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d video creation rendering, special effects editing (often used for movies and television), image editing, and modeling (often used for engineering and medical purposes). Development in computer graphics was first fueled by academic interests and government sponsorship. However, as real-world applications of computer graphics (CG) in broadcast television and movies proved a viable alternative to more traditional special effects and animation techniques, commercial parties have increasingly funded advances in the field.
It is often thought that the first feature [[film]] to use computer graphics was ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' ([[1968]]), which attempted to show how computers would be much more graphical in the future. However, all the "computer graphic" effects in that film were hand-drawn animation, and the special effects sequences were produced entirely with conventional optical and model effects.
Perhaps the first use of computer graphics specifically to illustrate computer graphics was in ''[[Futureworld]]'' ([[1976]]), which included an [[animation]] of a human face and hand - produced by [[Edwin Catmull|Ed Catmull]] and [[Fred Parke]] at the [[University of Utah]].
== Computer graphics, 2D ==
{{main|2D computer graphics}}
The first advance in computer graphics was in the use of [[Cathode Ray Tube|CRT]]s. There are two approaches to 2D graphics: vector and raster graphics. [[Vector graphics]] stores precise geometric data, [[topology]] and style such as coordinate positions of points, the connections between points (to form lines or paths) and the colour, thickness and possible fill of the shapes. Most vector graphic systems can also use primitives of standard shapes such as circles and rectangles etc. In most cases a vector graphic image has to be converted to a raster image to be viewed. [[Raster graphics]] is a uniform two dimensional grid of [[pixel]]s. Each pixel has a specific value such as for instance brightness, colour transparency or a combination of such values. A raster image has a finite [[Image resolution | resolution]] of a specific number of rows and columns. Standard computer displays shows a raster image of resolutions such as 1280(columns)x1024(rows) of pixels. Today one often combines raster and vector graphics in compound file formats ([[Portable Document Format|pdf]], [[swf]]).
== Computer graphics, 3D ==
{{main|3D computer graphics}}
With the birth of the [[workstation]] computers (like [[LISP machine]]s, [[Quantel paintbox|paintbox]] computers and [[Silicon Graphics]] workstations) came the [[3D computer graphics]], based on [[vector graphics]]. Instead of the computer storing information about points, lines and curves on a 2-Dimensional plane, the computer stores the location of points, lines and typically faces (to construct a polygon) in 3-Dimensional Space.
3-Dimensional polygons are the life blood of virtually all 3D computer graphics. As a result, most 3D graphics engines are based around storing points (single 3 Dimensional coordinates), lines that connect those points together, faces defined by the lines, and then a sequence of faces to create 3D polygons.
Modern day computer graphics software goes far beyond just the simple storage of polygons in computer memory. Today's graphics are not only the product of massive collections of polygons into recognizable shapes, they also result from techniques in shading, texturing and [[rasterization]].
== Shading ==
The process of shading (in the context of 3D computer graphics) involves the computer simulating (or more accurately; calculating) how the faces of a polygon will look when illuminated by a virtual light source. The exact calculation varies depending on not only what data is available about the face being shaded, but also the shading technique.
== Image based rendering ==
Computer Graphics is all about obtaining 2D images from 3D models. In order to get highly accurate and photo realistic images, the input 3D models should be very accurate in terms of geometry and colours. Simulating the real 3D world scene using Computer Graphics is difficult, because obtaining accurate 3D geometry of the world is difficult. Instead of obtaining 3D models, image based rendering (IBR) uses the images taken from particular view points and tries to obtain new images from other view points. Though the term 'Image based rendering' was coined recently, it has been in practice since the inception of research in Computer Vision. In 1996, two image based rendering techniques were presented in SIGGRAPH: light field rendering and Lumigraph rendering. These techniques received special attention in the research community. Since then, many representations for IBR were proposed. One popular method is view dependent texture mapping, an IBR technique from University of Southern California. Andrew Zisserman, et. al from Oxford University used Machine Learning concepts for IBR.
*[[Flat shading]]: A technique that shades each polygon of an object based on the polygon's "normal" and the position and intensity of a light source.
*[[Gouraud shading]]: Invented by [[Henri Gouraud (computer scientist)|Henri Gouraud]] in 1971, a fast and resource-conscious technique used to simulate smoothly shaded surfaces by interpolating vertex colors across a polygon's surface.
*[[Texture mapping]]: A technique for simulating surface detail by mapping images (textures) onto polygons.
*[[Phong shading]]: Invented by [[Bui Tuong Phong]], a smooth shading technique that approximates curved-surface lighting by interpolating the vertex normals of a polygon across the surface; the lighting model includes glossy reflection with a controllable level of gloss.
*[[Bump mapping]]: Invented by [[Jim Blinn]], a normal-perturbation technique used to simulate bumpy or wrinkled surfaces.
*[[Ray Tracing]]: A method based on the physical principles of geometric optics that can simulate multiple reflections and transparency.
*[[Radiosity]]: a technique for [[global illumination]] that uses radiative transfer theory to simulate indirect (reflected) illumination in scenes with diffuse surfaces.
*[[Blobs]]: a technique for representing surfaces without specifying a hard [[boundary representation]], usually implemented as a [[procedural surface]] like a [[Van der Waals equation|Van der Waals]] equipotential (in chemistry).
== Texturing ==
Polygon surfaces (the sequence of faces) can contain data corresponding to not only a color, but in more advanced software, can be a virtual canvas for a picture, or other rasterized image. Such an image is placed onto a face, or series of faces and is called a Texture.
Textures add a new degree of customization as to how a faces & polygons will ultimately look after being shaded, depending on the shading method, and how the image is interpreted during shading.
==See also==
Several important topics in [[2D computer graphics|2D]] and [[3D computer graphics|3D]] graphics include:
*[[Color space|Color theory]]
*[[Raster graphics]]
*[[Vector graphics]]
*[[Geometric surface representations]]
** including, [[polygon]]s, [[Bézier surface]]s, [[Spline (mathematics)|spline]]s, [[subdivision surface]]s, [[implicit surface]]s, [[point-set surface]]s, and [[Nonuniform rational B-spline|NURBS]]
*[[Computer graphics/shading|Material properties]], including [[Bidirectional reflectance function|BRDF]]s
*[[Data compression|Image compression]]
*[[Computer animation|Animation]]
*[[Rendering (computer graphics)|Rendering]]
*[[Alpha compositing|Compositing]]
*[[Projection]]
*[[3D projection]]
*[[Hidden surface determination]]
*[[Vertex shaders]] and [[pixel shaders]]
*[[Full screen effect]]s
*[[Non-photorealistic rendering]]
*[[Real-time computer graphics]]
== Toolkits and APIs ==
For an application relying heavily on computer graphics, the following could be useful:
* [[Adobe Systems]]
* [[Blender3d]]
* [[BRL-CAD]]
* [[Computer Graphics Metafile]] (CGM)
* [[Crystal Space]]
* [[Power Render]]
* [[DirectX]]
* [[GLUT]]
* [[Graphical Kernel System]] (GKS)
* [[Macromedia Flash]]
* [[Macromedia Shockwave]]
* [[Open Inventor]]
* [[OpenGL]]
* [[Pixia]]
* [[PostScript]]
* [[Scalable Vector Graphics]] (SVG)
* [[svgalib]]
* [[X Window System]]
== See also ==
* [[Open source computer graphics]]
* [[Bresenham's line algorithm]]
* [[Computer-generated imagery]]
* [[Digital image editing]]
* [[Timeline of CGI in films]]
* [[Computer vision]]
* [[Digital image processing]]
* [[Digital geometry]]
* [[Graphics processing unit]]
<!-- [[Wikipedia:Graphics tutorials]] -->
* [[Graphical output device]]s
* [[List of computer graphics and descriptive geometry topics]]
* [[Utah Teapot]]
* [[Stanford Bunny]]
* [[SIGGRAPH]]
* [[ASCII art]]
== External links ==
*[http://accad.osu.edu/~waynec/history/lessons.html A Critical History of Computer Graphics and Animation]
*[http://hem.passagen.se/des/hocg/hocg_1960.htm ''History of Computer Graphics'' series of articles]
*[http://www.acid.org/radio/index.html#ARTS-EP05 The ARTS: Episode 5] An in depth interview with Legalize on the subject of the History of Computer Graphics. (Available in MP3 audio format)
*[http://www.andybrain.com/archive/color_your_world_with_free_software.htm Review of free graphic and rendering tools]
*[http://www.cglinux.com/open-source linux open source computer graphics]links forum news
[[Category:Computer graphics]]
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ered cubic]] (bcc) structure to a [[face-centered cubic]] (fcc) structure called [[austenite]] when it is heated. The fcc structure is a close-packed structure, and the bcc structure is not, which explains why the volume of the iron decreases when this transformation occurs.
Crystallography is useful in phase identification: That is, when performing some kind of processing on a material, it is often desired to find out what compounds and what phases are present in the material. Each phase has a characteristic arrangement of atoms. Techniques like X-ray diffraction can be used to identify which patterns are present in the material, and thus which compounds are present (note: the determination of the "phases" within a material should not be confused with the more general problem of "phase determination," which refers to the phase of waves as they diffract from planes within a crystal, and which is a necessary step in the interpretation of complicated diffraction patterns).
Crystallography covers the enumeration of the symmetry patterns which can be formed by atoms in a crystal and for this reason has a relation to group theory and geometry. See [[Symmetry group]].
== Biology ==
X-ray crystallography is the primary method for determining the molecular conformations of biological [[macromolecule]]s, particularly [[protein]] and [[nucleic acid]]s such as [[DNA]] and [[RNA]]. In fact, the double-helical structure of DNA was deduced from crystallographic data. The first crystal structure of a macromolecule was solved in 1958 (Kendrew, J.C. et al. (1958) A three-dimensional model of the myoglobin molecule obtained by X-ray analysis (Nature 181, 662-666). The [[Protein Data Bank]] (PDB) is a freely accessible repository for the structures of [[protein]]s and other biological macromolecules. [[RasMol]] can be used to visualize biological molecular structures.
[[Electron crystallography]] has been used to determine some protein structures, most notably [[membrane protein]]s and [[viral capsid]]s.
==See also==
* [[Crystal]]
* [[Crystal optics]]
* [[Crystallite]]
* [[Crystallization processes]]
* [[Crystallographic group]]
* [[Diffraction]]
* [[Electron crystallography]]
* [[Don Craig Wiley]]
* [[René Just Haüy]]
* [[Symmetry group]]
* [[X-ray crystallography]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.rockhounds.com/rockshop/xtal/index.html Introduction to Crystallography and Mineral Crystal Systems]
* [http://www.iucr.ac.uk/iucr-top/comm/cteach/pamphlets.html Crystallographic Teaching Pamphlets]
* [http://cst-www.nrl.navy.mil/lattice/spcgrp/ Crystal Lattice Structures]
* [http://www.ccp14.ac.uk/ Freely Available Crystallographic Software for Academia]
[[Category:Crystallography| ]]
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<title>Claude Auchinleck</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
subject_name = Field Marshal Sir Claude Auchinleck|
image_name = Auchinleck.jpg |
image_caption = |
date_of_birth = [[June 21]], [[1884]]|
place_of_birth = [[Aldershot]], [[United Kingdom]]|
dead=dead |
date_of_death = [[March 23]], [[1981]]|
place_of_death = [[Marrakesh]], [[Morocco]]
}}
Field Marshal '''Sir Claude John Eyre Auchinleck''', [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Order of the Indian Empire|GCIE]], [[Order of the Star of India|CSI]], [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]], [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] ([[June 21]] [[1884]] - [[March 23]] [[1981]]), nicknamed '''The Auk''', was a British army commander during [[World War II]].
==Early life and career==
Born in [[Aldershot]], he grew up in impoverished circumstances, but was able through hard work and scholarships to graduate from [[Wellington College (Berkshire)|Wellington College]] and the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst|Royal Military Academy]], [[Sandhurst]]. Claude Auchinleck was a career soldier who spent much of his military career in [[India]], where he developed a love of the country and an affinity for the ordinary soldiers under his command.
==World War II==
===Norway===
Early in World War II Auchinleck was given command of the [[Allied forces]] in [[Norway]] in May [[1940]], a military operation that was doomed to fail. After the fall of Norway, in July 1940 he became briefly General Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Southern Command, and then Commander-in-Chief of the [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]].
===North Africa===
Following the see-saw of Allied and Axis successes and reverses in North Africa, Auchinleck was appointed to succeed General (later Field Marshal) Sir [[Archibald Wavell]] as C-in-C of the Allied Forces in the Middle East in July [[1941]]; Wavell took up Auchinleck's post as C-in-C of the Indian Army, swapping jobs with him.
General Auchinleck was C-in-C based in [[Cairo]], with responsibility not just for North Africa but also for [[Iran|Persia]] and the Middle East; the [[British Eighth Army|Eighth Army]] confronting the [[Afrika Korps|German Afrika Corps]] and the [[Italian Army]] was commanded successively by Generals Sir [[Alan Cunningham]] and Sir [[Neil Ritchie]]. The first major offensive by Eighth Army, [[Operation Crusader]] in November 1941 resulted in the defeat of much of the British armour and the breakdown of Cunningham. Auchinleck relieved Cunningham, and ordered the battle to continue. Despite heavy losses, the Afrika Korps were driven back to El Agheila. Auchinleck then appointed Ritchie to command Eighth Army, while Auchinleck resumed overall strategic direction of the Middle East theatre. The Afrika Korps retook Benghazi in January of 1942 and then operations ended for the next four months. [[Rommel]]'s attack at Gazala of [[May 25]] [[1942]] was a significant defeat for the British. Eighth Army retreated back into [[Egypt]]; [[Tobruk]] (which was of great political significance to [[Winston Churchill]] but of limited military importance to Auchinleck) fell on [[21 June]]. Once more Auchinleck stepped in to take direct command of the Eighth Army. The German/Italian advance was finally halted at the [[First Battle of El Alamein]] by the Eighth Army, but attempts by Auchinleck to turn the battle into an outright victory were failures.
The Auk, as he was known to his troops, was unfortunate in some of his subordinate senior officers in North Africa: some were incompetent, some were killed and some were captured. Auchinleck - an Indian Army officer - had little direct experience or understanding of British and Dominion troops, which may explain his poor appointments. Auchinleck's desire for the Eighth Army to fight in mobile 'Brigade Groups' rather than Divisions was resisted by many subordinates. His brilliant but erratic chief of staff, [[Eric Dorman-Smith|Dorman-Smith]], was regarded with considerable distrust by many of the senior commanders in Eighth Army. By July 1942 Auchinleck had lost the confidence of Dominion commanders and relations with his British commanders had become strained.
Like his foe Rommel (and his predecessor Wavell), Auchinleck was subjected to constant political interference, having to weather a barrage of hectoring telegrams and instructions from Prime Minister Churchill throughout late 1941 and the spring and summer of 1942. Churchill constantly sought an offensive from Auchinleck, and was (understandably) downcast at the military reverses in Egypt and Cyrenaica. Churchill was desperate for some sort of British victory before the planned Allied landings in North Africa, [[Operation Torch]], scheduled for November 1942. He badgered Auchinleck immediately after the Eighth Army had all but exhausted itself after the first battle of El Alamein. Churchill flew to Cairo in August 1942, purportedly for consultations with Auchinleck, but it is now obvious that Churchill had made up his mind to replace Auchinleck before the meeting. It is believed that Auchinleck refused to order a major offensive before his troops were properly prepared.
He was replaced as C-in-C Middle East by General [[Harold Alexander]] (later Field Marshal Earl Alexander of Tunis) and as GOC Eighth Army by Lt-General [[William Gott]], who was killed in Egypt before taking up command. On Gott's death, Lt-General (later Field Marshal Viscount) [[Bernard Montgomery]] was appointed commander of the Eighth Army. Auchinleck's reputation (along with that of many other officers) subsequently suffered unfairly at the hands of the Montgomery publicity machine, a disservice that was repeated by Churchill in his own war memoirs. Indeed, Montgomery launched his [[Second Battle of El Alamein|El Alamein offensive]] on [[23 October]] 1942, even later than the date proposed by Auchinleck while still in command.
===India===
Churchill offered Auchinleck command of Allied Forces in [[Iran|Persia]] and the Middle East (this having been hived off Alexander's command), but the Auk declined this post, possibly as it was held by his Indian Army friend a |
lling to die for the country he loved, Ernest Hemingway was a non-combatant all the time.
== Background ==
Mr. Hemingway doesn't provide his readers with much information about the family background and the past of Frederic Henry, one simply gets to know that he had quarrels with his relatives and therefore doesn't maintain contact any more. Three family members are briefly mentioned, his mother, sister and grandfather. When asked about his father he states he had none, just a step-father. Maybe Hemingway was still battered by his own father's suicide and therefore removed all information on Frederic's father. Henry came to Italy to study architecture in Rome and, speaking Italian, joined the army for no real reason ("I was a fool"(A Farewell (1.), p. 227)), except for his eagerness for adventure ("In the old days I would have [...] picked a fight"(A Farewell (1.), p. 217)). The sight drafts he receives from his grandfather are the only link to his home, he doesn't pay much attention to his grandfather's letters, the only one mentioned in the whole book is handled in two short lines among many others.
== Character ==
Henry tries to keep from thinking throughout the entire book, maybe he, too, fears getting "gloomy"(For Whom (5.), p. 18), he did not want to get emotionally involved in anything, neither in a love affair nor in the war. He was, in a way, convinced of the need for victory, but stated "It [the war] had nothing to do with me"(A Farewell (1.), p. 34). Talking about military maneuvers, he always referred to the Italian army as "them", thus stressing he doesn't see himself as part of the army as an ideological and patriotic institution. He doesn't report much about violence and death, if it happened, he mentioned it briefly, superficially, always refusing to have any feelings about it, always trying to get away from it. Even when he shot one of the Sergeants, he described it as if he was hunting ("I shot three times and dropped one"(A Farewell (1.), p. 182)), trying not to realize he shot a sentient being.
His attitude towards [[religion]] is a bit strange, though. On the one hand, he often said something around the lines "I had no religion"(A Farewell (1.), p. 289), but on the other hand he prayed not only for Catherine's life but also for his own ("Oh, God, I said, get me out of here."(A Farewell (1.), p. 51)). As a matter of fact, Hemingway was a convert under fire and the line "It is in defeat we become Christian"(A Farewell (1.), p. 160) clearly refers to that. The later statements about having no religion can be explained best by Henry's own words "He [the priest] had always known what I did not know and what, when I learned it, was always able to forget."(A Farewell (1.), p. 13).
Of course, this does not only refer to his religiosity, but also to his opinions about the war. To improve the process of forgetting that enables him to ignore all the violence, he drinks a great lot of alcohol throughout the whole novel ("I'm very brave when I've had a drink"(A Farewell (1.), p. 126)).
== Development ==
The wall of emotional numbness Frederic Henry had set up before the novel started, crumbled when he first met Catherine, he felt he couldn't ignore all the sorrow and pain any longer, and began to separate from the rude society at the mess. This progress started when he proposed Catherine "Let's drop the war"(A Farewell (1.), p. 24) and was completed with the discovery "Then I realized it was over for me"(A Farewell (1.), p. 219), he "had made a separate peace"(A Farewell (1.), p. 217). His discovery had a multitude of reasons. First of all, as an ambulance driver, he had seen quite an amount of bloodshed when he carried off the wounded and dead. He could feel the inhumanity even more intense after his own wounding, when the man in the stretcher above him had a hemorrhage and the blood of the dying soldier slowly dripped on his shirt and nobody did anything about it. Prior to his wounding, he discussed with the ambulance drivers he was commanding. Since they agreed with their colleagues later in the novel, who "don't believe in the war anyway"(A Farewell (1.), p. 194), his sacrifice is rendered in vain, he almost died for nothing. It is worth noting that those eight ambulance drivers are the only soldiers to be described in the novel, therefore they act as representatives of the lower levels of the army hierarchy. Thus both Frederic Henry and the reader get the impression that the war is just wanted by the leaders, who don't care about human life (""How are all the wounded evacuated?" "They are not. [...]" "What will I take in the cars?" "Hospital equipment.""(A Farewell (1.), p. 168)) and the ambitious, like Ettore ("He's the boy they're running the war for"(A Farewell (1.), p. 109)). Furthermore, Frederic's talks with the priest in chapters 11 and 26 made him reach a certain state of awareness that left him more vulnerable to the cruelty surrounding him. He seemed to be most affected by the fate of Rinaldi. His prophecy "This war is killing me"(A Farewell (1.), p. 150) makes him commit "self-destruction day by day"(A Farewell (1.), p. 155). With all these influences, the war's ongoing inhumanity, and the beckoning love of Cathrine, Henry decides to leave it all behind. He condemns the war instead of continuing to support by being an officer.
== Catherine: A vehicle for the women in Hemingway's life ==
More than most of his other figures, Catherine Barkley is not a character by herself, but much more a vehicle for all kinds of experiences Hemingway made in his life so far. First of all, as she enters the novel, she clearly is the counterpart of the already mentioned Hannah Agnes von Kurowsky, later, when Helen Ferguson is with her and especially when Ferguson complained about Henry, Catherine can be viewed upon as an image of Hadley Richardson. In the end, the labor pains and the Cesarean section are a clear reference to Pauline Pfeiffer.
But it is not all that easy. Catherine often says about herself that "There isn't any me any more"(A Farewell (1.), p. 96). Only when she is "self-conscious"(A Farewell (1.), p. 125), she is one of those women. When she is with Frederic, she adopts his ideas and vice versa. They form a unit that serves as an item of reflection for Hemingway's theories about life and death, which are always developed in the discussion of the lovers. She knows the poems he quotes and the books he is talking about, they have got so much in common that it's hard to tell them apart. The following dialogue may illustrate this(A Farewell (1.), pp. 125 through 126):
: "They [the brave] die of course."
: "But only once."
: "I don't know. Who said that?"
: "The coward dies a thousand deaths, the brave but one?"
: "Of course. Who said it?"
: "I don't know."
: "He was probably a coward," she said. "He knew a great deal about cowards but nothing about the brave. The brave dies perhaps two thousand deaths if he's intelligent. He simply doesn't mention them."
: "I don't know. It's hard to see inside the head of the brave."
: "Yes. That's how they keep that way."
Without any former explanation, they always know what the other one is talking about. They develop, without disagreeing or arguing, a philosophy that represents Hemingway's code of courage, called "grace under pressure".
[[Category:Characters in written fiction|Henry, Frederic]]</text>
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<i |
eek Indians, and was named Standing Peachtree. In 1823, the area was opened to white settlement. It remained mostly woods until 1836, when the area was chosen as the southern "Terminus" of a railroad from Chattanooga. A local settlement called "[[John Thrasher#Founding of Atlanta|Thrasherville]]" (near present-day Philips arena, home of the Atlanta Thrashers) was renamed "Terminus," and in 1843 the town was officially named "Marthasville," after the daughter of the governor of Georgia. The business community, however, was concerned that such a name wouldn't sell, and a new name, "Atlanta," was chosen in 1845 as much more marketable. Hence, from the start "Atlanta" began as a transportation hub and marketing center. The town was incorporated as the "city" of Atlanta in 1847, and by 1860 the population was 9,554.
Atlanta was largely destroyed by Union forces during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], but was chosen as the state capital in 1868, having been established as the site of command for Union soldiers and the Reconstruction administration. In the 1880's, a revival was led by newspaperman Henry Grady, who advocated Atlanta as the "capital of the New South." By 1890 Atlanta had 65,000 residents and was one of the 50 largest cities in America, a distinction Atlanta has held for over 110 years. In 1892, Atlanta's first skyscraper, the 8-story Equitable Building, began Atlanta's rise to the skies. The city expanded rapidly from 1900 (89,000) to 1930 (302,000) before growth slowed during the Depression. In the 1960's Atlanta was a center for the [[American Civil Rights Movement]]. In 1970, the city's population topped out at 497,000 before "white flight" to the suburbs dropped the city to 394,000 in 1990. However, in 1996 Atlanta served as the host city for the Centennial [[1996 Summer Olympics]], and the city has rallied to 425,000 by 2004, fueled in part by a new desire for shorter commutes and intown living.
One of the city's nicknames, "The Phoenix City", relates to its rise after the Civil War. The [[Phoenix (mythology)|phoenix]] appears in many of Atlanta's symbols, including its seal and flag. In the 1940s and 1950s, former Atlanta mayor [[William B. Hartsfield]] called Atlanta "The City Too Busy to Hate". In addition, it has also been called the "New York of the South" in response to one of Georgia's own nicknames, "The Empire State of the South." Atlanta may also be known as '''ATL''', a [[colloquialism]] for the city derived from the [[IATA airport code]] for the airport.
Atlanta is circled by [[Interstate 285]], called the "Perimeter" by locals, which has come to delineate the interior of the city from the surrounding suburbs. This has given rise to the terms ITP (inside the Perimeter) and OTP (outside the Perimeter) to describe area neighborhoods, residents, and businesses. In this respect, the Perimeter plays a social and geographical role similar to that of the [[Capital Beltway]] around [[Washington, DC]].
Atlanta has such a great economic impact on the state and the surrounding region that cities and towns up to 100 miles away are considered 'exurbs', defined by the fact that people depend on their livelihoods by commuting to work in the city, rapidly growing what is called [[Atlanta metropolitan area|Metro Atlanta]]. Atlanta is one of the most prosperous cities in the United States and is often referred to as the unofficial "capital of the South." The city is also an especially important cultural and economic center for [[African-American|African-Americans]]; Atlanta has not had a non-black mayor for over 30 years, and in recent decades nearly all Fire Chiefs, Police Chiefs, and other government officials have been African-American.
==History==
The region where Atlanta and its suburbs were built was originally [[Creek people|Creek]] and [[Cherokee]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] territory. The Creek land in the eastern part of the metro area (including Decatur) was opened to white settlement in 1823. In 1835, leaders of the Cherokee nation ceded their land to the government in exchange for land out west under the [[Treaty of New Echota]], an act that eventually led to the [[Trail of Tears]]. In 1836 the [[Georgia General Assembly]] voted to build the [[Western and Atlantic Railroad]] to provide a trade route to the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], with the area around Atlanta--then called [[Terminus]]--serving as the terminal. The terminus was originally planned for [[Decatur, Georgia|Decatur]], but its citizens did not want it. Besides Decatur, several other suburbs of Atlanta predate the city by several years, including [[Marietta, Georgia|Marietta]] and [[Lawrenceville, Georgia|Lawrenceville, GA]]. Terminus grew as a railroad town; later it was renamed [[Marthasville, Georgia|Marthasville]] after then-Governor Wilson Lumpkin's daughter Martha. Marthasville was renamed Atlanta in 1845 and was incorporated as such in 1847.
[[Image:Atlanta1864.jpg|thumbnail|left|A slave auction house on Whitehall St., before Sherman burned Atlanta]]
In 1864, the city became the target of a major Union invasion (the subject of the 1939 film [[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]). The area now covered by Atlanta was the scene of several battles, including the [[Battle of Peachtree Creek]], the [[Battle of Atlanta]], and the [[Battle of Ezra Church]]. On [[September 1]] [[1864]], [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[John Bell Hood]] evacuated Atlanta after a four-month siege mounted by Union General [[William Tecumseh Sherman|William Sherman]] and ordered all public buildings and possible union assets destroyed. The next day, mayor [[James Calhoun]] surrendered the city, and on [[September 7]] Sherman ordered the civilian population to evacuate. He then ordered Atlanta burned to the ground on [[November 11]] in preparation for his punitive march south. After a plea by Father Thomas O'Reilly of Immaculate Conception Catholic Church, Sherman did not burn the city's churches or hospitals. The remaining war resources were then destroyed in the aftermath and in [[Sherman's March to the Sea]]. The fall of Atlanta was a critical point in the Civil War, giving the North more confidence, and leading to the re-election of [[Abraham Lincoln]] and the eventual surrender of the Confederacy.
After the war, Atlanta was gradually rebuilt and soon became the industrial and commercial center of the South. From 1867 until 1888, US Army soldiers occupied McPherson Barracks (later renamed [[Fort McPherson]]) in southwest Atlanta to ensure [[Reconstruction era (United States)|Reconstruction era]] reforms. To help the newly freed slaves, the federal government set up a [[Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands|Freedmen's Bureau]], which helped establish what is now [[Clark Atlanta University]], one of several historically black colleges in Atlanta. In 1868, Atlanta became the fifth city to serve as the state capital. [[Henry W. Grady]], the editor of the ''[[Atlanta Constitution]]'', promoted the city to investors as a city of the "New South," by which he meant a diversification of the economy away from agriculture and a shift from the "Old South" attitudes of slavery and rebellion.
[[Image:Peachtree1907.jpg|thumbnail|In 1907, Peachtree Street, the main street of Atlanta, was busy with streetcars and automobiles.]]
As Atlanta grew, ethnic and racial tensions mounted. A [[race riot]] in 1906 left at least twelve dead and over seventy injured. In 1913, [[Leo Frank]], a Jewish supervisor at an Atlanta factory, was put on trial for raping and murdering a thirteen-year old white employee. After doubts about Frank's guilt led his death sentence to be commuted in 1915, riots broke out in Atlanta and Frank was [[lynching|lynched]].
In the 1930s, the [[Great Depression]] hit Atlanta. With the city government nearing bankruptcy, the [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola Company]] had to help bail out the city's deficit. The federal government stepped in to help Atlantans by establishing [[Techwood Homes]], the nation's first federal [[public housing|housing project]] in 1935. With the entry of the United States into [[World War II]], soldiers from around the southeast went through Atlanta to train and later be discharged at Fort McPherson. War-related manufacturing such as the [[Bell Aircraft]] factory in the suburb of [[Marietta, Georgia|Marietta]] helped boost the city's population and economy. Shortly after the war in 1946, the Communicable Disease Center, later called the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)]] was founded in Atlanta from the old Malaria Control in War Areas offices and staff.
In 1951, the city received the [[All-America City Award]], due to its rapid growth and high standard of living in the southern U.S.
In the 1960s, Atlanta was a major organizing center of the [[American civil rights movement|civil rights movement]], with [[Martin Luther King|Dr. Martin Luther King]] and students from Atlanta's historically black colleges and universities playing major roles in the movement's leadership. On October 19, 1960, a sit-in at the lunch counters of several Atlanta department stores led to the arrest of Dr. King and several students, drawing attention from the national media and from presidential candidate [[John F. Kennedy]]. Despite this incident, Atlanta's political and business leaders fostered Atlanta's image as "the city too busy to hate". In 1961, Mayor Ivan Allen Jr became one of the few Southern white mayors to support desegregation of Atlanta's public schools. While the city mostly avoided confrontation, small race riots did occur in 1965 and in 1968. In 1990, the [[International Olympic Committ |
o a doctrinal requirement or request of the military.” None of them. And to this list, DARPA would add unmanned systems, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) and Internet technologies.
DARPA’s approach is to imagine what capabilities a military commander might want in the future and accelerate those capabilities into being through technology demonstrations. These not only provide options to the commander, but also change minds about what is technologically possible today."
==History==
DARPA was created as the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), by Public Law 85-325 and Department of Defense Directive 5105.41, in February 1958. Its creation was directly attributed to the launching of [[Sputnik]] and to U.S. realization that the [[Soviet Union]] had developed the capacity to rapidly exploit military technology. Additionally, the political and defense communities recognized the need for a high-level Department of Defense organization to formulate and execute R&D projects that would expand the frontiers of technology beyond the immediate and specific requirements of the Military Services and their laboratories. In pursuit of this mission, DARPA has developed and transferred technology programs encompassing a wide range of scientific disciplines which address the full spectrum of national security needs.
From 1958-1965, ARPA's emphasis centered on major national issues, including space, ballistic missile defense, and nuclear test detection. In 1960, all of its civilian space programs were transferred to the [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)]] and the military space programs to the individual Services. This allowed DARPA to concentrate its efforts on the [[DEFENDER (DARPA)|DEFENDER]] (defense against ballistic missiles), [[Project Vela]] (nuclear test detection), and [[AGILE (DARPA)|AGILE]] (counterinsurgency R&D) Programs, and to begin work on computer processing, behavioral sciences, and materials sciences. The DEFENDER and AGILE Programs formed the foundation of DARPA sensor, surveillance, and directed energy R&D, particularly in the study of radars, infrared sensing, and x-ray/gamma ray detection.
In the late 1960s, with the transfer of these mature programs to the Services, ARPA redefined its role and concentrated on a diverse set of relatively small, essentially exploratory research programs. The Agency was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1972, and in the early 1970s, it emphasized direct energy programs, information processing, and tactical technologies.
In the area of information processing, DARPA made great strides, initially through the development of [[time-sharing]] (all modern operating systems are descendants of the [[Multics]] system, which resulted from the work started by DARPA in this area), and later through the evolution of the [[ARPANET]] (a telecommunications network and precursor to the Internet), and research in the [[artificial intelligence|artificial intelligence (AI)]] fields of speech recognition and signal processing. DARPA also funded the development of the [[Douglas Engelbart]]'s [[NLS (computer_system)|NLS computer system]] and the [[Aspen Movie Map]], which was probably the first [[hypermedia]] system and an important precursor of [[virtual reality]].
The controversial [[Mansfield Amendment]] of 1973 expressly limited appropriations for defense research (through ARPA/DARPA) to projects with direct military application. Some contend that the amendment devastated American science, since ARPA/DARPA was a major funding source for basic science projects at the time; the [[National Science Foundation]] never took up the slack as expected. But the resulting [[brain drain]] is also credited with boosting the development of the fledgling personal computer industry. Many young computer scientists fled from the universities to startups and private research labs like [[Xerox PARC]].
From 1976-1981, DARPA's major thrusts were dominated by air, land, sea, and space technology, such as follow-on forces attack with standoff weapons and associated Command, Control, and Communications; tactical armor and anti-armor programs; infrared sensing for space-based surveillance; high-energy laser technology for space-based missile defense; antisubmarine warfare; advanced cruise missiles; advanced aircraft; and defense applications of advanced computing. These large-scale technological program demonstrations were joined by integrated circuit research, which resulted in submicron electronic technology and electron devices that evolved into the Very Large Scale Integration ([[VLSI]]) Program and the Congressionally mandated charged particle beam program. Many of the successful programs were transitioned to the Services, such as the foundation technologies in automatic target recognition, space based sensing, propulsion, and materials that were transferred to the [[Strategic Defense Initiative Organization|Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO)]], now known as the [[Ballistic Missile Defense Organization|Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO)]].
During the 1980s, the attention of the Agency was centered on information processing and aircraft-related programs, including the [[National Aerospace Plane (DARPA)|National Aerospace Plane (NASP)]] or [[Hypersonic Research Program (DARPA)|Hypersonic Research Program]]. The [[Strategic Computing Program (DARPA)|Strategic Computing Program]] enabled DARPA to exploit advanced processing and networking technologies and to rebuild and strengthen relationships with universities after the [[Vietnam War]]. In addition, DARPA began to pursue new concepts for small, lightweight satellites ([[LIGHTSAT (DARPA)|LIGHTSAT]]) and directed new programs regarding defense manufacturing, submarine technology, and armor/anti-armor.
==Current Organization==
DARPA has eight program offices, all of which report to DARPA director Dr. [[Anthony J. Tether]]:
#The [[Advanced Technology Office (DARPA)|Advanced Technology Office (ATO)]] researches, demonstrates, and develops high payoff projects in maritime, communications, special operations, command and control, and information assurance and survivability mission areas.
#The [[Defense Sciences Office (DARPA)|Defense Sciences Office]] vigorously pursues the most promising technologies within a broad spectrum of the science and engineering research communities and develops those technologies into important, radically new military capabilities.
#The [[Information Processing Technology Office (DARPA)|Information Processing Technology Office]] focuses on inventing the networking, computing, and software technologies vital to ensuring DOD military superiority.
#The [[Information Exploitation Office (DARPA)|Information Exploitation Office]] develops sensor and information system technology and systems with application to battle space awareness, targeting, command and control, and the supporting infrastructure required to address land-based threats in a dynamic, closed-loop process.
#The [[Microsystems Technology Office (DARPA)|Microsystems Technology Office]] mission focuses on the heterogeneous microchip-scale integration of electronics, photonics, and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Their high risk/high payoff technology is aimed at solving the national level problems of protection from biological, chemical and information attack and to provide operational dominance for mobile distributed command and control, combined manned/unmanned warfare, and dynamic, adaptive military planning and execution.
#The [[Special Projects Office (DARPA)|Special Projects Office (SPO)]] researches, develops, demonstrates, and transitions technologies focused on addressing present and emerging national challenges. SPO investments range from the development of enabling technologies to the demonstration of large prototype systems. SPO is developing technologies to counter the emerging threat of underground facilities used for purposes ranging from command-and-control, to weapons storage and staging, to the manufacture of weapons of mass destruction. SPO is also developing significantly more cost-effective ways to counter proliferated, inexpensive cruise missiles, UAVs, and other platforms used for weapon delivery, jamming, and surveillance. SPO is investing in novel space technologies across the spectrum of space control applications including rapid access, space situational awareness, counterspace, and persistent tactical grade sensing approaches including extremely large space apertures and structures.
#The [[Tactical Technology Office (DARPA)|Tactical Technology Office]] engages in high-risk, high-payoff advanced military research, emphasizing the "system" and "subsystem" approach to the development of aeronautic, space, and land systems as well as embedded processors and control systems.
#The [[Joint Unmanned Combat Air Systems Office (DARPA)|Joint Unmanned Combat Air Systems (J-UCAS) Office]] is the DARPA activity charged with leading the DoD effort to develop and demonstrate the Joint Unmanned Combat Air Systems.
==Controversy==
DARPA received media attention in 2002 and 2003 after its creation of projects like the [[Information Awareness Office]] and [[Combat Zones That See]] (CTS), which civil liberties activists on both the left wing and right wing claim are unacceptably [[Orwellian]].
==ARPA and DARPA in culture==
In the [[Computer and video games|video game]] series ''[[Metal Gear Solid]]'', both ARPA and DARPA are mentioned as part of the plotline, and references how ARPA eventually became DARPA in the future. Note also the controversial proposal for a [[Policy Analysis Market]], using an electronic futures market to aid allowed trading of futures contracts based on possible political developments in several [[Middle Eastern| Middle East]] countries
==See also==
* '''Active Projects:''' [[Combat Zones That See |
>Added info about TransAmerica Trail</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ORMap-doton-Astoria.png|right|280px]]
[[Image:Astoria Column.jpg|250px|right|thumb|The Astoria Column]]
[[Image:Astoria-Megler.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Astoria.]]
'''Astoria''' is the [[county seat]] of [[Clatsop County, Oregon]]{{GR|6}}, situated near the mouth of the [[Columbia River]]. It was named after the [[United States|American]] investor [[John Jacob Astor]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 9,813.
== History ==
The [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] spent the winter of 1805-1806 at [[Fort Clatsop]], a small log structure south and west of modern day Astoria. The expedition had hoped a ship would come by to take them back east, but instead endured a tortuous winter of rain and cold, then returned east the way they came. Today the fort has been recreated and is now a [[national monument]].
Several years later, in 1811, Astor's [[Pacific Fur Company]] founded [[Fort Astoria]] as its primary fur-trading post in the Northwest, and in fact the first permanent U.S. settlement on the Pacific coast. It was an extremely important post for American exploration of the continent and was influential in helping establish American claims to the land. The fort and fur trade was sold to the British in [[1813]], and while the fort was restored to the U.S. in [[1818]], control of the fur trade would remain under the British until American pioneers following the [[Oregon Trail]] began filtering into the port town in the mid-1840's. The first U.S. Post Office west of the [[Rocky Mountains]] was also established in Astoria in [[1847]].
As the [[Oregon Territory]] grew and became increasingly more settled, Astoria likewise grew as an ocean/river [[port|port city]]. In 1876 the community was legally incorporated. It attracted a host of [[Scandinavian]] settlers, and the area still boasts a high concentration of descendants of these original settlers.
In [[1883]], and again in [[1922]], downtown Astoria was devastated by fire, but the city economy was strong enough in both cases to rebuild and thrive. Astoria has served as a port of entry for over a century and remains the trading center for the lower Columbia basin.
In addition to Fort Clatsop, another popular point of interest includes the [[Astoria Column]], a tower 38 m high built atop the hill above the town, with an inner circular staircase allowing visitors to climb to see a breathtaking view of the town, the surrounding lands, and the mighty Columbia flowing into the Pacific. The column was built in 1926 to commemorate the region's early history by the Astor family.
Eclipsed by [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] and other ports further inland along the Columbia, Astoria's economy centered around fishing, fish processing, and lumber. In 1945, about 30 canneries could be found along the Columbia; however, in 1974 [[Bumblebee Seafood]] moved its headquarters out of Astoria, and gradually reduced its presence until 1980 when the company closed its last cannery. The [[timber industry]] likewise declined, with Astoria Plywood Mill, the city's largest employer, closing in 1989, and the [[Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway]] announcing in 1996 that they were discontinuing service.
Today, tourism, Astoria's growing art scene, and light manufacturing are the main economic activities of the city. It is a port of call for [[cruise ship]]s, with many docking in 2004, 2005, and 13 scheduled in 2006.
Astoria was the setting of the [[1985]] hit movie ''[[The Goonies]]'', which was filmed on location. Other movies filmed in Astoria include ''[[Short Circuit]]'', ''[[Kindergarten Cop]]'', ''[[Free Willy]]'', ''[[Free Willy Two]]'', ''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]] III'', ''[[Benji]]'' and ''[[The Ring Two]]''.
Astoria is also the western terminus of the [[TransAmerica Trail]], a [[bicycle touring]] route created by the [[American Cycling Association]].
== Geography ==
Astoria is located at {{coor dms|46|11|20|N|123|49|16|W}} (46.188825, -123.821007){{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 27.5 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (10.6 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 15.9 km&sup2; (6.1 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 11.6 km&sup2; (4.5 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 42.18% water.
== Demographics ==
[[Image:DSCN6804 astoriawalkingdogontracks e.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Woman walking her dog along the Columbia River in Astoria]]
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 9,813 people, 4,235 households, and 2,469 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 617.1/km&sup2; (1,597.6/mi&sup2;). There are 4,858 housing units at an average density of 305.5/km&sup2; (790.9/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 91.08% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.52% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 1.14% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.94% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.19% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.67% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.46% from two or more races. 5.98% of the population are [[Hispanic American]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 4,235 households out of which 28.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.5% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.2% have a female householder with no husband present, and 41.7% are non-families. 35.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 13.6% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.26 and the average family size is 2.93.
In the city the population is spread out with 24.0% under the age of 18, 9.1% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 24.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.9% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 38 years. For every 100 females there are 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.9 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $33,011, and the median income for a family is $41,446. Males have a median income of $29,813 versus $22,121 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $18,759. 15.9% of the population and 11.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 22.0% of those under the age of 18 and 9.6% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
== Tourist attractions ==
*[http://www.nps.gov/focl/ Fort Clatsop National Memorial]
*[http://www.oregoncoast.com/Astorcol/Astorcol.htm Astoria Column]=
*[[Columbia River Maritime Museum]]
*[http://virtualguidebooks.com/Oregon/OregonCoast/ClatsopSpit/PeterIredaleWreck.html Peter Iredale Wreck]
== External links ==
*[http://www.oldoregon.com/ Official Site for Astoria, Oregon]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|46.188825|-123.821007}}
[[Category:Astoria, Oregon|*]]
[[Category:Cities in Oregon]]
[[Category:County seats in Oregon]]
[[Category:Clatsop County, Oregon]]
[[Category:Oregon Coast]]
[[Category:The Astors]]
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<title>ALF</title>
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<comment>redirect</comment>
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<title>Alarums and Excursions</title>
<id>1866</id>
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<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
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<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Alarums and Excursions''''' ('''''A&E'''''), started in 1975 by Lee Gold, was one of the first [[fanzine]]s to focus on [[role-playing game]]s. Each issue consists of contributions from different authors, often featuring game design discussions, rules variants, write-ups of game sessions, reviews, and comments on others contributions. As one might guess, the quality varies; but with a no advertising policy and a huge range of viewpoints on display, A&E often makes for interesting reading. It was a three time winner of the [[Charles Roberts Award|Charles Roberts]]/[[Origins Award]] for best amateur [[magazine]].
==External links==
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<page>
<title>Alfred Jarry</title>
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<comment>/* External links */ * {{gutenberg author| id=Jarry+Alfred | name=Alfred Jarry}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AlfredJarry.jpg|thumb|178px|right|Alfred Jarry]]
{{French literature (small)}}
'''Alfred Jarry''' ([[September 8]], [[1873]] &ndash; [[November 1]], [[1907]]) was a [[France|French]] [[writer]] born in [[Laval, Mayenne|Laval]], [[Mayenne]], [[France]], not far from the border of [[Brittany]]; he was of [[Brittany|Breton]] descent on his mother's side.
Best known for his [[play]] ''[[Ubu Roi]]'' ([[1896]]), which is often cited as a forerunner to the [[theatre of the absurd]], Jarry wrote in a variety of genres and styles. He wrote plays, novels, poetry, essays and speculative journalism. His texts present some pioneering work in the field of absurdist literature |
r possible sense &mdash; most importantly they are one in purpose.
Mormonism posits most of the same attributes to the members of the Godhead that Trinitarian Christianity posits to the [[Trinity]]: [[omnipotence]], [[omniscience]], [[omnibenevolence]], [[eternal]], [[immutable]], [[immortality]], and [[immanence]] in the universe but not [[transcendence]] of it. However, the meaning held for some of these attributes differ significantly. For example, Mormonism holds that: as the ''creator'', God is the ''organizer'' of the universe since in Mormonism all matter (including sentient beings) that exists has always existed and will always exist; God's omnipotence does not transcend [[logic]], or the basic laws of [[physics]], though mankind may not necessarily understand those laws fully; and God's immutability concerns primarily His creations and His future status, not His status prior to that time.
Although it is not stated in the canonical scriptures, Joseph Smith and other church leaders have taught that God the Father is an exalted man who once lived on an earth similar to this one, like His Son Jesus Christ. Joseph Smith reportedly said:
:These are incomprehensible ideas to some, but they are simple. It is the first principle of the Gospel to know for a certainty the Character of God, and to know that we may converse with him as one man converses with another, and that he was once a man like us; yea, that God himself, the Father of us all, dwelt on an earth, the same as Jesus Christ himself did; and I will show it from the Bible. ([[Joseph Fielding Smith]], ''Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith'', pp. 345-46.)
It is implied that God may have lived a mortal life and passed through death, being resurrected and eventually progressing to godhood. The creation story in Genesis would begin sometime after this point.
Latter-day Saints generally also believe, although it is not canonical, that God is eternally married to a [[Heavenly Mother]]. Heavenly Mother is believed to be entirely equal in status to Heavenly Father, a celestial [[Goddess]] and God, respectively, forever married to one another and preserving differing yet complementary roles of deity, although She is not explicitly referred to in doctrine, scripture, or other Church canons. For members of the Church, much of this idea simply follows logically and comfortably from the doctrine that one man and one woman must be sealed together in holy matrimony if they aim to progress eventually to the highest level in the eternities (logic: If I must be sealed to a man/woman to become like God, then God must have been sealed to a woman.). Her existence is referred to briefly in the Church hymn titled ''[[O My Father (hymn)|O My Father]]'' (Hymn number 292), and it is presumed from Church teachings proclaiming that each person is a "spirit son or daughter of heavenly parents" (See [[The Family: A Proclamation to the World]]). Thus, Her existence is subtly acknowledged by Church members and leadership, but She is not worshipped nor is made the object of prayer. It is commonly surmised that She is deliberately and safely protected in anonymity by Heavenly Father, whereby no human knows Her name.
While those outside the Church refer to the Church's doctrine of the godhead as [[Polytheism|polytheistic]], Latter-day Saints would more accurately be portrayed as [[Henotheism|henotheistic or monolatristic]]. However, as a matter of worship, LDS believe in one God as taught in the Scriptures. This God is represented in God the Father, His Son Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost. [[Protestantism|Protestant]], [[Anglican Communion|Anglican]], [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodox]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Churches|Eastern Orthodox]] Christian churches insist their religion is [[Monotheism|monotheistic]]; that is, God is One in Being (ousia) and simultaneously Three, namely the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, in Persons (hypostases). Though the existence of other gods or divine beings is acknowledged by the Church and its members, this fact is considered almost irrelevant to salvation: the other gods&mdash;which Latter-day Saints would refer to as exalted beings&mdash;have no impact on this sphere of existence, nor is their eternal role defined.
Despite the Church's name, its focus on Jesus as the Savior of mankind, its "[[family values]]", and many of the [[Gospel]] teachings it shares with other branches of Christianity, many theologians and members of those other branches consider the difference between LDS practices and doctrines&mdash;such as the contrast between the Church's doctrine of the Godhead and the mainstream Christian doctrine of the [[trinitarianism|Holy Trinity]]&mdash;so fundamental that they do not regard Latter-day Saints as Christians. (See [[Mormonism and Christianity]].) In their view, a non-trinitarian understanding of Jesus Christ makes His saving grace null and void, and Latter-day Saints will be damned because of the differences in their understanding of Christ. [[Latter-day Saint]]s counter that it is mainstream Christianity that misunderstands the nature of God. They hold that the mainstream concept of God was corrupted by the introduction of [[Platonic realism]], [[Neoplatonism]], and extreme [[Ascetic|Asceticism]] into the early Christian church and that these influences continued through the [[Great Apostasy]].
Latter-day Saints do not use the [[Christian cross]] or [[crucifix]] as a symbol of their faith. Most modern Latter-day Saints choose to focus upon Jesus' life, atonement, and resurrection, not his death. LDS also believe that the one over-riding sign of being a Christian is that one lives Christ's teachings.
One of the most commonly used visual symbols of the Church is the trumpeting angel Moroni, proclaiming the restoration of the true gospel to the Earth (usually identified as the angel mentioned in Revelation 14:6&ndash;7); and a statue depicting the angel often tops the tallest spire of LDS temples. Another common symbol members use are the letters CTR, meaning "Choose the Right", taken from the name and motto of a children's Primary class.
''See also:'' [[Godhead (Mormonism)]]; [[King Follett Discourse]]
=== Church leadership and the priesthood ===
[[image:Hinckley_message.jpg|thumb|[[Gordon B. Hinckley]] is seen by church members as [[God]]'s [[prophet]] upon the Earth today.]]
The head of the church is termed [[Presidents of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|President]], whom the members revere as the [[Prophet]], seer, and revelator. He is entitled to receive revelation from God to guide the church and the world as His mouthpiece on the earth. Other general, area, and local authorities of the church include [[Apostle (Mormonism)|Apostle]]s, [[Seventy|Seventies]], [[Stake (Mormonism)|Stake President]]s, [[Bishop]]s, and other [[quorum]] presidents. The president of the church serves as such until death, after which the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]] will meet, pray, and under the leadership of the senior apostle, receive revelation as to whom the next prophet should be. Although not specified by revelation, the senior apostle has historically become the new President of the church. General Authorities work full-time for the church, and those that need it receive a stipend from the church.
Lay clergy has a strong tradition in the church, as area and local authorities are unpaid and continue in their normal occupations while serving in leadership positions. Some positions are limited to priesthood holders, with qualifications usually related to the particular calling (e.g., women for the [[Relief Society]], men for the priesthood quorums.) In [[1978]], an official declaration of the First Presidency reported that a revelation had been received by church President [[Spencer W. Kimball]] directing that all worthy men be allowed to receive the priesthood. From [[1849]] until [[1978]], men of African descent had not been permitted to receive the priesthood although they could become members and serve within the church. (Persons of other dark-skinned ethnicities not of African descent, such as the Maori, could receive the priesthood prior to this time, provided they were called by revelation. See [[Blacks and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].)
As the church has no general salaried ministry, thousands of Latter-day Saints around the world participate in leading their congregations in their spare time for a period of a few years, while they continue their normal employment.
''See'' [[Priesthood (Mormonism)]]; [[First Presidency]]; [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]]; [[General Authority]]; [[Apostle (Mormonism)]]
=== The Plan of Salvation===
The gospel of [[Jesus Christ]], restored in its fullness by God through Joseph Smith, is known as the '''[[Plan of Salvation]]''' (or the Plan of Happiness), and is designed to bring about the immortality and eternal life of mankind. It includes the Creation, the Fall, and the Atonement, along with all God-given laws, ordinances, and doctrines. After this life is the Resurrection, and Judgement.
Latter-day Saints believe that "through the [[Atonement]] of Christ, all mankind may be saved, by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the [[Gospel]]." (See Third [[Articles of Faith#Mormon|Article of Faith]].) Mankind may thus return to live with God as glorified, eternal beings. However, the conditions that Christ requires individuals to fulfil do not of themselves merit salvation, but are required for other reasons. It is only through His merits, mercy, and grace that salvation comes.
The gift of [[immortality]] is also believed to be freely given to all because of Jesus' sacrifice on the cross and his subsequent [[Resurrection of Jesus |Resurrection]] (See [http://scriptures.lds.org/1_cor/15/22 1 Corinthians 15:22]), although salvatio |
[[Druze]] men have been conscripted in the same way as Jewish men, at the request of the Druze community. Men studying full-time in religious institutions can get a deferment from conscription. Most [[Haredi Judaism|''Haredi'' Jews]] extend these deferments until they are too old to be conscripted, a practice that has fueled much controversy in Israel.
Following compulsory service, Israeli men become part of the IDF reserve forces, and are usually required to serve several weeks every year as reservists until their 40s.
While the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] suspects Israel to be a state possessing nuclear weapons, the government has never confirmed nor denied this assertion. Israel has not ratified the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]].
== Economy ==
[[Image:Natbag2000 from-the-air.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Ben Gurion Airport]] is an important hub for [[international trade]] and [[tourism]]]]
{{main|Economy of Israel}}
Israel has a technologically advanced market economy with substantial government participation. It depends on imports of [[fossil fuels]] ([[crude oil]], [[natural gas]], and [[coal]]), [[grains]], [[beef]], raw materials, and military equipment. Despite limited natural resources, Israel has intensively developed its agricultural and industrial sectors over the past 20 years. Israel is largely self-sufficient in food production except for grains and beef. Diamonds, high-technology, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables and flowers) are leading exports. Israel usually posts sizable [[current account deficit|current account deficits]], which are covered by large transfer payments from abroad and by foreign loans. Israel possesses extensive facilities for [[oil refining]], [[diamond#The diamond industry|diamond polishing]], and [[semiconductor]] fabrication.
Roughly half of the government's external debt is owed to the [[United States]], which is its major source of economic and military aid. A relatively large fraction of Israel's external debt is held by [[Individual investor|individual investors]], via the [[Israel Bonds]] program. The combination of American loan guarantees and direct sales to individual investors, allow the state to borrow at competitive and sometimes below-market rates.
The influx of Jewish immigrants from the former [[USSR]] topped 750,000 during the period [[1989]]–[[1999]], bringing the population of Israel from the former [[Soviet Union]] to one million, one-sixth of the total population, and adding scientific and professional expertise of substantial value for the economy's future. The influx, coupled with the opening of new markets at the end of the [[Cold War]], energized Israel's economy, which grew rapidly in the early [[1990s]]. But growth began slowing in [[1996]] when the government imposed tighter fiscal and monetary policies and the immigration bonus petered out. Those policies brought inflation down to record low levels in [[1999]].
High technology industries have taken a pre-eminent role in the economy, particularly in the last decade. Israel’s limited natural resources and strong emphasis on education have also played key roles in directing industry towards high technology fields. As a result of the country’s success in developing cutting edge technologies in software, communications and the life sciences, Israel is frequently referred to as a second Silicon Valley. Israel (as of 2004) receives more venture capital investment than any country in Europe, and has the largest VC/GDP rate in the world, seven times that of the United States.
Another leading industry is tourism, which benefits from the plethora of important historical sites for Judaism and Christianity and from Israel’s warm climate and access to water resources. The diamond industry is also of importance, but it has been impacted by changing industry conditions and shifts of certain industry activities to the Far East.
As Israel has liberalized its economy and reduced taxes and spending, the gap between the rich and poor has grown. As of 2005, 20.5% of Israeli families (and 34% of Israeli children) are living below the poverty line, though around 40% of those are lifted above the poverty line through transfer payments.
Israel's GDP per capita, as of [[28 July]], [[2005]], was $20,551.20 per person (42nd in the world). Israel's overall productivity was $54,510.40, and the amount of patents granted was 74/1,000,000 people.
==Population==
=== Demographics ===
[[Image:Israeli soldiers and Arabs .jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Israeli Arabs|Arab Israeli]] soldiers and civilians in [[Galilee]], 1978]]
{{main|Demographics of Israel}}
According to Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics, at the end of [[2004]], of Israel's 6.9 million people, 76.2% were [[Jew]]s, 19.5% [[Arab]]s, and 4.3% "others".[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_01.pdf]
Among Jews, 68% were [[Sabra (person)|Sabras]] (Israeli-born), mostly second- or third-generation Israelis, and the rest are [[oleh|olim]] — 22% from [[Europe]] and the [[Americas]], and 10% from [[Asia]] and [[Africa]], including the [[Arab world|Arab countries]].[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_24.pdf]
Israel has two official languages; [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (''See also:'' [[Languages of Israel]]). Hebrew is the major and primary language of the state and is spoken by the majority of the population. Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority and by some members of the [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahi]] and [[Yemenite Jews|Teimani]] Jewish communities. [[English language|English]] is studied in school and is spoken by the majority of the population as a second language. Other languages spoken in Israel include [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and [[French language|French]]. American and European popular television shows are commonly presented. Newspapers can be found in all languages listed above as well as others, such as [[Persian language|Farsi]].
As of [[2004]], 224,200 Israeli citizens lived in the [[West Bank]] in numerous [[Israeli settlement]]s, (including towns such as [[Ma'ale Adummim]] and [[Ariel, West Bank|Ariel]], and a handful of communities that were present long before the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]] and were re-established after the [[Six-Day War]] such as [[Hebron]] and [[Gush Etzion]]). Around 180,000 Israelis lived in [[East Jerusalem]] [http://fmep.org/settlement_info/stats_data/jerusalem/east_jerusalem_population_area_2000-2002.html], which came under Israeli law following its capture from Jordan during the Six-Day War. About 8,500 Israelis lived in settlements built in the [[Gaza Strip]], prior to their evacuation by the government in the summer of [[2005]] as part of [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan]].
===Culture in Israel===
[[Image:Israel-1948-prestate-stamps-Hebrew-mail.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The first stamps, designed before the new state adopted its name, featured ancient Jewish coins and the text "Hebrew mail" in Hebrew and Arabic languages]]
{{main|Culture of Israel}}
{{seealso|Archaeology of Israel|Israel Antiquities Authority|Music of Israel|List of Israeli artists|Science and technology in Israel|Hatikva|Kibbutz|Gay rights in Israel}}
=== Religion in Israel ===
{{main|Religion in Israel}}
According to Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics, at the end of 2004, 76.2% of Israelis were [[Judaism|Jews]] by religion, 16.1% were [[Muslims]], 2.1% [[Christian]], 1.6% [[Druze]] and the remaining 3.9% (including [[Russians|Russian]] immigrants and some [[Jews]]) were not classified by religion.[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_01.pdf] Israel is not a [[theocracy]], and religions other than Judaism are supported.
[[Image:Israel 1 027.Young male religious Jews.jpg|thumb|250px|Young [[Haredi]] men in [[Jerusalem]].]]
Roughly 6% of Israeli Jews define themselves as ''[[haredi]]m'' (ultra-orthodox religious); an additional 9% are "religious"; 34% consider themselves "traditionalists" (not strictly adhering to Jewish [[Halakha]]); and 51% are "secular" (termed "hiloni"). Among the seculars, 53% believe in God.
Israelis tend not to align themselves with a movement of [[Judaism]] (such as [[Reform Judaism]] or [[Conservative Judaism]]) but instead tend to define their religious affiliation by degree of their religious practice.
Of [[Israeli Arabs|Arab Israelis]], 82.6% were Muslim, 8.8% were [[Christian]] and 8.4% were [[Druze]].[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_01.pdf]
{{seealso|Holidays and events in Israel|Judaism in Israel}}
==References and footnotes==
{{note|Jerusalem}}[[Jerusalem]] is Israel's officially designated capital, and the location of its presidential residence, government offices and the [[Knesset]], Israel's Parliament. In [[1980]], the Israeli Knesset confirmed Jerusalem's status as the nation's "eternal and indivisible capital", by passing the ''[[Jerusalem Law|Basic Law: Jerusalem — Capital of Israel]]''. However, the [[United Nations]] disapproved this designation and considers [[Tel Aviv]] as Israel's capital [http://daccess-ods.un.org/access.nsf/Get?Open&DS=A/RES/36/120&Lang=E] . The international community argues that Israel's capture of the eastern half of Jerusalem from Jordan during the Six Day War was in violation of international law, and that the final issue of the status of Jerusalem will be determined in future Israeli-Palestinian negotiations. Therefore, nearly all countries maintain their embassies in [[Tel Aviv]] [http://cia.gov./cia/publications/factbook/geos/is.html]. See the article on [[Jerusalem]] for more.
<sup>2</sup> For a short period in the [[1990s]] the prime minister was directly elected by the electorate. This change was not viewed a success and was abandoned.
*{{Web reference | author |
(CAB). CAA was responsible for ATC, airman and aircraft certification, safety enforcement, and airway development. CAB was entrusted with safety rulemaking, accident investigation, and economic regulation of the airlines. Both organizations were part of the Department of Commerce. Unlike CAA, however, CAB functioned independently of the Secretary.
On the eve of America's entry into World War II, CAA began to extend its ATC responsibilities to takeoff and landing operations at airports. This expanded role eventually became permanent after the war. The application of radar to ATC helped controllers in their drive to keep abreast of the postwar boom in commercial air transportation. In 1946, meanwhile, Congress gave CAA the added task of administering the federal-aid airport program, the first peacetime program of financial assistance aimed exclusively at promoting development of the nation's civil airports.
The approaching era of jet travel, and a series of midair collisions, prompted passage of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958. This legislation gave the CAA's functions to a new independent body, the Federal Aviation Agency. The act transferred air safety rulemaking from the CAB to the new FAA, and also gave the FAA sole responsibility for a common civil-military system of air navigation and air traffic control. The FAA's first administrator, Elwood R. Quesada, was a former Air Force general and advisor to President Eisenhower.
The same year witnessed the birth of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), created in the wake of the Soviet launching of the first artificial satellite. NASA assumed NACA's role of aeronautical research while achieving world leadership in space technology and exploration.
In 1967, a new U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) combined major federal responsibilities for air and surface transport. FAA's name changed to the Federal Aviation Administration as it became one of several agencies within DOT. At the same time, a new National Transportation Safety Board took over the CAB's role of investigating aviation accidents.
The FAA gradually assumed additional functions. The hijacking epidemic of the 1960s had already brought the agency into the field of civil aviation security, a responsibility now primarily taken by the Department of Homeland Security. The FAA became more involved with the environmental aspects of aviation in 1968 when it received the power to set aircraft noise standards. Legislation in 1970 gave the agency management of a new airport aid program and certain added responsibilities for airport safety. During the 1960s and 1970s the FAA also started to regulate high altitude (over 500 feet) kite and balloon flying.
By the mid-1970s, the FAA had achieved a semi-automated air traffic control system using both radar and computer technology. This system required enhancement to keep pace with air traffic growth, however, especially after the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 phased out the CAB's economic regulation of the airlines. A nationwide strike by the air traffic controllers union in 1981 forced temporary flight restrictions but failed to shut down the airspace system. During the following year, the agency unveiled a new plan for further automating its air traffic control facilities, but progress proved disappointing. In 1994, the FAA shifted to a more step-by-step approach that has provided controllers with advanced equipment.
In the 1990s, satellite technology received increased emphasis in the FAA's development programs as a means to improvements in communications, navigation, and airspace management. In 1995, the agency assumed responsibility for safety oversight of commercial space transportation, a function begun eleven years before by an office within DOT headquarters.
==List of FAA Administrators==
* [[Elwood R. Quesada]] (1958-1961)
* [[Najeeb Halaby]] (1961-1965)
* [[William F. McKee]] (1965-1968)
* [[John H. Schaffer]] (1969-1973)
* [[Alexander Butterfield]] (1973-1975)
* [[John L. McLucas]] (1975-1977)
* [[Langhorne M. Bond]] (1977-1981)
* [[J. Lynn Helms]] (1981-1984)
* [[Donald D. Engen]] (1984-1987)
* [[T. Allen McArtor]] (1987-1989)
* [[James B. Busey]] (1989-1991)
* [[Thomas C. Richards]] (1992-1993)
* [[David R. Hinson]] (1993-1996)
* [[Jane Garvey]] (1997-2002)
* [[Marion Blakey]] (2002-Present)
== See also ==
* [[Federal Aviation Regulations]]
* [[Air traffic control]]
* [[Aircraft registration]]
* [[Free flight (air traffic control)]]
* [[Transportation Security Administration]]
* [[Federal Air Marshal]]
* [[Small Aircraft Transportation System]]
== External links ==
* http://www.faa.gov/
* [http://www.famaonline.com Federal Air Marshal Association]
[[Category:Federal Aviation Administration]]
[[Category:Aviation authorities]]
[[Category:United States Department of Transportation]]
[[Category:Aviation in the United States]]
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{{French Revolution}}
The '''French Revolution''' ([[1789]]-[[1799]]) was a period in the history of [[France]]. During this time, [[republicanism]] replaced the [[absolute monarchy]] in France, and the French sector of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] was forced to undergo radical restructuring. While France would oscillate among republic, empire, and monarchy for 75 years after the [[French First Republic|First Republic]] fell to a ''[[coup d'état]]'' by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], the revolution nonetheless spelled a definitive end to the ''[[Ancien Régime]]''. It eclipses the subsequent revolutions of [[July Revolution|1830]] and [[The Revolutions of 1848 in France|1848]] in the popular imagination. It is widely seen as a major turning point in continental European history, from the age of [[political absolutism|absolutism]] to that of the [[citizenship|citizenry]], and even of the masses, as the dominant political force.
== Causes ==
{{main|Causes of the French Revolution}}
A number of factors led to the revolution. To some extent, the old order succumbed to its own rigidity in the face of a changing world. To some extent, it fell to the ambitions of a rising [[bourgeoisie]], allied with aggrieved peasants, wage-earners, and individuals of all classes who had come under the influence of the ideas of [[the Enlightenment]]. As the revolution proceeded, and as power devolved from the monarchy to legislative bodies, the conflicting interests of these initially allied groups would become the source of conflict and bloodshed.
Causes of the French Revolution include the following:
* A bad economic situation, as well as an unmanageable national [[debt]], were both caused and exacerbated by the burden of a grossly inequitable system of [[tax|taxation]] and [[France]]'s funding of the [[American Revolution]].
* A resentment of royal [[political absolutism|absolutism]].
* An aspiration for liberty and republicanism
* A resentment of [[Manorialism]] (seigneurialism) by peasants, wage-earners, and, to a lesser extent, the bourgeoisie
* The rise of [[the Enlightenment|enlightenment]] ideals.
* [[Food]] scarcity in the months immediately before the revolution.
* High [[unemployment]] and high bread prices resulting in the inability to purchase food.
* A resentment of noble privilege and dominance in public life by the ambitious professional classes.
* A resentment of religious intolerance.
* The failure of Louis XVI to deal effectively with these phenomena.
== Proto-Revolutionary Activity ==
{{main|Proto-Revolutionary Activity to the French Revolution}}
[[Image:Taking of the Bastille.jpg|right|350px|thumb|The storming of the Bastille, July 14 1789]]
Proto-revolutionary activity started when the French king [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] (reigned [[1774]]-[[1792]]) faced a crisis in the royal finances. The French crown, which fiscally equated the French state, owed considerable debt. During the régimes of [[Louis XV of France | Louis XV]] (ruled [[1715]]-[[1774]]) and Louis XVI, several different ministers, including [[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune|Turgot]] (Controller-General of Finances [[1774]]-[[1776]]), and [[Jacques Necker]] (Director-General of Finances [[1777]]-[[1781]]), unsuccessfully proposed to revise the French tax system to a more uniform system. Such measures encountered consistent resistance from the ''[[parlement]]s'' (law courts), dominated by the "Robe Nobility", which saw themselves as the nation's guardians against despotism, as well as from court factions, and both ministers were ultimately dismissed. [[Charles Alexandre de Calonne]], who became Controller-General of the Finances in [[1783]], pursued a strategy of conspicuous spending as a means of convincing potential creditors of the confidence and stability of France's finances.
However, Calonne, having conducted a lengthy review of France's financial situation, determined that it was not sustainable, and proposed a uniform [[land tax]] as a means of setting France's finances in order in the long term. In the short-ter |
arted out playing jazz, they decided to embrace rock in order to counter claims that they were beginning to sound like the [[Temperance Seven]]. (In fact a former member, [[Bob Kerr]], went on to create his own band [[Bob Kerr's Whoopee Band]] which combined the lunacy of the early Bonzo sound with music having a great deal in common with the [[Temperance Seven]]).
As the band's fame increased, they appeared as the resident band on ''[[Do Not Adjust Your Set]]'', a children's show notable for having several future members of ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' and [[David Jason]] in the cast.
Their first album ''Gorilla'' included ''Jazz, Delicious Hot, Disgusting Cold'' which savagely parodied their early 'trad' jazz roots and featured some of the most deliberately inept jazz playing ever recorded. ''The Intro and the Outro'' in which every member of the band introduced and played a solo, started with genuine band members:
:Hi there, nice to be with you, happy you could stick around.
:Like to introduce "Legs" Larry Smith, drums
:And Sam Spoons, rhythm pole
:And Vernon Dudley Bohay-Nowell, bass guitar
:And Neil Innes, piano.
:Come in Rodney Slater on the saxophone
:With Roger Ruskin Spear on tenor sax.
:Hi, Vivian Stanshall, trumpet.
before including such improbable members as:
:Big hello to big [[John Wayne]], xylophone
:Looking very relaxed [[Adolf Hitler]] on vibes
:[[Eric Clapton]] on ukulele ''[it was actually Clapton playing]'',
:Yeah! Digging [[Charles de Gaulle|General de Gaulle]] on accordion.
:Really wild, General! Thank you, sir.
:[[Roy Rogers]] on [[Trigger (horse)|Trigger]] ''[sound of flowing liquid]''.
:We welcome [[Val Doonican]] as himself. ''[Irish voice repeats "Hello there"]''.
Much later, Stanshall was to provide an introduction on [[Mike Oldfield]]'s first instrumental album, [[Tubular Bells]], which echoed the style of The Intro, but without the blatant absurdities.
==Urban Spaceman et al.==
They had a hit single in 1967 with ''I'm the Urban Spaceman'' which was produced by [[Paul McCartney]] under the pseudonym "Apollo C. Vermouth". [[The Beatles]] were great fans of the group and they featured them performing the song ''[[Death Cab for Cutie (song)|Death Cab for Cutie]]'' in their film ''[[Magical Mystery Tour (film)|Magical Mystery Tour]]''. Their anarchic song ''Trouser Press'' &mdash; featuring a solo by Roger Ruskin Spear on a genuine trouser press he had fitted with a pickup &mdash; gave its name to an American anglophiliac rock magazine ([[Trouser Press]]. ''Can Blue Men Sing the Whites?'' lampooned the British blues boom, and tap dancer/drummer "Legs" Larry Smith was an onstage hit with his lubricous dancing. Another notable number, ''Humanoid Boogie'' [[roots of rap music|presaged rap music]]. Many of their songs parodied parochial suburban British attitudes, notably ''My Pink Half of the Drainpipe'' on the album ''The Doughnut in Granny's Greenhouse'' (a euphemism for a toilet built in a back garden).
[[Image:Bonzo.jpg|Thumb|200px|left]]
In [[1969]] they released the album ''Keynsham'' (1969) and also appeared at the [[Isle of Wight Festival]].
The Bonzos toured the [[United States]] with [[The Who]] and also appeared at the [[Fillmore East]] with [[The Kinks]]. Intro'd as a "warm-up act" for the real show, the Bonzos rushed out and did a series of frenetic [[calisthenics]]. True to the dada spirit, Stanshall performed a mock [[striptease]] and Roger Ruskin Spear, with a platoon of robots (including one that sang ''[[I'm Forever Blowing Bubbles]]'' while actually blowing bubbles), did whatever he did without regard for what the rest of the band was doing. As for ''The Canyons of Your Mind'', it featured such an incredibably bad [[guitar solo]] it drove audiences to open-mouthed delight. Before long, many larger bands would not play with Bonzo support because no one wanted to see the Bonzos leave the stage, which meant no one wanted to see the top-of-the-bill arrive on the stage.
One of the Bonzos' song titles, ''[[Cool Britannia]]'', was revived as a label for a supposed trend in the UK media following the 1997 election of a [[Labour]] government (oblivious of the patently satirical intent of the original song).
==The band's line-up==
The line-up varied, sometimes on a weekly basis and a list (although incomplete) of members would include: [[Vivian Stanshall]] on trumpet, [["Happy" Wally Wilks]], [[Tom Parkinson]], [[Chris Jennings]], [[Claude Abbo]], [[Trevor Brown]], [[Tom Hedge]], [[Rodney Slater (musician)|Rodney "Rhino" Desborough Slater]] on saxophone, [[Eric Idle]], [[Neil Innes]] on piano and guitar, [[Roger Ruskin Spear]] on tenor sax, [[Vernon Dudley Bohay-Nowell]] on electric guitar, [[Eric Clapton]] on ukulele, [[Elton John]], [[Paul McCartney]], [[Martin "Sam Spoons" Ash]] on the rhythm pole, [[Leon Williams]], [[John Parry]], [[Raymond Lewitt]], [[Sydney "Big Sid" Nicholls]], [["Legs" Larry Smith]] on drums, [[James "Jim Strobes" Chambers]], [[Bob Kerr]], [[Dave Clague]], [[Joel Druckman]], [["Borneo" Fred Munt]], [[Chalky Chalkey]], [[Dennis Cowan]], [[Aynsley Dunbar]] on drums, [[Jim Capaldi]] on drums, [[Anthony 'Bubs' White]] on guitar, [[Andy Roberts]],[[ Dave Richards]], [[Dick Parry]], [[Hughie Flint]] and [[Glen Colson]].
"Legs" Larry Smith toured with Clapton and [[Elton John]] and can be heard tap dancing on John's ''I Think I'm Going to Kill Myself''.
[[Image:Neil Innes sings Hello Mabel flanked by Vivian Stanshall and Legs Larry Smith.jpg|thumb|300px|center|[[Neil Innes]] sings ''Hello Mabel'' on ''[[Do Not Adjust Your Set]]'', flanked by [[Vivian Stanshall]] (left) and "Legs" Larry Smith.]]
==January 2006 reunion: Bonzo Dog Doo Dah Band Revisited==
On [[Saturday]], [[January 28]] [[2006]] many surviving members of the band reformed and played a concert at the [[Astoria]], [[London]]. Neil Innes, "Legs" Larry Smith, Roger Ruskin Spear, Rodney Slater, Sam Spoons and Vernon Dudley Bohay-Nowell appeared. There was also a number of special guests, including; [[Stephen Fry]], [[Ade Edmondson]], [[Phill Jupitus]] and [[Paul Merton]]. Their trademark stage antics were very much in evidence including performances on the [[Theremin]] Leg and Trouser Press. Tickets for the event sold out within two days. The show was filmed and it is believed that a [[DVD]] will be released in October 2006.
==Discography==
===Studio albums===
*[[1967]] ''Gorilla''
*[[1968]] ''The Doughnut in Granny's Greenhouse'' (chart #40)
*[[1969]] ''Tadpoles'' (chart #36)
*[[1969]] ''Keynsham''
*[[1972]] ''Let's Make up and Be Friendly''
*Note: ''The Doughnut in Granny's Greenhouse'' was released as ''Urban Spaceman'' in the US.
===Singles===
*[[1966]] ''My Brother Makes the Noises for the Talkies''
*[[1966]] ''Alley Oop''
*[[1967]] ''Equestrian Statue''
*[[1968]] ''I'm the Urban Spaceman'' (chart #5)
*[[1969]] ''Mr Apollo''
*[[1969]] ''I Want To Be With You''
*[[1972]] ''King of Scurf'' (US) / ''Slush'' (UK)
*[[1992]] ''No Matter Who You Vote For the Government Always Gets In (Heigh Ho)''
===Compilations and miscellaneous===
*[[1970]] ''The Best of the Bonzos''
*[[1974]] ''The History of the Bonzos''
*[[1984]] ''The Very Best of the Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band''
*[[1990]] ''The Bestiality of the Bonzos''
*[[1990]] ''The Best of the Bonzo Dog Band''
*[[1992]] ''Cornology''
*[[1995]] ''Unpeeled''
*[[1999]] ''Anthropology: The Beast Within''
*[[2002]] ''The Peel Sessions''
==See also==
*[[The Alberts]]
*[[The Rutles]]
==External links==
*[http://www.iankitching.me.uk/music/bonzos/ ''The Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band'' by Ian Kitching]
**Extremely detailed fan site, with additions being made over a period of eleven years.
*[http://www.trouserpress.com/entry.php?a=bonzo_dog_doo_dah_band The Bonzo Dog Band at ''The Trouser Press'']
**A superior discography and critique of all the studio albums plus notable compilations from a music publication named after a Bonzo's song.
*[http://www.geocities.com/fredpipes/blog/2006/01/bonzo-dog-doo-dah-band-revisited.html ''The Bonzo Dog Doo Dah Band Revisited'']
**A fan's review of the January 2006 reunion concert.
*[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,14936-2016850,00.html ''The Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band Revisited'']
**Review, ''[[The Times]]'', [[January 31]], [[2006]].
[[Category:English musical groups]]
[[Category:Comedy musicians]]
[[de:Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brentwood, Essex</title>
<id>4559</id>
<revision>
<id>41015097</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T14:20:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Peter Hobday</username>
<id>209329</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Other information */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox England place with map|
|Place= Brentwood
|Map = Brentwood - Essex dot.png
|Population = 44,800
|District= [[Brentwood (borough)|Brentwood]]
|County= [[Essex]]
|Region= [[East of England]]
|Ceremonial= [[Essex]]
|Traditional= [[Essex]]
|Police= [[Essex Police]]
|Constituency= [[Brentwood and Ongar (UK Parliament constituency)|Brentwood and Ongar]]
|PostalTown= BRENTWOOD
|PostCode= CM14
|DiallingCode= 01277
|GridReference= TQ605935
|Euro= [[East of England (European Parliament constituency)|East of England]]
}}
'''Brentwood''' is a town in [[Essex]], [[England]] and part of the [[London commuter belt]]. Its center is situated 2 miles (3.2 km) east north-east of junction 28 of the [[M25 motorway]] and 20 miles (32.2 km) east north-east of Charing Cross in [[London]].
The [[Brentwood (borough)|borough of Brentwood]], which is the local govern |
ahod]], [[India]]
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Death:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|[[March 3]], [[1707]]
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Succeeded by:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|[[Bahadur Shah I]]
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Marriage:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|
*[[Rabia Durrani]]
*[[Dilras Bano Begam]]
|-
|align=left style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|'''Children:'''||style="border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid"|
*[[Bahadur Shah I]], son<br>
*[[Azam Shah]], son<br>
*[[Muhammad Kam Bakshh]], son<br>
*[[Zebunnisa]], daughter<br>
|}
Aurangzeb (from [[Persian language|Persian]], اورنگزیب meaning "befitting the throne"),([[November 3]], [[1618]] &ndash; [[March 3]], [[1707]], also known as '''Alamgir I''', was the ruler of the [[Mughal Empire]] from 1658 until 1707. He was and is a very controversial figure in [[India]]n history.
Unlike his predecessors, Aurangzeb led a remarkably austere and pious life. Strict adherence to [[Islam]] and [[Sharia]] (Islamic law)&mdash;as he interpreted them&mdash;were the foundations of his reign. He backed up his faith with action, abandoning the religious tolerance of his predecessors. During his reign many [[Hindu]] temples were defaced and destroyed, and many [[India]]ns converted to [[Islam]].
Aurangzeb used vast military might to expand and consolidate the Mughal empire, at high cost. His rule inspired revolt which he constrained during his life, but which exploded and completely changed India after his death. His policies polarized India in ways that continue to this day.
==Rise to throne==
===Early life===
Aurangzeb (full name: ''Abu Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir'' --[[Persian language|Persian]]: بو مظفر محی الدین محمد اورنگزیب عالمگیر ) was the third son of the fifth great [[Mughal]] emperor [[Shah Jahan]] (builder of the [[Taj Mahal]]), and
Arjumand Banu Begum (also known as [[Mumtaz Mahal]]). After a rebellion by his father, part of Aurangzeb's childhood was spent as a kind of hostage at his grandfather [[Jahangir]]'s court.
After Jahangir's death in [[1627]], Aurangzeb returned to live with his parents. Shah Jahan followed the Mughal practice of assigning authority to his sons, and in [[1634]] made Aurangzeb [[Subahdar]] (governor) of the [[Deccan]]. He moved to Kirki, which in time he renamed [[Aurangabad]]. In [[1637]], he married, Rabia Daurrani – her tomb is in Aurangabad. During this period the Deccan was relatively peaceful. In the Mughal court, however, Shah Jahan began to show greater and greater favoritism to his eldest son [[Dara Shikoh]].
In [[1644]], Aurangzeb's sister [[Jahanara Begum]] was accidently burned in [[Agra]]. This event precipitated a family crisis which had political consequences. Aurangzeb suffered his father's displeasure when returning to Agra three weeks after the event rather than coming immediately after hearing of the accident. Shah Jahan dismissed him as the governor of Deccan. Aurangzeb later claimed ([[1654]]) to have resigned the post in protest of his father favoring Dara.
Aurangzeb's fortunes continued to decline. In [[1645]], he was barred from the court for seven months. After this incident, Shah Jahan appointed him governor of [[Gujarat]]. He performed well and was rewarded. In [[1647]], Shah Jahan made him governor of [[Balkh]] and [[Badakhshan]] (near modern [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Afghanistan]]), replacing Aurangzeb's ineffective brother [[Murad Baksh]]. These areas were at the time under attack from a variety of forces. Aurangzeb's military skill proved successful, and the story of how he spread his prayer rug and prayed in the midst of battle brought him much fame.
He was appointed governor of [[Multan]] and [[Sindh]] and began a protracted military struggle against the Persian army in an effort to capture the city of [[Kandahar]]. He failed, and fell again into his father's disfavor.
In [[1652]], Aurangzeb was again appointed governor of the [[Deccan]]. Both man and place had changed in the interim. The Deccan produced poor tax revenue for the Mughals. As a youth in his previous term, Aurangzeb ignored the problem, allowing state-sanctioned corruption and extortion to grow. This time Aurangzeb set about reforming the system, but his efforts often placed additional burdens on the locals, and were poorly received.
It was during this second governorship that Aurangzeb first recounts destroying a [[Hindu]] temple. He also forbade the temple dancers ([[devadasi|devadasis]]) from their practice of "sacred prostitution". In addition, Aurangzeb's officers began treating non-Muslims harshly, and he defended these practices in letters to Shah Jahan's court. These practices would become themes in Aurangzeb's rule as emperor.
In an effort to raise additional revenues, Aurangzeb attacked the border kingdoms of [[Golconda]] ([[1657]]), and [[Bijapur]] ([[1658]]). In both instances, Shah Jahan called off the attacks near the moment of Aurangzeb's triumph. Even at the time it was believed that the withdrawals had actually been ordered by Prince Dara, in Shah Jahan's name.
===War of succession===
'''[[Shah Jahan]]''' fell ill in [[1657]], and was widely reported to have died. With this news, the struggle for succession began. Aurangzeb's eldest brother, [[Dara Shikoh]], was regarded as heir apparent, but the succession proved far from certain.
On news of the Shah Jahan's supposed death, his second son, [[Shah Shuja]] declared himself emperor in [[Bengal]]. Imperial armies sent by Dara and Shah Jahan soon restrained this effort, and Shuja retreated.
Soon after, however his youngest brother [[Murad Baksh]], with secret promises of support from Aurangzeb, declared himself emperor in [[Gujarat]].
Aurangzeb, ostensibly in support of Murad, marched north from Aurangabad, gathering support from nobles and generals. Following a series of victories, Aurangzeb declared that Dara had illegally usurped the throne. Shah Jahan, determined that Dara would succeed him, handed over control of the empire to Dara.
[[Maharaja Jaswant Singh]] opposed Aurangzeb at Dharmatpur near [[Ujjain]].
Later a series of bloody battles followed, with troops loyal to Aurangzeb battering Dara's armies. Aurangzeb's forces surrounded [[Agra]]. Fearing for his life, Dara departed [[Agra]] for [[Delhi]], leaving Shah Jahan. The old emperor surrendered the [[Agra Fort|Red Fort]] of Agra to Aurangzeb's nobles, but Aurangzeb refused any meeting with his father, declaring that Dara was his enemy.
In a sudden reversal, Aurangzeb then had Murad arrested. Murad's supporters fled to Aurangzeb.
Meanwhile Dara gathered his forces, and set up an alliance with Shuja. But the key commander of Dara's armies, the [[Rajput]] general [[Jai Singh]], defected to Aurangzeb, along with many thousand Rajput soldiers.
Dara fled Delhi, and sought an alliance with Shuja. But Shuja pretended to drop his claim to emperor after Aurangzeb offered him the governorship of [[Bengal]]. This move had the affect of isolating Dara and causing some troops to defect to Aurangzeb.
Shuja, however, uncertain of Aurangzeb's sincerity, continued to battle Aurangzeb. His forces suffered a series of defeats at Aurangzeb's hands. At length, Shuja went into exile in [[Arakan]] (in present-day [[Myanmar]]) where he disappeared, and was presumed to be dead.
With Shuhja and Murad disposed of, and with Shah Jahan confined in Agra, Aurangzeb pursued Dara, chasing him across what is now northwest India, [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]]. After a series of battles, defeats and retreats, Dara was betrayed by one of his generals, who arrested and bound him.
In [[1659]], Aurangzeb arranged a formal coronation in [[Delhi]]. He had Dara openly marched in chains back to Delhi; when Dara finally arrived, he had him executed. Legends about the cruelty of this execution abound, including stories that Aurangzeb had Dara's severed head sent to Shah Jahan.
Aurangzeb kept Shah Jahan under house arrest at the Red Fort in Agra. Legends concerning this imprisonment abound, for the fort is ironically close to Shah Jahan's great architectural masterpiece, the [[Taj Mahal]]. More details of these legends may be found in the article on [[Shah Jahan]].
==Aurangzeb's Reign==
[[Image:Aurangzeb2.jpg|frame|right|Portrait as emperor]]
===Enforcement of Islamic law===
The Mughals had for the most part been tolerant of non-Muslims, allowing them to practice their customs and religion without too much interference. Though certain Muslim laws had been in place during earlier reigns -- prohibitions against building new Hindu temples, for example, or on the tax on non-Muslims (the [[Jizyah]]), enforcement by earlier emperors had been lax, encouraging a political tolerance toward non-Muslims.
Up until Aurangzeb's reign, [[India]]n [[Islam]] had been informed by mystical [[Sufi]] precepts. Although Sunni in ancestry, the Emperors from [[Humayun]] on had tolerated or openly embraced the activities of the [[Chisti]] Sufis. But Aurangzeb abandoned many of the more liberal viewpoints of his Mughal ancestors. He espoused a more conservative interpretation of Islamic principles, and behavior based on the [[Sharia]], which he set about codifying through edicts and policies. His [[Fatawa-e-Alamgiri]], a 33 volume compilation of these edicts, established the precedent for civil law based on Sharia, which has influenced Islamic governments to the present day.
Under Aurangzeb, Mughal court life changed dramatically. According to his interpretation, Islam did not allow [[music]], so he banished court musicians, dancers and singers. Further, based on Muslim precepts forbidding images, he stopped the production of representational artwork, including the miniature painting that h |
U.S. Army Chief of Staff [[Frederick Weyand]] gives a report to the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] that South Vietnam will fall without additional [[military aid]].
*[[1985]] - [[Bhopal disaster]]: [[India]] files suit against [[Union Carbide]] for the disaster which killed an estimated 2,000 and injured another 200,000.
*[[1986]] - [[Clint Eastwood]] is elected mayor of [[Carmel-by-the-Sea, California]] receiving 72% of the vote (voter turnout was also doubled over the previous mayoral election).
*[[1987]] - [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] executive [[Al Campanis]] resigns amid great controversy over [[race|racially]]-charged remarks he had made while on ''[[Nightline]].''
*[[1989]] - [[South Africa]] In Johannesburg, the Progressive Federal Party, Independent party, National Democratic Movement and the force of "Ontevrede Afrikaners" or dissatisfied Afrikaners merged to form the Democratic Party.
*[[1990]] - ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' premieres.
*[[1992]] - Retired [[tennis]] great [[Arthur Ashe]] announces to the world that he has [[AIDS]], acquired from blood transfusions during one of his two heart surgeries.
