' [[Libertad Digital]], 5 October 2003, quoted in [http://www.bastaya.org/actualidad/Violencia/InformeTorturas/Ladispersiondelospresosdeeta.pdf La dispersión de los presos de ETA] (page 9), a [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] in the [[Basta Ya]] site.
==Documentary films==
[[Documentary film|Non-fictional films]] about ETA
* {{imdb title|id=0291024|title=Asesinato en febrero (2001)}}, about the families of Basque politician [[Fernando Buesa]] and his bodyguard, both killed by ETA.
* ''[[The Basque Ball|The Basque Ball: The Skin Against the Stone]]'', (''La Pelota Vasca'', 2003) about the Basque conflict by filmmaker [[Julio Medem]]: interviews about Basque nationalism and politics. Includes testimonials of ETA victims and relatives of ETA prisoners.
* {{imdb title|id=0486499|title=Trece entre mil (2005)}}, the testimony of some of ETA's victims in the last 30 years by filmmaker [[Iñaki Arteta]].
==Other films==
Other fact-based films about ETA:
* {{imdb title|id=0079655|title=Operation Ogro (1979)}}, about the murder of Luis Carrero Blanco.
* {{imdb title|id=0082424|title=Escape from Segovia (1981)}}, ETA prisoners escape from the [[Segovia]] prison.
* {{imdb title|id=0242154|title=Yoyes (2000)}}, María Dolores Katarain a.k.a [[Yoyes]] tries to abandon ETA and is murdered by her former fellows.
* {{imdb title|id=0385842|title=Lobo (2004)}}, based on the life of [[Mikel Lejarza]], who, prompted by the Spanish police, entered ETA to be a [[double agent]].
==External links==
* [http://www.amnesty.org/results/is/eng?query=eta ETA] and [http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/esp-summary-eng], according to [[Amnesty International]]
* [http://www.bastaya.org/ Basta Ya], Basque organization protesting against perceived persecution by Basque nationalists.
* [http://clientes.vianetworks.es/personal/angelberto/fotos.htm Fotos del horror], extensive collection of photographs of ETA members, their attacks and the popular protests. (In Spanish)
* [http://avt.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=18&Itemid=107 In memoriam], Victims of ETA
* [http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/eta.htm on FAS Intelligence Resource Program]
* [http://www.etxera.org/html/about.htm Etxera], organisation protesting against imprisonment of Basque prisoners outside of the Basque country (site down at [[28 February]] [[2005]], see [http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.etxera.org/html/about.htm archive] for older versions)
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3500728.stm Who are Eta?] - A [[BBC]] profile
* [http://www.gara.net/dosierrak/euskalgatazka/euskalpresoak/ A dossier] in Spanish on [[Gara]] about the prisoner dispersion including [http://www.gara.net/dosierrak/euskalgatazka/euskalpresoak/mapa.htm a map] of the distribution of ETA prisoners in Spain and France.
[[Category:Terrorism]]
[[Category:Armed leftist groups]]
[[Category:Basque politics]]
[[Category:Francoist Spain]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[Category:Politics of Spain]]
[[Category:Rebellion]]
[[Category:Secessionist organizations]]
[[ar:وطن الباسك والحرية]]
[[be:ЭТА]]
[[ca:Euskadi ta Askatasuna]]
[[cs:ETA]]
[[da:ETA]]
[[de:Euskadi Ta Askatasuna]]
[[es:Euskadi Ta Askatasuna]]
[[eo:ETA]]
[[eu:Euskadi Ta Askatasuna]]
[[fr:Euskadi ta askatazuna]]
[[he:אט"א]]
[[it:Euskadi Ta Askatasuna]]
[[nl:Euskadi Ta Askatasuna]]
[[ja:ETA]]
[[no:ETA]]
[[pl:ETA]]
[[pt:Euskadi Ta Askatasuna]]
[[ro:ETA]]
[[ru:ЭТА]]
[[sk:Baskicko a jeho sloboda]]
[[sv:ETA]]
[[wa:ETA]]
[[zh:埃塔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Endomembrane system</title>
<id>9927</id>
<revision>
<id>26312506</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-23T23:27:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.247.216.194</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''endomembrane system''' is the system of internal [[biological membrane|membrane]]s within [[eukaryote|eukaryotic cells]] that divide the [[cell (biology)|cell]] into functional and structural compartments, or [[organelle]]s. [[Prokaryote]]s do not have an endomembrane system and thus lack most organelles.
The endomembrane system also provides a transport system, for moving molecules through the interior of the cell, as well as interactive surfaces for [[lipid]] and [[protein]] synthesis. The membranes that make up the endomembrane system are made of a lipid bilayer, with proteins attached to either side or traversing them.
The following organelles are part of the endomembrane system:
*The [[plasma membrane]] is a phospholipid bilayer membrane that separates the cell from its environment and regulates the transport of molecules and signals into and out of the cell.
*The [[nuclear envelope]] is the membrane around the [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] of the cell.
*The [[endoplasmic reticulum]] is a synthesis and transport organelle [the endoplasmic reticulum is an extension of the nuclear envelope].
*The [[Golgi apparatus]] acts as the packaging and delivery system for molecules.
*[[Lysosome]]s are the "digestive" units of the cell. They utilize [[enzyme]]s to break down macromolecules and also act as a waste disposal system.
*[[Vacuole]]s act as storage units in some cells.
*[[Vesicle (biology)|Vesicle]]s are small membrane-enclosed transport units that can transfer molecules between different compartments.
[[Category:Cell biology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ethnology</title>
<id>9928</id>
<revision>
<id>39743233</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T15:33:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Santa Sangre</username>
<id>868338</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{COTW}}
'''Ethnology''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''ethnos'': people) is a genre of [[cultural anthropology|anthropological]] study, involving the systematic comparison of the [[folkloristics|folklore]], [[beliefs]] and practices of different societies. It initially was considered as the study of "[[primitive]]" people, best qualified as [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] groups; however, the sense of "ethnology" has been extended to include the study of any particular group of people maintaining a specific set of cultural or "[[subculture|subcultural]]" [[mores]].
Among its goals are the reconstruction of [[human history]], and the formulation of [[culture|cultural]] [[universal (metaphysics)|invariants]], such as the alleged [[incest taboo]] and culture change, and the formulation of generalizations about "[[human nature]]", a concept which has been criticized since the 19th century by various philosophers ([[Hegel]], [[Marx]], [[structuralism]], etc.).
In some parts of the world (like the USA and Great Britain) it is also referred to as cultural anthropology, although it is not entirely the same. Ethnology has been considered as a [[science|scientific]] discipline since the late 18th century but many of the world's best known minds of all times have been studying various peoples and their traits. Some Greek authors even went so far as to associate non-human characteristics to people whose way of life they did not understand.
The 15th century "discovery of America" had an important role in the new [[Occident|Occidental]] interest toward the [[Other]], often qualified as a "savages", which was either seen as a brutal barbarian or as a "[[noble savage]]". Thus, [[civilization]] was opposed in a [[dualism|dualist]] manner to [[barbary]], a classic opposition constitutive of the even more commonly-shared [[ethnocentrism]]. The progress of ethnology, for example with [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]'s [[structural anthropology]], led to the criticism of conceptions of a linear [[progress (philosophy)|progress]], or the pseudo-opposition between "societies with histories" and "societies without histories", judged too dependent on a limited view of [[history]] as constituted by accumulative [[growth]].
Lévi-Strauss often refered to [[Montaigne]]'s [[Essays (Montaigne)|essay]] on [[anthropophagy]] as an early example of "ethnology". Lévi-Strauss aimed, through a [[structuralist|structural method]], at discovering universal invariants in human society, which he thought was the prohibition of the [[incest taboo|incest]]. However, the claims of such universal cultural invariants have been criticized by various 19th and 20th century thinkers, among whom [[Marx]], [[Nietzsche]], [[Foucault]], [[Althusser]] or [[Deleuze]].
==List of scholars of ethnology==
<!-- please list only very famous or important scholars here -->
* [[Pierre Clastres]]
* [[Amadou Hampâté Bâ]]
* [[Yanagita Kunio]]
* [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
* [[Marcel Mauss]]
* [[Wilhelm Schmidt]]
{{listdev}}
== References ==
<!-- please include only very famous or/and easily accessible works here; put original dates of publication; only a few representative works by author-->
*[[Pierre Clastres|Clastres, Pierre]], ''Society Against the State'' (1974)
*[[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss, Claude]], ''The Elementary Structurs of Kinship'', (1949)
*Lévi-Strauss, Claude, ''Structural Anthropology'' (1958)
== See also ==
*[[Ethnocentrism]]
*[[Indigenous people]]
*[[Racism]]
*[[Structural anthropology]]
==Websites relating to ethnology==
* http://www.ethnologue.com/ describes the languages and ethnic groups found worldwide, grouped by host nation-state.
{{ethno-stub}}
[[Category:Anthropology]]
[[Category:Ethnology]]
[[Category:Folklore]]
[[Category:Social sciences]]
[[ar:إثنولوجيا]]
[[be:&#1069;&#1090;&#1085;&#1072;&#1083;&#1105;&#1075;&#1110;&#1103;]]
[[da:Etnologi]]
[[de:Ethnologie]]
[[es:Etnología]]
[[fr:Ethnographie]]
[[he:&#1488;&#1514;&#1504;&#1493;&#1500;&#1493;&#1490;&#1497;&#1492;]]
[[it:Etnologia]]
[[ja:文化人類学]]
[[ms:Etnologi]]
[[sk:Et |
nden]]''' || 1864–1865
|-
| &nbsp; || '''[[Hugh McCulloch]]''' || 1865
|-
| [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] || '''[[Simon Cameron]]''' || 1861–1862
|-
| &nbsp; || '''[[Edwin M. Stanton]]''' || 1862–1865
|-
| [[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]] || '''[[Edward Bates]]''' || 1861–1864
|-
| &nbsp; || '''[[James Speed]]'''||align="left"|1864–1865
|-
| [[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]] || '''[[Horatio King]]''' || 1861
|-
| &nbsp; || '''[[Montgomery Blair]]''' || 1861–1864
|-
| &nbsp; || '''[[William Dennison (Ohio governor)|William Dennison]]''' || 1864–1865
|-
| [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]] || '''[[Gideon Welles]]''' || 1861–1865
|-
| [[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]] || '''[[Caleb B. Smith]]''' || 1861–1863
|-
| &nbsp; || '''[[John P. Usher]]''' || 1863–1865
|}
<br clear="all">
===Supreme Court===
Lincoln appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:
*[[Noah Haynes Swayne]] - 1862
*[[Samuel Freeman Miller]] - 1862
*[[David Davis (senator)|David Davis]] - 1862
*[[Stephen Johnson Field]] - 1863
*[[Salmon P. Chase]] - [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] - 1864
==Major presidential acts==
===Involvement as President-elect===
*[[Morrill tariff|Morrill Tariff of 1861]]
*[[Corwin amendment|Corwin Amendment]]
===Enacted as President===
*Signed [[Revenue Act of 1861]]
*Signed [[Homestead Act]]
*Signed [[Morrill Act|Morill Land-Grant College Act]]
*Signed [[Internal Revenue Act of 1862]]
*Signed Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864
*Established [[Department of Agriculture]] (1862)
*Signed [[National Banking Act|National Banking Act of 1863]]
*Signed [[Internal Revenue Act of 1864]]
==States admitted to the Union==
*[[West Virginia]] – 1863
*[[Nevada]] – 1864
==Legacy and memorials==
Lincoln's death made the President a [[martyr]] to many. Today he is perhaps America's second most famous and beloved President after [[George Washington]]. Repeated polls of historians have ranked Lincoln as among the [[historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|greatest presidents in U.S. history]]. Among contemporary admirers, Lincoln is usually seen as a figure who personifies [[Image:Lincoln_statue.jpg|thumbnail|200px|[[Daniel Chester French]]'s seated ''Lincoln'' faces the [[National Mall]] to the east.]]
[[Image:MtRushmore Abe close.JPG|thumbnail|100px|Lincoln's bust on Mt. Rushmore.]]classical values of honesty, integrity, as well as respect for individual and minority rights, and human freedom in general. Many American organizations of all purposes and agendas continue to cite his name and image, with interests ranging from the [[gay rights]] group [[Log Cabin Republicans]] to the [[insurance]] corporation [[Lincoln Financial Group|Lincoln Financial]]. The [[Lincoln automobile]] is also named after him.
Over the years Lincoln has been memorialized in many city names, notably the [[Lincoln, Nebraska|capital of Nebraska]]; with the [[Lincoln Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] (''pictured, right''); on the U.S. [[U.S. five dollar bill|$5 bill]] and the [[Penny (U.S. coin)|1 cent coin]] (Illinois is the primary opponent to the removal of the penny from circulation); and as part of the [[Mount Rushmore National Memorial]]. [[Lincoln's Tomb]], [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site]] in [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]], [[New Salem (Menard County), Illinois|New Salem, Illinois]] (a reconstruction of Lincoln's early adult hometown), [[Ford's Theater]] and Petersen House are all preserved as museums. The [[List of U.S. state nicknames|state nickname]] for [[Illinois]] is ''Land of Lincoln''.
[[Counties of the United States|Counties]] in 18 [[U.S. state]]s ([[Lincoln County, Arkansas|Arkansas]], [[Lincoln County, Colorado|Colorado]], [[Lincoln County, Idaho|Idaho]], [[Lincoln County, Kansas|Kansas]], [[Lincoln County, Minnesota|Minnesota]], [[Lincoln County, Mississippi|Mississippi]], [[Lincoln County, Montana|Montana]], [[Lincoln County, Nebraska|Nebraska]], [[Lincoln County, Nevada|Nevada]], [[Lincoln County, New Mexico|New Mexico]], [[Lincoln County, Oklahoma|Oklahoma]], [[Lincoln County, Oregon|Oregon]], [[Lincoln County, South Dakota|South Dakota]], [[Lincoln County, Tennessee|Tennessee]], [[Lincoln County, West Virginia|West Virginia]], [[Lincoln County, Washington|Washington]], [[Lincoln County, Wisconsin|Wisconsin]], and [[Lincoln County, Wyoming|Wyoming]]) are named after Lincoln.
On [[February 12]], [[1892]], Abraham Lincoln's birthday was declared to be a federal [[holiday]] in the United States, although in 1971 it was combined with Washington's birthday in the form of [[President's Day]]. February 12 is still observed as a separate legal holiday in many states, including Illinois.
Lincoln's birthplace and family home are national historic memorials: [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site]] in [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]] and [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site]] in [[Springfield, Illinois]]. The [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]] is also in Springfield. The [[Abraham Lincoln National Cemetery]] is located in [[Elwood, Illinois]].
Statues of Lincoln can be found in other countries. In [[Ciudad Juárez]], [[Chihuahua]], [[Mexico]], is a 13-foot high bronze statue, a gift from the United States, dedicated in 1966 by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. The U.S. received a statue of [[Benito Juárez]] in exchange, which is in Washington, D.C. Juárez and Lincoln exchanged friendly letters, and Mexico remembers Lincoln's opposition to the [[Mexican-American War]]. There is also a statue in [[Tijuana]], Mexico, showing Lincoln standing and destroying the chains of slavery. There are at least three statues of Lincoln in the [[United Kingdom]]—one in [[London]] by [[Augustus St. Gaudens]], one in [[Manchester]] by [[George Grey Barnard]] and another in [[Edinburgh]] by [[George Bissell (industrialist)|George Bissell]].
The [[ballistic missile]] [[submarine]] [[USS Abraham Lincoln (SSBN-602)|''Abraham Lincoln'' (SSBN-602)]] and the [[aircraft carrier]] [[USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72)|''Abraham Lincoln'' (CVN-72)]] were named in his honor. Also, the [[Liberty ship]], [[SS Nancy Hanks|SS ''Nancy Hanks'']] was named to honor his mother.
In a recent public vote entitled "[[The Greatest American]]," Lincoln placed second (placing first was [[Ronald Reagan]]).
==Lincoln in popular culture==
{{see|Lincoln in popular culture}}
==Trivia==
* Lincoln stood 6'3 3/4" (192.4 cm) tall and thus was the tallest president in U.S. history, just edging out [[Lyndon Johnson]] at 6'3 1/2" (191.8 cm).
* He was born on the same day as [[Charles Darwin]].
* The last surviving self-described witness to Lincoln's assassination was [[Samuel J. Seymour]] (~1860–[[April 14]], [[1956]]), who appeared two months before his death at age 96 on the [[CBS]]-TV [[quiz show]] ''[[I've Got a Secret]]''. He said that as a five-year-old he had thought at first that he, himself, had been shot because his nurse, trying to fix a torn place in his blouse, stuck him with a pin at the moment of the gun's discharge.
* According to legend, Lincoln was referred to as "two-faced" by his opponent in the 1858 [[Senate]] election, [[Stephen A. Douglas|Stephen Douglas]]. Upon hearing about this Lincoln jokingly replied, "If I had another face to wear, do you really think I would be wearing this one?"
* According to legend, Lincoln also said, as a young man, on his appearance one day when looking in the mirror: "It's a fact, Abe! You are the ugliest man in the world. If ever I see a man uglier than you, I'm going to shoot him on the spot!" It would no doubt, he thought, be an act of mercy.
* Based on written descriptions of Lincoln, including the observations that he was much taller than most men of his day and had long limbs, an abnormally-shaped chest, and loose or lax joints, it has been conjectured since the 1960s that Lincoln may have suffered from [[Marfan syndrome]].
*Lincoln was known to have a case of [[depression]]. During his time in New Salem, Illinois, his fiancee died, and that triggered his depression. His close friends watched over him to make sure he did not commit suicide. He also suffered from nightmares during his term in the [[White House]]. His depression got so severe, he had to hold a cabinet meeting from his bed.
*He once mentioned one of his haunting nightmares to his friend. Lincoln mentioned that he was standing in a mourning crowd surrounding a train, and when he asked a grieving woman what had happened, she replied, "The President has been shot, and he has died."
*Lincoln is the only American president to hold a [[patent]]. The patent is for a device that lifts [[boat|boats]] over [[shoal|shoals]].
==See also==
*[[Origins of the American Civil War]]
*[[American System (economics)|American System]], Lincoln's economic beliefs.
*[[Lincoln-Kennedy coincidences]]
*[[List of U.S. Presidential religious affiliations]]
* Movies: ''[[D.W. Griffith's 'Abraham Lincoln']]'', ''[[The Dramatic Life of Abraham Lincoln]]''
*[[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]]
==References==
===Biographies===
*''Lincoln'' by [[David Herbert Donald]] (1999) ISBN 068482535X, very well reviewed by scholars; Donald has won two Pulitzer prizes for biography
*''Abraham Lincoln and Civil War America: A Biography'' by William E. Gienapp ISBN 0195150996 (2002), short
*''Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln'' by [[Doris Kearns Goodwin]] ISBN 0684824906 (2005). reviewers report it is very well written
*''Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President'' by Allen C. Guelzo ISBN 0802838723 (1999)
*''Abraham Lincoln: a History'' (1890) by [[John Hay]] & [[John George Nicolay]]; online at [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6812 Volume 1] and [http://w |
dismissing Smith's cronies and instituting a Public Service Commission, and took action to address New York's growing need for power through the development of [[hydroelectricity]] on the [[St. Lawrence River]]. He reformed the state's [[prison]] administration and built a new state prison at [[Attica, New York|Attica]]. He had a long feud with [[Robert Moses]], the state's most powerful public servant, whom he removed as Secretary of State but kept on as Parks Commissioner and head of [[urban planning]]. When the [[Wall Street Crash 1929|Wall Street Crash]] in October ushered in the [[Great Depression]], Roosevelt started a relief system that became the model for the [[New Deal]]. Roosevelt followed President [[Herbert Hoover]]'s advice and asked the state legislature for $20 million in relief funds, which he spent mainly on public works in the hope of stimulating demand and providing employment. Aid to the unemployed, he said, "must be extended by Government, not as a matter of charity, but as a matter of social duty."
Roosevelt knew little about economics, but he took advice from leading academics and social workers, and also from Eleanor, who had developed a network of friends in the welfare and labor fields and who took a close interest in social questions. On Eleanor's recommendation he appointed one of her friends, [[Frances Perkins]], as Labor Secretary, and there was a sweeping reform of the labor laws. He established the first state relief agency under [[Harry Hopkins]], who became a key advisor, and urged the legislature to pass an old age pension bill and an unemployment insurance bill.
The main weakness of the Roosevelt administration was the blatant corruption of the [[Tammany Hall]] machine in [[New York City]], where the Mayor, [[Jimmy Walker]], was the puppet of Tammany boss [[John F. Curry]], and where corruption of all kinds was rife. Roosevelt had made his name as an opponent of Tammany, but he needed the machine's goodwill to be re-elected in 1930 and for a possible future presidential bid. Roosevelt fell back on the line that the Governor could not interfere in the government of New York City. But as the 1930 election approached Roosevelt acted by setting up a judicial investigation into the corrupt sale of offices. This eventually resulted in Walker resigning and fleeing to [[Europe]] to escape prosecution. But [[Tammany Hall]]'s power was not seriously affected. In 1930 Roosevelt was elected to a second term by a margin of more than 700,000 votes.
==Election as President 1932==
Roosevelt's strong base in the largest state made him an obvious candidate for the Democratic nomination, which was hotly contested since it seemed clear that Hoover would be defeated at the [[U.S. presidential election, 1932|1932 presidential election]]. Al Smith also wanted the nomination, and was supported by some city bosses, but he was tagged as a loser--and he had lost control of the New York Democratic party to Roosevelt. Roosevelt built his own national coalition using powerful allies such as newspaper magnate [[William Randolph Hearst]], Irish leader [[Joseph P. Kennedy]], and California leader [[William G. McAdoo]]. When Texas leader [[John Nance Garner]] switched to FDR he was given the vice presidential nomination.
The election campaign was conducted under the shadow of the [[Great Depression]]. At San Francisco's Commonwealth Club on September 23 Roosevelt made the gloomy evaluation that, "Our industrial plant is built; the problem just now is whether under existing conditions it is not overbuilt. Our last frontier has long since been reached." Hoover damned that pessimism as a denial of "the promise of American life . . . the counsel of despair." On October 19 he attacked Hoover's deficits and called for sharp reductions in government spending. Economist Marriner Eccles observed that "given later developments, the campaign speeches often read like a giant misprint, in which Roosevelt and Hoover speak each other's lines." [Kennedy, 102] The prohibition issue solidified the wet vote for Roosevelt, who noted that repeal would bring in new tax revenues. During the campaign Roosevelt said: "I pledge you, I pledge myself, to a [[New Deal|new deal]] for the American people", coining a slogan that was later adopted for his legislative program. Roosevelt did not put forward clear alternatives to the policies of the Hoover Administration, but nevertheless won 57 percent of the vote and carried all but six states. During the long interregnum, Roosevelt refused Hoover's requests for a meeting to come up with a joint program to stop the downward spiral. In February 1933, in [[Miami]] an assassin [[Giuseppe Zangara]] fired five shots at Roosevelt, missing him but killing the Mayor of Chicago, [[Anton Cermak]].
==The first term and a New Deal, 1933-1937==
{{main articles|[[Great Depression]] and [[New Deal]]}}
When Roosevelt was inaugurated in March 1933 the U.S. was at the pinnacle of the worst depression in its history. Some 13 million people, a third of the workforce, were unemployed. Industrial production had fallen by more than half since 1929. In a country with few government social services, millions were living on the edge of starvation, and two million were homeless. The banking system seemed to be on the point of collapse. There were occasional outbreaks of violence, but most observers considered it remarkable that such an obvious breakdown of the capitalist system had not led to a rapid growth of [[socialism]], [[communism]], or [[fascism]] (as happened for example in [[Germany]]). Instead of adopting revolutionary solutions, the American people had turned to the Democrats and to a leader who had grown up in privilege.
===The First New Deal, 1933-1934===
Roosevelt indeed had few systematic economic beliefs. He saw the Depression as mainly a matter of confidence&mdash;people had stopped spending, investing, and employing labor because they were afraid to do so. As he put it in his [[inaugural address]]: "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself." He therefore set out to restore confidence through a series of dramatic gestures.
One of Roosevelt's early attempts to stabilise the economy was to take the United States off the [[gold standard]], which effectively devalued the U.S. dollar by about 40 percent, greatly increasing the competitive position of American exports, while making imports more expensive, thus boosting domestic production. However, this also took wealth away from Americans. To prevent the hoarding of bullion, Roosevelt issued an executive order prohibiting individual ownership of more than one hundred dollars' worth of gold coins (except those "having a recognized special value to collectors of rare and unusual coins"), and requiring coins beyond this value to be exchanged for notes. This measure struck at traditional ideas about "sound money" and was strongly opposed by conservatives. Roosevelt hoped that devaluation would boost farm incomes in particular, but it had only a limited effect on the economy.
During the first hundred days of his administration, Roosevelt used his enormous prestige and the sense of impending disaster to force a series of bills through Congress, establishing and funding various new government agencies. These included the [[Federal Emergency Relief Administration]] (FERA), which granted funds to the states for unemployment relief; the [[Works Progress Administration]] (WPA) and the [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] (CCC) to hire millions of unemployed to work on local projects; and the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] (AAA). The AAA encouraged high prices for commodities by encouraging by paying famers not to produce and by ordering the slaughtering of livestock. Of course, this was at the expense of consumers having to pay higher prices for food or having to settle for less to eat. In 1936, the Supreme Court declared the AAA to be unconstitutional, stating that "a statutory plan to regulate and control agricultural production, [is] a matter beyond the powers delegated to the federal government..."
He called an emergency session of Congress to stabilize the financial system. The [[Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation]] (FDIC) was created to guarantee the funds held in all banks in the [[Federal Reserve|Federal Reserve System]]. In an attempt to prevent bank failures, he ordered a "bank holiday" forbidding banks from allowing depositors to withdraw funds as well as from depositing them. Over 2000 banks never reopened. Roosevelt's series of radio speeches known as [[Fireside Chats]] presented his proposals to the American public.
Following these emergency measures came the [[National Industrial Recovery Act]] (NIRA), which imposed an unprecedented amount of state regulation on industry, including fair practice codes and a guaranteed role for [[trade unions]], in exchange for the repeal of [[anti-trust]] laws and huge amounts of financial assistance as a stimulus to the economy. Later came one of the largest pieces of state industrial enterprise in American history, the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]] (TVA), which built dams and power stations, controlled floods, and improved agriculture in one of the poorest parts of the country. The repeal of [[prohibition]] also provided stimulus to the economy, while eliminating a major source of corruption.
In 1934, retired Marine General [[Smedley Butler]], who was at the time a prominent left-wing speaker, reported that leading capitalists had invited him to lead a march on Washington, seize the government, and become their dictator. This alleged attempt was known as the "[[Business Plot]]."
===Second New Deal 1935-1936===
After the 1934 Congressional elections, which gave the Democrats large majorities in both houses, there was a fresh surge of New Deal legislation, driven by th |
awyers (many Japanese laws that survived World War II are still written in ''bungo'', although there are ongoing efforts to modernize their language). ''Kōgo'' is the predominant method of speaking and writing Japanese today, although ''bungo'' grammar and vocabulary occasionally appears in modern Japanese for poetic effect.
===Dialects===
{{main|Japanese dialects}}
Dozens of dialects are spoken in Japan. The profusion is due to the mountainous island terrain and Japan's long history of both external and internal isolation. Dialects typically differ in terms of pitch accent, inflectional [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[vocabulary]], particle usage, and pronunciation. Some even differ in vowel and consonant inventories, although this is uncommon.
Dialects from less central regions, such as the [[Tōhoku Region|Tōhoku]] or [[Tsushima]] dialect may be unintelligible to speakers from other parts of the country. The dialect used in [[Kagoshima]] in southern [[Kyūshū]] is famous for being unintelligible not only to speakers of standard Japanese but to speakers of nearby dialects elsewhere in Kyūshū as well. Kagoshima dialect is 84% cognate with standard Tokyo dialect. [[Kansai-ben]], a group of dialects from west-central Japan, is spoken by many Japanese; the Osaka dialect in particular is associated with comedy, and many entertainers use Osaka dialect phrases solely for humor value.
The [[Ryukyuan languages]] are spoken in the [[Ryukyu Islands]]. Not only is each language unintelligible to Japanese speakers, but most are unintelligible to those who speak other Ryukyuan languages. Due to the close relationship of Ryukyuan and Japanese, they are still sometimes said to be only dialects of one language, but modern scholars consider them to be separate languages.
Recently, Standard Japanese has |
in's airports, including Heathrow.
===Terrorism===
Over a period of six days in 1994 Heathrow was targeted three times ([[8 March]], [[10 March]] and [[13 March]]) by the IRA, who fired twelve mortars. Heathrow was an important symbolic target, due its importance to the UK economy and the massive disruption caused when areas of the airport were closed over the period. Coverage of the incident was heightened by the fact that the Queen was being flown back to Heathrow by the RAF on [[10 March]].
In February 2003 the [[British Army]] was deployed to Heathrow, along with 1,000 extra police officers, due to intelligence reports that [[al-Qaeda]] terrorists might launch surface-to-air missile attacks on British or American airports.
===Security ===
[[image:road.ba.b777.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An unusual public road at [[London]] [[Heathrow Airport]]. A British Airways [[Boeing 777]]-200 is being towed across the road on its way to the maintenance hangars]]
Routine policing of the airport is performed by the [[SO18|aviation security]] unit of the [[Metropolitan Police]], however [[British Army|the army]], including armoured vehicles of the [[Household Cavalry]], has occasionally been deployed to the airport during periods of heightened security.
On [[26 November]] [[1983]] the [[Brinks Mat robbery]] occurred, when 6,800 [[gold]] bars worth nearly £26 million were taken from the Brink's Mat vault near Heathrow. Only a fraction of the gold was ever recovered and only two men were convicted of the crime.
In March [[2002]], thieves stole US $3 million that had arrived on a [[South African Airways]] flight.
[[Scotland Yard|Scotland Yard's]] [[Flying Squad]] foiled an attempt by seven men to steal [[Pound sterling|£]]40 million in gold bullion and a similar quantity of cash from the Swissport [[warehouse]] at Heathrow on [[17 May]] [[2004]].
===Air disasters with connections to Heathrow===
On [[8 April]] [[1968]], [[BOAC]] Boeing 707 G-ARWE, flying to Australia via Singapore, had an engine fire just after take-off. The engine fell from the wing into the nearby Queen Mother reservoir at [[Datchet]], but the plane managed to perform an emergency landing with the wing on fire. The plane burnt out on the ground &mdash; five people, 4 passengers and a stewardess, died; 122 survived.
On [[18 June]] [[1972]], [[British European Airways]] Flight BE548, flying London Heathrow &mdash; Brussels, crashed some 2 1/2 minutes after take off into a field near [[Staines]]. All 109 passengers and nine crew on the [[Hawker-Siddeley Trident]]-1C were killed in the [[Staines air disaster]] [http://www.super70s.com/Super70s/Tech/Aviation/Disasters/72-06-18(Trident).asp].
On [[23 June]], [[1985]], [[Air India Flight 182]], flying [[Montréal-Mirabel International Airport|Montreal]]-London-[[Indira Gandhi International Airport|Delhi]]-[[Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport|Mumbai]], exploded in midair over the [[Atlantic Ocean]] west of the [[Republic of Ireland]], killing all on board.
On [[21 December]] [[1988]], [[Pan Am Flight 103]], [[Frankfurt International Airport|Frankfurt]] &mdash; London Heathrow &mdash; [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|New York]] &mdash; [[Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport|Detroit]], was destroyed in mid-air over [[Lockerbie]] in southern [[Scotland]] by a bomb, killing all on board and several on the ground.
==Heathrow today==
Heathrow at present has four passenger terminals (numbered 1 to 4) and a cargo terminal. Permission for a fifth passenger terminal (Terminal 5) was granted in November [[2001]], and construction is now well under way.
As originally constructed, Heathrow had six runways, arranged in three pairs at different angles, with the passenger terminal in the centre. With growth in the required length for runways, Heathrow presently has just two parallel runways running east-west. Runway 23, a short runway for use in strong South-Westerly winds, was recently decommissioned and now forms part of taxiway A. The [[Department for Transport]] has issued a 'consultation document' in which one option is the construction of a third parallel east-west runway for frequent use, involving the demolition of local residential areas.
Overnight flights into Heathrow are currently restricted by [[government]] order, with preference for quieter airliners, but could be eliminated entirely if the government loses its appeal against a recent judgement by the [[European Court of Human Rights]].
The airport has been owned and operated by BAA since before its privatisation in [[1987]]. In order to prevent [[monopoly]] profits, the amount BAA is allowed to charge airlines to land aeroplanes at Heathrow is heavily regulated by the [[United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority|Civil Aviation Authority]]. Until [[1 April]] [[2003]], the annual increase of the cost of landing per passenger was capped at [[inflation]] minus 3%. This has meant that landing charges have been falling in absolute terms. The average landing cost per passenger in April 2003 was £6.13, similar to landing charges at [[Gatwick]] and [[London Stansted Airport|Stansted]]. In order to reflect the fact that Heathrow, as an international hub, is more popular with passengers and airlines, the CAA agreed that BAA will be allowed to increase landing charges at Heathrow by inflation plus 6.5% per year for the next five years. When Terminal 5 opens in 2008, landing charges are expected to be £8.23 per passenger. Landing fee restrictions at Gatwick and Stansted will remain tighter.
Whilst the cost of a landing slot is determined by the CAA and BAA, the allocation of landing slots at Heathrow to airlines is carried out by Airport Co-ordination Limited (ACL). ACL is an independent non-profit organisation whose slot allocation programme is governed by British and European law and [[IATA]] Worldwide Scheduling Guidelines. ACL is funded by ten British airlines, [[tourism]] operators and BAA, which pay the ACL a fee for providing scheduling information. The apparent conflict between the need to provide an independent slot allocation service and serving the interests of the funding airlines is waved away by ACL, who state that:
''No member airline receives direct benefit, in terms of preferential treatment in slot allocation decisions made by ACL. All airlines are treated the same, in accordance with UK and European Slot Regulations which ensure that decisions made by ACL are made in a 'neutral, transparent and non-discriminatory' way. Members believe that it is reasonable for them to contribute to the cost of slot allocation in the UK, since the cost of the coordination task in other countries is borne by their Governments or national carriers. Contributing to the cost of ACL avoids the need for Government intervention of control of slot allocation and ensures that all the airlines receive a high quality coordination service. Any airline may apply to join ACL, and the Company is pro-active in seeking to expand its membership base. [http://www.acl-uk.org/general/faqs.htm]''
There have been calls for the slot allocation process to be made a [[free market]] at Heathrow and elsewhere. (See e.g. Centre for Land Policy Studies [http://www.landpolicy.co.uk/pdf/Ei14.pdf]). See also [http://www.tutor2u.net/Case_Study_European_Airlines.pdf] for an account of the economics of the European Airline market.
In addition, air traffic between Heathrow and the [[United States]] is strictly governed by the countries' bilateral [[Bermuda II]] treaty. The treaty originally allowed only [[British Airways]], [[Pan American World Airways|Pan Am]], and [[TWA]] to fly from Heathrow to the US. In [[1991]] PAA and TWA sold their rights to [[United Airlines]] and [[American Airlines]] respectively, and [[Virgin Atlantic Airways]] was added to the list of airlines allowed to operate on these routes. In [[2002]], American Airlines and British Airways announced plans to coordinate the scheduling of their trans-Atlantic routes but plans were dropped after the United States Department of Transportation made approval conditional on the granting of further access slots to Heathrow to other US airlines. AA and BA considered the slots too valuable and dropped the plans. [http://money.cnn.com/2002/01/25/news/amr_ba/] The Bermuda bilateral agreement conflicts with the Right of Establishment of the United Kingdom in terms of its membership in the [[EU]], and as a consequence the UK was ordered to drop the agreement by about 2004.
Construction is also almost complete on the extension of pier 6 at Terminal 3. The pier has been designed specifically to allow the new [[Airbus]] [[A380]] to terminate at that terminal, the first [[A380]]'s are due to start arriving at Heathrow by the end of 2006.
== Access and parking ==
Public transport links are good with connections from three stations on the [[London Underground]] [[Piccadilly Line]] ([[Heathrow Terminals 1,2,3 tube station|Terminals 1-3]], [[Heathrow Terminal 4 tube station|Terminal 4]] and [[Hatton Cross tube station|Hatton Cross]]), and two on the [[Heathrow Express]] line (which is considerably quicker and more expensive; [[As of 2003|as of February 2003]] trains leave every 15 minutes for a 15-minute journey costing £13&ndash;£15) directly to London's [[Paddington station]]. Heathrow Terminal 4 station is expected to be closed until September [[2006]] due to the Terminal 5 construction work.
Heathrow is accessible via the nearby [[M4 motorway]] (terminals 1&ndash;3) and [[M25 motorway]] (terminals 4 and 5). There are drop off and pick up areas at all terminals and short and long stay multi-storey car parks. Additionally, there are car parks not run by BAA lying just outside the airport claiming to offer cheaper parking. Very often, these are connected to the terminals by shuttle buses.
Tunnels connect various parts of the Airport. The [[Heathrow Cargo Tunnel]] connects Terminals 1, 2 and 3 to |
s heat resistance, and in the past was used on electric oven and hotplate wiring for its electrical insulation at elevated temperature, and in buildings for its flame-retardant and insulating properties, its [[tensile strength]], flexibility, and resistance to chemicals. However, the [[inhalation]] of some kinds of asbestos fibers causes various serious illnesses, including [[cancer]], and thus most uses of asbestos are banned in many countries. [[Fiberglass]] has been found to be a suitable substitute for thermal insulation and woven [[ceramic]] fiber performs as well or better as an insulator of high-temperature electrical conductors.
Most respirable asbestos fibers are invisible to the unaided human eye because their size is about 3.0-20.0 [[Micrometre|µm]] in length and can be as thin as 0.01 µm. Human hair ranges in size from 17 to 181 µm.[http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1999/BrianLey.shtml] Fibers ultimately form because when these minerals originally cooled and crystallized, they formed by the [[polymer]]ic molecules lining up parallel with each other and forming oriented [[crystal structure|crystal lattices]]. These crystals thus have three cleavage planes as other minerals and gemstones have. But in their case, there are two cleavage planes that are much weaker than the third direction. Thus when sufficient force is applied they tend to break along their weakest directions, resulting in a linear fragmentation pattern and hence a fibrous form. This fracture process can keep occurring over and over until they have been broken down to their smallest unit dimensions. For this reason, one larger asbestos fiber can ultimately become the source of hundreds of much thinner and smaller fibers in a normal environment over the course of time. As they get smaller and lighter, they become more mobile and more easily entrained (wafted) into the air, where human respiratory exposures typically result.
Confusingly, the [[Modern Greek]] word ''άσβεστος'' means ''[[calcium oxide|quicklime]]''.
==Types of asbestos==
[[Image:Asbestos1USGOV.jpg|thumb|200px|Chrysotile asbestos]]
[[Image:Asbestos fibres.jpg|thumb|200px|Asbestos fibres]]
*[[Chrysotile]], or ''white asbestos'', [[CAS registry number|CAS No.]] 12001-29-5, is obtained from Canadian [[serpentine]] rocks. It is less [[friability|friable]] (and therefore less likely to be inhaled) than the other types and is the type most often used industrially. Chrysotile should not be confused with [[chrysolite]], a synonym of [[olivine]]. There is some evidence that this form of asbestos is not actually harmful when inhaled. However it should be noted that there is also evidence that this type of asbestos is harmful, although not perhaps as harmful as other forms (refer to UK Health & Safety Commission report ''Asbestos: Effects on health of exposure to asbestos'', 1985). One formula given for Chrysotile is Na<sub>2</sub>Fe<sup>2+</sup><sub>3</sub>Fe<sup>3+</sup><sub>2</sub>Si<sub>8</sub>O<sub>22</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>.
*[[Amosite]], CAS No. 12172-73-5, also known as ''Grunerite'' or ''brown asbestos'', is an amphibole from [[Africa]], named as an [[acronym]] from Asbestos Mines of South Africa. One formula given for Amosite is Fe<sub>7</sub>Si<sub>8</sub>O<sub>22</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>.
*[[Crocidolite]], or ''blue asbestos'', CAS No. 12001-28-4, is an amphibole from Africa and [[Australia]]. It is the fibrous form of [[riebeckite]]. Blue asbestos is commonly thought of as the most dangerous type of asbestos (see above and below). One formula given for Crocidolite is Na<sub>2</sub>Fe<sup>2+</sup><sub>3</sub>Fe<sup>3+</sup><sub>2</sub>Si<sub>8</sub>O<sub>22</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>.
Notes: Serpentine rocks are those with curled fibres. [[Amphibole]]s have straight, needle-like fibres.
The amphiboles, in their fibrous form, are [[friability|friable]] and therefore the most carcinogenic, although they also exist in safer non-fibrous forms. Asbestos with particularly fine fibers is also referred to as "amianthus".
Other asbestos minerals, such as [[tremolite]], CAS No. 77536-68-6, Ca<sub>2</sub>Mg<sub>5</sub>Si<sub>8</sub>O<sub>22</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>; [[actinolite]] (or ''smaragdite''), CAS No. 77536-66-4, Ca<sub>2</sub>(Mg, Fe)<sub>5</sub>Si<sub>8</sub>O<sub>22</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>; and [[anthophyllite]], CAS No. 77536-67-5, (Mg, Fe)<sub>7</sub>Si<sub>8</sub>O<sub>22</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>; are less-used industrially but can still be found in a variety of construction materials and insulations and occur in a few consumer products, such as talcum powders and vermiculite. In the United States, the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) has banned all construction-related products that have asbestos content of 1% or greater. It has also banned asbestos in all other friable (easily crushed by finger pressure) products.
==Uses==
===Historic usage===
Items made of asbestos were held in so great an esteem as to be of equal value with gold; none but emperors and kings had napkins made of it. Some antiquaries have believed that ancients made shrouds of asbestos, wherein they burnt the bodies of their kings, in order to entirely preserve their ashes, and prevent their being mixed with those of wood, or other combustible materials commonly used in building funeral piles.{{ref label|1728|1|^}}
Others assert that the ancients used asbestos to make perpetual wicks for sepulchral lamps. In more recent centuries, asbestos was indeed used for this purpose. Although asbestos causes skin to itch upon contact, ancient literature indicates that it was prescribed for diseases of the skin, and particularly for the itch. It is possible that they used the term ''asbestos'' for [[alumen plumosum]], because the two terms have often been confused throughout history.{{ref label|1728|1|^}}
===Modern usage===
====Serpentine group====
Chrysotile is the form of asbestos from the serpentine group that has been used commercially.
In the [[United States]], chrysotile has been the most commonly used type of asbestos. Chrysotile is often present in a wide variety of materials, including but not limited to:
* sheetrock taping
* mud and texture coats
* vinyl floor tiles, sheeting, adhesives and ceiling tiles
* plasters and stuccos
* roofing tars, felts, and shingles
* "transite" panels, siding, countertops, and pipes
* acoustical ceilings
* [[fireproofing]]
* putty
* caulk
* [[gasket]]s
* [[brake]] pads and shoes
* [[clutch]] plates
* stage curtains
* fire blankets
====Amphibole group====
Amosite and crocidolite were used in many products until the early [[1980s]]. The use of all types of asbestos in the amphibole group was banned in the mid-1980s. These products were mainly:
*Low density insulation board and ceiling tiles
*asbestos cement sheets and pipes for construction, casing for water and electrical/telecommunication services
*thermal and chemical insulation (''i.e.'', fire rated doors, limpet spray, lagging and gaskets)
==Asbestos-related diseases==
===Asbestosis and cancer===
[[Image:Asbestos lungs.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Asbestos particles lodged in the lungs.]]
Strong concerns about the health hazards associated with asbestos had been described many times over the years. As early as [[1898]] the Chief Inspector of Factories of the United Kingdom reported to Parliament in his Annual Report about the "evil effects of asbestos dust". He reported the "sharp, glass like nature of the particles" when allowed to remain in the air in any quantity, "have been found to be injurious, as might have been expected" (Report of the Select Committee [[1994]]). In [[1906]] a British Parliamentary Commission confirmed the first cases of asbestos [[death]]s in factories in Britain and recommended better ventilation and other safety measures. In [[1918]] a US insurance company produced a study showing premature deaths in the asbestos industry in the United States and in [[1926]] the Massachusetts Industrial Accidents Board processed the first successful compensation claim by a sick asbestos worker. Many American injuries from asbestos exposure came from shipbuilders working during [[World War II]].[http://www.actuary.org/pdf/casualty/mono_dec01asbestos.pdf]
The fine asbestos fibres are easily inhaled, and can cause a number of respiratory complaints, including a potentially serious lung fibrosis called ''[[asbestosis]]''. Exposure to asbestos has also been determined to cause a very serious form of [[cancer]], [[mesothelioma]], that occurs in the chest and abdominal cavities. This aggressive disease is improperly referred to as a [[lung]] [[cancer]], as the malignant cells are derived from the [[mesothelium]], a tissue found on the inner walls of the chest and abdominal cavities and on the outer surface of the lungs rather than in the lung itself.
When inhaled, asbestos is [[carcinogen]]ic (i.e. promotes [[cancer]]). In the [[United States]] alone, it is estimated that ten thousand people die each year of asbestos-related diseases, such as mesothelioma, asbestosis, [[lung cancer]], and gastrointestinal cancer. Asbestos has a synergistic effect with [[tobacco smoking]] in the causation of lung cancer.
===Other asbestos-related diseases===
*''asbestos warts'' &#8211; caused when the sharp fibres lodge in the [[skin]] and are overgrown causing benign [[callus]]-like growths.
*''pleural plaques'' &#8211; discrete fibrous or partially calcified thickened area which can be seen on [[X-ray]]s of individuals exposed to asbestos. They do n |
Catholic]] succession, the [[Glorious Revolution]] of [[1688]] deposed [[James II of England|James II]] in favour of the joint rule of [[Mary II of England|Mary II]] and [[William III of England|William III]] whose agreement to the [[English Bill of Rights]] introduced a [[constitutional monarchy]], though the supremacy of the Crown still remained clear.
===Parliament of Scotland===
{{main|Parliament of Scotland}}
From the time of [[Kenneth I of Scotland|Kenneth mac Alpin]] the Scottish kingdom of [[Alba]] was ruled by chieftains and petty kings under the suzerainty of a High King, all offices being filled through election by an assembly under a system known as [[tanistry]] which combined a hereditary element with the consent of those ruled. After [[Macbeth I of Scotland|Macbeth]] was overthrown by [[Malcolm III of Scotland|Malcolm III]] in [[1057]] the feudal system of [[primogeniture]] was introduced as Scotland came under the influence of the [[Norman Conquest]].
In the [[Middle Ages]] the King's Council of Bishops and Earls evolved into a parliament, becoming the "[[colloquium]]" of [[1235]] which already had a political and judicial role. From [[1326]] the "[[Estates of the realm|three estates]]" had clerics, lay tenants-in-chief and the [[burgh]] commissioners sitting in a single chamber, with powers over taxation and a strong influence over justice, foreign policy, war, and legislation. The three estates chose a committee called the ''Lords of the Articles'' to draft legislation which was then presented to the full assembly to be confirmed.
Following the [[Reformation]] and pressure from the [[Church of Scotland|Kirk]], Catholic clergy were excluded from [[1567]], and after [[protestant]] bishops were abolished in [[1638]] Parliament became an entirely lay assembly. During the reign of [[James VI of Scotland|James VI]], the Lords of the Articles came more under the influence of the crown, and following his accession to the throne of England in [[1603]] he used them to run Scotland from [[London]]. During the [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]] in the [[Covenanters|Covenanting]] period ([[1638]]&ndash;[[1651]]) the Scottish Parliament took control of the executive, effectively wresting sovereignty from King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]]. After Scotland was invaded by [[Oliver Cromwell]] his [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]] government imposed a brief Anglo-Scottish parliamentary union in [[1657]].
The Scottish Parliament returned after the Restoration of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] to the throne in [[1660]]. After the [[Glorious Revolution]] formally changed England's monarch in February [[1689]] [[William III of England|William]] summoned a Convention of the Estates which considered letters from himself and from [[James II of England|James VII]], set out its terms and duly proclaimed William and [[Mary II of England|Mary II]] at [[Edinburgh]] on [[April 11]] [[1689]].
===Parliament of Ireland===
{{main|Parliament of Ireland}}
The Irish Parliament was founded to represent the English community in the [[Lordship of Ireland]] while the native or [[Gaels|Gaelic]] Irish were ineligible to vote or stand for office, the first known meeting being in [[1264]]. The English presence shrank to an enclave around [[Dublin]] known as the [[Pale]].
In [[1541]] [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] declared the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] and embarked on the [[Tudor re-conquest of Ireland]]. The Gaelic Irish lords were now entitled to attend the Irish Parliament as equals to the majority of English descent. Disputes followed the introduction of [[Protestant Reformation| Protestantism]] as the state religion when most of the population remained [[Roman Catholic]], and in [[1613]]&ndash;[[1615]] constituencies were fixed so that Protestant settlers held the majority in the Irish Parliament. After the [[Irish Rebellion of 1641]], Irish Catholics were barred from voting or attending the Parliament altogether in the [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland|Cromwellian]] [[Act of Settlement 1652]].
Under [[James II of England|James II & VII]] the Catholics regained ground and during the [[Williamite war in Ireland|Jacobite war in Ireland]] he agreed to the Irish Parliament's demands for autonomy and restitution of lands, but after the victory of [[William III of England]] these gains were reversed with the [[Penal Laws]] making things worse. [[Poyning's Law]] made the Irish legislature subordinate to the [[Parliament of Great Britain]], but the [[Constitution of 1782]] removed these restrictions and about a decade later Catholics gained the right to vote, though they were still debarred from membership.
===Parliament of Great Britain===
{{main|Parliament of Great Britain}}
Following the [[Treaty of Union 1707|Treaty of Union]] in [[1707]] twin [[Act of Union 1707|Acts of Union]] were passed in both the [[Parliament of England]] and the [[Parliament of Scotland]] which created a new [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]. The Acts dissolved both parliaments, replacing them with a new ''Parliament of the Kingdom of Great Britain'' based in the former home of the English parliament. While [[Scots law]] and Scottish legislation remained separate, the legislation was now dealt with by the new parliament.
After the [[Hanoverian]] [[George I of Great Britain|George I]] ascended the Throne in [[1714]] power began to shift from the Sovereign, and by the end of his reign the position of the ministers&mdash;who would in turn have to rely on Parliament for support&mdash;was cemented. Towards the end of the [[18th century]] the monarch still had considerable influence over [[Parliament]] which itself was dominated by the English aristocracy and by patronage. At [[general election]]s the vote was restricted to landed gentry, in constituencies which were out of date so that in many [[rotten borough]]s seats could be bought while major cities remained unrepresented. Reformers and [[Radicalism (historical)|Radical]]s sought parliamentary reform, but as the [[Napoleonic Wars]] developed the government became repressive and progress toward reform was stalled.
===Parliament of the United Kingdom===
The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] was created in [[1801]] by the merger of the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] and the [[Kingdom of Ireland]].
The principle of ministerial responsibility to the Lower House did not develop until the [[nineteenth century]]. The House of Lords was superior to the House of Commons both in theory and in practice. Members of the House of Commons were elected in an antiquated [[electoral system]], under which [[constituency|constituencies]] of vastly different sizes existed. Thus, the borough of [[Old Sarum]], with seven voters, could elect two members, as could the borough of [[Dunwich]], which had completely disappeared into the sea due to land erosion. In many cases, members of the Upper House controlled tiny constituencies, known as pocket boroughs or [[rotten borough]]s, and could ensure the election of their relatives or supporters. Many seats in the House of Commons were "owned" by the Lords. After the reforms of the nineteenth century (beginning in [[1832]]), the electoral system in the Lower House was much more regularised. No longer dependent on the Upper House for their seats, members of the House of Commons began to grow more assertive.
===Modern era===
The supremacy of the House of Commons was clearly established during the early [[twentieth century]]. In [[1909]], the Commons passed the so-called "People's Budget," which made numerous changes to the taxation system in a manner detrimental to wealthy landowners. The House of Lords, which mostly consisted of powerful landowning aristocrats, rejected the Budget. On the basis of the Budget's popularity and the Lords' consequent unpopularity, the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] won a [[general election]] in [[1910]]. Using the result as a mandate, the Liberal [[Prime Minister]], [[Herbert Henry Asquith]], introduced the Parliament law, which sought to restrict the powers of the House of Lords. (He did not reintroduce the land tax provision of the People's Budget.) When the Lords refused to pass the bill, Asquith approached the King and requested the creation of several hundred Liberal peers so as to erase the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] majority in the House of Lords. In the face of such a threat, the House of Lords reluctantly passed the bill. The [[Parliament Act|Parliament Act 1911]], as it became known, allowed the Lords to delay a bill for a maximum of three sessions (reduced to two sessions in [[1949]]), after which it could become law over their objections.
The [[Irish Free State]] became independent in [[1922]] and in [[1927]] the UK was renamed as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
Further reforms to the House of Lords have been made during the twentieth century. In [[1958]], the Life Peerages Act authorised the regular creation of [[life peerage]] dignities. By the [[1960s]], the regular creation of hereditary peerage dignities had ceased; thereafter, almost all new peers were life peers only. More recently, the [[House of Lords Act 1999]] has removed the automatic right of hereditary peers to sit in the Upper House (although it made an exception for ninety-two of them on a temporary basis). The House of Lords is now a chamber that is, in practice, subordinate to the House of Commons.
The [[Scottish Parliament]] was established as the national [[unicameral]] [[legislature]] of [[Scotland]] by the [[Scotland Act 1998]], and held its first meeting as a devolved legislature on [[12 May]] [[1999]].
==Composition==
At the head of Parliament is the British Sovereign. The Sovereign's role, however, is merely ceremonial; in practice, he or she always acts on the advice of the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] a |
ave that protective capsule and is defeated by the host's immune system.
In his experiment, [[bacterium|bacteria]] from the S strain were killed by heat, and their remains were added to R strain bacteria. It turned out that the formerly harmless R strain now was able to kill its host. It had been ''transformed'' into the lethal S strain, obviously by a ''transforming principle'' that was somehow part of the dead S strain bacteria.
Today, we know that the DNA of the S strain bacteria had survived the heating process, and was taken up by the R strain bacteria. The S strain DNA contains the genes that form the protective polysaccharide capsule. Equipped with this gene, the former R strain bacteria were now protected from the host's immune system and could kill it.
==More detailed description==
Griffith injected mice with two different strains of each [[bacterium|bacteria]] (IIS, IIIS, IIR and IIIR) and observed that the mice injected with the strains without the [[polysaccharide]] coat (mutant R strain) lived, while the mice injected with the [[polysaccharide]] coat (S strain) died.
IIR strain can mutate into IIS, and IIIR into IIIS and vice versa, but not IIR into IIIS and vice versa.
However, if the mice were injected with heat-killed IIIS strain pneumococcus, they survived. But if they were injected with both heat killed IIIS strain and living IIR strain pneumococcus, they died. Griffith was able to isolate both live IIR and live IIIS strains pneumococcus from the blood of these dead mice.
Since the IIR strain does not mutate into the IIIS strain, this suggested to Griffith that some of the "transforming principle", which we now know to be DNA, was transmitted from the heat killed IIIS strain to the living IIR strain.
''See also:'' [[Genetics]], [[Hershey-Chase experiment]], [[Oswald Theodore Avery]]
[[Category:Genetics experiments]]
[[de:Griffiths Experiment]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gustave de Molinari</title>
<id>12719</id>
<revision>
<id>41121880</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T04:39:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RJII</username>
<id>141644</id>
</contributor>
<comment>quote</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gustavedemolinari.jpg|thumb|right|Gustave de Molinari]]
'''Gustave de Molinari''' ([[March 3]], [[1819]] - [[January 28]], [[1912]]) was a [[Belgium|Belgian]]-born [[economics|economist]] associated with the [[France|French]] "[[économistes]]", a group of [[laissez-faire]] [[Liberalism|liberal]]s.
Throughout his life, together with the other économistes, Molinari defended peace, [[free trade]], [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of association]] (including voluntary [[trade unions]]), and liberty in all its forms, and opposed [[slavery]], [[colonialism]], [[mercantilism]], [[protectionism]], [[imperialism]], [[nationalism]], [[corporatism]], [[economic interventionism]], government control of arts and education, and, in general, all of what he considered to be restraints on liberty. Living in Paris, in the [[1840s]], he took part in the "''Ligue pour la Liberté des Échanges''" (Free Trade League), animated by [[Frederic Bastiat]]. On his death bed in [[1850]], Bastiat described Molinari as the continuator of his works.
In [[1849]], shortly after [[The_Revolutions_of_1848_in_France|the revolutions of the previous year]], Molinari published two works: an essay, ''The Production of Security'', and a book, ''Les Soirées de la Rue Saint-Lazare'', describing how a [[free market]] in justice and protection could advantageously replace the [[state]]. In ''Les Soirées'' he says:
::''"The monopoly of government is no better than any other. One does not govern well and, especially not cheaply, when one has no competition to fear, when the ruled are deprived of the right of freely choosing their rulers. Grant a grocer the exclusive right to supply a neighborhood, prevent the inhabitants of this neighborhood from buying any goods from other grocers in the vicinity, or even from supplying their own groceries, and you will see what detestable rubbish the privileged grocer will end up selling and at what prices! You will see how he will grow rich at the expense of the unfortunate consumers, what royal pomp tle will display for the greater glory of the neighborhood. Well! What is true for the lowliest services is no less true for the loftiest. The monopoly of government is worth no more than that of a grocer's shop. The production of security inevitably becomes costly and bad when it is organized as a monopoly. It is in the monopoly of security that lies the principal cause of wars which have laid waste humanity.''"
In the preface to the 1977 English translation [[Murray Rothbard]] called ''The Production of Security'' the "first presentation anywhere in human history of what is now called [[anarcho-capitalism]]" though admitting that "Molinari did not use the terminology, and probably would have balked at the name." The first known use of the term "capitalism" was not until 1854 by novelist William Thackeray. Morever, capitalism was not defined in terms of an economic system until later in the 20th century. For example, as recently as 1909 the [[Century Dictionary]] defined it as 1) The state of having capital or property; possession of capital. 2) The concentration or massing of capital in the hands of a few; also, the power or influence of large or combined capital." Additionally, the term "anarchist" was primarily being used as an insult.
In the [[1850s]], Molinari fled to Belgium to escape threats from France's Emperor [[Napoleon III]]. He returned to Paris in the [[1860s]] to work on the influential newspaper, ''[[Le Journal des Debats]]'', which he edited from [[1871]] to [[1876]]. Molinari went on to edit the ''Journal des Économistes'', the publication of the French Political Economy Society, from [[1881]] until [[1909]]. In his [[1899]] book, ''The Society of the Future'', he proposed a federated system of collective security, and reiterated his support for private competing defense agencies.
Molinari's grave is at the [[Père Lachaise]] cemetery in Paris, France.
==See also==
* [[Malthusianism]]
==External links ==
* David Hart's [http://www.arts.adelaide.edu.au/personal/DHart/ClassicalLiberalism/Molinari/ToC.html Gustave De Molinari And The Anti-Statist Liberal Tradition]
* [http://www.econlib.org/library/Molinari/mlnSoc.html The Society of Tomorrow] by Molinari, published electronically by [http://www.econlib.org/ The Library of Economics and Liberty] with annotations, biography, etc.
* Some [http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Molinari/Molinari.htm works by Molinari] available in original French from [http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/ Hervé de Quengo's site].
* The [http://praxeology.net/molinari.htm Molinari Institute]
[[Category:1819 births|Molinari, Gustave de]]
[[Category:1912 deaths|Molinari, Gustave de]]
[[Category:Belgian economists|Molinari, Gustave de]]
[[Category:Economists|Molinari, Gustave de]]
[[fr:Gustave de Molinari]]
[[nl:Gustave de Molinari]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Guerrilla warfare</title>
<id>12720</id>
<revision>
<id>42139094</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:01:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.49.117.92</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Etymology */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of war}}
:''Guerrilla War redirects here. See also [[Guerrilla War (arcade game)]].''
'''Guerrilla''' (also called a '''partisan''') is a term borrowed from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''guerrilla'' meaning ''little war'', and used to describe small combat groups and the individual members of such groups (see [[#Etymology|Etymology]]). '''Guerrilla warfare''' operates with small, mobile and flexible combat groups called cells, without a [[front line]]. Guerrilla warfare is one of the oldest forms of [[asymmetric warfare]]. Primary contributors to modern theories of guerrilla war include [[Mao Zedong]], [[Wendell Fertig]], [[Regis Debray]], [[Vo Nguyen Giap]], [[Josip Broz Tito]], and [[Che Guevara]]. Later students of guerrilla warfare included Swiss Major [[Hans von Dach]] who wrote the now widely available Swiss Army field manual "Total Resistance".
==Etymology==
Guerrilla, from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] term ''guerra'', or ''War'', with the ''-illa'' ending diminutive, could be translated as ''small war''. The term was invented in [[Spain]] to describe the tactics used to resist the [[France|French]] [[regime]] instituted by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]. The -illa term accepts the inequal fight between civilians against an organized State Army. Its meaning was soon broadened to refer to any similar resistance of any time or place. The Spanish word for guerrilla fighter is ''guerrillero''. The change of usage of ''guerrilla'' from the tactics employed to the person implementing them is a late [[19th century]] mistake: in most languages the word still denotes the specific style of warfare. However, this is changing under the influence of broad English usage.
==Tactics==
Guerrilla tactics are based on [[intelligence]], [[ambush]], [[deception]], [[sabotage]], and [[espionage]], and their ultimate objective is usually to destabilize an authority through long, low-intensity confrontation. It can be quite successful against an unpopular foreign regime: a guerrilla army may increase the cost of maintaining an occupation or a colonial presence above what the foreign [[power (international)|power]] may wish to bear.
Commando operations are not guerrilla warfare (Richard Taber, “The War of the Flea : Guerrilla Warfare, Theory and Practice”. Paladin, London, 1977) while they lack the political goal. Commando troops, as the British commando, were a branch of the armed forces. Guerrilla wa |
|Diggers]] wanted an even more equal society than the Levellers. They advocated a lifestyle that was an early form of [[communism]], with communal ownership of land, and absolute equality for males and females in law and education. They existed in only very small numbers and faced strong opposition, even from the Levellers.
=== Religious sects ===
The breakdown of religious uniformity and incomplete [[Presbyterian]] Settlement of 1646 enabled independent churches to flourish. The main sects (''see also [[English Dissenters]]'') were: [[Baptists]], who advocated adult re[[baptism]]; [[Ranters]], who claimed that sin did not exist for the "chosen ones"; and [[Fifth Monarchy Men]], who opposed all "earthly" governments, believing they must prepare for God's kingdom on earth by establishing a "government of saints".
Despite greater toleration, extreme sects were opposed by the upper classes as they were seen as a threat to social order and property rights.
[[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]] were also excluded from the toleration applied to the other groups.
=== Conservatives ===
Conservatives were still dominant in both [[central government]] and [[local government]]. In the former, the Rump was anxious not to offend the traditional ruling class whose support it needed for survival, so it opposed radical ideas. In the latter, that ruling class dominated through the influence of traditional regional gentry.
== Political experiments of the Commonwealth ==
=== The Rump Parliament 1649–53 ===
The Rump was the purged remnant of the original [[Long Parliament]]. As such it was a link with the old constitution. With the abolition of the monarchy, [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] and the [[House of Lords]], it had unchecked executive, as well as legislative, power. The '''Council of State''', which replaced the Privy Council, took over many of the executive functions of the monarchy. It was selected by the Rump, and most of its members were MPs. Ultimately however, the Rump depended on the support of the Army with which it had a very uneasy relationship.
==== Structure of the Rump ====
In [[Pride's Purge]], all MPs (including most of the political Presbyterians) who would not accept the need to bring the King to trial had been removed. Thus the Rump never had more than 200 members (less than half the number in the original Long Parliament). They included: supporters of religious independents who did not want an established church and some of whom had sympathies with the Levellers; [[Presbyterians]] who were willing to countenance the trial and execution of the King; and later admissions, such as formerly excluded MPs who were prepared to denounce the [[Newport Treaty]] negotiations with the King.
Most Rumpers were [[gentry]], though there was a higher proportion of lesser gentry and lawyers than in previous parliaments. Less than one-quarter of them were [[regicide]]s. This left the Rump basically a conservative body whose vested interests in the existing land ownership and legal systems made them unlikely to want to reform these.
==== Rump issues and achievements====
For the first two years of the Commonwealth, the Rump faced economic depression and the risk of invasion from [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]]. (By 1653 Cromwell and the Army had largely eliminated these threats).
There were many disagreements amongst factions of the Rump. Some wanted a republic, but others favoured retaining some type of monarchical government. Most of England's traditional ruling classes regarded the Rump as an illegal government made up of regicides and upstarts. However, they were also aware that the Rump might be all that stood in the way of an outright [[martial law|military dictatorship]]. High taxes, mainly to pay the Army, were resented by the gentry. Limited reforms (see below) were enough to antagonise the ruling class but not enough to satisfy the radicals.
Despite its unpopularity, the Rump was a link with the old constitution, and helped to settle England down and make it secure after the biggest upheaval in its history. By 1653, both [[France]] and [[Spain]] had recognised England's new government.
==== Rump reforms ====
Though the national church (now Presbyterian) was retained, the 1559 [[Act of Uniformity]] was repealed in 1650. Many independent churches were therefore tolerated, although everyone still had to pay [[tithe]]s to the established church. This wide toleration came about mainly because of the insistence of the Army.
Some small improvements were made to law and court procedure, for example all court proceedings were now conducted in English rather than in [[Law French]] or [[Latin]]. However, there were no widespread reforms of the [[Common Law]]. This would have upset the gentry, who regarded the Common Law as reinforcing their status and property rights.
The Rump passed many restrictive 'moral' laws to regulate people's behaviour, such as closing down theatres and requiring [[Blue law|strict observance of Sundays]]. This antagonised most of the gentry.
==== The dismissal of the Rump ====
Cromwell forcibly dismissed the Rump in April 1653, for reasons that are unclear. Theories are that he feared the Rump was trying to perpetuate itself as the government, or that the Rump was preparing for an election which could return an anti-Commonwealth majority. Many former members of the Rump continued to regard themselves as England's only legitimate constitutional authority. The Rump had not agreed to its own dissolution when it was dispersed by Cromwell and legislation from the period immidiatly before the Civil War the [Act against dissolving the Long Parliament without its own consent [[11 May]] [[1641]], gave them the legal basies for this view.
=== The 'Barebones' Parliament, July–December 1653 ===
The dissolution of the Rump was followed by a short period in which Cromwell and the Army ruled alone. Nobody had the constitutional authority to call an election, but Cromwell did not want to impose a military dictatorship. Instead, he ruled through a 'nominated assembly' which he believed would be easy for the Army to control, since Army officers did the nominating.
The [[Barebones Parliament]] was opposed by former Rumpers and ridiculed by many gentry as being as assembly of 'inferior' people. However, over 110 of its 140 members were lesser gentry or of higher social status. (An exception was [[Praise-God Barbon]], a Baptist merchant after whom the Assembly got its derogatory nickname.) Many were well educated.
The assembly reflected the range of views of the officers who nominated it. The Radicals (approximately 40) included a hard core of [[Fifth Monarchists]] who wanted to be rid of Common Law and any state control of religion. The Moderates (approximately 60) wanted some improvements within the existing system and might move to either the radical or conservative side depending on the issue. The Conservatives (approximately 40) wanted to keep the status quo (since Common Law protected the interests of the gentry, and tithes and [[advowson]]s were valuable property).
Cromwell saw the Barebones Parliament as a temporary legislative body which he hoped would produce reforms and develop a constitution for the Commonwealth. However, members were divided over key issues, only 25 had previous parliamentary experience, and although many had some legal training, there were no qualified lawyers.
Cromwell seems to have expected this group of 'amateurs' to produce reform without management or direction. When the radicals mustered enough support to defeat a bill which would have preserved the status quo in religion, the conservatives, together with many moderates, surrendered their authority back to Cromwell who sent soldiers to clear the rest of the Assembly. The Barebones Parliament was over.
After this, Cromwell established [[The Protectorate]], making himself a king-like figure. The Commonwealth was finished.
== See also ==
*[[First Anglo-Dutch War]] and [[Admiral Robert Blake]] for the role played by sea power during this period.
== External links ==
*[http://flagspot.net/flags/gb-inter.html British flags of the period]
*[http://www.archontology.org/nations/england/commonwealth/ Commonwealth of England: Heads of State: 1649-1660]
{{start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Charles I of England|Charles I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Commonwealth of England|years=1649&ndash;1653}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Oliver Cromwell]]<br><small>''[[The Protectorate]]''</small>}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Richard Cromwell]]<br><small>''The Protectorate''</small>}}
{{s-ttl|title=Commonwealth of England|years=1659&ndash;1660}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Charles II of England|Charles II]]<br><small>''[[Stuart Restoration]]''</small>}}
{{end}}
[[Category:History of England]]
[[Category:English Civil War]]
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[[zh:英格兰联邦]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Evers</title>
<id>7131</id>
<revision>
<id>40362167</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:40:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles Evers''' (b. [[1922]]) has been an important [[civil rights]] figure. Older brother of the civil rights martyr, [[Medgar Evers]], he introduced Medgar to the [[US civil rights movement]]. When an assassin shot and killed Medgar in [[1963]], Charles Evers took over Medgar's post as head of the [[NAACP]] in [[Mississippi]].
In [[1969]] Charles Evers was Mayor of [[Fayette, Mississippi]] and was the first African-American mayor in Mississippi since [[Reconstruction]].
By then Fayette had a majority of blacks, but African-Americans had not enjoyed full voting rights there. Fayette had no in |
d by Abbe a ''principal ray'' (not to be confused with the ''principal rays'' of the Gaussian theory), passes through the centre of the entrance pupil before the first refraction, and the centre of the exit pupil after the last refraction. From this it follows that correctness of drawing depends solely upon the principal rays; and is independent of the sharpness or curvature of the image field. Referring to fig. 8, we have O'Q'/OQ = a' tan w'/a tan w = 1/N, where N is the ''scale'' or magnification of the image. For N to be constant for all values of w, a' tan w'/a tan w must also be constant. If the ratio a'/a be sufficiently constant, as is often the case, the above relation reduces to the ''condition of [[George Biddell Airy|Airy]],'' i.e. tan w'/ tan w= a constant. This simple relation (see Camb. Phil. Trans., 1830, 3, p. 1) is fulfilled in all systems which are symmetrical with respect to their diaphragm (briefly named ''symmetrical or holosymmetrical objectives''), or which consist of two like, but different-sized, components, placed from the diaphragm in the ratio of their size, and presenting the same curvature to it (hemisymmetrical objectives); in these systems tan w' / tan w = 1.
[[Image:ABERR4rev.png|right|]]
The constancy of a'/a necessary for this relation to hold was pointed out by R. H. Bow (Brit. Journ. Photog., 1861), and Thomas Sutton (Photographic Notes, 1862); it has been treated by O. Lummer and by M. von Rohr (Zeit. f. Instrumentenk., 1897, 17, and 1898, 18, p. 4). It requires the middle of the aperture stop to be reproduced in the centres of the entrance and exit pupils without spherical aberration. M. von Rohr showed that for systems fulfilling neither the Airy nor the Bow-Sutton condition, the ratio a' tan w'/a tan w will be constant for one distance of the object. This combined condition is exactly fulfilled by holosymmetrical objectives reproducing with the scale 1, and by hemisymmetrical, if the scale of reproduction be equal to the ratio of the sizes of the two components.
==Analytic treatment of aberrations==
The preceding review of the several errors of reproduction belongs to the ''[[Ernst Abbe|Abbe]] theory of aberrations,'' in which definite aberrations are discussed separately; it is well suited to practical needs, for in the construction of an optical instrument certain errors are sought to be eliminated, the selection of which is justified by experience. In the mathematical sense, however, this selection is arbitrary; the reproduction of a finite object with a finite aperture entails, in all probability, an infinite number of aberrations. This number is only finite if the object and aperture are assumed to be ''infinitely small of a certain order''; and with each order of infinite smallness, i.e. with each degree of approximation to reality (to finite objects and apertures), a certain number of aberrations is associated. This connection is only supplied by theories which treat aberrations generally and analytically by means of indefinite series.
[[Image:ABERR5rev.png|right|]]
A ray proceeding from an object point O (fig. 9) can be defined by the coordinates (&xi;, &eta;). Of this point O in an object plane I, at right angles to the axis, and two other coordinates (x, y), the point in which the ray intersects the entrance pupil, i.e. the plane II. Similarly the corresponding image ray may be defined by the points (&xi;', &eta;'), and (x', y'), in the planes I' and II'. The origins of these four plane coordinate systems may be collinear with the axis of the optical system; and the corresponding axes may be parallel. Each of the four coordinates &xi;', &eta;', x', y' are functions of &xi;, &eta;, x, y; and if it be assumed that the field of view and the aperture be infinitely small, then &xi;, &eta;, x, y are of the same order of infinitesimals; consequently by expanding &xi;', &eta;', x', y' in ascending powers of &xi;, &eta;, x, y, series are obtained in which it is only necessary to consider the lowest powers. It is readily seen that if the optical system be symmetrical, the orqins of the coordinate systems collinear with the optical axis and the corresponding axes parallel, then by changing the signs of &xi;, &eta;, x, y, the values &xi;', &eta;', x', y' must likewise change their sign, but retain their arithmetical values; this means that the series are restricted to odd powers of the unmarked variables.
The nature of the reproduction consists in the rays proceeding from a point O being united in another point O'; in general, this will not be the case, for &xi;', &eta;' vary if &xi;, &eta; be constant, but x, y variable. It may be assumed that the planes I' and II' are drawn where the images of the planes I and II are formed by rays near the axis by the ordinary Gaussian rules; and by an extension of these rules, not, however, corresponding to reality, the Gauss image point O'<sub>0</sub>, with coordinates &xi;'<sub>0</sub>, &eta;'<sub>0</sub>, of the point O at some distance from the axis could be constructed. Writing D&xi;'=&xi;'-&xi;'<sub>0</sub> and D&eta;'=&eta;'-&eta;'<sub>0</sub>, then D&xi;' and D&eta;' are the aberrations belonging to &xi;, &eta; and x, y, and are functions of these magnitudes which, when expanded in series, contain only odd powers, for the same reasons as given above. On account of the aberrations of all rays which pass through O, a patch of light, depending in size on the lowest powers of &xi;, &eta;, x, y which the aberrations contain, will be formed in the plane I'. These degrees, named by ([[Jozef Maximilián Petzval|J. Petzval]] (''Bericht uber die Ergebnisse einiger dioptrischer Untersuchungen'', Buda Pesth, 1843; ''Akad. Sitzber., Wien,'' 1857, vols. xxiv. xxvi.) ''the numerical orders of the image,'' are consequently only odd powers; the condition for the formation of an image of the mth order is that in the series for D&xi;' and D&eta;' the coefficients of the powers of the 3rd, 5th . . . (m-2)th degrees must vanish. The images of the Gauss theory being of the third order, the next problem is to obtain an image of 5th order, or to make the coefficients of the powers of 3rd degree zero. This necessitates the satisfying of five equations; in other words, there are five alterations of the 3rd order, the vanishing of which produces an image of the 5th order.
The expression for these coefficients in terms of the constants of the optical system, i.e. the radii, thicknesses, refractive indices and distances between the lenses, was solved by [[Philipp Ludwig von Seidel|L. Seidel]] (Astr. Nach., 1856, p. 289); in 1840, [[Jozef Maximilián Petzval|J. Petzval]] constructed his portrait objective,from similar calculations which have never been published (see M. von Rohr, ''Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs'', Berlin, 1899, p. 248). The theory was elaborated by S. Finterswalder (Munchen. Acad. Abhandl., 1891, 17, p. 519), who also published a posthumous paper of Seidel containing a short view of his work (''München. Akad. Sitzber.,'' 1898, 28, p. 395); a simpler form was given by A. Kerber (''Beiträge zur Dioptrik'', Leipzig, 1895-6-7-8-9). A. Konig and M. von Rohr (see M. von Rohr, ''Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten'', pp. 317-323) have represented Kerber's method, and have deduced the Seidel formulae from geometrical considerations based on the [[Ernst Abbe|Abbe]] method, and have interpreted the analytical results geometrically (pp. 212-316).
The aberrations can also be expressed by means of the ''characteristic function'' of the system and its differential coefficients, instead of by the radii, &c., of the lenses; these formulae are not immediately applicable, but give, however, the relation between the number of aberrations and the order. Sir William Rowan Hamilton (British Assoc. Report, 1833, p. 360) thus derived the aberrations of the third order; and in later times the method was pursued by Clerk Maxwell (''Proc. London Math. Soc.,'' 1874--1875; (see also the treatises of R. S. Heath and L. A. Herman), M. Thiesen (''Berlin. Akad. Sitzber.,'' 1890, 35, p. 804), H. Bruns (''Leipzig. Math. Phys. Ber.,'' 1895, 21, p. 410), and particularly successfully by K. Schwartzschild (''Göttingen. Akad. Abhandl.,'' 1905, 4, No. 1), who thus discovered the aberrations of the 5th order (of which there are nine), and possibly the shortest proof of the practical (Seidel) formulae. A. Gullstrand (vide supra, and ''Ann. d. Phys.,'' 1905, 18, p. 941) founded his theory of aberrations on the differential geometry of surfaces.
The aberrations of the third order are: (1) aberration of the axis point; (2) aberration of points whose distance from the axis is very small, less than of the third order -- the deviation from the sine condition and coma here fall together in one class; (3) astigmatism; (4) curvature of the field; (5) distortion.
:'''(1)''' Aberration of the third order of axis points is dealt with in all text-books on optics. It is very important in telescope design. In telescopes aperture is usually taken as the linear diameter of the objective.It is not the same as microscope aperture which is based on the entrance pupil or field of view as seen from the object and is expressed as an angular measurement. Higher order aberrations in telescope design can be mostly neglected.For microscopes it cannot be neglected. For a single lens of very small thickness and given power, the aberration depends upon the ratio of the radii r:r', and is a minimum (but never zero) for a certain value of this ratio; it varies inversely with the refractive index (the power of the lens remaining constant). The total aberration of two or more very thin lenses in contact, being the sum o |
sit by Prime Minister [[John Howard]] to [[George W. Bush]] as "an arse-licking effort". The widespread desire among Australians to avoid pomposity, leading to a rejection of even formal or dignified speech, is sometimes seen as reflecting a suspicion of success in general, a phenomenon sometimes known as the [[tall poppy syndrome]], another term widely used in the English speaking world but perceived by many Australians to be a local coinage.
===Humour===
An important aspect of Australian English usage, inherited in small part from Britain and Ireland, is the use of [[deadpan humour]], in which a person will make extravagant, outrageous and/or ridiculous statements in a neutral tone, and without explicitly indicating they are joking. Tourists seen to be gullible and/or lacking a sense of humour may be subjected to tales of kangaroos hopping across the [[Sydney Harbour Bridge]] and similar tall tales. (See also [[Drop Bear]].)
===Diminutives===
Australian English makes far more frequent use of [[diminutive]]s than other varieties of English. These which can be formed in a number of ways such as adding ''-o'' or ''-ie'' to the ends of abbreviated words. They can be used to indicate familiarity, although in many [[speech community|speech communities]] the diminutive form is more common than the original word or phrase.
Examples with the -o ending include ''abo'' (aborigine, now considered offensive), ''arvo'' (afternoon), ''doco'' (documentary), ''servo'' (service station, known in other countries as a "petrol station" or "gas station"), ''bottle-o'' (bottle-shop or liquor store), ''rego'' (still pronounced with a {{IPA|/&#676;/}}) (annual motor vehicle registration), ''compo'' (compensation), ''leso'' or ''lesbo'' (lesbian, also offensive, pronounced with a {{IPA|/z/}}), ''ambo'' (ambulance officer). [[The Salvation Army]] is often referred to as "The Salvos". The city of [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]] is known by many of its inhabitants as ''Freo''. [[Filipino people|Filipino]] youth in Australia refer to themselves as being a ''Filo'', a word not used by [[Filipino American]]s.
Examples of the -ie ending include ''barbie'' (barbecue), ''bikkie'' (biscuit), ''bikie'' (member of a motorcycle club), ''brekkie'' (breakfast), ''blowie'' (blowfly), ''brickie'' (brick layer), ''mozzie'' (mosquito), and ''pollie'' (politician). The city of [[Brisbane]] is often called ''Brissie'' (pronounced with a {{IPA|/z/}}).
Occasionally, a ''-za'' diminutive is used, usually for personal names where the first of multiple syllables ends in an "r". Karen becomes ''Kazza'' and Jeremy becomes ''Jezza''. Also popular and common is the ''-z'' diminutive form (also found in British English) whereby Karen becomes ''Kaz'' and so on.
Other diminutive forms include:
* last one or two syllables, prefaced with a [[definite article]]: for example, ''The Gabba'' for the [[Brisbane Cricket Ground]] at [[Woolloongabba, Queensland|Woolloongabba]]; ''The Gong'' for [[Wollongong]].
* first syllable plus "-s": ''turps'' [[turpentine]] (usually referring to drinking alcohol, e.g. "a night on the turps") or [[Ian Turpie]]; Gabs, pet form of [[List of English given names|Gabrielle]].
* first syllable plus "-ers": ''Honkers'' ([[Hong Kong]]).
===Rarely Used Phrases===
Because of the caricaturised over-use, or "Hollywoodisation", of some phrases attributed to Australians, some of these have dropped out of common conversation (at least in most urban areas). Words being used less often are ''strewth'' and ''crikey'', and archetypal phrases like ''Flat out like a lizard drinking'' are rarely heard without a sense of irony.
Other terms were never used in the first place. The much-quoted line "''[[Shrimp_on_the_barbie|Throw another shrimp on the barbie]]''" was a phrase that has never been used by Australians, but was a concoction of the Australian Tourist Commission for a US advertisement for tourism to Australia. "[[Shrimp]]" is an international English term — they are called [[prawns]] in Australia.
==See also==
*[[Australian Aboriginal English]]
*[[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]]
*[[IPA chart for English]]
*[[Nickname]]
==References==
*{{cite journal | author=Harrington, J., F. Cox, and Z. Evans | title=An acoustic phonetic study of broad, general, and cultivated Australian English vowels | journal=Australian Journal of Linguistics | year=1997 | volume=17 | pages=155&ndash;84}}
*Mitchell, Alexander G., 1995, ''The Story of Australian English'', Sydney: Dictionary Research Centre.
*Peters, Pam. (1986) "Spelling principles", In: Peters, Pam, ed., Style in Australia: Current Practices in Spelling, Punctuation, Hyphenation, Capitlisation, etc.,
* ''The So Called "American Spelling." Its Consistency Examined.'' pre-1900 pamphlet, Sydney, E. J. Forbes. Quoted by Annie Potts in [http://www.bikwil.zip.com.au/Vintage19/Webster's-Dictionary.html this article]
==External links==
*[http://www.anu.edu.au/ANDC/ Australian National Dictionary Centre]
*[http://abc.net.au/wordmap/ ABC.net Australian Word Map]
*[http://www.ling.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/topics.html Introduction to Australian Phonetics and Phonology]
*[http://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/ Macquarie Dictionary]
*[http://www.world-english.org/ World English Organisation]
*[http://www.nma.gov.au/play/aussie_english_for_the_beginner/ Aussie English for beginners -- the origins, meanings and a quiz to test your knowledge] at the National Museum of Australia.
[[Category:Australian English| ]]
[[Category:English language]]
[[Category:Forms of English]]
[[Category:English dialects]]
[[Category:Sociolinguistics]]
[[de:Australisches Englisch]]
[[he:אנגלית אוסטרלית]]
[[sv:Australisk engelska]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anzac</title>
<id>1898</id>
<revision>
<id>41644173</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:26:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ummit</username>
<id>328950</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">* [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]], the name used to describe the combination of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps during wartime
* [[Anzac biscuit]], a traditional Australian biscuit
* [[Anzac class frigate]], class of frigate currently used by the Royal Australian Navy and Royal New Zealand Navy
* [[ANZAC Day]], a public holiday on the 25th of April every year to commemorate the landing at Gallipoli
* [[ANZAC spirit]], a component of modern Australasian mythology describing the spirit of mateship and cheerful suffering amongst Australians
* [[Anzac (Currency)]], a proposed name for a combined Australian and New Zealand currency
==See also==
* [[HMAS Anzac]] for a list of Royal Australian Navy ships bearing the name ''Anzac''
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>American Airlines Flight 11</title>
<id>1899</id>
<revision>
<id>41529422</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T23:38:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.216.18.180</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Sep11}}
'''American Airlines Flight 11''' was an [[American Airlines]] flight aboard a [[Boeing 767-223ER]] [[aircraft]], registration number N334AA. Flight 11 regularly flew from [[Logan International Airport]] in [[East Boston, Massachusetts|East Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], to [[Los Angeles International Airport]]. On [[September 11]], [[2001]], the aircraft on this route was [[Aircraft hijacking|hijacked]] in a [[September 11, 2001 attacks|terrorist attack]]; the hijackers crashed into the [[One World Trade Center tenants|North Tower]] of the [[World Trade Center]] in [[New York City]].
[[Image:911 commission AA11 path.png|thumb|left|AA 11 flight path from Boston to New York City.]]
The regularly scheduled flight took off from Logan International Airport at 7:59 a.m., and the plane is believed to have been hijacked at 8:14. At around that time, when the plane stopped responding to [[air traffic control]], the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] had thought the plane had been hijacked. By 8:25, there was no doubt.
There were five hijackers believed to have participated in the hijacking. [[Mohamed Atta al Sayed]], the ringleader and pilot, was in seat 8D. [[Satam al-Suqami]], who had paid in cash that day, sat in seat 10B. [[Waleed al-Shehri]] sat in seat 2B, while [[Wail al-Shehri]] sat next to him in seat 2A. [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]], who had earlier flown with Atta to Logan Airport from Portland, Maine, was also on this flight.
Some information about what had happened on board was sent by flight attendants on the plane. According to [[Madeline Amy Sweeney]] and [[Betty Ong]], three people&ndash;two attendants and a passenger&ndash;were stabbed or had their throats slashed by the hijackers. The passenger, [[Daniel M. Lewin|Daniel Lewin]], a notable [[Internet]] [[entrepreneur]], had also previously served as an officer in the elite [[Sayeret Matkal]] unit of the [[Israeli Defense Forces|Israeli military]]. A 2002 [[FAA]] memo referenced Lewin as possibly being killed by [[Satam al-Suqami]] after he attempted to stop the hijacking.
The first-class area had been sequestered by the surviving crew, and the rest of the passengers had been led to believe that a medical emergency was taking place in the first class area. The hijackers also used [[mace (spray)|mace]], [[pepper spray]], or some other [[aerosol spray]]-based [[tear gas|irritant]] to discourage entry into the first class area and the cockpit. One reported that her eyes were burning and that she was having trouble breathing. The hijackers claimed to have a bomb, although there is no evidence they actually had an explosive device.
At 8:46:40 a.m., Flight 11 was del |
[President Clark]]'s corrupt [[Earth Alliance (Babylon 5)|Earthgov]] and the Babylon 5-led resistance.
* The war between the new [[Interstellar Alliance]] and the Centauri Republic.
* The war between the Earth Alliance and the [[Drakh]].
* The [[Telepath War]], most of which takes place shortly after the series, from 2264-65.
* The battle to free Centauri Prime from Drakh occupation, which takes place a decade and a half after the series.
* The [[Great Burn]], a nuclear war between factions of the Earth Alliance that takes place five centuries after the series, circa 2762 AD (designated "World War IV" in the ''Official Babylon 5 Chronology'').
Every conflict has a forgotten "third side," people crushed beneath the feet of the powerful. Usually a single individual willing to sacrifice himself is more powerful than the greatest army...whereas an individual willing to sacrifice everyone else to serve his own objectives can reduce entire worlds to ashes, and yet still be defeated.
After all is done, we find members of the opposing sides working together to forge a new future. (Examples: the Rangers, Delenn and Neroon; Delenn and Sheridan; Londo and G'Kar; Garibaldi and Lochley.)
Ultimately, every violent conflict is born out of self-interest, perpetuated by prejudice and ideology, and resolved by the realization that each side needs the other to survive. Hatred is associated with stupidity, forgiveness is associated with pragmatism, and wisdom follows conflict.
===Love and true seekers===
Unrequited [[love]] may be the source of all pain in Babylon 5. Ivanova loses everyone she loves. Lennier is the ultimate victim of unrequited love, but also of his own immaturity. Sheridan and Delenn know true love; Sheridan comes back from the dead ''for'' love ("[[Whatever Happened to Mr. Garibaldi?]]"). Marcus says, "Sometimes love is funny, sometimes very sad." Garibaldi takes a long time to figure it out. Ivanova says she doesn't speak with her heart any more. Vir knows what true love is from the beginning; his problem is getting to "[[Centauri (Babylon 5)#Sexuality|number six]]". In the first season, Sinclair is cautioned by Garibaldi to find something to live for, rather than something for which to die. Later in the series, Marcus, the chaste warrior, sacrifices his life for the woman he loves. It was only at the last moment that he could tell her this.
But there are a few for whom physical desire has no appeal. They have a greater calling: finding the holy grail, all the names of God, or the fulfilment of a thousand year old prophecy. One of the remarkable aspects of Babylon 5 was that many of its characters had profound spiritual and/or religious beliefs ("[[Parliament of Dreams]]"). Straczynski, an atheist, was determined that the characters and the show would treat all these beliefs with the utmost respect. Often, a religious or moral question was presented with no clear answer. A perfect example was the early episode "[[Soul Hunter]]" in which three different interpretations are presented for the Soul Hunters' actions -- and the show stubbornly refuses to endorse any side as being "right". Another example would be the moral conflict presented in "[[Believers]]". More important for the overall arc of the program was the large plot thread hinging upon Minbari religious beliefs and the spiritual evolution of G'Kar.
When asked about these moral conflicts, Straczynski would maintain that the program should not choose sides but rather "hold up a mirror" so the viewer would be forced to examine his own beliefs. He was more interested in how these beliefs caused people to act rather than the ultimate truth of them.
===Fighting the system===
Straczynski's recurring message is that an individual can make a difference. This message is strongly implied in the episode "[[The Coming of Shadows]]", in a conversation between Emperor Turhan and Captain Sheridan. The Emperor dies before he can say that he is sorry for the crimes his government committed against the Narn. Straczynski considers this episode to be the centerpiece of the series.
===Addiction===
[[Addiction]] plays a recurring role in the saga of ''Babylon 5''. Power as an addiction, work as an addiction, violence as an addiction and hatred as an addiction all play out repeatedly. Several major characters have a history of substance abuse: Garibaldi is a recovering alcoholic who succumbs to intolerable emotional pressures and attempts to find solace in drink; Londo Mollari is a heavy drinker; Dr. Franklin is addicted to synthetic stimulants ("stims"); and Lochley went through a period of hard drug abuse in her younger years. Abuse of "dust", a telepathic drug, also plays a recurring role in the story.
Obsession as a related theme occurs numerous times too. Sheridan is willing to break the rules of due process to learn the fate of his wife after discovering the connection between her and Morden. The Narn and Centauri hate each other to the point of obsession and addiction.
===Self Sacrifice===
Self sacrifice plays an important role throughout the series as well. The ideal of one sacrificing everything for another (even a stranger) with no personal gain is a main contrasting theme of the "good" characters vs. "evil". Selfishness is often the turning point of a character from light to darkness, and selflessness denotes a change in the reverse, even though all main characters portray all levels of this throughout the series.
== Music and scoring ==
The original pilot movie had music composed by [[Stewart Copeland]]. When the show was picked up as a weekly series Copeland was not available, and so Straczynski hired [[Christopher Franke]], of [[Tangerine Dream]] fame. Franke stayed on as the composer for all five seasons of Babylon 5, and three of the Babylon 5 telefilms. When Straczynski obtained funds to create a new writer's edition of the pilot movie, the original Stewart Copeland score was replaced with a new score by Christopher Franke.
==The episodes==
{{main|List of Babylon 5 episodes}}
* ''[[Babylon_5:_The_Gathering|The Gathering]]'', the pilot movie
Each season shared its name with an episode which was central to that season's plot.
* Season One: "Signs and Portents"
* Season Two: "The Coming of Shadows"
* Season Three: "Point of No Return"
* Season Four: "No Surrender, No Retreat"
* Season Five: "The Wheel of Fire"
===Other made-for-TV movies===
* ''[[Babylon_5:_In_the_Beginning|In the Beginning]]''
* ''[[Babylon_5:_Thirdspace|Thirdspace]]''
* ''[[Babylon_5:_The River of Souls|The River of Souls]]''
* ''[[Babylon_5:_A Call to Arms|A Call to Arms]]''
* ''[[Babylon_5:_The_Legend_of_the_Rangers|The Legend of the Rangers]]''
==Spin-offs==
===Crusade===
{{main|Crusade (TV series)}}
The spin-off series ''[[Crusade (TV series)|Crusade]]'' [http://www.midwinter.com/lurk/countries/us/guide/113.html (Lurkers' Guide entry)] ran on [[Turner Network Television|TNT]] for thirteen episodes, having been set up by the TV-movie ''A Call to Arms''. The production team received help from [[NASA]]'s [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] to make sure that the series depicted science and technology accurately [http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/98/crusade2.html (JPL press release)]. But creative differences between Straczynski and TNT caused problems; the network wanted more sex and violence [http://www.aint-it-cool-news.com/display.cgi?id=2060 (AICN)] and forced Straczynski to begin the first episode with a fistfight. The sex-and-violence request was later withdrawn and TNT in fact allocated more money to ''Crusade'', giving the actors better uniforms and new sets mid-season, but due to the creative differences TNT eventually decided to cancel the series after thirteen episodes had been produced, but before any of them were aired. At the time of the cancellation, no major story arcs had yet come into play.
===Legend of the Rangers===
{{main|Babylon 5: The Legend of the Rangers}}
A made-for-TV movie titled ''[[Babylon 5: The Legend of the Rangers|To Live and Die in Starlight]]'' was produced by the [[Sci Fi Channel (United States)|Sci Fi Channel]]. It was the proposed pilot episode of a new series titled ''[[Babylon 5: The Legend of the Rangers]]''. Rescheduled after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the movie aired on [[January 19]], [[2002]]. However, it was scheduled against an [[NFL]] [[American Football Conference|AFC]] Divisional Championship playoff game featuring the [[New England Patriots]] and the [[Oakland Raiders]]. The pilot's poor ratings killed the network's interest in a series. Straczynski posted the following to [[Usenet]] on [[January 27]], [[2002]]:
:''The east coast ratings got hammered by the football game, which was the highest rated such game in something like 5 years. The B5 male demos are pretty much the same as for sports, and we lost heavily to football. So there we did not do well. By contrast, on the west coast, where the show aired *after* the game had finished, we not only met but *exceeded* SFC's expectations, getting a 3.2 or 3.6 in many markets, which is actually pretty unheard of for a basic cable network. The problem is that the average, 1.7, is still what's used for advertising.''
===The Memory of Shadows===
{{main|The Memory of Shadows}}
In 2004 and early 2005, rumors widely circulated about a planned 'Babylon 5' movie for theatrical release. However, on February 25th, a [http://www.jmsnews.com/msg.aspx?id=1-17289 post from Straczynski] announced that the project had fallen through and was for all practical purposes dead. The proposed movie, titled ''[[The Memory of Shadows]]'' (TMOS), was written by Straczynski. Filming was to have begun in April 2005 in the UK with Steven Beck as the director.
Several sources have claimed |
FA Premier League|Premier League Records]]
* [[Premiership-Football League gulf]]
* [[Premier League Curse of Christmas]]
* [[Sports league attendances]]
* [[List of Premier League stadiums]]
* [[English football champions]]
==References==
* {{note|revenue}} {{news reference
| url = http://www.sportsnet.ca/soccer/article.jsp?content=20050810_120953_6300
| title = Curse of a 'Beautiful Game'
| org = [[Associated Press]]
}}
* {{note|performance}} {{cite web
| title = UEFA Country Ranking 2005
| url = http://www.xs4all.nl/~kassiesa/bert/uefa/data/method3/crank2005.html
| accessdate = August 24
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{note|popular}} {{news reference
| author = Campbell, Dennis
| url = http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/0,6903,626773,00.html
| title = United (versus Liverpool) Nations
| org = The Observer
| date = [[January 6]] [[2002]]
}}
==External links==
* [http://www.premierleague.com/ Official Site]
* [http://www.thefa.com/ The FA]
* [http://www.football-england.com/Premier_League_Football_Clubs.html Premier League at Football England]
* [http://www.premiersoccerstats.com Full stats from Day 1 of Premiership]
* [http://footballclubs.dyndns.org/?co=england&league=1 FA Premier League clubs' locations]
{{FA Premier League}}
{{English football league system | promotion = ''none'' | level = 1 | relegation = [[Football League Championship]]}}
[[Category:FA Premier League]]
[[Category:Graphical timelines in sport]]
[[Category:National football (soccer) premier leagues]]
[[Category:English cultural icons|FA Premier League]]
[[Category:1992 establishments]]
{{Link FA|bg}}
[[bg:Английска висша лига]]
[[cs:Premier League]]
[[de:FA Premier League]]
[[es:Premier League]]
[[eo:F.A. Supra Ligo]]
[[fr:Championnat d'Angleterre de football]]
[[ko:프리미어리그]]
[[hr:FA Premier Liga]]
[[id:Liga Utama Inggris]]
[[it:Campionato di calcio inglese]]
[[he:פרמייר ליג]]
[[hu:FA Premier League]]
[[nl:Premier League]]
[[ja:FAプレミアリーグ]]
[[no:FA Premier League]]
[[pl:Premiership]]
[[pt:Premier League]]
[[simple:FA Barclaycard Premiership]]
[[fi:Englannin Valioliiga]]
[[sv:FA Premier League]]
[[th:พรีเมียร์ลีก]]
[[vi:Giải bóng đá ngoại hạng Anh]]
[[tr:Premier League]]
[[zh:英格兰足球超级联赛]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fine Gael</title>
<id>11252</id>
<revision>
<id>41364981</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T21:53:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stepheno</username>
<id>146975</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Public Representatives */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Irish_Political_Party |
party_name = Fine Gael|
party_articletitle = Fine Gael|
party_logo = [[Image:Finegaellogo.png|200px]] |
leader = [[Enda Kenny]] |
foundation = [[September 3]], [[1933]] |
ideology = [[Christian democracy]], [[Liberal conservatism]]|
international = [[Christian Democrat and People's Parties International]] |
european = [[European People's Party]] |
europarl = [[European People's Party - European Democrats|EPP-ED]] |
colours = [[Blue]]|
headquarters = 51 Upper Mount Street,<br> [[Dublin]] 2 |
website = [http://www.finegael.ie http://www.finegael.ie]
}}
'''Fine Gael''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|IPA]] {{IPA|[&#x2cc;f<sup>j</sup>&#x26a;n<sup>j</sup>&#x259; &#x2c8;ge&#x2d0;&#x26b;]}}, though often mispronounced {{IPA|[&#x2cc;f&#x26a;n&#x259; &#x2c8;ge&#x26a;l]}} (approximate English translation: ''Family of the Irish'') is the second largest political party in [[Ireland]]. It currently forms the [[parliamentary opposition|official opposition]] in the [[Oireachtas]] (Irish Parliament), and claims a membership of over 34,000.
Fine Gael was founded on [[3 September]] [[1933]] following the merger of [[Cumann na nGaedhael]], the [[Centre Party (Ireland)|Centre Party]] and the [[Army Comrades Association]], though it traces its origins back to the struggle for Irish independence and the pro-Treaty side in the [[Irish Civil War]], identified in particular with [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]]. Fine Gael today describes itself as a party of the progressive centre though, in many ways, the party complies with the model of the mainland European [[Christian democratic]] parties. They are strongly pro-EU integration and opposed to radical [[Irish republicanism]], advocating a more pluralist, tolerant brand of [[Irish nationalism]]. Fine Gael is the only member-party of the [[European People's Party]] (EPP) in Ireland, or indeed, from anywhere outside Continental Europe. In the [[European Parliament]], the EPP, with the [[European Democrats]] party{{fn|1}}, forms the [[European People's Party - European Democrats]] group in which Fine Gael's MEPs sit.
==Leaders==
*General [[Eoin O'Duffy]] (1933-34) [O'Duffy never had a seat in the Oireachtas during his leadership]
**''[[William T. Cosgrave]], TD'' (former [[President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State|President of the Executive Council]] (prime minister) from 1922-1932) served as parliamentary leader between 1933 and 1934.
*William T. Cosgrave, TD (1934-44)
* General [[Richard Mulcahy]], TD (1944-59)
**''[[John A. Costello]], TD '' served as parliamentary leader between 1948 and 1959, and [[Taoiseach]] from 1948 to 1951, and 1954 to 1957.
* [[James Dillon]], TD (1959-65)
* [[Liam Cosgrave]], TD (1965-77), Taoiseach from 1973 to 1977
* [[Garret FitzGerald]], TD (1977-87), Taoiseach from 1981 to 1982, and 1982 to 1987.
* [[Alan Dukes]], TD (1987-90)
* [[John Bruton]], TD (1990-2001), Taoiseach from 1994 to 1997.
* [[Michael Noonan]], TD (2001-2002)
* [[Enda Kenny]], TD (2002 - present)
''The leader also serves as the President of the party''
==Core policies==
Fine Gael, since the days of Cumann na nGheadheal, has been known as the party of law and order as a result of its tough stance on crime and the causes of crime and its origins in defending the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]]. In Government the party has often utilised the forces of the State to combat lawlessness and [[Subversion (political)|subversion]]. Owing to its origins in the pro-treaty faction of Sinn Féin, Fine Gael is directly opposed to those who show disloyalty to the Irish State founded in 1922 and sees itself as the protector of the State's institutions. Fine Gael has, since its inception, been a party of fiscal rectitude, advocating pro-enterprise policies while integrity in public life is a core value of the party. Fine Gael is, perhaps, the most pro-European integrationist party in the Republic of Ireland. Today the party is closely associated with a campaign highlighting a rip-off culture in Ireland.
However the party has refused to move to either [[Social Democracy]] or the Centre-Right and, while currently trying to position itself as an alternative government along with the Labour party, it has not proposed a substantial ideological shift from the status quo.
However the party has made proposals in specific, although few, areas such as [[Irish neutrality|Neutrality]], Childcare and [[Same-sex marriage|Same-sex Union]]s.
==History==
In the face of intimidation of Cumann na nGaedheal meetings by the [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)|anti-treaty IRA]] and the rise in support for [[Éamon de Valera]]'s [[Fianna Fáil]] from 1926, a new strategy was required to strengthen the voice of the pro-Treaty tradition who now found themselves in opposition. As a result '''Fine Gael-The United Ireland Party''' was founded as an independent party in 1933, following the merger of the Cumann na nGaedheal, the Centre Party and the Army Comrades Association. In reality, it was really a larger version of Cumann na nGaedhael, the party created in 1923 by the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty|Pro-Treaty]] leaders of the Irish Free State under [[William T. Cosgrave]]. The new party sought to end the [[Anglo-Irish Trade War|Economic War]], improve relations with Britain while advocating a United Ireland within the framework of the Commonwealth. After a short hiatus under the disastrous leadership of General [[Eoin O'Duffy]], Cosgrave returned to lead the new party, continuing in the leadership until 1944. Although the people who formed the party had been in government for ten years in the [[Irish Free State]] (1922-32), once Fianna Fáil under [[Eamon de Valera]] came to power in 1932, Fine Gael spent the next sixteen years in the doldrums, overshadowed by the larger party. Indeed at times, it went into what was thought to be terminal decline on the opposition benches.
===The Inter Party Governments===
However to its ''own'' surprise, Fine Gael found itself in government in 1948, when all the anti-Fianna Fáil parties between them won enough seats in that year's general election to oust Fianna Fáil and take power. However, some of the other parties in the new [[first Inter-Party Government]] considered Fine Gael's new leader, General [[Richard Mulcahy]], to be too controversial a potential taoiseach. Notably, [[Clann na Poblachta]] (under former anti-Treaty IRA chief of staff, [[Sean MacBride]]), were opposed to him because of his role as Chief of Staff of the [[Irish Army]] in the execution of republicans during the [[Irish Civil War]]. He stepped aside and former Fine Gael Attorney-General [[John A. Costello]] was chosen to head the government, which lasted from 1948 to 1951. Costello was an effective chairman of a coalition comprising many different shades of opinion. That Government is remembered for establishing the Industrial Development Authority and declaring the Irish Free State to be the [[Republic of Ireland]] in 1949. Also a record number of houses were built while the health minister [[Noel Browne]] successfully tackled the tuberculosis disease. Costello also headed the Second Inter-Party Government, which had a much stronger F |
]
* [[Neolithic Europe]]
* [[Megalith]]
== External links ==
* {{nl icon}} [http://members.home.nl/jbmeijer/hunepic.htm Pictures of ''Hunebedden'' in the Netherlands]
* [http://www.burrenforts.ie/mainj/dolmen.htm Poulnabrone Dolmen in the Burren, County Clare, Ireland]
* [http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/977.pdf Dolmen (''Goindol'') sites in Korea] on the [[World Heritage List]] ([[PDF]] document by [[UNESCO]] advisory body)
* [http://members.chello.nl/r.j.triest/dolmens.html Dolmen Pictures] by Robert Triest
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<page>
<title>Diaspora Studies</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diaspora studies]]
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<page>
<title>Declination</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">In [[astronomy]], '''declination (dec)''' is one of the two coordinates of the [[equatorial coordinate system]], the other being either [[right ascension]] or [[hour angle]]. Dec is comparable to [[latitude]], projected unto the [[celestial sphere]], and is measured in degrees north and south of the celestial [[equator]]. Therefore, points north of the celestial equator have positive declination, while those to the south have negative declination.
*An object on the [[celestial equator]] has a dec of 0°.
*An object above the [[north pole]] has a dec of +90°.
*An object above the [[south pole]] has a dec of &minus;90°.
Note that the sign must be included even if positive.
A celestial object that passes over [[zenith]], has a declination equal to the observer's latitude, with northern latitudes yielding positive declinations. A [[pole star]] therefore has the declination +90° or -90°. Conversely, celestial objects with a declination higher than <math>90^o - l</math>, where ''l'' is the latitude, are visible the whole [[sidereal day]]. Such stars are called [[circumpolar]], while the phenomenon of a sun not setting is called [[midnight sun]].
==Varying declination==
The declination of all [[celestial object]]s vary over time, in different periods.
===Sun===
The declination of the [[sun]] ('''Sun Dec''') is the angle between the rays of the sun and the plane of the earth equator. Since the angle between the earth axis and the plane of the earth orbit is nearly constant, Sun Dec varies with the [[seasons]] and its period is one [[year]], that is the time needed by the earth to complete its revolution around the sun.
When the projection of the earth axis on the plane of the earth orbit is on the same line linking the earth and the sun, the angle between the rays of the sun and the plane of the earth equator is maximum and its value is 23°27'. This happens at the [[solstice|solstices]]. Therefore Sun Dec is +23°27' at the northern hemisphere [[summer solstice]] and -23°27' at the northern hemisphere [[winter solstice]].
When the projection of the earth axis on the plane of the earth orbit is perpendicular to line linking the earth and the sun, the angle between the rays of the sun and the plane of the earth equator is null. This happens at the [[equinox|equinoxes]]. Therefore Sun Dec is 0° at the [[equinox|equinoxes]].
Since the eccentricity of the earth orbit is quite low, it can be approximated to a circle, and Sun Dec is approximately given by the following expression:
<math>\delta = -23.45^\circ \cdot \cos \left ( \frac{360}{365} \cdot \left ( N + 10 \right ) \right )</math> if ''cos'' operates on [[degree (angle)|degree]]s
<math>\delta = -23.45^\circ \cdot \cos \left ( \frac{2\pi}{365} \cdot \left ( N + 10 \right ) \right )</math> if ''cos'' operates on [[radian]]s
where <math>N</math> is Day of the Year, that is the number of days spent since [[January 1]].
The errors caused by this approximation are then contemplated by the [[Equation of Time]].
[[Image:Sun-declination.png|frame|none|A diagram demonstrating how the [[Sun]]'s path over the celestial sphere changes with the varying [[declination]] during the year, marking the [[Azimuth]]s in °N where the sun rises and sets at [[summer solstice|summer]] and [[winter solstice]] at a place of 56°N latitude.]]
===Moon===
The [[Moon]] also has an annual cycle, with maximum declination at northern hemisphere midwinter and minimum at midsummer. There is also an approximately 19 year long cycle, varying the maximum declination from +28°35' to +18°18' and the minimum from -18°18' to -28°35'.
===Stars===
The [[star]]s have approximately the same declination from year to year, but they do have [[proper motion]] that can be measured in whole degrees after the passing of centuries.
==See also==
*[[right ascension]]
----
'''Declination''' is used in some contexts that rule out astronomical declination, to mean the same as ''[[magnetic declination]]''.
Declination is occasionally and erroneously used to refer to the linguistic term [[declension]].
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}The term '''''diaspora''''' ([[Ancient Greek]] &delta;&iota;&alpha;&sigma;&pi;&omicron;&rho;&#940;, "a scattering or sowing of seeds") is used (without capitalization) to refer to any people or [[ethnicity|ethnic]] population forced or induced to leave their traditional ethnic [[homeland]]s; being dispersed throughout other parts of the world, and the ensuing developments in their dispersal and culture.
Originally, the term '''''Diaspora''''' (capitalized) was used by the Greeks to refer to citizens of an imperial city who migrated to a conquered land with the purpose of colonization to assimilate the territory into the empire. The original meaning was cut off from the present meaning when the Old Testament was translated to Greek, the word diaspora was used to refer specifically to the populations of [[Jew]]s exiled from [[Judea]] in [[586 BC]] by the [[Babylonian]]s, and Jerusalem in [[135|135 AD]] by the [[Roman Empire]]. This term is used interchangeably to refer to the historical movements of the dispersed ethnic population of [[Israel]], the cultural development of that population, or the population itself. The probable origin of the word is the [[Septuagint]] version of [[Deuteronomy]] 28:25, "thou shalt be a diaspora (Greek for dispersion) in all kingdoms of the earth". The term has been used in its modern sense since the late [[20th century|twentieth century]].
The academic field of [[diaspora studies]] was established in the late twentieth century, in regard to the expanded meaning of 'diaspora'. Jacob Riis, a profound writer,concluded that diaspora was established in the mid twentieth century but it was a confirmed fact that the expanded meaning of diaspora was thouroughly researched in the late twentieth century.
History is replete with diaspora-like events. The [[Migration Period]] relocations, which included several phases is just one of many. The first phase Migration Period displacement from between AD [[300]] and [[500]] included relocation of the [[Goths]] ([[Ostrogoths]], [[Visigoths]]), [[Vandals]], [[Franks]], various [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] tribes, [[Burgundians]], [[Alans]], [[Langobards]], [[Angles]], [[Saxons]], [[Jutes]], [[Suebi]], [[Alamanni]]) and numerous [[Slavic peoples|Slavic tribes]]. The second phase, between AD [[500]] and [[900]], saw [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]], [[Turkic people|Turkish]] and other tribes on the move, re-settling in Eastern Europe and gradually making it predominantly Slavic, and affecting [[Anatolia]] and the [[Caucasus]] as the first [[Turkic peoples]] ([[Eurasian Avars|Avars]], [[Huns]], [[Arabs]], [[Varangian]]s} arrived. The last phase of the migrations saw the coming of the [[Magyars]] and the [[Vikings|Viking]] expansion out of Scandinavia.
The twentieth century continued to see massive ethnic refugee crises, due to war and the rise of [[nationalism]], [[fascism]], [[communism]] and [[racism]], as well as from natural disasters and [[economics|economic]] collapse. The first half of the twentieth century saw the creation of hundreds of millions of ethnic refugees across Europe, Asia, and northern Africa. Many of these r |
inal]] set of values. Some arrays are ''multi-dimensional'', meaning they are indexed by a fixed number of integers, for example by a [[tuple]] of four integers. Generally, one- and two-dimensional arrays are the most common.
Most [[programming language]]s have arrays as a built-in data type. Some programming languages (such as [[APL programming language|APL]], some versions of [[Fortran]], and [[J programming language|J]]) generalize the available operations and functions to work transparently over arrays as well as scalars, providing a higher-level manipulation than most other languages, which require loops over all the individual members of the arrays.
==Advantages and disadvantages==
Arrays permit efficient (constant-time, [[Big O notation|O]](1)) [[random access]] but not efficient insertion and deletion of elements (which are O(''n''), where ''n'' is the size of the array). [[Linked list]]s have the opposite trade-off. Consequently, arrays are most appropriate for storing a fixed amount of data which will be accessed in an unpredictable fashion, and linked lists are best for a list of data which will be accessed sequentially and updated often with insertions or deletions.
Another advantage of arrays that has become very important on modern architectures is that iterating through an array has good [[locality of reference]], and so is much faster than iterating through (say) a linked list of the same size, which tends to jump around in memory. However, an array can also be accessed in a random way, as is done with large [[hash table]]s, and in this case this is not a benefit.
Arrays also are among the most compact data structures; storing 100 integers in an array takes only 100 times the space required to store an integer, plus perhaps a few bytes of overhead for the whole array. Any [[pointer]]-based data structure, on the other hand, must keep its pointers somewhere, and these occupy additional space. This extra space becomes more significant as the data elements become smaller. For example, an array of [[ASCII]] [[character (computing)|character]]s takes up one byte per character, while on a 32-bit platform, which has 4-byte pointers, a linked list requires at least five bytes per character. Conversely, for very large elements, the space difference becomes a negligible fraction of the total space.
Because arrays have a fixed size, there are some indexes which refer to invalid elements &mdash; for example, the index 17 in an array of size 5. What happens when a program attempts to refer to these varies from language to language and platform to platform. For more information, see [[bounds checking]].
==Uses==
Although useful in their own right, arrays also form the basis for several more complex data structures, such as [[heap (data structure)|heap]]s, [[hash table]]s, and [[VList]]s, and can be used to represent [[String (computer science)|string]]s, [[Stack (computing)|stack]]s and [[queue]]s. They also play a more minor role in many other data structures. All of these applications benefit from the compactness and locality of arrays.
One of the disadvantages of an array is that it has a single fixed size, and although its size can be altered in many environments, this is an expensive operation. [[Dynamic array]]s or ''growable arrays'' are arrays which automatically perform this resizing as late as possible, when the programmer attempts to add an element to the end of the array and there is no more space. To average the high cost of resizing over a long period of time (we say it is an [[amortized analysis|amortized cost]]), they expand by a large amount, and when the programmer attempts to expand the array again, it just uses more of this reserved space.
In the [[C programming language]], one-dimensional [[character (computing)|character]] arrays are used to store null-terminated strings, so called because the end of the string is indicated with a special reserved character called a [[null character]] ('\0') (see also [[C string]]).
Finally, in some applications where the data are the same or are missing for most values of the indexes, or for large ranges of indexes, space is saved by not storing an array at all, but having an [[associative array]] with integer keys. There are many specialized data structures specifically for this purpose, such as [[Patricia trie]]s and [[Judy array]]s. Example applications include [[virtual memory|address translation table]]s and [[routing table]]s.
==Indices into arrays==
Although abstractions for arrays in most programming languages are very similar, one strong point of contention has arisen: the index used to refer to the first element. There are three main solutions: ''zero-based'', ''one-based'', and ''n-based'' arrays, for which the first element has index zero, one, or a programmer-specified value, respectively.
This is mainly a stylistic concern. The zero-based array was made popular by the [[C programming language]], in which the abstraction of ''array'' is very weak, and an index ''n'' of an array is simply the address of the first element offset by ''n'' units. Accordingly, index 0 points to the first element of the array. Descendants of C inherit this behavior. One-based arrays, are based on traditional mathematics notation and simple counting, which begins with one. The last group - ''n-based'' - has been made available so the programmer is free to chose the lower bound which is best suited for the problem at hand.
There is a [[Array#Array_system_cross_reference_list|list of programming languages]] at the end of the article.
The conflict over the "right" way to do array indexing has impacted programmer culture. When supporters of one-based arrays decried zero-based arrays as unnatural, saying for example that we start numbered lists from 1, supporters of zero-based arrays retaliated by starting their own lists from zero in their daily lives. This practice can still be observed, and is often done for humor.
Another reason to prefer zero-based arrays is the so-called "century confusion phenomenon". In the year 2000, most people in the world believed they were celebrating either the beginning of the 21st century, or the end of the 20th century. In fact, they were celebrating neither, because only 1,999 years had passed on the anno domini scale. The 21st century did not begin until 2001, due to the fact that the AD system is one-based. This is perhaps the greatest example of an inferior indexing scheme causing mass confusion of some 6 billion people.
Supporters of ''zero-based'' indexing often criticise ''one-based'' and ''n-based'' arrays for being slower. While this is true, a ''one-based'' or ''n-based'' array access can be easily optimized &mdash; with [[common subexpression elimination]] or the use of a well-defined [[dope vector]], to name only two options available. So in real-life applications ''one-based'' and ''n-based'' arrays are just as fast as ''zero-based'' arrays.
==Multi-dimensional arrays==
Ordinary arrays are indexed by a single integer. Also useful, particularly in numerical and graphics applications, is the concept of a ''multi-dimensional array'', in which we index into the array using an ordered list of integers, such as in ''a''[3,1,5]. The number of integers in the list used to index into it is always the same and is referred to as the array's ''dimensionality'', and the bounds on each of these are called the array's ''dimensions''. An array with dimensionality ''k'' is often called ''k''-dimensional. One-dimensional arrays correspond to the simple arrays discussed thus far; two-dimensional arrays are a particularly common representation for [[matrix (math)|matrices]]. In practice, the dimensionality of an array rarely exceeds three.
Mapping a one-dimensional array into memory is obvious, since memory is logically itself a (very large) one-dimensional array. When we reach higher-dimensional arrays, however, the problem is no longer obvious. Suppose we want to represent this simple two-dimensional array:
:<math>
\begin{bmatrix}
1 & 2 & 3 \\
4 & 5 & 6 \\
7 & 8 & 9
\end{bmatrix}
</math>
A few common representations include:
* Row-major order. Used most notably by statically-declared arrays in [[C programming language|C]]. The elements of each row are stored in order.
{| border=1
|-
| 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8
| 9
|}
* Column-major order. Used most notably in [[Fortran]]. The elements of each column are stored in order.
{| border=1
|-
| 1 || 4 || 7 || 2 || 5 || 8 || 3 || 6
| 9
|}
* Arrays of arrays. Multi-dimensional arrays are represented by one-dimensional arrays of [[reference (computer science)|reference]]s ([[Iliffe vector]]s) to other one-dimensional arrays. The subarrays can be either the rows or columns.
[[Image: Array_of_array_storage.svg | 120px | A two-dimensional array stored as a one-dimensional array of one-dimensional arrays.]]
The first two forms are more compact and have potentially better locality of reference, but are also more limiting; the arrays must be ''rectangular'', meaning that no row can contain more elements than any other. Arrays of arrays, on the other hand, allow the creation of ''ragged arrays'', also called ''jagged arrays'', in which the valid range of one index depends on the value of another, or in this case, simply that different rows can be different sizes. Arrays of arrays are also of value in programming languages that only supply one-dimensional arrays as primitives.
In many applications, such as numerical applications working with [[matrix (math)|matrices]], we iterate over rectangular two-dimensional arrays in predictable ways. For example, computing an element of the matrix product '''AB''' involves iterating over a row of '''A''' and a column of '''B''' simultaneously. In mapping the individual array indexes into memory, we wish to exploit locality of reference as much as we can. A compiler c |
they look promising. One is referred to as the [[color rendering capacity]] (CRC).
==References==
# {{cite book | last = Berns | first = Roy S. | year = 2000 | title = Billmeyer and Saltzman's Principles of Color Technology | edition = 3rd edition | publisher = Wiley | location = New York | id = ISBN 0-471-19459-X}}
# {{cite book | author = Stroebel, Leslie; John Compton; Ira Current; Richard Zakia | title = Basic Photographic Materials and Processes | edition = 2nd edition | publisher = Focal Press | location = Boston | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-240-80405-8}}
# {{cite book | author = Wyszecki, Günther; W. S. Stiles | year = 1982 | title = Colour Science Concept and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae | publisher= Wiley | location = New York | id = ISBN 0-471-02106-7}}
==External links==
* Charles Poynton's [http://www.poynton.com/ColorFAQ.html Color FAQ] for the basics.
* [http://www.colourware.co.uk/cpfaq.htm Frequently asked questions about Color Physics] - also includes history of the CIE color specification
* [http://www.vendian.org/mncharity/dir3/blackbody/ What color is a blackbody?] - Colorimetrically-calculated blackbody RGB color values and comment
* [http://www.techmind.org/colour/coltemp.html Color-temperature: visualising blackbody radiation] - Blackbody curves for typical lightsources, and colorimetrically-calculated blackbody color strip
* [http://www.nolico.com/saveenergy/color_temperature_and_cri.htm Color Temperature & (CRI)] - Discussion of: Color Temperature (Kelvins) and Color Rendition Index (CRI)
===Film- and video-related===
* [http://www.nikondigital.org/articles/white_balance.htm White Balance] - Intro at nikondigital.org
* [http://www.photoxels.com/tutorial_white-balance.html Understanding White Balance] - Tutorial
* [http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/white-balance.htm White Balance] - Understanding its use in digital photography
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<text xml:space="preserve">A '''cartoon''' is any of several forms of art, with varied meanings that evolved from one to another.
==Historical==
[[Image:Leonardo - St. Anne cartoon.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''[[The Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist]]'', a cartoon by Leonardo da Vinci]]
In its original historical meaning, a cartoon (from the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''cartone'', meaning "big paper") is a full-size [[drawing]] made on [[paper]] as a study for a further artwork, such as a [[painting]] or [[tapestry]]. Cartoons were typically used in the production of [[fresco]]es, to accurately link the component parts of the composition when painted onto [[plaster]] over a series of days. Such cartoons often have pinpricks where the outline of the design has been picked out in the plaster. Cartoons by [[painter|painters]] such as [[Raphael]] and [[Leonardo da Vinci]] are highly prized in their own right.
==Print media==
[[Image:SubstanceandShadow.jpg|left|250px|thumb|The cartoon by [[John Leech]] that satirizes the preparatory cartoons for frescoes in the new Palace of Westminster (1843)]]
In modern print media, a cartoon is an illustration, usually humorous in intent. This usage dates from 1843 when ''[[Punch magazine|Punch]]'' magazine applied the term to satirical drawings in its pages, particularly sketches by [[John Leech]]. The first of these parodied the preparatory cartoons for grand historical frescoes in the then-new [[Palace of Westminster]]. The original title for these drawings was ''Mr Punch's pencillings'' and the new title "cartoon" was intended to be ironic, a reference to the self-aggrandising posturing of Westminster politicians.
Modern [[gag cartoon]]s are found in magazines and newspapers and generally consist of a single drawing with a caption immediately beneath or (less often) a [[speech balloon]]. Many consider ''[[The New Yorker|New Yorker]]'' cartoonist [[Peter Arno]] the father of the modern gag cartoon (as did Arno himself). Gag cartoonists of note include [[Charles Addams]], [[Gary Larson]], [[Charles Barsotti]], [[Chauncey (Chon) Day|Chon Day]] and [[Mel Calman]].
[[Editorial cartoons]] are a variation of this, found almost exclusively in news publications. Although they also employ humor, they are more serious in tone, commonly using [[irony]] or [[satire]]. The art usually acts as a visual metaphor to illustrate a point of view on current social and/or political topics. Editorial cartoons often include speech balloons and, sometimes, multiple panels. Editorial cartoonists of note include [[Herblock]] and [[Mike Peters]].
[[Comic strip]]s, also known as "strip cartoons" in the United Kingdom, are found daily in newspapers worldwide, and are usually a short series of cartoon illustrations in sequence. In the [[United States]] they are not as commonly called "cartoons" themselves, but rather "comics" or "funnies". Nonetheless, the creators of comic strips - as well as [[comic book]]s and [[graphic novel]]s - are referred to as "[[cartoonist]]s". Although humor is the most prevalent subject matter, adventure and drama are also represented in this medium. Noteworthy cartoonists in this sense include [[Charles Schulz]], [[Bill Watterson]], [[Scott Adams]], and [[Mort Walker]].
==Motion pictures==
[[Image:Cowboy_bebop01.jpg|thumb|300px|A scene from ''[[Cowboy Bebop]]'' (1998)]]
{{main|Animated cartoon}}
Because of the stylistic similarities between comic strips and early animated movies, "cartoon" came to refer to [[animation]], and this is the sense in which "cartoon" is most commonly used today. These are usually shown on [[television]] or in [[movie theater|cinema]]s and are created by showing illustrated images in rapid succession to give the impression of movement. In this meaning, the word cartoon is sometimes shortened to ''[[toon]]'' (which may be a corruption of "[[Looney Tunes]]" and was popularized by the movie ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]''). Although the term can be applied to any animated presentation, it is most often used in reference to programs for children, featuring [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphized]] animals, [[superhero]]es, the adventures of child protagonists, and other related genres. Animated material which does not fit the traditional conventions of Western animation, such as Japanese [[anime]] can also be called cartoons.
== See also ==
* [[Anime]]
* [[Animation]]
* [[Animated cartoon]]
* [[Charlie Hebdo]]
* [[Censorship]]
* [[Comics]]
* [[Editorial cartoon]]
* [[Figure drawing]]
* [[List of cartoonists]]
* [[List of comic and cartoon character pairs|List of comic and cartoon pairs]]
* [[Manga]]
* [[Multi-Sketch]]
== External links ==
{{wiktionary}}
* [http://www.cartoonstock.com/ CartoonStock database of gag, editorial and historic cartoons]
* [http://www.punch.co.uk/ Punch website's history of cartoons]
* [http://www.cartoonbank.com ''New Yorker's'' Cartoon Bank]
* [http://www.cagle.com/ Daryl Cagle's Professional Cartoonists Index]
* [http://www.toonopedia.com Don Markenstein's Toonopedia]
* [http://www.bcdb.com/ Big Cartoon Database]
* [http://www.goldenagecartoons.com/ Golden Age of Cartoons]
* [http://www.toon-cycle.com/ Toon-Cycle: Cartoon community and media resources]
* [http://www.ulin.ru/ Russian animated cartoons and World Day of Animated cartoon]
[[Category:Art genres]]
[[Category:Cartooning| ]]
[[Category:Film]]
[[de:Cartoon]]
[[hu:Rajzfilm]]
[[ja:%E3%82%AB%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E3%82%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%83%B3]]
[[nl:Cartoon]]
[[pt:Cartoon]]
[[scn:Cartuni animatu]]
[[th:การ์ตูน]]
[[zh:卡通]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Celsius</title>
<id>7166</id>
<revision>
<id>42050611</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:29:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rapido</username>
<id>272421</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Application */ many people use Fahrenheit in cooking! I'm also not too sure on the thermostat bit, but I'm leaving it at the moment.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" align="right" style="margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em;"
|+'''Celsius temperature conversion formulas'''
|- bgcolor="#f0f0f0"
! Conversion from
! to
! Formula
|-
|Celsius ||Fahrenheit ||&deg;F = &deg;C &times; 1.8 + 32
|-
|[[Fahrenheit]] ||Celsius ||&deg;C = (&deg;F &ndash; 32) / 1.8
|-
|Celsius ||kelvin ||K = &deg;C + 273.15
|-
|[[kelvin]] ||Celsius ||&deg;C = K &ndash; 273.15
|-
| colspan=3 align=center | <small>[[temperature conversion formulas|Additional conversion formulas]]<br>[http://www.lenntech.com/unit-conversion-calculator/temperature.htm Conversion calculator for units of temperature]</small>
|}
A '''degree Celsius''' (&deg;C) is a [[units of measurement|unit]] of [[temperature]] named after the [[Sweden|Swedish]] astronomer [[Anders Celsius]] ([[1701]]-[[1744]]), who first proposed a similar system in [[1742]]. The Celsius scale sets 0.01 °C to be at the [[triple point]] of water and a degree Celsius to be 1/273.16 of the difference in temperature between the triple point of water and [[absolute zero]]. Until [[1954]] the scale was defined with the freezing point |
Arithmetic using the floating point number system has two important properties that differ from those of arithmetic using real numbers.
Floating point arithmetic is not [[associative]]. This means that in general for floating point numbers x, y, and z:
* <math> (x + y) + z \neq x + (y + z) </math>
* <math> (x \cdot y) \cdot z \neq x \cdot (y \cdot z) </math>
Floating point arithmetic is also not [[distributive]]. This means that in general:
*<math> x \cdot (y + z) \neq (x \cdot y) + (x \cdot z) </math>
In short, the order in which operations are carried out can change the output of a floating point calculation. This is important in numerical analysis since two mathematically equivalent formulas may not produce the same numerical output, and one may be substantially more accurate than the other.
For example, with most floating-point implementations, <tt>(1e100 - 1e100) + 1.0</tt> will give the result <tt>1.0</tt>, whereas <tt>(1e100 + 1.0) - 1e100</tt> gives <tt>0.0</tt>.
The reason for this has to do with the range versus precision trade off inherent to floating point formats. By the nature of floating point representation, the larger a value, the less precise it is, in absolute terms. Following the above example of <tt>1e100<sub>10</sub></tt>, the significand of this value would be a 1 followed by a decimal point, and then a bunch of 0's. However, these zero's do not actually represent the tenths, and hundredths, and thousandths, etc. of the value, they represent digits in position 100, 99, 98, etc. In order to store the actual result of the intermediate operation (<tt>(1e100 + 1.0)</tt>), you would need to have a significand with 100 decimal digits (or 101 depending on whether or not the leading 1 is implicit in the format). in order to reach all the way from the [[most significant bit | most significant]] digit in the 100th position to the least significant digit, the 1 that was added to it, which now lives in the 0 position.
== IEEE standard ==
The [[IEEE]] has standardized the computer representation for binary floating-point numbers in [[IEEE floating-point standard|IEEE 754]].
This standard is followed by almost all modern machines.
Notable exceptions include IBM Mainframes, which have both hexadecimal and IEEE 754 data types, and Cray vector machines, where the T90 series had an IEEE version, but the SV1 still uses Cray floating-point format.
[[As of 2000]], the IEEE 754 standard is currently under revision. See: [[IEEE 754r]]
== Examples ==
* The value of Pi, [[pi|&pi;]] = 3.1415926...<sub>10</sub> decimal, which is equivalent to binary 11.001001000011111...<sub>2</sub>. When represented in a computer that allocates 17 bits for the significand, it will become 0.11001001000011111 &times; 2<sup>2</sup>. Hence the floating-point representation would start with bits 01100100100001111 and end with bits 10 (which represent the exponent 2 in the binary system). The first zero indicates a positive number, the ending 10<sub>2</sub> = 2<sub>10</sub>.
* The value of -0.375<sub>10</sub> = -0.011<sub>2</sub> or -0.11 &times; 2<sup>&minus;1</sup>. In two's complement notation, &minus;1 is represented as 11111111 (assuming 8 bits are used in the exponent). In floating-point notation, the number would start with a 1 for the sign bit, followed by 110000... and then followed by 11111111 at the end, or 1110...011111111 (where ... are zeros).
=== Hidden bit ===
When using binary (''b'' = 2), one bit, called the '''hidden bit''' or the '''implied bit''', can be omitted if all numbers are required to be normalized. The leading digit (most significant bit) of the significand of a normalized binary floating-point number is always non-zero; in particular it is always 1. This means that this bit does not need to be stored explicitly, since for a normalized number it can be understood to be 1.
The [[IEEE 754]] standard exploits this fact. Requiring all numbers to be normalized means that 0 cannot be represented; typically some special representation of zero is chosen. In the IEEE standard this special code also encompasses [[denormal|denormal numbers]], which allow for [[gradual underflow]]. The normalized numbers are also known as the [[normal number (computing)|normal numbers]].
=== Note ===
''Although the examples in this article use a consistent system of floating-point notation, the notation is different from the IEEE standard.'' For example, in IEEE 754, the exponent is between the sign bit and the significand, not at the end of the number. Also the IEEE exponent uses a biased integer instead of a two's complement number. The reader should note that the examples serve the purpose of illustrating how floating-point numbers could be represented, but the actual bits shown in the article are different from those in a IEEE 754-compliant representation. The placement of the bits in the IEEE standard enables two floating-point numbers to be compared bitwise (''sans'' sign bit) to yield a result without interpreting the actual values. The arbitrary system used in this article cannot do the same.
<!-- Some good wikipedians with spare time can rewrite the examples using the IEEE standard if desired, though the current version is good enough as textbook examples for it highlights all the major components of a floating-point notation. This also illustrates that a non-standard notation system also works as long as it is consistent. -->
== See also ==
*[[Significant digits]]
*[[Fixed-point arithmetic]]
*[[Computable number]]
*[[IEEE Floating Point Standard]]
*[[IBM Floating Point Architecture]]
*[[FLOPS]]
*[[−0 (number)]]
*[[half precision]] &ndash; [[single precision]] &ndash; [[double precision]] &ndash; [[quad precision]]
== References ==
* An edited reprint of the paper ''[http://docs.sun.com/source/806-3568/ncg_goldberg.html What Every Computer Scientist Should Know About Floating-Point Arithmetic]'', by David Goldberg, published in the March, 1991 issue of Computing Surveys.
* David Bindel&#8217;s [http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~dbindel/class/cs279/dsb-bib.pdf Annotated Bibliography] on computer support for scientific computation.
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Section 4.2: Floating Point Arithmetic, pp.214&ndash;264.
* Kahan, William and Darcy, Joseph (2001). How Java&#8217;s floating-point hurts everyone everywhere. Retrieved Sep. 5, 2003 from [http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/JAVAhurt.pdf http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/JAVAhurt.pdf].
* [http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Pines/6639/docs/fp_summary.html Introduction to Floating point calculations and IEEE 754 standard] by Jamil Khatib
* [http://home.earthlink.net/~mrob/pub/math/floatformats.html Survey of Floating-Point Formats] This page gives a very brief summary of floating-point formats that have been used over the years.
<!--
* Nika Aldrich has a paper exploring the difficulties of dithering floating point data: [http://www.cadenzarecording.com/floatingdither.html Exploring Dither in Floating-Point Systems]
-->
[[Category:Data types]]
[[Category:Computer arithmetic]]
[[de:Gleitkommazahl]]
[[es:Coma flotante]]
[[fr:Virgule flottante]]
[[ko:부동소수점]]
[[he:נקודה צפה]]
[[it:Virgola mobile]]
[[nl:Drijvendekommagetal]]
[[ja:浮動小数点数]]
[[pl:Liczba zmiennoprzecinkowa]]
[[pt:Vírgula flutuante]]
[[sk:Pohyblivá desatinná čiarka]]
[[fi:Liukuluku]]
[[sv:Flyttal]]
[[zh:浮点数]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First Epistle to the Corinthians</title>
<id>11378</id>
<revision>
<id>39874551</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T13:42:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.73.63.200</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
See also: [[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]] and [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians]]
----
The '''First Epistle to the Corinthians''' is a book of the [[Bible]] in the [[New Testament]]. It is one of 4 letters to the Corinthians written by Paul. The previous letter, which has probably not survived, is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9 and a "letter of tears" is referred to in 2 Corinthians. 1 Corinthians is a letter, or a conflation of several letters, from [[Paul of Tarsus]] and [[Sosthenes]] to the Christians of [[Corinth, Greece]], one of the core group of [[Pauline epistles]] whose authenticity has never seriously been questioned.
It was written from [[Ephesus]] (16:8) about the time of the [[Passover]] in the third year of the apostle's sojourn there ([[Acts]] 19:10; 20:31), and when he had formed the purpose to visit [[Macedon]]ia and then return to Corinth (probably AD 57).
The news which had reached him, however, from Corinth frustrated his plan. He had heard of the abuses and contentions that had arisen among them: first from [[Apollos]] (Acts 19:1) and then from a letter they had written him on the subject, and also from some of the "household of Chloe," and from Stephanas and his two friends who had visited him (1:11; 16:17). (Since there was no regular postal service in the Roman Empire, some of those people probably brought the letter with them.) Paul thereupon wrote this letter, urging uniformity of belief ("that ye all speak the same thing and that there be no divisions among you," 1:10) and correcting the erroneous opinions that had sprung up among them, and remedying the many abuses and disorderly practices that prevailed. Titus and a brother whose name is not given were probably the bearers of the letter ([[2 Corinthians|2 Cor]] 2:13; 8:6, 16&ndash;18).
The epistle may be divided into f |
micradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|156]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|125]] }}
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{{Elementbox_magnetic | [[ferromagnetism|ferromagnetic]] }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 96.1 n}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 80.4 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 11.8 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsatrt | (electrolytic)<br />5120 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 211 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 82 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 170 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.29 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 4.0 }}
{{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa | 608 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 490 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7439-89-6 }}
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=55 | sym=Fe | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=2.73 y | dm=&epsilon; capture | de=0.231 | pn=55 | ps=[[manganese|Mn]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=56 | sym=Fe | na=91.72% | n=30 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=57 | sym=Fe | na=2.2% | n=31 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=58 | sym=Fe | na=0.28% | n=32 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=59 | sym=Fe | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=44.503 d | dm=[[Beta decay|&beta;]] | de=1.565 | pn=59 | ps=[[cobalt|Co]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=60 | sym=Fe | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=1.5E6 y | dm=[[Beta decay|&beta;]]<sup>-</sup> | de=3.978 | pn=60 | ps=[[cobalt|Co]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
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{{wiktionarypar|iron}}
'''Iron''' is a [[chemical element]] with the symbol '''Fe''' ([[Latin|L.]]: Ferrum) and [[atomic number]] 26. Iron is a [[Group 8 element|group 8]] and [[Period 4 element|period 4]] [[metal]]. Iron is notable for being the final element produced by [[stellar nucleosynthesis]], and thus the heaviest element which does not require a [[supernova]] or similarly cataclysmic event for its formation. It is therefore the most abundant heavy metal in the universe.
== Notable characteristics ==
Iron is the most abundant metal on [[Earth]], and is believed to be the tenth most abundant [[chemical element|element]] in the [[universe]]. Iron is also the second most abundant (by mass, 34.6%) element making up the Earth; the concentration of iron in the various layers of the Earth ranges from high at the inner core to about 5% in the outer crust; it is possible the Earth's inner core consists of a single iron [[crystal]] although it is more likely to be a mixture of iron and [[nickel]]; the large amount of iron in the Earth is thought to contribute to its [[Earth's magnetic field|magnetic field]].
Iron is a [[metal]] extracted from iron ore, and is hardly ever found in the free (elemental) state. In order to obtain elemental iron, the impurities must be removed by chemical [[reduction (chemistry)|reduction]]. Iron is used in the production of [[steel]], which is not an element but an [[alloy]], a solution of different metals (and some non-metals, particularly [[carbon]]).
Nuclei of iron have some of the highest binding energies per nucleon, superseded only by the [[nickel]] [[isotope]] <sup>62</sup>Ni. The universally most abundant of the highly stable nucleides is, however, <sup>56</sup>Fe. This is formed by nuclear fusion in the stars. Although a further tiny energy gain could be extracted by synthesizing <sup>62</sup>Ni, conditions in stars are not right for this process to be favoured. When a very large star contracts at the end of its life, internal pressure and temperature rise, allowing the star to produce progressively heavier elements, despite these being less stable than the elements around mass number 60 (the "iron group"). This leads to a [[supernova]].
Some cosmological models with an open universe predict that there will be a phase where as a result of slow fusion and fission reactions, everything will become iron.
== Applications ==
Iron is the most used of all the metals, comprising 95 percent of all the metal tonnage produced worldwide. Its combination of low cost and high strength make it indispensable, especially in applications like [[automobile]]s, the [[hull (ship)|hull]]s of large [[ship]]s, and structural components for [[building]]s. [[Steel]] is the best known alloy of iron, and some of the forms that iron takes include:
* [[Pig iron]] has 4% &ndash; 5% carbon and contains varying amounts of contaminants such as [[sulfur]], [[silicon]] and [[phosphorus]]. Its only significance is that of an intermediate step on the way from [[iron ore]] to [[cast iron]] and [[steel]].
* [[Cast iron]] contains 2% &ndash; 4.0% [[carbon]] , 1% &ndash; 6% [[silicon]] , and small amounts of [[manganese]]. Contaminants present in pig iron that negatively affect the material properties, such as sulfur and phosphorus, have been reduced to an acceptable level. It has a melting point in the range of 1420&ndash;1470 K, which is lower than either of its two main components, and makes it the first product to be melted when carbon and iron are heated together. Its mechanical properties vary greatly, dependent upon the form [[carbon]] takes in the alloy. 'White' cast irons contain their carbon in the form of [[cementite]], or iron carbide. This hard, brittle compound dominates the mechanical properties of white cast irons, rendering them hard, but unresistant to shock. The broken surface of a white cast iron is full of fine facets of the broken carbide, a very pale, silvery, shiny material, hence the appellation. In 'grey' cast iron, the carbon exists free as fine flakes of [[graphite]] , and also, renders the material brittle due to the stress-raising nature of the sharp edged flakes of graphite. A newer variant of grey iron, referred to as 'ductile iron' is specially treated with trace amounts of [[magnesium]] to alter the shape of graphite to sheroids, or nodules, vastly increasing the toughness and strength of the material.
* [[Carbon steel]] contains between 0.4% and 1.5% [[carbon]], with small amounts of [[manganese]], [[sulfur]], [[phosphorus]], and [[silicon]].
* [[Wrought iron]] contains less than 0.2% carbon. It is a tough, malleable product, not as fusible as pig iron. It has a very small amount of carbon, a few tenths of a percent. If honed to an edge, it loses it quickly. Wrought iron is characterised, especially in old samples, by the presence of fine 'stringers' or filaments of [[slag]] entrapped in the metal.
* [[Alloy steel]]s contain varying amounts of carbon as well as other metals, such as [[chromium]], [[vanadium]], [[molybdenum]], [[nickel]], [[tungsten]], etc. They are used for structural purposes, as their alloy content raises their cost and necessitates justification of their use. Recent developments in ferrous metallurgy have produced a growing range of microalloyed steels, also termed 'HSLA' or high-strength, low alloy steels, containing tiny additions to produce high strengths and often spectacular toughness at minimal cost.
* [[Iron(III) oxide]]s are used in the production of [[magnetic storage]] in computers. They are often mixed with other compounds, and retain their magnetic properties in solution.
== History ==
The first signs of use of iron come from the [[Sumerian]]s and the [[Egypt]]ians, where around 4000 BC, a few items, such as the tips of spears, daggers and ornaments, were being fashioned from iron recovered from [[meteorite]]s. Because meteorites fall from the sky some linguists<!--[Benvéniste 1969 cit. dep]--> have conjectured that the English word ''iron'' (OE ''īsern''), which has cognates in many northern and western European languages, derives from the [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] ''aisar'' which means "the gods".
By 3500 BC to 2000 BC, increasing numbers of smelted iron objects (distinguishable from meteoric iron by the lack of nickel in the product) appear in [[Mesopotamia]], [[Anatolia]], and [[Egypt]]. However, their use appears to be ceremonial, and iron was an expensive metal, more expensive than [[gold]]. In the [[Iliad]], weaponry is mostly [[bronze]], but iron ingots are used for trade. Some resources (see the reference ''What Caused the Iron Age?'' below) suggest that iron was being created then as a by-product of [[copper]] refining, as [[sponge iron]], and was not reproducible by the metallurgy of the time. By 1600 BC to 1200 BC, iron was used increasingly in the Middle East, but did not supplant the dominant use of [[bronze]].
[[Image:Axe of iron from Swedish Iron Age, found at Gotland, Sweden.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Axe of iron from Swedish Iron Age, found at Gotland, Sweden.]]
In the period from the 12th to 10th century BC, there was a rapid transition in the Middle East from bronze to iron tools and weapons. The critical factor in this transition does not appear to be the sudden onset of a superior ironworking technology, but instead the disruption of the supply of [[tin]]. This period of transition, which occurred at different times in different parts of the world, is the ushering in of an age of civilization called the [[Iron Age]].
[[Image:Mars symbol.png|right|50px|Symbol of Iron]]
A common [[alchemical symbol]] for iron, the metal of weapons, was that of [[Mars (god)|Mars]], the god of war.
Concurrent with the transition from bronze to iron was the discovery of ''carburization'', which was the process of adding carbon to the irons of the time. Iron was recovered as sponge iron, a mix of iron and slag with some carbon and/or carbide, which was then repeatedly hammered and folded over to free the mass of slag and oxidise out carbon content, so creating the product wrou |
Munich]] for outdoor scenes not requiring a full view of the boat's exterior. When filming on the outdoor mockup or the conning tower, jets of cold water were hosed over the actors to simulate the breaking ocean waves. At one point during this filming actor Jan Fedder lost his grip on the railing and was washed off the model, breaking a few ribs in the fall, one of the other actors instantly shouted "Man Overboard". At first Petersen didn't realize it was an accident but enthusiastically yelled "Good idea, Jan. We'll do that one more time!". Peterson still kept the scene and rewrote Jan Fedder's part in the film, so that his character spent the rest of the movie in bed. The actor actually had to be brought back and forth from the hospital every day because of concussion. The painful expression on his face is real and not acted. A 1/3 sized full hull operating model was used for underwater shots and some surface running shots, in particular the meeting in stormy seas with another U-boat.
The interior U-boat mock-up was mounted five metres off the floor and was shaken, rocked, and tilted up to 45 degrees by means of a hydraulic apparatus, and was vigorously shaken to simulate [[depth charge]] attacks. Petersen was admittedly obsessive about the structural detail of the U-boat set, remarking that "every screw" in the set was an authentic facsimile of the kind used in a [[World War II]] [[U-boat]].
===Special camera===
[[Image:DasBoot(Int).jpg|thumb|right|233px|Pilgrim and Frenssen tell dirty jokes while LT Werner (Left) listens.]]
Most of the interior shots were filmed using a hand-held [[Arriflex]] of cinematographer [[Jost Vacano]]'s design to convey the claustrophobic atmosphere of the boat. It had a gyroscope to provide stability, a reinvention of the [[Steadicam]] on a smaller scale, so that it could be carried throughout the interior of the mock-up. Vacano wore full-body padding to minimize injury as he ran and the mock-up was rocked and shaken. Throughout the filming, the actors were forbidden to go out into the sunlight, to create the pallor of men who seldom saw the sun during their missions. The actors went through intensive training to learn how to move quickly through the narrow confines of the vessel.
===Production===
Production of ''Das Boot'' took three years ([[1979]]-[[1981]]). Most of the filming was done in one year; to make the appearance of the actors as realistic as possible, scenes were filmed in sequence over the course of the year. This ensured natural growth of beards and hair, increasing skin pallor, and signs of strain on the actors, who had, just like real U-boat men, spent many months in a cramped, unhealthy atmosphere.
Production for this movie originally began in [[1976]]. Several American directors were considered, and the ''Kaleu'' (''Kapitänleutnant'') was to be played by [[Robert Redford]]. Disagreements sprang up among various parties and the project was shelved. Fans of the movie would add the word "fortunately" to that statement.
== Cast ==
[[Image:DasBoot(Officers).jpeg|thumb|233px|right|A quiet moment in the Officer's Mess.
From Left to Right, the Captain (Jürgen Prochnow), the Chief Engineer (Klaus Wennemann), and Lieutenant Werner (Herbert Grönemeyer).]]
{| class="wikitable"
! Actor
! Role
! Description
|-
| [[Jürgen Prochnow|Jürgen Prochnow]]
| Captain
| An old, battle-hardened sea veteran. The surrogate father to his mostly young crewmen, who all look up to him.
|-
| [[Herbert Grönemeyer|Herbert Grönemeyer]]
| Lieutenant Werner
| The somewhat naïve, but honest main narrator.
|-
| Klaus Wennemann
| Chief Engineer
| A quiet and well-respected man. At age 27, the oldest crewmember besides the Captain. Tormented by the uncertain fate of his family.
|-
| Hubertus Bengsch
| 1st Lieutenant
| An ardent Nazi and a staunch believer in the Wehrmacht propaganda. Has a condescending attitude. His wife died in the war.
|-
| [[Martin Semmelrogge]]
| 2nd Lieutenant
| A vulgar, crude officer, who hides a vulnerable side behind his macho image.
|-
| Bernd Tauber
| Chief Quartermaster Kriechbaum
| The sailor who gets wounded in the airplane attack at Gibraltar.
|-
| Erwin Leder
| Johann
| The mechanic, obsessed with a near-fetish love for the U96 engine. Loses his sanity in a depth charge attack. Speaks with [[Austria]]n accent.
|-
| Martin May
| Ullmann
| Young sailor who has a pregnant [[French people|French]] fiancée (which is considered an atrocity by the French).
|-
| [[Heinz Hoenig]]
| Hinrich
| The sonar controller. He is the only one to whom the Captain sometimes relates.
|-
| [[Uwe Ochsenknecht]]
| Chief Bosun
| The severe chief. Lobs an oily towel into Werner's face when he interferes. '''No, he most certainly does not, he gets mad and yells "Who did that!!"...'''
|-
| Claude-Oliver Rudolph
| Ario
| The burly sailor who tells that Dufte is getting married and throws around pictures of Dufte's fiancee to laugh at them both.
|-
| Jan Fedder
| Pilgrim
| Another sailor, gets almost swept off the submarine, breaks several ribs and is hospitalized for a while. Speaks with a [[Hamburg]] accent.
|-
| Ralf Richter
| Frenssen
| Pilgrim's best friend. Pilgrim and Frenssen love to trade dirty jokes.
|-
| Joachim Bernhard
| Preacher
| Religious sailor who is constantly reading the Bible.
|-
| Oliver Stritzel
| Schwalle
| The blond sailor who speaks with a [[Berlin]] accent.
|-
| Lutz Schnell
| Dufte
| The sailor who gets jeered at because he is getting married.
|}
===''Das Boot'' as a career boost===
Several of those involved with "Das Boot" went on to even greater success:
*[[Wolfgang Petersen]] established himself as a long-standing fixture as a [[Hollywood]] director and producer.
*[[Jürgen Prochnow]] became one of the few German actors to establish themselves in Hollywood.
*[[Herbert Grönemeyer]] became one of the most popular German singers.
*[[Klaus Wennemann]] became lead in a successful German detective series, ''Der Fahnder'' (the Investigator)
*[[Heinz Hoenig]] became one of the most sought-after character faces in German movies.
*[[Jan Fedder]] became lead in a successful light-hearted German police series, "Großstadtrevier"
*[[Uwe Ochsenknecht]], [[Ralf Richter]] and [[Claude-Olivier Rudolph]] had successful German movie careers, too.
==References==
<references/>
==See also==
*[[Heinrich Lehmann-Willenbrock]]
*[[Aces of the Deep]]
*[[Submarine film]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.dasboot.com http://www.dasboot.com (Movie Web site)]
*{{imdb title|id=0082096|title=Das Boot}}
*{{rogerebert|id=19970404/REVIEWS/704040303/1023|title=Das Boot}}
*[http://www.moviemistakes.com/film2143 Das Boot] at Moviemistakes.com
*[http://www.cosmopolis.ch/english/cosmo8/boot.htm Wolfgang Petersen's Das Boot reviewed by cosmopolis.ch]
[[Category:1981 films]]
[[Category:German films]]
[[Category:Military television series]]
[[Category:World War II films]]
[[Category:U-boat fiction]]
[[Category:Films based on fiction books]]
[[Category:Films directed by Wolfgang Petersen]]
[[Category:World War II television programmes]]
[[Category:Television miniseries]]
[[de:Das Boot]]
[[es:El submarino (Das Boot)]]
[[fr:Le Bateau]]
[[nl:Das Boot]]
[[ja:U・ボート (映画)]]
[[no:Das Boot]]
[[sv:Das Boot]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DHTML</title>
<id>8995</id>
<revision>
<id>15906923</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dynamic_HTML]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dynamic HTML</title>
<id>8996</id>
<revision>
<id>41517894</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:15:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.6.168.72</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Html series}}
'''Dynamic HTML''' or '''DHTML''' is a method of creating interactive [[web site]]s by using a combination of static [[markup language]] [[HTML]], a [[client-side scripting]] language (such as [[JavaScript]]), the presentation definition language [[Cascading Style Sheets]], and the [[Document Object Model]].
It may be used to create applications in a [[web browser]]: for example to ease navigation, to create interactive [[form (document)|form]]s or to create interactive exercises to use in [[e-learning]] applications such as [[WebCT]]. Because it can be used to dynamically move elements around the screen, DHTML can also be used as a tool for creating browser based videogames.
DHTML applications that are entirely self-contained in the browser, without server-side support such as a database, are sometimes referred to as [[Single Page Application]]s, or ''SPA''.
See [[Comparison of layout engines (DOM)]] for a detailed list of the [[Application programming interface|API]] available in each browser to use in DHTML applications.
Competing techniques include [[Macromedia Flash]] for animation and [[Java applet|applets]].
Some disadvantages of DHTML are that it is difficult to develop and [[debug]] due to varying degrees of support among web browsers of the aforementioned technologies and that the variety of screen sizes means the end look can only be fine-tuned on a limited number of browser and screen-size combinations. Development for recent browsers, such as [[Internet Explorer]] 5.0+, [[Netscape (web browser)|Netscape]] 6.0+, and [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]] 7.0+, is aided by a shared [[Document Object Model]].
== Structure of a web page ==
Typically a web page using DHTML is set up the following way
<pre>
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">
<html>
<head>
<title>DHTML example</title>
<script type="text/javascript"&g |
oil derricks in the [[North Sea]], this versatile design has become a popular option for smaller boaters as well. The burying design acts similarly to a large scoop, and is known for the speed with which it digs in. Although not an articulated design, it has the reputation of not breaking out with tide or wind changes, instead slowly turning in the bottom to align with the force. Some versions of the design, such as the Bruce, are reputed to be easy to retrieve once broken out of the bottom, and some anchor rollers can accommodate their shank.
North sea designs may have difficulty penetrating weedy bottoms, rock, and coral. They can be particularly difficult to break out. Although they can be got aboard without scarring the topsides, they take up an inordinate amount of locker space. They cannot be used with hawse pipes.
[[Image:Anchor_CQR.jpg|thumb|A CQR anchor]]
=== Plow ===
Several companies produce a plow-style design, and they are particularly popular with cruising sailors. Plows are generally good in all bottoms, but not exceptional in any. The CQR design has a hinged shank, allowing the anchor to turn with direction changes rather than breaking out, and also arranged to force the point of the plow into the bottom if the anchor lands on its side. Another commercial design, the Delta uses an unhinged shank and a plow with specific angles to develop very similar performance. Both can be stored in some anchor roller designs
The plow is heavier than the average for the amount of resistance developed, and may take slightly longer pull to set thoroughly. It cannot be stored in a hawse pipe.
=== Modern designs ===
[[Image:Anchor_Rocna.jpg|thumb|The New Zealand designed Rocna is an example of modern anchor design]]
In recent years there has been something of a spurt in anchor design. Primarily designed to set very quickly, then generate superior holding power, these anchors (mostly proprietary inventions still under patent) are finding homes with users of small to medium sized vessels.
* The German designed ''Bügel'' has a sharp tip for penetrating weed, and features a roll-bar which orients the anchor to the correct attitude on the seabed
* The ''Bulwagga'' is a unique design featuring three flukes instead of the regular two. It has performed well in tests by independent sources such as American boating magazine ''Practical Sailor''. [http://www.noteco.com/bulwagga/ Manufacturer's website]
* The ''Spade'' is a French design particularly popular with sailors. Although relatively expensive, it performs well, and features a demountable shank and optional aluminium construction, which means a lighter and more easily stowable anchor
* The New Zealand designed ''Rocna'' is a new anchor gaining popularity amongst cruisers. It too features a sharp toe for penetrating weed and grass, and has a particularly large fluke area. Its roll-bar is similar to that of the Bügel, and means the correct setting attitude is achieved without the need for extra weight to be inserted into the tip (an inefficiency common in other anchor types). [http://www.rocna.com/ Manufacturer's website]
<br style="clear:both;" />
== Designs of permanent anchors ==
These are used where the vessel is permanently sited, for example in the case of [[lightvessel]]s or channel marker [[buoy]]s. The anchor needs to hold the vessel in all weathers, including the most severe [[storm]], but only occasionally, or never, needs to be lifted, only for example if the vessel is to be towed into port for maintenance. An alternative to using an anchor under these circumstances may be to use a pile driven into the seabed.
=== Mushroom ===
The mushroom anchor is suitable where the seabed is composed of silt or fine sand. It was invented by [[Robert Stevenson]], for use by an 82 ton converted fishing boat, ''Pharos'', which was used as a [[lightvessel]] between [[1807]] and [[1810]] near to [[Bell Rock]] whilst the [[lighthouse]] was being constructed. It was equipped with a 1.5 ton example.
It is shaped like an inverted mushroom, the head becoming buried in the silt. A counterweight is often provided at the other end of the shank to lay it down before it becomes buried.
A mushroom anchor will normally sink in the silt to the point where it has displaced its own weight in bottom material. These anchors are only suitable for a silt or mud bottom, since they rely upon suction and cohesion of the bottom material, which rocky or coarse sand bottoms lack. The holding power of this anchor is at best about twice its weight unless it becomes buried, when it can be as much as ten times its weight[http://www.inamarmarine.com/pdf/Moorings.pdf]. They are available in sizes from about 10 lb up to several tons.
=== Deadweight ===
This is an anchor which relies solely on being a heavy weight. It is usually just a large block of concrete or stone at the end of the chain. Its holding power is equal to its weight underwater (i.e. taking its buoyancy into account) regardless of the type of seabed, although suction can increase this if it becomes buried. Consequently deadweight anchors are used where mushroom anchors are unsuitable, for example in rock, gravel or coarse sand. An advantage of a deadweight anchor over a mushroom is that if it does become dragged, then it continues to provide its original holding force. The disadvantage of using deadweight anchors in conditions where a mushroom anchor could be used is that it needs to be around ten times the weight of the equivalent mushroom anchor..
== Anchoring techniques ==
[[Image:AS_HMAS Canberra_1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Naval anchor incorporated into [[HMAS Canberra (1927)]] memorial, [[Canberra]], [[Australia]]]]
Heaving an anchor over the side is not good enough. There are several elements to anchor gear to be considered, and there are techniques to ensure a good ''set''. This article can discuss some of this information, but it is by no means a treatise for safe anchoring.
=== Anchoring gear ===
The elements of anchoring gear include the anchor, the cable (also called a ''rode''), the method of attaching the two together, the method of attaching the cable to the ship, charts, and a method of learning the depth of the water.
Charts are vital to good anchoring. Knowing the location of potential dangers, as well as being useful in estimating the effects of weather and tide in the anchorage, is essential in choosing a good place to drop the hook. One can get by without referring to charts, but they are an important tool and a part of good anchoring gear, and a skilled mariner would not choose to anchor without them.
The depth of water is necessary for determining ''scope'', which is the ratio of length of cable to the depth measured from the highest point (usually the anchor roller or bow chock) to the seabed. For example, if the water is 25ft (8m) deep, and the anchor roller is 3ft (1m) above the water, the scope is the ratio between the amount of cable let out and 28ft (9m). For this reason it is important to have a reliable and accurate method of measuring the depth of water.
A cable or rode is the rope, chain, or combination thereof used to connect the anchor to the vessel. Neither rope nor chain is fundamentally superior as a cable or there would not be continued argument over the issue; each has its strengths and its weaknesses and it is not the purpose of this article to address these.
=== Anchoring ===
The four primary questions to be considered before actually anchoring:
:# Is the anchorage protected?
:# Is the seabed good holding ground?
:# What is the depth, tidal range, and the current tide state?
:# Is there enough room?
==== Is the anchorage protected? ====
A good anchorage offers protection from the current weather conditions, and will also offer protection from the expected weather. You should also consider if the anchorage will be suitable for other purposes, for example can you get safely to shore in your dinghy if that is one of your goals. And keep in mind comfort; a rolly harbor is no fun.
==== Is the seabed good holding ground? ====
You should have charts to indicate the kind of bottom, as well as a tool such as a [[sounding lead]] to collect a sample from the bottom. Generally speaking, most anchors will hold well in sandy mud, mud and clay, or firm sand. Loose sand and soft mud are not desirable bottoms, and especially soft mud which should be avoided if at all possible. Rock, coral, and shale prevent anchors from digging in, although some anchors are designed to hook into such a bottom. Grassy bottoms may be good holding, but only if the anchor can penetrate the bottom.
==== What is the depth, tidal range, and the current tide state? ====
If your anchorage is affected by [[tide]], you need to know the tide range and the times of high and low water. You need enough depth for your vessel throughout the range it might swing, at low tide, not just where you drop the anchor. This is also important when determining [[scope]], which should be figured for high tide and not the current tide state.
==== Is there enough room? ====
If your anchorage is affected by tide, you should keep in mind that the swing range will be larger at low tide than at high tide. However, no matter where you anchor you need to consider what the larges possible swing range will be, and what obstacles and hazards might be within that range. Keep in mind that other vessels in the anchorage may have a swing range which can overlap yours. Boats on permanent moorings, or shorter scope, may not swing as far as you expect them to, or may swing either more rapidly or more slowly than your vessel (all-chain cables tend to swing more slowly than all-rope or chain-and-rope cables.)
There are techniques of anchoring to limit the swing of a vessel if the anchorage has limited room.
=== Methods ===
The basic anchoring consists of determining the location, dropping the anchor, laying out the scope, set |
cies that are currently in existence? Chance, one would say, produced an innumerable multitude of individuals; a small number found themselves constructed in such a manner that the parts of the animal were able to satisfy its needs; in another infinitely greater number, there was neither fitness nor order: all of these latter have perished. Animals lacking a mouth could not live; others lacking reproductive organs could not perpetuate themselves... The species we see today are but the smallest part of what blind destiny has produced..."
In [[1790]], [[Immanuel Kant]] (Königsberg (Kaliningrad) 1724 - 1804), in his ''Kritik der Urtheilskraft'', states that the analogy of animal forms implies a common original type and thus a common parent.
In [[1795]], Charles Darwin's grandfather, [[Erasmus Darwin]], hypothesized that all warm-blooded animals were descended from a single "living filament":
:"...would it be too bold to imagine, that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living filament, which THE GREAT FIRST CAUSE endued with animality...?" (''Zoonomia'', 1795, section 39, "Generation")
In [[1859]], Charles Darwin's ''The Origin of Species'' was published. The views about common descent expressed therein vary between suggesting that there was a single "first creature" to allowing that there may have been more than one. Here are the relevant quotations from the ''Conclusion'':
:"[P]robably all of the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed."
:"The whole history of the world, as at present known, ... will hereafter be recognised as a mere fragment of time, compared with the ages which have elapsed since the first creature, the progenitor of innumerable extinct and living descendants, was created."
:"When I view all beings not as special creations, but as the lineal descendants of some few beings which lived long before the first bed of the Silurian system was deposited, they seem to me to become ennobled."
The famous closing sentence describes the "grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one." The phrase "one form" here seems to hark back to the phrase "some few beings"; in any case, the choice of words is remarkable for its consistency with recent ideas about there having been a single ancestral "genetic pool".
More recently, scientists such as [[Francis Crick]] have postulated that the universal common ancestor could have come from space ([[panspermia]]). He was led to this conclusion by the universality of the [[genetic code]] (see below).
== Evidence for common descent ==
===Universality and similarity===
The universality of the [[genetic code]] is generally regarded by biologists as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent ('''UCD''') for all [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]], and [[eukaryote]]s (see [[Three domain system]]). Analysis of the small differences in the genetic code has also provided support for UCD.{{ref|UCD}}
Another important piece of evidence is the fact that it is possible to construct a detailed phylogenetic tree for all three domains based on similarity. One such tree showing the paths of descent from a common ancestor is depicted in the article on [[phylogenetic tree]]s. Exactly how [[virus]]es fit into the picture is still uncertain, especially since some are based on [[RNA]] rather than [[DNA]]. However, viruses are not usually regarded as organisms.
The universality of [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], and the fact that all [[amino acid]]s found in proteins are left-handed, are also important pieces of evidence.