*[[1994]] - Body of [[Kurt Cobain]] discovered in his Washington home.
*[[1999]] - [[Haryana Gana Parishad]], a [[political party]] in the [[India]]n state of [[Haryana]], merges with the [[Indian National Congress]].
*[[2000]] - A [[U.S. Marine Corps]] V-22 Osprey crashes during landing at Marana, [[Arizona]] killing 19.
*[[2002]] - [[Ed McMahon]] files a US$20 million lawsuit against his insurance company and others regarding a [[toxic mold]] infecting McMahon's [[Beverly Hills, California]] home.
*[[2003]] - US forces fire upon [[Al Jazeera]]'s office's in [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]] killing a reporter and wounding another.
*[[2004]] - [[Darfur conflict]]: The [[April 8 Humanitarian Ceasefire Agreement|Humanitarian Ceasefire Agreement]] is signed by the [[Sudan]]ese government and two rebel groups.
*2004 - The famous [[Japanese people|Japanese]] economist and former [[professor]] at [[Waseda University]] [[graduate school]] [[Kazuhide Uekusa]] was arrested on the [[escalator]] of [[Japan Railway|JR]] [[Shinagawa Station]] because of trying to peep under a [[high school]] [[girl]]'s [[skirt and dress|skirt]] with his hand [[mirror]].
*[[2005]] - [[Funeral of Pope John Paul II]]
==Births==
*[[563 BC]] - [[Gautama Buddha]], Indian religious leader (d. [[483 BC]])
*[[1320]] - King [[Peter I of Portugal]] (d. [[1367]])
*[[1533]] - [[Claudio Merulo]], Italian composer (d. [[1604]])
*[[1541]] - [[Michele Mercati]], Italian physician and gardener (d. [[1593]])
*[[1605]] - King [[Philip IV of Spain]], (d. [[1665]])
*[[1641]] - [[Henry Sydney, 1st Earl of Romney]], English statesman (d. [[1704]])
*[[1692]] - [[Giuseppe Tartini]], Italian composer (d. [[1770]])
*[[1859]] - [[Edmund Husserl]], Austrian philosopher (d. [[1938]])
*[[1865]] - [[Charles W. Woodworth]], American entomologist (d. [[1940]])
*[[1868]] - King [[Christian IX of Denmark]] (d. [[1906]])
*[[1874]] - [[Stanislaw Taczak|Stanis&#322;aw Taczak]], Polish general, commander-in-chief of the Greater Poland Uprising (d.1960)
*[[1875]] - King [[Albert I of Belgium]] (d. [[1934]])
*[[1889]] - Sir [[Adrian Boult]], British conductor (d. [[1983]])
*[[1892]] - [[Mary Pickford]], Canadian actress and studio founder (d. [[1979]])
*[[1904]] - [[John Hicks]], British economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1989]])
*[[1905]] - [[Helen Joseph]], South African anti-apartheid activist (d. [[1992]])
*1905 - [[Erwin Keller]], German field hockey player
*[[1908]] - [[Hugo Fregonese]], [[Argentine]] [[film director]] (d. [[1987]])
*[[1911]] - [[Melvin Calvin]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1997]])
*1911 - [[Emil Cioran]], Romanian philosopher and essayist (d. [[1995]])
*[[1912]] - [[Alois Brunner]], Austrian Nazi
*1912 - [[Sonja Henie]], Norwegian figure skater (d. [[1969]])
*[[1914]] - [[María Félix]], Mexican actress (d. [[2002]])
*[[1918]] - [[Betty Ford]], [[First Lady of the United States]]
*[[1919]] - [[Ian Smith]], [[Prime Minister of Rhodesia]]
*[[1921]] - [[Franco Corelli]], Italian tenor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1923]] - [[George Fisher (cartoonist)|George Fisher]], American cartoonist (d. [[2003]])
*1923 - [[Edward Mulhare]], Irish actor (d. [[1997]])
*[[1926]] - [[Jürgen Moltmann]], German theologian
*[[1928]] - [[John Gavin]], American actor and U.S. Ambassador to Mexico
*[[1929]] - [[Walter Berry (opera singer)|Walter Berry]], Austrian bass-baritone (d. [[2000]])
*1929 - [[Jacques Brel]], Belgian singer and composer (d. [[1978]])
*[[1930]] - [[Carlos Hugo of Bourbon-Parma, Duke of Parma]], French-born fascist
*[[1933]] - [[Fred Ebb]], American composer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1934]] - [[Kurokawa Kisho]], Japanese architect
*[[1938]] - [[Kofi Annan]], Ghanian [[United Nations Secretary General]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]
*[[1940]] - [[John Havlicek]], American basketball player
*[[1941]] - [[Vivienne Westwood]], British fashion designer
*[[1943]] - [[Michael Bennett]], American dancer, choreographer, and theater director (d. [[1987]])
*1943 - [[Miller Farr]], American football player
*[[1946]] - [[Catfish Hunter]], baseball player
*1946 - [[Tim Thomerson]], American actor
*[[1947]] - [[Tom DeLay]], American politician
*1947 - [[Robert Kiyosaki]], American investor, businessman, and writer
*1947 - [[Larry Norman]], American singer and songwriter
*[[1949]] - [[John Madden (director)|John Madden]], British director
*1949 - [[Brenda Russell]], American singer and songwriter
*[[1954]] - [[Gary Carter]], baseball player
*[[1955]] - [[Barbara Kingsolver]], American novelist
*[[1960]] - [[John Schneider (television actor)|John Schneider]], American actor
*[[1962]] - [[Izzy Stradlin]], American musician ([[Guns N' Roses]])
*[[1963]] - [[Julian Lennon]], British musician and singer
*1963 - [[Alec Stewart]], British cricketer
*[[1964]] - [[Biz Markie]], American rapper and disc jockey
*[[1966]] - [[Robin Wright Penn]], American actress
*1966 - [[Mazinho]], Brazilian football player
*1966 - [[Bobby Ologun]], Nigerian television personality and martial artist
*[[1968]] - [[Patricia Arquette]], American actress
*[[1971]] - [[Chino XL]], American rapper
*[[1972]] - [[Paul Grey]], American bassist ([[Slipknot (band)|Slipknot]])
*[[1975]] - [[Timo Pérez]], Dominican [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[1977]] - [[Mark Spencer]], computer programmer
*[[1979]] - [[Alexi Laiho]], Finnish guitarist and singer ([[Children of Bodom]])
*[[1980]] - [[Manuel Ortega]], Austrian singer
*1980 - [[Katee Sackhoff]], American actress
*[[1982]] - [[Judy Star]], Canadian actress
*[[1986]] - [[Erika Sawajiri]], Japanese actress and model
*1986 - [[Igor Akinfeev]], Russian football player
==Deaths==
*[[217]] - [[Caracalla]], [[Roman Emperor]] (b. [[186]])
*[[956]] - [[Gilbert of Chalon]], [[Duke of Burgundy]]
*[[1143]] - [[John II Comnenus]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[1087]])
*[[1364]] - King [[John II of France]] (b. [[1319]])
*[[1461]] - [[Georg Purbach]], German mathematician and astronomer (b. [[1423]])
*[[1492]] - [[Lorenzo de Medici]], ruler of Florence (b. [[1449]])
*[[1586]] - [[Martin Chemnitz]], Lutheran reformer and theologian (b. [[1522]])
*[[1587]] - [[John Foxe]], English writer (b. [[1516]])
*[[1691]] - [[Carlo Rainaldi]], Italian architect (b. [[1611]])
*[[1697]] - [[Niels Juel]], Danish admiral (b. [[1629]])
*[[1704]] - [[Hiob Ludolf]], German orientalist (b. [[1624]])
*1704 - [[Henry Sydney, 1st Earl of Romney]], English statesman (b. [[1641]])
*[[1725]] - [[John Wise (clergyman)|John Wise]], English clergyman (b. [[1652]])
*[[1848]] - [[Gaetano Donizetti]], Italian composer (b. [[1797]])
*[[1857]] - [[Mangal Pandey]], Indian soldier
*[[1919]] - [[Loránd Eötvös]], Hungarian physicist (b. [[1848]])
*[[1920]] - [[Charles Tomlinson Griffes]], American composer (b. [[1884]])
*[[1931]] - [[Erik Axel Karlfeldt]], Swedish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1864]])
*[[1936]] - [[Robert Bárány]], Austrian physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1876]])
*[[1938]] - [[Joe "King" Oliver]], American musician (b. [[1885]])
*[[1950]] - [[Vaslav Nijinsky]], Polish-born ballet dancer (b. [[1890]])
*[[1965]] - [[Lars Hanson]], Swedish actor (b. [[1886]])
*[[1973]] - [[Pablo Picasso]], Spanish artist (b. [[1881]])
*[[1978]] - [[Ford Frick]], baseball commissioner
*[[1981]] - [[Omar Bradley]], U.S. general (b. [[1893]])
*[[1984]] - [[Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa]], Russian physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1894]])
*[[1985]] - [[J. Fred Coots]], American Songwriter (b. [[1897]])
*[[1990]] - [[Ryan White]], American activist (b. [[1971]])
*[[1991]] - [[Per Yngve Ohlin|Per Yngve "Dead" Ohlin]], Norwegian musician ([[black metal]])
*[[1992]] - [[Daniel Bovet]], Swiss-born pharmacologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1907]])
*[[1993]] - [[Marian Anderson]], American contralto (b. [[1897]])
*[[1996]] - [[Ben Johnson (actor)|Ben Johnson]], American actor (b. [[1918]])
*[[1997]] - [[Laura Nyro]], American singer and composer (b. [[1947]])
*[[2000]] - [[Claire Trevor]], American actress (b. [[1910]])
*[[2002]] - [[Maria Felix]], Mexican actress (b. [[1914]])
*[[2003]] - [[Anita Borg]], American computer scientist (b. [[1949]])
*[[2004]] - [[Bruce Edwards (golf)|Bruce Edwards]], golf caddy (b. [[1954]])
==Holidays and observances==
* Worldwide [[Roma and Sinti|Roma]] Nation Day
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/8 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050514.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
-----
[[April 7]] - [[April 9]] - [[March 8]] - [[May 8]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:8 April]]
[[ar:8 إبريل]]
[[an:8 d'abril]]
[[ast:8 d' |
ever was, and as son of Sir Morris (or Maurice) Abbot, and his writings accordingly entered in the bibliographical authorities as by the nephew of the archbishop of [[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]]. One of the sons of Sir Morris Abbot was, indeed, named George, and he was a man of mark, but the more famous George Abbot was of a different family altogether. He was son or grandson (it is not clear which) of Sir Thomas Abbot, knight of Easington, East [[Yorkshire]], having been born there in [[1603]]-[[1604]], his mother (or grandmother) being of the ancient house of Pickering. Of his early life and training nothing is known. He married a daughter of Colonel Purefoy of Caldecote, [[Warwickshire]], and as his monument, which may still be seen in the church there, tells, he bravely held the manor house against Princes [[Prince Rupert| Rupert]] and [[Prince Maurice von Simmern|Maurice]] during the [[English civil war]]. As a layman, and nevertheless a [[theology|theologian]] and scholar of rare ripeness and critical ability, he holds an almost unique place in the literature of the period. The terseness of his ''Whole Booke of Job Paraphrased, or made easy for any to understand'' (1640, quartto), contrasts favourably with the usual prolixity of the Puritan expositors and commentators. His ''Vindiciae Sabbathi'' ([[1641]], octavo) had a profound and lasting influence in the long Sabbatarian controversy. His ''Brief Notes upon the Whole Book of Psalms'' ([[1651]], quarto), as its date shows, was posthumous.
Authorities--''MS.collections at Abbeyville for history of all of the name of Abbot'', by J.T. Abbot, Esq., F.S.A., Darlington; Dugdale's ''Antiquities of Warwickshire'', 1730 p. 1099; Wood's ''Athenae'' (Bliss), ii.141, 594; Cox's ''Literature of the Sabbath''.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbot, George}}
{{1911}}
{{UK-writer-stub}}
[[Category:1603 births|Abbot, George]]
[[Category:1648 deaths|Abbot, George]]
[[Category:English writers|Abbot, George]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GUIDO music notation</title>
<id>12864</id>
<revision>
<id>29890230</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-02T07:23:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hh</username>
<id>21846</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''GUIDO Music Notation''' is named after [[Guido of Arezzo]], a renowned music theorist of his time and important contributor to today's conventional musical notation. The '''GUIDO''' [[musical notation|Music Notation]] Format is a system designed to logically represent all aspects of music in a [[computer]]-readable format.
First designed by Holger H. Hoos (then at [[Technische Universit&auml;t Darmstadt]], [[Germany]], now at [[University of British Columbia]], [[Canada]]) and Keith Hamel ([[University of British Columbia]], [[Canada]]).
Later developments have been done by the SALIERI Project by Holger H. Hoos, Kai Renz and J&uuml;rgen F. Kilian.
GUIDO Music Notation has been designed to represent music in a logical format (with the ability to render to sheet music), whereas [[LilyPond]] is more narrowly focused on typesetting sheet music. It is based on the principle of ''representational adequacy'': simple things have simple representations.
GUIDO is not primarily focused on conventional music notation, but has been invented as an open format, capable of storing musical, structural, and notational information.
GUIDO Music Notation is designed as a flexible and easily extensible open standard. In particular, its syntax does not restrict the features it can represent. Thus, GUIDO can be easily adapted and customized to cover specialized musical concepts as might be required in the context of research projects in computational musicology. More importantly, GUIDO is designed in a way that when using such custom extensions, the resulting GUIDO data can still be processed by other applications that support GUIDO but are not aware of the custom extensions, which are gracefully ignored. This design also greatly facilitates the incremental implementation of GUIDO support in music software, which can speed up the software development process significantly, especially for research software and prototypes.
GUIDO has been split into three consecutive layers: Basic
GUIDO introduces the main concepts of the GUIDO design and allows to represent much of the conventional music of today. Advanced GUIDO extends Basic GUIDO by adding exact score-formatting and some more advanced musical concepts. Finally, Extended GUIDO can represent user-defined extensions, like microtonal information or user defined pitch classes.
=== Example of GUIDO Input File ===
<pre>
<nowiki>
[ \clef<"treble"> \key<"D"> \meter<"4/4">
a1*1/2 b a/4. g/8 f#/4 g a/2 b a/4. g/8 f#/4 g
a/2 a b c#2/4 d c#/2 b1 a/1 ]
</nowiki>
</pre>
[[Image:Example1.gif]]
==Source==
* Holger H. Hoos, Keith A. Hamel, Kai Renz, and Jürgen Kilian: Representing Score-Level Music Using the GUIDO Music-Notation Format. Computing in Musicology, Vol 12, MIT Press, 2001.
* Holger H. Hoos, Keith A. Hamel, Kai Renz, Jürgen Kilian: The GUIDO Music Notation Format - A Novel Approach for Adequately Representing Score-level Music. Proceedings of ICMC'98, p.451-454, ICMA, San Francisco, 1998.
* Holger H. Hoos, Keith A. Hamel, Kai Renz, Jürgen Kilian: GUIDO Music Notation - Towards an Adequate Representation of Score-level Music. Proceedings of JIM'98, LMA-CNSR, 1998.
* Algorithms and Data Structures for a Music Notation System based on GUIDO Music Notation by Kai Renz.
== See also ==
*[[Guido of Arezzo]]
*[[LilyPond]]
*[[MusicXML]]
==External links==
* [http://www.salieri.org/GUIDO/ GUIDO Homepage]
* [http://www.noteserver.org/ GUIDO Noteserver] - Renders GUIDO to sheet music online
[[Category:Musical notation]]
[[Category:Musical software]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Globular cluster</title>
<id>12866</id>
<revision>
<id>40449983</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T17:15:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rueckk</username>
<id>492019</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''globular cluster''' (sometimes known more simply as a '''globular''') is a [[sphere|spherical]] collection of [[star]]s that orbits a [[galaxy]] as a [[satellite]]. Globular clusters are very tightly bound by gravity, which gives them their spherical shape, and relatively high stellar density towards their core.
[[Image:M80.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Globular Cluster M80]].]]
==Composition==
Globular clusters are generally composed of hundreds of thousands of old stars, similar to the [[galactic bulge|bulge]] of a [[spiral galaxy]] but confined to a volume of only a few cubic [[parsec]]s. Some globular clusters (like [[Omega Centauri]] in our [[Milky Way]], and G1 in [[Andromeda Galaxy|M31]]) are extraordinarily massive clusters, weighing as many as several million [[solar mass]]es. Some globular clusters (like [[Globular Cluster M15|M15]]) have extremely massive cores which are expected to harbor [[black holes]].
With a few notable exceptions, each globular cluster appears to have a definite age. That is, all the stars in a cluster are at the same stage in [[stellar evolution]], suggesting that they formed at the same time. It was the recognition of this fact, studying [[Hertzsprung-Russell diagram]]s of globulars, that led to the earliest understanding of stellar evolution.
Globular clusters have a very high star density, and therefore close interactions and near-collisions of stars occur relatively often. Some exotic classes of stars, such as [[blue straggler]]s, [[millisecond pulsar]]s and [[low-mass X-ray binaries]] are much more common in globular clusters.
==Ubiquitousness==
Globular clusters are fairly numerous; there are about 150 currently known globular clusters in the [[Milky Way]] (with perhaps 10-20 more undiscovered), and larger galaxies such as [[Andromeda Galaxy|Andromeda]] tend to have more (Andromeda may have as many as 500). Some giant [[elliptical galaxies]], such as [[Elliptical Galaxy M87|M87]], may have as many as 10,000 globular clusters. These globular clusters orbit the galaxy out to large radii, 100 kilo[[parsec]]s or more.
In many galaxies (especially massive elliptical galaxies) there appear to be two populations of globular clusters, which appear to be of similar ages
(nearly as old as the universe itself) but of different metal abundances. These subpopulations are generally known as "metal-poor" and "metal-rich", although the metallicities of the metal-rich clusters are generally less than that of the Sun. Many scenarios have been suggested to explain these subpopulations,
including violent gas-rich galaxy mergers, the accretion of dwarf galaxies, and multiple phases of star formation in a single galaxy. In our [[Milky Way]], the metal-poor clusters are associated with the halo and the metal-rich clusters with the Bulge.
==Origin==
It is thought that some of the larger globular clusters started out as galaxies orbiting a host galaxy, with only the central bulge remaining when outer stars have been stripped from it by the gravitational tidal forces originating from the host galaxy.
==Significance==
It was through the study of globular clusters that the [[Sun]]'s position in the Milky Way became known. Until the [[1930s]], it was thought that the Sun was near the middle of the galaxy because the distribution of stars in the observable Milky Way appeared uniform. However, the distribution of globular clusters was strongly asymmetric. Assuming a roughly spherical distribution of globular clusters around the galaxy's center, one can estimate the position of the sun relative to the galactic center. By further estimating the distances to the clusters, the distance of the S |
tions, Cronus is believed by many to be a cruel and malevolent god that feeds on dominance and subjugation.
Cronus is often believed to be a great and terrible Titan imprisoned in [[Tartarus]], which is envisioned as a place of eternal torment in many ways similar to [[Hell]]. Cronus is typically seen as a horrible tyrant god, and believed to force those cast into Tartarus into prostration before him as they are tormented by Erinyes, Cyclopes, and various other enties, comparable to the role of Judaeo-Christian [[demon]]s. New Age Neopagan artistic representations of Cronus often depict him as having horns like a [[sheep|ram]], derived both from the comparisons to Satan (and thus originally from [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] and from the obscure etymology where ''Cronus'' is believed to mean "Horned One".
==In popular culture==
In the real-time strategy computer game [[Age of Mythology]], Cronus&mdash;who is called Kronos within the game&mdash;is equivocated with [[Chronos]], the personification of time in Greek mythology. While Cronus was often seen as a god of agriculture to the Greeks, Kronos in the game is the Titan of [[Time]]. He is also seen as more of a demonic figure than in traditional Greek mythology. He plays a villain role.
In the action adventure computer game [[God of War]], Cronus&mdash;who like above is also called Kronos&mdash;is the last living titan who was made to carry the mountain which held the The Temple of Pandora on his back. It is said that Kronos died after one thousand years of wandering the desert sands of Greece with the mountain chained to him.
==References==
{{commons|Kronos}}
* [[Hesiod]]: the ''[[Theogony]]'', [[Hesiod#Works_and_Days|Works and Days]].
[[Category:Greek gods]][[Category:Titans]]
[[ast:Cronos]]
[[bg:Хронос]]
[[ca:Cronos]]
[[cs:Kronos]]
[[da:Kronos]]
[[de:Kronos]]
[[es:Crono]]
[[eo:Krono (dio)]]
[[eu:Kronos]]
[[fr:Cronos]]
[[it:Crono]]
[[he:כרונוס]]
[[lt:Kronas]]
[[nl:Kronos]]
[[ja:クロノス]]
[[nn:Kronos]]
[[pl:Kronos]]
[[pt:Cronos]]
[[ru:Кронос]]
[[sl:Kronos]]
[[sr:Хрон]]
[[fi:Kronos]]
[[sv:Kronos]]
[[uk:Хронос]]
[[zh:克洛诺斯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles F. Hockett</title>
<id>7635</id>
<revision>
<id>41613533</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:50:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<comment>I assume it was Charles Hockett who developed those ideas, not Leonard Bloomfield. Watch out for these ambiguities!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles F. Hockett''' ([[January 17]], [[1916]] - [[November 3]], [[2000]]) was an important [[United States|American]] [[linguistics|linguistic]] theorist who developed many influential ideas of American [[structuralism#Structuralism in linguistics|structuralism]], and a student of [[Leonard Bloomfield]].
Born in [[Columbus, Ohio]], he received a joint B.A. and M.A. from [[Ohio State University]] in [[1936]]. In [[1939]], he received his doctorate from [[Yale University]].
He represents the post-Bloomfieldian phase of structuralism: the distributionalism or taxonomic structuralism. In his "Note on Structure" he argues that linguistics can be seen as a game and as a science. A linguist as player has a freedom for experimentation on all the utterances of a language, but no criterion to compare his analysis with other linguists'. A linguist as scientist classifies given utterances and is able not only to analize, but also to predict other utterances of a language. The accuracy of such a prediction allows to judge about the merits of the analysis.
== References ==
Gair, James W. 2003. [Obituary] Charles F. Hockett. ''Language''. 79:600-613.
== External links ==
* [http://specgram.com/JLSSCNC.I.2/02.whitcomb.hockett.html Old Professor Hockett]: A poem written in honor of Professor Hockett by one of his students during his 1991 visit to Rice University. Provides an informal view of a great man.
{{US-academic-bio-stub}}
{{linguist-stub}}
[[Category:1916 births|Hockett, Charles F.]]
[[Category:2000 deaths|Hockett, Charles F.]]
[[Category:American linguists|Hockett, Charles F.]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Consilience</title>
<id>7638</id>
<revision>
<id>36090336</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T14:47:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
<id>293907</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] delete duplicate word "other".</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Consilience''', or the unity of knowledge (literally a "jumping together" of knowledge), has its roots in the ancient [[Greek philosophy|Greek concept]] of an intrinsic orderliness that governs our cosmos, inherently comprehensible by logical process, a vision at odds with mystical views in many cultures that surrounded the Hellenes. The rational view was recovered during the high Middle Ages, separated from theology during the [[Renaissance]] and found its apogee in the Age of [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. Then, with the rise of the modern sciences, the sense of unity gradually was lost in the increasing fragmentation and specialization of knowledge in the last two centuries. The converse of consilience is [[Reductionism]].
The word ''consilience'' was apparently coined by [[William Whewell]], in ''The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences,'' [[1840]]. In this synthesis Whewell explained that, "The Consilience of Inductions takes place when an [[inductive reasoning|Induction]], obtained from one class of facts, coincides with an Induction obtained from another different class. Thus Consilience is a test of the truth of the Theory in which it occurs." The [[Scientific method]] has become almost universally accepted as the exclusive method for testing the status of any scientific hypothesis or theory. "Inductions" which arise out of applications of the scientific method are, by definition, the only accepted indicators of consilience.
Modern views understand that each branch of knowledge studies a subset of reality that depends on factors studied in other branches. Atomic physics underlies the workings of chemistry, which studies emergent properties that in turn are the basis of biology. Psychology can no longer be separated from the study of properties emergent from the interaction of neurons and synapses. Sociology, economics, and anthropology are each, in turn, studies of properties emergent from the interaction of countless individual humans. Their limits have constrained history.
The word had remained shelved until the end of the 20th century, when it was vividly revived in ''[[Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge]],'' a [[1998]] book by the humanist biologist [[Edward Osborne Wilson]], as an attempt to bridge the culture gap between the sciences and the humanities that was the subject of [[C. P. Snow]]'s ''[[The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution]]'', 1959. Wilson's assertion was that the sciences, humanities, and arts have a common goal: to give a purpose to understanding the details, to lend to all inquirers "a conviction, far deeper than a mere working proposition, that the world is orderly and can be explained by a small number of natural laws." This is the essence of consilience.
The idea of consilience informs contemporary studies in complex adaptive systems, as being presented in a [http://www.princeton.edu/~complex/site/Princeton seminar] (see links).
A parallel view lies in the term [[universology]], which literally means "the science of the universe." Universology was first advocated for the study of the interconnecting principles and truths of all domains of knowledge by [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]], a 19th century utopian futurist and anarchist. Compare the concept of [[Holism]].
==External links==
*[http://www.princeton.edu/~complex/site/ Princeton seminar: "Consilience: Case Studies in Complex Adaptive Systems"]
*[http://www.cslproductions.com/ Consilience Productions: "dialogue BEYOND music - Progressive Music For The Socially Curious"]
[[Category:Philosophy of science]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catharism</title>
<id>7641</id>
<revision>
<id>15905701</id>
<timestamp>2003-10-16T00:00:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Hardy</username>
<id>4626</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cathar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clarence Brown</title>
<id>7642</id>
<revision>
<id>40480397</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T21:53:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Allissonn</username>
<id>66038</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Filmography */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''For other people named Clarence Brown, see [[Clarence Brown (Disambiguation)]].''
'''Clarence Brown''' ([[May 10]], [[1890]] &ndash; [[August 17]], [[1987]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[film director]].
==Biography==
Born in [[Clinton, Massachusetts]]. Brown was educated as an [[engineer]] at the [[University of Tennessee]] before coming into the [[film]] industry as an assistant to [[Maurice Tourneur]]. He worked with Tourneur for seven years and they co-directed two of Brown's first three films. Brown moved to Universal in 1924 and then to [[MGM]], where he stayed until the mid-[[1940s]]. At MGM he was one of the main director of their female stars &ndash; he directed [[Joan Crawford]] five times and [[Greta Garbo]] five times as well.
He worked across the introduction of sound and continued to use the [[silent film]]s visual techniques throughout his career; he did not work particularly well with dialogue. His works can be reg |
ilings and to determine his cosmic fate. Critics responded to the offbeat premise and the surprising chemistry between Brooks and [[Meryl Streep]] as his post-death love interest. His later efforts did not find large audiences, but still retained Brooks's touch as a filmmaker. He garnered positive reviews for ''[[Mother (film)|Mother]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]]), which starred Brooks as a middle-aged [[writer]] moving back home to resolve his tensions with his mother ([[Debbie Reynolds]]). [[1999 in film|1999]]'s ''[[The Muse]]'' featured Brooks as a down-and-out [[Hollywood]] screenwriter using the services of an authentic muse ([[Sharon Stone]]) for inspiration.
Brooks also acted in other writers and directors' films during the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]]. He moved into the horror genre in one of the stories in ''[[Twilight Zone: The Movie]]'', playing an unsuspecting driver who picks up a suspicious hitchhiker ([[Dan Aykroyd]]). In [[James L. Brooks]]'s hit ''[[Broadcast News (film)|Broadcast News]]'' ([[1987 in film|1987]]), he was nominated for an [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]] as an insecure, supremely ethical [[television network|network TV]] [[reporter]]. He also won postive notices for his role in [[1998 in film|1998]]'s ''[[Out of Sight]]'', playing an untrustworthy banker and ex-convict, as well as for his portrayal of a dying retail store owner who befriends disillusioned teen [[Leelee Sobieski]] in ''[[My First Mister]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]]), and he has appeared as a guest voice on ''[[The Simpsons]]'' five times during its run. Brooks continued his voiceover work in [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] and [[Pixar]]'s ''[[Finding Nemo]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]), as the voice of "Marlin" the clown fish; "Nemo" is Brooks' largest grossing film to date.
In [[2005 in film|2005]], his film ''[[Looking for Comedy in the Muslim World]]'' drew controversy for its title. [[Sony Pictures]] eventually dropped the film altogether because of their desire to change the title. Subsequently, [[Warner Independent Pictures]] purchased the film and gave it a limited release in [[January 2006]]; the film received mixed reviews and a low box office gross. The movie goes back to the days of Brooks' ''[[Real Life (film)|Real Life]]'', as Brooks once again plays himself, a filmmaker commissioned by the U.S. government to see what makes the [[Muslim]] people laugh, thus sending him on a tour throughout Muslim countries.
==Private life==
Brooks was romantically linked to singer [[Linda Ronstadt]] and actresses [[Carrie Fisher]], [[Julie Hagerty]] and [[Kathryn Harrold]]. He married Kimberly Shlain, a web designer he met while filming "Mother", on [[March 1997|March 15, 1997]]; the couple have two children, Jacob Eli (born 1999) and Claire Elizabeth (born 2000).
==Selected filmography==
[[Image:Looking_for_Comedy_in_the_Muslim_World_film.jpg|thumb|Brooks in ''Looking for Comedy in the Muslim World'']]
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC" align="center"
| '''Year''' || '''Title''' || '''Role''' || '''Other notes'''
|-
| [[2006 in film|2006]] || ''[[Looking for Comedy in the Muslim World]]'' || Albert Brooks || also writer
|-
| [[2003 in film|2003]] || ''[[Finding Nemo]]'' || Marlin || voice only
|-
| [[2003 in film|2003]] || ''[[The In-Laws]]'' || Jerry Peyser ||
|-
| [[2001 in film|2001]] || ''[[My First Mister]]'' || Randall 'R' Harris ||
|-
| [[1999 in film|1999]] || ''[[The Muse (movie)|The Muse]]'' || Steven Phillips || also writer
|-
| [[1996 in film|1996]] || ''[[Mother (movie)|Mother]]'' || John Henderson || also writer
|-
| [[1994 in film|1994]] || ''[[The Scout]]'' || Al Percolo || also writer
|-
| [[1994 in film|1994]] || ''[[I'll Do Anything]]'' || Burke Adler ||
|-
| [[1991 in film|1991]] || ''[[Defending Your Life]]'' || Daniel Miller || also writer
|-
| [[1987 in film|1987]] || ''[[Broadcast News (film)|Broadcast News]]'' || Aaron Altman ||
|-
| [[1985 in film|1985]] || ''[[Lost In America]]'' || David Howard || also writer
|-
| [[1983 in film|1983]] || ''[[Twilight Zone: The Movie]]'' || Car Driver (Prologue) ||
|-
| [[1981 in film|1981]] || ''[[Modern Romance]]'' || Robert Cole || also writer
|-
| [[1979 in film|1979]] || ''[[Real Life (film)|Real Life]]'' || Albert Brooks || also writer
|}
==External links==
===Interviews===
*[http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/newscontent.php3?artid=11924 The Jewish Week interview] (January 20, 2006)
*[http://nwitimes.com/articles/2006/01/26/entertainment/entertainment/94a9a1a1daeb82cd862570fa00760c41.txt NWI Times interview] (January 20, 2006)
*[http://www.thewavemag.com/pagegen.php?pagename=article&articleid=25676 Wave Magazine interview] (January, 2006)
*[http://www.tipjar.com/dan/albertbrooks.htm Pitch Weekly interview] (September 1, 1999)
*[http://www.ifmagazine.com/feature.asp?article=343 IFMagazine interview] (August 27, 1999)
===Web sites===
*[http://www.albertbrooks.com/ Official site of Albert Brooks]
*{{imdb name|id=0000983|name=Albert Brooks}}
[[Category:1947 births|Brooks, Albert]]
[[Category:American comedians|Brooks, Albert]]
[[Category:American film actors|Brooks, Albert]]
[[Category:American film directors|Brooks, Albert]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee|Brooks, Albert]] <!--Broadcast News (film)-->
[[Category:Jewish American actors|Brooks, Albert]]
[[Category:Jewish American comedians|Brooks, Albert]]
[[Category:Jewish American directors|Brooks, Albert]]
[[Category:Living people|Brooks, Albert]]
[[Category:People from Los Angeles|Brooks, Albert]]
[[fr:Albert Brooks]]
[[sv:Albert Brooks]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antares</title>
<id>3076</id>
<revision>
<id>41536091</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T00:27:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wayne Hardman</username>
<id>295</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>NASA didn't name the LMs, the crew did within certain guidelines</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the [[star]]. For the Australian National Tandem Accelerator, see [[ANTARES (accelerator)|ANTARES]].''
''Or for Fallen Angel Antares, see [[Demon Antares]].''
{{Starbox begin |
name=Antares A/B }}
{{Starbox observe |
epoch=J2000 |
constell=[[Scorpius]] |
ra=16h 29m 24.4s |
dec=-26&deg; 25' 55" |
appmag_v=1.06 }}
{{Starbox character |
class=M1.5Iab-Ib/B4Ve |
b-v=1.83 |
u-b=1.34 |
variable=LC-type }}
{{Starbox astrometry |
radial_v=-3 |
prop_mo_ra=-10.16 |
prop_mo_dec=-23.21 |
parallax=5.40 |
p_error=1.68 |
dist_ly=604 |
dist_pc=185 |
absmag_v=-5.28 }}
{{Starbox catalog |
names=&alpha; Scorpii, 21 Sco, Cor Scorpii, Kalb al Akrab, Scorpion's Heart, Vespertilio, [[Harvard Revised catalogue|HR]] 6134, [[Cordoba Durchmusterung|CD]] -26&deg;11359, [[Henry Draper catalogue|HD]] 148478, [[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory|SAO]] 184415, FK5 616, WDS 16294-2626, CCDM 16294-2626, [[Hipparcos catalogue|HIP]] 80763. }}
{{Starbox end}}
'''Antares''' (&alpha; Sco / &alpha; Scorpii / [[alpha (letter)|Alpha]] Scorpii) is the brightest star in the [[constellation]] [[Scorpius]] and [[list of brightest stars|one of the brightest stars]] in the nighttime sky. Along with [[Aldebaran]], [[Spica]], and [[Regulus]] it is one of the four brightest stars near the ecliptic. The similarly colored [[Aldebaran]] lies almost directly opposite Antares in the [[Zodiac]].
Antares' name derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''&#945;&#957;&#964;&#945;&#961;&#951;&#962;'', meaning "(holds) against [[Ares]] (Mars)", due to the similarity of its [[red]]dish hue to the appearance of the planet [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]. This distinctive [[color]]ation has made the star an object of interest to many societies throughout history, and many of the old [[Egypt]]ian [[temple]]s are oriented so that the light of Antares plays a role in the ceremonies performed there. Antares was one of the four "[[royal stars]]" of the [[Iran|Persia]]ns around 3000 BC, and some writers claim that it is the "lance star" referred to in the [[Bible|Biblical]] book of [[Book of Job|Job]]. In the religion of [[Stregheria]], Antares is a [[fallen angel]] and [[quarter guardian]] of the [[western gate]]. In astrology Antares is one of the [[Behenian fixed star]]s and has the symbol [[Image:Agrippa1531 corScorpii.png]].
Antares is a [[Stellar classification|class M]] [[giant star]], with a diameter of approximately [[1 E11 m|9.24]] [[scientific notation|&times;]] 10<sup>8</sup> [[kilometre|km]], or slightly more than the distance from the [[Sun]] to Mars, and is approximately 600 [[light year]]s from earth. Visually, its [[luminosity]] is about 10,000 times that of the [[Sun]] but overall, taking into account that the star radiates a considerable part of its energy in the [[infrared]] part of the [[spectrum]] the luminosity jumps to roughly 65,000 times that of the Sun. The mass of the star is calculated to be 15 to 18 [[solar mass]]es. Its large size and relatively smaller mass give Antares a very low density.
The best time to view Antares is on or around [[May 31]] of each year, when the star is at "opposition" to the [[Sun]]. At this time, Antares rises at dusk and sets at dawn, and is thus in view all night. For approximately two to three weeks on either side of [[November 30]], Antares is not visible at all, being lost in the Sun's glare; this period of invisibility is longer in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] than in the [[Southern Hemisphere]], since the star's [[declination]] is a few degrees south of the [[ecliptic]].
Antares has a hot blue [[companion star]] (Antar |
f social intolerance due mostly to outward stylistic appearances. Social intolerance ranges from looks of indignation and verbal taunts to physical violence. A preoccupation with themes of [[death]], [[romance]], and the generally [[macabre]] have occasionally raised public concerns regarding the overall mental well-being of, mainly, young goths and general fears of cultic indoctrination. Such conceptions are often reinforced by popular media, as exemplified in the [[Columbine High School Massacre]], which was carried out by two troubled students inaccurately linked to the goth subculture. The Columbine massacre caused a widespread public backlash against the goth scene in America; however, investigators of the incident later denied that any such link between the students and the goth scene, in fact, existed [[http://www.salon.com/news/feature/1999/09/23/columbine/print.html]].
==Cultural significance and philosophy==
The goth subculture is best seen as a late offshoot of [[romanticism]] and [[neoromanticism]], with its fascination with the importance of the individual defining themselves through experiencing extreme emotions. The allure of dark and morbid imagery and moods for goths clearly lies in this tradition. Defining a philosophy of goth subculture is difficult because of the overwhelming importance of mood for those involved. Balancing this the other central element is a self-conscious sense of [[camp]] theatricality.
It should be noted the rise of the [[gothic novel]] saw such feelings of horror being exploited for a form of mass entertainment for commercial purposes, a process now continued in the modern horror film so important in defining goth. While in the nineteenth century individual defiance of social norms was a very risky business today it is far less radical in social terms. Thus the significance of goth's subcultural rebellion is strictly limited, and is tied into drawing on imagery at the heart of Western commercial culture. Unlike the [[hippy]] or [[punk culture|punk]] movement there is no wider political message predominant within the subculture, except for individualism, tolerance for sexual diversity, a dislike of social conservatism and a strong tendency towards cynicism, and even these ideas are not common to all goths. However, this is hardly surprising as the original goths were punks who had seen that a subculture no matter how radical could not shake the foundations of Western world.
Occasional attempts of [[cultural appropriation]] by the mainstream of elements from [[gothic fashion]] have left the subculture largely intact. While people love going to see people dressed like goths in movies, there is little sign that many people, besides teenagers, wish to join them.
For the individual goth, joining the subculture can be extremely valuable and personally fulfilling, especially in creative terms. However, it also can be risky, especially for the young, because of the negative attention it can attract. The value that young people find in the movement is evidenced by its continuing existence after other subcultures of the eighties such as the [[New Romantics]] have long since died out. Paul Hodkinson's book explores how the Western cult of [[individualism]], usually expressed via [[consumerism]], is drawn on by goths and other subcultural groups. Many who are drawn to the culture have already failed to conform to the norms of existing society, and for its participants the goth [[subculture]] provides an important way of validating themselves against the outside world. Hodkinson shows how inside the goth [[subculture]] status can be gained via enthusiastic participation and creativity, in creating a band, DJ-ing, making clothes or writing a fanzine. He suggests that the selfconscious artificiality of a subculture is a valid alternative choice in a [[post-modern]] world, compared to submitting to the invisible manipulations of popular consumerism and the mass media.
==References==
* Baddeley, Gavin: ''Goth Chic: A Connoisseur's Guide to Dark Culture'' (Plexus, US, August 2002, ISBN 0859653080)
* Davenport-Hines, Richard: ''Gothic: Four Hundred Years of Excess, Horror, Evil and Ruin'' (1999: North Port Press. ISBN 0865475903 (trade paperback) - A voluminous, if somewhat patchy, chronological/aesthetic history of the Gothic covering the spectrum from Gothic architecture to The Cure.
* Hodkinson, Paul: ''Goth: Identity, Style and Subculture (Dress, Body, Culture Series)'' 2002: Berg. ISBN 1859736009 (hardcover); ISBN 185973605X (softcover)
* Kilpatrick, Nancy: ''The goth Bible : A Compendium for the Darkly Inclined''. 2004: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0312306962
* [[Voltaire (musician)|Voltaire]]: ''What is Goth?'' (WeiserBooks, US, 2004; ISBN 1578633222) - a humorous and easy-to-read view of the goth subculture
* Andrew C. Zinn: ''The Truth Behind The Eyes'' (IUniverse, US, 2005; ISBN 0-595-37103-5) - Dark Poetry
== See also ==
* [[The Addams Family]]
* [[Mick Mercer]]
* [[Darkwave]]
* [[Gothic rock]]
* [[Post punk]]
* [[Death rock]]
* [[List of non-goth musical artists popular within goth subculture]]
* [[Gothic fashion]]
* [[Cyber (subculture)|Cybergoth]]
* [[Gothic Lolita]]
* [[Ghost culture]]
* [[History of subcultures in the 20th century]]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Gothic people}}
{{Commonscat|Gothic subculture}}
===General Websites===
* [http://www.blueblood.net BlueBlood.net]
* [http://www.darklinks.com DarkLinks.com]
* [http://darknation.pl DarkNation International Goth Community]
* [http://www.goth.net Goth.net]
* [http://gothic.startheaven.com/ Gothic Startheaven] More gothic links
* [http://www.scathe.demon.co.uk/histgoth.htm ScatheWeb History of Goth]
===Events===
* [http://www.vamp.org/Gothic/clublist.html The International Gothic Club Listing] &mdash; Worldwide Goth club directory that is sorted by region. Content is contributed by visitors and usually consists of club specifics such as location, music type, cover charge, drinks, dress code, directions and other miscellaneous club information
* [http://www.dropdeadfestival.com Drop Dead Festival] Largest US Goth Festival
* [http://www.gothicchicago.com GothicChicago.com]Chicago's Online Gothic/Industrial/Spooky Resource since Halloween 1997
* [http://www.netgoth.org.uk Netgoth] UK based goth event listings
* [http://anon.razorwire.com/events/ NYC Gothic Events] Concerts, festivals and weekly events in New York City
* [http://www.wave-gotik-treffen.de/english/ Wave Gotik Treffen] Annual Goth festival in Leipzig, Germany (English version)
===Magazines and Press===
* [http://www.dropdeadmagazine.com Drop Dead Magazine] US Goth and Deathrock Magazine
* [http://www.gothics.org/subculture/articles/undead.php "Undead Undead Undead"] (''[[Alternative Press (music magazine)|Alternative Press]]'' November 1994 article by Dave Thompson and Jo-Ann Greene, with retrospective quotes from early '80s post punk bands on the "goth" label)
* [http://www.xiangoth.net XianGoth.net] Reviews, Interviews and articles pertaining to progressive spirituality and Gothic subculture
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/goth.htm Religious tolerance.org]: ''The Goth Culture: Its history, stereotypes, religious connections, etc''
[[Category:Goth|*]]
[[Category:Subcultures]]
[[cs:Gotické hnutí]]
[[de:Gothic (Kultur)]]
[[eo:Goto (movado)]]
[[fi:Gootti]]
[[fr:Gothique (mouvement)]]
[[nl:Gothic (subcultuur)]]
[[ru:Готы (субкультура)]]
[[simple:Goth]]
[[sv:Goth]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Girl group</title>
<id>12907</id>
<revision>
<id>41273422</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T05:29:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fabricationary</username>
<id>289480</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rewriting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:UC3 USO.jpg|right|thumb|Girl group [[UC3 (band)|UC3]] sing "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]" for U.S. troops in Afghanistan]]
A '''girl group''', as the name implies, is a [[musical group]] featuring a group consisting usually of young [[female]] [[singer|singers]], singing mostly [[pop music |pop]] and [[rhythm and blues|R&B]] songs. It is essentially the female equivalent of a [[boy band]].
==Early girl-groups==
Girl groups date back to the late [[1950s]] and the beginning of the [[1960s]], when they were often manufactured by producers or [[record companies]]. Often in these times, the girl group was used as a vehicle for the latest work by a label's resident songwriters, such as the work of [[Phil Spector]] and the early days of [[Motown]]. Even earlier, female [[pop music]] singing groups were popular; "Sister groups" like the [[Andrews Sisters]] and the [[Boswell Sisters]] were composed of sisters or relatives. Groups such as the Boswells and the [[Keller Sisters and Lynch]] were pop recording artists dating as far back as the [[1920s]].
The sound of many early [[rock and roll]] girl groups was engineered by a producer. For instance, Phil Spector's ''[[Wall of Sound]]'' production featured a thick layer of instrumentation ([[drums]], [[guitar]], [[bass guitar|bass]], a [[horn section]] and often something more exotic, such as ''[[Glockenspiel]]'' or [[vibraphone]]). Amidst the musical accompaniment, there was a lead vocal, often deliberately girlish in tone, singing deceptively simple, naïve lyrics which artfully and eloquently expressed the emotions of teenagers of the time. An example would be [[The Shirelles]]' "Will You Still Love Me Tomorrow", which doubles as both a charming love song and, implicitly, a portrayal of adolescent sexual [[mores]]. Other groups, including some [[New York City]]-based ones like [[The Chiffons]], used more conventional [[pop music]] arrangements, while the Motown groups used typical driving Motown arrangements of the period.
By the mid-late [[1960s]], in the face of the [[British Invasion]] and the increasing p |
ed as a suborder of the [[order (biology)|order]] [[Carnivora]] but sometimes as an independent order. However, the fur seals, like their close relatives the [[sea lion]]s, retain some ability to walk on land as their hind limbs can be brought forward under the body to bear the animal's weight, and retain small but visible external ears.
The fur seals and the sea lions as a group make up the [[family (biology)|family]] Otariidae, and are called [[eared seal]]s or walking seals to distinguish them from the earless true seals of the family [[Phocidae]]. The fur seals alone make up the '''''Arctocephalinae''''' subfamily.
* '''SUBORDER [[Pinnipedia|PINNIPEDIA]]'''
* '''Family Otariidae'''
** '''Subfamily Arctocephalinae'''
*** [[Northern Fur Seal]], ''Callorhinus ursinus''
*** [[Antarctic Fur Seal]], ''Arctocephalus gazella''
*** [[Guadalupe Fur Seal]], ''Arctocephalus townsendi''
*** [[Juan Fernandez Fur Seal]], ''Arctocephalus philippii''
*** [[Galapagos Fur Seal]], ''Arctocephalus galapagoensis''
*** [[Cape Fur Seal]] or Australian Fur Seal, ''Arctocephalus pusillus''
*** [[New Zealand Fur Seal]], ''Arctocephalus forsteri''
*** [[Subantarctic Fur Seal]], ''Arctocephalus tropicalis''
*** [[South American Fur Seal]], ''Arctocephalus australis''
** Subfamily [[Otariinae]]: sea lions
* Family [[Phocidae]]: true seals
* Family [[Odobenidae]]: Walrus
[[Category:Pinnipeds]]
[[da:Øresæler]]
[[de:Ohrenrobben]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[fr:Otarie]]
[[ko:물개]]
[[nl:Zeeberen]]
[[ja:オットセイ]]
[[fi:Korvahylkeet]]
[[sv:Öronsälar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Friesian</title>
<id>11781</id>
<revision>
<id>30169789</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-05T00:50:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Frisian''' (alternate spelling: '''Friesian''') can refer to:
*An inhabitant of [[Frisia]] (consisting of the province of [[Friesland]] in the [[Netherlands]], and portions of the states of [[Lower Saxony]] and [[Schleswig-Holstein]] in [[Germany]]) - see [[Frisians]]
*The [[Frisian language]], which itself is divided into three languages:
**[[West Frisian language]], spoken in the Netherlands.
**[[East Frisian language]], spoken in Lower Saxony, Germany.
**[[North Frisian language]], spoken in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.
**The [[Old Frisian]] language
*A breed of [[horse]] from [[Frisia]], see [[Friesian horse]].
* '''Friesian''' is a common breed of [[cow]] (also known as the [[Holstein Friesian]]), recognised by their black and white mottled hides. They are large and heavy, and are primarily used as [[dairy]] [[cattle]], although they are also [[farming|farmed]] for [[beef]]. They are the most common breed of cow in the [[developed nations|developed world]], and make up approximately one third of all dairy cows.
*The philosophy, which can be known as [[Friesian philosophy]] or [[Neo-Friesian philosophy]], that gets its name from the [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]-influenced German philosopher [[Jakob Fries]]. [http://www.friesian.com]
{{disambig}}
[[fr:Frison]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frisian</title>
<id>11782</id>
<revision>
<id>23807591</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-23T04:30:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hottentot</username>
<id>239268</id>
</contributor>
<comment>all this info can be found at [[Friesian]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Friesian]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fencepost error</title>
<id>11783</id>
<revision>
<id>40770602</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T22:30:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Seliopou</username>
<id>226572</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer programming]], a '''fencepost error''' (occasionally called a "lamp-post error") is a [[computer bug]] involving the discrete equivalent of a [[boundary condition]], often exhibited in programs by [[Control_flow#Loops|iterative loops]]. This can also occur in a [[mathematics|mathematical]] context, but is not usually named.
The following problem illustrates the error:
: "If you build a fence 100 feet long with posts 10 feet apart, how many posts do you need?"
Many people will intuitively divide 100 by 10 and thus answer 10, but this is incorrect. The fence certainly has 10 sections, but there are 11 posts. The following diagram illustrates this:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
| | | | | | | | | | |
|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 '''11'''
In computing, suppose you have a long list or [[array]] of items, and want to process items ''m'' through ''n''; how many items are there? The obvious answer is ''n''&minus;''m'', but that is off by one; the right answer is ''n''&minus;''m''+1. The "obvious" formula exhibits a fencepost error. (This is the motivation behind the representation of ranges in computing by [[half-open interval]]s: the range from ''m'' to ''n'' (both inclusive) is very often represented by the range from ''m'' (inclusive) to ''n''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1 (exclusive) to avoid fencepost errors.)
Note that not all [[off-by-one error]]s are fencepost errors. The game of [[musical chairs]] involves a catastrophic off-by-one error where ''n'' people try to sit in ''n''&minus;1 chairs, but this is not a fencepost error (see also [[pigeonhole principle]]). Fencepost errors come from counting things rather than the spaces between them, or vice versa, or by neglecting to consider whether one should count one or both ends of a row.
A rare secondary meaning is an error induced by unexpected regularities in input values, which can (for instance) completely thwart a theoretically efficient [[binary tree]] or [[hash function]] implementation. The error here involves the difference between expected and worst case behaviours of an [[algorithm]].
==See also==
[[zeroth]]
''An earlier version of this article was based on [http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?query=fencepost%20error fencepost error] at [http://www.foldoc.org FOLDOC], used with [[Wikipedia:Foldoc license|permission]].''
[[Category:Programming bugs]]
[[de:Zaunpfahlproblem]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fauna</title>
<id>11784</id>
<revision>
<id>35534031</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T12:52:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Muchness</username>
<id>282514</id>
</contributor>
<comment>MoS fmt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Fauna''' may mean:
* [[Fauna (animals)]], a collective term for animal life, as distinct from ''flora'' (plant life)
* [[Fauna (goddess)]], an ancient Roman goddess
* [[Fauna, Bloemfontein]], a suburb of the South African city of Bloemfontein
* Fauna Range, a hill range in [[Bundelkhand]], India
{{disambig}}
[[fr:Faune]]
[[nl:Fauna]]
[[fi:Fauna]]
[[ru:Фауна]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Federico Fellini</title>
<id>11786</id>
<revision>
<id>41516574</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:05:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.9.104.145</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Federico Fellini''' ([[January 20]] [[1920]] &ndash; [[October 31]] [[1993]]) was one of the most influential and widely revered [[Italy|Italian]] [[film]]-makers of the [[20th century]] and is considered to be one of the finest [[film director]]s of all time. Fellini's films typically combine memory, dreams, fantasy and desire.
== Life and work ==
Born in and raised in [[Rimini]], his childhood experiences would later play an important part in many of his films. Fellini's first solo-directed film was ''[[Lo Sceicco Bianco]]'' ([[1951]]), with [[Alberto Sordi]], written by [[Michelangelo Antonioni]] and Ennio Flaiano. In making this movie Fellini met [[Nino Rota]], the musician who would follow him for the successful remainder of his career.
In addition to making films, he also wrote scripts for [[radio]] shows, for movies (mainly for Rossellini) and wrote comic gags for well known actors like Aldo Fabrizi. Fellini also produced several drawings (mostly pencil on paper), often humorous portraits. It is with these works that young Fellini encountered [[film|cinema]]: his first success was in drawing advertising pictures for movies.
During Mussolini's [[Fascist]] regime, he was an ''Avanguardista'', and his first writings were for Alleanza Cinematografica Italiana (ACI), the production company of Vittorio Mussolini, son of [[Benito Mussolini|Benito]], who introduced him to [[Roberto Rossellini]], husband of Swedish-born actress [[Ingrid Bergman]].
In [[1944]], after Mussolini's downfall, Fellini opened a shop in [[Rome]] in which he sold his drawings. The shop was named (in English) "The Funny Face Shop", and contained works from Fellini and De Seta, Verdini, Camerini, Scarpelli, Majorana, Guasta, Giobbe, Attalo, Migneco (all writers, directors or otherwise intellectuals working for Italian cinema). A major inspiration for Fellini was Goethe, the author of Faust. In the same year he started his contribution to [[Roberto Rossellini|Rossellini]]'s [[Roma città aperta]], starring [[Aldo Fabrizi]].
Fellini also took part in writing another of Rossellini's movies, ''[[Paisà]]''. He wrote also for other directors such as [[Alberto Lattuada]], [[Pietro Germi]], and [[Luigi Comencini]].
Fellini's |
g the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and [[China]] during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
The world would have been very different socio-politically, and economically, had it not been for modern colonialism. It laid the foundation for the majority of modern countries and economies.
[[Dependency theory|Dependency theorists]] such as [[Andre Gunder Frank]], on the other hand, argue that colonialism actually leads to the net transfer of wealth from the colonized to the colonizer, and inhibits successful economic development.
Critics of colonialism such as [[Frantz Fanon]] and [[Aime Cesaire]] argue that colonialism does political, psychological, and moral damage to the colonized as well.
More critically, Indian writer and political activist [[Arundhati Roy]] said that debating the pros and cons of colonialism/[[imperialism]] "is a bit like debating the pros and cons of rape".
Critics of the alleged abuses of economic and political advantages accruing to developed nations via globalised capitalism have referred to them as '''[[neocolonialism]]''', and see them as a continuation of the domination and [[exploitation]] of ex-colonial countries, merely utilizing different means.
==See also==
*[[Anticolonialism]]
*[[American Empire (term)|American Empire]]
**[[American exceptionalism]]
**[[History of United States continental expansion]]
**[[History of United States overseas expansion]]
*[[Belgian colonial empire]]
*[[British Empire]]
**[[British Empire and Commonwealth Museum]]
*[[Chartered companies]]
*[[Colonial]]
*[[Colonial cinema]]
* [[List of Colonial Territories by country]]
* [[Colonial Exhibitions]]
*[[Colonization]]
**[[Colonization of Africa]]
***[[Arab colonization of North Africa]]
***[[Bantu colonization of Eastern and Southern Africa]]
***[[European colonization of Africa]]
**[[Colonization of Europe]]
***[[Roman colonization of Europe]]
***[[Arab colonization of Spain]]
***[[Soviet colonization of eastern Poland and southern Finland]] <!-- umm what was that? -->
***[[Osmanic colonization of the Balkans]]
***[[Plantations of Ireland]] - British colonisation of [[Ireland]]
***[[German colonization of Eastern Europe]]
**[[European colonization of the Americas]]
***[[British colonization of the Americas]]
***[[Danish colonization of the Americas]]
***[[Dutch colonization of the Americas]]
***[[New Netherland]]
***[[French colonization of the Americas]]
****[[New France]]
***[[Portuguese colonization of the Americas]]
***[[Russian colonization of the Americas]]
***[[Spanish colonization of the Americas]]
****[[Spanish Conquest of Yucatan]]
****[[Conquistador]]
****[[Spanish missions in California]]
****[[New Spain]]
***[[Swedish colonization of the Americas]]
*[[Colony]]
*[[Darién scheme]]
*[[Decolonization]]
*[[Dutch colonial empire]]
**[[Dutch empire]]
**[[Dutch colonization of the Americas]]
*[[Ethnocentrism]]
**[[Lieutenant governor]]
**[[Viceroy of India]]
**[[Crown colony]]
**[[Dominion]]
**[[Imperial Conferences]]
**[[Balfour Declaration 1926]]
**[[Statute of Westminster 1931]]
**[[Commonwealth of Nations]]
***[[Commonwealth Realm]]
***[[Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting]]
***[[Commonwealth Games]]
*[[French colonial empires]]
*[[List of former German colonies|German Empire]]
*[[Global Empire]]
*[[Human Zoo]]
*[[Independence]]
*[[Italian Empire]]
*[[Imperialism]]
**[[Cultural imperialism]]
**[[Culture of capitalism]]
**[[Media Imperialism]]
**[[Imperialism in Asia]]
**[[The White Man's Burden]]
*[[Indonesian colonization of East Timor]]
*[[Japanese expansionism]]
*[[List of extinct countries, empires, etc.]]
*[[Mercantilism]]
*[[New Imperialism]]
*[[Neo-colonialism]]
**[[New Netherland]]
*[[Portuguese Empire]]
**[[Portugal in the period of discoveries]]
**[[Portuguese colonization of the Americas]]
*[[Protectorate]]
*[[Spanish Empire]]
*[[Israeli occupied territories]] [[Israeli settlement]]/colonies
*[[Biopiracy]] / [[Bioprospecting]]
==References==
{{unreferenced}}
Fanon, Frantz "The wretched of the earth" Pref. by Jean-Paul Sartre. Translated by Constance Farrington. London : Penguin Book, 2001
== External links ==
* [http://lsb.scu.edu/~dklein/papers/PdfPapers/Liberalanti-imperialism.pdf Liberal opposition to colonialism, imperialism and empire (pdf)] - by professor Daniel Klein
{{Colonial Empires}}
[[Category:Colonialism|*]]
[[ca:Colonialisme]]
[[de:Kolonialismus]]
[[fr:Colonialisme]]
[[he:קולוניאליזם]]
[[id:Kolonialisme]]
[[it:Colonialismo]]
[[ja:植民地主義]]
[[sw:Ukoloni]]
[[pl:Kolonializm]]
[[fi:Kolonialismi]]
[[zh:殖民主义]]
[[zh-min-nan:Si̍t-bîn chú-gī]]
[[sv:Kolonialism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Colonial</title>
<id>7300</id>
<revision>
<id>38255609</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T04:05:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RandomCritic</username>
<id>838239</id>
</contributor>
<comment>emended notes on the period to which (American) colonial applies and use of the term</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[passenger train]], see [[Colonial (passenger train)]].''
In general, the word '''''colonial''''' means "of or relating to a [[colony]]".
In [[History of United States|United States history]], the term '''Colonial''' is used to refer to the period of English/British settlement in North America down to the beginning of the [[American Revolution]], i.e. 1607-1775. During the latter part of this period the North American colonists were widely known as "Americans", both in Great Britain and in the colonies themselves, though at the time this was a geographical rather than a political designation. The term "Colonial" has also been applied to [[architecture]] dating from that period, characterized by a simple, rectangular frame and a sloped roof. See [[Colonial house]].
In a similar way, in [[Latin American]] history the term refers to the period before independence from [[Spain]].
In [[Australia]], the term refers to the period before the [[Federation of Australia]] in [[1901]]. Before this time, the [[States and territories of Australia|six Australian states]] existed as [[United Kingdom|British]] [[colony|colonies]].
In [[Africa]]n history this term is used for the period between the advent of major European colonies and the independence of most African nations in the 1950s-70s.
[[Category:Colonialism]]
[[ja:コロニアル]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Casablanca</title>
<id>7301</id>
<revision>
<id>42045949</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:37:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.202.74.49</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Since independence */ Mediterranean Games</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Casablancanasa.jpg|thumb|Casablanca from space]]
[[Image:Boulevard de Paris, Casablanca.jpg|thumb|A view on the Boulevard de Paris in central Casablanca]]
'''Casablanca''' (classical [[Arabic language|Arabic]] name: '''الدار البيضاء''', [[transliteration|transliterated]] '''{{unicode|ad-Dār al-Bay&#7693;ā&#700;}}''', "the white house", '''dar beïda''' in dialectal Moroccan Arabic) is a [[city]] in western [[Morocco]], located on the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
With a [[population]] of 2.95 [[million]] ([[September 2004]] [[census]]), Casablanca is Morocco's biggest city; also it is the chief [[port]], and is thus considered the economic capital, although Morocco's official [[capital]] and seat of [[government]] is [[Rabat]]. Casablanca is located at {{Coor dm NW|33|32|7|35}}.
== History ==
*''See also: [[History of Morocco]]''
===Before the French Protectorate===
The area which is today Casablanca was settled by [[Berber|Berbers]] by at least the [[7th century]]. A small independent kingdom, in the area then named [[Anfa]], arose in the area around that time in response to Arab [[Muslim]] rule, and continued until it was conquered by the [[Almoravid|Almoravids]] in 1068.
During [[14th century]], under the [[Marinid|Marinids]], Anfa rose in importace as a port. In the early [[15th century]], the town became an independent state once again, and emerged as a safe harbour for pirates and privateers, leading to it being targeted by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], who destroyed the town in 1468.
The Portuguese established a new town in the ruins of Anfa in 1515, which they named ''Casa Branca''. They eventually abandoned the area in 1755 following an [[earthquake]] which destroyed most of the town. The area was reintegrated into Morocco, under the rule of the then [[sultan]] [[Mohammed III of Morocco|Sidi Mohammed III]], who renamed the town Casablanca in commemoration of a trade agreement with [[Spain]] in 1781.
In the [[19th century]], the area's population began to grow as Casablanca became a major supplier of wool to the booming textile industry in [[UK|Britain]] and shipping traffic increased (the British, in return, began importing Morocco's now famous national drink, [[gunpowder tea]]). By the 1860s, there were around 4,000 residents, and the population grew to around 9,000 by the late 1880s {{ref|ref1}}. Casablanca remained a modestly-sized port, with a population reaching around 12,000 within a few years of the French conquest and arrival of [[French colonial empires|French colonialists]] in the town, at first administrators within a sovereign sultanate, in [[1906]]. By 1921, this was to rise to 110,000 {{ref|ref2}}, largely through the development of ''[[shanty town|bidonvilles]]''.
===French rule===
In June 1907, the French attempted to build a [[light railway]] near the port and passing through a graveyard. Local people attacked the French workers, and riots ensued. French troops were landed in order to restore order, which was achieved only after severe damage to the town. The French then took control of Casablanca. This effectively began the process of colonialisation, although French contro |
importance of [[music theory]]. The most influential text was published by [[Johann Joseph Fux]] (1660-1741), his ''Gradus Ad Parnassum'' ("Steps to [[Parnassus]]"), which appeared in 1725. This work laid out the terms of "species" of counterpoint, and offered a series of exercises to learn fugue writing. Fux's work was largely based on the practice of Palestrina's modal fugues. It remained influential into the nineteenth century. [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]], for example, taught counterpoint from his own summary of Fux, and thought of it as the basis for formal structure.
[[Johann Sebastian Bach]] (1685-1750) is generally regarded as the greatest composer of fugues. He often entered into contests where he would be given a subject with which to spontaneously [[improvisation|improvise]] a fugue on the [[organ (music)|organ]] or [[harpsichord]]. This musical form was also apparent in chamber music he would later compose for Weimar; the famous ''[[Double Violin Concerto (Bach)|Concerto for Two Violins in D Minor]]'' (BWV 1043) (although not contrapuntal in its entirety) has a fugal opening section to its first movement.
Bach's most famous fugues are those for the harpsichord in ''[[The Well-Tempered Clavier]]'' and the (unfinished) ''[[Art of Fugue]]'', and his organ fugues, which are usually preceded by a [[prelude (music)|prelude]] or [[toccata]]. The ''Art of Fugue'' is a collection of fugues (and four [[canon (music)|canons]]) on a single theme that is gradually transformed as the cycle progresses. ''The Well-Tempered Clavier'' comprises two volumes written in different times of Bach's life, each comprising 24 prelude and fugue pairs, one for each major and minor key. Bach also wrote smaller single fugues, and incorporated fugal writing in many of his works that were not fugues per se.
Although J. S. Bach was not well known as a composer in his lifetime, his influence extended forward through his son [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach|C.P.E. Bach]] and through the theorist [[Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg]] (1718-1795) whose ''Abhandlung von der Fuge'' ("Treatise on the fugue", 1753) was largely based on J. S. Bach's work.
===Classical era===
During the Classical era, the fugue was no longer a central or even fully natural mode of musical composition. Nevertheless, the three greatest composers of the Classical era, [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], and [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]], all had periods of their careers in which they in some sense "rediscovered" fugal writing and used it frequently in their work.
Haydn's first spell of fugue-writing occurred when he composed his [[Sun quartets]], (op. 20, 1772) of which three have fugal finales. This was a practice that Haydn only repeated once later in his quartet-writing career, with the finale of his quartet Op. 50 no. 4 (1787). However, a second period of fugue writing for Haydn occurred after he had heard, and been greatly inspired by, the [[oratorio]]s of [[Handel]] during his visits to London (1791-1793, 1794-1795). Haydn then studied Handel's techniques and incorporated Handelian fugal writing into the choruses of his mature oratorios ''[[The Creation]]'' and ''[[The Seasons (Haydn)|The Seasons]]''.
Mozart studied counterpoint when young with [[Padre Martini]] in Rome. However, the major impetus to fugal writing for Mozart was the influence of Baron [[Gottfried van Swieten]] in Vienna around 1782. Van Swieten, during diplomatic service in [[Berlin]], had taken the opportunity to collect as many manuscripts by Bach and Handel as he could, and he invited Mozart to study his collection and also encouraged him to transcribe various works for other combinations of instruments. Mozart was evidently fascinated by these works, and wrote a set of transcriptions for string trio of fugues from Bach's [[Well-Tempered Clavier]], introducing them with preludes of his own. Mozart then set to writing fugues on his own, mimicking the Baroque style. These included the fugues for string quartet, K. 405 (1782) and a fugue in C Minor K. 426 for two pianos (1783). Later, Mozart incorporated fugal writing into the finale of his ''[[Symphony No. 41 (Mozart)|Symphony No. 41]]'' and his opera ''[[Die Zauberflöte]]''. The parts of the [[Requiem]] he completed also contain several fugues (most notably the Kyrie, and the three fugues in the Domine Jesu); he also left behind a sketch for an [[Amen]] fugue which would have come at the end of the Sequentia.
Beethoven was familiar with fugal writing from childhood, as an important part of his training was playing from ''[[The Well-Tempered Clavier]]''. During his early career in [[Vienna]], Beethoven attracted notice for his performance of these fugues. There are fugal sections in Beethoven's early piano sonatas, and fugal writing is to be found in the second and fourth movements of the ''[[Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven)|Eroica Symphony]]'' (1805). Nevertheless, fugues did not take on a truly central role in Beethoven's work until his "late period." A fugue forms the development section of the last movement of his piano sonata op. 101 (1816), and massive, dissonant fugues form the finales of his [[Piano Sonata No. 29 (Beethoven)|''Hammerklavier'']] piano sonata (1818) and [[String Quartet No. 13 (Beethoven)|string quartet op. 130]] (1825); the latter was later published separately as op. 133, the ''[[Grosse Fuge]]'' ("Great Fugue"). Beethoven's last piano sonata, op. 111 (1822) integrates fugal texture throughout the first movement, written in [[sonata form]]. Fugues are also found in the ''[[Missa Solemnis (Beethoven)|Missa Solemnis]]'' and in the finale of the ''[[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|Ninth Symphony]]''.
A common characteristic of the Classical composers is that they usually wrote fugues not as isolated works but as part of a larger work, often as a sonata-form development section or as a finale. It was also characteristic to abandon fugal texture just before the end of a work, providing a purely homophonic resolution. This is found, for instance, in the final fugue of the chorus "The Heavens are Telling" in Haydn's ''[[The Creation]]'' (1798) and the final fugal section of Beethoven's piano sonata op. 110 (1822).
===Romantic era ===
By the beginning of the [[Romantic music|Romantic]] era, fugue writing had become specifically attached to the norms and styles of the Baroque. One manual explicitly stated that the hallmark of contrapuntal style was the style of J. S. Bach. The 19th century's taste for academicism - setting of forms and norms by explicit rules - found [[Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg|Marpurg]], and the fugue, to be a congenial topic. The writing of fugues also remained an important part of musical education throughout the 19th century, particularly with the publication of the complete works of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]] and [[George Frideric Handel|Handel]], and the revival of interest in Bach's music.
Examples of fugal writing in the [[Romantic music|Romantic]] era are found in the last movement of [[Hector Berlioz|Berlioz]]'s ''[[Symphonie Fantastique]]'', and [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]'s ''[[Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg|Meistersinger]]'' overture. The finale of [[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s opera ''[[Falstaff (opera)|Falstaff]]'' is a ten-voice fugue. [[Robert Schumann]], [[Felix Mendelssohn]] and [[Johannes Brahms]] also included fugues in many of their works. The final part of Schumann's ''[[Piano Quintet (Schumann)|Piano Quintet]]'' is a double fugue, and his opus numbers 126, 72 and 60 are all sets of fugues for the piano (opus 60 based on the [[BACH motif]]). The Quasi-Faust movement of [[Charles-Valentin Alkan]]'s Grande Sonate contains a bizarre but musically convincing fugue in 8 parts. Brahms' ''[[Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Handel]]'' ends with a fugue, as does his ''[[Cello Sonata No. 1 (Brahms)|Cello Sonata No. 1]]''. Towards the end of the Romantic era, [[Richard Strauss]] included a fugue in his tone poem, ''[[Also sprach Zarathustra (Strauss)|Also sprach Zarathustra]]'', to represent the high intelligence of science. [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], despite writing in a lush post-romantic idiom, was highly skilled in counterpoint (as is highly evident in his [[Vespers (Rachmaninoff) | ''Vespers'']]); a well known fugue occurs in his [[Symphony No. 2 (Rachmaninoff) | ''Symphony No. 2'']]. [[Alexander Glazunov]] wrote a very difficult ''Prelude and Fugue in D minor'', his Op. 62, for the piano.
===20th century ===
The late Romantic composer Max Reger had the closest association with the fugue among his contemporaries. Many of his organ works contain, or are themselves fugues. Two of Reger's most-played orchestral works, the Hiller variations and the Mozart variations, end with a large-scale orchestral fugue.
A number of other twentieth century composers made extensive use of the fugue. [[Béla Bartók]] opened his ''[[Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta]]'' with a fugue in which the [[tritone]], rather than the fifth, is the main structural interval. He also included fugal sections in the final movements of his ''[[String Quartet No. 1 (Bartók)|String Quartet No. 1]]'', ''[[String Quartet No. 5 (Bartók)|String Quartet No. 5]]'' and ''[[Piano Concerto No. 3 (Bartók)|Piano Concerto No. 3]]''. The second movement of his ''[[Sonata for Solo Violin (Bartók)|Sonata for Solo Violin]]'' is also a fugue.
[[Igor Stravinsky]] also incorporated fugues into his works, including the ''[[Symphony of Psalms]]'' and the ''[[Concerto in E-flat (Dumbarton Oaks)|Dumbarton Oaks]]'' concerto. The last [[movement (music)|movement]] of [[Samuel Barber]]'s famous ''Sonata for Piano'' is a sort of "modernized" fugue, which, instead of obeying the constraint of a fixed number of voices, develops the fugue subject and its head-motif in various contrapuntal situations. The practice of writing fugue cyc |
Remembrance of ENGLISH CRICKET, which died at the Oval on 29th&nbsp;AUGUST, 1882, Deeply lamented by a large circle of sorrowing friends and acquaintances R.I.P.
:N.B. &mdash; The body will be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia."
The English media played up the subsequent tour to Australia in 1882-83 (which had been arranged before this defeat) as a quest to "regain the Ashes".
==The Ashes urn==
After the third game of the 1882-83 tour, the English team, led by [[Ivo Bligh]] were guests of Sir William Clarke, at his property "[[Rupertswood]]" at [[Sunbury, Victoria]]. A group of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]n ladies headed by Lady Clarke burned what has variously been called a ball, bail or veil {{ref|Terminology}}, and presented the resulting ashes to Bligh in an [[urn]] together with a velvet bag, which was made by Mrs Ann Fletcher, the daughter of Joseph Hines Clarke and Marion Wright, both of [[Dublin]]. She said, "What better way than to actually present the English captain with the very 'object' &mdash; albeit mythical &mdash; he had come to Australia to retrieve?" Bligh later married another of these [[Melbourne|Melburnian]] ladies, Florence Morphy. When he died in 1927, his widow presented the urn to the [[Marylebone Cricket Club]]. The urn itself is made of [[terracotta]] and is about four&nbsp;[[inch]]es (10&nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]]) tall.
A poem was presented to Bligh with the urn and appears on it {{ref|poem}}:
:''When [[Ivo Bligh|Ivo]] goes back with the urn, the urn;''
:''[[Studd brothers|Studds]], [[Allan Steel|Steel]], [[Walter Read|Read]] and [[Edward Tylecote|Tylecote]] return, return;''
:''The welkin will ring loud,''
:''The great crowd will feel proud,''
:''Seeing [[Dick Barlow|Barlow]] and [[Billy Bates|Bates]] with the urn, the urn;''
:''And the rest coming home with the urn.''
The Ashes urn itself is never physically awarded to either England or Australia, but is kept permanently in the MCC Cricket Museum at [[Lord's Cricket Ground]], where it can be seen together with a specially-made red and gold velvet bag and the scorecard of the 1882 match.
The urn has been back to Australia once, in 1988 for a museum tour as part of Australia's [[Bicentennial]] celebrations. In the 1990s, given Australia's long dominance of the Ashes series, the idea was mooted that the victorious team in an Ashes series should be awarded the urn as a trophy and allowed to retain it until the next series. The MCC, considering the urn too fragile to transport to Australia, instead began commissioning a larger-scale replica trophy in [[Waterford Crystal]] to award to the winning team of each series.
In 2002, Bligh's great-great-grandson (Lord Clifton, the heir-apparent to the [[Earl of Darnley|Earldom of Darnley]]) argued that the Ashes urn should not be returned to Australia as it was essentially the property of his family and only given to the MCC for safe-keeping.
==The matches==
''See also: [[List of Ashes series]] for a full listing of all the Ashes series since 1882.''
===First Ashes quest===
''See also: [[History of Test cricket (to 1883)#The Ashes legend|History of Test cricket (to 1883): The Ashes legend]]''
The [[Honourable Ivo Bligh]] led the expedition to Australia to "recover the Ashes" against the side that had beaten England earlier in 1882. Publicity surrounding the series was intense, and it was at some time during this series that the Ashes urn was crafted. Australia won the first Test by [[The result in cricket|nine wickets]], but in the next two England were victorious. At the end of the third Test, the four-inch urn was presented to Bligh by some Melburnian ladies, England having been generally considered to have "won back the Ashes" 2&ndash;1. A fourth match was in fact played, against a "United Australian XI", which was stronger than the Australian side that had competed in the previous matches; this game, however, is not considered part of the Ashes series.
===English dominance ends===
After this series followed an extended period of English dominance. The tours were shorter in the 1880s and 1890s than people have grown accustomed to in more recent years, possibly owing to the extended travelling time (the sea journey between the two countries took at least a month). Thus, England only lost four Ashes Tests in the 1880s, out of 23 played, and they won all the seven series contested. There was also more chopping and changing in the teams, there was no official board of selectors for each country (at times, two competing sides toured a nation), and popularity with the fans varied. The 1890s games were more closely fought, Australia taking their first series win since the match that sparked the legend in 1891-92 with a 2&ndash;1 victory. England still dominated, winning the next three series despite continued player disputes. Towards the end of the decade, though, the Australians got more of a foothold, winning four successive series from 1897-98 to 1902.
===Repopularising of the Ashes===
After what the [[Marylebone Cricket Club|MCC]] saw as the problems of the earlier professional and amateur series, they decided to take control of organising tours themselves, and this led to the first MCC tour of Australia in 1903-1904. England won it against the odds, and [[Plum Warner]], the England captain, wrote up his version of the tour in his book ''How We Recovered The Ashes''. This book repopularised the Ashes myth in England, which continues to this day.
England and Australia shared the spoils for the next few years. The entrance of [[South African cricket team|South Africa]] onto the world cricketing scene meant less time for Ashes series, but even so there were four played after Plum Warner's series, each of the sides taking two victories. England won the last series in 1911-1912 by four matches to one, [[Jack Hobbs|Sir Jack Hobbs]] establishing himself as a regular with three centuries. England then retained the Ashes when they won the Triangular tournament, which also featured [[South African cricket team|South Africa]], in 1912. England looked as if they had established themselves as the dominating force by the time [[World War I]] intervened and brought a halt to all international cricket.
After the war, however, Australia took firm control of both the Ashes and world cricket. They recorded thumping victories both in England and on home soil, and England only won one Test out of fifteen from the end of the war until 1925. In a rain-hit series in 1926, however, England managed to eke out a 1&ndash;0 victory with a win in the final Test at the Oval, and despite the appearance of Donald Bradman, Australia could not win the next series either, losing 4&ndash;1. Bradman won the next series almost by himself, however, as one of the best batting line-ups of all time began to form in the early 1930s, including Bradman himself, [[Stan McCabe]] and [[Bill Ponsford]]. It was the prospect of bowling at this line-up that caused England's captain [[Douglas Jardine]] to think up the [[Bodyline]] tactic.
===Bodyline===
{{main|Bodyline}}
[[Image:4th Test Fingleton.jpg|220px|right|thumb| [[Bill Woodfull]] evades a ball from [[Harold Larwood]] with [[Bodyline]] field settings.]]
In 1932, after Bradman's routing of the English team in the previous series, [[Douglas Jardine]] developed a tactic of instructing his [[fast bowling|fast bowlers]] to bowl at the bodies of the Australian batsmen, with the goal of forcing them to defend their bodies with their bats, and provide easy catches to a stacked [[leg side]] field. The tactic was descriptively dubbed Bodyline. Although this won England the Ashes, it caused such a furore in Australia that diplomats had to intervene to prevent serious harm to Anglo-Australian relations, and the [[Marylebone Cricket Club|MCC]] eventually changed the [[laws of cricket]] to prevent anyone from using the tactic again.
Jardine's comments summed up England's views: "I've not travelled 6,000&nbsp;miles to make friends. I'm here to win the Ashes."
On the batting-friendly [[pitch|wickets]] that prevailed in the late 1930s, most Tests up to the war still gave results, although many batting records were set in this era. [[Len Hutton]] scored 364 at [[The Oval]] to save a draw in the 1938 series, a world record [[innings]], while [[Jack Fingleton]] and Bradman set a sixth-wicket [[partnership (cricket)|partnership]] record of 346 runs in the Third Test at [[Melbourne Cricket Ground|Melbourne]] that stands to this day. The series were surprisingly competitive, though, considering England's desperation in the early 30s.
===''The Invincibles''===
{{main|The Invincibles (cricket)}}
Australia's first tour of England after [[World War II]], in 1948, was led by the 39-year-old Bradman in his last appearance representing Australia. His team has gone down in cricketing legend as ''[[The Invincibles (cricket)|The Invincibles]]'', as they played 36 matches including five Tests, and remained unbeaten on the tour. They won 27 matches, drawing only 9, including of course the 4&ndash;0 Ashes series victory.
This series is also known for one of the most poignant moments in cricket history, as Bradman batted for Australia in the fifth Test at The Oval &mdash; his last &mdash; needing to score only 4 runs to maintain a career [[batting average]] of 100. [[Eric Hollies]] bowled him second ball for a duck, denying those 4 runs and sending Bradman into retirement with a career average of 99.94.
Australia gradually weakened after 1948, allowing England back into the fray in the early 1950s when they won three successive Ashes series, from 1953 to 1956 to be arguably the best Test side in the world at the time. A see-sawing series in 1956 also saw a record that will probably never be beaten: the spinner [[Jim Laker|Jim Laker's]] monumental effort at [[Old Tr |
no reason to believe that consciousness, apart from the ethics of the move, can ever be moved from one brain into a new brain even if it is genetically identical. Identical twins often show uncanny parallels in life choices, but rarely do they exhibit any characteristics that would cause one to believe that genetic similarities in brains lead to any kind of compatibility of consciousness. If a brain is moved from an old body to a new one, even a clone, it would continue to lose size and capacity to regenerate cells, and continue to be subject to such degenerative disorders as [[Alzheimer's disease]]. Given all this, '[[immortality]]' seems a difficult goal to achieve, and even extended lifespan may be at a low quality of life.
Given these limits, the main reason for interest in the speculations is that they may be driving funding for research, and providing active lobbying for legal or political protections for the cloning industry. Concerns regarding the [[Raelian movement]] tend to focus on these issues.
All such issues are likely to be solved with better manipulation of DNA (better coppies, able to fix changes which occur with each cell division and accumulate over time - these changes in the parent cause premature aeging in the clone), and better undestanding of how DNA changes with each cell division.
==The current status of cloned-embryo research==
In 1998, [[South Korean]] scientists claimed to have created the first cloned human embryo, but the results were never published and many doubt that they had done so.
In the [[November 25]], [[2001]], issue of the ''Journal of Regenerative Medicine'', a US company [[Advanced Cell Technology]] claimed that it had successfully created a clone of a human, in the form of an embryo. ACT vice president Dr. Robert Lanza said that the company's intention was to use this in therapeutic cloning, in order to harvest embryonic [[stem cell]]s from a patient.
Some scientists objected that the ACT cloning had not actually been successful because the cloned embryos had only divided a few times, meaning it was possible that the transplanted genetic material had not actually been used. Further criticisms were of the company's inability to collect much useful information from the experiment, and of their inability to harvest stem cells. The company stressed that it was against reproductive cloning and they hoped to develop purely therapeutic processes.
Few cloning scientists admit that there may be another daunting limitation to cloning humans. There are several diseases in humans that hint that a new embryo probably needs DNA that has been exposed to the cytoplasm of an egg cell and '''also''' the cytoplasm of a sperm cell in order to develop properly. Prader-Willi syndrome and Angelman syndrome in humans are caused when both chromosome 15's are inherited by only one of the parents (a rare occurrence called uniparental disomy). Prader Willi syndrome results from a double copy of a specific region of the mother's chromosome 15 (or a paternal deletion in the same chromosome 15 region) and Angelman's syndrome is the result of a double copy of the same region on the fathers's chromosome 15 (or a maternal deletion). If such debilitating diseases are caused by imprinting of a single chromosome pair, perhaps having all chromosomes only being exposed to egg cell cytoplasm will prevent viable embryos from growing using modern cloning techniques.
==Hwang Woo-Suk==
In [[2004]], a group of scientists led by [[Hwang Woo-Suk]] of [[Seoul National University]] in [[Korea]] claimed to have grown 30 cloned human embryos to the one-week stage, and then successfully harvested stem cells from them. The results of their experiment were published in the peer-reviewed journal [[Science (journal)|Science]].
On [[May 30]],[[2005]], Hwang's team announced the creation of 11 [[stem cell line|lines]] of human stem cells, using a different technique (Hwang et al. 2005).
Later in [[2005]], a pattern of lies and fraud by [[Hwang Woo-Suk]] came to light, throwing in doubt all his claims.
Finally in [[2006]], the claims were determined to be fraudulent.[http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/01/09/skorea.stemcell.ap/index.html?section=cnn_topstories]
==Risks of growing a cloned embryo to term==
Reproductive cloning has supporters such as the scientists [[Panayiotis Zavos]], [[Brigitte Boisselier]], and [[Severino Antinori]]. Antinori had claimed that a cloned baby would be possible before 2003. However, the majority of scientists, including [[Ian Wilmut]], who led the team that cloned [[Dolly the sheep]] at the [[Roslin Institute]], claim that there are many further complications to reproductive human cloning in its current form. Aside from the ethical questions involved, the scientists claim that it is simply too risky. In a debate for the [[American National Academy of Sciences]] Wilmut quoted the low survival rate of cloned animals as evidence that human cloning would be dangerous. The main fears are that children will be born with genetic disorders, which might develop or worsen over the years.
Zavos thinks that by [[screening]] [[embryo]]s before and after implantation this risk would be reduced significantly. Don Wolf, a researcher at [[Oregon Regional Primate Research Centre]], disagrees. He suggests that screeners would not even know what to look for.
Zavos works with the Italian infertility expert Severino Antinori, who was recently expelled from the [[International Association of Private Assisted Reproductive Technology]] (APART) for his well-publicized wish to be the first to clone a human. Antinori claims that cloning humans would actually be safer than in animals. He quotes research from [[Duke University]], which seems to suggest a vital genetic difference between [[primates]] and other animals with regard to cloning. A problem discovered when cloning was first developed was that many of the clones grew much too large in the [[uterus]], consequently dying at birth. A researcher at the university, [[Randy Jirtle]], suggests this is due to the growth controlling [[gene]] [[IGF2R]] being suppressed. In animals a process known as [[imprinting]] can cause this gene not to be expressed. If the remaining gene is also turned off then '[[large offspring syndrome]]' ([[LOS]]) occurs. Research he has done suggests that in primates neither gene can be subject to imprinting. [[Randy Jirtle|Jirtle]] thinks that because of these extra safeguards, reproductive human cloning would be much safer than cloning of other mammals.
This is disputed by scientists who say that large-offspring syndrome is just one of many problems that result from cloning. Controlling this gene would not prevent many other genetic disorders which have yet to be fully understood or discovered.
Zavos and Antinori also say that the many of the developmental problems in animals were due to non-ideal conditions in which the embryos were [[Culture_%28disambiguation%29|cultured]]. Researchers at the [[Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research]], [[MIT]], have found that this disrupts genes so that apparently normal-looking animals die early. Zavos points out that reproductive science is actually more advanced in humans due to the widespread use of treatments such as [[in vitro fertilisation]] (IVF), and therefore cloning in humans is not such a large step as animal cloning was.
The Whitehead team, however, conclude that reproductive human cloning is not a good idea. They did suggest, though, that therapeutic cloning of [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s should be safer. This is because the imprinting experienced during culture is less important when cells specialize and start to grow in to specific tissues.
==Claims of success in human cloning beyond the embryo stage==
In [[1978]] [[David Rorvik]] claimed in his book ''In His Image: The Cloning of a Man'' that he had personal knowledge of the creation of a human clone. A court case followed. He failed to produce corroborating evidence to back up his claims, and his claims are now regarded as a hoax.
Severino Antinori made claims in November 2002 that a project to clone human beings has succeeded, with the first human clone due to be born in January [[2003]]. His claims were received with skepticism from many observers.
In December [[2002]], [[Clonaid]], the medical arm of a cult called [[Raëlism]], who believe that aliens introduced human life on Earth, claimed to have successfully [[cloning|clone]]d a human being. They claim that aliens taught them how to perform cloning, even though the company has no record of having successfully cloned any previous animal. A spokesperson said an independent agency would prove that the baby, named Eve, is in fact an exact copy of her mother. Shortly thereafter, the testing was cancelled, with the spokesperson claiming the decision would ultimately be left up to Eve's parents.
A mother in America plans to pay $500,000 to the [[Clonaid]] organization to clone her deceased daughter. In December [[2004]] Dr. Boisselier, claimed in letter to the UN that Clonaid has successfully cloned 13 children, however their personalities cannot be revealed to the public in order to protect them.
Dr. [[Panos Zavos]] claimed on [[January 17]], [[2004]] to have successfully produced a two week old cloned embryo which he attempted to implant into a 35 year old woman. However, the woman did not become pregnant.
==Possible advantages==
Many hopes have been put upon human cloning. Therapeutic cloning could provide needed organ transplants. A cure for [[cancer]] by a better understanding of the cell-differentiation process, as well as better treatments for heart attacks and improved [[cosmetic surgery]], are being cited as being possible with the new technology. Dr. Richard Seed thinks that human cloning will help us understand, and eventually reverse, the human aging process.
Antinori and Zavos hope to create a fertility treatment that allows parents wh |
t website]
*[http://celebs.absolutenow.com/calista_flockhart/biography.html Short Biography]
*{{imdb name|id=0001222|name=Calista Flockhart}}
[[Category:1964 births|Flockhart, Calista]]
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[[Category:American film actors|Flockhart, Calista]]
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<title>Chinese aircraft carrier</title>
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<timestamp>2003-08-03T01:53:20Z</timestamp>
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<username>Jiang</username>
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<comment>#REDIRECT[[People's Liberation Army Navy]]</comment>
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<page>
<title>Convolution</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-26T23:29:19Z</timestamp>
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<username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the computer science usage see [[convolution (computer science)]].''
In [[mathematics]] and in particular, [[functional analysis]], '''convolution''' is a mathematical [[operator]] which takes two [[function (mathematics)|function]]s ''f'' and ''g'' and produces a third function that in a sense represents the amount of overlap between ''f'' and a reversed and translated version of ''g''. A convolution is a kind of very general '''moving [[average]]''', as one can see by taking one of the functions to be an [[indicator function]] of an [[interval (mathematics)|interval]].
==Uses==
Convolution and related operations are found in many applications of engineering and mathematics.
* In [[statistics]], as noted above, a weighted moving average is a convolution.
* In statistics, the [[probability distribution]] of the sum of two independent random variables is the convolution of each of their distributions.
* In optics, many kinds of "blur" are described by convolutions. A shadow (e.g. the shadow on the table when you hold your hand between the table and a light source) is the convolution of the [[shape]] of the light source that is casting the shadow and the object whose shadow is being cast. An out-of-focus photograph is the convolution of the sharp image with the blur [[circle]] formed by the iris diaphragm.
* In acoustics, an echo is the convolution of the original sound with a function representing the various objects that are reflecting it.
* In artificial [[reverberation]] ([[digital signal processing]], pro audio), convolution is used to map the [[impulse response]] of a real room on a digital audio signal (see previous and next point for additional information).
* In electrical engineering and other disciplines, the output (response) of a (stationary, or time- or space-[[invariant (mathematics)|invariant]]) [[linear system]] is the convolution of the input (excitation) with the system's response to an impulse or [[Dirac delta]] function. See [[LTI system theory]] and [[digital signal processing]].
* In time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy, the excitation signal can be treated as a chain of delta pulses, and the measured fluorescence is sum of exponential decays from each delta pulse.
* In [[physics]], wherever there is a linear system with a "superposition" principle, a convolution operation makes an appearance.
==Definition==
The convolution of ''f'' and ''g'' is written <math>f*g</math>. It is defined as the integral of the product of the two functions after one is reversed and shifted.
: <math>(f * g )(t) = \int f(\tau) g(t - \tau)\, d\tau</math>
The integration range depends on the [[domain (mathematics)|domain]] on which the functions are defined. While the symbol <math>t</math> is used above, it need not represent the time domain. In the case of a finite integration range, ''f'' and ''g'' are often considered to extend [[periodic function|periodic]]ally in both directions, so that the term ''g''(''t'' &minus; &tau;) does not imply a range violation. This use of periodic domains is sometimes called a [[Circular convolution | '''cyclic''', '''circular''' or '''periodic convolution''']]. Of course, extension with zeros is also possible. Using zero-extended or infinite domains is sometimes called a '''linear convolution''', especially in the discrete case below.
If <math>X</math> and <math>Y</math> are two [[independent (probability)|independent]] [[random variable]]s with [[probability distribution|probability distributions]] ''f'' and ''g'', respectively, then the probability distribution of the sum <math>X + Y</math> is given by the convolution ''f'' <math>*</math> ''g''.
For discrete functions, one can use a discrete version of the convolution.
It is then given by
:<math>(f * g)(m) = \sum_n {f(n) g(m - n)} \,</math>
When multiplying two [[polynomial]]s, the coefficients of the product are given by the convolution of the original coefficient [[sequence]]s, in this sense (using extension with zeros as mentioned above).
Generalizing the above cases, the convolution can be defined for any two [[integrable]] functions defined on a [[locally compact]] [[topological group]]. A different generalization is the convolution of distributions.
==Properties==
The various convolution operators all satisfy the following properties:
===Commutativity===
: <math>f * g = g * f \,</math>
===Associativity===
: <math>f * (g * h) = (f * g) * h \,</math>
===Distributivity===
: <math>f * (g + h) = (f * g) + (f * h) \,</math>
===Associativity with scalar multiplication===
: <math>a (f * g) = (a f) * g = f * (a g) \,</math>
for any real (or complex) number <math>a</math>.
===Differentiation rule===
: <math>\mathcal{D}(f * g) = \mathcal{D}f * g = f * \mathcal{D}g \,</math>
where <math>\mathcal{D}f</math> denotes the [[derivative]] of <math>f</math> or, in the discrete case, the [[difference operator]]
<math>\mathcal{D}f(n) = f(n+1) - f(n)</math>.
===Convolution theorem===
The [[convolution theorem]] states that
: <math> \mathcal{F}(f * g) = \mathcal{F} (f) \cdot \mathcal{F} (g) </math>
where ''F(f)'' denotes the [[Fourier transform]] of ''f''. Versions of this theorem also hold for the [[Laplace transform]], [[two-sided Laplace transform]] and [[Mellin transform]].
==Convolutions on groups==
If ''G'' is a suitable [[group (mathematics)|group]] endowed with a [[measure (mathematics)|measure]] ''m'' (for instance, a [[locally compact]] [[Hausdorff space | Hausdorff]] [[topological group]] with the [[Haar measure]]) and if ''f'' and ''g'' are real or complex valued m-[[Lebesgue integral|integrable]] functions of G, then we can define their convolution by
:<math>(f * g)(x) = \int_G f(y)g(xy^{-1})\,dm(y) \,</math>
In this case, it is also possible to give, for instance, a Convolution Theorem, however it is much more difficult to phrase and requires [[group representation|representation theory]] for these types of groups and the [[Peter-Weyl theorem]] of [[Harmonic analysis]]. It is very difficult to do these calculations without more structure, and [[Lie group|Lie groups]] turn out to be the setting in which these things are done.
==See also==
*[[Deconvolution]]
==External links==
* {{planetmath reference|title=Convolution|id=2790|}}
* http://www.jhu.edu/~signals/convolve/index.html Visual convolution Java Applet.
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<page>
<title>Calico (fabric)</title>
<id>7521</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-07T11:44:18Z</timestamp>
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<username>Melaen</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Calico''' is a fabric made from unbleached, and often not fully processed, [[cotton]]. It may contain unseparated husk parts, for example. The [[Cloth|fabric]] is less coarse and thick than [[canvas]] or [[denim]], but owing to its unfinished and undyed appearance, it is still very cheap.
==Etymology==
The name ''Calico'' is derived from the name of the city of [[Calicut]], [[Kerala]], [[India]].
==History==
In [[1700]], [[Britain]] banned importation (and the use and wear of) of cotton cloth from India, in an effort to prop up British [[textile]] industry. Printed calicos were especially popular among women who were termed the 'Calico Madams'. The ban failed, and was strengthened in [[1720]] (known as the 'Calico Act', it was repealed in [[1774]]). It almost destroyed the Indian textile industry, and India was forced to buy British textiles.
==Related links==
*[[Calico]]
*[[Calicut]]
*[[Calico bag]]
{{textile-stub}}
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<title> |
o the time-squared law (Drake, 1973).
==Astronomy==
===Contributions===
Although the popular idea of Galileo inventing the [[telescope]] is inaccurate, he was one of the first people to use the telescope to observe the [[sky]], and for a time was one of very few people able to make a telescope good enough for the purpose. Based on sketchy descriptions of telescopes invented in the [[Netherlands]] in 1608, Galileo made one with about 8x magnification, and then made improved models up to about 20x. On [[August 25]], [[1609]], he demonstrated his first telescope to [[Venice|Venetian]] lawmakers. His work on the device also made for a profitable sideline with merchants who found it useful for their shipping businesses. He published his initial telescopic astronomical [[observation]]s in March 1610 in a short treatise entitled ''[[Sidereus Nuncius]]'' (''Sidereal Messenger'').
[[image:galileo.script.arp.600pix.jpg|thumb|200px|right|It was on this page that Galileo first noted an observation of the [[natural satellite|moons]] of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. This observation upset the notion that all celestial bodies must revolve around the Earth. Galileo published a full description in ''[[Sidereus Nuncius]]'' in March 1610.]]
On [[January 7]], [[1610]] Galileo discovered three of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]'s four largest [[natural satellite|satellites]] (moons): [[Io (moon)|Io]], [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], and [[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]]. [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]] he discovered four nights later. He determined that these moons were [[orbit]]ing the [[planet]] since they would appear and disappear; something he attributed to their movement behind Jupiter. He made additional observations of them in 1620. Later astronomers overruled Galileo's naming of these objects, changing his ''Medicean stars'' to [[Galilean_moons|''Galilean satellites'']]. The demonstration that a planet had smaller planets orbiting it was problematic for the orderly, comprehensive picture of the [[geocentric model]] of the universe, in which everything circled around the [[Earth]].
Galileo noted that [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] exhibited a full set of [[Lunar phase|phase]]s like the [[Moon]]. The [[heliocentric model]] of the solar system developed by [[Copernicus]] predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the [[Sun]] would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun. By contrast, the [[geocentric model]] of [[Ptolemy]] predicted that only crescent and new phases would be seen, since Venus was thought to remain between the Sun and Earth during its orbit around the Earth. Galileo's observation of the phases of Venus proved that Venus orbited the Sun and lent support to (but did not prove) the [[heliocentric model]].
Galileo was one of the first Europeans to observe [[sunspot]]s, although there is evidence that [[China|Chinese]] astronomers had done so before. He also reinterpreted a sunspot observation from the time of [[Charlemagne]], which formerly had been attributed (impossibly) to a transit of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]. The very existence of sunspots showed another difficulty with the unchanging perfection of the heavens as assumed in the older philosophy. And the annual variations in their motions, first noticed by Francesco Sizzi, presented great difficulties for either the geocentric system or that of [[Tycho Brahe]]. A dispute over priority in the discovery of sunspots led to a long and bitter feud with [[Christoph Scheiner]]; in fact, there can be little doubt that both of them were beaten by [[David Fabricius]] and his son [[Johannes Fabricius|Johannes]].
He was the first to report lunar [[mountain]]s and [[impact crater|crater]]s, whose existence he deduced from the patterns of light and shadow on the Moon's surface. He even estimated the mountains' heights from these observations. This led him to the conclusion that the Moon was "rough and uneven, and just like the surface of the Earth itself", and not a perfect [[sphere]] as Aristotle had claimed.
Galileo observed the [[Milky Way]], previously believed to be nebulous, and found it to be a multitude of [[star]]s, packed so densely that they appeared to be clouds from Earth. He also located many other stars too distant to be visible with the naked eye.
Galileo observed the planet [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] in 1612, but did not realize that it was a planet and took no particular notice of it. It appears in his notebooks as one of many unremarkable dim stars.
===Modern claims of scientific errors and misconduct===
Although Galileo is generally considered one of the first modern scientists, as evidenced by his position in the sunspot controversy, he is often said to have arrogantly considered himself to be the sole proprietor of the discoveries in astronomy.
Furthermore, he never accepted [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler's]] elliptical orbits for the planets, holding to the circular orbits of Copernicus, which still employed epicycles to account for irregularities in planetary motions. (The circle was considered the "perfect" shape.)
Concerning his theory on tides, Galileo attributed them to momentum despite his great knowledge of the ideas of relative motion and Kepler's better theories using the [[Moon]] as the cause. (Neither of these great scientists, however, had a workable physical theory of tides; this had to wait for the work of Newton.) Galileo stated in his ''Dialogue'' that, if the Earth spins on its axis and is travelling at a certain speed around the Sun, parts of the Earth must travel "faster" at night and "slower" during the day. This, of course, is true in the Sun's frame of reference; but it is by no means adequate to explain the tides.
Many commentators consider that Galileo developed this position simply to justify his own opinion because the theory was not based on any real scientific observations. If his theory was correct, there would be only one high tide per day and it would happen at noon. The fact that there are two daily high tides at Venice instead of one, and that they travel around the clock, Galileo and his contemporaries knew, but he dismissed as due to several secondary causes, such as the shape of the sea, its depth, and other things. Against the imputation that Galileo was guilty of some kind of deceit in making these arguments one may take the position of [[Albert Einstein]], as one who had done original work in physics, that Galileo developed his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them too uncritically out of a desire for a physical proof of the motion of the Earth (Einstein, 1952).
==Physics==
Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and [[René Descartes]], was a precursor of the [[Classical mechanics]] developed by [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]]. He was a pioneer, at least in the European tradition, in performing rigorous experiments and insisting on a [[mathematics|mathematical]] description of the laws of nature.
One of the most famous stories about Galileo is that he dropped [[ball]]s of different [[Mass|masses]] from the [[Leaning Tower of Pisa]] to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass (excluding the limited effect of air resistance). This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones, in direct proportion to weight. Though the story of the tower first appeared in a biography by Galileo's pupil [[Vincenzo Viviani]], it is not now generally accepted as true. Moreover, [[Giambattista Benedetti]] had reached the same scientific conclusion years before, in [[1553]]. However, Galileo did perform [[experiment]]s involving rolling balls down [[inclined plane]]s, which proved the same thing: falling or rolling objects (rolling is a slower version of falling, as long as the distribution of mass in the objects is the same) are [[acceleration|accelerated]] independently of their mass. (Although Galileo was the first person to demonstrate this via experiment, he was not (contrary to popular belief) the first to argue that it was true. [[John Philoponus]] had argued this centuries earlier).
He determined the correct mathematical law for acceleration: the total distance covered, starting from rest, is proportional to the square of the time (This law is regarded as a predecessor to the many later scientific laws expressed in mathematical form.). He also concluded that objects ''retain their velocity'' unless a [[force]] &ndash; often [[friction]] &ndash; acts upon them, refuting the accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that objects "naturally" slow down and stop unless a force acts upon them (again [[John Philoponus]] had proposed a similar (though erroneous) theory). Galileo's Principle of Inertia stated: "A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at constant speed unless disturbed." This principle was incorporated into [[Newton's laws of motion]] (1st law).
[[Image:Pisa.Duomo.dome.Riminaldi01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dome of the cathedral of Pisa with the "lamp of Galileo"]]
Galileo also noted that a [[pendulum]]'s swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the [[amplitude]]. The story goes that he came to this conclusion by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse to time it. While Galileo believed this equality of period to be exact, it is only an approximation appropriate to small amplitudes. It is good enough to regulate a [[clock]], however, as Galileo may have been the first to realize. (See [[#Technology|Technology]] below)
In the early 1600s, Galileo and an assistant tried to measure the [[speed of light]]. They stood on different hilltops, eac |
tion reaction regulated by [[dilithium]] crystals. It is also used as a weapon, as in [[photon torpedo]]es.
*Antimatter engines also appear in various books of the ''[[Dragonriders of Pern]]'' series by [[Anne McCaffrey]].
*In [[Larry Niven|Niven's]] ''[[Ringworld]]'' series, antimatter appears as a weapon useful against even the super-dense matter [[scrith]].
*[[Dan Brown]] explores the use of antimatter as a [[weapon]] in his novel ''[[Angels and Demons]]'', where terrorists threaten to destroy the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] with potentially unstable antimatter stolen from [[CERN]].
*In ''[[The Night's Dawn Trilogy]]'' by [[Peter F. Hamilton]], antimatter is characterized as the most dangerous substance imaginable and outlawed across the Galaxy.
*Antimatter is briefly referenced in the 1966 movie ''[[Batman: The Movie]],'' (several evil henchmen are turned into antimatter when they are revived using "heavy water" from the batcave), but the concept remains completely unexplained in this example.
*In the episode of ''[[Doctor Who]]'', "The Planet of Evil," the scientist Dr. Sorenson is transformed into an 'antiman' due to exposure to antimatter.
*Late in ''[[The Rocky Horror Picture Show]]'', Riff confirms to Dr. Furter that the pitchfork-like weapon he has pointed at him is "a [[laser]], capable of emitting a beam of pure antimatter." This misuse of the term led to the audience-response line, "Then it's not a laser."
*In [[comic books]] produced by [[DC Comics]], the notion of an antiuniverse, or in DC's parlance Anti-Matter Universe, was first utilized in the ''[[Green Lantern]]'' series in the [[1960s]]. The Anti-Matter Universe contains a world known as [[Qward]], home to the [[Green Lantern Corps]]' sworn enemies, the Weaponers of Qward.
*In the ''[[City of Heroes]]'' comic book, the [[superhero]] [[Positron (City of Heroes)|Positron]] is capable of generating anti-matter, and utilizing it as a weapon.
*In 1985, a powerful, twisted denizen of the Anti-Matter Universe known as the [[Anti-Monitor]] succeeded in destroying most of the DC [[Multiverse]] during the events of the twelve-issue [[limited series]] ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]]''.
*The [[Protoss]] race of [[Starcraft]] uses antimatter for both propulsion and weaponry.
== See also ==
* [[Gravitational interaction of antimatter]]
* [[Elementary particle]]
* [[Positron]]
== References ==
* {{cite book | first=Paul | last=Tipler | coauthors=Ralph Llewellyn | title=Modern Physics | edition=4th ed. | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0716743450}}
=== Footnotes ===
# {{note | BigBang }} {{cite web | year = 2000 | url = http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast29may_1m.htm | title = "What's the Matter with Antimatter? | publisher = NASA Science News | accessdate = January 3 | accessyear = 2006 }}
# {{note | Reactions }} {{cite web | author = Stanley K. Borowski | year = 1987 | url = http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/1996/TM-107030.pdf | title = Comparison of Fusion/Antiproton Propulsion Systems for Interplanetary Travel | format = PDF | publisher = [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] | accessdate = December 7 | accessyear = 2005 }}
# {{note | History }} {{cite web | author = Tyler Freeman | year = 2003 | url = http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/212_fall2003.web.dir/tyler_freeman/history.htm | title = The History of Antimatter | work = Antimatter: The Science Fact | accessdate = December 7 | accessyear = 2005 }}
# {{note | VanAllenBelts }} {{cite web | author = Jim Bickford | url = http://www.niac.usra.edu/files/studies/abstracts/1071Bickford.pdf | title = Extraction of Antiparticles in Planetary Magnetic Fields | format = PDF | publisher = NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts | accessdate = December 7 | accessyear = 2005 }}
== External links and references ==
* [http://livefromcern.web.cern.ch/livefromcern/antimatter/webcast/AM-webcast06.html CERN Webcasts (Realplayer required)]
* [http://www.positron.edu.au/faq.html What is Antimatter?] (from the Frequently Asked Questions at the Center for Antimatter-Matter Studies)
* [http://public.web.cern.ch/Public/Content/Chapters/Spotlight/SpotlightAandD-en.html Some interesting FAQs from CERN] that contain lots of information about antimatter aimed at the general reader
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<page>
<title>Antonio Gaudi</title>
<id>1318</id>
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<timestamp>2003-11-22T17:57:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antoni Gaudí]]</text>
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<title>Antonio Gaudi/Palau Guell</title>
<id>1320</id>
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<timestamp>2005-11-28T19:53:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
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<minor />
<comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -"Palau Guell" +"Palau Güell"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Palau Güell]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Antonio Gaudi/Sagrada Familia</title>
<id>1321</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:23:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RobertG</username>
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<minor />
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sagrada Família]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Casa Batlló</title>
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<username>Dogears</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align=right
|-
| [[Image:Jfader batto facade.jpg|250px|thumb|The Casa Batlló in Barcelona]]
|-
| [[Image:Jfader batto roof.jpg|thumb|250px|The arched roof and complex chimney detailing]]
|}
'''Casa Batlló''' (pronounce Casa Batyo) is a building designed by [[Antoni Gaudi]] and built in years [[1905]]&ndash;[[1907]]; located at 43, Passeig de Gràcia (''passeig'' is [[Catalan language|Catalan]] for promenade or [[avenue]]), part of the [[Illa de la Discòrdia]] in the ''[[Eixample]]'' district of [[Barcelona]], [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]].
The local name for the building is ''Casa dels ossos'' (house of bones), and indeed it does have a [[viscera]]l, [[skeleton|skeletal]] organic quality. It was originally designed for a [[middle-class]] family and situated in a prosperous district of Barcelona.
The building looks very remarkable &mdash; like everything Gaudi designed, only identifiable as [[Art Nouveau]] in the broadest sense. The ground floor, in particular, is rather astonishing with tracery, irregular oval windows and flowing sculpted stone work.
It seems that the goal of the designer was to avoid straight lines completely. Much of the [[façade]] is decorated with a [[mosaic]] made of broken ceramic tiles that starts in shades of golden orange moving into greenish blues. The roof is [[arch]]ed and was likened to the back of a [[European dragon|dragon]] or [[dinosaur]]. A common theory about the building is that the rounded feature to the left of centre, terminating at the top in a turret and cross, represents the sword of [[Saint George]], which has been plunged into the back of the dragon.
==External links==
*[http://www.casabatllo.es The official website of La Casa Batlló]
*[http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Casa_Batllo.html Casa Batlló on GreatBuildings.com]
*[http://www.barcelona-tourist-guide.com/albums-en/gaudi-casa-batllo/index.html Casa Batlló pictures]
*[http://www.op.net/~jmeltzer/Gaudi/batllo.html Casa Batlló description]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Barcelona]]
[[Category:Modernisme]]
[[Category:Antoni Gaudí buildings]]
[[ca:Casa Batlló]]
[[de:Casa Batlló]]
[[es:Casa Batlló]]
[[fr:Casa Batlló]]
[[gl:Casa Batlló]]
[[nl:Casa Batlló]]
[[sr:Каза Батљо]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antonio Gaudi/Casa Milo</title>
<id>1323</id>
<revision>
<id>15899812</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:58:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Casa_Milà]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Casa Milà]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Park Guell</title>
<id>1324</id>
<revision>
<id>42074345</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:22:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rhobite</username>
<id>82899</id>
</contributor>
<comment>la -> the</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Parcguell.jpg|right|frame|The entrance to the park]]
'''Park Güell''' is a garden complex with [[Architecture|architectural]] elements situated on the hill of [[El Carmel]] in the [[Gràcia]] district of [[Barcelona]], [[Spain]]. It was designed by the [[C |
field, 300 knights were captured by Teutons, including three main commanders: Mikolaj Szarlejski, Łukasz Górka, and Wojciech Kostka from Postupice. The Teutons lost only around 100 men. Bernard Szumborski was however formally a Polish prisoner, since he gave a knight's word.
The battle proved that discipline and improved tactics, combined with a talented commander could win against a larger, but more traditional army. The Poles paid the price for ignoring terrain, infantry and artillery.
[[Category:1454]]
[[Category:Battles of the Thirteen Years' War|Chojnice]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Chojnicami]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bloody Sunday (1972)</title>
<id>5030</id>
<revision>
<id>41946236</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:29:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
<id>754619</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Events of the Day */ link [[Bishop Edward Daly|Father Daly]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other incidents referred to by this name, see [[Bloody Sunday]].''
[[Image:bloodysunday.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Derry civil rights association banner stained with [[Bernard McGuigan]]'s blood after shootings]]
On Sunday [[January 30]], [[1972]], in an incident since known as '''Bloody Sunday''', 14 people were killed and 13 others wounded by [[United Kingdom|British]] [[The Parachute Regiment|paratroopers]] after a [[Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association]] march in the [[Bogside]] area of the city of [[Londonderry]], [[Northern Ireland]]. Many witnesses, including bystanders and journalists, claim that those shot were all unarmed.
Two inquiries have been held by the British Government. The [[Widgery Tribunal]] in the immediate aftermath of the day largely cleared the soldiers and British authorities of blame, but was criticised as a "whitewash" by many. The [[Saville Inquiry]], established in 1998 to look at the events again, has yet to report.
The [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]]'s campaign against Northern Ireland being a part of the [[Act of Union|United Kingdom]] had begun three years prior to Bloody Sunday, but perceptions of the day boosted the status of and recruitment into the organisation. Bloody Sunday remains among the most significant events in the recent [[troubles]] of Northern Ireland, arguably because it was carried out by the army and not paramilitaries.
==Events of the Day==
Many details of the day's events are in dispute, with no agreement even on the number of marchers present that day. The organisers, ''Insight'' claimed that there were 30,000 marchers, Lord Widgery in his Inquiry, said that there were only 3,000 to 5,000. In ''The Road To Bloody Sunday'', Dr. Raymond McClean estimated the crowd as 15,000, which is the figure used by [[Bernadette Devlin McAliskey]] in [[British House of Commons|Parliament]].
A wealth of material has been produced relating to the day. There have been numerous books and articles written, as well as documentary films made on the subject.[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/bsunday/soc.htm]
The march's planned route had taken it to the Guildhall, but due to army barricades it was redirected to [[Free Derry]] Corner. A small group of teenagers broke off from the main march and persisted in pushing the barricade and marching on the Guildhall. They attacked the [[British army|British]] [[barricade]] with stones and shouted insults at the troops. At this point, a water cannon, tear gas and rubber bullets were used to disperse the rioters. Such confrontations between soldiers and youths were common, though observers reported that the rioting was not intense. Two people were shot and wounded by soldiers on William Street.
At a certain point, reports of an IRA sniper operating in the area were given to the British command centre. The order to fire live rounds was given and one young man was shot and killed while he ran down Chamberlain Street away from the advancing troops. This first man shot, Jackie Duddy, was among a crowd who were running away. He was running alongside a priest, [[Bishop Edward Daly|Father Daly]], when he was shot in the back. The aggression against the British troops escalated, and eventually the order was given to mobilise the troops in an arrest operation, chasing the tail of the main group of marchers to the edge of the field by Free Derry Corner.
Despite a cease-fire order from British HQ, over a hundred rounds were fired directly into the fleeing crowds by troops under the command of Major Ted Loden. Twelve more were shot dead, many of them killed while attempting to aid the fallen. Fourteen others were wounded, twelve by firing from the soldiers and two knocked down by armoured personnel carriers.
===The dead===
* Jackie Duddy (17) Shot in the chest in the car park of Rossville flats. Four witnesses stated Duddy was unarmed and running away from the paratroopers when he was killed. Three of them saw a soldier take deliberate aim at the youth as he ran.
* Patrick Doherty (31) Shot from behind while crawling to safety in the forecourt of Rossville flats. Doherty was photographed by [[France|French]] journalist [[Gilles Peress]] seconds before he died. Despite the evidence of "Soldier F" at the Widgery Tribunal, the photographs show he was unarmed.
* Bernard McGuigan (41) Shot in the back of the head when he went to help Patrick Doherty. He had been waving a white handkerchief at the soldiers to indicate his peaceful intentions.
* Hugh Gilmour (17) Shot in the chest while running away from the paratroopers on Rossville Street. A photograph taken seconds after Gilmour was hit corroborated witness reports that he was unarmed.
* Kevin McElhinney (17) Shot from behind while crawling to safety at the front entrance of the Rossville Flats. Two witnesses stated McElhinney was unarmed.
* Michael Kelly (17) Shot in the stomach while standing near the rubble barricade in front of Rossville Flats. Widgery accepted Kelly was unarmed.
* John Young (17) Shot in the head while standing at the rubble barricade. Two witnesses stated Young was unarmed.
* William Nash (19) Shot in the chest near the barricade. Witnesses stated Nash was unarmed and going to the aid of another when killed.
* Michael McDaid (20) Shot in the face at the barricade while walking away from the paratroopers. The trajectory of the bullet indicated he was killed by soldiers positioned on the Derry Walls.
* James Wray (22) Wounded and then shot again at close range while lying on the ground. Witnesses who were not called to the Widgery Tribunal stated that Wray was calling that he was unable to move his legs before he was shot the second time.
* Gerald Donaghy (17) Shot in the stomach while running to safety between Glenfada Park and Abbey Park. Donaghy was brought to a nearby house by bystanders where he was examined by a doctor. His pockets were turned out in an effort to identify him. A later [[Royal Ulster Constabulary|police]] photograph of Donaghy's corpse showed nail bombs in his pockets. Neither those who searched his pockets in the house nor the British army medical officer (Soldier 138) who pronounced his death shortly afterwards saw any bombs. Donaghy had been a member of [[Fianna Éireann]], an IRA-linked Republican youth movement.
* Gerald McKinney (35) Shot just after Gerald Donaghy. Witnesses stated that McKinney had been running behind Donaghy, and he stopped and held up his arms, shouting "Don't shoot!", when he saw Donaghy fall. He was then shot in the chest.
* William McKinney (26) Shot from behind as he attempted to aid Gerald McKinney (no relation). He had left cover to try and help the older man.
* John Johnston (59) Shot on William Street 15 minutes before the rest of the shooting started. Johnson died of his wounds four months later, the only one not to die immediately or soon after being shot.
==The perspectives and analyses on the day==
[[Image:Bloody Sunday Mural Bogside 2004 SMC.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Mural]] by [[Bogside Artists]] depicting Father Daly waving a [[White flag|white handkerchief]] whilst trying to escort the mortally wounded Jackie Duddy to safety.]]
Thirteen people were shot dead, with another man later dying of his wounds. The official army position, backed by the British [[Home Secretary]] the next day in the [[House of Commons]], was that the [[Parachute Regiment|Paratrooper]]s had reacted to the threat of gunmen and nail-bombs from suspected [[PIRA|IRA]] members. However, all eye-witnesses (apart from the soldiers), including marchers, local residents, and British and Irish journalists present, maintain that soldiers fired into an unarmed crowd, or were aiming at fleeing people and those tending the wounded, while the soldiers themselves were not fired upon. No British soldier was wounded by gun-fire or reported any injuries, nor were any bullets or nail-bombs recovered to back up their claims. In the rage that followed, the British embassy in Merrion Square in [[Dublin]] was swamped by an irate crowd, and the building was burned down. Anglo-Irish relations hit one of their lowest ebbs, with [[Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs]], [[Patrick Hillery]], going specially to the [[United Nations]] in New York to demand UN involvement in the [[Northern Ireland]] "troubles". However, as the [[United Kingdom]] had a veto on the UN's [[Security Council]], this was never a realistic option.
While there were many IRA men present at the protest, they were all unarmed as it was anticipated that the Paratroopers would attempt to "draw them out". MP [[Ivan Cooper]] had been promised beforehand that no armed IRA men would be near the march. Many of the Paratroopers who gave evidence at the Tribunal testified that they were told by their officers to expect a gunfight and had been encouraged to "get some kills".
The official [[coroner]] for the City of Londo |
while some of Presley's fans fretted that outside management might mar the appeal of Graceland, revenue is up <!-- "Up" relative to when? --> at the Memphis shrine, too.
On 9 December, 2005, the Book of British Hit Singles & Albums unveiled their annual list of the Top 100 Most Successful Acts of all time, based on the total number of weeks each recording artist has spent on the official UK Singles and Albums charts. Elvis Presley ranked #1, with Cliff Richard, Queen, The Beatles and Madonna rounding out the top 5.
In the UK singles charts, Elvis went to # 1 the most times (21, three of them hitting #1 twice), spent the most weeks there (80), as well as had the most top tens and top forty hits. In the UK album charts, he is second to the Beatles (21), with 16 chart toppers, as well as earning the most top ten, and top forty albums. Still in the album category, his longevity record boasts an almost fifty year gap between his first, and last hit album.
In total, he has spent 2,574 weeks in both the UK singles and album charts, way ahead of his closest competitors, namely Cliff Richard (1,982), Queen (1,755), the Beatles (1,749), and Madonna (1,660).
A channel on the Sirius Satellite Radio subscriber service is devoted to the life and music of Elvis, with all broadcasts originating from Graceland in Memphis, Tennessee.
==Musical milestones==
During his lifetime, Elvis Presley:
*recorded 104 singles that hit the Top 40 of the [[Billboard magazine|''Billboard'']] pop chart.
*had 17 number 1 ''Billboard'' hits, including four singles in [[1956]] that occupied the top of the charts for a cumulative total of 25 weeks. The total (17) is surpassed only by [[The Beatles]], who had 20 number 1 hits. This record was recently tied by [[Mariah Carey]], an American [[pop music |pop]] and [[R&B]] singer.
*has spent a total of 79 weeks at the number 1 position. His closest competitor is [[Mariah Carey]] with 77 weeks.
* from 1956 to 1972, he had record breaking 36 Top 10 ''Billboard'' hits. This achievement is currently shared by [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] who reached the same total in late November of 2005. [[The Beatles]] had 34 Top 10 hits during their career.
Until the record was broken by [[Boyz II Men]]'s "End of the Road" in November [[1992]], Elvis Presley's double-side "Don't Be Cruel/Hound Dog" was the undisputed champion of singles in terms of weeks spent at number one. The record spent 11 weeks at the top starting on [[August 18]] [[1956]]. Both records were beat by the current title holder, [[One Sweet Day]], a duet with [[Mariah Carey]] and Boyz II Men, which holds 16 weeks.
These are other records set by Presley's recordings:
*From March [[1956]] to November [[1959]], every week there was at least one Elvis song on the singles chart.
*From [[1956]] to [[1962]], Elvis set the record with 24 consecutive top 5 hit singles (singles listed with B-side songs and original U.S.A. release dates), each of which sold in excess of one million copies. Since 1962, the closest anyone has come to matching this was [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] in the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]], with 19 consecutive top 5 hits.
*Also, on the official United Kingdom Top 40 chart, "It's Now Or Never" reached number one in the week of Sunday January 30, 2005, 27 years after Presley's death.
*According to the Record Industry Association of America (RIAA), Elvis Presley is the recording artist with the most Gold, Platinum and Multi-Platinum certified albums (97, 55 and 26, respectively). He also tops the singles category, with 53, 27, and 8 of his singles having earned Gold, Platinum, and Multi-platinum status, respectively. His "Elvis Christmas album" (1970 version), is the most certified Christmas album in history, currently earning a 9X Platinum certification (in excess of nine million copies sold). He is also has the most Christmas, Gospel, and Inspirational certified albums in history.
* In a list of the greatest English language singers of the 20th century, as compiled by BBC Radio, Elvis Presley was ranked #2. The poll was topped by Frank Sinatra, with Nat King Cole and Ella Fitzgerald also in the top ten.
'''Discography:'''
*For a detailed discography see: [[Elvis Presley discography]].
*For a list of Elvis' singles see: [[Elvis Presley hit singles]].
*For a list of all of his songs see: [[Alphabetical list of all of Elvis Presley's songs]].
==Urban Legends==
There is a widespread belief that Elvis&mdash;who was known by his first name&mdash;did not die in 1977. Many fans persist in claiming he is still alive, that he went into hiding for various reasons. This claim is allegedly backed up by thousands of so-called [[Elvis sightings]] that have occurred in the years since his death [http://elvis-lives.8m.com/iselvisalive.html]. Critics of the theory state that a number of Elvis impersonators can easily be mistaken for Elvis and that the urban legend is merely the result of fans not wanting to accept his death.
==Trivia==
*In 1960, following his return from military service, the various employees hired by Elvis Presley to handle security and his concert tours were affectionately dubbed the "[[Memphis Mafia]]" by the news media. After his death several Memphis Mafia members wrote books on their time working for Presley.
* His given middle name at birth was ''Aron'' ([http://www.elvis.com/elvisology/faq/faq.asp?qid=11]), however ''Aaron'' was placed on his gravestone by his father because Elvis preferred that [[Bible|biblical]] spelling and had legally changed it. Aaron is the official spelling used by his estate.
*Elvis had a twin brother named Jesse who died in infancy.
* According to another, more widespread [[urban legend]], Elvis did not die in [[1977]], and may be alive today (see [[Elvis sightings]]).
*[[Cryolophosaurus]] is nicknamed 'Elvisaurus' because of its head crest being alike to Elvis's hairstyle.
* The estate of Elvis Presley earns over 40 million dollars every year which is a record for a deceased entertainer.
* Elvis Presley made only one television commercial, an ad for Southern Maid Doughnuts that ran in [[1954]].
* His hair was a natural sandy brown but he dyed it jet black after filming "Love Me Tender."
* Elvis Presley made famous a version of the [[Peanut butter and jelly sandwich|peanut butter sandwich]] with [[banana]] (either mashed or whole) that was [[grilled]] or [[fried]], and may have contained [[bacon]] and [[porridge]].
*Has sold over one billion records worldwide&mdash;the first to do so&mdash;and is one of the best selling recording artists in history.
*Has won three Grammy awards, all for his Gospel recordings. These were for the 1967 "How Great Thou Art" LP, for the 1972 LP, "He Touched Me" and, in 1974, for the song "How Great Thou Art" (live).
* ''[[Billboard magazine|Billboard]]''<nowiki>'s</nowiki> [[Joel Whitburn]] declared Presley the "#1 act of the Rock era", beating out [[The Beatles]], based upon his dominance of ''Billboard''<nowiki>'s</nowiki> list of top 100 singles artists since 1955.
*According to Steve Brown's book, ''Scandalous Freedom: The Radical Nature of the Gospel'', Elvis gave a concert and, at its conclusion, a woman came forward with a crown resting on a plush pillow. She lifted the crown to Elvis and shouted, "You're the King!" "No, honey," he said, "I'm not the King. Christ is the King. I'm just a singer".
* Also, in September of 1974, during one of his two sellout shows at the University of Notre Dame, he stopped singing, as well as motioned for the the band to quit playing, in order to tell those holding a huge banner which read ¨You are the King¨, that he was not going to resume singing until it was taken out from view, adding that "there was only one King, and that was the Lord, Jesus Christ".
* [[Elvis Stojko]], a Canadian who was the three-time [[World Figure Skating Championships|World Figure Skating Champion]], was named after Presley by his mother, who was a big fan.
* Elvis Crespo, the King of salsa and merengue, was also named after Presley by his mother, a native of Puerto Rico who was a big Elvis fan.
* Elvis Dumervil, the University of Louisville All American college football player, currently en route to breaking the all time NCAA sacking record and a candidate to win the 2005 edition of the "Lombardi Award", was also named after Presley by his mother, an African American.
* [[Elvis Mitchell]], the former movie critic for the [[New York Times]], was named after Presley by his parents, who were African-Americans.
* Musician [[Elvis Costello]] borrowed Presley's first name, a few months before his death in 1977, in order to help his then fledgling career.
* In 2005, and for the fifth year straight, Elvis was named the richest deceased celebrity (according to [[Forbes Magazine|www.Forbes.com]]). (see also reference above, under Elvis in the 21st Century)
* He was proud of his role in ''[[King Creole]]'' because the part was originally offered to his idol [[James Dean]]. Although songs were later slipped into the movie, Elvis considered it his best work.
* He was offered the lead role of Tony in the film adaptation of the [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] musical ''[[West Side Story]]'' but Col. Parker forced Presley turn it down as non-commercial despite Elvis' arguments it would legitimize his acting career. The film won 10 [[Academy Awards]] including [[Best Picture]].
* Elvis's parents made cameos in his film ''[[Loving You]]''.
* The [[1960]] Broadway musical ''[[Bye Bye Birdie]]'' is a supposed satire about the effects of the compulsory U.S. military draft on a famous singer similar to Presley.
* In the 1997 tour of ''Bye Bye Birdie'', actor [[Rikki Lee Travolta]] was so convincing as the Elvis- |
he stem-branch cycle also began to be used to mark years. The 60-year system cycles continuously, and determines the animal or sign under which a person is born (see [[#Chinese Zodiac|Chinese Zodiac]]). These cycles were not named, and were used in conjunction with [[Chinese era name|regnal names]] declared by the [[Emperor of China|Emperor]]. For example: &#24247;&#29081;&#22764;&#23493; (K&#257;ngx&#299; rényín) (1662 AD) is the first &#22764;&#23493; (rényín) year during the reign of &#24247;&#29081; (K&#257;ngx&#299;), regnal name of an emperor of the [[Qing Dynasty]]
The months and hours can also be denoted using Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches, though they are commonly addressed using [[Chinese numeral]]s instead. In [[Chinese astrology]], four Stem-Branch pairs form the Eight Characters (&#20843;&#23383; b&#257;zì).
===Continuously-numbered years===
As mentioned under [[#Legendary beginnings|Legendary beginnings]] above, there is no universally agreed upon "[[epoch]]" or starting point for the Chinese calendar. Tradition holds that the calendar was invented by Huang Di (黄帝) in the 61st year of his reign in what is now known under the proleptic Gregorian calendar as 2637 BCE. Many have used this date as "the" beginning of the Chinese calendar, but others have used the date of the beginning of his reign in 2697 BCE. Since these dates are exactly 60 years apart, it does not matter which is used to determine the stem/branch sequence or the astrological sign for any succeeding year. That is, 2006 is a bingxu year and the Year of the Dog regardless of whether years are counted from 2637 BCE or 2697 BCE.
For the most part, the imposition of a continuous numbering system on the Chinese calendar was of interest mostly to Jesuit missionaries and other Westerners who assumed that calendars obviously had to be continuous. However, in the early 20th century, some Chinese [[Republicanism|Republican]]s began to advocate widespread use of continuously numbered stem-branch cycles, so that year markings could be independent of the Emperor's [[Chinese era name|regnal name]]. (This was part of their attempt to delegitimise the [[Qing Dynasty]].) To this end, [[Sun Yat-sen]] identified 2698 BCE as the first year of the first cycle, and this choice was adopted by many [[overseas Chinese]] communities outside southeast Asia such as [[Chinatown, San Francisco|San Francisco's Chinatown]]. Modern chronologists believe, however, that 2698 BCE is an error (perhaps due to confusion surrounding calendar arithmetic which crosses "year 0") for the 2697 BCE epoch corresponding to the sexagesimal cycles.
If 2637 is used as the epoch, we are currently (as of 2006) in the 78th 60-year cycle since Huang Di, and 2006 is the 4643rd year. If 2697 is used as the epoch, we are in the 79th 60-year cycle, and 2006 is the 4703rd year. Perhaps because of the lingering influence of Sun Yat-sen's choice, and despite the traditional identification of 2637 as the beginning of the calendar, most references today lean towards the other interpretation, stating that we are in the 79th cycle and listing "Chinese year" numbers in the vicinity of 4703. (Adding to the confusion, a few people take Sun Yat-sen's choice of 2698 literally, and claim that 2006 is the 4704th year, although this correspondence does not synchronize properly with the 60-year cycle.) Of course, to most Chinese people terms such as "year 4703" are meaningless, since the calendar counts only in unnumbered cycles of 60.
===Correspondence between systems===
This table shows the stem/branch year names, correspondences to the Western (Gregorian) calendar, and other related information for the current decade.
(These years are all part of the 79th sexagenary cycle, or the 78th if an epoch of 2637 BCE is accepted.) Or see [[Chinese calendar correspondence table|this larger table]] of the full 60-year cycle.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width=70 | Jiǎzǐ (甲子) sequence
! style="background:#efefef;" width=60 | Stem/ branch
! Gānzhī (干支)
! width=60 | Year of the...
! width=70 | Continuous <small>[Note 1]</small>
! width=70 | Gregorian <small>[Note 2]</small>
! width=100 | New Year's Day (chūnjié, 春節)
|-
|15||5/3||wùyín (戊寅)||Earth Tiger||4695||1998||January 28
|-
|16||6/4||jǐmăo (己兔)||Earth Rabbit||4696||1999||February 16
|-
|17||7/5||gēngchén (庚辰)||Metal Dragon||4697||2000||February 5
|-
|18||8/6||xīnsì (辛巳)||Metal Snake||4698||2001||January 24
|-
|19||9/7||rénwǔ (壬午)||Water Horse||4699||2002||February 12
|-
|20||10/8||guǐwèi (癸未)||Water Sheep||4700||2003||February 1
|-
|21||1/9||jiǎshēn (甲申)||Wood Monkey||4701||2004||January 22
|-
|22||2/10||yǐyǒu (乙酉)||Wood Rooster||4702||2005||February 9
|-
|23||3/11||bǐngxū (丙戌)||Fire Dog||4703||2006||January 29
|-
|24||4/12||dīnghài (丁亥)||Fire Pig||4704||2007||February 18
|-
|25||5/1||wùzǐ (戊子)||Earth Rat||4705||2008||February 7
|-
|26||6/2||jǐchǒu (己丑)||Earth Ox||4706||2009||January 26
|-
|27||7/3||gēngyín (庚寅)||Metal Tiger||4707||2010||February 14
|-
|28||8/4||xīnmăo (辛兔)||Metal Rabbit||4708||2011||February 3
|}
[Note 1: As discussed above, there is considerable difficulty in establishing a basis for the chronology of the continuous year numbers. The numbers listed here are too high by 60 if an epoch of 2637 BCE is accepted. They may be too low by 1 if an epoch of 2698 BCE is accepted. That is, according to some sources, Gregorian 2006 could alternatively correspond to 4643, or perhaps 4704.]
[Note 2: In any case, the correspondence between a lunisolar Chinese year and a solar Gregorian year is of course not exact. The first few months of each Gregorian year -- those preceding Chinese New Year -- belong to the previous Chinese year. For example, January 1 - January 28 of 2006 correspond to yǐyǒu or 4702. Thus, it might be more precise to state that Gregorian 2006 corresponds to 4702-4703, or that continuous Chinese 4703 corresponds to 2006-2007.]
===Solar year versus lunar year===
There is a distinction between a solar year and a lunar year in the Chinese calendar because the calendar is lunisolar. A lunar year (&#24180; nián) is from one Chinese new year to the next. A solar year (&#27506; suì) is either the period between one [[Spring Equinox]] and the next or the period between two [[winter solstice]]s (see [[#Jieqi|Jiéqì]] section). A lunar year is exclusively used for dates, whereas a solar year, especially that between winter solstices, is used to number the months.
==Hours of the day==
Under the traditional system of hour-marking, each day is divided into 12 hours (时辰). Each of these "hours" is equivalent to two hours of international time. Each is named after one of the twelve [[Earthly Branches]]. The first hour, Hour of Zi (子时), begins at 11 p.m. of the previous day and ends at 1 a.m. Tradtitionally, executions of condemned prisoners occur at the Hour of Wu (午时), that is around midday.
==The Chinese zodiac==
The Twelve animals (&#21313;&#20108;&#29983;&#32918; ''shí'èr sh&#275;ngxiào'', or colloquially &#21313;&#20108;&#23660;&#30456; ''shí'èr sh&#468;xi&#257;ng'') representing the twelve [[Earthly Branches]] are, in order, the [[rat (zodiac)|rat]], [[ox (zodiac)|ox]], [[tiger (zodiac)|tiger]], [[rabbit (zodiac)|rabbit]], [[dragon (zodiac)|dragon]], [[snake (zodiac)|snake]], [[horse (zodiac)|horse]], [[sheep (zodiac)|sheep]] (or [[goat]]), [[monkey (zodiac)|monkey]], [[rooster (zodiac)|rooster]], [[dog (zodiac)|dog]], and [[pig (zodiac)|pig]].
A [[legend]] explains the sequence in which the animals were assigned. Supposedly, the twelve animals fought over the precedence of the animals in the cycle of years in the calendar, so the Chinese gods held a contest to determine the order. All the animals lined up on the bank of a river and were given the task of getting to the opposite shore. Their order in the calendar would be set by the order in which the animals managed to reach the other side. The cat wondered how he would get across if he was afraid of water. At the same time, the ox wondered how he would cross with his poor eyesight. The calculating rat suggested that he and the cat jump onto the ox's back and guide him across. The ox was steady and hard-working so that he did not notice a commotion on his back. In the meanwhile, the rat snuck up behind the unsuspecting cat and shoved him into the water. Just as the ox came ashore, the rat jumped off and finished the race first. The lazy pig came to the far shore in twelfth place. And so the rat
got the first year named after him, the ox got the second year, and the pig ended up as the last year in the cycle. The cat finished too late to win any place in the calendar, and vowed to be the enemy of the rat forevermore.
See the table under [[#Correspondence between systems|Correspondence between systems]] above for the animal names of current and nearby years.
See [[Chinese astrology#Chinese zodiac|Chinese zodiac]] for more details.
==Solar term==
{{main|Solar term}}
Chinese months follow the phases of the moon. As a result, they do not accurately follow the seasons of the solar year. To assist farmers to help farmers decide when to plant or harvest crops, the drafters of the calendar put in 24 seasonal markers, which follow the solar year, and are called ''[[Jieqi|jiéqì]]'' &#31680;&#27683;.
The term ''Jiéqì'' is usually translated as "Solar Terms" (lit. Nodes of Weather). Each node is the instant when the sun reaches one of twenty-four equally spaced points along the [[ecliptic]], including the [[solstice]]s and [[equinox]]es, positioned at fifteen [[degree (angle)|degree]] intervals. Because the calculation is solar-based, these ''jiéqì'' fall around the same date every year in [[solar calendar]]s (e.g. the [[Gregorian Calendar] |
t that faith. The term "Christian" itself is however not really recognized until the first century AD at Antioch as recorded in Acts 11:26.
By way of secular history, Christianity began among a small number (about 120, see Acts 1:15) of [[Jews]] and Jewish [[Proselytes]]. By the 3rd century AD, Christianity had grown to become the dominant religion of the northern [[Mediterranean]] world. It also gained important extensions to the east and south of the Mediterranean. The core [[history of the Roman Catholic Church]] is said to extend in an unbroken timeline from this period. This section will examine those first 300 years.
===Earliest Church===
The term "Early [[Jewish Christians]]" is often used in discussing [[early Christianity]]. [[Jesus]], his twelve [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]], the [[Elder (religious)|Elders]], and all or essentially all of his early [[disciple|followers]] were [[Jewish]] or Jewish [[Proselytes]]. Hence the 3,000 converts on the [[Pentecost]] following the [[Crucifixion]] described in Acts 2 were all Jews and Proselytes. All converts to Christianity were non-[[Gentile]] prior to the conversion of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] officer [[Cornelius]] by [[Simon Peter]] ([[Aramaic of Jesus#Cephas|Kephas]]) in Acts 10, who is traditionally considered the first Gentile convert to Christianity. The major division in Christianity prior to that time was between [[Hellenism|Hellenistic]] and non-Hellenistic Jews or [[Koine Greek]] (Acts 6) and [[Aramaic]] (Acts 1:19) speakers. However, after the conversion of Cornelius and his acceptance as a Christian, there was now another group &mdash; Gentile Christians. As an [[eschatological]] movement, they anticipated that the Gentiles would turn to the God of Israel as prophesied by [[Isaiah]] in Isaiah 56:6-8. The [[New Testament]] does not use the terms "Gentile-Christians" or "Jewish-Christians". Rather, [[Paul of Tarsus]] wrote against those who were [[History of male circumcision#Male Circumcision in the Greco-Roman World|circumcised]], who separated themselves from the uncircumcised:
:"Here there is no Greek or Jew, circumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave or free, but Christ is all, and is in all." Colossians 3:11
Circumcised and uncircumcised are generally interpreted to mean [[Jews]] and [[Greeks]], who were predominate. However, it is an oversimplification as 1st century [[Iudaea Province]] also had some Jews who no longer circumcised, and some Greeks (called [[Proselytes]] or [[Judaizers]]) and others such as Egyptians, Ethiopians, and Arabs who did.
For 250 years it was a martyrs' church; the persecutions were fueled by the refusal of Christians to worship the state and the Roman emperor. There were persecutions under [[Nero]], [[Domitian]], [[Trajan]] and the other [[Antonines]], [[Maximinus Thrax]], [[Decius]], [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]], [[Diocletian]] and [[Galerius]]; Decius ordered the first official persecution in 250. In 313, [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] and [[Licinius]] announced toleration of Christianity in the [[Edict of Milan]]. In the East the church passed from persecution directly to imperial control ([[caesaropapism]]), inaugurated by Constantine, enshrined later in [[Justinian]]'s laws, and always a problem for the Orthodox churches. In the West the church remained independent because of the weakness of the emperor and the well-established authority of the bishop of Rome.
===Break with Judaism===
[[Apostle Paul|Paul's]] [[Epistle to the Galatians]] is a vigorous letter against those who would "force the Gentiles to follow Jewish customs" (2:14). He writes in strong terms that if the Gentiles keep these customs as an obligation, and are circumcised, then "Christ will be of no value to you at all" (5:2) and if that were not so, and these ordinances were a requirement, then "Christ died for nothing" (2:21).
Paul claims in the letter, and elsewhere, that this message of his was not a contradiction of the 12 Apostles. Rather, it was entrusted to him for the sake of those who were not circumcised, just as much as [[Apostle Peter|Peter]] was sent to those circumcised, as he writes in Galatians 2:7-9:
:"On the contrary, when they saw that I had been entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, just as Peter had been entrusted with the gospel for the circumcised (for he who worked through Peter making him an apostle to the circumcised also worked through me in sending me to the Gentiles), and when James and Cephas and John, who were acknowledged pillars, recognized the grace that had been given to me, they gave to Barnabas and me the right hand of fellowship, agreeing that we should go to the Gentiles and they to the circumcised." ([[NRSV]])
In support of the view that Paul was not acting independently, the [[Council of Jerusalem]], according to Acts 15, determined that circumcision was not required of new converts, but counseled them to avoid "pollution of idols, fornication, things strangled, and blood" (Acts15:20 [[KJV]]). The basis for these prohibitions is expressly clear, Acts 15:21 states: "For Moses from ancient generations has in every city those who preach him, since he is read in the synagogues every Sabbath" ([[NIV]]); meaning that, these measures are based on the [[Law of Moses]]. Some interpret this to mean the Gentiles are instructed to comply in these matters, not as a principle of law, but rather in order not to give offense to those among whom they live who are under the ancient instruction of the synagogues. Some argue that the small set of requirements imposed on the Gentile Christians by the Council was not arbitrarily chosen but corresponds to teachings of [[Pharisees|Pharisaic Judaism]] concerning God's covenant with all nations, in their common father [[Noah]], and are therefore called [[Noahide Laws#Christian adoption of the Noahide Laws.3F|Noahide Laws]].
But Paul did frequently clash with a group of "[[Judaize|Judaizing]] Christians". In [[2 Corinthians]] 11:5 and 12:11 he called his opponents ''super-apostles''. He wrote to the Galatians describing how he rebuked Peter in public for lending credence by his actions to the view that adherence to Christ included [[kashrut|food laws]]. Nevertheless, the requirements of the Law in ethical (as opposed to cultural terms) are clearly upheld by Paul, as he is understood by the mainstream of Christian interpretation. Paul upholds the Law as mediated through Christ rather than through the ordinances of God which before Christ's coming set the Jews apart from the Gentiles. In contrast to these ordinances, which divided Jew from Gentile, Christ makes them into one people, according to Paul (Ephesians 2:14-15):
:For he himself is our peace, who has made the two one and has destroyed the barrier, the dividing wall of hostility, by abolishing in his flesh the law with its commandments and regulations. His purpose was to create in himself one new man out of the two, thus making peace, and in this one body to reconcile both of them to God through the cross, by which he put to death their hostility.
The New Testament depicts Paul as Law-observant, for the sake of the Jews. In Acts 16 he ''personally'' circumcised [[Timothy]], a Greek, whose father was Greek, because his mother was of the Jewish faith; and in Acts 21, James challenged Paul about the rumor that he was teaching rebellion against the Law. Paul followed James' recommendation to go to [[Herod's Temple]] with four [[Nazarite]] pledges to show that he "kept and walked in the ways of the Law"; however, when some people from [[Asia Minor]] (Paul's home area) saw him, it started a major riot.
Paul is a complex person, in [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1st Corinthians]] 9:20-22, he wrote:
:"To the Jews I became as a Jew, in order to win Jews. To those under the law I became as one under the law (though I myself am not under the law) so that I might win those under the law. To those outside the law I became as one outside the law (though I am not free from God’s law but am under Christ’s law) so that I might win those outside the law. To the weak I became weak, so that I might win the weak. I have become all things to all people, that I might by all means save some." (NRSV)
Also, [[Second Epistle of Peter|2nd Peter]] 3:16 on the Letters of Paul states:
:"... There are some things in them hard to understand, which the ignorant and unstable twist to their own destruction, as they do the other scriptures." (NRSV)
The use of Paul (or abuse, as traditionalists hold) to invent a radical separation between Christianity and all things Jewish has frequently flared up, beginning in earliest times and throughout the history of the Christian Church. [[Marcionism]] a 2nd century sect, still called the "most dangerous" [[heresy]] ever confronted by the [[Catholic Church]], rejected the Apostles, and interpreted a [[Jesus]] who rejected the [[Law of Moses]] using 10 [[Pauline Epistles]] and a version of the [[Gospel of Luke]] that was heavily edited by Marcion himself. Modern tendencies to claim that the [[Old Testament]] does not contain valid Christian instruction for today or to claim that Paul's "freedom in Christ" meant [[antinomianism]] as the rumor cited in Acts 21:21, though common, are still condemned under the name of Marcionism. [[Irenaeus]] in turn rejected Marcion and praised the Apostles in his ''Against Heresies'' 3.12.12:[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-60.htm#P7525_2024213]
:"...being brought over to the doctrine of [[Simon Magus]], they have apostatized in their opinions from Him who is God, and imagined that they have themselves discovered more than the apostles, by finding out another god; and [maintained] that the apostles preached the Gospel still somewhat unde |
p://www.heroinhelper.com/ Heroin Helper]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/heroin/flowers_to_heroin.htm From Flowers to Heroin], CIA publication.
* [http://wired-vig.wired.com/wired/archive/13.04/bupe.html?pg=1&topic=bupe&topic_set= The mismanagement of methadone]
*[http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/heroin/heroin.shtml Erowid heroin vault]
*[http://navisite.collegeclub.com/servlet/channels.ChannelArticleServlet?articleid=4461&areaid=8&grid-messageboard-page=1 Harrowing Heroin by Geoff Morton]
*[http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/Library/studies/cu/cumenu.htm The Consumers Union Report - Licit and Illicit Drugs]
*[http://www.NAABT.org/ National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine Treatment - non-profit education website for treatment of Heroin addiction]
*[http://www.MethadoneSupport.org Methadone Support Org. - support of Medically assisted treatment for Heroin addiction]
*[http://www.whale.to/v/kalokerinos2.html "The Orthomolecular Treatment of Drug Addiction" by Archie Kalokerinos M.D.]
*[http://www.nida.nih.gov/Infofacts/heroin.html NIDA InfoFacts on Heroin]
*[http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/drugfact/heroin/ ONDCP Drug Facts]
*[http://www.paksearch.com/globe/2001/june/narcotics.html Role of Government of Pakistan in Narcotics Control]
*[http://usinfo.state.gov/is/Archive_Index/Pakistans_Cultivation_of_Opium_Drops.html United States Department of State fact sheet: anti-narcotics efforts in Pakistan] - dated [[June 7]], [[2002]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4647018.stm BBC Article entitled 'When Heroin Was Legal'. References to Britain and the United States]
==Books==
* ''Heroin'' (1998) ISBN 1568381530
* ''Heroin Century'' (2002) ISBN 0415278996
* ''This is Heroin'' (2002) ISBN 1860744249
* ''The Heroin User's Handbook'' by [[Francis Moraes]] (paperback 2004) ISBN 1559502169
* ''The Little Book of Heroin'' by [[Francis Moraes]] (paperback 2000) ISBN 0914171984
*Heroin: A True Story of Addiction, Hope and Truimph by Julie O'Toole (paperback 2005) [[ISBN:1905379013]]
{{Analgesics}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hellas Verona F.C.</title>
<id>14035</id>
<revision>
<id>41855888</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T04:20:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Angelo.romano</username>
<id>50882</id>
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<comment>interwiki</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
clubname = Verona |
image = [[Image:Hellas_verona_fc.gif|75px|logo]] |
fullname = Hellas Verona<br>Football Club SpA |
nickname = ''Gialloblu'', <br/> ''Mastini'', <br/> ''Scaligeri''|
founded = [[1903]] |
ground = [[Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi]],<br/>[[Verona]], [[Italy]] |
capacity = 44,758 |
chairman = [[Giambattista Pastorello]] |
manager = [[Massimo Ficcadenti]] |
league = [[Serie B]] |
season = 2004-05 |
position = [[Serie B]], 7th |
shirtsupplier= |
shirtsponsors= |
pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=|
leftarm1=007CBC|body1=007CBC|rightarm1=007CBC|shorts1=007CBC|socks1=007CBC|
pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
leftarm2=FDD918|body2=FDD918|rightarm2=FDD918|shorts2=FDD918|socks2=FDD918|
}}
[[Image:HV01.gif|left|70px|]]
'''Hellas Verona Football Club S.p.A''' is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] team, based in [[Verona]], [[Veneto]]. The team's colours are yellow and blue and ''gialloblu'' (literally, "yellow-blue" in [[Italian language|Italian]]) is the team's most widely used nickname. The colours represent the city itself and Verona's [[emblem]] (a yellow cross on a blue shield) appears on most team apparel. Two more team nicknames are ''mastini'' (the [[mastiff|mastiffs]]) and ''scaligeri'', both references to ''Mastino I della Scala'' of the [[Scaliger|Della Scala princes]] that ruled the city during the [[thirteenth century|thirteenth]] and [[fourteenth century|fourteenth centuries]].
[[Image:HV02.gif|left|70px|]]
The [[Scaliger|Scala family]] [[coat of arms]] is depicted on the team's jersey and on its trademark logo as a stylized image of two large, powerful [[mastiff|mastiffs]] facing opposite directions. In essence, the term "''scaligeri''" is synonymous with Veronese, and therefore can describe anything or anyone from Verona (eg., [[A.C. ChievoVerona|Chievo Verona]], a team that also links itself to the Scala family - specifically to ''Cangrande della Scala'').
== Origins and Early History ==
Founded in [[1903]] by a group of university students, the club was named ''Hellas'' (the Greek word for [[Greece]]), at the request of a professor of [[Classics]]. At a time in which football was played seriously only in the larger cities of the Northwest of [[Italy]], most of Verona was indifferent to the growing sport. However, when in [[1906]] two city teams chose the city's Roman amphitheatre as a venue to showcase the game, crowd enthusiasm and media interest began to rise.
During these first few years Hellas were one of 3 or 4 area teams playing mainly at a municipal level while scrapping against city rivals Bentegodi to become the city's premier football outfit. By the [[1907]]-[[1908]] season Hellas were playing against regional teams and an intense rivalry with [[Vicenza Calcio]] that lasts to this day is born.
From [[1898]] to [[1926]] Italian football was organised into regional groups. In this period Hellas was one of the founding teams of the early league and often among its top final contenders. In [[1911]] the city helped Hellas replace the early, gritty football fields with a proper venue. This allowed the team to take part in its first regional tournament which, until [[1926]], was the qualifying stage for the national title.
In [[1919]], following a return to activity after a four year suspension of all football competition in Italy during [[World War One]] the team merged with city rival Verona and changed its name to Hellas Verona. Between [[1926]] and [[1929]] the elite "''Campionato Nazionale''" assimilated the top sides from the various regional groups and Hellas Verona joined the privileged teams, yet struggled to remain competitive.
[[Serie A]], as it is structured today, began in [[1929]] when the ''Campionato Nazionale'' turned into a professional league. Still an amateur team, Hellas merged with two city rivals, Bentegodi and Scaligera, to form AC Verona. Hoping to build a first class contender for future years the new team debuted in Serie B in [[1929]]. It would take the ''gialloblù'' 28 years to finally achieve their goal. After first being promoted to [[Serie A]] for one season in [[1957]]-[[1958|58]], in [[1959]] the team merged with another city rival (called Hellas) and commemorated its beginnings by changing its name to Hellas Verona AC.
== Success in the '70s and '80s ==
'''The Return to Serie A and the 3 Coppa Italia Finals'''
Coached by [[Nils Liedholm]], the team returned to Serie A in [[1968]] and remained in the elite league almost without interruption until [[1990]]. Along the way it scored a famous 5-3 win in the [[1972]]-[[1973]] season that cost AC Milan the ''scudetto'' (the Serie A title). The fact that the result came late during the last matchday of the season makes the sudden and unexpected end to the ''rossoneri'''s title ambitions all the more memorable.
In [[1973]]-[[1974]] Hellas finished the season in 4th last place thus avoiding relegation, but were sent down to [[Serie B]] during the summer months as a result of a scandal involving team president Saverio Garonzi. After a year in [[Serie B]] Hellas Verona returned to Serie A.
In the [[1975]]-[[1976]] season the team had a successful run in the [[Coppa Italia]], eliminating highly rated teams such as [[Torino Calcio|AC Torino]], [[Cagliari Calcio]], and [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]] from the tournament. However, in their first ever final in the competition Hellas Verona were trounced 4-0 by [[SSC Napoli]].
Under the leadership of legendary coach [[Osvaldo Bagnoli]], in [[1982]]-[[1983]] the team secured 4th place in Serie A (its highest finish at the time) and even lead the Serie A standings for a few weeks. The same season Hellas again reached the Coppa Italia final. After a 2-0 home victory Hellas Verona travelled to Turin to play [[Juventus]] where the team lost the Cup in extra-time (3-0 defeat).
Heartbreak would follow in the 1983-[[1984]] season when the team again reached the Coppa Italia final only to lose the Cup in the final minutes of the return match against defending Serie A champions [[A.S. Roma|AS Roma]].
'''The 1984-1985 ''scudetto'''''
Hellas Verona AC is certainly most famous for going on to win the ''scudetto'' the following season ([[1984]]-[[1985|85]]) and for its regular presence in European club football in the mid [[1980s]]. In those years its usual lineup was the following: [[Claudio Garella]]; Mauro Ferroni, Luciano Marangon, [[Roberto Tricella]], Silvano Fontolan; [[Hans-Peter Briegel]], [[Pietro Fanna]], Domenico Volpati, [[Antonio Di Gennaro]]; [[Giuseppe Galderisi]], [[Preben Elkjær Larsen|Preben Larsen Elkjaer]] and coach [[Osvaldo Bagnoli]]. Subs Luciano Bruni, Luigi Sacchetti and Fabio Turchetta were important regular contributors as well.
|
d [[Cicero]]nian training of his youth, enabled him to promulgate a lofty standard of Christian [[ethics]]. Thus we have the ''De officiis ministrorum'', ''De viduis'', ''De virginitate'' and ''De paenitentia''.
==Writings==
In matters of [[exegesis]] he is, like Hilary, an [[Alexandrian]]. In [[dogma]] he follows [[Basil of Caesarea]] and other Greek authors, but nevertheless gives a distinctly Western cast to the speculations of which he treats. This is particularly manifest in the weightier emphasis which he lays upon human [[sin]] and [[divine grace]], and in the place which he assigns to [[faith]] in the individual Christian life.
* ''De fide ad Gratianum Augustum''
* ''De Spiritu Sancto''
* ''De incarnationis Dominicae sacramento''
* ''De mysteriis''
* homiletic commentaries on the early [[Old Testament]] narratives, e.g., the ''[[Hexaemeron]]'' (Creation) and [[Abraham]], some of the ''[[Psalms]]'', and the ''[[Gospel according to Luke]]''.
* several funeral orations
* 91 letters
* ''[[Ambrosiaster]]'' or the "pseudo-Ambrose" is a brief commentary on Paul's ''Epistles'', which was long attributed to Ambrose. See [[Ambrosiaster]].
==Church Music==
Catching the impulse from [[Hilary of Arles|Hilary]] and confirmed in it by the success of Arian [[psalmody]], Ambrose composed several [[hymn]]s, marked by dignified simplicity, which were not only effective in themselves but served as a fruitful model for later times. Each of these hymns has eight four-line [[stanza]]s and is written in strict iambic tetrameter.
*''Deus Creator Omnium''
*''Aeterne rerum conditor''
*''Jam surgit hora tertia''
*''Veni redemptor gentium'' (a [[Christmas]] hymn)
*[http://www.geocities.com/hashanayobel/christwrit/hymns.htm Text of some Ambrosian Hymns]
St. Ambrose is considered as the first who introduced the [[Antiphon|antiphonant]] method of chanting, or one side of the choir alternately responding to the other; from whence that particular mode obtained the name of the "[[chant]]," while the [[plainsong]], introduced by [[Pope Gregory I|St. Gregory]], still practised in the Romish service, is called the "[[Gregorian chant|Gregorian]]," or "[[Romish chant]]." The works of St. Ambrose continue to be held in much respect, particularly the hymn of ''[[Te Deum]]'', which he is said to have composed when he baptised [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]], his celebrated convert.
==Ambrose and reading==
Ambrose is the subject of a curious anecdote in [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]'s ''Confessions'' which bears on the history of [[reading (activity)|reading]]:
:''When [Ambrose] read, his eyes scanned the page and his heart sought out the meaning, but his voice was silent and his tongue was still. Anyone could approach him freely and guests were not commonly announced, so that often, when we came to visit him, we found him reading like this in silence, for he never read aloud.''
The extraordinary aspect of this passage, of course, is that Augustine felt it noteworthy that Ambrose could read silently, implying that hardly anyone else could at the time.
[[Alvin Toffler]] also quotes this story in [[Powershift]]
:''"...Saint Augustine, writing in the 5th century, refers to his mentor, Saint Ambrose, the Bishop of Milan, who was so learned that he could actually read without moving his lips. For this astonishing feat he was regarded as the brainiest person in the world."''
For more on silent reading, see ''A History of Reading'' by Albert Manguel, Chapter 2, posted on line [http://www.stanford.edu/class/history34q/readings/Manguel/Silent_Readers.html here].
==See also==
*[[Ambrosians]]
Several religious brotherhoods which have sprung up in and around Milan at various times since the [[14th century]] have been called Ambrosians. Their connection to Ambrose is tenuous.
== External links ==
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/fathers/ambrose_letters_00_intro.htm Early Christian writings: Letters of St. Ambrose of Milan]
*[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-10/TOC.htm Christian Classics Ethereal Library, Works of Ambrose of Milan]
*[http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/amb_hy00.html Hymni Ambrosii (latin)]
*[http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/ambrose.php EarlyChurch.org.uk] Extensive bibliography.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[category:Church Fathers]]
[[Category:340s births]]
[[Category:397 deaths]]
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[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Late Antiquity]]
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[[de:Ambrosius von Mailand]]
[[es:Ambrosio]]
[[fr:Ambroise de Milan]]
[[ko:암브로시우스]]
[[id:Santo Ambrosius]]
[[it:Sant'Ambrogio]]
[[he:אמברוזיוס]]
[[la:Ambrosius]]
[[hu:Szent Ambrus]]
[[nl:Ambrosius]]
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[[pl:Święty Ambroży]]
[[pt:Ambrósio de Milão]]
[[ro:Ambrozie]]
[[sk:Ambrosius]]
[[fi:Ambrosius]]
[[sv:Ambrosius av Milano]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ambracia</title>
<id>1371</id>
<revision>
<id>40205144</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T23:16:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deville</username>
<id>364144</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Epirus]] to [[Epirus (region)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambracia''' (more correctly '''Ampracia''') was an ancient [[Corinth, Greece|Corinthian]] colony, situated about 7 miles from the [[Ambracian Gulf]] in [[Greece]], on a bend of the navigable river Aracthus (or Aratthus), in the midst of a fertile wooded plain.
It was founded between [[650 BC|650]] and [[625 BC]] by [[Gorgus]], son of the Corinthian tyrant [[Cypselus]]. After the expulsion of Gorgus's son [[Periander]] its government developed into a strong democracy. The early policy of Ambracia was determined by its loyalty to Corinth (for which it probably served as an entrepot in the [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]] trade), its consequent aversion to [[Corcyra]], and its frontier disputes with the Amphilochians and Acarnanians. Hence it took a prominent part in the [[Peloponnesian War]] until the crushing defeat at [[Idomene]] ([[426 BC|426]]) crippled its resources.
In the [[4th century BC|4th century]] it continued its traditional policy, but in [[338 BC|338]] surrendered to [[Philip II of Macedon]]. After forty-three years of autonomy under [[Macedon]]ian suzerainty it became the capital of [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]], king of Epirus, who adorned it with palace, temples and theatres. In the wars of [[Philip V of Macedon]] and the Epirotes against the [[Aetolia]]n league ([[220 BC|220]]-[[205 BC|205]]) Ambracia passed from one alliance to the other, but ultimately joined the latter confederacy. During the struggle of the Aetolians against [[Roman Republic|Rome]] it stood a stubborn [[siege]].
After its capture and plunder by [[M. Fulvius Nobilior]] in [[189 BC|189]], it fell into insignificance. The foundation by [[Augustus Caesar|Augustus]] of [[Nicopolis]], into which the remaining inhabitants were drafted, left the site desolate. In [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] times a new settlement took its place under the name of Arta. Some fragmentary walls of large, well-dressed blocks near this latter town indicate the early prosperity of Ambracia.
{{1911}}
[[Category:Corinthian colonies]]
[[fr:Ambracie]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amber</title>
<id>1372</id>
<revision>
<id>40267394</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T10:21:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>71.112.165.14</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[image:amber.pendants.800pix.050203.jpg|thumb|250px|Amber pendants. The oval pendant is 52 by 32 mm (2 by 1.3 inches).]]
'''Amber''' is a [[fossil]] [[resin]] much used for the manufacture of ornamental objects. Although not mineralized it is sometimes considered and used as a [[gemstone]]. Most of the world's amber is in the range of 30&ndash;90 million years old. Semi-fossilized resin or sub-fossil amber is called [[copal]]
==History==
The name comes from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] &#1593;&#1606;&#1576;&#1585;, ''&#699;anbar'', probably through [[Spanish language|Spanish]], but this word referred originally to [[ambergris]], which is an animal substance quite distinct from yellow amber. True amber has sometimes been called ''kahroba'', a word of [[Persian Language|Persian]] derivation signifying "that which attracts straw", in allusion to the power which amber possesses of acquiring an electric charge by friction. This property, first recorded by [[Thales|Thales of Miletus]], suggested the word "[[electricity]]", from the [[Greek language|Greek]], ''[[electrum|elektron]]'', a name applied, however, not only to amber but also to an [[alloy]] of [[gold]] and [[silver]]. By [[Latin]] writers amber is variously called ''[[electrum]]'', ''sucinum'' (''succinum''), and ''glaesum'' or ''glesum''. The [[Hebrew language|Old Hebrew]] &#1495;&#1513;&#1502;&#1500; ''hashmal'' seems to have meant amber, although Modern Hebrew uses Arabic-inspired &#1506;&#1504;&#1489;&#1512; ''`inbar''. The [[German language|German]] word is ''Bernstein''.
Amber, which has no primitive uses, has been found at [[Neolithic]] sites far from its source on the shores of the [[Baltic sea]], mute witness, like [[obsidian]], to long-distance trade routes established before the [[Bronze Age]]. There is strong evidence for the theory that the Baltic coasts during the advanced civilization of the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] was the source of most amber in Europe, for example the amber jewelry found in graves from [[Mycenaean Greece]] has been found to originate from the Baltic Sea. Amber was mentioned by [[Homer]], [[Aristotle]], [[Plato]] and others. [[Pliny the Elder]] complains that a small statu |
n either case it is the church will attempt reconciliation with member in private, first one on one and then with a few church leaders. Only if the church's reconciliation attempts are unsuccessful, the church leadership formally revokes church membership. Members of the church generally pray for the excluded member.
Forced loss of membership is extremely rare in mainstream Mennonite churches. Most congregations go for many decades without ever having to exclude a member.
===[[Hutterites]]===
{{POV-section}}
The separatist, communal, and self-contained [[Hutterites]] also use excommunication as discipline and shunning as form of punishment. One Hutterite colony in Manitoba, Canada had a protracted dispute when leaders attempted to force the departure of a group that had been excommunicated but would not leave. About a dozen lawsuits in both Canada and the United States were filed between the various Hutterite factions and colonies concerning excommunication, shunning, the legitimacy of leadership and communal property rights.
=== Eastern Orthodox Communion ===
In the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Church]], excommunication is the exclusion of a member from the [[Eucharist]]. It is not expulsion from the Church. This can happen due to minor reasons like not having confessed within that year or be imposed as part of a penitential period. It is generally done with the goal of eventually restoring the member to full communion. The Orthodox Church does have a means of expulsion, by pronouncing [[anathema]], but this is reserved only for acts of serious and unrepentant heresy. Even in that case, the individual is not "damned" by the Church but is instead left to his own devices.
=== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ===
[[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] ("LDS Church"; see also [[Mormon]]) practices excommunication (as well as the lesser sanctions of disfellowshipping and probation) as penalties for those who commit serious [[sin]]s.
The decision to excommunicate a [[Melchizedek Priesthood]] holder is generally the province of the leadership of a [[Stake (Mormonism)|Stake]], which consists of several local [[Ward (Mormonism)|wards]]. Excommunications occur only after a formal "church disciplinary council" (what was once called a "church court," the change was apparently meant to avoid talking about guilt and instead focus on repentance).
The procedure followed by a church disciplinary council is described in church handbooks and the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/102/9-18#9 Section 102:9-18]. For a regular member, the bishop (leader of the ward) determines whether excommunication is needed. He does this in consultation with his two counselors, but there is no vote: the bishop makes the determination in a spirit of prayer. That decision is appealable to the stake leadership.
A Melchizedek Priesthood holder, however, starts at the stake level. There, the stake presidency and [[Stake high council|Stake High Council]] handle matters. Six of the twelve members of the high council are assigned to represent the member in question to "prevent insult or injustice." The member is invited to attend, but the council can go forward without him. Again, the members of the high council consult with the stake president, but the decision about which discipline is necessary is the stake president's alone. Officially, it is possible to appeal this decision to the Church's world leaders.
Additionally, the Church is led by a President, two counselors, and a Council of Twelve Apostles. If one of the Church's world leaders (including these fifteen) is accused of sin, this presidency takes the place of the stake president, and the apostles take the place of the stake high council. That decision is unappealable.
Those who are excommunicated lose the right to take the [[Sacrament (Mormonism)|sacrament]] and lose their church membership. Notices of excommunication may be made public--especially in cases of apostasy, where members could be misled--but the specific reasons for individual excommunications are typically kept confidential.
Persons who have been excommunicated are welcome and encouraged to attend church meetings, but cannot participate in the meetings, cannot enter LDS [[Temple (Mormonism)|temples]], or wear [[temple garment]]s. Excommunicated members may be re-baptized after a waiting period and sincere [[repentance]], as judged by a series of interviews with church leaders.
Excommunication is generally reserved for what are seen as the most serious [[sin]]s, including committing serious [[crime]]s; committing [[adultery]], [[polygamy]], or [[homosexuality|homosexual]] conduct; [[apostasy]], teaching false doctrines, or openly criticizing LDS leaders. In the case of [[apostasy]], false teachings, and being openly critical of LDS leadership, excommunication is often a last resort after repeated warnings.
As a lesser penalty, Latter-day Saints may be disfellowshipped, which does not include a loss of church membership. Once disfellowshipped, persons may not take the sacrament or enter LDS temples, nor may they participate in other church meetings, though disfellowshipped persons may attend most LDS functions and are permitted to wear temple garments. For lesser sins, or in cases where the sinner appears truly repentant, individuals may be put on probation for a time, which means that further sin will result in disfellowshipment or excommunication.
Some critics have charged that LDS leaders have used the threat of excommunication to silence or punish LDS researchers who disagree with established policy and doctrine, or who study or discuss [[Controversies regarding The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|controversial subjects]]. A notable case is the so-called [[September Six]].
However, LDS policy dictates that local leaders are responsible for excommunication, without influence from General Church leadership, arguing this policy is evidence against systematic persecution of scholars. In contrast, some claim that LDS leadership keeps watch on certain [[apostate]] groups such as [[Sunstone]] and the message boards at exmormon.org and report on speakers (and topics) to their local leaders. [[Apologist]]s further suggest that some alleged excommunications never take place, or are used as a [[publicity stunt]]. They cite the case of [[Thomas Murphy]], who they say only claimed he was threatened with excommunication or other disciplinary action because of his research of how [[DNA]] research challenges LDS teachings. (''see'' [[Archaeology and the Book of Mormon]]). Recent evidence, such as witnesses at the meeting with the stake president and the letter requesting Murphy's attendance at the court, refute this claim that the disciplinary action was simply a publicity stunt.
=== Jehovah's Witnesses ===
{{main|Practices of Jehovah's Witnesses}}
[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] practice something similar to excommunication—using the term disfellowshipping—in cases where a member violates [[Bible]] requirements as understood by Jehovah's Witnesses.
When a member confesses or is accused of a serious sin, the elders of the congregation form a ''judicial committee'' of three to five local elders. This committee will investigate the case and determine guilt, and if the person is deemed guilty, the committee will determine if the person is repentant. Repentance is completely based upon evidence of repentance, which includes the attitude of being sorry and ‘works befitting repentance,’ as referred to in Acts 26:20 and 2 Corinthians 7:11, such as trying to correct the wrong or making apologies to any offended individuals. A person may even be “brought” to repentance right within the judicial meeting itself, expressing acknowledgment of the wrong with a contrite heart and a resolve not to repeat the offense. These are all just manifestations of true sorrow for the sin committed.
If the person is found guilty and is unrepentant, he will be disfellowshipped. If within 7 days no appeal is made, the disfellowshipping is made formal by an announcement at the next congregation Service meeting.
If the person believes that an error in judgment has been made by the committee, he has the right to appeal during the next 7 days after the initial decision. The traveling overseer responsible for the area will appoint three additional elders comprising an ''appeal committee'' to review the proceedings together with the original committee. This enlarged committee may uphold or reverse the original decision.
After a period of time, a disfellowshipped person may apply to be reinstated into the congregation. The original judicial committee will meet with him to determine repentance, and if this is established, the person will be reinstated into the congregation, but is prohibited from commenting at meetings or holding any privileges for a period set by the judicial committee. (Or, if the applicant is in a different area, the person will meet with a local judicial committee that will communicate with either the original judicial committee if available or a new one in the original congregation.)
==== Controversy ====
Also recently in the Jehovah's Witness organization, there has been some controversy with their disfellowshipping practices as regard to the recent sex abuse scandals. Claims of disfellowshipping being used as a punishment to silence outspoken members of the religious group have become numerous. Although there may have been cases where the directives from the organization were not followed properly, the official position of Jehovah's Witnesses is not to try to silence anyone who has been a recipient or knows of child abuse. They are informed that they have every right, without congregational ramifications, to inform authorities of the child abuse. In many cases, the |
])
*[[1880]] - [[Franz Marc]], German painter (d. [[1916]])
*[[1883]] - [[Joseph Alois Schumpeter]], Austrian economist (d. [[1950]])
*[[1886]] - [[Charles Ruggles]], American actor (d. [[1970]])
*[[1888]] - Dame [[Edith Evans]], British actress (d. [[1976]])
*[[1890]] - [[Claro M. Recto]] , Filipino / Tagalog Nationalist (d. [[1960]])
*[[1894]] - [[Ludwig Marcuse]], German author and philosopher (d. [[1971]])
*[[1895]] - [[King Vidor]], American film director (d. [[1982]])
*[[1902]] - [[Demchugdongrub]], Mongolian politician (d. [[1966]])
*[[1903]] - [[Greta Keller]], Austrian-born cabaret singer and actress (d. [[1977]])
*[[1906]] - [[Chester Carlson]], American physicist and inventor (d. [[1968]])
*[[1911]] - [[Elizabeth Bishop]], American poet (d. [[1979]])
*1911 - [[Big Joe Turner]], American singer (d. [[1985]])
*[[1918]] - [[Fred Blassie]], American professional wrestler (d. [[2003]])
*[[1920]] - [[Lana Turner]], American actress (d. [[1995]])
*[[1925]] - [[Jack Lemmon]], American actor and film director (d. [[2001]])
*[[1926]] - [[Neal Cassady]], American writer (d. [[1968]])
*1926 - [[Audrey Meadows]], American actress (d. [[1996]])
*[[1930]] - [[Alejandro Rey]], Argentine actor (d. [[1987]])
*[[1931]] - [[James Dean]], American actor (d. [[1955]])
*[[1932]] - [[John Williams (composer)|John Williams]], American composer and conductor
*[[1933]] - [[Elly Ameling]], Dutch soprano
*1933 - [[Jack Larson]], American actor
*[[1937]] - [[Manfred Krug]], German actor
*[[1940]] - [[Ted Koppel]], American journalist
*[[1941]] - [[Nick Nolte]], American actor
*1941 - [[Tom Rush]], American singer/songwriter
*[[1942]] - [[Robert Klein]], American comedian
*1942 - [[Terry Melcher]], American musician and record producer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1948]] - [[John Ford Coley]], American pop singer
*[[1949]] - [[Brooke Adams]], American actress
*[[1950]] - [[Dan Seals]], American singer
*[[1953]] - [[Mary Steenburgen]], American actress
*1953 - [[Roger Clavet]], Quebecois politician
*[[1955]] - [[John Grisham]], American novelist
*[[1960]] - [[Dino Ciccarelli]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1961]] - [[Vince Neil]], American musician
*[[1966]] - [[Hristo Stoichkov]], Bulgarian soccer player
*1966 - [[Kirk Muller]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1968]] - [[Gary Coleman]], American actor
*1968 - [[Claudette Pace]], Maltese singer
*[[1972]] - [[Paul Wight]], American professional wrestler
*[[1974]] - [[Seth Green]], American actor
*1974 - [[Guy-Manuel de Homem-Christo]], French DJ ([[Daft Punk]])
*[[1977]] - [[Bridgette Kerkove]], American pornographic actress
*1977 - [[Dave Farrell]], American musician ([[Linkin Park]])
*1977 - [[Yucef Merhi]], Venezuelan artist
*[[1982]] - [[Eric Alexander (football player)|Eric Alexander]], American football player
*[[1983]] - [[Jim Verraros]], American singer
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[1250]] - [[Robert I of Artois]], French crusader (killed in battle) (b. [[1216]]).
*1250 - [[William II Longespee]]
*[[1265]] - [[Hulagu Khan]], Mongol ruler (b. [[1217]])
*[[1296]] - King [[Przemysł II of Poland]] (b. [[1257]])
*[[1529]] - [[Baldassare Castiglione]], Italian writer and diplomat (b. [[1478]])
*[[1587]] - [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]] (executed) (b. [[1542]])
*[[1599]] - [[Robert Rollock]], Scottish educator
*[[1623]] - [[Thomas Cecil, 1st Earl of Exeter]], English politician (b. [[1546]])
*[[1696]] - Tsar [[Ivan V of Russia]] (b. [[1666]])
*[[1709]] - [[Giuseppe Torelli]], Italian composer (b. [[1658]])
*[[1725]] - Tsar [[Peter I of Russia]] (b. [[1672]])
*[[1749]] - [[Jan van Huysum]], Dutch painter (b. [[1682]])
*[[1750]] - [[Aaron Hill]], English writer (b. [[1685]])
*[[1768]] - [[George Dance the Elder]], English architect (b. [[1695]])
*[[1772]] - [[Augusta of Saxe-Gotha]], Princess of Wales (b. [[1719]])
*[[1849]] - [[France Prešeren]], Slovenian poet (b. [[1800]])
*[[1856]] - [[Agostino Bassi]], Italian entomologist (b. [[1773]])
*[[1910]] - [[Hans Jæger]], Norwegian writer and political activist (b. [[1854]])
*[[1921]] - [[Peter Kropotkin]], Russian anarchist (b. [[1842]])
*[[1929]] - [[Maria Christina of Austria|Maria Christina]], Queen Regent of Spain (b. [[1858]])
*[[1956]] - [[Connie Mack (baseball)|Connie Mack]], baseball manager and executive (b. [[1862]])
*[[1957]] - [[Walther Bothe]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1891]])
*1957 - [[John von Neumann]], Hungarian-born mathematician and physicist (b. [[1903]])
*[[1960]] - Sir [[Giles Gilbert Scott]], English architect (b. [[1880]])
*[[1964]] - [[Ernst Kretschmer]], German psychiatrist (b. [[1888]])
*[[1973]] - [[Max Yasgur]], American Woodstock Festival host (b. [[1919]])
*[[1975]] - [[Robert Robinson (scientist)|Robert Robinson]], British chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1886]])
*[[1977]] - [[Eivind Groven]], Norwegian composer and ethnomusicologist (b. [[1901]])
*[[1984]] - [[Karel Miljon]], Dutch boxer (b. [[1903]])
*[[1985]] - Sir [[William Lyons]], British automobile manufacturer (b. [[1901]])
*[[1987]] - [[Harriet E. MacGibbon]], American actress (b. [[1905]])
*[[1990]] - [[Del Shannon]], American entertainer (suicide) (b. [[1934]])
*[[1993]] - [[N. Shanmugathasan]], Sri Lankan communist leader
*[[1994]] - [[Raymond Scott]], American actor and inventor (b. [[1908]])
*[[1998]] - [[Halldór Laxness]], Icelandic writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1902]])
*1998 - [[Julian Lincoln Simon]], American economist and author (b. [[1932]])
*[[1999]] - [[Iris Murdoch]], Irish author (b. [[1919]])
*[[2000]] - [[Sid Abel]], Canadian hockey player and coach (b. [[1918]])
*2000 - [[Derrick Thomas]], American football player (b. [[1967]])
*[[2001]] - [[Ivo Caprino]], Norwegian animated film director (b. [[1920]])
*[[2002]] - [[Joachim Hoffmann]], German historian (b. [[1930]])
*2002 - [[Ong Teng Cheong]], [[President of Singapore|President]] of [[Singapore|Republic of Singapore]] (b. [[1936]])
*[[2004]] - [[Julius Schwartz]], American comic book and science fiction editor (b. [[1915]])
*[[2005]] - [[Jimmy Smith]], American jazz musician (b. [[1925]] or [[1928]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Feast day]] of [[Jerome Emiliani | Saint Jerome Emiliani]].