===The argument from irrelevant differences===
There are very strong pieces of evidence for UCD based on universality and similarity, but such arguments become complicated because they run into a potential difficulty. Namely that:
*universality might be the result of the laws of physics and chemistry, rather than universal common descent;
*similarity might be the result of convergent evolution.
The simplest way to circumvent such difficulties would be to produce evidence based on "irrelevant differences", that is, differences which have no relevance to evolution and therefore cannot be explained by convergence.
Such evidence has come from two domains &mdash; amino acid sequences and DNA sequences:
# [[Proteins]] with the same 3-d structure need not have identical [[amino acid]] sequences; any irrelevant similarity between the sequences is evidence for common descent.
# In certain cases, there are several codons (DNA triplets) that code for the same amino acid. Thus, if two species use the same [[codon]] at the same place to specify an amino acid that can be represented by more than one codon, that is evidence for recency of a common ancestor.
== Footnotes ==
# {{note|transfer}} The earliest life-like forms probably exchanged genetic material laterally in a manner that is analogous to [[Horizontal gene transfer|lateral gene transfer]] amongst bacteria. For this and other reasons, the most recent common ancestor may have been a genetic pool rather than an organism.
# {{note|UCD}} Robin Knight et. al., (2001) "Rewiring The Keyboard: Evolvability Of The Genetic Code," ''Nature Reviews - Genetics''. 2: 49-58.
==External links==
*[http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html The Tree of Life Web Project]
*[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/ 29+ Evidences for Macroevolution: the Scientific Case for Common Descent]
*[http://www.actionbioscience.org/newfrontiers/poolearticle.html What is the Last Universal Common Ancestor?]
*[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/bookSearch/isbnInquiry.asp?r=1&isbn=0198547811 Evolution of the Genetic Code, Book: Excellent description of protein coding in mitochondria, thermophiles, etc.]
{{origin_of_life}}
[[Category:Evolutionary biology]]
[[fr:Last universal common ancestor]]
[[pt:Origem comum]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Celtic music</title>
<id>5261</id>
<revision>
<id>42141715</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:25:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nlu</username>
<id>350890</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.97.185.243|24.97.185.243]] ([[User talk:24.97.185.243|talk]]) to last version by TUF-KAT</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Celticmusic}}
'''''Celtic music''''' is a broad grouping of [[musical genre]]s that evolved out of the [[folk music]]al traditions of the [[Celtic people]]s of [[Western Europe]]. The term ''Celtic music'' may refer to both orally-transmitted traditional music and recorded [[popular music]] with only a superficial resemblance to folk styles of the Celtic peoples.
Most typically, the term ''Celtic music'' is applied to the [[music of Ireland]] and [[music of Scotland|Scotland]], because both places have produced well-known distinctive styles which actually have genuine commonality and clear mutual influences. The [[music of Wales]], [[music of Cornwall|Cornwall]], [[music of the Isle of Man|Isle of Man]], [[music of Brittany|Brittany]], [[music of Northumbria|Northumbria]] and [[music of Galicia, Cantabria and Asturias|Galicia]] are also frequently considered a part of ''Celtic music'', the Celtic tradition being particularly strong in Brittany, where Celtic festivals large and small take place throughout the year. Finally, the music of ethnically Celtic peoples abroad are also considered, especially [[Celtic music in Canada|in Canada]] and the [[Celtic music in the United States|United States]].
== Divisions ==
In ''Celtic Music: A Complete Guide'', June Skinner Sawyers acknowledges six Celtic nationalities divided into two groups according to their linguistic heritage. The [[Q-Celtic]] nationalities are the [[Irish people|Irish]], [[Scottish people|Scottish]] and [[Manx people|Manx]] peoples, while the [[P-Celtic]] groups are the [[Cornish people|Cornish]], [[Breton people|Bretons]] and [[Welsh people|Welsh peoples]]. Sawyer also mentions the Celtiberian languages as part of P-Celtic.
The Breton musician [[Alan Stivell]] uses a similar dichotomy, between the Gaelic (Irish and Scottish) branch and the Brythonic (Breton and Welsh) group, which differentiate "mostly by the extended range (sometimes more than two octaves) of Irish and Scottish melodies and the closed range of Breton and Welsh melodies (often reduced to a half-octave), and by the frequent use of the pure pentatonic scale in Gaelic music" {{ref|Stivellondivision}}.
== Definition debate ==
At issue is the lack of many common threads uniting the "Celtic" peoples listed above. While the ancient [[Celt]]s undoubtedly had their own musical styles, these have grown and evolved to the point where considering any modern styles reminiscent of ancient Celtic music is misleading. There is also tremendous variation between Celtic regions. Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and Brittany have living traditions of language and music, whereas Cornwall and the Isle of Man have only revivalist movements that have yet to take hold. Galicia has no Celtic language (Galician is a [[Romance language]] closest to [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]), but Galician music is often claimed to be "Celtic." Thus traditionalists and most [[musicology|musicological]] scholars dispute that the "Celtic" lands have any folk connections to each other. A strong case can be made that the similarities between the various musics called "Celtic" derive more from a common origin in the vernacular music of late mediaeval and early modern Europe than from any innate Celticity.
Many critics of the idea of modern Celtic music claim that the idea is the crea |
ception of a small number of countries which still require notices to be on works, this requirement is generally optional except for works which were originally created before the particular country became a member of the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] (the members of which are collectively known as the ''Berne Union'').
A copyright notice is no longer required for a work to be covered by copyright in jurisdictions which have acceded to the Berne Convention. In most jurisdictions a work may be copyrighted from the moment of its creation regardless of whether or not it bears a copyright notice. However, the existence of a copyright notice may make it easier to claim certain [[damages]] for [[infringement]] in [[lawsuit|legal proceedings]], as a [[defendant]] may be presumed to have ignored the notice and intentionally infringed copyright.
The symbol, ©, is [[Unicode]] symbol <code>00A9</code> in [[hexadecimal]], and can be entered into ([[XHTML|X]])[[HTML]] as <code>&amp;copy;</code>, <code>&amp;#x00A9;</code>, or <code>&amp;#169;</code>
====Year of copyright====
The year(s) of copyright are listed after the © symbol. If the work has been modified (i.e., a new edition) and recopyrighted, there will be more than one year listed.
===="All rights reserved"====
The phrase, ''[[All rights reserved]]'', was a formal notice that all [[Copyright#Rights of copyright holder|rights]] granted under existing copyright law are retained by the copyright holder and that legal action may be taken against [[copyright infringement]]. It was provided as a result of the [[Buenos Aires Convention]] of 1910, which required some statement of reservation of rights to grant international coverage in all the countries that were signatory to that convention. While it is commonplace to see it, this notice is now superfluous, as every country that is a member of the Buenos Aires Convention is also a member of the Berne Convention, which requires copyright to be valid without any formality of notice.
This phrase is sometimes still used even on some documents to which the original author does ''not'' retain all rights granted by copyright law, such as works released under a [[copyleft]] license. This is a habitual formality and is unlikely to have legal consequences.
==The exclusive rights of the copyright holder==
Several exclusive rights typically attach to the holder of a copyright:
* to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies (including, typically, electronic copies)
* to import or export the work
* to create derivative works (adapt the work)
* to perform or display the work publicly
* to sell or assign these rights to others
The phrase "exclusive right" means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise the attendant rights, and others are prohibited from doing them without the consent of the copyright holder. Copyright is often called a "negative right", as it serves to prohibit people (e.g. readers, viewers, or listeners) from doing something, rather than permit people (e.g. authors) to do something. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in [[English law]] and [[European law]].
There is however a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law as an entity, and is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a [[property right]] or a [[moral right]]. Many argue that copyright does not exist merely to restrict third parties from publishing ideas and information, and that defining copyright purely as a negative right is contrary to the public policy objective of encouraging authors to create new works and enrich the public domain.
In the [[United States]], the terms "copyright" and "patent" do not appear in the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]]; they are merely the forms of exclusive rights that the American [[legislature]] is constitutionally empowered to secure to accomplish the stated purpose of promoting the progress of science and useful arts (e.g. according to Article I, Section 8, Clause 8: "Congress shall have Power [...] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.").
The right to adapt a work means to transform the way in which the work is expressed. Examples include developing a stage play or film script from a novel; translating a short story; and making an arrangement of a musical work.
==Limits and exceptions to copyright==
:''Main article: [[Limitations and exceptions to copyright]]''
===Idea-expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine===
:''Main article: [[Idea-expression divide]]''
A copyright covers the expression of an idea, not the idea itself &mdash; this is called the idea/expression or fact/expression dichotomy. For example, if a book is written describing a new way to organize books in a library, a copyright does not prohibit a reader from freely using and describing that concept to others; it is only the particular expression of that process as originally described that is covered by copyright. One might be able to obtain a [[patent]] for the method, but that is a different area of law. Compilations of facts or data may also be copyrighted, but such a copyright is thin; it only applies to the particular selection and arrangement of the facts, not to the particular facts themselves. In some jurisdictions databases are expressly covered by statute.
In some cases, ideas may be capable of intelligible expression in only one or a limited number of ways. Therefore even the expression in these circumstances is not covered. In the United States this is known as the [[merger doctrine]], because the expression is considered to be inextricably merged with the idea. Merger is often pleaded as an [[affirmative defense]] to charges of infringement. That doctrine is not necessarily accepted in other jurisdictions.
===The first-sale doctrine (exhaustion of rights)===
:''Main article: [[First-sale doctrine]]''
Copyright law does ''not'' restrict anyone from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or [[compact disc|CD]]. In the [[United States]] this is known as the [[first-sale doctrine]], and was established by the [[court]]s to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand [[bookstore]]s. Some countries may have [[parallel importation]] restrictions that allow the copyright holder of their licensee to control the [[aftermarket]]. This may mean for example that a copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed '''does''' infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as [[exhaustion of rights]] in other countries and is a principle which applies to patents and trademark rights.
In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying his or her own legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement [[moral rights]], a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.
===Fair use and fair dealing===
:''Main articles: [[fair use]] and [[fair dealing]]''
Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the [[United States]], the fair use doctrine, codified by the [[United States Copyright Act of 1976|Copyright Act of 1976]] as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. In the [[United Kingdom]] and many other [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the [[court]]s or through [[legislation]]. The concept is sometimes not well defined, however in [[Canada]], private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999. In Australia, the [[fair dealing]] exceptions under the ''Copyright Act 1968'' (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyright material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent. Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and criticism; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (ie legal advice). Under current Australian law it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in information technology.
In the United States the AHRA ([[Audio Home Recording Act]] Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.
:''Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions''
:''No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.''
Later acts amended US Copyright law so that making 10 copies or more is considered commercial, and |
mental theorem of arithmetic]], every positive integer has a unique prime factorization. Given an algorithm for integer factorization, one can factor any integer down to its constituent primes by repeated application of this algorithm.
==Practical applications==
The hardness of this problem is at the heart of several important cryptographic systems. A fast integer factorization algorithm would mean that the [[RSA]] [[public-key]] algorithm was insecure. Some cryptographic systems, such as the [[Rabin cryptosystem|Rabin public-key algorithm]] and the [[Blum Blum Shub]] [[pseudo-random number generator]] can make a stronger guarantee - any means of breaking them can be used to build a fast integer factorization algorithm, so if integer factorization is hard then they are strong. In contrast, it may turn out that there are attacks on the [[RSA problem]] more efficient than integer factorization, though none are currently known.
A similar hard problem with cryptographic applications is the [[discrete logarithm problem]].
==Current state of the art==
A team at the German Federal Agency for Information Technology Security ([[BSI]]) holds the record for factorization of [[semiprimes]] in the series proposed by the [[RSA Factoring Challenge]] sponsored by [[RSA Security]]. On May 9, [[2005]], this team announced factorization of [[RSA-200]], a 663-bit number (200 decimal digits), using the [[general number field sieve]].
The same team later announced factorization of [[RSA-640]], a smaller number containing 193 decimal digits (640 bits), on November 4, 2005.
Both factorizations required several months of computer time using the combined power of 80 [[AMD]] [[Opteron]] CPUs.
===Difficulty and complexity===
If a large, ''b''-[[bit]] number is the product of two primes that are roughly the same size, then no [[algorithm]] is known that can factor in polynomial time. That means there is no known algorithm that can factor it in time [[Big O notation|O]](''b''<sup>''k''</sup>) for any constant ''k''. There are algorithms, however, that are faster than [[Big O notation|&Theta;]](e<sup>''b''</sup>). In other words, the best known algorithms are sub-exponential, but super-polynomial. In particular, the best known asymptotic running time is for the [[general number field sieve]] (GNFS) algorithm, which, for a number n, is:
:<math>O\left(\exp\left(\left(\begin{matrix}\frac{64}{9}\end{matrix} \log n\right)^{1\over3} (\log \log n)^{2\over3}\right)\right)</math>
For an ordinary computer, GNFS is the best known algorithm for large ''n''. For a [[quantum computer]], however, [[Peter Shor]] discovered an algorithm in 1994 that solves it in [[polynomial time]]. This will have significant implications for cryptography if a large quantum computer is ever built. [[Shor's algorithm]] takes only O((''log n'')<sup>3</sup>) time and O(log ''n'') space. In 2001, the first 7-qubit quantum computer became the first to run Shor's algorithm. It factored the number 15.
It is not known exactly which [[computational complexity theory|complexity classes]] contain the integer factorization problem. The [[decision problem|decision-problem]] form of it ("does ''N'' have a factor less than ''M''?") is known to be in both [[NP (complexity)|NP]] and [[co-NP]]. This is because both YES and NO answers can be checked if given the prime factors along with their [[primality certificate]]s. It is known to be in [[BQP]] because of [[Shor's algorithm]]. It is suspected to be outside of all three of the complexity classes [[P (complexity)|P]], [[NP-Complete]], and [[co-NP-Complete]]. If it could be proved that it is in either NP-Complete or co-NP-Complete, that would imply NP = co-NP. That would be a very surprising result, and therefore integer factorization is widely suspected to be outside both of those classes. Many people have tried to find classical polynomial-time algorithms for it and failed, and therefore it is widely suspected to be outside P. Another problem in NP but not believed to be in P or NP-complete is the [[graph isomorphism problem]].
Interestingly, the decision problem "is ''N'' a [[composite number]]?" (or equivalently: "is ''N'' a [[prime number]]?") appears to be much easier than the problem of actually finding the factors of ''N''. Specifically, the former can be solved in polynomial time (in the number ''n'' of digits of ''N''), according to a recent preprint given in the references, below. In addition, there are a number of [[randomized algorithm|probabilistic algorithm]]s that can test primality very quickly if one is willing to accept the small possibility of error. The easiness of [[primality test]]ing is a crucial part of the [[RSA]] algorithm, as it is necessary to find large prime numbers to start with.
==Factoring algorithms==
===Special-purpose===
A special-purpose factoring algorithm's running time depends on the properties of its unknown factors: size, special form, etc. Exactly what the running time depends on, varies between algorithms.
* [[Trial division]]
* [[Pollard's rho algorithm]]
* [[Pollard's p-1 algorithm]]
* [[William's p plus 1 algorithm|Williams' p+1 algorithm]]
* [[Lenstra elliptic curve factorization]]
* [[Fermat's factorization method]]
* [[Special number field sieve]]
===General-purpose===
A general-purpose factoring algorithm's running time depends solely on the size of the integer to be factored. This is the type of algorithm used to factor [[RSA number]]s. Most general-purpose factoring algorithms are based on the [[congruence of squares]] method.
* [[Dixon's algorithm]]
* [[Continued fraction factorization]] (CFRAC)
* [[Quadratic sieve]]
* [[General number field sieve]]
* [[Shanks' square forms factorization]] (SQUFOF)
===Other notable algorithms===
* [[Shor's algorithm]], for [[quantum computer]]s
==External links==
*Richard P. Brent, "Recent Progress and Prospects for Integer Factorisation Algorithms", ''Computing and Combinatorics"'', 2000, pp.3-22. [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/327036.html download]
*Manindra Agarwal, Nitin Saxena, Neeraj Kayal, "PRIMES is in P", Preprint, August 6, 2002, http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/news/primality.html
* The "PRIMES is in P" FAQ [http://crypto.cs.mcgill.ca/~stiglic/PRIMES_P_FAQ.html http://crypto.cs.mcgill.ca/~stiglic/PRIMES_P_FAQ.html]
* [ftp://ftp.computing.dcu.ie/pub/crypto/factor.exe] is a public-domain integer factorization program for Windows. It claims to handle 80-digit numbers. See also the web site for this program [http://indigo.ie/~mscott/ MIRACL]
* [http://www.alpertron.com.ar/ECM.HTM http://www.alpertron.com.ar/ECM.HTM] is an integer factorization Java applet that uses the Elliptic Curve Method and the Self Initializing Quadratic Sieve.
* [http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2093 The RSA Challenge Numbers] - a factoring challenge.
* Eric W. Weisstein, [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/news/2005-11-08/rsa-640/ &ldquo;RSA-640 Factored,&rdquo;] ''MathWorld Headline News'', November 8, 2005, http://mathworld.wolfram.com/news/2005-11-08/rsa-640/
==References==
* [[Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Section 4.5.4: Factoring into Primes, pp.379&ndash;417.
* {{cite book|author = [[Richard Crandall]] and [[Carl Pomerance]] | year = 2001 | title = Prime Numbers: A Computational Perspective | publisher = Springer | edition = 1st edition | id = ISBN 0387947779}} Chapter 5: Exponential Factoring Algorithms, pp.191&ndash;226. Chapter 6: Subexponential Factoring Algorithms, pp.227&ndash;284. Section 7.4: Elliptic curve method, pp.301&ndash;313.
[[Category:Integer factorization algorithms|*]]
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<page>
<title>Imperial unit</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about post-1824 Imperial units, please see also [[English unit]], [[U.S. customary unit]] or [[Avoirdupois]].''
The '''Imperial units''' or the '''Imperial system''' is a [[system of units|collection]] of [[English unit]]s, first defined in the Weights and Measures Act<!--s--> of 1824<!-- and 1879-->, later refined (until 1959) and reduced. The units were introduced in the [[United Kingdom]] and its colonies, including [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries, but excluding the then already independent [[United States]]. Systems of Imperial units are sometimes referred to as '''foot-pound-second''', after the base units of length, weight and time.
== Relation to other systems ==
[[Comparison of the Imperial and U.S. customary systems|The distinction]] between this imperial system and the [[U.S. customary unit]]s (also called standard units there) or older British/English units/systems and newer additions is often not drawn precisely. Most length units are shared among the Imperial and U.S. systems, albeit partially and temporally defined slightly differently. Capacity measures differ the most due to the introduction of the Imperial [[gallon]] and the unification of wet and dry measures. The [[avoirdupois]] system only applies to weights; it has a ''long'' flavour and a ''short'' flavour for the hundredweight and ton.
The term ''imperial'' should not be applied to English units that were outlawed in Weights and Measures Act of 1824 |
[[May 21]], [[1959]] and starred [[Ethel Merman]] and [[Jack Klugman]], with Sandra Church in the title role. Choreography was by [[Jerome Robbins]].
Three songs were cut from the show: "Momma's Talkin' Soft," "[If I Had] Three Wishes for Christmas," and "Nice She Ain't."
In 1962, [[Warner Bros.]] released a film version, starring, respectively, [[Rosalind Russell]], [[Karl Malden]], and [[Natalie Wood]]. [[Lisa Kirk]] dubbed Rosalind Russell's singing voice, but Russell's attempts at singing were rediscovered on scratchy [[acetate disc]]s and recently made available as supplements on the CD reissue of the film soundtrack.
The musical has been revived three times on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], running from 1974&ndash;1975 with [[Angela Lansbury]] as Rose, from 1989&ndash;1991 with [[Tyne Daly]] initially as Rose, later replaced by [[Linda Lavin]], and most recently in 2003 with [[Bernadette Peters]].
The musical was also adapted as a [[television]] movie in 1993 with [[Bette Midler]] playing Rose, and directed by [[Emile Ardolino]]. [[Cynthia Gibb]] portrayed Louise and Jennifer Beck portrayed Dainty June.
A 1998 production featuring [[Betty Buckley]] and [[Deborah Gibson]] at the [[Paper Mill Playhouse]] never made it to Broadway, but became a subject of some notoriety in the theatre community when e-mails from an anonymous cast member detailing the backstage behaviour of the stars became public. The author was eventually revealed as [[John Flynn]], who has now done several New York stagings of his cabaret act (with parodies of ''Gypsy'' songs), ''Dances with Pitchforks'', based on his experiences portraying "Non-Equity Farmboy 5".
In 2003, a [[Sam Mendes]]-directed production of ''Gypsy'' played at the [[Shubert Theatre]]. Bernadette Peters played Rose, Tammy Blanchard portrayed Louise, and John Dossett played Herbie.
The role of Mama Rose in ''Gypsy'' is regarded as the pinnacle of all diva roles in musical theatre, as seen by its frequent revivals with big name stars (some perhaps more deserving than others), a reputation that began with its original cast and the legendary Ethel Merman. However, in the most recent revival Arthur Laurents, book writer and previous director of the show, praised Bernadette Peters "as the best" Rose yet, bringing to the role a poignant "sense of vunerability." Due to a poor marketing strategy and an unfortunate vocal infection of its star during previews, the Peters revival of ''Gypsy'' received limited commercial success despite critics' approval. Ms. Peters was nominated for a Tony Award for her performance as Mama Rose, famously singing the Act II closer "Rose's Turn" at the 2004 Tonys, but did not win.
=='''Songs==
# "May We Entertain You"
# "Some People"
# "Small World"
# "Baby June and Her Newsboys"
# "Mr. Goldstone"
# "Little Lamb"
# "You'll Never Get Away From Me"
# "Dainty June and Her Farmboys"
# "If Momma Was Married"
# "All I Need is the Girl"
# "Everything's Coming Up Roses"
# "Together Wherever We Go"
# "You Gotta Get a Gimmick"
# "May We Entertain You" (reprise)
[[Category:Musical films|Gypsy]]
[[Category:Musicals]]
[[Category:Biographical films]]
[[Category:Drama films]]
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<title>Galileo (disambiguation)</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Galileo''' can mean:
*[[Galileo Galilei]] (1564-1642), astronomer, philosopher, and physicist.
*[[Galileo (unit)]], a measure of acceleration.
*[[Galileo (song)]], a pop song by the ''Indigo Girls''.
*[[Galileo spacecraft]], a space probe that visited Jupiter.
*[[Galileo (magazine)]], a 1970s science fiction magazine.
*[[Galileo positioning system]], a European satellite navigation system, currently in development.
*[[Life of Galileo]], a play by Bertolt Brecht.
*[[Galileo (movie)]], an adaptation of Brecht's play.
*[[Galileo Galilei (opera)]], an opera by Philip Glass.
*[[Galileo Academy of Science and Technology]], a high school in San Francisco.
*[[Galileo CRS]], an airline reservation system.
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<title>Galileo Galilei</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Galileo}}
[[Image:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|thumb|right|Galileo Galilei]]
'''Galileo Galilei''' ([[Pisa]], [[February 15]] [[1564]] &ndash; [[Arcetri]], [[January 8]] [[1642]]), was an [[Italian people|Italian]] [[physicist]], [[astronomer]], and [[philosopher]] who is closely associated with the [[scientific revolution]]. His achievements include improvements to the [[telescope]], a variety of astronomical observations, the first [[Newton's laws of motion#Newton's First Law: Law of Inertia|law of motion]], the second [[Newton's laws of motion#Newton's Second Law: Fundamental Law of Dynamics|law of motion]], and effective support for [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicanism]]. He has been referred to as the "[[List of people known as the father or mother of something|father]] of modern [[astronomy]]", as the "mother of modern [[physics]]", and as "father of [[science]]". His experimental work is widely considered complementary to the writings of [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]] in establishing the modern [[scientific method]]. Galileo's career coincided with that of [[Johannes Kepler]]. The work of Galileo is considered to be a significant break from that of [[Aristotle]]. In addition, his conflict with the [[Roman Catholic Church]] is taken as a major early example of the conflict of authority and [[freedom of thought]], particularly with [[science]], in [[Western society]].
==Family and early career==
Galileo was born in [[Pisa]], in the [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] region of [[Italy]], the son of [[Vincenzo Galilei]], a mathematician and musician born in Florence in 1520, and Giulia Ammannati, born in Pescia and married in 1563. Galileo was their first child. Although a devout [[Catholic]], Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock. All were the children of Galileo and [[Marina Gamba]]. Because of their illegitimate birth, both girls were sent to the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri at early ages.
* Virginia (1600&ndash;1634) who took the name [[Maria Celeste]] upon entering a convent. Galileo's eldest child, the most beloved, and inherited her father's sharp mind. She died on April 2, 1634. She is buried with Galileo at the [[Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze]].
* Livia (b. 1601) took the name Suor Arcangela. Was sickly for most of her life at the convent.
* Vincenzio (b. 1606) was later legitimized and married Sestilia Bocchineri.
Galileo was home-schooled at a very young age. After that he attended the [[University of Pisa]], but was forced to cease his study there for financial reasons. However, he was offered a position on its faculty in 1589 and taught mathematics. Soon after, he moved to the [[University of Padua]], and served on its faculty teaching [[geometry]], [[mechanics]], and [[astronomy]] until 1610. During this time he explored science and made many landmark discoveries.
==Experimental science==
In the pantheon of the scientific revolution, Galileo takes a high position because of his pioneering use of quantitative experiments with results analysed mathematically. There was no tradition of such methods in European thought at that time; the great experimentalist who immediately preceded Galileo, [[William Gilbert]], did not use a quantitative approach. However, Galileo's father, [[Vincenzo Galilei]], had performed experiments in which he discovered what may be the oldest known non-linear relation in physics, between the tension and the pitch of a stretched string. Galileo also contributed to the rejection of blind allegiance to authority (like the Church) or other thinkers (such as [[Aristotle]]) in matters of science and to the separation of science from [[philosophy]] or religion. These are the primary justifications for his description as the "father of science".
In the 20th century some authorities challenged the reality of Galileo's experiments, in particular the distinguished French [[History of science and technology|historian of science]] [[Alexandre Koyré]]. The experiments reported in ''[[Two New Sciences]]'' to determine the law of acceleration of falling bodies, for instance, required accurate measurements of time, which appeared to be impossible with the technology of the 1600s. According to Koyré, the law was arrived at deductively, and the experiments were merely illustrative thought experiments.
Later research, however, has validated the experiments. The experiments on falling bodies (actually rolling balls) were replicated using the methods described by Galileo (Settle, 1961), and the precision of the results was consistent with Galileo's report. Later research into Galileo's unpublished working papers from as early as 1604 clearly showed the reality of the experiments and even indicated the particular results that led t |
They were met by international volunteers who had already been fighting in Spain: the surviving Germans from the Thälmann-Batallion, Italians from Gastone Sozzi and French from Commune de Paris. (Amongst these men was [[Britain|British]] poet [[John Cornford]]). Men were sorted according to their experience and origin, and dispatched to units.
Albacete base was under the command of [[André Marty]], a French Communist whose obsession for plots and spies would trigger massive purges ([[Ernest Hemingway]] would draft a ferocious portrait of Marty in ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]''). Marty was essentially incompetent and owed his position to the friendship with [[Stalin]]. He was seconded by better leaders, who set up training for Cavalry, Artillery and Infantry, and hospitals.
The [[French Communist Party]] provided uniforms for the Brigades. Discipline was extreme. For several months, the Brigades were locked in their base while their strict military training was under way.
== First Engagements: the Battle of Madrid ==
The first International Brigade, the XIth Brigade (numbered XI, next to the ten [[mixed brigades]] of the Spanish regular army), under command of [["Kléber" Stern | Kléber]], was engaged during the [[Battle of Madrid]], occupying its positions on [[8 November]] [[1936]]. There were the ''Edgard André'' (German), ''Commune de Paris'' (French), and ''Jarosław Dąbrowski'' (Polish) battalions, and a section of British machine-gunners, totalling around 1900 men. The XIIth brigade took its positions on the [[13 November]] [[1936]], with 1550 men.
[[Image:International Brigades poster1.jpg|thumbnail|200px|left|Republican propaganda poster featuring the International Brigades. The text reads: "All the people of the world are in the International Brigades at the side of the Spanish People". The three figures are those of a "yellow", "black" and "white" soldier, as to represent the whole humanity.]]
The Battle of Madrid was a major success for the Republic, and the role of the International Brigades in this victory was generally recognised, sometimes even beyond reality (the British Ambassador, Sir Henry Childon, declared that there were no Spaniards in the Army which had defended Madrid). Even though the International Brigades did not win the battle by themselves, nor significantly change the situation, they certainly did provide an example by their superb fight, and improved the morale of the population by demonstrating the concern of other nations in the fight.
[[Image:International Brigades casa del campo.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Brigadists at ''Casa del Campo'' on the western outskirts of Madrid.]]
One of the strategic positions in Madrid was the [[Casa del Campo]]. There the Nationalist troops were [[Arab]]s commanded by [[General Varela]]. They were excellent fighters in the open, but were ill-trained for urban warfare, a role which the Republicans mastered from the early days of the war. They were thus stopped by the IIIrd and IVth Brigades of the regular Republican Army.
On [[9 November]] [[1936]], the whole XIth Brigade was at the Casa del Campo. In the evening [["Kléber" Stern | Kléber]] launched an assault on the Nationalist positions, which lasted for the whole night and part of the next morning. At the end of the fight, the Nationalist troops had been forced to retreat, abandoning all hopes of a direct assault on Madrid by Casa del Campo, while the XIth Brigade had lost a third of its men.
On the 12th, as the battle was raging on, the XIIth Brigade, under General "[[Lukacs]]", took its positions on the [[Valencia]]-[[Madrid]] road, with battalions ''Thälmann'' (Germans and Scandinavians), ''André Marty''(French and Belgians) and ''Garibaldi'' (Italians). The XIIth launched an attack on Nationalist positions on the hill ''Corro de los Angeles'', which was unsuccessful (languages and communication problems, command issues, lack of rest, bad links with armoured units and insufficient artillery support seem to have contributed to the failure).
On the 16th, Anarchist units of the Republican Army were forced to retreat, and the University City was taken by Nationalist troops -- Arab troops and legionnaires covered by the Nazi [[Condor Legion]]. The XIth Brigade was sent to defend the City. The battle was extremely bloody, a mix of artillery and aerial bombardments with bayonet and grenade fights, room by room. Anarchist leader [[Durruti]] was shot there on the [[19 November]] [[1936]], and died the next day. The battle in the University went on until 3/4 of the City was under nationalist control. Both sides then started setting up trenches and fortifications. It was then clear that any assault from either side would be far too costly; the nationalist leaders had to renounce the idea of a direct assault on Madrid, and ready for a [[siege]] of the capital.
On [[13 December]] [[1936]], 18,000 nationalist troops attempted an attack to close the encirclement of Madrid at [[Guadarrama]]. The Republicans sent a Soviet armoured unit (under General [[Dmitry Pavlov]], whose experience in Spain would make him a future hero of the [[Second World War]]) and both XIth and XIIth International Brigades. Violent combat resulted in stopping the Nationalist advance.
An attack was then launched by the Republic on the [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]] front. The battle ended in a form of stale-mate (a communication was issued, saying: "Today, our advance continued without loss of land"). Poets [[Ralph Fox (disambiguation)|Ralph Fox]] and [[John Cornford]] were killed. Eventually, the Nationalists advanced, taking the hydro-electric station at ''El Campo''. [[André Marty]] accused the commander of the ''Marseillaise'' Battalion, [[Gaston Delasalle]], of espionage and treason and had him executed (it is doubtful that Delasalle would have been a spy for Francisco Franco; he was denounced by his own second-in-command, [[André Heussler]], who might have been a traitor himself and was later executed for treason by the French Resistance during the Second World War).
Further Nationalist attempts after Christmas to encircle Madrid met with failure, not without extremely violent combat. On [[6 January]] [[1937]], the ''Thaelmann'' Battalion arrived at ''[[Las Rozas]]'' and held its positions virtually to the last man. On the 9th, only ten kilometers had been lost to the Nationalists, when the XIIth and XIVth International Brigades and the 1st British Company arrived in Madrid. Violent Republican assaults were launched in attempt to retake the land, but with little success. On the 15th, trenches and fortifications were built by both sides, resulting in a stalemate.
The Nationalists did not retake Madrid until the very end of the war.
== The battle of [[Jarama]] ==
On the [[6 February]] [[1937]], following the fall of [[Málaga]], the nationalists launched an attack on the [[Madrid]]-[[Andalusia]] road, south of Madrid. The Nationalists quickly advanced on the little town [[Ciempozuelos]], held by the XVth International Brigade, which was composed by the ''Saklatvala'' Battalion (British), the ''Dimitrov'' battalion (miscellaneous [[Balkan]] nationalities), the ''6 Février'' Battalion ([[Belgium|Belgians]] and French) and the ''[[Abraham Lincoln]]'' battalion (550 [[United States|Americans]], many of them [[African-American]]).
There was also a sub unit of Irish men in this battle known as the [[Connolly Column]]. This group suffered heavy blows as there was only around 80 Irish men to begin with, these Irish men were made up of southern irish and northern Irish. The northern Irish comrades came from Belfast, Derry and other Counties and were: Charlie Donnelly, Eddie O'Flaherty, Paul Burns, Jackie Hunt, Bill Henry, Bill Beattie, Paddy McLaughlin, Bill Henry, Peter O'Connor, Peter Power, Johnny Power, Liam Tumilson, Jim Straney, Willie O'Hanlon, Ben Murray and Fred McMahon.From County Derry came Eamonn Mc Grotty an ex Christian Brother and fluent Irish speaker who taught his classes through the medium of Irish, he died fighting alongside Bob Hillard from County Kerry, a Church of Ireland Pastor who was wounded in the same battle and would later die from the injuries he recieved.This particular instance shows the diverse backgrounds of those in the International Brigades, one an ex Catholic Christian Brother, the other an ordained Church of Ireland Clergyman, fighting and dying on the same side.
On the [[11 February]] [[1937]], all sentries of the ''André Marty'' battalion of the XIVth Brigade were stabbed and a Nationalist brigade crossed the Jarama. The ''Garibaldi'' Battalion stopped the advance with heavy fire. At another point, the same tactic allowed the Nationalists to deploy their troops past the river.
The British ''Saklatvala'' Battalion took most of the attack, on the 12th. It defended its positions under heavy artillery fire for 7 hours. The place became known as "Suicide Hill". At the end of the day, 225 men remained of the 600 of the British battalion. A company was made prisoner by ruse (Nationalists advanced amongst their ranks singing ''[[The Internationale]]'').
On the 17th, the Republican Army struck back. The 23rd and the 27th, the International Brigades were engaged, but with little success. The ''Abraham Lincoln'' battalion was put under great pressure, with no artillery support. There were 120 killed and 175 wounded. Amongst the dead was the [[Ireland|Irish]] poet [[Charles Donelly]] [http://www.ajoderse.com/varios/red/red.htm].
As in Madrid, the fight resulted in a stalemate, since both sides had consolidated their positions to the point were no useful assault could be undertaken.
On the [[22 February]], [[1937]] the [[League of Nations]] Non-Intervention Committee ban on foreign national "volunteers" went into effect.
==The [[Battle of Guadalajara]] ==
After the failed assault on the Ja |
s Sara Simeoni.
==Current status==
At all but novice levels of competition, or where built-up landing areas are not available, the [[Fosbury Flop]] is now almost universally used. The current men's world record of 2.45 m (8'0-1/2") was set in [[1993]] by Cuba's [[Javier Sotomayor]], while the women's world record holder is [[Stefka Kostadinova]] of Bulgaria. In the 2004 Olympics, Sweden's [[Stefan Holm]] won the men's gold medal, and Russia's [[Yelena Slesarenko]] outjumped two-time world champion [[Hestrie Cloete]] to win the women's title. Holm, at 1.81 m tall, equaled Franklin Jacobs' height-over-head record of 59 cm when he cleared 2.40 m (7'10-1/2") to win the European Indoor championships in March 2005.
==Procedures and rules==
In a competition, the bar is initially set at a relatively low height, and is moved upward in set increments (usually 3 or 5 centimetres, can be 1 cm for record attempts). Each competitor has the option of choosing at which height they wish to start, but once a height has been cleared other competitors may not start at a lower height. Once a competitor has elected to begin, they can choose whether or not to attempt subsequent heights. A competitor may choose to ''pass'' at a given height or, after failing to clear the bar at a given height, may "pass" on subsequent attempts at that height. Any competitor who records three consecutive misses is out of the competition. The competitor who clears the highest jump is declared the winner. If two or more competitors clear the same maximum height, the competitor with the lowest number of failed attempts (at any height) wins. If that fails to break a tie for first place, a ''jump off'' is conducted. Heights obtained in such a jump off are eligible for records.
[[Image:Mens high jump world record progression.jpg|thumb|left|500px]]
The modern high jump bar is made of [[glass-reinforced plastic]] or [[aluminum]]. Other materials are allowed, but there are weight and sag restrictions. The bar is approximately 4 metres in length ([[International Association of Athletics Federations|IAAF]] rules control length for record purposes), with a round, triangular, or square cross-section for most of its length, and two square resting points at each end. It is placed at a measured height on two ''uprights'' which allow the bar to rest on its ends at a measured height. Cleared heights are reported by measuring from the take-off point to the top edge of the lowest part of the bar. Directly behind the bar is a soft foam mat that allows for a safe landing. Competitors must leap off one foot to clear the bar. Although they may touch the bar in their clearance, the jump is ruled unsuccessful if the bar falls due to their touch. There are rare instances when competitors have been allowed to retry an attempt where the bar has fallen. This can only happen if the official declares that the bar fell due to other external circumstances, such as wind.
==Top 10 performers==
''as of January 1, 2006''
===Men===
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
|- bgcolor=#efefef
!Mark!!Athlete!!Nationality!!Venue!!Date
|-
| 2.45 || [[Javier Sotomayor]] || {{CUB}} || [[Salamanca]] || July 27, 1993
|-
| 2.42 || [[Patrik Sjöberg]] || {{SWE}} || [[Stockholm]] || June 30, 1987
|-
| 2.41 || [[Igor Paklin]] || {{URS}} / {{KGZ}} || [[Kobe]] || September 4, 1985
|-
| 2.40 || [[Rudolf Povarnitsyn]] || {{URS}} / {{UKR}} || [[Donetsk]] || August 11, 1985
|-
| 2.40 || [[Sorin Matei]] || {{ROM}} || [[Bratislava]] || June 20, 1990
|-
| 2.40 || [[Charles Austin]] || {{USA}} || [[Zurich]] || August 7, 1991
|-
| 2.40 || [[Vyacheslav Voronin]] || {{RUS}} || [[London]] || August 5, 2000
|-
| 2.39 || [[Jianhua Zhu]] || {{CHN}} || [[Eberstadt]] || June 10, 1984
|-
| 2.39 || [[Hollis Conway]] || {{USA}} || [[Norman, OK|Norman]] || July 30, 1989
|-
| 2.38 || seven athletes || - || - || -
|}
===Women===
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
|- bgcolor=#efefef
!Mark!!Athlete!!Nationality!!Venue!!Date
|-
| 2.09 || [[Stefka Kostadinova]] || {{BUL}} || [[Rome]] || August 30, 1987
|-
| 2.07 || [[Lyudmila Andonova]] || {{BUL}} || [[Berlin]] || July 20, 1984
|-
| 2.06 || [[Kajsa Bergqvist]] || {{SWE}} || [[Eberstadt]] || July 26, 2003
|-
| 2.06 || [[Hestrie Cloete]] || {{RSA}} || [[Paris]] || August 31, 2003
|-
| 2.06 || [[Yelena Slesarenko]] || {{RUS}} || [[Athens]] || August 28, 2004
|-
| 2.05 || [[Tamara Bykova]] || {{URS}} / {{RUS}} || [[Kyiv]] || June 22, 1984
|-
| 2.05 || [[Heike Henkel]] || {{GER}} || [[Tokyo]] || August 31, 1991
|-
| 2.05 || [[Inha Babakova]] || {{URS}} / {{UKR}} || [[Tokyo]] || September 15, 1995
|-
| 2.04 || [[Silvia Costa]] || {{CUB}} || [[Barcelona]] || September 9, 1989
|-
| 2.04 || [[Venelina Veneva]] || {{BUL}} || [[Kalamata]] || June 2, 2001
|}
==See also==
* [[Olympic medalists in athletics (women)#High_jump]]
* [[Olympic medalists in athletics (men)#High_jump]]
* [[Athletics at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's High Jump]]
* [[Athletics at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's High Jump]]
* [[World Record progression in athletics high jump men]]
==References==
* ''The Complete Book of Track and Field'', by Tom McNab
* ''The [[World Almanac and Book of Facts]], 2000''
==External links==
*[http://www.iaaf.org/statistics/toplists/inout=O/ageGroup=N/season=0/gender=M/discipline=HJ/legal=A/index.html IAAF all-time list (men)]
*[http://www.iaaf.org/statistics/toplists/inout=O/ageGroup=N/season=0/gender=W/discipline=HJ/legal=A/index.html IAAF all-time list (women)]
{{Template:Track events}}
[[Category:Events in athletics]]
[[ca:Salt d'alçada]]
[[cs:Skok do výšky]]
[[da:Højdespring]]
[[de:Hochsprung]]
[[et:Kõrgushüpe]]
[[es:Salto de altura]]
[[fr:Saut en hauteur]]
[[it:Salto in alto]]
[[he:קפיצה לגובה]]
[[nl:Hoogspringen]]
[[ja:走り高跳び]]
[[pl:Skok wzwyż]]
[[simple:High jump]]
[[fi:Korkeushyppy]]
[[sv:Höjdhopp]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heraclitus</title>
<id>13792</id>
<revision>
<id>42101069</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:05:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Crculver</username>
<id>38153</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Remove non-notable religious sect reference</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Heraclitus, Johannes Moreelse.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Heraclitus by [[Johannes Moreelse]]]]
'''Heraclitus''' of Ephesus (Greek {{polytonic|Ἡ&#961;&#8049;&#954;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#964;&#959;&#962;}} ''Herakleitos'') (about [[535 BC|535]] - [[475 BC]]), known as 'The Obscure,' was a [[pre-Socratic]] Greek [[philosopher]] from [[Ephesus]] in [[Asia Minor]]. As with other pre-Socratics, his writings only survive in fragments quoted by other authors. He disagreed with [[Thales]], [[Anaximander]], and [[Pythagoras]] about the nature of the ultimate substance, but instead claimed that the nature of everything is change itself; he uses fire as a metaphor rather than his solution to material monism. This led to the belief that [[change]] is real, and stability illusory. For Heraclitus everything is "in flux", as exemplified in his famous [[aphorism]] "Panta Rhei":
<blockquote>{{polytonic|&#928;&#8049;&#957;&#964;&#945; &#8165;&#949;&#8150; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#959;&#8016;&#948;&#8050;&#957; &#956;&#8051;&#957;&#949;&#953;}}<br />
Everything flows, nothing stands still</blockquote> Heraclitus is recognized as one of the earliest [[dialectic]]al philosophers with his acknowledgement of the universality of change and development through internal contradictions, as in his statements:
<blockquote>"By cosmic rule, as day yields night, so winter summer, war peace, plenty famine. All things change. Fire penetrates the lump of myrrh, until the joining bodies die and rise again in smoke called incence."</blockquote>
<blockquote>"Men do not know how that which is drawn in different directions harmonises with itself. The harmonious structure of the world depends upon opposite tension like that of the bow and the lyre."</blockquote>
He is famous for expressing the notion that no man can cross the same river twice:
<blockquote>ποταμοῖς τοῖς αὐτοῖς ἐμβαίνομέν τε καὶ οὐκ ἐμβαίνομεν
<br>
εἶμέν τε καὶ οὐκ εἶμεν.
<br>
We both step and do not step in the same rivers.
<br>
We are and are not.</blockquote>
The idea of the ''[[logos]]'' is also credited to him, as he proclaims that everything originates out of the ''logos''. Further, Heraclitus said
<blockquote>"I am as I am not," </blockquote>
and
<blockquote>"He who hears not me but the ''logos'' will say: All is one."</blockquote>
Heraclitus held that an explanation of change was foundational to any theory of nature. This view was strongly opposed by [[Parmenides]], who argued that change is an illusion and that everything is fundamentally static.
[[Image:Hendrik ter Brugghen - Heraclitus.jpg|left|200px|thumb|by [[Hendrik ter Brugghen]]]]
He appears to have taught by means of small, oracular [[aphorism]]s meant to encourage thinking based on natural law and reason. The brevity and elliptical logic of his aphorisms earned Heraclitus the epithet 'Obscure'. The technique, as well as the teaching, is [[Wiktionary:redolent|redolent]] of [[Zen Buddhism]]'s [[koan]]s.
Moreover, the Heraclitean emphasis on the nature of things and existence as one of constant change, expressed with language of polarity, is particularly reminiscent of another ancient philosophical tradition, that of [[Taoism]]: the ''[[Tao]]'' (or "the Way") often refers to a space-time sequence, and is similarly expressed with seemingly-contradictory language (e.g., "The Way is like an empty vessel / that m |
1989]]) following a parliamentary election in which the Communists emerged as the winner and the country came under the influence of the [[Soviet Union]]. Except for a short period in the late [[1960s]] (the [[Prague Spring]]) the country was characterized by the absence of democracy and relative economic backwardness compared to Western Europe, although its economy remained more advanced than those of its neighbors in Eastern Europe. In the religious sphere, [[atheism]] was officially promoted and taught. In [[1969]], Czechoslovakia was turned into a [[federation]] of the [[Czech Socialist Republic]] and [[Slovak Socialist Republic]]. Under the federation, social and economic inequities between the Czech and Slovak halves of the state were largely eliminated.
In [[1989]], the country became a democratic country again through the [[Velvet revolution]]. In [[1992]], the federal parliament decided to split the country into the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]], as of [[January 1]], [[1993]].
=== From creation to dissolution — overview ===
{{Cs-timeline}}
== Heads of state and government ==
*[[List of Presidents of Czechoslovakia]]
*[[List of Prime Ministers of Czechoslovakia]]
* see also [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia]] &mdash; [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia#Leaders|Leaders]]
== International agreements and membership ==
After WWII, active participant in Council for Mutual Economic Assistance ([[Comecon]]), [[Warsaw Pact]], [[United Nations]] and its specialized agencies, and [[Movement of Nonaligned Nations]]; signatory of [[conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe]]
== Administrative divisions ==
''Main article: [[Administrative divisions of Czechoslovakia]]''
*[[1918]]&ndash;[[1923]]: different systems on former Austrian territory ([[Bohemia]], [[Moravia]], small part of [[Silesia]]) and on former Hungarian territory ([[Slovakia]] and [[Ruthenia]]): 3 lands [země] (also called district units [obvody]) Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia + 21 counties [župy] in today's Slovakia + 2? counties in today's Ruthenia; both lands and counties were divided in districts [okresy]
*[[1923]]&ndash;[[1927]]: like above, except that the above counties were replaced by 6 (grand) counties [(veľ)župy] in today's Slovakia and 1 (grand) county in today's Ruthenia, and the number and frontiers of the okresy were changed on these 2 territories
*[[1928]]&ndash;[[1938]]: 4 lands [in Czech: země / in Slovak: krajiny]: Bohemia, Moravia-Silesia, Slovakia and Subcarpathian Ruthenia; divided in districts [okresy]
*late [[1938]]&ndash;March [[1939]]: like above, but Slovakia and Ruthenia were promoted to "autonomous lands"
*[[1945]]&ndash;[[1948]]: like 1928&ndash;1938, except that Ruthenia became part of the Soviet Union
*[[1949]]&ndash;[[1960]]: 19 regions [kraje] divided in 270 districts [okresy]
*[[1960]]&ndash;[[1992]]: 10 regions [kraje], [[Prague]], and (since 1970) [[Bratislava]]; divided in 109&ndash;114 districts [okresy]; the kraje were abolished temporarily in Slovakia in 1969&ndash;1970 and for many functions since 1991 in Czechoslovakia; in addition, the two republics Czech Socialist Republic and Slovak Socialist Republic were established in 1969 (without the word ''Socialist'' since 1990)
== Population and ethnic groups ==
''Main article'': [[Population and Ethnic Groups of Czechoslovakia]]
== Religion ==
''Main article'': [[Religion in Communist Czechoslovakia]]
In 1991: Roman Catholics 46.4%, Evangelic Lutheran 5.3%, Atheist 29.5%, n/a 16.7%, but there were huge differences between the 2 constituent republics &ndash; see [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]]
== Health, social welfare and housing==
''Main article'': [[Health and Social Welfare in Communist Czechoslovakia]]
After WWII, free health care was available to all citizens. National health planning emphasized preventive medicine; factory and local health-care centers supplemented hospitals and other inpatient institutions. Substantial improvement in rural health care in 1960s and 1970s.
== Politics ==
''Main articles'': [[Czechoslovakia: 1918 - 1938]] and [[Politics of Communist Czechoslovakia]]
After WWII, monopoly on politics held by [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia]]. [[Gustáv Husák]] elected first secretary of KSC in 1969 (changed to general secretary in 1971) and president of Czechoslovakia in 1975. Other parties and organizations existed but functioned in subordinate roles to KSC. All political parties, as well as numerous mass organizations, grouped under umbrella of National Front of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. Human rights activists and religious activists severely repressed
== Government==
''Main article'': [[Government structure of Communist Czechoslovakia]]
== Constitutional development ==
Czechoslovakia had the following [[constitution]]s throughout its history (1918 &ndash; 1992):
* Temporary Constitution of November 14 1918 [democratic], see: [[Czechoslovakia: 1918 - 1938]]
* The 1920 Constitution (The Constitutional Document of the Czechoslovak Republic) [democratic, in force till 1948, several amendments], see: [[Czechoslovakia: 1918 - 1938]]
* The 1948 Constitution (The [[Ninth-of-May Constitution]]) [a Communist one]
* The [[1960 Constitution of Czechoslovakia|1960 Constitution]] (The Constitution of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic) [a Communist one till 1989] with amendments in 1968 (Czechoslovakia turned into a federation), 1971, 1975, 1978, 1989 (leading role of the [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia|KSC]] abolished) and several times during 1990-1992 (e. g. 1990 change of the name of Czechoslovakia, 1991 incorporation of the human rights charter)
== Society and social groups ==
''Main article'': [[Society of Communist Czechoslovakia]]
== Education ==
''Main article'': [[Education in Czechoslovakia]]
Education free at all levels and compulsory from age six to sixteen. Vast majority of population literate. Highly developed system of apprenticeship training and vocational schools supplemented general secondary schools and institutions of higher education
== Resource base ==
''Main article'': [[Resource base of Communist Czechoslovakia]]
After WWII, country energy short, relying on imported crude oil and natural gas from Soviet Union, domestic brown coal, and nuclear and hydroelectric energy. Energy constraints a major factor in 1980s.
== Economy, foreign trade and financial system==
''Main articles'': [[Economy of Communist Czechoslovakia]] and [[Economic History of Communist Czechoslovakia]]
After WWII, economy centrally planned with command links controlled by communist party, similar to [[Soviet Union]]. Large metallurgical industry but dependent on imports for iron and nonferrous ores.
*Industry: Extractive and manufacturing industries dominated sector. Major branches included machinery, chemicals, food processing, metallurgy, and textiles. Industry wasteful of energy, materials, and labor and slow to upgrade technology, but country source of high-quality machinery and arms for other communist countries.
*Agriculture: Minor sector but supplied bulk of food needs. Dependent on large imports of grains (mainly for livestock feed) in years of adverse weather. Meat production constrained by shortage of feed, but high per capita consumption of meat.
*Foreign Trade: Exports estimated at US$17.8 billion in 1985, of which 55 % machinery, 14 % fuels and materials, 16 % manufactured consumer goods. Imports at estimated US$17.9 billion in 1985, of which 41 % fuels and materials, 33 % machinery, 12 % agricultural and forestry products other. In 1986, about 80 % of foreign trade with communist countries.
*Exchange Rate: Official, or commercial, rate Kcs 5.4 per US$1 in 1987; tourist, or noncommercial, rate Kcs 10.5 per US$1. Neither rate reflected purchasing power. The exchange rate on the [[black market]] was around Kcs 30 per US$1, and this rate became the official one once the currency became convertible in the early 1990s.
*Fiscal Year: Calendar year.
*Fiscal Policy: State almost exclusive owner of means of production. Revenues from state enterprises primary source of revenues followed by turnover tax. Large budget expenditures on social programs, subsidies, and investments. Budget usually balanced or small surplus.
== Transportation and communications ==
''Main article'': [[Transportation in Czechoslovakia]]
== Mass media ==
''Main article'': [[Mass media in Communist Czechoslovakia]]
== Sports ==
The [[Czechoslovakia national football team]] was a consistent performer in the international scene, with 8 appearances in the [[Football World Cup|FIFA World Cup Finals]], finishing in second-place in [[Football World Cup 1934|1934]] and [[Football World Cup 1962|1962]]. The team also won the [[European Football Championship]] in [[1976 European Football Championship|1976]].
The [[Czechoslovakian national ice hockey team]] has won many medals from the world championships and olympic games.
The famous [[tennis]] players [[Ivan Lendl]] and [[Martina Navrátilová]] were born in Czechoslovakia.
== Culture ==
See:
*[[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]]
*[[List of Czechs]], [[List of Slovaks]]
*[[MDZ (International Women's Day in Czechoslovakia, 1948 - 1989)|MDŽ]]
== Postage stamps ==
Czechoslovakia's first issue [http://www.fortunecity.com/marina/armada/367/czecfirs.htm]
==See also==
{{commonscat|Czechoslovakia}}
*[[Former countries in Europe after 1815]]
[[Category:Czechoslovakia]]
[[Category:Former countries in Europe]]
{{Link FA|eo}}
[[ar:تشيكوسلوفاكيا]]
[[bg:Чехословакия]]
[[ca:Txecoslovàquia]]
[[cs:Československo]]
[[cy:Tsiecoslofacia]]
[[da:Tjekkoslovakiet]]
[[de:Tschechoslowakei]]
[[el:Τσεχοσλοβακία]]
[[eo:Ĉeĥoslovakio]]
[[es:Checoslovaquia]]
[[et:Tšehhoslovakkia]]
[[eu:Txekoslobakia]]
[[fi:Tšekkoslovakia]]
[[fr:Tchécoslovaquie]]
[[gl:Checoslovaquia - Československo]]
[[he:צ'כוסלובקיה]]
[[hr:Čehoslovačka]]
[[hu:Csehszlovákia]]
[[ |
[[group (mathematics)|group]] of every finite field is cyclic, a special case of a theorem mentioned [[Field_%28mathematics%29#Some_first_theorems|here]] in the article about [[field (mathematics)|fields]]. This means that if ''F'' is a finite field with ''q'' elements, then there always exists an element ''x'' in ''F'' such that
:''F'' = { 0, 1, ''x'', ''x''<sup>2</sup>, ..., ''x''<sup>''q''-2</sup> }.
Unless ''q'' = 2 or 3, the element ''x'' is not unique. If we fix one, then for any non-zero element ''a'' in ''F''<sub>''q''</sub>, there is a unique integer ''n'' with
:0 &le; ''n'' &le; ''q'' &minus; 2
such that
:''a'' = ''x''<sup>''n''</sup>.
The value of ''n'' for a given ''a'' is called the ''[[discrete logarithm | discrete log]]'' of ''a'' (in the given field, to base ''x''). In practice, although calculating ''x''<sup>''n''</sup> is relatively trivial given ''n'', finding ''n'' for a given ''a'' is (under current theories) a computationally difficult process, and has many applications in [[cryptography]].
Finite fields also find applications in [[coding theory]]: many codes are constructed as [[linear subspace|subspace]]s of [[vector space]]s over finite fields.
== Some Small finite fields ==
'''GF'''(2):
+ | 0 1 · | 0 1
--+---- --+----
0 | 0 1 0 | 0 0
1 | 1 0 1 | 0 1
'''GF'''(3):
+ | 0 1 2 · | 0 1 2
--+------ --+------
0 | 0 1 2 0 | 0 0 0
1 | 1 2 0 1 | 0 1 2
2 | 2 0 1 2 | 0 2 1
'''GF'''(4):
+ | 0 1 A B · | 0 1 A B
--+-------- --+--------
0 | 0 1 A B 0 | 0 0 0 0
1 | 1 0 B A 1 | 0 1 A B
A | A B 0 1 A | 0 A B 1
B | B A 1 0 B | 0 B 1 A
== See also ==
*[[Finite field arithmetic]]
[[Category:Field theory]]
[[de:Endlicher Körper]]
[[es:Cuerpo finito]]
[[fr:Corps fini]]
[[ko:유한체]]
[[he:שדה סופי]]
[[nl:Eindig lichaam]]
[[ja:有限体]]
[[pl:Ciało skończone]]
[[zh:有限域]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Franchising</title>
<id>11616</id>
<revision>
<id>41855085</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T04:13:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bookofjude</username>
<id>94969</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.191.181.53|203.191.181.53]] to last version by Gwernol</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Franchising''' (from the [[French language|French]] for ''free'') is a method of doing business wherein a ''franchisor'' licenses [[trademark]]s and methods of doing business to a ''franchisee'' in exchange for a recurring royalty fee.
According to [[Financial Times]], if sales by US franchise businesses were translated into national product, they would qualify as the 7th largest economy in the world.
==Overview==
The term "franchising" is used to describe a wide variety of business relationships which may or may not fall into the legal definition provided above. For example, a [[vending machine]] operator may receive a franchise for a particular kind of vending machine, including a trademark and a royalty, but no method of doing business.
The parties involved typically enter a ''franchise agreement,'' which binds the parties together through contractual provisions. This is an arrangement whereby someone with a good idea for a [[business]] (the ''franchisor''), [[sell]]s the [[right]]s to use the businesses name and sell a [[product (business)|product]] or [[service]] to someone else (the ''franchisee''). A franchise agreement will usually specify the given territory the franchisee can use as well as the extent to which the franchisee will be supported by the franchisor (e.g. training and [[marketing]] campaigns). Most franchisee agreements, however, do not provide the franchisee with exclusive control over the given territory.
==Advantages==
As practiced in [[retailing]], franchising offers franchisees the advantage of starting up a new business quickly based on a proven trademark and formula of doing business, as opposed to having to build a new business and brand from scratch (often in the face of aggressive competition from franchise operators).
As long as their brand and formula are carefully designed and properly executed, franchisors are able to expand their brand very rapidly across countries and continents, and can reap enormous profits in the process, while the franchisees do all the hard work of dealing with customers face-to-face. ''See'' [[customer service]]. Additionally, the franchisor is able to build a captive distribution network, with no or very little financial commitment.
For some consumers, having franchises offer a consistent product or service makes life easier. They know what to expect when entering a franchised establishment.
==Disadvantages==
For franchisees, the main disadvantage of franchising is a loss of control. While they gain the use of a system, trademarks, assistance, training, and marketing, the franchisee is required to follow the system and get approval of changes with the franchisor...
In response to the soaring popularity of franchising, an increasing number of communities are taking steps to limit these chain businesses and reduce displacement of independent businesses through limits on "formula businesses." [http://www.newrules.org/retail/formula.html]
Another problem is that the franchisor/franchisee relationship can easily give rise to [[litigation]] if either side is incompetent (or just not acting in good faith). For example, an incompetent franchisee can easily damage the public's [[goodwill]] towards the franchisor's brand by providing inferior goods and services, and an incompetent franchisor can destroy its franchisees by failing to promote the brand properly or by squeezing them too aggressively for profits.
Because litigation is expensive, the majority of franchisors have inserted mandatory [[arbitration]] clauses into their agreements with their franchisees. Since 1980, the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] has dealt with cases involving direct franchisor/franchisee conflicts at least three times, and two of those cases involved a franchisee who was resisting the franchisor's motion to compel arbitration. Both of the latter cases involved large, well-known restaurant chains ([[Burger King]] and [[Subway (restaurant)|Subway]]).
==Legal aspects==
In the [[United States]], franchising falls under the jurisdiction of a number of state and federal laws. Contrary to what might be expected, there is no federal registry of franchising or any federal filing requirements for information, but franchisors are required by the Federal Trade Commission to have a Uniform Franchise Offering Circular to disclose potential franchisees about their purchase. Instead, states are the primary collectors of data on franchising companies, and enforce laws and regulations regarding their spread.
In Russia, under ch. 54 of the Civil Code (passed 1996), franchise agreements are invalid unless written and registered, and franchisors cannot set standards or limits on the prices of the franchisee’s goods. Enforcement of laws and resolution of contractual disputes is a problem: [[Dunkin Donuts]] chose to terminate its contract with Russian franchisees that were selling vodka and meat patties contrary to their contracts, rather than pursue legal remedies.
==History==
Franchising dates back to at least the 1850s. One early example resulted in the characteristic look of historic hotels (bars) in [[New South Wales]], with franchising agreements between hotels and breweries. Early American examples include the telegraph system which was operated by various [[railroad]] companies but controlled by [[Western Union]], and exclusive agreements between [[automobile]] manufacturers and operators of local [[dealer]]ships.
Modern franchising came to prominence with the rise of franchise-based restaurants. This trend started initially in the [[1930s]] with traditional sit-down restaurants like the early [[Howard Johnson's]], and then exploded in [[1950s]] with the development of [[fast food]] chains, of which [[McDonalds]] has been the most successful worldwide. Many retail sectors, particularly in the [[United States]], are now dominated by franchising to the point where independently-run operations are the exception rather than the rule.
== External links ==
*[http://www.frandata.com/ FRANdata: The only objective source for information about franchising. UFOCs, Reports, Lists, Research and Analysis.]
*[http://www.worldfranchising.com/ World Franchising Network: Directory of over 1,000 North American franchises and up-to-date franchise information]
*[http://www.ufocs.com/ Uniform Franchise Offering Circulars (UFOCs): Definitive source of current and historical UFOCs and franchise earnings claims (Item 19s). Over 20,000 UFOCs available]
*[http://www.franchisedirect.com/ news for franchise buyers]
*[http://www.bluemaumau.org/ Blue MauMau: Comprehensive news, stories, events and tools for franchise owners and buyers]
*[http://www.franchisedoctor.blogspot.com/ Franchise Doctor's Blog]
[[Category:Franchises| ]]
[[category:Distribution, retailing, and wholesaling]]
[[Category:Marketing]]
[[Category:Strategic Alliance]]
[[cs:Frenčízing]]
[[de:Franchising]]
[[es:Franquicia]]
[[eo:Franĉizo]]
[[it:Franchising]]
[[lt:Franšizė]]
[[nl:Franchise (ondernemen)]]
[[ja:フランチャイズ]]
[[no:Franchising]]
[[pl:Franczyza]]
[[pt:Franquia]]
[[ru:Коммерческая концессия]]
[[sv:Franchise]]
[[th:แฟรนไชส์]]
[[tr:Franchising]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Feynman diagram</title>
<id>11617</id>
<revision>
<id>41590284</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T09:47:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mac Davis</username>
<id>131030</id>
</contributor>
<comment>add image</comment>
|
[[George Strait]]
*[[Bob Style]]
*[[Sugarland (band)|Sugarland]]
*[[Sweethearts of the Rodeo]]
*[[Pam Tillis]]
*[[Randy Travis]]
*[[Tanya Tucker]]
*[[Shania Twain]]
*[[Carrie Underwood]]
*[[Keith Urban]]
*[[Rhonda Vincent]]
*[[Clay Walker]]
*[[Steve Wariner]]
*[[Brittany Wells]]
*[[Lucinda Williams]]
*[[Kelly Willis]]
*[[Gretchen Wilson]]
*[[Lee Ann Womack]]
*[[Chely Wright]]
*[[Michelle Wright]]
*[[Trisha Yearwood]]
*[[Dwight Yoakam]]
</div><br clear="all">
===[[Television]] and [[radio]] shows of note===
*The [[Johnny Cash]] Show (1969-1971) on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC Networks]]
*[[Austin City Limits (television)|''Austin City Limits'']], [[PBS]] goes country
*''[[The Beverly Hillbillies]]'', legendary situation comedy series that featured a country theme song and frequent appearances, by [[Lester Flatt]] and [[Earl Scruggs]]
*''[[The Glen Campbell Goodtime Hour]]'', 1969 - 1972
*''[[Grand Ole Opry]]'', broadcasting on [[WSM (AM)|WSM]] from Nashville since 1925
*''[[Hee Haw]]'', featuring [[Buck Owens]] and [[Roy Clark]] and a pack of droll, cornball comedians, notably [[Junior Samples]]. Other artist of note, [[Archie Campbell]], writer and on-air talent.
*''[[Lost Highway]]'', a significant [[BBC]] documentary on the History of Country Music
*''[[Louisiana Hayride]]'', featured Hank Williams in his early years
*''The [[Porter Wagoner]] Show'', aired from [[1960]] to [[1979]] and featured a young [[Dolly Parton]]
*''[[That Good Ole Nashville Music]]'', 1970 - 1985
*''[[Tim Rose]]''
==See also==
*[[List of country music performers]]
*[[Academy of Country Music]]
*[[Country Music Association]]
*[[Alternative country]] for a list of performers in that sub-genre
*[[WSM Radio]]
*[[Country Music Hall of Fame]]
*[[Grand Ole Opry]]
*[[Country Music Television]]
*[[Great American Country]]
*[[List of country genres]]
*[[Country and Western dance]]
==External links==
*[http://www.roughstock.com/ Roughstock] Country Music News, Chart, e-Magazine
*[http://www.roughstock.com/history/ History of Country Music] Country music history overview, with sound clips
*[http://www.countrymusichalloffame.com/ Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum]
*[http://www.cmaworld.com The Country Music Association (America)]
*[http://www.countryweekly.com/ Country Weekly magazine]
*[http://www.opry.com/ Grand Ole Opry website]
*[http://countrystartpage.jouwpagina.nl The Country Startpage] Over 1500 links to country sites !
{{Americanrootsmusic}}
[[Category:Country music]]
[[Category:Musical genres]]
[[Category:Radio formats]]
[[de:Country-Musik]]
[[es:Country]]
[[eo:Kontreo]]
[[fr:Musique country]]
[[it:Country (musica)]]
[[nl:Countrymuziek]]
[[ja:カントリー・ミュージック]]
[[no:Country]]
[[pl:Muzyka country]]
[[pt:Música country]]
[[simple:Country music]]
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[[zh:乡村音乐]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cold War (1947-1953)</title>
<id>5248</id>
<revision>
<id>41614180</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:56:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>132.72.149.84</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The breakdown of postwar peace */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Truman initiating Korean involvement.jpg|thumb|right|200px|President Truman signing a proclamation declaring a national emergency that initiates U.S. involvement in the Korean War.]]
The '''Cold War (1947-1953)''' discusses the period within the [[Cold War]] from the establishment of the [[Truman Doctrine]] in [[1947]] to the [[Korean War]] in [[1953]].
== The breakdown of postwar peace ==
When the war ended in Europe on [[May 8]], [[1945]], Soviet and Western (U.S., British, and French) troops were located in particular places, essentially, along a line in the center of Europe. Aside from a few minor adjustments, this would be the "[[Iron Curtain]]" of the Cold War. In hindsight, [[Yalta Conference|Yalta]] signified the agreement of both sides that they could stay there and that neither side would use force to push the other out. This tacit accord applied to Asia as well, as evidenced by U.S. occupation of [[Japan]] and the division of [[Korea]]. Politically, therefore, Yalta was an agreement on the postwar status quo in which Soviet Union hegemony reigned over about one third and the United States over two thirds.
There were fundamental contrasts between the visions of the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]], between [[capitalism]] and [[communism]]. Those contrasts had been simplified and refined in national ideologies to represent two ways of life, each vindicated in 1945 by previous disasters. Conflicting models of autarky versus exports, of state planning against private enterprise, were to vie for the allegiance of the developing and developed world in the postwar years.
Despite the wherewithal of the United States to advance a different vision of postwar Europe, [[Stalin]] viewed the reemergence of [[Germany]] and [[Japan]] as Russia's chief threats, not the United States. He assumed that the capitalist camp would soon resume its internal rivalry over colonies and trade and not pose a threat to the USSR. Economic advisers such as [[Eugen Varga]] reinforced this view, predicting a postwar crisis of overproduction in capitalist countries, which would culminate by 1947-1948 in another great depression. He believed that America's prosperity in 1945 was not so much a triumph of free enterprise as the result of the government bankrolling business.
What would be the result of massive postwar demilitarization? Stalin predicted overproduction and depression. Stalin thus assumed that the Americans would ''need'' to offer him economic aid, needing to find any outlet for massive capital investments just to maintain the wartime industrial production that brought the U.S. out of the [[Great Depression]]. Thus, the prospects of an Anglo-American front against him seemed slim from Stalin's standpoint. However, there would be no postwar crisis of overproduction. And, as Stalin anticipated, this was averted by maintaining roughly the same levels of government spending. It was just maintained in a vastly different way.
But the whole role of government was not set in stone and was in question once again. Although America's military-industrial complex was born in [[World War II]], it could have been scaled back. Pressures to "get back to normal" were intense. Congress wanted a return to low, balanced budgets, and families clamored to see the soldiers sent back home. The [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administration worried first about a postwar slump, then about the inflationary consequences of pent-up consumer demand. The [[GI Bill of Rights]], adopted in 1944, was one answer: subsidizing veterans to complete their education rather than flood the job market and probably boost the unemployment figures. Moreover, on [[July 20]], [[1948]] President [[Harry S. Truman]] issued the first peacetime [[military draft]] in the [[United States]] amid increasing tensions with the [[Soviet Union]].
Thus, a conversion to the prewar economy would be extremely difficult, and in the end, it did not happen. In the end, the postwar government would look a lot like the wartime government, with the military establishment, along with military-security dominant. The postwar capitalist slump predicted by Stalin would not be averted by domestic management, supplemented perhaps by a greater role in promoting international trade and monetary relations.
=== Two visions of the world ===
The United States hoped to shape the postwar world by opening up the world's markets to capitalist trade - a rebuilt capitalist Europe that could again serve as a hub in world affairs. The [[Atlantic Charter]] was publicized regarding this with principles such as [[self-determination]] - the right of [[nation]]s to choose their own government - but was in practice abrogated by both the West as by the East. Roosevelt had never forgotten the excitement with which he had greeted the principles of [[Woodrow Wilson|Wilsonian]] [[idealism]] during [[World War I]], and he saw his mission in the 1940s as bringing lasting peace and genuine democracy to the world.
This vision was equally a vision of national self-interest. [[World War II]] resulted in enormous destruction of infrastructure and populations throughout Eurasia, from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans, with almost no country left unscathed. The only major industrial power in the world to emerge intact&mdash;and even greatly strengthened from an economic perspective&mdash;was the As the world's greatest industrial power, and as the only world power unravaged by the war, the United States stood to gain more than any other country from opening the entire world to unfettered trade. To achieve that it had to rapidly rebuild the economies of Europe and Asia. The United States would have a global market for its exports, and it would have unrestricted access to vital raw materials.
Truman could advance these principles with an economic powerhouse that produced 50% of the world's industrial goods. These aims were at the center of what the Soviet Union strove to avoid as the breakdown of the wartime alliance went forward. It also required new international agencies: the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]], which were created to ensure an open, capitalist, international economy. The Soviet Union, rededicated itself to the overthrow of capitalism and did everything to sabotage the capitalist plans..
=== The fate of postwar Europe ===
The withdrawal of the United States to advance a different vision of the postwar world conflicted with Soviet interests, which motivated their determination to shape postwar Europe. The Soviet Union had, since 1924, placed higher priority on its own security and internal development than on [[Trotsky]]'s vision of world revolution. Accordingly, Stalin had been willing before the war to engage |
atic waves are only fully coherent with each other if they both have exactly the same range of wavelengths and the same [[phase (waves)|phase]] differences at each of the constituent wavelengths.
The principle of superposition of waves states that the resultant displacement at a point is equal to the sum of the displacements of different waves at that point. If a crest of a wave meets a crest of another wave at the same point then the crests interfere ''constructively'' and the resultant wave [[amplitude]] is greater. If a crest of a wave meets a trough then they interfere ''destructively'', and the overall amplitude is decreased.
Interference is involved in [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]]'s [[double-slit experiment]] where two beams of light which are coherent with each other interfere to produce an interference pattern (the beams of light both have the same wavelength range and at the center of the interference pattern they have the same [[phase (waves)|phase]]s at each wavelength, as they both come from the same source). More generally, this form of interference can occur whenever a wave can propagate from a source to a destination by two or more paths of different length. Two or more sources can only be used to produce interference when there is a fixed phase relation between them, but in this case the interference generated is the same as with a single source; see [[Huygens principle|Huygens' principle]].
Light from any source can be used to obtain interference patterns, for example, [[Newton's rings]] can be produced with [[sunlight]]. However, in general [[white]] light is less suited for producing clear interference patterns, as it is a mix of a full spectrum of colours, that each have different spacing of the interference fringes. [[Sodium light]] is close to [[monochromatic]] and is thus more suitable for producing interference patterns. Most suitable is [[laser]] light because that is almost perfectly monochromatic.
==Constructive and destructive interference==
[[Image:Michelson Interferometer Green Laser Interference.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Interference pattern produced with a [[Michelson interferometer]]. Bright bands are the result of '''constructive interference''' while the dark bands are the result of '''destructive interference'''.]]
When two waves superimpose, the resulting waveform depends on the frequency (or wavelength) amplitude and relative phase of the two waves. If the two waves have the same amplitude ''A'' and wavelength the resultant waveform will have amplitude between 0 and 2''A'' depending on whether the two waves are in phase or [[out of phase]].
{|
|-
| '''combined<br> waveform'''
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" | [[Image:Interference of two waves.png]]
|-
| '''wave 1'''
|-
| '''wave 2'''
|-
| <br>
| '''Two waves in phase'''
| '''Two waves 180° out <br>of phase'''
|}
Consider two waves that are in phase,with amplitudes ''A''<sub>1</sub> and ''A''<sub>2</sub>. Their troughs and peaks line up and the resultant wave will have amplitude ''A''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''A''<sub>1</sub>&nbsp;+&nbsp;''A''<sub>2</sub>. This is known as '''constructive interference'''.
If the two waves are 180° out of phase, then one wave's crests will coincide with another wave's troughs and so will tend to cancel out. The resultant amplitude is ''A''&nbsp;=&nbsp;|A<sub>1</sub>&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;''A''<sub>2</sub>|. If ''A''<sub>1</sub>&nbsp;=&nbsp;''A''<sub>2</sub> the resultant amplitude will be zero. This is known as '''destructive interference'''.
== See also ==
* [[Beat (acoustics)]]
* [[Moiré pattern]]
* [[Interferometer]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Interference}}
* [http://www.falstad.com/ripple/ex-2source.html Java demonstration of interference]
[[Category:Interference| ]]
[[Category:Optics]]
[[Category:Wave mechanics]]
[[da:Interferens]]
[[de:Interferenz (Physik)]]
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[[he:התאבכות]]
[[io:Interfero]]
[[ja:干渉 (物理学)]]
[[nl:Interferentie]]
[[pl:Interferencja]]
[[pt:Interferência]]
[[sl:Interferenca]]
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[[sv:Interferens]]
[[vi:Giao thoa]]
[[zh:干涉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indictable offence</title>
<id>15114</id>
<revision>
<id>40303513</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T17:52:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David91</username>
<id>262604</id>
</contributor>
<comment>tidying up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{EngCrimLaw}}
In many [[common law]] [[jurisdiction]]s (e.g. the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[United States]], [[Australia]]), an '''indictable offence''' is an offence which can only be tried on an [[indictment]] after a preliminary hearing to determine whether there is a ''[[prima facie]]'' case to answer or by a [[grand jury]]. In [[trial (law)|trial]]s for indictable offences, the accused normally has the right to a [[jury trial]], unless he or she waives that right. In the United States, a crime of similar severity is usually referred to as a [[felony]] although it too proceeds after an indictment.
In [[English law]] the term refers to [[either way]] and indictable only offences. An either way or hybrid offence allows the defendant to elect between trial by jury on indictment in the [[Crown Court]] and summary trial in the [[magistrate|Magistrates' Court]]. However, the election may be overruled by the court of first instance if the facts suggest that the [[sentence (law)|sentencing]] powers of a Magistrates' Court would be inadequate to represent the seriousness of the offence. Some offences such as [[murder]] and [[rape]] are considered so serious that they can only be tried on indictment at the Crown Court where the widest range of sentencing powers is available to the [[judge]].
==See also==
*[[Summary offence]]
*[[Felony]]
*[[Indictment]]
[[Category:Crimes]]
[[Category:Criminal law]]
[[Category:Common law]]
{{law-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Internazionale Milano F.C.</title>
<id>15116</id>
<revision>
<id>42104509</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:29:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Donation</username>
<id>634260</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
clubname = Inter |
image = [[Image:FC Internazionale logo.png|75px|logo]] |
fullname = Internazionale Milano<br>Football Club SpA |
nickname = [[Nerazzurri|''Nerazzurri'']]<br>(the Black-Blues) |
founded = [[March 9]],[[1908]] |
ground = [[San Siro|Stadio Giuseppe Meazza]],<br/>San Siro, [[Milan]], [[Italy]] |
capacity = 85,700 |
chairman = [[Giacinto Facchetti]] |
manager = [[Roberto Mancini]] |
league = [[Serie A]] |
season = 2004-05 |
position = [[Serie A]], 3rd |
pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=_blackstripes|pattern_ra1=|
leftarm1=0055A3|body1=0055A3|rightarm1=0055A3|shorts1=000000|socks1=000000|
pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
leftarm2=FFFFFF|body2=FFFFFF|rightarm2=FFFFFF|shorts2=FFFFFF|socks2=FFFFFF|
}}
'''Internazionale Milano Football Club''' is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] club based in [[Milan]], [[Lombardy]], which plays in the [[Serie A]]. It is more commonly known as '''Inter''', and often named '''Inter Milan''' in foreign countries. The club wears the recognisable blue and black stripes, with the current sponsors [[Pirelli]] on their shirt.
==History==
===Pre First World War===
The club was founded on [[March 9]], [[1908]] following a schism from the Milan Cricket and Football Club, now known as [[A.C. Milan|AC Milan]]. A group of Italians and [[Switzerland|Swiss]] were unhappy about the domination of Italians in the AC Milan team, and broke away from them, leading to the creation of Internazionale. From the beginning, the club was open to foreign players and thus lived up to her founding name. The original nickname of the team in the Milano dialect was ''La Beneamata'', the cherished.
The club won its very first [[scudetto|championship]] in [[1910]] and its second in [[1920]]. The Captain and the Coach of the first ''scudetto'' was [[Virgilio Fossati]], born in [[Milan]] and brother of [[Giuseppe Fossati]] (who won the second Inter championship). Unfortunately Virgilio Fossati died during the [[World War I|First World War]].
===Between the Wars===
During the turbulent period between the [[World War I|First]] and [[World War II|Second World War]]s, Internazionale was forced to change its name to '''Ambrosiana-Inter''' in order to accommodate the requests of [[Benito Mussolini]]'s [[fascist]] regime. However, Inter was still used to winning ways and captured its third league championship in the new Italian first division in [[1930]]. Following that, a fourth league title was won in 1938, Inter's first [[Coppa Italia]] (Italian Cup) was won in 1940 and a fifth league championship followed in [[1940]]. From [[1942]] onwards, the name Ambrosiana-Inter was dropped in favour of the original ''Internazionale Milano''.
===La Grande Inter===
Following the war, Inter won its sixth championship in [[1953]] and the seventh in [[1954]]. Following these titles, Inter was to enter the best years of its history, affectionately known as the era of '''La Grande Inter''' (The Great Inter). During this magnificent period, the club won 3 league championships in [[1963]], [[1965]] & [[1966]]. The most famous moments during this decade also include Inter's 2 back-to-back [[UEFA Champions League|European Cup]] wins. In [[1964]], Inter won the first of those tournaments, playing against the famous Spanish club [[Real Madrid]]. The next season, playing in their own [[stadium]], the [[Giuseppe Meazza Stadium|San Siro]], Inter won their second [[European Cup]] again |
es it as a "waiting room" (commonly translated as an "entry way") for all souls (not just the wicked). The overwhelming majority of rabbinic thought maintains that people are not in [[Gehenna]] forever; the longest that one can be there is said to be 12 months. Some consider it a spiritual forge where the soul is purified for its eventual ascent to [[Jewish eschatology#The afterlife and olam haba (the world to come)|Olam Habah]] (''heb.'' עולם הבא; ''lit.'' "The world to come", often viewed as analogous to [[Heaven]]). This is also mentioned in the [[Kabbalah]], where the soul is described as breaking, like the flame of a candle lighting another: the part of the soul that ascends being pure, and the "unfinished" piece being reborn.
===Ancient Greek religion===
Another source for the modern idea of 'Hell' is the Greek [[Tartarus]], a place in which conquered gods and other spirits were punished. Tartarus formed part of [[Hades]] in [[Greek mythology]], but [[Hades]] also included [[Elysium]], a place for the reward for those who lead virtuous lives, whilst others spent their afterlife in the [[asphodel]]s fields. Like most ancient (pre-Christian) religions, the underworld was not viewed as negatively as it is in [[Christianity]].
===Christianity ===
====General history and description====
The Christian idea of Hell is different from the [[Sheol]] of [[Judaism]]. The nature of Hell is described in the [[New Testament]] on several occasions. For example, in [[Matthew 3:10]]-[[Matthew 3:12|12]], [[Matthew 5:22|5:22]] and [[Matthew 5:29|29]]-[[Matthew 5:30|30]], 7:29, 8:12, 22:13 and 33, 25:30 and 41-46, [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 3:9, 12:5, 13:28, 16:19-28, and the [[Book of Revelation]] 12:9, 14:9-11, 19:20, 20:10 and 14-15, 21:8; in the [[Book of Revelation]] Hell is also mentioned as the "[[abyss]]" and "the [[Earth]]".
The Biblical descriptions of Hell tell about a place of [[darkness]], fire, sulphur, an oven of fire, and lakes of fire and sulphur, where weeping, tears, gnashing of teeth and torment are eternal for those [[soul]]s that will be condemned to live there. Hell is referred to as a place apart from [[Heaven]], and implies that after the end of the world the Earth (or what it becomes) will be Hell, too (as well as all that is not Heaven).