* [[Slovenia]] - [[Prešeren Day]], the [[Slovenian]] cultural holiday.
* [[Nirvana]] Day - an annual [[Buddhist]] festival.
==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=08 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060208.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/8 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[February 7]] - [[February 9]] - [[January 8]] - [[March 8]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[Category:Days|February 08]]
[[af:8 Februarie]]
[[ar:8 فبراير]]
[[ast:8 de febreru]]
[[be:8 лютага]]
[[bg:8 февруари]]
[[ca:8 de febrer]]
[[cs:8. únor]]
[[csb:8 gromicznika]]
[[cy:8 Chwefror]]
[[da:8. februar]]
[[de:8. Februar]]
[[el:8 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[eo:8-a de februaro]]
[[es:8 de febrero]]
[[et:8. veebruar]]
[[fi:8. helmikuuta]]
[[fr:8 février]]
[[fy:8 febrewaris]]
[[gl:8 de febreiro]]
[[he:8 בפברואר]]
[[hr:8. veljače]]
[[hu:Február 8]]
[[id:8 Februari]]
[[io:8 di februaro]]
[[is:8. febrúar]]
[[it:8 febbraio]]
[[ja:2月8日]]
[[ko:2월 8일]]
[[ku:8'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lb:8. Februar]]
[[lt:Vasario 8]]
[[mk:8 февруари]]
[[nb:8. februar]]
[[nl:8 februari]]
[[nn:8. februar]]
[[oc:8 de febrièr]]
[[pl:8 lutego]]
[[pt:8 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:8 februarie]]
[[ru:8 февраля]]
[[sa:८ फरवरी]]
[[sco:8 Februar]]
[[simple:February 8]]
[[sk:8. február]]
[[sl:8. februar]]
[[sq:8 Shkurt]]
[[sr:8. фебруар]]
[[sv:8 februari]]
[[th:8 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[tl:Pebrero 8]]
[[tr:8 Şubat]]
[[tt:8. Febräl]]
[[uk:8 лютого]]
[[wa:8 di fevrî]]
[[zh:2月8日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 9</title>
<id>11361</id>
<revision>
<id>41611742</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:31:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: corrected link to disambiguation page American ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=9}}
|}
'''[[February 9]]''' is the 40th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 325 days remaining, 326 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[474]] - [[Zeno of the Byzantine Empire|Zeno]] crowned as co-emperor of the [[Byzantine Empire]].
* [[1555]] - [[Bishop]] of [[Gloucester]] [[John Hooper]] is [[burned at the stake]].
* [[1621]] - [[Pope Gregory XV|Gregory XV]] becomes [[Pope]], the last Pope [[Papal election|elected]] by [[acclamation]].
* [[1775]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: [[List of Parliaments of Great Britain|British Parliament]] declares [[Massachusetts]] in rebellion.
* [[1822]] - [[Haiti]] invades the [[Dominican Republic]].
* [[1825]] - After no presidential candidate received a majority of [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral votes]], the [[United States House of Representatives]] elects [[John Quincy Adams]] [[President of the United States]].
* [[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Jefferson Davis]] is elected the Provisional President of the [[Confederate States of America]] by the [[Confederate convention]] at [[Montgomery, Alabama]].
* [[1870]] - The [[U.S. Weather Bureau]] was established.
* [[1885]] - The first [[Japan]]ese arrive in [[Hawaii]].
* [[1889]] - The [[United States Department of Agriculture]] ([[USDA]]) is established as a [[United States Cabinet|Cabinet]]-level agency.
* [[1895]] - [[William G. Morgan]] invent |
of his theory of the [[evolution]] of [[The Origin of Species|species]] via [[natural selection]]. In the list below, confirmed namesakes of Charles Darwin are denoted by asterisks (*).
'''People:'''
* [[Charles Darwin]] (1809&ndash;1882), renowned naturalist and thinker.
* [[Erasmus Darwin]] (1731&ndash;1802), Charles' grandfather, himself a naturalist and doctor.
* [[George Darwin]] (1845&ndash;1912), Charles' son. Astronomer and mathematician.
* [[Leonard Darwin]] (1850&ndash;1943), Charles' son. Economist, eugenicist, and politician.
* [[Mike Darwin]] (1955&ndash;), [[cryonics]] pioneer, writer, leader and scientific researcher.
* [[Charles Galton Darwin]] (1887&ndash;1962), George's son. Mathematician, physicist and eugenicist.
* ...and other members of the [[Darwin — Wedgwood family]].
* [[Darwin (dolphin)]], a fictional crewmember in the television series ''[[seaQuest DSV]]''.
'''Places:'''
''Australia'':
* [[Darwin, Northern Territory]]*, a regional Australian city, and capital of the Northern Territory.
* [[Charles Darwin National Park]]*, large nature reserve in Northern Territory
* [[Darwin Meteorite Impact Crater]]*, Western Tasmania.
* [[Darwin, Tasmania]]*, <!-- Townsite,--> Western Tasmania.
* [[Mount Darwin, Tasmania]]*, mountain in Tasmania
* [[Darwin Dam, Tasmania]]*, a [[Hydro Tasmania]] Dam
''United States'':
* [[Mount Darwin (California)]]*, mountain in California
* [[Darwin, Minnesota]], a small town in Minnesota
* [[Darwin, California]], a tiny settlement in California
* [[Darwin, Ohio]]
''Other places'':
* [[Darwin (volcano)]]*, a volcano on the [[Galápagos Islands]]
* [[Mount Darwin, Zimbabwe]], town in Zimbabwe
* [[Darwin, Falkland Islands]]*, a small town in the Falkland Islands
* [[Mount Darwin (Andes)]]*, mountain in the Andes Mountains.
* [[Darwin Mountains]], mountain range in Antarctica.
* [[Darwin Glacier]], a glacier in Antarctica.
'''Institutions:'''
* [[Charles Darwin University]]*, University in Darwin, Northern Territory, previously known as Northern Territory University.
* [[Darwin College, Cambridge]]*
* Darwin College, the name of a fictional University in the [[Marx Brothers]] films.
'''Computing:'''
* [[Darwin (operating system)]], an operating system that Mac OS X builds upon
* [[Darwin (programming game)]], a programming game developed in the 1960s
* [[Darwin VII]], a new generation A.I. robot developed by the [[Neurosciences Institute]] (NSI).
* [[Darwin (ADL)]], an architectural description language ([[ADL]])
* [[Darwin 3]], a supplier orientated order management system used for EDI
'''Other uses:'''
* [[Darwin (ESA)]], a multiple-satellite project planned by the European Space Agency
* [[Darwin Medal]]*, awarded by the Royal Society
* [[Darwin Awards]]*, for people who help the gene pool by dying through their own stupidity
* [[Darwin fish]]*, a well-known parody of the ''ichthys'' symbol (a.k.a. the "Jesus fish")
* [[RRS Charles Darwin]]*, a research vessel of the UK [[Natural Environment Research Council]]
* [[Darwin's finches]]*, the genus of finches Darwin studied during his visit to the [[Galápagos Islands]]
* ''[[Darwin (album)|Darwin]]'', an LP released in [[1972]] by [[Italian music|Italian]] [[progressive rock]] band [[Banco del Mutuo Soccorso]].
{{disambig}}
[[ca:Darwin]]
[[de:Darwin]]
[[es:Darwin]]
[[eo:Darwin (apartigilo)]]
[[fr:Darwin]]
[[ko:다윈]]
[[it:Darwin]]
[[nl:Darwin]]
[[ja:ダーウィン]]
[[nn:Darwin]]
[[pl:Darwin (strona ujednoznaczniająca)]]
[[pt:Darwin]]
[[ru:Дарвин]]
[[sk:Darwin]]
[[fi:Darwin]]
[[sv:Darwin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dinoflagellates</title>
<id>7971</id>
<revision>
<id>15906004</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-16T00:00:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Josh Grosse</username>
<id>517</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Making singular</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dinoflagellate]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Donegal fiddle tradition</title>
<id>7973</id>
<revision>
<id>40852389</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T12:33:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Afn</username>
<id>392574</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Major reorganisation and rewrite. More References to come!</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Donegal fiddle tradition''' is a kind of [[Irish traditional music]], based on a tradition, or set of coexisting traditions, at least 200 years old, of playing the [[fiddle]] in [[County Donegal]], [[Ireland]]. Donegal is a remote, partly [[Irish language|Irish]]-speaking county in northwestern Ireland and one of the three counties of the northern Irish province of [[Ulster]] that are part of the [[Republic of Ireland]]. Donegal's tradition of fiddle playing has completely eclipsed other instrumental traditions in the county.
There is a so-called Donegal style of fiddling, though one also might plausibly identify several different, but related, styles within the county. To the extent to which there is one common style in the county, it is characterized by a rapid pace; a tendency to be more straight-ahead (unswung) in the playing of the fast dance tune types ([[reel (dance)|reel]] and [[jig]]s); short (one-note-per-bowstroke), aggressive bowing; relatively sparse ornamentation; the use of bowed triplets (also known as trebles) more often than rolls (an ornament like a turn) as ornaments; the use of double stops and droning (playing on more than one string at once); and the occurrence of "playing the octave", with one player playing the medley and the other playing the medley an octave lower. None of these characteristics is universal, and there is some disagreement as to the extent to which there is a common style at all. But in general, aggressive and lively fiddling is very often heard in Donegal, which many listeners find exciting. Donegal styles have been influenced to a great extent by southern Irish styles as well as [[Music of Scotland|Scottish]] and [[Shetland Islands|Shetland Island]] styles and repertoire, and by the sounds, ornaments, and repertoire of the Highland [[bagpipe|bagpipes]] (the so-called Scottish warpipes).
Another feature of Donegal fiddling that makes it distinctive among Irish musical traditions is the variety of rare tune types that are played. Highlands, a 4/4 type of tune based on Scottish [[strathspeys]], which are also played in Donegal, are one of the most commonly played types of tune in the county. Other tune types common in the county, but relatively uncommon elsewhere, include barndances, also called "germans," and [[mazurka]]s.
==History==
[[Image:Donegalmap.jpg|right|thumb|Map showing the geography and some of the different regions of Donegal.]]There are, of course, a number of different strands to the history of fiddle playing in County Donegal. Perhaps the best-known and, in the last half of the twentieth century, the most influential has been that of the Doherty family. [[Hugh Doherty (fiddler)|Hugh Doherty]] is the first known musician of this family. Born in 1790, he headed an unbroken tradition of fiddlers and pipers in the Doherty family until the death, in [[1980 in music|1980]], of perhaps the best-known Donegal fiddler, [[John Doherty (fiddler)|John Doherty]]. John, a travelling tinsmith, was known for his extremely precise and fast finger- and bow-work and vast repertoire, and is considered by many to be one of the greatest Irish fiddlers ever recorded. John's older brother, Mickey, was also recorded and, though Mickey was another of the great Irish fiddlers, his reputation has been overshadowed by John's.
As said before, there has been no single Donegal style but several distinctive styles. These styles traditionally come from the geographical isolated regions of Donegal including [[Inishowen]], [[East Donegal]], [[The Rosses]] and [[Gweedore]], [[Croaghs]], [[Teelin]], [[Kilcar]], [[Glencolmcille]], [[Ballyshannon]] and [[Bundoran]]. Even with improved communications and transport, these regions still have recognisably different ways of fiddle playing. Famous players, now dead, of the older Donegal styles include Neillidh ("Neilly") Boyle, Francie Byrne, Con Cassidy, and Frank Cassidy. A great fiddler from Donegal who bears mention, but who did not play in a traditional Donegal style, was [[Hugh Gillespie]]. Some great living Donegal fiddlers, include [[James Byrne (musician)|James Byrne]], [[Vincent Campbell]], [[John Gallagher (fiddler)|John Gallagher]], [[Paddy Glackin]], [[Danny O'Donnell (fiddler)|Danny O'Donnell]], and [[Tommy Peoples]].
==Modern Players==
[[Image:Muintiraltan.gif|left|thumb|The current line-up of well known Donegal band '''Altan'''.]]
The popularity of fiddle playing continues in Donegal. Among the many younger players, the three fiddlers of the Donegal "supergroup" [[Altan]], [[Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh]], [[Paul O'Shaughnessy]], and [[Ciarán Tourish]], are commonly regarded as brilliant, as are Mick Brown, Martin Mcginley, Dermot Mclaughlin, and others too numerous to mention by name. Finally, although he is not known as a fiddle player, [[Dermot Byrne]], the [[button accordion]] player currently with Altan, has a style and repertoire that is firmly within the Donegal instrumental tradition; he is widely regarded as one of the finest button accordion players in Ireland. [[Liz Doherty]] is the youngest member of this tradition. Her album "Last Orders" appeared in 1999.
The fiddle, and traditional music in general, has remained popular in Donegal not just because of the international success of certain artist, because of local pride in the music. Traditional music ''[[Irish traditional music session|Seisiúns]]'' are still common place both in [[pubs]] and in houses, even outside the tourist season. Music is still taught by the family members |
aim in accord with the general purposes of Wisdom Literature. For Qoheleth, however, any possible advantage in life is destroyed by the inevitability of death. As such, Qoheleth concludes that life (and everything) is senseless. In light of this conclusion, Qoheleth advises his audience to make the most of life, to seize the day, for there is no way to secure favorable outcomes in the future. Although this latter conclusion has sometimes been compared to [[Epicureanism]], for Qoheleth it comes about as the inevitable result of his failure to make sense of existence.
This conclusion is reflected in the refrain which both opens and closes Qoheleth's words:
:''"Utterly senseless" says Qoheleth, "Utterly senseless, everything is senseless!"''
The word translated ''senseless'', &#1492;&#1489;&#1500; (''hebel''), literally means ''vapor, breath''. Qoheleth uses it metaphorically, and its precise meaning is extensively debated. Older English translation often render it ''vanity'', but in modern usage this word has come to mean "self-pride" and lost its Latinate connotation of emptiness and is thus no longer appropriate. Other translations include ''meaningless'', ''absurd'', ''fleeting'' or ''senseless''. Some translations use the literal rendering ''vapor of vapors'' and so claim to leave the interpretation to the reader.
Ultimately, the author of Ecclesiates comes to this conclusion in the second to last verse of the last chapter:
:''"The end of the matter; all has been heard. Fear God, and keep his commandments; for that is the whole duty of everyone."''
==Readings==
* Few certain allusions to "Ecclesiastes" arise in the [[New Testament]]. [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 8:20 is the most commonly cited allusion: "For the creation was subjected to futility..." (where ''futility'' renders the Greek word used in the [[Septuagint]] to render the Hebrew ''hebel'' as discussed above.
* The poem about times in ''Eccl.'' 3:1-8 is also well known as the inspiration for the [[Pete Seeger]] song, "[[Turn, Turn, Turn]]", recorded by [[The Byrds]].
* In [[Ray Bradbury]]'s 1953 novel, [[Fahrenheit 451]], the [[protagonist]], [[Guy Montag]], represents the back-up copy of the Book of Ecclesiastes for the Book People.
* The protagonist in [[Roger Zelazny]]'s 1963 [[Hugo award]]-nominated [[short story]] ''A Rose for Ecclesiastes'' uses quotations from Ecclesiastes to great emotional effect.
* In [[John Updike]]'s novel, ''[[Rabbit, Run]]'', Ecclesiastes is alluded to in the character of the minister, Reverend Eccles.
* [[The House of Mirth]] is a 1905 novel by [[Edith Wharton]]. The title is taken from Ecclesiastes 7:4: "The heart of the wise is in the house of mourning; but the heart of fools is in the house of mirth.”
* The title of [[Ernest Hemingway]]'s The Sun also Rises is taken from Ecclesiastes 1:5: "The sun also ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to the place where he arose..."
==See also==
* [[Bible]]
* [[Tanakh]]
==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15779 Kohelet - Ecclesiastes - Job (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/21_ecclesiastes.htm ''Ecclesiastes'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Ecclesiastes}}
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Ecclesiastes ''Ecclesiastes'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
Related articles:
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=26&letter=E ''Jewish Encyclopedia''] Ecclesiastes (Kohelet)
*[http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/page.asp?page_id=164 Ecclesiastes An Overview - William MacDonald]
*[http://www.biblaridion-online.net/zine-online/zine06q1/bibzine06q1_p3.html ''Biblaridion magazine'':] The ''Sitz im Leben'' of Ecclesiastes - authored by Uzziah
*[http://plymouthbrethren.org/series.asp?series_id=54 Commentary on Ecclesiastes by F.C. Jennings]
*[http://librivox.org/ecclesiastes-asv-book-21-of-the-holy-scriptures/ Free audiobook of "Ecclesiastes (ASV) — Book 21 of the Holy Scriptures"] from [http://librivox.org/ LibriVox]
[[Category:Ketuvim]]
[[Category:Old Testament books]]
[[bg:Еклисиаст]]
[[de:Kohelet (Buch)]]
[[es:Eclesiastés]]
[[fa:جامعة بن داود]]
[[fr:Ecclésiaste]]
[[ko:전도서]]
[[id:Pengkhotbah]]
[[it:Qoelet]]
[[he:מגילת קהלת]]
[[jv:Juru Kotbah]]
[[nl:Prediker (boek)]]
[[ja:コヘレトの言葉]]
[[no:Forkynneren]]
[[pl:Księga Koheleta]]
[[ru:Книга Екклесиаста]]
[[fi:Saarnaajan kirja]]
[[sv:Predikaren]]
[[zh:傳道書]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ezekiel</title>
<id>9911</id>
<revision>
<id>41928764</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:10:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikkalai</username>
<id>28438</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.33.9.125|71.33.9.125]] ([[User talk:71.33.9.125|talk]]) to last version by Alphax</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the prophet Ezekiel. See also the ''[[Book of Ezekiel]]'', concerned with the text. For other meanings, see [[Ezekiel (disambiguation)]]''.
[[Image:Ezekiel.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Ezekiel the Prophet of the Hebrew Scriptures is depicted on a 1510 Sistine Chapel fresco by Michelangelo.]]
'''Ezekiel''' or '''Yechezkel''' ('''&#1497;&#1456;&#1495;&#1462;&#1494;&#1456;&#1511;&#1461;&#1488;&#1500;''' "[[Elohim|God]] will strengthen", [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Y&#601;&#7717;ezqel''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''Y&#601;&#7717;ezqêl''') was a [[prophet]] in the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], commonly regarded as the author of the biblical [[Book of Ezekiel]]. While Ezekiel is not mentioned by name in the [[Qur'an]], most [[Islamic]] scholars believe that the epithet [[Dhul-Kifl]], who is mentioned, refers to him.
The [[Book of Ezekiel]] gives little detail about his life. In it, he is mentioned only twice by name: 1:3 and 24:24. He is the son of Buzi the priest, and his name means "God will strengthen". He was one of the [[Israelites|Israelite]] exiles, who settled at a place called Tel-Abib, on the banks of the Chebar, "in the land of the [[Chaldea]]ns." The place is thus not identical to the modern city [[Tel Aviv]], which however is named after it. He was probably carried away captive with [[Jehoiachin]] (1:2; [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 24:14-16) about [[590s BCE|597 BCE]].
On the fifth day of the fourth month in the fifth year of his exile ([[Tammuz (month)|Tammuz]], [[590s BCE|592 BCE]]), he said he beheld on the banks of the Chebar the glory of God, who consecrated him as a prophet. The latest date in his book is the first day of the first month in the twenty-seventh year of his exile (Nisan, [[570s BCE|570 BCE]]); consequently, his prophecies extended over twenty-two years.
== Introduction ==
Ezekiel is a prophet who was instructed to [[act]] his prophesies. He was a prophet who loved [[drama]] and [[songwriting]] unlike the other prophets. He would sometimes do unbelievable things such as taking a potter's [[flask]] and smashing it to symbolize that Jerusalem will be destroyed and the people in Jerusalem will be scattered to the winds. His name means "Whom makes God strong."
The elders of the exiles repeatedly visited him to obtain a divine oracle (chapters 8, 14, 20). He exerted no permanent influence upon his contemporaries, however, whom he repeatedly calls the "rebellious house" (2:5, 6, 8; 3:9, 26, 27; and elsewhere), complaining that although they flock in great numbers to hear him they regard his discourse as a sort of aesthetic amusement, and fail to act in accordance with his words (33:30-33). If the enigmatical date, "the thirtieth year" (1:1), be understood to apply to the age of the prophet, Ezekiel was born exactly at the time of the reform in the ritual introduced by [[Josiah]]. Concerning his death nothing is known.
He had a house in the place of his exile, where he lost his wife, in the ninth year of his exile, by some sudden and unforeseen stroke (Ezek. 8:1; 24:18).
His ministry extended over twenty-three years [[590s BCE|595]] - [[570s BCE|573 BCE]] (29:17), during part of which he was contemporary with [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]], and probably also with [[Obadiah]]. According to tradition, he would also have been contemporary with [[Daniel]] (however, Daniel is regarded by some as being written much later, with Ezekiel's references to "Daniel" being seen as references to an ancient Ugaritic hero of that name, not a contemporary). The time and manner of his death are unknown. His reputed tomb is pointed out in the neighbourhood of [[Baghdad]], at a place called Keffil.
After being led away by the [[Babylonians]] somewhere between 597 and 596, Ezekiel, along with the other Israelites, was resettled in [[Babylon]]. Ezekiel himself lived in his own home in exile at Tel Abib near Chebar Canal ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%203:15;&version=49; 3:15]), which was near [[Nippur]] in [[Babylonia]].
Generally speaking, life was good in captivity. Unlike their ancestors who were enslaved by [[Egypt]] before being led to their land by Moses, the Jews of Ezekiel's time were able to become part of the society they found themselves in. The Israelite Exiles were told by Jeremiah to not worship the foreign gods, but he told them that they could become part of the Babylonian Culture. They did this well, often being called upon by the Babylonians to complete projects using their skills as artisans.
Unlike other enemies, the [[Babylonian]]s allowed the Jewish people to settle in small groups.
While keeping their religious and national identities, many |
ter)|Veronica]] search engines, and gateways to other information systems such as [[ftp]] and [[Usenet]].
The general interest in Campus-Wide Information Systems (CWISs) <ref>[http://groups.google.com/group/bit.listserv.cwis-l/browse_frm/thread/11db689fbe802834/bc8a60ab89926a4b?lnk=st&q=cwis+gopher&rnum=482&hl=en#bc8a60ab89926a4b Google Groups archive of bit.listserv.cwis-l discussion]</ref> in higher education at the time, and the ease with which a Gopher server could be set up to create an instant CWIS with links to other sites' online directories and resources were the factors contributing to Gopher's rapid adoption. By 1992, the standard method of locating someone's e-mail address was to find their organization's [[CSO nameserver]] entry in Gopher, and query the nameserver <ref>[http://groups.google.com/group/comp.infosystems.gopher/browse_frm/thread/eef4cfbdbc862afe/9cbc3e3690b8fb4e?lnk=st&q=%22cso+nameserver%22&rnum=19&hl=en#9cbc3e3690b8fb4e Google Groups archive of comp.infosystems.gopher discussion]</ref>.
The exponential scaling of utility in social networked systems ([[Reed's law]]) seen in Gopher, and then the web, is a common feature of networked hypermedia systems with distributed authoring. In 1993&ndash;1994, Web pages commonly contained large numbers of links to Gopher-delivered resources, as the Web continued Gopher's embrace and extend tradition of providing gateways to other services.
===Decline===
When the [[World Wide Web]] was first introduced in [[1991]], Gopher was well-established and quite popular; yet by the late [[1990s]], Gopher had almost disappeared.
There are a number of factors which contributed to Gopher's decline in popularity:
*In February of [[1993]], the University of Minnesota announced that they would begin to charge licensing fees for the use of their implementation of the Gopher server <ref>http://www.funet.fi/pub/vms/networking/gopher/gopher-software-licensing-policy.ancient</ref>, which reduced the popularity of Gopher servers <ref>http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=1mj6cb$6gm@pith.uoregon.edu</ref>. Some believe this is what relegated Gopher to a footnote in the [[history of the Internet]] <ref>http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=36e4c2f1.10244576@nntp.best.ix.netcom.com</ref>. The University eventually re-licensed their Gopher software under the [[GNU GPL]] <ref>ftp://boombox.micro.umn.edu/pub/gopher/gopher-software-licensing-policy.new</ref>.
*Most Gopher clients did not adequately support [[HTML]], the ''lingua franca'' of the Web. Meanwhile, popular Web browsers such as [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic]] had poor support for [[Gopher]], and once there was sufficient content on the Web to make it an important way of accessing information, there was even less of a need to support Gopher in Web browsers.
*Gopher has a limited structure, making it inflexible compared to the free-form [[HTML]] of the Web. With Gopher, every document has a defined format and type, and the typical user must navigate through a single server-defined menu system to get to a particular document. Many people did not like the artificial distinction between menu and fixed document in the Gopher system, and found the Web's open-ended flexibility much more useful for constructing free-form, interrelated sets of documents ("[[HTML]]") and interactive applications.
===Availability of Gopher today===
As of [[2004]], there are still a few Gopher servers present on the net, in organizations such as the [[Smithsonian Institution]] and the [[US government]]; a few are also being maintained by enthusiasts of the protocol, where almost all growth is occurring.
Some have suggested that the bandwidth-sparing simple interface of Gopher would be a good match for [[mobile phone]]s and [[Personal digital assistants]] (PDAs), but so far, the market prefers [[Wireless Markup Language]] (WML)/[[Wireless Application Protocol]] (WAP), DoCoMo [[i-mode]], [[XHTML Basic]] or other adaptations of [[HTML]] and [[XML]].
== Gopher characteristics ==
A Gopher system consists of a series of hierarchical menus. The choice of menu items and titles is set by the administrator of the server.
[[Image:Floodgap gopher top menu.PNG|250px|left|thumb|The top level menu of a Gopher server. Selecting the "Fun and Games" menu item...]]
[[Image:Floodgap gopher fun menu.PNG|250px|left|thumb|... takes the user to the "Fun and Games" menu.]]
<br style="clear: left"/>
[[Image:Floodgap gopher servers menu.PNG|150px|thumb|right|A Gopher menu listing other accessible servers.]]
[[Image:Umn_gopher_dir.png|150px|right|thumb| Gopher menu from a terminal client.]]
Similar to a file on a Web server, a file on a Gopher server can be linked to as a menu item from any other Gopher server. Many servers take advantage of this inter-server linking to provide a directory of other servers that the user can access.
==Technical details==
===Protocol===
The Gopher protocol is documented in [[Request for Comments|RFC]] 1436. It is traditionally served on [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] [[List of well-known ports (computing)|port]] 70.
After the client has established a TCP connection with the server, it sends a line that contains the ''item selector'', a string that identifies the document to be retrieved. The line is ended with a carriage return followed by a line feed (a "CR + LF" sequence). An empty line will select the default directory. The server then replies with the requested item and closes the connection.
A ''directory'' consists of a sequence of lines, each of which describes an item that can be retrieved. These lines are ended with "CR + LF". They consist of five fields, separated by TAB characters:
* item type character, which is usually one of the following:
** 0 = [[Plain text|plain text]] file
** 1 = [[Directory|directory]]
** 3 = error
** 7 = [[Search engine|search]] server (returns a directory)
** h = [[HTML|html]] file
** i = informational text
** I = [[Digital image|image]] file
* description text
* item selector (typically a file-system pathname)
* domain name of the server on which the item resides
* port number of that server
====URL links====
Historically, to create a link to a Web server, "GET /" was used as the file to simulate an HTTP client request. [[John Goerzen]] created an addition <ref>http://gopher.quux.org/Archives/Mailing%20Lists/gopher/gopher.2002-02|/MBOX-MESSAGE/34</ref> to the Gopher protocol, commonly referred to as "[[URL]] links", that allows links to any protocol that supports URLs. For example, to create a link to http://gopher.quux.org, the item type is "h", the description is arbitrary, the item selector is "<nowiki>URL:http://gopher.quux.org</nowiki>", and the domain and port are that of the originating Gopher server. For clients that do not support URL links, the server creates a HTML redirection page.
===Gopher support in Web browsers===
[[Image:Floodgap gopher in firefox 1.5.PNG|thumb|right|150px|Mozilla Firefox 1.5 displays a menu of the Floodgap Gopher server.]]
Gopher support was disabled in [[Internet Explorer]] in June 2002 by a patch meant to fix a security vulnerability<ref>{{Web reference| url=http://www.microsoft.com/technet/security/bulletin/MS02-047.mspx | title=Microsoft Security Bulletin MS02-047 }}</ref> in the browser's Gopher protocol handler; however, it can be re-enabled by editing the [[Windows registry]] <ref>This is achieved by adding the following registry entry: <tt>HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Internet Settings\EnableGopher = dword:00000001</tt></ref>.
Other browsers, including [[Mozilla]] and [[AOL]] still support the protocol, but incompletely &mdash; the most obvious deficiency is that they cannot display the informational text found on many Gopher menus. [[Konqueror]] needs a plugin<ref>The kgopher [[Konqueror#KIO|KIO]] plugin can be downloaded from http://kgopher.berlios.de/.</ref> to be installed for full Gopher support. [[Mozilla Firefox]] has full Gopher support as of release 1.5, and partial support in previous versions. The [[SeaMonkey]] Internet suite, successor of the Mozilla all-in-one suite also supports Gopher fully.
The [[Safari (web browser)|Safari]] Web browser does not support Gopher at all while [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]] requires the use of a proxy like [[Squid cache|Squid]].
===Gopher to HTTP gateways===
Users of Web browsers that have incomplete or no support for Gopher<ref>To determine whether a Web browser supports Gopher, compare the display of [gopher://gopher.floodgap.com/ this gopher menu] with [http://gopher.floodgap.com/gopher/gw the same menu produced by a Gopher to HTML gateway] in the browser.</ref> can access content on Gopher servers via a server gateway that converts Gopher menus into [[HTML]]. One such server is at [http://gopher.floodgap.com/gopher/ Floodgap.com].
Some Gopher servers, like [[PyGopherd]], also have builtin Gopher to HTTP interfaces.
===Related technology===
The main Gopher search engine is [[Veronica (computer)|Veronica]]. Veronica offers a keyword search of most Gopher server menu titles in the gopher web. A Veronica search produces a menu of Gopher items, each of which is a direct pointer to a Gopher data source. Currently, there is only one Veronica-2 server.
[[GopherVR]] is a 3D variant of the original Gopher system.
==See also==
*[[Gopher+]] - extensions to the Gopher protocol
*[[HyTelnet]] - a similar mechanism for unifying [[Telnet]]-based interfaces
*[[Super Dimension Fortress]] - a non-profit organization which provides free Gopher access
== References and footnotes ==
<references/>
==External links==
*[http://gopherproject.org/Software/Gopher The Gopher Pro |
ex.html WebElements.com &ndash; Bromine]
*[http://www.theodoregray.com/PeriodicTable/Elements/035/index.s7.html Theodoregray.com &ndash; Bromine]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Halogens]]
[[ar:بروم]]
[[bs:Brom]]
[[ca:Brom]]
[[cs:Brom]]
[[da:Brom]]
[[de:Brom]]
[[et:Broom]]
[[es:Bromo]]
[[eo:Bromo]]
[[fr:Brome]]
[[ko:브로민]]
[[io:Bromo]]
[[is:Bróm]]
[[it:Bromo]]
[[he:ברום]]
[[lv:Broms]]
[[lt:Bromas]]
[[hu:Bróm]]
[[mi:Pūkane]]
[[nl:Broom]]
[[ja:臭素]]
[[no:Brom]]
[[nn:Brom]]
[[oc:Bròm]]
[[pl:Brom]]
[[pt:Bromo]]
[[ru:Бром]]
[[sl:Brom]]
[[sr:Бром]]
[[fi:Bromi]]
[[sv:Brom]]
[[th:โบรมีน]]
[[vi:Brôm]]
[[tr:Brom]]
[[uk:Бром]]
[[zh:溴]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Barium</title>
<id>3757</id>
<revision>
<id>41599818</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T12:06:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Femto</username>
<id>96285</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>revert</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Barium is also the Latin name for the city [[Bari]] in [[Italy]].''
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{{Elementbox_series | [[alkaline earth metal]]s }}
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{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies3 | 502.9 | 965.2 | 3600 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|215]] }}
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{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|198]] }}
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{{Elementbox_magnetic | [[paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] }}
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{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-39-3 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=barium | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=130 | sym=Ba | na=0.106% | n=74 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=132 | sym=Ba | na=0.101% | n=76 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=133 | sym=Ba
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=10.51 [[year|y]]
| dm=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de=0.517 | pn=133 | ps=[[caesium|Cs]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=134 | sym=Ba | na=2.417% | n=78 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=135 | sym=Ba | na=6.592% | n=79 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=136 | sym=Ba | na=7.854% | n=80 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=137 | sym=Ba | na=11.23% | n=81 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=138 | sym=Ba | na=71.7% | n=82 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
'''Barium''' is a toxic [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Ba''' and [[atomic number]] 56. A soft silvery [[metal]]lic element, barium is an [[alkaline earth metal]] and melts at a very high [[temperature]]. Its oxide is called [[baryta]] and it is primarily found in the [[mineral]] [[barite]] but is never found in its pure form due to its [[reactivity]] with [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]. Compounds of this metal are used in small quantities in [[paint]]s and in [[glass]]making.
== Notable characteristics ==
Barium is a [[metal]]lic element that is chemically similar to [[calcium]], yet is soft and in its pure form is silvery white resembling [[lead]]. This metal [[oxidation|oxidizes]] very easily when exposed to air and is highly [[chemical reaction|reactive]] with [[water (molecule)|water]] or [[alcohol]]. Barium decomposes water or [[alcohol]]. Some of the compounds of this element are remarkable for their high [[specific gravity]], as is its [[sulfate]]: [[barite]] Ba(SO<sub>4</sub>) also called heavy spar.
== Applications ==
Barium is primarily used in [[sparkplug]]s, [[vacuum tube]]s, [[fireworks]], and in [[fluorescent lamp]]s.
Also:
*A "[[getter]]" in vacuum tubes.
*[[Barium sulfate]] is permanent white and is used in [[paint]], in [[X-ray]] diagnostic work, and in [[glass]]making.
*[[Barite]] is used extensively as a weighing agent in [[oil well]] drilling fluids and in [[rubber]] production.
*[[Barium carbonate]] is a useful [[rat poison]] and can also be used in making glass and [[brick]]s, while [[barium nitrate]] and [[barium chlorate|chlorate]] give green colors in fireworks.
*Impure [[barium sulfide]] [[phosphorescence|phosphoresces]] after exposure to the [[light]].
*Barium [[salt]]s, especially [[barium sulfate]], are sometimes given orally (a [[barium meal]]) or as an [[enema]], to increase the contrast of [[medicine|medical]] [[X-ray]]s of the [[digestive system]].
*[[Lithopone]], a [[pigment]] that contains [[barium sulfate]] and [[zinc sulfide]], has good covering power, and does not darken in when exposed to sulfides.
*[[Barium peroxide]] can be used as a catalyst to start an [[aluminothermic reaction]] when welding rail tracks together.
== History ==
Barium ([[Greek language|Greek]] "barys" meaning "heavy") was first identified in [[1774]] by [[Carl Scheele]] and extracted in [[1808]] by Sir [[Humphry Davy]] in [[England]]. The oxide was at first called barote, by [[Guyton de Morveau]], which was changed by [[Antoine Lavoisier]] to baryta, which soon was modified to "barium" to describe the metal.
== Occurrence ==
Because barium quickly becomes oxidized in air, it is difficult to obtain this metal in its pure form. It is primarily found in and extracted from the [[mineral]] [[barite]] which is crystalized barium sulfate. Barium is commercially produced through the [[electrolysis]] of molten [[barium chloride]] (BaCl<sub>2</sub>)
''Isolation'' (* follow):<br />
:([[cathode]]) Ba<sup>2+</sup>* + 2[[electron|e<sup>-</sup>]] &rarr; Ba ([[anode]]) Cl<sup>-</sup>* &rarr; ½Cl<sub>2</sub> ([[gas|g]]) + e<sup>-</sup>
== Compounds ==
The most important compounds are [[barium peroxide]], [[barium chloride|chloride]], [[barium sulfate|sulfate]], [[barium carbonate|carbonate]], [[barium nitrate|nitrate]], and [[barium chlorate|chlorate]].
;See also [[:category:Barium compounds]]
== Isotopes ==
Naturally occurring barium is a mix of seven stable [[isotope]]s. There are twenty-two isotopes known, but most of these are highly [[radioactive]] and have [[half-life]]s in the several millisecond to several minute range. The only notable exception is barium-133 which has a half-life of 10.51 years.
== Precautions ==
All water or acid [[soluble]] barium compounds are extremely [[poison]]ous. [[Barium sulfate]] can be used in medicine only because it does not dissolve, and is eliminated completely from the digestive tract. Unlike other [[heavy metals]] however, barium does not [[bioaccumulation|bioaccumulate]]. [http://www.epa.gov/region5/superfund/ecology/html/toxprofiles.htm#ba]
[[Oxidation]] occurs very easily and, to remain pure, barium should be kept under a petroleum-based fluid (such as [[kerosene]]) or other suitable [[oxygen]]-free liquids that exclude air.
== External links ==
{{Commons|Barium}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ba/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Barium]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Alkaline earth metals]]
[[Category:Toxicology]]
<!-- interwiki -->
{{Link FA|de}}
[[bg:Барий]]
[[bs:Barijum]]
[[ca:Bari]]
[[cs:Baryum]]
[[de:Barium]]
[[et:Baarium]]
[[el:Βάριο]]
[[es:Bario]]
[[eo:Bario]]
[[fr:Baryum]]
[[gl:Bario (elemento)]]
[[ko:바륨]]
[[hr:Barij]]
[[io:Bario]]
[[is:Barín]]
[[it:Bario]]
[[he:בריום]]
[[ku:Baryûm]]
[[la:Barium (Chemica)]]
[[lv:Bārijs]]
[[lt:Baris]]
[[hu:Bárium]]
[[mi:Konu-okehu]]
[[nl:Barium]]
[[ja:バリウム]]
[[no:Barium]]
[[nn:Barium]]
[[pl:Bar (pierwiastek)]]
[[pt:Bário]]
[[ru:Барий]]
[[sl:Barij]]
[[sr:Баријум]]
[[fi:Barium]]
[[sv:Barium]]
[[th:แบเรียม]]
[[tr:Baryum]]
[[uk:Барій]]
[[zh:钡]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Berkelium</title>
<id>3758</id>
<revision>
<id>41411967</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T03:42:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Polonium|Polonium]] ([[User talk:Polonium|talk]]) to last version by Edgar181</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=97 | symbol=Bk | name=berkelium | left=[[curium]] | right=[[californium]] | above=[[terbium|Tb]] | below=(Uqs) | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[actinide]]s }}
{{Elementbox_periodblock | period=7 | block=f }}
{{Elementbox_appearance | unknown, probably |
www.mpipsykl.mpg.de/ Extensive bibliography of works by and about Kraepelin's including those in the original German]
See
* [http://www.engstrom.de/KRAEPELINBIOGRAPHY.pdf]
* [http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~psy/eng/kraep-e.html] and
* [http://websrv.ucsu.edu/facstaff/tbrown/times/obits/kraepelin.htm]
for biographies of Kraepelin.
*[http://www.kraepelin.org/ International Kraepelin Society contact]
[[Category:1856 births|Kraepelin, Emil]]
[[Category:1926 deaths|Kraepelin, Emil]]
[[Category:German psychiatrists|Kraepelin, Emil]]
[[Category:German neuroscientists|Kraepelin, Emil]]
[[Category:Psychosis]]
[[de:Emil Kraepelin]]
[[fr:Emil Kraepelin]]
[[is:Emil Kraepelin]]
[[nl:Emil Kraepelin]]
[[ja:エミール・クレペリン]]
[[ru:Крепелин, Эмиль]]
[[tr:Emil Kraepelin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Evoluon</title>
<id>10003</id>
<revision>
<id>31957258</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-19T10:55:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Baszoetekouw</username>
<id>255629</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>image placement</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:evoluon.jpg|right|300px]]
The '''Evoluon''' is a former [[science museum]] erected by [[Philips]] in [[Eindhoven]], the [[Netherlands]]. The building was designed by the architect [[Louis Christiaan Kalff]], while the exhibition was conceived by [[James Gardner]]. The building was based on an idea by [[Frits Philips]], who originally made a sketch of the building on a paper napkin. Frits Philips wanted to give the people of Eindhoven a beautiful and educational gift to celebrate the birthday of the company that bears his name.
The building is unique due to its resemblance to a landed [[unidentified flying object|flying saucer]], which makes it look very futuristic. After the original museum closed down in 1989, the Evoluon was converted into a [[conference center]] in 1994.
==External links==
* [http://www.evoluon.nl The Evoluon's website]
* [http://www.evoluon.org Extensive site about the history of the Evoluon]
{{Euro-struct-stub}}
[[nl:Evoluon]]
[[de:Evoluon]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Educational essentialism</title>
<id>10004</id>
<revision>
<id>41132379</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T06:25:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ambi</username>
<id>13040</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Bobblewik|Bobblewik]] ([[User talk:Bobblewik|talk]]) to last version by Ahoerstemeier</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''If you are looking for other uses of the term essentialism, please go [[Essentialism|here]].''
In [[education]] '''essentialism''' is a theory that states that children should learn the traditional basic subjects and that these should be learned thoroughly and rigorously. An essentialist program normally teaches children progressively, from less complex skills to more complex.
An Essentialist will usually teach some set subjects similar to Reading, Writing, Literature, Foreign Languages, History, Math, Science, Art, and Music.
[[William Bagley]] ([[1874]]-[[1946]]) was an important historical Essentialist.
Essentialism is related to the [[cultural literacy]] movement, which advocates the teaching of a core set of knowledge common to (and assumed to be possessed by) members of a culture or society. See also [[E.D. Hirsch]].
For a discussion of other educational philosophies, see [[educational philosophies]] and [[education reform]].</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Educational progressivism</title>
<id>10005</id>
<revision>
<id>36679171</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T19:34:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Master Scott Hall</username>
<id>673395</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Alternative education]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Progressivism}}
'''Educational progressivism''' is the belief that education must be based on the fact that humans are social animals who learn best in real-life activities with other people. Progressivists claimed to rely on the best available scientific theories of learning. Most believed that children learned as if they were scientists, following a process similar to [[John Dewey]]'s model of learning:
# Become aware of the problem.
# Define the problem.
# Propose [[Hypothesis|hypotheses]] to solve it.
# Evaluate the consequences of the hypotheses from one's past experience.
# Test the most likely solution.
Given this view of human nature, a progressivist teacher desires to provide not just reading and drill, but also real-world experiences and activities that center on the real life of the students. A typical progressivist slogan is "Learn by Doing!"
In [[1957]], the orbiting of [[Sputnik I|Sputnik]] caused a panic in educational establishments as Americans and Europeans felt they had fallen behind the Soviet Union technologically. A rethinking of education theory followed that caused progressivism to fall from favor.
However, today some schools use progressive education methods, such as hands on activities and science experiments in Junior High Schools.
==See also==
* [[Experiential education]]
* [[Educational philosophies]]
* [[Education reform]]
* [[Humanistic education]]
==Sources==
*''World Book 2004''
[[Category:Alternative education]]
[[Category:Educational philosophy]]
[[Category:Progressivism]]
[[de:Reformpädagogik]]
[[es:Pedagogía libertaria]]
[[fr:Éducation nouvelle]]
[[pt:Pedagogia Libertária]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electronic musical instrument</title>
<id>10006</id>
<revision>
<id>41141814</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T08:20:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Neshatian</username>
<id>708008</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Definition refined</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''electronic musical instrument''' is a [[musical instrument]] that produces its sounds using [[electronics]]. In contrast, the term [[electric instrument]] is used to mean instruments whose sound is produced mechanically, and only amplified or altered electronically - for example an [[electric guitar]]. Usually the instrument will have some way of controlling the sound, such as by adjusting the [[pitch (music)|pitch]], [[frequency]], or duration of each [[note]].
All electric and electronic musical instruments can be viewed as a subset of [[audio signal processing]] applications. Simple electronic musical instruments are sometimes called [[sound effect]]s; the border between sound effects and actual musical instruments is often hazy.
French [[composer]] and engineer [[Edgard Varèse]] created a variety of compositions using electronic horns, whistles, and tape. Most notably, he wrote [[Poème Électronique]] for the Phillips pavilion at the Brussels World Fair in [[1958]].
Electronic musical instruments are now widely used in most styles of music. The development of new electronic musical instruments continues to be a highly active and interdisciplinary field of research. Specialized conferences, notably the International Conference on [[New interfaces for musical expression]], have organized to report cutting edge work, as well as to provide a showcase for artists who perform or create music with new electronic music instruments.
The STEIM foundation in Amsterdam ( in the Netherlands) is a highly influential research and development center for electronic music instruments. Many of the new concepts for musical man-machine interaction have come from the STEIM research team; in collaboration with its many guest researchers. These researchers are all active composers, musicians, artists, theater performers and engineers. Since the late seventies STEIM's director Michel Waisvisz has been an influential composer/performer and inventor of new concepts for live electronic music performance. He introduced early gestural sensor based instruments in the concert hall and also his recent work is an important inspiration for a new generation of live performers using physical sensor instruments to play laptop-based sound-synthesis in composed or improvised music.
== Early electronic musical instruments ==
In the broadest sense, the very first electrified musical instrument was the [[Denis d´or]], dating from [[1753]]. It was followed by the [[Clavecin électrique]] by the Frenchman Jean-Baptiste de Laborde in [[1761]].
The first purely electronic musical instrument was the [[Telharmonium]], built by [[Thaddeus Cahill]] in [[1906]]. Employing electric generators and tonewheels to produce notes, it had a length of 60ft and a weight of 200 tons; because of a lack of suitable loudspeakers at that time, the music was distributed over the telephone network.
One of the many instruments constructed in the following decades was the [[Theremin]], invented by [[Léon Theremin|Leon Theremin]] in 1917, which used a vacuum tube oscillator to make sounds that depended on the interactions of the user with an RF field. This was followed in 1928 by the [[Ondes Martenot]] which had a keyboard as well as several auxiliary controllers.
The sound of the Ondes Martenot is used extensively in the ''[[Turangalîla-Symphonie]]'' and other works by [[Olivier Messiaen]]. However, these were not true synthesizers in the modern sense, as they were not configurable to produce a range of complex sounds by additive or subtractive synthesis, instead generating single pure tones with controllable [[pitch (music)|pitch]], [[amplitude]] and [[vibrato]].
Ca. 1929 [[Friedrich Trautwein]] invented the [[Trautonium]] in Berlin. It was played with a resistor wire which has to be pressed against a metal plate. [[Oskar Sala]] was one of the first players and continued development until his death in 2002. [[Paul Hindemith]] |
l Broonzy]] and [[Leroy Carr]]. Before WWII, Tampa Red was sometimes referred to as "the king of the slide guitar." Carr made the unusual choice to accompany himself on the piano.{{ref|Carr}}
[[Image:Boogie-woogie-bassline.PNG|thumb|left|A typical boogie-woogie bassline]]
Another important style of 1930s and early '40s urban blues was [[boogie-woogie (music)|boogie-woogie]]. Though most often piano based, it was not strictly a solo piano style, and was also used to accompany singers and, as a solo part, in bands and small combos. Boogie-Woogie was a style characterized by a regular bass figure, an [[ostinato]] or [[riff]]. It was featured by the most familiar example of [[shift of level|shifts of level]], in the left hand which elaborates on each chord, and trills and decorations from the right hand. Boogie-woogie was pioneered by the Chicago-based [[Jimmy Yancey]] and the Boogie-Woogie Trio ([[Albert Ammons]], [[Pete Johnson]] and [[Meade Lux Lewis]]). Chicago also produced other musicians in the style, like [[Pinetop Smith|Clarence "Pine Top" Smith]] and [[Earl Hines]], who "linked the propulsive left-hand rhythms of the ragtime pianists with melodic figures similar to those of Armstrong's trumpet in the right hand".{{ref|YanceyHines}}
One kind of early 1940s urban blues was the [[jump blues]], a style heavily influenced by [[big band]] music and characterized by the use of the guitar in the rhythm section, a jazzy, up-tempo sound, declamatory vocals and the use of the [[saxophone]] or other [[brass instrument]]s. The jump blues of people like [[Louis Jordan]] and [[Big Joe Turner]], based in [[Kansas City, Missouri]], later became the primary basis for [[rock and roll]] and [[rhythm and blues]].{{ref|jumpblues}} Also straddling the border between classic rhythm and blues and blues is the very smooth Louisiana style, whose main representatives are [[Professor Longhair]] and, more recently, [[Doctor John]].
===Early postwar blues===
[[Image:Muddy1.gif|thumb||right|Muddy Waters at a young age.]]
After [[World War II]] and in the 1950s, increased urbanization and the use of amplification led to new styles of [[electric blues]] music, popular in cities such as [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] and [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]].
Chicago became a blues center in the early fifties. The [[Chicago blues]] is influenced to a large extent by the [[Delta blues |Mississippi blues]] style, because most artists of this period were migrants from the [[Mississippi]] region: [[Howlin' Wolf]], [[Muddy Waters]], [[Willie Dixon]], and [[Jimmy Reed]] were all born in Mississippi. Their style is characterized by the use of electric guitar, sometimes slide guitar, [[harmonica]], traditional bass and drums. Nevertheless, some musicians of the same artistic movement, such as [[Elmore James]] or [[J. B. Lenoir]], also used saxophones but more as a rhythm support than as solo instruments. Though [[Little Walter]] and [[Sonny Boy Williamson II |Sonny Boy Williamson (Rice Miller)]] are the best known harp musicians of the early Chicago blues scene, others such as [[Big Walter Horton]] and [[Sonny Boy Williamson I |Sonny Boy Williamson]], who had already begun their careers before the war, also had tremendous influence. Muddy Waters and Elmore James were known for their innovative use of slide electric guitar. However, [[B. B. King]] and [[Freddy King]] did not use slide guitars and were perhaps the most influential guitarists of the Chicago blues style. Howlin' Wolf and Muddy Waters were famous for their deep voices. Howlin' Wolf is particularly acknowledged for distorting his voice with a special use of the microphone. Willie Dixon played a major role on the Chicago scene. He was a bassist, but his fame came from his composing and writing of most [[blues standard |standard blues]] numbers of the period. He wrote "Hoochie Coochie Man" and "I Just Want to Make Love to You" for Muddy Waters, "Wang Dang Doodle" for [[Koko Taylor]], and "Back Door Man" for Howlin' Wolf, and many others. Most artists of this style recorded for the Chicago-based [[Chess Records]] label.
The influence of blues on mainstream American popular music was huge in the fifties. In the mid-1950s, musicians like [[Bo Diddley]] and [[Chuck Berry]] emerged. Directly influenced by the Chicago blues, their enthusiastic playing departed from the melancholy aspects of blues and is often acknowleged as the [[Origins of rock and roll |transition from the blues to rock 'n' roll]]. [[Elvis Presley]] and [[Bill Haley]], mostly influenced by the jump blues and boogie-woogie, popularized rock and roll within the white segment of the population. The influence of the Chicago blues was also very important in [[Louisiana]]'s [[zydeco]] music. [[Clifton Chenier]] and others introduced many blues accents in this style, such as the use of electric solo guitars and [[cajun]] arrangements of blues standards. However, other artists popular at this time, such as [[T-Bone Walker]] and [[John Lee Hooker]], showed up different influences which are not directly related to the Chicago style. [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]]-born T-Bone Walker is often associated with the [[West Coast blues |California blues]] style. This blues style is smoother than Chicago blues and is a transition between the Chicago blues, the jump blues and [[swing]] with some [[jazz guitar|jazz-guitar]] influence. On the other hand, John Lee Hooker's blues is very personal. It is based on Hooker's deep rough voice accompanied by a single electric guitar. Though not directly influenced by boogie woogie, his very groovy style is sometimes called "guitar boogie". His first hit "Boogie Chillen" reached #1 on the R&B charts in 1949.{{ref|Bjorn}}
===Blues in the '60s and '70s===
By the beginning of the 1960s, [[African American music]] like [[rock and roll]] and [[soul music|soul]] were parts of mainstream popular music. White performers had brought black music to new audiences, both within the United States and abroad. Though many listeners simply enjoyed the catchy pop tunes of the day, others were inspired to learn more about the roots of rock, soul, R&B and gospel. Especially in the United Kingdom, many young men and women formed bands to emulate blues legends. By the end of the decade, white-performed blues in a number of styles, mostly fusions of blues and rock, had come to dominate popular music across much of the world.
[[Image:BBKingClub.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Blues legend [[B.B. King]] with his guitar "Lucille"]]
Blues masters such as John Lee Hooker and Muddy Waters continued to perform to enthusiastic audiences, inspiring new artists steeped in traditional blues, such as New York-born [[Taj Mahal (musician)|Taj Mahal]]. John Lee Hooker was particularly successful in the late sixties in blending his own style with some rock elements, playing together with younger white musicians. The 1971 album ''Endless Boogie'' is a major example of this style. [[B.B. King]] had emerged as a major artist in the fifties and reached his height in the late sixties. His virtuoso guitar technique earned him the eponymous title "king of the blues". In contrast to the Chicago style, King's band used strong brass support (saxophone, trumpet, trombone) instead of slide guitar or harp. [[Tennessee]]-born [[Bobby Bland|Bobby "Blue" Bland]] is another artist of the time who, like B.B. King, successfully straddled blues and R&B genres.
The music of the [[American Civil Rights Movement|Civil Rights]] and [[Free Speech Movement|Free Speech]] movements in the U.S. prompted a resurgence of interest in American roots music in general and in early African American music, specifically. Important music festivals such as the [[Newport Folk Festival]] brought traditional blues to a new audience. Prewar acoustic blues was rediscovered along with many forgotten blues heroes including Son House, [[Mississippi John Hurt]], [[Skip James]], and [[Reverend Gary Davis]]. Many compilations of classic prewar blues were republished, in particular by the [[Yazoo Records]] company. J. B. Lenoir, an important artist of the Chicago blues movement in the fifties, recorded several outstanding LPs using acoustic guitar, sometimes accompanied by Willie Dixon on the acoustic bass or drums. His work at this time had an unusually direct political content relative to [[racism]] or [[Vietnam War]] issues. As an example, this quotation from ''Alabama blues'' record:
<blockquote>
I never will go back to Alabama, that is not the place for me (2x)</br>
You know they killed my sister and my brother,</br>
and the whole world let them peoples go down there free
</blockquote>
In the late sixties, the so-called West Side blues emerged in Chicago with [[Magic Sam]], [[Magic Slim]] and [[Otis Rush]]. In contrast with the early Chicago style, this style is characterized by a strong rhythm support (a rhythm and a bass electric guitar, and drums). Talented, new musicians like [[Albert King]], [[Freddy King]], [[Buddy Guy]], or [[Luther Allison]] appeared.
[[Image:bluesbreakers.jpg|thumb|right|[[John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers]] with [[Eric Clapton]] album cover]]
However, what made blues really come across to the young white audiences in the early 1960s was the Chicago-based [[Paul Butterfield Blues Band]] and the [[British blues]] movement. The style of [[British blues]] developed in England, when dozens of bands such as [[Fleetwood Mac]], [[John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers]], [[The Rolling Stones]], [[The Yardbirds]], and [[Cream (band)|Cream]] took to covering the classic blues numbers from either the [[Delta blues|Delta]] or [[Chicago blues]] traditions. The British blues musicians of the early 1960s would ultimately inspire a number of American [[blues-rock]] fusion performers, in |
of Flanders]]''
Many new political parties during the last half century were founded in Flanders and most often in Antwerp: [[Daensism]], progressive Christian-Democrats; [[Frontpartij]] & [[Volksunie]] (now [[NVA]]), moderate nationalism; [[Green!]], alternative/Green; [[Vlaams Blok]] ([[Vlaams Belang]]): far-right nationalism; and [[ROSSEM]], a short-lived anarchistic spark).
===Flemish nation===
A more controversial designation for Flanders is those parts of Belgium where Dutch is (or was) spoken. This is the root of many communautary quibbles in Belgium. This designation finds its root in the [[romantic nationalism]] of the [[19th century]] but later got a more pejorative meaning, which is now overcome. For some, Flanders is more than just a geographical area ([[Flemish Region]]) or a federal institution ([[Flemish Community]]). Some even call it a nation: a people of over 6 million living in the Flemish Region and in the [[Brussels-Capital Region]], where they form a minority. [[Flemings]] share a lot of political, cultural, scientific, social and educational views. Although many Flemings identify themselves more with Flanders than with Belgium; the Belgian legislator provides a federal Belgian-scale organisation for all questions that require a nationwide solution.
==Flanders in France==
''See: [[Nord]] and [[Nord-Pas de Calais]]''
==Flanders in The Netherlands==
''See: [[Zeeuws-Vlaanderen]]''
[[Image:IMAGE0075.JPG.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Landscape of Bachten de Kupe, in [[Western Flanders]]]]
==History==
''See also: [[History of Belgium]]''
===Historical Flanders: County of Flanders===
{{main|County of Flanders}}
Created in the year [[862]], the County of Flanders was divided when its western districts fell under French rule in the late 12th century. The remaining parts of Flanders came under the rule of the counts of neighbouring [[Hainaut]] in [[1191]]. The entire area passed in [[1384]] to the dukes of [[Burgundy]], in [[1477]] to the [[Habsburg]] dynasty, and in [[1556]] to the kings of [[Spain]]. The western districts of Flanders came finally under French rule under successive treaties of [[1659]] (Artois), [[1668]], and [[1678]].
During the late [[Middle Ages]] Flanders' trading towns (notably [[Ghent]] and [[Bruges]]) made it one of the most urbanised parts of Europe, weaving the [[wool]] of neighbouring lands into cloth for both domestic use and export.
Increasingly powerful from the [[12th century]], the territory's autonomous urban [[Medieval commune|communes]] were instrumental in defeating a French attempt at annexation ([[1300]]-[[1302]]), finally defeating the French in the [[Battle of the Golden Spurs]] ([[July 11]], [[1302]]), near [[Kortrijk]]. Two years later, the uprising was defeated and Flanders remained part of the French Crown. Flemish prosperity waned in the following century, however, owing to widespread European population decline following the [[Black Death]] of [[1348]], the disruption of trade during the Anglo-French [[Hundred Years' War]] ([[1338]]-[[1453]]), and increased [[England|English]] cloth production. Flemish weavers had gone over to [[Worstead]] and [[North Walsham]] in [[Norfolk, England|Norfolk]] in the 12th century and established the woollen industry.
===Flanders--as it is now known--in the Low Countries===
{{Main | Low Countries}}
====The Reformation====
[[Martin Luther]]'s [[95 Theses]], published in [[1517]], had a profound effect on the Low Countries. Among the wealthy traders of [[Antwerp]], the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] beliefs of the [[Germany|German]] [[Hanseatic]] traders found appeal, perhaps partly for economic reasons [http://home.versateladsl.be/vt607832/hagepreek.htm#hagepreken in Dutch]. The spread of Protestantism in this city was aided by the presence of an [[Augustinian]] cloister (founded [[1514]]) in the St. Andries quarter. Luther, an Augustinian himself, had taught some of the monks, and his works were in print by [[1518]]. [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] ordered the closing of this cloister around 1525. The first Lutheran martyrs came from Antwerp. The [[reformation]] resulted in consecutive but overlapping waves of reform: a Lutheran, followed by a militant [[Anabaptist]], then a [[Mennonite]], and finally a [[Calvinism|Calvinistic]] movement. These movements existed independently of each other.
The [[Pragmatic Sanction]] of [[1549]], issued by Charles V, established the Low Countries as the [[Seventeen Provinces]] (or [[Spanish Netherlands]] in its broad sense) as an entity separate from the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and from France.
The schism between the southern [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] and northern Calvinists resulted in the [[Union of Atrecht]] and the [[Union of Utrecht]], respectively.
It was the [[iconoclasm]] of [[1566]] (the ''Beeldenstorm'') &ndash; the demolition of statues and paintings depicting saints &ndash; that led to religious war between Catholics and Protestants. The ''Beeldenstorm'' started in what is now [[French Flanders]] with open-air sermons (''hagepreken'') [http://www.mdsk.net/jicono_nl.html in Dutch]. The first took place on the ''Cloostervelt'' near [[Hondschoote]]. The first large sermon was held near [[Boeschepe]] on [[July 12]], [[1562]]. These open-air sermons, mostly of Anabaptist or Mennonite signature, spread through the country. On August 10, [[1566]] at the end of the [[pilgrimage]] from Hondschoote to [[Steenvoorde]], the chapel of the ''Sint-Laurensklooster'' (Cloister of [[Saint Lawrence]]) was defaced by Protestants. The iconoclasm resulted not only in the destruction of Catholic art, but also cost the lives of many priests. It next spread to Antwerp, and on August 22, to Ghent. One cathedral, eight churches, twenty-five cloisters, ten hospitals and seven chapels were attacked. From there, it further spread east and north, but in total lasted not even a month.
Charles' son, King [[Philip II of Spain]], a devout Catholic and self-proclaimed protector of the [[Counter-Reformation]] who was also the duke or earl of each of the Seventeen Provinces, started to crack down on the rising Calvinists in Flanders, [[Brabant]] and [[Holland]]. What is now approximately [[Belgian Limburg]] was part of the [[Bishopric of Liège]] and was catholic ''de facto''. Part of what is now [[Dutch Limburg]] supported the Union of Atrecht, but did not sign it.
====The Eighty Years' War and its consequences====
In [[1568]] the Seventeen that signed the Union of Utrecht started a (counter)rebellion against Philip II: the [[Eighty Years' War]]. Before the Low Countries could be completely reconquered, war between [[England]] and [[Spain]] broke out, forcing the Spanish troops under Philips II to halt their advances. Meanwhile, Philips' Spanish troops had conquered the important trading cities of Bruges and Ghent. Antwerp, which was then arguably the most important port in the world had to be conquered. On August 17, [[1585]], Antwerp fell. This ended the Eighty Years' War for the (from now on) [[Southern Netherlands]]. The [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] (the Netherlands proper) fought on until [[1648]] &ndash; the [[Peace of Westphalia]]. The definite loss of the southern Low Countries caused the rich Calvinist merchants of these cities to flee to the north. Many migrated to [[Amsterdam]], which was at the time a tiny port, but was quickly transformed into one of the most important ports in the world in the 17th century. The exodus can be described as 'creating a new Antwerp'.
This mass immigration from Flanders and Brabant (especially Antwerp) was an important driving force behind the [[Dutch Golden Age]]. While Spain was at war with England, the rebels from the north, strengthened by refugees from the south, started a campaign to reclaim areas lost to Philips II's Spanish troops. They managed to conquer a considerable part of Brabant (the later [[Noord-Brabant]] of the Netherlands), and the south bank of the Scheldt estuary ([[Zeeuws-Vlaanderen]]), before being stopped by Spanish troops. The frontline at the end of this war stabilized and became the current border between present-day Belgium and the Netherlands. The Dutch (as they later became known) had managed to reclaim enough of Spanish king-controlled Flanders to close of the river the [[Scheldt]], effectively closing Antwerp off from a significant trade route. Due to these events, Flanders and Brabant went into a relative decline in the 17th century. From the view of the sophisticated northerners and the present benefit of hindsight, it became a country of peasants and simple but happy folk. The potential to reclaim their wealth and prominent world position remained possible until just recently. Today Flanders is one of the most productive and wealthiest regions of the world.
Although arts remained at an relatively impressive level for another century with [[Peter Paul Rubens]] (1577-1640), Flanders experienced a loss of its former economic and intellectual power under Spanish, Austrian, and French rule, with heavy [[taxation]] and rigid imperial political control compounding the effects of industrial stagnation and Spanish-Dutch and Franco-Austrian conflict.
====1581-1815: The Southern Netherlands====
Conquered by [[French Revolution|revolutionary France]] in [[1794]] and annexed the following year as the ''[[The 130 départements|départements]]'' of [[Lys (département)|Lys]], [[Escaut (département)|Escaut]], [[Deux-Nèthes]], [[Meuse-Inférieure]] and [[Dyle (département)|Dyle]].
The people rose against the French in [[1798]], the ''Boerenkrijg'', with the heaviest fights in the [[Campine]] area. The main reason for this uprising was the forced army service for all men aged 16-25.
{{sectstub}}
====1815-1830: United Kingdom of the Netherlands====
After the defeat of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] at the [[1815]] [[Battle of Waterloo]] in Waterloo, Brabant, sovereignty over the [[Austr |
the [[World Wide Web Consortium]] (W3C) to come up with a series of standard specifications that defined the ''W3C Document Object Model'' (W3C DOM). The W3C specifications are platform and [[programming language|language]] independent. The previous vendor-specific interfaces were dubbed ''intermediate DOMs''.
Using DOM, the document is accessed in a [[tree (data structure)|tree form]] and this is also the [[data structure]] that most XML parsers (e.g., [[Xerces]]) and [[Extensible Stylesheet Language|XSL]] processors (e.g., [[Xalan]]) have been developed to make use of. Such an implementation requires that the entire content of a document be parsed and stored in memory. Hence, DOM is best used for applications where the document elements have to be accessed and manipulated in an unpredictable sequence and repeatedly. If the application involves a sequential or one-time selective read or write per processed document, DOM presents a considerable overhead. The sequential [[Simple API for XML|SAX]] model is advantageous in such a case in terms of speed and memory consumption.
==Levels==
The W3C DOM specifications are divided into levels, each of which contains required and optional modules. To claim to support a level, an application must implement all the requirements of the claimed level and the underlying levels. An application may also support vendor-specific extensions if they don't conflict with the W3C standards. [[As of 2005]], Level 1 and Level 2, and some modules of Level 3 are ''W3C Recommendations'' which means they have reached their final form.
; Level 0 : The application supports an intermediate DOM, which existed before the creation of DOM Level 1. Examples include the ''DHTML Object Model'', which is the intermediate DOM developed by [[Microsoft]], and the unnamed [[Netscape]] intermediate DOM. Level 0 is not a formal specification published by the W3C but rather a shorthand that refers to what existed before the standardization process.
; Level 1 : Navigation of DOM (HTML and XML) document (tree structure) and to manipulate content (includes adding elements). HTML-specific elements are included as well.
; Level 2 : [[XML namespace]] support, filtered views and [[DOM Events|events]].
; Level 3 : Consists of 6 different specifications:
:: 1) DOM Level 3 Core;
:: 2) DOM Level 3 Load and Save;
:: 3) DOM Level 3 XPath;
:: 4) DOM Level 3 Views and Formatting;
:: 5) DOM Level 3 Requirements; and
:: 6) DOM Level 3 Validation, which further enhance the DOM.
==Use in web browsers==
[[Image:DOM Inspector.png|thumb|240px|right|DOM Inspector inspecting Wikipedia's main page]]
Since each web browser used to exclusively support its own intermediate DOM, [[inter-operability]] problems were abundant. In order to be [[cross-browser]] compatible, i.e. support multiple browsers, large parts of [[Dynamic HTML]] code had to be rewritten for each browser to be supported. A common DOM promised to greatly simplify the development of complex web applications.
W3C DOM Level 1 has been a recommendation since [[1 October]], [[1998]]. The standardization effort did not bring forth an immediate change, since non-conformant browsers such as [[Internet Explorer]] 4x and [[Netscape Navigator|Netscape]] 4.x were still widely used in 2000. [[As of 2005]], large parts of W3C DOM are well supported by common JavaScript-enabled web browsers, including Microsoft Internet Explorer (version 5 (1999), ... version 6 (2001)), [[Gecko (layout engine)|Gecko]]-based browsers (like [[Mozilla Application Suite|Mozilla]] and [[Mozilla Firefox|Firefox]]) and [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]]. Web developers are starting to mostly or solely rely on W3C DOM, since it doesn't preclude from reaching a large audience.
The article [[Comparison of layout engines (DOM)]] shows which methods and attributes may be used safely given certain browser requirements.
==Specifications==
*[http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification]
*Level 2 Recommendations:
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Core/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Core Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Views/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Views Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Events/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Events Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Style/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Style Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Traversal-Range/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Traversal and Range Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-HTML/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 HTML Specification]
*Level 3 Recommendations:
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-3-Core/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 3 Core Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-3-LS/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 3 Load and Save Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-3-Val/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 3 Validation Specification]
*Level 3 Working Group Notes:
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-3-XPath/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 3 XPath Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-3-Views/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 3 Views and Formatting Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Requirements/ Document Object Model (DOM) Requirements]
==See also==
*[[DOM Events]]
*[[Simple API for XML|SAX]] - A set of APIs for accessing and manipulating XML documents in a sequential manner.
*[[JDOM]] - A Java-based document object model for XML that integrates with DOM and SAX and uses parsers to build the document.
*[[Comparison of layout engines (DOM)]]
*[[AJAX]] - A methodology employing DOM in combination with techniques for retreiving data without reloading a page.
==External links==
*[http://www.w3.org/DOM/ W3.org on DOM]
*[http://xml.coverpages.org/dom.html Technology Reports]
*[http://xml.com/pub/rg/DOM_Tutorials Tutorials]
*[http://www.w3.org/2003/02/06-dom-support.html What does your user agent claim to support?]
*[http://www.mozilla.org/docs/dom/reference/levels.html What does each DOM Level bring?]
*[http://msdn.microsoft.com/workshop/author/dom/domoverview.asp About the W3C Document Object Model] (MSDN)
*[http://www.quirksmode.org/dom/contents.html W3C DOM scripts and compatibility tables] (Quirksmode)
*[http://mozilla.org/docs/dom/domref/ Gecko DOM Reference]
*[http://developer.kde.org/documentation/library/cvs-api/khtml/html/namespaceDOM.html khtml Library API Documentation]
*Interfaces for ...
**[http://xml.apache.org/xerces-c/program-dom.html C++]
**[http://www.w3.org/2003/01/dom2-javadoc/index.html Java] - W3C Document Object Model Level 2
**[http://interaction.in-progress.com/developer/dom/ Lisp]
**[http://www.philo.de/xml/downloads.shtml Pascal] ([[Kylix]])
**[http://search.cpan.org/~tjmather/XML-DOM-1.43/ Perl]
**[http://www.php.net/manual/en/ref.domxml.php PHP]
**[http://www.python.org/doc/current/lib/module-xml.dom.html Python]
**[http://libgdome-ruby.berlios.de/ Ruby]
**[http://tclxml.sourceforge.net/tcldom.html TCL]
[[Category:W3C standards]]
[[Category:XML-based standards]]
[[Category:Application programming interfaces]]
[[cs:DOM]]
[[de:Document Object Model]]
[[es:Document Object Model]]
[[fa:مدل شیءگرای سند]]
[[fr:Document Object Model]]
[[ko:문서 객체 모델]]
[[it:Document Object Model]]
[[he:DOM]]
[[nl:Document Object Model]]
[[ja:Document Object Model]]
[[pl:Obiektowy model dokumentu]]
[[pt:Modelo de Objeto de Documentos]]
[[fi:DOM]]
[[sv:Document Object Model]]
[[vi:DOM]]
[[zh:文档对象模型]]
[[ru:DOM]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Design pattern</title>
<id>8745</id>
<revision>
<id>40969858</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T04:42:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Skorpion87</username>
<id>959679</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Design pattern''' has a similar meaning in several contexts:
* [[Design pattern (architecture)]], a way of capturing and communicating design ideas in architecture
* [[Design pattern (computer science)]], a standard solution to common problems in software design
* ''[[Design Patterns]]'', the book that gave rise to the study of design patterns in computer science
* [[Pedagogical patterns]], best practices in teaching
{{disambig}}
[[lt:Projektavimo pavyzdys]]
[[vi:Mẫu thiết kế]]
[[fi:Suunnittelumalli]]
[[zh:设计模式]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dimethyltryptamine</title>
<id>8748</id>
<revision>
<id>40799055</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T02:19:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.230.231.127</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. -->
{| style="margin-left:1em; margin-bottom:0.5em" border="1" cellpadding="2" align="right"
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#cccccc" align="center" | '''Dimethyltryptamine (DMT)'''
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| align="center" | 2-(1''H''-indol-3-yl)-<br />''N,N''-dimethylethanamine
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>16</sub>N<sub>2</sub>
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 188.27 g/mol
|-
| [[Density]]
| 1.099 g/ml
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| 49 °C and 74 °C<br />(two different crystal structures)
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| 160 °C at 0.8 hPa<br />(reduced pressure)
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 61-50-7
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| CN(C)CCC1=CNC2=C1C=CC=C2
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" | [[Image:DMT.png|Chemical structure of dimethyltryptamine]]
|}
<!-- Tables End Here -->
'''Dimethyltryptamine''', also known as '''DMT''' and '''''N,N''-dimethyltryptamine''', not to be confused with [[5-MeO-DMT]], is a [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants | hallucinogenic]] [[tryptamine]], similar in structure to the |
re of specific "regional" accents is often difficult to predict.
===Modern issues===
There is some debate in today's France about the preservation of the French language and the influence of English (see [[franglais]]), especially with regard to international business, the sciences and popular culture. There have been laws (see [[Toubon law]]) enacted which require that all print ads and billboards with foreign expressions include a French translation and which require quotas of French-language songs (at least 40%) on the radio. There is also pressure, in differing degrees, from some regions as well as minority political or cultural groups for a measure of recognition and support for their [[regional language]]s.
== Geographic distribution==
[[Image:Map-Francophone World.png|thumb|300px|right|Dark blue: French-speaking; blue: official language; Light blue: language of culture; green: minority]]
[[La Francophonie]] is an international organization of French-speaking countries and governments.
===Legal status in France===
Per the [[Constitution of France]], French is the official language of the Republic since 1992 [http://www.languefrancaise.net/dossiers/dossiers.php?id_dossier=50].
[[France]] mandates the use of French in official government publications, public [[education]] outside of specific cases (though these dispositions are often ignored) and legal [[contract]]s; [[advertisement]]s must bear a translation of foreign words. ''See [[Toubon Law]]''.
Contrary to a [[Urban myth|misunderstanding]] common in the [[United States|American]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] [[mass media|media]], France does not prohibit the use of foreign words in [[Web page|websites]] or any other private publication, which would anyway contradict [[constitutional]] guarantees on [[freedom of speech]]. The misunderstanding may have arisen from a similar prohibition in the Canadian province of [[Quebec]] which made strict application of the [[Charter of the French Language]] between 1977 and 1993, although these regulations addressed language used in advertising and the provision of commercial services offered within the province, not the language of private communication.
There exist in addition to French a variety of languages spoken in France by minorities; see [[Languages of France]].
===Legal status in Canada===
About 12% of the world's francophones are Canadian, and French is one of [[Canada]]'s two official languages, with English; various provisions of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] deal with the right of Canadians to access services in English and French all across Canada. By [[law]], the federal government must operate and provide services in both English and French; proceedings of the [[Parliament of Canada]] must be translated into both English and French; and all Canadian products must be labelled in both English and French. Overall about 22% of Canadians speak French as a first language and 18% are bilingual.
French has been the only official language of [[Quebec]] since [[1974]], although it is commonly (and incorrectly) believed that the designation of French as the sole official language occurred in [[1977]] with the adoption of the [[Charter of the French Language]] (which is popularly referred to as ''Bill 101''). By far the provision of Bill 101 with the most significant impact has been that which mandates French-language [[education]], unless a child's parents or siblings have received the major part of their own education in English within Canada. That provision has reversed a historical trend whereby a large number of immigrant children were being sent to English schools by their parents. In so doing, Bill 101 has greatly contributed to the "visage français" (French face) of Quebec. Other provisions of Bill 101, on the other hand, have been ruled unconstitutional over the years, including those mandating French-only commercial signs, court proceedings, and debates in the legislature. Some of those provisions have remained in effect, for a while, using the constitutional "notwithstanding" clause that permits a non-compliant law to temporarily remain. (No "notwithstanding provision" is currently in effect). In 1993 the Charter was changed to allow signage in other languages so long as French is markedly "predominant". The Charter also provides for a measure of access by Anglophones to health and social services in their own language.
The only other province which has French as an official language is [[New Brunswick]]. The highest number of Francophones in [[North America]], outside [[Quebec]], reside in [[Ontario]] whereas [[New Brunswick]] has the highest percentage of Francophones after [[Quebec]]. In [[Ontario]], [[Nova Scotia]] and [[Manitoba]], French does not have full official status, although the provincial governments do provide full French-language services in all communities where significant numbers of francophones live. Canada's capital city, Ottawa, [[Ontario]] is recognized by the government of [[Ontario]] as being officially bilingual. Sudbury and Cornwall are also officially bilingual cities in the north and east of the province, respectively. Throughout [[Ontario]], the French Language Services Act, adopted in 1986, guarantees French language services where the Francophone population represents greater than 5%, especially in the north and east of the province, as well as in the other larger centres, apart from Ottawa, such as Toronto, Hamilton, Mississauga, London, Kitchener, St. Catharine's-Niagara and Windsor. A similar law came into effect in [[Nova Scotia]] in 2005. After having had the status of an Observer at the last meeting of the [[Francophonie]], [[Ontario]] is now joining this organization as a full Member along with Canada, [[Quebec]] and [[New Brunswick]].
All of the other provinces do make some effort to accommodate the needs of their francophone [[citizen]]s, although the level and quality of French-language service varies significantly from province to province.
=== Legal status in other countries ===
French is an official language in [[Switzerland]]. It is spoken in the part of Switzerland called ''[[Romandy]]''. It is an official language in Belgium and is spoken in the part of the country called Wallonie and in the capital, Brussels (Bruxelles). It is also an Official Language, along with Italian, in [[Val d'Aoste]], [[Italy]]. It is the official language of the principality of [[Monaco]]. It is the official or administrative language of many African countries (such as Ivory Coast, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Senegal) and of a few Asian countries (such as Laos).
===Regional Varieties===
: ''See [[Dialects of the French language]]''
*[[Acadian French]]
*[[African French]]
*[[Français d'Aoste]]
*[[Belgian French]]
*[[Cajun French]]
*[[Canadian French]]
*[[Cambodian French]]
*[[Greater Paris French]] (''le francilien'')
*[[Français-germanique]]
*[[Indian French]]
*[[Jersey Legal French]]
*[[Lao French]]
*[[Levantine French]]
*[[Maghreb French]]
*[[Français Méridional]]
*[[Caldoche|New Caledonian French]]
*[[Newfoundland French]]
*[[North American French]]
*[[Oceanic French]]
*[[Quebec French]]
*[[South East Asian French]]
*[[Swiss French]]
*[[Vietnamese French (dialect)|Vietnamese French]]
*[[West Indian French]]
===Derived languages===
*[[Antillean Creole]]
*[[Haitian Creole]]
*[[Lanc-Patuá]]
*[[Mauritian Creole]]
*[[Michif]]
*[[Kreyol Lwiziyen|Louisiana Creole French]]
*[[Réunionese Creole]]
*[[Seychellois Creole]]
*[[Tay Boi]]
==Sound system==
:''Main article: [[French phonology and orthography]]''
{{IPA notice}}
French pronunciation follows strict rules based on spelling, but French spelling is often based more on history than phonology. The rules for pronunciation vary between dialects, but the standard rules are:
* ''liaison'' or linking: Final single consonants, in particular s, x, z, t, d, n and m, are normally silent. (The final letters 'c', 'r', 'f', and 'l' however are normally pronounced.) When the following word begins with a vowel, though, a silent consonant ''may'' once again be pronounced, to provide a "link" between the two words and avoid a [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]]. Some liaisons are ''mandatory'', for example the ''s'' in ''les amants'' or ''vous avez''; some are ''optional'', depending on [[dialect]] and [[register (linguistics)|register]], for example the first ''s'' in ''deux cents euros'' or ''euros irlandais''; and some are ''forbidden'', for example the ''s'' in ''beaucoup d'hommes aiment''. The ''t'' of ''et'' is never pronounced and the silent final consonant of a noun is only pronounced in the plural and in set phrases like ''pied-à-terre''. Doubling a final consonant and adding a silent ''e'' at the end of a word (e.g. ''Parisien'' → ''Parisienne'') makes it clearly pronounced, always.
* [[elision]] or vowel dropping: Monosyllabic pronouns and conjuctions ending in an ''a'' or a silent ''e'', such as ''je'' and ''que'', drop their final vowel when placed before a word that begins with a vowel sound. The missing vowel is replaced by an apostrophe. (e.g. ''je ai'' is instead pronounced and spelt → ''j'ai''). This gives for example the same pronunciation for "l'homme qu'il a vu" ("the man whom he saw") and "l'homme qui l'a vu" ("the man who saw him").
* [[nasal]] "[[n]]" and "[[m]]". When "n" or "m" follows a vowel or dipthong, the "n" or "m" becomes silent and causes the preceding vowel to become nasalized (i.e. pronounced with the soft palate extended downward so as to allow part of the air to leave through the nostrils). Exceptions are when the "n" or "m" is doubled, or immediately followed by a non-silent vowel. The prefixes ''en-'' and ''em-'' are always nasalized. The rules get more complex than |
5-MHz shared channel as the original IS-95 standard. A related scheme called 3xRTT uses three 1.25-MHz carriers for a 3.75-MHz bandwidth that would allow higher data burst rates for an individual user, but the 3xRTT scheme has not been commercially deployed. More recently, QUALCOMM has led the creation of a new CDMA-based technology called [[Evolution-Data Optimized|1xEV-DO]], or IS-856, which provides the higher packet data transmission rates required by IMT-2000 and desired by wireless network operators.
The QUALCOMM CDMA system includes highly accurate time signals (usually referenced to a GPS receiver in the cell base station), so cell phone CDMA-based clocks are an increasingly popular type of [[radio clock]] for use in computer networks. The main advantage of using CDMA cell phone signals for reference clock purposes is that they work better inside buildings, thus often eliminating the need to mount a GPS antenna on the outside of a building.
Also frequently confused with CDMA is [[W-CDMA]]. The CDMA technique is used as the principle of the [[W-CDMA]] air interface, and the [[W-CDMA]] air interface is used in the global 3G standard [[UMTS]] and the Japanese 3G standard [[FOMA]], by [[NTT DoCoMo]] and [[Vodafone]]; however, the CDMA family of standards (including [[IS-95|cdmaOne]] and [[CDMA2000]]) are not compatible with the W-CDMA family of standards.
Another important application of CDMA—predating and entirely distinct from CDMA cellular—is the Global Positioning System, [[GPS]].
===Coverage===
As CDMA is newer than GSM, it may not be available in some parts of the world. However, as the signal can be transmitted over greater distances, it may give reception in more remote or rural areas where a GSM phone does not pick up a signal.
''See also '''Market situation''' section of [[GSM]]''
==Technical details==
=== Mathematical foundation ===
CDMA exploits at its core mathematical properties of [[orthogonality]]. Suppose we represent data signals as [[coordinate vector|vector]]s. For example, the binary string "1011" would be represented by the vector (1, 0, 1, 1). We may wish to give a vector a name, we may do so by using boldface letters, eg '''a'''. We also use an operation on vectors, known as the [[dot product]], to "multiply" vectors, by summing the product of the components. For example, the dot product of (1, 0, 1, 1) and (1, -1, -1, 0) would be (1)(1)+(0)(-1)+(1)(-1)+(1)(0)=1+-1=0. Where the dot product of vectors '''a''' and '''b''' is 0, we say that the two vectors are ''orthogonal''.
The dot product has a number of properties, and one will aid us in understanding why CDMA works. For vectors '''a''', '''b''', '''c''':
:<math>\mathbf{a}\cdot(\mathbf{b}+\mathbf{c})=\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b}+\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{c},\quad\mathrm{and}</math>
:<math>\mathbf{a}\cdot k\mathbf{b}=k(\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b}).</math>
The square root of '''a'''.'''a''' is a real number, and is important. We write
:<math>||\mathbf{a}||=\sqrt{\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{a}}.</math>
Suppose vectors ''a'' and ''b'' are orthogonal. Then:
:<math>\mathbf{a}\cdot(\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{b})=||\mathbf{a}||^2\quad\mathrm{since}\quad\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b}= ||a||^2+0,</math>
:<math>\mathbf{a}\cdot(-\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{b})=-||\mathbf{a}||^2\quad\mathrm{since}\quad-\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b}= -||a||^2+0,</math>
:<math>\mathbf{b}\cdot(\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{b})=||\mathbf{b}||^2\quad\mathrm{since}\quad\mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{b}= 0+||b||^2,</math>
:<math>\mathbf{b}\cdot(\mathbf{a}-\mathbf{b})=-||\mathbf{b}||^2\quad\mathrm{since}\quad\mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{a}-\mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{b}=0 -||b||^2.</math>
=== Implementation ===
[[Image:Cdma_orthogonal_signals.png|thumb|250px|right|An example of 4 orthogonal digital signals.]]
Suppose now we have a set of vectors that are mutually orthogonal to each other. Usually these vectors are specially constructed for ease of decoding -- they are columns or rows from [[Walsh matrix|Walsh matrices]] that are constructed from [[Walsh function]]s -- but strictly mathematically the only restriction on these vectors is that they are orthogonal. An example of orthogonal functions is shown in the picture on the right. Now, associate with one sender a vector from this set, say '''v''', which is called the ''[[chip]] code''. Associate a zero digit with the vector -'''v''', and a one digit with the vector '''v'''. For example, if '''v'''=(1,-1), then the binary vector (1, 0, 1, 1) would correspond to (1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1,-1). For the purposes of this article, we call this constructed vector the ''transmitted vector''.
Each sender has a different, unique vector chosen from that set, but the construction of the transmitted vector is identical.
Now, the physical properties of interference say that if two signals at a point are in phase, they will "add up" to give twice the amplitude of each signal, but if they are out of phase, they will "subtract" and give a signal that is the difference of the amplitudes. Digitally, this behaviour can be modelled simply by the addition of the transmission vectors, componentwise. So, if we have two senders, both sending simultaneously, one with the chip code (1, -1) and data vector (1, 0, 1, 1), and another with the chip code (1, 1), and data vector (0,0,1,1), the raw signal received would be the sum of the transmission vectors
(1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1,-1)+(-1,-1,-1,-1,1,1,1,1)=(0,-2,-2,0,2,0,2,0).
Suppose a receiver gets such a signal, and wants to detect what the transmitter with chip code (1, -1) is sending. The receiver will make use of the property described in the above foundation section, and take the dot product to the received vector in parts. Take the first two components of the received vector, that is, (0, -2). Now, (0, -2).(1, -1) = (0)(1)+(-2)(-1) = 2. Since this is positive, we can deduce that a one digit was sent. Taking the next two components, (-2, 0), (-2, 0).(1,-1)=(-2)(1)+(0)(-1)=-2. Since this is negative, we can deduce that a zero digit was sent. Continuing in this fashion, we can successfully decode what the transmitter with chip code (1, -1) was sending: (1, 0, 1, 1).
Likewise, applying the same process with chip code (1, 1): (1, 1).(0,-2) = -2 gives digit 0, (1, 1).(-2,0)=(1)(-2)+(1)(0)=-2 gives digit 0, and so on, to give us the data vector sent by the transmitter with chip code (1, 1): (0, 0, 1, 1).
Now, there are certain issues where this mathematical process can be disrupted. Suppose that one sender transmits at a higher signal strength than another. Then the critical orthogonality property can be disrupted, and thus the system can fail. Thus controlling power strength is an important issue with CDMA transmitters. A TDMA or FDMA receiver can in theory completely reject arbitrarily strong signals on other time slots or frequency channels. This is not true for CDMA; rejection of unwanted signals is only partial. If any or all of the unwanted signals are much stronger than the desired signal, they will overwhelm it. This leads to a general requirement in any CDMA system to approximately match the various signal power levels as seen at the receiver. In CDMA cellular, the base station uses a fast closed-loop power control scheme to tightly control each mobile's transmit power.
Suppose that noise present in a channel takes a zero bit to some other value. Then this will also disrupt the orthogonality property, and thus adding an extra level of [[forward error correction]] (FEC) coding is also vital.
So far, we have assumed that CDMA timing is absolutely exact, that is, transmitters exactly transmit at points in multiples of the length of the chip sequence. Of course, in reality, this is impractical to achieve, so all forms of CDMA use [[spread spectrum]] [[process gain]] to allow receivers to partially discriminate against unwanted signals. Signals with the desired chip code and timing are received, while signals with different chip codes (or the same spreading code but a different timing offset) appear as wideband noise reduced by the process gain.
CDMA's main advantage over TDMA and FDMA is that the number of available CDMA codes is essentially infinite. This makes CDMA ideally suited to large numbers of transmitters each generating a relatively small amount of traffic at irregular intervals, as it avoids the overhead of continually allocating and deallocating a limited number of [[orthogonal]] time slots or frequency channels to individual transmitters. CDMA transmitters simply send when they have something to say, and go off the air when they don't.
=== Soft Handoff ===
Soft handoff (or soft handover) is an innovation in mobility which was only possible with CDMA technology. It refers to the technique of moving from one cell to another without dropping the radio link at any time.
In TDMA and analog systems, each cell transmits on its own frequency, different from those of its neighbouring cells. If a mobile device reaches the edge of the cell currently serving its call, it is told to break its radio link and quickly tune to the frequency of one of the neighbouring cells where the call has been moved by the network due to the mobile's movement. If the mobile is unable to tune to the new frequency in time the call is dropped.
In CDMA, a set of neighbouring cells all use the same frequency for transmission and distinguish cells (or base stations) by means of a number called the "PN offset", a time offset from the beginning of the well-known pseudo-random noise sequence that is used to spread the signal from the base station. Because all of the cells are on the same frequency, listening to different base stations is now an exercise in digital signal processing based on offsets from the PN sequence, not RF transmission and reception based o |
he painted portraits of some of the nobility, including the [[William I of the Netherlands|Prince of Nassau]].
[[Image:MA-Lebrun.jpg|left|thumb|''Portrait of [[Marie-Antoinette]]'', 1783]]
On [[May 31]], [[1783]], Vigée-Lebrun was accepted as a member of France's ''Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture'' as a painter of historical allegory. [[Adelaide Labille-Guiard]] was also admitted on the same day. The admission of Vigée-Lebrun was opposed by the men in charge on the grounds that her husband was an art dealer, but eventually they were overruled by an order from [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] after Marie-Antoinette put considerable pressure on her husband on behalf of her painter. The admission of more than one woman on the same day encouraged comparisons between the women instead of between one woman and the men members.
After the arrest of the royal family during the [[French Revolution]] Vigée-Lebrun fled France and lived and worked for some years in [[Italy]], [[Austria]], and [[Russia]], where her experience in dealing with an aristocratic clientele was still useful. In [[Rome]], her paintings met with great critical acclaim and she was elected to the Roman ''Accademia di San Luca''. In Russia, she was received by the nobility and painted numerous members of [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine the Great's]] family. While there, Vigée-Lebrun was made a member of the ''Academy of Fine Arts of St. Petersburg''.
She was welcomed back to France during the reign of Emperor [[Napoleon I]]. Much in demand by the elite of [[Europe]], she visited [[England]] at the beginning of the 19th century and painted the portrait of several British notables including [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]]. In 1807 she traveled to [[Switzerland]] and was made an honorary member of the ''Societe pour l'Avancement des Beaux-Arts'' of [[Geneva]].
She published her memoirs in [[1835]] and [[1837]], which provide an interesting view of the training of artists at the end of the period dominated by royal academies.
[[Image:Lebrun, Self-portrait.jpg|thumb|200px|''Self-portrait'', painted at [[Florence]] in 1790.]]
Still very active with her painting, in her fifties, she purchased a house in [[Louveciennes]], [[Île-de-France (région)|Île-de-France]], and lived there until the house was seized by the [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]] Army during the war in 1814. She stayed in Paris until her death on [[March 30]], [[1842]] when her body was taken back to Louveciennes and buried in the cemetery near her old home.
Her tombstone [[epitaph]] states "''Ici, enfin, je repose&hellip;''" (Here, at last, I rest&hellip;).
Vigée-Lebrun is considered the most important female artist of the [[18th century]]. She left behind 660 portraits and 200 landscapes. In addition to private collections, her works can be found at major museums in [[Europe]] and the [[United States]].
{{commons|Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun}}
==References==
*{{1911}}
*Lebrun, ''Souvenirs'', Paris, 1835&ndash;1837 (translated by Lionel Strachey, New York, 1903).
==Related Links==
[[Women Artists]]
==External links==
* [http://www.batguano.com/Vigeeartpages.html Large gallery of Vigée-Lebrun's work]
* [http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/vigee-lebrun_marie_louise_elisabeth.html Artcyclopedia entry on Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun]
* Vigée-Lebrun's ''[http://www.artnet.com/artwork/129425/_Marie_Louise_Elisabeth_Vigee-Lebrun_Portrait_of_Carlo_Gastone_della_Torre_di_Rezzonico.html Portrait of Carlo Gastone della Torre di Rezzonico]'' at [http://www.artnet.com/ artnet]
*[http://www.gadflyonline.com/01-14-02/ftr-women.html Old Masters: Overlooked Women Artists]
*[http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/lebrun/memoirs/memoirs.html ''Memoirs of Madame Vigée-Lebrun'', translated by Lionel Strachey]
[[Category:1755 births|Vigée-Lebrun, Marie Élisabeth Louise]]
[[Category:1842 deaths|Vigée-Lebrun, Marie Élisabeth Louise]]
[[Category:French painters|Vigée-Lebrun, Marie Élisabeth Louise]]
[[Category:Portrait artists|Vigée-Lebrun, Marie Élisabeth Louise]]
[[Category:Women in art|Vigée-Lebrun, Marie Élisabeth Louise]]
[[de:Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun]]
[[fr:Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun]]
[[nl:Élisabeth Vigée-Le Brun]]
[[pl:Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Epistle to Galatians</title>
<id>9949</id>
<revision>
<id>40304389</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T18:00:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''Epistle to Galatians''' is a book of the [[New Testament]]. It is a letter from [[Paul of Tarsus]] to some Christian early communities in the Roman province of [[Galatia]] in central [[Anatolia]]. It is principally concerned with the controversy surrounding Gentile Christians and the Jewish Law within early Christianity. Along with the [[Epistle to the Romans]], it is the most theologically significant of the [[Pauline epistles]], and has been particularly influential in [[Protestant]] thought.
==Galatia==
Paul's letter is addressed "to the churches in [[Galatia]]" ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%201:2;&version=31; 1:2]), but location of these churches is a matter of debate. A minority of scholars have argued that the "Galatia" is an ethnic reference to a [[Celt]]ic people living in northern [[Asia Minor]], but perhaps the majority opinion is that it is a geographical reference to the Roman province in central Asia Minor, which had been settled by immigrant Celts in the 270s BC and retained Gaulish features of culture and language in Paul's day. [[Acts of the Apostles]] records Paul travelling to the "region of Galatia and [[Phrygia]]", which lay immediately west of Galatia.
== Historical Background ==
The churches of [[Galatia]] were founded by Paul himself (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2016:6;&version=31; 16:6]; Gal [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%201:8;&version=31; 1:8]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%204:13;&version=31; 4:13], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%204:19;&version=31; 4:19]). They seem to have been composed mainly of converts from paganism ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%204:8;&version=31; 4:8]). After Paul's departure the churches were visited by individuals whom Paul regarded as troublemakers preaching a "different gospel" from that preached by Paul ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%201:6-9;&version=31; 1:6&ndash;9]). The Galatians appear to have been receptive to the teaching of these newcomers, and the epistle is Paul's angry response to what he sees as their willingness to turn from his teaching.
The identity of these "opponents" is disputed. We do not have a record of their activity, but are left to reconstruct it from Paul's response. However, the majority of modern scholars view them as "Jewish Christians" (i.e. [[Judaizer]]s), who taught that in order for pagans to belong to the people of God, they must be subject to some or all of the Jewish Law. The letter indicates controversy concerning circumcision, Sabbath observance, and the Mosaic Law. It would appear, from Paul's response, that they cited the example of [[Abraham]], who was circumcised as a mark of receiving the covenant blessings. They certainly appear to have questioned Paul's authority as an apostle, perhaps appealing to the greater authority of the Jerusalem church governed by [[James the Just]].
It appears the teachers made some headway among Paul's converts. Sociological research has suggested that converts from dominant paganism may have suffered a "loss of identity", and found the clarity offered by a Jewish identity and a law-observant lifestyle attractive.
Paul responds angrily. He reminds the Galatians of the "law-free" gospel he has preached to them. He rehearses his conversion and apostolic credentials, records his relationship with the Jerusalem Church, and engages in a halakahic argument over the interpretation of the Abraham story.
==Authenticity==
:: '' Main article: [[Authorship of the Pauline Epistles]] ''
Although [[Ferdinand Christian Baur]], one of the earliest critical scholars, argued that Paul did not write Galatians, critical scholarship by the end of the 19th century was in agreement that Paul had written this letter. Today, virtually all scholars agree that Galatians is one of the most certain examples of Paul's writing.
The main arguments in favor of the authenticity of Galatians included its style and themes, which are common to the core letters of the Pauline corpus, and the historical connection to Acts of the Apostles. Moreover, Paul's description of the meeting in [[Jerusalem]] (Gal [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%202:1-10;&version=31; 2:1&ndash;10]) gives a different point of view than the description in Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2015:2-29;&version=31; 15:2&ndash;29], whereas a forger writing in later decades would most likely have stuck close to the account in Acts to convince his audience that this was an authentic writing by Paul.
The central dispute in the letter concerns the question of how Gentiles could convert to Christianity, which shows that this letter was written at a very early stage in church history, when the vast majority of Christians were Jewish. This puts it during the lifetime of Paul himself.
There is no hint in the letter of a developed organization within the Christian community at large.
==Date and audience==
There are two main theories about when Galatians was written and to whom. The North Galatian |
city organization began in when Colorado Springs became partners with Fujiyoshida. The ''torii'' gate erected to commemorate the relationship stands at the corner of Bijou Street and Nevada Avenue, and is one of the city's most recognizable landmarks. The ''torii'' gate, crisscrossed bridge and shrine, located in the median between Platte and Bijou Streets in downtown Colorado Springs, were a gift to Colorado Springs, erected in [[1966]] as a token of friendship between the two communities. A plaque near the ''torii'' gate states that "the purpose of the sister city relationship is to promote understanding between the people of our two countries and cities". The Fujiyoshida Student exchange program has become an annual event.
==See also==
*[[Keith Lockhart]], former conductor of the Pikes Peak Symphony
*[[Try Redemption]], a local Colorado Springs [[death metal]] band
*The [[Broadmoor Hotel]], a 5-star hotel and resort in SW Colorado Springs
== Sources/external links ==
* [http://www.colorado.gov/dpa/doit/archives/cap/locate.htm Early Capitol and Legislative Assembly Locations]
* [http://ghostdepot.com/rg/mainline/royal%20gorge%20route/colorado%20springs.htm Denver & /Rio Grande/Colorado Springs, CO]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20040829074504/www.antlers.com/indexenter.html The Antlers Hotel/history: where Katherine Lee Bates penned America the Beautiful] (click on "History" on the top left hand corner of index to access page)
* [http://www.springsgov.com/ City of Colorado Springs government site] also at [http://www.ci.colospgs.co.us/]
* [https://www.cheyennemountain.af.mil/ Cheyenne Mountain Operations Center]
* [http://www.carson.army.mil/ Fort Carson]
* [http://www.peterson.af.mil/ Peterson Air Force Base]
* [http://www.schriever.af.mil/ Schriever Air Force Base]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|38.863443|-104.791914}}
* [http://nationalatlas.gov/fedlands/ak.pdf Federal Lands mapping system]
* [http://history.oldcolo.com/history/genhist/genhist.html#GENHIST Colorado City Historical Society] See especially "early history" and "mining"
* [http://www.cmzoo.org/shrine.html/ Will Rogers Shrine Of The Sun] Read about the Penroses
{{Colorado}}
[[Category:Cities in Colorado]]
[[Category:Colorado Springs, Colorado| ]]
[[Category:El Paso County, Colorado]]
[[de:Colorado Springs]]
[[es:Colorado Springs]]
[[fr:Colorado Springs]]
[[ja:コロラド・スプリングス (コロラド州)]]
[[fi:Colorado Springs]]
[[pl:Colorado Springs]]
[[sv:Colorado Springs]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Professional certification</title>
<id>6251</id>
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<id>41636667</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:19:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rfrisbie</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ added subcat-related topic article to main cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''professional certification''', '''trade certification''', or '''professional designation''' often called simply '''certification''' or '''qualification''' is a designation earned by a person to certify that he is qualified to perform a job. Certification indicates that the individual has a specific knowledge, skills, or abilities in the view of the certifying body. Professional certifications are awarded by [[professional bodies]] and [[corporations]]. The difference between [[licensure]] and certification is licensure is required by law, whereas certification is generally voluntary. Sometimes the word ''certification'' is used for ''licensure''.
People become certified through training and/or passing an [[exam]]. Individuals often advertise their status by appending the certification abbreviation to their name (e.g. "Jane Doe, RHCE"). Strictly speaking, most certifications do not grant post-nominals and it is usually the professional certifications that do.
Certifications may be perpetual, may need to be renewed periodically, or may be valid for a specific period of time (e.g. the life-time of the product upon which the individual is certified). Although it is more common in regard to licensure, sometimes as part or whole of the renewal of an individual's certification, the individual must show evidence of continual learning &mdash; often termed [[continuing education]] &mdash; or earning [[continuing education unit]]s (CEU).
Certifications are offered through a '''certification body'''. This is usually a business organization, and sometimes a [[professional body]]. Sometimes, the organization's business is directly related to the certification, as in a software firm that certifies individuals as competent to use its products. In other cases, an organization (often a not-for-profit organization) exists wholly, or in large part, to offer a particular certification. Whatever its nature, the certifying body determines the policies of the '''certification program'''. Potential consumers of a certification wish to understand the nature of the certifying body and the certification process. An individual who bears a designation but appears unable to perform competently is said to be a [[paper tiger]] because their resume suggests that they are more effective than they actually are.
Certifications are very common in [[industry]], and in particular the [[computer]] industry. The [[National Organization for Competency Assurance]] ([[NOCA]]) is a US-based organization which helps certification bodies by providing with information on the latest trends and issues of concern to practitioners and organizations focused on certification, licensure, and human resource development.
Many members of the [[Association of Test Publishers]] (ATP) are certification bodies.
==Certification in the computer industry==
Certification is often used in the professions of [[software engineering]] and [[information technology]]; however, it is a contentious issue. Some see it as a tool to improve professional practice; others point out that very few traditional engineers bother with any form of certification.
The most successful certification programs are oriented toward specific technologies, and are managed by the vendors of these technologies. These certification programs are tailored to the institutions that would employ people who use these technologies.
* [[Microsoft Corporation]] sponsors the [[Microsoft Certified Professional]] program
* [[Sun Microsystems]] sponsors the [[Sun Certified Professional]] program
* [[IBM]] sponsors certifications [http://www.ibm.com/certify]
* [[Cisco Systems]] sponsors the [[Cisco Career Certifications]] program
* [[Red Hat]] sponsors the [[Red Hat Certification Program]]
* [[Object Management Group]] sponsors the Certified UML Professional program
* [[MySQL]] sponsors a certification program [http://www.mysql.com/certification/]
* [[Novell]] sponsors a certification program
* [[Oracle Corporation]] sponsers the [[Oracle Certification Program]]
* [[Citrix Systems]] sponsors the Citrix Certified Administrator program
Third-party commercial organizations that sponser certifications include:
* [[CompTIA]]
* [[Linux Professional Institute]]
* [[European Computer Driving Licence]] (also called International Computer Driving Licence)
* [[Brainbench]]
* [[SAGE (organization)]] sponsers the cSAGE program
General certification of software practitioners has struggled. The [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] had a professional certification program in the early 1980s, which was discontinued due to lack of interest. Today, the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|IEEE]] is certifying software professionals, but only about 500 people have passed the exam [[As of 2005|by March 2005]].
* The [[IEEE Computer Society]] sponsors the [[Certified Software Development Professional]]
* The [[Institute for the Certification of Computing Professionals]] sponsors the Certified Computing Professional (CCP) and Associate Computing Professional (ACP) certifications
===Information Systems Security Certification===
In an [[information systems]] environment that requires formal security [[Accreditation|accreditation]]. Certification refers to the comprehensive evaluation of the technical and non-technical security features of an information system.
Certification is formally defined by Krutz and Vines as:
''The comprehensive evaluation of the technical and non-technical security features of an information system and the other safeguards, with are created in support of the accreditation proces to establish the extent to which a particular design and implementation meets the set of specified security requirments.''
===Criticisms===
The [[exponential growth]] in the number of computer-related certifications coupled with the relative ease of their acquisition has led to their devaluation in the eyes of many people in the technology field. Exam content is sometimes available on the Internet allowing them to gain certification without knowing or understanding the content. Certifying agencies have responded in various ways. Some certification tests have incorporated hands-on testing, although there is no evidence that this reduces [[cheating]] or improves [[reliability]] or [[validity]]. Many have explored anti-cheating methodologies or expanded their exam content. Others have simply raised the price of certification, in a bid to reduce exam resits (and increase the profit margin per head).
==Certifications in the legal profession==
An increasing number of [[lawyer]]s are choosing to be recognized as having special knowledge and experience by becoming certified specialists in certain fields of law. According to the [[American Bar Association]], a lawyer who is a certified specialist has been recognized by an independent professional certifying organization as having an enhanced level of skill and expertise, as well as substantial involvement in an established legal specialty. Thes |
ive|ɟ]]}}
| align="center"| [[Voiceless velar plosive|k]] [[Voiced velar plosive|g]]
|-
| [[nasal consonant|'''Nasal''']]
| align="center"| [[Bilabial nasal|m]]
| align="center"| {{IPA|[[Labiodental nasal|ɱ]]}}
| align="center"|
| align="center"| [[Alveolar nasal|n]]
| align="center"| {{IPA|[[Palatal nasal|ɲ]]}}
| align="center"| {{IPA|[[Velar nasal|ŋ]]}}
|-
| [[trill consonant|'''Trill''']]
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
| align="center"| {{IPA|[[Alveolar trill|r]]}}
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
|-
| [[fricative consonant|'''Fricative''']]
| align="center"|
| align="center"| [[Voiceless labiodental fricative|f]] [[Voiced labiodental fricative|v]]
| align="center"| {{IPA|[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]] [[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]}}
| align="center"| [[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] [[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]
| align="center"| {{IPA|[[Voiceless palatal fricative|ç]] [[Voiced palatal fricative|ʝ]]}}
| align="center"| [[Voiceless velar fricative|x]] {{IPA|[[Voiced velar fricative|ɣ]]}}
|-
| [[affricate consonant|'''Affricate''']]
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
| align="center"| {{IPA|[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ʦ]] [[Voiced alveolar affricate|ʣ]]}}
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
|-
| [[Approximant|'''Approximant''']]
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
| align="center"| [[Palatal approximant|j]]
| align="center"|
|-
| [[Lateral approximant|'''Lateral approximant''']]
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
| align="center"|
| align="center"| [[Lateral alveolar approximant|l]]
| align="center"| {{IPA|[[Lateral palatal approximant|ʎ]]}}
| align="center"|
|}
Greek /p/, /t/ and /k/ are not [[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] as they are in English. They tend to be voiced to /b/, /d/ and /g/ in Cretan and Cypriot dialects. The letter <ρ> is generally pronounced /r/, but tends to be pronounced {{IPA|/ɾ/}} in intervocalic position.
Standard Modern Greek does not have double consonants within words, although some dialects (notably Cypriot) do.
===Sandhi rules===
Greek has certain [[sandhi]] rules, some represented in the orthography, some not.
/n/ before bilabials and [[Velar consonant|velars]] becomes /m/ and /{{IPA|[[Velar nasal|ŋ]]}}/ respectively, and is written <μ> (συμπάθεια, "sympathy") and <γ> (συγκρητισμός, "syncretism"). Before the labiodental fricatives <φ> and <β>, it is also written <μ>, but pronounced /{{IPA|[[Labiodental nasal|ɱ]]}}/ (συμφωνία, "symphony").
The combination <μπ> is pronounced /mb/ after vowels (but often reduced to /b/), else /b/. In some words, especially in Northern dialects, could also be pronounced /mp/.
The combinations <γγ> and <γκ> are pronounced /ŋg/ or /{{IPA|ŋɟ}}/ after vowels, else /g/ or /{{IPA|[[Voiced palatal plosive|ɟ]]}}/. An exception to this rule is the word <συγγνώμη> (freely translated "I'm sorry") in which /n/ is phonetically dropped and the word is pronounced /{{IPA|siˈŋgnomi}}/ (this is actually an older form of the word, the current orthography is <συγνώμη>, pronounced /{{IPA|siˈγnomi}}/, in which /n/ is dropped both phonetically and literally).
The combination <ντ> is pronounced /nd/ after vowels (but often reduced to /d/), else /d/. In some words, especially in Northern dialects, could also be pronounced /nt/.
The sounds /k/ and /g/, before the front vowels /{{IPA|[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel#mid front unrounded vowel|e̞]]}}/ and /i/, are palatalized, becoming /{{IPA|[[Voiceless palatal plosive|c]]}}/ and /{{IPA|[[Voiced palatal plosive|ɟ]]}}/. In some dialects, notably in Crete, they become [{{IPA|[[Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate|ʨ]]}}] and [{{IPA|[[Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate|ʥ]]}}].
The word {{polytonic|ἐστὶ}} (estí, IPA /{{IPA|e̞sˈti}}/), which means "is" in Ancient Greek (q.v. Modern Greek είναι), gains a "''euphonic''" n. in Modern Greek, the negative adverb δεν and the accusative articles τον and την lose the final /n/, depending on the beginning letter of the next word (if it's a consonant, /n/ is usually dropped). In the phrase δεν πειράζει, which means "it doesn't matter", instead of being dropped, n is assimilated into the second word and, following the example above, np is pronounced /mp/ in Northern Greece and /mb/ in Southern Greece, thus producing the sound /ðempirázi/ or /ðembirázi/.
Some of these rules are optional, and reflect the formality of speech. While everyday spoken Greek sounds artificial if the sandhi rules are ''not'' used, a formal or official speech may sound equally awkward if sandhi rules ''are'' used.
===Orthography===
The Greek vowel letters with their pronunciation are: <α> {{IPA|/a/}}, <ε> {{IPA|/e̞/}}, <η> {{IPA|/i/}}, <ι> {{IPA|/i/}}, <ο> {{IPA|/o̞/}}, <υ> {{IPA|/i/}}, <ω> {{IPA|/o̞/}}. There are also vowel digraphs, called "double-digit vowels" which are phonetically monophthongal: <αι> {{IPA|/e̞/}}, <ει> {{IPA|/i/}}, <οι> {{IPA|/i/}}, <ου> {{IPA|/u/}}, <υι> {{IPA|/i/}}. The three digraphs <αυ>, <ευ> and <ηυ> are pronounced {{IPA|/av/}}, {{IPA|/e̞v/}} and {{IPA|/iv/}} except when followed by unvoiced consonants, in which case they are pronounced {{IPA|/af/}}, {{IPA|/e̞f/}} and {{IPA|/if/}}.
Modern Greek has also four diphthongs: <αη> (or <άη>) {{IPA|/aj/}}, <αϊ> (or <άι>) {{IPA|/aj/}}, <οη> (or <όη>) {{IPA|/o̞j/}} and <οϊ> (or <όι>) {{IPA|/o̞j/}} (diphthongs can better be transcribed using the IPA non-syllabic diacritic under {{IPA|/i/}} instead of the approximant {{IPA|/j/}}).
The Greek letters <β> and <δ> are pronounced {{IPA|/v/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} respectively. The letter <γ> is generally pronounced {{IPA|/ɣ/}}, but before the mid or close front vowels, it is pronounced {{IPA|/ʝ/}}.
The letters <θ>, <φ> and <χ> are pronounced {{IPA|/θ/}}, {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/x/}}. The letter <χ>, before mid or close front vowels, is pronounced {{IPA|/ç/}}. The letter <ξ> stands for {{IPA|/k͡s/}} and <ψ> stands for {{IPA|/p͡s/}} (the tie bar is used to indicate that, in Modern Greek, <ξ> and <ψ> should be considered sibilant affricates). The digraphs <γγ> and <γκ> are generally pronounced {{IPA|/g/}}, but are pronounced {{IPA|/ɟ/}} before mid or close front vowels. When these digraphs are preceded by a vowel, they are pronounced {{IPA|/ŋg/}} ({{IPA|/ŋɟ/}} before mid or close front vowels). The digraph <γγ> may be pronounced {{IPA|/ŋɣ/}} in some words ({{IPA|/ŋʝ/}}) before mid or close front vowels). It is better to use a tie bar above {{IPA|/ŋg/}}, {{IPA|/ŋɟ/}}, {{IPA|/ŋɣ/}} and {{IPA|/ŋʝ/}}, when used for Greek words, to indicate the simultaneous articulation.
===Historical sound changes===
See: [[History of the Greek language]], [[Ancient Greek pronunciation]]
==Grammar==
Modern Greek is still largely a [[synthetic language]]. It is one of the few Indo-European languages that has retained a synthetic [[passive voice|passive]]. Noticeable changes in its grammar (compared to Classical Greek) include the loss of the [[dative]], the [[optative mood]], the [[infinitive]] the [[dual number]], and the [[participle]]s (except the past participle); the adoption of the [[gerund]]; the reduction in the number of noun [[declension]]s, and the number of distinct forms in each declension; the adoption of the [[modal particle]] ''θα'' (a corruption of ''{{Polytonic|ἐθέλω ἵνα}}'' > ''θέλω να'' > ''θε' να'' > ''θα'') to denote future and conditional tenses; the introduction of [[auxiliary verb]] forms for certain tenses; the extension to the future tense of the aspectual distinction between present/imperfect and aorist; the loss of the third person imperative, and the simplification of the system of grammatical prefixes, such as [[augment (linguistics)|augmentation]] and [[reduplication]]. Some of these features are shared with other languages spoken in the Balkan peninsula (see [[Balkan linguistic union]]).
[[Archaism|Archaic]] forms are still used in formal writing and in a few expressions like εντάξει (entáxei /{{IPA|ɛnˈdaˌksi}}/), which means "OK" (literally: "in order") or ''ζήτω!'' ('long live!');
==Writing system==
{{Table_Greekletters}}
{{sectstub}}
Modern Greek is written in the late [[Ionic]] variant of the [[Greek alphabet]], the oldest discovered inscriptions of which date to the 8th or 9th Century BC, assumed its final form in 403 BC, and displaced other regional variants due to its use for the [[Attic]] ''[[Koine]]'' dialect during the [[Hellenistic]] era.
The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with a capital and lowercase (small) form:
[[Alpha (letter)|Α α]],
[[Beta (letter)|Β β]],
[[Gamma|Γ γ]],
[[Delta (letter)|Δ δ]],
[[Epsilon|Ε ε]],
[[Zeta (letter)|Ζ ζ]],
[[Eta (letter)|Η η]],
[[Theta|Θ θ]],
[[Iota|Ι ι]],
[[Kappa (letter)|Κ κ]],
[[Lambda|Λ λ]],
[[Mu (letter)|Μ μ]],
[[Nu (letter)|Ν ν]],
[[Xi|Ξ ξ]],
[[Omicron|Ο ο]],
[[Pi (letter)|Π π]],
[[Rho (letter)|Ρ ρ]],
[[Sigma (letter)|Σ σ ς (word-final form)]],
[[Tau|Τ τ]],
[[Upsilon|Υ υ]],
[[Phi (letter)|Φ φ]],
[[Chi (letter)|Χ χ]],
[[Psi (letter)|Ψ ψ]],
[[Omega|Ω ω]].
In addition to the letters of the alphabet, Greek has a number of diacritical signs, most of which were eliminated from official use in Greece in 1982 as no longer corresponding to the modern pronunciation of the lang |
* The labiodental nasal {{IPA|[ɱ]}} is not known to exist as a phoneme in any language.
===Coarticulation===
[[media:IPA co-articulated 2005.png|Closeup of the co-articulated consonant section of the IPA chart]]<br>
{| class="wikitable"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" class="nounderlines"| [[voiceless labial-velar fricative|{{IPA|ʍ}}]]
| Voiceless labialized velar approximant
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" class="nounderlines" | [[labial-velar approximant|{{IPA|w}}]]
| Voiced labialized velar approximant
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" class="nounderlines" | [[labial-palatal approximant|{{IPA|ɥ}}]]
| Voiced labialized palatal approximant
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative|{{IPA|ɕ}}]]
| Voiceless palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) fricative
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" class="nounderlines" | [[voiced alveolo-palatal fricative|{{IPA|ʑ}}]]
| Voiced palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) fricative
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" class="nounderlines" | [[voiceless palatal-velar fricative|{{IPA|ɧ}}]]
| Voiceless "palatal-velar" fricative
|}
Notes:
*{{IPA|[ɧ]}} is described as a "simultaneous {{IPA|[ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[x]}}". However, this analysis is disputed. See the [[voiceless palatal-velar fricative|article]] for discussion.
== Consonants (non-pulmonic) ==
[[media:IPA non-pulmonic 2005.png|Closeup of the non-pulmonic consonant section of the IPA chart]]
{| class="wikitable"
|- valign=top
! colspan="2" | [[Click consonant|Click releases]]
! colspan="2" | [[Implosive consonant|Implosives]]
! colspan="2" | [[Ejective consonant|Ejectives]]
|- valign=top class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | [[bilabial click|{{IPA|ʘ}}]]
| Bilabial
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | [[voiced bilabial implosive|{{IPA|ɓ}}]]
| Bilabial
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|ʼ}}
| ''For example:''
|- valign=top class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[dental click|{{IPA|ǀ}}]]
| Laminal alveolar ("dental")
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[voiced alveolar implosive|{{IPA|ɗ}}]]
| Alveolar
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[bilabial ejective|{{IPA|pʼ}}]]
| Bilabial
|- valign=top class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[postalveolar click|{{IPA|ǃ}}]]
| Apical (post-) alveolar ("retroflex")
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[voiced palatal implosive|{{IPA|ʄ}}]]
| Palatal
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[alveolar ejective|{{IPA|tʼ}}]]
| Alveolar
|- valign=top class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[palatal click|{{IPA|ǂ}}]]
| Laminal postalveolar ("palatal")
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[voiced velar implosive|{{IPA|ɠ}}]]
| Velar
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[velar ejective|{{IPA|kʼ}}]]
| Velar
|- valign=top class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[alveolar lateral click|{{IPA|ǁ}}]]
| Lateral coronal ("lateral")
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[voiced uvular implosive|{{IPA|ʛ}}]]
| Uvular
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[alveolar ejective fricative|{{IPA|sʼ}}]]
| Alveolar fricative
|}
Notes:
* All clicks are doubly articulated and require two symbols: a velar or uvular stop, plus a symbol for the anterior release: {{IPA|[k͡ǂ, ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ, q͡ǂ, ɢ͡ǂ, ɴ͡ǂ]}} ''etc.'', or {{IPA|[ǂ͡k, ǂ͡ɡ, ǂ͡ŋ, ǂ͡q, ǂ͡ɢ, ǂ͡ɴ]}}. When the dorsal articulation is omitted, a {{IPA|[k]}} may usually be assumed.
* Symbols for the [[voiceless consonant|voiceless]] implosives {{IPA|[ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ]}} are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: {{IPA|[ɓ̥, ʛ̥]}}, ''etc''.
* Although not confirmed from any language, and therefore not "explicitly recognized" by the IPA, a [[Voiced retroflex implosive|retroflex implosive]], <span title="U+1D91">{{Unicode|[&#7569;]}}</span>, is supported in the Unicode Phonetic Extensions Supplement, added in version 4.1 of the Unicode Standard, or can be created as a composite {{IPA|[ɗ̢]}}.
* The ejective symbol is often seen for [[Glottalic consonant|glottalized]] but pulmonic [[sonorant]]s, such as {{IPA|[mʼ], [lʼ], [wʼ], [aʼ]}}, but these are more properly transcribed as creaky ({{IPA|[m̰], [l̰], [w̰], [a̰]}}).
== Vowels ==
[[media:IPA vowel chart 2005.png|Closeup of the vowel chart of the IPA]]
{{CSS IPA vowel chart}}
Notes:
*Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel, as does {{IPA|[ʊ]}} (at least prototypically). All others are unrounded.
*{{IPA|[ɶ]}} is not confirmed as a distinct phoneme in any language.
*{{IPA|[a]}} is officially a front vowel, but there is little distinction between front and central open vowels, and {{IPA|[a]}} is frequently used for an open central vowel.
==Affricates and double articulation==
'''[[Affricate]]s''' and '''[[Doubly articulated consonant|doubly articulated]] stops''' are represented by two symbols joined by a tie bar, either above or below the symbols. The six most common affricates are optionally represented by ligatures, though this is no longer official IPA usage, due to the great number of ligatures that would be required to represent all affricates this way. A third affricate transcription sometimes seen uses the superscript notation for a consonant release, for example {{IPA|tˢ}} for {{IPA|t͡s}}, paralleling {{IPA|kˣ}} ~ {{IPA|k͡x}}. The symbols for the palatal plosives, {{IPA|<c ɟ>,}} are often used as a convenience for {{IPA|[t͡ʃ d͡ʒ]}} or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care.
[[Media:Affricate ligatures.png|Image of the six common affricate ligatures and their official IPA equivalents]]
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Tie bar
! Ligature
! Description
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|t͡s}}
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[voiceless alveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʦ}}]]
| voiceless alveolar affricate
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|d͡z}}
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[voiced alveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʣ}}]]
| voiced alveolar affricate
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|t͡ʃ}}
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[voiceless postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʧ}}]]
| voiceless postalveolar affricate
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|d͡ʒ}}
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[voiced postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʤ}}]]
| voiced postalveolar affricate
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|t͡ɕ}}
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate|{{IPA|ʨ}}]]
| voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|d͡ʑ}}
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[voiced alveolo-palatal affricate|{{IPA|ʥ}}]]
| voiced alveolo-palatal affricate
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[voiceless alveolar lateral affricate|{{IPA|t͡ɬ}}]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | &nbsp;&ndash;
| voiceless alveolar lateral affricate
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[voiceless labial-velar plosive|{{IPA|k͡p}}]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | &nbsp;&ndash;
| voiceless labial-velar plosive
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[voiced labial-velar plosive|{{IPA|ɡ͡b}}]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | &nbsp;&ndash;
| voiced labial-velar plosive
|- class="nounderlines"
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[labial-velar nasal|{{IPA|ŋ͡m}}]]
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | &nbsp;&ndash;
| labial-velar nasal stop
|}
Note:
* If your browser uses ''Arial Unicode MS'' to display IPA characters, the following incorrectly formed sequences may look better due to a bug in that font: {{IPA|ts͡, tʃ͡, tɕ͡, dz͡, dʒ͡, dʑ͡, tɬ͡, kp͡, ɡb͡, ŋm͡}}.
==Extended IPA==
The '''Extended IPA''' was designed for [[Speech disorder|disordered speech]]. However, some of the symbols (especially diacritics, below) are occasionally used for transcribing normal speech as well.
View a pdf file [http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/ExtIPAChart97.pdf here].
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | [[velopharyngeal fricative|{{IPA|ʩ}}]]
|Velopharyngeal fricative (often occurs with a [[cleft palate]])
|-
| style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | [[lateralized s|{{IPA|ʪ}}]]
|Voiceless central-plus-lateral alveolar fricative, {{IPA|[ɬ͡s]}} (a [[lisp (speech)|lisp]])
|-
| style=&q |
nicode==
A proposal called [[Unicode]] was made in [[1991]] to address many of these problems, and is now widely accepted. Unicode reserves 1,114,112 (= 2<sup>20</sup> + 2<sup>16</sup>) code points, and currently assigns characters to more than 96,000 of those code points. The first 256 codes precisely match those of [[ISO 8859-1]]. The majority of the 96,000 code points are, at this time, used for [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Korean language|Korean]] characters.
==External links==
* [http://quickkeydotnet.sourceforge.net/ Quick Key Character Grid] inserts any character with one click.
* [http://www.i18nguy.com/unicode/codepages.html Character Sets and Code Pages at the Push of a Button]
* [http://allchars.zwolnet.com AllChars Utility for Windows]
* [http://developer.apple.com/intl/ Apple's page about internationalization support for Mac OS X]
* [http://www.unicode.org/ Unicode]
[[Category:Character sets]]
[[es:ASCII extendido]]
[[sv:Utökad ASCII]]
[[zh:EASCII]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electronic Music/Jungle</title>
<id>9275</id>
<revision>
<id>39769510</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T19:32:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JustJoe</username>
<id>931074</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Drum and bass]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electronic Music/Drum and Bass</title>
<id>9276</id>
<revision>
<id>15907177</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-08T10:46:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[drum and bass]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ellipse</title>
<id>9277</id>
<revision>
<id>41182953</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T16:40:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.160.119.82</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Removed the PIECE babbling from the last edit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} ''Elliptical redirects here, for the exercise machine, see [[Elliptical trainer]].''
[[Image:Elipse.png|thumb|right|200px|The ellipse and some of its mathematical properties.]]
In [[mathematics]], an '''ellipse''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] for ''absence'') is a plane algebraic [[curve]] where the sum of the [[distance]]s from any point on the curve to two fixed points is constant. The two fixed points are called '''foci''' (plural of '''[[focus (geometry)|focus]]''').
An ellipse is a type of [[conic section]]: if a [[conical surface]] is cut with a plane which does not intersect the cone's base, the intersection of the cone and plane is an ellipse. For a short elementary proof of this, see [[Dandelin spheres]].
Algebraically, an ellipse is a curve in the [[Cartesian coordinate system|Cartesian plane]] defined by
an equation of the form
:<math>A x^2 + B xy + C y^2 + D x + E y + F = 0</math>
such that <math>B^2 < 4 AC</math>, where all of the coefficients are real, and where more than one solution, defining a pair of points (x, y) on the ellipse, exists.
An ellipse can be drawn with two pins, a loop of string, and a pencil. The pins are placed at the foci and the pins and pencil are enclosed inside the string. The pencil is placed on the paper inside the string, so the string is taut. The string will form a [[triangle]]. If the pencil is moved around so that the string stays taut, the sum of the distances from the pencil to the pins will remain constant, satisfying the definition of an ellipse.
The line segment which passes through the foci and terminates on the ellipse is called the '''major axis'''. The major axis is along the longest segment that passes through the ellipse. The line which passes through the center (halfway between the foci), at [[right angle]]s to the major axis, is called the '''minor axis'''. A '''[[semimajor axis]]''' is one half the major axis: the [[line segment]] from the center, through a focus, and to the edge of the ellipse. Likewise, the '''semiminor axis''' is one half the minor axis.
If the two foci coincide, then the ellipse is a [[circle]]; in other words, a circle is a special case of an ellipse, one where the eccentricity is zero.
An ellipse centred at the [[origin]] can be viewed as the image of the [[unit circle]] under a linear map associated with a [[symmetric matrix]] <math>A = PDP^T</math>, D being a [[diagonal matrix]] with the [[eigenvalues]] of A, both of which are real positive, along the main diagonal, and P being a real [[unitary matrix]] having as columns the [[eigenvectors]] of A. Then the axes of the ellipse will lie along the eigenvectors of A, and the squares of the lengths of the axes are the inverses of the eigenvalues.
==Parametrisation==
The size of an ellipse is determined by two constants, conventionally denoted ''a'' and ''b''. The constant ''a'' [[equality (mathematics)|equals]] the [[length]] of the semimajor axis; the constant ''b'' equals the [[length]] of the semiminor axis.
[[Image:Elpsminr.png|center|Ellipse, showing major and minor axes]]
An ellipse centered at the origin of an ''x''-''y'' [[coordinate system]] with its major axis along the ''x''-axis is defined by the equation
:<math>\frac{x^{2}}{a^{2}} + \frac{y^{2}}{b^{2}} = 1 </math>
The [[Derivation of the cartesian formula for an ellipse|derivation of this formula]] is quite instructive and not overly difficult.
The following diagram shows an ellipse demonstrating the Pythagoras equation ''a''² = ''b''² + ''c''² as a special case of the non-[[parametric equation]] above (''x''=0, ''y''=b).
[[Image:Ellipse_PLS_en.png|center]]
The same ellipse is also represented by the parametric equations:
:<math>x = a\,\cos t</math>
:<math>y = b\,\sin t</math>
:<math>0 \leq t < 2\pi</math>
which use the [[trigonometric function]]s sine and cosine.
If an ellipse is not centered at the origin of an ''x''-''y'' coordinate system, but again has its major axis along the ''x''-axis, it may be specified by the equation
:<math>\frac{(x-h)^{2}}{a^{2}} + \frac{(y-k)^{2}}{b^{2}} = 1 </math>
where (h,k) is the center.
A [[Gauss map|Gauss-mapped]] form:
:<math>\left(\frac{a^2\cos\phi}{\sqrt{a^2\cos^2\phi+b^2\sin^2\phi}},\frac{b^2\sin\phi}{\sqrt{a^2\cos^2\phi+b^2\sin^2\phi}}\right)</math>
has normal <math>(\cos\phi,\sin\phi)</math>.
==Eccentricity==
The shape of an ellipse is usually expressed by a number called the [[eccentricity (mathematics)|eccentricity]] of the ellipse, conventionally denoted ''e'' (not to be confused with the mathematical constant [[e (mathematical constant)|e]]). The eccentricity is related to ''a'' and ''b'' by the statement
:<math>e = \sqrt{1 - \frac{b^2}{a^2}}</math>
or where <math>c</math> (the linear eccentricity of the ellipse) equals the distance from the center to either focus
:<math>e = \frac{c}{a}</math>
The eccentricity is a [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive number]] less than 1, or 0 in the case of a circle.
The greater the eccentricity is, the larger the [[ratio]] of ''a'' to ''b'' is,
and therefore the more elongated the ellipse is. The ellipse shown in the image below has an eccentricity of approximately 0.8733.
The distance between the foci is 2''ae''.
==Semi-latus rectum and polar coordinates==
The ''semi-[[latus rectum]]'' of an ellipse, usually denoted <math>l\,\!</math> ([[lowercase]] L), is the distance from a focus of the ellipse to the ellipse itself, measured along a line [[perpendicular]] to the major axis. It is related to <math>a\,\!</math> and <math>b\,\!</math> (the ellipse's semi-axes) by the formula <math>al=b^2\,\!</math> or, if using the eccentricity, <math>l=a(1-e^2)\,\!</math>.
[[Image:Elps-slr.png|center|Ellipse, showing semi-latus rectum]]
In [[coordinates (elementary mathematics)|polar coordinates]], an ellipse with one focus at the origin and the other on the negative ''x''-axis is given by the equation
: <math>r (1 + e \cos \theta) = l \,\!</math>
An ellipse can also be thought of as a projection of a circle: a circle on a plane at angle &phi; to the horizontal projected vertically onto a horizontal plane gives an ellipse of eccentricity sin&nbsp;&phi;, provided &phi; is not 90°.
==Area==
The [[area (geometry)|area]] enclosed by an ellipse is <math>\pi ab\,\!</math>, where <math>\pi</math> is [[Pi|Archimedes' constant]].
==Circumference==
The [[circumference]] of an ellipse is 4''aE''(''e''),
where the function ''E'' is the complete [[elliptic integral]] of the second kind.
The exact [[infinite series]] is:
:<math>c = 2\pi a \left[{1 - \left({1\over 2}\right)^2e^2 - \left({1\cdot 3\over 2\cdot 4}\right)^2{e^4\over 3} - \left({1\cdot 3\cdot 5\over 2\cdot 4\cdot 6}\right)^2{e^6\over5} - \dots}\right]\!\,</math>
A good [[approximation]] is [[Ramanujan]]'s:
:<math>c \approx \pi \left[3(a+b) - \sqrt{(3a+b)(a+3b)}\right]\!\,</math>
which can also be written as:
:<math>c \approx \pi a \left[ 3 (1+\sqrt{1-e^2}) - \sqrt{(3+ \sqrt{1-e^2})(1+3 \sqrt{1-e^2})} \right] \!\,</math>
More generally, the [[arc length]] of a portion of the circumference, as a function of the angle subtended, is given by an incomplete [[elliptic integral]]. The [[inverse function]], the angle subtended as a function of the arc length, is given by the [[elliptic functions]].
== Stretching and Projection ==
An ellipse may be uniformly stretched along any axis, in or out of the plane of the ellipse, and it will still be an ellipse. The stretched ellipse will have different properties (perhaps chan |
rum kit, and perform a ride rather than a crash function.
=== Suspended cymbals ===
The second main orchestral use of cymbals is the '''[[suspended cymbal]]'''. This is a cymbal mounted horizontally or nearly horizontally as in a modern [[drum kit]]. These can be played with felt mallets or [[timpani]] beaters and give an eerie sound when played quietly. A tremelo played in this way can build in volume to a climax in a satisfyingly smooth manner.
Furthermore, the edge of a suspended cymbal may be hit with shoulder of a [[drum stick]] to obtain a sound somewhat akin to that of a pair of clash cymbals. Other methods of playing include scraping a coin or a [[triangle (instrument)|triangle]] beater rapidly across the ridges on the top of the cymbal, giving a "zing" sound (as in the fourth movement of Dvo&#345;ák's Symphony No. 9). Cymbals may also be dropped, intentionally or otherwise, causing a range of sounds depending on whether it hits the floor full on or spins before coming to a rest. This is not particularly good for the cymbal, however.
=== Ancient cymbals ===
'''Ancient cymbals''' or '''tuned cymbals''' are much more rarely called for. Their timbre is entirely different, more like that of small hand-bells or of the notes of the keyed harmonica. They are not struck full against each other, but by one of their edges, and the note given out by them is higher in proportion as they are thicker and smaller. Berlioz's ''Romeo and Juliet'' calls for two pairs of cymbals, modelled on some ancient Pompeian instruments no larger than the hand (some are no larger than a crown piece), and tuned to F and B flat. The modern instruments descended from this line are the [[crotal]]es.
== Origins ==
The origins of cymbals can be traced back to prehistoric times. The ancient [[Egypt]]ian cymbals closely resembled our own. The [[British Museum]] possesses two pairs, 13cm in diameter, one of which was found in the coffin of the mummy of Ankhhape, a sacred musician. Those used by the [[Assyria]]ns were both plate- and cup-shaped. The [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] cymbals were cup or bell-shaped, and may be seen in the hands of innumerable [[faun]]s and [[satyr]]s in sculptures and on painted vases. The word cymbal is derived from the Latin '''cymbalum''' which itself derives from the Greek word '''kumbalom''', meaning a small bowl.
== Terminology ==
During the middle ages the word cymbal was applied to the ''[[Glockenspiel]]'', or peal of small bells, and later to the [[dulcimer]], perhaps on account of the clear bell-like tone produced by the hammers striking the wire strings. After the introduction of the keyed dulcimer or [[clavichord]] the [[spinet]], the word clavicymbal was used in the [[Romance language]]s to denote the varieties of [[spinet]] and [[harpsichord]]. Ancient cymbals are among the instruments played by [[King David]] and his musicians in the [[9th century BC]] illuminated manuscript known as the [[Bible of Charles the Bald]] in the [[Bibliothèque Nationale]], [[Paris]].
== Types of cymbal ==
Particular types of cymbal include:
* [[Crash cymbal]]
* [[Clash cymbals]]
* [[Hi-hat cymbal]]
* [[Ride cymbal]]
* [[Sizzle cymbal]]
* [[Splash cymbal]]
* [[Suspended cymbal]]
* [[China cymbal]]
* [[Swish cymbal|Swish and pang cymbals]]
* [[Zil|Finger cymbals]]
== See also ==
*[[Armand Zildjian]]
*[[Avedis Zildjian Company]]
*[[Cymbal alloys]]
*[[Cymbal making]]
*[[drum]]
*[[percussion_instrument|percussion]]
===Manufacturers===
*[[Saluda cymbals|Saluda]]
*[[Paiste]]
*[[Istanbul cymbals|Istanbul]]
*[http://www.masterworkcymbal.com Masterwork] [http://www.masterworkcymbals.de Masterwork Germany]
*[[Sabian]]
*[[UFIP]]
*[[Avedis Zildjian Company|Zildjian]]
*[[Meinl]]
See also [[:Category:Cymbal manufacturers]].
==External links==
*[http://www.nexuspercussion.com/BobCymbal.html Orchestral cymbal playing], with an excellent short history of cymbals
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Cymbals|0]]
[[Category:Orchestral percussion]]
[[Category:Marching percussion]]
[[Category:Idiophones]]
[[Category:Drum kit components]]
[[de:Becken (Musikinstrument)]]
[[es:Platillos]]
[[eo:Cimbalo]]
[[fr:Cymbale]]
[[it:Piatto (musica)]]
[[nl:Bekken (muziekinstrument)]]
[[ja:シンバル]]
[[no:Cymbal]]
[[pl:Czynel]]
[[ru:Тарелка (музыкальный инструмент)]]
[[sl:Činele]]
[[sv:Cymbal]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cadmium</title>
<id>5672</id>
<revision>
<id>39996339</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T10:42:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Femto</username>
<id>96285</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix the fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=48 | symbol=Cd | name=cadmium | left=[[silver]] | right=[[indium]] | above=[[zinc|Zn]] | below=[[mercury (element)|Hg]] | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=12 | period=5 | block=d }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Cd,48| silvery gray metallic }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|112.411]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(8)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[krypton|Kr]]&#93; 4d<sup>10</sup> 5s<sup>2</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 18, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 8.65 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 7.996 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=594.22 | c=321.07 | f=609.93 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=1040 | c=767 | f=1413 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 6.21 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 99.87 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 26.020 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 530 | 583 | 654 | 745 | 867 | 1040 | comment= }}
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{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | hexagonal }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 2<br />(mildly [[base (chemistry)|basic]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.69 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies3 | 867.8 | 1631.4 | 3616 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|155]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|161]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|148]] }}
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{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmm | (22 °C) 72.7 n}}
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{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 2310 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 50 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 19 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 42 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.30 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 2.0 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 203 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-43-9 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=cadmium | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=106 | sym=Cd
| na=1.25% | hl=[[1 E19 s | &gt;9.5&times;10<sup>17</sup> y]]
| dm=[[double electron capture|&epsilon;&epsilon;2&nu;]] | de=- | pn=106 | ps=[[palladium|Pd]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=108 | sym=Cd
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=109 | sym=Cd
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=110 | sym=Cd | na=12.49% | n=62 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=111 | sym=Cd | na=12.8% | n=63 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=112 | sym=Cd | na=24.13% | n=64 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=113 | sym=Cd
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=113[[nuclear isomer|m]] | sym=Cd
| na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E8 s | 14.1 y]]
| dm1=[[beta decay|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de1=0.580 | pn1=113 | ps1=[[indium|In]]
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=116 | dm=[[double beta decay|&beta;&beta;2&nu;]] | de=- | sym=Cd | na=7.49% | hl=[[1 E19 s |2.9&times;10<sup>19</sup> y]] | pn=116 | ps=[[tin|Sn]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
'''Cadmium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Cd''' and [[atomic number]] 48. A relatively rare, soft, bluish-white, toxic [[transition metal]], cadmium occurs with [[zinc]] ores and is used largely in batteries.
==Production==
Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc, and it is most often isolated during the production of zinc. Zinc sulfide ores are roasted in the presense of oxygen converting the zinc sulfide to the oxide. Zinc metal is produced either by smelting the oxide with carbon or by electrolysis in sulfuric acid. Cadmium is isolated from the zinc metal by vacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted, or cadmium sulfate is precipitated out of the electrolysis solution. (ref 1)
== Notable characteristics ==
Cadmium is a soft, malleable, ductile, bluish-white bivalent [[metal]] which can be easily cut with a knife. It is similar in many respects to [[zinc]] but lends itself to more complex compounds.
The most common [[oxidation state]] of cadmium is +2, though rare examples of +1 can be found.
== Applications ==
About three-fourths |
title>Hobby</title>
<id>13287</id>
<revision>
<id>40921265</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T22:15:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Daniel Case</username>
<id>163732</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm link spam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
A '''hobby''' is a spare-time recreational pursuit.
== Origin of term ==
In the [[Middle Ages]], [[falconry]] was a very popular pastime (what today might be called a ''hobby''), and of all the different birds used for it, the [[Eurasian Hobby]] was perhaps the most popular. It is said that the modern use of ''hobby'' to indicate a pastime followed from this.
An alternative explanation is that the usage grew from another recreational animal called ''hobby'': which was a type of small ambling or pacing horse.
A ''hobby-horse'' was a wooden or [[wickerwork]] toy made to be ridden just like the real hobby. From this came the expression "to ride one's hobby-horse", meaning "to follow a favourite pastime", and in turn, ''hobby'' in the modern sense of [[recreation]].
== Purposes ==
Hobbies are practised for interest and enjoyment, rather than financial reward. Examples include [[collecting]], making, tinkering, [[sport]]s and adult education. Engaging in a hobby can lead to acquiring substantial skill, knowledge, and experience. However, personal fulfillment is the aim.
What are hobbies for some people are professions for others: a [[game tester]] may enjoy [[cooking]] as a hobby, while a professional [[chef]] might enjoy playing (and helping to debug) [[Computer and video games|computer games]]. Generally speaking, the person who does something for fun, not remuneration, is called an [[amateur]] (or hobbyist), as distinct from a [[professional]].
An important determinant of what is considered a hobby, as distinct from a [[profession]] (beyond the lack of remuneration), is probably how easy it is to make a living at the activity. Almost no one can make a living at [[cigarette card]] or stamp collecting, but many people find it enjoyable; so it is commonly regarded as a hobby.
[[Astronomy]] is a hobby in that the amateurs often make meaningful contributions to the professionals. It is not entirely uncommon for an amateur astronomer to be the first to discover a [[celestial body]] or [[celestial event|event]].
In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], the pejorative noun ''[[Anorak (slang)|anorak]]'' (similar to the Japanese "[[otaku]]", meaning a geek or enthusiast) is often applied to people who obsessively pursue a particular hobby.
== Development of hobbies into other ventures ==
Whilst some hobbies strike many people as trivial or boring, hobbyists have found something compelling and entertaining about them (see [[geek]]). Much early scientific research was, in effect, a hobby of the wealthy; more recently, [[Linux]] began as a student's hobby. A hobby may not be as trivial as it appears at a point in time when it has relatively few followers. Thus a British [[conservationist]] recalls that when seen wearing field glasses at a London station in the 1930s he was asked if he was going to the (horse) races. The anecdote indicates that at the time an interest in wildlife was not widely perceived as a credible hobby. Practitioners of that hobby went on to become the germs of the [[conservation movement]] that flourished in Britain from 1965 onwards and became a global political movement within a generation. Conversely, the hobby of [[aircraft spotting]] probably originated as part of a serious activity designed to detect arriving waves of enemy aircraft entering English airspace during [[World War II]]. In peacetime it clearly has no such practical or social purpose.
Pursuit of a hobby may have calming or helpful therapeutic side effects. In some cases, however, (for example in collecting) the line between a hobby and an obsession can become blurred. There is more than one documented case of violence over things as simple as coin collecting.
== See also ==
*[[List of hobbies]]
*[[Quality time]]
*[[Hobby-horse]]
[[Category:Hobbies|*]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[bn:শখ]]
[[cs:Hobby]]
[[da:Hobby]]
[[de:Hobby]]
[[es:Pasatiempo]]
[[eo:Ŝatokupo]]
[[fa:سرگرمیها]]
[[fy:Leafhawwerij]]
[[ga:Caitheamh aimsire]]
[[ko:취미]]
[[hr:Hobi]]
[[it:Hobby]]
[[ka:ჰობი]]
[[lt:Hobis]]
[[hu:Hobbi]]
[[ms:Hobi]]
[[nap:Spassatiempe]]
[[nl:Hobby]]
[[ja:趣味]]
[[pl:Hobby]]
[[pt:Passatempo]]
[[ru:Хобби]]
[[simple:Hobby]]
[[sl:Konjiček]]
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[[fi:Harrastus]]
[[sv:Hobby]]
[[th:งานอดิเรก]]
[[uk:Гобі]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Holland</title>
<id>13288</id>
<revision>
<id>41234917</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T23:42:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bidabadi</username>
<id>726723</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>wrong interwiki</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the region in the [[Netherlands]]. For other uses, see [[Holland (disambiguation)]]. "Holland" is often used in [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], and other languages to mean the whole of the [[Netherlands]].}}
'''Holland''' is a region in the central-western part of the [[Netherlands]]. Holland is a former [[county]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], ruled by the [[Count of Holland]], and later the leading member of the [[Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands]] (''Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden'', [[1581]]&ndash;[[1795]]).
[[image:netherlands_map_large.png|thumb|400px|North Holland and South Holland lie along the western coast of the Netherlands.]]
The area is today divided between two [[Provinces of the Netherlands|provinces]] of the Netherlands: [[North Holland]] (Noord-Holland) and [[South Holland]] (Zuid-Holland) that were created in [[1840]]. A few regions that were historically Hollandic became part of other provinces as a result of reforms during the French occupation ([[1795]]-[[1813]]): [[Moerdijk|Willemstad]] and surroundings, [[Biesbosch]] and the [[Land van Altena]] became part of [[North Brabant]]. In [[1940]], after the [[The Netherlands in World War II|German occupation of the Netherlands]], the [[island]]s of [[Vlieland]] and [[Terschelling]] went to [[Friesland]]. This was not changed back after [[World War II]]. In [[1950]], the island of [[Urk]] went to [[Overijssel]] (in [[1986]] to [[Flevoland]]). More recent territorial changes are the transfer of [[Oudewater]], [[Woerden]] and [[Vianen]] from South Holland to the [[Utrecht (province)|province of Utrecht]], in [[1970]], [[1989]] and [[2002]] respectively.
The name ''Holland'' ultimately stems from ''holt land'' ("wooded land"). A popular, but incorrect, [[fake etymology]] holds that it is derived from ''hol land'' ("hollow land"), inspired by the [[low-lying]] [[geography]] of both the [[Dutch]] and the English region ([[Holland, Lincolnshire]]).
The province of Holland was the cultural, political and economic center of the United Provinces. The greatest cities of the provinces were located within the province of Holland such as [[Amsterdam]] (the capital), [[Rotterdam]], [[Leiden]], [[Alkmaar]], [[the Hague]] (the seat of government), [[Delft]] and [[Haarlem]].Today, together with [[Utrecht]], this group of cities form what is called [[Randstad]] Holland. From the great port cities of Holland, Dutch [[merchants]] sailed to and from destinations all over [[Europe]], and merchants from all over Europe gathered to trade in the warehouses of Amsterdam and other trading cities of Holland. As a result, many Europeans heard of the United Provinces first as "Holland" rather than "Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands". This tradition continues to this day.
Thus, even though it is officially incorrect, the word ''Holland'' is often used by both Dutch (speaking) and foreign people to denote the entire Netherlands, possibly because "The Netherlands" ("Nederland" in Dutch) is more cumbersome. People from the other provinces of the Netherlands (such as [[Friesland]], [[Groningen_(province)|Groningen]], [[North Brabant]], [[Zeeland]], etc.) are often offended when referred to as "Hollanders".
However, from [[1806]]-[[1810]], there did exist the [[Napoleonic]] [[Kingdom of Holland]], which included much of the modern Netherlands.
==History==
===County of Holland===
Holland arose as a [[county]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in the [[9th century]]. The [[count of Holland|counts of Holland]] were also counts of [[Hainaut]], [[Flanders]] and [[Zeeland]] for several periods in the [[13th century|13th]]-[[15th century]]. In [[1432]], Holland became part of the [[Burgundian Netherlands]], and after [[1477]] of the [[Habsburg]] [[Seventeen Provinces]].
===United Provinces===
In the [[Eighty Years' War]] ([[1568]]-[[1648]]), the northern Dutch provinces, including Holland, successfully broke away from Habsburg-[[Spain|Spanish]] rule. Holland became the most prominent and prosperous part of the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]].
===After 1795===
The formation of the [[Batavian Republic]], inspired by the [[French revolution]], led to a more centralized government. The dominance of Holland was reduced by an administrative reform in [[1798]], in which its territory was divided over several departments: ''Amstel'', ''Delf'', ''Texel'', and (part of) ''Schelde en Maas''. During the French occupation ([[1810]]-[[1813]]), Holland was divided over the ''[[département in France|département]]s'' [[Zuyderzée]] and [[Bouches-de-la-Meuse]]. After [[1813]], Holland was restored as a province of the [[Netherlands]]. It was divided into the present provinces [[North Holland]] and [[South Holland]] in 1840.
== See also ==
* [[Count of Holland]]
* [[Counts of Holland family tr |
Sodium nitrate has been mined for [[explosive]]s and [[fertilizer]] in the Atacama since the middle of the [[19th century]]. Nearly 3 million [[tonne]]s were mined during [[World War I]].
Valuable minerals located in arid lands include [[copper]] in the United States, Chile, [[Peru]], and [[Iran]]; [[iron]] and [[lead]]-[[zinc]] ore in Australia; [[chromite]] in [[Turkey]]; and [[gold]], [[silver]], and [[uranium]] deposits in Australia and the United States. Nonmetallic mineral resources and rocks such as [[beryllium]], [[mica]], [[lithium]], [[clay]]s, [[pumice]], and [[scoria]] also occur in arid regions. [[Sodium carbonate]], [[sulfate]], borate, [[nitrate]], lithium, [[bromine]], [[iodine]], [[calcium]], and [[strontium]] compounds come from sediments and near-surface brines formed by evaporation of inland bodies of water, often during geologically recent times.
The [[Green River Formation]] of [[Colorado]], [[Wyoming]], and [[Utah]] contains [[alluvial]] fan deposits and playa evaporites created in a huge lake whose level fluctuated for millions of years. Economically significant deposits of [[trona]], a major source of [[sodium]] compounds, and thick layers of [[oil shale]] were created in the arid environment.
Some of the more productive [[petroleum]] areas on Earth are found in arid and semiarid regions of Africa and the Mideast, although the [[oil field]]s were originally formed in shallow marine environments. Recent climate change has placed these reservoirs in an arid environment.
Other oil reservoirs, however, are presumed to be eolian in origin and are presently found in humid environments. The [[Rotliegendes]], a [[hydrocarbon]] reservoir in the [[North Sea]], is associated with extensive evaporite deposits. Many of the major U.S. hydrocarbon resources may come from eolian sands. Ancient alluvial fan sequences may also be hydrocarbon reservoirs.
==List of deserts==
===Americas===
*[[Atacama]] desert in [[Chile]]
*[[Mojave Desert|Mojave]], [[Great Basin Desert|Great Basin]], [[Sonoran Desert|Sonoran]], and [[Chihuahuan Desert|Chihuahuan]]
'''See also:''' [[List of North American deserts]]
===Africa===
* [[Libyan Desert|Libyan]]
* [[Kalahari Desert|Kalahari]]
* [[Sahara]]
* [[Namib Desert|Namib]]
===Asia-Pacific===
*[[Gobi]] desert of [[Mongolia]]; [[Taklamakan]] desert in [[China]].
*[[Kara Kum]] deserts in [[Central Asia]].
*[[Kyzyl Kum]] - [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Uzbekistan]].
*[[Taklamakan]] - [[Xinjiang]] Uighur Autonomous Region of the [[People's Republic of China]].
*[[Thar Desert|Thar]]-[[Cholistan Desert|Cholistan]] desert in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]].
====Middle East====
*[[Dasht-e Kavir]], central [[Iran]].
*[[Empty Quarter]], [[Arabian Peninsula]]. It is the world's largest sand desert.
*[[Judean Desert]] - eastern [[Israel]] and [[West Bank]].
*[[Kavir-e Lut]], southeastern [[Iran]].
*[[Negev]] - southern [[Israel]].
====Oceania====
*[[Gibson Desert]] - central [[Australia]]
*[[Great Sandy Desert]] - northwestern Australia
*[[Great Victoria Desert]] - central Australia
*[[Simpson Desert]] - central Australia
*[[Tanami Desert]] - northern Australia
*[[Rangipo Desert]] - [[New Zealand]].
===Other===
*[[Antarctica]] is the World's largest desert
==See also==
*[[outback]]
*[[oasis]]
*[[desert survival]]
*[[desert varnish]]
*[[blowout (geology)|blowout]]
*[[badlands]]
*[[hydraulic empire]]
*[[Deserts and xeric shrublands]]
*[[Katabatic wind|Katabatic]] or [[Föhn wind|Föhn]] [[wind]]s
*[[Precipitation (meteorology)|Orographic precipitation]]
*[[Dessert]]
[[Category:Deserts|*]]
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Landforms]]
[[Category:Climate]]
{{Link FA|pt}}
[[ar:صحراء]]
[[bs:Pustinja]]
[[ca:Desert]]
[[cs:Poušť]]
[[cy:Anialwch]]
[[da:Ørken]]
[[de:Wüste]]
[[et:Kõrb]]
[[es:Desierto]]
[[eo:Dezerto]]
[[fa:بیابان]]
[[fr:Désert]]
[[fy:Woastyn]]
[[ga:Fásach]]
[[gl:Deserto]]
[[ko:사막]]
[[hr:Pustinja]]
[[io:Dezerto]]
[[is:Eyðimörk]]
[[it:Deserto]]
[[he:מדבר]]
[[la:Desertus]]
[[lt:Dykuma]]
[[hu:Sivatag]]
[[mk:Пустина]]
[[nl:Woestijn]]
[[ja:砂漠]]
[[no:Ørken]]
[[pl:Pustynia]]
[[pt:Deserto]]
[[ro:Deşert]]
[[ru:Пустыня]]
[[simple:Desert]]
[[sk:Púšť]]
[[sl:Puščava]]
[[sr:Пустиња]]
[[fi:Aavikko]]
[[sv:Öken]]
[[ta:பாலைவனம்]]
[[tr:Çöl]]
[[uk:Пустеля]]
[[zh:沙漠]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dave Grohl</title>
<id>8099</id>
<revision>
<id>41696102</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T02:59:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ChrisB</username>
<id>97893</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv: see the picture of dave with the guitar? the paragraph to the left of it talks about him playing for qotsa</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Biography
|subject_name=David Eric Grohl
|image_name=Grohl.jpg
|date_of_birth=[[January 14]], [[1969]]
|place_of_birth=[[Warren, Ohio|Warren]], [[Ohio]], [[United States|USA]]
}}'''David Eric Grohl''' (born [[January 14]], [[1969]], in [[Warren, Ohio]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Rock (music)|rock]] musician. He was the [[drummer]] of the [[grunge music|grunge]] band [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]] from [[1990]] until the band dissolved in [[1994]] after frontman [[Kurt Cobain]]'s death. He formed the [[Foo Fighters (band)|Foo Fighters]] in 1995.
Grohl began his music career in the [[1980s]] as the drummer for several [[Washington, DC]] area bands, most notably the [[punk rock]] band [[Scream (band)|Scream]].
==Early life==
When Grohl was a young child, his family (father James, mother Virginia, and an older sister) relocated from Ohio to [[Alexandria, Virginia]], a suburb of Washington, DC. Three years later, his parents divorced, and Grohl grew up living with his mother.
At the age of twelve, Grohl began tinkering with the guitar. He started with lessons, but eventually grew tired of them, and began to play in bands with friends. A year later, a summer stay at his cousin's house spawned Grohl's interest in [[punk rock]]. Grohl's cousin Tracy took him to numerous punk shows during that summer, and Grohl returned to Alexandria as a convert.
Over the next several years, Grohl played in several local bands, including a stint on guitar in a band called Freak Baby. At the same time, he had been teaching himself to play drums by banging on various items in his bedroom. When Freak Baby kicked out its bass player, Grohl decided to switch to drums, and the new band coined itself Mission Impossible.{{ref|early}} He later joined a hardcore/post-punk band called Dain Bramage. During his developing years as a drummer, Grohl cited [[John Bonham]] as his greatest influence, and eventually had Bonham's three-circle logo [[tattoo]]ed on his wrist.
==Scream==
{{main|Scream (band)}}
At the age of sixteen, Grohl scored an audition with local DC favorites [[Scream (band)|Scream]] to fill the vacancy left by the departure of drummer Kent Stax. To Grohl's surprise, the band asked him to join. After waffling for a brief period, Grohl accepted the offer. Not long after, he dropped out of high school to play drums full-time. Over the next four years, Grohl toured extensively with the band, recording a couple of live albums and one studio album, ''Fumble'', on which Grohl penned and sang vocals on the song "Gods Look Down".
While playing in Scream, Grohl became a fan of [[The Melvins]] and eventually befriended the band. During a [[1990]] tour stop on the west coast, The Melvins' [[Buzz Osborne]] took a couple of his friends, [[Kurt Cobain]] and <!--Krist is listed here as "Chris" because he went by Chris at the time.--> [[Krist Novoselic|Chris Novoselic]], to see the band.
==Nirvana==
{{main|Nirvana (band)}}
A few months later, Scream unexpectedly disbanded following the departure of its bass player, and Grohl placed a phone call to Osborne for advice. Knowing how much Cobain and Novoselic liked Grohl's drumming, Osborne gave Novoselic's phone number to Grohl. Novoselic invited Grohl up to Seattle, where Grohl attended Nirvana's infamous show at the Motor Sports Garage, the one Nirvana show that featured [[Dan Peters]] on drums. (Grohl admitted to ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' in 2005 that he spent most of Nirvana's set outside talking to a friend.) Grohl subsequently auditioned for the band, and soon joined the band full-time.
At the time that Grohl joined Nirvana, the band had already recorded several demos for what would be the follow-up to their debut album ''[[Bleach (album)|Bleach]]'', having spent time recording with producer [[Butch Vig]] in [[Wisconsin]]. Initially, the plans were to release the album on [[Sub Pop]], but the band found itself receiving a great deal of major label interest based on the demos. Grohl spent the initial months with Nirvana travelling to various major labels as the band shopped for a deal, eventually signing with [[DGC Records]]. In the spring of 1991, the band entered the studio to record the album.
Upon its release, ''[[Nevermind]]'' exceeded all expectations and became a massive success, catapulting the band to worldwide stardom. At the same time, Grohl found himself fighting with his status in the band. While his drumming style was a significant element in the band's success, Grohl saw himself as just another in a long line of drummers. In his mind, Nirvana was the band that recorded ''Bleach''; his arrival had altered that sound dramatically, and, as he saw it, not necessarily in a positive way. Though Grohl had been writing songs for several years, he declined to introduce his songs to the band for fear of damaging the band's chemistry. Instead, Grohl compiled his songs and recorded them himself, releasing a cassette demo called ''Pocketwatch'' in [[1992]] on indie label Simple Machines. Rather than using his own name, Grohl released the cassette under the pseudonym "Late!".
In the later years of Nirvana, Grohl's songwriting contributions increased. In Grohl's initial months in Seattle, Cobain overheard him w |
4-16T11:12:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobby D. Bryant</username>
<id>6244</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merged to [[Helladic]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Helladic]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Euripides</title>
<id>9808</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41760916</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T15:32:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.38.113.141</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>robot Adding: bg</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Seated Euripides Louvre Ma343.jpg|thumb|200px|A statue of Euripides]]
'''Euripides''' (c. 480&ndash;406 [[Common_Era|BCE]]) was the last of the three great [[tragedy|tragedians]] of classical [[Athens]], along with [[Aeschylus]] and [[Sophocles]].
He is believed to have written over ninety plays, eighteen of which have survived. It is now widely believed that what was thought to be a nineteenth, ''[[Rhesus (play)|Rhesus]]'', was probably not by Euripides. [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/eb11-euripides.html] Fragments, some of them substantial, of most of the other plays also survive. More of his plays have survived than those of [[Aeschylus]] and [[Sophocles]] together, partly because of the chance preservation of a manuscript that was probably part of a complete collection of his works. {{fact}}
Euripides is known primarily for having reshaped the formal structure of traditional [[Attic]] tragedy by showing strong women characters and smart [[slave]]s, and by satirizing many [[hero]]es of [[Greek mythology]]. His plays seem modern by comparison with those of his contemporaries, focusing on the inner lives and motives of his characters in a way that was unknown to Greek audiences.
He is also notable for having written ''Cyclops'', the only complete [[satyr play]] currently in existence.
==Life==
[[image:Euripides Statue.jpg|thumb|[[Euripides]]. [[Vatican Museum]]]]
According to legend, Euripides was born in [[Salamis|Salamís]] on [[September 23]] [[480 BCE]] {{fact}}; the day of the [[Greco-Persian Wars|Persian War]]'s greatest naval battle.
His father's name was either Mnesarchus or Mnesarchides and his mother's name Cleito, [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-30155] and evidence suggests that the family was wealthy and influential, as a result of which Euripides was exposed to the great ideas and thinkers of the day, including [[Protagoras]], [[Socrates]], and [[Anaxagoras]]. Anaxagorus, for example, maintained that the [[sun]] was not a golden chariot steered across the sky by some elusive [[god]], but rather a fiery mass of earth or stone; exposure to such ideas led Euripides to question the religion he grew up with. (It is recorded that he served as a cup-bearer for [[Apollo]]'s dancers.)
He was married twice, to Choerile and [[Melito]], though sources disagree as to which woman he married first. [http://www.queensu.ca/classics/clst312/clst312i.htm] [http://www.theatrehistory.com/ancient/euripides001.html] <!--I don't know who the authoritative sources are here; will check and return-->He had three sons, and it is rumored that he also had a daughter who was killed after a [[Rabies|rabid]] dog attacked her. Some call this rumor a joke made by [[Aristophanes]], a comic writer who often poked fun at Euripides, but many historians believe that the story is accurate. {{fact}}
The record of Euripides' public life, other than his involvement in dramatic competitions, is almost non-existent. It has been said that he travelled to [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], [[Sicily]], that he engaged in various public or political activities during his lifetime, and that he left [[Athens]] at the invitation of king Archelaus II of Macedon and stayed with him in [[Macedon|Macedonia]] after 408 BCE; there is, however, no historical evidence for any of these claims.
==His plays==
Euripides first competed in the famous Athenian dramatic festival (the [[Dionysia]]) in 455 BCE, one year after the death of [[Aeschylus]]. He came in third, because he refused to cater to the fancies of the Judges. It was not until 441 BCE that he won first place, and over the course of his lifetime, Euripides claimed a mere four victories.
He was a frequent target of Aristophanes' humor. He appears as a character in ''[[The Acharnians]]'', ''[[Thesmophoriazusae]]'', and most memorably in ''[[The Frogs]]'', where [[Dionysus]] travels to [[Hades]] to bring Euripides back from the dead. After a competition of poetry, [[Dionysus]] opts to bring [[Aeschylus]] instead.
Euripides' final competition in Athens was in 408 BCE. Although there is a story that he left Athens embittered over his defeats, there is no real evidence to support it. He is believed to have died in Macedonia in 406 BCE (Rutherford 1996). <!--I've removed Athens because it lacks a citation and I can't find one-->''[[The Bacchae]]'' was performed after his death in 405 BCE.
When compared with Aeschylus, who won thirteen times, and Sophocles, with eighteen victories, Euripides was the least honored, though not necessarily the least popular, of the three &mdash; at least in his lifetime. Later in the 4th century BCE, the [[drama]]s of Euripides became more popular than those of [[Aeschylus]] and [[Sophocles]]. His works influenced [[New Comedy]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] drama, and were later idolized by the [[French classicists]]; his influence on drama reaches modern times.
Euripides' greatest works are considered to be ''[[Alcestis (play)|Alcestis]]'', ''[[Medea (play)|Medea]]'', ''[[Electra (Euripides)|Electra]]'', and ''[[The Bacchae]]''.
In June 2005, classicists at [[Oxford University]] employed [[infrared]] technology &mdash; previously used for [[satellite]] imaging &mdash; to detect previously unknown material by Euripides in fragments of the [[Oxyrhynchus|Oxyrhynchus papyri]], [http://www.papyrology.ox.ac.uk/] a collection of ancient manuscripts held by the university. [http://www.ox.ac.uk/blueprint/2004-05/3006/25.shtml]
==Works==
===Tragedies of Euripides===
# ''[[Alcestis (play)|Alcestis]]'' (438 BCE, second prize)
# ''[[Medea (play)|Medea]]'' (431 BCE, third prize)
# ''[[Heracleidae (play)|Heracleidae]]'' (c. 430 BCE)
# ''[[Hippolytus (play)|Hippolytus]]'' (428 BCE, first prize)
# ''[[Andromache (play)|Andromache]]'' (c. 425 BCE)
# ''[[Hecuba (play)|Hecuba]]'' (c. 424 BCE)
# ''[[The Suppliants (Euripides)|The Suppliants]]'' (c. 423 BCE)
# ''[[Electra (Euripides)|Electra]]'' (c. 420 BCE)
# ''[[Heracles (Euripides)|Heracles]]'' (c. 416 BCE)
# ''[[Trojan Women]]'' (415 BCE, second prize)
# ''[[Iphigeneia in Tauris]]'' (c. 414 BCE)
# ''[[Ion (play)|Ion]]'' (c. 413 BCE)
# ''[[Helen (play)|Helen]]'' (412 BCE)
# ''[[Phoenician Women]]'' (c. 410 BCE, second prize)
# ''[[Orestes (play)|Orestes]]'' (408 BCE)
# ''[[The Bacchae|Bacchae]]'' and ''[[Iphigeneia at Aulis]]'' (405 BCE, posthumous, first prize)
===Fragmentary tragedies of Euripides===
[[Image:Euripides lost play fragment.jpg|thumb|A fragment of a lost Euripides play.]]
The following plays have come down to us today only in fragmentary form; some consist of only a handful of lines, but with some the fragments are extensive enough to allow tentative reconstruction: see ''Euripides: Selected Fragmentary Plays'' (Aris and Phillips 1995) ed. C. Collard, M.J. Cropp and K.H. Lee.
# ''Telephus'' (438 BCE)
# ''Cretans'' (c. 435 BCE)
# ''Stheneboea'' (before 429 BCE)
# ''[[Bellerophon]]'' (c. 430 BCE)
# ''Cresphontes'' (ca. 425 BCE)
# ''Erechtheus'' (422 BCE)
# ''[[Phaethon]]'' (c. 420 BCE)
# ''Wise Melanippe'' (c. 420 BCE)
# ''Alexandros'' (415 BCE)
# ''Palamedes'' (415 BCE)
# ''Sisyphus'' (415 BCE)
# ''Captive Melanippe'' (412 BCE)
# ''[[Andromeda (mythology)|Andromeda]]'' (c. 410 BCE)
# ''Antiope'' (c. 410 BCE)
# ''Archelaus'' (c. 410 BCE)
# ''Hypsipyle'' (c. 410 BCE)
# ''[[Oedipus]]'' (c. 410 BCE)
# ''Philoctetes'' (c. 410 BCE)
===Satyr play===
# ''[[Cyclops (play)|Cyclops]]'' (unknown)
===Spurious plays===
# ''[[Rhesus (play)|Rhesus]]'' (mid 4th century BCE, probably not by Euripides, as maintained today by most scholars)
== See also ==
*[[Tragedy on screen]]
== References ==
*Croally, N.T. ''Euripidean Polemic: The Trojan Women and the Function of Tragedy''. Cambridge University Press, 1994.
*Ippolito, P. ''La vita di Euripide''. N�poles: Dipartimento di Filologia Classica dell'Universit'a degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, 1999.
*Kovacs, D. ''Euripidea''. Leiden: Brill, 1994.
*[[Mary Lefkowitz|Lefkowitz, M.R.]] ''The Lives of the Greek Poets''. London: Duckworth, 1981.
*Rutherford, Richard. ''Euripides: Medea and other plays''. Penguin, 1996.
*Scullion, S. ''Euripides and Macedon, or the silence of the Frogs''. The Classical Quarterly, Oxford, v. 53, n. 2, p. 389-400, 2003.
*Webster, T.B.L., ''The Tragedies of Euripides'', Methuen, 1967.
== Further reading ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons}}
*{{gutenberg author| id=Euripides | name=Euripides}}
*[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761567264/Euripides.html Encarta's entry for Euripides]
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/vor?x=0&y=0&lookup=Euripides Euripides-related materials at the Perseus Digital Library]
*[http://www.theatrehistory.com/ancient/euripides001.html Useful summaries of Euripides' life, works, and other relevant topics of interest at TheatreHistory.com.]
*http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/eb11-euripides.html
*http://www.ac-strasbourg.fr/pedago/lettres/Victor%20Hugo/Notes/Euripide.htm
*http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/~amahoney/tragedy_dates.html
*[http://www.gpc.edu/~shale/humanities/literature/world_literature/euripides.html http://www.gpc.edu/~shale/humanities/literature/world_literature/euripides.html]
*[http://www.imagi-nation.com/moonstruck/clsc4.htm http://www.imagi-nation.com/moonstruck/clsc4.htm]
[[Category:480 BC births]]
[[Category:406 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek d |
Nelson, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:1805 deaths|Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Viscounts in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Royal Navy admirals|Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Napoleonic wars British naval commanders|Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:British sailors|Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Amputees|Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Natives of Norfolk|Nelson]]
[[Category:Knights of the Bath|Nelson]]
[[cs:Horatio Viscount Nelson]]
[[da:Horatio Nelson]]
[[de:Horatio Nelson]]
[[eo:Horatio NELSON]]
[[es:Horacio Nelson]]
[[fi:Horatio Nelson]]
[[fr:Horatio Nelson]]
[[he:הוריישו נלסון]]
[[hr:Horatio Nelson]]
[[it:Horatio Nelson]]
[[ja:ホレーショ・ネルソン]]
[[nl:Horatio Nelson]]
[[no:Horatio Nelson]]
[[pl:Horatio Nelson]]
[[pt:Horatio Nelson]]
[[sk:Horatio Nelson]]
[[sv:Horatio Nelson]]
[[uk:Нельсон Гораціо]]
[[zh:霍雷肖·纳尔逊]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Oceania</title>
<id>14104</id>
<revision>
<id>30479062</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-07T16:07:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{Oceania in topic|History of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">*[[History of Australia]]
*[[History of New Zealand]]
*[[History of the Pacific Islands]]
See also [[history]], [[history of present-day nations and states]].
{{Oceania in topic|History of}}
[[Category:Oceania]]
[[Category:History of Oceania| ]]
[[es:Historia de Oceanía]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hanseatic League</title>
<id>14105</id>
<revision>
<id>41623200</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:19:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kresspahl</username>
<id>259996</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Wendish and Pomeranian Circle */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Carta Marina.jpeg|thumb|right|300px|[[Carta marina]] of [[Baltic Sea]] (1539)]]
The '''Hanseatic League''' ([[German language|German]]: ''die Hanse'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''de Hanze'', [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Hanza'', [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''Hansan'') consisted of an [[military alliance|alliance]] of [[trade|trading]] cities that established and maintained a trade [[monopoly]] over the [[Baltic Sea]] and most of [[Northern Europe]] for a time in the later [[Middle Ages]] and the Early Modern period, between the [[13th century|13th]] and [[17th century | 17th centuries]].
==History==
Historians generally trace the origins of the League to the foundation of the town of [[Lübeck]], established in [[1158]]/[[1159]] after the capture of the area by [[Henry the Lion]] of [[Saxony]]. Exploratory trading adventures, [[raid]]s and [[piracy]] had occurred earlier throughout the Baltic — the [[sailor]]s of [[Gotland]] sailed up rivers as far away as [[Novgorod]], for example — but the scale of international [[economic system|economy]] in the Baltic area remained insignificant before the growth of the Hanseatic League. German cities achieved domination of trade in the Baltic with striking speed over the next century, and Lübeck became a central node in all the sea trade that linked the areas around the [[North Sea]] and the Baltic Sea. The 15th century saw the the climax of Lübeck's hegemony. [[Visby]], one of the midwives of the Hanseatic league in 1358, declined to become a member. Visby dominated trade in the Baltic before the Hanseatic league, with its monopolistic ideology, got rid of the [[Gotland]]ic free-trade competition.
===Foundation===
[[Image:hanseatic league.JPG|right|Hanseatic League]]
Lübeck became a base for northern German [[merchant]]s from Saxony and [[Westphalia]] to spread east and north. Well before the term ''Hanse'' appeared in a document ([[1267]]), merchants in a given city began to form [[guilds]] or Hansa with the intention of trading with towns overseas, especially in the less-developed eastern Baltic area, a source of [[timber]], [[wax]], [[resin]]s, [[fur]]s, even [[rye]] and [[wheat]] brought down on [[barge]]s from the [[hinterland]] to port markets.
Visby functioned as the leading centre in the Baltic before the Hanse. For hundred years the Germans sailed under the Gotlandic flag to Novgorod. Sailing east, Visby merchants established a branch at Novgorod. To begin with the Germans used the Gotlandic Gutagard. With the influx of too many merchants the Gotlanders arranged their own trading stations for the Gemanan Petershof further up from the river. - see a translation of the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1229novgorod-germans.html grant] of privileges to merchants in [[1229]]. They helped establish key towns on the east Baltic coast - Danzig ([[Gdańsk]]) Reval ([[Tallinn]]), [[Riga]] and Dorpat ([[Tartu]]), all founded (like others on the Baltic coast) under [[Lübeck law]], which provided that they had to appeal in all legal matters to Lübeck's city council. Before the foundation of the Hanseatic league in 1358 the word Hanse was not used in the Baltic. The Gotlanders used the word ''varjag''.
Hansa societies worked to acquire special trade privileges for their members. For example, the merchants of the [[Cologne]] (Köln) Hansa contrived to convince [[Henry II of England]] to grant them (in [[1157]]) special trading privileges and market rights which freed them from all [[London]] tolls and allowed them to trade at fairs throughout [[England]]. The "Queen of the Hanse", Lübeck, where traders transshipped goods between the North Sea and the Baltic, gained the Imperial privilege of becoming an [[Imperial Free City|Imperial city]] in [[1227]], the only such city east of the River [[Elbe]].
Lübeck, which had access to the Baltic and North Sea fishing grounds, formed an alliance in 1241 with [[Hamburg]], another trading city that controlled access to salt routes from [[Lueneburg|Lüneburg]]. The allied cities gained control over most of the [[salt-fish]] trade, especially the [[Scania Market]]; and Cologne joined them in the Diet of 1260. In [[1266]] [[Henry III of England]] granted the Lübeck and Hamburg Hansa a charter for operations in England, and the Cologne Hansa joined them in 1282 to form the most powerful Hanseatic colony in London. Much of the drive for this cooperation came from the fragmented nature of territorial government, which failed to provide security for trade. Over the next 50 years the Hanse itself emerged with formal agreements for confederation and cooperation covering the west and east trade routes. The chief city and linchpin remained Lübeck; with the first general Diet of the Hansa held there in [[1356]], the Hanseatic League acquired an official structure and could date its official founding.
===Expansion===
[[Image:Haupt_Routen_Hanse.png|350px|thumb|Main Trading Route of the Hanseatic League]]
Lübeck's location on the Baltic provided access for trade with [[Scandinavia]] and [[Russia]], putting it in direct competition with the Scandinavians who had previously controlled most of the Baltic trade routes. A treaty with the Visby Hansa put an end to competition: through this treaty the Lübeck merchants also gained access to the inland [[Russia]]n port of Novgorod, where they built a trading post or ''Kontor''. Other such alliances formed throughout the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The League never became a closely-managed formal organisation. Assemblies of the Hanseatic Towns met irregularly in Lübeck for ''Hansetag'', from 1356 onwards, but many towns chose not to send representatives and decisions did not bind individual cities. Over time, the network of alliances grew to include a flexible roster of 70 to 170 cities (Braudel 1984).
The league was able to establish additional ''Kontors'' in [[Bruges]] (in present-day [[Belgium]]), [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]] (Norway), [[Copenhagen]] (Denmark) and [[London]] (England). These trading posts became significant enclaves. The London ''Kontor'', established in 1320, stood west of [[London Bridge]] near Upper Thames Street. ([[Cannon Street station]] occupies the site [[as of 2006 | now]].) It grew significantly over time into a walled community with its own warehouses, weighhouse, church, offices and houses, reflecting the importance and scale of the activity carried on. It is first referred to as the [[Steelyard]] (''der Stahlhof'') in [[1422]]. In addition to the major Kontor, individual ports had a representative merchant and warehouse. In England these were found in [[Boston, Lincolnshire|Boston]], [[Bristol]], Bishop's Lynn (now [[King's Lynn]], the sole remaining Hanseatic warehouse in England), [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]], [[Ipswich]], [[Norwich]], [[Great Yarmouth|Yarmouth]] and [[York]].
The primary goods for trade were timber, furs, resin (or tar), flax, honey, wheat and rye from the east to Belgium and England with cloth and increasingly manufactured goods going in the other direction. Metal ore (principally copper and iron) and herring were sent south from Sweden.
[[Image:Tallinn & Helsinki 046 - Tallinn Town Hall.jpeg|thumb|left|Town Hall of Reval (now [[Tallinn]], [[Estonia]])]]
German colonists under strict Hanse supervision built numerous Hanse towns in the Baltic like Reval (Tallinn), Riga, and Dorpat (Tartu), some of which are still filled with buildings and bear the style of their Hanseatic days. [[Livonia]] (presently [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]]) had its own Hanseatic parliament (diet), and all of its major towns were members of the Hanseatic League.
===Zenith===
Eventually, the Hanse capital was moved to [[Danzig]] (Gdańsk) {{fact}}, which was the main port for merchandise brought up the [[Vistula]] river. Other important cities which were members of the Hanse were [[Toruń]] (Thorn), [[Elbląg]] (Elbing), [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]], and [[Kraków]].