The population of Hell comprises of the souls of those who died without accepting [[Christ]] as their saviour, [[God]]'s grace, in [[sin]] and without repentance, although beliefs on these categories differs among Christian denominations. Some consider the fate of righteous people who lived before the time of Christ (thus being non-Christian through no fault of their own) a complication, especially for the many righteous Jews of the [[Old Testament]]. In some traditions, these people went straight to Heaven despite not being Christians because [[Christ]] had not come and gone yet. In other traditions, they had to wait in [[Limbo]] until the [[Harrowing of Hell]] during the three days between the Crucifixion and the Resurrection.
According to Western Christian beliefs, [[the Devil]] and his [[angel]]s ([[demon]]s), who are receiving punishment, reside in hell along with the souls of the damned. This doctrine is not part of Eastern Orthodox teachings. Yet, Matthew 25:41 mentions the ''[[eternal]]'' fire prepared for the Devil and his angels. According to the [[Book of Revelation]], after the [[Day Of the Lord]] soul and [[body]] will be united again, and so those who were condemned to Hell will remain there physically, tormented by eternal fire that will never consume them nor be extinguished.
According to Luke 16:19-28 ([[Lazarus and Dives]]) nobody can pass from Hell to Heaven or vice versa, and fire is not the only tormentor, thirst being another, and more that are not described; in this biblical passage it is also mentioned that the souls that are in Hell can see those that are in Heaven and vice versa, but nothing is said of the sight of God; those that are in Hell can see the happiness reigning in Heaven, and those in Heaven do not feel compassion for the others in Hell. It should be noted, however, that Jesus tells this story as a parable, and its meaning may not literally define the existence in the afterlife, but instead serve as a lesson about the dangers of wealth and the unwillingness to listen to God.
As [[light]] and brightness were associated with God and Heaven, it is not strange that darkness was associated with Hell. Concerning the fire, some [[scholar]]s speculated that the idea came from the fire consecrated to some [[Paganism|Pagan]] deities like [[Adramelech]], [[Moloch]], etc., to whom children were sacrificed by throwing them into the flames; but other scholars, more recently, speculated that, since Hell is considered an underground place, fire was associated with volcanic eruptions; the idea that [[volcano]]es could be [[gateway]]s to Hell was present in the mind of the ancient [[Roman religion|Romans]], and later of [[Iceland]]ers and other [[Europe]]an peoples. Some claim that the conditions thought to prevail in Hell are influenced by the generally hot, dry [[climate]]s found in the cradlelands of [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] alike; these observers point to the fact that the equivalent of Hell in [[Norse mythology]], known as [[Niflheim]], is pictured as a cold, foggy place (the name itself meaning "home of the fog").
Medieval imagination added [[cauldron]]s inside which people will be "cooked" forever by demons and [[Christian demonology]] acquired a "terrifying" aspect concerning imagery of Hell. Medieval theologians were keen to portray all manner of hideous [[torture]]s, designed to inflict horrific pain upon the eternally-damned inhabitants of Hell.
More recently and to ''some'' theologians, the idea of an underground Hell gave place to the conception of an abstract spiritual status in an also intangible plane of existence, which is sometimes associated to a site in an unknown point of the universe or also abstract, but [[tradition]] continues referring to Hell as "down", meanwhile [[religion]] refers to it as the place of eternal [[punishment]] and torment, far from God's presence ([[2 Thessalonians]] 1:9).
Jeff Priddy, writing in [http://www.godstruthfortoday.org/Library/priddy/ibi_4_2.htm The ''Idle Babbler Illustrated'' (Volume 4, Issue 2)], expresses the problem:
<blockquote>The religious and secular man's nightmarish ideas of HELL (that is, of a Christ-managed hothouse where sinners get burned forever) come to them compliments of ... careless translating ... the practice of ignoring separate Greek words.<br><br>In 2 Pet. 2:4, God chose the Greek word "Tartaros" (&#964;&#945;&#961;&#964;&#945;&#961;&#959;&#969;; English transliteration, "[[Tartarus]]") to identify the temporary abode of sinning angels. Tartarus holds spirit beings, not humans, and there is not a flame on the premises. The KJV and NIV translators (neither of whose versions have any influence in the expression of Eastern Orthodox doctrine) gave this specific Greek word the English equivalent, "hell".<br><br>In [[Matthew 5:22]] (and in several other places), God chose a different Greek word, "[[Geenna]]," (English transliteration: "[[Gehenna]]") to name a valley on the southwest corner of Jerusalem where the corpses of criminals will be disposed of during the thousand-year kingdom. There are flames here, yes, but the flames cremate the dead (Is. 66:24), they don't torture the living. Most of humanity is not even alive to see Gehenna (Rev. 20:5), let alone be tormented there. The KJV and NIV translators gave this specific Greek word the English equivalent, "hell".<br><br>In Luke 16:23 (and in other places), God chose the Greek word, "hades", to describe the state of invisibility; in Greek, the word means "unseen". God uses this word often to describe a person's nonexistence in death: unless spoken of figuratively, a dead person doesn't see anything, hear anything, feel anything, know anything, do anything: hades. Flames, screams, pointy tails and pitchforks are conspicuously absent. All the dead "go" here, not just the wicked. The KJV and NIV translators gave this specific Greek word the English equivalent, "hell".</blockquote>
Priddy goes on to point out that if a (Western) Christian says that someone is in "Hell", that "is a terrible lack of information", because many versions of the Bible indiscriminately use the word "Hell" to describe three different places. If you press the point, and the Christian says that person is in Gehenna, then you could take a plane to Jerusalem and look for the person there. If the claim is that the person is in Tartarus, you can point out that they were never a stubborn, sinning angel who surrendered their sovereignty during the days of Noah (1 Pet. 3:19-20. 2 Pet. 2:4, Jude 6). And if in Hades, you could rejoice that, like Christ (Acts 2:3 l), David (Ps. 16: 10), and Jacob (Gn. 37:35) before him, the person has ceased from their troubles and sufferings (Jb. 3:11-19), and now rests, as if asleep (Jn. 11:11,14). However, given the perfectly natural evolution of concepts over a long period of time, examples such as [[Sheol]], provide us with a good example of how ideas can begin with a simple meaning - "the grave" - and morph into a far larger concept - a place of eternal torment.
====Words in the Bible translated as "hell"====
The Greek words "[[Hades]]" and "[[Gehenna]]" are sometimes translated into the word "hell", though the concepts are dissimilar.
Martin Luther, for example, translated the word "[[Hades]]" five times as the German w |
ondon]].
==References==
*F. E. Winter (1980) "Tradition and innovation in Doric design: the work of Iktinos" ''in'' American Journal of Archaeology, Issue 4, pp 399 - 416.
See also: [[Kallikrates]]
[[Category:Architects]]
[[es:Ictino]]
[[fr:Iktinos]]
[[it:Ictino]]
[[nl:Ictinus]]
[[pt:Ictinos]]
[[ru:Иктин]]
[[fi:Iktinos]]
[[sv:Iktinos]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isidore of Miletus</title>
<id>14982</id>
<revision>
<id>29305447</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-26T19:24:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LeonardoRob0t</username>
<id>389639</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: pt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Isidore of Miletus''' was an [[architect]] with [[Anthemius of Tralles]] of [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]].
There had been a large [[basilica]] church built in the [[4th century]] and dedicated to Holy Wisdom in Constantinople; during the [[Nika riots]] of [[532]] that building was burned down. [[Justinian I]] decided to rebuild it.
Isidore of Miletus had earlier taught [[physics]] at [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]] and then later at [[Constantinople]], and had written a commentary on earlier books on building.
[[Category:Byzantine architects]]
[[Category:Byzantine physicists]]
[[fr:Isidore de Milet]]
[[pt:Isidoro de Mileto]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Atomic Energy Agency</title>
<id>14984</id>
<revision>
<id>41310743</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T13:23:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Boud</username>
<id>4492</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* IAEA and Iran */ the board did not "refer", it asked ElBaradei to report Iran to the UNSC immediately following the March meeting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Flag of IAEA.svg|thumb|right|The IAEA flag]]
The '''International Atomic Energy Agency''' ('''IAEA''', internally often referred to as "The Agency"), established as an autonomous organization on [[July 29]], [[1957]], seeks to promote the peaceful use of [[nuclear energy]] and to inhibit its use for [[nuclear weapon |military purposes]]. [[United States]] [[President of the United States|President]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] envisioned, in his "''[[Atoms for Peace]]''" speech before the [[UN General Assembly]] in 1953, the creation of this international body to control and develop the use of atomic energy. The organization and its Director General, [[Mohamed ElBaradei]], were jointly awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] on [[7 October]] [[2005]].
The IAEA has its headquarters in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]. Additional facilities are located in [[Seibersdorf]] near Vienna; [[Monaco]]; [[Toronto]]; and [[Tokyo]].
==History==
The IAEA serves as an intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical co-operation in the peaceful use of nuclear technology. The IAEA's programmes encourage the development of the peaceful application of nuclear technology, provide international safeguards against its misuse, and facilitate the application of safety measures in its use. IAEA expanded its nuclear safety efforts in response to the [[Chornobyl|Chernobyl]] disaster in 1986.
The IAEA was headed by [[Hans Blix]] from 1981 to 1997, who became unusually well-known because of the [[2002]]-[[2003]] search for [[weapons of mass destruction]] in Iraq. The current head of the organization is the Egyptian Mohamed ElBaradei. At the 49th General Conference, ElBaradei was confirmed as Director General until 2009.
With the increase of [[nuclear proliferation]] in the 1990s, IAEA tasks began to include inspections and investigations of suspected violations of the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] under the mandate of the [[United Nations]]; however, it can only refer the matter to the [[UN Security Council]], which has the monopoly on UN coercion measures.
Little has changed in the organizational structure of IAEA; and though its inspection results tend to attract a lot of coverage, the matter of IAEA reform does not.
In a speech to the National Defense University on [[February 11]], [[2004]], U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] proposed: "No state under investigation for proliferation violations should be allowed to serve on the IAEA Board of Governors &mdash; or on the new special committee. And any state currently on the Board that comes under investigation should be suspended from the Board. The integrity and mission of the IAEA depends on this simple principle: Those actively breaking the rules should not be entrusted with enforcing the rules." [http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/02/20040211-4.html]
The remarks were seen as a comment on the [[Abdul Qadeer Khan|Khan affair]], which triggered calls for an IAEA investigation of [[Pakistan]], a country currently included in the organization's Board of Governors.
The Agency and Director General Mohamed ElBaradei were awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 2005.
ElBaradei said in his speech that only 1% of the money spent on developing new weapons would be enough to feed the entire world.
==IAEA and Iran==
In February [[2003]] Mohamed ElBaradei traveled to [[Iran]] with a team of inspectors to investigate [[Iran's nuclear program]]. By November, Mr. ElBaradei stated that there was "no evidence" that Iran was pursuing [[nuclear weapon|nuclear weapons]]. On [[December 18]], [[2003]] Iran signed the Additional Protocol at the IAEA headquarters in [[Vienna]], and acted in accord with its provisions pending completion of ratification of the protocol.
[http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Board/2005/gov2005-87.pdf].
[[Ayatollah]] [[Ali Khamenei]] issued a [[fatwa]] forbidding the production, stockpiling and use of nuclear weapons on [[August 9]], [[2005]]. The full text of the [[fatwa]] was released in an official statement at the meeting of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in [[Vienna]]. [http://www.ww4report.com/node/929].
In September 2005 the [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]] concluded in a report that Iran was still many years away from acquiring a nuclear weapons capability.
[http://www.iiss.org/showdocument.php?docID=661].
On [[January 9]], [[2006]] Iran resumed certain aspects of nuclear energy research and development in spite of [[2005-2006 US-Israeli threats to attack Iran|international displeasure and pressure]] from the [[United States]], the [[European Union]] and [[Russia]]. [http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/PressReleases/2006/prn200601.html] [http://www.cbc.ca/story/world/national/2006/01/10/iran060110.html] [http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-01/11/content_4035891.htm]
On [[February 4]], [[2006]] the Board of the International Atomic Energy Agency decided ("resolved") to request the IAEA director-general, [[Mohamed ElBaradei]], to make a report concerning Iran to the [[United Nations Security Council]] following the March 2006 meeting of the IAEA Board. This resolution was decided by a vote of 27-3 (27 member nations voted for the resolution, 3, [[Cuba]], [[Syria]] and [[Venezuela]], voted against the resolution, and the remaining 5, [[Algeria]], [[Libya]], [[Indonesia]], [[South Africa]] and [[Belarus]], abstained).
[http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Board/2006/gov2006-14.pdf]
==See also==
*[[Nuclear proliferation]]
*[[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]]
*[[Nuclear power]]
*[[Nuclear weapon]]
*[[Nuclear reactor]]
*[[Sterile Atomic Fly]]
*[[United Nations Atomic Energy Commission]]
==External links==
*[http://www.iaea.org IAEA website]
*[http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Focus/IaeaIran/index.shtml In Focus : IAEA and Iran]
*[http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/index.html IAEA Bulletin]
*[http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-energy/history/background-safeguards.htm NuclearFiles.org] Background on IAEA Safeguards Agreements
*[http://explosive.on-topic.net/explosive_by_name/A Explosives]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Wangari Maathai]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]] | years =2005 | after = incumbent}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:International organizations]]
[[Category:Nuclear organizations]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners]]
[[Category:October 2005 news]]
[[cs:Mezinárodní agentura pro atomovou energii]]
[[ca:Agència Internacional de l'Energia Atòmica]]
[[da:IAEA]]
[[de:Internationale Atomenergieorganisation]]
[[es:Organismo Internacional de Energía Atómica]]
[[eo:Internacia Atomenergia Organizo]]
[[fa:آژانس بینالمللی انرژی اتمی]]
[[fr:Agence internationale de l'énergie atomique]]
[[ko:국제원자력기구]]
[[id:Badan Tenaga Atom Internasional]]
[[it:Agenzia Internazionale per l'Energia Atomica]]
[[he:הסוכנות הבינלאומית לאנרגיה אטומית]]
[[nl:Internationaal Atoomenergie Agentschap]]
[[ja:国際原子力機関]]
[[no:Det internasjonale atomenergibyrået]]
[[nn:Det internasjonale atomenergibyrået]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Agencja Energii Atomowej]]
[[pt:Agência Internacional de Energia Atómica]]
[[ru:Международное агентство по атомной энергии]]
[[sl:Mednarodna agencija za jedrsko energijo]]
[[fi:Kansainvälinen atomienergiajärjestö]]
[[sv:IAEA]]
[[ta:பன்னாட்டு அணுசக்தி முகமையகம்]]
[[th:สำนักงานพลังงานปรมาณูระหว่างประเทศ]]
[[vi:Cơ quan Năng lượng Nguyên tử Quốc tế]]
[[tr:Uluslararası Atom Enerji Ajansı]]
[[zh:国际原子能机构]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Civil Aviation Organization</title>
<id>14985</id>
<revision>
<id>40563271</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T13:20:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tobias Conradi</username>
<id>10784</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* ICAO Codes */ These consist of the three letter airline identifer</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ICAO.JPG|right|150px]]
The '''International Civil Aviation Organization''' ('''ICAO'''), an |
odoxy. The Book of Enoch is mentioned by the author of the New Testament book Jude(1:14-15).
Most [[Septuagint]] manuscripts include the deuterocanonical books and passages. Like the [[New Testament]], the deuterocanonical books were mostly written in [[Greek language|Greek]]. Several appear to have been written originally in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], but the original text has long been lost. Archeological finds in the last century, however, have provided a text of almost 2/3 of the book of [[Sirach]], and fragments of other books have been found as well. One of these books, [[2 Esdras]], survives only in an ancient [[Latin]] translation dated to the [[second century]] AD but was probably composed in Greek. This particular book is not widely accepted by the Orthodox and is rejected by Catholics. The Septuagint was widely accepted and used by Jews in the first century, even in the region of Roman [[Iudaea Province]], and therefore naturally became the text most widely used by early Christians.
==See also==
*[[Biblical canon]]
*[[Apocrypha]]
*[[Books of the Bible]]
==References==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03267a.htm Canon of the Old Testament] at the [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ Catholic Encyclopedia]
*[http://scripturecatholic.com/deuterocanon.html Deuterocanon Use in New Testament]
*[http://st-takla.org/pub_Deuterocanon/Deuterocanon-Apocrypha_El-Asfar_El-Kanoneya_El-Tanya__0-index.html Deuterocanonical books] - Full text from Saint Takla Haymanot Church Website (also available the full text in Arabic
*[http://www.geocities.com/thecatholicconvert/deuterocanonicals.html Defending the Deuterocanonicals]
*[http://www.riseisrael.com/apocrypha.htm Read the Apocrypha For Yourself]
*[http://www.riseisrael.com/thebible.html History concerning the Bible and Apocrypha]
[[Category:Deuterocanonical books| ]]
[[Category:Bible]]
[[ca:Deuterocanónic]]
[[cs:Deuterokanonický spis]]
[[da:Deuterokanoniske Bøger]]
[[de:Deuterokanonisch]]
[[es:Deuterocanónicos]]
[[fr:Livres deutérocanoniques]]
[[it:Libri deuterocanonici]]
[[he:הספרים החיצוניים]]
[[hu:Deuterokanonikus könyvek]]
[[ja:第二正典]]
[[no:De deuterokanoniske bøker]]
[[pl:Księgi deuterokanoniczne]]
[[pt:Livros deuterocanônicos]]
[[sk:Deuterokanonický spis]]
[[fi:Deuterokanoniset kirjat]]
[[sv:Deuterokanonisk]]
[[zh:次經]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Discus throw</title>
<id>8490</id>
<revision>
<id>41441245</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T09:24:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Easter Monkey</username>
<id>396645</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Discus_Thrower_Copenhagen.jpg|thumb|250px|Statue of discus thrower in Botanic Garden, [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]]]]
:''Alternate meaning: [[Discus fish]]''
The '''discus throw''' is an [[athletics]] ([[track and field]]) throwing event. The '''discus''', the object to be thrown, is a lens-shaped heavy [[disk (mathematics)|disc]] with a diameter of 220 mm and a weight of two [[kilogram]]s (4 lb 7 oz) for the men's event, and one kg (2 lb 3 oz) for the women's, with a smaller diameter of 182 mm. In U.S. high school track and field, boys typically throw a discus weighing 1.616 kg (3 lb 9 oz) and the girls throw the 1 kg women's disc. The discus usually has sides made of plastic, wood, or metal, with a metal rim and a metal core to attain the weight. Discuses with more weight in the rim produce greater angular momentum for any given spin rate, and thus more stability, although they are more difficult to throw. A practice discus made of solid rubber is often used in high school; it is cheaper and more durable.
Discus throwing is an ancient sport. In the [[5th century BC]] the sculptor [[Myron]] produced a statue of a discus thrower (''[[Discobolus]]''), which is world-famous today (although the technique obviously employed by that ancient thrower is no longer considered anywhere near optimal).
To make a throw, the competitor starts in a slightly recessed concrete-surfaced circle of 2.5 metres (8 feet 2½ inches) diameter. They typically wind up while facing away from the direction of the throw. The thrower then spins around one and a half times through the circle to build momentum. The discus must land within a 40-degree or 60-degree arc marked by lines on the landing zone, and the competitor must not exit the circle until the discus has landed, and must then only exit through the rear half of the circle. The distance from the front edge of the circle to where the discus has landed is measured, and distances are rounded down to the nearest centimeter or half-inch. The competitor's best throw from the allocated number of throws, typically between three and eight, is recorded, and the competitor who legally throws the discus the furthest is declared the winner. Ties are broken by determining which thrower has the longer second-best throw.
The basic motion is a forehanded sidearm movement. The discus is spun off the index finger of the throwing hand, spinning clockwise when viewed above for a right-handed thrower, and vice-versa. As well as achieving maximum momentum in the discus on throwing, the discus's distance is also determined by the trajectory the thrower imparts, as well as the aerodynamic behaviour of the discus. Also, a faster-spinning discus imparts greater gyroscopic stability. The technique of discus throwing is quite difficult to master and needs lots of experience to get right, thus most top throwers are thirty years old or older.
== World Records ==
The discus throw world record for men is:
::* [[Jürgen Schult]] 74.08 m (243' 0.5") Neubrandenburg, GER (then GDR) [[6 June]] [[1986]]
And for women:
::* [[Gabriele Reinsch]] 76.80 m (251' 11.75") Neubrandenburg, GER (then GDR) [[9 July]] [[1988]]
The discus is one of the few sports events in which the world record has never been set during the Olympics.
==Top 10 performers==
''Accurate as of January 1, 2006.''
===Men===
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
|- bgcolor=#efefef
!Mark!!Athlete!!Nationality!!Venue!!Date
|-
| 74.08 || [[Jürgen Schult]] || {{GER}} || [[Neubrandenburg]] || June 6, 1986
|-
| 73.88 || [[Virgilijus Alekna]] || {{LTU}} || [[Kaunas]] || August 3, 2000
|-
| 71.86 || [[Yuriy Dumchev]] || {{URS}} || [[Moscow]] || May 29, 1983
|-
| 71.70 || [[Róbert Fazekas]] || {{HUN}} || [[Szombathely]] || July 14, 2002
|-
| 71.50 || [[Lars Riedel]] || {{GER}} || [[Wiesbaden]] || May 3, 1997
|-
| 71.32 || [[Ben Plucknett]] || {{USA}} || [[Eugene, OR|Eugene]] || June 4, 1983
|-
| 71.26 || [[John Powell (athlete)|John Powell]] || {{USA}} || [[San Jose, CA|San Jose]] || June 9, 1984
|-
| 71.26 || [[Rickard Bruch]] || {{SWE}} || [[Malmö]] || November 15, 1984
|-
| 71.26 || [[Imrich Bugár]] || {{TCH}} || [[San Jose, CA|San Jose]] || May 25, 1985
|-
| 71.18 || [[Art Burns]] || {{USA}} || [[San Jose, CA|San Jose]] || July 19, 1983
|}
===Women===
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
|- bgcolor=#efefef
!Mark!!Athlete!!Nationality!!Venue!!Date
|-
| 76.80 || [[Gabriele Reinsch]] || {{GDR}} || [[Neubrandenburg]] || July 9, 1988
|-
| 74.56 || [[Zdenka Šilhavá]] || {{TCH}} || [[Nitra]] || August 26, 1984
|-
| 74.56 || [[Ilke Wyludda]] || {{GDR}} || [[Neubrandenburg]] || July 23, 1989
|-
| 74.08 || [[Diana Sachse-Gansky]] || {{GDR}} || [[Karl-Marx-Stadt]] || June 20, 1987
|-
| 73.84 || [[Daniela Costian]] || {{ROM}} || [[Bucuresti]] || April 30, 1988
|-
| 73.36 || [[Irina Meszynski]] || {{GDR}} || [[Prague]] || August 17, 1984
|-
| 73.28 || [[Galina Savinkova]] || {{URS}} || [[Donetsk]] || September 8, 1984
|-
| 73.22 || [[Tsvetanka Khristova]] || {{BUL}} || [[Kazanlak]] || April 19, 1987
|-
| 73.10 || [[Gisela Beyer]] || {{GDR}} || [[Berlin]] || July 20, 1984
|-
| 72.92 || [[Martina Hellmann]] || {{GDR}} || [[Potsdam]] || August 20, 1987
|}
{{Template:Track events}}
[[Category:Events in athletics]]
[[de:Diskuswurf]]
[[et:Kettaheide]]
[[es:Lanzamiento de disco]]
[[fr:Lancer du disque]]
[[it:Lancio del disco]]
[[nl:Discuswerpen]]
[[ja:円盤投げ]]
[[pl:Rzut dyskiem]]
[[fi:Kiekonheitto]]
[[sv:Diskus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Discrete mathematics</title>
<id>8492</id>
<revision>
<id>41841744</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:21:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.147.38.138</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Reference and further reading */ wkfy [[Oren Patashnik]] (coming) ''[[Concrete Mathematics]]'' (ok)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Discrete mathematics''', sometimes called '''finite mathematics''', is the study of mathematical structures that are fundamentally [[discrete]], in the sense of not supporting or requiring the notion of [[Continuous function|continuity]]. Most, if not all, of the objects studied in finite mathematics are [[countable sets]], such as the [[integer|integers]].
Discrete mathematics has become popular in recent decades because of its applications to [[computer science]]. Concepts and notations from discrete mathematics are useful to study or express objects or problems in computer [[algorithm]]s and [[programming language]]s. In some mathematics curricula, [[finite mathematics]] courses cover discrete mathematical concepts for business, while discrete mathematics courses emphasize concepts for computer science majors.
See also the [[list of basic discrete mathematics topics]].
For contrast, see [[continuum]], [[topology]], and [[mathematical analysis]].
Discrete mathematics usually includes :
* [[logic]] - a study of reasoning
* [[set theory]] - a study of collections of elements
* [[number theory]]
* [[combinatorics]] - a study of counting
* [[graph theory]]
* [[algorithmics]] - a study of methods of calculation
* [[information theory]]
* the theory of [[computability]] and [[complexity]] - a stu |
ese additives, called denaturants, are generally either toxic (such as [[methanol]]) or have unpleasant tastes or odors (such as [[denatonium benzoate]]).
Specialty denatured alcohols are denatured alcohol formulations intended for a particular industrial use, containing denaturants chosen so as not to interfere with that use. While they are not taxed, purchasers of specialty denatured alcohols must have a government-issued permit for the particular formulation they use and must comply with other regulations.
Completely denatured alcohols are formulations that can be purchased for any legal purpose, without permit, bond, or other regulatory compliance. In the [[United States]], "SD-40" and "SD Alcohol" sometimes followed by "40-B" are designations that were established by the [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms]] that use denatonium benzoate for this purpose. It is intended that it be difficult to isolate a product fit for human consumption from completely denatured alcohol. For example, the completely denatured alcohol formulation used in the [[United Kingdom]] contains (by volume) 89.66% ethanol, 9.46% methanol, 0.50% [[pyridine]], 0.38% [[naphtha]], and is dyed purple with [[methyl violet]].
== Use ==
[[Image:Ethanol_Car.jpg|thumb|225px|left|A car "fueled by clean burning ethanol" ([[New York City]], [[New York]], [[USA]]).]]
=== As a fuel ===
{{main|Ethanol fuel}}
The largest single use of ethanol is as a motor fuel and fuel additive. The largest national fuel ethanol industries exist in [[Brazil]] and the [[United States]]. The Brazilian ethanol industry is based on [[sugarcane]]; [[as of 2004]], Brazil produces 14 billion liters annually, enough to replace about 40% of its gasoline demand. Most new cars sold in Brazil are [[flexible-fuel vehicle]]s that can run on ethanol, gasoline, or any blend of the two.
The United States fuel ethanol industry is based largely on [[maize|corn]]. [[As of 2005]], its capacity is 15 billion liters annually, although the [[Energy Policy Act of 2005]] requires U.S. fuel ethanol production to increase to 7.5 billion gallons (28 billion liters) by 2012. In the United States, ethanol is most commonly blended with gasoline as a blend of up to 10% ethanol, nicknamed "gasohol". This blend is widely sold throughout the U.S. [[Midwest]], which contains the nation's chief corn-growing centers.
Thailand, India, China and Japan have now launched their national gasohol policies. Thailand started blending 10% ethanol for its ULG95 in 1985; now there are more than 4000 stations serving E10. The blending of 10% ethanol into gasoline will be mandated by the end of 2006 with the import ban on MTBE. It is expected that once the production of ethanol from cassava and sugar cane- molasses can be ramped up, a higher blending ratio like E20 or E85 or even Flexible Fuel Vehicle will be introduced to Thailand.
=== Alcoholic beverages ===
{{main|Alcoholic beverage}}
Alcoholic beverages vary considerably in their ethanol content and in the foodstuffs from which they are produced. Most alcoholic beverages can be broadly classified as [[fermented beverage]]s, beverages made by the action of yeast on sugary foodstuffs, or as [[distilled beverage]]s, beverages whose preparation involves concentrating the ethanol in fermented beverages by [[distillation]]. The ethanol content of a beverage is usually measured in terms of the volume fraction of ethanol in the beverage, expressed either as a percentage or in [[alcoholic proof]] units.
Fermented beverages can be broadly classified by the foodstuff from which they are fermented. [[Beer]]s are made from [[cereal grain]]s or other [[starch]]y materials, [[wine]]s and [[cider]]s from [[fruit juice]]s, and [[mead]]s from [[honey]]. Cultures around the world have made fermented beverages from numerous other foodstuffs, and local and national names for various fermented beverages abound. Fermented beverages may contain up to 15&ndash;20% ethanol by volume, the upper limit being set by the yeast's tolerance for ethanol, or by the amount of sugar in the starting material.
Distilled beverages are made by distilling fermented beverages. Broad categories of distilled beverages include [[whisky|whiskies]], distilled from fermented cereal grains; [[brandy|brandies]], distilled from fermented fruit juices, and [[rum]], distilled from fermented [[molasses]] or [[sugarcane]] juice. [[Vodka]] and similar [[neutral grain spirits]] can be distilled from any fermented material (grain or [[potatoes]] is most common); these spirits are so thoroughly distilled that no tastes from the particular starting material remain. Numerous other spirits and liqueurs are prepared by using distilled spirits to extract flavors from [[fruit]]s, [[herb]]s, and [[spice]]s. A traditional example is [[gin]], an alcoholic extract of [[juniper]] berries.
In a few beverages, ethanol is concentrated by means other than distillation. [[Applejack]] is traditionally made by [[freeze distillation]]: water is frozen out of fermented [[apple cider]], leaving a more ethanol-rich liquid behind. [[Fortified wine]]s are prepared by adding brandy or some other distilled spirit to partially-fermented wine. This kills the yeast and conserves some of the [[sugar]] in grape juice; such beverages are not only more ethanol-rich, but also sweeter than other wines.
=== Chemicals derived from ethanol ===
; Ethyl esters
In the presence of an acid catalyst (typically [[sulfuric acid]]) ethanol reacts with [[carboxylic acid]]s to produce ethyl [[ester]]s:
: CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + [[carboxylic acid|RCOOH]] &rarr; RCOOCH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub> + [[water|H<sub>2</sub>O]]
The two largest-volume ethyl esters are [[ethyl acrylate]] (from ethanol and [[acrylic acid]]) and [[ethyl acetate]] (from ethanol and [[acetic acid]]). Ethyl acrylate is a monomer used to prepare [[acrylate polymers]] for use in [[coating]]s and [[adhesive]]s. Ethyl acetate is a common solvent used in paints, coatings, and in the pharmaceutical industry; its most familiar application in the household is as a solvent for [[nail polish]]. A variety of other ethyl esters are used in much smaller volumes as [[artificial flavoring|artificial fruit flavorings]].
; Vinegar
[[Vinegar]] is a dilute solution of [[acetic acid]] prepared by the action of ''[[Acetobacter]]'' bacteria on ethanol solutions. Although traditionally prepared from alcoholic beverages including [[wine]], [[apple cider]], and unhopped [[beer]], vinegar can also be made from solutions of industrial ethanol. Vinegar made from distilled ethanol is called "distilled vinegar", and is commonly used in food [[pickling]] and as a condiment.
; Ethylamines
When heated to 150&ndash;220 &deg;C over a [[silica]]- or [[alumina]]-supported [[nickel]] catalyst, ethanol and [[ammonia]] react to produce [[ethylamine]]. Further reaction leads to [[diethylamine]] and [[triethylamine]]:
: CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + [[ammonia|NH<sub>3</sub>]] &rarr; [[ethylamine|CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>NH<sub>2</sub>]] + [[water|H<sub>2</sub>O]]
: CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + [[ethylamine|CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>NH<sub>2</sub>]] &rarr; [[diethylamine|(CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>NH]] + [[water|H<sub>2</sub>O]]
: CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH + [[diethylamine|(CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>NH]] &rarr; [[triethylamine|(CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>N]] + [[water|H<sub>2</sub>O]]
The ethylamines find use in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals, agricultural chemicals, and [[surfactant]]s.
; Other chemicals
Ethanol is a versatile chemical feedstock, and in the past has been used commercially to synthesize dozens of other high-volume chemical commodities. At the present, it has been supplanted in many applications by less costly petrochemical feedstocks. However, in markets with abundant agricultural products, but a less developed petrochemical infrastructure, such as [[China]], [[India]], and [[Brazil]], ethanol can be used to produce chemicals that would be produced from petroleum in the West, including [[ethylene]] and [[butadiene]].
=== Other uses ===
It is easily [[soluble]] in [[water (molecule)|water]] in all proportions with a slight overall decrease in volume when the two are mixed. Absolute ethanol and 95% ethanol are themselves good [[solvent]]s, somewhat less polar than water and used in [[perfume]]s, [[paint]]s and [[tincture]]s. Other proportions of ethanol with water or other solvents can also be used as a solvent. Alcoholic drinks have a large variety of tastes because various flavor compounds are dissolved during [[brewing]]. When ethanol is produced as a mixing beverage it is a [[neutral grain spirit]].
Ethanol is used in medical wipes and in most common antibacterial hand sanitizer gels at a concentration of about 62%. Oddly enough, the peak of the disinfecting power occurs around 70% ethanol; stronger and weaker solutions of ethanol have a lessened ability to disinfect. Solutions of this strength are often used in laboratories for disinfecting work surfaces. Ethanol kills organisms by denaturing their [[protein]]s and dissolving their [[lipid]]s and is effective against most [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[fungus|fungi]], and many [[virus]]es, but is ineffective against bacterial [[spore]]s.
Wine with less than 16% ethanol cannot protect itself against bacteria. Because of this, [[port wine | port]] is often fortified with ethanol to at least 18% eth |
ph A. Fitzmyer]] notes in his commentary to the Anchor Bible translation of Acts, "this 'conventional' literary device is more alleged than demonstrated."
In both parts of Luke-Acts, scholars suggest that the author collected materials from [[oral tradition]], if not directly from different witnesses, possibly supplemented by the first person knowledge of the author in Acts. In this case, the author would have had the opportunity to collect materials, varying no doubt in accuracy, but all relatively primitive, whether in Antioch or in [[Caesarea Palaestina]], where he may have resided for some two years in contact with men like [[Philip the Evangelist]] (21:8). There and elsewhere he might also have learned a good deal from [[John, surnamed Mark]], Peter's friend ([[1 Peter|1 Pet]] 5:13; Acts 12:12).
== Historical Value ==
The question of authorship is largely bound up with that as to the historicity of the contents. Acts is divided into two distinct parts. The first (chs. 1&ndash;12) deals with the church in Jerusalem and Judaea, and with Peter as central figure&mdash;at any rate in the first five chapters. "Yet in cc. vi.-xii.," as Harnack observes,
<blockquote>the author pursues several lines at once. (1) He has still in view the history of the Jerusalem community and the original apostles (especially of Peter and his missionary labors); (2) he inserts in vi. 1 ff. a history of the Hellenistic Christians in Jerusalem and of the Seven Men, which from the first tends towards the Gentile Mission and the founding of the Antiochene community; (3) he pursues the activity of [[Philip the Apostle|Philip]] in [[Samaria]] and on the coast...; (4) lastly, he relates the history of Paul up to his entrance on the service of the young Antiochene church. In the small space of seven chapters he pursues all these lines and tries also to connect them together, at the same time preparing and sketching the great transition of the Gospel from Judaism to the Greek world. As historian, he has here set himself the greatest task. </blockquote>
No doubt gaps abound in these seven chapters. "But the inquiry as to whether what is narrated does not even in these parts still contain the main facts, and is not substantially trustworthy, is not yet concluded." The difficulty is that there are few external means of testing this portion of the narrative. Some of it may have suffered partial transformation in oral tradition before reaching our author; for example, the nature of [[glossolalia|Speaking the Tongues]] at [[Pentecost]] does not accord with what is known of the gift of "tongues" generally. The second part pursues the history of the apostle Paul, and here the statements made in the Acts may be compared with the Epistles. The result is a general harmony, without any trace of direct use of these letters; and there are many minute coincidences. But attention has been drawn to two remarkable exceptions: the account given by Paul of his visits to [[Jerusalem]] in [[Epistle to Galatians|Galatians]] as compared with Acts; and the character and mission of the apostle Paul, as they appear in his letters and in Acts.
In regard to the first point, the differences as to Paul's movements until he returns to his native province of Syria-Cilicia do not really amount to more than can be explained by the different interests of Paul and the author, respectively. But it is otherwise as regards the visits of Galatians 2:1&ndash;10 and Acts 15. If they are meant to refer to the same occasion, as is usually assumed, it is hard to see why Paul should omit reference to the public occasion of the visit, as also to the public vindication of his policy. But in fact the issues of the two visits, as given in Galatians 2:9f. and Acts 15:20f., are not at all the same. Nay more, if Galatians 2:1&ndash;10 = Acts 15, the historicity of the "Relief visit" of Acts 11:30, 12:25 seems definitely excluded by Paul's narrative of events before the visit of Galatians 2:1ff. Accordingly, [[William Ramsay|Sir W. M. Ramsay]] and others argue that the latter visit itself coincided with the Relief visit, and even see in Galatians 2:10 witness thereto.
But why does not Paul refer to the public charitable object of his visit? It seems easier to assume that the visit of Galatians 2:1ff. is altogether unrecorded in Acts, owing to its private nature as preparing the way for public developments&mdash;with which Acts is mainly concerned. In that case, it would fall shortly before the Relief visit, to which there may be tacit explanatory allusion, in Galatians 2:10; and it will be shown below that such a conference of leaders in Galatians 2:1ff. leads up excellently both to the First Mission Journey and to Acts 15.
As for Paul as depicted in Acts, Paul claims that he was appointed the apostle to the Gentiles, as Peter was to the Circumcision; and that [[circumcision]] and the observance of the [[Halakha|Jewish]] law were of no importance to the Christian as such. His words on these points in all his letters are strong and decided. But in Acts, it is Peter who first opens up the way for the Gentiles. It is Peter who uses the strongest language in regard to the intolerable burden
of the Law as a means of salvation (15:10f., cf. 1). Not a word is said of any difference of opinion between Peter and Paul at Antioch (Gal 2:11ff.). The brethren in Antioch send Paul and [[Barnabas]] up to Jerusalem to ask the opinion of the apostles and elders: they state their case, and carry back the decision to Antioch. Throughout the whole of Acts, Paul never stands forth as the unbending champion of the Gentiles. He seems continually anxious to reconcile the Jewish Christians to himself by personally observing the law of [[Moses]]. He circumcises the semi-Jew, [[Timothy]]; and he performs his vows in [[Temple in Jerusalem|the temple]]. He is particularly careful in his speeches to show how deep is his respect for the law of Moses. In all this, the letters of Paul are very different from Acts. In Galatians, he claims perfect freedom in
principle, for himself as for the Gentiles, from the obligatory observance of the law; and neither in it nor in Corinthians does he take any notice of a decision to which the apostles had come in their meeting at Jerusalem. The narrative of Acts, too, itself implies something other than what it sets in relief; for why should the Jews hate Paul so much, if he was not in some sense disloyal to their Law?
This is not necessarily a contradiction; only such a difference of emphasis as belongs to the standpoints and aims of the two writers amid their respective historical conditions. Peter's function toward the Gentiles belongs to early conditions present in Judaea, before Paul's distinctive mission had taken shape. Once Paul's apostolate&mdash;a personal one, parallel with the more collective apostolate of "the Twelve"&mdash;has proved itself by tokens of Divine approval, Peter and his colleagues frankly recognize the distinction of the two missions, and are anxious only to arrange that the two shall not fall apart by religiously and morally incompatible usages (Acts 15). Paul, on his side, clearly implies that Peter felt with him that the Law could not justify (Gal 2:15ff.), and argues that it could not now be made obligatory in principle (cf. "a [[yoke]]," Acts 15:10); yet for Jews
it might continue for the time (pending the [[Parousia]]) to be seemly and expedient, especially for the sake of non-believing Judaism. To this he conformed his own conduct as a Jew, so far as his Gentile apostolate was not involved (1 Cor 9:19ff.). There is no reason to doubt that Peter largely agreed with him, since he acted in this spirit in Galatians 2:11f., until coerced by Jerusalem sentiment to draw back for expediency's sake. This incident simply did not fall within the scope of Acts to narrate, since it had no abiding effect on the Church's extension. As to Paul's submission of the issue in Acts 15 to the Jerusalem conference, Acts does not imply that Paul would have accepted a decision in favor of the Judaizers, though he saw the value of getting a decision for his own policy in the quarter where they were most likely to defer. If the view that he already had an understanding with the "Pillar" Apostles, as recorded in Galatians 2:1&ndash;10, be correct, it gives the best of reasons why he was ready to enter the later public Conference of Acts 15. Paul's own "free" attitude to the Law, when on Gentile soil, is just what is implied by the hostile rumors as to his conduct in Acts 21:21, which he would be glad to disprove as at least exaggerated (vv. 24 and 26).
(Questions and evidence of historicity are presented in Colin J. Hemer, "The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History", Eisenbrauns, 1990)
=== Speeches ===
The speeches in Acts deserve special notice, because they constitute about 20% of the entire book. Given the nature of the times, lack of recording devices, and space limitations, many ancient historians did not reproduce verbatim reports of speeches. Condensing and using one's own style was often unavoidable. Nevertheless, there were different practices when it came to the level of creativity or adherence individual historians practiced.
On one end of the scale were those who seemingly invented speeches, such as the Sicilian historian [[Timaeus]] (356&ndash;260 BCE). Others, such as [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] and [[Tacitus]], fell somewhere in between, reporting actual speeches but likely with significant liberty. The ideal for ancient historians, however, seems to have been to try as much as possible to report the sense of what was actually said, rather than simply placing one's own speech in a figure's mouth.
Perhaps the best example of this ideal was voiced by [[Polybius]], who |
bout ''the Hilbert space'' they mean any separable one.
If {''e''<sub>''k''</sub>}<sub>''k'' &isin; ''B''</sub> is an orthonormal basis of ''H'', then every element ''x'' of ''H'' may be written as
:<math>x = \sum_{k \in B} \langle e_k , x \rangle e_k </math>
Even if ''B'' is uncountable, only countably many terms in this sum will be non-zero, and the expression is therefore well-defined. This sum is also called the ''Fourier expansion'' of ''x''.
If {''e''<sub>''k''</sub>}<sub>''k'' &isin; ''B''</sub> is an orthonormal basis of ''H'', then ''H'' is ''isomorphic'' to ''l''<sup>2</sup>(''B'') in the following sense: there exists a [[bijective]] [[linear operator|linear]] map &Phi; : ''H'' &rarr; ''l''<sup>2</sup>(''B'') such that
:<math>\langle \Phi \left(x\right), \Phi\left(y\right) \rangle = \langle x, y \rangle</math>
for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''H''.
== Orthogonal complements and projections ==
If ''S'' is a subset of a Hilbert space ''H'', we define the set of vectors orthogonal to ''S''
:<math>S^\mathrm{perp} = \left\{ x \in H : \langle x, s \rangle = 0\ \forall s \in S \right\}</math>
''S''<sup>perp</sup> is a [[closed set|closed]] subspace of ''H'' and so forms itself a Hilbert space. If ''V'' is a closed subspace of ''H'', then ''V''<sup>perp</sup> is called the ''orthogonal complement'' of ''V''. In fact, every ''x'' in ''H'' can then be written uniquely as ''x'' = ''v'' + ''w'', with ''v'' in ''V'' and ''w'' in ''V''<sup>perp</sup>. Therefore, ''H'' is the internal Hilbert direct sum of ''V'' and ''V''<sup>perp</sup>. The linear operator P<sub>''V''</sub> : ''H'' &rarr; ''H'' which maps ''x'' to ''v'' is called the ''orthogonal projection'' onto ''V''.
'''Theorem'''. The orthogonal projection P<sub>''V''</sub> is a self-adjoint linear operator on ''H'' of norm &le; 1 with the property P<sub>''V''</sub><sup>2</sup> = P<sub>''V''</sub>. Moreover, any self-adjoint linear operator ''E'' such that ''E''<sup>2</sup> = ''E'' is of the form P<sub>''V''</sub>, where ''V'' is the range of ''E''. For every ''x'' in ''H'', P<sub>''V''</sub>(''x'') is the unique element ''v'' of ''V'' which minimizes the distance ||''x'' - ''v''||.
This provides the geometrical interpretation of P<sub>''V''</sub>(''x''): it is the best approximation to ''x'' by elements of ''V''.
== Reflexivity ==
An important property of any Hilbert space is its [[reflexive space|reflexivity]]. In fact, more is true: one has a complete and convenient description of its [[dual space]] (the space of all [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] linear functions from the space ''H'' into the base field), which is itself a Hilbert space. Indeed, the [[Riesz representation theorem]] states that to every element &phi; of the dual ''H''' there exists one and only one ''u'' in ''H'' such that
:<math>\phi \left(x\right) = \langle u, x \rangle</math>
for all ''x'' in ''H'' and the association &phi; &harr; ''u'' provides an antilinear isomorphism between ''H'' and ''H'''. This correspondence is exploited by the [[bra-ket notation]] popular in [[physics]] but frowned upon by mathematicians.
== Bounded operators ==
For a Hilbert space ''H'', the [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] [[linear operator|linear operators]] ''A'' : ''H'' &rarr; ''H'' are of particular interest. Such a continuous operator is ''bounded'' in the sense that it maps [[bounded set]]s to bounded sets. This allows to define its [[operator norm|norm]] as
:<math>\lVert A \rVert = \sup \left\{\,\lVert Ax \rVert : \lVert x \rVert \leq 1\,\right\}.</math>
The sum and the composition of two continuous linear operators is again continuous and linear. For ''y'' in ''H'', the map that sends ''x'' to <''y'', ''Ax''> is linear and continuous, and according to the [[Riesz representation theorem]] can therefore be represented in the form
:<math>\langle A^* y, x \rangle = \langle y, Ax \rangle.</math>
This defines another continuous linear operator ''A''<sup>*</sup> : ''H'' &rarr; ''H'', the [[Hermitian adjoint|adjoint]] of ''A''.
The set L(''H'') of all continuous linear operators on ''H'', together with the addition and composition operations, the norm and the adjoint operation, forms a [[C*-algebra|C<sup>*</sup>-algebra]]; in fact, this is the motivating prototype and most important example of a C<sup>*</sup>-algebra.
An element ''A'' of L(''H'') is called ''self-adjoint'' or ''Hermitian'' if ''A''<sup>*</sup> = ''A''. These operators share many features of the [[real number|real numbers]] and are sometimes seen as generalizations of them.
An element ''U'' of L(''H'') is called ''[[unitary operator | unitary]]'' if ''U'' is invertible and its inverse is given by ''U''<sup>*</sup>. This can also be expressed by requiring that <''Ux'', ''Uy''> = <''x'', ''y''> for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''H''. The unitary operators form a [[group (mathematics)|group]] under composition, which can be viewed as the [[automorphism group]] of ''H''.
== Unbounded operators ==
If a linear operator has a closed graph and is defined on all of a Hilbert space, then, by the [[closed graph theorem]] in [[Banach space]] theory, it is necessarily bounded. However, if we allow ourselves to define a linear map that is defined on a proper [[subspace]] of the Hilbert space, then we can obtain unbounded operators.
In [[quantum mechanics]], several interesting unbounded operators are defined on a [[dense set | dense]] subspace of Hilbert space. It is possible to define [[self-adjoint operator| self-adjoint unbounded operators]], and these play the role of the ''observables'' in the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics.
Examples of self-adjoint unbounded operator on the Hilbert space ''L''<sup>2</sup>('''R''') are:
* A suitable extension of the differential operator
:: <math> [A f](x) = i \frac{d}{dx} f(x), \quad </math>
: where ''i'' is the imaginary unit and ''f'' is a differentiable function of compact support.
* The multiplication by ''x'' operator:
:: <math> [B f] (x) = xf(x).\quad </math>
These correspond to the [[momentum]] and position observables, respectively. Note that neither ''A'' nor ''B'' is defined on all of ''H'', since in the case of ''A'' the derivative need not exist, and in the case of ''B'' the product function need not be square integrable. In both cases, the set of possible arguments form dense subspaces of ''L''<sup>2</sup>('''R''').
==See also==
*[[Topologies on the set of operators on a Hilbert space]]
*[[Operator algebra]]
*[[Reproducing kernel Hilbert space]]
*[[Rigged Hilbert space]]
*[[Mathematical analysis]]
*[[Functional analysis]]
*[[Harmonic analysis]]
== References ==
* Jean Dieudonné, ''Foundations of Modern Analysis'', Academic Press, 1960.
* Paul Halmos, ''Measure Theory'', D. van Nostrand Co, 1950.
* David Hilbert, Lothar Nordheim, and John von Neumann, "Über die Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik," Mathematische Annalen, volume 98, pages 1-30, 1927.
* John von Neumann, "Allgemeine Eigenwerttheorie Hermitescher Funktionaloperatoren," Mathematische Annalen, volume 102, pages 49-131, 1929.
* Hermann Weyl, ''The Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics'', Dover Press, 1950. This book was originally published in German in 1931.
*[http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/ru/forums/dw_thread.jsp?forum=1&thread=116&cat=4 Quantum Hilbert-space X-OLAP and Extensions JAVA]
[[Category:Group theory]]
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[[Category:Linear algebra]]
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[[es:Espacio de Hilbert]]
[[fr:Espace de Hilbert]]
[[ko:힐베르트 공간]]
[[it:Spazio di Hilbert]]
[[he:מרחב הילברט]]
[[hu:Hilbert-tér]]
[[nl:Hilbertruimte]]
[[ja:ヒルベルト空間]]
[[pl:Przestrzeń Hilberta]]
[[ru:Гильбертово пространство]]
[[sk:Hilbertov priestor]]
[[fi:Hilbertin avaruus]]
[[sv:Hilbertrum]]
[[zh:希尔伯特空间]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hydrogen bond</title>
<id>13609</id>
<revision>
<id>41073100</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T21:54:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Itub</username>
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<comment>/* Hydrogen bond in water */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Liquid_water_simulation.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Snapshot from a simulation of liquid water. The four thin green lines from the molecule in the center of the picture represent hydrogen bonds.]]
In [[chemistry]], a '''hydrogen bond''' is a type of attractive [[intermolecular force]] that exists between two [[partial charge|partial]] [[electric charge]]s of opposite polarity. Although stronger than most other [[intermolecular force]]s, the typical hydrogen bond is much weaker than both the [[ionic bond]] and the [[covalent bond]]. Within [[macromolecule]]s such as [[protein]]s and [[nucleic acid]]s, it can exist between two parts of the same molecule, and figures as an important constraint on such molecules' overall shape.
As the name "hydrogen bond" implies, one part of the bond involves a [[hydrogen]] [[atom]]. The hydrogen must be attached to a strongly [[electronegative]]
[[heteroatom]], such as [[oxygen]], [[nitrogen]] or [[fluorine]], which is called the hydrogen-bond ''donor''. This electronegative element attracts the electron cloud from around the hydrogen nucleus and, by decentralizing the cloud, leaves the atom with a positive partial charge. Because of the small size of hydrogen relative to other atoms and molecule |
g]]
[[Category:Fourier analysis]]
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[[es:Autocorrelación]]
[[fr:Autocorrélation]]
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[[sv:Autokorrelation]]
[[zh:自相關函數]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aesthetic</title>
<id>2725</id>
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<id>39820009</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T02:00:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antandrus</username>
<id>57658</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.28.29.141|72.28.29.141]] ([[User talk:72.28.29.141|talk]]) to last version by Branddobbe</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aesthetics]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Atlas Autocode</title>
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<id>41626373</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:48:54Z</timestamp>
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<ip>129.113.28.125</ip>
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<comment>Discovered html entity ref for 1/2 symbol. Fixes ugly line spacing.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Atlas Autocode''' (AA) was a [[programming language]] developed at Manchester University for the [[Atlas Computer]]. It was developed by Tony Brooker as an improvement on the [[ALGOL]] [[programming language]]s, removing some of Algol's poorer features such as passing parameters by name. It featured explicitly typed variables, subroutines and functions. The AA compiler generated range-checking for array accesses, and the language allowed an array to have dimensions that were determined at run-time (i.e. you could declare an array as <code><u>integer</u> <u>array</u> Thing (i:j)</code>, where <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> were calculated values). Atlas Autocode included a <code><u>complex</u></code> data type which would support imaginary numbers (eg the square root of -1), a feature which was dropped when the language later morphed into the [[Edinburgh IMP]] programming language. (Imp was an extension of AA and was notable for being used to write the [[Edinburgh Multiple Access System|EMAS]] [[operating system]].)
Keywords in AA were represented as being underlined, however for the sake of easy typing it was possible to [[Stropping|strop keywords]] by placing a "<code>%</code>" sign in front of them, for example
the keyword <code><u>endofprogramme</u></code> could be typed as <code>%end %of %programme</code> or <code>%endofprogramme</code>
There were no reserved words in the language. In the statement <code><u>if</u> token=if <u>then</u> <u>result</u> = token</code>, there is both a keyword <code><u>if</u></code> and a variable named <code>if</code>.
Because of this keyword stropping, it was possible for AA to allow spaces in variable names, such as <code><u>integer</u> previous value</code>. Spaces were not significant and were removed prior to parsing in a trivial pre-lexing stage called "line reconstruction".
What the compiler would see in the above example would be "<code><u>if</u>token=if<u>thenresult</u>=token</code>".
The syntax for expressions was very close to mathematical standards and allowed implicit multiplication such as <code>z = 3x + y</code> as an alternative to the more common <code>z = x * 3 + y</code>.
Atlas Autocode's syntax was influenced by the output device which the author had available, a Flexowriter. Consequently it allowed symbols like "&frac12;" and superscripts for "<math>i^2</math>". The flexowriter supported overstriking and therefore AA did as well - up to three characters could be overstruck as a single symbol. For example the character set had no "&uarr;" symbol, so exponentiation was an overstrike of "|" and "*". (The underlining of keywords mentioned above could also be done using overstriking.) The language is described in detail in the [http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/docs/atlasautocode.html Atlas Autocode Reference Manual].
When AA was ported to the [[KDF9]] computer, the character set was changed to ISO and that compiler has actually been recovered from an old paper tape by the [http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/ Edinburgh Computer History Project] and is available online, as is a high-quality scan of the original Atlas Autocode manual.
Atlas Autocode's second-greatest claim to fame (after being the progenitor of Imp and EMAS) was that it was the original "[[Compiler-compiler|Compiler Compiler]]" of which "[[Yacc]]" was a later derivative. A variant of the AA compiler included run-time support for a top-down recursive descent parser. The style of parser used in the Compiler Compiler was in use continuously at Edinburgh from the 60's until almost the turn of the millennium.
Other [[Autocode]]s were developed for the [[Titan (computer)]] (a prototype Atlas 2) at Cambridge and the [[Ferranti]] Mercury.
[[Category:Historical programming languages]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ANZUS Treaty</title>
<id>2727</id>
<revision>
<id>15901121</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T16:40:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[ANZUS]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ANZUS]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aberfan disaster</title>
<id>2728</id>
<revision>
<id>15901122</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-10T03:26:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hajor</username>
<id>23076</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge & redirect - [[Aberfan]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Aberfan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arthur J. Stone</title>
<id>2729</id>
<revision>
<id>29631890</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-29T22:22:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Caerwine</username>
<id>347371</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Arthur J. Stone''' ([[1847]]-[[1938]]) a leading American silversmith, was trained and worked in [[Sheffield]], [[England]], and [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]], before coming to the United States in [[1884]]. He was one of the last silversmiths in America to train apprentices to carry out designs in hand-wrought silver. In 1901, Stone set up a workshop in [[Gardner]], [[Massachusetts]] which operated under his name until its sale in [[1937]] to Henry Heywood. Heywood was a Gardner businessman, who renamed it The Stone Silver Shop, and later, Stone Associates. Heywood died in [[1945]]. His sons Henry, Jr. and Jerome ran Stone Associates until [[1957]].
For more information on Stone and his work, see "Arthur J. Stone 1847-1938: Designer and Silversmith" by Elenita C. Chickering, 1994, Boston Athenaeum
==External links==
*[http://artarchives.si.edu/exhibits/craft/craftpage1.htm Samples of his work]
*[http://artarchives.si.edu/exhibits/craft/craftpage1a.htm Samples of his work]
{{US-bio-stub}}
{{artist-stub}}
[[Category:1847 births|Stone, Arthur J.]]
[[Category:1938 deaths|Stone, Arthur J.]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Au file format</title>
<id>2732</id>
<revision>
<id>40099885</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T03:13:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.92.11.147</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Au file format''' is a simple [[audio file format]] that consists of a header of 6 32-[[bit]] words and then the data. The format was introduced by [[Sun Microsystems]].
{| valign="top" cellspacing=2 border=1 cellpadding=3
|- bgcolor="#ffffcc"
! 32 bit word
! field
! Description/Content [[Hexadecimal]] numbers in [[C programming language|C]] notation
|-
| 0
| [[Magic number (programming)|magic number]]
| the value 0x2e736e64 (four ASCII characters ".snd")
|-
| 1 || data offset
| the offset to the data in [[byte | bytes]]. The minimum valid number is 24 (decimal).
|-
| 2 || data size
| data size in bytes. If unknown, the value 0xffffffff should be used.
|-
| 3 || encoding || Data encoding format:
1=8-bit ISDN [[mu-law algorithm|u-law]], 2=8-bit linear [[Pulse code modulation|PCM]] [REF-PCM], 3=16-bit linear PCM,
4=24-bit linear PCM, 5=32-bit linear PCM, 6=32-bit IEEE floating point,
7=64-bit IEEE floating point,
23=8-bit ISDN u-law compressed using the UIT-T G.721 [[ADPCM]] voice data encoding scheme.
|-
| 4 || sample rate
| the number of samples/second (e.g., 8000)
|-
| 5 || channels
| the number of interleaved channels (e.g., 1 for mono, 2 for stereo)
|}
The type of encoding depends on the value of the 'encoding' field (word 3 of the header). Formats 2-7 are uncompressed [[PCM]], therefore [[lossless]]. Formats 23-36 are ADPCM, which is a lossy, roughly 4:1 compression. Formats 1 and 27 are [[mu-law|&#956;-law]] and [[A-law]], respectively, both lossy. Several of the others are [[digital signal processing|DSP]] commands or data, designed to be processed by the [[NeXT]] [[MusicKit]] software.
[http://www.opengroup.org/public/pubs/external/auformat.html Sun .au sound file format]
[http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~pbourke/dataformats/au/ Demo .au output function]
[[Category:Computer file formats]]
[[de:Au (Dateiformat)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 25</title>
<id>2733</id>
<revision>
<id>41287748</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T08:10:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TFNorman</username>
<id>851465</id>
|
Kiasma]], the later displaying contemporary art, while the former being well-known for its classical art exhibitions.
Helsinki's main musical venues are the [[Finlandia Hall|Finlandia concert-hall]] and the [[Finnish National Opera]]. Bigger concerts and events are usually held at one of the city's two big hockey-stadiums the [[Hartwall Areena]] or the [[Helsingin jäähalli]]. Helsinki also has a big [[Helsinki Fair Centre|fair centre]].
Helsinki is also known for its active [[Helsinki ICT and digital culture scene|ICT and digital cultures scene in Greater Helsinki]].
Some widely renowned bands originate from Helsinki, including [[Stratovarius]], [[HIM (band)|HIM]], [[The Rasmus]], and [[The 69 Eyes]].
=== Events ===
*[http://www.valonvoimat.org/ Valon Voimat] "Forces of Light" is an annual winter arts festival.
*[http://www.helsinkifestival.fi/ Helsingin Juhlaviikot] is an annual arts and culture festival, which takes place every August.
*[[Vappu]] "Vappu" is an annual carnival for students and workers.
== Tourism ==
''See also: [[Tourism in Finland]]'', ''[[List of sites in Helsinki]]''
Helsinki is small and intimate; lively but not bustling. Its size makes it easy to walk around and [[café]]s, [[market]]s, and the nearby islands are its summer delights.
[[Image:File0156.jpg|thumb|right|Hietaniemi Beach, commonly called ''Hietsu'']]
Because Helsinki is located at the coast of the [[Baltic Sea]] and has many kilometres of coastline, most of its central districts are near the seaside. Helsinki is a very maritime city and is popularly called ''the daughter of the Baltic''.
Helsinki's coastal position makes it ideal to experience in the summertime from one of the many sightseeing ferries leaving from the port of Helsinki. Many of Helsinki's main attractions are also related to the sea, the [[Suomenlinna]] sea-fortress built in the [[18th century]] to defend the city and the [[Seurasaari]] Island with its parks and open-air museum, the former being a [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] [[World Heritage site]]. Locals often spend sunny days at the Hietaniemi Beach (often simply called ''Hietsu''), Helsinki's main beach in the district of Töölö.
In the winter-time Helsinki's northern position makes it dark for most of the day, thus making it a cosy town with much interesting lighting, such as the classic Aleksanterikatu's Christmas street (''Joulukatu''). During very cold periods it is very common for Helsinkians to go for walks on the frozen sea, although much caution must be taken.
Air travel to Helsinki is via the [[Helsinki-Vantaa Airport]]. Helsinki also has popular [[ferry]] links with [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]] and [[Tallinn]], [[Estonia]]. [[Silja Line|Silja]], [[Viking Line|Viking]] and [[Tallink]] are the biggest ferry operators.
<gallery>
Image:Suomenlinna.jpg|[[Suomenlinna]] Sea Fortress
Image:Tower of the Helsinki Olympic Stadium.jpg|[[Helsinki Olympic Stadium]] Tower, offers a good view over Helsinki.
Image:Finnish National Theatre.jpg|[[Finnish National Theatre]]
Image:Helsinki Railway Station 20050604.jpg|[[Helsinki Central railway station]]
Image:Suurkirkko Helsinki maaliskuu 2002 IMG 0629.JPG|Port of Helsinki and the [[Helsinki Cathedral]]
Image:Uspensiki by SamSegar.jpg|The Uspenski Orthodox cathedral
Image:Eingang Felsenkirche Helsinki.jpg|Entrance of Temppelinaukio Church that is built underground.
Image:Esplanadin puisto.jpg|The [[Esplanadi]] Park in central Helsinki
Image:Stockmann department store in Helsinki at dawn in December 2004.jpg|[[Stockmann]] department store along the [[Aleksanterinkatu]]'s Christmas street.
</gallery>
== Notable natives ==
<!-- Please check the talk page under "notable natives" before adding or removing anyone here -->
*[[Ragnar Granit]] - [[Nobel laureate]]
*[[Tarja Halonen]] - President of the Republic of Finland
*[[Tove Jansson]] - author and creator of the [[Moomin]] characters
*[[Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld]] - scientist
*[[Esa-Pekka Salonen]] - conductor and composer
*[[Helene Schjerfbeck]] - painter
*[[Linus Torvalds]] - creator of the [[Linux kernel]]
*[[Ville Valo]] - musician, [[HIM (band)|HIM]]
*[[Artturi Ilmari Virtanen]] - [[Nobel laureate]]
*[[Mika Waltari]] - author
*All members of the rock band [[The Rasmus]]
== Olympics ==
Helsinki was the host of the [[1952 Summer Olympics]].
==Trivia==
The [[asteroid]] [[1495 Helsinki]] was named after the city by its discoverer, the Finnish [[astronomer]] [[Yrjö Väisälä]].
== See also ==
*[[Helsinki Accords]]
==External links==
{{commons|Helsinki}}
*[http://www.hel.fi/ Helsinki] &ndash; Official site
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://fox.zero.ad.jp/~zas68510/Helsinki_Map_Blank.gif Map of central Helsinki]
*[http://www.histdoc.net/kaup1902/helsinki.gif Map of Helsinki in 1902]
*[http://kartta.hel.fi/opas/images/seutu.jpg Map of Helsinki Metropolitan Area]
*[http://aikataulut.ytv.fi/reittiopas/en/ Journey Planner] &ndash; a web application for determining public transport routes in the Helsinki region
*[http://www.helsinginsanomat.fi/english/extras/photogallery Helsinki through the lense] &ndash; Photo gallery
*[http://virtual.finland.fi/netcomm/news/showarticle.asp?intNWSAID=27690&LAN=ENG Webcam] Helsinki live webcam
*[http://virtual.finland.fi/finfo/images/helsin.jpg Satellite map of Helsinki]
*[http://groups.msn.com/FinlandTravelClub/helsinki.msnw Helsinki] - Finland Travel Club
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Helsinki&ll=60.167198,24.943900&spn=0.014724,0.051533&t=k&hl=en Satellite map of Helsinki] on [[Google maps]]
{{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}}
{{Link FA|cs}}
[[Category:Capitals in Europe]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Finland]]
[[Category:Coastal cities in Finland]]
[[Category:Helsinki|Helsinki]]
[[Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Uusimaa Region]]
[[af:Helsinki]]
[[ar:هلسنكي]]
[[bg:Хелзинки]]
[[be:Хэльсынкі]]
[[ca:Hèlsinki]]
[[cs:Helsinky]]
[[da:Helsinki]]
[[de:Helsinki]]
[[et:Helsingi]]
[[el:Ελσίνκι]]
[[es:Helsinki]]
[[eo:Helsinko]]
[[fr:Helsinki]]
[[ga:Heilsincí]]
[[gd:Helsinki]]
[[gl:Helsinqui - Helsinki]]
[[ko:헬싱키]]
[[io:Helsinki]]
[[id:Helsinki]]
[[is:Helsinki]]
[[it:Helsinki]]
[[he:הלסינקי]]
[[ku:Hêlsînkî]]
[[la:Helsingia (Finnia)]]
[[lt:Helsinkis]]
[[hu:Helsinki]]
[[na:Helsinki]]
[[nl:Helsinki]]
[[ja:ヘルシンキ]]
[[no:Helsingfors]]
[[nn:Helsingfors]]
[[pl:Helsinki]]
[[pt:Helsínquia]]
[[ro:Helsinki]]
[[ru:Хельсинки]]
[[se:Helsset]]
[[simple:Helsinki]]
[[sk:Helsinki]]
[[sr:Хелсинки]]
[[fi:Helsinki]]
[[sv:Helsingfors]]
[[tr:Helsinki]]
[[zh:赫尔辛基]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hunter Scott</title>
<id>13698</id>
<revision>
<id>37484178</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T07:02:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hunter Alan Scott''' (born [[June 9]] [[1985]]) is best known for the research he did regarding ''[[USS Indianapolis (CA-35) | USS Indianapolis]]''. He is [[as of 2004|currently]] studying [[journalism]] at the [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]] on a [[United States Navy|Naval]] [[ROTC]] scholarship.
Scott is originally from [[Pensacola, Florida]] and an alumnus of [[Pensacola High School]]. The research Scott did on the ''Indianapolis'', which he did in 1998 as part of a history assignment, was instrumental in raising public awareness of the issues related to the [[court-martial]] of the ship's commanding officer, Capt. [[Charles B. McVay III]]. (''Source:'' Detroit News, ''April 23, [[1998]]'')
Scott's efforts, which received national media attention, combined with the diligence of the ''Indianapolis'' Survivors Organization, resulted in passage of a [[Congress of the United States|Congressional]] resolution[http://www.ussindianapolis.org/resolution.htm] in October of [[2000]], which was also signed by [[Bill Clinton|President Clinton]].
In his testimony before Congress, young Scott stated:
::''"This is Captain McVay's dog tag from when he was a cadet at the Naval Academy"'' he said. ''"As you can see, it has his thumbprint on the back. I carry this as a reminder of my mission in the memory of a man who ended his own life in 1968. I carry this dog tag to remind me that only in the United States can one person make a difference no matter what the age. I carry this dog tag to remind me of the privilege and responsibility that I have to carry forward the torch of honor passed to me by the men of the USS Indianapolis."'' [http://www.insightmag.com/media/paper441/news/2000/06/05/InvestigativeReport/For-The.Good.Of.The.Navy-213231.shtml]
Hunter Scott was subsequently featured in ''[[George (magazine) | George]]'' as "one of the most intriguing political figures" of the year. In [[2004]], Scott spoke at events surrounding the dedication of the [[National World War II Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]].
==Reference==
* Peter Nelson. ''Left for Dead'' ISBN 0385729596 (preface by Hunter Scott)
==External links==
*[http://www.usni.org/navalhistory/Articles98/NHscott.htm Timeline to Justice, by Hunter Scott]
*[http://www.ussindianapolis.org/ USS Indianapolis - Still at sea]
[[Category:1985 births|Scott, Hunter]]
[[Category:Living people|Scott, Hunter]]
[[Category:Military writers|Scott, Hunter]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hobart</title>
<id>13699</id>
<revision>
<id>41888591</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:08:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gregorydavid</username>
<id>814656</id>
</contributor>
<comment>add second s to tessellate</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other places and things named Hobart, see [[Hobart (disambiguation)]].''
<!-- BEGIN INFOBOX -- |
llection of hommages, Man From Nowhere by Joe Ambrose, Frank Rynne, and Terry Wilson. In addition to substantial texts by the authors, Man from Nowhere contains tributes to Gysin by [[Marianne Faithful]], [[John Cale]], [[William Burroughs]], and [[Paul Bowles]].
==Bibliography==
*''To Master A Long Goodnight'' (Creative Age Press, New York, 1946)
*''Minutes to Go'' (with William S. Burroughs) (Two Cities Editions, Paris, 1960)
*''The Exterminator'' (with William S. Burroughs) (Auerhahn Press, San Francisco, 1960)
*''The Process'' (Doubleday, New York, 1969)
*''The Third Mind'' (with William S. Burroughs) (Viking, New York, 1978)
*''Here To Go'' (Interviews with Terry Wilson) (Quartet Books, London, 1982)
*''Stories'' (Inkblot Publications, 1984)
*''The Last Museum'' (Grove Press, New York, 1986)
*''Who Runs May Read'' (Inkblot/Xochi, Oakland/Brisbane, 2000)
==External links==
* [http://www.joujouka.net/ Master Musicians of Joujouka]
* [http://www.joeambrose.net/ Joe Ambrose / Hamri / Joujouka]
*[http://www.languageisavirus.com/ Language Is A Virus] online cut-up machine, the cut-up method of Brion Gysin
[[Category:1916 births|Gysin, Brion]]
[[Category:1986 deaths|Gysin, Brion]]
[[Category:Contemporary painters|Gysin, Brion]]
[[fr:Brion Gysin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bulgarian</title>
<id>4190</id>
<revision>
<id>41502444</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:22:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
<id>294180</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/134.151.40.3|134.151.40.3]] ([[User talk:134.151.40.3|talk]]) to last version by Tedernst</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''Bulgarian''' can mean:
* [[Bulgaria]], from or related to
* [[Bulgarian language]]
* [[Bulgarians]], ethnic group
* [[Bulgarian cuisine]]
* [[Bulgarian customs]]
* [[Bulgarian_(slang)]], a British term
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bacillus Calmette-Guérin</title>
<id>4191</id>
<revision>
<id>36667995</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T18:06:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ZwoBot</username>
<id>332929</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ja</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bacillus of Calmette and Guérin''' ('''BCG''') is a [[vaccination|vaccine]] against [[tuberculosis]] that is prepared from a strain of the attenuated (weakened) live bovine tuberculosis bacillus, ''[[Mycobacterium bovis]]'' that has lost its virulence in [[human]]s by specially culturing in artificial medium for years. The bacilli have retained enough strong antigenicity to become an effective vaccine for the prevention of human tuberculosis.
==History==
[[Albert Calmette]], a French bacteriologist, and his assistant and later colleague, [[Camille Guérin]], a veterinarian, were working at the [[Pasteur Institute]] in [[Lille]] in [[1908]]. Their work included the subculturing of virulent strains of the tuberculosis bacillus and the testing of different culture media. They noted that a glycerin-bile-potato mixture grew bacilli that seemed less virulent. They changed the course of their research to see if repeated subculturing would produce a strain that was attenuated to be considered for use as a vaccine. Throughout [[World War I]], the research continued until [[1919]] when the now non-virulent bacilli were unable to cause tuberculosis disease in research animals. They transferred to the Paris [[Pasteur Institute]] in [[1919]]. In [[1921]], the BCG vaccine was developed for human use.
In [[1928]] it was adopted by the Health Committee of the [[League of Nations]]. However, because of opponents of vaccination, it was not widely used until after [[World War II]]. From [[1945]] to [[1948]], relief organizations (International Tuberculosis Campaign or Joint Enterprises) vaccinated over 8 million babies in [[eastern Europe]] and prevented the predicted increase of TB after a major war.
The vaccine proved to be the safest and the most widely used vaccine. It has an efficacy of between 50 and 80 percent, depending on the natural occurrence of other forms of [[mycobacteria]] other than [[mycobacterium tuberculosis]] in the environment in which a person lives.
==Uses==
The main use of BCG is for vaccination against tuberculosis. It is not currently recommended in developed countries as routine childhood vaccination because the incidence of tuberculosis tends to be much lower in these areas, with the exception of the UK, where it is routinely given to children aged 14 to 15.
It is recommended that the BCG vaccination is be given intradermally by a nurse skilled in the technique.
Having had a previous BCG vaccination will affect a [[Mantoux test]] result: it is generally positive, although a very high-grade reading is usually due to active disease.
A more novel use for BCG is in the treatment of superficial forms of [[bladder cancer]]. Since the late [[1980s]] evidence has become available that intravesical instillation with BCG is an effective form of [[immunotherapy]] in this disease (Lamm ''et al'' 1991). While the exact mechanism remains unclear, it appears that a local immune reaction is mounted against the tumor.
BCG is also finding use as an immunotherapy agent in treatment of [[colorectal cancer]] (Mosolits ''et al'') and the treatment of [[equine sarcoid]] in horses.
==See also==
* [[Heaf test]]
* [[Mantoux test]]
* [[Tuberculosis]]
==References==
*Thomas Dormandy (1999). ''The White Death: A History of Tuberculosis''. Chapter 30 Vaccines. ISBN 0814719279 HB - ISBN 1852853328 PB
*Comstock GW. ''The International Tuberculosis Campaign: a pioneering venture in mass vaccination and research.'' Clin Infect Dis 1994;19(3):528-40. PMID 95110996.
* Lamm DL, Blumenstein BA, Crawford ED, Montie JE, Scardino P, Grossman HB, Stanisic TH, Smith JA Jr, Sullivan J, Sarosdy MF, et al. ''A randomized trial of intravesical doxorubicin and immunotherapy with bacille Calmette-Guerin for transitional-cell carcinoma of the bladder.'' N Engl J Med 1991;325:1205-9. PMID 192220.
* Mosolits S, Nilsson B, Mellstedt H. ''Towards therapeutic vaccines for colorectal carcinoma: a review of clinical trials.'', Expert Rev. Vaccines, 2005;4:329-50. PMID [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16026248&query_hl=2 16026248]
{{vaccines}}
[[Category:Vaccines]]
[[Category:Tuberculosis]]
[[de:Bacillus Calmette-Guérin]]
[[es:BCG]]
[[fr:Bacille de Calmette et Guérin]]
[[nl:BCG-vaccin]]
[[ja:BCG]]
[[pl:BCG]]
[[fi:BCG-rokote]]
[[zh:卡介苗]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bunsen</title>
<id>4192</id>
<revision>
<id>15902482</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-11T20:04:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Robert Bunsen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Common Buzzard</title>
<id>4193</id>
<revision>
<id>41346862</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T19:23:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Guaca</username>
<id>120752</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+no</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Common Buzzard
| image = Combuzzard.JPG
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Falconiformes]]
| familia = [[Accipitridae]]
| genus = '''''[[Buteo]]'''''
| species = '''''B. buteo'''''
| binomial = ''Buteo buteo''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])
}}
The '''Common Buzzard''' (''Buteo buteo'') is a [[bird of prey]] from the [[Old World]]. It is typically between 51-57 cm in length with a 110 to 130 cm wingspan, making it a medium-sized [[Bird of prey|raptor]]. Its range covers most of [[Europe]] and extends into [[Asia]]. It is resident except in the coldest parts of its range.
It breeds in woodland, but usually hunts over open land. It eats mainly small [[mammal]]s, and will come to [[carrion]].
Buzzards are the largest bird of prey to be found in most of [[England]]. They are increasing their range in [[Great Britain]], and spreading east from their former western strongholds.
Buzzards do not normally form flocks, but several may be seen together on [[Bird migration|migration]] or in good habitat. The Victorian writer on [[Dartmoor]], [[William Crossing]], noted that he had on occasions seen flocks of 15 or more at some places.
This broad-winged raptor has a wide variety of plumages, and in Europe can be confused with the similar [[Honey Buzzard]] (''Pernis apivorus'') and [[Rough-legged Buzzard]] (''Buteo lagopus'').
The call is a plaintive ''peea-ay''.
----
In North America, the term "[[buzzard]]" refers solely to [[vulture]]s, and in particular the [[Turkey Vulture]] (''Cathartes aura''). The term "buzzard" only applies to birds of prey when intended as a derogatory epithet, specifically for raptors that are considered pests, such as the [[Red-tailed Hawk]]s and [[Peregrine Falcon]]s.
{{Commons|Buteo buteo}}
<br clear="all">
==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Buteo_buteo_1_(Marek_Szczepanek).jpg|Common Buzzard
Image:Buteo_buteo_2_(Marek_Szczepanek).jpg|Common Buzzard
Image:Buteo_buteo_3_(Marek_Szczepanek).jpg|Common Buzzard
Image:Buteo_buteo_4_(Marek_Szczepanek).jpg|Common Buzzard
Image:Buteo_buteo_5_(Marek_Szczepanek).jpg|Common Buzzard
Image:Buteo_buteo_6_(Marek_Szczepanek).jpg|Common Buzzard
</gallery>
[[Category:Birds of prey]]
[[Category:Buteoninae]]
[[bg:Обикновен мишелов]]
[[cs:Káně lesní]]
[[cy:Bwncath]]
[[da:Musvåge]]
[[de:Mäusebussard]]
[[eo:Buteo]]
[[fr:Buse variable]]
[[fy:Mûzebiter]]
[[ko:말똥가리]]
[[he:עקב חורף]]
[ |
/title>
<id>782</id>
<revision>
<id>41972980</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:46:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.35.107.145</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Antiseptic]] mouth rinse, often called '''mouthwash''', is an [[oral hygiene]] product that claims to kill the [[germ]]s that cause [[Dental plaque|plaque]], [[gingivitis]], and [[bad breath]]. However, it is generally agreed that the use of mouthwash does not eliminate the need for both [[toothbrush|brushing]] and [[flossing]].
Common use involves rinsing one's mouth with about 20 [[milliliter|ml]] (2/3 [[ounce|oz]]) of mouthwash two times a day after brushing. The mouthwash is typically swished or [[gargling|gargled]] for about half a minute and then spit out.
Active ingredients in commercial brands of mouthwash can include [[thymol]], [[eucalyptol]], [[methyl salicylate]], [[menthol]], [[chlorhexidine gluconate]], [[hydrogen peroxide]] and sometimes [[enzymes]] and [[calcium]]. Ingredients also include [[water]], sweeteners such as [[sorbitol]] and [[Saccharine|Sodium saccharine]], and a significant amount of [[ethanol|alcohol]] (around 20%). Because of the alcohol content, it is possible to fail a [[breathalyzer]] test after rinsing one's mouth. Many newer brands are alcohol-free.
A '''salt mouthwash''' is a homemade treatment for mouth infections and is made by dissolving a teaspoon of [[Edible salt|salt]] in a cup of warm water.
[[Category:Dental equipment]]
{{dentistry-stub}}
[[zh-min-nan:Lo&#781;k-chh&#249;i-ch&#250;i]]
[[fi:Suuvesi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander the Great</title>
<id>783</id>
<revision>
<id>42153285</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:15:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/128.54.165.110|128.54.165.110]] ([[User talk:128.54.165.110|talk]]) to last version by InGenX</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Alexander}}
[[Image:AlexanderAttackingDarius.jpg|thumb|300px|'''Alexander the Great''' fighting Persian king [[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]] (not in frame) ''[[Alexander Mosaic]]'' from [[Pompeii]], from a [[3rd century BC]] original Greek painting, now lost).]]
'''Alexander [[List of people known as The Great|the Great]]''' (in [[Greek language|Greek]] '''{{polytonic|Μέγας Αλέξανδρος}}''', transliterated ''Megas Alexandros'') (Alexander III of Macedon) was born in [[Pella]], [[Macedon]], in [[July]], [[356 BC]], died in [[Babylon]], on [[June 10]], [[323 BC]], King of Macedon [[336 BC|336]]&ndash;[[323 BC]], is considered one of the most successful military commanders in world history (if not the greatest), conquering most of the [[Ptolemy_world_map|known world]] before his death. Alexander is also known in the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] [[Middle Persian]] work ''[[Book of Arda Viraf|Arda Wiraz Nāmag]]'' as "the accursed Alexander" due to his conquest of the [[Persian Empire]] and the destruction of its capital [[Persepolis]]. He is also known in Middle Eastern traditions as ''[[Dhul-Qarnayn]]'' in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and ''Dul-Qarnayim'' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] (the two-horned one), apparently due to an image on coins minted during his rule that seemingly depicted him with the two ram's horns of the Egyptian god [[Amun|Ammon]]. He is known as '''Sikandar''' in [[Hindi]]; in fact in [[India]], the term Sikandar is used as a synonym for "expert" or "extremely skilled".
Following the unification of the multiple city-states of [[ancient Greece]] under the rule of his father, [[Philip II of Macedon]], (a labor Alexander had to repeat twice because the southern Greeks rebelled after Philip's death), Alexander conquered the [[Persian Empire]], including [[Anatolia]], [[Syria]], [[Phoenicia]], [[Gaza]], [[Egypt]], [[Bactria]] and [[Mesopotamia]] and extended the boundaries of his own [[empire]] as far as the [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. Alexander integrated foreigners (non-Macedonians, non-Greeks{{rf|1|MvsG1}}) into his army and administration, leading some scholars to credit him with a "policy of fusion." He encouraged marriage between his army and foreigners, and practiced it himself. After twelve years of constant military campaigning, Alexander died, possibly of [[malaria]], [[typhoid]], viral [[encephalitis]] or even a drug overdose. His conquests ushered in centuries of Greek settlement and rule over foreign areas, a period known as the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic Age]]. Alexander himself lived on in the history and myth of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. Already during his lifetime, and especially after his death, his exploits inspired a literary tradition in which he appears as a towering legendary [[hero]] in the tradition of [[Achilles]].