[[Image: |
ashington Irving]], American author (d. [[1859]])
*[[1814]] - [[Lorenzo Snow]], 5th president of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (d. [[1901]])
*[[1822]] - [[Edward Everett Hale]], American writer, (d. [[1909]])
*[[1823]] - [[William Marcy Tweed]], American political boss (d. [[1878]])
*[[1880]] - [[Otto Weininger]], Austrian philosopher (d. [[1903]])
*[[1881]] - [[Alcide De Gasperi]], [[Prime Minister of Italy]] (d. [[1954]])
*[[1885]] - [[Allan Dwan]], Canadian-born American film director (d. [[1981]])
*[[1889]] - [[Grigoraş Dinicu]], Romanian composer and violinist (d. [[1949]])
*[[1893]] - [[Leslie Howard]], English actor (d. [[1943]])
*[[1895]] - [[Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco]], Italian composer (d. [[1968]])
*[[1898]] - [[George Jessel (actor)|George Jessel]], American comedian (d. [[1981]])
*1898 - [[Henry Luce]], American publisher (d. [[1967]])
*[[1904]] - [[Iron Eyes Cody]], American actor (d. [[1999]])
*[[1913]] - [[Per Borten]], Premier of Norway (d. [[2005]])
*[[1916]] - [[Herb Caen]], American newspaper columnist (d. [[1997]])
*[[1921]] - [[Jan Sterling]], American actress (d. [[2004]])
*[[1924]] - [[Marlon Brando]], American actor (d. [[2004]])
*1924 - [[Doris Day]], American actress
*[[1925]] - [[Tony Benn]], British politician
*[[1926]] - [[Gus Grissom]], astronaut (d. [[1967]])
*[[1928]] - [[Don Gibson]], American country musician (d. [[2003]])
*1928 - [[Kevin Hagen]], American actor (d. [[2005]])
*[[1929]] - [[Miyoshi Umeki]], Japanese actress
*[[1930]] - [[Lawton Chiles]], U.S. Senator from Florida and Governor of Florida (d. [[1998]])
*1930 - [[Helmut Kohl]], [[Chancellor of Germany]]
*[[1934]] - [[Jane Goodall]], English zoologist
*[[1936]] - [[Scott LaFaro]], American musician (d. [[1961]])
*[[1938]] - [[Jeff Barry]], American songwriter and record producer
*[[1941]] - [[Eric Braeden]], German-born actor
*1941 - [[Philippe Wynne]], American musician (d. [[1984]])
*1941 - [[Jan Berry]], American musician ([[Jan and Dean]]) (d. [[2004]])
*[[1942]] - [[Marek Perepeczko]], Polish actor (d. [[2005]])
*1942 - [[Marsha Mason]], American actress
*1942 - [[Wayne Newton]], American singer
*1942 - [[Billy Joe Royal]], American singer
*[[1943]] - [[Jonathan Lynn]], British actor and comedy writer
*1943 - [[Richard Manuel]], Canadian musician and songwriter (d. [[1986]])
*[[1944]] - [[Tony Orlando]], American musician
*[[1948]] - [[Carlos Salinas]], [[President of Mexico]]
*[[1949]] - [[Richard Thompson]], British musician and songwriter
*1949 - [[Lyle Alzado]], American football player
*[[1954]] - [[Elisabetta Brusa]], Italian composer
*[[1956]] - [[Ray Combs]], American game show host and comedian (d. [[1996]])
*[[1958]] - [[Alec Baldwin]], American actor
*[[1959]] - [[David Hyde Pierce]], American actor
*[[1961]] - [[Eddie Murphy]], American actor and comedian
*[[1962]] - [[Mike Ness]], American musician ([[Social Distortion]])
*[[1964]] - [[Bjarne Riis]], Danish cyclist
*[[1968]] - [[Sebastian Bach]], Canadian musician ([[Skid Row (heavy metal band)|Skid Row]])
*1968 - [[Charlotte Coleman]], British actress (d. [[2001]])
*[[1972]] - [[Jennie Garth]], American actress
*[[1973]] - [[Matthew Ferguson]], Canadian actor
*[[1975]] - [[Michael Olowokandi]], Nigerian basketball player
*[[1976]] - [[Drew Shirley]], American musician ([[Switchfoot]])
*1976 - [[Will Mellor]], British actor
*[[1978]] - [[G. M. Palmer]], American poet and editor
*[[1979]] - [[Daniel Lane]], British music journalist
*[[1982]] - [[Fler]], German rapper
*[[1986]] - [[Amanda Bynes]], American actress and show host
==Deaths==
*[[33]] - [[Jesus]] (b. [[1]]), [[Christian]] icon, believed to have conquered death on [[5 April]], [[33]] ([[Easter Sunday]])
*[[963]] - [[William III of Aquitaine|William III, Duke of Aquitaine]] (b. [[915]])
*[[1287]] - [[Pope Honorius IV]]
*[[1350]] - [[Eudes IV, Duke of Burgundy]] (b. [[1295]])
*[[1606]] - [[Charles Blount, 1st Earl of Devon]], English politician (b. [[1563]])
*[[1680]] - [[Shivaji]], founder of the Maratha Empire (b. [[1630]])
*[[1682]] - [[Bartolomé Estéban Murillo]], Spanish painter (b. [[1618]])
*[[1691]] - [[Jean Petitot]], Swiss enamel painter (b. [[1608]])
*[[1695]] - [[Melchior d'Hondecoeter]], Dutch painter
*[[1717]] - [[Jacques Ozanam]], French mathematician (b. [[1640]])
*[[1728]] - [[James Anderson (lawyer)|James Anderson]], Scottish lawyer (b. [[1662]])
*[[1792]] - [[George Pocock]], British admiral (b. [[1706]])
*1792 - [[John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich]], English statesman (b. [[1718]])
*[[1827]] - [[Ernst Chladni]], German physicist (b. [[1856]])
*[[1849]] - [[Juliusz Słowacki]], Polish poet (b. [[1809]])
*[[1868]] - [[Franz Berwald]], Swedish composer and inventor (b. [[1796]])
*[[1882]] - [[Jesse James 1847|Jesse James]], American outlaw (b. [[1847]])
*[[1897]] - [[Johannes Brahms]], German composer (b. [[1833]])
*[[1901]] - [[Richard D'Oyly Carte]], British impresario (b. [[1844]])
*[[1932]] - [[Wilhelm Ostwald]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1853]])
*[[1936]] - [[Bruno Hauptmann]], German killer of Charles Lindbergh III (b. [[1899]])
*[[1950]] - [[Kurt Weill]], German composer (b. [[1900]])
*[[1965]] - [[Ernst Kirchweger]], Austrian communist and resistance fighter
*[[1971]] - [[Joseph Valachi]], American gangster (b. [[1904]])
*[[1972]] - [[Ferde Grofé]], American composer (b. [[1882]])
*[[1982]] - [[Warren Oates]], American character actor (b. [[1928]])
*[[1986]] - [[Richard Manuel]], Canadian musician ([[The Band]]) (b. [[1943]])
*1986 - [[Peter Pears]], English tenor (b. [[1910]])
*[[1987]] - [[Tom Sestak]], American football player (b. [[1936]])
*[[1990]] - [[Sarah Vaughn]], American singer (b. [[1924]])
*[[1991]] - [[Graham Greene]], English writer (b. [[1904]])
*1991 - [[Charles Goren]], American bridge player, writer, and columnist (b. [[1901]])
*[[1993]] - [[Pinky Lee]], American children's television host (b. [[1907]])
*[[1996]] - [[Ron Brown (U.S. politician)|Ron Brown]], U.S. Secretary of Commerce (b. [[1941]])
*1996 - [[Carl Stokes]], Mayor of Cleveland, Ohio (b. [[1927]])
*[[1998]] - [[Rob Pilatus]], American entertainer and criminal ([[Milli Vanilli]]) (b. [[1965]])
*[[2000]] - [[Terence McKenna]], American writer and philosopher (b. [[1946]])
*[[2002]] - [[Frank Tovey]] (aka [[Fad Gadget]]), British singer and musician (b. [[1956]])
*[[2005]] - [[Tony Croatto]], Italian-born singer (b. [[1940]])
==Holidays and observances==
In [[Iran]], people play jokes on each other on April 3, the 13th day of the [[Persian calendar]] new year ([[Norooz]]). This day is called "Sizdah bedar" (Out-door thirteen). It is believed that people should go out on this date in order to escape the [[unlucky number|bad luck of number]] [[13 (number)#As lucky, unlucky, or significant number|13]].
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/3 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/3 Today in History: April 3]
----
[[April 2]] - [[April 4]] - [[March 3]] - [[May 3]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:3 April]]
[[ar:3 إبريل]]
[[an:3 d'abril]]
[[ast:3 d'abril]]
[[bg:3 април]]
[[be:3 красавіка]]
[[bs:3. april]]
[[ca:3 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 3]]
[[cv:Ака, 3]]
[[co:3 d'aprile]]
[[cs:3. duben]]
[[cy:3 Ebrill]]
[[da:3. april]]
[[de:3. April]]
[[et:3. aprill]]
[[el:3 Απριλίου]]
[[es:3 de abril]]
[[eo:3-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 3]]
[[fo:3. apríl]]
[[fr:3 avril]]
[[fy:3 april]]
[[fur:3 di Avrîl]]
[[ga:3 Aibreán]]
[[gl:3 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 3일]]
[[hr:3. travnja]]
[[io:3 di aprilo]]
[[id:3 April]]
[[ia:3 de april]]
[[ie:3 april]]
[[is:3. apríl]]
[[it:3 aprile]]
[[he:3 באפריל]]
[[jv:3 April]]
[[ka:3 აპრილი]]
[[csb:3 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:3'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 3]]
[[lb:3. Abrëll]]
[[li:3 april]]
[[hu:Április 3]]
[[mk:3 април]]
[[ms:3 April]]
[[nap:3 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:3 april]]
[[ja:4月3日]]
[[no:3. april]]
[[nn:3. april]]
[[oc:3 d'abril]]
[[pl:3 kwietnia]]
[[pt:3 de Abril]]
[[ro:3 aprilie]]
[[ru:3 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 3.]]
[[sq:3 Prill]]
[[scn:3 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 3]]
[[sk:3. apríl]]
[[sl:3. april]]
[[sr:3. април]]
[[fi:3. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:3 april]]
[[tl:Abril 3]]
[[tt:3. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 3]]
[[th:3 เมษายน]]
[[vi:3 tháng 4]]
[[tr:3 Nisan]]
[[uk:3 квітня]]
[[ur:3 اپریل]]
[[wa:3 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 3]]
[[zh:4月3日]]
[[pam:Abril 3]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</title>
<id>2280</id>
<revision>
<id>15900710</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-02T08:17:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tannin</username>
<id>6169</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert to point at the entry - recovering from clumsy and unwarranted cut & paste move</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Giant Panda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alopex lagopus</title>
<id>2281</id>
<revision>
<id>17753454</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-28T11:37:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tannin</username>
<id>6169</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arctic Fox]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexis Korner</title>
<id>2282</id>
<revision>
<id>41007352</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T12:58:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Radio 1]] to [[BBC Radio 1]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexis Korner''' ([[April 19]], [[1928]] Paris - [[January 1]], [[1984]] London), was an English [[blues music]]ian.
Korner is probably better remembered as a networker and blues historian alhough he was a proficient guitarist and singer himself. Often referred to as "the father of British blues", Korner was instrumental in br |
rent''' is an [[ecumenical council]] recognized by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] held from [[December 13]], [[1545]], to [[December 4]], [[1563]]. It was held in the Italian city of [[Trento|Trent]].
It is considered one of the most important councils in the history of the Roman Catholic Church, establishing church doctrine in response to the [[Reformation]] and condemning [[Protestantism]]. It clearly specified Catholic doctrines on [[salvation]], the [[Catholic sacraments|sacrament]]s and the [[Biblical canon]], and standardized the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] throughout the church, largely abolishing local variations. This became called the "[[Tridentine Mass]]", from the city's [[Latin]] name ''Tridentum''.
==Occasion, sessions, and attendance==
In reply to the [[Papal bull]] ''[[Exsurge Domine]]'' of [[Pope Leo X]] (1520), [[Martin Luther]] had burned the document and appealed to a general council. In 1522, German diets joined in the appeal, and [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] seconded and pressed it as a means of reunifying the Church and settling the controversy started by the [[Reformation]]. [[Pope Clement VII]] ([[1523]]-[[1534]]) was vehemently against the idea of a council, agreeing with [[Francis I of France]]. After the deliverances of [[Pope Pius II]] in his bull ''Execrabilis'' (1460) and his reply to the University of Cologne (1463), setting aside the theory of the supremacy of general councils laid down by the [[Council of Constance]], it was the papal policy to avoid councils.
[[Pope Paul III]], seeing that the [[Protestant Reformation]] was no longer a few preachers, but that various princes had joined in the new ideas, desired a council, but when he proposed the idea to his cardinals, it was unanimously voted against. Nonetheless, he sent Nuncios throughout Europe to propose the idea. France and most of the German Protestants refused the invitation. Unable, however, to resist the urgency of Charles V, the pope, after proposing Mantua as the place of meeting, convened the council as exclusively Roman at Trent (at that time a free city of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] under a prince-bishop), on Dec. 13, 1545; it was transferred to Bologna in Mar., 1547 from fear of the plague; indefinitely prorogued, Sept. 17, 1549; reopened at Trent, May 1, 1551, by [[Pope Julius III]]; broken up by the sudden victory of Elector Maurice of Saxony over the Emperor Charles V., and his march into Tyrol, Apr. 28, 1552; and recalled by [[Pope Pius IV]] for the last time, Jan. 18, 1562, when it continued to its final adjournment, Dec. 4, 1563. It closed with "[[Anathema]] to all heretics, anathema, anathema."
The history of the council is divided into three distinct periods; from 1545 to 1549, from 1551 to 1552, and from 1562 to 1563. The last was the most important. The number of attending members in the three periods varied considerably. It increased toward the close, but never reached the number of the first ecumenical council at Nicaea, (which had 318 members), nor of the last of the Vatican (which numbered 764). The decrees were signed by 255 members, including four papal legates, two cardinals, three patriarchs, twenty-five archbishops, 168 bishops, two-thirds of them being Italians. Lists of the signers are added to the best editions of the decrees. The Italian and Spanish prelates were vastly preponderant in power and numbers. At the passage of the most important decrees not more than sixty prelates were present.
[[Image: Council Trent.jpg|frame|A session of the Council of Trent, from an ancient engraving]]
==Objects and general results==
The object of the council was twofold:
#To condemn the principles and doctrines of [[Protestantism]], and to define the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church on all disputed points. It is true the emperor intended it to be a strictly general or truly ecumenical council, at which the Protestants should have a fair hearing. He secured, during the council's second period, 1551-52, an invitation, twice given, to the Protestants to be present, and the council issued a letter of safe-conduct (thirteenth session) and offered them the right of discussion, but denied them a vote. [[Melanchthon]] and [[Johann Brenz]], with some other German Lutherans, actually started in 1552 on the journey to Trent. Brenz offered a confession, and Melanchthon, who got no farther than Nuremberg, took with him the ironic statement known as the ''Confessio Saxonica''. But the refusal to give to the Protestants the right to vote and the consternation produced by the success of Maurice in his campaign against Charles V. in 1552 effectually put an end to Protestant cooperation.
#To effect a reformation in discipline or administration. This object had been one of the causes calling forth the reformatory councils, and had been lightly touched upon by the [[Fifth Council of the Lateran]] under [[Pope Julius II]] and [[Pope Leo X]]. The corrupt administration of the Church was one of the secondary causes of the Reformation. Twenty-five public sessions were held, but nearly half of them were spent in solemn formalities. The chief work was done in committees or congregations. The entire management was in the hands of the papal legate. The liberal elements lost out in the debates and voting. The council abolished some of the most notorious abuses, and introduced or recommended disciplinary reforms affecting the sale of [[indulgence]]s, the morals of convents, the education of the clergy, the non-residence of bishops (also bishops having plurality of benefices which was fairly common), and the careless fulmination of censures, and forbade dueling. Although liberal evangelical sentiments were uttered by some of the members in favor of the supreme authority of the Scriptures, and justification by faith, no concession whatever was made to Protestantism.
#The church's interpretation of the Bible was final. Any Christian who substituted his or her own interpretation was a heretic.
#Christians need faith and good works for salvation. They were not saved by faith alone, as [[Martin Luther]] argued.
#The Bible and Church tradition were equally powerful authorities for guiding Christian life.
#[[Indulgences]] were valid expressions of faith. (But the false selling of indulgences was banned.)
The doctrinal decisions of the council are divided into decrees (''decreta''), which contain the positive statement of the Roman [[dogma]]s, and into short canons (''canones''), which condemn the dissenting Protestant views with the concluding "''anathema sit''" (or let him/he is anathema). They are stated with great clearness and precision. The decree on justification betrays special ability and theological circumspection.
==The canons and decrees==
The '''doctrinal''' acts are as follows: after reaffirming the [[Nicene Creed|Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed]] (third session), the decree was passed (fourth session) confirming that the [[deuterocanonical books]] were on a par with the other books of the [[biblical canon|canon]] (against Luther's omission of these books in his translation) and coordinating church tradition with the Scriptures as a rule of faith. The [[Vulgate]] translation was affirmed to be authoritative for the
text of Scripture.
[[Justification (theology)|Justification]] (sixth session) was declared to be offered upon the basis of faith and good works as opposed to the Protestant doctrine of faith alone, and faith was treated as a progressive work. The idea of man being utterly passive under the influence of [[divine grace|grace]] was also rejected.
The greatest weight in the Council's decrees is given to the [[sacrament]]s. The sacramental nature of the seven sacraments was affirmed and the [[Eucharist]] pronounced to be a true propitiatory sacrifice as well as a sacrament, in which the bread and wine were [[consecration|consecrated]] into the Eucharist (thirteenth and twenty-second sessions). The term [[transubstantiation]] was used by the Council, but the specific [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] explanation given by [[Scholasticism]] was not cited as dogmatic. Instead, the decree states that [[Jesus|Christ]] is "really, truly, substantially present" in the consecrated forms. The sacrifice of the [[Roman Mass|Mass]] was to be offered for dead and living alike and in giving to the apostles the command "do this in remembrance of me," Christ conferred upon them a sacerdotal power. The practice of withholding the cup from the laity was confirmed (twenty-first session) as one which the Church had commanded from of old for good and sufficient reasons; yet in certain cases the pope was made the supreme arbiter as to whether the rule should be strictly maintained.
[[Holy Orders|Ordination]] (twenty-third session) was defined to imprint an [[sacramental character|indelible character]] on the soul. The priesthood of the New Testament takes the place of the Levitical priesthood. To the performance of its functions, the consent of the people is not necessary.
In the decrees on marriage (twenty-fourth session) the excellence of the [[celibacy|celibate]] state was reaffirmed (see also [[clerical celibacy]]), concubinage condemned, and the validity of marriage made dependent upon its being performed before a priest and two witnesses. In the case of a [[divorce]] the right of the innocent party to marry again was denied so long as the other party is alive, even if the other may have committed adultery.
In the twenty-fifth and last session, the doctrines of [[purgatory]], the invocation of [[saint]]s, and the veneration of [[relic]]s were reaffirmed, as also the efficacy of indulgences as dispensed by the Church according to the power given her, but with some cautionary recommendations.
The council appointed, in [[1562]] (eighteenth session), a commission to prepare a list of forbidden books (''[[Index Librorum Prohibitorum|Index librorum prohibi |
rs of his life, established the Maillol Museum in [[Paris]].
==Other links==
* [http://www.ilovefiguresculpture.com/masters/maillol/maillol.html Masters of 20th Century Figure Sculpture]
* [http://www.museemaillol.com/index2.html Maillol Museum]
[[Category:1861 births|Maillol, Aristide]]
[[Category:1944 deaths|Maillol, Aristide]]
[[Category:Catalan painters|Maillol, Aristide]]
[[Category:Catalan sculptors|Maillol, Aristide]]
[[Category:French painters|Maillol, Aristide]]
[[Category:French sculptors|Maillol, Aristide]]
[[Category:Modern sculptors|Maillol, Aristide]]
[[Category:Road accident victims|Maillol, Aristide]]
[[de:Aristide Maillol]]
[[fr:Aristide Maillol]]
[[nl:Aristide Maillol]]
[[pt:Aristide Maillol]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antonio Canova</title>
<id>2064</id>
<revision>
<id>40287769</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T15:14:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.128.174.191</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Notable works by Canova */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Antonio Canova''' ([[November 1]], [[1757]] - [[October 13]], [[1822]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[sculpture|sculptor]] who became famous for his [[marble sculpture]]s that delicately rendered [[nudity|nude]] flesh. The epitome of the [[neoclassicism|neoclassical]] sculptor, his work marked a return to [[classical]] refinement after the theatrical excesses of [[Baroque art]].
Canova was born in [[Possagno]] in the [[Province of Treviso]] where his family had for generations been [[stone cutter|stone cutter]]s; as a result and he learned to cut marble at a very early age. When only twelve years old he modelled a lion in butter, that was so liked by Signor Falieri that he sent him to be taught by Torretti, the most noted sculptor of the time. He studied ancient art and made many statues of classical subjects, as well as many monuments, busts and statues of living people, among them [[Napoleon]] and [[George Washington]]. The large fortune which he made was mostly spent in helping the poor, or in assisting other artists, he was made a [[nobleman]] and received many honors.
Canova died in [[Venice]] aged sixty-five and was buried in the town of his birth. His heart was interred in a marble pyramid he designed as a [[mausoleum]] for the painter [[Titian]] in the church of [[Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari|Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari]] in Venice, now a monument to the sculptor.
Among Canova's pupils were the [[United Kingdom|British]] sculptors Sir [[Richard Westmacott]] and [[John Gibson (sculptor)|John Gibson]].
=== Notable works by Canova ===
* [[The Three Graces]]
* [[Cupid and Psyche]]
* [[Cupid and Psyche with Butterfly]]
* [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] and [[Adonis]]
* [[Daedalus]] and [[Icarus (mythology)|Icarus]]
* [[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]] slays [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]]
* [[Hebe]] (1816), [[Hermitage Museum|Hermitage]] and [[Forlì]]
Canova often executed more than one copy of a successful sculpture; there are for example four versions of [[Hebe]] (the last of them is in the Museum of [[Forlì]] [http://www.comune.forli.fo.it/cultura/musei1.asp], in [[Italy]]) two copies of [[The Three Graces]] and two of [[Cupid and Psyche]].
[[Image:Persus-with-the-head-of-med.jpg|Thumb|right|250px|[[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]] displays [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]]'s head in this [[1806]] Canova.]]
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03298b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry for Antonio Canova]
*[http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=rs_display_res&critere=antonio+canova&operator=AND&nbToDisplay=5&langue=fr French page on Louvre site lnking to three sculptures by Canova and two portraits of the artist]
*[http://www.insecula.com/contact/A006518.html Insecula.com: French language biography and links to pages on works]
*[http://www.cis.nctu.edu.tw/~whtsai/Trip%20to%20Russia/Main%20pages/Representative%20pictures%20for%20days/06%20A%20marble%20sculpture%20by%20Antonio%20Canova%20---%20The%20Three%20Graces.JPG Canova's ''Three Graces'' (first version) in the Hermitage museum, St. Petersburg]
*[http://community.webshots.com/photo/326866966/326866966ttQPqU Webshots Community picture of Canova's '''Three Graces'' (second version) in the V&amp;A (links to bigger image)]
*[http://community.webshots.com/photo/129745084/129745932sUQTgh Perseus and Medusa at Webshots Community (links to bigger image)]
*[http://community.webshots.com/photo/188747586/188753190zvQmQe Another view on Webshots (links to bigger image)]
*[http://community.webshots.com/photo/199795066/200922982yoxIIA Waist up, another Webshots photo]
*[http://community.webshots.com/photo/188540285/188550279aIMUbU Perseus back view from Webshots]
*[http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria/Canova%20Antonio/index.html Antonio Canova: Photo Gallery]
[[Category:1822 deaths|Canova, Antonio]]
[[Category:Italian sculptors|Canova, Antonio]]
[[Category:Neoclassical sculptors|Canova, Antonio]]
[[de:Antonio Canova]]
[[es:Antonio Canova]]
[[fr:Antonio Canova]]
[[it:Antonio Canova]]{{Link FA|it}}
[[no:Antonio Canova]]
[[pl:Antonio Canova]]
[[ru:Канова, Антонио]]
[[sv:Antonio Canova]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Auguste Rodin</title>
<id>2065</id>
<revision>
<id>39677144</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T02:37:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rossp</username>
<id>732145</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|the artist and sculptor Auguste Rodin|"Rodan"|Rodan (disambiguation)}}
[[Image:Netsurf11 - Rodin.jpg|thumb|200px|Auguste Rodin]]
[[Image:Rodin burghers of calais.jpg|thumb|200px|Rodin's ''[[The Burghers of Calais]]'' in [[Calais]], [[France]].]]
[[Image:Hoellentor.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[The Gates of Hell]]'', [[Musée Rodin]].]]
'''Auguste Rodin''' ([[November 12]], [[1840]] &ndash; [[November 17]], [[1917]]) was a [[France|French]] [[Sculpture|sculptor]].
Born '''François-Auguste-René Rodin''', to a working class family in Paris, he is often given a pivotal role in the history of modern [[sculpture]], as
both excelling at and rebelling from the [[Beaux-arts]] tradition. His unique, virtuoso ability to organize a complex, turbulent, deeply pocketed surface set him apart from the figure sculpture traditions before and since his time.
Despite the talent evident in his portrait of the local priest who helped him discover his vocation, Rodin was denied admission to the Beaux Arts academy. He was accepted, however, at a trade school for decorative sculpture, and later moved to Belgium to work in a studio that produced that kind of work.
One of his early works, ''The Age of Bronze'', created during his years in Belgium, looked so realistic that the sculptor was accused of ''[[surmoulage]]'' (taking plaster moulds from the live model).
Rodin struggled to clear his name and in 1880 was awarded the commission to create a portal for the planned Museum of Decorative Arts. Although the museum was never built, Rodin worked for 37 years on this monumental sculptural group, ''[[The Gates of Hell]]'', depicting scenes from [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]'s ''[[The Divine Comedy|Inferno]]'' in high relief.
Many of his best-known sculptures, like ''[[The Thinker]]'' (''Le Penseur'', originally titled ''The Poet''), representing the poet Dante), ''[[The Three Shades]]'' (''Les Trois Ombres''), and ''[[The Kiss (Rodin sculpture)|The Kiss]]'' (''Le Baiser'') were designed as figures for this monumental landscape of eternal passion and punishment, and only later presented as works in their own right. Other well-known works derived from ''The Gates'' are: the ''Ugolino'' group, ''Fugitive Love'', ''The Falling Man'', ''The Sirens'', ''Fallen Caryatid Carrying her Stone'', ''Damned Women'', ''The Standing Fauness'', ''The Kneeling Fauness'', ''The Martyr'', ''She Who Once Was the Beautiful Helmetmaker's Wife'', ''Glaucus'', ''Polyphem''.
Through his method of ''[[marcottage]]'', he used the same sculptural elements time and time again, under different names and in different combinations.
Instead of copying traditional academic postures, Rodin preferred to work with amateur models, street performers, acrobats, strong men and dancers. In his [[atelier]], the models walked around freely while the sculptor made quick sketches in clay, which were later fine-tuned, cast in plaster, and forged into bronze or marble. Rodin was fascinated by dance and spontaneous movement; his ''John the Baptist'' shows a walking preacher, displaying two phases of the same stride simultaneously.
Rodin's personal life has captured the attention of history almost as much as his sculpture.
In [[1883]], Rodin agreed to supervise [[Alfred Boucher]]'s sculpture course during his absence and so met the 18-year-old sculptress [[Camille Claudel]]. Rodin fell in love with his talented pupil, and Claudel recognized her chance to be tutored by the greatest sculptor talent of her time, who was just breaking through to fame. They became a creative and intimate couple. Claudel inspired Rodin as a model for many of his tragic love couples and assisted him during his work on another important commission, ''[[The Burghers of Calais]]'' (''Les Bourgeois de Calais'').
[[Image:Rodin study of Jean de Fiennes Figure 1884.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Rodin figure displayed near the Norton Simon Museum -Pasadena CA. {{3d_glasses}}]]
Although they shared an atelier at a small old castle (68 Boulevard d'Italie, Paris), Rodin refused to give up his ties with [[Rose Beuret]], his loyal companion during his years of poverty in Belgium and mother of their son [[Auguste-Eugène Beuret]], born [[January 18]], [[1866]]. He never fulfilled a contract with Claudel to give up all contact with other women, and marry her. After nearly 15 years, the couple parted. Claudel went her own artistic way, but found herself isolated.
Rodin |
to a network of canals that provide a link to the River Rhine. The Oder-Spree Kanal links Berlin's River Spree with the [[Oder River|River Oder]], which flows into the Baltic Sea near Szczecin.
[[Image:Teltowkanal Tempelhof1.JPG|thumb|400px|The Teltowkanal at Tempelhof]]The most important canals with Berlin run roughly east to west between the Rivers Spree and Havel. The canal system to the north of the Spree begins with the Berlin-Spandauer Schiffartskanal, which runs from the Spree near Lehrter Bahnhof to the edge of Charlottenburg, where it connects with the Westhafenkanal, which reenters the Spree farther west in Charlottenburg, and with the Hohenzollernkanal, which runs to the River Havel above (north of) Spandau.
The main canal to the south of the Spree is the Teltowkanal, which runs from an arm of the upper Spree south of Köpenick through the southern part of Berlin to an arm of the Havel just east of Potsdam. A shorter canal, the Landwehrkanal, parallels the Spree just to the south of the river. It begins at the Spree between Treptow and Kreuzberg and rejoins the Spree in Charlottenburg. The Neuköllner Schiffahrtskanal connects the Landwehrkanal with the Teltowkanal; while the Britzer Zweigkanal connects the Teltowkanal with the Spree at Baumschulenweg.
Berlin's largest port is the Westhafen (“west port”), in Moabit (Mitte), with an area of 173,000 m² (42.75 [[acre]]s). It lies at the intersection of the Berlin-Spandauer Schiffahrtkanal, the Westhafenkanal, and the Hohenzollernkanal. It handles the transshipment of grain and pieced and heavy goods. The Südhafen (“south port”), which actually lies along the Havel in Spandau, in far western Berlin, covers an area of about 103,000 m² (25.5 acres) and also handles the transshipment of pieced and heavy goods. The Osthafen (“east port”), with an area of 57,500 m² (14.2 acres), lies along the Spree in Friedrichshain. The Hafen Neukölln, with only 19,000 m² (4.7 acres), is located along the Neuköllner Schiffahrtskanal in Neukölln. It handles the transshipment of building materials.
===Power supply===
The [[power supply]] of Berlin has some peculiarities. In World War II it was planned to supply the grid of Berlin over an [[HVDC]]-underground [[cable]] from Dessau power station. The construction of this facility was begun in 1943, but was abandoned (see [[Elbe-Project]]).
During the time of the division, the power grid of former West Berlin was cut off from the power grid of the surrounding countryside. [[Electricity]] supply was from thermal [[power station]]s in the city (Reuter, Wilmersdorf ,etc.). For [[buffer|buffering]] the load peaks, accumulators were installed in the 1980s in some of these power stations, which were connected by static inverters to the power grid and were loaded during times of low [[power consumption]] and unloaded during times of high consumption. In 1993 the power connections to the surrounding country, which were broken in 1951, were restored again. In the western districts of Berlin nearly all power lines are underground cables - only a 380 kV and a 110 kV-line, which run from Reuter power station to the urban motorway, are overhead lines. In Berlin there is the longest 380 kV three phase cable, the [[380kV-crossing Berlin]]. It may be the most expensive power line in Germany ([http://www.seo.ag/ SEO]).
Berlin's power supply is operated by the Swedish firm [[Vattenfall]]. The firm has come under criticism for relying more heavily than other electricity producers in Germany on [[lignite]] (brown coal) as an energy source, because burning lignite produces harmful emissions. However, the firm has announced a commitment to shift towards reliance on cleaner, renewable energy sources.
==Government==
=== The state===
Berlin is the national capital of the Federal Republic of Germany. Since German reunification on [[3 October]] [[1990]] it has been one of the three [[city state]]s, together with [[Hamburg]] and [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]], among the present 16 German states or ''[[States of Germany|Bundesländer]]''.
[[Image:Sitzverteilung Berliner Abgeordnetenhaus.png|250px|thumb|Distribution of seats in the Berlin House of Representatives (''Abgeordnetenhaus'')]]
The city and state [[parliament]] is the House of Representatives (''Abgeordnetenhaus'') with 141 seats.
Berlin's executive body is the [[Senate]] of Berlin (''Senat von Berlin''). The Senate of Berlin consists of the governing mayor (''Regierender Bürgermeister'') and up to eight senators holding ministerial portfolios. The governing mayor is both lord mayor of the city (''Oberbürgermeister der Stadt'') and prime minister of the federal state (''Ministerpräsident des Bundeslandes'') at the same time. The office of Berlin's governing mayor is in the [[Rotes Rathaus]] (Red City Hall). Presently (January 2006), this office is held by [[Klaus Wowereit]] of the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]] (SPD). The city's government is based on a coalition between the SPD and [[Left Party (Germany)|Die Linke.PDS]], a party formed by a merger of the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS), the successor to the former East German communist party, and a breakaway faction of left-wing former members of the SPD. For earlier mayors, see the [[list of Mayors of Berlin]].
===Berlin's boroughs and localities===
[[Image:Berlin.png|thumb|300px|left|Berlin's boroughs ''(Bezirke)'']]
Berlin is subdivided into 12 [[borough|boroughs]] (''Bezirke'' in German, also sometimes called [[district|districts]] in English). Each borough is subdivided into a number of [[locality|localities]] (''Ortsteil'' in German, also sometimes called subdistricts or [[neighbourhood|neighbourhoods]] in English), which represent the traditional [[urbanised]] areas that inhabitants identify with. Some of these have been rearranged several times over the years. At present the city of Berlin consists of 96 such localities. The localities are often subdivided into a number of city neighbourhoods (usually called ''Kiez'' in German) representing small residential areas.
Each borough is governed by a borough council (''Bezirksamt'') consisting of ten councillors (''Stadträte'') and a borough mayor (''Bezirksbürgermeister''). The borough council is elected by the borough assembly (''Bezirksverordnetenversammlung''). The boroughs of Berlin are not independent municipalities. <!-- ([[urban district]], ''Stadtkreis'') --> The power of borough governments is limited and subordinate to the Senate of Berlin. The borough mayors form the Council of Mayors (''Rat der Bürgermeister''), led by the city's governing mayor (''Regierender Bürgermeister''), which advises the Senate.
The localities have no government bodies of their own, even though most of the localities have historic roots in older municipalities that predate the formation of Greater Berlin on [[1 October]] [[1920]]. The subsequent position of locality representative (''Ortsvorsteher'') was discontinued in favour of borough mayors.
For a map and a list of the current and former borough names, see [[Berlin's 2001 administrative reform]]. For a list of the city's current boroughs and localities, see [[Boroughs and localities of Berlin]]. For a table showing the population of Berlin's boroughs, see [[Berlin population statistics]].
==Education==
Berlin is perhaps Germany's most important centre of higher education and research, with four universities, numerous professional and technical colleges, and a large number of research institutes.
===Universities, colleges, and research institutions===
[[Image:Humboldt Universitaet Berlin.jpg|thumb|400px|Berlin's Humboldt Universität]]Around 150,000 students attend the universities and professional/technical colleges. The three largest universities alone account for around 110,000 students. These are the [[Freie Universität Berlin]] with 40,840 students, the [[Humboldt Universität zu Berlin]] with 36,423 students, and the [[Technische Universität Berlin]] with 31, 547 students. In addition to these universities, there is a wide range of professional and technical colleges training students in a wide range of disciplines, from business and management to the arts.
Berlin also has a large concentration of research institutions independent of, or only loosely connected to its universities. Together with its universities, these research institutions make Berlin one of the most important centres for research in Germany and indeed Europe.
For a list of Berlin's universities, colleges, and research institutions, see [[Universities, colleges, and research institutions in Berlin]].
===Primary and secondary schools===
Berlin has a six-year primary school program. After completing primary school, students may enter one of four types of secondary school: the [[Hauptschule]], the [[Realschule]], the [[Gymnasia and Realgymnasia|Gymnasium]], and the Gesamtschule. The secondary school program also totals six years. (For more information on the German educational system, see [[Education in Germany]].)
==Culture and sights==
Berlin is noted for its numerous cultural institutions, some of which are famous even outside of Germany. In addition, cultural diversity and tolerance remain from the time when West Berlin took pride in its role as a "free city" with the motto "something for everyone." Its current situation and future prospects, however, are strongly influenced by the city's financial crisis, with talk of merging or closing opera companies and concerns about the cost of subsidies for cultural institutions.
Berlin offers one of the most diverse and vibrant nightlife scenes in Europe. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 many buildings in the former city centre of East Berlin (today the district Mitte) were renovated. Many had not been rebuilt since World War II. Illegally occupied by young people, they became a fertile ground for all sorts of [[underground culture|underground |
casks or bottles to allow smoothing of harsh alcohol notes, integration of heavy hop flavours, and/or the introduction of oxidised notes such as wine or sherry flavours. Some beer enthusiasts consider a long conditioning period attractive for various strong beers such as [[Barley wine]]s. There are some beer cafes in Europe, such as Kulminator in Antwerp, which stock beers aged ten years or more. Aged beers such as ''Bass Kings Ale'' from 1902, ''Courage Imperial Russian Stout'' and ''Thomas Hardys Ale'' are particularly valued.
== Ingredients ==
{{main articles|[[Hops]],[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]], [[Brewer's yeast]], [[Malt]] and [[Barley]]}}
The main ingredients of beer are [[water]], [[malt]]ed [[barley]], [[hops]] and [[yeast]]. Other ingredients, such as flavouring or sources of [[sugar]], are called [[adjunct (beer)|adjuncts]] and are commonly used; common adjuncts are corn and sugar. These starches convert in the mashing process to easily fermentable sugars that serve to increase the alcohol content of beer while adding little body or flavor. Major American breweries use relatively high percentages of adjuncts in order to produce very light-bodied beer at 4-5% alcohol by volume.
[[Image:Sjb whiskey malt.jpg|right|thumb|Malted barley]]
#'''Water''': Because beer is composed mainly of water, the source of the water and its characteristics have an important effect on the character of the beer. Many beer styles were influenced or even determined by the characteristics of the water in the region. Although the effect of, and interactions between, various dissolved minerals in brewing water is complex, as a general rule, hard water is more suited to dark styles such as stouts or porters, while very soft water is more suited for brewing light-colored beers, such as pilsners.
#'''Malt''': Among malts, barley malt is the most widely used owing to its high [[amylase]] content, a [[digestion|digestive]] [[enzyme]] which facilitates the breakdown of the starch into sugars. However, depending on what can be [[cultivation|cultivated]] locally, other malted and unmalted grains are also commonly used, including [[wheat]], [[rice]], [[oat]]s, and [[rye]], and less frequently, [[maize]] and [[sorghum]]. Malt is formed from grain by soaking it in water, allowing it to start to germinate, and then drying the germinated grain in a kiln. Malting the grain produces the enzymes that will eventually convert the starches in the grain into fermentable sugars. Different roasting times and temperatures are used to produce different colors of malt from the same grain. Darker malts will produce darker beers. In most cases, two or more types of malt are combined when making modern beers.[[Image:Crushed hop.jpg|right|thumb|Crushed hops used for lambic brewing]]
#'''Hops''': Hops have commonly been used as a bittering agent in beer since the seventeenth century. [[Hop (plant)|Hop]]s contain several characteristics very favorable to beer: (a) hops contribute a [[bitter (taste)|bitterness]] that balances the sweetness of the malt, (b) hops also contribute aromas which range from flowery to citrus to herbal, (c) hops have an [[antibiotic]] effect that favours the activity of brewer's yeast over less desirable microorganisms and (d) the use of hops aids in "head retention", the length of time that foamy head created by the beer's carbonation agent will last. The bitterness of commercially-brewed beers is measured on the [[International Bitterness Units scale]]. While hops plants are grown by farmers all around the world in many different varieties, there is no major commercial use for hops other than in beer.
#'''Yeast''': is a microorganism that is responsible for fermentation. A specific strain of [[yeast]] is chosen depending on the type of beer being produced, the two main strains being [[ale]] yeast (''[[saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'') and [[lager]] yeast (''[[saccharomyces uvarum]]''), with some other variations available, such as [[brettanomyces]] and [[Torulaspora delbrueckii]]. Yeast will [[metabolism|metabolise]] the sugars extracted from the grains, and produce [[Ethanol|alcohol]] and [[carbon dioxide]] as a result. Before yeast's functions were understood, all fermentations were conducted naturally using wild or airborne yeasts known by the name "godisgood"; although a few styles such as [[lambic]]s still rely on this ancient method, most modern fermentations are conducted using pure yeast [[Microbiological culture|cultures]]. On average, beer's alcohol content is between 4% and 6% [[alcohol by volume]], although it can be as low as 2% and as high as 14% under ordinary circumstances and several brewers claim to make beers that are upwards of 20%.
#'''Clarifying agent''': Some brewers add one or more [[clarity|clarifying]] agents to beer that are not required to be published as ingredients. Common examples of these include [[Isinglass]] finings, obtained from [[swimbladder]]s of [[fish]]; kappa [[carrageenan]], derived from seaweed; [[Irish moss]], a type of [[red alga]]; and [[gelatin]]. Since these ingredients may be derived from [[animal]]s, those concerned with the use or consumption of animal products should obtain specific details of the filtration process from the brewer.
== Varieties of beer ==
: ''Main article: [[Beer style]]''
There are many different types of beer, each of which is said to belong to a particular ''style''. A beer's style is a label that describes the overall flavour and often the origin of a beer, according to a system that has evolved by trial and error over many centuries.
A major component of determining the type of beer is the yeast used in the fermentation process. Most beer styles fall into one of two large families: ''ale'', using [[top-fermenting yeast]], or ''lager'', using [[bottom-fermenting yeast]]. Beers that blend the characteristics of ales and lagers are referred to as ''hybrids''.
Alcoholic beverages made from the fermentation of sugars derived from non-grain sources are generally not called "beer," despite being produced by the same [[yeast]]-based biochemical reaction. Fermented honey is called ''[[mead]]'', fermented apple juice is called ''[[cider]]'', fermented pear juice is called ''[[perry]]'', and fermented grape juice is called ''[[wine]]''.
===Ale===
: ''Main article: [[Ale]]''
A modern [[ale]] is commonly defined by the strain of yeast used and the fermenting temperature.
====Strain of Yeast====
An ale yeast is normally considered to be a [[top-fermenting yeast]], though a number of British brewers, such as [[Fullers]] and [[Weltons]], use ale yeast strains that settle at the bottom. Common features of ale yeasts regardless of top or bottom fermentation is that they ferment quicker than lager yeasts, they convert less of the sugar into alcohol (giving a sweeter, fuller body) and they produce more [[esters]] (which give a fruity taste) and diacetyl (which gives a buttery taste).
[[Image:Porter_zywiec.jpg|left|thumb|Żywiec Porter (Brewed in [[Żywiec]], [[Poland]])]]
====Fermenting Temperature====
Ale is typically fermented at higher temperatures than lager beer (15&ndash;23[[celsius|°C]], 60&ndash;75[[fahrenheit|°F]]). Ale yeasts at these temperatures produce significant amounts of [[ester]]s and other secondary flavor and aroma products, and the result is a beer with slightly "fruity" compounds resembling but not limited to [[apple]], [[pear]], [[pineapple]], [[banana]], [[plum]], or [[prune]].
====Stylistic Difference to [[Lager]]====
Stylistic differences between some ales and lagers can be difficult to categorize. [[Steam beer]], [[Kölsch (beer)|Kölsch]] and some modern British Golden Summer Beers are seen as [[Beer#Hybrid beers|hybrids]], using elements of both lager and ale production. Baltic Porter and Bière de Garde may be produced by either lager or ale methods or a combination of both.
However, commonly, lager is perceived to be cleaner tasting, dryer and lighter in the mouth than ale.
===Lager===
: ''Main article: [[Lager]]''
[[Lager]]s are the most commonly-consumed category of beer in the world. They are of [[Central Europe]]an origin, taking their name from the [[German language|German]] ''lagern'' ("to store"). Lager yeast is a [[bottom-fermenting yeast]], and typically undergoes primary fermentation at 7-12°C (45-55°F) (the "fermentation phase"), and then is given a long secondary fermentation at 0-4°C (30-40°F) (the "lagering phase"). During the secondary stage, the lager clears and mellows. The cooler conditions also inhibit the natural production of [[ester]]s and other byproducts, resulting in a "crisper" tasting beer.
Modern methods of producing lager were pioneered by [[Gabriel Sedlmayr]] the Younger, who perfected dark brown lagers at the [[Spaten Brewery]] in [[Bavaria]], and [[Anton Dreher]], who began brewing a lager, probably of amber-red color, in [[Vienna]] in 1840&ndash;1841. With modern improved fermentation control, most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage, typically 1&ndash;3 weeks.
In terms of volume, most of today's lager is based on the [[Pilsner]] style, pioneered in 1842 in the town of [[Plzen|Plzeň]], in the [[Czech beer|Czech Republic]]. The modern Pilsner lager is light in colour and high in carbonation, with a strong hop flavour and an alcohol content of 3&ndash;6% [[alcohol by volume|by volume]]. The [[Pilsner Urquell]] or [[Heineken]] brands of beer are typical examples of pilsner beer.
===Spontaneous fermentation===
:''Main article: [[Lambic]]''
These are beers which use wild yeasts, rather than cultivated ones. All beers before the cultivation of yeast in the 19th century were closer to this style, characterised by their [[sour]] flavours.
===Hybrid beers===
Hybrid or mixed style beers use modern techniques and materials instead of, or in addition to, traditional aspects of brewing |
it was cancelled), the BBC maintained the series was merely "on hiatus" and insisted the show would return.
While in-house production had ceased, the BBC was hopeful of finding an independent production company to re-launch the show. [[Philip Segal]], a British [[expatriate]] who worked for [[Columbia Pictures]]' television arm in the [[United States]], approached the BBC about such a venture. Segal's negotiations eventually led to a [[television movie]]. The movie was broadcast on the [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox Network]] in 1996 as a co-production between Fox, [[Universal Studios|Universal Pictures]], the [[BBC]], and [[BBC Worldwide]]. However, although the film was successful in the UK (with audited viewing figures of 9.1 million), it was less so in the [[United States]] (possibly due to poor scheduling) and did not lead to a series.
Although [[Doctor Who spin-offs|licensed]] media such as novels and audio plays provided new stories, the programme remained dormant until 2003. In September of that year, BBC Television announced the production of a new in-house series after several years of unsuccessful attempts by BBC Worldwide to find backing for a feature film version.
The new series debuted with the episode ''[[Rose (Doctor Who)|Rose]]'' on BBC One on [[March 26]] [[2005]] and the series has since been sold to many other countries (see [[#Viewership|Viewership]]). The American [[Sci Fi Channel (United States)|Sci-Fi Channel]] was announced as the US broadcaster of the series in January 2006, with the programme set to debut in March, one year after the UK showings.
On [[March 30]], [[2005]], the BBC gave the go-ahead for a second series and a Christmas special. On [[June 15]], it was announced that both a third series and a further seasonal episode had been commissioned.
==Format==
During the original 1963&ndash;1989 run, each of the weekly episodes formed part of a contained story (or "[[Serial#Film|serial]]") comprising several parts &mdash; usually either four to six in earlier years and three to four in later years. Three notable exceptions were the epic ''[[The Daleks' Master Plan]]'', which aired in 12 episodes (plus a one-episode teaser entitled ''[[Mission to the Unknown]]'', featuring none of the regular cast); the 10-episode serial ''[[The War Games]]''; and ''[[The Trial of a Time Lord]]'', which ran for 14 episodes (containing four stories often referred to by individual titles, and connected by framing sequences) during [[List of Doctor Who serials#Season 23 (1986)|Season 23]].
The programme was devised to be partly educational and for family viewing on the early Saturday evening schedule. The idea was to alternate stories set during important periods of human history (such as the [[French Revolution]], the [[Roman Empire]], or the [[Battle of Culloden Moor]]), which would educate younger audience members about those events, with stories set either in the future or in outer space, which would enlighten them about science. This was also reflected in the make-up of the Doctor's original companions, one of whom was a science teacher and another a history teacher.
In practice, however, science fiction stories came to dominate the series, and the "historicals", which were not popular with the production team, were dropped entirely after the first few years. While the series continued to make use of historical settings throughout its run, they were generally used as a backdrop for science fiction-themed tales. The series featured only one more purely historical story during its original run: the 1982 serial ''[[Black Orchid (Doctor Who)|Black Orchid]]'', set in 1920s Britain. The programme also rapidly became a national institution, to the point where many renowned actors &mdash; both serious and comedic &mdash; asked for or accepted [[Celebrity appearances in Doctor Who|guest starring roles]] in various stories.
''Doctor Who'' originally ran for [[List of Doctor Who serials|26 seasons]] on the BBC, from [[November 23]], [[1963]] until [[December 6]], [[1989]]. Writers over the years have included [[Terry Nation]], [[Henry Lincoln]], [[Douglas Adams]], [[Robert Holmes (scriptwriter)|Robert Holmes]], [[Terrance Dicks]], [[Dennis Spooner]], [[Eric Saward]], [[Malcolm Hulke]], [[Christopher H. Bidmead]], [[Stephen Gallagher]], [[Brian Hayles]], [[Chris Boucher]], [[Marc Platt]] and [[Ben Aaronovitch]].
As of June 2005, approximately 709 individual ''Doctor Who'' instalments have been televised since 1963, ranging in length from 25-minute episodes (the most common format), to two feature-length productions (1983's ''[[The Five Doctors]]'' and the [[Doctor Who (1996)|1996 television movie]]).
The serial format changed for the 2005 revival. [[List of Doctor Who serials#Series 1 (2005)|Series 1]] consisted of thirteen 45-minute, self-contained episodes (60 minutes with commercials in Canada), with three two-parters and a loose story arc whose elements were brought together in the season finale. For the new show, [[Russell T. Davies]] is principal writer and executive producer, with [[Mark Gatiss]], [[Paul Cornell]], [[Rob Shearman|Robert Shearman]], and [[Steven Moffat]] also contributing scripts. It is expected that ''Doctor Who'' will surpass the number of individual instalments of the ''[[Star Trek]]'' franchise (around 726 episodes) during the third season of the new series.
==The Doctor==
{{main|Doctor (Doctor Who)}}
[[Image:10docs.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The ten faces of the Doctor. <small>Clockwise from top-left: [[William Hartnell]], [[Patrick Troughton]], [[Jon Pertwee]], [[Tom Baker]], [[Peter Davison]], [[Colin Baker]], [[Sylvester McCoy]], [[Paul McGann]], [[Christopher Eccleston]] and [[David Tennant]].</small>]]
The character of the Doctor was initially shrouded in mystery. All that was known about him was that he had a granddaughter, [[Susan Foreman|Susan]], that she was born "in another time, another world", and that both of them were exiles. He also possessed a time-travelling machine called the [[TARDIS]] ('''T'''ime '''A'''nd '''R'''elative '''D'''imension(s) '''I'''n '''S'''pace), which is dimensionally transcendental (larger on the inside than on the outside), and seemingly never fully under his control. The TARDIS originally had the ability to disguise itself according to its environment, but became "stuck" in the form of a [[police box]] after landing in London in 1963, and has remained in that shape ever since (give or take the occasional attempt to fix it). Originally an irascible and highly irritable character, the Doctor was quickly shown to be a man of great intelligence and compassion, who abhorred evil in the universe and would always help others if he could.
Over time, it was revealed that the Doctor was from an extraterrestrial race known as the [[Time Lord]]s from the planet [[Gallifrey]]. The circumstances under which he left his planet were only vaguely alluded to, but were at least partly due to the restrictive nature of Time Lord society, their rules against interfering with the rest of the universe, and his own desire to explore time and space. In the 1996 television movie it was revealed that the Doctor is half-human (on his mother's side), a revelation which proved controversial in some sections of fandom.
The Doctor, like all Time Lords, has the ability to "[[Doctor (Doctor Who)#Changing faces|regenerate]]" his body when he dies, something he can do twelve times. The production team created this concept to allow for re-casting of the part when an actor wanted to leave or otherwise needed to be replaced. So far, ten actors have played the part for television. They, and their tenures, are as follows:
#[[William Hartnell]] ([[1963]]&ndash;1966)
#[[Patrick Troughton]] ([[1966]]&ndash;1969)
#[[Jon Pertwee]] ([[1970]]&ndash;1974)
#[[Tom Baker]] ([[1974]]&ndash;1981)
#[[Peter Davison]] ([[1981]]&ndash;1984)
#[[Colin Baker]] ([[1984]]&ndash;1986)
#[[Sylvester McCoy]] ([[1987]]&ndash;1989, 1996)
#[[Paul McGann]] ([[1996]])
#[[Christopher Eccleston]] ([[2005]])
#[[David Tennant]] ([[2005]]&ndash;present)
[[Image:Bakert.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[Tom Baker]] as the [[Fourth Doctor]].]] [[Richard Hurndall]] played the part of the [[First Doctor]] in the 1983 20th anniversary [[telemovie]], ''[[The Five Doctors]]'', as [[William Hartnell]] had died in 1975. Other actors have also played the Doctor, though rarely more than once: see the [[list of actors who have played the Doctor]] for details.
Prior to 2005, the regeneration was always worked into the storyline. However, in the documentary series ''[[Doctor Who Confidential]]'', Russell T. Davies revealed his reasoning that, after such a long hiatus, a regeneration in the first episode would not just be confusing for new viewers but also lack dramatic impact, as there would be no emotional investment in the character before he was replaced. Accordingly, the 2005 series began with the [[Ninth Doctor]] (played by [[Christopher Eccleston]]) already regenerated, with no appearance by the [[Eighth Doctor]] (previously played by [[Paul McGann]]). It is unlikely that the regeneration of the Eighth Doctor to the Ninth will be seen on screen. The Ninth Doctor does comment on his own appearance in ''Rose'', suggesting that the regeneration happened recently.
Eccleston departed at the end of the 2005 series, and regenerated, in ''[[The Parting of the Ways]]'', into the [[Tenth Doctor]], played by [[David Tennant]]. Tennant's first full episode, ''The Christmas Invasion'', was screened on Christmas Day 2005.
==Companions==
[[Image:Rosetyler.jpg|180px|thumb|[[Billie Piper]] as [[Rose Tyler]], the Doctor's current companion.]]The Doctor almost invariably shares his adventures with up to three [[:Category:Doctor Who companions|companions]] (the only exception being the serial ''[[The Deadly Assassin] |
wo of the most prominent combinatorialists of recent times were the prolific problem-raiser and problem-solver [[Paul Erd&#337;s]], who worked mainly on extremal questions, and [[Gian-Carlo Rota]], who helped to formalize the subject beginning in the [[1960s]], mostly in enumeration and algebraization. The study of how to count objects is sometimes thought of separately as the field of [[enumeration]].
==Enumerative combinatorics==
Calculating the number of ways that certain patterns can be formed is the beginning of combinatorics.
Let ''S'' be a [[set]] with ''n'' objects. [[Combination]]s of ''k'' objects from this set ''S'' are [[subset]]s of ''S'' having ''k'' elements each (where the order of listing the elements does not distinguish two subsets). [[Permutation]]s of ''k'' objects from this set ''S'' refer to ''[[sequence]]s'' of ''k'' different elements of ''S'' (where two sequences are considered different if they contain the same elements but in a different order, or if they have a different length). Formulas for the number of [[permutations and combinations]] are readily available and important throughout combinatorics.
More generally, given an infinite collection of finite sets {''S''<sub>''i''</sub>} typically indexed by the [[natural number]]s, enumerative combinatorics seeks a variety of ways of describing a ''counting function'', ''f''(''n''), which counts the number of objects in ''S''<sub>''n''</sub> for any ''n''. Although the activity of counting the number of elements in a set is a rather broad [[mathematical problem]], in a combinatorial problem the elements ''S''<sub>''i''</sub> will usually have a relatively simple combinatorial description, and little additional structure.
The simplest such functions are ''[[closed formula]]s'', which can be expressed as a composition of simple functions like [[factorial]]s, powers, and so on. For instance, and as noted above, the number of possible different orderings of a deck of ''n'' cards is ''f''(''n'') = ''n''!.
This approach may not always be entirely satisfactory (or practical). For example, let ''f''(''n'') be the number of distinct subsets of the [[integer]]s in the interval [1,''n''] that do not contain two consecutive integers; e.g., with ''n'' = 4, we have the sets {}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {4}, {1,3}, {1,4}, {2,4}, so ''f''(4) = 8. It turns out that ''f''(''n'') is the ''n+2''nd [[Fibonacci number]], ''F''(''n''+2), so it can be expressed in closed form as
:<math>f(n) = \frac{\phi^{n+2}-(1-\phi)^{n+2}}{\sqrt{5}}</math>
where <math>\phi = (1 + \sqrt 5) / 2</math>, the [[golden ratio]]. However, given that we are looking at a counting function, the presence of the <math>\sqrt 5</math> in the result may be considered unaesthetic. As an alternative that shows more clearly why ''f''(''n'') is a positive integer, ''f''(''n'') may be expressed by the ''[[recurrence relation]]''
:<math>f(n) = f(n-1) + f(n-2)</math>
with the initial conditions <math>f(1)=1</math> and <math>f(2)=1</math>.
Another approach is to find an ''[[asymptotic formula]]''
:<math>f(n) \sim g(n)</math>
where ''g''(''n'') is a "familiar" function, and where ''f''(''n'') approaches ''g''(''n'') as ''n'' approaches [[infinity]]. In some cases, a simple asymptotic function may be preferable to a horribly complicated closed formula that yields no insight to the behaviour of the counted objects. In the above example, an asymptotic formula would be
:<math>f(n) \sim \frac{\phi^{n+2}}{\sqrt{5}}</math>
as ''n'' becomes large.
Finally, ''f''(''n'') may be expressed by a [[formal power series]], called its ''[[generating function]]'', which is most commonly either the [[ordinary generating function]]
:<math>\sum_{n\ge 0} f(n) x^n</math>
or the [[exponential generating function]]
:<math>\sum_{n \ge 0} f(n) \frac{x^n}{n!}</math>.
Once determined, the generating function may allow one to extract all the information given by the previous approaches. In addition, the various natural operations on generating functions such as addition, multiplication, differentiation, etc., have a combinatorial significance; this allows one to extend results from one combinatorial problem in order to solve others.
==Structural combinatorics==
There are many combinatorial patterns and [[theorem]]s related to the structure of combinatoric sets. These often focus on a [[partition of a set|partition]] or [[ordered partition|ordered]] partition of a set. See the [[List of partition topics]] for an expanded list of related topics or the [[List of combinatorics topics]] for a more general listing. Some of the more notable results are highlighted below.
===[[block design|Design theory]]===
A simple result in this area of combinatorics is that the problem of forming sets, described in the introduction, has a solution only if ''n'' has the form ''q''<sup>2</sup> + ''q'' + 1. It is less simple to prove that a solution exists if ''q'' is a [[prime power]], may exist if ''q'' is a sum of two [[square numbers]], but cannot exist for any other positive integer ''q''. This last result, the [[Bruck-Ryser theorem]], is proved by a combination of constructive methods based on [[finite field]]s and an application of [[quadratic form]]s.
When such a structure does exist, it is called a finite [[projective plane]]; thus showing how [[finite geometry]] and combinatorics intersect.
===[[Ramsey theory]]===
[[Frank P. Ramsey]] proved that, given any group of six people, it is always the case that one can find three people out of this group that either all know each other, or all do not know each other.
The proof is a short [[proof by contradiction]]: suppose the claim is false. This means that we can have a group of six people such that whenever we look at any three of the six, there are at least two people among these three that know each other and at least two who do not know each other. Consider now one person among the six; call this person "A." Now, among the remaining five people, there must be at least three who either all know A or all do not know A--this is clear since the negation of one condition immediately implies the other condition. Assume first former condition: that at least three of the remaining five know A. Among those three people, at least two of them must know each other, since otherwise we would have three people who all don't know each other, contrary to our hypothesis. But then we have two people who know each other, and know A, and so these two people, along with A, constitute a group of three people among the six who all know each other. This contradicts our initial hypothesis. Assuming that other condition--that three of the remaining five do not know A--results in a similar contradiction.
This is a special case of [[Ramsey's theorem]].
The idea of finding order in random configurations gives rise to [[Ramsey theory]]. Essentially this theory says that any [[sufficiently large]] configuration will contain at least one instance of some other type of configuration.
===[[Matroid theory]]===
This part of combinatorics abstracts part of [[geometry]]. It studies the properties
of sets (usually, finite sets) of vectors in a [[vector space]] that do not depend on the particular coefficients in a [[linear independence|linear dependence]] relation. Not only the structure but also enumerative properties belong to matroid theory.
For instance, given a set of ''n'' vectors in [[Euclidean space]], what is the largest number of [[plane]]s they can generate? (Answer: the [[binomial coefficient]] ''C''(''n'',3).) Is there a set that generates exactly one less plane? (No, in almost all cases.) These are extremal questions in geometry.
==Extremal combinatorics==
Many extremal questions deal with [[set system]]s. A simple example is the following: what is the largest number of subsets of an ''n''-element set one can have, if no two of the subsets are disjoint? Answer: half the total number of subsets. Proof: Call the ''n''-element set ''S''. Between any subset ''T'' and its [[complement]] ''S'' &minus; ''T'', at most one can be chosen. This proves the maximum number of chosen subsets is not greater than half the number of subsets. To show one can attain half the number, pick one element ''x'' of ''S'' and choose all the subsets that contain ''x''.
A more difficult problem is to characterize the extremal solutions; in this case, to show that no other choice of subsets can attain the maximum number while satisfying the requirement.
Often it is too hard even to find the extremal answer ''f''(''n'') exactly and one can only give an [[asymptotic]] estimate.
==See also==
* [[Permutations and combinations]]
* [[Combinatorial principles]]
* [[Inclusion-exclusion principle]]
* [[Method of distinguished element]]
* [[List of publications in mathematics#Combinatorics| Important publications in combinatorics]]
* [[List of combinatorics topics]]
* [[Musical set theory]]
* [[Combinatorial chemistry]]
==References==
* Graham, R.L., Groetschel M., and Lovász L., eds. (1996). ''Handbook of Combinatorics'', Volumes 1 and 2. Elsevier (North-Holland), Amsterdam, and MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. ISBN 0-26207169-X .
* [[Richard P. Stanley|Stanley, Richard P.]] (1997, 1999). [http://www-math.mit.edu/~rstan/ec/ ''Enumerative Combinatorics'', Volumes 1 and 2]. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-55309-1, 0-521-56069-1.
* van Lint, J.H., and Wilson, R.M. (2001). ''A Course in Combinatorics'', 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80340-3.
[[Category:Combinatorics]]
[[Category:Discrete mathematics]]
{{Mathematics-footer}}
[[da:Kombinatorik]]
[[de:Kombinatorik]]
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[[is:Talni |
ften signed himself "von Leibniz", and many posthumous editions of his works gave his name on the title page as "Freiherr [Baron] G. W. von Leibniz." But no document has been found confirming that he was ever granted a patent of nobility (Aiton 1985: 312). In the 17th and 18th centuries, it was not unusual for the ambitious to insert, starting in midlife, a "de" or "von" before their surnames, to suggest a nobility which they in fact did not possess; cases in point include [[Voltaire]] and [[Beaumarchais]].
When Leibniz was 8 years old, his father, a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the [[University of Leipzig]], died, leaving a personal library to which Leibniz was granted free access from age 8 onwards. By 12, he had taught himself [[Latin language|Latin]], a language he employed freely all his life, and had begun [[Greek language|Greek]]. He entered his father's university at 15, and completed his university studies by age 20, specializing in law and mastering the standard university course of his day and place in classics, logic, and scholastic philosophy. His education in mathematics was not up to the French and British standard of the day. In 1666, he published his first book, also his [[habilitation]] thesis in philosophy, ''On the Art of Combinations''. When [[Leipzig]] declined to assure him a position teaching law upon graduation, Leibniz submitted to the University of [[Altdorf bei Nürnberg|Altdorf]] near [[Nuremberg]] the thesis he had intended to submit at Leipzig, and obtained his doctorate in law in five months. He then declined an offer of academic appointment at Altdorf, and spent the rest of his life in the service of two major German noble families.
===Career===
The outline of Leibniz's career is as follows:
* 1666-74: Mainly in service to the [[Elector]] of [[Mainz]], [[Schönborn|Johann Philipp von Schönborn]], and his minister, Baron von Boineburg.
** 1672-76. Resides in Paris, making two important sojourns to London.
* 1676-1716. In service to the [[Rulers of Hanover|House of Hanover]].
**1677-98. Courtier, first to [[John Frederick, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]], then to his son, Elector [[Ernest Augustus, Elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg|Ernst August of Hanover]].
***1687-90. Travels extensively in Germany, Austria, and Italy, researching a book the Elector has commissioned him to write on the history of the House of Brunswick.
**1698-1714: Courtier to Elector [[George I of Great Britain|Georg Ludwig of Hanover]].
***1712-14: Imperial Court Councillor at the [[Hapsburg]] court in [[Vienna]].
**1714-16: Georg Ludwig, upon becoming [[George I of Great Britain]], forbids Leibniz to follow him to London. Leibniz ends his days in relative neglect.
Leibniz's first position was as a salaried alchemist in [[Nuremberg]], even though he knew nothing about the subject. He soon met [[J. C. von Boineburg]], the dismissed chief minister of the [[Elector]] of [[Mainz]], [[Schönborn|Johann Philipp von Schönborn]]. Von Boineburg hired Leibniz as an assistant, and shortly thereafter reconciled with the Elector and introduced Leibniz to him. Leibniz then dedicated an essay on law to the Elector in the hope of obtaining employment. The stratagem worked; the Elector asked Leibniz to assist with the redrafting of the legal code for his Electorate. In 1669, Leibniz was appointed Assessor in the Court of Appeal. Although von Boineburg died late in 1672, Leibniz remained in the employ of his widow until she dismissed him in 1674.
Von Boineburg did much to promote Leibniz's reputation, and the latter's memoranda and letters began to attract favorable notice. Leibniz's service to the Elector soon took on a [[diplomat]]ic role. He published an essay, under the pseudonym of a fictitious [[Poland|Polish]] nobleman, arguing (unsuccessfully) for the German candidate for the Polish crown. The main European geopolitical reality during Leibniz's adult life was the ambition of the French king, [[Louis XIV]], backed by French military and economic might. Meanwhile, the [[Thirty Years War]] had left German-speaking Europe exhausted, fragmented, and economically backward. Leibniz proposed to protect German-speaking Europe by distracting Louis as follows. France would be invited to take [[Egypt]] as a stepping stone towards an eventual conquest of the [[Dutch East Indies]]. In return, France would agree to leave Germany and the Netherlands undisturbed. This plan obtained the Elector's cautious support. In 1672, the French government invited Leibniz to [[Paris]] for discussion, but the plan was soon overtaken by events and became moot. Napoleon's failed invasion of Egypt in 1798 can be seen as an unwitting implementation of Leibniz's plan.
Thus Leibniz began several years in Paris, during which he greatly expanded his knowledge of mathematics and physics, and began contributing to both. He met [[Malebranche]] and [[Antoine Arnauld]], the leading French philosophers of the day, and studied the writings of [[Descartes]] and [[Blaise_Pascal| Pascal]], unpublished as well as published. He befriended a German mathematician, [[Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus]]; they corresponded for the rest of their lives. Especially fateful was Leibniz's making the acquaintance of the [[Netherlands| Dutch]] physicist and mathematician [[Christiaan Huygens]], then active in Paris. Soon after arriving in Paris, Leibniz received a rude awakening; his knowledge of mathematics and physics was spotty. With Huygens as mentor, he began a program of self-study that soon resulted in his making major contributions to both subjects, including inventing the [[calculus]].
When it became clear that France would not implement its part of Leibniz's Egyptian plan, the Elector sent his nephew, escorted by Leibniz, on a related mission to the British government in [[London]], early in 1673. There Leibniz made the acquaintance of [[Henry Oldenburg]] and [[John Collins (mathematician)|John Collins]]. After demonstrating to the [[Royal Society]] a calculating machine he had been designing and building since 1670, the first such machine that could execute all four basic arithmetical operations, the Society made him an external member. The mission ended abruptly when news reached it of the Elector's death, whereupon Leibniz promptly returned to Paris and not, as had been planned, to Mainz.
The sudden deaths of Leibniz's two patrons in the same winter meant that Leibniz had to find a new basis for his career. In this regard, a 1669 invitation from the Duke of [[Brunswick-Lüneburg|Brunswick]] to visit Hanover proved fateful. Leibniz declined the invitation, but began corresponding with the Duke in 1671. In 1673, the Duke offered him the post of Counsellor which Leibniz very reluctantly accepted two years later, only after it became clear that no employment in Paris, whose intellectual stimulation he relished, or with the [[Hapsburg]] imperial court was forthcoming.
Leibniz managed to delay his arrival in Hanover until the end of 1676, after making one more short journey to London, where he was shown some of [[Newton]]'s unpublished work on the calculus. This fact was deemed evidence supporting the accusation, made decades later, that he had stolen the calculus from Newton. On the journey from London to Hanover, Leibniz stopped in [[The Hague]] where he met [[Leeuwenhoek]], the discoverer of microorganisms. He also spent several days in intense discussion with [[Spinoza]], who had just completed his masterwork, the ''[[Ethics]]''. Leibniz respected Spinoza's powerful intellect, but was dismayed by his conclusions that (in Leibniz's view) contradicted Christian orthodoxy.
In 1677, he was promoted, at his request, to Privy Counsellor of Justice, a post he held for the rest of his life. Leibniz served three consecutive rulers of the House of Brunswick as historian, political adviser, and most consequentially, as librarian of the ducal library. He thenceforth employed his pen on all the various political, historical, and [[theological]] matters involving the House of Brunswick; the resulting documents form a valuable part of the historical record for the period.
Among the few people in north Germany to warm to Leibniz were the Electress [[Sophia of Hanover]] (1630-1714), her daughter [[Sophia Charlotte of Hanover]] (1668-1705), the Queen of Prussia and his avowed disciple, and [[Caroline of Ansbach]], the consort of her grandson, the future [[George II]]. To each of these women he was correspondent, adviser, and friend. In turn, they all warmed to him more than did their spouses and the future king [[George I of Great Britain]]. For a recent study of Leibniz's correspondence with Sophia Charlotte, see [http://www.philosophy.leeds.ac.uk/GMR/homepage/sophiec.html MacDonald Ross] (1998).
The population of Hanover was only about 10,000, and its provinciality eventually grated on Leibniz. Nevertheless, to be a major courtier to the House of [[Brunswick-Lüneburg|Brunswick]] was quite an honor, especially in light of the meteoric rise in the prestige of that House during Leibniz's association with it. In 1692, the Duke of Brunswick became a hereditary [[Elector]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. By virtue of being a granddaughter of [[James VI of Scotland and I of England|James I]], the Electress Sophia was in the line of succession to the British throne. Moreover she was neither Catholic nor married to one. Invoking these facts, the British [[Act of Settlement]] of 1701 designated her and her descent as the royal family of the United Kingdom, once both King [[William I]] and his sister and successor, [[Queen Anne]], were dead. Leibniz played a role in the initiatives and negotiations leading up to that Act, but not always an effective one. For example, something he published anonymously in England, thinking to promote the Brunswick cause, was formally censured by the [[British Parliament]].
The Brunswicks tolerated the enormous eff |
mpkin into a frightening or comical face and place it on their home's doorstep after dark. The practice was originally intended to frighten away evil spirits or monsters.
==Trick-or-treating and guising==
The main event of modern US-style Halloween is [[trick-or-treat]]ing, in which children dress up in [[Halloween costume|costume]] disguises and go door-to-door in their neighborhood, ringing each doorbell and yelling "trick or treat!" This is a watered-down version of the older tradition of ''[[guising]]'' in [[Ireland]] and [[Scotland]]. The occupants of the house (who might themselves dress in a scary costume) will then hand out small [[candy|candies]], miniature [[chocolate bar]]s or other treats. Some American homes will use [[sound effects]] and [[fog machine]]s to help set a spooky mood. Other house decoration themes (that are less scary) are used to entertain younger visitors. Children can often accumulate many treats on Halloween night, filling up entire pillow cases or shopping bags.
In [[Ireland]], great bonfires were lit throughout the breadth of the land. Young children in their guises were gladly received by the neighbors with some 'fruit, apples and nuts' for the 'Halloween Party', whilst older male siblings played innocent pranks on bewildered victims.
In [[Scotland]], children or ''guisers'' are more likely to recite "The sky is blue, the grass is green, may we have our Hallowe'en" instead of "trick or treat!". They visit neighbours in groups and must impress the members of the houses they visit with a song, poem, trick, joke or dance in order to earn their treats. Traditionally, nuts, oranges, apples and dried fruit were offered, though sometimes children would also earn a small amount of cash, usually a sixpence. Very small children often take part, for whom the experience of performing can be more terrifying than the ghosts outside.
Tricks play less of a role in modern Halloween, though Halloween night is often marked by vandalism such as soaping windows, egging houses or stringing toilet paper through trees. Before indoor plumbing was so widespread, tipping over or displacing outhouses was a popular form of intimidation. Casting flour into the faces of feared neighbors was also done once upon a time.
Typical Halloween costumes have traditionally been monsters such as [[vampire]]s, [[ghost]]s, [[witch]]es, and [[devil]]s. In 19th-century Scotland and Ireland the reason for wearing such fearsome (and non-fearsome) costumes was the belief that since the spirits that were abroad that night were essentially intent on doing harm, the best way to avoid this was to fool the spirits into believing that you were one of them. In recent years, it has become common for costumes to be based on themes other than traditional horror, such as dressing up as a character from a [[TV show]] or [[film|movie]], or choosing a recognizable face from the public sphere, such as a politician (in 2004, for example, [[George W. Bush]] and [[John F. Kerry]] were both popular costumes in America). In 2001, after the [[September 11 attacks]], for example, costumes of [[firefighter]]s, [[police officer]]s, and United States [[military]] personnel became popular among children. In 2004, an estimated 2.15 million children in the United States were expected to dress up as [[Spider-Man]], the year's most popular costume. [http://www.nrf.com/content/default.asp?folder=press/release2004&file=costumes1004.htm&bhcp=1]
"'Trick-or-Treat for [[UNICEF]]" has become a common sight during Halloween in North America. Started by UNICEF in 1950, the program involves the distribution of small boxes by schools to trick-or-treaters, in which they can solicit small change donations from the houses they visit. It is estimated that children have collected more than $119 million for UNICEF since its inception.
[[BIGresearch]] conducted a survey for the [[National Retail Federation]] in the US and found that 53.3% of consumers planned to buy a costume for Halloween 2005, spending $38.11 on average (up 10 dollars from last year). An estimate of $3.3 billion was made for the holiday spending.
A child usually "grows out of" trick-or-treating by his or her teenage years. Trick-or-treating by teenagers is accepted, but generally ridiculed with genial ribbing by those handing out candy. Teenagers and adults instead often celebrate Halloween with [[costume party|costume parties]], staying home to give out candy, listening to [[List_of_Halloween_songs|Halloween music]], or scaring people.
Visiting a [[Haunted house]] or a [[Dark Attraction]] are other Halloween traditions. Notwithstanding the name, such events are not necessarily held in houses, nor are the edifices themselves necessarily regarded to possess actual ghosts. A variant of this is the haunted trail, where the public encounters supernatural-themed characters or presentations of scenes from horror films while following a trail through a heavily wooded area or field.
==Games and other activities==
There are several games traditionally associated with Halloween parties. The most common is dooking or [[bobbing for apples]], in which [[apple (fruit)|apple]]s float in a tub or a large basin of [[water]]; the participants must use their [[tooth|teeth]] to remove an apple from the basin. Another variant involves kneeling on a chair, holding a fork between the teeth and trying to drop the fork into them. Another common game involves hanging up [[treacle]] or [[syrup]]-coated [[scones]] by strings; these must be eaten without using hands while they remain attached to the string, an activity which inevitably leads to a very sticky face.
Some games traditionally played at Halloween are forms of [[divination]]. In [[Puicíní]] (pronounced "pooch-eeny"), a game played in Ireland, a blindfolded person is seated in front of a table on which several saucers are placed. The saucers are shuffled and the seated person then chooses one by touch. The contents of the saucer determine the person's life for the following year. A saucer containing earth means someone known to the player will die during the next year, a saucer containing water foretells travel, a coin means new wealth, a bean means poverty, etc. In 19th-century Ireland, young women placed slugs in saucers sprinkled with flour. The wriggling of the slugs and the patterns subsequently left behind on the saucers were believed to portray the faces of the women's future spouses.
In North America, unmarried women were frequently told that if they sat in a darkened room and gazed into a mirror on Halloween night, the face of their future husband would appear in the mirror. However, if they were destined to die before they married, a [[symbols of death|skull]] would appear. The custom was widespread enough to be commemorated on [[greeting card]]s from the late nineteenth century.
The telling of [[ghost stories]] and viewing of [[horror film]]s are common fixtures of Halloween parties. [[Television specials]] with a Halloween theme, usually aimed at children, are commonly aired on or before the holiday while new horror films are often released theatrically before the holiday to take advantage of the atmosphere.
==Foods==
{{main|Poisoned candy scare}}
[[Image:candy_apples.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Candy apples]]
Because the holiday comes in the wake of the annual apple harvest, [[Candy Apple]]s '' (also known as toffee, taffy or caramel apples) '' are a common treat at Halloween. They are made by rolling whole apples in a sticky sugar syrup, and sometimes then rolling them in nuts. At one time candy apples were a common treat given to children, but this practice rapidly waned after widespread rumors that some individuals were embedding items like pins and razor blades in the apples that they would pass out to children. While there is evidence of such incidents occurring they are very rare and have never resulted in any serious injuries. Nonetheless, many parents were under the assumption that the practice was common. At the peak of this hysteria, some hospitals were offering to x-ray children's Halloween haul at no cost in order to look for such items. Almost all of the very few Halloween candy poisoning '' (as opposed to tainting) '' incidents on record involved parents who poisoned their own children's candy, while there are occasional reports of kids sticking needles in their own candy '' (and that of other children) '' more in an effort to get attention than cause any harm. Yet the paranoia has continued unabated mostly because of the news media's misinformation and tendency to exaggerate threats — especially when children are involved.
A Halloween custom which has survived unchanged to this day in Ireland is the baking '' (or more often nowadays the purchase) '' of a [[barmbrack]] '' (Irish "báirín breac"). '' This is a light [[fruit cake]] into which a plain ring is placed before baking. It is said that whoever finds this ring will find his or her true love during the following year.
Other foods associated with the holiday:
* [[candy corn]]
* [[bonfire toffee]] (in the UK)
* hot apple [[cider]]
* roasted [[pumpkin]] seeds
* "fun-sized" or individually wrapped pieces of small candy, typically in Halloween colors of orange, and brown/black.
==Cultural history==
{{main|History and folklore of Halloween}}
===Christian festival===
[[Pope Boniface IV]] established an anniversary dedicated to the [[Virgin Mary]] and the martyrs when he consecrated the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] on [[May 13]], [[609]] (or 610). This Christian feast day was moved to November 1st from May 13th by [[Pope Gregory III]] in the [[eighth century]] in order to mark the dedication of the All Saints Chapel in Rome--establishing November 1st as All Saints Day and October 31st as All Hallows' Eve. Initially this change of date only applied to the diocese of Rome, but was extended |
er glaciation]] to [[Cryogenian]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''glaciation''' (a created composite term meaning '''Glacial Period''', referring to the ''Period or Era of'', as well as the process of ''High Glacial Activity''), often called an ''[[ice age]]'', is a [[geology|geological]] phenomenon in which massive [[ice]] sheets form in the [[Arctic]] and [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] and advance toward the [[equator]]. Conversely, the term ''interglacial'' or ''Interglacial Period'', such as the current era, is used to denote the absence of large-scale glaciation on a global scale &mdash; i.e., a ''non-Ice Age''. Interglacials are, in general, shorter than glacial epochs.
Glaciations are characterized by cool, wet climates and thick ice sheets extending from each pole. [[Mountain]] or alpine [[glacier]]s in otherwise unglaciated areas expand and extend to lower elevations even in the lowest of [[latitude]]s. Sea levels drop due to the presence of large volumes of water above sea level in the icecaps. There is evidence that ocean circulation patterns are disrupted by glaciations. Since the earth has significant continental glaciation in the Arctic and Antarctic, we currently are in a glacial minimum of a glaciation. Such a period between glacial maxima is known as an "interglacial". The current one is the [[Flandrian]].
In general, the [[Earth]] seems to have been ice-free even in high latitudes except during relatively rare glacial maximums such as the one from which we emerged 10 to 15 thousand years ago.
The causes of glaciations have been much debated ever since the phenomenon was clearly identified in the [[17th century]]. Modern theories tend to revolve around periodic oscillations in the Earth's [[Planetary orbit|orbit]], hypothesized periodic changes in solar output, and/or the effects of continental masses drifting into polar regions where Antarctica currently resides.
Known periods of glaciation include the [[Huronian]] (2400 Ma - 2100 Ma), [[Cryogenian|Sturtian-Varangian]] (950 Ma - 570 Ma), [[Andean-Saharan]] (450 Ma - 420 Ma), [[Karoo]] (360 Ma - 260 Ma), [[Cenozoic]] (30 Ma - Present). These can be further divided by location and time (e.g.: the names Riss (180,000 - 130,000 years bp) and Würm (70,000 - 10,000 years bp) refer specifically to glaciation at the headwaters of the Donau/Rhine rivers.) Not every year in each interval was a time of complete or even partial glaciation. The best-studied glaciation, that of the recent past, appears to have taken place in at least four separate ice incursions and retreats. Unfortunately, the scouring action of each glaciation tends to remove most of the evidence of prior ice sheets almost completely, except in regions where the later sheet doesn't achieve full coverage. It is probable that glacial periods other than those above have been overlooked because of the paucity of exposed rocks from high latitudes from older periods. The [[Cryogenian|Varanger glaciation]] was especially severe and may have extended to the [[Equator]]. This has led to a recent "[[Snowball Earth]]" hypothesis - that the Earth froze over completely in the late [[Proterozoic]], then thawed very rapidly as trapped [[water]] and [[carbon dioxide]] were returned to [[Earth's atmosphere]]. An alternative hypothesis, sometimes called [[Slushball Earth]], maintains that the Equator at least was ice-free.
-----
The term ''[[ice age]]'' is used to refer either to a single glaciation or to an entire period of repeated glaciations such as the recent 30 million years of the [[Cenozoic]] period, especially the Pleistocene glaciations.
==See also==
*[[Timeline of glaciation]]
[[Category:Glaciology]]
[[ca:Glaciació]]
[[da:Mellemistid]]
[[de:Eiszeit]]
[[es:Glaciación]]
[[fa:یخگیری]]
[[fr:Glaciation]]
[[pl:Zlodowacenie]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Goitre</title>
<id>12265</id>
<revision>
<id>42097799</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:38:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Larchoye</username>
<id>1025007</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>changed Great Lake to Great Lakes, since the link forwards to it anyways</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Goitre |
ICD10 = E01-E07, P72 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|240}}-{{ICD9|242}} |
}}
A '''goitre''' (or '''goiter''') ([[Latin]] ''struma'') is a swelling in the neck (just below adam's apple or [[larynx]]) due to an enlarged [[thyroid|thyroid gland]]. They are classified in different ways:
* A "diffuse goitre" is a goitre that has spread through all of the thyroid (and is contrasted with a "simple goitre", "single thyroid nodule" and "multinodular goitre".
* "Toxic goitre" refers to goitre deriving from [[inflammation]], [[neoplasm]], or malfunction of the [[thyroid]], while "nontoxic goitre" refers to all other types (such as that caused by [[lithium]] or an [[autoimmune]] reaction.)
==Causes==
The most common cause for goitre in the world is [[iodine]] deficiency (E01). Other causes are:
* [[Hashimoto's thyroiditis]] (E06.3)
* [[Graves-Basedow disease]] (E05.0)
* [[juvenile goitre]] due to [[congenital hypothyroidism]] (E03.0)
* [[neoplasm]] of the thyroid
* [[thyroiditis]] (acute, chronic) (E06)
* [[Adverse drug reaction|side-effects]] of [[pharmacological therapy]] (E03.2)
==Occurrence==
Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of the thyroid [[hormone]]s, [[triiodothyronine]] and [[thyroxine]] (T3 and T4). When iodine is not available, these hormones cannot be made. In response to low thyroid hormones, the [[pituitary gland]] releases [[thyroid stimulating hormone]] (TSH). Thyroid stimulating hormone acts to try and increase synthesis of T3 and T4, but it also causes the thyroid gland to grow in size as a type of compensation.
Goitre is more common among women. Treatment may not be necessary if the goitre is not caused by disease and is small. Removal of the goitre may be necessary if it causes difficulty with breathing or swallowing.
==History and future==
Goitre was previously common in many areas that were deficient in iodine in the [[soil]]. For example, in the [[English Midlands]], the condition was known as '''Derbyshire Neck'''. In the [[United States]], goitre was found in the [[Great Lakes]], [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], and Intermountain regions. The condition now is practically absent in affluent nations, where [[Sodium chloride|table salt]] is [[Iodized salt|supplemented with iodine]]. However, it is still prevalent in [[Central Asia]] and [[Central Africa]].
Some health workers fear that a resurgence of goitre might occur because of the trend to use [[rock salt]] and/or [[sea salt]], which has not been fortified with iodine.
== External links ==
* [http://www.nhsdirect.nhs.uk/en.asp?TopicID=219&AreaID=1222&LinkID=825 National Health Services, UK]
*[http://www.iodinenetwork.net Network for Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency]
* [http://www.sph.emory.edu/PAMM/sang/partnership/ Network for Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency] - alternate site at [[Emory University]]'s School of [[Public Health]]
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001178.htm NIH]
[[Category:Endocrine diseases]]
[[Category:Malnutrition]]
[[de:Struma]]
[[es:Bocio]]
[[fr:Goitre]]
[[id:Gondok]]
[[it:Gozzo endemico]]
[[pl:Wole (tarczyca)]]
[[pt:Bócio]]
[[sv:struma]]
[[ta:முன்கழுத்துக் கழலை]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Genetics</title>
<id>12266</id>
<revision>
<id>41176300</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T15:35:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Verdant04</username>
<id>816043</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Genetics''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] genno '''&#947;&#949;&#957;&#957;&#974;'''= give birth) is the [[science]] of [[gene]]s, [[heredity]], and the [[variation]] of [[organism]]s. The word genetics was first suggested to describe the study of inheritance and the science of variation by the British scientist [[William Bateson]] in a personal letter to [[Adam Sedgwick]], dated [[April 18]], [[1905]]. Bateson first used the term genetics publicly at the Third International Conference on Genetics (London, England) in 1906.
[[Human]]s applied knowledge of genetics in prehistory with the [[domestication]] and [[selective breeding|breeding]] of [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s. In modern research, genetics provides important tools for the investigation of the function of a particular gene, e.g., analysis of [[genetic interactions]]. Within [[organism]]s, genetic information generally is carried in [[chromosome]]s, where it is represented in the [[DNA sequence|chemical structure]] of particular [[DNA]] [[molecule]]s.
[[Gene]]s encode the information necessary for synthesizing the [[amino-acid]] sequences in [[protein]]s, which in turn play a large role in determining the final [[phenotype]], or physical appearance, of the organism. In [[diploid]] organisms, a [[dominant]] [[allele]] on one chromosome will mask the expression of a [[recessive]] gene on the other.
The phrase '''to code for''' is often used to mean a gene contains the instructions about how to build a particular protein, as in ''the gene codes for the protein''.
The "one gene, one protein" concept is now known to be simplistic. For example, a single gene may produce multiple products, depending on how its [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]] is regulated. Genes code for the [[nucleotide]] sequences in [[messenger RNA|mRNA]], [[transfer RNA|tRNA]] and [[ribosomal RNA|rRNA]], required for protein synthesis.
Genetics determines much (but not all) of the appearance of organisms, including humans, and possibly how they act. [[Environment |
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, ......... .,;tt9G; ,ttt%7OxxxxxZZxxxZZ5D009QSS8g8S0Dsx7Ctttt
. ......,...,,. ;OG5D98gKSgK9 CZ7C2xGs0S8gKbEEE@@@@@bg8ggKEEE@@@@@@5
:.,...,:::,,,.,,,t CgES0098b@M. .x57CCttt%CxxZxxO7C%ttt;;;;;;tt%OxGsZ%
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</pre>
</font>
==Non fixed-width ASCII==
Most ASCII art is created using a [[monospace]] font, where all characters are identical in width ([[Courier (font)|Courier New]] is a popular font). However, most of the most commonly used fonts in word processors, web browsers and other programs are proportional fonts, such as [[Arial]] or [[Times New Roman]], where different widths are used for different characters. ASCII art drawn for a fixed width font will usually appear distorted, or even unrecognisable when displayed in a proportional font.