==Early life==
[[Image:AlexanderTheGreat Bust.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bust (sculpture)|Bust]] of Alexander III in the [[British Museum]].]]
Alexander was the son of King Philip II of Macedon and of [[Epirus (region)|Epirote]] princess [[Olympias]]. According to [[Plutarch]] (''Alexander'' 3.1,3), Olympias was impregnated not by Philip, who was afraid of her and her affinity for sleeping in the company of snakes, but by [[Zeus]]. Plutarch (''Alexander'' 2.2-3) relates that both Philip and Olympias dreamt of their son's future birth. Olympias dreamed of a loud burst of thunder and of lightning striking her womb. In Philip's dream, he sealed her womb with the seal of the [[lion]]. Alarmed by this, he consulted the seer [[Aristander|Aristander of Telmessus]], who determined that his wife was pregnant and that the child would have the character of a lion.
[[Aristotle]] was Alexander's tutor; he gave Alexander a thorough training in [[rhetoric]] and [[literature]] and stimulated his interest in [[science]], [[medicine]], and [[philosophy]]. After his visit to the [[Oracle]] of [[Amun|Ammon]] at [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa]], according to all five of the extant historians ([[Arrian]], [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius]], [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]], [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]], and [[Plutarch]]), rumors spread that the Oracle had revealed Alexander's father to be [[Zeus]], rather than Philip. According to Plutarch (''Alexander'' 2.1), his father descended from [[Heracles]] through [[Caranus]] and his mother descended from [[Aeacus]] through [[Neoptolemus]] and [[Achilles]]. Aristotle gave him a copy of the [[Illiad]] and a knife that he always hid under his pillow at night.
===The ascent of Macedon===
When Philip led an attack on [[Byzantium]] in [[340 BC]], Alexander, aged 16, was left in command of Macedonia. In [[339 BC]], Philip took a second wife, to the chagrin of Alexander's mother Olympias, which led to a quarrel between Alexander and his father and threw into question Alexander's succession to the Macedonian throne. In [[338 BC]], Philip created the [[League of Corinth]]. Alexander also assisted his father at the decisive battle of [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Chaeronea]] in this year. The [[Companion cavalry|cavalry]] wing led by Alexander annihilated the [[Sacred Band of Thebes]], an elite corps previously regarded as invincible. Philip was content to deprive Thebes of her dominion over [[Boeotia]] and leave a Macedonian garrison in the citadel.
In [[336 BC]], Philip was assassinated at the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to [[Alexander I of Epirus|King Alexander of Epirus]]. The [[assassin]] was supposedly a former lover of the king, the disgruntled young nobleman [[Pausanias (assassin)|Pausanias]], who held a grudge against Philip because the king had ignored a complaint he had expressed. Philip's murder was once thought to have been planned with the knowledge and involvement of Alexander or Olympias. Another possible instigator could have been [[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]], the recently crowned King of Persia. [[Plutarch]] mentions an irate letter from Alexander to Darius, where Alexander blames Darius and [[Bagoas]], his [[grand vizier]], for his father's murder, stating that it was Darius who had been bragging with the Greek cities of how he managed to assassinate Philip.
After Philip's death, the army proclaimed Alexander, then aged 20, as the new king of Macedon. Greek cities like [[Athens]] and [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], which had been forced to pledge allegiance to Philip, saw in the new king an opportunity to retake their full independence. Alexander moved swiftly and Thebes, which had been most active against him, submitted when he appeared at its gates. The assembled Greeks at the [[Isthmus of Corinth]], with the sole exception of the [[Sparta]]ns, elected him to the command against Persia, which had previously been bestowed upon his father.
The next year, ([[335 BC]]), Alexander felt free to engage the [[Thracians]] and the [[Illyria]]ns in order to secure the [[Danube]] as the northern boundary of the Macedonian kingdom. While he was triumphantly campaigning north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander reacted immediately and while the other cities once again hesitated, Thebes decided this time to resist with the utmost vigor. The resistance was useless; in the end, the city was conquered with great bloodshed. The Thebans encountered an ever harsher fate when their city was razed to the ground and its territory divided between the other Boeotian cities. Moreover, all of the city's citizens were sold into slavery, sparing only the priests, the leaders of the pro-Macedonian party and the descendants of [[Pindar]], whose house was the only one left untouched. The end of Thebes cowed Athens into submission and it readily accepted Alexander's demand for the exile of all the leaders of the anti-Macedonian party, [[Demosthenes]] first of |
ly the settings of Verlaine (Ariettes oubliées, Trois mélodies, Fêtes galantes, set 1) are in a more capricious style.
===The first masterpieces===
[[Image:Debussy 1893.jpg|thumb|right|250 px|Debussy at the piano, behind him is the composer [[Ernest Chausson]], [[1893]]]]
Beginning in the 1890s, Debussy developed his own musical language largely independent of Wagner's style and heavy emotionalism. In reaction to the enormous works of Wagner and other late-romantic composers, Debussy chose to write in smaller, more accessible forms. Debussy's [[String quartet|String Quartet]] in G minor (1893) paved the way for his later, more daring harmonic exploration. In this work he utilized the [[Phrygian mode|Phrygian]] [[musical mode|mode]] as well as less standard modes, such as the whole-tone scale, which creates a sense of floating, ethereal harmony.
Influenced by the contemporary symbolist poet [[Stéphane Mallarmé]] Debussy wrote one of his most famous works, the revolutionary ''[[Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun|Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune]]''. In contrast to the large late-romantic orchestra, Debussy wrote this piece for a smaller ensemble, emphasizing orchestral colours and timbres of the instruments. Even if Mallarmé himself and Debussy's colleague and friend [[Paul Dukas]] were impressed by this piece, the work caused controversy at its premiere; the composer [[Camille Saint-Saëns]] for example thought it "pretty" but lacking any "style". It subsequently launched Debussy into the spotlight as one of the leading composers of the era.
===Pelléas et Mélisande===
In reaction to Wagner and his overblown late-romantic operas, Debussy wrote the mellow, symbolist opera ''[[Pelléas et Mélisande (opera)|Pelléas et Mélisande]]'', which would be his only finished opera. Based on the play by [[Maurice Maeterlinck]], the opera proved to be immensely influential to younger French composers, including [[Maurice Ravel]]. ''Pelléas,'' with its rule of understatement and deceptively simple declamation, also brought an entirely new tone to opera &mdash; but an unrepeatable one. These works brought a fluidity of rhythm and colour quite new to Western music.
===Orchestral music: ''Les nocturnes'', ''La Mer'', ''Images''===
Among Debussy's major orchestral works are the three ''[[Nocturnes]]'' (1899), characteristic studies in veiled harmony and texture ('Nuages'), exuberant ('Fêtes'), and whole-tone ('Sirènes'). ''[[La Mer (Debussy)|La Mer]]'' (1903-1905) essays a more symphonic form, with a finale that works themes from the first movement, although the middle movement (''Jeux de vagues'') proceeds much less directly and with more variety of colour.
The three ''Images'' (1905-1911) are more loosely linked, and the largest, ''Ibéria'' is itself a [[triptych]], a medley of Spanish allusions and fleeting impressions.
===Music for piano===
During this period Debussy wrote much piano music. The ''[[Suite bergamasque]]'' (1890) recalls, in Verlainian fashion, [[rococo]] decorousness with a modern cynicism and puzzlement. This suite contains Debussy's most popular piece [[Clair de Lune]]. The set of pieces entitled ''Pour le piano'', (1901) utilises rich harmonies and textures which would prove influential to [[Jazz]] music. His first volume of ''Images pour piano'' (1904–1905), combine harmonic innovation with poetic suggestion. "Reflets dans l'eau" is a musical description of rippling water. ''Hommage à Rameau'', the second piece, is a slow, mysterious court dance, but only remotely in the manner of [[Jean-Philippe Rameau]].
In his evocative ''Estampes'' for piano (1903), Debussy gives impressions of exotic locations, such as an Asian landscape in the pentatonic ''Pagodes'', and of [[Spain]] in ''La soirée dans Grenade''. Debussy wrote his famous ''[[Children's Corner]] Suite'' (1909) for his beloved daughter whom he nicknamed ''Chou-chou''. These beautiful and poetic pieces recall classicism as well as a new wave of rag-time music. Debussy also pokes fun at [[Richard Wagner]] in the popular piece ''Golliwogg's Cake-walk''.
The first set of [[Preludes (Debussy)|Preludes]], twelve in total, proved to be his most successful set of pieces for piano, frequently compared to [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]]'s famous set of preludes. These masterpieces of subtlety and description are filled with rich, unusual and daring harmonies. These pieces include the popular ''La Fille aux Cheveux de Lin'', ''[[La Cathédrale Engloutie]]''.
During this period and up until his death, Debussy worked on other opera projects and left substantial sketches for two pieces after tales by [[Edgar Allan Poe]] (''Le diable dans le beffroi'' and ''La chute de la maison Usher''), but neither was completed.
===''Le martyre de St. Sébastien'', ''Jeux'', and a second volume of Preludes===
The [[harmonies]] and [[Chord (music)|chord]] progressions frequently exploit [[Consonance and dissonance|dissonance]]s without any formal resolution. Unlike in his earlier work, Debussy no longer hides discords in lush harmonies. The forms are far more irregular and fragmented. The [[whole tone scale]] dominates much of his late music.<!--Image no longer available [[Image:Debussysatie.jpg|thumb|right|Opx|[[Claude Debussy]] (left) and Erik Satie (right) - picture taken probably between 1910 and 1915 by Igor Stravinsky.]]-->
The music for [[Gabriele d'Annunzio]]'s mystery play ''Le martyre de St. Sébastien'' (1911) a lush and dramatic work and written in only two months, is remarkable in sustaining a [[Late Antiquity|late antique]] [[musical mode|modal]] atmosphere that otherwise was touched only in relatively short piano pieces.
The last orchestral work by Debussy, the ballet ''Jeux'' ([[1912]]) written for [[Serge Diaghilev]]'s [[Ballets Russes]], contains some of his strangest harmonies and textures in a form that moves freely over its own field of motivic connection. At first ''Jeux'' was overshadowed by [[Igor Stravinsky]]'s [[The Rite of Spring]], composed in the same year as ''Jeux'' and premiered only two weeks later by the same ballet company. Decades later, composers such as [[Pierre Boulez]] and [[Jean Barraqué]] pointed out parallels to [[Anton Webern]]'s [[serialism]] in this work. Other late stage works, including the ballets ''Khamma'' ([[1912]]) and ''La boîte à joujoux'' (1913) were left with the orchestration incomplete, and were later completed by [[Charles Koechlin]] and [[André Caplet]], who also helped Debussy with the orchestration of ''Gigues'' (from ''Images pour orchestre'') and ''Le martyre de St. Sébastien''.
The second set of [[Preludes (Debussy)|Preludes]] for [[piano]] (1913) features Debussy at his most [[avant-garde]], sometimes utilising dissonant harmonies to evoke moods and images, especially in the mysterious ''Canope''; the title refers to a burial urn which stood on Debussy working desk and evokes a distant past. The pianist [[Claudio Arrau]] considered the piece as one of Debussy's greatest preludes: "It's miraculous that he created, in so few notes, this kind of depth." [http://homepage.mac.com/stevepur/music/debussy_piano/canope.html]
===Late music: ''En blanc et noir'', the Etudes and the three Sonatas===
His two last volumes of works for the piano, the ''[[Études]]'' ([[1915]]) interprets similar varieties of style and texture purely as pianistic exercises and includes pieces that develop irregular form to an extreme as well as others influenced by the young [[Igor Stravinsky]] (a presence too in the suite ''En blanc et noir'' for two pianos, 1915). The rarefaction of these works is a feature of the last set of songs, the ''Trois poèmes de Mallarmé'' (1913), and of the ''[[Sonata (music)|Sonata]] for [[flute]], [[viola]] and [[harp]]'' (1915), though the sonata and its companions also recapture the inquisitive Verlainian classicism.
With the sonatas of 1915-1917, there is a sudden shift in the style. These works recall Debussy's earlier music, in part, but also look forward, with leaner, simpler structures. Despite the thinner textures of the [[violin sonata]] (1917) there remains an undeniable richness in the chords themselves. This shift parallels the movement commonly known as [[Neoclassicism (music)|neo-classicism]] which was to become popular after Debussy's death. Debussy planned a set of six sonatas, but this plan was cut short by his death in 1918.
Claude Debussy died in Paris on March 25, 1918 from rectal [[cancer]], during the bombardment of Paris by airships and long-distance guns during the last [[Spring Offensive|German offensive]] of [[World War I]]. This was a time when the military situation of France was considered desperate by many, and these circumstances did not permit his being paid the honour of a public funeral, or ceremonious graveside orations. The funeral procession made its way through deserted streets as shells from the German guns ripped into his beloved city. It was just eight months before victory was celebrated in France. He was interred there in the [[Cimetière de Passy]], and French culture has ever since celebrated Debussy as one of its most distinguished representatives.
===Musical style===
Claude Debussy is widely regarded as one of the most influential composers of the 20th century. His harmonies, considered radical in his day, were influential to almost every major composer of the 20th century, including the music of [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[Olivier Messiaen]], [[Pierre Boulez]] and the [[minimalist music]] of [[Steve Reich]] and [[Philip Glass]]. He also influenced many important figures in [[Jazz]].
It is essential to note that the term "impressionist", widely applied to Debussy and the music he influenced, is a matter of intense debate within academic circles. It is widely held that the term is a misnomer, an inappropriate label which Debussy himself opposed. In a letter of 1908, he wrote "I am trying to do 'so |
e and valine. See isoleucine.
|-
| M
| Met
| [[Methionine]]
| hydrophobic
| 149.21
| 5.74
| 2.13
| 9.28
|
| [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Always the first amino acid to be incorporated into a protein; sometimes removed after translation. Like cysteine, contains sulfur, but with a methyl group instead of hydrogen. This methyl group can be activated, and is used in many reactions where a new carbon atom is being added to another molecule.
|-
| N
| Asn
| [[Asparagine]]
| hydrophilic
| 132.12
| 5.41
| 2.14
| 8.72
|
| Neutralized version of aspartic acid.
|-
| P
| Pro
| [[Proline]]
| hydrophobic
| 115.13
| 6.30
| 1.95
| 10.64
|
| Contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group, which forces the CO-NH amide sequence into a fixed conformation. Can disrupt protein folding structures like [[alpha helix|α helix]] or [[beta sheet|β sheet]], forcing the desired kink in the protein chain. Common in [[collagen]], where it undergoes a [[posttranslational modification]] to [[hydroxyproline]]. Uncommon elsewhere.
|-
| Q
| Gln
| [[Glutamine]]
| hydrophilic
| 146.15
| 5.65
| 2.17
| 9.13
|
| Neutralized version of glutamic acid. Used in proteins and as a storage for [[ammonia]].
|-
| R
| Arg
| [[Arginine]]
| basic
| 174.20
| 10.76
| 1.82
| 8.99
| 12.48
| Functionally similar to lysine.
|-
| S
| Ser
| [[Serine]]
| hydrophilic
| 105.09
| 5.68
| 2.19
| 9.21
|
| Serine and threonine have a short group ended with a [[hydroxyl]] group. Its hydrogen is easy to remove, so serine and threonine often act as hydrogen donors in enzymes. Both are very hydrophylic, therefore the outer regions of soluble proteins tend to be rich with them.
|-
| T
| Thr
| [[Threonine]]
| hydrophilic
| 119.12
| 5.60
| 2.09
| 9.10
|
| [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Behaves similarly to serine.
|-
| V
| Val
| [[Valine]]
| hydrophobic
| 117.15
| 6.00
| 2.39
| 9.74
|
| [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Behaves similarly to isoleucine and leucine. See isoleucine.
|-
| W
| Trp
| [[Tryptophan]]
| hydrophobic
| 204.23
| 5.89
| 2.46
| 9.41
|
| [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Behaves similarly to phenylalanine and tyrosine (see phenylalanine). Precursor of [[serotonin]].
|-
| Y
| Tyr
| [[Tyrosine]]
| hydrophobic
| 181.19
| 5.64
| 2.20
| 9.21
| 10.46
| Behaves similarly to phenylalanine and tryptophan (see phenylalanine). Precursor of [[melanin]], [[epinephrine]], and [[thyroid hormone]]s.
|}
{| border="1" bordercolor="black" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Amino acid
! Abbrev.
! Side chain
! Hydro- phobic
! Polar
! [[Electric charge|Charged]]
! Small
! Tiny
! [[Aromaticity|Aromatic]] or [[Aliphatic]]
! [[van der Waals]] volume
| align="center" | '''[[Genetic code|Codon]]'''
| align="center" | '''Occurrence in proteins (%)'''
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Alanine]]
| Ala, A
| -CH<sub>3</sub>
| X
| -
| -
| X
| X
| -
| align="center" | 67
| GCU, GCC, GCA, GCG
| 7.8
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Cysteine]]
| Cys, C
| -CH<sub>2</sub>[[Sulfur|S]]H
| X
| -
| -
| X
| -
| -
| align="center" | 86
| UGU, UGC
| align="center" | 1.9
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Aspartate]]
| Asp, D
| -CH<sub>2</sub>COOH
| -
| X
| negative
| X
| -
| -
| align="center" | 91
| GAU, GAC
| align="center" | 5.3
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Glutamate]]
| Glu, E
| -CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>COOH
| -
| X
| negative
| -
| -
| -
| align="center" | 109
| GAA, GAG
| align="center" | 6.3
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Phenylalanine]]
| Phe, F
| -CH<sub>2</sub>C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>
| X
| -
| -
| -
| -
| [[Aromaticity|Aromatic]]
| align="center" | 135
| UUU, UUC
| 3.9
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Glycine]]
| Gly, G
| -H
| X
| -
| -
| X
| X
| -
| align="center" | 48
| GGU, GGC, GGA, GGG
| 7.2
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Histidine]]
| His, H
| -CH<sub>2</sub>-[[imidazole|C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>3</sub>N<sub>2</sub>]]
| -
| X
| positive
| -
| -
| [[Aromaticity|Aromatic]]
| align="center" | 118
| CAU, CAC
| 2.3
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Isoleucine]]
| Ile, I
| -CH(CH<sub>3</sub>)CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>
| X
| -
| -
| -
| -
| [[Aliphatic]]
| align="center" | 124
| AUU, AUC, AUA
| 5.3
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Lysine]]
| Lys, K
| -(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>4</sub>NH<sub>2</sub>
| -
| X
| positive
| -
| -
| -
| align="center" | 135
| AAA, AAG
| 5.9
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Leucine]]
| Leu, L
| -CH<sub>2</sub>CH(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>
| X
| -
| -
| -
| -
| [[Aliphatic]]
| align="center" | 124
| UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, CUG
| 9.1
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Methionine]]
| Met, M
| -CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>[[Sulfur|S]]CH<sub>3</sub>
| X
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| align="center" | 124
| AUG
| 2.3
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Asparagine]]
| Asn, N
| -CH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub>
| -
| X
| -
| X
| -
| -
| align="center" | 96
| AAU, AAC
| 4.3
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Proline]]
| Pro, P
| -CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>-
| X
| -
| -
| X
| -
| -
| align="center" | 90
| CCU, CCC, CCA, CCG
| 5.2
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Glutamine]]
| Gln, Q
| -CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>CONH<sub>2</sub>
| -
| X
| -
| -
| -
| -
| align="center" | 114
| CAA, CAG
| 4.2
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Arginine]]
| Arg, R
| -(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>NH-C(NH)NH<sub>2</sub>
| -
| X
| positive
| -
| -
| -
| align="center" | 148
| CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, AGG
| 5.1
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Serine]]
| Ser, S
| -CH<sub>2</sub>OH
| -
| X
| -
| X
| X
| -
| align="center" | 73
| UCU, UCC, UCA, UCG, AGU,AGC
| 6.8
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Threonine]]
| Thr, T
| -CH(OH)CH<sub>3</sub>
| X
| X
| -
| X
| -
| -
| align="center" | 93
| ACU, ACC, ACA, ACG
| 5.9
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Valine]]
| Val, V
| -CH(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>
| X
| -
| -
| X
| -
| [[Aliphatic]]
| align="center" | 105
| GUU, GUC, GUA, GUG
| 6.6
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Tryptophan]]
| Trp, W
| -CH<sub>2</sub>[[indole|C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>6</sub>N]]
| X
| -
| -
| -
| -
| [[Aromaticity|Aromatic]]
| align="center" | 163
| UGG
| 1.4
|- align="center"
| align="left" | [[Tyrosine]]
| Tyr, Y
| -CH<sub>2</sub>-C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>OH
| X
| X
| -
| -
| -
| [[Aromaticity|Aromatic]]
| align="center" | 141
| UAU, UAC
| 3.2
|}
== Hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acids ==
Depending on how [[polar molecule|polar]] the side chain, aminoacids can be [[hydrophilic]] or [[hydrophobic]] to various degree. This influences their interaction with other structures, both within the protein itself and within other proteins. The distribution of hydrophilic and hydrophobic aminoacids determines the [[tertiary structure]] of the protein, and their physical location on the outside structure of the proteins influences their [[quaternary structure]]. For example, soluble proteins have surfaces rich with polar aminoacids like [[serine]] and [[threonine]], while [[integral membrane protein]]s tend to have outer ring of hydrophobic aminoacids that anchors them to the [[lipid bilayer]], and proteins anchored to the membrane have a hydrophobic end that locks into the membrane. Similarly, proteins that have to bind to positive-charged molecules have surfaces rich with negatively charged aminoacids like glutamate and aspartate, while proteins binding to negative-charged molecules have surfaces rich with positively charged chains like lysine and arginine.
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions of the proteins do not have to rely only on aminoacids themselves. By various [[posttranslational modification]]s other chains can be attached to the proteins, forming hydrophobic [[lipoprotein]]s or hydrophylic [[glycoprotein]]s.
== Nonstandard amino acids ==
Aside from the twenty standard amino acids and the two special amino acids, [[selenocysteine]] and [[pyrrolysine]], already mentioned above, there is a vast number of "nonstandard amino acids" which are not used in the body's regular manufacturing of proteins. Examples of nonstandard amino acids include the [[sulfur]]-containing [[taurine]] and the neurotransmitters [[GABA]] and [[dopamine]]. Other examples are [[lanthionine]], [[2-aminoisobutyric acid]], [[dehydroalanine]], [[dehydro-amino-butyric acid]],
Nonstandard amino acids are usually formed through modifications to standard amino acids. For example, taurine can be formed by the [[decarboxylation]] of cysteine, while dopamine is synthesized from tyrosine and [[hydroxyproline]] is made by a [[posttranslational modification]] from [[proline]].
==Uses of substances derived from amino acids==
* [[Aspartame]] (aspartyl-phenylalanine-1-methyl ester) is an artificial sweetener.
* [[5-HTP]] (5-hydroxytryptophan) has been used to treat neurolog |
ion of [[thyroid]] hormones such as [[thyroxine]]. On the other hand, neither fluorine nor bromine are believed to be really essential for humans, although small amounts of fluoride can make tooth enamel resistant to decay.
They show a number of trends when moving down the group - for instance, decreasing electronegativity and reactivity, increasing melting and boiling point.
<table border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width="100%">
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCFF"><b>Halogen</b></td>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCFF" align="center">'''Atomic Mass ([[unified atomic mass unit|u]])'''</td>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCFF" align="center">'''Melting Point ([[kelvin|K]])'''</td>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCFF" align="center">'''Boiling Point ([[kelvin|K]])'''</td>
<td bgcolor="#CCCCFF" align="center">'''Electronegativity ([[Pauling scale|Pauling]])'''</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Fluorine</td>
<td align="center">18.998</td>
<td align="center">53.53</td>
<td align="center">85.03</td>
<td align="center">3.98</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE">Chlorine</td>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE" align="center">35.453</td>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE" align="center">171.6</td>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE" align="center">239.11</td>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE" align="center">3.16</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Bromine</td>
<td align="center">79.904</td>
<td align="center">265.8</td>
<td align="center">332.0</td>
<td align="center">2.96</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE">Iodine</td>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE" align="center">126.904</td>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE" align="center">386.85</td>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE" align="center">457.4</td>
<td bgcolor="#EEEEEE" align="center">2.66</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Astatine</td>
<td align="center">(210)</td>
<td align="center">575</td>
<td align="center">610 ?</td>
<td align="center">2.2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Ununseptium</td>
<td align="center">(291)*</td>
<td align="center">*</td>
<td align="center">*</td>
<td align="center">*</td>
</tr>
</table>
<nowiki>*</nowiki> Ununseptium has not yet been discovered; values are either unknown if no value appears, or are estimates based on other similar chemicals.
{|style="text-align: center;" border="0" cellpadding="2"
|+ '''Explanation of above periodic table slice:'''
! bgcolor="{{element color/Halogens}}" | [[Halogen]]s
| atomic number in <font color="{{element color/Gas}}">{{element color/Gas}}</font> are gases
| atomic number in <font color="{{element color/Liquid}}">{{element color/Liquid}}</font> are liquids
| atomic number in <font color="{{element color/Solid}}">{{element color/Solid}}</font> are solids
|-
| style="border:{{element frame/Primordial}};" | solid borders are [[primordial element]]s (older than the [[Earth]])
| style="border:{{element frame/Natural radio}};" | dashed borders are naturally [[radioactive decay|radioactive element]]s
| style="border:{{element frame/Synthetic}};" | dotted borders are [[radioactive decay|radioactive]], [[synthetic element]]s
| style="border:{{element frame/Undiscovered}};" | those without borders have not been discovered yet
|}
{{PeriodicTablesFooter}}
==See also==
*[[pseudohalogen]]
[[Category:Halogens|*]]
[[Category:Periodic table]]
[[ar:هالوجين]]
[[bg:Халоген]]
[[ca:Halogen]]
[[cs:Halogen]]
[[da:Halogen]]
[[de:Halogene]]
[[es:Halógeno]]
[[eo:Halogeno]]
[[fa:هالوژن]]
[[fr:Halogène]]
[[ko:할로젠]]
[[is:Halógen]]
[[it:Alogeni]]
[[he:הלוגן]]
[[lv:Halogēni]]
[[lt:Halogenas]]
[[ms:Halogen]]
[[nl:Halogeen]]
[[ja:第17族元素]]
[[no:Halogen]]
[[nn:Halogen]]
[[pl:Fluorowce]]
[[pt:Halogênio]]
[[ru:Галогены]]
[[sr:Халогени елементи]]
[[sv:Halogen]]
[[th:แฮโลเจน]]
[[vi:Halôgen]]
[[tr:Halojen]]
[[zh:卤素]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Homepage</title>
<id>13259</id>
<revision>
<id>39995192</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T10:23:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Reisio</username>
<id>200193</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv poor link by [[User:85.65.20.188|85.65.20.188]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Homepage''''' or '''Home''' may refer to:
* The [[Home page|start page]] or main [[web page]] of a [[website]]
* The [[website]] of a group or individual
* The page that is displayed when you enter only a [[domain name]] as [[URL]] (e.g. <nowiki>http://</nowiki>[[domain name|domain]].[[top-level domain|tld]])
* The [[URL]] or local file that is automatically loaded when a [[web browser]] starts
== See also ==
* [[Main Page]]
* [[Vanity site]]
* [[index.html]]
{{disambig}}
[[Category:World Wide Web]]
[[da:Hjemmeside]]
[[de:Homepage]]
[[ia:pagina initial]]
[[nl:Homepage]]
[[ja:ホームページ]]
[[lv:Mājas lapa]]
[[ru:Домашняя страница]]
[[simple:Home page]]
[[sv:Hemsida]]
[[th:โฮมเพจ]]
[[zh:主页]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hee Haw</title>
<id>13260</id>
<revision>
<id>41876144</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T08:03:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Azknightwolf</username>
<id>927559</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Recurring skits and segments */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Hee Haw''''' was a long-running [[television]] [[variety show]] hosted by [[Buck Owens]] and [[Roy Clark]] and featuring [[country music]] and humor with rural "Kornfield Kounty" as a backdrop. It was taped at WLAC-TV (now [[WTVF]]) and [[Opryland USA]] in [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]]. The show's name was derived from the sound a [[donkey]] makes when it brays.
The show started on [[CBS]] as a summer [[1969 in television|1969]] replacement for ''[[The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour]]''. It was dropped by CBS in [[1971 in television|1971]], along with fellow country shows ''[[The Beverly Hillbillies]]'' and ''[[Green Acres]]''. It started airing new programming in [[Television syndication|syndication]], and continued in basically the same format for 20 more years (though Owens departed in [[1986 in television|1986]]).
The show was well known for its beautiful, voluptuous, scantily clad women in stereotypical Southern farmer's daughter outfits and its [[campy]] humor. ''Hee Haw'' was a quintessentially American show; and although its appeal was not only limited to a rural audience, it is virtually unknown outside of the United States. Despite being one of the most successful syndicated television shows in American history, many urbanites and those living in the suburbs of large cities are and were unfamiliar with the show, while virtually everyone living in rural America was and is familiar with ''Hee Haw''.
By [[1991 in television|1991]], a continued decline in its audience led to a dramatic change in setting, to a more urban location combined with more pop-oriented music. The new format lasted a single season, during which the show alienated many of its traditional viewers. In its final [[1992 in television|1992]] season, the now renamed '''''Hee Haw Silver''''' featured Clark hosting a mixture of classic clips and new footage.
After the show's syndication run ended, [[rerun]]s aired on [[The Nashville Network]] until [[1997 in television|1997]].
==Cast Members==
Original cast member [[David "Stringbean" Akeman]] was murdered in 1973. Two rural-style comedians, already well known in their native [[Canada]], gained their first major U.S. exposure--[[Gordie Tapp]] and [[Don Harron]] (whose character, newscaster Charlie Farquharson, later appeared on ''[[The Red Green Show]]''). Other cast members over the years included:
[[Barbi Benton]],
Cathy Baker,
[[Archie Campbell]],
the Hager Twins (Jim and Jon),
[[Gunilla Hutton]] (as Nurse Goodbody),
[[Grandpa Jones]],
[[George Lindsey]] (reprising his "Goober" character from ''[[The Andy Griffith Show]]''),
[[Minnie Pearl]],
[[Lulu Roman]],
[[Misty Rowe]],
[[Junior Samples]],
Rev. Grady Nutt,
[[John Henry Faulk]],
[[Gailard Sartain]],
[[Roni Stoneman]],
and the team of Jimmy Riddle and Jackie Phelps,
among many others.
==Recurring skits and segments==
* The old philospher (portrayed by Gordie Tapp) getting hit on the head with a rubber chicken.
* Crossing 2 objects (''Example'': "I crossed an elephant with a gopher." Everybody in unison: "What'ja get?" "Some awfully big holes in the backyard.") The one giving the answer got smacked in their bottom by a huge fenceboard, and even the women were victims of the board.
* Campbell was featured in three regular sketches. He played a [[barber]], usually sharing comic dialogue with customer Roy Clark; he was the doctor, who handled various 'ill/injured' cast members with the assistance of the lovely "Nurse Goodbody" (Hutton); and, he was "Justus O'Peace," the local judge, whacking away at the various accused parties (as in the legendary "Here Come De Judge" |
n===
[[Image:Nurembergracechart.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Nuremberg Laws]] of 1935 used a pseudo-scientific basis for racial discrimination against Jews. People with four German grandparents (white circles) were of "German blood," while people were classified as Jews if they descended from three or more Jewish grandparents (black circles in top row right). One or more Jewish grandparents made someone "mixed blood." Since the racial differences between Jews and Germans are small, the Nazis used the religious observance of a person's grandparents to determine their "race." (1935 Chart from [[Nazi Germany]] used to explain the [[Nuremberg Laws]])]]
Anti-semitism was officially adopted by the German Conservative Party at the [[Tivoli Congress]] in 1892, on the instigation of Dr. Klasing but in the teeth of opposition led by the moderate Werner [[von Blumenthal]].
Official [[anti-Semitic]] legislation was enacted in various countries, especially in Imperial Russia in the 19th century and in [[Nazi]] Germany and its Central European allies in the 1930s. These laws were passed against Jews as a group, regardless of their religious affiliation - in some cases, such as Nazi Germany, having a Jewish grandparent was enough to qualify someone as Jewish.
In Germany, for example, the [[Nuremberg Laws]] of 1935 prevented marriage between any Jew and non-Jew, and made it that all Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, were no longer citizens of their own country (their official title became "[[subject of the state]]"). This meant that they had no basic citizens' rights, e.g., to vote. In 1936, Jews were banned from all professional jobs, effectively preventing them having any influence in education, politics, higher education and industry. On 15 November of 1938, Jewish children were banned from going to normal schools. By April 1939, nearly all Jewish companies had either collapsed under financial pressure and declining profits, or had been persuaded to sell out to the Nazi government. This further reduced their rights as human beings; they were in many ways officially separated from the German populace. Similar laws existed in [[Hungary]], [[Romania]], and [[Austria]].
Even when anti-Semitism was not an official state policy, governments in the early to middle parts of the 20th century often adopted more subtle measures aimed at Jews. For example, the [[Evian Conference]] of 1938 delegates from thirty-two countries neither condemned Hitler's treatment of the Jews nor allowed more Jewish refugees to flee to the West.
===The Holocaust and Holocaust Denial===
{{main|Holocaust}}
Racial anti-Semitism reached its most horrific manifestation in the [[Holocaust]] during [[World War II]], in which about 6 million [[Europe]]an [[Jew]]s, 1.5 million of them children, were systematically murdered.
[[Holocaust denial|Holocaust deniers]] often claim that "the Jews" or "[[conspiracy theory|Zionist conspiracy]]" are responsible for the exaggeration or wholesale fabrication of the events of the Holocaust. Critics of such revisionism point to an overwhelming amount of physical and historical evidence that supports the mainstream historical view of the Holocaust. Almost all academics agree that there is no evidence for any such conspiracy.
===Anti-Semitic conspiracy theories===
[[Image:Protocols of the Elders of Zion 2005 Syria al-Awael.jpg|thumb|2005 [[Syria]]n edition of ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' includes a "historical and contemporary investigative study" that repeats the [[blood libel against Jews|blood libel]] and other anti-Semitic accusations, and argues that the Torah and Talmud encourage Jews "to commit treason and to conspire, dominate, be arrogant and exploit other countries".]]
The rise of views of the Jews as a malevolent "race" generated anti-Semitic [[conspiracy theories]] that the Jews, as a group, were plotting to control or otherwise influence the world. From the early infamous Russian literary [[hoax]], [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]], published by the Tzar's secret police, a key element of anti-Semitic thought has been that Jews influence or control the world.
In a recent incarnation, extremist groups, such as [[Neo-Nazism|Neo-Nazi]] parties and [[Islamism|Islamist]] groups, claim that the aim of [[Zionism]] is [[global domination]]; they call this the ''Zionist [[Conspiracy theory|conspiracy]]'' and use it to support anti-Semitism. This position is associated with [[fascism]] and [[Nazism]], though increasingly, it is becoming a tendency within parts of the [[Left wing politics|left]] as well.
== Anti-Semitism and the Muslim world ==
''Anti-Semitism within Islam is discussed in the article on [[Islam and anti-Semitism]]. Anti-Semitism in the Arab World is discussed in the article on [[Arabs and anti-Semitism]]''
The [[Qur'an]], [[Islam]]'s holy book, accuses the [[Jew]]s of corrupting the [[Hebrew Bible]]. Muslims refer to Jews and [[Christian]]s as a "[[People of the book]]"; Islamic law demands that when under Muslim rule they should be treated as [[dhimmi|dhimmis]] - from the Arab term ''ahl adh-dhimma''. The writer [[Bat Ye'or]] introduced the modern word ''Dhimmitude'' as a generic indication of this Islamic attitude. Dhimmis were granted protection of life (including against other Muslim states), the right to residence, worship, and work or trade, and were exempted from military service, and Muslim religious duties, personal law and tax. They were obligated to pay other taxes ([[jizyah]] and land tax), and subject to various other restrictions regarding the contradiction of Islam, the Qur'an or [[Muhammad]], [[proselyte|proselytizing]], and at times a number of other restrictions on dress, riding horses or camels, carrying arms, holding public office, building or repairing places of worship, mourning loudly, wearing shoes outside a Jewish ghetto, etc.
Anti-Semitism in the [[Islamic world|Muslim world]] increased in the [[twentieth century]], as anti-Semitic motives and [[blood libel]]s were imported from [[Europe]] and as resentment against [[Zionism|Zionist]] efforts in [[British Mandate of Palestine]] spread. While anti-Semitism has certainly been heightened by the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]], there were an increasing number of [[pogrom]]s against Jews prior to the foundation of [[Israel]], including [[Nazi]]-inspired pogroms in [[Algeria]] in the 1930s, and massive attacks on the Jews in [[Iraq]] and [[Libya]] in the 1940s (see [[Farhud]]). George Gruen attributes the increased animosity towards Jews in the [[Arab world]] to several factors including: The breakdown of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and traditional [[Islamic]] society; domination by Western [[colonialism|colonial powers]] under which Jews gained a disproportionatly large role in the commercial, professional, and administrative life of the region; the rise of [[Arab nationalism]], whose proponents sought the wealth and positions of local Jews through government channels; resentment over Jewish [[nationalism]] and the Zionist movement; and the readiness of unpopular [[regime]]s to [[scapegoat]] local Jews for political purposes.[http://www.jcpa.org/jl/jl102.htm]
[[Anti-Zionism|Anti-Zionist]] [[propaganda]] in the [[Middle East]] frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of [[the Holocaust]] to [[Demonization|demonize]] Israel and its leaders. At the same time, [[Holocaust denial]] and Holocaust minimization efforts have found increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries.
== Anti-semitism and specific countries ==
=== United States ===
[[Image:KKK holocaust a zionist hoax.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The [[Ku Klux Klan|KKK]]: Nazi salute and Holocaust denial]]
{{main|History of the Jews in the United States}}
Jews were often condemned by [[populist]] politicians alternately for their left-wing politics, or their perceived wealth, at the turn of the century. Anti-semitism grew in the years leading up to America's entry into World War II, Father [[Charles Coughlin]], an anti-Semitic radio preacher, as well as many other prominent public figures, condemned "the Jews," and [[Henry Ford]] reprinted [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]] in his newspaper.
In 1939 a [[Roper]] poll found that only thirty-nine percent of Americans felt that Jews should be treated like other people. Fifty-three percent believed that "Jews are different and should be restricted" and ten percent believed that Jews should be deported. [http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch22.htm]
It has been estimated that 190 000 - 200 000 Jews could have been saved during the [[Second World War]] had it not been
for bureaucratic obstacles to immigration deliberately created by [[Breckinridge Long]] and others.[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/holocaust/peopleevents/pandeAMEX90.html]
Unofficial antisemitism was also widespread in the first half of the century. For example, to limit the growing number of Jewish students between 1919-1950s a number of private liberal arts universities and medical and dental schools employed [[Numerus clausus#Numerus clausus in the United States|Numerus clausus]]. These included [[Harvard University]], [[Columbia University]], [[Cornell University]], and [[Boston University]]. In 1925 [[Yale University]], which already had such admissions preferences as "character", "solidity", and "physical characteristics" added a program of [[legacy preference]] admission spots for children of Yale alumni, in an explicit attempt to put the brakes on the rising percentage of Jews in the student body. This was soon copied by other Ivy League and other schools, and admissions of Jews were kept down to 10% through the 1950s. Such policies were for the most part discarded during the early 1960s.
American anti-Semitism underwent a modest revival in the late 2 |
C,D] = AB[C,D] + A[B,D]C + [A,D]BC
</code>
If ''A'' is a fixed element of a ring ''R'', the first additional relation can also be interpreted as a [[Leibniz rule]] for the map <math> D_A: R \rightarrow R </math> given by <math> B \mapsto [A,B] \ .</math> In other words: the map ''D<sub>A</sub>'' defines a [[derivation (abstract algebra)| derivation]] on the ring ''R''.
=== See also ===
*[[Lie algebra]]
*[[Poisson bracket]]s, [[Canonical commutation relation]]
==References==
*{{cite book | last = Griffiths | first = David J. | title=Introduction to Quantum Mechanics | edition = 2nd ed. | publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2004 |id=ISBN 013805326X}}
*{{cite book | last = Liboff | first = Richard L. | title=Introductory Quantum Mechanics | publisher=Addison-Wesley | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0805387145}}
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Group theory]]
[[Category:Binary operations]]
[[de:Kommutator (Mathematik)]]
[[he:קומוטטור]]
[[it:Commutatore]]
[[pl:Komutator (operatorów)]]
[[pt:Comutador (matemática)]]
[[zh:交換子]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cairn</title>
<id>7196</id>
<revision>
<id>42049273</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:14:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shultz III</username>
<id>981450</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cairn_3.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A cairn to mark the way along a [[glacier]].]]
[[Image:Changbai-2005.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Cairns on [[Mount Baekdu]].]]
A '''cairn''' is a manmade pile of stones. They are nearly always in uplands, on moors or mountain tops. The term tends to be used in reference to [[Scotland]], but is occasionally used elsewhere, such as the [[Peak District]] and [[Yorkshire]].
==Purpose==
They are built for several purposes:
* To mark a burial site, or in commemoration of the dead.
* To mark a path across stony or barren terrain, and across [[glacier]]s.
* To mark the summit of a mountain.
* Some are placed at regular intervals to aid navigation in bad weather.
* Some are also merely sites where a farmer has removed large amounts of stone from a field.
Additionally cairns have been used to commemorate all kinds of events from sites of battles to places where a cart has tipped over.
They vary from loose, small piles of stones to elaborate feats of engineering. In some places, [[game]]s are regularly held to find out who can build the most beautiful cairn.
==History==
The word derives from the [[Scottish Gaelic]] ''càrn'' which has a much broader meaning, and can take in various types of hill, and natural stone piles. Naturally, due to the idea's simplicity, cairns can be found all over the world in alpine or mountainous regions. They can also be found in barren [[desert]] and [[tundra]] areas.
[[Image:Cairn.JPG|left|thumb|200px|A cairn to mark the summit of a [[mountain]].]]
These present-day traditions emerged from the [[Bronze Age]] habit of putting [[cist]]s into cairns, which would be situated in conspicuous positions, often on the skyline above the village of the deceased. These cairns are still to be found, but are often much bigger than modern day ones in Scotland. It is thought that the stones were placed there for a variety of reasons, including deterring grave robbers and scavengers. A more sinister explanation is that they were to stop the dead from rising. It is noteworthy that there is a still a [[Judaism|Jewish]] tradition of placing small stones on a person's grave whenever you visit. Possibly this comes from a similar origin. [[Stupa]]s in [[India]] and [[Tibet]] etc. probably started out in a similar fashion, although they now generally contain the ashes of a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] saint or [[lama]].
In [[Scotland]], it is traditional to carry a stone up from the bottom of the hill to place on a cairn. In such a fashion, cairns would grow ever larger. An old [[Scots Gaelic]] blessing is ''Cuiridh mi clach air do chàrn'', i.e. 'I'll put a stone on your cairn'.
In North Africa, they are sometimes called ''kerkour'', and they are also common on the [[Mediterranean]] island of [[Corsica]].
In the [[Faroe Islands]] which are plagued by frequent fogs and heavy rain, and have some of the highest seacliffs in the world, cairns are common as a means of navigation over rugged and hill terrain. In addition, in former times, most travel in the islands, was by boat, rather than foot, so upland areas were often deserted.
[[Image:Steinmaennchen01.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A collection of cairns on the island of [[Corsica]].]]
In [[North American]] [[mountain]] regions, cairns are often used to mark hiking trails or cross-country routes at or above the [[treeline]]. Most are small, a foot or less in height, but a few are built taller so as to protrude through a layer of snow. It is traditional for each person passing by a cairn to add a stone, as a small bit of maintenance to counteract the destructive effects of severe winter weather. Oftentimes the habit is to only add to the top, and to use a smaller stone than the previous top stone, resulting in a precarious stack of tiny pebbles.
==Cairns as "people"==
Although the practice is not common in [[English language|English]], cairns are sometimes referred to by their anthropomorphic qualities. In [[German language|German]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]], a cairn is known as ''Steinmann'' and ''Steenman'' respectively, meaning literally "stoneman". A form of the [[Inuit]] ''[[inukshuk]]'' is also meant to represent a human figure, and is called an ''inunguak'' ("imitation of a person").
[[Image:FaoreseCairn.jpg|thumb|frame|right|A cairn near [[Fuglafjørður]], [[Faroe Islands]].]]
==See also==
* [[Chambered cairn]]
* [[Cist]]
* [[Clava cairn]]
* [[Court cairn]]
* [[Inukshuk]]
* [[Kerb]]
* [[Kurgan]]
* [[Stupa]]
* [[Tumulus]]
{{commons|Cairn|Cairn}}
[[Category:Monument types]]
[[de:Steinmann]]
[[fr:Cairn]]
[[nl:Steenman]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chief Minister of the Australian Capital Territory</title>
<id>7197</id>
<revision>
<id>37717474</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T19:39:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Commander Keane bot</username>
<id>502295</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Avoiding redirects, discussion at [[WP:AWNB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chief Minister of the Australian Capital Territory''' is the head of government of the [[Australian Capital Territory]]. The leader of the largest party in the [[Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly]] usually takes on the role. Unlike in other states and territories, the Chief Minister of the ACT is not nominally appointed by an Administrator or Vice-Regal, but elected directly by the parliament. Their role is roughly equivalent to that of the [[Premiers of the Australian states|Premiers]] of the states of [[Australia]].
The current Chief Minister of the ACT is [[Jon Stanhope]], and the Deputy Chief Minister is [[Ted Quinlan]].
==Chief Ministers of the Australian Capital Territory==
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse"
|- bgcolor="#cccccc"
! '''Chief Minister'''
! '''Party'''
! '''Period in office'''
|-
|| [[Rosemary Follett]] || [[Australian Labor Party|ALP]] || [[May 8]], [[1989]]
|-
|| [[Trevor Kaine]] || [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] || [[December 5]], [[1989]]
|-
|| [[Rosemary Follett]] || ALP || [[June 6]], [[1991]]
|-
|| [[Kate Carnell]] || Liberal || [[March 2]], [[1995]]
|-
|| [[Gary Humphries]] || Liberal || [[October 18]], [[2000]]
|-
|| [[Jon Stanhope]] || ALP || [[November 5]], [[2001]]
|-
|}
==See also==
*[[States and territories of Australia]] (includes some information about the role of the Chief Minister)
[[Category:Chief Ministers of the Australian Capital Territory|*]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Characteristic subgroup</title>
<id>7198</id>
<revision>
<id>27159371</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-02T12:35:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Patrick</username>
<id>4388</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''characteristic subgroup''' of a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' is a [[subgroup]] ''H'' that is invariant under each [[automorphism]] of ''G''. That is, if &phi; : ''G'' &rarr; ''G'' is a group automorphism (a [[bijective]] [[group homomorphism|homomorphism]] from the group ''G'' to itself), then for every ''x'' in ''H'' we have &phi;(''x'') &isin; ''H'':
:<math>\varphi(H)\sube H.</math>
It follows that
:<math>\varphi(H) = H.</math>
In symbols, one denotes the fact that ''H'' is a characteristic subgroup of ''G'' by
:<math>H\,\mathrm{char}\,G.</math>
In particular, characteristic subgroups are invariant under [[inner automorphism]]s, so they are [[normal subgroup]]s. However, the converse is not true; for example, consider the [[Klein group]] ''V''<sub>4</sub>. Every subgroup of this group is normal; but all 6 permutations of the 3 non-identity elements are automorphisms, so the 3 subgroups of order 2 are not characteristic.
On the other hand, if ''H'' is a normal subgroup of ''G'', and there are no other subgroups of the same order, then ''H'' must be characteristic; since automorphisms are order-preserving.
A related concept is that of a '''distinguished subgroup'''. In this case the subgroup ''H'' is invariant under the applications of [[surjective]] [[endomorphism]]s. For a finite group this is the same, because surjectivity implies injectivity, but not for an infinite group: a surjective endomorphism is not necessarily an automorphism.
For an even stronger constraint, a '''fully characteristic subgroup''' (also |
[[West Coast Eagles | West Coast]] v [[Fremantle Football Club | Fremantle]] <br>Known as The [[Western Derby]]
===More Recent Rivals===
* [[Brisbane Lions|Brisbane]] v [[Sydney Swans | Sydney]] <br>Two frontier states for the AFL, the AFL uses the [[Rugby League]] [[State of Origin]] rivalry between [[Queensland]] and [[New South Wales]] to draw crowds to games between these teams.
* [[Melbourne Football Club|Melbourne]] v [[Geelong Football Club | Geelong]] <br> The first 2 clubs in the league. Melbourne CEO [[Steve Harris]] once made comments about how Melbourne people never like to travel to Geelong, with this rivalry being manufactured by the AFL in the recent [[AFL Rivalry Round]] concept.
* [[Essendon Football Club|Essendon]] v [[Hawthorn Football Club | Hawthorn]] <br> The clubs contested the Grand Final on several occasions in the 1980s.
* [[Brisbane Lions|Brisbane]] v [[Essendon Football Club|Essendon]] <br> The two sides who clashed in the 2001 Grand Final, has since developed into a great rivalry thanks to respective coaches Leigh Matthews (Brisbane) and Kevin Sheedy (Essendon), with several famous clashes already.
* [[Brisbane Lions|Brisbane]] v [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood]] <br> The Brisbane Lions defeated Collingwood in the 2002 and 2003 Grand Final, which caused Grand Final Rematches and great rivalry between the two teams. This continued onwards with many Lions fans disliking Collingwood, and their President [[Eddie McGuire]].
* [[Brisbane Lions|Brisbane]] v [[Port Adelaide Power|Port Adelaide]] <br> The two sides who dominated the AFL from 2001-2004, they had identical winning percentages over the four years. The Lions won three consecutive titles (2001-2003), while Port developed a reputation as chokers in big matches until they won the 2004 title, defeating Brisbane in that decieder. Matches between the two are always hard fought encounters. The two sides have also drawn on two occasions, in 1997 and 1998.
* [[West Coast Eagles|West Coast]] v [[Essendon Football Club|Essendon]] <br> The rivalry started when Essendon coach Kevin Sheedy celebrated a victory by running down from the coaches box to the ground waving his jacket around his head. Now the fans of the victorious team in these clashes celebrate the victory by waving their jackets.
* [[St Kilda Football Club|St Kilda]] v [[Geelong Football Club|Geelong]] <br>Currently Victoria's two best teams. Both have reasonably young teams making their mark in AFL.
===Past Rivals===
* [[St Kilda Football Club|St Kilda]] v [[South Melbourne Football Club|South Melbourne]] <br>These clubs shared the same geographical area until the Swans moved to Sydney. These teams played for the 'Lake Trophy'.
* [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood]] v [[Fitzroy Football Club | Fitzroy]] <br>As with St Kilda and South Melbourne, these clubs shared the same geographical area until Fitzroy folded (and was absorbed by Brisbane) and began a new rivalry with Collingwood from successive Grand Final encounters.
===Rivalries which remain "untapped"===
* [[Richmond Football Club | Richmond]] v [[Fremantle Dockers | Fremantle]] <br>Richmond was Fremantle's first opponent in 1995, and later in the season became the first team to play the Dockers twice. Comedian [[Trevor Marmalade]] joked at the time that this made the two teams "traditional rivals". Interestingly, many matches between the two teams have been close contests, but neither side seems to consider the other a closely-matched rival.
==Future==
Several areas have been discussed as expansion possibilities, most often [[Tasmania]], western [[Sydney]], North [[Queensland]], the [[Gold Coast, Queensland|Gold Coast]], [[Canberra]], [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] and even [[New Zealand]] or [[South Africa]], but the AFL have an aim to keep the competition to 16 teams. It is generally thought that if the AFL expands into a new area, one of the less financially well-off Victorian clubs will re-locate, rather than an entirely new club being formed. The Western Bulldogs and Kangaroos are most often considered candidates for re-location, and some theorise that their respective name changes in the 1990s were in anticipation of such a move.
Having experimented with home games in Western [[Sydney]], the Kangaroos play regular premiership season games at [[Manuka Oval]] in Canberra, and the Bulldogs have played in [[Cairns, Queensland|Cairns]] and [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], leading to more speculation that they are attempting to build a supporter base in those areas for future re-location.
Mergers have also been an option for the AFL, as was seen with the Brisbane Bears and the defunct Fitzroy Lions in 1996. If two Victorian teams merge, then it makes room for a 16th team to come from an interstate city - the likely candidates for this are the [[Southport Sharks]] or a Tasmanian team based in [[Hobart]] or [[Launceston]]. However, that since the 1996 [[Melbourne Hawks]] merger attempt, the AFL has been less willing to actively persue the amalgamation of two Victorian-based clubs as an option.
==Hall of Fame==
For the centenary of the VFL/AFL in 1996, the [[Australian Football Hall of Fame]] was formed. Its members not only consist of those who have contributed to the VFL/AFL, but from Australian football in general (in such leagues as the [[SANFL]] and [[West Australian Football League|WAFL]]). That year 136 Australian Rules identities were inducted, including 100 players, 10 coaches, 10 umpires, 10 administrators and 6 media representatives.
===Legends of the Game===
In 1996, thirteen Hall of Fame members were declared ''Legends of the Game''. Now, each year another member of the Hall of Fame is declared a legend. The following is a list of ''Legends of the Game''.
*[[Ron Barassi|Ron Barassi Junior]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Haydn Bunton Senior]]''(added 1996)''
*[[Roy Cazaly]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[John Coleman]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Gordon Coventry]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Jack Dyer]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Graham Farmer]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Leigh Matthews]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[John Nicholls]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Bob Pratt]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Dick Reynolds]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Bob Skilton]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[E.J. 'Ted' Whitten|Ted Whitten Senior]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Ian Stewart (Australian footballer)|Ian Stewart]] ''(added 1997)''
*[[Gordon Coventry]] ''(added 1998)''
*[[Peter Hudson]] ''(added 1999)''
*[[Kevin Bartlett]] ''(added 2000)''
*[[Barry Robran]] ''(added 2001)''
*[[Bill Hutchison]] ''(added 2003)''
*[[Jock McHale]] ''(added 2005)''
==Team of the Century==
To celebrate the 100th season of the AFL, the "AFL Team of the Century" was named in 1996.
{{Aussie rules team | title = AFL Team of the Century
| backpocket1 = [[Bernie Smith]] (Geelong)
| fullback = [[Stephen Silvagni]] (Carlton)
| backpocket2 = [[John Nicholls]] (Carlton)
| halfbackflank1 = [[Bruce Doull]] (Carlton)
| centrehalfback = [[Ted Whitten]] (Footscray)
| halfbackflank2 = [[Kevin Murray]] (Fitzroy)
| wing1 = [[Keith Greig]] (North Melbourne)
| centre = [[Ian Stewart (Australian footballer)|Ian Stewart]] (St Kilda, Richmond)
| wing2 = [[Francis Bourke]] (Richmond)
| halfforwardflank1 = [[Alex Jesaulenko]] (Carlton, St Kilda)
| centrehalfforward = [[Royce Hart]] (Richmond)
| halfforwardflank2 = [[Dick Reynolds]] (Essendon)
| forwardpocket1 = [[Leigh Matthews]] (Hawthorn)
| fullforward = [[John Coleman]] (Essendon)
| forwardpocket2 = [[Haydn Bunton Senior]] (Fitzroy)
| ruck = [[Graham Farmer]] (Geelong)
| ruckrover = [[Ron Barassi]] (Melbourne, Carlton)
| rover = [[Bob Skilton]] (South Melbourne)
| interchange1 = [[Gary Ablett]] (Hawthorn, Geelong)
| interchange2 = [[Jack Dyer]] (Richmond)
| interchange3 = [[Greg Williams]] (Geelong, Sydney, Carlton)
| interchange4 =
| interchange5 =
| interchange6 =
| coach = [[Norm Smith]]
}}
[[Jim Elder]] was declared the ''Umpire of the Century'' was to coincide with the Team of the Century. Since the naming of this side, all AFL clubs have nominated their own teams of the century. An [[Indigenous Team of the Century]] was also selected in 2005, featuring the best Aboriginal players of the previous 100 years.
==Corporate Relations==
===Membership===
The AFL sells membership that entitle subscribers to reserve seats for matches at the [[Telstra Dome]] and [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] in Melbourne and priority access to finals. AFL Members can nominate a club to get priority Grand Final tickets.
===Broadcasting===
====Television====
The official television broadcast partners of the AFL are: [[Nine Network]], [[Network Ten]], and [[Foxtel]] ([[Fox Footy Channel]]).
As of [[2007]] the official Free to Air television brodcast partners will be: the [[Seven Network]] and [[Network Ten]]. The Pay TV partner, if any, is yet to be confirmed.
Before [[2001]], the [[Seven Network]] had broadcast the AFL for 45 years. The only year they didn't hold the rights was 1987, when the rights were bought by Sportsplay, a satellite channel, who then onsold the rights to the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]. In 1997, the Seven Network's main rivals created a consortium to snatch the rights from the network. Seven, however, did purchase a guaranteed last rights bid which in the future proved to be handy for the network. In January 2006, shortly after the death of media magnate [[Kerry Packer]], a Seven/Ten alliance used Seven's last rights bid to match Nine's offer of $AUD 780 million for broadcast rights in what was the biggest sport broadcasting deal in Australian history.
=====International Broadcasting=====
*[[ABC Asia Pacific]] currently broadcasts the full AFL Premiership season to more than 39 countries.
*AFL is broadcast in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], but not free-to-air. In the 1980s, [[ESPN]] played a highlights package called ''Fosters Australi |
alytic activity, but to differentiate them from protein enzymes, they are referred to as RNA enzymes or [[ribozyme]]s.
Enzymes are essential to sustain [[life]] because most chemical reactions in [[cell (biology)|biological cell]]s would occur too slowly, or would lead to different products, without enzymes. A malfunction (mutation, overproduction, underproduction or deletion) of a single critical enzyme can lead to a severe disease. For example, the most common type of [[phenylketonuria]] is caused by a single [[amino acid]] mutation in the enzyme [[phenylalanine hydroxylase]], which catalyzes the first step in the degradation of [[phenylalanine]]. The resulting build-up of phenylalanine and related products can lead to [[mental retardation]], if the disease is untreated.
Like all catalysts, enzymes work by lowering the [[activation energy]] of a reaction, thus allowing the reaction to proceed much faster. Enzymes may speed up reactions by a factor of many millions. An enzyme, like any catalyst, remains unaltered by the completed reaction and can therefore continue to function. Because enzymes, like all catalysts, do not affect the relative energy between the products and reagents, they do not affect [[Chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]] of a reaction. However, the advantage of enzymes compared to most other catalysts is their sterio-, regio- and chemoselectivity and specificity.
Enzyme activity can be affected by other [[molecules]]. [[inhibitor|Inhibitors]] are naturally occurring or synthetic molecules that decrease or abolish enzyme activity; activators are molecules that increase activity. Some irreversible inhibitors bind enzymes very tightly, effectively inactivating them. Many drugs and poisons act by inhibiting enzymes. [[Aspirin]] inhibits the [[Cyclooxygenase|COX-1]] and [[Cyclooxygenase|COX-2]] enzymes that produce the [[inflammation]] messenger [[prostaglandin]], thus suppressing pain and inflammation. The poison [[cyanide]] inhibits [[cytochrome c oxidase]], which effectively blocks [[cellular respiration]].
While all enzymes have a biological role, some enzymes are used commercially for other purposes. Many household cleaners use enzymes to speed up chemical reactions ( ''i.e.'', breaking down protein or starch stains in clothes).
More than 5,000 enzymes are known. Typically the suffix ''-ase'' is added to the name of the [[substrate]] (''e.g.'', [[lactase]] is the enzyme that catalyzes the cleavage of [[lactose]]) or the type of reaction (''e.g.,'' [[DNA polymerase]] catalyzes the formation of DNA polymers). However, this is not always the case, especially when enzymes modify multiple substrates. For this reason Enzyme Commission or [[EC number|EC numbers]] are used to classify enzymes based on the reactions they catalyze. Even this is not a perfect solution, as enzymes from different species or even very similar enzymes in the same species may have identical EC numbers.
== Etymology and history ==
[[Image:Eduardbuchner.jpg|thumb|125px|left|[[Eduard Buchner]]]]
The word [[wiktionary:enzyme|enzyme]] comes from [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''"in leaven"''.
As early as the late [[1700s]] and early [[1800s]], the digestion of [[meat]] by stomach secretions and the conversion of starch to sugars by plant extracts and saliva were observed.
Studying the [[fermentation]] of sugar to alcohol by yeast, [[Louis Pasteur]] came to the conclusion that this fermentation was catalyzed by "[[Vitalism|ferments]]" in the yeast, which were thought to function only in the presence of living organisms.
In [[1897]], [[Hans Buchner|Hans]] and [[Eduard Buchner]] inadvertently used yeast extracts to ferment sugar, despite the absence of living yeast cells. They were interested in making extracts of yeast cells for medical purposes, and, as one possible way of preserving them, they added large amounts of sucrose to the extract. To their surprise, they found that the sugar was fermented, even though there were no living yeast cells in the mixture. The term "enzyme" was used to describe the substance(s) in yeast extract that brought about the fermentation of sucrose.
==3D Structure==
In enzymes, as with other [[protein]]s, function is determined by structure. An enzyme can be:
*A [[monomer|monomeric]] protein, ''i.e.'', containing only one polypeptide chain, typically one hundred or more [[amino acid]]s; or
*an [[oligomer|oligomeric]] protein consisting of several polypeptide chains, different or identical, that act together as a unit.
As with any protein, each monomer is actually produced as a long, linear chain of [[amino acid]]s, which folds in a particular fashion to produce a three-dimensional product. Individual monomers may then combine via non-covalent interactions to form a multimeric protein. Many enzymes can be unfolded or inactivated by heating, which destroys the [[Tertiary structure|three-dimensional structure]] of the protein.
[[Image:Enzymeactivesite.png|thumb|right|300px|Cartoon showing the active site of an enzyme.]]
Most enzymes are larger than the substrates they act on and only a very small portion of the enzyme, around 10 amino acids, come into direct contact with the substrate(s). This region, where binding of the substrate(s) and then the reaction occurs, is known as the [[active site]] of the enzyme. Some enzymes contain sites that bind cofactors, which are needed for catalysis. Certain enzymes have binding sites for small molecules, which are often direct or [[#Metabolic pathways|indirect]] products or substrates of the reaction catalyzed. This binding can serve to increase or decrease the enzyme's activity (depending on the molecule and enzyme), providing a means for [[feedback]] regulation.
===Specificity===
Enzymes are usually specific as to the reactions they catalyze and the [[substrate (biochemistry)|substrate]]s that are involved in these reactions. Shape, charge complementarity, and hydrophillic/hydrophobic character of enzyme and substrate are responsible for this specificity.
===="Lock and key" model====
[[Image:two_substrates.png|thumb|300px|Fischer's lock and key hypothesis of enzyme action.]]
[[Image:Two substrates b.png|thumb|300px|Diagrams to show Koshland's induced fit hypothesis of enzyme action.]]
[[Image:Two substrates c.png|thumb|300px|A diagram showing a more realistic situation for induced fit hypothesis. Incorrect substrates, either too big or too small in size, do not fit with the active site.]]
Enzymes are very specific and it was suggested by [[Emil Fischer]] in 1890 that this was because the enzyme had a particular shape into which the substrate(s) fit exactly. This is often referred to as "the lock and key" model. An enzyme combines with its substrate(s) to form a short-lived enzyme-substrate complex.
====Induced fit model====
In 1958 [[Daniel Koshland]] suggested a modification to the "lock and key" model. Enzymes are rather flexible structures. The active site of an enzyme could be modified as the substrate interacts with the enzyme. The amino acids sidechains which make up the active site are molded into a precise shape which enables the enzyme to perform its catalytic function. In some cases the substrate molecule changes shape slightly as it enters the active site.
===Modifications===
Many enzymes contain not only a protein part but need additionally various modifications. These modifications are made ''posttranslational'', ''i.e.'', after the polypeptide chain is synthesized. Additional groups can be synthesized onto the polypeptide chain, ''e.g.'', [[phosphorylation]] or [[glycosylation]] of the enzyme.
Another kind of posttranslational modification is the cleavage and splicing of the polypeptide chain. [[Chymotrypsin]], a digestive [[protease]], is produced in inactive form as [[chymotrypsinogen]] in the [[pancreas]] and transported in this form to the [[stomach]] where it is activated. This prevents the enzyme from harmful digestion of the pancreas or other tissue. This type of inactive precursor to an enzyme is known as a [[zymogen]].
===Enzyme cofactors===
Some enzymes do not need any additional components to exhibit full activity. However, others require non-protein molecules to be bound for activity. Cofactors can be either [[inorganic]] (''e.g.'', metal ions and [[Iron-sulfur cluster]]s) or [[organic molecules|organic compounds]], which are also known as [[coenzyme]]s.
Enzymes that require a cofactor, but do not have one bound are called [[apoenzyme]]s. An apoenzyme together with its cofactor(s) constitutes a [[holoenzyme]] (''i.e,'' the active form). Most cofactors are not covalently bound to an enzyme, but are closely associated. However, some cofactors known as [[prosthetic groups]] are covalently bound (''e.g.,'' [[thiamine pyrophosphate]] in certain enzymes).
Most cofactors are either regenerated or chemically unchanged at the end of the reactions. Many cofactors are [[vitamin]]-derivatives and serve as carriers to transfer [[electron]]s, [[atom]]s, or [[functional group]]s from an enzyme to a substrate. Common examples are [[Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide|NAD]] and [[NADP]], which are involved in electron transfer and [[coenzyme A]], which is involved in the transfer of [[acetyl]] groups.
===Allosteric modulation===
[[Allosteric]] enzymes change their structure in response to binding of [[effector]]s. Modulation can be direct, where effectors bind directly to [[binding site]]s in the enzyme, or indirect, where the effector binds to other proteins or [[protein subunit]]s that interact with the allosteric enzyme and thus influence catalytic activity.
==Thermodynamics==
[[Image:activation2.png|thumb|300px|Diagram of a catalytic reaction, showing the energy niveau at each stage of the reaction. The substrates usually need a large amount of energy to reach the transition state, which then reacts to form the end product. The enzyme stabilizes the tran |
ck</title>
<id>4749</id>
<revision>
<id>41047457</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T18:39:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.197.143.234</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Blu-Tack''' is a reusable [[putty]]-like pressure-sensitive [[adhesive]] often used for attaching posters to walls. The original version was blue, but a myriad of colours are now available. It is based on a formulation consisting of synthetic [[rubber]], [[polymer]]s, oil and inorganic fillers.
Blu-Tack is a trademark of Australian company [[Bostik Findley]], a subsidiary of French mineral oil company [[Total S.A|Total]].
Similar products from other manufacturers include "Buddies" (pink), "Pritt-Tack", "Tac <nowiki>'N</nowiki> Stick", and it is also called "Sticky Tack."
==External links==
*[http://www.bostikfindley.com.au/pdf/datasheet/bostik_blu_tack.pdf Bostik Blu-Tack data sheet] (PDF)
[[Category:Adhesives]]
[[de:Blu-Tack]]
[[sv:Häftmassa]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bodhidarma</title>
<id>4750</id>
<revision>
<id>15903007</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bodhidharma]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bacillus</title>
<id>4751</id>
<revision>
<id>41071132</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T21:41:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.187.16.34</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgrey
| name = ''Bacillus''
| image = Bacillus subtilis Gram.jpg
| image_width = 220px
| image_caption = ''[[Bacillus subtilis]]'', Gram stained
| regnum = [[Bacterium|Bacteria]]
| divisio = [[Firmicutes]]
| classis = [[Bacilli]]
| ordo = [[Bacillales]]
| familia = [[Bacillaceae]]
| genus = '''''Bacillus'''''
| genus_authority = Cohn, 1872
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''[[Bacillus anthracis]]''<br>
''[[Bacillus cereus]]''<br>
''[[Bacillus coagulans]]''<br>
''[[Bacillus natto]]''<br>
''[[Bacillus subtilis]]''<br>
''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]''<br>
etc.
}}
'''''Bacillus''''' is a [[genus]] of rod-shaped [[bacterium|bacteria]]. The word "bacillus" is also used to describe any rod-shaped bacterium, and in this sense, bacilli are found in many different groups of bacteria. When the particular genus ''Bacillus'' is referred to, it is capitalized and italicized. Likewise, [[Bacilli]] refers to the particular class ''Bacillus'' belongs to, while bacilli are any rod-shaped bacteria.
The genus ''Bacillus'' belongs to the [[Firmicutes]], and like most other members has a [[Gram-positive]] stain. They are either obligate or facultative [[aerobe]]s, and test positive for [[catalase]]. When conditions are stressful, the cells produce oval [[endospore]]s that can stay dormant for extended periods. These characters originally defined the genus, but not all such species are closely related, and many have been moved to other genera.
''Bacillus'' are ubiquitous in nature, including both free-living and pathogenic species. Two species are considered medically significant: ''[[Bacillus anthracis|B. anthracis]]'', which causes [[anthrax]], and ''[[Bacillus cereus|B. cereus]]'', which causes a [[foodborne illness]] similar to that of ''[[Staphylococcus]]''. A third species, ''[[B. thuringiensis|B. thuringiensis]]'', is an important insect pathogen, and is sometimes used to control insect pests.
The [[type species]] is ''[[Bacillus subtilis|B. subtilis]]'', an important [[model organism]]. It is also a notable food spoiler, as is ''[[Bacillus coagulans|B. coagulans]]''.
An easy way to isolate ''Bacillus'' is by placing non-sterile soil in a [[test tube]] with water, shaking, placing in melted [[mannitol salts agar]], and incubating at room temperature for at least a day. Colonies are usually large, spreading and irregularly-shaped. Under the microscope, the ''Bacillus'' appear as rods, and a substantial portion usually contain an oval [[endospore]] at one end, making it bulge.
== See also ==
* ''[[Paenibacillus]]'', a genus of bacteria that was formerly included in ''Bacillus''
[[Category:Bacteria]][[Category:Firmicutes]]
[[de:Bazillus]]
[[es:Bacilo]]
[[eo:Bacilo]]
[[fr:Bacillus]]
[[he:Bacillus]]
[[pt:Bacilo]]
[[sv:Bacill]]
[[vi:Trực khuẩn]]
[[tr:Bacillus]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Brasília</title>
<id>4752</id>
<revision>
<id>40994593</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T10:03:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cacella</username>
<id>850292</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brasilia_brasil.jpg|thumb|300px|Brasília from space, November 1990]]
[[Image:Brazil.Brasilia.01.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Niemeyer's Cathedral]]
'''Brasília''' is the [[capital]] city of [[Brazil]]. It is famous for its urban planning, daring architecture and rapid population growth. It is located in the [[Brazilian Federal District]]. In [[English language|English]], the [[diacritic|diacritic mark]] on the [[acute accent|í]] is often omitted and the name written '''Brasilia'''.
==Location==
Brasília is located in a Federal District, created from the state of [[Goiás]] in the Mid-West region of the country. The District is bordered by the Preto River in the east and by the Descoberto River to the west. Brasília is situated on a 1000 m high plateau called the Planalto Central. The city is located at 15&deg;45' South, 47&deg;57' West (-15.75, -47.95). Brasilia is 207 km from [[Goiânia]]; 1,531 km. from [[Salvador]]; 716 km. from [[Belo Horizonte]]; and 1,015 km. from [[São Paulo]].
==Population and communications==
Since Brasília is less than 50 years old (2005), only about half of the city's population consists of people born there. Most other inhabitants have moved in from the surrounding states of [[Goiás]], [[Minas Gerais]], as well as from the North Eastern states and [[Rio de Janeiro]].
The city was originally planned for 500,000 people, but the total population of Brasilia has already reached 2.2 million (2004 est.), when the surrounding towns, known as satellite cities, are considered. Central Brasília, known as the Plano Piloto, has a population of around 200,000 and still has some areas in the North Wing for expansion. Most people, however, live in these [[satellite city|satellite cities]] created to house the exceeding population. The most important of these towns are: [[Ceilândia]] 350,000; [[Gama (Brazil)|Taguatinga]] 243,000; [[Sobradinho]] 130,000; [[Planaltina]] 150,000; and [[Gama]] 131,000. Another large part of the population lives in the so-called dormitory cities in the surrounding State of [[Goiás]]--[[Luziânia]], [[Águas Lindas de Goiás]], [[Planaltina de Goiás]], [[Cidade Ocidental]] and [[Valparaíso, Goiás |Valparaíso]] are some of the largest of these.
Brasília is just one of the 29 administrative regions within a federal district that is 5,822 square km in area [http://www.geocities.com/TheTropics/3416/pop_df_i.htm]. Officially, only 'Asa Sul' (South Wing), 'Asa Norte' (North Wing), and the central area of 'Plano Piloto' (Pilot Plan) are parts of Brasília. Unofficially, however, Brasília can mean both the 'Plano Piloto' area and all of its administrative regions and satellite cities; hence, the term is often used to refer to the federal district as a whole.
Whilst most of the transportation within the federal district occurs via motorways and buses, a basic underground railway system, the [[Brasília Metro]], also provides transportation between Brasilia and the satellite cities of Guara, Ceilandia, Taguatinga and Samambaia, through Asa Sul. It also links Park Shopping, one of the city's largest shopping centres, with a few other terminals in the south and central areas of the city; nevertheless, it does not extend into the city's northern half. Aside from the underground railway and the more comprehensive bus-based public transportation system, there is also a railway connection with [[São Paulo]], but no passenger trains operate any longer.
Brasília is served by roads that link the city to all other regions of the country. It is also a national hub for air transport. It is served by [[Presidente Juscelino Kubitschek International Airport]], which currently (2005) has the third largest air traffic in the country. Most international flights, however, require connections through São Paulo or Rio de Janeiro.
==Climate==
Brasília has dry winters and wet summers. During the dry season, the [[relative humidity]] of the air reaches critical levels during the hottest times of the day.
Maximum temperatures average 28 °C. During the dry season the temperature decreases and can reach daily lows of 13 °C in July. Maximum averages of 25 °C are still the norm.
The average temperature is 20.5 °C. The hottest month is September, with an average high of 28 °C and an average low of 16 °C. The coolest month is July, with an average high of 25 °C and an average low of 13 °C. The monthly difference between the average high is around 3 °C and the average low 5 °C.
The absolute minimum registered was 1.6°C and the maximum absolute 34.1°C.
==Education==
In education, Brasília has the best indicators in the country. The literacy rate is 93.7%, according to the Human Development Index. The city has several [[university|universities]]. The most important public university is the [[University of Brasília]] (UnB). [[Centro Universitário de Brasília]] (UniCEUB) and [[Universidade Católica]] (UCB) are the largest private universities.
As in the other Brazilian states, basic education (8 grades) is public and run by the government. However, many of the best schools are p |
don, 1976
*''[[The Winter's Tale]]'', RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon, 1976
*''[[Macbeth]]'' (title role), RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon & [[Young Vic]] (London), 1976-1977
*''[[The Alchemist (play)|The Alchemist]]'', RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon & London, 1977
*''[[Every Good Boy Deserves Favour]]'', RSC, [[Barbican Arts Centre]] (London), 1977
*''[[Three Sisters (play)|Three Sisters]]'', RSC, UK Tour, 1978
*''[[Bent]]'', West End, 1979
*''[[Coriolanus]]'' (title role), National Theatre, 1984
*''[[Wild Honey]]'', National Theatre, 1984 (& Broadway, 1986)
*''[[The Cherry Orchard]]'' (as Lopakhin), National Theatre, 1985
*''[[The Duchess of Malfi]]'', National Theatre, 1985
*''[[The Real Inspector Hound]]'', National Theatre, London & Paris, 1985
*''[[Othello]]'' (as Iago), RSC, London & Stratford-upon-Avon, 1989
*''[[Richard III (play)|Richard III]]'' (title role), National Theatre, world tour, 1990 & US tour, 1992
*''[[Uncle Vanya]]'' (title role), National Theatre, 1992
*''[[Peter Pan]]'' (as Mr. Darling/Captain Hook), National Theatre, 1997
*''[[An Enemy of the People]]'', National Theatre, 1997 & [[Ahmanson Theatre]] (Los Angeles), 1998
*''[[Present Laughter]]'', [[West Yorkshire Playhouse]] (Leeds, England), 1998
*''[[Aladdin (play)|Aladdin]]'', Old Vic, 2004
*''[[Aladdin]],'' Old Vic, 2005
===Film===
[[Image:IanMcKellen.0051.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Sir Ian McKellen takes a day out at [[Universal Studios]], Hollywood, April 2000. Although a veteran performer on both stage and screen, he has only recently taken up serious [[Hollywood]] roles. Photo by [[Keith Stern]].]]
*''[[The Keep]]'', (1983)
*''[[Plenty (film)|Plenty]]'', (1985)
*''[[Scandal]]'' (as [[John Profumo]]), (1989)
*''[[Six Degrees of Separation]]'', (1993)
*''[[Last Action Hero]]'', (1993)
*''[[The Shadow]]'', (1994)
*''[[Restoration (film)|Restoration]]'', (1995)
*''[[Richard III (1995 movie)|Richard III]]'', (1995)
*''[[Cold Comfort Farm]]'', (1996)
*''[[Bent]]'', (1997)
*''[[Apt Pupil]]'', (1998)
*''[[Gods and Monsters]]'', (1998)
*''[[X-Men (film)|X-Men]]'', (2000)
*''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring]]'', (2001)
*''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers]]'', (2002)
*''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King]]'', (2003)
*''[[X2 (film)|X2: X-Men United]]'', (2003)
*''[[Emile]]'', (2005)
*''[[Asylum]]'', (2005)
*''[[Flushed Away]]'', (2006)
*''[[X-Men 3]]'', (2006)
*''[[The Da Vinci Code (movie)|The Da Vinci Code]]'', (2006)
===Television===
*''[[David Copperfield]]'' (title role), (1966)
*''[[Hay Fever]]'', (1968)
*''[[Keats]]'' (as [[John Keats]]), (1970)
*''[[Edward II (play)|Edward II]]'', (1970)
*''[[Richard II (play)|The Tragedy of King Richard II]]'', (1970)
*''[[Hedda Gabler]]'', (1972)
*''[[Macbeth]]'', (1979)
*''[[The Scarlet Pimpernel]]'', (1982)
*''[[Walter]]'', (1982)
*''[[And the Band Played On]]'', (1993)
*''[[Tales of the City]]'', (1993)
*''[[Rasputin]]'' (as [[Tsar Nicholas II]]), (1996)
*''[[Coronation Street]]'' (2005)
==References==
* Quotes used in this article are from an interview conducted by ''[[The Advocate]]'', [[December 11]], [[2001]].
* Information about his home taken from [[The Times]], August 2005.
==External links==
{{commons|Ian McKellen}}
* [http://www.mckellen.com/ Home page]
* [http://www.mckellen.com/cinema/lotr/index.htm McKellen's personal pages on the Lord of the Rings movie, features a diary and answers to questions by fans.]
* [http://www.overstuffed-closet.net/ian The Ian McKellen Fanlisting]
* [http://www.ibdb.com/person.asp?ID=6425 Ian McKellen at the Internet Broadway Database]
*{{imdb name|id=0005212|name=Ian McKellen}}
[[Category:1939 births|McKellen, Sir Ian]]
[[Category:Alumni of St. Catharine's College, Cambridge|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:Atheists|McKellen, Sir Ian]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|McKellen, Sir Ian]]
[[Category:Coronation Street actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:British film actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:British stage actors|McKellen, Ian]]
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[[Category:Gay actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:LGBT rights activists|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:Living people|McKelln, Ian]]
[[Category:Natives of Lancashire|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:The Lord of the Rings film series actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|McKellen, Sir Ian]]
[[Category:X-Men actors|McKellen, Ian]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Intellivision</title>
<id>15309</id>
<revision>
<id>38614891</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T14:15:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Larsinio</username>
<id>324978</id>
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<comment>Revert to revision 37748201 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system| title = Intellivision
|logo =
|image = [[Image:intellivision.jpg|230px|]]
|manufacturer = [[Mattel]]
|type = [[Video game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (second-generation systems)|Second generation]]
|lifespan = [[1980]]
|media = [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]]
|onlineservice =
|topgame =
}}
The '''Intellivision''' is a [[video game console]] released by [[Mattel]] in [[1980]]; development of the console began in 1978 (less than a year after the introduction of its main competitor, the legendary [[Atari 2600]] aka the Atari VCS).
==Rapid popularity==
The Intellivision was developed by Mattel Electronics, a subsidiary of Mattel formed expressly for the development of electronic games. The console was test marketed in [[Fresno, California|Fresno]], [[California]], in [[1979]] with a total of four games available, and went nationwide in [[1980]] with a price tag of $299 and a pack-in game: ''[[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]] [[Blackjack]]''. Though not the first system to challenge [[Atari]] (systems from [[Fairchild Semiconductor]], [[Bally]], and [[Magnavox]] were already on the market), it was the first to pose a serious threat to Atari's dominance. A series of ads featuring [[George Plimpton]] were produced which mercilessly attacked the Atari 2600's lesser capabilities with side-by-side game comparisons.
One of the slogans of the television advertisements stated that Intellivision was "the closest thing to the real thing"; one example in an advertisement compared golf games - the others had a blip sound and cruder graphics, while Intellivision featured a realistic swing sound and striking of the ball, and graphics that suggested a more 3D look, although undoubtedly crude when compared with modern game consoles.
Like [[Atari]], Mattel marketed their console to a number of retailers as a rebadged unit. These models include the [[Radio Shack]] [[Tandyvision]], the [[GTE-Sylvania]] Intellivision, and the [[Sears]] [[Super Video Arcade]]. (The Sears model was a particular coup for Mattel, as Sears was already selling a rebadged [[Atari 2600]] unit, and in doing so making a huge contribution to Atari's success.)
In that first year Mattel sold 175,000 Intellivision consoles, and the library grew to 19 games. At this point in time, all Intellivision games were developed by an outside firm, [[APh]]. The company recognized that what had been seen as a secondary product line might be a big business. Realizing that potential profits are much greater with first party software, Mattel formed its own in-house software development group.
The original five members of that Intellivision team were manager [[Gabriel Baum]], [[Don Daglow]], [[Rick Levine]], [[Mike Minkoff]] and [[John Sohl]]. Levine and Minkoff (a long-time Mattel Toys veteran) both came over from the hand-held Mattel games engineering team. To keep these programmers from being hired away by rival Atari, their identity and work location was kept a closely guarded secret. In public, the programmers were referred to collectively as the [[Blue Sky Rangers]].
By [[1982]] sales were soaring. Over two million Intellivision consoles had been sold by the end of the year, earning Mattel a $100,000,000 profit. This was a big year for Mattel. Third party Atari developers [[Activision]], and [[Imagic]] began releasing games for the Intellivision, as did hardware rivals Atari and [[Colecovision]]. Mattel created ''[[M Network]]'' branded games for Atari and Coleco's systems. The most popular titles sold over a million units each.
The original 5-person Mattel game development team had grown to 110 people under now-Vice President Baum, while Daglow led Intellivision development and top engineer Minkoff directed all work on all other platforms.
==Keyboard Component==
Many users waited patiently for the promised release of the "Keyboard Component", an add-on computer upgrade unit touted by Mattel as "coming soon" even when the original console was first shipped. The unit featured a built-in cassette tape drive for loading and saving data. The Keyboard Component would plug into the cartridge slot on the Intellivision, and had an additional cartridge slot of its own to allow regular Intellivision games to be played in the usual way.
The upgrade had proven too expensive to develop and produce, so Mattel had repeatedly sent the engineers "back to the drawing board" to attempt to increase reliability and reduce cost. Mattel was subsequently investigated by the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC) for failing to produce the promised upgrade, and eventually ordered to pay $10,000 |
quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align="left"|'''[[Nelson Rockefeller]]'''||align="left"|1974&ndash;1977
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of State|State]]||align="left"|'''[[Henry A. Kissinger]]'''||align="left"|1974&ndash;1977
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[William E. Simon]]'''||align="left"|1974&ndash;1977
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense]]||align="left"|'''[[James R. Schlesinger]]'''||align="left"|1974&ndash;1975
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Donald Rumsfeld]]'''||align="left"|1975&ndash;1977
|-
|align="left"|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]]||align="left"|'''[[William Saxbe]]'''||align="left"|1974&ndash;1975
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Edward Levi]]'''||align="left"|1975&ndash;1977
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]]||align="left"|'''[[Rogers Morton]]'''||align="left"|1974&ndash;1975
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Stanley K. Hathaway]]'''||align="left"|1975
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Thomas Savig Kleppe]]'''||align="left"|1975&ndash;1977
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]]||align="left"|'''[[Earl L. Butz]]'''||align="left"|1974&ndash;1976
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[John A. Knebel]]'''||align="left"|1976&ndash;1977
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]]||align="left"|'''[[Frederick B. Dent]]'''||align="left"|1974&ndash;1975
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Rogers C. B. Morton]]'''||align="left"|1975
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Elliot L. Richardson]]'''||align="left"|1975&ndash;1977
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]]||align="left"|'''[[Peter J. Brennan]]'''||align="left"|1974&ndash;1975
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[John T. Dunlop]]'''||align="left"|1975&ndash;1976
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[W. J. Usery]]'''||align="left"|1976&ndash;1977
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare|HEW]]||align="left"|'''[[Caspar Weinberger]]'''||align="left"|1974&ndash;1975
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Forrest D. Mathews]]'''||align="left"|1975&ndash;1977
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development|HUD]]||align="left"|'''[[James T. Lynn]]'''||align="left"|1974&ndash;1975
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Carla A. Hills]]'''||align="left"|1975&ndash;1977
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Transportation|Transportation]]||align="left"|'''[[Claude Brinegar]]'''||align="left"|1974&ndash;1975
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[William T. Coleman, Jr.]]'''||align="left"|1975&ndash;1977
|}
<br clear="all">
=== Supreme Court appointments ===
In 1975, Ford appointed [[John Paul Stevens]] as [[Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States]].
==1976 election bid==
[[Image:FordNixonBushReagenCarter.jpg|thumb|200px|right|(Left to right:) Presidents Gerald Ford, [[Richard Nixon]], [[George H. W. Bush]], [[Ronald Reagan]], and [[Jimmy Carter]] at the dedication of the [[Reagan Presidential Library]] (1991).]]
It is believed that Ford's pardoning of [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]], along with the continuing economic problems, cost him the [[U.S. presidential election, 1976|election of 1976]].
His campaign may also have been hampered by a strong challenge that year for the nomination in the Republican party by [[Ronald Reagan]]. Additionally, Ford made a major [[gaffe]] during the second [[U.S. Presidential election debates|Presidential election debate]] when he insisted that [[Eastern Europe]] was not dominated by the [[Soviet Union]].The questioner was incredulous,and gave Ford a chance to reverse hisself,but Ford stood firm. Carter replied that he would like to see Ford convince [[Czechoslovakia|Czech-Americans]] and [[Polish American|Polish-Americans]] that their countries did not live under Soviet domination. On [[30 October]], [[1975]], his refusal to sanction federal aid for the city of [[New York City|New York]] led ''[[New York Daily News|The New York Daily News]]'' to paraphrase their perception of Ford's attitude in the headline "Ford to City: Drop Dead."
Had Ford won the election, he would have been disqualified by the [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|22nd amendment]] from running in [[U.S. Presidential election, 1980|1980]] because he served more than two years of Nixon's second term.
==Post-Presidential years==
[[image:pres38-42.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ford was one of four ex-Presidents who joined then-President [[Bill Clinton]] in attending the [[funeral]] of [[Richard Nixon]] on [[April 27]], [[1994]], in Nixon's hometown of [[Yorba Linda, California]].]]
Ford remained relatively active as a former President, and during his post-Presidential years he continued to make appearances at events of historical and ceremonial significance to the nation, such as Presidential inaugurals and memorial services. In 1981 he opened the [[Gerald R. Ford Museum]] in [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]], and the [[Gerald R. Ford Library]] in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]. In 1999, Ford was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Bill Clinton. In 2001, he was presented with the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award for his decision to pardon Richard Nixon to stop the agony America was experiancing over Watergate.
Ford has remained an avid fan of [[University of Michigan|Michigan]] football and delivered a videotaped message before Michigan and [[Ohio State University|Ohio State]] played their 100th game in 2003. In 1999, the School of Public Policy at the [[University of Michigan]] was renamed the [[Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy]] in honor of Ford's lifetime of public service.
Ford remained popular as a caricature in his retirement, with such icons as ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' and ''[[The Simpsons]]'' continuing to lampoon him, but, despite his taking these in good humor, he chose to continue to respect the office by not appearing on those shows as himself (although he did appear on ''SNL'' as himself on [[April 17]], [[1976]], during his run for re-election). He also appeared as himself on an episode of the prime-time [[soap opera]] ''[[Dynasty (TV series)|Dynasty]]'' on [[December 21]], [[1983]].
Since the death of [[Ronald Reagan]] on [[June 5]], [[2004]], Ford has been the oldest living former President. He is one of two U.S. Presidents to live to the age of 92 years, and the second longest-lived President in [[History of the United States|U.S. history]], behind Reagan's record of 93 years 120 days. If Ford lives through [[November 11]], [[2006]], he will become the longest-lived President of all time. He also has the second longest retirement among Presidents at 29 years, behind [[Herbert Hoover]]'s record of 31, which Ford would break if he lives until 2008.
Ford has been outspoken on a variety of political issues confronting the nation since leaving office. Although he had taken a more [[centrist]]-to-[[conservative]] stance on the matter while campaigning for President in 1976, Ford has emerged as a leading [[pro-choice]] Republican on abortion rights; he has been an advisor to [[Republicans for Choice]], and told [[Larry King]] in an interview that he shared in his wife's outspoken support of reproductive rights. Ford has also endorsed civil unions for gay couples, and urged Republicans not to support the [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|impeachment of President Bill Clinton]] in the late 1990s.
In June of 2004, the [[Flatsigned press | Flatsigned Press]] released a new limited edition of 'The John F. Kennedy Assassination Report' that contained an exclusive new introduction written by Ford with new information regarding the assassination of President John F. Kennedy and the many conspiracy theories that have plagued American citizens for a generation. The new text from President Ford ends with his ties to the current administrations of President George H.W. Bush, Vice President Dick Cheney, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfield and President George W. Bush and also includes commentary on Presidents Reagan and Carter.
In his later years Ford was quite accommodating in his written correspondence to those who had written to his office, often times fulfilling [[autograph]] requests, but in 2005, his office enacted a policy that he and Mrs. Ford ''"are no longer able to comply with the thousands of autograph requests that they receive each year."''
On [[November 22]], [[2004]], New York Republican Governor [[George Pataki]] named Ford and the other living former Presidents ([[Jimmy Carter]], [[George H. W. Bush]], and [[Bill Clinton]]) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the [[World Trade Center]].
Ford is a moderate Republican and is a member of moderate Republican groups such as [[Republican Majority For Choice]], [[Republicans For Choice]] and the advisory |
[[key (cryptography)|key]] using the [[Rijndael key schedule|key schedule]]; each subkey is the same size as the state. The subkey is added by combining each byte of the state with the corresponding byte of the subkey using bitwise [[XOR]].
===The <tt>SubBytes</tt> step===
In the <tt>SubBytes</tt> step, each byte in the array is updated using an 8-bit [[Rijndael S-box|S-box]]. This operation provides the non-linearity in the [[cipher]]. The S-box used is derived from the [[inverse function]] over '''[[Finite field|GF]]'''(''2<sup>8</sup>''), known to have good non-linearity properties. To avoid attacks based on simple algebraic properties, the S-box is constructed by combining the inverse function with an invertible [[affine transformation]]. The S-box is also chosen to avoid any fixed points (and so is a [[derangement]]), and also any opposite fixed points.
The S-box is more fully described in the article [[Rijndael S-box]].
===The <tt>ShiftRows</tt> step===
The <tt>ShiftRows</tt> step operates on the rows of the state; it cyclically shifts the bytes in each row by a certain offset. For AES, the first row is left unchanged. Each byte of the second row is shifted one to the left. Similarly, the third and fourth rows are shifted by offsets of two and three respectively. In this way, each column of the output state of the <tt>ShiftRows</tt> step is composed of bytes from each column of the input state. (Rijndael variants with a larger block size have slightly different offsets).
===The <tt>MixColumns</tt> step===
In the <tt>MixColumns</tt> step, the four bytes of each column of the state are combined using an invertible linear transformation. The <tt>MixColumns</tt> function takes four bytes as input and outputs four bytes, where each input byte affects all four output bytes. Together with <tt>ShiftRows</tt>, <tt>MixColumns</tt> provides [[diffusion (cryptography)|diffusion]] in the cipher. Each column is treated as a polynomial over '''GF'''(''2<sup>8</sup>'') and is then multiplied modulo <math>x^4+1</math> with a fixed polynomial <math>c(x) = 3x^3 + x^2 + x + 2</math>. The <tt>MixColumns</tt> step can also be viewed as a matrix multiply in [[Finite field arithmetic|Rijndael's finite field]].
This process is described further in the article [[Rijndael mix columns]].
===Optimization of the cipher===
On systems with 32-bit or larger words, it is possible to speed up execution of this cipher by converting the <tt>SubBytes</tt>, <tt>ShiftRows</tt> and <tt>MixColumns</tt> transformations into tables. One then has four 256-entry 32-bit tables, which utilizes a total of four kilobytes (4096 bytes) of memory--a kilobyte for each table. A round can now be done with 16 table lookups and 12 32-bit exclusive-or operations, followed by four 32-bit exclusive-or operations in the <tt>AddRoundKey</tt> step.
If the resulting four kilobyte table size is too large for a given target platform, the table lookup operation can be performed with a single 256-entry 32-bit table by the use of circular rotates.
==Security==
[[As of 2006]], the only successful attacks against AES have been [[side channel attack]]s. The [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) reviewed all the AES finalists, including Rijndael, and stated that all of them were secure enough for [[US Government]] non-classified data. In June 2003, the US Government announced that AES may be used for [[classified information]]:
:"''The design and strength of all key lengths of the AES algorithm (i.e., 128, 192 and 256) are sufficient to protect classified information up to the SECRET level. TOP SECRET information will require use of either the 192 or 256 key lengths. The implementation of AES in products intended to protect national security systems and/or information must be reviewed and certified by NSA prior to their acquisition and use.''" &mdash; [http://www.cnss.gov/Assets/pdf/cnssp_15_fs.pdf]
This marks the first time that the public has had access to a cipher approved by NSA for TOP SECRET information. It is interesting to note that many public products use 128-bit secret keys by default; it is possible that NSA suspects a fundamental weakness in keys this short, or they may simply prefer a safety margin for top secret documents (which may require security decades into the future).
The most common way to attack block ciphers is to try various attacks on versions of the cipher with a reduced number of rounds. AES has 10 rounds for 128-bit keys, 12 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 14 rounds for 256-bit keys. [[As of 2006]], the best known attacks are on 7 rounds for 128-bit keys, 8 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 9 rounds for 256-bit keys (Ferguson et al, 2000 {{ref|improved}}).
Some cryptographers worry about the security of AES. They feel that the margin between the number of rounds specified in the cipher and the best known attacks is too small for comfort. The risk is that some way to improve these attacks might be found and that, if so, the cipher could be broken. In this meaning, a [[cryptanalysis|cryptographic]] "break" is anything faster than an [[brute force attack|exhaustive search]], so an attack against 128-bit key AES requiring 'only' 2<sup>120</sup> operations would be considered a break even though it would be, now, quite infeasible. In practical application, any break of AES which is only this 'good' would be irrelevant. For the moment, such concerns can be ignored. The largest publicly-known brute-force attack has been against a 64 bit [[RC5]] key by [[distributed.net]] (finishing in 2002; [[Moore's Law]] implies that this is roughly equivalent to an attack on a 66-bit key today).
Another concern is the [[mathematics|mathematical]] structure of AES. Unlike most other block ciphers, AES has a very neat mathematical description [http://www.macfergus.com/pub/rdalgeq.html], [http://www.isg.rhul.ac.uk/~sean/]. This has not yet led to any attacks, but some researchers are worried that future attacks may find a way to exploit this structure.
In [[2002]], a theoretical attack, termed the "[[XSL attack]]", was announced by [[Nicolas Courtois]] and [[Josef Pieprzyk]], showing a potential weakness in the AES algorithm. Several cryptography experts have found problems in the underlying mathematics of the proposed attack, suggesting that the authors may have made a mistake in their estimates. Whether this line of attack can be made to work against AES remains an open question. For the moment, the XSL attack against AES appears speculative; it is unlikely that anyone could carry out the current attack in practice.
===Side channel attacks===
Side channel attacks do not attack the underlying cipher, but attack implementations of the cipher on systems which inadvertently leak data.
In April 2005, [[Daniel J. Bernstein|D.J. Bernstein]] announced a [http://cr.yp.to/papers.html#cachetiming cache timing attack] that he used to break a custom server that used [[OpenSSL]]'s AES encryption. The custom server was designed to give out as much timing information as possible, and the attack required over 200 million chosen plaintexts. Some say the attack is not practical against real-world implementations [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=42620794%40news.cadence.com]; [[Bruce Schneier]] called the research a "nice timing attack." [http://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2005/05/aes_timing_atta_1.html]
In October 2005, Adi Shamir and two other researchers presented a paper demonstrating several [http://www.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il/~tromer/papers/cache.pdf cache timing attacks]([[PDF]] file) against AES. One attack was able to obtain an entire AES key after only 800 writes, in 65 milliseconds. These attacks require the attacker to be able to run programs on the same system that is performing AES encryptions.
==See also==
* [[Advanced Encryption Standard process]]
* [[List of applications that use AES]]
==External links==
* [http://www.esat.kuleuven.ac.be/~rijmen/rijndael/ The Rijndael Page (Forwards automaticaly to the AES Lounge use old version link to browse)]
* [http://www.iaik.tu-graz.ac.at/research/krypto/AES/old/%7Erijmen/rijndael/ The Rijndael Page (old version)]
* [http://www.iaik.tu-graz.ac.at/research/krypto/AES/ Literature survey on AES]
<!-- Broken link
* [http://rijndael.info/audio/rijndael_pronunciation.wav Recordings of the pronunciation of "Rijndael"] (85 KB [[wav]] file)-->
* [http://csrc.nist.gov/encryption/aes/ The archive of the old official AES website]
* [http://www.csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips197/fips-197.pdf FIPS PUB 197: the official AES standard] ([[Portable_Document_Format|PDF]] file)
<!-- The following is a dead link 2005/05/15
* [http://www.nstissc.gov/Assets/pdf/fact%20sheet.pdf The C.N.S.S. announcement regarding the use of AES for classified data] ([[Portable_Document_Format|PDF]] file)-->
* [http://www.quadibloc.com/crypto/co040401.htm John Savard's description of the AES algorithm]
===Implementations===
* [http://www.cs.eku.edu/faculty/styer/460/Encrypt/JS-AES.html A Javascript AES calculator showing intermediate values]
* [http://fp.gladman.plus.com/cryptography_technology/rijndael/ Brian Gladman's BSD licensed implementations of AES]
* [http://www.esat.kuleuven.ac.be/~rijmen/rijndael/rijndael-fst-3.0.zip Paulo Barreto's public domain C implementation of AES]
* [http://cr.yp.to/mac.html D.J. Bernstein's public-domain implementation of AES]
* [http://www.lysator.liu.se/~nisse/nettle/ The GPL-licensed Nettle library also includes an AES implementation]
==Notes==
* <div id=blocksize>Block sizes of 128, 160, 192, 224, and 256 bits are supported by The Rijndael algorithm, but only the 128-bit block size is |
le. It appeared in the magazine in [[November]], [[1933]], and the sale netted her a hundred dollars. The first and most famous of the Jirel of Joiry stories is [[Black God’s Kiss]], which received the cover illustration (painted by [[Margaret Brundage]]) in the October 1934 ''Weird Tales''. Her early stories were notable for their emphasis on the senses and emotions, which was highly unusual at the time.
Moore met [[Henry Kuttner]], also a science fiction writer, in 1936 when he wrote her a fan letter (mistakeningly thinking that ‘C. L. Moore‘ was a man), and they married in 1940. Afterwards, almost all of their stories were written in collaboration under various pseudonyms, most commonly “Lewis Padgett.” In this very prolific partnership they managed to combine Moore's style with Kuttner's more cerebral storytelling. Their stories include the now-classic "Mimsy Were the Borogoves" and "Vintage Season." They also collaborated on a story that combined Moore’s signature characters, Northwest Smith and Jirel of Joiry: [[Quest of the Starstone]] ([[1937]]). After Kuttner's death in [[1958]], Moore wrote almost no fiction. She did write for a few [[television]] shows under her married name, but upon remarrying in [[1963]], she ceased writing entirely.
C. L. Moore died on [[April 4]], [[1987]] at her home in [[Hollywood, California]] after a long battle with [[Alzheimer's disease]].
More detailed biographical information can be found [http://www.redjacketpress.com/authors/cl_moore.html here.]
==Partial bibliography==
*''[[Earth's Last Citadel]]'' (1943)
*''[[The Mask of Circe]]'' (1948)
*''[[Beyond Earth's Gates]]'' (1949)
*''[http://www.redjacketpress.com/books/judgment_night.html Judgment Night]'' (1952)
*''[[Doomsday Morning]]'' (1957)
*''[[Jirel of Joiry]]'' (1969)
==External links==
*{{isfdb name | id=C._L._Moore | name=C. L. Moore}}
* [http://www.millipedepress.com/centipede_press.html Two-Handed Engine: The Selected Short Fiction of Henry Kuttner & C.L. Moore ]
[[Category:1911 births|Moore, C. L.]]
[[Category:1987 deaths|Moore, C. L.]]
[[Category:American writers|Moore, C. L.]]
[[Category:Fantasy writers|Moore, C. L.]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Moore, C. L.]]
[[Category:California writers|Moore, C. L.]]
[[de:C. L. Moore]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Compactron</title>
<id>7722</id>
<revision>
<id>29170703</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-24T23:55:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aaron Brenneman</username>
<id>319668</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved photo up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:12AE10CompactronTube.jpg|thumb|right|144px|12AE10 Compactron tube (a dual pentode), made by GE]]
The '''Compactron''' is a 12-pin [[vacuum tube]] family introduced in [[1961]] by [[General Electric]] in [[Owensboro, Kentucky]] with the express purpose of keeping tubes in the market for a few more years during the [[solid state]] revolution. [[Television]] sets were a primary application. Most Compactrons are either multiple tubes (e.g. three triodes in one bulb), or high-[[voltage]] and high-power types such as television sweep tubes.
A distinguishing feature of most Compactrons is the placement of the seal-off tip on the bottom end, rather than the top end as was customary with "miniature" tubes. Variations of the Compactron design were made by Sylvania and by some Japanese firms. Manufacture of Compactrons ceased in the early [[1990s]].
Examples:
*6AG11 high-mu twin triode
*6M11 twin triode - pentode
*12AE10 twin pentode
*8B10 twin triode - twin diode
*38HK7 pentode diode
*6AF11
*6GB5 beam power pentode with anode cap
[[Category:Vacuum tubes]]
[[fr:Compactron]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carmichael number</title>
<id>7723</id>
<revision>
<id>41589815</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T09:40:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[number theory]], a '''Carmichael number''' is a [[composite number|composite]] positive [[integer]] ''n'' which satisfies the [[congruence]] ''b''<sup>''n''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1</sup> &equiv; 1 (mod ''n'')
for all integers ''b'' which are [[relatively prime]] to ''n'' (see [[modular arithmetic]]). They are named for [[Robert Daniel Carmichael|Robert Carmichael]].
==Overview==
[[Fermat's little theorem]] states that all [[prime numbers]] have that property. In this sense, Carmichael numbers are similar to prime numbers. They are called [[pseudoprime]]s. Carmichael numbers are sometimes also called '''absolute pseudoprimes'''.
Carmichael numbers are important because they can fool the [[Fermat primality test]], thus they are always ''fermat liars''. Since Carmichael numbers exist, this primality test cannot be relied upon to prove the primality of a number, although it can still be used to prove a number is composite.
Still, as numbers become larger, Carmichael numbers become very rare. For example, there are 585,355 Carmichael numbers between 1 and 10<sup>17</sup> (approximately one in 170 billion numbers.) The test is still slightly risky compared to other primality tests such as the [[Solovay-Strassen primality test]].
An alternative and equivalent definition of Carmichael numbers is given by Korselt's theorem from [[1899]].
'''Theorem''' (Korselt 1899): A positive composite integer ''n'' is a Carmichael number if and only if ''n'' is [[square-free integer|square-free]], and for all prime divisors ''p'' of ''n'', it is true that ''p''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1 divides ''n''&nbsp;&minus;&nbsp;1.
It follows from this theorem that all Carmichael numbers are [[odd number|odd]].
Korselt was the first who observed these properties, but he could not find an example. In [[1910]] [[Robert Daniel Carmichael]] found the first and smallest such number, [[561_(number)|561]], and hence the name.
That 561 is a Carmichael number can be seen with Korselt's theorem. Indeed, 561 = 3 · 11 · 17 is squarefree and 2 | 560, 10 | 560 and 16 | 560. (The notation ''a''&nbsp;|&nbsp;''b'' means: ''a'' [[divisor|divides]] ''b'').
The next few Carmichael numbers are {{OEIS|id=A002997}}:
:1105 = 5 · 13 · 17 &nbsp;&nbsp; (4 | 1104, 12 | 1104, 16 | 1104)
:[[1729 (number)|1729]] = 7 · 13 · 19 &nbsp;&nbsp; (6 | 1728, 12 | 1728, 18 | 1728)
:2465 = 5 · 17 · 29 &nbsp;&nbsp; (4 | 2464, 16 | 2464, 28 | 2464)
:2821 = 7 · 13 · 31 &nbsp;&nbsp; (6 | 2820, 12 | 2820, 30 | 2820)
:6601 = 7 · 23 · 41 &nbsp;&nbsp; (6 | 6600, 22 | 6600, 40 | 6600)
:8911 = 7 · 19 · 67 &nbsp;&nbsp; (6 | 8910, 18 | 8910, 66 | 8910)
J. Chernick proved a theorem in 1939 which can be used to construct a [[subset]] of Carmichael numbers. The number
(6''k''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)(12''k''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)(18''k''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1)
is a Carmichael number if its three factors are all prime.
[[Paul Erd&#337;s]] heuristically argued there should be infinitely many Carmichael numbers. In [[1994]] it was shown by [[William Alford]], [[Andrew Granville]] and [[Carl Pomerance]] that there really exist infinitely many Carmichael numbers.
It has also been shown that for sufficiently large ''n'', there are at least ''n''<sup>2/7</sup> Carmichael numbers between 1 and ''n''.
Löh and Niebuhr in [[1992]] found some of these huge Carmichael numbers including one with 1,101,518 factors and over 16 million digits.
===Properties===
Carmichael numbers have at least three positive prime factors. The first Carmichael numbers with ''k''&nbsp;=&nbsp;3, 4, 5,&nbsp;&hellip; prime factors are (sequence [http://www.research.att.com/cgi-bin/access.cgi/as/njas/sequences/eisA.cgi?Anum=006931 A006931] in [[OEIS]]):
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"
|-
!''k'' !!&nbsp;
|-
|3 ||561 = 3 · 11 · 17
|-
|4 ||41041 = 7 · 11 · 13 · 41
|-
|5 ||825265 = 5 · 7 · 17 · 19 · 73
|-
|6 ||321197185 = 5 · 19 · 23 · 29 · 37 · 137
|-
|7 ||5394826801 = 7 · 13 · 17 · 23 · 31 · 67 · 73
|-
|8 ||232250619601 = 7 · 11 · 13 · 17 · 31 · 37 · 73 · 163
|-
|9 ||9746347772161 = 7 · 11 · 13 · 17 · 19 · 31 · 37 · 41 · 641
|}
The first Carmichael numbers with 4 prime factors are (sequence [http://www.research.att.com/cgi-bin/access.cgi/as/njas/sequences/eisA.cgi?Anum=A074379 A074379] in [[OEIS]]):
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"
|-
!''i'' !!&nbsp;
|-
|1||41041 = 7 · 11 · 13 · 41
|-
|2|| 62745 = 3 · 5 · 47 · 89
|-
|3||63973 = 7 · 13 · 19 · 37
|-
|4||75361 = 11 · 13 · 17 · 31
|-
|5||101101 = 7 · 11 · 13 · 101
|-
|6||126217 = 7 · 13 · 19 · 73
|-
|7||172081 = 7 · 13 · 31 · 61
|-
|8||188461 = 7 · 13 · 19 · 109
|-
|9||278545 = 5 · 17 · 29 · 113
|-
|10||340561 = 13 · 17 · 23 · 67
|}
Incidentally, the first Carmichael number (561) is expressible as the sum of two nonnegative first powers in more ways than any smaller number (although admittedly ''all'' nonnegative integers share this property). The second Carmichael number (1105) can be expressed as the sum of two squares in more ways than any smaller number. The third Carmichael number (1729) is the [[1729 (number)|Hardy-Ramanujan Number]]: the smallest number that can be expressed as the sum of two cubes in two different ways.
== Higher-order Carmichael numbers ==
Carmichael numbers can be generalized using concepts of [[abstract algebra]].
The above definition states that a composite integer ''n'' is Carmichael
precisely when the ''n''th-power-raising function ''p''<sub>''n''</sub> from the [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] '''Z'''<sub>''n''</sub> of integers modulo ''n'' to itself is the identity function. The identity |
ers of his early years. At the end of the book, Dylan describes with great passion the moment when he listened to the Brecht/Weill song "Pirate Jenny", and the moment when he first heard [[Robert Johnson]]’s recordings. In these passages, Dylan suggested the process which ignited his own song-writing.
Six weeks after its publication, ''Chronicles, Vol. 1'' was #5 on the [[New York Times]]' Hardcover Non-Fiction best seller list and climbing. Simultaneously, [[Amazon.com]] and [[Barnes and Noble]] reported the book as their #2 best seller among all categories. ''Chronicles Vol. 1'' is the first of three planned volumes.
==Discography, film, books==
See [[Bob Dylan discography]].
==Band==
The current members of Bob Dylan's touring band:
* '''Bob Dylan''' - [[vocals]], [[keyboard]], [[harmonica]]
* Stu Kimball - [[rhythm guitar]]
* Denny Freeman - [[lead guitar]]
* Donny Herron - [[pedal steel guitar]], [[lap steel guitar]], [[mandolin|electric mandolin]], [[banjo]], [[violin]]
* [[Tony Garnier (musician)|Tony Garnier]] - [[bass guitar]], [[double bass|standup bass]]
* George Receli - [[drums]]
==Known pseudonyms==
* Elston Gunnn (the spelling is an eccentricity of his adolescence)
* Bob Dylan (his legal name, since August 1962- Robert Dylan)
* Bob Dillon (according to some biographers, an early spelling based on an affection for the character [[Marshal Matt Dillon]] in [[Gunsmoke]])
* Blind Boy Grunt (album credit)
* Bob Landy (album credit)
* Tedham Porterhouse (album credit)
* Robert Milkwood Thomas
* Lucky Wilbury ([[Traveling Wilburys]])
* Boo Wilbury ([[Traveling Wilburys]])
* Jack Frost (producer of ''[["Love and Theft"]]'' and co-producer of ''[[Under the Red Sky]]'' and ''[[Time Out of Mind]]'')
* Sergei Petrov (co-writer of ''[[Masked & Anonymous]]'')
==Further reading==
* Bob Dylan, ''Chronicles: Volume 1''. Simon and Schuster, October 5, 2004, hardcover, 208 pages. ISBN 0743228154
* Michael J. Gilmour, "Tangled Up in the Bible: Bob Dylan and Scripture". Continuum, 2004, 160 pages. ISBN 0826416020
* Michael Gray, ''Song & Dance Man III: The Art of Bob Dylan''. Continuum International, 2000, paperback, 944 pages. ISBN 0826463827
* David Hajdu, ''Positively 4th Street: The Lives and Times of Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, Mimi Baez Farina, and Richard Farina'' Farrar Straus Giroux, 2001, 328 pages. ISBN 0374281998
* Clinton Heylin, ''Bob Dylan: Behind the Shades Revisited''. Perennial Currents, 2003, 800 pages. ISBN 006052569X
* Clinton Heylin, ''Bob Dylan: A Life In Stolen Moments'', Schirmer Books, 1986, 403 pages. ISBN 0825671566. Also known as ''Bob Dylan: Day By Day''
* John Hinchey. ''Like a Complete Unknown: The Poetry of Bob Dylan’s Songs, 1961-1966''. Stealing Home Press, 2002. 277 pages. ISBN 0972359206
*[[Greil Marcus]], ''The Old, Weird America: The World of Bob Dylan's Basement Tapes'', Picador, 2001. ISBN 0312420439 (also published as "Invisible Republic")
*[[Greil Marcus]], ''Like A Rolling Stone: Bob Dylan at the Crossroads'', PublicAffairs, 2005. ISBN 1586482548
* Mike Marqusee, ''[[Chimes of Freedom]] : The Politics of Bob Dylan's Art'' The New Press, NY, 2003, 327 pages. ISBN 1-56584-825-X
* Wilfrid Mellers, ''A Darker Shade Of Pale: A Backdrop To Bob Dylan'' Oxford University Press, 1985, 255 pages. ISBN 0-19-503622-0
* Christopher Ricks, ''Dylan's Visions of Sin'', Penguin/Viking, 2003, 517 pages. ISBN 067080133X
* Tim Riley, ''Hard Rain: A Dylan Commentary'', Vintage, 1992, 356 pages. ISBN 0-679-74527-0
* Anthony Scaduto, ''Bob Dylan'', Helter Skelter, 2001 reprint of 1972 original, 312 pages. ISBN 1900924234
* [[Robert Shelton]], ''No Direction Home'', Da Capo Press, 2003 reprint of 1986 original, 576 pages. ISBN 0306812878
* [[Sam Shepard]], ''Rolling Thunder Logbook'', Da Capo, 2004 reissue, 176 pages. ISBN 0306813718
* Howard Sounes, ''Down The Highway: The Life Of Bob Dylan'', Grove Press, 2001, 527 pages. ISBN 0802116868
* Anthony Varesi, "The Bob Dylan Albums", Guernica Editions, 2002, 264 pages. ISBN 1550711393
* Carl Porter and Peter Vernezze (editors), “Bob Dylan and Philosophy” Open Court Books, 2005, 225 pages. ISBN 0-8126-9592-5
==See also==
* [[Best selling music artists]]
* [[List of people compared to Bob Dylan]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Bob Dylan}}
=====Portals=====
* [http://www.bobdylan.com/ BobDylan.com] – official website, including lyrics
* [http://www.expectingrain.com/ Expecting Rain] Longtime favorite fan site, updated daily.
* [http://my.execpc.com/%7ebillp61/boblink.html BobLinks] Another classic fansite, with a comprehensive categorized link collection and up-to-date tour information.
* [http://www.emplive.org/visit/galleries/dylan.asp Bob Dylan's American Journey] Gateway to the [[Experience Music Project]]'s online Dylan resources.
=====Chords and lyrics=====
<!-- Please do not add plain lyrics sites here. Dylan's official site already contains lyrics. Please don't add new lyric site links unless you're linking to a site with information not already available here -->
* [http://www.bobdylanroots.com/ bobdylanroots.com] Bob Dylan's musical roots and influences
* [http://homepage.mac.com/danielmartin/Dylan/html/songs/Lists/A.html "It's not a house it's a home" page] Includes lyrics to many songs and versions not found elsewhere.
* [http://orad.dent.kyushu-u.ac.jp/dylan/song.html Lyrics in English and Japanese]
=====Concert recordings, outtakes, etc.=====
* [http://www.angelfire.com/wa/monicasdude Bob Dylan Field Recordings Guide] A large compilation/index of information on Dylan's "unofficial" recordings
* [http://trading.dylantree.com/ CD-Rs]
* [http://www.dustyoldfairgrounds.com Dusty Old Fairgrounds] an exhaustive index of Dylan's recordings and performances
* [http://dvdylan.com/ DVDylan.com] Bob Dylan DVD Recording Database
* [http://www.dylanbase.com/Allalbums.asp Dylanbase] User-contributed reviews of "unofficial" recordings
* [http://www.bobsboots.com/ bobsboots.com] – A Bob Dylan bootleg "museum" website
* [http://www.searchingforagem.com/ Rare but not Boot]
* [http://cvrc.med.upenn.edu/~greenberg/cowboy1.html Covers by Bob]
* [http://home.adelphia.net/~dyln61/project_74.htm Project '74], documents 1974 Dylan/Band tour
* [http://www.angelfire.com/folk/jackofharts7/dylan1978.html 1978 Tour Guide]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/rant/gospelproject/ The Gospel Project], documents Dylan's 1979–80 evangelical tours
*[http://www.tvtalkin.com/ Film and television recordings of Bob Dylan]
=====Reference works=====
* [http://www.bjorner.com/bob.htm Olof's files], reference guide, yearly chronicles, sessionography, etc.
* [http://www.bjorner.com/OLOFS%20FILES.htm Olof's Files], same as above, but in book form
* [http://www.execpc.com/~billp61/dates.html Bob Dylan tour dates]
* [http://www.tangled.ca/ Tangled: A Recording History of Bob Dylan], Standard reference book for collectors, 5th edition
* [http://db.dvdylan.com/ Yet Another Bob Dylan Database] Tour dates and statistics, updated almost daily
* [http://www.rwin.nl/bobdylan News and Discography at rwin.nl]
* {{imdb name|id=0001168|name=Bob Dylan}}
=====Magazines=====
* [http://www.two-riders.co.uk/ The Bridge]
* [http://www.bobdylanisis.com ISIS]
* [http://judasmagazine.com/ Judas!]
* [http://www.freewheelin-on-line.info/ Freewheelin'] (online magazine)
* [http://www.expectingrain.com/dok/div/telegraph/pasttishes.html The Telegraph] (archive, no longer published)
=====Commentary on religious themes=====
* [http://www.radiohazak.com/Dylan.html "Bob Dylan: Tangled Up In Jews"] discusses the influence of Yiddish writers, Judaism, and events in Israel on Bob Dylan's songs.
* [http://web.utk.edu/~wparr/scripture/scripturelinks.html Influence of Christianity on Dylan] discusses direct links between Dylan's songs and the Bible.
* [http://www.the-branch.org/study38.html "Come In, She Said, I'll Give You Shelter From The Storm"] discusses the Judeo-Christian feminine imagery in Bob Dylan's songs
* [http://www.argotistonline.co.uk/Side%20essay%202.htm "Ambiguity and Abstraction in Bob Dylan’s Lyrics"] discusses the view that Bob's Dylan wrote his songs so ambiguously that he intended for people to form their own ideas of what he means.
=====Books=====
* [http://linux02.lib.cam.ac.uk/~cjs2/cda/www_cats21.cgi?n=Bob+Dylan&t=&s=&o=w&b=1&m=200&Submit+search=Submit+search&.cgifields=o Books (from Cambridge University Library Catalogue)]
* [http://www.taxhelp.com/toc.html Bibliography]
* [http://www.edlis.org/alone Academic series: Bob Dylan All Alone On A Shelf]
=====Articles=====
* [http://jco.usfca.edu/ondylan.html Joyce Carol Oates on Bob Dylan]
* [http://www.salon.com/people/bc/2001/05/22/dylan/ Brilliant Careers: Bob Dylan] By Bill Wyman
=====Miscellaneous=====
*2005 [[PBS]]/[[BBC]] Documentary: [http://www.bobdylan.com/ndh.html Bob Dylan: No Direction Home] directed by [[Martin Scorsese]]; at [http://bobdylan.com bobdylan.com]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/music/bobdylan/ BBC Music – Bob Dylan Season on the BBC] timeline, guides, profiles, reviews, video clips and photos
*[http://www.hibbing.org/dylan1/story.html Life In Hibbing] An account of young Robert Zimmerman's life in Hibbing, prepared for the local "Dylan Days 2005" event
*Dylan's speech to the [http://www.corliss-lamont.org/dylan.htm NELC]
*[http://www.expectingrain.com/dok/atlas/ Atlas]
*[http://www.expectingrain.com/dok/who/who.html Who's Who]
*[http://www.bjorner.com/Covers.htm Covers of Bob by others]
*[http://www.expectingrain.com/dok/edlis/barf.html "Barf" list of songs referring to Dylan]
*[http://www.radiohazak.com/Peace.html Bob Dylan and Israel], [http://www.bobdylan.com/songs/bully.html ''Neighborhood Bully'' lyrics with audio]
*Search Google archive of [http://groups.google.com/advanced_group_search?group=rec.music.dylan rec.music.dylan |
benefits that Christianity attributes to the Eucharist are associated with those allegedly proclaimed by proponents of [[animal sacrifice]]s and of [[cannibalism]] among these mystery cults, and contend that the Eucharist can be seen as translating the vestiges of ancient animal sacrifice and/or ritualistic cannibalism into the current age.
The first Christians were either Jews themselves or "the God-fearing" ([[Gentile]]s who attended Jewish synagogue services but held back from becoming [[proselyte]]s; cf. Acts of the Apostles 13:16, 26). Christianity thus began among people who would reject any idea of eating actual human flesh and drinking blood of any kind, who avoided pagan mystery cults, and who would completely exclude a cannibalistic interpretation of their "eating this bread and drinking this cup" (1 Corinthians 11:28), a rite which they nevertheless believed brought them into true relationship with the body and blood of Christ. This First Letter to the Corinthians, written as early as the year 57, shows that the custom of celebrating the Eucharist dated from the very beginning of Christianity, when Christianity was still an entirely Jewish phenomenon, as the Acts of the Apostles, which was written later, also states. Other writers therefore argue that the practice arose from the reenactment by these very first Christians of something that Jesus did and said at his last supper, what has been called "a unique form of Table fellowship". And while, by the time of the writing of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]'s first letter to the Corinthians, Christianity was beginning to spread among people of whom some may have been former adherents of mystery cults and may have attached to the rite meanings not originally associated with it, they maintain that there is no reason to suppose that the Jewish Paul shared such ideas.
<!-- Add a discussion of Justin Martyr's claims in his First Apology in regard to Mithraism as a satanic copy of Christian rituals (despite the fact that Mithraic rites are more primitive.) -->
==Footnotes==
*{{note|Last_Supper}}: Luke 22:19; 1 Corinthians 11:24-25
*{{note|sacrament}} as Anabaptist leader [[Pilgram Marpeck]] put it, "The true meaning of communion is mystified and obscured by the word sacrament." Nevertheless as far as his theology goes Marpeck was decidedly more incarnational than many of his Anabaptist peers, and thus closer to the Roman Catholic position than even Zwingli.
*{{note|Holy_Mysteries}}: cf. {{cite book
| author=Pope Benedict XVI
| year=2006
| title=Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church
| pages=275
| publisher=USCCB
| authorlink=Pope Benedict XVI
}}, and
::{{cite book
| author=Catholic Church
| year=200
| title=Catechism of the Catholic Church
| edition = Second Edition
| others=1328-1332
| id=ISBN 0385508190
| url = http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p2s2c1a3.htm#1328
}}
*{{note|ASED}}: See Article 9 of the ''Agreed Statement of Eucharist Doctrine''. <!--Needs bibliographic details-->
*{{note|Minimalist}} e.g., see {{cite book
| first=J. R. | last=Graves
| year=1928
| title=What is It to Eat and Drink Unworthily
| publisher=Baptist Sunday School Committee
| id=ASIN B00087HTF4}}
==Resources==
*1963 edition of ''The New Saint Joseph: First Communion Catechism'', Baltimore Catechism
*Anderson, S. E. ''The First Communion''
*[[Martin Chemnitz|Chemnitz, Martin]]. ''The Lord's Supper.'' J. A. O. Preus, trans. St. Louis: Concordia, 1979. ISBN 0-570-03275-X
*[[Dom Gregory Dix|Dix, Dom Gregory]]. ''The Shape of the Liturgy.'' London: Continuum International, 2005. ISBN 0826479421
*Elert, Werner. ''Eucharist and Church Fellowship in the First Four Centuries.'' N. E. Nagel, trans. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1966. ISBN 0-570-04270-4
*Felton, Gayle. ''This Holy Mystery''. Nashville: Discipleship Resources, 2005. ISBN 088177457X
*Father Gabriel. ''Divine Intimacy.'' Rockford, IL: Tan Books and Publishers, Inc., 1996 reprint ed. ISBN 0895555042
*Grime, J. H. ''Close Communion and Baptists''
*Jurgens, William A. ''The Faith of the Early Fathers''. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1970. ISBN 0814604323
*Kolb, Robert and Timothy J. Wengert, eds. ''[[The Book of Concord]]: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church.'' Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2000. (ISBN 0800627407)
*Lefebvre, Gaspar. ''The Saint Andrew Daily Missal''. Reprint. Great Falls, MT: St. Bonaventure Publications, Inc., 1999.
*Macy, Gary. ''The Banquet’s Wisdom: A Short History of the Theologies of the Lord’s Supper''. (2005, ISBN 1878009508)
*McBride, Alfred, O.Praem. ''Celebrating the Mass.'' Our Sunday Visitor, 1999.
*[[John Williamson Nevin|Nevin, John Williamson]]. ''The Mystical Presence: A Vindication of the Reformed or Calvinistic Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist.'' 1846; Wipf & Stock reprint, 2000. ISBN 1579103480.
*[[Thomas Oden|Oden, Thomas C]]. ''Corrective Love: The Power of Communion Discipline.'' St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1995. ISBN 0-570-04803-6
*[[Hermann Sasse|Sasse, Hermann]]. ''This Is My Body: Luther's Contention for the Real Presence in the Sacrament of the Altar.'' Eugene, OR: Wipf &amp; Stock, 2001. ISBN 1579107664
*[[Alexander Schmemann|Schmemann, Alexander]]. ''The Eucharist''. St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1997. ISBN 0881410187
*Stoffer, Dale R. ''The Lord's Supper: Believers Church Perspectives''
*Stookey, L.H. ''Eucharist: Christ's Feast with the Church''. Nashville: Abingdon, 1993 ISBN 0687120179
*Tissot, The Very Rev. J. ''The Interior Life''. 1916, pp. 347-9.
*[[N.T. Wright|Wright, N. T]]. ''The Meal Jesus Gave Us''
==See also==
*[[Eucharistic discipline]]
*[[Eucharistic theology]]
*[[Eucharistic theologies contrasted]]
*[[Open communion]]
*[[Year of the Eucharist]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Eucharist}}
*[http://www.savior.org/ http://www.savior.org/] - Live Video Stream of the Eucharist
=== Liturgical texts & services ===
*[http://www.catholicliturgy.com/index.cfm/FuseAction/TextContents/Index/4/SubIndex/67/TextIndex/9 The Ordinary of the Mass, Roman Rite] according to current edition of the Roman Missal
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/lmass/ord.htm The Ordinary of the Sacred Liturgy according to the Roman Missal of 1962]
*[http://www.sspeterpaul.org/priest.html The Priest's Service Book] Orthodox Divine Liturgy.
*[http://www.bcponline.org/ The Book of Common Prayer], used by the Episcopal Church (ECUSA). Contains the liturgy for the Eucharist and other rites.
=== History, theology, etc. ===
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05572c.htm Eucharist in the Catholic Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.ewtn.com/faith/teachings/euchmenu.htm EWTN - The Holy Eucharist] - Easy yet comprehensive website with Catholic Teaching on the Eucharist
*[http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/pt2sect2chpt1art3.htm#1376 Paragraph 1376 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church]
*[http://www.gbod.org/worship/thisholymystery/default.html This Holy Mystery: A United Methodist Understanding of Holy Communion]
*[http://gbgm-umc.org/Umhistory/Wesley/sermons/serm-101.stm The Duty of Constant Communion] by John Wesley
*[http://www.emersoncentral.com/lordsupper.htm The Lord's Supper] - by Ralph Waldo Emerson, rejecting the Lord's supper as a perpetual rite.
* [http://www.mybrethren.org/truth/framlssg.htm My Brethren - Studies - The Lord's Supper and the Service of God]
*[http://www.twinbrook.net/view/?pageID=8173 a Baptist viewpoint]
*[http://www.churches-of-christ.net/tracts/job003u.htm a Church of Christ viewpoint]
*[http://www.thirdway.com/menno/as/as7.asp a Mennonite viewpoint]
*[http://www.graceonlinelibrary.org/articles/full.asp?id=25|52|367 a Reformed (Presbyterian) viewpoint]
*[http://www.anabaptistnetwork.com/book/print/226 Pilgram Marpeck's defense of continuing to practice Lord's Supper (1531)]
[[Category:Sacraments]]
[[Category:Luminous Mysteries]]
[[Category:Christian liturgy, rites, and worship services]]
[[Category:Catholic Eucharistic Theology]]
[[Category:Methodism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Ceremonial food and drink]]
[[ca:Eucaristia]]
[[cs:Eucharistie]]
[[de:Abendmahl]]
[[eo:Komunio]]
[[es:Eucaristía]]
[[fi:Ehtoollinen]]
[[fr:Eucharistie]]
[[hr:Euharistija]]
[[id:Ekaristi]]
[[it:Eucaristia]]
[[ja:聖餐]]
[[la:Eucharistia]]
[[nl:Eucharistie]]
[[nn:Nattverd]]
[[no:Nattverd]]
[[pl:Eucharystia]]
[[pt:Eucaristia]]
[[ro:Frângerea pâinii]]
[[ru:Евхаристия]]
[[sr:Евхаристија]]
[[sv:Nattvard]]
[[uk:Євхаристія]]
[[zh:聖餐禮]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Editing policy</title>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Larry_Sanger</username>
<id>216</id>
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<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:editing policy]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Eclipse</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:35:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.167.111.20</ip>
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<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses astronomical eclipses. For other meanings, see [[Eclipse (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Solar_eclips_1999_4.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Photo taken during the [[France|French]] [[1999]] eclipse]]
An '''eclipse''' ([[Greek Language|Greek]] verb: ''ecleipo'', "to cease existing" or ''calypse'', "to cover" ) is an astronomical event that occurs when one celestial object moves into the shadow of another.
The term is most often used to describe either a [[solar eclipse]], when the Moon's shadow crosses Earth's surface, or a [[lunar eclipse]], when the Moon moves into the shadow of Earth. However, it can also refer to such events beyond the Earth-Moon system: for example, a planet moving into the shadow cast |
ss had lied on the stand, claiming he witnessed the crime in the moonlight. Lincoln produced a [[Farmer's Almanac]] to show that the moon on that date was at such a low angle it could not have produced enough illumination to see anything clearly. Based upon this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted.
==Republican politics 1854-1860==
The [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]] of 1854, which expressly repealed the limits on slavery's spread that had been part of the [[Missouri Compromise]] of 1820, drew Lincoln back into politics.
Illinois Democrat [[Stephen A. Douglas]], the most powerful man in the Senate, proposed [[popular sovereignty]] as the solution to the slavery impasse, incorporating it into the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Douglas argued that in a democracy the people of a territory should decide whether to allow slavery or not, and not have a decision imposed on them by Congress.
It was a speech against Kansas-Nebraska, on [[October 16]], [[1854]] in [[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]], that caused Lincoln to stand out among the other [[free soil]] orators of the day. He helped form the new Republican party, drawing on remnants of the old Whig, [[Free Soil Party|Free Soil]], Liberty and Democratic parties.
In a stirring campaign, the Republicans carried Illinois in 1854, and elected a senator. Lincoln was the obvious choice, but to keep party unity he allowed the election to go to his colleague [[Lyman Trumbull]].
In 1857-58 Douglas broke with President [[James Buchanan|Buchanan]], leading to a terrific fight for control of the Democratic party. Some eastern Republicans even favored the reelection of Douglas in 1858, since he led the opposition to the administration's push for the [[Lecompton Constitution]] which would have admitted Kansas as a [[slave state]]. Accepting the Republican nomination for the Senate in 1858, Lincoln delivered a famous speech [http://www.nationalcenter.org/HouseDivided.html] in which he stated, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved — I do not expect the house to fall — but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other." The speech created a lasting image of the danger of disunion due to slavery, and rallied Republicans across the north.
The 1858 campaign featured the [[Lincoln-Douglas Debates of 1858|Lincoln-Douglas debates]], a nationally noticed discussion on the issues that threatened to split the nation in two. Lincoln forced Douglas to propose his [[Freeport Doctrine]], which lost him further support among slave-holders and speeded the division of the Democratic Party. Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats and the legislature reelected Douglas to the Senate. Nevertheless, Lincoln's eloquence transformed him into a national political star.
During the debates of 1858 the issue of race was often discussed. During a time period when racial egalitarianism was considered politically incorrect, Stephen Douglas would inform the crowds, “If you desire negro citizenship…if you desire them to vote on an equality with yourselves… then support Mr. Lincoln and the Black Republican party, who are in favor of the citizenship of the negro.” [http://www.nps.gov/liho/debate1.htm (Official Records of Debate)] On the defensive Lincoln countered that he was “not in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races.” [http://www.nps.gov/liho/debate4.htm (Official Records of Debate)] Historians generally remained mixed on what Lincoln’s actual views were on race. However, many tend to doubt that the highly political nature of these debates offer reliable evidence about his personal views. (Team of Rivals, by Doris Kearns Goodwin, 2005) (Lincoln: In Text and Context, by Donald Fehrenbacher, 1987) As Fredrick Douglass observed, “[Lincoln was] the first great man that I talked with in the United States freely who in no single instance reminded me of the difference between himself and myself, of the difference of color.” (Life and Times of Fredrick Douglass, by Fredrick Douglass, 1895)
Lincoln's opposition to slavery was opposition to the [[Slave Power]], and he was not an abolitionist in 1858. But the Civil War changed everything, and changed Lincoln's beliefs in race relations as well.
==Election of 1860==
[[Image:The Rail Candidate.jpg|thumb|"The Rail Candidate", political cartoon, 1860]]
Entering the presidential nomination process as a distinct underdog, Lincoln was eventually chosen as the Republican candidate for the [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860 election]] for several reasons. His expressed views on slavery were seen as more moderate than rivals [[William H. Seward]] and [[Salmon Chase]]. His "western" origins also appealed to the newer states. Other contenders, especially those with more governmental experience, had acquired enemies within the party, specifically Seward, who had run afoul of newspaperman [[Horace Greeley]]. During the campaign, Lincoln was dubbed "The Rail Splitter" by Republicans to emphasize the power of "free labor," whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts.
On [[November 6]], [[1860]], Lincoln was elected the 16th President of the United States, beating Democrat Douglas, [[John C. Breckenridge]] of the Southern Democrats, and [[John C. Bell]] of the new [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]]. Lincoln was the first Republican president. He won entirely on the strength of his support in the North: he was not even on the ballot in nine states in the South — and won only 2 of 996 counties there. Lincoln gained 1,865,908 votes (39.9% of the total,) for 180 electoral votes, Douglas 1,380,202 (29.5%) for 12 electoral votes, Breckenridge 848,019 (18.1%) for 72 electoral votes, and Bell 590,901 (12.5%) for 39 electoral votes. There were fusion tickets in some states, but even if his opponents had combined in every state, Lincoln had a majority vote in all but two of the states in which he won the electoral votes, and would still have won the electoral college and the election.
==Secession winter 1860-61==
As Lincoln's election became more and more probable, secessionists made it clear that their states would leave the Union. South Carolina took the lead followed by six other [[cotton]]-growing states: Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The upper South (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to and rejected the secessionist appeal. They decided to stay in the Union, though warning Lincoln they would not support an invasion through their territory. The seven Confederate states seceded before Lincoln took office, declaring themselves an entirely new nation, the [[Confederate States of America]]. President Buchanan and president-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy.
President-elect Lincoln survived an [[assassination]] threat in Baltimore, and on [[February 23]], [[1861]] arrived in disguise in Washington. At Lincoln's inauguration on [[March 4]], [[1861]], the [[Turners]] formed Lincoln's bodyguard; and a sizable garrison of federal troops was also present, ready to protect the capital from Confederate invasion or insurrection from Confederates in the capital city.
[[Image:Abraham lincoln inauguration 1861.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Photograph showing [[March 4]], [[1861]] inauguration of Abraham Lincoln in front of U.S. Capitol]]
In his [[Lincoln's First Inaugural|First Inaugural]] Address, Lincoln declared, "I hold that in contemplation of universal law and of the Constitution the Union of these States is perpetual. Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in the fundamental law of all national governments", arguing further that the purpose of the [[United States Constitution]] was "to form a more perfect union" than the [[Articles of Confederation]] which were ''explicitly'' perpetual, and thus the Constitution too was perpetual. He asked rhetorically that even were the Constitution a simple contract, would it not require the agreement of all parties to rescind it?
Also in his inaugural address, in a final attempt to unite the Union and prevent the looming war, Lincoln supported the proposed [[Corwin amendment|Corwin Amendment]] to the constitution, of which he had been a driving force. It would have explicitly protected slavery in those states in which it already existed, and had already passed both houses. Lincoln adamantly opposed the [[Crittenden Compromise]], however, which would have permitted slavery in the territories, renewing the boundary set by the [[Missouri Compromise]] and extending it to [[California]]. Despite support for this compromise among some Republicans, Lincoln declared that were the Crittenden Compromise accepted, it "would amount to a perpetual covenant of war against every people, tribe, and state owning a foot of land between here and [[Tierra del Fuego]]."
Because opposition to slavery expansion was the key issue uniting the Republican Party at the time, Lincoln is sometimes criticized for putting politics ahead of the national interest in refusing any compromise allowing the expansion of slavery. Supporters of Lincoln, however, point out that he did not oppose slavery because he was a Republican, but became a Republican because of his opposition to the expansion of slavery, that he opposed several other Republicans who were in favor of compromise, and that he clearly thought his course of action was in the national interest. By the time Lincoln took office the Confederacy was an established fact and not a single leader of that country ever proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. No compromise was found because no compromise |
lemic with government, that would have censored it for alleged anti-national sentiments, the film was not a commercial success and since then it has been shown on Italian television only a few times. Yet it is perhaps the most violent attack, in the apparent quietness of the action, against the rules of the new economy, the new mentality, the new values, and it happens to have at the same time both a conservative and a progressive view.
==Pink neorealism and Comedy==
It has been said that after "Umberto D." nothing more could be added to neorealism. Whether because of this, or for other reasons, neorealism effectively ended with this film. Following works turned toward lighter atmospheres, perhaps more coherent with the improving conditions of the country, and this genre has been called ''pink neorealism''. It was this ''filone'' that allowed better "equipped" actresses to become real celebrities: the encouraging figures of [[Sophia Loren]], [[Gina Lollobrigida]], [[Silvana Pampanini]], [[Lucia Bosé]], together with other beauties like [[Eleonora Rossi Drago]], [[Silvana Mangano]], [[Claudia Cardinale]], and [[Stefania Sandrelli]] populated the imaginations of Italians just before the so-called "boom" of the [[1960s]]. Soon pink neorealism was replaced by the ''Commedia all'Italiana'' (Italian Comedy), a unique genre that, born on an ideally humouristic line, talked instead very seriously about important social themes.
At this time, on the more commercial side of production, the phenomenon of [[Totò]], a Neapolitan actor who is acclaimed as the major Italian comic, exploded. His films (often with [[Peppino De Filippo]] and almost always with [[Mario Castellani]]) expressed a sort of neorealistic satire, in the means of a [[guitto]] as well as with the art of the great dramatic actor he also was, like [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]] would have shown. A "film-machine" who produced dozens of titles per year, his repertoire was frequently repeated. His personal story (a prince born in the poorest ''rione'' of [[Naples]]), his unique twisted face, his special mimic expressions and his gesture, created an inimitable personage and made this man one of the most beloved Italians in his own country.
Italian Comedy is generally considered to have started with [[Mario Monicelli]]'s ''I soliti Ignoti'' ([[Big Deal on Madonna Street]]) and derives its name from the title of [[Pietro Germi]]'s ''Divorzio all'Italiana'' (Divorce Italian Style - [[1961]]). For a long time this definition was used with a derogatory intention.
[[Vittorio Gassman]], [[Marcello Mastroianni]], [[Ugo Tognazzi]], [[Alberto Sordi]], [[Claudia Cardinale]], [[Monica Vitti]] and [[Nino Manfredi]] were among the stars of these movies, that described the years of the economical reprise and investigated Italian dress, a sort of self-ethnological research.
In [[1961]], [[Dino Risi]] directed ''Il sorpasso'', now a cult-movie, then ''Una vita difficile'' (A Difficult Life), ''I mostri'' (The Monsters, a.k.a. 15 From Rome), ''In nome del Popolo Italiano'' (In the Name of the Italian People) and ''Profumo di donna'' (Scent of a Woman).
Monicelli's works include ''La grande guerra'' (The Great War), ''I compagni'' (Comrades, a.k.a. The Organizer), ''L'armata Brancaleone'', ''Vogliamo i colonnelli'' (We Want the Colonels), ''Romanzo popolare'' (Popular Romance) and ''Amici miei''.
==The Spaghetti Western==
{{main|Spaghetti Western}}
At the same time, another genre, the [[Spaghetti Western]] began to achieve great success, not only in Italy, but throughout the world. These films differed from traditional [[western]]s not only in that they were filmed in Italy on low budgets, but also by their unique, vivid cinematography. The most important and popular spaghetti westerns were those of [[Sergio Leone]], whose [[Dollars Trilogy]], consisting of [[A Fistful of Dollars]], [[For A Few Dollars More]], and [[The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly]], which also featured [[Clint Eastwood]] and scores by [[Ennio Morricone]], came to define the genre.
Also considered spaghetti westerns is a genre of film that married the traditional western ambience with the comic tradition of the [[Commedia all'italiana]]. Included among such films are [[Lo chiamavano Trinità...]] and [[...continuavano a chiamarlo Trinità]], which featured [[Bud Spencer]] and [[Terence Hill]], the stage names of [[Carl Pedersoli]] and [[Mario Girotti]], respectively.
==The Crisis of the 80's==
Between the late 70's and mid-80's, Italian cinema endured a long period of crisis. During this time, "art films" became increasingly isolated, separating from the mainstream Italian cinema. Among the major artistic films of this era were ''[[La città delle donne]]'' of Fellini, ''[[L'albero degli zoccoli]]'' by [[Ermanno Olmi]], winner of the [[Palme d'Or]] at the [[Cannes Film Festival]], and ''[[Bianca]]'' by [[Nanni Moretti]]. Although not entirely Italian, Bertolucci's [[The Last Emperor]], winner of 9 Oscars, cannot be ignored.
At the same time, "trash films" reached great success with the Italian public. Films of little artistic value, these comedies reached their popularity by confronting Italian social taboos, most notably in the sexual sphere. Several actors, including [[Lino Banfi]], [[Diego Abatantuono]], [[Alvaro Vitali]], [[Gloria Guida]] and [[Edwige Fenech]] owe much of their popularity to these films.
Also considered part of the trash genre are a group of films that have the ragionier Fantozzi, a comic personage invented by [[Paolo Villaggio]]; this character had a great impact on Italian society, to such a degree that the adjective ''fantozziano'' entered the lexicon. Of the many films telling of Fantozzi's misadventures, the most notable were [[Fantozzi]] and [[Il secondo tragico Fantozzi ]].
==1990 to Today==
A new generation of directors has helped return Italian cinema to a healthy level since the end of the 80's. The sign-bearer for this renaissance is [[Nuovo Cinema Paradiso]], for which [[Giuseppe Tornatore]] won the Oscar for Best Foreign Film in 1990. This victory was followed two years later by another, when [[Gabriele Salvatores]]'s [[Mediterraneo]] won the same prize.
...
==Renowned figures==
===Directors===
* '''[[List of film directors from Italy]]'''
===Actors and Actresses===
* '''[[List of actors from Italy]]''' for '''male actors'''
* '''[[List of actress from Italy]]''' for '''female actress'''
===Literature===
*Bacon, Henry. 1998. Visconti: Explorations of Beauty and Decay. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
*Ben-Ghiat, Ruth. 'The Fascist War Trilogy'. Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey.Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real . London: BFI
*Bernardi, Sandro. 2000. 'Rosselini's Landscapes: Nature, Myth,History'. Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey.Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real . London: BFI
*Bondanella, Peter. 2002. The Films of Federico Fellini. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57573-7
*Bondanella, Peter. 3rd edition. 2002. Italian Cinema: From Neorealism to the Present. New York and London: Continuum
*Clark, Martin. 1984. Modern Italy 1871-1982. London: Longman
*Forgacs, David. 2000. 'Introduction: Rossellini and the Critics'. Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey.Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real . London: BFI
*Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey.Eds. 2000. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real. London: BFI
*Indiana, Gary. 2000. Salo or The 120 Days of Sodom. London, BFI
*Kemp, Philip. 2002. 'The Son's Room'. Sight and Sound. Vol 12 No 3 March p56
*Landy, Marcia. 2000. Italian Film. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
*Mancini, Elaine. 1985 Struggles of the Italian Film Industry during Fascism 1930-1935 Ann Arbor: UMI Press
*Marcus, Millicent. 1993. Filmaking by the Book. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
*Marcus, Millicent. 1986. Italian Film in the Light of Neorealism. Princeton: Princeton University Press
*Morandini, Morando. 1997. ' Vittorio de Sica' . Nowell-Smith Geoffrey Ed : Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
*Morandini, Morando. 1997. 'Italy from Fascism to Neo-Realism'. Nowell-Smith Geoffrey Ed : Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
*Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey. 2003 3rd edition. Luchino Visconti. London: British Film Institute
*Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey. 2000. 'North and South, East and West': Rossellini and Politics. Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey.Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real . London: BFI
*Rohdie, Sam. 2002. Fellini Lexicon. London: BFI
*Rohdie, Sam. 2000. 'India' Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey.Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real. London: BFI
*Rohdie, Sam. Rocco and his Brothers. London: BFI
*Sitney, P. Adams. 1995. Vital Crises in Italian Cinema. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77688-8
*Sorlin, Pierre. 1996. Italian National Cinema. London: Routledge
*Usai, Poalo, Cherchi. 1997. ' Italy: Spectacle and Melodrama'. Nowell-Smith Geoffrey Ed : Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
*Wagstaff, Christopher. 2000. 'Rossellini and Neo-Realism'. Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey.Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real . London: BFI
*Wood Mary. 2002. ' Bernado Bertolucci in context': Tasker Yvonne: Fifty Contemporary Filmmakers . London : Routledge
*Wood, Michael. 2003. 'Death becomes Visconti'. Sight and Sound , May 2003 Volume 13 Issue 5 , pp 24-27
==See also==
* [[History of cinema]]
* [[Film director]]s
==External links==
*[http://www.bfi.org.uk/features/galleries/cinemaitalia/ ''Cinema Italia Stills & Posters Gallery'']
**from the [[British Film Institute]], (gallery navigation is on the left).
[[Category:Cinema of Italy]]
[[fr:Cinéma itali |
eball Hall of Fame]]
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==Footnote==
#{{note|ThirdStrikeRule}}The "third strike rule", which has been on the books since at least the time of the [[Knickerbocker Rules]], is that the batter can try to advance to first base on the third strike, if the third strike is not caught. However, the batter is ''not'' permitted to advance if first base is occupied, unless there are already two outs. This is to prevent the catcher from dropping the ball on purpose and setting up a potential double or triple play. The underlying concept is the same as the "[[Infield fly|Infield Fly Rule]]", to curb defensive [[Shenanigan|shenanigans]]. Both rules change when there are two outs, because then there is no defensive advantage to dropping the ball on purpose. Statistically, such a play still counts as a strikeout for the pitcher, plus either a passed ball charged to the catcher or a wild pitch charged to the pitcher, so if the batter advances safely to first on such a play, it is possible for a pitcher to record 4 (or more) strikeouts in one inning. Such has happened several dozen times in the history of the major leagues, and at least one time in the minor leagues a pitcher has recorded 5.
==References==
* [[Joe Brinkman]] and Charlie Euchner, ''The Umpire's Handbook'', rev. ed. (1987)
* [[Bill James]] and John Dewan, ''Bill James Presents the Great American Baseball Stat Book'', ed. by Geoff Beckman et al. (1987)
* [[Bill James]], ''The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract'', (ISBN 0743227220)
* Robert Peterson, ''Only the Ball Was White'' (1970, reprinted 1984)
* Joseph L. Reichler (ed.), ''The Baseball Encyclopedia'', 7th rev. ed. (1988). (since 1871)
* Lawrence Ritter and Donald Honig, ''The Image of Their Greatness: An Illustrated History of Baseball from 1900 to the Present'', updated ed. (1984)
* Lawrence S. Ritter (comp.), ''[[Glory of Their Times|The Glory of Their Times: The Story of the Early Days of Baseball Told by the Men Who Played It]]'', new ed. (1984)
* David Quentin Voigt, ''Baseball, an Illustrated History'' (1987)
* Jeff MacGregor, The New Electoral Sex Symbol: Nascar Dad, ''The New York Times'' (January 18, 2004)
* Michael Mandelbaum, ''The Meaning of Sports'', (PublicAffairs, ISBN 1-58648-252-1).
* ''Diamonds of the North: A Concise History of Baseball in Canada'' by [[William Humber]] (Oxford University Press, 1995).
* ''Old Time Baseball and the London Tecumsehs of the late 1870s'' by Les Bronson, a recorded (and later transcribed) talk given to the London & Middlesex Historical Society on February 15, 1972. Available in the London Room of the Central Branch of the London Public Library.
* ''Journal of Sport History'' (1988), ''A Critical Examination of a Source in Early Ontario Baseball: The Reminiscence of Adam E. Ford'' by UWO Professor Robert K. Barney and Nancy Bouchier.
* ''[[The Beaver]], Exploring Canada's History'' October-November 1994, ''Baseball's Canadian Roots: Abner Who?'' by Mark Kearney.
* ''The Northern Game: Baseball the Canadian Way'' by Bob Elliott (Sport Classic, 2005).
* '''The 1948 London Majors: A Great Canadian Team'' by Dan Mendham (unpublished academic paper, [[UWO]], December 7, 1992).
* An Eight-Page Indenture/ Instrument #33043 between The London and Western Trusts Company Limited, The Corporation of The City of London and [[John Labatt, Limited]], dated December 31, 1936, and registered on title in the Land Registry Office for the City of London on January 2, 1937, conveying Tecumseh Park to the City of London along with $10,000 on the provisos that the athletic field be preserved, maintained and operated "for the use of the citizens of the City of London as an athletic field and recreation ground" and that it be renamed "The John Labatt Memorial Athletic Park."
* ''Heritage Baseball: City of London'' a souvenir program from July 23, 2005, celebrating the history of [[Labatt Park]] and [[London, Ontario]]'s 150th anniversary as an incorporated city.
* [http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20050802&content_id=1154441&vkey=news_bos&fext=.jsp&c_id=bos Pittsfield: Small city, big baseball town], earliest known baseball reference
==External links==
* [http://www.mlb.com Official Website of Major League Baseball]
* [http://www.nymutuals.com/ New York Mutuals Vintage Base Ball Club]
* [http://www.oldbethpage.org/baseball_info.htm 19th Century Base Ball at Old Bethpage Long Island]
* [http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/official_info/baseball_basics/on_the_field.jsp Baseball Basics from MLB.com]
* [http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/official_info/official_rules/foreword.jsp MLB Official Rules]
* [http://www.cycleback.com/museumbb.html Online Museum of Early Baseball Memorabilia]
* [http://www.baseballblogs.org Baseball Blogs Directory]
* [http://www.thebaseballcube.com Baseball Statistics]
* [http://www.baseball-links.com/links/International/ International Baseball]
* [http://www.pbs.org/stealinghome] (A documentary about baseball and society in Cuba. Directed by Robert A. Clift and Salomé Aguilera Skvirsky)
* [http://www.robbinssports.com/articles/baseball-in-shanghai-china.php Baseball in China Article]
*[http://www.sports-facts.com/mlb.htm MLB News and Facts]
*[http://autographedpc.home.att.net/TTM/ A look at baseball through rarely seen postcards]
{{Olympic baseball}}
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[[Category:American culture|Pop culture]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baseball positions</title>
<id>3851</id>
<revision>
<id>38026011</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T18:09:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hall Monitor</username>
<id>265063</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.1.206.178|72.1.206.178]] ([[User talk:72.1.206.178|talk]]) to last version by Gaius Cornelius</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Baseball text.png|300px|right]]
There are 9 '''fielding positions''' in [[baseball]]. Each position has an associated number (from 1 to 9) which is used [[official scorer|to score]] putouts. For example:
*If the third baseman fields a ball and throws it to first, it is recorded as a 5-3 [[out (baseball)|out]].
*A [[double play]] where the second baseman fields, throws to the shortstop at second base, who throws to the first baseman is recorded as a 4-6-3 double play.
The fielding positions in baseball are the basis for the famous comedy routine ''[[Who's On First?]]'', created by the team of [[Abbott and Costello]].
==Roles of fielders==
* '''P''': [[Pitcher]] (Position "number" 1). While the primary role of a pitcher is to pitch the ball, he must also be able to field his position. This consists of fielding ground balls and bunts up the middle of the diamond, and running to cover first base on any batted ball that pulls the first baseman out of position.
* '''C''': [[Catcher]] (2). Wears protective equipment: mask, special helmet, shin guards, chest protector. Uses special glove designed as a padded target. He must catch, or at least block, all the pitches to prevent baserunners from advancing, in addition to preventing stolen bases with a strong throwing arm. He must also catch pop-ups into the foul territory behind the baseline, and tag out runners who are attempting to score, while blocking their access to home plate. Backs up first base on all plays where a runner is not a risk to score.
* '''1B''': [[First baseman|First Base]] (3). The first baseman's job, in addition to fielding balls hit in his direction, is primarily to catch throws from the other [[infielder]]s (2B, 3B and SS) in order to retire the batter and prevent him from getting on base. When a runner is on first base, the first baseman will tend to stand on or near the bag, holding the runner close to prevent the runner from stealing second base.
* '''2B''': [[Second baseman|Second Base]] (4). The second baseman has the important defensive role to field ground balls hit toward him and, if necessary, start a double play. When the ball is hit to the shortstop, the second baseman will help "turn" a double play by stepping on second base, fielding the throw from SS, and throwing to first base, to retire both the batter, and the runner on first.
* '''3B''': [[Third baseman|Third Base]] (5). Third base is known as "The Hot Corner", |
h a three-week interviewing phase. It is one of a series of projects and reforms required by the [[International Monetary Fund]] as prerequisites for foreign [[debt relief]].
Nearly all of the following demographic statistics are from the [[CIA World Factbook]].
[[Image:Cameroon-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Estimated number of inhabitants (in thousands), based on 2005 data from the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]].]]
===Population===
:16,380,005
:''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.)
===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 41.7% (male 3,457,180/female 3,375,668)
:15-64 years: 55% (male 4,537,281/female 4,477,163)
:65 years and over: 3.3% (male 239,634/female 293,079) (2005 est.)
===Median age===
:Total: 18.6 years
:Male: 18.45 years
:Female: 18.76 years (2005 est.)
===Population growth rate===
:1.93% (2005 est.)
===Birth rate===
:34.67 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Death rate===
:15.4 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Net migration rate===
:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.82 male(s)/female
:Total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 68.26 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 72.14 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 64.27 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 47.84 years
:Male: 47.04 years
:Female: 48.67 years (2005 est.)
===Total fertility rate===
:4.47 children born/woman (2005 est.)
===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 6.9% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 560,000 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 49,000 (2003 est.)
===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: very high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
:Vectorborne diseases: malaria and yellow fever are high risks in some locations
:Water contact disease: schistosomiasis
:Respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis (2004)
===Nationality===
:Noun: Cameroonian(s)
:Adjective: Cameroonian
===Ethnic groups===
:Cameroon Highlanders 31%, Equatorial Bantu 19%, Kirdi 11%, Fulani 10%, Northwestern Bantu 8%, Eastern Nigritic 7%, other African 13%, non-African less than 1%
===Religions===
:Indigenous beliefs 40%, Christian 40%, Muslim 20%
===Languages===
There are 24 major African language groups in Cameroon; additionally, [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]] are official languages. [[Cameroonian Pidgin English]] is also widely spoken.
Peoples concentrated in the Southwest and Northwest Provinces — around [[Buea]] and [[Bamenda]] — use standard [[English language|English]] and [[Cameroonian Pidgin English]], as well as their local languages. In the three northern provinces — [[Adamawa Province|Adamawa]], [[North Province, Cameroon|North]], and [[Extreme North Province, Cameroon|Extreme North]] — either [[French language|French]] or [[Fulfulde]] (the language of the Fulani) is widely spoken. Elsewhere, French is the principal second language, although pidgin and some local languages such as [[Ewondo language|Ewondo]], the dialect of a Beti clan from the [[Yaoundé]] area, have a wide currency.
Indigenous languages of Cameroon include:
*[[Basaa language|Basaa]]
*[[Bikya language|Bikya]]
*[[Bung language|Bung]]
*[[Kanuri language|Kanuri]]
*[[Ngumba language|Ngumba]]
*[[Yeni language|Yeni]]
*[[Bamum language|Bamum]]
===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 79%
:Male: 84.7%
:Female: 73.4% (2003 est.)
==References==
*{{CIA WFB 2005}}
*[http://www.voanews.com/english/2005-11-24-voa37.cfm Cameroon Undertakes Nationwide Census], a November 2005 article from [[Voice of America]]
{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Geography of Cameroon]]
[[Category:Cameroonian society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Cameroon]]
[[fr:Démographie du Cameroun]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Cameroon</title>
<id>5451</id>
<revision>
<id>39374302</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T19:19:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{election cameroon}}
== Government ==
The [[1972]] [[constitution]] of the '''Republic of Cameroon''' as modified by [[1996]] reforms provides for a strong central government dominated by the executive. The [[Presidents of Cameroon|president]] is empowered to name and dismiss [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] members, [[judge]]s, [[general]]s, provincial [[governor]]s, [[prefect]]s, [[sub-prefect]]s, and heads of Cameroon's [[parastatal]] (about 100 state-controlled) firms, obligate or disburse expenditures, approve or [[veto]] regulations, declare states of emergency, and appropriate and spend profits of parastatal firms. The president is not required to consult the National Assembly.
The judiciary is subordinate to the executive branch's [[Ministry of Justice of Cameroon|Ministry of Justice]]. The [[Supreme Court]] may review the constitutionality of a law only at the president's request.
The 180-member National Assembly meets in ordinary session three times a year (March/April, June/July, and November/December), and has seldom, until recently, made major changes in legislation proposed by the executive. Laws are adopted by majority vote of members present or, if the president demands a second reading, of a total membership.
Following government pledges to reform the strongly centralized 1972 constitution, the National Assembly adopted a number of amendments in December 1995 which were promulgated in January 1996. The amendments call for the establishment of a 100-member [[senate]] as part of a [[bicameral legislature]], the creation of regional councils, and the fixing of the presidential term to 7 years, renewable once. One-third of senators are to be appointed by the President, and the remaining two-thirds are to be chosen by indirect elections. As of March [[1998]], the government has not established the Senate or regional councils.
All local government officials are employees of the central government's Ministry of Territorial Administration, from which local governments also get most of their budgets.
While the president, the minister of justice, and the president's judicial advisers (the Supreme Court) top the judicial hierarchy, traditional rulers, courts, and councils also exercise functions of government. Traditional courts still play a major role in domestic, property, and [[probate law]]. [[Tribal law]]s and customs are honored in the formal court system when not in conflict with national law. Traditional rulers receive stipends from the national government.
The government adopted legislation in [[1990]] to authorize the formation of multiple [[political party|political parties]] and ease restrictions on forming civil associations and private [[newspaper]]s. Cameroon' s first multiparty legislative and presidential elections were held in [[1992]] followed by municipal elections in 1996 and another round of legislative and presidential elections in [[1997]]. Because the government refused to consider opposition demands for an independent election commission, the three major opposition parties boycotted the October [[1997]] presidential election, which Biya easily won. The leader of one of the opposition parties, [[Bello Bouba Maigari]] of the [[NUDP]], subsequently joined the government.
Cameroon has a number of independent newspapers. [[Censorship]] was abolished in 1996, but the government sometimes seizes or suspends newspapers and occasionally arrests [[journalist]]s. Although a 1990 law authorizes private [[radio]] and [[television]] stations, the government has not granted any licenses as of March 1998.
The Cameroonian Government's [[human rights]] record has been improving over the years but remains flawed. There continue to be reported abuses, including beatings of detainees, arbitrary arrests, and illegal searches. The judiciary is frequently corrupt, inefficient, and subject to political influence.
'''Principal Government Officials'''
*President &mdash; [[Paul Biya]]<br />
*President of the National Assembly &mdash; [[Djibril Cavaye Yeguie]]
*Prime Minister &mdash; [[Ephraim Inoni]]
*Ambassador to the United States &mdash; [[Jerome Mendouga]]
*Ambassador to the United Nations &mdash; [[Martin Belinga]]
Cameroon maintains an embassy in the United States at 2349 Massachusetts Avenue N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (tel.: 202-265-8790).
'''Country name:'''
*''conventional long form:'' Republic of Cameroon
*''conventional short form:'' Cameroon
*''former:'' French Cameroon
'''Data code:''' CM
'''Government type:'''
unitary republic; multiparty presidential regime (opposition parties legalized in 1990)
<br />''note:''
preponderance of power remains with the president
'''Capital:''' [[Yaounde]]
'''Administrative divisions:'''
10 provinces; Adamaoua, Centre, Est, Extreme-Nord, Littoral, Nord, Nord-Ouest, Ouest, Sud, Sud-Ouest
'''Independence:'''
[[1 January]] [[1960]] (from UN trusteeship under French administration), [[1 October]] [[1961]] (for areas ruled by Britain under UN trusteeship)
'''National holiday:''' National Day, [[20 May]] (1972)
'''Constitution:''' [[20 May]] [[1972]] approved by referendum; [[2 June]] [[1972]] formally adopted
'''Legal system:'''
based on French civil law system, with common law influence; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdi |
ish as ''The World as Will and Idea'')
**vol. 1 Dover edition 1966, ISBN 0486217612
**vol. 2 Dover edition 1966, ISBN 0486217620
**Peter Smith Publisher hardcover set 1969, ISBN 0844628859
**Everyman Paperback combined abridged edition (290 p.) ISBN 0460875051
*''Über den Willen in der Natur'', 1836 ''(On the Will in Nature)''
*''Über die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens'', 1839 ''(On Freedom of the Will)''
*''Über die Grundlage der Moral'', 1840 ''(On the Basis of Morality)''
*''Parerga und Paralipomena'', 1851
=== Online texts ===
*''[http://homes.rhein-zeitung.de/~ahipler/kritik/religio1.htm Über Religion, from Parerga und Paralipomena II]'' (german)
*[http://www.friesian.com/arthur.htm Influence on Friesian philosophy]
*[http://www.geocities.com/c_ansata/Women.html Essay ''Über die Weiber'']
*[http://coolhaus.de/art-of-controversy/ ''Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten - The Art Of Controversy'' (bilingual)]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Arthur+Schopenhauer | name=Arthur Schopenhauer}}
==Source==
*Albright, Daniel (2004). ''Modernism and Music: An Anthology of Sources'', p.39n34. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226012670.
== External links ==
{{commons|Arthur Schopenhauer}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisourcelang|de|Arthur Schopenhauer|Arthur Schopenhauer}}
*[http://www.friesian.com/arthur.htm Biography and summary of his philosophy]
*[http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Biographies/Philosophy/Schopenhauer.htm Short biography] (Contains the false view that Schopenhauer was a solipsist)
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/schopenhauer/ Indepth overview of his life and philosophy]
*[http://www.carleton.ca/~abrook/SCHOPENY.htm On the philosopher's impact on Freud and psychology]
*[http://www.centrebouddhisteparis.org/En_Anglais/Sangharakshita_en_anglais/Aesthetic_appreciation/aesthetic_appreciation.html Schopenhauer and aesthetic appreciation.]