Some ASCII artists have produced art for display in such fonts. These ASCIIs, rather than using a purely shade-based correspondence, use characters for slopes and borders and use block shading. These ASCIIs generally offer greater precision and attention to detail than fixed-width ASCIIs for a lower character count, although they are not as universally accessible since they are usually relatively font-specific.
==Other text based art==
There are a variety of other types of art using text symbols from character sets other than ASCII and/or some form of color coding. Despite not being pure ASCII, these are still often referred to as "ASCII art". The character set portion designed specifically for drawing are known as the line drawing characters or pseudo-graphics.
===IBM PC===
{| align=right
|<font color=#008000><pre>
▄▄▀▀▀▀▀▄▄
▄▀ ▀▄
▄▀ █ █ ▀▄
█ █▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄█ █
█ █ █ █
█ ▀▄▄▄▄▄▀ █
▀▄▄ ▄▄▀
▀▀▀▀▀ </pre></font>
|<table align=right style="border: 1px dashed #2f6fab;" >
<tr><td>
<span style="margin:0px; line-height:1.2em; font-family: monospace; background-color: #f9f9f9;"><font color="#f9f9f9">█</font>▄▄▄▄▄▄▄<font color="#f9f9f9">█</font><br>
<font color="#f9f9f9">█</font>█ <font color=red>▄ ▄</font> █&nbsp;<br>
<font color="#f9f9f9">█</font>█<font color="#f9f9f9">██</font><font color=green>▄</font><font color="#f9f9f9">██</font>█&nbsp;<br>
<font color="#f9f9f9">█</font>█<font color="#f9f9f9">██</font><font color=green>▀</font><font color="#f9f9f9">██</font>█&nbsp;<br>
<font color="#f9f9f9">█</font>█ <font color=blue>▀▀▀</font> █&nbsp;<br>
<font color="#f9f9f9">█</font>▀▀▀▀▀▀▀&nbsp;
</table>
|}
The IBM PC graphics hardware in text mode uses 16 bits per character. It supports a variety of configurations, but in its default mode under DOS they are used to give 256 glyphs from one of the IBM PC code pages ([[Code page 437]] by default), 16 foreground colors, 8 background colors, and a flash option. Such art can be loaded into screen memory directly. ANSI.SYS, if loaded, also allows such art to be placed on screen by outputting escape sequences that indicate movements of the screen cursor and color/flash changes. If this method is used then the art becomes known as [[ANSI art]]. The IBM PC code pages also include characters intended for simple drawing which often made this art appear much cleaner than that made with more traditional character sets. Plain text files are also seen with these characters, though they have become far less common since Windows GUI text editors (using the [[Windows ANSI code page]]) have largely replaced DOS based ones.
===Shift_JIS===
{{main|Shift_JIS art}}
A large character selection, the widespread use of Japanese on the internet, and the availibility of standard fonts with predictable spacing make [[Shift-JIS|Shift_JIS]] a common format for text based art on the internet.
===Unicode===
[[Unicode]] would seem to offer the ultimate flexibility in producing text based art with its huge variety of characters. However, finding a suitable fixed-width font is likely to be difficult if a significant subset of Unicode is desired. Also, the common practice of rendering Unicode with a mixture of variable width fonts is likely to make predictable display hard if more than a tiny subset of Unicode is used.
===Overprinting===
In the 1970s and early 1980s it was popular to produce a kind of ASCII art that relied on overprinting &mdash; the overall darkness of a particular character space dependent on how many characters, as well as the choice of character, printed in a particular place. Thanks to the increased granularity of tone, photographs were often converted to this type of printout. Even manual typewriters or [[daisy wheel printer]]s could be used. The technique has fallen from popularity since all cheap printers can easily print photographs, and a normal text file (or an e-mail message or Usenet posting) cannot represent overprinted text. However, something similar has emerged to replace it: shaded or colored ASCII art, using [[ANSI]] video terminal markup or color codes (such as those found in [[HTML]], [[IRC]], and many internet [[message board]]s) to add a bit more tone variation. In this way, it is possible to create ASCII art where the characters only differ in color.
==See also==
* [[ASCII stereogram]]
* [[Wikipedia:Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense/ASCII cows]]
==Further reading==
* Danet, Brenda. ''Cyberpl@y: Communicating Online''. Oxford, UK: Berg, 2001. ISBN 1-85973-424-3.
* Riddell, Alan, ed. ''Typewriter Art''. London, UK: London Magazine Editions (LME), 1975. ISBN 900-626-99-2.
* Roemer, Madge. ''Fun With Your Typewriter''. Indian Hills, CO, USA: The Falcon's Wing Press, 1956. LCCN 56-13336.
==External links==
===ASCII art editors===
Editors created solely for the purpose of creating hand-made ASCII art.
*[http://download.com.com/3000-2192-10141644.html?tag=lst-0-1 ACiDDraw 1.25r] The leading ANSI and ASCII art editor for IBM PC DOS
*[http://torchsoft.com/en/aas_information.html ASCII Art Studio 2.11 for Windows] Shareware (30-day trial); allows freehand line-art illustration using the mouse
*[http://www.stud.tu-ilmenau.de/~siha-in/thesoftware.html ASCII/edit] Shareware (30-day trial); Mac OS X; objects can be grouped, overlap, combined, and intersection characters can be turned on or off individually for each line and frame
*[http://www.sigsoftware.com/emaileffects/ Email Effects] ASCII art editor for Mac and Windows, also converts pictures and supports FIGlet fonts.
*[[JavE]] Freeware; A java ASCII editor with standard Photoshop-style tools, image conversion, FIGlet support, math formulas editor and a lot of other features. Requires [[Java virtual machine]].
*[[PabloDraw|PabloDraw for Windows]] Freeware; features a peer-to-peer "joint editing" mode
*[http://sourceforge.net/projects/tundradraw/ TundraDraw] A cross-platform ANSI and ASCII editor for Microsoft Windows and X environments. Source code available.
*[http://www.pixio.biz/ TextDraw] Full-color ASCII art editor for Windows with an interface similar to Microsoft Paint. Export formats: BMP, JPG, HTML, RTF, TXT and TDF.
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Visual_Arts/ASCII_Art/Software/ List of ASCII art editors]
*[http://editors.asciiart.net/ ASCIIart.net list of editors] A ''comprehensive'' list of ASCII editors for DOS and Windows with informative reviews on each one
* [http://ansilove.sourceforge.net Ansilove/PHP] A set of tools for converting ANSi/BiN/ADF/iDF/TUNDRA/XBiN files into PNG images
===ASCII art generators===
Tools which convert bitmapped images to ASCII text or otherwise automatically generate ASCII art with a minimal degree of human interaction.
*[http://aa-project.sourceforge.net/ AA-lib] A portable library which converts high-resolution images or video down to ASCII text images or 'video.'
*[http://www.the-mathclub.net/site/demos/abadporn.tar.gz APF] An ASCII/ANSI color console MPEG/Video player.
*[http://www.alterlife.org/asciiartist/ Alternate's ASCII Artist] A tiny Open-Source ASCII Art Generator written in C++ .
*[http://www.glassgiant.com/misc_ascii.php ASCII Artist] A simple Art-to-ASCII generator.
*[http://www.network-science.de/ascii/ ASCII Generator] Online; generates ASCII art text in a variety of fonts.
*[http://www.kammerl.de/ascii/AsciiSignature.php ASCII Signature Generator] Figlet Server - Online Ascii Art Signature Generator.
*[http://www.kammerl.de/ascii/AsciiStereo.php ASCII Stereogram Image Generator] Online; generates free ASCII stereograms.
*[http://www.kammerl.de/ascii/AsciiStereoMovie.php ASCII Stereogram Movie Generator] Online; generates free ASCII stereogram movies!
*[http://reactor.reality-protocol.de/main.php?page=asciiart ASCii.art 0.4] Freeware; An image bitmap to ASCII text converter. Supports conversion to colored ASCII using HTML color tags and features multiple image resize capabilities.
*[http://ascgen.jmsoftware.co.uk/ ASCII Generator (ascgen)] Freeware; A |
uot;#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[President of the United States|President]]||align="left" |'''[[Grover Cleveland]]'''||align="left"|1893&ndash;1897
|-
|align="left"|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align="left"|'''[[Adlai E. Stevenson]]'''||align="left"|1893&ndash;1897
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align="left"|'''[[Walter Q. Gresham]]'''||align="left"|1893&ndash;1895
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Richard Olney]]'''||align="left"|1895&ndash;1897
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[John G. Carlisle]]'''||align="left"|1893&ndash;1897
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align="left"|'''[[Daniel S. Lamont]]'''||align="left"|1893&ndash;1897
|-
|align="left"|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align="left"|'''[[Richard Olney]]'''||align="left"|1893&ndash;1895
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Judson Harmon]]'''||align="left"|1895&ndash;1897
|-
|align="left"|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[Wilson S. Bissell]]'''||align="left"|1893&ndash;1895
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[William L. Wilson]]'''||align="left"|1895&ndash;1897
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align="left"|'''[[Hilary A. Herbert]]'''||align="left"|1893&ndash;1897
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align="left"|'''[[Hoke Smith]]'''||align="left"|1893&ndash;1896
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[David R. Francis]]'''||align="left"|1896&ndash;1897
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Secretary of Agriculture]]||align="left"|'''[[Julius S. Morton]]'''||align="left"|1893&ndash;1897
|}
<br clear="all">
=== Supreme Court appointments ===
Cleveland appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court during his ''second'' term.
* [[Edward Douglass White]] - 1894
* [[Rufus Wheeler Peckham]] - 1896
Two of Cleveland's nominees were rejected by the Senate.
* [[William Hornblower]], on [[January 15]], [[1894]], by a vote of 24-30.
* [[Wheeler Hazard Peckham]], (the older brother of Rufus Wheeler) on [[February 16]], [[1894]], by a vote of 32-41.
=== States admitted to the Union ===
* [[Utah]] &ndash; [[January 4]], [[1896]]
===Cancer===
Just after Cleveland began his second term in 1893, Dr. R.M. O'Reilly found an [[ulcer]]ated sore a little less than one inch in diameter on the left lingual surface of Cleveland's [[hard palate]]. Samples taken proved the growth to be a [[malignant]] [[cancer]]. Due to the financial depression of the country, Cleveland decided to have surgery performed on the tumor in secrecy to avoid further market [[panic]]. The surgery occurred on [[July 1]], to give Cleveland time to make a full recovery in time for an [[August 7]] address to Congress, which had recessed at the end of June.
Under the guise of a vacation, Cleveland, accompanied by lead surgeon Dr. Joseph Bryant, left for New York. Bryant, joined by his assistant Dr. John F. Erdmann, Dr. W.W. Keen Jr., Dr. Ferdinand Hasbrouck (dentist and anesthesiologist), and Dr. Edward Janeway, operated aboard the yacht ''Oneida'' as it sailed. The surgery was conducted through the mouth, to avoid any scars or other signs of surgery. The team, sedating Cleveland with [[nitrous oxide]] (laughing gas), removed his upper left jaw and portions of his hard palate. The size of the tumor and the extent of the operation left Cleveland's mouth severely disfigured. During another surgery, an [[Orthodontics|orthodontist]] fitted Cleveland with a hard rubber prosthesis that corrected his speech and covered up the surgery.
A cover story about the removal of two bad teeth kept the suspicious press somewhat placated. Even when a newspaper story appeared, giving details of the actual operation, the participating surgeons discounted the severity of what transpired during Cleveland's vacation. In 1917, one of the surgeons present on the ''Oneida'' wrote an article detailing the operation. The lump was preserved and is on display at the [[Mütter Museum]] in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]].
==Later life and death==
[[Image:Grover Cleveland, painting by Anders Zorn.jpg|left|thumb|180px|Oil painting of Grover Cleveland, painted in 1899 by the [[Sweden|Swedish]] painter [[Anders Zorn]].]]
After leaving the White House, Cleveland lived in retirement in [[Princeton, New Jersey]]. For a time he was a trustee of [[Princeton University]], bringing him into contact with [[Woodrow Wilson]], a professor and later President of the University; Wilson would be the only other Democrat elected President of the U.S. between 1860 and 1932. Cleveland died on [[June 24]], [[1908]] from a heart attack. He was buried in the [[Princeton Cemetery]] of the [[Nassau Presbyterian Church]].
==Honors and Memorials==
Cleveland's portrait was on the U.S. [[Large bills|$1000 bill]] from 1928 to 1946. He also appeared on a $1000 of 1907, and the first few issues of [[Federal Reserve note]]s from 1914, on the $20.
Since he was the both the 22nd and 24th president, he will be featured on two separate dollar coins to be released in 2012 as part of the [[Presidential $1 Coin Act of 2005]].
Many public schools across the country are named in his honor.
==Trivia==
George Cleveland, the president's grandson and a New Hampshire is now an [[impersonator]] and [[Historical reenactment|historical reenactor]] of his famous grandfather.
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|title=Grover Cleveland 1892 campaign speech|filename=Grover Cleveland 1892 campaign speech.ogg|description=Audio clip of the first minute of Cleveland's 1892 campaign speech.}}
{{multi-listen end}}
==See also==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1884]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1888]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1892]]
* [[History of the United States (1865-1918)]]
==References==
===Scholarly secondary sources===
* Dewey, Davis R. '' National Problems: 1880-1897'' (1907)
* Faulkner, Harold U. ''Politics, Reform, and Expansion, 1890-1900'' (1959), survey of decade,
* Ford, Henry Jones. ''The Cleveland Era: A Chronicle of the New Order in Politics'' (1921), short overview
* Graff, Henry F. ''Grover Cleveland'' (2002), short overview.
* Hirsch, Mark D. ''William C. Whitney, Modern Warwick'' (1948)
* McElroy, Robert. ''Grover Cleveland, the Man and the Statesman: An Authorized Biography'' (1923)
* Morgan, H. Wayne. ''From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877-1896'' (1969)
* Nevins, Allan. ''Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage'' (1932)
* Summers, Mark Wahlgren. ''Rum, Romanism & Rebellion: The Making of a President, 1884'' (2000)
* Welch, Richard E. Jr. ''The Presidencies of Grover Cleveland'' (1988)
===Primary sources===
* Cleveland, Grover. ''Presidential Problems.'' (1904)
* Nevins, Allan ed. ''Letters of Grover Cleveland, 1850-1908'' (1934)
* Sturgis Amy H. ed. ''Presidents from Hayes through McKinley, 1877-1901: Debating the Issues in Pro and Con Primary Documents'' (2003)
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Grover+Cleveland | name=Grover Cleveland}}
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/gc2224.html White House biography]
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=ClevelandG Audio clips of Cleveland's speeches]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/cleve1.htm First Inaugural Address]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/cleve2.htm Second Inaugural Address]
* [http://starship.python.net/crew/manus/Presidents/sgc/sgcobit.html Obituary for Grover Cleveland]
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo73.html Our Libertarian President]
* [http://users.bestweb.net/~rg/execution/Famous%20Executioner.htm Statesman, President, Hangman]
* [http://tamworth.lib.nh.us/Recent_Events.14.0.html Cleveland's grandson, George, impersonating him on Heritage Day in Tamworth, New Hampshire. August 2005]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Mayor of Buffalo]]|before=[[Alexander Brush]]|after=[[Marcus Drake]]|years=[[January 2]], [[1882]] &ndash; [[November 20]], [[1882]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Governor of New York]]|before=[[Alonzo B. Cornell]]|after=[[David B. Hill]]|years=1883 &ndash; 1885}}
{{succession box
| title=[[List_of_United_States_Democratic_Party_presidential_tickets|Democratic Party presidential nominee]]
| before=[[Winfield Scott Hancock]]| after=[[William Jennings Bryan]]| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1884|1884]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1888|1888]] (lost), [[U.S. presidential election, 1892|1892]] (won)}}
{{succession box|title=[[President of the United States]]|before=[[Chester A. Arthur]]|after=[[Benjamin Harrison]]|years=[[March 4]], [[1885]] &ndash; [[March 3]], [[1889]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. -->| }}
{{succession box|title=[[President of the United States]]|before=[[Benjamin Harrison]]|after=[[William McKinley]]|years=[[March 4]], [[1893]] &ndash; [[March 3]], [[1897]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. -->| }}
{{end box}}
{{USpresidents |
most elderly societies, and the change will have taken place in a shorter span of time than in any other country.
This aging of the population was brought about by a combination of low [[fertility]] and high life expectancies. In 1993 the fertility rate was estimated at 10.3 per 1,000 population, and the average number of children born to a woman over her lifetime has been fewer than two since the late 1970s (the average number was estimated at 1.5 in 1993). Family planning was nearly universal, with [[condom]]s and legal [[abortion]]s the main forms of [[birth control]]. A number of factors contributed to the trend toward small families: late [[marriage]], increased participation of women in the labor force, small living spaces, and the high costs of children's education. Life expectancies at birth, 76.4 years for males and 82.2 years for women in 1993, were the highest in the world. (The expected life span at the end of World War II, for both males and females, was fifty years.) The mortality rate in 1993 was estimated at 7.2 per 1,000 population. The leading causes of death are [[cancer]], [[heart]] [[heart disease|disease]], and [[cerebrovascular disease]], a pattern common to postindustrial societies.
Public policy, the media, and discussions with private citizens revealed a high level of concern for the implications of one in four persons in Japan being sixty-five or older. By 2025 the dependency ratio (the ratio of people under fifteen years plus those sixty-five and older to those aged fifteen to sixty-five, indicating in a general way the ratio of the dependent population to the working population) was expected to be two dependents for every three workers. The aging of the population was already becoming evident in the aging of the labor force and the shortage of young workers in the late 1980s, with potential impacts on employment practices, wages and benefits, and the roles of women in the labor force. The increasing proportion of elderly people in the population also had a major impact on government spending. As recently as the early 1970s, social expenditures amounted to only about 6 % of Japan's national income. In 1992 that portion of the national budget was 18 %, and it was expected that by 2025, 27 % of national income would be spent on social welfare.
In addition, the median age of the elderly population was rising in the late 1980s. The proportion of people aged seventy-five to eighty-five was expected to increase from 6 % in 1985 to 15 % in 2025. Because the incidence of chronic disease increases with age, the healthcare and pension systems, too, are expected to come under severe strain. The government in the mid-1980s began to reevaluate the relative burdens of government and the private sector in [[health care]] and [[pension]]s, and it established policies to control government costs in these programs. Recognizing the lower probability that an elderly person will be residing with an adult child and the higher probability of any daughter or daughter-in-law's participation in the paid labor force, the government encouraged establishment of [[nursing home]]s, [[day-care]] facilities for the elderly, and home health programs. Longer life spans are altering relations between spouses and across generations, creating new government responsibilities, and changing virtually all aspects of social life.
==A homogeneous society?==
Japanese often claim to outsiders that their society is homogeneous. By world standards, the Japanese enjoy a high standard of living, and nearly 90% of the population consider themselves part of the [[middle class]]. Most people express satisfaction with their lives, and take great pride in being Japanese and in their country's status as an economic power on a par with the [[United States]] and the [[European Union]]. In [[folk craft]]s and in [[right-wing politics]], in the [[Shinshukyo|new religions]] and in [[international management]], the Japanese have turned to their past to interpret the present. In doing so, however, they may be reconstructing history as a common set of beliefs and practices that make the country look more homogeneous than it really is.
In a society that values outward conformity, individuals may appear to take a back seat to the needs of the group. Yet it is individuals who create for themselves a variety of life-styles. They are constrained in their choices by age, gender, life experiences, and other factors, but they draw from a rich cultural repertoire of past and present through which the wider social world of families (see [[Japanese family]]), neighborhoods (see [[Japanese neighborhood]]), and institutions gives meaning to their lives. As Japan set out to internationalize itself in the 1990s, the identification of inherent Japanese qualities took on new significance, and the ideology of homogeneity sometimes masked individual decisions and life-styles of [[postindustrial]] Japan.
==Migration==
Between 6 million and 7 million people moved their residences each year during the 1980s. About 50 % of these moves were within the same prefecture; the others were relocations from one prefecture to another. During Japan's economic development in the twentieth century, and especially during the 1950s and 1960s, migration was characterized by [[urbanization]] as people from rural areas in increasing numbers moved to the larger metropolitan areas in search of better jobs and education. Out-migration from rural prefectures continued in the late 1980s, but more slowly than in previous decades.
In the 1980s, government policy provided support for new urban development away from the large cities, particularly Tokyo, and assisted regional cities to attract young people to live and work there. Regional cities offered familiarity to those from nearby areas, lower costs of living, shorter commutes, and, in general, a more relaxed life-style then could be had in larger cities. Young people continued to move to large cities, however, to attend universities and find work, but some returned to regional cities (a pattern known as U-turn) or to their prefecture of origin (a pattern referred to as J-turn).
Government statistics show that in the 1980s significant numbers of people left the largest cities (Tokyo and Osaka). In 1988 more than 500,000 people left Tokyo, which experienced a net loss through migration of nearly 73,000 for the year. Osaka had a net loss of nearly 36,000 in the same year. However, the prefectures showing the highest net growth are located near the major urban centers, such as [[Saitama]], [[Chiba, Chiba|Chiba]], [[Ibaraki, Ibaraki|Ibaraki]], and [[Kanazawa]] around Tokyo, and [[Hyogo]], [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], and [[Shiga]] near Osaka and Kyoto. This pattern suggests a process of [[suburb|suburbanization]], people moving away from the cities for affordable housing but still commuting there for work and recreation, rather than a true decentralization.
Japanese economic success has led to an increase in certain types of external migration. In 1990 about 11 million Japanese went abroad. More than 80 % of these people traveled as tourists, especially visiting other parts of Asia and North America. However, about 663,100 Japanese were living abroad, approximately 75,000 of whom had permanent foreign residency, more than six times the number who had that status in 1975. More than 200,000 Japanese went abroad in 1990 for extended periods of study, research, or business assignments. As the government and private corporations have stressed internationalization, greater numbers of individuals have been directly affected, decreasing Japan's historically claimed insularity. Despite the benefits of experiencing life abroad, individuals who have lived outside of Japan for extended periods often faced problems of discrimination upon their return because others might no longer consider them fully Japanese. By the late 1980s, these problems, particularly the bullying of returnee children in the schools, had become a major public issue both in Japan and in Japanese communities abroad.
==Minorities==
Japanese society, with its ideology of homogeneity, has traditionally been intolerant of ethnic and other differences. People identified as different might be considered "polluted"--the category applied historically to the outcasts of Japan, particularly the ''hisabetsu buraku'',"discriminated communities," often called ''burakumin'', a term some find offensive —- and thus not suitable as marriage partners or employees. Men or women of mixed ancestry, those with family histories of certain diseases, and foreigners, and members of minority groups faced discrimination in a variety of forms.
===Foreign Residents===
If Japanese society is reluctant to readmit returnees, it is even less willing to accept as full members of society those people who are not ethnic Japanese. In 1991 there were 1.2 million foreign residents in Japan, less than 1 % of Japan's population (if illegal aliens were counted, the number of foreigners might be several times higher than the quoted figure). Of this number, 693,100 (about 57 %) were Koreans and 171,100 (some 14 %) were Chinese. Many of these people were descendants of those brought to Japan during Japan's occupation of Taiwan (1895- 1945) and Korea (1905-45) to work at unskilled jobs, such as coal mining. Because Japanese [[citizenship]] was based on the nationality of the parent rather than on the place of birth, subsequent generations were not automatically Japanese and had to be naturalized to claim citizenship, despite being born and educated in Japan and speaking only Japanese, as was the case with most Koreans in Japan. Until the late 1980s, people applying for citizenship were expected to use only the Japanese renderings of their names and, even as citizens, continued to face discrimination in education, employment, and marriage. Thus, few chose naturalization, and they faced legal restrictions as f |
quake]]
*[[Moonquake]]
*[[List of earthquakes]]
*[[Plate tectonics]]
*[[List of tectonic plates]]
*[[Seismic wave]]
*[[Seismograph]]
*[[Seismology]]
*[[Tsunami]]
*The [[VAN method]] to predict earthquakes
== External links ==
{{commons|Earthquake}}
*[http://www.eqnet.org/ EQNET: Earthquake Information Network]
*[http://neic.usgs.gov/ The U.S. National Earthquake Information Center]
*[http://earthquake.usgs.gov/faq/ USGS Earthquake FAQs]
*[http://www.ssn.unam.mx/ Mexican Sismological Service] Reports earthquakes in Mexico. Updated regularly.
*[http://wapi.isu.edu/envgeo/EG5_earthqks/eg_mod5.htm Environmental Geology - GEOL 406/506 (Earthquakes)]
*[http://www.gfz-potsdam.de/pb5/pb53/projekt/ems/ The European Macroseismic Scale]
*[http://simscience.org/crackling/Advanced/Earthquakes/GutenbergRichter.html Gutenberg-Richter] [[power law]] of earthquake frequency against magnitude
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,5860,1121610,00.html Interactive guide: Earthquakes] an educational presentation on why earthquakes happen by [[Guardian Unlimited]]
*[http://www.geowall.org Geowall]- an educational 3d presentation system for looking at and understanding earthquake data
*[http://www.sciencecourseware.com/VirtualEarthquake/ Virtual Earthquake] educational site explaining how epicenters are located and magnitude is determined
*[http://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/earthquake/ PBS NewsHour - Predicting Earthquakes]
*[http://www.data.scec.org/ Southern California Earthquake Data Center]
*[http://www.emsc-csem.org/ European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre (EMSC)]
*[http://www.gfz-potsdam.de/geofon/seismon/globmon.html Global Seismic Monitor at GFZ Potsdam]
*[http://earthquake.usgs.gov/bytopic/eqmonitoring/history/part09.php USGS Earthquake Monitoring History]
*[http://tsunami.geo.ed.ac.uk/local-bin/quakes/mapscript/demo_run.pl Global Earthquake Report &ndash; chart updated with each new earthquake or aftershock]
*[http://hraun.vedur.is/ja/englishweb/index.html Earthquakes in Iceland during the last 48 hours], updated automatically once every 2 minutes.
*[http://www.data.scec.org/recenteqs/Quakes/quakes0.html Recent earthquakes in California and Nevada ]
*[http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eqlists/10maps_world.html USGS &ndash; Largest earthquakes in the world since 1900]
*[http://www.armageddononline.org/earthquake.php The Destruction of Earthquakes - and a List of the Worst ever recorded]
*[http://www.losangelesearthquakes.com Los Angeles Earthquakes plotted on a Google map]
*[http://rev.seis.sc.edu Seismograms for recent earthquakes via REV, the Rapid Earthquake Viewer]
*[http://www.iris.edu Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS)], earthquake database and software
*[http://www.iris.edu/seismon/ IRIS Seismic Monitor], world map of recent earthquakes
*[http://www.iris.edu/seismo/ SeismoArchives], Seismogram Archives of Significant Earthquakes of the World
*[http://www.em-dat.net the EM-DAT International Disaster Database]
*[http://www.projectshum.org/NaturalDisasters/earthquake.html Natural Disasters - Earthquake] Great geological site for kids
[[Category:Seismology]]
[[Category:Geological hazards]]
[[Category:Structural engineering]]
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[[pl:Trzęsienie ziemi]]
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[[ru:Землетрясение]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electro-plating</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electroplating]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Esotericism</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T15:50:21Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about '''Esotericism'''. See [[Esoteric (band)]] and [[Esoterica (band)]] for the English bands. See [[Esoteric programming language]] for the type of computer programming language.}}
'''Esotericism''' refers to knowledge that is secret or not generally known. It is knowledge suitable only for the advanced, privileged, or initiated, or knowledge of an 'inner' nature, as opposed to [[exotericism|exoteric knowledge]], which is well-known or public. It is used especially to describe [[Mysticism|mystical]], [[occult]] and [[Spirituality|spiritual]] viewpoints.
Historically, 'esoteric knowledge' generally described knowledge kept secret from outsiders by certain select groups, such as [[Freemasonry|Freemasons]] or [[magic (paranormal)|magical]] orders, either for reasons of exclusivity, or to protect themselves against prejudice. More recently, as [[occult]] and [[mysticism|mystical]] teachings have become more publicly available (through such groups as the [[Theosophical Society]] and the [[Rosicrucian Fellowship]]), another sense of ''esoteric'' has become more prominent: that which is complex and difficult to grasp except by the few who are more perceptive or aware.
==Etymology==
'''Esoteric''' is an [[adjective]] originating in [[Greece|Hellenic Greece]] under the domain of the Roman Empire; it comes from the Greek ''esôterikos'', from ''esôtero'', the [[comparative]] form of ''esô'': "within". ''Esoteric'' refers to anything that is inner and occult. Its antonym is [[exoteric]], from the Greek ''eksôterikos'', from ''eksôtero'', the comparative form of ''eksô'': "outside". [[Plato]], in his dialogue ''Alcibíades'' (aprox. [[390 BC]]), uses the expression ''ta esô'' meaning «the inner things», and in his dialogue ''Teeteto'' (aprox. [[360 BC]]) he uses ''ta eksô'' meaning «the outside things». The probable first appearance of the Greek [[adjective]] ''esôterikos'' is in [[Lucian of Samosata]]'s "The Auction of Lives", § 26 (also called "The Auction of the Philosophical Schools"), written around AD 166. [http://paginasesotericas.tripod.com/esoterismo.htm]
The term ''esoteric'' first appeared in English in the [[1701]] ''History of Philosophy'' by [[Thomas Stanley]], in his description of the "Auditors of [[Pythagoras]]." The Pythagoreans were divided into "exoteric," which were under review, and "esoteric," which had performed well enough to be admitted into the "inner" circle.
'''Esotericism''' (sometimes written ''esoterism'') as a [[noun|noun substantive]] first appeared in the 1828 work ''Histoire critique du gnosticisme et de ses influences'' of the early prominent [[Martinism|Martinist]] [[Jacques Matter]] (1791-1864). Later, [[Eliphas Lévi]], also a Martinist, [[occult]]ist and [[kabbala|cabalist]], made common the use of the terms «esotericism» and «occultism», and both terms eventually became fashionable through the writings of [[Helena Petrovna Blavatsky]] and other personalities of the [[Theosophical Society]] in the last quarter of 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Through these authors the term «esotericism» gains a sense of 'inner' knowledge and experience: knowledge pertaining to the [[soul]], [[spirit]] or [[psyche]].
==Connotations==
==== "Esotericism" as ''selective'' ====
A prime example of a historically highly '''selective''' category of esoteric teaching is within the academic discipline of [[philosophy]], (in particular, [[philosophy of mind]]), whose teachers maintain selectivity by limiting their scope to colleges and universities. This discipline has not focused entirely on esoteric thought, but enough that the term "philosophical knowledge" can generally be used in the place of "esoteric knowledge" when referring to knowledge pertaining to the same "inner" aspects listed above. The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] lists as its prime definition of esoteric, "Of philosophical doctrines," although modern philosophers generally avoid the term "esoteric" due to its negative associations with the [[occult]] as described below.
In the late 19th to early 20th Century, the discipline of [[psychology]] branched off from philosophy a reaction away from the "inner" nature of philosphy towards the more [[empirical]], practical, exoteric nature of science and medicine. Ironically this was spearheaded by [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[Carl Jung]], both of whom privately showed great interest in the [[occult]] and esotericism, including [[psychic]] phenomena, although it would be difficult in the time of [[Darwin]] and [[Einstein]] to appear unscientific in their professional lives. Through the 20th Century to present day, there have been various subsets of psychology that were more esoteric or spiritual than [[behavioral psychology|behavioral]] or scientific in basis, such as [[Gestalt therapy]], although these subsets generally avoided the term "esotericism" due to its negative connotation with "the occult" and "New Age" authors such as [[Alice Bailey]], who wrote a series of books in the early 20th Century entitled [[Esoteric Psychology]]. Many esoter |
aved the lives of many Irish people. <!-- edit: is this just a retrospective excuse for a leech-like absentee Anglo-Irish landlord class, the very origin of the destitution of the Catholic Irish? Answer: Yes. --> Although there were also not enough mills immediately available in Ireland had all the corn been kept to be used at home, the livestock and other crops would have sufficed until the milled corn could have been brought back from British mills. Peel's solution was different: keep exporting to avoid the economic collapse of the landlord system, while importing Indian maize to feed the starving. Russell, his successor, refused to do the latter, making catastrophe inevitable.
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" align="center" cellspacing="0" style="background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
|+ '''Decline in population 1841-51 (%)'''
|- align=center style="background:#ffdead;"
!Leinster!!Munster!!Ulster!!Connaught!!Ireland
|- align=right
|15.3||22.5||15.7||28.8||19.9
|-
| align=center colspan=5 style="border-top:1px solid red; border-right:1px solid red; border-bottom:1px solid red; border-left:1px solid red;"|Table from '''Joe Lee, ''The Modernisation of Irish Society'' '''(Gill History of Ireland Series No.10) p.2
|}
==The aftermath==
Potato blights continued in Ireland, especially in [[1872]] and [[1879]]-[[1880]]. These killed few people, partly because they were less severe, but mainly due to a complex range of reasons. The growth in the numbers of railways made the importation of foodstuffs easier; in 1834, Ireland had 6 miles of railway tracks; by 1912, the total was 3,403. The banning of sub-division, coupled with emigration, had increased the average farm holding, enabling tenant farms to diversify in terms of produce grown. The increasing wealth in urban areas meant alternative sources of food, grain, potatoes and seed were available in towns and villages. The 1870s agricultural economy thus was more efficient and less dependent on potatoes, as well as having access to new farm machinery and product control that had not existed thirty years earlier.
Of particular importance was the wholesale re-organisation of the agricultural sector, which had begun after the famine with the [[Encumbered Estates Act]] and which in the period (1870s-1900s) saw the nature of Irish landholding changed completely, with small owned farms replacing mass estates and multiple tenants. Many of the large estates in the 1840s were debt ridden and heavily mortgaged. In contrast, estates in the 1870s, many of them under new Irish middle class owners thanks to the Encumbered Estates Act, were on a better economic footing, and so capable of reducing rents and providing locally organized relief, as was the Roman Catholic Church, which was better organised and funded than it had been in 1847-49.
If sub-division produced earlier marriage and larger families, its abolition produced the opposite effect; the 'inheriting' child would wait until they found the 'right' partner, preferably one with a large dowry to bring to the farm. Other children, no longer with the possibility of inheriting a farm (or part of it at least) had no economic attraction and no financial resources to consider an early marriage.
As a result, later mini-famines made only minimal effect and are generally forgotten, except by historians. However, even though by the 1880s Ireland went through an economic boom unprecedented until the [[Celtic Tiger]] era, emigration, often of children who no longer could inherit a share in the land and who as a result chose to go abroad for economic advantage and to avoid poverty, continued. By the [[1911]] census, the island of Ireland's population had fallen to 4.4 million, about the same as the population in [[1800]] and [[2000]] and only a half of its peak population.
The same mould (''[[Phytophthora infestans]]'') was responsible for the 1847-51 and later famines. When people speak of "the Irish famine", or "''an Gorta Mór''", they nearly always mean the one of the [[1840s]], even though a similar Great Famine did in fact hit in the early [[18th century]]. The fact that only four types of potato were brought from [[the Americas]] was a fundamental cause of the famine, as the lack of [[genetic diversity]] made it possible for a single [[fungus]]-relative to have much more devastating consequences than it might otherwise have had.
==Emigration==
As a result of the famine, many Irish families were forced to [[emigrate]] from the country. By [[1854]], between 1.5 and 2 million Irish left their country. In the [[United States]], most Irish became city-dwellers. With little money, many had to settle in the cities that the ships they came on landed in. By [[1850]], the Irish made up a quarter of the population in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[New York City]], [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], and [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]]. The 1851 census reported that about one third of the inhabitants of [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]], [[Canada]], were Irish. The Famine is often seen as an initiator in the steep depopulation of Ireland in the 19th century, however, it is likely that real population began to fall in 1841 with the Famine accelerating any population changes already occurring. Some may argue the Famine was necessary to restore population equilibrium to Ireland given that population increased by 13-14% in the first three decades of the 19th century (using Thomas Mathus's idea of population expanding geometrically, resources increasing arithmetically) nonetheless there is a tendency among Irish historians to dispute this. Statistics show that between 1831 and 1841 population grew by only 5% so this gives more value to those who argue that population was already falling by 1844.
The mass exodus in the years following the famine must be seen in the context of overpopulation, industrial stagnation, land shortages, declining agricultural employment and inadequate diet. These factors were already combining to choke off population growth by the 1830s. It would be wrong, therefore, to attribute all the population loss during the famine, to the famine.
==Memorials to the famine==
The Great Famine is still remembered in many locations throughout Ireland, especially in those regions which suffered the greatest losses, and also in cities overseas with large populations descended from Irish immigrants.
===In Ireland===
* [[Strokestown]] Park Famine Museum, Ireland
* [[Dublin City Quays]], Ireland. Painfully thin sculptural figures stand as if walking towards the emigration ships on the Dublin Quayside.
* [[Murrisk]], [[County Mayo]], Ireland. This sculpture of a [[famine ship]], near the foot of [[Croagh Patrick]], depicts the refugees it carries as dead souls hanging from the sides.
* [[Doolough]], County Mayo. A memorial commemorates famine victims who walked from [[Louisburgh]] along the mountain road to Delphi Lodge to seek relief from the Poor Board who were meeting there. Returning after their request was refused, many of them died at this point.
===In the United Kingdom===
* [[Liverpool]], [[England]]. A memorial is in the grounds of St Luke's Church on Leece Street, itself a memorial to the victims of the Blitz. It recalls that from 1849-1852 1,241,410 Irish immigrants arrived in the city and that from Liverpool they dispersed to locations around the world. Many died though despite the help they recieved within the city, some 7000 in the city's parish within one year. The sculpture is dedicated to the memory of all famine emmigrants and their suffering. There is also a plaque on the gates to Clarence Dock. Unveiled in 2000 The plaque inscription reads in Gaelic and English: "Through these gates passed most of the 1,300,000 Irish migrants who fled from the Great Famine and 'took the ship' to Liverpool in the years 1845-52" The Maritime Museum, Albert Dock, Liverpool has an exhibition regarding the Irish Migration, showing models of ships, documentation and other facts on Liverpool's history.
* [[Cardiff]], [[Wales]]. A magnificent Celtic Cross made of Irish Limestone on a base of Welsh stone stands in the city's Cathays Cemetary. The cross was unveiled in 1999 as the high point in the work of the Wales Famine Forum, remembering the 150th Anniversary of the famine. The memorial is dedicated to every person of Irish origin, without distinction on grounds of class, politics, allegiance or religious belief, who has died in Wales.
===In North America===
* In [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], a bronze statue located at the corner of Washington and School Streets on the [[Freedom Trail]] depicts a starving woman, looking up to the heavens as if to ask "Why?", while her children cling to her. A second sculpture shows the figures hopeful as they land in Boston. See [http://www.boston.com/famine/].
* [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] has a memorial to the famine on its [[Common land|Common]].
* [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]]
* Grosse-Île, [[Québec]]
* [[Kingston, Ontario]], [[Canada]], Angel of Resurrection
* [[Montréal, Québec|Montréal]], [[Québec]], the "Boulder Stone" in Pointe-Sainte-Charles
* [[New York City, New York|New York]], [[New York]] has the [[Irish Hunger Memorial]] - which looks like a chunk of a hillside with low stone walls and a roofless cabin on one side and a polished wall with lit (or white) lines on the other three sides. The memorial is in [[Battery_Park_City|Battery Park City]], a short walk west from the [[World Trade Center site]]. See [http://www.batteryparkcity.org/artists.php4?page=ihm]. Another memorial exists in V.E. Macy Park in [[Ardsley]], [[New York]] about 20 miles north of [[Manhattan]].
* [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]]
* [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]], [[Arizon |
ternational law to refer to Status of Forces Agreements (SOFA), mission agreements and extradition treaties; hence they claim that Article 98 can only be used for these purposes, and not to create a general exclusion for other states' nationals from being handed over to the ICC.
[[Romania]] and [[Israel]] (even though the latter is not a party to the Statute) were the first to sign Article 98 agreements with the U.S. In response to Romania's action, the European Union requested that candidate countries not sign Article 98 agreements with the United States until the EU ministers had met to agree upon a common position. The U.S. State Department called this action inappropriate. ICC supporters countered that the United States was attempting to use issues of military aid and NATO membership to "bully" other countries into signing.
Finally, in October 2002, the Council of the European Union adopted a common position, permitting member states to enter into Article 98 agreements with the United States, but only concerning U.S. military personnel, U.S. diplomatic or consular officials, and persons extradited, sent to their territories by the United States with their permission; not the general protection of U.S. nationals that the U.S. sought; furthermore the common position provided that any person protected from ICC prosecution by such agreements would have to be prosecuted by the United States. This was in agreement with the original position of the EU, that Article 98 agreements were allowed to cover these restricted classes of persons but could not cover all the citizens of a state.
On [[December 26]], [[2002]], [[India]] became the 15th country to sign a bilateral agreement with the U.S. under Article 98. The agreement aims to prevent the "extradition of nationals of either country to any international tribunal without the other country's express consent".
By June 2005 around 100 states had signed a bilateral agreement with the U.S., including at least seven of them that signed the agreement secretly. Many of these agreements are with non-States Parties to the Court. 58 of the 100 countries have not signed these bilateral agreements, despite U.S. pressure. At least 54 governments (including Brazil, Canada, Estonia, Peru, South Africa, and Trinidad and Tobago) and several intergovernmental bodies have publicly opposed these agreements and have encouraged other states to resist signing such agreements. Less than 30% of these agreements have actually been ratified by national parliaments. Instead, it is unclear how the majority of these agreements have been entered into, though at least 18 of them are known to have been secured through “executive agreements" which many legal experts argue are unconstitutional and require the approval of parliament.
The United States has cut aid and development funding for many countries in retaliation for cooperating with the ICC. Countries who have lost aid include Brazil, Costa Rica, Peru, Venezuela, Ecuador, South Africa, and several other Latin American and African countries.
=== Israeli objections ===
[[Israel]] initially objected to the Rome Statute because of the clause defining "the war crime of the transfer of parts of the civilian population of an occupying power into occupied territory", which it feared implied that settlement activity in the occupied territories is a "war crime" and "grave offense". [http://www.cicweb.ca/publications/ForTheRecord/un.html] Israel fears prosecution of [[Israeli settlement|Israeli settlers]], or Israeli government officials who support the policy of settlements, as "war crimes". It did eventually sign the treaty establishing the court despite its misgivings, but on [[28 August]] [[2002]] submitted a letter to the United Nations declaring that it did not intend to ratify the treaty, using the same wording as the US declaration of [[6 May]] [[2002]].[http://untreaty.un.org/ENGLISH/bible/englishinternetbible/partI/chapterXVIII/treaty10.asp]
=== Chinese objections ===
The [[People's Republic of China]] has expressed opposition to even the other states involved going ahead with it, claiming that the Statute is an attempt to interfere with the domestic affairs of sovereign states. It has not signed the treaty.
=== Zimbabwean objections ===
The press spokesman for [[Zimbabwe]]an president [[Robert Mugabe]] has dismissed calls by [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] and international human rights organisations for the [[UN Security Council]] to indict Mugabe for trial before the ICC for [[crimes against humanity]]. Press secretary George Charamba told the local newspaper The Sunday Mirror in January 2006 that the call for Mugabe's indictment was "spurious" and "an attempt to tarnish the image of the president and the country." Charamba went on to say that [[Zimbabwe]] is not a signatory to the statute that created the ICC and is therefore not legally bound by its dictates. As a non-signatory state, an ICC trial would require either a [[UN Security Council]] indictment or Zimbabwe to accept the ICC’s jurisdiction.
=== Other objections to the Statute ===
Some have argued that the crimes the ICC has jurisdiction over are recognized under international law as crimes of [[universal jurisdiction]], meaning that any state may try individuals who commit these crimes, even if they are committed by foreign nationals on foreign territory. From this perspective, the state parties could therefore have authorized the ICC to exercise this universal jurisdiction on their behalf. However, the concept of universal jurisdiction itself is controversial, not all the crimes for which the Rome Statute provides the court with jurisdiction have been proposed as being subject to universal jurisdiction at the present time under customary international law, and some have argued that even where universal jurisdiction exists it is non-delegable [http://www.law.duke.edu/journals/lcp/articles/lcp64dWinter2001p13.htm ''ibid'' ].
==In popular culture==
* ''[[The Interpreter]]'' is a 2005 film featuring a fictional African head of state, apparently based on [[Robert Mugabe]], seeking to avoid being sent to the ICC by the [[UN Security Council]] for [[crimes against humanity]].
==See also==
*[[Command responsibility]]
*[[International Law]]
*[[Peace Palace]]
*[[Universal jurisdiction]]
*[[War crimes]]
*[[World Government]]
*[[World Federalist Movement]]
==External links==
===UN===
* [http://www.icc-cpi.int/ Official ICC website]
* [http://www.un.org/law/icc/ UN website on the Statute of the International Criminal Court]
* [http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/romefra.htm Text of the ICC Rome statute (treaty)]
**[http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/99_corr/2.htm Article 5: Crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court]
**[http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/99_corr/9.htm Article 98: Cooperation with respect to waiver of immunity and consent to surrender]
*[http://untreaty.un.org/ENGLISH/bible/englishinternetbible/partI/chapterXVIII/treaty10.asp Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: depositary notifications]
===Other===
* [http://www.iccnow.org The Coalition for the International Criminal Court]
* [http://www.npwj.org No Peace Without Justice]
* [http://www.amicc.org American NGO Coalition for the International Criminal Court]
* [http://www.globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=84 Objections to the ICC under the U.S. Constitution and International Law]
* [http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/general/2001/07kiss.htm The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction: Risking Judicial Tyranny] by [[Henry Kissinger]]
** [http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/icc/ferencz4.html A reply to Henry Kissinger's paper] by [[Benjamin B. Ferencz]], a former Prosecutor at the [[Subsequent Nuremberg Trials]].
* [http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/icc/ciccart98.html Why Bilateral Agreements with the U.S. are not valid under Art.98 of ICC Statute] by Derechos.org
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Iraq/Story/0,2763,1477620,00.html "International court hears anti-war claims"], Richard Norton-Taylor, [[The Guardian]], [[6 May]] [[2005]],
* [http://www.state.gov/t/us/rm/25818.htm American Justice and the International Criminal Court] Remarks by [[John R. Bolton]], Under Secretary for Arms Control and International Security, at the [[American Enterprise Institute]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] on November 3, 2003
*[http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/12/27/opinion/edellis.php Indict Zimbabwe's demagogue before the International Criminal Court] - the International Bar Association calls in the International Herrald Tribune for Robert Mugabe's indictment
*[http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/facts.htm "Myths and Facts About the International Criminal Court"] - by [[Human Rights Watch]]
[[Category:Human rights bodies]]
[[Category:International courts]]
[[Category:International Criminal Court| ]]
[[Category:International criminal law]]
[[da:Den internationale straffedomstol]]
[[de:Internationaler Strafgerichtshof]]
[[es:Corte Penal Internacional]]
[[fi:Kansainvälinen sotarikostuomioistuin]]
[[fr:Cour pénale internationale]]
[[he:בית הדין הבינלאומי הפלילי]]
[[it:Corte Penale Internazionale]]
[[ja:国際刑事裁判所]]
[[nl:Internationaal Strafhof]]
[[no:Den internasjonale straffedomstolen]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowy Trybunał Karny]]
[[pt:Corte penal internacional]]
[[ro:Curtea Penală Internaţională]]
[[sv:Internationella brottmålsdomstolen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ICC</title>
<id>14881</id>
<revision>
<id>40731657</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T17:12:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tjss</username>
<id>280377</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ICC''' may stand for:
*[[ICC Bank]], [[Ireland]]
*[[Immunocytochemistry]]
*[[Indianapolis Children's Choir]]
*[[Integration Competency Center]]
*[[Inter-Cooperative Council at the Univ |
ffusion of a gas across a membrane is
*Constant for a given gas at a given temperature by an experimentally determined factor, <math>K</math>
*Proportional to the surface area over which diffusion is taking place, <math>A</math>
*Proportional to the difference in [[partial pressure]]s of the gas across the [[membrane]], <math>P_2 - P_1</math>
*Inversely proportional to the distance over which diffusion must take place, or in other words the thickness of the membrane, <math>D</math>.
Fick's first law is also important in radiation transfer equations. However, in this context it becomes inaccurate when the diffusion constant is low and the radiation becomes limited by the speed of light rather than by the resistance of the material the radiation is flowing through. In this situation, one can use a [[flux limiter]].
The exchange rate of a gas across a fluid membrane can be determined by using this law together with [[Graham's law]].
== See also ==
* [[Gas exchange]]
* [[Lung]]
* [[Alveoli]]
==External links==
*[http://www.diffusion-polymers.com/messages/406.html Diffusion coefficient] - diffusion-polymers.com
== References ==
* A. Fick, ''Phil. Mag.'' (1855), '''10''', 30.
* A. Fick, ''Poggendorff's Annel. Physik.'' (1855), '''94''', 59.
* W.F. Smith, ''Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering 3<sup>rd</sup> ed.'', McGraw-Hill (2004)
[[Category:Diffusion]]
[[Category:Statistical mechanics]]
[[Category:Physical chemistry]]
[[Category:Eponymous laws]]
[[de:Diffusion]]
[[ja:&#12501;&#12451;&#12483;&#12463;&#12398;&#27861;&#21063;]]
[[nl:Wet van Fick]]
[[sv:Ficks lag]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Far East</title>
<id>11672</id>
<revision>
<id>37354637</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T13:16:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Absar</username>
<id>832787</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Far East''''' is an inexact term often used for [[East Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]] combined, sometimes including also the easternmost territories of [[Russia]], i.e., the '''[[Russian Far East]]''', and the western [[Pacific Ocean]] region.
[[Image:Japon Tokyo1.jpg|200px|thumbnail|[[Tokyo]], [[Japan]]]]
[[Image:Lit-up_CBD_from_Raffles_City_-_RGW.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[central business district]] of [[Singapore]]]]
[[Image:Hong_Kong_Skyline_by_mkeky.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Skyline of [[Hong Kong Island]], taken from [[Tsim Sha Tsui]], [[Kowloon]], [[Hong Kong]]]]
''Far East'' is sometimes used synonymously with [[East Asia]], which may be defined in geographic or cultural terms to include historical [[China]] (excluding [[Tibet]] and [[Xinjiang]]), [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and [[Vietnam]]. But it commonly encompasses the states and cultures of [[Southeast Asia]], such as [[Cambodia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Myanmar]], and [[Thailand]], [[Indonesia]] and the [[Philippines]].
It was well popularized in the [[English language]] during the period of the [[British Empire]] as a blanket term for lands to the east of [[British India]]. Prior to [[World War I]], the ''[[Near East]]'' referred to relatively nearby lands of the [[Ottoman Empire]], ''[[Middle East]]'' to [[South Asia]] and [[Central Asia]], and ''Far East'' for countries along the western Pacific Ocean. Many European languages have analogous terms, such as the [[French language|French]] ''[[:fr:Extrême-Orient|Extrême-Orient]]'', [[German language|German]] ''[[:de:Ferner Osten|Ferner Osten]]'', [[Italian language|Italian]] ''Estremo oriente'', and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''[[:nl:Verre Oosten|Verre Oosten]]''.
In [[Orientalism|Orientalist]] usage, it evokes cultural, as well as geographic separation, an exotic in addition to a distant locale. ''Far East'' never refers, for instance, to the culturally western nations of Australia and New Zealand, which lie even farther to the east of Europe than much of East Asia. ''Far East'' in this sense is comparable to terms such as ''the [[Orient]]'', which means [[East]]; the ''[[Eastern]] world''; or simply the ''[[Eastern|East]]''.
The [[United Kingdom]] and [[United States]] historically used "Far East" for several units and commands in the region:
* [[British Far East Command]]
* [[RAF Far East Air Force]]
* [[U.S. Far East Air Force]]
* [[U.S. Far East Command]]
* The U.S. [[Far East Network]]
In addition, the post-[[World War II]] trials of [[Imperial Japan]]ese war criminals was titled the [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East]].
Use of the term in the [[Western world]] has become somewhat circumscribed due to its [[Eurocentrism]] and association with European [[imperialism in Asia]]. The more precise ''East Asia'' and ''Southeast Asia'', or larger umbrella terms, such as ''Pacific Rim'', are preferred in cultural and economic studies. The region's growth has given new meaning to the term as meaning the Far East of the world (i.e. the easternmost continental land in the [[Eastern Hemisphere]]) rather than to the Far East of Europe. Many commercial enterprises and institutions are named "Far East," like that of [[Far Eastern National University]] in Vladivostok, [[Far Eastern University]] in the City of Manila, and as South Korean's [[Far East University]], and the [[Hong Kong]]-based ''[[Far Eastern Economic Review]]''.
In [[Russia|Russian Federation]], the term "Far East" ([[Russian language|Russian]]: ''дальний восток'') usually refers only to Eastern regions of the country (most often [[Vladivostok]] and [[Khabarovsk]]), and the term "East Asia" is used when describing foreign countries in the region.
==References==
* Whitaker, Brian. "[http://www.guardian.co.uk/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,7792,1154165,00.html From Turkey to Tibet]," ''[[The Guardian]]'', February 23, 2004.
[[Category:Asia]]
{{region}}
[[cs:Dálný východ]]
[[de:Ferner Osten]]
[[fr:Extrême-Orient]]
[[ja:極東]]
[[ko:극동]]
[[nl:Verre Oosten]]
[[tr:Uzak Doğu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fawlty Towers</title>
<id>11673</id>
<revision>
<id>41414678</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T04:07:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.65.127.113</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |[[Lop]]
| show_name = Fawlty Towers
| image = [[Image:Fawlty_towers.jpg]]
| caption = The cast of Fawlty Towers, clockwise from top: Basil Fawlty ([[John Cleese]]), Sybil Fawlty ([[Prunella Scales]]), Manuel ([[Andrew Sachs]]) and Polly Sherman ([[Connie Booth]])
| format = [[Comedy]]
| runtime = 30 minutes
| creator = John Cleese<br>Connie Booth
| starring = John Cleese<br>Connie Booth<br>Prunella Scales<br>Andrew Sachs
| country = [[United Kingdom]]
| network = [[BBC]]
| first_aired = [[1975 in television|1975]]
| last_aired = [[1979 in television|1979]]
| num_episodes = 12
|}}
'''''Fawlty Towers''''' was a [[British sitcom]] made by the [[BBC]] and first broadcast on [[BBC Two|BBC2]] in 1975. It is set in a [[fiction|fictional]] [[hotel]] named Fawlty Towers in the [[Devon]] [[town]] of [[Torquay]] on "the English Riviera". Only twelve episodes were ever broadcast, but the series has had a lasting and powerful influence on later shows. The show was written by [[John Cleese]] and [[Connie Booth]], who also played the main characters, and was broadcast in two series: The first, in 1975, was produced and directed by [[John Howard Davies]], and the second, in 1979, was produced by [[Douglas Argent]] and directed by [[Bob Spiers]].
In a list of the [[100 Greatest British Television Programmes]] drawn up by the [[British Film Institute]] in 2000, voted for by industry professionals, ''Fawlty Towers'' was placed first [http://www.bfi.org.uk/features/tv/100/index.html]. It was also voted fifth in the [[BBC|BBC's]] "[[Britain's Best Sitcom]]" poll in 2004, though many commentators considered this to be surprisingly low[http://www.bbc.co.uk/sitcom/winner.shtml].
==Background and inspiration==
Even before this programme existed, English seaside boarding houses and their proprietors had something of a reputation for firmness and intransigence, possibly stemming from the days when soldiers were billeted in small hotels during wartime or national service. Cleese had also parodied the contrast between organisational dogma and sensitive customer service in many personnel training videotapes issued with a serious purpose by his company [[Video Arts]]. Basil Fawlty's behaviour can often be taken to represent macho management at its worst.
''Fawlty Towers'' was inspired by the [[Monty Python]] team's stay in the Gleneagles Hotel in [[Torquay]] [http://www.opinion.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2002/05/11/nfawlt11.xml]. Cleese and Booth stayed on at the hotel after filming for the Python show had finished. The owner, Mr. [[Donald Sinclair]], was very rude, throwing a bus timetable at a guest who asked when the next bus to town would arrive and placing [[Eric Idle]]'s suitcase behind a wall in the garden in case it contained a bomb (actually it contained a ticking alarm clock). He also criticised the American-born [[Terry Gilliam]]'s table manners for being too American, and it is reasonable to assume that his treatment of Gilliam partially inspired Basil's treatment of an American visitor in the episode "Waldorf Salad".
For the outside taping, instead of an actual hotel, the Wooburn Grange [[Country Club]] in [[Buckinghamshire]] was used. It served as a [[nightclub]] named "Basil's" for a short time after the series ended, until it was destroyed by fire in March 1991. The remnants of the building were demolished and the site was bought by developers.
Sinclair died in 1981, having emigrated to [[Canada]] in the 1970s where he was once tracked dow |
ed along its entire length (but not to the top of the carriage). This is often abbreviated to '''"e2e"'''. End to ends used to be called '''window-downs''' but this is an older expression that is falling from popularity.
* '''top-to-bottom''' pieces on trains cover the whole height of the car. A top-to-bottom, end-to-end production is called a '''whole-car.''' A production with several writers might cover a '''whole-train''', which means the entire side of the train has been covered.
* '''burner''' - typically a large, elaborate piece, more elaborate than a normal piece. It refers to the piece "burning" out of the wall or train-side. Burners often originate legally, because of the time and effort put into them, but the great early writers of New York also did burners illegally on trains.
* '''insides''' are tags or bombs done inside trains, trams, or buses. In 1970s New York, there was as much graffiti inside the subway trains as outside, and the same is true of some cities today (like Rome, Italy and Melbourne, Australia). While prolific, insides are often less artistic and seldom documented.
* '''going over''' - (go over) if a writer goes over or tags upon another writer's piece, it is the same as declaring war against the opponent writer. Most writers respect others' work, and the basic rules for replacing other creations are in this order: tag - throwup - piece. You should only paint over another's work if it has been slashed (or "dissed") already or if you will be creating something better than the original piece. As what constitutes "better" is highly subjective, this often leads to disagreements. If someone breaks these guidelines the person is considered a "toy", or generally an annoyance.
* '''toy''' - an inexperienced or unskilled writer. Graffiti pros use this as a derogatory term for new writers in the scene.
* '''king''' - '''inside''' or '''outside''' kings are writers with a certain amount of respect among other writers. To own the inside means you have most tags inside trains, and to own the outside means having most pieces on the train surface. One should note that their are kings of '''style''' among a variety of other categories and the term is regionally subjective. Self-declared kings will often incorporate crowns into their pieces; a commonly used element of style.
* '''buffing''' - (to buff) to remove a graffiti painting with chemicals and other instruments.
[[Image:TAF rooftop.jpg|thumb|125px|right|TAF rooftop, Phoenix Arizona]] To gain notoriety, and make pieces difficult to remove, graffiti artists will sometimes paint hard-to-reach spots such as [[roof|rooftop]]s. Such '''heavens''' pieces (also commonly known as '''giraffiti'''), by the nature of the spot often pose dangerous challenges to execute.
* '''nic''' - (to nic) to steal another artists ideas or lettering schemes. Seasoned artists will often complain about 'toys' that nic their work.
* '''bite''' - (to bite) an oldschool NYC term for '''nic''' .
*'''Etch''' can refer to the use of acid solutions intended for creating [[frosted glass]] to write on windows.
*'''paintEATER''' refers to surfaces coated with a certain chemical that causes spray to be consumed thus implying the words painteater
Another technique sometimes referred to as '''scratchitti''' involves making purposely hard-to-remove graffiti by scratching or [[etching]] a tag into an object, generally using a [[key (lock)|key]] or another sharp object such as a [[knife]], stone, ceramic drill bit, or [[diamond]] tipped [[Dremel]] bit. The [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness]] determines which stones or other objects will scratch what surfaces.
==Legal situation==
Graffiti is subject to different societal pressures from popularly-recognized art forms, since graffiti appears on walls, freeways, buildings, trains or any accessible surfaces that are not owned by the person who applies the graffiti. This means that graffiti forms incorporate elements rarely seen elsewhere. Spray paint and broad permanent markers are commonly used, and the organizational structure of the art is sometimes influenced by the need to apply the art quickly before it is noticed by authorities.
[[Image:Graffitti-face.jpg|thumb|Character created by graffiti artist]]
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffiti artists. Some have suggested that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or [[trespassing]]. Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere.
While some perceive graffiti as a method of reclaiming public space, many others regard it as an unwanted nuisance, or as expensive [[vandalism]] requiring repair of the vandalized property. One can view graffiti as a '[[quality of life]]' issue, and many people suggest that the presence of graffiti contributes to a general sense of squalor and a heightened fear of [[crime]]. Advocates of the "[[Fixing Broken Windows|broken window theory]]" believe that this sense of decay encourages further vandalism and promotes an environment leading to offences that are more serious. Former [[New York City]] mayor [[Rudy Giuliani]]'s subscription to the broken window theory promoted an aggressive anti-graffiti campaign in New York. However, throughout the world, authorities often, though not always, treat graffiti as a minor nuisance crime, though with widely varying penalties.
Chicago's mayor, [[Richard M. Daley]] created the '[[Graffiti Blasters]]' to eliminate graffiti and gang-related vandalism. The bureau promises absolutely free cleanup within 24 hours of a phone call. The bureau uses paints (common to the city's 'color scheme') and baking-soda based solvents to erase all varieties of graffiti. [http://www.kcb.org/kcb_cleanups.html]
In 1984, the [[Philadelphia Anti-Graffiti Network]] (PAGN) was created to combat the city's growing concerns about gang-related graffiti. PAGN led to the creation of the [[Mural Arts Program]], which replaced often hit spots with elaborate, commissioned murals that were protected by a city ordinance, increasing fines and penalties for anyone caught defacing a mural.
Community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti. In [[France]], the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] youth group ''[[Éclaireurs de France]]'' took their graffiti-scrubbing into the [[Meyrieres Cave]] near the French village of [[Bruniquel]] in [[Tarn-et-Garonne]], where they carefully erased the ancient paintings from the walls, earning them the [[1992]] [[Ig Nobel Prize]] in [[archaeology]].[http://www.improb.com/ig/ig-pastwinners.html#ig1992]
[[Image:Us-nogutsnofame.JPG|thumb|350px|left|Computer generated graffiti No Guts, No Fame, its noticeable "anti-police" theme shows both its subject's and its creator's frustration with the perceived illegal threat of graffiti, and the belief that the likely penalty is worth the price.]]
Graffiti made the news in [[1993]], over an incident in [[Singapore]] involving several expensive cars found spray-painted. The police arrested a student from [[Singapore American School]], [[Michael P. Fay]], questioned him and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty for vandalizing the car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the [[1966 Singapore Vandalism Act]], originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in [[jail]], a fine of 3,500 [[Singaporean dollars]] ([[United States dollar|US $]]2,233 or 1,450 [[British pounds]]), and a [[caning]]. ''[[The New York Times]]'' ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for [[pardon|clemency]], Fay's caning took place in Singapore on [[May 5]], [[1994]]. (Fay originally received a sentence of six lashes of the cane, but the then [[President of Singapore]] [[Ong Teng Cheong]] finally agreed to reduce his caning-sentence to four lashes.)
In [[1995]] Mayor Rudolph Giuliani of New York set up the [[Anti-Graffiti Task Force]], a multi-agency initiative to combat the perceived problem of graffiti vandals in New York City. This began a crackdown in "quality of life crimes" throughout the city, and one of the largest anti-graffiti campaigns in US history. That same year Title 10-117 of the New York Administrative Code banned the sale of aerosol spray-paint cans to children under 18. The law also requires that merchants who sell spray-paint must lock it in a case or display cans behind a counter, out of reach of potential shoplifters. Violations of the city's anti-graffiti law carry fines of $350 per count. Both [http://www.nyc.gov/html/nograffiti/html/legislation.html the full text of the law] and an [http://www.zephyrgraffiti.com/zephyrwrt/crackdwn.html opposing viewpoint] written by famous NYC graffiti artist [[Zephyr (graffiti artist)|Zephyr]] appear online.
The [[Anti-Social Behaviour Act 2003]] became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation.
In [[August]] [[2004]], the [[Keep Britain Tidy]] campaign issued a [http://www.encams.org/campaigns/main2.asp?pageid=34 press release] calling for [[zero tolerance]] of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" [[fine]]s to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to teenagers. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in [[music video]]s, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed 'cool' or 'edgy' image. To back the campaign, 123 British [[Member of Parliament|MP]]s (including [[Prime Minister]] [[Tony Blair]]) signed a charter w |
4:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hmains</username>
<id>508734</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clarified map</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Map 1914 WWI Alliances.jpg|thumb|400px|European military alliances in 1915. The [[Central Powers]] are depicted in red and the [[Allies of World War I|Entente Powers]] in green. Note: The borders of the Balkans are incorrect. This map shows the borders of 1911.]]
[[Image:WWI.png|thumb|400px|Map of the World with the [[Participants in World War I]]. The [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] and their colonies are depicted in green, the [[Central Powers]] and their colonies in yellow, and neutral countries in gray.]]
The '''Central Powers''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Mittelmächte'') were the nations of [[Germany]], [[Austria-Hungary]], the [[Ottoman Empire]], and [[Bulgaria]], which fought against the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] during [[World War I]]. They are called this because they all were located between [[Russia]] in the east and [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]] in the west.
Germany and Austria-Hungary became allies on [[7 October]] [[1879]], being joined subsequently ([[20 May]] [[1882]]) (see [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]]) by [[Italy]], which however undertook secretly in [[1902]] not to honour its alliance commitments against Germany's principal adversary France. Italy entered World War I on [[May 23]], [[1915]] &mdash; in alliance with Britain. After World War I, however, the [[fascist]] regime in Italy would go back to its old agreement and, instead, ally itself with [[Nazi]] Germany.
Following the outbreak of [[Europe|European]] war in August 1914, the [[Ottoman Empire]] intervened at the end of October against Russia, provoking declarations of war by the [[Triple Entente]] powers--Russia, France and Britain.
Bulgaria, still resentful after its defeat in July 1913 at the hands of [[Serbia]], [[Greece]], [[Romania]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]], was the last nation to enter the war against the Entente, invading Serbia in conjunction with German and Austro-Hungarian forces in October 1915.
Bulgaria signed an armistice with the Allies on [[29 September]] [[1918]], following a successful Allied advance in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] followed suit on [[30 October]] in the face of British and Arab gains in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and [[Syria]]. [[Austria]] and [[Hungary]] concluded ceasefires separately during the first week of November following the disintegration of the Habsburg Empire, and Germany signed the armistice ending the war on the morning of [[11 November]] after a succession of advances by [[Belgium|Belgian]], British, French and [[United States of America|US]] forces in north-eastern France and Belgium.
== See also ==
*[[Triple Entente]]
*[[Axis Powers]] (allies of Germany in WWII)
*[[Allies]]
{{World War I}}
[[Category:Austria-Hungary]]
[[Category:World War I]]
[[ar:قوات المحور]]
[[cs:Centrální mocnosti]]
[[da:Centralmagterne]]
[[de:Mittelmächte]]
[[gl:Potencias Centrais]]
[[ko:동맹국]]
[[it:Imperi Centrali]]
[[he:מעצמות המרכז]]
[[lt:Centrinių valstybių sąjunga]]
[[nl:Centrale mogendheid]]
[[ja:中央同盟国]]
[[no:Sentralmaktene]]
[[pl:Państwa centralne]]
[[ro:Puterile Centrale]]
[[sk:Ústredné veľmoci]]
[[sv:Centralmakterna]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cimon</title>
<id>6674</id>
<revision>
<id>17781225</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-28T19:34:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
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<title>Conservatism</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">''For related and other uses, see [[Conservatism (disambiguation)]]
{{conservatism}}
'''Conservatism''' [derivative of conserve; from Latin conservare, to keep, guard, observe] in its true and classic sense is a simple philosophy that emphasizes "a disposition to preserve, and an ability to improve".{{ref|Burke}} Classical conservatism does not readily avail itself to the ideology of objectives. It is a philosophy primarily concerned with means over ends. To a classical conservative, the goal of change is less important than the insistence that change be affected with a respect for the rule of law and traditions of society. The traditional enemy of conservatism, therefore, is [[radicalism]] (not, as is often asserted, [[liberalism]]).
==Development of Thought==
Despite its prevalence, conservatism does not have, nor lend itself to, a systematic treatise like [[Hobbes|Hobbes’]] ''Leviathon'' or [[John Locke|Locke’s]] ''Two Treatise of Government''. Consequently, what is means to be a conservative today is frequently the subject of debate and muddied by association to various (and often opposing) ideologies or political parties. The scholar, R.J. White, once put it this way:<blockquote>''"To put conservatism in a bottle with a label is like trying to liquefy the atmosphere … The difficulty arises from the nature of the thing. For conservatism is less a political doctrine than a habit of mind, a mode of feeling, a way of living."'' {{ref|White}}</blockquote>
Although political thought, from its beginnings, contains many strains that can be retrospectively labeled conservative, it was not until the [[Age of Enlightenment|Age of Reason]], and in particular the reaction to events surrounding the [[French Revolution]] of 1789, that conservatism began to rise as a distinct attitude or train of thought. Many point to the rise of a conservative disposition in the wake of the [[Reformation]] and specifically to the works of influential [[Anglican]] theologian, '''[[Richard Hooker (theologian)|Richard Hooker]]''' – emphasizing moderation in the political balancing of interests towards the goals of social harmony and common good. But it was not until Edmund Burke’s polemic – ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'' – that conservatism gained its most influential statement of views.
[[Image:Edmund_Burke.jpg|thumb|left|160px|Edmund Burke (1729-1797)]] [[Anglo-Irish]] statesman '''[[Edmund Burke]]''', who argued so forcefully against the [[French Revolution]], also sympathised with some of the aims of the [[American Revolution]]. This classical conservative tradition often insists that conservatism has no ideology in the sense of a [[utopia|utopian]] programme, with some form of master plan. Burke developed his ideas in reaction to the 'enlightened' idea of a society guided by abstract reason. Although he did not use the term, he anticipated the critique of [[modernism]], a term first used at the end of the 19th century by the Dutch religious conservative [[Abraham Kuyper]]. Burke was troubled by the Enlightenment and argued, instead, for the value of tradition.
Some men, argued Burke, have more reason than others, and thus some men will make worse governments if they rely upon reason than others. To Burke, the proper formulation of government came not from abstractions such as "Reason," but from time-honoured development of the state and of other important societal institutions such as the family and the Church.
<blockquote>"''We are afraid to put men to live and trade each on his own private stock of reason, because we suspect that this stock in each man is small, and that the individuals would do better to avail themselves of the general bank and capital of nations and ages. Many of our men of speculation, instead of exploding general prejudices, employ their sagacity to discover the latent wisdom which prevails in them. If they find what they seek, and they seldom fail, they think it more wise to continue the prejudice, with the reason involved, than to cast away the coat of prejudice, and to leave nothing but naked reason; because prejudice, with its reason, has a motive to give action to that reason, and an affection which will give it permanence.''"</blockquote>
Burke argued that tradition is a much sounder foundation than "reason". The conservative paradigm he established emphasises the futility of attempting to ground human society based on pure abstractions (such as "reason," "equality," or, more recently, "diversity"), and the necessity of humility in the face of the unknowable. Tradition draws on the wisdom of many generations and the tests of time, while "reason" may be a mask for the preferences of one man, and at best represents only the untested wisdom of one generation. Any existing value or institution has undergone the correcting influence of past experience and ought to be respected.
Conservatives do not reject change, as Burke wrote "a state without the means of change is without the means of its conservation," but they insist that further change be organic, rather than revolutionary. An attempt to modify the complex web of human interactions that form human society for the sake of some doctrine or theory runs the risk of running afoul of the iron law of [[unintended consequence]]s. Burke advocates vigilance against the possibility of [[moral hazard]]s. For conservatives, human society is something rooted and organic; to try to prune and shape it according to the plans of an ideologue is to invite unforeseen disaster.
At the end of the Napoleonic period, the [[Congress of Vienna]] marked the beginning of a conservative reaction in Europe, to contain the liberal and nationalist forces unleashed by the French revolution. [[Josep |
r former colonies. There is some discussion about removing diaeresis from Brazilian Portuguese and it is not uncommon to omit them (either intentionally or not) in newspapers and informal writing.
For instance, in Spanish, ''ge'' is pronounced /xe/, ''gue'' is pronounced /ge/ and ''güe'' is pronounced /gwe/.
In [[Catalan language|Catalan]], diaereses serve two different purposes. Similarly to Spanish, they are used in the groups ''güe'', ''güi'', ''qüe'', and ''qüi'' to indicate that the ''u'' is in fact pronounced forming a diphthong with the following vowel ([we] and [wi] respectively). For example, ''aigües'' ("waters"), ''qüestió'' ("matter"). Also, similarly to French, diaereses are used over ''i'' or ''u'' to indicate that they do not form a diphthong with a preceding vowel. For example, ''veïna'' [b@'in@] ("neighbour", feminine), ''diürn'' [di'urn] ("diurnal").
A mixing of uses and letters can be standard for [[Galician language|Galician]]: diaereses is used to mark the pronunciation of ''u'' after ''g'' (but not after ''q'' as Brazilian or Catalan) and also for hiatus (no diphthong) in some words (Mainly [[tense]]s for [[verb]]s). So, a word can be distinguished by the use (or not) of diaereses. Examples includes ''saiamos'' ([[subjunctive|subjunctive present]]) and ''saïamos'' ([[imperfect present]]), and other verbs with [[infinitive]]s, ended with (''oír'', "to listen"), ''-aer'' (''caer'', "to fall"), ''-oer'' (''moer'', "mill"), ''-air'' (''saír'', "to go out"), ''-oir'' and so on.
Ÿ can be used in transcribed [[Greek language|Greek]]: there it represents the non-[[diphthong]] αυ (alpha upsilon), e.g. in the Persian name ''Artaÿctes'' at the very end of [[Herodotus]].
== See also ==
*[[Umlaut (diacritic)]]
*[[Synaeresis]]
*[[Syllable]]
*[[Pausa]]
*[[diphthong]]
[[Category:Phonology]]
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<title>Derry</title>
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Note to editors: the agreed compromise for the Derry/Londonderry naming dispute is that the city page shall be titled Derry and the county page shall be titled County Londonderry.
-->
:''For other places with similar names, see [[Derry (disambiguation)]] and [[Londonderry (disambiguation)]].''
{{Ireland_city_infobox |
city_name = Derry/Londonderry |
crest_image = Image:Derry.Shield.png |
motto_latin = Vita Victoria Veritas |
motto_english = "life victory truth" |
map_image = Image:NorthernIrelandDerryBorough.png |
pin_coords = left: 58px; top: 33px |
gps_coords = {{coor dms|54|59|29|N|7|20|29|W|type:city(105,066)|region:GB}}|
city_area = ? km&sup2; |
city_county = [[County Londonderry]] |
city_pop = 83,652 |
city_province = [[Ulster]] |
}}
'''Derry''' or '''Londonderry''' (in [[Irish language|Irish]], ''Doire'' or ''Doire Cholm Chille''), often called the ''Maiden City'', is a [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]] in [[Northern Ireland]]. The old [[walled city]] of Londonderry lies on the west bank of the [[River Foyle]], but the city now covers both banks and is connected by two bridges. The district extends to rural areas to the southeast of the city. The population within the city proper was 83,652. The '''[[Derry Urban Area]]''' (including [[Culmore]], [[New Buildings]] and [[Strathfoyle]]) had a population of 90,736 people in the 2001 Census.
<!--
Note to editors: to be equally unfair to both sides, Wikipedia has adopted a policy that the city article shall be titled Derry and the county article titled County Londonderry.
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Derry is near the border with the [[Republic of Ireland]], and serves much of western [[Ulster]], including [[Donegal]], as well as the west of [[County Londonderry]]. It is Northern Ireland's second largest city and the fourth largest urban centre in Ireland as a whole. The district is run by [[Derry City Council]] and has an airport, [[City of Derry Airport]].
[[Image:River_Foyle_2004_SeanMcClean.jpg|thumb|375px|none|The [[River Foyle]] at Night.]]
__TOC__
== Name ==
The city is currently officially named '''Londonderry''' according to the city's [[Royal Charter]] and usually appear as such on maps[http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Ireland&ll=54.995835,-7.307453&spn=0.169881,0.656227&hl=en]. The name was changed from '''Derry''' in 1613 during the [[Plantation of Ulster]] to reflect the rebuilding of the city by the London guilds. However, many people today refer to the city by the name Derry. For some, this naming dispute is a contentious issue (see [[Derry/Londonderry name dispute]]).
The name Derry is primarily used by [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] in Northern Ireland, with [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionists]] preferring Londonderry. Among the city's inhabitants, most nationalists and some unionists use "Derry". In the Republic of Ireland, the city and county are still referred to as Derry. In official use the city is always known as Londonderry [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4477218.stm], although some local organizations name themselves after Derry - for example, [http://www.cityofderryairport.com/ City of Derry Airport] and [http://www.derrycity.gov.uk/ Derry City Council].
The city is also nicknamed the Maiden City by virtue of the fact that its walls were never penetrated during the [[siege of Derry]] in the late 17th century.
{| BORDER="0" CELLPADDING="2" ALIGN="CENTER"
| VALIGN="TOP" |[[Image:Londonderry 20030911 Copyright Kaihsu Tai.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The "No Surrender" [[graffiti]] right outside the city wall: "Londonderry west bank [[loyalist]]s still under siege no surrender"]]
| VALIGN="TOP" |[[Image:Derry mural.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The "[[Free Derry]]" [[graffiti]] in [[Bogside]]: "You are now entering free Derry"]]
|}
== History ==
:''Main article: [[History of Derry]]''
[[Image:Shipquay_Street_Derry_SMC_2005.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Shipquay Street looking down towards the city Guildhall and river Foyle.]]
Derry is one of the longest continuously inhabited places in [[Ireland]]. The earliest historical references date to the sixth century A.D. when a [[monastery]] was founded there
by St. [[Columba]], but for thousands of years before that people had been living in the vicinity.
Colonists organised by [[London]] [[livery companies]] through [[The Honourable The Irish Society]] arrived in the [[1600s]] as part of the [[plantation of Ulster]], and built the walled city of ''Londonderry'' across the Foyle from the earlier town. The city has long been a focal point for important events in [[History of Ireland|Irish history]], including the [[1688]]-[[1689]] [[siege of Derry]] and [[Bloody Sunday (1972)|Bloody Sunday]] on [[30 January]] [[1972]].
Londonderry was the first ever [[planned city]] in Ireland: it was begun in [[1613]], with the walls being completed 5 years later in [[1618]]. The central diamond within a walled city with four gates was thought to be a good design for defence. The grid pattern chosen was subsequently much copied in the colonies of British North America [http://worldfacts.us/UK-Londonderry.htm]. The [[siege of Derry]] is commemorated annually by the fraternal organisation the [[Apprentice Boys of Derry]] in the week long [[Maiden City Festival]].
The modern city preserves the 17th-century layout of four main streets radiating from the Diamond to four gateways - Bishop's Gate, Ferryquay Gate, Shipquay Gate and Butcher's Gate. Historic buildings within the walls include the 1633 Gothic [[St Columb's Cathedral|cathedral of St Columb]]. In the porch is an inscription:
<blockquote>
'If stones could speake then London's prayse should sound Who built this church and cittie from the grounde.'
</blockquote>
== Economy ==
The economy of Derry was based significantly on the textile industry until relatively recently. For many years women were the sole wage earners working in the shirt factories while the men predominantly in comparison had high levels of unemployment [http://www.recirca.com/backissues/c95/dwc.shtml]. This led to significant male emigration [http://www.bloodysundaytrust.org/eduhistory.htm]. In more recent times the textile industry jobs have increasingly moved to the far east, leaving Derry to bear an increased jobless total. The history of shirt making in Derry dates back as far as [[1831]] and is said to have been [http://www.geocities.com/historyofshirtmakinginderry/shirtmakinginderry.htm started] by William Scott and his family who first exported shirts to [[Glasgow]]. Within 50 years, shirt making in the city was the most prolific in the UK with garments being exported all over the world. In fact it was known so well that the industry even received a mention in ''[[Das Kapital]]'' by [[Karl Marx]] when discussing the [[factory]] system:
<blockquote>
The shirt factory of Messrs. Tille at Londonderry, which employs 1000 operatives in the factory itself, and 9000 people spread up and down the country and working in their own houses.
[http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Marx/mrxCpAtoc.html see Part IV, Chapter XV]
(f |
he labor of making contracts, would constitute the equitable price of land purchased for sale." -Josiah Warren, ''Equitable Commerce''
'''(LdxAC)''' "If Columbus lands on a new continent, is it legitimate for him to proclaim all the new continent his own, or even that sector 'as far as his eye can see'? Clearly, this would not be the case in the free society that we are postulating. Columbus or Crusoe would have to use the land, to 'cultivate' it in some way, before he could be asserted to own it.... If there is more land than can be used by a limited labor supply, then the unused land must simply remain unowned until a first user arrives on the scene. Any attempt to claim a new resource that someone does not use would have to be considered invasive of the property right of whoever the first user will turn out to be. There is no requirement, however, that land ''continue'' to be used in order for it to continue to be a man’s property." -Murray Rothbard, ''Man, Economy, and State''
'''(PoLxCol)''' "It is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature." -Joseph Dejacque, ''Letter to Proudhon'' "If we preserved the individual appropriation of the products of labour, we would be forced to preserve money, leaving more or less accumulation of wealth according to more or less merit rather than need of individuals." -Carlo Cafiero, ''Anarchism and Communism'' "In other words, labour and its products must be exchanged without price, without profit, freely, according to necessity. This logically leads to ownership in common and to joint use. Which is a sensible, just, and equitable system, and is known as Communism." -Alexander Berkman, ''ABC of Anarchism''
'''(PoLxInd)''' "One of the tests of any reform movement with regard to personal liberty is this: Will the movement prohibit or abolish private property? If it does, it is an enemy of liberty. For one of the most important criteria of freedom is the right to private property in the products of ones labor. State Socialists, Communists, Syndicalists and Communist-Anarchists deny private property." -Clarence Swartz, ''What is Mutualism'' "...the principle of individual property... says that each man has an absolute dominion, as against all other men, over the products and acquisitions of his own labor." -Lysander Spooner, ''The Law of Intellectual Property''
'''(PoLxAC)''' The labor theory of value is erroneous. Profit is not exploitative and contract is supreme. "The capitalist, then, is a man who has labored, saved out of his labor (i.e., has restricted his consumption) and, in a series of voluntary contracts has (a) purchased ownership rights in capital goods, and (b) paid the laborers for their labor services in transforming those capital goods into goods nearer the final stage of being consumed. Note again that no one is preventing the laborers themselves from saving, purchasing capital goods from their owners and then working on their own capital goods, finally selling the product and reaping the profits. In fact, the capitalists are conferring a great benefit on these laborers, making possible the entire complex vertical network of exchanges in the modern economy." - Murray Rothbard, ''The Ethics of Liberty''.
'''(CGxCol)''' The means of production are owned by the community in collective. "The revolution as we understand it will have to destroy the State and all the institutions of the State, radically and completely, from its very first day. The natural and necessary consequences of such destruction will be: ... f. the confiscation of all productive capital and of the tools of production for the benefit of workers’ associations, who will have to have them produced collectively." - Bakunin, ''The Program of the International Brotherhood''.
'''(CGxInd)''' All products of labor are the property of the individual, regardless of in the form of capital or not."Proudhon scoffed at this distinction between capital and product. He maintained that capital and product are not different kinds of wealth, but simply alternate conditions or functions of the same wealth. ... For these and other reasons Proudhon and Warren found themselves unable to sanction any such plan as the seizure of capital by society." - Benjamin Tucker, ''State Socialism and Anarchism''.
'''(CGxAC)''' "Production begins with natural resources, and then various forms of machines and capital goods, until finally, goods are sold to the consumer. At each stage of production from natural resource to consumer good, money is voluntarily exchanged for capital goods, labor services, and land resources. At each step of the way, terms of exchanges, or prices, are determined by the voluntary interactions of suppliers and demanders. This market is "free" because choices, at each step, are made freely and voluntarily." - Rothbard, ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/FreeMarket.html Free Market]''.
'''(LrxCol)''' Will you stand up for that piece of chicanery which consists in affirming 'freedom of contract'? Or will you uphold equity, according to which a contract entered into between a man who has dined well and the man who sells his labor for bare subsistence, between the strong and the weak, is not a contract at all?" -Peter Kropotkin, ''An Appeal to the Young''
'''(LrxInd)''' It is considered exploitative to pay an individual for less than the "full produce" of his labor. - "The price is not sufficient: the labor of the workers has created a value; now this value is their property. But they have neither sold nor exchanged it; and you, capitalist, you have not earned it. That you should have a partial right to the whole, in return for the materials that you have furnished and the provisions that you have supplied, is perfectly just. You contributed to the production, you ought to share in the enjoyment. But your right does not annihilate that of the laborers, who, in spite of you, have been your colleagues in the work of production. Why do you talk of wages? The money with which you pay the wages of the laborers remunerates them for only a few years of the perpetual possession which they have abandoned to you. Wages is the cost of the daily maintenance and refreshment of the laborer. You are wrong in calling it the price of a sale. The workingman has sold nothing; he knows neither his right, nor the extent of the concession which he has made to you, nor the meaning of the contract which you pretend to have made with him. On his side, utter ignorance; on yours, error and surprise, not to say deceit and fraud." - [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] "In defending the right to take usury, we do not defend the right [ethicality] of usury" -Benjamin Tucker, ''Liberty I,3'' Note- Tucker used the term "usury" to mean profit --both from capital and labor.
'''(LrxAC)''' see (PoLxAC) above.
==References==
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# {{note|Spooner_Property}} "The only way, in which ['the wealth of nature'] can be made useful to mankind, is by their taking possession of it individually, and thus making it private property." - Lysander Spooner, Law of Intellectual Property. "That there is an entity known as the community which is the rightful owner of all land anarchists deny. I...maintain that the community is a non-entity, that it has no existence, and is simply a combination of individuals having no prerogative beyond those of the individuals themselves." - Benjamin Tucker, Liberty
# {{note|Gagnon}} Gagnon, Paul E. [http://www.progress.org/2003/libsoc01.htm] ''Libertarian Socialism'']
# {{note|TuckerLiberty}} [http://www.zetetics.com/mac/tir1.htm Benjamin Tucker, Liberty And Individualist Anarchism], by Wendy McElroy
==See also==
* [[Individualism]]
* [[Anarchism]]
* [[American individualist anarchism]]
* [[Christian anarchism]]
* [[Geolibertarianism]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.spaz.org/~dan/individualist-anarchist/resources.html Individualist Anarchist Resources]
* [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Burke0061/Vindication/0339_Bk.html ''A Vindication of Natural Society: or, a View of the Miseries and Evils arising to Mankind from every Species of Artificial Society''] by [[Edmund Burke]] - some regard this liberal essay to be the first to advocate anarchy
* [http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/godwin/pj.html ''Enquiry Concerning Political Justice''] by [[William Godwin]]
*[http://www.blancmange.net/tmh/teaho/theego0.html ''The Ego and his Own''] by [[Max Stirner]], translated by Christian individualist anarchist [[Steven T. Byington]]
* [http://raforum.apinc.org/article.php3?id_article=169 ''Manifesto'' by Josiah Warren] (1841)
* [http://www.blancmange.net/tmh/pdf/jwarren.pdf ''Equitable Commerce'' by Josiah Warren]
* [http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/tucker/tucker2.html ''State Socialism and Anarchism: How far they agree, and wherein they differ.''] by [[Benjamin Tucker]] (1886)
* [http://melior.univ-montp3.fr/ra_forum/en/people/armand_e/individualism.html ''Anarchist Individualism as Life and Activity''] by E. Armand (1907)
|
ctive counterparts. They are formed with the prefix ''po-'' (which can have other functions as well).
States and activities which last for some time can be expressed by means of both imperfective and perfective verbs: ''cały dzień leżał w łóżku'' 'he was in bed all day long' (literally: 'he lay in bed') means nearly the same as ''cały dzień przeleżał w łóżku''. The difference is mainly stylistic: imperfective is neutral here, while using perfective causes stronger tone of the statement.