*[http://www.pratyeka.org/schopenhauer/ An essay on Schopenhauer's (debated) place in the history of European philosophy, detailing his relationship to earlier sources]
{{Philosophy navigation}}
[[Category:1788 births|Schopenhauer, Arthur]]
[[Category:1860 deaths|Schopenhauer, Arthur]]
[[Category:Natives of Gdańsk|Schopenhauer, Arthur]]
[[Category:19th century philosophers|Schopenhauer, Arthur]]
[[Category:Atheist philosophers|Schopenhauer, Arthur]]
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[[Category:German philosophers|Schopenhauer, Arthur]]
[[Category:Idealists|Schopenhauer, Arthur]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Angola</title>
<id>701</id>
<revision>
<id>41994444</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:36:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.23.17.113</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>added a reference to jornaldeangola.com</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country |
native_name = República de Angola |
common_name = Angola |
image_flag = Flag of Angola.svg |
image_coat = Angola coa.png |
national_motto = none |
image_map = LocationAngola.png |
national_anthem = [[Angola Avante|Angola Avante!]]<br><small>([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: [[Angola Avante|Forward Angola!]]) |
official_languages = [[Angolan Portuguese|Portuguese]] |
capital = [[Luanda]] |
latd=8|latm=50|latNS=S|longd=13|longm=20|longEW=E|
government_type = [[Multi-party]] [[democracy]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Angola|Head of State]] <br> [[Prime Minister of Angola|Head of Government]]|
leader_names = [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] <br> [[Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos|Fernando da Piedade <br> Dias dos Santos]]|
largest_city = [[Luanda]] |
area = 1,246,700 |
areami² = 481,354 | <!--Do not remove -->
area_rank = 22nd |
area_magnitude = 1 E12 |
percent_water = Negligible |
population_estimate = 10,978,552 |
population_estimate_year = 2004 |
population_estimate_rank = 71st |
population_census = ''unavailable'' |
population_census_year = ? |
population_density = 8.6 |
population_densitymi² = 22.3 | <!--Do not remove -->
population_density_rank = 213 |
GDP_PPP_year = 2003 |
GDP_PPP = 31,364<sup>1</sup> |
GDP_PPP_rank = 83 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = 2,319 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 120 |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.445 |
HDI_rank = 160th |
HDI_category = <font color="#E0584E">low</font> |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |
established_events = From [[Portugal]] |
established_dates = [[November 11]] [[1975]] |
currency = [[Kwanza]] |
currency_code = AOA |
time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]] |
utc_offset = +1 |
time_zone_DST = not observed |
utc_offset_DST = +1 |
cctld = [[.ao]] |
calling_code = 244 |
footnotes = <sup>1</sup> Estimate is based on regression; other PPP figures are extrapolated from the latest International Comparison Programme benchmark estimates.
}}{{about|the country|the prison|[[Louisiana State Penitentiary]]}}
'''Angola''' is a country in southwestern [[Africa]] bordering [[Namibia]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], and [[Zambia]], and with a west coast along the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The [[exclave]] province [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] has a border with [[Republic of the Congo|Congo-Brazzaville]]. A former [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colony, it has considerable natural resources, among which oil and diamonds are the most relevant. The country is nominally a [[democracy]] and is formally named the '''Republic of Angola''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''República de Angola'', [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[IPA]]: /{{IPA|ʁɛ.'pu.βli.kɐ dɨ ɐ̃.'ɣɔ.lɐ}}/).
==Origin and history of the name==
The name '''Angola''' is a Portuguese derivation of the [[Bantu language|Bantu]] word N’gola, being the title of the native rulers of the Quimbundos Kingdom in the [[16th century]], at the time of colonization by the Portuguese.
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Angola]]''
[[Image:Queen Nzinga 1657.png|thumb|left|Shows Queen Nzinga in peace negotiations with the portuguese governor in Luanda, 1657.]]
The earliest inhabitants of the area were [[Khoisan]] [[hunter-gatherer]]s. They were largely replaced by Bantu tribes during [[Bantu]] [[human migration|migrations]]. In present-day Angola [[Portugal]] settled in 1483 at the river Congo, where the [[Kongo Empire|Kongo]] State, [[Ndongo]] and [[Lunda]] existed. The Kongo State stretched from modern [[Gabon]] in the north to the [[Kwanza River]] in the south. Portugal established in 1575 a Portuguese colony at [[Luanda]] based on the slave trade. The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip throughout the 16th century by a series of treaties and wars. They formed the colony of Angola. The [[Netherlands|Dutch]] occupied Luanda from 1641-48, providing a boost for anti-Portuguese states.
In 1648 Portugal retook Luanda and initiated a process of military conquest of the Kongo and Ndongo states that ended with Portuguese victory in 1671. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior didn't occur until the beginning of the 20th century. In 1951 the colony was restyled as an overseas province, also called Portuguese West Africa. When Portugal refused a decolonization process three independence movements emerged:
* the [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (''Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola'' MPLA), with a base among [[Kimbundu]] and the mixed-race intelligentsia of Luanda, and links to communist parties in Portugal and the [[Eastern Bloc]];
* the [[National Liberation Front of Angola]] (''Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola'', FNLA), with an ethnic base in the Bakongo region of the north and links to the [[United States]] and the [[Mobutu Sese Seko|Mobutu]] regime in [[Zaire]]; and
* the [[National Union for Total Independence of Angola]] (''União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola'', UNITA), led by [[Jonas Savimbi|Jonas Malheiro Savimbi]] with an ethnic and regional base in the Ovimbundu heartland in the center of the country.
After a 14 year independence guerrilla war, and the overthrow of fascist Portugal's government by a military coup, Angola's nationalist parties began to negotiate for independence in January 1975. Independence was to be declared in November 1975. Almost immediately, a [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] broke out between MPLA, UNITA and FNLA, exacerbated by foreign intervention. South African troops struck an alliance of convenience with UNITA and invaded Angola in August 1975 to ensure that there would be no interference (by a newly independent Angolan state) in [[Namibia]], which was then under South African control (Hodges, 2001, 11). Cuban troops came to the su |
d back to ca. 500 CE in India. Before that epoch, the [[Brahmi numeral]] system was in use; that system did not encompass the concept of the place-value of numbers. Instead, Brahmi numerals included additional symbols for the tens, as well as separate symbols for ''hundred'' and ''thousand''.
The Indian place-system numerals spread to neighboring [[Persia]], where they were picked up by the conquering [[Arab]]s. In AD 662, a [[Nestorian]] bishop living in what is now called [[Iraq]] said :
:''I will omit all discussion of the science of the Indians ... of their subtle discoveries in astronomy - discoveries that are more ingenious than those of the Greeks and the Babylonians - and of their valuable methods of calculation which surpass description. I wish only to say that this computation is done by means of nine signs. If those who believe that because they speak Greek they have arrived at the limits of science would read the Indian texts they would be convinced even if a little late in the day that there are others who know something of value.''
The addition of [[0 (number)|zero]] as a tenth positional digit is documented from the [[9th century]].
As it was from the Arabs that the Europeans learnt this system, the Europeans called them ''[[Arabic numerals]];'' ironically, to this day the Arabs refer to their numerals as ''Indian numerals''. In academic circles they are called the ''Hindu-Arabic'' or ''Indo-Arabic'' numerals.
The significance of the development of the positional number system is probably best described by the French mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace (1749 - 1827) who wrote:
: ''"It is India that gave us the ingenuous method of expressing all numbers by the means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position, as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit, but its very simplicity, the great ease which it has lent to all computations, puts our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions, and we shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest minds produced by antiquity." ''
Tobias Dantzig, the father of George Dantzig had this to say in ''Number'':
:''"This long period of nearly five thousand years saw the rise and fall of many a civilization, each leaving behind it a heritage of literature, art, philosophy, and religion. But what was the net achievement in the field of reckoning, the earliest art practiced by man? An inflexible numeration so crude as to make progress well nigh impossible, and a calculating device so limited in scope that even elementary calculations called for the services of an expert [...] Man used these devices for thousands of years without contributing a single important idea to the system [...] Even when compared with the slow growth of ideas during the dark ages, the history of reckoning presents a peculiar picture of desolate stagnation. When viewed in this light, the achievements of the unknown Hindu, who some time in the first centuries of our era discovered the principle of position, assumes the importance of a world event."''
==References==
*Georges Ifrah, ''The Universal History of Numbers.'' John Wiley, 2000.
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<title>I.Q.</title>
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<title>Ian Botham</title>
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<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Cricketer |
flag = England flag.svg |
nationality = English |
country = England |
country abbrev = ENG |
name = Ian Botham |
picture = Cricket no pic.png |
batting style = Right-handed batsman (RHB) |
bowling style = Right-arm [[Fast bowling|fast medium]] (RFM) |
tests = 102 |
test runs = 5200 |
test bat avg = 33.34 |
test 100s/50s = 14/22 |
test top score = 208 |
test overs = 3549.3 |
test wickets = 383 |
test bowl avg = 28.40 |
test 5s = 27 |
test 10s = 4 |
test best bowling = 8/34 |
test catches/stumpings = 120/0 |
ODIs = 116 |
ODI runs = 2113 |
ODI bat avg = 23.21 |
ODI 100s/50s = 0/9 |
ODI top score = 79 |
ODI overs = 1032.1 |
ODI wickets = 145 |
ODI bowl avg = 28.54 |
ODI 5s = 0 |
ODI best bowling = 4/31 |
ODI catches/stumpings = 36/0 |
date = 5 January |
year = 2005 |
source = http://www.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/PLAYERS/ENG/B/BOTHAM_IT_01001529/
}}
'''Ian Terence Botham''' [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]], (born [[November 24]], [[1955]] in [[Heswall]], [[Cheshire]]) ([[nickname]]d "Beefy") was one of [[English cricket team|England]]'s best-ever [[cricket]]ers and one of the best [[all-rounder|all-round]] cricketers of all time. In a [[Test cricket|Test]] career spanning 15 years from [[1977]], he scored 5,200 runs at 33.54, and took 383 [[wicket]]s at an average of 28.40. Similarly successful at [[one-day cricket]], he was a [[Wisden]] cricketer of the year in [[1978]].
Whilst his averages suggest he was an average [[batsman]] and [[bowler (cricket)|bowler]], they belie his reputation as one of the greatest match winners of the game. He tended to play to extremes, so if Botham played well, he often seemed to win the match on his own.
He was renowned as a big-hitting batsman but with a surprisingly classical technique, and as a fast-medium paced [[swing bowling|swing bowler]]. In his later career after a back injury, his pace diminished to no more than a gentle medium, but he seemed to retain the knack of taking wickets regardless.
==On the field==
A talented footballer as well as cricketer, Botham had to choose very early in his career whether to play professional [[football (soccer)|football]] or cricket. Later on, to get fit after an injury, he played for [[Scunthorpe United F.C.|Scunthorpe United]].
Botham started his [[first-class cricket|first-class]] career with [[Somerset County Cricket Club|Somerset]] in [[1974]]. He left Somerset in [[1985]] as a protest against the sacking of his friends [[Vivian Richards|Viv Richards]] and [[Joel Garner]], and played for [[Worcestershire County Cricket Club|Worcestershire]] between 1986 and [[1991]]. In [[1992]], he joined [[County Championship]] newcomers [[Durham County Cricket Club|Durham]] before retiring midway through the 1993 season, poignantly after Durham's match against the touring Australians. He also played for [[Queensland]] although his time there was tarnished by incidents in an aircraft, which also involved [[Allan Border]] and a passenger.
He made his Test debut for [[England cricket team|England]] on [[28 July]] [[1977]] in the Third Test against [[Australian cricket team|Australia ]]. He played 102 Tests, and was England [[captain]] for 12 [[Test cricket|Tests]] in [[1980]] and [[1981]]. However, he was unsuccessful in that role, with 8 draws and 4 losses although in his defence, 9 of his matches as captain were against the best team of the time, the [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]].
His career coincided with the careers of several other great all-rounders, including [[Richard Hadlee]], [[Imran Khan]], and [[Kapil Dev]]. As a result, the 1980s is considered to be a golden era for the all-rounder. Botham's best world rankings were first and third in bowling and batting respectively.
===Records===
Ian Botham holds a number of Test records as an all-rounder, including being the fastest (in terms of matches) to achieve the "doubles" of 1,000 runs and 100 wickets, 2,000 runs and 200 wickets, and 3,000 runs and 300 wickets.
He was the first player to score 5,000 runs and take 300 Test wickets, and the first to score a century and take 10 wickets in the same Test match. He scored a century and took 5 wickets in an [[innings]] in the same Test match on 5 occasions; no-one else has managed this feat more than twice.
When he retired, he held the world record for the greatest number of Test wickets, although his tally has subsequently been passed by several players.
During the [[1981]] [[The Ashes | Ashes]] (see below), Ian set a record of six sixes in a single Ashes Test Match at [[Old Trafford (cricket)|Old Trafford]]. That record remained unbroken until the 7th August [[2005]] when [[Andrew Flintoff]] scored five in the first innings and four in the second innings of the second Test at [[Edgbaston Stadium|Edgbaston]] against Australia, and again until the 12th September [[2005]], when [[Kevin Pietersen]] hit seven sixes in the second innings of the last Test at [[The Brit Oval]], again against Australia.
People also joke about his age when he became [[50]], claiming that because of his batting skill and natural love for the game of [[Cricket]], it was his slowest half-century that he's ever made.
==="Botham's Ashes"===
In 1980, Botham was the pre-eminent all-rounder in world cricket and was appointed captain of the England team. However, his captaincy was not a happy one; he lost form and the team did not do well (see above). There was also an incident in the 1980 centenary Test against Australia at Lord's where several frustrated Lord's pavilion members threw punches at him, after what they saw as his alliance with the umpires to unnecessarily delay play on a dry, sunny, Saturday (it had rained heavily the previous nigh |
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Boiled leather''', sometimes called '''cuir bouilli''', was historically a popular construction material for [[armour]]. It consists of thick [[leather]], boiled in [[water]] (some sources hold that [[Cooking oil|oil]] and [[wax]] were used as well, others posit the use of [[ammonia]] from fermented animal [[urine]]). The boiling causes the leather to become hard and brittle, gaining some resemblance to the properties of [[wood]]. Since the leather remains flexible and stretchable a short time after the boiling, forming it to the needs of the armourer is quite easy, making it a cheap, light and convenient alternative to [[bronze]], [[steel]], and other historical materials.
Cuir bouilli has also been employed to [[bookbinding|bind books]].
{{Hist-stub}}
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<title>Buffer overflow</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer security]] and [[computer programming|programming]], a '''buffer overflow''', or '''buffer overrun''', is an anomalous condition where a [[process (computing)|process]] attempts to store more data in a [[buffer (computer science)|buffer]] than there is [[computer storage|memory]] allocated for it. The result is that the extra data overwrites adjacent memory locations. The overwritten data may include other buffers, variables and program flow data.
Buffer overflows may cause a process to [[Crash (computing)|crash]] or produce incorrect results. They can be triggered by inputs specifically designed to execute malicious code or to make the program operate in an unintended way. As such, buffer overflows cause many [[Vulnerability (computer science)|software vulnerabilities]] and form the basis of many [[exploit (computer security)|exploit]]s. Sufficient [[bounds checking]] by either the programmer or the [[compiler]], can prevent buffer overflows.
==Technical description==
A [[buffer]] overflow occurs when [[data]] written to a buffer, due to insufficient bounds checking, corrupts data values in memory addresses adjacent to the allocated buffer. Most commonly this occurs when copying [[String (computer science)|strings]] of [[Character (computing)|characters]] from one buffer to another.
===Basic example===
In the following example, a program has defined two data items which are adjacent in memory: an 8-byte-long string buffer, A, and a two-byte integer, B. Initially, A contains nothing but zero bytes, and B contains the number 3. Characters are one byte wide.
{| border="1"
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | A
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | A
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | A
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | A
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | A
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | A
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | A
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | A
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | B
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | B
|-
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 0
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 0
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 0
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 0
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 0
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 0
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 0
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 0
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | 0
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | 3
|}
Now, the program attempts to store the character string "excessive" in the A buffer, followed by a zero byte to mark the end of the string. By not checking the length of the string, it overwrites the value of B:
{| border="1"
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | A
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | A
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | A
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | A
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | A
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | A
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | A
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | A
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | B
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | B
|-
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 'e'
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 'x'
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 'c'
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 'e'
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 's'
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 's'
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 'i'
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 'v'
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 'e'
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | 0
|}
Although the programmer did not intend to change B at all, B's value has now been replaced by a number formed from part of the character string. (In this example, on a [[endianness|big-endian]] system that uses [[ASCII]], 'e' followed by a zero byte becomes the number 25856.)
If B was the only other variable data item defined by the program, writing an even longer string that went past the end of B could cause an error such as a [[segmentation fault]], terminating the process.
===Buffer overflows on the stack===
Besides changing values of unrelated variables, buffer overflows can often be used (exploited) by attackers to change the running program into executing arbitrary supplied code. The techniques available to an attacker to seek control over a [[Computer_process|process]] depend on the memory region where the buffer resides on. For example the [[stack (computing)|stack]] memory region, where data can be temporarily "pushed" onto the "top" of the stack, and later "popped" to read the value of the variable. Typically, when a [[function (computing)|function]] begins executing, temporary data items (local variables) are pushed, which remain accessible only during the execution of that function. Not only are there stack overflows, but also [[Heap overflow|heap overflows]].
In the following example, "X" is data that was on the stack when the program began executing; the program then called a function "Y", which required a small amount of storage of its own; and "Y" then called "Z", which required a large buffer:
{| border="1"
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | Z
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | Z
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | Z
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | Z
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | Z
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | Z
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddffdd" | Y
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | X
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | X
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | X
|-
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | &nbsp;
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | &nbsp;
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | &nbsp;
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | &nbsp;
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | &nbsp;
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ffdddd" | &nbsp;
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddffdd" | :
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | /
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | /
| align="center" width="30" bgcolor="#ddddff" | /
|}
If the function Z caused a buffer overflow, it could overwrite data that belonged to function Y or to the main program:
{| borde |
towards those who have fared better in life.) The slave regards the virtues of beauty, power, strength and wealth as 'evil' in an act of revenge against those who have them in abundance. (''On the Genealogy of Morals'', First Essay, Section 10) Slave morality is therefore a reactionary morality because 'good' does not spring creatively from the individual but develops as a negation of the values of the powerful. The noble person conceives of goodness first and later determines what is 'bad' while the slave conceives of 'evil' first and fashions his own conception of 'good' in opposition to this.
One of the main themes in Nietzsche's work is that ancient Roman society was grounded in master morality, and that this morality disappeared as the slave morality of Christianity spread through ancient Rome. Nietzsche was concerned with the state of European culture during his lifetime and therefore focused much of his analysis on the history of master and slave morality within Europe. Occasional references, however, also suggest that he meant these terms to be applied to other societies.
However, as with so many ideas in Nietzsche's work, there is no material manifestation of this idea, no hard and fast difference between that which is created by the master morality and that created by the slave. While Nietzsche stated repeatedly that the master morality was necessary for the advancement of humanity (through superhuman - ''übermenschliche'' - deeds), he gave examples of where these advances were made through the use of the tenets of the slave morality. The second essay of ''On the Genealogy of Morals'' is an indication of this insight, as well as his longstanding fascination with Jesus. Mastery for Nietzsche was the creation of values, and a recurring theme (especially in ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]'') is how even what might seem bad can be, must be, taken up into a masterful life. As Zarathustra says (in Part II, Manly Prudence) : "he who lives amongst men must know how to wash himself with dirty water." Nietzsche gives a concise investigation of how any idea might be used masterfully in the ninth aphorism of ''Beyond Good on Evil'', concerning [[Stoicism]].
According to Nietzsche, the Cartesian proofs for the existence of God are all examples of logic only a master from the nobility would invent. [[Thomas Aquinas]]' notions of what constitutes the "[[eudemonia|good life]]" is a particular example of what "good" might mean to a master. Nietzsche claimed that such notions of the good life would have their root in the discipline and punishment Aquinas received as a child from the hands of his father.
=== Christianity as an institution and Jesus ===
In Nietzsche's book the ''Anti-Christ'', Nietzsche fights against how Christianity has become an ideology set forth by institutions like churches, and how churches have failed to represent the life of Jesus. It is important, for Nietzsche, to distinguish between the religion of Christianity and the person of Jesus. Nietzsche attacked Christian religion as it was represented by churches and institutions for what he called its "transvaluation" of healthy instinctive values. Transvaluation is the process by which the meaning of a concept or ideology can be reversed to its opposite. He went beyond agnostic and atheistic thinkers of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], who felt that Christianity was simply untrue. He claimed that it may have been deliberately propagated as a subversive religion (a "psychological warfare weapon" or what some would call a "[[meme]]tic virus") within the [[Roman Empire]] by the Apostle [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] as a form of covert revenge for the Roman destruction of [[Jerusalem]] and the Temple during the [[Jewish War]].
Nietzsche contrasts the Christians with Jesus, whom he greatly admired. Nietzsche argues that Jesus transcended the moral influences of his time by creating his own set of values. As such Jesus represents a step towards the overman. Ultimately, however, Nietzsche claims that, unlike the overman, who embraces life, Jesus denied reality in favor of his "kingdom of God," and that Jesus' refusal to defend himself, and subsequent death, were logical consequences of this total disengagement. Nietzsche then analyzes the history of Christianity, finding it to be a progressively grosser distortion of the teachings of Jesus. He criticizes the early Christians for turning Jesus into a martyr and Jesus' life into a story of the redemption of mankind in order to gain power over the masses, finding them to be cowardly, vulgar, and resentful. He argues that Christianity had become more and more corrupted, as successive generations further misunderstood the life of Jesus. By the 19th century, Nietzsche concludes, Christianity had become so worldly as to be a parody of itself--a total inversion of a worldview which was, in the beginning, nihilistic.
=== ''The Will to Power'' ===
The “will to power” is a controversial concept in Nietzsche's philosophy, which has led to many interpretations, some of which, such as the Nazi interpretation of it as a "will of power", were deliberate attempts of political instrumentation.
Much of the controversy surrounding the concept emerges from and surrounds [[The Will to Power]], a book attributed to Nietzsche and published in 1901 (after Nietzsche’s death) by his sister [[Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche]]. There is disagreement about how much the book reflects Nietzsche’s philosophy and to what degree he wrote it. Likewise, to what degree the ''will to power'' as a concept is central or irrelevant to Nietzsche's philosophy is contested.
One popular interpretation of "will to power" is that it is a process of expansion and venting of creative energy that he believed was the basic driving force of nature. This interpretation would suggest that he believed it to be the fundamental causal power in the world, the driving force of all natural phenomena and the dynamic to which all other causal powers could be reduced. Indeed, the will to power must not be understood in a [[psychological]] or [[subject (philosophy)|subjective]] way, but rather in a "cosmic way". That is, according to this theory, Nietzsche in part hoped the ''will to power'' could be a "[[theory of everything (philosophy)|theory of everything]]," providing the ultimate foundations for explanations of everything from whole societies, to individual organisms, down to mere lumps of matter.
Nietzsche perhaps developed the ''will to power'' concept furthest with regard to living organisms, and it is there that the concept is perhaps easiest to understand. There, the ''will to power'' is taken as an animal's most fundamental [[instinct]] or drive, even more fundamental than the act of self-preservation; the latter is but an epiphenomenon of the former. According to Nietzsche, the will to power is the basic means through which living things "interpret" or interact with the world and, in this sense, the world is "will to power, and nothing else besides."
:''[Anything which] is a living and not a dying body... will have to be an incarnate will to power, it will strive to grow, spread, seize, become predominant &mdash; not from any morality or immorality but because it is living and because life simply is will to power... 'Exploitation'... belongs to the essence of what lives, as a basic organic function; it is a consequence of the will to power, which is after all the will to life.'' &mdash; [[Beyond Good and Evil]] s.259, [[Walter Kaufmann]] translation.
Since the ''will to power'' is fundamental, any other drives are to be reduced to it; the "will to survive" (i.e. the survival instinct) that biologists (at least in Nietzsche's day) thought to be fundamental, for example, was in this light a manifestation of the ''will to power''.
:''Physiologists should think before putting down the instinct of self-preservation as the cardinal instinct of an organic being. A living thing seeks above all to discharge its strength &mdash; life itself is will to power; self-preservation is only one of the indirect and most frequent results.'' &mdash; [[Beyond Good and Evil]]
Not just animalistic instincts but also higher level behaviors (even in humans) were to be reduced to the ''will to power''. In fact, Nietzsche considered [[consciousness]] itself to be the a form of instinct. This includes both such apparently harmful acts as physical [[violence]], lying and domination, on one hand, and such apparently non-harmful acts as gift-giving, [[love]] and praise on the other. In ''[[Beyond Good and Evil (book)|Beyond Good and Evil]]'', he claims that philosophers' "will to truth" (i.e., their apparent desire to dispassionately seek objective truth) is actually nothing more than a manifestation of their ''will to power''; this will can be life-affirming or a manifestation of [[nihilism]], but it is ''will to power'' all the same.
As indicated above, the ''will to power'' is meant to explain more than just the behavior of an individual person or animal. It is not psychological, nor [[intentionality|intentional]] or subjective. As opposed to consciousness, it is not one but multiple.
It should be noted that a biological interpretation of Will to Power such as this is but one of many possible. Nietzsche scholarship is replete with interpretations, largely due to Nietzsche's elusive style. Others might suggest that the Will to Power is not really as central a concept in Nietzsche's thought. Nietzsche himself may have even agreed, when he suggests, in ''Ecce Homo'', that his notion of eternal recurrence is his most central thought, and the central theme of his most famous work, ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra''.
However, [[Heidegger]], and also [[Deleuze]], would argue that both concepts, the ''will |
[[Yellowknife, Northwest Territories|Yellowknife]] and [[Kuujjuaq]], brought together young Inuit from across the Arctic in one place for the first time, and exposed them to the rhetoric of [[Civil rights|civil]] and [[human rights]] that prevailed in Canada in the [[1960s]]. This was a real wake-up call for Inuit, and it stimulated the emergence of a new generation of young Inuit activists in the late 1960s who came forward and pushed for respect for the Inuit and their territories.
The Inuit began to emerge as a political force in the late [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]], shortly after the first graduates returned home. They formed new politically active associations in the early [[1970s]], starting with the [[Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami]] in [[1971]], and more region specific organisations shortly afterwards, including the [[Northern Quebec Inuit Association]] and the [[Labrador Inuit Association]]. These activist movements began to change the direction of Inuit society in [[1975]] with the [[James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement]]. This comprehensive land claims settlement for Quebec Inuit, along with a large cash settlement and substantial administrative autonomy in the new region of [[Nunavik]], set the precedent for the settlements to follow. The Labrador Inuit submitted their land claim in [[1977]], although they had to wait until [[2005]] to have a signed land settlement establishing [[Nunatsiavut]].
In [[1982]], the [[Tunngavik Federation of Nunavut]] (TFN) was incorporated, in order to take over negotiations for [[Aboriginal land claims|land claims]] on behalf of the Northwest Territories Inuit from the [[Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami]], which became a joint association of the Inuit of Quebec, Labrador and the Northwest Territories.
The TFN worked for ten years and, in September [[1992]], came to a final agreement with the government of [[Canada]]. This agreement called for the separation of the Northwest Territories into an eastern territory whose only aboriginal population would be Inuit - the future [[Nunavut]] - and a rump [[Northwest Territories]] in the west. It was the largest land-claims agreement in Canadian history. In November [[1992]], the ''[[Nunavut Final Agreement]]'' was approved by nearly 85 percent of the Inuit of what would become Nunavut. As the final step in this long process, the ''[[Nunavut Land Claims Agreement]]'' was signed on [[May 25]], [[1993]] in [[Iqaluit]] by [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Brian Mulroney]] and by [[Paul Quassa]], the president of [[Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated]], which replaced the TFN with the ratification of the Nunavut Final Agreement. The Canadian Parliament passed the supporting legislation in June of the same year, enabling the [[1999]] establishment of [[Nunavut]] as a territorial entity.
The [[Inuvialuit]] are western Canadian Inuit who remained in the Northwest Territories when Nunavut split off. They are officially represented by the [[Inuvialuit Regional Corporation]] and received a comprehensive land claims settlement in [[1984]], with the signature of the [[Inuvialuit Final Agreement]].
With the establishment of [[Nunatsiavut]] in 2005, all the traditional Inuit lands in Canada are now covered by some sort of land claims agreement providing for regional autonomy.
Inuit communities in Canada continue to suffer under crushing unemployment, substance abuse, crime, violence and suicide. The problems Inuit face in the [[21st century]] should not be underestimated. However, many Inuit are upbeat about the future. Arguably, their situation is better than it has been since the [[14th century]]. Inuit arts - carving, print making, textiles and [[Inuit throat singing|throat singing]] - are very popular, not only in Canada but globally, and Inuit artists are widely known. Indeed, Canada has, metaphorically, adopted the Inuit as a sort of national mascot, using Inuit symbols like the [[inukshuk]] in unlikely places, such as its use as a symbol of [[Vancouver]]'s [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] bid for [[2010]]. The Inuit language - Inuktitut - is secure in Quebec and Nunavut. There are a surprising number of Inuit, even those who now live in urban centres such as Ottawa, Montreal and Winnipeg, who have experienced living on the land in the traditional life style. Sarah Ekoomiak, who was born in the 1930s saw her first building in Kuujuurapik when she was ten years old. Inuit culture is alive and vibrant today in spite of the negative impact of the Arctic exiles, residential schools, the TB epidemic and exiles, the paternalistic meddling in all their affairs including the current serious concerns regarding the removal of Inuit children from their homes by the CAS.
===Greenland===
See ''[[History of Greenland]]''.
===Alaska===
''This section is in progress'' but see [[Alaska]] and [[List of Native Alaskan Tribal Entities]].
===Future prospects===
In recent years, [[circumpolar]] cultural and political groups like the [[Inuit Circumpolar Conference]] have come together to promote the Inuit and other northern people and to fight against [[ecology|ecological]] problems, such as [[global warming]], which disproportionately affects the Inuit population. Global warming will likely also cause Arctic mammal populations to decline.
==Modern Inuit culture==
An important bi-annual event, the [[Arctic Winter Games]], is held in communities across the northern regions of the world, featuring traditional Inuit and northern sports as part of the events. A cultural event is also held. The games were first held in [[1970]], and while rotated usually among [[Alaska]], [[Yukon]] and the [[Northwest Territories]], they have also been held in [[Schefferville, Quebec|Schefferville]], [[Quebec]] in 1976, in [[Slave Lake, Alberta]], and a joint [[Iqaluit]], [[Nunavut]]-[[Nuuk]], [[Greenland]] staging in 2002.
One of the most famous Inuit artists is [[Pitseolak Ashoona]]. [[Susan Aglukark]] is a popular Canadian singer. In 2002 the feature film ''[[Atanarjuat: the Fast Runner]]'' directed by [[Zacharias Kunuk]] (with all dialogue in the Inuktitut language and written, filmed, produced, directed, and acted almost entirely by Inuit of Igloolik) was released world wide to great critical and popular acclaim. [[Jordin Tootoo]] became the first Inuk to play in the [[National Hockey League]] in the 2003-04 season, playing for the [[Nashville Predators]]. Well-known Inuit politicians include Premier [[Paul Okalik]] of Nunavut and [[Nancy Karetak-Lindell]], MP for the [[Nunavut (electoral district)|riding of Nunavut]]. Also, Mitiarjuk Attasie Nappaaluk is helping to preserve the Inuit language, Inuktitut. She wrote the first Inuit novel. ''(to do list: culture past and present, spirituality, customs, etc)''
In 2006, [[Cape Dorset, Nunavut]] was hailed as Canada's most artistic city, with 22% of the population employed in the arts. [http://www.cbc.ca/story/arts/national/2006/02/13/report-artistic-capedorset.html (CBC)] Inuit art such as [[soapstone]] carvings is one of Nunavut's most important industries.
== Inuit economy today ==
Today, Inuit work in all sectors of the economy, including mining, oil and gas, construction, government and administrative services. Many Inuit still supplement their income through hunting.
Tourism is a growing industry in the Inuit economy. Inuit guides take tourists on dogsled and hunting expeditions, and work with outfitting organizations. About 30 percent of Inuit derive part-time income from their sculpture, carving and print making.
The settlement of land claims in the Northwest Territories, Nunavut and Northern Quebec has given the Inuit money and a framework to develop and expand economic development activities. New emerging businesses include real estate, tourism, airlines and offshore fisheries.
==Further reading==
* Jean Briggs. ''Never in Anger''. ISBN 0674608283
* Ernest S. Burch Jr. ''The Eskimos''
* Gontran De Poncins (1941). ''[[Kabloona]]''. ISBN 1555972497
* Hans Ruesch. ''Top Of The World''. ISBN 9506371644 ([http://www.geocities.com/proppentrecker/ernenek-00.html Hebrew version])
==External links==
* [http://www.itk.ca/ Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami], Canada's National Inuit Organization
* [http://www.civilization.ca/aborig/inuvial/indexe.html The Inuvialuit]
[[Category:Inuit| ]]
[[Category:Aboriginal peoples in Quebec]]
[[Category:Aboriginal peoples in Atlantic Canada]]
[[Category:Aboriginal peoples in Canadian Territories]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of North America]]
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<title>Insecta</title>
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<comment>--&gt; [[insect]]</comment>
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<title>Intuit</title>
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<ip>216.56.88.64</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
*"To '''intuit'''" has the definition "to know or grasp by [[intuition]] or feeling".
*[[Intuit, Inc.]], a software company.''
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|
g the way.
Gauss also made important contributions to [[number theory]] with his 1801 book ''[[Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]]'', which contained a clean presentation of [[modular arithmetic]] and the first proof of the law of [[quadratic reciprocity]]. In that same year, [[Italy|Italian]] astronomer [[Giuseppe Piazzi]] discovered the [[planetoid]] [[1 Ceres|Ceres]], but could only watch it for a few days. Gauss predicted correctly the position at which it could be found again, and it was rediscovered by [[Franz Xaver von Zach]] on [[December 31]], [[1801]] in [[Gotha (town)|Gotha]], and one day later by [[Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers|Heinrich Olbers]] in [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]. Zach noted that "without the intelligent work and calculations of Doctor Gauss we might not have found Ceres again." Though Gauss had up to this point been supported by the stipend from the Duke, he doubted the security of this arrangement, and also did not believe pure mathematics to be important enough to deserve support. Thus he sought a position in astronomy, and in 1807 was appointed Professor of Astronomy and Director of the astronomical observatory in [[Göttingen]], a post he held for the remainder of his life.
The discovery of [[1 Ceres|Ceres]] by [[Piazzi]] on January 1, 1801 led Gauss to his work on a theory of the motion of planetoids disturbed by large planets, eventually published in 1809 under the name ''Theoria motus corporum coelestium in sectionibus conicis solem ambientum'' (theory of motion of the celestial bodies moving in conic sections around the sun). Piazzi had only been able to track Ceres for a couple of months, following it for three degrees across the night sky. Then it disappeared temporarily behind the glare of the Sun. Several months later, when Ceres should have reappeared, Piazzi couldn't locate it: the mathematical tools of the time weren't able to extrapolate a position from such a scant amount of data – three degrees represented less than 1% of the total orbit.
Gauss, who was 23 at the time, heard about the problem and tackled it head-on. After three months of intense work, he predicted a position for Ceres in December 1801 – just about a year after its first sighting – and this turned out to be accurate within a half-degree. In the process, he so streamlined the cumbersome mathematics of 18th century orbital prediction that his work – published a few years later as Theory of Celestial Movement – remains a cornerstone of astronomical computation. It introduced the [[gaussian gravitational constant]], and contained an influential treatment of the [[method of least squares]], a procedure used in all sciences to this day to minimize the impact of [[measurement error]]. Gauss was able to prove the method in 1809 under the assumption of [[normal distribution|normally distributed]] errors (see [[Gauss-Markov theorem]]; see also [[Gaussian]]). The method had been described earlier by [[Adrien-Marie Legendre]] in 1805, but Gauss claimed that he had been using it since 1795.
Gauss had been asked in the late 1810s <!--we said 1818, PlanetMath says 1816. Which is correct?--> to carry out a geodetic <!--geodetic (pertaining to shape & size of the earth) is correct, not geodesic --> [[survey]] of the state of [[Hanover]] to link up with the existing [[Denmark|Danish]] grid. Gauss was pleased to accept and took personal charge of the survey, making measurements during the day and reducing them at night, using his extraordinary mental capacity for calculations. He regularly wrote to [[Heinrich Christian Schumacher|Schumacher]], [[Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers|Olbers]] and [[Bessel]], reporting on his progress and discussing problems. As part of the survey, Gauss invented the [[heliotrope (instrument)|heliotrope]] which worked by reflecting the Sun's rays using a set of mirrors and a small telescope.
Gauss also claimed to have discovered the possibility of [[non-Euclidean geometry|non-Euclidean geometries]] but never published it. This discovery was a major paradigm shift in mathematics, as it freed mathematicians from the mistaken belief that [[Euclid]]'s axioms were the only way to make geometry consistent and non-contradictory. Research on these geometries led to, among other things, [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]], which describes the universe as non-Euclidean. His friend [[Farkas Bolyai|Farkas (Wolfgang) Bolyai]] (with whom Gauss had sworn "brotherhood and the banner of truth" as a student) had tried in vain for many years to prove the [[parallel postulate]] from Euclid's other axioms of geometry. Bolyai's son, [[Janos Bolyai|János Bolyai]], discovered non-Euclidean geometry in 1829; his work was published in 1832. After seeing it, Gauss wrote to Farkas Bolyai: ''"To praise it would amount to praising myself. For the entire content of the work ... coincides almost exactly with my own meditations which have occupied my mind for the past thirty or thirty-five years."'' This unproved statement put a strain on his relationship with János Bolyai (who thought that Gauss was "stealing" his idea), but it is nowadays generally taken at face value.
[[Image:Normal distribution pdf.png|thumb|240px|right|[[Gaussian distribution]] in [[statistics]].]]
The survey of Hanover later led to the development of the Gaussian distribution, also known as the [[normal distribution]], for describing measurement errors. Moreover, it fuelled Gauss's interest in [[differential geometry]], a field of mathematics dealing with [[curve]]s and [[surface]]s. In this field, he came up with an important theorem, the [[theorema egregrium]] (''remarkable theorem'' in [[Latin]]) establishing an important property of the notion of [[curvature]]. Informally, the theorem says that the curvature of a surface can be determined entirely by measuring [[angle]]s and [[distance]]s on the surface; that is, curvature does not depend on how the surface might be [[embedding|embedded]] in (3-dimensional) space.
===Later years, death, and afterwards===
[[Image:Gauss stamp.jpg|150px|left|thumb|''Stamp no.725, a commemorative [[postage stamp|stamp]] released in the 100th anniversary of Gauss' death.'']]
In 1831 Gauss developed a fruitful collaboration with the physics professor [[Wilhelm Weber]]; it led to new knowledge in the field of [[magnetism]] (including finding a representation for the unit of magnetism in terms of mass, length and time) and the discovery of [[Kirchhoff's circuit laws]] in electricity. Gauss and Weber constructed the first electromagnetic telegraph in 1833, which connected the observatory with the institute for physics in Göttingen. Gauss ordered a magnetic observatory to be built in the garden of the observatory and with Weber founded the ''magnetischer Verein'' ("magnetic club"), which supported measurements of earth's magnetic field in many regions of the world. He developed a method of measuring the horizontal intensity of the magnetic field which has been in use well into the second half of the 20th century and worked out the mathematical theory for separating the inner ([[planetary core|core]] and [[crust]]) and outer ([[magnetosphere|magnetospheric]]) sources of Earth's magnetic field.
Gauss died in [[Göttingen]], [[Hanover (state)|Hanover]] (now part of [[Lower Saxony]], [[Germany]]) in 1855 and is interred in the cemetery ''[[Albanifriedhof]]'' there. His brain was preserved and was studied by [[Robert Heinrich Wagner|Robert Wagner]] who found its weight to be 1,492 grams and the cerebral area equal to 219,588 square centimetres. There were also found highly developed convolutions, which in the early 20th century was suggested as the explanation of his genius (Dunnington, 1927). [[Phrenology]] has, of course, since been discounted as [[pseudoscience]].
===Family===
Gauss's personal life was overshadowed by the early death of his beloved first wife, Johanna Osthoff, in 1809, soon followed by the death of one child, Louis. Gauss plunged into a [[Clinical depression|depression]] from which he never fully recovered. He married again, to a friend of his first wife named Friederica Wilhelmine Waldeck (Minna), but the second marriage does not seem to have been very happy. When his second wife died in 1831 after long illness, one of his daughters, Therese, took over the household and cared for Gauss until the end of his life. His mother lived in his house from 1812 until her death in 1839.
Gauss had six children, three by each wife. With Johanna (1780–1809), his children were Joseph (1806–1873), Wilhelmina (1808–1846) and Louis (1809–1810). Of all of Gauss's children, Wilhelmina was said to have come closest to his talent, but she died young. With Minna Waldeck he also had three children: Eugen (1811–1896), Wilhelm (1813–1879) and Therese (1816–1864). Eugen emigrated to the [[United States]] about 1832 after a falling out with his father, eventually settling in [[Saint Charles, Missouri|St. Charles]], [[Missouri]], where he became a well respected member of the community. Wilhelm came to settle in Missouri somewhat later, starting as a [[farmer]] and later becoming wealthy in the shoe business in [[St. Louis]]. Therese kept house for Gauss until his death, after which she married.
===Personality===
Gauss was an ardent [[perfectionism (psychology)|perfectionist]] and a hard worker. There is a famous anecdote of Gauss being interrupted in the middle of a problem and told that his wife was dying. He is purported to have said, "Tell her to wait a moment 'til I'm through". He was never a prolific writer, refusing to publish works which he did not consider complete and above criticism. This was in keeping with his personal motto ''pauca sed matura'' (few, but ripe). A study of his personal diaries reveal that he had in fact discovered several important mathematical concepts years or decades before they were published by h |
etely explored. The source of tritium is still unknown although it appears to result from a nuclear reaction that is initiated within the apparatus. Various nuclear products normally associated with d-d fusion also have been detected as energetic emissions, but at very low rates.
Finally, the presence of heavy elements having unnatural isotopic ratios and in unexpected large amounts are detected under some conditions. These are the so called transmutation products. Work in Japan {{ref_harvard|Iwamura2004|Iwamura 2004|}} {{ref_harvard|Iwamura2003|Iwamura 2003|}} {{ref_harvard|Iwamura2002|Iwamura 2002|}} {{ref_harvard|Iwamura2002b|Iwamura 2002b|}} {{ref_harvard|Iwamura2000|Iwamura 2000|}} has opened an entirely new aspect to the phenomenon by showing that impurity elements in palladium, through which D2 is caused to pass, are converted to heavier elements to which 2D, 4D or 6D (deuterons) have been added. The claims have been replicated in Japan and similar efforts are underway at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL).
In 2004, the United States Department of Energy (DoE), upon reviewing the observations and best evidence reported by cold fusion researchers, came to mixed conclusions about the reality of the claims. {{ref_harvard|DoE2004|DoE 2004|}} {{ref_harvard|Storms2005|Storms 2005|}} In keeping with this negative opinion, some journals do not accept submissions related to cold fusion, and Scientific American has often attacked the subject. In contrast, other prestigious journals, such as the Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, continue to publish studies on the subject.
==Other kinds of fusion==
A variety of other methods are known to effect nuclear fusion. Some are "cold" in the strict sense that no part of the material is hot (except for the reaction products), some are "cold" in the limited sense that the bulk of the material is at a relatively low temperature and pressure but the reactants are not, and some are "hot" fusion methods that create macroscopic regions of very high temperature and pressure.
Locally cold fusion :
* [[Muon-catalyzed fusion]] is a well established and reproducible fusion process that occurs at ordinary temperatures. It was studied in detail by [[Steven E. Jones|Steven Jones]] in the early 1980s. It has not been reported to produce net energy. Net energy production from this reaction is not believed to be possible because of the energy required to create [[muon]]s, their 2.2 &micro;s [[half-life]], and the chance that a muon will bind to the new [[alpha particle]] and thus stop catalyzing fusion.
Generally cold, locally hot fusion :
* In [[sonoluminescence]], acoustic shock waves create temporary bubbles that collapse shortly after creation, producing very high temperatures and pressures. In 2002, Rusi P. Taleyarkhan reported the possibility that [[bubble fusion]] occurs in those collapsing bubbles. As of 2005, experiments to determine whether fusion is occurring give conflicting results. If fusion is occurring, it is because the local temperature and pressure are sufficiently high to produce hot fusion.[http://www.nature.com/news/2006/060109/full/060109-5.html]
* The [[Fusor|Farnsworth-Hirsch Fusor]] is a tabletop device in which fusion occurs. This fusion comes from high effective temperatures produced by electrostatic acceleration of ions. The device can be built inexpensively, but it too is unable to produce a net power output.
* [[Antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion|Antimatter-initialized fusion]] uses small amounts of antimatter to trigger a tiny fusion explosion. This has been studied primarily in the context of making [[nuclear pulse propulsion]] feasible. This is not near becoming a practical power source, due to the cost of manufacturing antimatter alone.
* [[Pyroelectric fusion]] was reported in April 2005 by a team at [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]]. The scientists used a [[Pyroelectricity|pyroelectric]] crystal heated from &minus;34 to 7°C (&minus;30 to 45°F), combined with a [[tungsten]] needle to produce an [[electric field]] of about 25 gigavolts per meter to ionize and accelerate [[deuterium]] nuclei into an erbium deuteride target. Though the energy of the deuterium ions generated by the crystal has not been directly measured, the authors used 100 keV (a temperature of about 10<sup>9</sup> [[Kelvin|K]]) as an estimate in their modeling.[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v434/n7037/extref/nature03575-s1.pdf] At these energy levels, two deuterium nuclei can fuse together to produce a [[helium-3]] nucleus, a 2.45 MeV [[neutron]] and [[bremsstrahlung]]. Although it makes a useful neutron generator, the apparatus is not intended for power generation since it requires far more energy than it produces. [http://rodan.physics.ucla.edu/pyrofusion/] [http://www.aip.org/pnu/2005/split/729-1.html] [http://www.christiansciencemonitor.com/2005/0606/p25s01-stss.html] [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/7654627]
Hot fusion :
* "Standard" "hot" [[fusion power|fusion]], in which the fuel reaches tremendous temperature and pressure inside a [[fusion reactor]], [[nuclear weapon]], or [[star]].
The methods in the second group are examples of non-equilibrium systems, in which very high temperatures and pressures are produced in a relatively small region adjacent to material of much lower temperature. In his doctoral thesis for [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]], Todd Rider did a theoretical study of all non-equilibrium fusion systems. He demonstrated that all such systems will leak energy at a rapid rate due to [[Bremsstrahlung|bremsstrahlung]], radiation produced when [[electron]]s in the [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] hit other electrons or [[ion]]s at a cooler temperature and suddenly decelerate. The problem is not as pronounced in a hot plasma because the range of temperatures, and thus the magnitude of the deceleration, is much lower.
''Plasma, liquid or solid: what phase is better?''
As it is described above the cold nuclear fusion investigation were developed mainly as
a liquid-phase electrolysis with hydrogen-philic electrodes (palladium for example).
Strong (in the chemical scale) deuterium - electrodes interaction could lead to some
deuteron - deuteron distance reduction and them fusion. But on the liquid-solid surface
the force cannot be very big principally.
There are attempts to accelerate deuterons within a solid crystal
[http://www.nature.com/news/2005/050425/full/050425-3.html see last "Nature" publication ].
The energy of particles dissipates thermally more then the nuclear reaction takes place here.
So [http://to2084.narod.ru a static (i.e. non-dissipative) method of ultrahigh pressure
generation inside a solid electrolyte] would be hopefull. The force amplification
by tention cumulation along a conical cathode should not be limit here.
==Commercial developments==
Cold fusion's commercial viability is unknown. Thorough understanding of the effect necessary for commercialization has not yet been achieved (although several competing theories exist). Some researchers have indicated that the effect can occur in metals other than expensive palladium, such as titanium and nickel. Studies showing the largest power densities make use of palladium, and even then do not show commercially substantial levels.[http://newenergytimes.com/Library/2005KrivitS-HowCanItBeReal-Paper.pdf] Researchers have not yet shown ways to prevent cathodes from deteriorating, cracking, and melting during the process (occasionally, cells have been known to burst). Additionally, the most widely reproduced experiments produce power in bursts, not continiously as is needed for many applications.
There are various companies which claim to be developing cold fusion devices: Energetics Technologies Ltd. (Israel), [http://www.d2fusion.com/ D2Fusion], and [http://world.std.com/~mica/jet.html JET Thermal Products]. Ongoing developments concerning cold fusion commercialization efforts are tracked at [http://peswiki.com/index.php/PowerPedia:Cold_fusion#Ongoing_developments peswiki].
==See also==
*[[List_of_alternative%2C_speculative_and_disputed_theories#Physics|List of fringe theories in physics]]
*[[Stanley Pons]]
*[[Martin Fleischmann]]
{{fusion power}}
==References==
===Books===
* Krivit, Steven ; Winocur, Nadine. ''The Rebirth of Cold Fusion: Real Science, Real Hope, Real Energy''. Los Angeles, CA, Pacific Oaks Press, 2004 ISBN 0976054582.
* [[Charles Beaudette|Beaudette, Charles]]. ''Excess Heat: Why Cold Fusion Research Prevailed, 2nd. Ed.''. Concord, N.H.: Infinite Energy Press, 2002. ISBN 0967854830.
* [[Robert L. Park|Park, Robert L.]] ''Voodoo Science: The Road from Foolishness to Fraud''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0195135156.
* Mizuno, Tadahiko. ''Nuclear Transmutation: The Reality of Cold Fusion''. Concord, N.H.: Infinite Energy Press, 1998. ISBN 1892925001.
* [[John Huizenga|Huizenga, John R.]] ''Cold Fusion: The Scientific Fiasco of the Century''. Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 1992. ISBN 1878822071; ISBN 0198558171.
* [[Frank Close|Close, Frank E.]].''Too Hot to Handle: The Race for Cold Fusion''. Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1991. ISBN 0691085919; ISBN 0140159266.
* [[Eugene Mallove|Mallove, Eugene]]. ''Fire from Ice: Searching for the Truth Behind the Cold Fusion Furor''. Concord, N.H.: Infinite Energy Press, 1991. ISBN 1892925028.
===Reports and reviews===
*[http://www.ncas.org/erab/index.html "Cold Fusion Research"] - Energy Research Advisory Board report (November 1989)
**[http://www.ncas.org/erab/sec5.htm Conclusions and recommendations] section of the report
*[http://www.science.doe.gov/Sub/Newsroom/News_Releases/DOE-SC/2004/low_energy/index.htm U.S. DoE 2004 Cold Fusion Review] - U.S. Department of Energy review of 15 years of cold fusion experiments
**[http://lenr-canr |
rving that the higher quality trials were more likely to reject claims of efficacy over the placebo effect<ref>Shang et al. [http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140673605671772/fulltext "Are the clinical effects of homoeopathy placebo effects? Comparative study of placebo-controlled trials of homoeopathy and allopathy"]. ''Lancet'' 2005, '''366''': 726-732 ([http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140673605671772/abstract abstract]) (both require registration, but abstract is free).
</ref>.
Linde et al (2001)<ref>Linde K, Hondras M, et al. "[http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1472-6882-1-4.pdf Systematic reviews of complementary therapies – an annotated bibliography. Part 3: Homeopathy]", ''BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' 2001; '''1''', 4.</ref> summarize as such:
''<blockquote> In conclusion, the available [[systematic review]]s on homeopathy provide little guidance for patients and doctors. They reflect the fundamental controversy on this therapy, and strengthen the perception that isolated examples of positive evidence from clinical trials will not convince skeptics, and negative results from trials not representing actual practice will not have any impact on homeopaths. </blockquote>''
== Misconceptions about homeopathy ==
=== Composition of homeopathic remedies ===
A common misconception is that homeopathic remedies use only natural herbal components (akin to [[herbology]]). While herbs are used, homeopathy also uses non-biological substances (such as [[salt]]s) and components of animal origin, such as [[duck]] [[liver]] in the popular remedy [[oscillococcinum]]. Homeopathy also uses substances of human origin, called ''[[nosode]]s''. Some people have the opposite misconception, that homeopathic remedies are only based on [[toxicity|toxic]] substances like [[snake venom]] or [[mercury (element)|mercury]].
Although both use herbs, in herbology measurable amounts of the herbs are in the remedy, while in homeopathy the active ingredient is diluted to the point where it is no longer measurable.
As the term homeopathy is well known and has good marketing value, the public can be confused by people who have adopted the term for other forms of therapy. For example, some companies have combined homeopathic with non-homeopathic substances such as herbs or vitamins, and some preparations marketed as homeopathic contain no homeopathic preparations at all. Classical homeopaths claim only remedies prepared and prescribed in accordance with the principles of Hahnemann can be called homeopathic. Many producers of homeopathic remedies also produce other types of alternative remedies, under the same brand name, which can create confusion for the general public.
===Homeopathy and vaccination===
To some, homeopathy, particularly the use of nosodes, resembles [[vaccination]], in that vaccines contain a small, closely-related dose of the disease against which they are to protect. Hahnemann himself interpreted the introduction of vaccination by [[Edward Jenner]] in [[1798]] as a confirmation of the law of similars. However, the two practices are fundamentally different. A vaccine is usually a [[bacterium]] or [[virus]] whose capability to produce symptoms has deliberately been weakened, while still providing enough information to the immune system to afford protection. By preparing the immune system of a healthy organism to meet a future attack by the pathogen, vaccination hopes to prevent disease, in contrast to homeopathy's hope, which is to cure it.
== Safety of homeopathic treatment ==
The FDA considers that there is no real concern over the safety of homeopathic products "because they have little or no pharmacologically active ingredients". There have been a few reports of illness associated with the use of homeopathic products, which may be because some homeopathic remedies are prepared by serial dilution of [[toxicity|toxic]] substances, presenting a risk that by accident they might contain undiluted toxic substances. The medical literature contains several case reports of poisoning by heavy metals such as [[Arsenic|arsenic]]<ref>Chakraborti D, Mukherjee SC, Saha KC, Chowdhury UK, Rahman MM, Sengupta MK: Arsenic toxicity from homeopathic treatment. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2003;41(7):963-7.</ref> and [[mercury (element)|mercury]]<ref>Montoya-Cabrera MA, Rubio-Rodriguez S, Velazquez-Gonzalez E, Avila Montoya S: Mercury poisoning caused by a homeopathic drug. Gac Med Mex 1991, 127(3):267-70. Article in Spanish.</ref><ref>Audicana M, Bernedo N, Gonzalez I, Munoz D, Fernandez E, Gastaminza G: An unusual case of baboon syndrome due to mercury present in a homeopathic medicine. Contact Dermatitis 2001, 45(3):185.</ref><ref>Wiesmuller GA, Weishoff-Houben M, Brolsch O, Dott W, Schulze-Robbecke R: Environmental agents as cause of health disorders in children presented at an outpatient unit of environmental medicine. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2002, 205(5):329-35</ref> found in homeopathic remedies. However, in cases that they reviewed, the FDA discounted the homeopathic product involved as the cause of the adverse reactions. In one case, arsenic was implicated, although FDA analysis revealed that the concentration of arsenic was too low to cause concern. Perhaps the main concern about the safety of homeopathy arises not from the products themselves, but from the possible withholding of more efficacious treatment, or from misdiagnosis of dangerous conditions by a non-medically qualified homeopath.[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199900/ldselect/ldsctech/123/12301.htm]
== References ==
<references/>
== Sources ==
*[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_6_25/ai_79794372 Magical Thinking in Complementary and Alternative Medicine] from the Skeptical Enquirer
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2002/homeopathy.shtml Homeopathy: The Test - programme summary] from BBC
*Klaus Linde and Dieter Melchart "Randomized Controlled Trials of Individualized Homeopathy: A State-of-the-Art Review", ''Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine'' '''4''' (1998): 371-88 ([http://nhscrd.york.ac.uk/online/dare/990167.htm structured abstract])
*M. Cucherat ''et al''. "Evidence of Clinical Efficacy of Homeopathy: A Meta-Analysis of Clinical Trials", ''European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology'' '''56''' (2000): 27-33 ([http://nhscrd.york.ac.uk/online/dare/20001151.htm structured abstract])
*Walach H "Unspezifische Therapie-Effekte. Das Beispiel Homöopathie" [PhD Thesis]. Freiburg, Germany: Psychologische Institut, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, (1997)
*Ernst E. "Classical homeopathy versus conventional treaments: a [[systematic review]]" ''Perfusion'', (1999); '''12''': 13-15
*Moritz RV, Rodrigues A. [http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0041-87812003000600007&tlng=es&lng=en&nrm=iso "A critical review of the possible benefits associated with homeopathic medicine"], ''Rev. Hosp. Clin.'' '''58'''(6)
*Linde K, Clausius N, Ramirez G, Melchart D, Eitel F, Hedges LV, Jonas WB. "Are the clinical effects of homeopathy placebo effects? A meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials" ''Lancet'' (1997); '''350''': 834-943
*Kleijenen J, Knipschild P, ter Riet G. "Clincal trials of homeopathy." ''BMJ'' (1991); '''302''': 316-323
*Bandolier Homeopathy - dilute information and little knowledge [http://www.jr2.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/aboutus.html]
*Linde K, Scholz M, Ramirez G, Clausius N, Melchart D, Jonas WB. "Impact of study quality on outcome in placebo-controlled trials of homeopathy" J Clin Epidemiol. 1999 Jul;52(7):631-6.[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T84-3WRJNTW-P&_coverDate=07%2F31%2F1999&_alid=294496608&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=5076&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=48adc60952f9810801ab90935e3c53d0]
*James Randi Educational Foundation. "The JREF Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge 'FAQ'". [http://www.randi.org/research/faq.html] Retrieved 13 September, 2005.
*footnote to pp.12-13, ''Hahnemann's Chronic Diseases'', ed. P. Dudley, ''B. Jain Publishers'', 1998 reprint
*Response to Lancet article [http://www.hpathy.com/research/bhatia-lancet-homeopathy.asp "Homeopathy, Research & The Lancet"]
*[http://thorax.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/abstract/58/4/317]
*Answer to Lancet by George Vithoulkas [http://www.vithoulkas.com/library_EN/important_issues/imp_issue03.html"Answer to Lancet"]
== External links ==
* Online etext of Hahnemann's ''Organon der Heilkunst'': [http://www.homeoint.org/books4/organon/ German original] and [http://www.homeopathyhome.com/reference/organon/organon.html English translation]
=== Neutral ===
*A recent article on homeopathy testing from the [http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/full/138/5/393/ Annals of Internal Medicine]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2002/homeopathy.shtml BBC's ''Horizon'' on homeopathy] (transcripts, discussion, etc.)
* [http://www.acampbell.org.uk/homeopathy/index.html Homeopathy In Perspective] &mdash; critical online book, covering the history and present state of homeopathy
* [http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/096_home.html FDA's view of homeopathy]
* [http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/ Water Structure and Behaviour]&mdash; balanced and up-to-date references to current scientific understanding of water, with specific entries on "memory effects" and homeopathy
=== Supportive ===
* [http://www.hpathy.com/ Extensive Homeopathy Information and Discussion Forum]
* [http://www.homeopathy.org/ North American Society of Homeopaths]
* [http://www.homeopathy-soh.org/ The Society of Homeopaths - UK Organisation Rep |
mp;rdquo; by C.A. Cutter, 1882
==History of the Cutter classification==
Charles Ammi Cutter (1837&ndash;1903), inspired by the decimal classification of his contemporary [[Melvil Dewey]], originally developed his own classification scheme for the collections of the [[Boston Athenaeum]], which he served as librarian for two dozen years. He began work on it about 1880 and published the first schedules in the early 1890s. His five volume catalogue of the Athenaeum collection is a classic in bibliographic history.
The Cutter classification, although adopted by comparatively few libraries, mostly in [[New England]], has been called one of the most logical and scholarly of American classifications. Its outline served as a basis for the Library of Congress classification, which also took over some of its features. It did not catch on as did Dewey's system because Cutter died before it was completely finished, making no provision for the kind of development necessary as the bounds of knowledge expanded and scholarly emphases changed throughout the 20th century.
==Outline of the Cutter classification==
Like the LC classification system, texts are organized by subject. Users of Cutter, however, will find the subject headings more general than those of the LC system.
* A General works (encyclopedias, periodicals, society publications)
* B-D Philosophy, Psychology, Religion
* E, F, G Biography, History, Geography and travels
* H&ndash;J, K Social sciences, Law
* L&ndash;T Science and technology
* U&ndash;VS Military, Sports, Recreation
* VT, VV, W Theatre, Music, Fine arts
* X Philology (expanded by language)
* Y Literature (expanded by language, and in English form&mdash;e.g., YY is English and American literature, YYP is poetry in English)
* Z Book arts, Bibliography
==How Cutter call numbers are constructed==
Most call numbers in the Cutter classification follow conventions offering clues to the book's subject. The first line represents the subject, the second the author (and perhaps title), the third and fourth dates of editions, indications of translations, and critical works on particular books or authors. All numbers in the Cutter system are (or should be) shelved as if in decimal order.
Size of volumes is indicated by points (.), pluses (+), or slashes (/ or //).
For some subjects a numerical geographical subdivision follows the classification letters on the first line. The number 83 stands for the United States&mdash;hence, F83 is U.S. history, G83 U.S. travel, JU83 U.S. politics, WP83 U.S. painting. Geographical numbers are often further expanded decimally to represent more specific areas, sometimes followed by a capital letter indicating a particular city.
The second line usually represents the author's name by a capital letter plus one or more numbers arranged decimally. This may be followed by the first letter or letters of the title in lower-case, and/or sometimes the letters a,b,c indicating other printings of the same title. When appropriate, the second line may begin with a 'form' number&mdash;e.g., 1 stands for history and criticism of a subject, 2 for a bibliography, 5 for a dictionary, 6 for an atlas or maps, 7 for a periodical, 8 for a society or university publication, 9 for a collection of works by different authors.
On the third line a capital Y indicates a work about the author or book represented by the first two lines, and a capital E (for English&mdash;other letters are used for other languages) indicates a translation into English. If both criticism and translation apply to a single title, the number expands into four lines.
==References==
* Bliss, Henry Evelyn. ''The Organization of Knowledge in Libraries: and the Subject-Approach to Books'', 2nd ed. New York: H. W. Wilson, 1939.
* Cutter, Charles A. ''Rules for a Dictionary Catalog''. W. P. Cutter, ed. 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904. London: The Library Association, 1962.
*Cutter, William Parker. ''Charles Ammi Cutter''. Chicago: American Library Association, 1931. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms, 1969.
*Foster, William E. "Charles Ammi Cutter: A Memorial Sketch". ''Library Journal'' 28 (1903): 697-704.
*Hufford, Jon R. "The Pragmatic Basis of Catalog Codes: Has the User Been Ignored?". ''Cataloging and Classification Quarterly'' 14 (1991): 27-38.
*Immroth, John Philip. "Cutter, Charles Ammi". ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science''. Allen Kent and Harold Lancour, ed. 47 vols. New York, M. Dekker [1968- ]
*Slavis, Dobrica. "CUTT-x: An Expert System for Automatic Assignment of Cutter Numbers". ''Cataloging and Classification Quarterly''. Vol 22, no. 2, 1996.
*Tauber, Maurice F., and Edith Wise. "Classification Systems". Ralph R. Shaw, ed.. ''The State of the Library Art''. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers U. Graduate School of Library Service, 1961. 1-528.
==External links==
* [http://www.bostonathenaeum.org/cutterguide.html The Boston Athenaeum's Guide to the Cutter System]
[[Category:Library and information science]]
[[Category:Knowledge representation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cem Karaca</title>
<id>7516</id>
<revision>
<id>40362705</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:44:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikify dates cardinals</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:cem_karaca3.jpg|frame|Cem Karaca]]
'''Cem Karaca''' ([[March 19]], [[1945]] - [[February 8]], [[2004]]) was a single child of Irma Felekyan and Mehmet Ibrahim Karaca .His first group was called "Dynamites", A classic Rock cover band .Then an [[Elvis Presley]] cover band called "Jaguars" came together .In 1967 he started to write his own music and that was the beginning of the Anatolian Rock 'movement .
"Apaslar" was his first Turkish Language group that got together at the middle of 1967 .In 1969 Karaca and the bass player Serhan Karabay ' left Apaslar and started an original Anotolian sound group called "Kardaslar"{Brothers} .In 1972 Karaca joined "Mogollar"and his masterpiece "Namus Belasi"was created .But Mogollar'group leader [[Cahit Berkay]] 'wanted an International name for his band and he left for France to take the group to an another level .At this time Karaca who wanted to continue his Anatolian beat sound left the Mogollar and started his own band "Dervisan"(Dervishkhan).
Karaca and Dervisan sang poetic and proggressive songs ..In the 70's Turkey 's image was getting destroyed by the untimely civil war .
Everyone was blaming everyone for something ..Left were fighting right ..Seperatist movements ,Islamic rise ..The country was in total
chaos ..And at the same time Cem Karaca ' started to get the attention of the Government of Turkey .At times he was beeing accused of treason ,seperatist thinker ,Marxist & Leninist ,and Turkish Government tried to portrey Karaca as a man who is unknowingly writing songs to start a movement against the state..
One politiciab said "Karaca is simply callin citizens to a bloody war against the State ..
At the beginning of the 1979 he left for West Germany for business related issues .At this time Turkey was going through the toughest political struggles in and outside of it's soil .Country was out of control ..Everyday at least five to ten people were getting shot to dead in the streets.Even the twenty four hours military curfew did not help the situation . At [[September 12]] [[1980]] Turkish Military Forces put all to a dramatic end .General [[Kenan Evren]] 'took over the government, closed all the political parties down temprerarely .After the army take-over many people including writers, artists ,journalists who had say in this political circus were getting caught one by one.Warrant was issued for his arrest by the Government of Turkey .
The state called Karaca back to the country several times but Karaca not knowing the outcome of his return ,decided not to come back to Turkey at least until the dust saddles down .
While he was in Germany ,his father Mehmet Ibrahim Karaca'passed on .But Cem 'could not attend to his funeral .After sometime Turkish Government decided to strip Cem Karaca' s Turkish Citizenship .Warrant stayed .
Several years after in 1987 Turkish Mother Land party leader and the time's Prime Minister of the country "[[Turgut Ozal]]" issued an amnesty for Karaca .And shortly after he finally returned to his country he loved .His return also brought a new album by him "Merhaba Gencler and Her zaman Genc Kalanlar"this was one of his most powerful works ever .His return home was a very good news for many of his fans .Finally wait was over .But Karaca lost a decade ,he lost the young people ,new listeners ..He is one of the greatest musicians of Turkey ever produced .His [[Ian Anderson]] like looks and incredibly powerful voice combines with his words and beautiful sounds of the [[Anatolian Rock]] 'that he created will live forever
==Discography==
* ''Apaslar-Kardaslar'' (1972)
* ...''Teşekkürleriyle'' (1974)
* ''Nem Kaldi'' (1975)
* ''Parka'' (LP) (1977)
* ''Yoksulluk Kader Olamaz'' (1977)
* ''Safinaz'' (1978)
* ''Hasret'' (1980)
* ''Bekle Beni'' (1982)
* ''Die Kanaken'' (1984)
* ''Merhaba Gençler'' (1987)
* ''Töre'' (1988)
* ''Yiyin Efendiler'' (1990)
* ''Nerde Kalmistik'' (1992)
* ''Bindik Bir Alamete'' (1999)
Excluding his guest appearances and singles
[[Category:1945 births|Karaca, Cem]]
[[Category:2004 deaths|Karaca, Cem]]
[[Category:Turkish musicians|Karaca, Cem]]
[[tr:Cem Karaca]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Calista Flockhart</title>
<id>7517</id>
<revision>
<id>39481315</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T17:28:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<user |
also, according to Watterson, the only person Calvin truly fears&mdash;certainly she is his equal in cunning, and doesn't hesitate to play as dirty as he does. Originally created as a nameless, one-shot character with no plans to appear again, Watterson decided he wanted to retain her unique ability to intimidate Calvin, which, ultimately, led to many more appearances.
Rosalyn's idea of babysitting is to put Calvin to bed at 6:30, and she has little patience for his attempts to rebel against her. Calvin will often freak out whenever he hears that Rosalyn is going to be babysitting him, in one instance screaming non-stop for an entire strip, and generally attempts to cause as much trouble as possible. In the final Rosalyn story, however, the traditional war is averted by a game of [[#Calvinball|Calvinball]], in which Rosalyn proves to be a formidable player, and once again trumps Calvin with a clever move in the last panel.
====Moe====
{{main|Moe|Moe (Calvin and Hobbes character)}}
[[Image:Calmoe.gif|frame|right|80px|Moe, a bully at Calvin's school.]]
Moe is the prototypical [[bully]] character in ''Calvin & Hobbes'', "a six-year-old who shaves" who is always shoving Calvin against walls, demanding his lunch money and calling him "Twinky". Moe is the only regular character who speaks in an unusual font: his (frequently monosyllabic) dialogue is shown in crude, lower-case letters. Watterson describes Moe as "every jerk I've ever known".
While Rosalyn is frequently a match for Calvin's plans, and serves as, perhaps, his "match" on a more strategic and psychological front, Moe seems to be the only character capable of frustrating Calvin to the point of absolute resignation, and operates merely through brute force and physical coercion. Calvin's rare attempts to retaliate have mainly consisted of mocking Moe with words the bully can't understand.
:''See also [[Secondary characters in Calvin and Hobbes|Secondary characters in ''Calvin and Hobbes'']].''
==Recurring subject matter==
There are several repeating themes in the work, a few involving Calvin's real life, and many stemming from his incredible imagination. Some of the latter are clearly flights of fancy, while others, like Hobbes, are of an apparently dual nature and don't quite work when presumed real ''or'' unreal.
===Calvin's alter-egos===
[[Image:TracerBullet.jpg|right|thumb|Tracer Bullet]]
Calvin's hyperactive imagination leads him to imagine himself as other characters with different powers and goals, sometimes vanishing into a fantasy to escape a difficult situation (like a school quiz). It is important to note that Hobbes is not seen taking part in the fantasies involving Calvin's [[Alter ego|alter-egos]], other than criticizing his choice of alternate personae. Upon several occasions, Calvin has appeared as either a larger or a smaller version of himself, rampaging through the city like [[Godzilla]] or crawling across a book page as "Calvin, the human insect". More frequently, however, his imagination transforms him into a being of a different kind.
Calvin's three preferred alternate personas are ''Stupendous Man,'' a [[superhero]]; ''[[Spaceman Spiff]],'' an astronaut and intergalactic explorer; and ''Tracer Bullet,'' a [[private investigator]]. For details, see [[Secondary characters in Calvin and Hobbes|Secondary characters in ''Calvin and Hobbes'']].
===Monsters under the bed===
At night, Calvin is constantly terrorized by [[Monster|nightmarish creatures]] apparently living under his bed. Only Calvin and Hobbes are aware of them (there are occasions on which they attempt to bribe Hobbes into handing Calvin over, often with food). There appears to be no continuing theme to their appearance except that they are very intimidating, but none too bright, and they probably want to eat Calvin. Two of the monsters are named Maurice and Winslow, but it's unexplained whether it's the same monsters throughout the series.
===G.R.O.S.S.===
G.R.O.S.S. is Calvin's anti-girl club, somewhat reminiscent of a South American-style [[banana republic]]. The name is an [[acronym]] that stands for '''G'''et '''R'''id '''O'''f '''S'''limy girl'''S''' (Calvin admits "slimy girls" is a bit redundant, "but otherwise it doesn't spell anything"). Based in a treehouse, the main objective of G.R.O.S.S. is to exclude girls, mostly Calvin's neighbor Susie. Calvin and Hobbes are its only members, and wear newspaper ''chapeaux'' during meetings. Calvin and Hobbes spend most of their time in the club reworking its constitution and arguing about their excessively bureaucratic roles and titles. Because the club exists specifically to harass girls, they sometimes plan missions to do so. After a mission they give themselves medals, regardless of whether they succeed or fail. Calvin is G.R.O.S.S.'s "Supreme Dictator for Life", and Hobbes is "President and First Tiger".
===Mealtimes===
Lunchtime and dinnertime find Calvin eager to share his thoughts about the food he (or anyone else) is eating. Calvin's meals at home are generally depicted as a pile of unidentifiable green goop. Those eating with him are generally repulsed by his colorful descriptions of the cuisine, which is one of the reasons his parents seldom take him to restaurants. He also gives interesting commentary on his food during lunchtime at school, infuriating Susie (he once referred to his dish of beans 'n' franks as "cigar butts in a gallstone sauce"). In one case these descriptions &mdash; specifically referring to the contents of Calvin's school lunch as "a [[Thermos]] full of phlegm" &mdash; were ghastly enough that a newspaper cancelled the strip. Calvin's mother occasionally coaxes him to eat his dinner by informing him that they are serving some outlandish or stomach-turning dish &mdash; e.g. toxic waste (which Calvin's father informs him will "turn you into a [[mutant (fiction)|mutant]] if you eat it"), monkey heads, spider pie, soup with maggots in it &mdash; which Calvin then eats with relish, though his father usually no longer has an appetite (in the first such comic, however, the parents' roles are reversed). On occasion, his meals are also [[life|animate]], usually resulting in a fight with said food and leaving a large mess that strains his mother's patience.
===Cardboard boxes===
Over the years Calvin has had quite a few adventures involving corrugated cardboard boxes, which he adapts for many different uses. His inventions include a [[Transmogrifier]] and a flying [[time machine]], which he used to go to the dinosaur times.
Building a transmogrifier is accomplished by turning a cardboard box upside-down, attaching an arrow to the side and writing a list of choices on the box. Upon turning the arrow to a particular choice and pushing a button, the transmogrifier instantaneously rearranges the subject's "chemical configuration" (accompanied by a loud ''zap'', or a ''boink''). Calvin makes his first foray into the world of transmogrification when he temporarily turns himself into a tiger, but he finds the experience disappointing. Calvin re-uses some of this technology when he cleverly converts an ordinary water gun into a portable transmogrifier gun, a device which saves his life when he finds himself falling from high altitude.
The time machine is built by flipping the transmogrifier back so that the opening faced upwards again. One uses it by donning a pair of goggles (in order to "contend with vortexes and light speeds") and climbing into the vehicle. Facing the front makes the machine go forward in time, and facing backwards makes it travel into the past. Calvin and Hobbes discover these time travel mechanics when they attempt to go into the future in order to bring back a few futuristic inventions and patent them in the present, securing a fortune for themselves. However, they face the wrong way and end up in the [[Jurassic]] period, bringing them face-to-face with a very large dinosaur.
A Duplicator is crafted by turning the box on its side. Whatever is put in the box will be duplicated with a ''boink'' sound (hence the book title, ''Scientific Progress Goes Boink''). Calvin envisions having a small team of duplicate Calvins whom he could send off to school, so he could go about his own business during school days. However, the new Calvins prove to be exact replicas, with the same reluctance to go to school, and thus become difficult to control. Calvin later adds an "[[Ethics|Ethicator]]" switch to his duplicator, allowing a duplicate to be designated "good" or "evil," since he believes that a duplicate of his well-buried "good side" could cause no harm. This experiment is successful at first, with the "good" duplicate willingly doing Calvin's homework and going to school, but soon this adventure too leads to disaster when the duplicate starts being nice to Susie Derkins (who Calvin "hates"). In consequence, Hobbes remarks, "You're the only person I know whose ''good'' side is prone to badness."
Calvin's last cardboard box invention is the Cerebral Brain Enhance-o-tron, which combined with a [[colander]] creates a "thinking cap," a garment which enhances his mental prowess (inadvertently causing his head to swell in addition). Upon activation, this machine goes ''brzap.'' Like his other inventions, the Cerebral Enhance-o-tron fails to change his life; even with his "cerebral augmentation," he is unable to write a school report up to Miss Wormwood's standards.
Most of the other characters do not see his inventions as "real." For example, when Calvin transmogrifies himself into an owl or a tiger, his parents do not observe the transformation; only he and Hobbes see the change. This is a similar dilemma to that of Hobbes' |
ox_poissonratio | 0.21 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 8.5 }}
{{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa | 1060 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 1120 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-47-3 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=chromium | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=50 | sym=Cr | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=> 1.8&times;10<sup>17</sup>[[y]] | dm=[[Double electron capture|&epsilon;&epsilon;]] | de=-| pn=50 | ps=[[titanium|Ti]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=51 | sym=Cr | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E6 s|27.7025 d]] | dm1=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de1=- | pn1=51 | ps1=[[vanadium|V]] |
dm2=[[gamma ray|&gamma;]] | de2=0.320 | pn2= | ps2=- }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=52 | sym=Cr | na=83.789% | n=28 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=53 | sym=Cr | na=9.501% | n=29 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=54 | sym=Cr | na=2.365% | n=30 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
'''Chromium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Cr''' and [[atomic number]] 24.
== Notable characteristics ==
Chromium is a steel-gray, lustrous, hard [[metal]] that takes a high polish, and melts with difficulty.
The most common [[oxidation state]]s of chromium are +2, +3, and +6, with +3 being the most stable. +4 and +5 are rare. Chromium compounds of oxidation state 6 are powerful oxidants.
Chromium(0) is unstable in oxygen, immediately producing a thin oxide layer that is impermeable to oxygen and protects the metal below.
== Applications ==
Uses of chromium:
* In [[metallurgy]], to impart corrosion resistance and a shiny finish:
** as an [[alloy]] constituent, such as in [[stainless steel]] in [[cutlery]]
** in [[chrome plating]],
** in [[anodising|anodized]] [[aluminium]], literally turning the surface of aluminium into ruby.
* As dyes and [[paint]]s.
** [[Chromium(III) oxide]] is a metal polish known as [[Rouge|green rouge]].
** Chromium salts color glass an [[emerald]] green.
** Chromium is what makes a ruby red, and therefore is used in producing synthetic rubies.
* As a [[catalyst]].
* [[Chromite]] is used to make molds for the firing of [[brick]]s.
* Chromium salts are used in the [[tanning]] of [[leather]].
* Potassium dichromate is a chemical [[reagent]], used in cleaning [[laboratory glassware]] and as a titrating agent. It is also used as a mordant (i.e., a fixing agent) for dyes in fabric.
* Chromium(IV) oxide (CrO<sub>2</sub>) is used to manufacture [[magnetic tape]], where its higher [[coercivity]] than [[Iron|iron]] oxide tapes gives better performance.
* In well drilling muds as an anti-corrosive.
== History ==
In 1761, Johann Gottlob Lehmann found an orange-red mineral in the [[Ural Mountains]] which he named ''Siberian red lead''. Though misidentified as a [[lead]] compound with [[selenium]] and [[iron]] components, the material was in fact ''lead chromate'' with a formula of PbCrO<sub>4</sub>, now known as the mineral [[crocoite]].
In 1770, [[Peter Simon Pallas]] visited the same site as Lehmann and found a red "lead" mineral that had very useful properties as a [[pigment]] in [[paint]]s. The use of Siberian red lead as a paint pigment developed rapidly. A bright [[yellow]] made from crocoite became a color in [[fashion]].
In 1797, [[Nicolas-Louis Vauquelin]] received samples of crocoite [[ore]]. He was able to produce [[chromium oxide]] with a chemical formula of CrO<sub>3</sub>, by mixing crocoite with [[hydrochloric acid]]. In 1798, Vauquelin discovered that he could isolate metallic chromium by heating the oxide in a charcoal oven. He was also able to detect traces of chromium in precious [[gemstone]]s, such as [[ruby]], or [[emerald]].
During the 1800s chromium was primarily used as a component of paints but now the primary use in is for metal alloys and is responsible for 85% of the use of chromium. The remainder is used in the [[chemical industry]] and [[refractory]] and [[foundry]] industries.
Chromium was named after the Greek word "chroma" meaning [[color]], because of the many colorful compounds made from it.
== Biological role ==
Lack of chromium can cause [[chromium deficiency]].
== Occurrence ==
Chromium is mined as [[chromite]] (FeCr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>) ore. Chromium is obtained commercially by heating the [[ore]] in the presence of [[aluminium]] or silicon. Roughly half the chromite ore in the world is produced in [[South Africa]]. [[Kazakhstan]], [[India]] and [[Turkey]] are also substantial producers. Untapped chromite deposits are plentiful, but geographically concentrated in Kazakhstan and southern Africa.
Approximately 15 million tons of marketable chromite ore were produced in 2000, and converted into approximately 4 million tons of ferro-chrome with an approximate market value of 2.5 billion [[United States dollar]]s.
Though native chromium deposits are rare, some native chromium metal has been discovered. The Udachnaya Mine in [[Russia]] produces samples of the native metal. This mine is a [[kimberlite]] pipe rich in diamonds, and the reducing environment so provided helped produce both elemental chromium and diamond.
== Compounds ==
[[Potassium dichromate]] is a powerful oxidizing agent and is the preferred compound for cleaning laboratory glassware of any possible organics. It is used as a saturated solution in concentrated sulphuric acid for washing the apparatus. For this purpose, however, sodium dichromate is sometimes used because of its higher solubility (20g and 5g/100ml).
Chrome green is the green oxide of chromium, Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, used in [[enamel paint]]ing, and glass staining.
Chrome yellow is a brilliant yellow pigment, PbCrO<sub>4</sub>, used by painters.
[[chromic acid|Chromic acid]] has the hypothetical structure H<sub>2</sub>CrO<sub>4</sub>. Neither chromic nor dichromic acid is found in nature, but their anions are found in a variety of compounds. Chromium trioxide, CrO<sub>3</sub>, the acid [[anhydride]] of chromic acid, is sold industrially as "chromic acid".
== Isotopes ==
Naturally occurring chromium is composed of 3 stable [[isotope]]s; <sup>52</sup>Cr, <sup>53</sup>Cr, and <sup>54</sup>Cr with <sup>52</sup>Cr being the most abundant (83.789% [[natural abundance]]). 19 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized with the most stable being <sup>50</sup>Cr with a [[half-life]] of (more than) 1.8x10<sup>17</sup> years, and <sup>51</sup>Cr with a half-life of 27.7 days. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 24 hours and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 1 minute. This element also has 2 [[meta state]]s.
<sup>53</sup>Cr is the [[radiogenic]] decay product of <sup>53</sup>[[manganese|Mn]]. Chromium [[isotope|isotopic]] contents are typically combined with [[manganese]] isotopic contents and have found application in [[isotope geology]]. [[manganese|Mn]]-Cr isotope ratios reinforce the evidence from <sup>26</sup>[[Aluminium|Al]] and <sup>107</sup>[[Palladium|Pd]] for the early history of the [[solar system]]. Variations in <sup>53</sup>Cr/<sup>52</sup>Cr and Mn/Cr ratios from several meteorites indicate an initial <sup>53</sup>Mn/<sup>55</sup>Mn ratio that suggests Mn-Cr isotope systematics must result from in-situ decay of <sup>53</sup>Mn in differentiated planetary bodies. Hence <sup>53</sup>Cr provides additional evidence for [[nucleosynthesis|nucleosynthetic]] processes immediately before coalescence of the solar system.
The isotopes of chromium range in [[atomic weight]] from 43 [[atomic mass unit|amu]] (<sup>43</sup>Cr) to 67 amu (<sup>67</sup>Cr). The primary [[decay mode]] before the most abundant stable isotope, <sup>52</sup>Cr, is [[electron capture]] and the primary mode after is [[beta decay]].
== Chromium and the quintuple bond ==
Chromium is notable for its ability to form quintuple [[covalent bond]]s. Writing in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', [[Tailuan Nguyen]] and coworkers of the [[University of California]] describe how they synthesized a compound, which does not appear to have a common name, of chromium and a [[hydrocarbon]] [[radical]]; [[X-ray diffraction]] showed unambiguously that the compound had a quintuple bond joining the two central chromium atoms.
The compound had the [[Lewis structure]]
:<math>
\rm Ar-Cr-Cr-Ar
</math>
where <math>\rm Ar</math> is the [[aryl]] group <math>\rm C_6H_3\mbox{-}2,6(C_6H_3\mbox{-}2,6\mbox{-}Pr^i_2)_2</math> (<math>\rm Pr^i</math> is [[isopropyl]]).
<ref>Tailuan Nguyen, Andrew D. Sutton, Marcin Brynda, James C. Fettinger, Gary J. Long, Philip P. Power, ([[4 November]], [[2005]]). "Synthesis of a Stable Compound with Fivefold Bonding Between Two Chromium(I) Centers", ''Science'', Volume 310, Issue 5749, pp. 796-797. </ref>
== Precautions ==
Chromium metal and chromium(III) compounds are not usually considered health hazards, but [[hexavalent chromium]] (chromium VI) compounds can be [[toxic]] if orally ingested or inhaled. The lethal dose of poisonous chromium (VI) compounds is about one half teaspoon of material. Most chromium (VI) compounds are irritating to eyes, skin and mucous membranes. Chronic exposure to chromium (VI) compounds can cause permanent eye injury, unless properly treated. Chromium(VI) is an established human [[carcinogen]]. Exposure to the poisonous chemical hexavalent chromium in drinking water formed the plot of |
to something called a back buffer. There the computer can draw the image, making any necessary changes to it before it is done. While the computer is rendering, the screen is showing the contents of what is called the primary or active buffer.
When the image is completed, the computer tells the screen to draw from the back buffer. This can be done in one of two ways: the contents of the back buffer can be copied to the primary buffer (or active buffer&mdash;the buffer which is currently being shown) or the computer can switch where it is drawing from and make the back buffer the new primary buffer. In this case, the primary buffer becomes the back buffer. This process is usually called [[double buffering]] or, informally, "flipping," because the computer is flipping its use of primary and back buffers.
This switching should be carried out when it is imperceptible to the user. Therefore it needs to take place during what is called the "v-sync" or [[vertical retrace]]. The v-sync, in [[cathode ray tube|CRTs]], takes place when the [[electron gun]]s reach the bottom right of the screen and need to reposition the beam to the top left of the screen. This happens very quickly and the image the guns had just projected remain on the screen as they are moving back to their starting position. While the guns are repositioning themselves, the computer has enough time to flip buffers and the new image will be rendered on the screen on the next pass of the guns. The new image will continued to be displayed until the buffers are flipped once more.
When the computer fails to wait for the v-sync, a condition called [[sprite breakup]] or [[image breakup]] is perceptible. This is highly undesirable and should always be avoided when possible to maintain the illusion of movement.
==The Future==
In the future, some people expect the current level of animation (2D, 3D) will be replaced with [[virtual reality]]; meaning the person watching a movie will see himself in the movie as a person watching from the side.
One open challenge in computer animation is a photorealistic animation of humans. Currently, most computer-animated movies show animal characters (''[[Finding Nemo]]''), fantasy characters (''[[Shrek]]'', ''[[Monsters Inc.]]''), or cartoon-like humans (''[[The Incredibles]]''). The movie ''[[Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]'' is often cited as the first computer-generated movie to attempt to show realistic-looking humans. However, due to the enormous complexity of the human body, human motion, and human biomechanics, realistic simulation of humans remains largely an open problem. It is one of the "holy grails" of computer animation. Eventually, the goal is to create software where the animator can generate a movie sequence showing a photorealistic human character, undergoing physically-plausible motion, together with clothes, photorealistic hair, a complicated natural background, and possibly interacting with other simulated human characters. This should be done in a way that the viewer is no longer able to tell if a particular movie sequence is computer-generated, or created using real actors in front of movie cameras. Achieving such a goal would mean that conventional flesh-and-bone human actors are no longer necessary for this kind of movie creation, and computer animation would become the standard way of making every kind of a movie, not just animated movies. This is not likely to happen very soon, however such concepts obviously bear certain philosophical implications for the future of the film industry.
Then we have the animation studios who are not interested in photorealistic CGI features, or to be more precise, they want some alterantives to choose from and may prefer one style over another, depending on the movie.
For the moment it looks like three dimensional computer animation can be divided into two main directions; photorealistic and cartoonish. Photorealistic computer animation can itself be divided into two subcategories; real photorealism (where [[performance capture]] is used in the creation of the virtual human characters) and stylized photorealism. Real photorealism is what Final Fantasy tried to achieve, while Antz is an example on stylistic photorealism (in the future stylized photorealism will be able to replace traditional stop motion animation as [[Corpse Bride]]). None of them are as mentioned perfected yet, but the progress continues.
The cartoonish direction is more like an extension and improvement of traditional animation, an attempt to make the animation look like a three dimensional version of a cartoon, still using and perfecting the main principles of animation articulated by the [[Nine Old Men]], such as squash and stretch.
While a single frame from a photorealistic computer animated feature will look like a photography if done right, a single frame from a cartoonish computer animated feature will look like a painting (not to be confused with [[cel shading]]).
==Detailed examples and pseudocode==
In 2D computer animation, moving objects are often referred to as &ldquo;[[sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]]s.&rdquo; A sprite is an image that has a location associated with it. The location of the sprite is changed slightly, between each displayed frame, to make the sprite appear to move. The following pseudocode makes a sprite move from left to right:
'''var''' ''int'' x := 0, y := screenHeight &div; 2;
'''while''' x < screenWidth
drawBackground()
drawSpriteAtXY(x, y) ''// draw on top of the background''
x := x + 5 ''// move to the right''
Modern ([[2001]]) computer animation uses different techniques to produce animations. Most frequently, sophisticated [[mathematics]] is used to manipulate complex three dimensional [[polygon]]s, apply &ldquo;[[texture]]s&rdquo;, lighting and other effects to the polygons and finally [[rendering (computer graphics)|rendering]] the complete image. A sophisticated [[graphical user interface]] may be used to create the animation and arrange its choreography. Another technique called [[constructive solid geometry]] defines objects by conducting boolean operations on regular shapes, and has the advantage that animations may be accurately produced at any resolution.
Let's step through the rendering of a simple image of a room with flat wood walls with a grey pyramid in the center of the room. The pyramid will have a spotlight shining on it. Each wall, the floor and the ceiling is a simple polygon, in this case, a rectangle. Each corner of the rectangles is defined by three values referred to as X, Y and Z. X is how far left and right the point is. Y is how far up and down the point is, and Z is far in and out of the screen the point is. The wall nearest us would be defined by four points: (in the order x, y, z). Below is a representaion of how the wall is defined.
<pre>
(0, 10, 0) (10, 10, 0)
(0,0,0) (10, 0, 0)
</pre>
The far wall would be:
<pre>
(0, 10, 20) (10, 10, 20)
(0, 0, 20) (10, 0, 20)
</pre>
The pyramid is made up of five polygons: the rectangular base, and four triangular sides. To draw this image the computer uses math to calculate how to project this image, defined by three dimensional data, onto a two dimensional computer screen.
First we must also define where our view point is, that is, from what vantage point will the scene be drawn. Our view point is inside the room a bit above the floor, directly in front of the pyramid. First the computer will calculate which polygons are visible. The near wall will not be displayed at all, as it is behind our view point. The far side of the pyramid will also not be drawn as it is hidden by the front of the pyramid.
Next each point is perspective projected onto the screen. The portions of the walls &lsquo;farthest&rsquo; from the view point will appear to be shorter than the nearer areas due to perspective. To make the walls look like wood, a wood pattern, called a texture, will be drawn on them. To accomplish this, a technique called &ldquo;[[texture mapping]]&rdquo; is often used. A small drawing of wood that can be repeatedly drawn in a matching tiled pattern (like [[wallpaper]]) is stretched and drawn onto the walls' final shape. The pyramid is solid grey so sp its surfaces can just be rendered as grey. But we also have a spotlight. Where its light falls we lighten colors, where objects blocks the light we darken colors.
Next we render the complete scene on the computer screen. If the numbers describing the position of the pyramid were changed and this process repeated, the pyramid would appear to move.
==Movies and TV shows==
CGI short films have been produced as [[independent animation]] since the [[1970s]], though the popularity of computer animation (especially in the field of [[special effect]]s) skyrocketed during the [[Modern animation of the United States|modern era of U.S. animation]]. The very first totally computer-generated animated series was ''[[ReBoot]]''.
Below is a selected list of films and [[television show]]s that are completely computer animated.
*''[[The Ant Bully]]''
*''[[Animusic]]''
*''[[Antz]]''
*''[[Beast Wars]]''
*''[[Beast Machines]]''
*''[[A Bug's Life]]''
*''[[Barnyard (film)|Barnyard]]''
*''[[Chicken Little]]''
*''[[Dragon Booster]]''
*''[[Father of the Pride]]''
*''[[Futurama (animated series)|Futurama]]''
*''[[The Fairly OddParents]]''
*''[[Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]''
*''[[Finding Nemo]]''
*''[[Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends]]''
*''[[Game Over (TV series)]]''
*''[[Ice Age (film)|Ice Age]]''
*''[[The Incredibles]]''
*''[[Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius]]''
*''[[Madagascar (film)|Madagascar]]''
*''[[Monsters Inc.]]''
*''[[The Polar Express (film)|The Polar Express]]''
*''[[ReBoot]]''
*''[[ |
much like the existing [[Traffic Collision Avoidance System]], but on a larger scale and would look further forward in time.
GPS has also significantly changed the approach phase of flight. When horizontal visibility and vertical cloud ceilings are below [[visual flight rules]] (VFR) minimums,
aircraft must operate under [[instrument flight rules]] (IFR). Under IFR, aircraft must use navigational equipment for horizontal and vertical [[guidance system|guidance]]. This is particularly important in the [[approach control|approach]] and landing phases of flight. The path and procedure used to land on a particular [[runway]] is called an [[instrument approach]].
IFR approaches traditionally required the use of ground-based navaids such as VOR, NDB and ILS. GPS offers some significant advantages over traditional systems in that no ground-based equipment is required, reducing cost. This has allowed many smaller airports that cannot justify ILS equipment to now have instrument approaches. GPS receivers for aircraft are also less expensive, use a single small antenna, and require virtually no calibration.
The downside to GPS approaches is that they have higher minimum visibility and ceiling requirements. ILS typically require a cloud ceiling no lower than 200 feet above ground level and horizontal visibility greater than 1/4 mile, while GPS minimums are typically never less than 400 feet and 1 mile. This difference in minimums is because GPS approaches offer horizontal guidance only. Vertical guidance is possible, but GPS accuracy in the vertical is not as high as in the horizontal. To solve this problem, the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] has implemented the [[Wide Area Augmentation System]] (WAAS). GPS receivers with WAAS capability have typical vertical accuracy of 2-3 meters. This is sufficient for ILS-type approaches, i.e., those with vertical navigation. GPS/WAAS receivers certified for vertical navigation GPS approaches are slowly coming to the market.
Although the FAA was initially slow to allow the use of GPS in IFR approaches, the number of published GPS approaches is climbing significantly. However, because ILS has lower minimum visibility and ceiling requirements, ILS remains the "best" type of approach, and the FAA has committed to maintaining ILS installations.
===Glass cockpits===
{{main|Glass cockpit}}
Advances in computing power and flat panel [[LCD]] displays have made the [[glass cockpit]] possible. Glass cockpits are loosely defined as aircraft flight decks where information is presented on one or more electronic displays. They offer significantly lower pilot workloads and improved [[situational awareness]] over traditional "steam gauge" flight decks.
Glass cockpits were first introduced on airliners and military aircraft. Recently, they have started to appear in [[general aviation]] aircraft such as the [[Cirrus Design]] [[Cirrus SR20|SR20]] and [[Lancair]] designs.
==See also==
*[[Flight data recorder]] (FDR)
*[[Emergency locator transmitter]] (ELT)
*[[Avionics software]]
[[Category:Avionics| ]]
[[Category:Embedded systems]]
[[Category:Electronics]]
[[category:Wireless communications]]
[[Category:Aircraft instruments]]
[[Category:Spacecraft components]]
[[da:Luftfartselektronik]]
[[de:Avionik]]
[[fr:Avionique]]
[[ja:アビオニクス]]
[[ko:에비오닉스]]
[[he:אוויוניקה]]
[[pt:Aviónica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ares</title>
<id>2041</id>
<revision>
<id>41652286</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T20:35:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/156.108.112.66|156.108.112.66]] ([[User talk:156.108.112.66|talk]]) to last version by Dekaels</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:For other uses, see [[Ares (disambiguation)]].''
{{Greek myth (Olympian)}}
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Ares''' ("battle strife"; in Greek, &#x1F08;&rho;&eta;&sigmaf;), is the [[god]] of [[war]] and son of Zeus and Hera. Before sacred battles people worshipped him. The Romans [[interpretatio Romana|identified]] [[Mars (god)|Mars]], the god of war (whom they had inherited from the [[Etruscans]]) with Hellenic Ares, but among them, Mars stood in much higher esteem. Among the Hellenes, Ares was always mistrusted: His birthplace and true home was placed far off, among the barbarous and warlike [[Thracia]]ns (''Iliad'' xiii.301; ''Odyssey'' viii.361; Ovid).
Although important in poetry, Ares was only rarely the recipient of [[Cult (religion)|cult worship]], save at [[Sparta]] and in the founding myth of [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], and he appeared in few myths (Burkert 1985, p.169). The temple to Ares in the agora of [[Athens]] that [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] saw in the 2nd century AD had only been moved and rededicated there during the time of [[Augustus]]; in essence it was a Roman temple to Mars. The [[Areopagus]], the "hill of Ares" where [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] preached, is sited at some distance from the Acropolis; from archaic times it was a site of trials. Its connection with Ares, perhaps based on a false etymology, may be purely [[etiological]].
The single major role of Ares sited in mainland Greece itself was in the founding myth of [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]]: Ares was the progenitor of the water-dragon slain by [[Cadmus]] (Kádmos). From the dragon's teeth (sown as if a crop) arose a race of fighting men, the descendents of Ares. To propitiate Ares, Cadmus took as a bride [[Harmonia (Greek_goddess)|Harmonía]], daughter of Ares' union with Aphrodite, thus harmonizing all strife and founding the city of Thebes.
[[Image:Ares villa Hadriana.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Statue of Ares, villa Hadriana]]
Among the so-called "[[Homeric hymn]]s", a "Hymn to Ares" has been transmitted in the manuscripts, although modern scholarship has detected that it was written in [[Late Antiquity]] (Burkert p 415, note 15). Even so, apart from sacrifices to him made by commanders of armies in the field, Ares was venerated most often in conjunction with other gods; for example, he shared a temple with [[Aphrodite]] at [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]]. Besides Aphrodite, the adjective ''areios, areia'' is applied to other gods in their warlike aspect. In the ''[[Iliad]]'' "Ares" is as often embodied in a battle formula connoting rough strife as he is personified as a bronze-armoured god: he is repeatedly contrasted with [[Athena]], to his disadvantage. To Athena is reserved the one glorious aspect of war, ''[[Nike (mythology)|Nike]]'', "[[victory]]". (Burkert p 169). At Athens, the ''[[Areopagus|Areios pagus]]'' near the Acropolis, is equally the "Hill of Ares" and simply the "Battle Hill".
For Mars, ''Enyalios'' was sometimes used as an epithet: see [[Ares Enyalius]]. Interestingly, the [[Mycenean Greek]] [[Linear B]] tablets list a god [[Enyalios]], while ''ares'' seems already to be a common noun meaning "war." By classical times, however, ''Enyalios'' had been demoted to the status of hero (as in the ''[[Iliad]]'') and Ares the name for the god. ''Enyalios'' survived as a cult-title in only a few settings, most notably in the oath of the [[ephebe]]s at [[Athens]].
In one archaic [[mytheme]], related by the ancient earth-goddess [[Dione (mythology)|Dione]] to her daughter [[Aphrodite]], two chthonic giants, the brothers [[Aloadae|Otus]] and [[Ephialtes]], threw Ares into chains and put him in a bronze urn, where he had to endure for thirteen months, a [[lunar year]]. "And that would have been the end of Ares and his appetite for war, if the beautiful [[Eriboea]], the young giants' stepmother, had not told [[Hermes]] what they had done," she related (''Illiad'', v. 385&ndash;91). "In this one suspects a festival of licence which is unleashed in the thirteenth month," Burkert observes (p 169).
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Ares.jpg|thumb|right|The ''[[Ludovisi Ares]]'' is a Roman marble Mars, possibly after a 4th-century Greek original. A playful [[Eros]] is at his feet. (Museo delle Termi, Rome)]] -->
There are accounts of a son of Ares, [[Cycnus]] (''Kýknos'') of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], who was so murderous that he attempted to build a temple with the skulls and the bones of travellers. [[Heracles]] slaughtered this abominable monstrosity, engendering the wrath of Ares, whom the hero wounded ([[Apollodorus]] 2.114).
Ares gave [[Hippolyte]] the girdle that [[Heracles]] took.
In an episode sung in the hall of [[Alcinous]] (Alkínoös), king of the [[Phaeacians]] (''Odyssey'' viii.302ff), Ares lay in bed with [[Aphrodite]], wife of [[Hephaestus]], and [[Helios]] the Sun spied the love-making couple, alerting Hephaestus, who was angered. Hephaestus rigged the bed with invisibly fine net of chain with the power to hold anything in place, including gods, and caught Ares and Aphrodite on the next occasion. He brought the other gods to witness the adultery&mdash;the goddesses stayed away out of modesty&mdash;thinking to humiliate Ares and Aphrodite, but the gods all laughed. Poseidon agreed to refund to cuckolded Hephaestus the bride-price of Aphrodite. Once the couple were loosed, Ares sped away to his homeland, Thrace. (In a much later interpolated detail, Ares put a youth Alectryon by his door to guard them, but Alectryon fell asleep. Ares turned Alectryon into a [[rooster]], which never forgets to announce the arrival of the sun in the [[morning]].)
In the [[Trojan War]], Ares had no fixed allegiances nor respect for [[Themis]], the right ordering of things: he promised Athena and Hera that he would fight on the side of the Achaeans, but Aphrodite was able to persuade Ares to side with the Trojans. During the war, [[Diomedes]] fo |
to (2,1,0)
*&minus;2 maps to (2,1,1)
*1/3 maps to (1,3,0)
*&minus;1/3 maps to (1,3,1)
*3 maps to (3,1,0)
*&minus;3 maps to (3,1,1)
*1/4 maps to (1,4,0)
*&minus;1/4 maps to (1,4,1)
*2/3 maps to (2,3,0)
*&minus;2/3 maps to (2,3,1)
*3/2 maps to (3,2,0)
*&minus;3/2 maps to (3,2,1)
*4 maps to (4,1,0)
*&minus;4 maps to (4,1,1)
*...
By a similar development, the set of [[algebraic number]]s is countable, and so is the set of [[definable number]]s.
'''THEOREM:''' (Assuming the [[axiom of choice]]) The [[union (set theory)|union]] of countably many countable sets is countable.
For example, given countable sets '''a''', '''b''', '''c''' ...
Using a variant of the triangular enumeration we saw above:
*''a''<sub>0</sub> maps to 0
*''a''<sub>1</sub> maps to 1
*''b''<sub>0</sub> maps to 2
*''a''<sub>2</sub> maps to 3
*''b''<sub>1</sub> maps to 4
*''c''<sub>0</sub> maps to 5
*''a''<sub>3</sub> maps to 6
*''b''<sub>2</sub> maps to 7
*''c''<sub>1</sub> maps to 8
*''d''<sub>0</sub> maps to 9
*''a''<sub>4</sub> maps to 10
*...
Note that this only works if the sets '''a''', '''b''', '''c''',... are [[disjoint]]. If not, then the union is even smaller and is therefore also countable by a previous theorem.
'''THEOREM:''' The set of all finite-length [[sequence]]s of natural numbers is countable.
This set is the union of the length-1 sequences, the length-2 sequences, the length-3 sequences, each of which is a countable set (finite Cartesian product). So we are talking about a countable union of countable sets, which is countable by the previous theorem.
'''THEOREM:''' The set of all finite [[subset]]s of the natural numbers is countable.
If you have a finite subset, you can order the elements into a finite sequence. There are only countably many finite sequences, so also there are only countably many finite subsets.
=== Further theorems about uncountable sets ===
* The set of [[real number]]s is uncountable, and so is the set of all [[sequence]]s of natural numbers and the set of all subsets of '''N''' (see [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]).
Remember our example of the scrabble words. Although we can keep asking for more letters from the bag, each word we form is finitely long. The number of possible words is the same as the number of natural numbers. If we permit infinitely long words, then the number of possible "words" is greater than this.
In fact, with infinitely long words, the number of words is the same as the number of real numbers.
We noted earlier that there are no more fractions than there are natural numbers. The [[decimal expansion]] of a fraction is always a finitely long decimal number followed by a repeating decimal.
* 0.33333333333 ...
* 12.648986986986986986 ...
* 1.75
Let's say we use our decimal point to also indicate the start of the repeater:
* ..3
* 12.648.986
* 1.75.
Then we can express any fraction using a finitely long decimal expansion with repeating bit. It's clear that this is the same situation as with our finitely long scrabble words, and so once again the number of possible fractions is not greater than the number of natural numbers.
=== Mentionable and interesting numbers ===
The set of all ''mentionable'' numbers is countable, where this means a correspondence with finite, and even infinite, strings in English, or any other language.
There is no largest ''interesting integer'', where this means having any notable property. Assume the opposite. The next integer would be the first member of the set of ''uninteresting'' numbers, and would therefore be interesting.
==See also==
* [[Infinity]]
* [[Aleph number]]
[[Category:Set theory]]
[[Category:Infinity]]
[[ar:مجموعة عدودة]]
[[bg:Изброимо множество]]
[[de:Abzählbarkeit]]
[[es:Numerable]]
[[fa:مجموعه شمارا]]
[[fr:Ensemble dénombrable]]
[[ko:가산집합]]
[[is:Teljanlegt mengi]]
[[it:Insieme numerabile]]
[[he:קבוצה בת מנייה]]
[[lt:Skaiti aibė]]
[[nl:Aftelbare verzameling]]
[[ja:可算無限集合]]
[[no:Tellbar]]
[[pl:Zbiór przeliczalny]]
[[ru:Счётное множество]]
[[sr:Пребројиво бесконачан скуп]]
[[fi:Numeroituva joukko]]
[[sv:Uppräknelig]]
[[zh:可數集]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Capacitor</title>
<id>6027</id>
<revision>
<id>42036385</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:26:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dalstadt</username>
<id>880193</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Ideal and nonideal capacitors */ spelling correction</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Capacitor (component)]] for a discussion of specific types.''
A '''capacitor''' is a device that stores [[energy]] in the [[electric field]] created between a pair of conductors on which equal but opposite electric [[charge]]s have been placed. A capacitor is occasionally referred to using the older term '''[[condenser]]'''.
[[Image:Condensators.JPG|thumb|right|270px|Various types of capacitors]][[Image:Photo-SMDcapacitors.jpg|thumb|right|270px|[[Surface-mount technology|SMD]] capacitors: electrolytic at the bottom line, ceramic above them; through-hole ceramic and electrolytic capacitors at the right side for comparison]]
==History==
Circa [[600 BC|600 BC]], [[Thales of Miletus]] recorded that the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] could generate sparks by rubbing balls of [[amber]] on spindles. This is the [[triboelectric effect]], the mechanical separation of charge in a [[dielectric]]. This effect is the basis of the capacitor.
In October [[1745]], [[Ewald Georg von Kleist]] of [[Pomerania]] invented the first recorded capacitor: a glass jar coated inside and out with metal. The inner coating was connected to a rod that passed through the lid and ended in a metal sphere. By layering the insulator between two metal plates, von Kleist dramatically increased charge density.
Before Kleist's discovery became widely known, a Dutch physicist [[Pieter van Musschenbroek]] independently invented a very similar capacitor in January [[1746]]. It was named the [[Leyden jar]], after the University of [[Leyden]] where van Musschenbroek worked.
[[Benjamin Franklin]] investigated the [[Leyden jar]], and proved that the charge was stored on the glass, not in the water as others had assumed. Originally, the units of capacitance were in 'jars'. A jar is equivalent to about 1 nF.
Early capacitors were also known as ''condensers'', a term that is still occasionally used today. It was coined by [[Alessandro Volta|Volta]] in [[1782]] (derived from the Italian ''condensatore''), with reference to the device's ability to store a higher density of electric charge than a normal isolated conductor. Most non-English languages still use a word derived from "condensatore", like the French ''condensateur'', the German ''Kondensator'', or the Spanish ''condensador''.
== Physics ==
=== Overview ===
A capacitor consists of two [[electrode]]s or plates, each of which stores an opposite charge. These two plates are conductive and are separated by an [[insulator]] or ''[[dielectric]].'' The charge is stored at the surface of the plates, at the boundary with the dielectric. Because each plate stores an equal but opposite charge, the ''total'' charge in the capacitor is always zero.
[[Image:Capacitor.png|frame|When electric charge accumulates on the plates, an [[electric field]] is created in the region between the plates that is proportional to the amount of accumulated charge. This electric field creates a potential difference ''V'' = ''E&middot;d'' between the plates of this simple parallel-plate capacitor.]]
[[Image:Dielectric.png|frame|The electrons in the molecules move or rotate the molecule toward the positively charged left plate. This process creates an opposing electric field that partially annuls the field created by the plates. (The air gap is shown for clarity; in a real capacitor, the dielectric is in direct contact with the plates.)]]
=== Capacitance===
The capacitor's [[capacitance]] (''C'') is a measure of the amount of [[electric charge|charge]] (''Q'') stored on each plate for a given [[potential difference]] or ''voltage'' (''V'') which appears between the plates:
:<math>C = \frac{Q}{V}</math>
In [[SI]] units, a capacitor has a capacitance of one [[farad]] when one [[coulomb]] of charge causes a potential difference of one [[volt]] across the plates. Since the farad is a very large unit, values of capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads (&micro;F), nanofarads (nF) or picofarads (pF).
The '''capacitance''' is proportional to the surface area of the conducting plate and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. It is also proportional to the [[permittivity]] of the [[dielectric]] (that is, non-[[electrical conduction|conducting]]) substance that separates the plates.
The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by:
:<math>C \approx \frac{\epsilon A}{d}; A \gg d^2</math> [http://www.ttc-cmc.net/~fme/captance.html]
where &epsilon; is the [[permittivity]] of the dielectric, ''A'' is the area of the plates and ''d'' is the spacing between them.
=== Stored energy ===
As opposite charges accumulate on the plates of a capacitor due to the separation of charge, a voltage develops across the capacitor owing to the electric field of these charges. Ever increasing work must be done against this ever increasing electric field as more charge is separated. The [[energy]] (measured in [[joule]]s, in [[SI]]) stored in a capacitor is equal to the amount of work required to establish the voltage across the capacitor, and therefore the electric field.
The energy stored is given by:
:<math> E_\mathrm{stored} = {1 \over 2} C V^2 \Leftrightarrow E_\mathrm{stored} = {1 \over 2}{Q^2 \over C}</math>
where V is the voltage across th |
ip]] in 1976 and 1983 (and again in 1988).
To illustrate Karpov's dominance over his peers as champion, his score was +11 -2 =20 v Spassky, +5 =12 v [[Robert Hübner]], +6 -1 = 16 v [[Ulf Andersson]], +3 -1 =10 v [[Vasily Smyslov]], +1 =16 v [[Mikhail Tal]], +10 -2 =13 v Ljubojevic.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Karkas1.jpg|thumbnail|The 1984 [[World Chess Championship]] was between [[Garry Kasparov]] (left) and Anatoly Karpov (right).]] -->
Karpov had cemented his position as the world's best player and world champion when [[Garry Kasparov]] arrived on the scene. In their first World Championship match in 1984, Karpov quickly built a 4&ndash;0 lead, and needed only two more wins to keep his title. Instead, the next 17 games were drawn, and it took Karpov until Game 27 to finally win another game. In Game 31, Karpov had a winning position but failed to take advantage and settled for a draw. He lost the next game, but drew the next 14. In particular, Karpov held a solidly winning position in Game 41, but again blundered terribly and had to settle for a draw. After Kasparov suddenly won Game 47 and 48, Karpov suffered a physical collapse, having lost 10 kg (22 lb) over the course of the match. The FIDE President controversially terminated the match, which had lasted an unprecedented four months with five wins for Karpov, three for Kasparov, and a staggering forty draws. A rematch was set for the following year. In a hard fight, Karpov lost his title 11 to 13 in the 1985 match, ending his ten-year reign as champion.
==Rival==
Karpov remained a formidable opponent for most of the [[1980s|eighties]]. He fought Kasparov in three more World Championship matches in 1986 (held in [[London]] and [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]]), 1987 (held in [[Seville]]), and 1990 (held in [[Lyon]] and [[New York City]]). All three matches were extremely close (the scores were 12.5 to 11.5, 12 to 12, and 12.5 to 11.5). In all three matches Karpov had winning chances up to the very last games. In particular, the 1987 Seville match featured an astonishing blunder by Kasparov in the 23rd game, and should have led to Karpov's winning the title. Instead, in the final game, needing only a draw to win the title, Karpov blundered on his 33rd and 64th moves and lost, ending the match in a draw and allowing Kasparov to keep the title.
The overall game score between them stayed virtually even until the late 1990s, when the score shifted decisively towards Kasparov. Currently, in their 235 formal games played, Karpov has 23 wins, 33 losses, and an incredible 179 draws. In their five world championship matches, Karpov has 19 wins, 21 losses, and 104 draws in 144 games.
Although twelve years older than Kasparov, Karpov still has the stamina and endurance to be a match for Kasparov. In 2002, he defeated Kasparov in a rapid time control match 2.5-1.5. Karpov is on record saying that had he had the opportunity to fight Fischer for the crown like Kasparov had the opportunity to fight him, he (Karpov) could have been a much better player as a result. Though the struggle for the world championship made them enemies, Karpov and Kasparov maintain a tremendous level of respect for each other{{fact}}. The two of them and their titanic struggles make up a chess rivalry that even surpassed that of [[Capablanca]] and [[Alekhine]].
==FIDE Champion again==
It came as a surprise, then, that Karpov lost a Candidates Match against [[Nigel Short]] in 1992. But in 1993, Karpov reacquired the FIDE World Champion title when Kasparov and Short split from FIDE. Karpov crushed [[Jan Timman]]&mdash;the loser of the Candidates final against Short. Once again he had become World Champion, and once again he did so controversially. He defended his title against [[Gata Kamsky]] (+6 -3 =9) in 1996. However, in 1998, FIDE largely scrapped the old system of Candidate Matches, instead having a large knock-out event in which a large number of players contested short matches against each other over just a few weeks. In the first of these events, champion Karpov was seeded straight into the final, defeating [[Viswanathan Anand]] (+4 -2 =2). But subsequently the champion had to qualify like other players. Karpov resigned his title in anger at the new rules in 1999, so the winner of the 1999 tournament ([[Alexander Khalifman]]) became FIDE World Champion.
However, the FIDE champions were not recognized as such by the general public. The fact that the FIDE champions were regularly crushed by Kasparov in tournaments testified to his dominance. The FIDE matches received little public attention, while Kasparov's matches with the PCA and subsequently Braingames were widely reported in the media. For more details about these series of champions, see the [[World Chess Championship]] article.
==Towards Retirement?==
In 1991 Karpov temporarily dropped to third in the FIDE ranking list, the first time since 1971. Though he quickly recovered, many said that Karpov had lost his edge, and that his playing level had declined. However, Karpov bounced back against the world's very strongest players (in the order of their finish, [[Garry Kasparov|Kasparov]], [[Alexei Shirov|Shirov]], [[Evgeny Bareev|Bareev]], [[Vladimir Kramnik|Kramnik]], [[Joel Lautier|Lautier]], [[Viswanathan Anand|Anand]], [[Gata Kamsky|Kamsky]], [[Veselin Topalov|Topalov]], [[Vassily Ivanchuk|Ivanchuk]], [[Boris Gelfand|Gelfand]], [[Miguel Illescas|Illescas]], [[Judit Polgar]], and [[Alexander Beliavsky|Beliavsky]]) in the landmark "super-strong" tournament [[Linares chess tournament|Linares]] 1994 (average [[ELO rating system|ELO rating]] 2685, the highest in history, meaning it was the first Category XVIII tournament ever held).
Impressed by the strength of the tournament, Kasparov had said several days before the tournament that the winner could rightfully be called the world champion of tournaments. Perhaps spurred on by this comment, Karpov played the chess of his life and dramatically won the tournament. He was undefeated and earned 11 points out of 13 possible (the best world-class tournament winning percentage in 64 years), dominating second-place Kasparov and Shirov by a huge 2.5 points. Many of his wins were spectacular (in particular, his win over Topalov, detailed below, is considered possibly his finest throughout his career). This performance against the best players in the world put his [[ELO rating system|ELO rating]] tournament performance at 2985, the highest performance rating of any chess player in any tournament in all of chess history.
Even recently, few players have surpassed Karpov's achievements. Since he dropped out of the top three players in the world on the FIDE rankings, only [[Garry Kasparov]], [[Viswanathan Anand]], [[Vladimir Kramnik]], and (as of January 2005) [[Veselin Topalov]] have been in the top three slots. In other words, Karpov is the last person to have been in the top three in the world before Kasparov, Anand, Kramnik, and Topalov. In addition, Karpov is the only player among these to ever have ranked number one in the world ahead of Kasparov.
However, Karpov's outstanding classical tournament play has been seriously limited since 1995, since he prefers to be more involved in politics of his home country of Russia. He had been a member of the [[Supreme Soviet]] Commission for Foreign Affairs and the President of the Soviet Peace Fund before the Soviet Union broke up. In addition, he had been involved in several disputes with FIDE and became increasingly disillusioned with chess. In the October 2005 FIDE rating list, he is 33rd in the world with an ELO rating of 2672.
However, more recently, because of his traditional strength at managing his thinking time, Karpov has instead begun revamping his style to specialize in rapid chess.
== Sample game ==
{{Chess diagram|=
|tright
|
|=
8 |rd|qd|rd| | | |kd| |=
7 | | | |ql|bd|pd| | |=
6 |pd| |nd| |pd| |pd| |=
5 | |pd|pd| | | | | |=
4 | | |pl| | |pl| | |=
3 | | |nl| | | |pl| |=
2 |pl|pl| | | |pl|bl| |=
1 |rl| | | |rl| |kl| |=
a b c d e f g h
|In this position, Karpov (white), already with a slight advantage, initiates the first of three rook offers}}
This game, Anatoly Karpov v [[Veselin Topalov]], [[Linares]] 1994, given in [[algebraic notation]], played during one of his best tournaments, features Karpov offering a rook for capture three times, and eventually sacrificing two rooks for a scintillating victory.
1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 c5 3. Nf3 cxd4 4. Nxd4 e6 5. g3 Nc6 6. Bg2 Bc5 7. Nb3 Be7 8. Nc3 O-O 9. O-O d6 10. Bf4 Nh5 11. e3 Nxf4 12. exf4 Bd7 13. Qd2 Qb8 14. Rfe1! g6 15. h4 a6 16. h5 b5 17. hxg6 hxg6 18. Nc5 dxc5 19. Qxd7 Rc8
(see diagram)
'''20. Rxe6!!''' Ra7 [20...fxe6 21.Bxc6 Ra7 22.Qxe6+ Kg7 23.Be4 and White is clearly better] '''21. Rxg6+!''' fxg6 22. Qe6+ Kg7 23. Bxc6 Rd8 24. cxb5 Bf6 25. Ne4 Bd4 26. bxa6 Qb6 27. Rd1 Qxa6 '''28. Rxd4!!''' Rxd4 [28...cxd4 29.Qf6+ Kh6 30.Qh4+ Kg7 31.Qxd8 Qxc6 32.Qxd4+ and White is better] 29. Qf6+ Kg8 30. Qxg6+ Kf8 31. Qe8+ Kg7 32. Qe5+ Kg8 33. Nf6+ Kf7 34. Be8+ Kf8 35. Qxc5+ Qd6 36. Qxa7 Qxf6 37. Bh5 Rd2 38. b3 Rb2 39. Kg2 1-0
== Further reading ==
* ''World chess champions'' by [[Edward G. Winter]], editor. 1981 ISBN 0080249041
* ''The World's Great Chess Games'' by [[Reuben Fine]], Dover; 1983. ISBN 0486245128
* ''Anatoly Karpov's Best Games'' by Anatoly Karpov, Batsford; 2003. ISBN 0713478438
* ''Karpov on Karpov: A Memoirs of a Chess World Champion'' by Anatoly Karpov, [[Simon & Schuster]]; 1992. ISBN 0689120605
* ''Curse of Kirsan: Adventures in the Chess Underworld'' by Sarah Hurst, Russell Enterprises, 2002.
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before= [[Bobby Fischer]] |
title= [[World chess champion|World Chess Champion]] |
years= 1975&ndash;1985 |
after= [[Garry Kasparov]]
}}
{{succession box |
before= [[Garry Kasparov]] |
title= [[World chess champion|FIDE World Chess Ch |
ive]]s {{IPA|/k/}}, {{IPA|/g/}} (as in "call" and "gall") otherwise<sup>1</sup>. But, the normally silent ''H'' is added between ''CI'', ''CE'', ''GI'' or ''GE'' if the consonant is to be a plosive. For example:
:{| border=2 cellpadding=2
!
|Before back vowel: plosive
|Before front vowel: affricate
|With "H": plosive
|-
!"C"
|'''cara''' ({{IPA|ˈkara}})
|'''ciao''' ({{IPA|/ˈʧao/}})
|'''chiaro''' ({{IPA|/ˈkjaro/}})
|-
!"G"
|'''gallo''' ({{IPA|/ˈgallo/}})
|'''genere''' ({{IPA|/ˈʤɛnere/}})
|'''ghetto''' ({{IPA|/ˈgetto/}})
|}
:<sup>1</sup><font size=-1>(Front/back vowel rules for ''C'' and ''G'' are similar in [[French language|French]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], and to some extent [[English language|English]] (including [[Old English]]). [[swedish language|Swedish]] and [[norwegian language|Norwegian]] have similar rules for ''K'' and ''G''. See also [[palatalization]].)</font>
* There are two special [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] in Italian: ''GN'' and ''GL''. ''GN'' is always pronounced {{IPA2|ɲ}} ,for the spanish, between "n" and "e", and ''GL'' (only in italian) is pronounced {{IPA2|λ}}) palatal lateral consonant (between "l" and "e" long) or but only before i, and never when at the beginning of the word, except in the plural form ''gli'' of the masculine [[definite article]]. (Compare with [[Spanish language|Spanish]] "ñ" and "ll", [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] "nh" and "lh".)
* In general all letters are clearly pronounced, and always in the same way. (The only notable allophonic variations in the pronunciation of phonemes in standard Italian are the assimilation of /n/ before consonants, and vowel length (vowels are long in stressed open syllables, and short elsewhere) &mdash; compare with the enormous number of allophones of the English phoneme /t/. Spelling is clearly phonetic and difficult to mistake given a clear pronunciation. Exceptions are generally only found in foreign borrowings. There is less [[dyslexia]] than in languages like English.
=== Usage among Younger Generations ===
Some variations in the usage of the writing system may be present in practical use. Most scholars consider these to be mistakes, but they are so common that knowledge of these may be useful to read an Italian text.
* Usage of '''x''' instead of ''per'': this is very common among teenagers and in [[SMS]] abbreviations. Since ''per'' means "to", "for you" becomes ''x te'', similar to the English ''4 U''. Words containing ''per'' can also have it substituted with ''x'', and once a university student allegedly pronounced the surname of Italian revolutionary [[Nino Bixio]] as ''Biperio'' at an oral exam[http://pacs.unica.it/rassegna/rassegna0905.txt]. ''Perché'' (both "why" and "because") is often shortened as ''x`''.
* Usage of foreign letters such as ''k'', ''j'' and ''y'', especially in nicknames and SMS language: ''ke'' instead of ''che'', ''Giusy'' instead of ''Giuseppina''. This is curiously mirrored in the usage of ''i'' in English names such as ''Staci'' instead of ''Stacey'', or in the usage of ''c'' in Northern Europe (''Jacob'' instead of ''Jakob''). The letter ''k'' also appears to give words a certain strength and threatening aspect, possibly because it is associated with [[Germany]]. Politician [[Francesco Cossiga]] used to be nicknamed ''Kossiga'' by rioting students as early as 1968, because of his role as minister of internal affairs.
* Accents are often substituted by apostrophes, such as in ''perche''' instead of ''perché''. ''È'' is particularly rare, as it is absent from the Italian keyboard layout. Few are aware of the distinction between grave and acute accents.
==Examples==
*cheers (generic toast): ''cin cin'' {{IPA|}}
*English: ''inglese'' {{IPA|/inˈgleze/}}
*good-bye: ''arrivederci'' {{IPA|/arriveˈdertʃi/}}
*hello: ''ciao'' {{IPA|/ˈtʃao/}} (informal); ''buongiorno'' {{IPA|/bwonˈdʒorno/}} (good morning/good afternoon), ''buonasera'' {{IPA|/bwonaˈsera/}} (good evening)
*Yes: ''sì'' {{IPA|/si/}}
*No: ''no'' {{IPA|/nɔ/}}
*Sorry: ''scusi'' /{{IPA|ˈskuzi}}/
*Again: ''di nuovo'' /{{IPA|di ˈnwɔvo}}/
*Always: ''sempre'' /{{IPA|ˈsɛmpre}}/
*When: ''quando'' {{IPA|/ˈkwando/}}
*Why? / Because: ''perché'' {{IPA|/per'ke/}}
*how much?: ''quanto'' {{IPA|/ˈkwanto/}}
*thank you!: ''grazie!'' {{IPA|/ˈgrattsje/}}
*Bon appetit: ''Buon appetito'' {{IPA|/ˌbwɔn appeˈtito/}}
*you're welcome!: ''prego!'' {{IPA|/ˈprɛgo/}}
*I love you: ''Ti amo'' {{IPA|/ti ˈamo/}}
==Sample texts==
You can hear a recording of [[Dante]]'s [[Divine Comedy]] read by [[Lino Pertile]] at http://etcweb.princeton.edu/dante/pdp/.
'''From the Holy Bible, Luke 2, 1-7'''
(for an English version see http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/search/?q=luke+2)
You can [[Media:It-Vangeli.ogg|listen]] to a rendition of this text as recorded by an Italian native speaker from Milan.
'''2:1''' In quei giorni, un decreto di Cesare Augusto ordinava che si facesse un censimento di tutta la terra. '''2''' Questo primo censimento fu fatto quando Quirino era governatore della Siria. '''3''' Tutti andavano a farsi registrare, ciascuno nella propria città. '''4''' Anche Giuseppe, che era della casa e della famiglia di Davide, dalla città di Nazaret e dalla Galilea si recò in Giudea nella città di Davide, chiamata Betlemme, '''5''' per farsi registrare insieme a Maria, sua sposa, che era incinta. '''6''' Proprio mentre si trovavano lì, venne il tempo per lei di partorire. '''7''' Mise al mondo il suo primogenito, lo avvolse in fasce e lo depose in una mangiatoia, poiché non c'era posto per loro nella locanda.
==See also==
*[[Italian phonology]]
*[[Sicilian School]]
*[[Veronese Riddle]]
*[[Italian grammar]]
==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=it}}
{{Wikibooks}}
{{wiktionarypar|Italian}}
*{{About.com|topic=Italian}}
*[http://www.accademiadellacrusca.it Homepage of the Accademia della Crusca]
*[http://www.ielanguages.com/italian.html Italian Language Tutorial at ielanguages.com]
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Italian-english/ Italian English Dictionary] from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
*[http://www.garzantilinguistica.it A free Italian-English Dictionary, Italian Dictionary, and Thesaurus] from Garzanti Linguistica (in Italian, requires free registration)
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ita Ethnologue report on Italian]
*[http://www.dicts.info/dictlist1.php?k1=53 All free Italian dictionaries]
*[http://www.ilsonline.it/test.html Online italian language test]
*[http://www.eslbase.com/language-exchange/ Language exchange - Practise Italian online]
*[http://italian-language-test.scuolaleonardo.com/ Test your Italian - Free Italian language test]
*[http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/modlang/carasi/site/pageone.html Online Italian language course]
*[http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&to_lang=8&learn-Italian/ Learn and listen to useful expressions in Italian]
*[http://www.asils.it/ Italian Language schools]
*[http://www.quiz-tree.com/Italian_Vocabulary_main.html Italian Vocabulary Training]
{{Official EU languages}}
[[Category:Italian language|*]]
[[Category:Languages of Italy]]
[[Category:Languages of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Languages of Vatican City]]
[[Category:Languages of San Marino]]
[[Category:Languages of Slovenia]]
[[als:Italienische Sprache]]
[[ar:لغة إيطالية]]
[[bg:Италиански език]]
[[be:Італьянская мова]]
[[br:Italianeg]]
[[ca:Italià]]
[[cs:Italština]]
[[cy:Eidaleg]]
[[da:Italiensk (sprog)]]
[[de:Italienische Sprache]]
[[et:Itaalia keel]]
[[es:Idioma italiano]]
[[eo:Itala lingvo]]
[[eu:Italiera]]
[[fr:Italien]]
[[gl:Lingua italiana]]
[[ko:이탈리아어]]
[[hr:Talijanski jezik]]
[[io:Italiana linguo]]
[[id:Bahasa Italia]]
[[it:Lingua italiana]]
[[he:איטלקית]]
[[kw:Italek]]
[[la:Lingua Italica]]
[[lt:Italų kalba]]
[[li:Italiaans]]
[[hu:Olasz nyelv]]
[[mk:Италијански јазик]]
[[nl:Italiaans]]
[[ja:イタリア語]]
[[no:Italiensk språk]]
[[oc:Italian]]
[[pl:Język włoski]]
[[pt:Língua italiana]]
[[ro:Limba italiană]]
[[rm:Lingua taliana]]
[[ru:Итальянский язык]]
[[sc:Limba italiana]]
[[scn:Lingua taliana]]
[[simple:Italian]]
[[sk:Taliančina]]
[[sl:Italijanščina]]
[[sr:Италијански језик]]
[[fi:Italian kieli]]
[[sv:Italienska]]
[[tl:Wikang Italyano]]
[[th:ภาษาอิตาลี]]
[[vi:Tiếng Ý]]
[[tr:İtalyanca]]
[[zh:意大利语]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ice T</title>
<id>14709</id>
<revision>
<id>42116278</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:52:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Epa101</username>
<id>334731</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ice T.jpg|thumb|Ice T]]
'''Tracy Morrow''' (born [[February 16]], [[1958]] in [[Newark, New Jersey]]), better known as '''Ice-T''' or '''Ice T''', is an [[United States|American]] [[rapping|rapper]], [[singer]], and [[actor]]. He is one of the pioneers of [[gangsta rap]] and was also instrumental in creating [[rapcore]]. His subject matter stands as a mixture between the political awareness of [[Public Enemy]] and the hedonism of [[NWA]].
==Career==
After high school, Ice-T joined the Army and served as a ranger in the 25th Infantry. He did not enjoy the experience explaining "I didn't like total submission to a leader other than myself." [http://videoeta.com/person/1181] [http://media.www.dailytargum.com/media/paper168/news/2004/02/23/PageOne/IceT-Addresses.Group.Provides.Inspiration-614605.shtml?sourcedomain=www.dailytargum.com&MIIHost=media.collegepublisher.com]
===Musician===
Ice-T started out with other [[West Coast hip hop|West Coast]] rap pioneers such as [[Kid Frost]], [[DJ Flash]], and [[Egyptian Lover]] with [[Electro (music)|Electro]] recordings. Later on, he changed his style and w |
or biotech start-ups and research. Case Western Reserve, the Clinic, and University Hospitals have recently announced plans to build a large biotechnology research center and [[Business incubator|incubator]] on the site of the former Mt. Sinai Medical Center, creating a research campus to stimulate biotech [[startup company|startup companies]] that can be spun off from research conducted in the city.
Additionally, city leaders stepped up efforts to cultivate a technology sector in its economy in the early 2000s. Former Mayor [[Jane L. Campbell]] appointed a "tech czar", whose job is to actively recruit tech companies to the downtown office market, offering connections to the high-speed fiber networks that run underneath downtown streets in several "high-tech offices" focused on the [[Euclid Avenue]] area. [[Cleveland State University]] hired a Technology Transfer Officer to work full time on cultivating technology transfers from CSU research to marketable ideas and companies in the Cleveland area, and recently announced the appointment of a Vice President for Economic Development that will be working to leverage the university's assets in expanding the city's economy. Case Western Reserve University is also involved in technology initiatives such as the [http://www.onecleveland.org OneCleveland project], a high-speed fiber optic network connecting all nonprofits in the area at high speeds, intended to breed collaboration among the area's major research centers and produce jobs for the city and region. OneCleveland's work attracted the attention of [[Intel]] and in mid-2005, Cleveland was named an Intel "Worldwide Digital Community" with [[Corpus Christi, Texas]], [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], and [[Taipei|Taipei, Taiwan]]. This distinction will eventually bring to the region around [[United States dollar|$]]12 million for use in marketing and expanding regional technology partnerships, creating a city-wide [[WiFi]] network, and developing a tech economy. Progress has been delayed by Intel's recent focus on New Orleans and Cleveland's mayoral election, however, Mayor Jackson has pledged to continue the work on the Digital Communities Initiative.{{ref|Intel_Delays}} In addition to this Intel initiative, in January 2006 a New York-based think tank, the Intelligent Community Forum, selected Cleveland as one of its seven finalists for the "Intelligent Community of the Year" award, the only city in the United States that was chosen. The group announced that the city was nominated due to the OneCleveland network and its potential broadband applications.{{ref|smartcity}}
==Education==
[[Image:Adelbert Hall.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Adelbert Hall on the campus of [[Case Western Reserve University]].]]
Cleveland is home to a number of colleges and universities. Most prominent among these is [[Case Western Reserve University]], a world-renowned research and teaching institution based at University Circle. Case is a private university, the top rated university in Ohio as rated by ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'', and enrolls more graduate students than undergraduates, though the school's latest freshman class is among the largest in Case's history. University Circle is also home to the [[Cleveland Institute of Art]], the [[Cleveland Institute of Music]], and the [[Ohio College of Podiatric Medicine]]. [[Cleveland State University]], based in downtown Cleveland, is the city's public four-year university. In addition to CSU, downtown hosts the metropolitan campus of [[Cuyahoga Community College]], the county's two-year higher education institution, as well as [[Myers University]], a private four school year that focuses on business education.
The [[Cleveland Municipal School District]] is an underperforming urban district, though test scores improved under mayoral control and former school CEO [[Barbara Byrd-Bennett]]. It is the only district in Ohio that is under direct control of the mayor, who appoints a school board. The mayor was given control of the city schools after a series of elected school boards were deemed ineffective by city voters. The school board appoints a Chief Executive Officer, the equivalent of a district Superintendent, who is responsible for district management. During Byrd-Bennett's tenure, the system improved in academics and attendance and passed a $1.2 billion school building construction/replacement issue; however, it failed numerous times to pass an operating levy, and currently faces large budget shortfalls and the possibility of slipping back into "academic emergency" as rated by the Ohio Department of Education in 2005.
{{see also|List of Cleveland Public Schools}}
==Culture==
[[Image:DSCN4568_clevelandrockandrollhallofame_e.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] on the coast of [[Lake Erie]].]]
Five&nbsp;miles (8&nbsp;km) east of downtown Cleveland is [[University Circle]], a 500-acre (2&nbsp;km&sup2;) concentration of cultural, educational, and medical institutions, including [[Case Western Reserve University]], [[Severance Hall]], [[University Hospitals of Cleveland|University Hospitals]], and the [[Cleveland Museum of Art]]. Cleveland is also home to the [[I. M. Pei]]-designed [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]], located on a Lake Erie harbor immediately north of downtown. Neighboring attractions include [[Cleveland Browns Stadium]], the [[Great Lakes Science Center]], the [[Steamship William G. Mather Maritime Museum|Steamship Mather Museum]], and the [[USS Cod (SS-224)|USS ''Cod'']], a [[World War II]] [[Gato class submarine|submarine]].
Cleveland is home to [[Playhouse Square Center]], the second largest performing arts center in the United States behind [[New York City|New York]]'s [[Lincoln Center]]. Playhouse Square includes the State, Palace, Allen, Hanna, and Ohio theaters within what is known as the Theater District of Downtown Cleveland. Playhouse Square's resident performing arts companies include the [[Cleveland Opera]], [[Ohio Ballet]], and the [[Great Lakes Theater Festival]]. The center also hosts various [[musical theater|Broadway musical]]s, special concerts, speaking engagements, and other events throughout the year. One Playhouse Square, now the headquarters for Cleveland's [[public broadcasting|public broadcasters]], was originally used as the broadcast studios of [[WKNR#WJW Radio|WJW Radio]], where [[disc jockey]] [[Alan Freed]] purportedly first coined the term "[[rock and roll]]".
Additionally, Cleveland is home to the [[Cleveland Orchestra]], widely considered one of the finest [[orchestra]]s in the world, and often referred to as the finest in the United States.{{ref|time}} It is one of the "[[Big Five (orchestras)|Big Five]]" major orchestras in the United States. The Orchestra plays in [[Severance Hall]] during the winter and at [[Blossom Music Center]] during the summer.
[[Image:Free Stamp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The ''Free Stamp'' sculpture at [[Downtown Cleveland|downtown]]'s Willard Park, by [[Claes Oldenburg]] and [[Coosje van Bruggen]].]]
Cleveland is home to many [[festival]]s throughout the year. Cultural festivals such as the annual [[Cleveland Feast of the Assumption Festival|Feast of the Assumption]] in the Little Italy neighborhood and the [[Cleveland Polish Festival|Polish Festival]] in the Slavic Village neighborhood are popular events. Vendors at the [[West Side Market]] in Ohio City offer many different ethnic foods for sale. Cleveland hosts an annual [[parade]] on [[Saint Patrick's Day]] that brings thousands to the streets of downtown.
In addition to the cultural festivals, Cleveland also hosts the [[CMJ Rock Hall Music Fest]], which features national and local acts, including both established artists and up-and-coming acts. The city recently incorporated an annual art and technology festival, known as [[Ingenuity Festival|Ingenuity]], which features a combination of art and technology in various installations and performances throughout lower Euclid Avenue. The [[Cleveland International Film Festival]] has been held annually since 1977, and its 11-day run draws about 43,000 people. Cleveland also hosts an annual holiday display lighting and celebration, dubbed Winterfest, which is held downtown at the city's historic hub, Public Square.
Cleveland also served as the location for several noteworthy movies, including ''[[The Fortune Cookie]]'' ([[1967 in film|1967]]) with [[Walter Matthau]] and [[Jack Lemmon]], the [[Academy Award]]-winning ''[[The Deer Hunter]]'' ([[1978 in film|1978]]), and the holiday favorite ''[[A Christmas Story]]'' ([[1983 in film|1983]]).{{ref|imdb}} Cleveland is the lifelong home of cartoonist [[Harvey Pekar]] and setting for most of his autobiographical comic books.
===Media===
{{main|Media in Cleveland, Ohio}}
Cleveland is served in print by ''[[The Plain Dealer (newspaper)|The Plain Dealer]]'', the city's sole remaining daily [[newspaper]]. The competing ''[[Cleveland Press]]'' ceased publication on [[June 17]], [[1982]], and the ''[[Cleveland News]]'' ended its run in 1960. Cleveland also supports several [[alternative weekly]] publications, including the ''[[Free Times]]'' and ''[[Cleveland Scene]]''.
Cleveland is ranked as the 16th largest television market by [[Nielsen Media Research]].{{ref|nielsen}} The market is served by stations affiliated with major American networks including [[WKYC|WKYC 3]] ([[NBC]]), [[WEWS|WEWS 5]] ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]), [[WJW|WJW 8]] ([[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]]), [[WOIO|WOIO 19]] ([[CBS]]), [[WUAB|WUAB 43]] ([[UPN]]), and [[WBNX|WBNX 55]] ([[The WB Television Network|WB]]). Cleveland is also served by [[WVPX|WVPX 23]] ([[I (TV network)|i]]) and Spanish-language channel [[WQHS-TV|WQHS 61]] ([[Univision]]). [[WVIZ|WVIZ 25]] and [[WEAO|WEAO 49]] are members of [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]. A Cleveland first in television was ''[[The Mornin |
ector and vice versa; for example, when the program needs to allocate a new object, the runtime system may either need to suspend it until the collection cycle is complete, or somehow notify the garbage collector that there exists a new, reachable object.
Finally, a ''concurrent'' garbage collector can run concurrently in real time with the main program on a [[symmetric multiprocessing]] machine. Complex [[Lock (computer science)|locking]] regimes may be necessary in order to guarantee correctness, and cache issues also make this less helpful than one might imagine. Nonetheless, concurrent GC may be desirable for SMP applications with high performance requirements.
====Precise vs. conservative and internal pointers====
Some collectors can correctly identify all pointers (references) in an object; these are called "precise" (or "exact" or "accurate") collectors, the opposite being a "conservative" or "partly conservative" collector. "Conservative" collectors have to assume that any bit pattern in memory is a pointer if (when interpreted as a pointer) it would point into any allocated object. Thus, conservative collectors may have some false negatives, where storage is not released because of accidental fake pointers, but this is rarely a big drawback in practice. Whether a precise collector is practical usually depends on type safety properties of the programming language.
A related issue concerns ''internal pointers'', or pointers to fields within an object. If the semantics of a language allow internal pointers, then there may be many different addresses that can refer to the same object, which complicates determining whether an object is garbage or not.
===Performance implications===
Tracing garbage collectors require some implicit runtime [[Computational overhead|overhead]] that may be beyond the control of the programmer, and can sometimes lead to mysterious performance problems. For example, the tendency of the runtime system to pause program execution at arbitrary times to run the garbage collector may make GC languages inappropriate for some embedded systems, high-performance server software, and other applications with [[Real-time computing|real-time]] needs.
A more fundamental issue is that garbage collectors violate [[locality of reference]], since they deliberately go out of their way to find bits of memory that haven't been accessed recently. The performance of modern computer architectures is increasingly tied to [[Cache|caching]], which depends on the assumption of locality of reference for its effectiveness. Some garbage collection methods result in better locality of reference than others. Generational garbage collection is relatively cache-friendly, and copying collectors automatically defragment memory helping to keep related data together. Nonetheless, poorly timed garbage collection cycles could have a severe performance impact on some computations, and for this reason many runtime systems provide mechanisms that allow the program to temporarily suspend or delay garbage collection cycles.
Despite these issues, for many practical purposes, allocation/deallocation-intensive algorithms implemented in modern garbage collected languages can actually be faster than their equivalents using explicit memory management (at least without heroic optimizations by an expert programmer). A major reason for this is that the garbage collector allows the runtime system to [[Amortized analysis|amortize]] allocation and deallocation operations in a potentially advantageous fashion. For example, consider the following program in the (garbage-collected) [[C Sharp|C#]] language:
class A {
private int x;
public A() { x = 0; x++; }
}
class Example {
public static void Main() {
for(int i = 0; i < 1000000000; i++) {
A a = new A();
}
System.Console.WriteLine("DING!");
}
}
And a nearly equivalent [[C++]] program:
#include <iostream>
class A {
int x;
public:
A() { x = 0; x++; }
};
int main() {
for(int i = 0; i < 1000000000; i++) {
A* a = new A();
delete a;
}
std::cout << "DING!" << std::endl;
}
Using standard [[Library (computer science)|libraries]] and typical compiler configurations, the [[C Sharp|C#]] program executes ''many'' times faster than the C++ program. This is because the C++ allocator must hunt for free blocks of memory in a potentially fragmented [[heap (programming)|heap]] in order to allocate new instances of the <tt>A</tt> class. In contrast, the [[C Sharp|C#]] runtime system can allocate memory by incrementing a pointer from some region of memory previously set aside for new allocations, relying on the garbage collector to eventually release the unused objects and compact the heap. On the other hand, the garbage-collected program may have somewhat greater memory usage averaged over time, since instances of the <tt>A</tt> class are not deallocated as quickly as they could be.
==Reference counting==
:''Main article: [[reference counting]]''
In contrast to tracing garbage collection, [[reference counting]] is a form of automatic memory management where each object has a count of the number of references to it. An object's reference count is incremented when a reference to it is created, and decremented when a reference is destroyed. The object's memory is reclaimed when the count reaches zero.
==Implementations==
GC comes either as a part of a programming language or an external library that can be added to a language that does not have built-in support of GC. [[Boehm garbage collector]] is the chief example for the latter.
Functional programming languages, like [[ML programming language|ML]], [[Haskell programming language|Haskell]] and [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], traditionally use garbage collection. Lisp, which introduced [[functional programming]], is especially notable for using garbage collection before this technique was commonly used. [[type safety|Safe]] programming languages must use garbage collection: having a manual delete operation would introduce the possibility of having a reference to a non-existent object, which would violate the type safety guarantee.
[[Script language]]s like [[Perl]], [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]], [[Python programming language|Python]] and [[PHP]] tend to have built-in support of GC. Also, many object-oriented programming languages like [[Smalltalk programming language|Smalltalk]] and [[Java programming language|Java]] usually provide integrated garbage collection, a notable exception being [[C++]].
==See also==
*[[:Category:Memory management software]]
*[[Reversible computing]]
==External links==
*[http://www.memorymanagement.org/ The Memory Management Reference]
* Publications by the OOPS group at the [[University of Texas at Austin]]: http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/oops/papers.html
*[http://www.hpl.hp.com/personal/Hans_Boehm/gc/ A garbage collector for C and C++] by [[Hans Boehm]] (the site also links to a number of articles on garbage collection in general)
* Article "[http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/dndotnet/html/dotnetGCbasics.asp Garbage Collector Basics and Performance Hints]" by [[Rico Mariani]]
*[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cis?q=garbage+collection Citations from CiteSeer]
*[http://www.osnews.com/story.php?news_id=6864 A Glance At Garbage Collection In Object-Oriented Languages]
*[http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ewd05xx/EWD595.PDF On-the-fly garbage collection: an exercise in cooperation] by [[Dijkstra|Edsger W. Dijkstra]] and [[Leslie Lamport]] and A.J.Martin and C.S.Scholten and E.F.M.Steffens
* Richard Jones and Rafael Lins, ''Garbage Collection: Algorithms for Automated Dynamic Memory Management'', Wiley and Sons (1996), ISBN: 0471941484
[[Category:Memory management]]
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[[ru:Сборка мусора]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Comedy</title>
<id>6735</id>
<revision>
<id>42013190</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:29:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dodo bird</username>
<id>901231</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Comedy''' is the use of [[humour|humor]] in the form of [[theater]], where it simply referred to a [[play]] with a happy ending, in contrast to a [[tragedy]]. A recognized characteristic of comedy is that it is an intensely personal enjoyment. People frequently don't find the same things amusing, but when they do it can help to create powerful bonds.
Humor being subjective, one may or may not find something humorous because it is either too offensive or not offensive enough. Comedy is judged according to a person’s taste. Some enjoy cerebral fare such as [[irony]] or [[black comedy]]; others may prefer ''[[Toilet humour|scatological humor]]'' (e.g. the "[[flatulence|fart]] joke") or ''[[slapstick]]''. A common [[gender]] [[stereotype]] that plays on this convention is that men love the comedy of The [[Three Stooges]], while women do not.
[[Mel Brooks]] on comedy and [[tragedy]]: "Tragedy is when I cut my finger. Comedy is when you fall down an elevator shaft and you die."
==Comedy drama==
Comedy is the term applied to theatrical dramas the chief object of which are to amuse. It is contrasted on the one hand with tragedy and on the other with farce, burlesque, and so on. As compared with tragedy it is distinguished by having a happy ending (this being considered for a long time the essential difference), by quaint situat |
n subsequently identified incorrectly by [[Candice Bergen]], their speaker, as a [[B-2 Spirit|B-2]].
*The F-117 also makes an appearance in the [[PlayStation 2]] game ''[[Sky Odyssey]]'' only after beating the game in under 10 minutes.
==Related content==
'''Related development:'''
[[Have Blue]] -
[[Sea Shadow (IX-529)|''Sea Shadow'']]
'''Comparable aircraft:'''
'''Designation series:'''
[[XF-108 Rapier|XF-108]] -
[[F-4 Phantom II|F-110]] -
[[General Dynamics F-111|F-111]] -
'''F-117'''
'''Related lists:'''
[[List of military aircraft of the United States]] -
[[List of current USAF aircraft]] -
[[List of fighter aircraft]] -
[[List of Lockheed aircraft]]
'''See also:'''
[[B-2 Spirit]]
==External links==
*[http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=104 Air Force Link - Fact Sheet : F-117A Nighthawk]
*[http://www.holloman.af.mil/index.html The 49th Fighter Wing at Holloman Air Force Base]
*[http://beqiraj.com/wallpaper/f117/index.asp U.S. Air Force F-117A Nighthawk - Wallpaper]
*[http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/f-117.htm FAS F-117A Nighthawk]
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:Lockheed Corporation]]
[[Category:Stealth aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. bomber aircraft 1980-1989]]
[[ar:أف 117 نايت هوك]]
[[de:Lockheed F-117]]
[[fr:Lockheed Martin F-117 Night Hawk]]
[[he:F-117]]
[[hu:F-117 (repülőgép)]]
[[nl:Lockheed Martin F-117 Nighthawk]]
[[ja:F-117 (攻撃機)]]
[[no:F-117 Nighthawk]]
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[[pt:F-117 Nighthawk]]
[[sr:Ф-117 Ноћни соко]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>F4U Corsair</title>
<id>11721</id>
<revision>
<id>41273812</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T05:32:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Emt147</username>
<id>545524</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:f4u.corsair.750pix.jpg|300px|thumb|Chance Vought '''F4U Corsair'''.]]
The '''[[Chance Vought]] F4U Corsair''' was a [[fighter aircraft]] that saw service in [[World War II]] and the [[Korean War]]. [[Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company|Goodyear]]-built Corsairs were designated '''FG''' and [[Brewster Aeronautical Corporation|Brewster]]-built aircraft '''F3A'''.
When flown in [[1940 in aviation|1940]], the XF4U-1 became the first U.S. single-engine production aircraft capable of 400 mph in level flight. It was a remarkable achievement for Vought, as [[aircraft carrier|carrier aircraft]] are, compared to land-based counterparts, overbuilt to withstand the extreme stress of deck landings.
The most striking feature of the aircraft is the inverted [[gull wing]]. The design concept for the Corsair incorporated the largest available fighter engine &mdash; the 2,000 hp, 18-cylinder [[Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp]] [[radial engine|radial]] , turning an enormous 13'4" (4.06 m) Hamilton Standard [[propeller]]. The dimensions required the bent wing in order to keep the [[landing gear]] reasonably short, as well as sturdy enough for carrier landings, and to provide ground clearance for the propeller.
However, numerous technical problems had to be solved before the Corsair entered service. Carrier suitability was especially troublesome, leading to changes of the [[landing gear]], tailwheel, and [[tailhook]]. Additionally, a small [[spoiler (aeronautics)|spoiler]] was added to the leading edge of the starboard wing to reduce adverse stall characteristics. A noticeable problem with the Corsair design was its difficulty to recover from a developed spin, as its wing shape interfered with elevator control.
[[Image:Corsair_close.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A French Navy Corsair.]]
Due to visibility problems on landing caused by a combination of the pilot's position and the length of the nose, which made landing tricky for poorly trained pilots, Corsairs were largely barred from U.S. carrier service until the end of [[1944 in aviation|1944]]. When the aircraft finally saw combat it was nonetheless a superb fighter compared to its contemporaries, achieving a 10 to 1 victory ratio. However, nearly as many Corsairs were lost to landing accidents as the type downed enemy aircraft. Growing pains aside, [[US Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] squadrons readily took to the radical new fighter.
From February [[1943 in aviation|1943]] onward, the "U-Bird" flew from [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]] and ultimately other bases in the [[Solomon Islands]]. Corsairs were flown by the famous Black Sheep Squadron VMF-214 led by Marine Fighter Ace Maj. [[Pappy Boyington|Gregory "Pappy" Boyington]] in an area of the Solomon Islands called The Slot. (The real men of the sqaudron called Boyington "Gramps". They never referred to him as "Pappy". Somehow the name "Pappy" was introduced by the media. The moniker stuck and was made famous by Hollywood with the making of the TV series "[[Baa Baa Black Sheep]]".) Corsairs also served well as fighter-bombers in the Central Pacific and the [[Philippines]]. [[Night-fighter]] versions were produced, equipping Navy and Marine units ashore and afloat. British units flying from aircraft carriers solved the landing visibility problem by approaching the carrier in a medium left-hand turn, which allowed the pilot to keep the carrier's deck in view over the dip in the port wing, allowing safe carrier operations. At war's end, Corsairs were ashore on [[Okinawa]] combating the [[Kamikaze]] suicide pilots and flying from fleet and escort carriers.
During the war, Corsair production expanded beyond Vought to include [[Brewster Aeronautical Corporation|Brewster]] (F3A) and [[Goodyear]] (FG) models. Allied forces flying the aircraft included the British [[Royal Navy]]'s [[Fleet Air Arm]] and the [[Royal New Zealand Air Force]].
==Royal Navy==
The Fleet Air Arm introduced the Corsair into service before the USN. In the early days of the war RN fighter requirements had been based on cumbersome two-seat designs, such as the [[Blackburn Skua]], [[Fairey Fulmar]] and [[Fairey Firefly]], on the assumption they would only be fighting long range bombers or flying boats. The RN hurriedly adopted higher performance but less robust types derived from land based aircraft, such as the [[Supermarine Seafire]]. The Corsair was welcomed as a much more robust alternative to naval adaptations of these. In RN service, most Corsairs had their outer wings clipped to assist with storage and low-altitude performance. Despite the clipped wings and the shorter decks of British carriers, the pilots of the RN found landing accidents less of a problem than they had been to USN aviators due to the curved approaches mentioned above.
There were four versions used by the British as the end, and were named as such: '''Corsair I''' for F4U-1s, '''Corsair II''' for F4U-1As, '''Corsair III''' for F3A-1Ds, and '''Corsair IV''' for FG-1Ds.
==Royal New Zealand Air Force==
Equipped with obsolescent [[Curtiss P-40]]s, the [[Royal New Zealand Air Force]] Squadrons in the [[Pacific War|South Pacific]] performed impressively compared to the [[United States|America]]n units they operated alongside, in particular in the air to air role. The American government accordingly decided to give [[New Zealand]] early access to the Corsair, especially as it was not initially being used from carriers. Some 424 Corsairs equipped 13 RNZAF squadrons, including [[No. 14 Squadron RNZAF]] and [[No. 15 Squadron RNZAF]], replacing [[SBD Dauntless]] as well as P40s.
However by the time the Corsairs arrived, there were virtually no [[Japan]]ese aircraft left in New Zealand's allocated sectors of the Southern Pacific, and despite the RNZAF Squadrons extending their operations to more northern islands, the Corsairs were primarily used for close support of [[United States|America]]n, [[Australia]]n and [[New Zealand]] soldiers fighting the [[Japan]]ese. New Zealand pilots noted the Corsair's poor forward view and tendency to ground loop, but found this could be solved by pilot training in curved approaches before use from rough forward airbases. 14 Squadron took its Corsairs to [[Japan]] as part of the [[British Commonwealth Occupation Force]]. Two privately owned Corsairs remain airworthy in RNZAF colours.
==Korea, Suez and the Football War==
The F4U-4 and -5 logged combat in Korea between [[1950 in aviation|1950]] and [[1953 in aviation|1953]] while the "dash seven" model flew with the [[French Navy]] until the early sixties. Corsairs flew their final combat missions during the [[1969 in aviation|1969]] "[[Football War]]" between [[Honduras]] and [[El Salvador]].
The AU Corsair was a ground-attack version produced for the Korean War. The Pratt & Whitney R-2800 engine, while it was supercharged, was not as highly "blown" as on the F4U.
[[Image:Ww2 157.jpg|right|thumbnail|200px|A Corsair fires its rockets at a Japanese stronghold on Okinawa]]
==The F4U in fiction==
The exploits of a Marine Corps squadron which flew the Corsair in the Pacific during the war were depicted in the popular [[1970s]] [[television series]], ''Baa Baa Black Sheep'' {1976-1983}. The TV series actually featured about six genuine flying Corsairs. Most of the storylines were fictional. See also [[Pappy Boyington]].
==Specifications (F4U-4)==
===General Characteristics===
* '''Crew:''' one, pilot
* '''Length:''' 33 ft 8 in (10.30 m)
* '''Wingspan:''' 41 ft 0 in (12.50 m)
* '''Height:''' 16 ft 1 in (4.90 m)
* '''Wing area:''' 350 ft&sup2; (32.5 m&sup2;)
* '''Empty:''' 9,205 lb (4,175 kg)
* '''Loaded:''' 14,000 lb (6,350 kg)
* '''Maximum takeoff:''' 14,670 lb (6,654 kg)
* '''Powerplant:''' [[Pratt & Whitney R-2800]]-18W Double Wasp 18-cylinder radial, 2,450 HP (1,827 kW) with water injection
===Performance===
* '''Maximum speed:''' 446 mph (717 km/h) at 26,200 ft (7,986 m)
* '''Range:''' 1,560 miles |
gan in the first decades of the 20th century and culminated in the Bärenreiter critical edition of the 1950s. Numerous recordings of Telemann are available in the early 21st century, and his music is among the most often performed by early music ensembles.
==Selected works==
*''Der Geduldige Socrates'' ([[1721]])
*''Der Schulmeister''
*''Der Tod Jesu'' ("The Death of Jesus")
*''Die Donner-Ode'' ("The Ode of Thunder")
*''Die Tageszeiten'' ("The Times of the Day")
*''Der Tag des Gerichts'' ("The Day of Judgement")
*''Viola Concerto'', the first known concerto for viola, still regularly performed today
*''Tafelmusik'' (1733) ('[[Tafelmusik (musical term)|Tafelmusik]]' refers to music meant to accompany a meal)
*''Der getreue Musikmeister'' ([[1728]]), a musical journal containing 70 small vocal and instrumental compositions
==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Telemann - 2violin Sonata 1-1.ogg|title=Two Violin Sonata 1, movement 1|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Telemann - 2violin Sonata 1-2.ogg|title=Two Violin Sonata 1, movement 2|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Telemann - 2violin Sonata 1-3.ogg|title=Two Violin Sonata 1, movement 3|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
==External links==
* [http://www.baroquemusic.org/bqxtel.html Detailed biography at baroquemusic.org]
* {{IckingArchive|idx=Telemann|name=Georg Philipp Telemann}}
*[http://www.kantoreiarchiv.de/archiv/choir_orchestra/cantata/telemann/ Free scores, Cantatas]
{{commons|Georg Philipp Telemann}}
[[Category:1681 births|Telemann, Georg Philipp]]
[[Category:1767 deaths|Telemann, Georg Philipp]]
[[Category:Natives of Saxony-Anhalt|Telemann, Georg Philipp]]
[[Category:Baroque composers|Telemann, Georg Philipp]]
[[Category:German composers|Telemann, Georg Philipp]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Telemann, Georg Philipp]]
[[Category:Music theorists|Telemann, Georg Philipp]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Granville railway disaster</title>
<id>13064</id>
<revision>
<id>41762012</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T15:42:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Longhair</username>
<id>99037</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">On [[January 18]], [[1977]], [[Australia]] experienced its worst ever [[rail transport|railway]] disaster at [[Granville, New South Wales|Granville]], a suburb of [[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]].
The crowded 6.09 a.m. [[commuter train]] from [[Mount Victoria]] in the [[Blue Mountains]] to [[Sydney]] left the rails and hit a row of supports of an overhead road [[bridge]] constructed from concrete and steel. The derailed engine car and carriages one and two passed the bridge. The locomotive and carriage one broke free from the other carriages, hitting a metal pole, which tore through carriage one killing eight passengers. The remaining carriages ground to a halt with carriage two clear of the bridge, and the rear two-thirds of carriage three and forward third of carriage four under it. With its supports demolished, the bridge and several motor cars on top of it crashed down onto carriages three and four, crushing them and the passengers inside.
In all 83 people died and more than 200 were badly injured. Many of those who died were killed instantly when the bridge crushed them in their seats. The passengers killed were all in carriages one, three and four. Incredibly, some of the survivors were in the carriages crushed by the bridge and saw people one seat ahead killed. The train driver and the secondman, and the motorists on the bridge all survived. There were also a number of people trapped in the train for hours after the accident by part of the bridge crushing a limb or torso. Many of these people were conscious and lucid talking to rescuers, but died of [[toxic shock syndrome]] soon after the crushing weight was removed from their bodies due to the sudden release of toxins having built up in the limb suddenly overloading the kidneys. This resulted in changes to rescue procedures for these kinds of accidents.
Many police officers who attended the scene never received appropriate counselling after cleaning up after the horrific accident.
An Australian movie made in 1998, ''Day of the Roses'', follows the coronial investigation. Coroner Tom Weir was corresponding with [[Beyond Television Productions]] about the pressure applied on him during inquest into the disaster before his sudden death from bowel cancer in 1996.
== Aftermath ==
[[Image:Granville station sydney.jpg|thumb|[[Granville railway station, Sydney|Granville station]]]]
The bridge was rebuilt as a single span without any intermediate support piers.
Other bridges similar to the destroyed bridge had their piers reinforced.
The cause of the disaster was the [[state government]]'s [[speed limit]] adjustments on the line. The speed limit around the bend just before the bridge was raised by railway authorities.
The disaster occurred prior to a [[New South Wales]] [[state election]] and, although complex, ultimately the blame for the disaster was placed on the state government's bid for another term in parliament as they did all they could, at risk of people's lives, to keep the trains on time.
== Similar Accidents ==
The [[Eschede train disaster]] in Germany had a similar collapse of its bridge.
== External links ==
*[http://danger-ahead.railfan.net/accidents/granvill.htm Danger Ahead]<br>
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0176365/ Day of the Roses] [[docudrama]] film about the disaster.
== See also ==
* [[List of disasters in Australia by death toll]]
* [[List of bridge disasters]]
* [[List of rail accidents|List of railway disasters]]
[[Category:Railway accidents]]
[[Category:1977 in Australia]]
[[Category:CityRail]]
[[Category:History of New South Wales]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Galveston</title>
<id>13065</id>
<revision>
<id>15910707</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-27T20:21:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DavidLevinson</username>
<id>1689</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Galveston, Texas]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Galveston, Texas]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>George Gershwin</title>
<id>13066</id>
<revision>
<id>41669702</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:29:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: no</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GeorgeGershwin.gif|right|thumb|George Gershwin photograph by [[Edward Steichen]] in [[1927]]. This photo was said to be [[Ira Gershwin|Ira's]] favorite[http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9809/gershwin.html] ]]
:<span class="dablink">''For other uses of '''Gershwin''', see [[Gershwin (disambiguation)]].''</span>
'''George Gershwin''' ([[September 26]], [[1898]] &ndash; [[July 11]], [[1937]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[composer]]. He was born '''Jacob Gershowitz''' in [[Brooklyn, New York]] to [[Russia|Russian]] [[Jew]]ish immigrant parents, the second of four children. George wrote most of his works together with his elder brother [[lyricist]] [[Ira Gershwin]]. Gershwin composed both for [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] and for the [[European classical music|classical]] concert hall. He also wrote [[Popular music|popular songs]] with success.
Many of his compositions have been used on television and many are recognized [[jazz]] standards; the jazz singer [[Ella Fitzgerald]] recorded many of the Gershwin's songs on her [[1959]] [[Ella Fitzgerald Sings_the_George_and_Ira_Gershwin_Songbook|Gershwin Songbook]] (arranged by [[Nelson Riddle]]), and the very greatest singers and musicians have recorded Gershwin songs, most notably [[Frank Sinatra]], [[Billie Holiday]], [[Miles Davis]], [[John Coltrane]], [[Herbie Hancock]], [[Judy Garland]], [[Nina Simone]] and countless others.
==Biography==
In [[1910]], the Gershowitzs had acquired a piano for Ira's music lessons, but younger brother George took over, successfully playing by ear. He tried out various piano teachers for two years, then was introduced by Max Rosenzweig to Charles Hambitzer, who acted as George's mentor until Hambitzer's death in [[1918]]. Hambitzer taught George conventional piano technique, introduced him to music of the European [[European classical music|classical]] tradition, and encouraged him to attend [[Orchestra|orchestral]] concerts. (At home following such concerts, young George would attempt to reproduce at the keyboard the music he had heard). He later studied with classical composer [[Rubin Goldmark]] and avant-garde composer-theorist [[Henry Cowell]].
His first job as a performer was as a piano pounder for Remick's, a publishing company on [[Tin Pan Alley]]. His [[1916]] novelty [[Ragtime|rag]] "Rialto Ripples" was a commercial success, and in [[1918]] he scored his first big national hit with his song "Swanee".
In 1916 he also recorded fourteen [[piano roll|piano rolls]] including six pieces of his own compositions for the [[W |
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