Aspect in Slavic is a superior category in relation to [[tense]] or [[mood]]. Particularly, some verbal forms (like infinitive) cannot distinguish tense but they still distinguish aspect. Here is the list of Polish verb forms which can be formed by both imperfective and perfective verbs (such a list is similar in other Slavic languages). The example is an imperfective and a perfective Polish verb with the meaning 'to write'. All personal forms are given in 3rd person, masculine singular:
* infinitive: ''pisać - napisać'';
* passive participle: ''pisany - napisany'';
* gerund: ''pisanie - napisanie'';
* past impersonal form: ''pisano - napisano'';
* past impersonal form in subjunctive: ''pisano by - napisano by'';
* past tense: ''pisał - napisał'';
* future tense: ''będzie pisać / będzie pisał - napisze'';
* subjunctive, 1st form: ''pisałby - napisałby'';
* subjunctive, 2nd form: ''byłby pisał - byłby napisał'';
* imperative: ''pisz - napisz''.
The following may be formed only if the verb is imperfective:
* contemporary adverbial participle – ''pisząc'';
* active participle – ''piszący'';
* present tense – ''pisze''.
One form may be created only if the verb is perfective, namely:
* anterior adverbial participle – ''napisawszy''.
==Aspect in Finnic languages==
[[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Estonian language|Estonian]], among others, have a grammatical aspect contrast of [[telicity]] between telic and atelic. Telic sentences signal that the intended goal of an action is achieved. Atelic sentences do not signal whether any such goal has been achieved. The aspect is indicated by the [[List of grammatical cases|case]] of the object: [[accusative]] is telic and [[partitive]] is atelic. For example, the (implicit) purpose of shooting is to kill, such that:
* ''Ammuin karhun'' -- "I shot the bear (succeeded)"; i.e., "I shot the bear dead".
* ''Ammuin karhua'' -- "I shot (towards) the bear"; i.e., "I shot the bear (and I am not telling if it died)".
Sometimes, corresponding telic and atelic forms have as little to do with each other semantically as "take" has with "take off". For example, ''naida'' means "to marry" when telic, but "to have sex with" when atelic.
Also, derivational suffices exist for various aspects. Examples:
*''-ahta-'' "do suddenly by itself" as in ''ammahtaa'' "to shoot up" from ''ampua'' "to shoot"
*''-ele-'' "repeatedly" as in ''ammuskella'' "to go shooting around"
There are derivational suffixes for verbs, which carry [[frequentative]], [[momentane]], [[causative]], and [[inchoative]] aspect meanings; also, pairs of verbs differing only in [[transitivity]] exist.
==Confusing terminology: perfective vs. perfect==
The terms ''perfective'' and ''perfect'' are used in an unfortunate and highly confusing fashion in different writings about linguistics. Traditional Greek grammar uses the term "perfect" to refer to a grammatical tense encoding what is variously described as a past action with present relevance or a present state resulting from a past action. (For example, "I have gone to the cinema" implies both that I went to the cinema and that I am now in the cinema.) The perfect is opposed to the [[aorist]], describing a simple past action, and the [[imperfect tense|imperfect]], describing an ongoing past action. From this, the aspectual nature of the perfect tense was generalized into the [[perfect aspect]], describing a previously completed action with relevance to a particular time. Accordingly, English grammar speaks of the ''[[present perfect]]'' ("I have gone"), the ''[[past perfect]]'' or ''[[pluperfect]]'' ("I had gone"), and the ''[[future perfect]]'' ("I will have gone").
Latin, however, lacks a distinction between aorist and perfect, and for morphological reasons the single tense representing the combination of both meanings is called the "perfect". The two-way distinction here between imperfect and perfect is carried over into the terminology of various modern languages, such as the [[Slavic languages]], where a distinction between "imperfective" and "perfective" aspect corresponds to a distinction between an event viewed as ongoing or with internal structure and an event viewed as a simple whole. That is, what is called "perfective" is similar to the aspectual nature of the original Greek aorist, ''not'' the Greek perfect.
Many linguists have tried to maintain this terminology. The web site of SIL, for example, describes the "perfective aspect" as "an aspect that expresses a temporal view of an event or state as a simple whole, apart from the consideration of the internal structure of the time in which it occurs" [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsPerfectiveAspect.htm]. This has led other linguists to categorize the three-way aspectual distinction visible in Greek, English, Spanish and various other languages as a distinction between "imperfective", "perfective" and "perfect". Not surprisingly, the latter two are constantly confused, and "perfective" is often taken to be synonymous with "perfect".
==Examples of various aspects rendered in English==
* [[Perfective aspect|perfective]] ([[aorist aspect|aorist]], simple; see above): 'I struck the bell.' (single action)
* [[Perfect aspect|Perfect]] (sometimes confusingly called "perfective"; see above): 'I have gone to the cinema.' (hence, I am now in the cinema)
* Progressive ([[continuous aspect|continuous]]): 'I am eating.' (action is in progress)
* Habitual: 'I walk home from work.' (every day)
: 'I would walk [OR: used to walk] home from work.' (past habit)
* [[Imperfective aspect|Imperfective]] (either progressive or habitual): 'I am walking to work' (progressive) or 'I walk to work every day' (habitual).
* Prospective: 'I am about to eat' OR: 'I'm going to eat."
* Inceptive: 'I am beginning to eat.'
* [[Inchoative]] (not clearly distinguished from inceptive): 'The apples ripen.'
* Continuative: 'I am continuing to eat.'
* Terminative: 'I am finishing my meal.'
* Conative: 'I am trying to eat.'
* Cessative: 'I am quitting smoking.'
* Pausative: 'I stopped working for a while.'
* Resumptive: 'I resumed sleeping.'
* Punctual: 'I slept.'
* Durative: 'I slept for an hour.'
* Delimitative: 'I slept for a while.'
* Protractive: 'The argument went on and on.'
* Iterative: 'I read the same books again and again.'
* [[Frequentative]]: 'It sparkled', contrasted with 'It sparked'. Or, 'I run around', vs. 'I run'.
* Experiential: 'I have gone to school many times.'
* Intentional: 'I listened carefully.'
* Accidental: 'I knocked over the chair.'
* Generic: 'Mangos grow on trees.'
* Intensive: 'It glared.'
* Moderative: 'It shone.'
* Attenuative: 'It glimmered.'
* Semelfactive ([[momentane]]): 'The mouse squeaked once.' (contrasted to 'The mouse squeaked/was squeaking.')
Languages which contrast intentional and accidental aspect morphologically are extremely rare; one such language is [[Bats language|Bats]], which distinguishes this aspectual difference for just six verbs. Compare '''so wodze''' ''I fell down (through no fault of my own, accidentally)'' and '''as wodze''' ''I fell down (through something I did, or on purpose)''.
==External links==
* [http://www.scar.utoronto.ca/~binnick/old%20tense/ Robert Binnick annotated tense/aspect bibliography] (around 9000 entries)
* [http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/dissertations/2004-0309-140804/inhoud.htm Anna Katarzyna Młynarczyk: Aspectual Pairing in Polish], a pdf version of the book
* [http://www.lbt-languages.de/english/lernhilfe/lernhilfe.html Grammar Tutorials] - a column overview of the English tenses
==References==
*[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0415203198/ Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics], by [[Hadumod Bussmann]], edited by [[Gregory P. Trauth]] and [[Kerstin Kazzazi]], Routledge, London [[1996]]. Translation of [[German language|German]] ''Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft'' Kröner Verlag, [[Stuttgart]] [[1990]].
*[http://www.ling.helsinki.fi/~lcarlson/02-03/ctl104/ctl104h03facit.html Morfofonologian harjoituksia], Lauri Carlson
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nto the lower world.
His identifying possessions included a famed helmet, given to him by the [[Cyclopes]], which made anyone who wore it invisible. Hades was known to sometimes loan his helmet of invisibility to both gods and men (such as [[Perseus|Perseus]]). His dark chariot, drawn by four coal-black horses, always made for a fearsome and impressive sight. His other ordinary attributes were the Narcissus and Cypress plants, the Key of Hades and [[Cerberus]], the many-headed dog. He sat on an ebony throne.
=== Artistic representations ===
Hades is rarely represented in classical arts, save in depictions of the [[Persephone#The Abduction Myth|Rape of Persephone]].
Hades is also mentioned in ''The Odyssey,'' when Odysseus visits the underworld as part of his journey.
=== Persephone ===
The consort of Hades, and the archaic queen of the Underworld in her own right, before the Hellene Olympians were established, was [[Persephone]], represented by the Greeks as daughter of Zeus and [[Demeter]]. Persephone did not submit to Hades willingly, but was abducted by him while picking flowers with her friends. Hades loved Persphone so deeply that he did not free her from the underworld. Persephone's mother missed her and without her daughter by her side she cast a curse on the land and there was a great famine. Hades tricked Persephone into eating three [[pomegranate]] seeds, which meant that she would be unable to leave the underworld even with the help of Zeus. Persephone knew of her mother's depression and asked Hades to return her to the land of the living, on the condition that she would stay with him for one-third of the year. Every year Hades fights his way back to the land of the living with Persephone in his chariot. Famine (winter) occurs during the months that Persephone is gone and Demeter grieves in her absence.It is believed that the last half of the word Persephone comes from a word meaning 'to show' and evokes an idea of light. Whether the first half derives from a word meaning 'to destroy' - in which case Persephone would be 'she who destroys the light'.
=== Orpheus and Eurydice ===
Hades showed mercy only once: Because the music of [[Orpheus]] was so hauntingly good, he allowed Orpheus to bring his wife, [[Eurydice]], back to the land of the living as long as she walked behind him and he never tried to look at her face until they got to the surface. Orpheus agreed but, yielding to the temptation to glance backwards, failed and lost Eurydice again, to be reunited with her only after his death.
=== Minthe and Leuce ===
According to [[Ovid]], Hades pursued and would have won the nymph [[Minthe]], associated with the river [[Cocytus]], had not Persephone turned Minthe into the plant called [[mint]]. Similarly the nymph [[Leuce (mythology)|Leuce]], who was also ravished by him, was metamorphosed by Hades into a white [[poplar|poplar tree]] after her death.
=== Theseus and Pirithous ===
Hades imprisoned [[Theseus]] and [[Pirithous]], who had pledged to marry daughters of [[Zeus]]. Theseus chose [[Helen]] and together they kidnapped her and decided to hold onto her until she was old enough to marry. Pirithous chose [[Persephone]]. They left Helen with Theseus' mother, [[Aethra]] and traveled to the underworld. Hades pretended to offer them hospitality and set a feast; as soon as the pair sat down, snakes coiled around their feet and held them there. Theseus was eventually rescued by [[Heracles]].
=== Heracles ===
[[Heracles]]' final labour was to capture Cerberus. First, Heracles went to [[Eleusis]] to be initiated into the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]]. He did this to absolve himself of guilt for killing the [[centaur]]s and to learn how to enter and exit the underworld alive. He found the entrance to the underworld at [[Tanaerum]]. [[Athena]] and [[Hermes]] helped him through and back from Hades. Heracles asked Hades for permission to take Cerberus. Hades agreed as long as Heracles didn't harm him, though in some versions, Heracles shot Hades with an arrow. When Heracles dragged the dog out of Hades, he passed through the cavern [[Acherusia]].
==Other names==
*&#902;&#953;&#948;&#951;&#962;
*Aides
*Aiidoneus
*Haides
*Pluton
*Plouton
*The Rich One
*The Unseen One
In Roman Mythology
*Pluto
*Pluton
*Dis
*Dis Pater
*Orcus
==Biblical use==
The Greek [[New Testament]] uses ''hades'' several times, with various connotations of bodily decay and the power of death, none of them applicable to the Hades of Greek mythology, unless it were ''[[Gospel of Luke|Luke]]'' 16:23.
16:23 (King James Version)- "And in hell he lift up his eyes, being in torments, and seeth Abraham afar off, and Lazarus in his bosom."
==In popular culture==
In ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]'', Hades is one of the seven lower planes of existence. More commonly referred to as the Gray Wastes, the plane is a place of disease and corruption, with apathy and despair emanating from the very land. While the plane and its inhabitants are dangerous and evil enough by themselves, Hades is especially hazardous because it's the main battlefield in the [[Blood War]].
In Saint Seiya, (Both the Manga and the Anime) Hades is the King of the Underworld. He has an army of 108 Spectres, Seiya and his friends must fight all the Spectres to rescue Athena.
Hades is cast as the [[villain]] in [[Walt Disney Pictures|Disney]]'s 1997 animated retelling ''[[Hercules (1997 film)|Hercules]]'' with inauthentic improvisations for comic effect; he is voiced by [[James Woods]]. This version of Hades also appeared in Squaresoft and Disney Interactive's ''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'' series as one of the Disney villains working with Maleficent. James Woods voices him in the english version.
In the popular video game, Final Fantasy IX, Hades is one of the optional bosses you can face. Located in the water portion of the Crystal World, behind a coagulation of rocks, Hades dishes out heavy attacks and malady-causing spells. Once defeated, he becomes an item synthesizer for you. Here you can purchase the other Pumice Piece and have them fused to create the eidolion Ark.
Also in the video game Final Fantasy VII, Hades is a hidden summon found in the crashed underwater Shinra plane.
== In Neopaganism ==
<!--Many Neopagan websites and sects, a personal neopagan friend, public neopagan "circles" in the Giles County area of Tennessee-->
Many [[neopaganism|neopagans]] today, particularly Hellenistic [[neopaganism|neopagans]] in the [[United States]], have what many would consider [[new-age]] views of Hades. Hades, the afterlife, is seen as a place of Limbo, containing domains for those who are good, but not good enough for entry into [[Elysium]] (in many ways heaven) and domains for those who are evil, but not so evil to be cast into [[Tartarus]] (in many ways hell).
Many [[neopaganism|neopagans]] believe that the domain of Hades is where all souls go to be judged by the deity Hades, who is thought to hold the ''Book of Life'' which records all mortal deeds, good or ill. The god Hades is thought to be unconcerned with any form of worship and sacrifice, and totally devoid of compassion or emotion for mortals. Modern neopagans sometimes believe that the deity Hades consults [[Themis]] and [[Hyperion (mythology)|Hyperion]] when deciding a mortal's fate. Should a mortal be observed by Hyperion to be evil, but unworthy of eternal torture, the souls are cast into the lower bowels of Hades, to a drab and unpleasant existence in which they may or may not be issued punishment. Should a mortal be observed by Hyperion to be virtuous, but not worthy of entry into Elysium, Hades allows the mortal to wander free in the upper levels of Hades, believed to be much like life on Earth. Themis, after the observations are made, consults Hades, who passes Judgment.
Whether a soul is allowed entry into Elysium or cast into Tartarus is believed by many Pagans to depend on whether Hyperion's observations of one's earthly ills and virtues carries disproportionate weight. For example, some believe that a set of scales (carried by Themis) will tilt with each observation, and how far the scales are from being balanced determines whether one is rewarded or punished, and the subsequent severity of punishment or greatness of one's reward.
==Notes==
#{{note|unseen}} A related [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for the abode of the dead, ''[[Sheol|She'Ol]]'', also literally meant "unseen".
==External links==
;Maps of the Underworld (Greek mythology)
* [http://www.thanasis.com/undrmapr.jpg Color map]
* [http://virgil.org/maps/images/cumae.gif Ancient map]
* [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Underworldmap.html Map of the Underworld]
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West German chancellor) [[Konrad Adenauer]] paid them respect for their political significance, as the British withstood the French ambitions for a permanent Allied occupation of the Rhineland. In [[1919]] the [[University of Cologne]] (which had been closed by the French in 1798) was refounded. It was meant as a substitute for the German [[University of Strasbourg]] which had become French in 1918/19. The era of the [[Weimar_Republic|Weimar Republic]] ([[1919]] - [[1933]]) rendered very prolific for Cologne. Many improvements were made under the guidance of mayor Konrad Adenauer, especially as far as public governance, housing, planning and social affairs are concerned. Large public parks were created, in particular the two "Grüngürtel" (green belts), which were planned on the areas of the former fortifications. They had been dismantled according to the de-militarisation of the [[Rhineland]] under the terms of the peace treaty, albeit this project was unfinished until [[1933]]. Public housing was executed in a way that it became exemplary all over [[Germany]]. As Cologne competed for hosting the Olympics a modern stadium was erected in Müngerdorf. By the end of the British occupation German civil aviation was readmitted over Cologne and the airport of [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butzweilerhof Butzweilerhof] soon became an outstanding hub of national and international air traffic, second in Germany only to [[Berlin-Tempelhof]]. By [[1939]] the population had risen to 772.221.
In [[World War II]], Cologne endured exactly [http://www.koelnarchitektur.de/pages/de/home/news_archiv/823.htm 262 air raids] by the Western [[Allies of World War II|Allies]], which caused approximately 20,000 civilian casualties and completely wiped out the centre of the city. During the night of [[May 31]], [[1942]], Cologne was the site of "[[Operation Millennium]]", the first 1,000 bomber raid by the [[Royal Air Force]] in World War II. 1,046 heavy bombers attacked their target with 1,455 tons of explosive. This raid lasted about 75 minutes, destroyed 600 acres of built-up area, killed 486 civilians and made 59,000 people homeless. By the end of the war, the population of Cologne was reduced by 95%. By that time, essentially all of Cologne's pre-war [[Jewish]] population of 20,000 had been annihilated. Some 11,000 are believed to have been murdered by the [[Nazi]]s. The synagogue, originally built between [[1895]] and [[1899]] by architects [[Wilhelm Schreiterer]] and [[Bernhard Below]], was severely damaged during the pogrom of [[November 9]], [[1938]] ([[Kristallnacht]]) and finally destroyed during Allied air raids between [[1943]] and [[1945]]. It was reconstructed in the [[1950s]]. The Cologne synagogue was the stage of a historic event in [[2005]], when the German-born pope [[Benedict XVI]] was the second pope ever to visit a synagogue.
=== Postwar Cologne ===
[[Image:Koln-Chorweiler.JPG|thumb|200px|Typical modern times neighborhood on the North Edge of Cologne]]
Despite Cologne being the largest city in the region nearby [[Düsseldorf]] was chosen as the political capital of the newly set-up [[States of Germany|Federal State]]. With [[Bonn]] being chosen as the (provisional) capital of the Federal Republic, Cologne took benefit being sandwiched between the two important political centers of former [[West Germany]]. The city became home to a large number of Federal agencies and organizations. After reunification in [[1990]] a new situation has been politically co-ordinated with the new federal capital city of [[Berlin]].
For Cologne majors refer to: [[List of mayors of Cologne]].
In [[1945]] architect and urban planner [[Rudolf Schwarz]] called Cologne the "world's greatest heap of debris". Schwarz designed the masterplan of reconstruction in [[1947]], which called for the construction of several new thoroughfares through the downtown area, especially the 'Nord-Süd-Fahrt' (North-South-Drive). The Masterplan took into consideration the fact that even shortly after the war a large increase in automobile traffic could be anticipated. Plans for new roads had already to a certain degree evolved under the Nazi administration, but the actual construction became easier in times when the majority of downtown lots were undeveloped. The destruction of famous [http://www.romanische-kirchen-koeln.de/ romanesque churches] like St. Gereon, Great St. Martin, St. Maria im Capitol and about a dozen others meant a tremendous loss of cultural substance to the city. The rebuilding of other medieval churches and landmarks like the [[Gürzenich]] was not undisputed among leading architects and art historians at that time, but in most cases, civil intention prevailed. The reconstruction lasted until the [[1990s]], when Romanesque church of St. Kunibert was finished.
It took some time to rebuild the city. In [[1959]] the city´s population reached pre-war numbers again. Afterwards the city grew steadily, and, in [[1975]], the number exceeded 1 million inhabitants for about one year. Since then, the number lingers slightly underneath.
In the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] Cologne's economy prospered from two factors: First, the steady growth in the number of media companies, pertaining to both the private and the public sector. Catering especially to these companies is the newly developed Media Park, which creates a strongly visual focal point in downtown Cologne and includes the ''KölnTurm'', one of Cologne´s most prominent highrises. And second, a permanent improvement of the diverse traffic infrastructure, which makes Cologne one of the most easily accessible metropolitan areas in Central Europe.
Due to the economic success of the [[Cologne Trade Fair]], the city arranged a large extension to the fair site in [[2005]]. At the same time the original buildings, which date back to the [[1920s]] are rented out to [[RTL]], Germany´s largest private broadcaster, as their new corporate headquarter.
Cologne is incorporated under the rule of the Gemeindeordnung Nordrhein-Westfalen (GO NRW) (Municipality Code of [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]). Cologne is the only city in Germany with an explicit tax on [[prostitution]] which explains the city's relative open-mindedness towards sex businesses. See the article on [[prostitution in Germany]] for details.
== Economy ==
Cologne plays a paramount role in Germany's television industry. It is home to Westdeutscher Rundfunk ([[Westdeutscher Rundfunk|WDR]]) - the biggest branch of [[Alliance of the Public Broadcasters of Germany|ARD]], the syndicate of German public broadcasters. Cologne is also home to the private broadcaster [[RTL Television|RTL]], as well as a large number of smaller media, television and film production companies.
Cologne has an [[Cologne Bonn Airport|International Airport]] which is shared with the neighbouring city of [[Bonn]].
20% of Cologne's population is non-German. 40% of those (or 8% of the total population) are Turkish. Cologne has a well-respected [[homosexual|gay community]] and has long been known for its easy-going and tolerant attitudes. The city is a stronghold of Germany's gay movement and harbours the headquarters of Germany's largest homosexual lobby group.
Cologne is well known for its beer, called [[Kölsch (beer)|Kölsch]]. Kölsch is also the name of the local dialect. This has led to the common joke that Kölsch is the only language you can drink.
One of Colognes largest companies is the European headquarter of the [[Ford Motor Company]] with large administrative, technical and production departments.
Cologne is also famous for the [[Eau de Cologne]]. At the beginning of the 18th century, Italian expatriate [[Johann Maria Farina]] (1685-1766) created a new fragrance and named it after his hometown Cologne, Eau de Cologne (''Water from Cologne''). In the course of the [[18th century]] the fragrance became increasingly popular. Eventually, Cologne merchant Wilhelm Mülhens secured the name Farina, which at that time had become a household name for Eau de Cologne, under contract and opened a small factory at Cologne's Glockengasse. In later years, and under pressure from court battles, his grandson [[Ferdinand Mülhens]] chose a new name for the firm and their product. It was the house number that was given to the factory at Glockengasse during French occupation of the [[Rhineland]] in the early 19th century, number [[4711]]. In [[1994]], the Mülhens family sold their company to German Wella corporation. Today, original Eau de Cologne (German: ''Kölnisch Wasser'') still is produced in Cologne by both the Farina family (Farina gegenüber since 1709), currently in the eighth generation, and by [[Procter & Gamble]] who took over Wella in [[2003]].
==Sister cities==
{|
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} - [[Liverpool]] ([[England]]), since 1952
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Lille]] ([[France]]), since 1958
* {{flagicon|Belgium}} - [[Liège (city)|Liège]] ([[Belgium]]), since 1958
* {{flagicon|Netherlands}} - [[Rotterdam]] ([[Netherlands]]), since 1958
* {{flagicon|Italy}} - [[Turin]] ([[Italy]]), since 1958
* {{flagicon|Japan}} - [[Kyoto]] ([[Japan]]), since 1963
* {{flagicon|Tunisia}} - [[Tunis]] ([[Tunisia]]), since 1964
* {{flagicon|Finland}} - [[Turku]] ([[Finland]]), since 1967
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Neukölln]] ([[Berlin]]), since 1967
* {{flagicon|Israel}} - [[Tel Aviv-Jaffa]] ([[Israel]]), since 1979
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|Spain}} - [[Barcelona]] ([[Spain]]), since 1984
* {{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} - [[Beijing]] ([[People’s Republic of China]]), since 1987
* {{flagicon|Greece}} - [[Thessaloniki]] ([[Greece]]), since 1988
* {{flagicon|Republic of Ireland}} - [[Cork]] ([[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]), since 1988
* {{flagicon|Nicaragua}} - [[Corinto]] / [[El Realejo]] ([[Nicaragua]]), since 1988
* {{flagicon|USA}} - [[Indianapolis]] ([[USA]]), since 1988
* {{flagicon|Russia}} - [[Volgog |
act [[board game]] of investing in [[hotel]] chains. It was designed by the renowned game inventor [[Sid Sackson]] in the [[1960s]], and is currently owned by [[Avalon Hill]]. It is well-suited to family play because the rules are simple, no one gets eliminated, and each game takes only about 75 minutes. On the other hand, it also attracts hard core gamers because there are many opportunities for skilled players to gain an advantage over less-skilled players. The random drawing of tiles keeps the game fresh for everyone and gives weaker players an opportunity to triumph, but does not prevent stronger players from winning most of the time.
==Equipment==
* The game board, a rectangular array with room for one tile per location, as in [[Scrabble]]. The twelve columns are labeled 1 to 12, and the nine rows labeled from A to I.
* 108 wooden tiles ( later versions having plastic ), one for each space of the board. Each tile has its location such as '''7A''' or '''1H''' printed on one side; that is the only location in which the tile may be played. Each tile represents a hotel, and adjacent tiles represent hotel chains.
* Six racks in which the players hold the tiles they have drawn.
* Seven markers for hotel chains: two indicating relatively cheap chains, two indicating relatively expensive chains, and three indicating medium cost chains.
* Twenty-five shares of stock for each of the seven hotel chains.
* A supply of play money.
==Rules==
From three to six may play comfortably. It is possible to play with two, but not very interesting. Standard tournament games are played with four.
The game starts with six tiles picked randomly and placed in their locations. This doubles as a convenient way to determine which player goes first: each player draws one of the tiles for the initial setup, and the player with the lowest-numbered tile goes first.
Each player begins the game with $6000 in cash and six tiles picked at random for their starting racks. On each turn of the game, the player whose turn it is
# must play one tile
# must deal with the merger or founding of a new company if one results
# may buy stock
# must draw one tile
Whenever a player places a tile horizontally or vertically adjacent to a tile which is not already part of a hotel chain, that player has the option of founding a new hotel chain, unless all seven hotel chains are already in play. The player may choose to found any chain not already in play, and receives one share of stock in the new chain at no charge.
Each player may, after playing a tile on his turn, purchase up to three shares of stock in existing hotel chains. Only the player whose turn it is may buy stock.
When a new tile is placed adjacent to an existing hotel chain, the chain becomes larger and its stock increases in value and price. When a new tile is placed adjacent to tiles from two or more different chains, those chains merge into a single hotel chain, with the largest chain taking over. If there is a tie for the largest chain, the player placing the merging tile chooses which of those will take over.
When a hotel chain is merged out of existence, the players with the most and second-most shares receive cash bonuses. Then each player decides what to do with their shares in the now-defunct chain. They may:
# Trade them in for cash at face value
# Trade them in at a ratio of two to one for shares of the chain that took over
# Keep the shares in the hopes that the hotel chain will be founded again later.
Hotel chains with eleven or more tiles are deemed too big to be merged out. A tile which would connect two chains of eleven or more is unplayable, and may be placed face-down in its location at any time in exchange for a fresh tile. The game ends when one hotel chain reaches forty-one tiles, or when all chains are too large to merge. At the end of the game, all hotel chains pay bonuses to the largest shareholders as if they were being merged out, and all shares of stock are cashed in for face value. The richest player wins.
==Strategy==
[[Cash flow]] is the critical element of [[strategy]]. On one hand there is pressure to buy stock in order to become the largest shareholder and receive a bonus, but on the other hand holding only stock and no cash prevents one from buying into lucrative new chains as they are founded. The winner is often not the majority stockholder in the hotel chain which acquires all the others, but the player who contrives to have several of his small chains acquired while holding a majority.
The mergers of hotel chains are the critical junctures of the game because those are the only times cash comes to the players. Stock can't be traded or sold except during a merger. On the other hand, some games (and some players) will be more cash rich than others, which decreases the importance of holding cash and increases the importance of holding stock. At such times it may be wiser to hold onto stock or to trade it in two for one.
The cash flow of a game is greatly affected by the number of players involved. All players can sell during a merger, but only the player whose turn it is can buy stock, so five- or six-player games have relatively many opportunities to sell, whereas three- player games have relatively many opportunities to buy. Experts consider the four-player game the best for creating critical cash flow decisions.
Whenever cash is plentiful, which tends to happen towards the middle of the game, but will happen at different times for different players, and sooner or later depending on the relative number of mergers, it becomes more important to think about the shareholder bonuses when the game ends. One must consider that all twenty-five shares in each company will probably be bought before the players run out of cash.
At the crux between the game-end bonuses and the short-term need for cash is the decision whether to increase the size of a chain by playing next to it, or to withhold adjacent tiles. If your chain doesn't grow, your shares don't increase in value, and you could conceivably be forced to cash out at exactly the price you bought in at. On the other hand, if you play all the adjacent tiles you have, you will not be able to create mergers when you need them; the timing will be in someone else's hands.
==Variants==
* Some players play with all information (except the tiles held by players) open at all times, while others play that the cash and stock holdings of players are kept secret. The official rules do not clearly prefer either variant.
* There is also a variant of the game in which play is simultaneous, instead of players taking turns. For each phase of a turn, the players prepare their moves and then announce them when everyone is ready. If players try to make moves that conflict with each other (such as two people trying to buy stock in the same chain when only one share is available), they must bid cash to decide the outcome. This variant tends to be faster-paced and less predictable than the standard rules.
* One variant is to begin play with all tiles, except the ones the players have on hand, placed out on the board in their proper places, but placed upside down. The player then picks freely any one of these tiles at the end of his turn. This decreases the element of luck in game play.
* A nice touch is to grant a player who just created a new chain a one-time opportunity to buy four shares of that chain instead of three (no shares of other chains may be bought). This makes for an extra incentive to start a new chain.
==External links==
* [http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/5 Acquire information at boardgamegeek.com]
[[Category:Economic simulation board games]]
[[de:Acquire]]
[[zh:Acquire]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Australian English</title>
<id>1897</id>
<revision>
<id>42096734</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:28:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>62.31.55.223</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Cultivated Australian English */ removed blank line</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{English_dialects}}
'''Australian English''' ('''AuE''') is the form of the [[English language]] used in [[Australia]].
==Relationship to other varieties of English==
Australian English began to diverge from [[British English]] soon after the foundation of the [[colony]] of [[New South Wales]] (NSW) in [[1788]]. The settlement was intended originally as a [[penal colony]] for British [[convict]]s. They were mostly people from large [[England|English]] cities, such as [[Cockney]]s. In [[1827]], [[Peter Cunningham]], in his book ''Two Years in New South Wales'', reported that native-born white Australians spoke with a distinctive accent and vocabulary, albeit with a strong Cockney influence. (The transportation of convicts to Australian colonies continued until 1868.) A much larger wave of immigration, as a result of the first [[Australian gold rushes]], in the [[1850s]], also had a significant influence on Australian English, including large numbers of people who spoke English as a second language. Since that time, Australian English has borrowed increasingly from external sources.
The so-called "[[Americanisation]]" of Australian English &mdash; signified by the borrowing of words, terms and usages from [[American English]] &mdash; which began during the goldrushes, was accelerated by a massive influx of US military personnel during [[World War II]]. The large-scale importation of [[television]] programs and other [[mass media]] content from the [[United States]], from the 1950s onwards, has also had a significant effect. As a result, for example, Australians use the word ''truck'' instead of the British ''lorry''.
Due to their shared history and geographical proximity, Australian English is most similar to [[New Zealand English]]. However, the difference between the two spoken versions is obvious to people from ei |
e]]'' (1980) (also director and writer)
*''[[Reborn (film)|Reborn]]'' (1981)
*''[[King of the Mountain]]'' (1981)
*''[[Neil Young: Human Highway]]'' (1982)
*''[[Rumble Fish]]'' (1983)
*''[[The Osterman Weekend]]'' (1983)
*''[[White Star]]'' (1983)
*''[[Jungle Warriors]]'' (1984)
*''[[The Inside Man]]'' (1984)
*''[[A Hero of Our Time]]'' (1985)
*''[[My Science Project]]'' (1985)
*''[[Riders of the Storm]]'' (1986)
*''[[The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2]]'' (1986)
*''[[River's Edge]]'' (1986)
*''[[Blue Velvet]]'' (1986)
*''[[Hoosiers]]'' (1986)
*''[[Black Widow (film)|Black Widow]]'' (1987)
*''[[Straight to Hell]]'' (1987)
*''[[O.C. and Stiggs]]'' (1987)
*''[[The Pick-Up Artist]]'' (1987)
*''[[Blood Red]]'' (1989)
*''[[Chattahoochee (film)|Chattahoochee]]'' (1989)
*''[[Catchfire]]'' (1990) (also director)
*''[[Flashback (movie)|Flashback]]'' (1990)
*''[[Hollywood Mavericks]]'' (1990) (documentary)
*''[[Superstar: The Life and Times of Andy Warhol]]'' (1990) (documentary)
*''[[Motion & Emotion]]'' (1990) (documentary)
*''[[Sunset Heat]]'' (1991)
*''[[Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse]]'' (1991) (documentary)
*''[[Picture This: The Times of Peter Bogdanovich in Archer City, Texas]]'' (1991) (documentary)
</div><div style="float:right; width:48%;">
*''[[The Indian Runner]]'' (1991)
*''[[Eye of the Storm]]'' (1991)
*''[[Snow White, Rose Red]]'' (1991) (documentary)
*''[[Red Rock West]]'' (1992)
*''[[The Revenge of the Dead Indians]]'' (1993) (documentary)
*''[[Boiling Point (1993 movie)|Boiling Point]]'' (1993)
*''[[Super Mario Bros. (film)|Super Mario Bros.]]'' (1993)
*''[[True Romance]]'' (1993)
*''[[Chasers]]'' (1994) (also director)
*''[[Speed (film)|Speed]]'' (1994)
*''[[Witch Hunt (film)|Witch Hunt]]'' (1994)
*''[[Search and Destroy]]'' (1995)
*''[[Waterworld]]'' (1995)
*''[[Cannes Man]]'' (1996) (cameo)
*''[[Carried Away]]'' (1996)
*''[[Basquiat]]'' (1996)
*''[[Space Truckers]]'' (1996)
*''[[Top of the World (1997 film)|Top of the World]]'' (1997)
*''[[The Good Life]]'' (1997)
*''[[The Last Days of Frankie the Fly]]'' (1997)
*''[[The Blackout]]'' (1997)
*''[[Who Is Henry Jaglom?]]'' (1997) (documentary)
*''[[Road Ends]]'' (1997)
*''[[Michael Angel]]'' (1998)
*''[[Meet the Deedles]]'' (1998)
*''[[Robert Rauschenberg: Inventive Genius]]'' (1999) (documentary) (narrator)
*''[[The Prophet's Game]]'' (1999)
*''[[Lured Innocence]]'' (1999)
*''[[The Source]]'' (1999)
*''[[Edtv]]'' (1999)
*''[[Straight Shooter]]'' (1999)
*''[[Jesus' Son]]'' (1999)
*''[[The Venice Project]]'' (1999)
*''[[Bad City Blues]]'' (1999)
*''[[Choke (film)|Choke]]'' ([[2000]])
*''[[The Spreading Ground]]'' (2000)
*''[[Luck of the Draw]]'' (2000)
*''[[Welcome to Hollywood]]'' (2000) (documentary)
*''[[Held for Ransom]]'' (2000)
*''[[Jason and the Argonauts (TV movie)|Jason and the Argonauts]]'' (2000)
*''[[L.A.P.D.: To Protect and to Serve]]'' (2001)
*''[[Ticker (film)|Ticker]]'' (2001)
*''[[Jazz Seen: The Life and Times of William Claxton]]'' (2001) (documentary)
*''[[Knockaround Guys]]'' (2001
*''[[1 Giant Leap]]'' (2002) (documentary)
*''[[I Don't Know Jack]]'' (2002) (documentary)
*''[[Unspeakable (film)|Unspeakable]]'' (2002)
*''[[Leo (film)|Leo]]'' (2002)
*''[[Venice: Lost and Found]]'' (2002) (documentary)
*''[[Grand Theft Auto: Vice City]]'' (2002) (voice)
*''[[Easy Riders, Raging Bulls: How the Sex, Drugs and Rock 'N' Roll Generation Saved Hollywood]]'' (2003) (documentary)
*''[[A Decade Under the Influence]]'' (2003) (documentary)
*''[[Dennis Hopper: Create (or Die)]]'' (2003) (documentary)
*''[[New Scenes from America]]'' (2003) (short subject)
*''[[The Night We Called It a Day]]'' (2003)
*''[[The Last Ride]]'' (2004)
*''[[Legacy (film)|Legacy]]'' (2004)
*''[[The Keeper]]'' (2004)
*''[[House of 9]]'' (2004)
*''[[Tell Them Who You Are]]'' (2004) (documentary)
*''[[Inside Deep Throat]]'' (2005) (documentary) (narrator)
*''[[Champion (film)]]'' (2005) (documentary)
*''[[Americano]]'' (2005)
*''[[Going Through Splat: The Life and Work of Stewart Stern]]'' (2005) (documentary)
*''[[The Crow: Wicked Prayer]]'' (2005) (currently completed filming)
*''[[Sketches of Frank Gehry]]'' (2005) (documentary) (currently completed filming)
*''[[Land of the Dead]]'' (2005)
*''[[E-Ring]]'' (2005) (TV series)
*''[[Mem-o-re]]'' (2005]]) (currently filming)
*''[[10th & Wolf]]'' (2006) (currently in post-production)
*''[[3055 Jean Leon]]'' (2006) (documentary) (currently filming)
</div><br clear="all">
==Trivia==
*''[[Super Mario Bros. (film)|Super Mario Bros.]]'' is the only film in the [[comedy film|comedy film genre]] he appeared in.
==External links==
*{{imdb name | id=0000454 | name=Dennis Hopper}}
* [http://www.thegoldenyears.org/hopper.html Classic Movies (1939 - 1969): Dennis Hopper]
<!-- Hoosiers -->
[[Category:1936 births|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:Living people|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:American actors|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:Film actors|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:People from Kansas|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:Television actors|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:Worst Supporting Actor Razzie|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:Texas Chainsaw Massacre actors|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:Character actors|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:American film directors|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:People who worked with David Lynch|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[bg:Денис Хопър]]
[[da:Dennis Hopper]]
[[de:Dennis Hopper]]
[[eo:Dennis HOPPER]]
[[fr:Dennis Hopper]]
[[nl:Dennis Hopper]]
[[ja:デニス・ホッパー]]
[[pt:Dennis Hopper]]
[[ru:Хоппер, Деннис]]
[[simple:Dennis Hopper]]
[[sv:Dennis Hopper]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dennis Hopper/Filmography</title>
<id>8792</id>
<revision>
<id>15906742</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-30T07:15:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeronimo</username>
<id>108</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>make a redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dennis Hopper]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dolichocephalic</title>
<id>8793</id>
<revision>
<id>15906743</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T14:02:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Cephalic index]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cephalic index]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Digital library</title>
<id>8794</id>
<revision>
<id>41009071</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T13:18:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Yahoo]] to [[Yahoo!]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''digital library''' is a [[library]] in which a significant proportion of the resources are available in machine-readable format (as opposed to print or microform), accessible by means of computers. The digital content may be locally held or accessed remotely via computer networks. In libraries, the process of digitization began with the catalog, moved to periodical indexes and abstracting services, then to periodicals and large reference works, and finally to book publishing. Some of the largest and most successful digital libraries are [[Project Gutenberg]], [[ibiblio]] and the [[Internet Archive]].
==Advantages==
The traditional libraries are limited by storage space, digital libraries have the potential to store much more information, simply because digital information require very little physical space to contain them. As such, the cost of maintaining a digital library is much lower than that of a traditional library. A traditional library must spend large sums of money paying for staff, book maintenance, rent, and additional books. Digital libraries do away with these fees.
Digital libraries can immediately adopt innovations in technology providing users with improvements in electronic and audio book technology as well as presenting new forms of communication such as wikis and blogs.
* '''No physical boundary'''. The user of a digital library need not to go to the library physically, people from all over the world can gain access to the same information, as long as an Internet connection is available.
* '''Round the clock availability'''. A major advantage of digital libraries is that people from all over the world can gain access to the information at any time, as long as an Internet connection is available.
* '''Multiple accesses'''. The same resources can be used at the same time by a number of users.
* '''Structured approach'''. Digital library provides access to much richer content in a more structured manner, i.e. we can easily move from the catalog to the particular book then to a particular chapter and so on.
* '''Information retrieval'''. The user is able to use any search term bellowing to the word or phrase of the entire collection. Digital library can provide very user friendly interfaces, giving click able access to its resources.
* '''Preservation and conservation'''. An exact copy of the original can be made any number of times without any degradation in quality.
* '''Space'''. Whereas traditional libraries are limited by storage space, digital libraries have the potential to store much more information, simply because digital information requires very little physical space to contain them. When the library had no space for extension digitization is the only solution.
* '''Networking'''. A particular digital library can provide the link to any other resources of other digital library very easily thus a seamlessly integrated resource sharing can be achieved.
* '''Cost'''. In theory, the cost of maintaining a digital library is lower than that of a traditional library. A traditional librar |
Babylon, still the capital of Babylonia.
In the [[6th century BC]] ([[586 BC]]), Nebuchadrezzar II conquered [[Judea]] (Judah), destroyed [[Jerusalem]]; [[Solomon]]'s [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] was also destroyed; [[Nebuchadrezzar II|Nebuchadrezzar]] carried away an estimated 15,000 captives, and sent most of its population into exile in Babylonia. Nebuchadrezzar (604-562 BC) is credited for building the legendary [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]], one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]].
Various invaders conquered the land after Nebuchadrezzar's death, including [[Cyrus the Great]] in [[539 BC]] and [[Alexander the Great]] in [[331 BC]], who died there in [[323 BC]]. [[Babylon]] declined after the founding of [[Seleucia on the Tigris]], the new [[Seleucid Empire]] capital. In the [[second century BC]], it became part of the [[Persian Empire]], then was conquered by [[Alexander the Great]] and remained under [[Hellenistic Greece|Greek]] rule under the [[Seleucid]] dynasty for nearly two centuries. A Central Asian tribe of [[Iranian peoples]] called [[Parthians]] then annexed the region followed by the [[Sassanian]] Persians until the [[7th century]] AD, when Arab Muslims captured it.
==Persian Domination; 550 BCE to 652 CE==
[[Image:Achaemenid Empire.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Achaemenid empire at its greatest extent]]
In CE 600 the country which in our modern time known as [[Iraq]] was a province of the [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] Empire known as [[khvarvaran]] province, to which it had belonged since [[Cyrus the Great]]. Intensive irrigation agriculture of the lower [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] and of tributaries such as the Diyala and Karun formed the main resource base of the [[Sasanian]] monarchy.
The [[Arabic]] term [[Iraq]], a derivative form of [[Persian language|Persian]] Ērāk (lower Iran) was not used at this time; in the mid-6th century the Iranian Empire under Sasanian dynasty was divided by [[Khosrow I]] into four quarters, of which the western one, called ''Khvārvarān'', included most of modern Iraq, and subdivided to provinces of ''Mishān'', ''Asuristān'', ''Ādiābene'' and Lower [[Media]]. The term Iraq is widely used in the medieval Arabic sources for the area in the centre and south of the modern republic as a geographic rather than a political term, implying no precise boundaries.
The area of modern Iraq north of [[Tikrit]] was known in Muslim times as Al-Jazirah, which means "The Island" and refers to the "island" between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. To the south and west lay the Arabian deserts, inhabited largely by Arab tribesmen who occasionally acknowledged the overlordship of the Sasanian Emperors.
Until 602 the desert frontier of greater [[Iran]] had been guarded by the [[Lakhmid]] kings of [[Al-Hirah]], who were themselves Arabs but who ruled a settled buffer state. In that year [[Shahanshah]] [[Khosrow II]] Aparviz rashly abolished the Lakhmid kingdom and laid the frontier open to nomad incursions. Farther north the western quarter was bounded by the Byzantine Empire. The frontier more or less followed the modern [[Syria]]-Iraq border and continued northward into modern [[Turkey]], leaving [[Nisibis]] (modern Nusaybin) as the Sasanian frontier fortress while the [[Byzantines]] held Dara and nearby [[Amida]] (modern [[Diyarbakir]]).
==Ethnic Diversity & Religion==
The inhabitants were very mixed. There was an aristocratic and administrative [[Persians|Persian]] upper class, but most of the population were middle class Persian [[Zoroastrians]] and the rest [[Aramaic]]-speaking peasants. There were a number of Tāzis (Arabs), most of whom lived as pastoralists along the western margins of the settled lands, but some lived as townspeople, especially in Hireh (al-Hira). In addition, there were another group of Iranian, [[Kurds]], who lived along the foothills of the [[Zagros]] Mountains, and a surprisingly large number of [[Greeks]], mostly prisoners captured during the numerous Sasanian campaigns into [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[Syria]].
Ethnic diversity was matched by religious pluralism. The Sasanian state religion, [[Zoroastrian]] religion, was largely confined to the Iranians. The rest of the population, especially in the northern part of the country, were probably [[Christians]]. These were sharply divided by doctrinal differences into Monophysites, linked to the Jacobite church of Syria, and [[Nestorians]].
The Nestorians, who originally converted from Zoroastrianism, [[Manichaenism]] and [[Mazdakism]], were the most widespread and were tolerated by the Sasanian Emperors because of their opposition to the Christians of the [[Roman Empire]], who regarded the Nestorians as heretics. Many of those Iranian Nestorians were deported to southern provinces, located south of [[Persian Gulf]], such as [[Mishmāhig]] (modern Bahrain and UAE), Garrhae (modern Saudi coast of Persian Gulf). The Monophysites were regarded with more suspicion and were occasionally persecuted, but both groups were able to maintain an ecclesiastical hierarchy, and the Nestorians had an important intellectual centre at Nisibis. The area around the ancient city of [[Babylon]] by this time had a large population of [[Jews]], both descendants of the exiles of [[Old Testament]] times and local converts. In addition, in the southern half of the country there were numerous adherents of the old Babylonian paganism, as well as [[Mandaeans]] and [[Gnostics]].
In the early 7th century the stability and prosperity of this multicultural society were threatened by invasion. In 602 Khosrow II Aparviz launched the last great Iranian invasion of the Byzantine Empire. At first he was spectacularly successful; Syria and Egypt fell, and [[Constantinople]] itself was threatened. Later the tide began to turn, and in 627-628 the Byzantines, under the leadership of the Heraclius, invaded Khvārvarān province and sacked the imperial capital at Tyspawn ([[Ctesiphon]]). The invaders did not remain, but Khosrow was discredited, deposed, and executed.
There followed a period of infighting among generals and members of the Imperial family that left the country without clear leadership. The chaos had also damaged irrigation systems, and it was probably at this time that large areas in the south of the country reverted to marshlands, which they have remained ever since. It was with this devastated land that the earliest Muslim raiders came into contact.
==The Arab conquest and the early Islamic period==
[[Image:Age of Caliphs.gif|225px|thumb|left|The Age of the Caliphs]]
The first organised conflict between local [[Bedouin]] Arab tribes and Iranian forces seems to have been in 634, when the Arabs were defeated at the Battle of the Bridge. There was a force of some 5000 [[Muslims]] under Abū `Ubayd ath-Thaqafī, which was routed by the Iranians. Around [[636]], a much larger Arab Muslim force under [[Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās]] defeated the main Iranian army at the [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] and moved on to sack the capital of the Iranian Empire the [[Ctesiphon]]. By the end of [[638]], the Muslims had conquered almost all of Western Iranian provinces (modern Iraq), and the last [[Sasanian|Sāsānian]] Emperor, [[Yazdegerd III|Yazdgird III]], had fled to central and then northern Iran, where he was killed in [[651]].
The Islamic conquest was followed by mass immigration of Arabs from eastern [[Arabia]] and Mazun ([[Oman]]) to Khvarvārān. These new arrivals did not disperse and settle throughout the country; instead they established two new garrison cities, at al-Kūfah, near ancient Babylon, and at [[Basra|Basrah]] in the south.
The intention was that the Muslims should be a separate community of fighting men and their families living off taxes paid by the local inhabitants. In the north of the North eastern Iran, [[Mosul]] began to emerge as the most important city and the base of a Muslim governor and garrison. Apart from the those Iranian elite and the Zoroastrian priests, who did not convert to Isalm, and thus lost their lives and property, most of the Iranian peoples became Muslim and were allowed to keep their possessions.
Khvarvārān, now became a province of the Muslim [[Caliphate]], known as '''`Irāq'''.
== The Turkish Conquest ==
[[Image:Dish from 9th century Iraq.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This [[earthenware]] dish was made in [[9th century]] [[Iraq]]. It is housed in the [[Smithsonian Institution]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]]]
During the late [[14th century|14th]] and early [[15th century|15th centuries]], the [[Black Sheep Turkmen]] ruled the area now known as Iraq. In [[1466]], the [[White Sheep Turkmen]] defeated the Black Sheep and took control. Later, most of Iraq would become part of the [[Safavid Empire]] that arose in [[Iran]] in [[1501]].
In the [[16th century]] Iraq became a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]], although the [[Safavid Empire|Safavids]] temporarily recaptured much of Iraq during the first part of the [[17th century]].
== Modern History ==
Ottoman rule over Iraq lasted until the [[Great War]] (World War I) when the Ottomans sided with [[Germany]] and the [[Central Powers]]. [[United Kingdom|British]] forces invaded the country and suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Turkish army during the [[Siege of Kut]] (1915–16). British forces regrouped and [[Fall_of_Baghdad_%281917%29|captured Baghdad]] in 1917. An armistice was signed in 1918.
<div style="float: left; margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; text-align: center;">[[Image:LittleIraq.png]]</div>
'''[[Iraq]]''' was carved out of the [[Ottoman Empire]] by the French and British as agreed in the [[Sykes-Picot Agreement]]. On [[11 November]] [[1920]] it became a [[League of Nations mandate]] under British control with the name "State of Iraq".
The British government laid out the political and constitutional framework for Iraq's government. Britain imposed a [[Hashemite|Hāshimite]] monarchy on Iraq and de |
s (OHR, UN and aid organisations etc.) based in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A minor part of that international aid was received by people in B&H who needed aid.
Movement has been slow, but considerable progress has been made in economic reform since peace was re-established in the republic. [[Banking]] reform lagged, as did the implementation of [[privatization]]. Many companies (mainly factories) that were privatized faced massive problems, causing the owners to reduce salaries and deny the workers their salaries. Combined with persistent inter-ethnic problems in the country, for many workers this meant that they had a useless job, getting payed perhaps after two three or even six months late only for one month, but one which they clinged on to. They don't want to leave the job because they think someone from another nationality will then get it. The privatized factories are now owned mostly by Germans and foreigners, who used webcams to monitor the workers. One example of all this is the Alloy factory in [Jajce] which produces wheels for cars, sold in Germany or other EU members.
The [[tourism]] sector has been recovering and helping the economy altogether in the process, with popular winter skiing destinations as well as summer countryside tourism. An estimated 500,000 tourists visit Bosnia and Herzegovina every year and contribute much of the foreign currency in the country. Of particular note is the [[diaspora]] population which often returns home during the summer months, bringing in an increase in retail sales and food service industry.
[[Political corruption]] is one of the more acute problems in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the main one that accounts for low amount of tax money used for the population, due to government inefficiency and corruption, especially at the lowest levels.
Bosnia has been preparing for an era of declining international assistance. Bosnia's most immediate task remains economic revitalization to create jobs and [[income]]. In order to do this the workers need to form unions and demand their payment or similar. The owners need to pay the salaries all months the full salary agreed upon.
The Bosnian government plans to issue an international tender for the construction of the 350 km long Corridor 5c in Bosnia and Herzegovina which will passes along the route Budapest-Osijek-Sarajevo-Ploce. The highway along this corridor is the most significant roadway in B&H and the shortest communication route between Middle Europe and the Adriatic. The routing of the road passes through the central part of the country in the North-South direction from Donji Svilaj to the border of B&H, north from the port of Ploce, following the rivers Bosna and Neretva. More than 50% of the total population and the economic activity of Bosnia and Herzegovina lies within the zone of influence along this route.
Project documentation for that highway is ready, so in January 2006, the Bosnian government will issue an international tender for construction of the highway Corridor 5C using a DBFOT system (Design, Build, Finance, Operate, Transfer). Using this system, the concessionaire secures finance, bears all business risks and upon expiration of the concession period, transfers the highway to the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The estimated cost for the construction of the highway is 2.5 billion EUR.
==Statistical indicators==
''From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2004''
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $24.39 [[billion]] (24.39 G$) (2003 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
3.8% (2003 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $6,100 (2003 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br />''agriculture:''
13%
<br />''industry:''
40.9%
<br />''services:''
46.1% (2001 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA% (2003 est.)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br />''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br />''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
3.5% (2002 est.)
'''Labour force:'''
1.026 million (2001)
'''Labour force - by occupation:'''
agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%
'''Unemployment rate:'''
40% (2002 est.)
'''Budget:'''
<br />''revenues:''
$1.9 billion
<br />''expenditures:''
$2.2 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)
'''Industries:'''
steel, coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, manganese, bauxite, vehicle assembly, textiles, tobacco products, wooden furniture, tank and aircraft assembly, domestic appliances, oil refining (2001)
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
5.5% (2003 est.)
'''Electricity - production:'''
9.979 TWh (1998)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br />''fossil fuel:''
53.5%
<br />''hydro:''
46.5%
<br />''nuclear:''
0%
<br />''other:''
0% (2001)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
8.116 TWh (2001)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
2.569 TWh (2001)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
1.405 TWh (2001)
'''Oil - production:'''
0 barrel/day (2001 est.)
'''Oil - consumption:'''
20,000 barrel/day (3,000 m³/d) 2001
'''Natural gas - production:'''
0 m³ (2001 est.)
'''Natural gas - consumption:'''
300 million m³ (2001 est.)
'''Natural gas - exports:'''
0 m³ (2001 est.)
'''Natural gas - imports:'''
300 million m³ (2001 est.)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
wheat, corn, fruits, vegetables; livestock
'''Exports:'''
$1.28 billion f.o.b. (2003 est.)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
metals, clothing, wood products
'''Exports - partners:'''
Italy 31.4%, Croatia 17.8%, Germany 13%, Austria 10%, Slovenia 7.1%, Greece 4.2% (2002)
'''Imports:'''
$4.7 billion f.o.b. (2003 est.)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, foodstuffs
'''Imports - partners:'''
Croatia 22.8%, Slovenia 15.3%, Germany 13.7%, Italy 12.6%, Hungary 7.6%, Austria 7.4% (2002)
'''Debt - external:'''
$2.8 billion (2001)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$650 million (2001 est.)
'''Currency:'''
1 [[Convertible Mark|konvertibilna marka (KM/BAM)]] = 100 konvertibilnih [[pfennig]]a
'''Exchange rates:'''
convertible marks per US$1 - 1.73 (2003), 1.73 (2002), 2.19 (2001), 2.12 (2000), 1.84 (1999)
'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year
==See also==
* [[Economy of Europe]]
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
[[Category:Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
[[pt:Economia da Bósnia-Herzegovina]]
[[zh:伯利兹]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications of Bosnia and Herzegovina</title>
<id>3608</id>
<revision>
<id>27161727</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-02T13:22:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PANONIAN</username>
<id>157515</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
885,000 (2002)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
707,000 (2002)
'''Telephone system:'''
telephone and telegraph network is in need of modernization and expansion; many urban areas are below average when compared with services in other former Yugoslav republics
<br />''domestic:''
NA
<br />''international:''
no [[satellite]] earth stations
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 8, FM 16, shortwave 1 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
940,000 (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
33 (plus 292 repeaters) (September 1995)
'''Televisions:'''
NA
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
30 (2003)
'''[[Internet]] users:'''
45,000 (2001) (est. 65,000 (2003))
'''[[Country code]] (top level domain):''' BA
:''See also :'' [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
[[Category:Communications of Bosnia and Herzegovina| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Bosnia and Herzegovina</title>
<id>3609</id>
<revision>
<id>27161002</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-02T13:06:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PANONIAN</username>
<id>157515</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">== Railways ==
<br />''total:''
1,021 km (electrified 795 km)
<br />''standard gauge:''
1,021 km 1.435-m gauge (1995); note - some segments still need repair and/or reconstruction
=== Rail links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Croatia|Croatia]] - ??
* [[Transportation in Serbia and Montenegro|Serbia and Montenegro]] - ??
== Highways ==
<br />''total:''
21,846 km
<br />''paved:''
11,425 km
<br />''unpaved:''
10,421 km (1996 est.)
<br />''note:''
roads need maintenance and repair
== Waterways ==
NA km; large sections of the Sava blocked by downed bridges, silt, and debris
== Pipelines ==
crude oil 174 km; natural gas 90 km (1992); note - pipelines now disrupted
== Ports and harbors ==
Bosanska Gradiska, Bosanski Brod, Bosanski Samac, and Brcko (all inland waterway ports on the Sava none of which are fully operational), Orasje
== Merchant marine ==
none (1999 est.)
== Airports ==
27 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br />''total:''
9
<br />''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
4
<br />''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2
<br />''under 914 m:''
3 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br />''total:''
18
<br />''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
<br />''914 to 1,523 m:''
7
<br />''under 914 m:''
10 (1999 est.)
=== Heliports ===
4 (1999 est.)
== See also ==
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
[[Category:Transportation in Bosnia and Herzegovina|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Bosnia and Herzegovina</title>
<id>3610</id>
<revision>
<id>41725335</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:38:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>OrphanBot</username>
<id>621721</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Removing image with no source information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
<text xml |
[[Image:Des_Moines.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Des Moines skyline, as seen from the [[Iowa State Capitol]]. The tallest building is the headquarters for [[Principal Financial Group]] and is the tallest building in [[Iowa]].]]
{{Infobox U.S. City|
city = Des Moines |
state = Iowa |
motto = |
nickname = |
flag = Des Moines flag.svg|
seal = |
map = IAMap-doton-DesMoines.PNG |
map size = |
map cap = Location in [[Iowa]]|
founded = |
incorporated = [[September 22]], [[1851]] |
county = [[Polk County, Iowa|Polk County]] |
mayor = [[Frank Cownie]] |
area = 200.1 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (77.2 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]) |
area water = 3.8 km&sup2; (1.5 mi&sup2;) |
area percentage = 1.88% |
census yr = 2000|
city pop = 198,682|
metro pop = 481,394|
density = 835.1|
time zone = Central|
utc = 6|
north_coord = 41.5909 |
west_coord = 93.6209|
web = www.ci.des-moines.ia.us|
|}}
'''Des Moines''' (French for 'Of the Monks') ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|/dɪˈmɔɪn/}} in [[English language|English]], [[Image:ltspkr.png]][[Media:DesMoines1.ogg|{{IPA|/demwan/}}]] in [[French language|French]]) is the capital city of the [[U.S. state]] of [[Iowa]]. It was incorporated on [[September 22]], [[1851]], as Fort Des Moines, until it was shortened to "Des Moines" in [[1857]].[http://www.ci.des-moines.ia.us/departments/AC/Information/AChistoricalinfo.htm]
It is also the [[county seat]] of [[Polk County, Iowa|Polk County]]. According to the [[2000]] census, the population of the city is 198,682.
Des Moines is located in the south central part of the state. The [[Des Moines River]] and the [[Raccoon River]] meet just south of the downtown and serve as the city's primary water supply.
Many insurance companies are headquartered in Des Moines, including the [[Principal Financial Group]], Equitable of Iowa, Allied Insurance, ARAG Legal Insurance, and American Republic Insurance Company. Long known as the "Hartford of the West," Des Moines replaced [[Hartford, Connecticut]], as the number one city for insurance in the United States in 2004. As a center of financial and insurance services, the metro area appears to be well poised for continued growth.
==History==
Des Moines was founded in May 1843 when Captain [[James Allen]] built a garrison (fort) on the site where the [[Des Moines River|Des Moines]] and [[Raccoon River|Raccoon]] Rivers merge. Allen wanted to use the name Fort Raccoon, but the American War Department told him to name it [[Fort Des Moines]]. The original origin of the name ''Des Moines'' is uncertain. It could have referred to the ''river of the [[Moingonas]]'', named after an Indian tribe that resided in the area and built burial mounds. Others see it as referring to [[Trappists|Trappist monks]], some of whom lived in huts at the mouth of the river, or connected to the phrase ''de moyen'' in French, meaning middle, because of its location between the [[Mississippi river|Mississippi]] and [[Missouri river|Missouri rivers]].
Settlers came and lived near the fort, and on [[May 25]], [[1846]], Fort Des Moines became the seat of Polk County. On [[September 22]], [[1851]], it was incorporated as a city, and its town charter was approved in a vote on [[October 18]]. In 1857, the name Fort Des Moines was shortened to Des Moines alone and it was made the capital of [[Iowa]]. (The capital was in [[Iowa City, Iowa|Iowa City]] before that.) By 1900, Des Moines was Iowa's largest city with a population of 62,139.
[[image:Birthplace of Des Moines.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Fort Des Moines memorial is located north of [[Principal Park]]]]
In 1907, the city adopted a [[city commission government]] known as the "Des Moines Plan," consisting of an elected mayor and four commissioners who were responsible for public works, public property, public safety, and finance. This form of government was scrapped in 1950 in favor of a [[council-manager]] government, and tweaked in 1967 so that four of the six city council members were elected by ward rather than at-large.
Like many cities, Des Moines began losing people to its [[suburb]]s after reaching a peak population of 208,982 in 1960. Construction of the [[Interstate Highway System]] during the late 1950s and 1960s, capped off with the completion of [[Interstate 235 (Iowa)|Interstate 235]] in 1968, made access to the suburbs easier.
The skyline of downtown Des Moines changed during the 1970s and 1980s as several new [[skyscraper]]s were built. Until then the 19-story Equitable Building, dating back to 1924, was the tallest building in the city. That changed as the 25-story Financial Center was completed in 1972 and the 36-story Ruan Center was completed in 1974. They were later joined by the 30-story [[Marriott International|Marriott]] hotel (1981), the 18-story Hub Tower (1985), and Iowa's tallest building, [[Principal Financial Group]]'s 44-story tower at 801 Grand (1990). This time period also saw the opening of the Civic Center of Greater Des Moines (1979), the [[Des Moines Botanical Center]] (1979), the [[Iowa Events Center#Polk County Convention Complex|Polk County Convention Complex]] (1985), and the State of Iowa Historical Building (1987). The Des Moines [[skyway|skywalk]] system also began to take shape during the 1980s. By the beginning of 2006, the skywalk system was over three miles (5 km) long and connected most major downtown buildings.
Des Moines made national headlines during the [[Great Flood of 1993]]. Heavy rains throughout June and early July caused the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers to rise above flood stage levels. The Des Moines Water Works was submerged by floodwaters during the early morning hours of [[July 11]], [[1993]], leaving an estimated 250,000 people without running water for 12 days and without drinking water for 20 days.
The extensive redevelopment of the downtown area has continued in recent years. The new Science Center of Iowa and the [[Iowa Events Center]] opened in 2005, while the new central branch of the Des Moines Public Library, designed by [[David Chipperfield]], is scheduled to open [[April 8]], [[2006]]. In 2002 the Principal Financial Group and the city of Des Moines announced plans for the Principal Riverwalk, which will run along both sides of the Des Moines and feature new trails, pedestrian bridges across the river, a fountain and skating plaza, and a "civic garden" in front of the Des Moines City Hall. Several existing downtown buildings have either been converted or are being converted to [[loft]] apartments and [[condominium]]s in an effort to attract more residents to the downtown area. This trend is highlighted by the success of the "East Village" district of shops, studios, and housing between the capitol district and the Des Moines river.
Fueled in part by recent development in Des Moines, the suburbs are growing at a faster pace than the city. [[West Des Moines, Iowa|West Des Moines]], in particular, now has over 50,000 people and is home to the [[Jordan Creek Town Center]], the largest shopping center in Iowa, as well as several [[Wells Fargo]] office complexes, including a new corporate campus that is scheduled for completion in 2007.
== Geography ==
[[Image:IowaStateCapitol.jpg|thumb|300px|The State Capitol of Iowa, featuring its golden dome.]]
Des Moines is located at 41&deg;35'27" North, 93&deg;37'15" West (41.590939, -93.620866){{GR|1}}.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 200.1 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (77.2 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 196.3 km&sup2; (75.8 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 3.8 km&sup2; (1.5 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 1.88% water.
===Metropolitan area===
The Des Moines [[United States metropolitan area|Metropolitan Statistical Area]] consists of five central Iowa counties: [[Polk County, Iowa|Polk]], [[Dallas County, Iowa|Dallas]], [[Warren County, Iowa|Warren]], [[Madison County, Iowa|Madison]], and [[Guthrie County, Iowa|Guthrie]]. The area had a 2000 census population of 481,394 and an estimated 2004 population of 511,878 [http://www.silo.lib.ia.us/specialized-services/datacenter/datatables/MetroArea/metroestpopcomp20002004.pdf]. The Des Moines-[[Newton, Iowa|Newton]]-[[Pella, Iowa|Pella]] [[Combined Statistical Area]] consists of those five counties plus [[Jasper County, Iowa|Jasper]] and [[Marion County, Iowa|Marion]] counties; the 2000 census population of this area was 550,659. (Before metropolitan areas were redefined in [[2003]], the Des Moines metropolitan area only consisted of Polk, Dallas, and Warren counties.) Recently, Des Moines annexed certain parcels of land in the northeast, southeast, and southern corners of Des Moines, particularly areas which border the recent highway &quot;bypass&quot; that has been constructed.
===Suburbs===
Des Moines's [[suburb]]s include [[Altoona, Iowa|Altoona]], [[Ankeny, Iowa|Ankeny]], [[Bondurant, Iowa|Bondurant]], [[Carlisle, Iowa|Carlisle]], [[Clive, Iowa|Clive]], [[Grimes, Iowa|Grimes]], [[Johnston, Iowa|Johnston]], [[Norwalk, Iowa|Norwalk]], [[Pleasant Hill, Iowa|Pleasant Hill]], [[Polk City, Iowa|Polk City]], [[Urbandale, Iowa|Urbandale]], [[Waukee, Iowa|Waukee]], [[West Des Moines, Iowa|West Des Moines]], and [[Windsor Heights, Iowa|Windsor Heights]].
In 2003, ''[[Forbes]]'' magazine ranked the Des Moines metropolitan area 8th on its list of "Best Places For Business And Careers," based on the cost of doing business, housing affordability, educational attainment, crime rate, and the number of [[doctor of philosophy|Ph.D.]]'s per 100,000 residents. [http://www.forbes.com/2003/05/07/bestland.html]
== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 198,682 people, 80,504 households, and 48,704 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 1,012.0/km&sup2; (2,621.3/mi&sup2;) |
l committee in charge of the region's industrial development.
==CPSU member==
Member of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU) from [[1961]] to [[July]] [[1990]], he began working in the Communist administration in [[1968]]. He later commented on his [[communist]] views:
:'' "I sincerely believed in the ideals of justice propagated by the party, and just as sincerely joined the party, made a thorough study of the charter, the program and the classics re-reading the works of Lenin, Marx and Engels." ''
In [[1977]] as party boss in Sverdlovsk, he ordered the destruction of the [[Ipatiev House]] where the last [[Nicholas II of Russia|Tsar]] had been murdered. The [[Ipatiev House]] was demolished at night time on September 17-18, 1977. In addition, during Yeltsin's stay in Sverdlovsk, a CPSU palace was built which was named "White Tooth" by the residents. During the 30 years of his activities as a [[communist]], Yeltsin developed connections with key people in the Soviet power structure.
Appointed to the [[Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee|Politburo]] <!--page 77, ''The Strange Death of the Soviet Empire'', ISBN 0805041540-->, Yeltsin was also "Mayor" of [[Moscow]] (First Secretary of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|CPSU]] Moscow City Committee) from [[December 24]] [[1985]] to [[1987]]. He was promoted to these high-rank positions by [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] and [[Yegor Ligachev]] who presumed that Yeltsin would be "their man". In addition, Yeltsin was given the country house (dacha) which was previously occupied by Gorbachev. During this period, Yeltsin portrayed himself as a reformer and populist (for example, he took a trolleybus to work) and fired and reshuffled his staff several times. His initiatives became popular among Moscow residents.
In 1987, after a confrontation with hardliner [[Yegor Ligachev]] and eventually with [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], Yeltsin was sacked from his high-ranked party positions. On October 21, 1987, without prior approval by Gorbachev, Yeltsin, at the plenary meeting of the Central Commitee of the [[CPSU]] lashed out at the Politburo expressing his discontent with the slow pace of reform in society and servility shown to the General Secretary and asked to resign from the Politburo adding that the City Committee would decide whether he should resign from the post of first secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee. In his reply, Gorbachev accused Yeltsin of "political immaturity" and "absolute irresponsibility," and raised the question of relieving Yeltsin of his post of first secretary at the plenary meeting of the Moscow City Party Committee. Nobody backed Yeltsin. Criticism of Yeltsin continued on November 11, 1987 at the meeting of the Moscow party committee. He admitted that his speech had been a mistake. Yeltsin was fired from the post of first secretary of the Moscow City Committee. He was not exiled or imprisoned as once would have been the consequence, but demoted to the position of First Deputy Commissioner for the State Committee for Construction. After being fired, Yeltsin was hospitalized and reportedly (which was confirmed by [[Nikolai Ryzhkov]]) attempted a suicide. Yeltsin was perturbed and humiliated but then plotted his revenge<!--page 86, ''The Strange Death of the Soviet Empire'', ISBN 0805041540-->. <!-- His opening came with Gorbachev's establishment of the [[Congress of People's Deputies]]page 90, ''The Strange Death of the Soviet Empire'', ISBN 0805041540--> He recovered, and started intensively criticizing Gorbachev using the slow pace of reform in the USSR as the major argument.
Yeltsin's criticism of the politburo and Gorbachev led to a smear campaign against him. The organizers of the smear campaign apparently thought that it would be an easy job to get rid of Yeltsin using examples of his awkward behavior. An article published in [[Pravda]] described him as being drunk at a lecture during his visit to the United States, and a TV account of his speech seemed to confirm this information. However, the popular dissatisfaction with the regime was very strong, and any attempt to smear Yeltsin only added to his popularity. Another accident that happened with Yeltsin during this time was him falling from the bridge. Commenting on this event, Yeltsin hinted that he was helped to fall from the bridge by the enemies of [[perestroika]]. However, his opponents suggested that he was simply drunk.
== President of the RSFSR ==
[[Image:1991 coup yeltsin.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Yeltsin (far left) stands on a tank to defy the August coup in 1991.]]
In March [[1989]], Yeltsin who became popular because of his criticism of Gorbachev was elected to the Congress of People's Deputies as the delegate from [[Moscow]] district and gained a seat on the [[Supreme Soviet]]. In May [[1990]], he was elected the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the [[Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic]] (RSFSR). He was supported by both democratic and conservative members of the Supreme Soviet which sought power in the developing political situation in the country. A part of this power struggle was the opposition between power structures of the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[RSFSR]]. In an attempt to gain more power, on [[June 12]], 1990, Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR adopted a declaration of sovereignty and, in July, Yeltsin quit the CPSU.
On [[June 12]], [[1991]], Yeltsin won 57 percent of the popular vote in democratic presidential elections for the Russian republic, defeating Gorbachev's preferred candidate, [[Nikolai Ryzhkov]]. In his election campaign, Yeltsin criticized the "dictatorship of the center", but did not suggest the introduction of market economy. Instead, he said that he would put his head on the railtrack in the event of increased prices. Yeltsin took office on [[July 10]].
On [[August 18]] [[1991]], a [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991|coup]] against Gorbachev was launched by hardline communists headed by [[Vladimir Kryuchkov]]. Gorbachev was held in the [[Crimea]] while Yeltsin raced to the [[White House of Russia]] (his presidential office) in Moscow to defy the coup. The White House was surrounded by the military but the troops defected in the face of mass popular demonstrations, Yeltsin making a memorable speech from the turret of a tank. By [[August 21]] most of the coup leaders had fled Moscow and Gorbachev was "rescued" from the [[Crimea]] and then returned to Moscow. Yeltsin was subsequently hailed by his supporters around the world for rallying mass opposition to the coup.
Although restored to his position, Gorbachev's powers were now fatally compromised. Neither union nor Russian power structures heeded his commands as support had swung over to Yeltsin. Through the fall of [[1991]], the Russian government took over the union government, ministry by ministry. In [[November]] 1991, Yeltsin issued a decree banning the Communist Party throughout the RSFSR.
In early [[December]] 1991, [[Ukraine]] voted for independence from the Soviet Union. A week later, on [[December 8]], Boris Yeltsin met with Ukrainian president [[Leonid Kravchuk]] and the leader of [[Belarus]], [[Stanislau Shushkevich]], in [[Belovezhskaya Pushcha]] residence, where the three presidents announced the dissolution of the USSR and that they would establish a voluntary [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS) in its place. According to [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], the President of the [[Soviet Union]] at that time, Yeltsin kept the plans of Belovezhskaya meeting in strict secrecy and the main goal of dissolution of the Soviet Union was to get rid of Gorbachev who by that time started to recover his position after the August events. [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] also accuses Yeltsin in violating the people's will expressed at the referendum in which the majority voted to keep the [[Soviet Union]].
On [[December 24]], the Russian Federation took the Soviet Union's seat in the [[United Nations]]. The next day, President Gorbachev resigned and the USSR ceased to exist (see [[Collapse of the Soviet Union]]), thereby ending the world's largest and most influential communist regime. Economic relations between the former Soviet republics were severely compromised. Millions of native Russians found themselves in the newly formed "foreign" countries.
==Post-Soviet presidency==
<div style="float:right; margin-left:10px; margin-right:10px; width:200px">
[[Image:Boris3.gif|thumb|200px|right|Boris Yeltsin dancing and singing in presidential campaign.]]
[[Image:Clinton Yeltsin sax.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Bill Clinton]] plays the saxophone presented to him by Yeltsin at a private dinner in Russia, January 13, 1994]]
</div>
Following the dissolution of the USSR, the acceleration of economic restructuring became one of Yeltsin's main priorities with his government overseeing a massive privatization of state-run enterprises. However, the Yeltsin government's incompetence and the destructive activities of pro-inflation forces caused the Russian economy to further deteriorate. The country quickly entered into a state of [[anarchy (word)|anarchy]] during which former state property was redistributed. Former [[Communist party]] and [[Komsomol]] [[apparatchiks]], the majority of whom remained in power in the new government structures, were in the best position to acquire unprecedented amounts of wealth. At the same time, entrepreneurs throughout the country were able to start their own businesses.
Yeltsin's reform program took effect on [[January 2]], [[1992]] (see [[Economy of Russia#Economic Reform in the 1990s|Russian economic reform in the 1990s]] for background information). Soon afterward [[price]]s skyrocketed, government spending was slashed, and heavy new [[tax]]es went into effect. A deep [[Credit (finance)|credit]] crunch shut down many [[industry|i |
efugees who did not die from starvation or war went to the Americas.
==List of notable diasporas==
* The [[Acadian|Acadian Diaspora]] or [[Great Expulsion]] (''Grand Dérangement'') occurred when the British expelled ~10,000 Acadians (over three-fourths of the Acadian population in Nova Scotia) between 1755 and 1764. The British sent members of the same community to different colonies to impose [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]].
* [[Afghanistan|Afghan people]] who fled their country throughout the 20th century and the long civil wars
* The [[African diaspora]] comprises the indigenous peoples of Africa and their descendants, wherever they are in the world beyond the African continent. Some [[Pan-Africanism|Pan-Africanists]] and [[Afrocentrism|Afrocentrists]] also consider other [[Negroid]] (or "[[Africoid]]"), [[Australoid]] (also called "Veddoid"), and black [[Caucasoid]] peoples as diasporic "African peoples." These groups include the [[Dravidians]] of South India, [[Indigenous Australians]]; and the [[indigenous people]]s of [[Southeast Asia]] ([[Thailand]], [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Borneo]], [[Sumatra]] and [[Malaysia]]); [[Melanesia]], [[Polynesia]] and [[New Guinea]].
*[[Arab]]s who have migrated out from the [[Arab World]], and now reside in [[Western Europe]], the [[Americas]], [[Australia]] and elsewhere. (see [[Arab diaspora]])
* [[Armenians]] living in their [[Ottoman Armenian Population|ancient homeland]], which had been controlled by the [[Ottoman Empire]] for centuries, fled persecution and massacres during several periods of forced emigration, from the [[1880s]] to the [[1910s]], including the [[Armenian Genocide]] of [[1915]]. Many Armenians settled in [[California]], [[France]] and [[Lebanon]] (see [[Armenian Diaspora]]).
* Almost 5% of the present-day Australian population lives outside of Australia; for a variety of reasons. This phenomenon is known as the [[Australian Diaspora]]
*[[Basque diaspora]], [[Basques]] who left the [[Basque Country]], usually to the Americas for economic or political reasons. There are also Basque Catholic missionaries.
* [[Chechens]] who fled [[Chechnya]] during the late 20th century insurrection against the [[Russian Federation]]
* [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese Diaspora]]
* [[Colombia|Colombian]] diaspora: refers to the thoussands of peolple who have left the country looking for better quality of life or to the people who left Colombia after security problems with Drug-dealers, Paramilitary groups or Guerrilla groups. They mainly went to USA, Canada and Spain.
* [[Crimean Tatar diaspora]], formed after the annexation of the [[Crimean Khanate]] by [[Russia]], in [[1783]].
* The [[Philippines|Filipino]] peoples throughout [[Australia]], the [[USA]], [[Canada]] and South-East Asia. Overseas workers have their own political party in the Philippine Congress.
* The [[French Canadian diaspora]] includes hundreds of thousands of people who left [[Quebec]] for "greener pastures" in the [[United States]], [[Ontario]] and the [[Western Canada|Prairies]], between 1840 and the 1930s.
* [[Galician diaspora]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicians]] who left their country for mainly economic reasons to richer areas of Spain or the Americas (especially Argentina and Cuba) and, later, Western Europe (Germany, Switzerland, France, Belgium).
* In [[modern Greek]], the word ''diaspora'' refers to the large populations of Greek descent living in the [[United States]], [[Australia]] and other countries. There is a Department of Diaspora Affairs in the Greek government.
* The [[Roma people|Roma]] (English terms: Gypsy, Gypsies), a traditionally 'dispersed' people in [[Europe]], with origins in [[South Asia]] (or perhaps, northern India), are even more 'dispersed' today, following [[the Holocaust]] of Nazi Germany. (See *[http://www2.arnes.si/~eusmith/Romany/names.html Some names for the Roma])
* The [[Heimatvertriebene]], the ethnic German refugees from the former German Empire during and following World War II, enlarged by the [[Oder-Neisse line]]
* The [[Irish diaspora]] consists of Irish emigrants and their descendants in countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, South Africa and nations of the Caribbean and continental Europe. The diaspora contains over 80 million people and it is the result of mass migration from Ireland, due to past famines and political oppression. The term first came widely into use in Ireland in the 1990s when the then-[[President of Ireland]], [[Mary Robinson]] began using it to describe all those of Irish descent.)
* The [[Jewish diaspora]] in its historical use, refers to the period between the destruction of the Jewish state by the Roman Empire in [[137]] CE, to the re-establishment of Israel in 1948. In modern use, the 'Diaspora' refers to Jews living outside of the Jewish state of [[Israel]] today. There is a 'Ministry of Diaspora Affairs' in the Israeli government, for example.
* Palestinians who fled [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] during the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]] (see [[Palestinian exodus]], [[Palestinian refugee]]s)
* "[[Polonia]]", the diaspora of the [[Poles]], started with the emigrations after the [[partitions of Poland]], [[January Uprising]] and the [[November Uprising]], enlarged by the [[Nazi]] policies, and later by the establishment of the [[Curzon line]]
* The [[South Asian]] diaspora includes millions of people in [[Suriname]], [[South Africa]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Guyana]], [[Jamaica]], [[Mauritius]], [[Fiji]], [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]] and other countries who left [[British India]] in the 19th and early 20th century, and millions more who have moved to [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]], the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]] in recent decades (see [[Desi]]).
* The Southeast Asian diaspora includes the refugees from the numerous wars that took place in Southeast Asia, such as [[World War II]] and the [[Vietnam War]].
** The [[Boat People]] who left Vietnam for [[Hong Kong]] after the Vietnam war.
* Various ethnic minorities from areas under Russian and Soviet control following the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], continuing through the mass forced-resettlements under [[Stalin]].
* Various groups fled in large numbers from areas under Axis control during [[World War II]], or after the border changes following the war, and formed their own diasporas.
* The [[Somali (ethnicity)|Somali]] diaspora that includes ethnic Somalis who live in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Djibouti, as well other parts of Africa. It also includes the one million people who live in Europe, Australia, New Zealand, North America, and the Middle East as refugees from the civil war. It altogether numbers between five and seven million. This is almost the same as the population of [[Somalia]] itself.
* The [[South African diaspora]] mainly consists of white South African emigrants, especially to white [[Afrikaans]] speakers who have fled the country for a number of reasons. There is also a growing black middle class in South Africa, many of whom are starting to emigrate as well, furthering the demographic weight of South Africans abroad. South Africans have largely settled in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], the [[United States]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Canada]].
*The diaspora of the [[Tibetan people]] began in 1959 when the Chinese government violently attacked and forced the people of Tibet out of their lands and annexed it into the [[People's Republic of China]].
*Futuristic [[science fiction]] sometimes refers to a "Diaspora", taking place when much of humanity leaves [[Earth]] to settle on far-flung "colony worlds".
The above list is not comprehensive or definitive. Only a few have been given much historical attention. There is much talk currently (after [[Hurricane Katrina]] in 2005) of a [[New Orleans]] or US Gulf Coast diaspora, but only time will tell how significant a number of those evacuees will indeed not return.
During the [[Cold War]] era, huge populations of refugees continued to form from areas of war, especially from Third World nations; all over [[Africa]], [[South America|South]] and [[Central America]], the [[Middle East]], and east [[Asia]].
==See also==
* [[Exodus]] is another Biblical term related to migration, but with a connotation of grouping rather than the scattering of a diaspora.
==External links==
*[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/WBI/WBIPROGRAMS/KFDLP/0,,contentMDK:20692386~pagePK:64156158~piPK:64152884~theSitePK:461198,00.html Diasporas of Highly Skilled and Migration of Talent]
* [http://www.telugudiaspora.com Telugu Diaspora]
* [http://www.globaldiasporas.com Global Diasporas]
* [http://www.theindiandiaspora.com The Indian Diaspora]T.L.S.Bhaskar
* [http://www.tamilnation.org/diaspora The Tamil Diaspora - a Trans State Nation] Nadesan Satyendra
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4203360.stm Katrina scatters a grim diaspora] BBC
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/06/national/nationalspecial/06diaspora.html In Throes of a Diaspora, Two Families Bind] New York Times
<!-- interwiki -->
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</page>
<page>
<title>List of dog breeds</title>
<id>8615</id>
<revision>
<id>42150467</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:46:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SirIsaacBrock</username>
<id>738557</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Sa-Se */ *[[Sakhalin Husky]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Dog]]s have been selectively bred for thous |
for only a few pedestrians to pass through at a time.
Once ubiquitous in Beijing, siheyuans and hutongs are now rapidly disappearing, as entire city blocks of hutongs are leveled and replaced with high-rise buildings. Residents of the hutongs are entitled to apartments in the new buildings of at least the same size as their former residences. Many complain, however, that the traditional sense of community and street life of the hutongs cannot be replaced. Some particularly historic or picturesque hutongs are being preserved and restored by the government, with the objective that by the 2008 Olympics, only these few will remain. One such example can be seen at [[Nanchizi]].
[[Mandarin cuisine]] is the local style of cooking in Beijing. [[Peking Roast Duck]] is perhaps the most well-known dish. The [[Manhan Quanxi]] ("[[Manchu]]-[[Han Chinese]] full banquet") is a traditional banquet originally intended for the ethnic-[[Manchu]] emperors of the [[Qing Dynasty]]; it remains very prestigious and very expensive.
[[Teahouse]]s are also common in Beijing. Chinese [[tea]] comes in many varieties and some rather expensive types of Chinese tea are said to cure an ailing body extraordinarily well.
The [[Jingtailan]] is a [[cloisonné]] metalworking technique and tradition originating from Beijing, and one of the most revered traditional crafts in China. [[Beijing lacquerware]] is well known for the patterns and images carved into its surface.
The [[Fuling Jiabing]] is a traditional Beijing snack food, a pancake (''bing'') resembling a flat disk with filling, made from ''fu ling'' (''[[Poria cocos]] (Schw.) Wolf'', or "tuckahoe"), an ingredient common in traditional [[Chinese medicine]].
=== Stereotypes ===
Beijingers are stereotypically held to be open, confident, humorous, majestic in manner, enthusiastic about politics, art, culture, or other "grand" matters, unconcerned with thrift or careful calculation, and happy to take center stage. They are also stereotypically aristocratic, arrogant, laid back, disdainful of "provincials", always "lording it over others", and strongly conscious of social class. These [[stereotype]]s may have originated from Beijing's status as China's capital for most of the past 800 years, and the high concentration of officials and other notables in Beijing that has resulted.
== Transportation ==
:''Main article: [[Transportation in Beijing]]''
With the growth of the city following economic reforms, Beijing has evolved as an important transportation hub. Encircling the city are five ring roads, nine expressways and city express routes, eleven China National Highways, several railway routes, and an international airport.
=== Rail ===
Beijing has two major railway stations: [[Beijing Railway Station]] (or the central station) and [[Beijing West Railway Station]]. Five other railway stations in Metropolitan Beijing handle regular passenger traffic: [[Beijing East Railway Station|Beijing East]], [[Beijing North Railway Station|Beijing North]], [[Beijing South Railway Station|Beijing South]], [[Fengtai Railway Station|Fengtai]], and [[Guang'anmen Railway Station|Guang'anmen]].
Beijing is a railway hub. There are [[Railways of China|railway lines]] from Beijing to [[Guangzhou]], [[Shanghai]], [[Harbin]], [[Baotou]], [[Taiyuan]], [[Chengde]] and [[Qinhuangdao]].
International trains, including lines to cities in [[Russia]] and [[Pyongyang]], [[North Korea]] (DPRK), all run through Beijing. Direct trains to [[Kowloon]], [[Hong Kong]] [[Special Administrative Region|SAR]] also depart from Beijing.
Construction on a [[Beijing-Tianjin high-speed rail]] began on July 4, 2005, and is scheduled to be completed in 2007.
=== Roads and expressways ===
:''See: [[Ring Roads of Beijing]], [[Expressways of Beijing]] and [[China National Highways of Beijing]] for more related information.''
[[Image:BadalingExpwyNov02.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Badaling Expressway]] near the intersection with the Northern [[6th Ring Road]] (November 2002 image)]]
Beijing is connected via road links from all parts of China. Nine [[expressways of China]] (with six wholly new expressways under projection or construction) connect with Beijing, as do eleven [[China National Highway]]s. Within Beijing itself, an elaborate network of five ring roads has developed, but they appear more rectangular than ring-shaped. Roads in Beijing often are in one of the four compass directions (unlike, for example, [[Tianjin]]).
One of the biggest concerns with traffic in Beijing deals with its apparently ubiquitous traffic jams. Traffic in the city centre is often gridlocked, especially around rush hour. Even outside of rush hour, several roads still remain clogged up with traffic. Urban area ring roads and major through routes, especially near the [[Chang'an Avenue]] area, are often clogged up during rush hour.
Recently expressways have been extended (in some cases reconstructed as express routes) into the territories within the [[3rd Ring Road (Beijing)|3rd Ring Road]]. As they are either expressways or express routes, drivers do not need to pass through intersections with traffic lights. This may finally solve the difficulties in "hopping between one ring and another".
Another problem is that public transportation is underdeveloped (the subway system is presently minimal) and that even buses are jam-packed with people around rush hour. Beijing was poorly designed in terms of zoning and in terms of transportation system [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-10/06/content_269518.htm], [http://www.bjreview.com.cn/200410/Nation-200410(C).htm]. Compounding the problem is patchy enforcement of traffic regulations, and [[road rage]]. Beijing authorities claim that traffic jams may be a thing of a past come the [[2008 Olympics]]. The authorities have introduced several bus lanes where, during rush hour, all vehicles except for public buses must keep clear. <!-- An express bus route will be opened on Christmas Day 2004. - did it? can someone check? -->
[[Chang'an Avenue]] runs east-west through the centre of Beijing, past [[Tian'anmen]]. It is a major through route and is often called the "First Street in China" by authorities.
{{Roads and Expressways of Beijing}}
=== Air ===
Beijing's main airport is the [[Beijing Capital International Airport]] (PEK) near [[Shunyi District|Shunyi]], which is about 20 km northeast of Beijing city centre. Most domestic and nearly all international flights arrive and depart at Capital Airport. Capital Airport is the main hub for [[Air China]]. It is linked to central Beijing by the [[Airport Expressway]] and is a roughly 40-minute drive from the city centre during good traffic hours. In preparation for the 2008 Olympics, another expressway is being built to the Airport, as well as a lightrail system.
Other airports in the city include [[Liangxiang Airport]], [[Nanyuan Airport]], [[Xijiao Airport]], [[Shahe Airport]] and [[Badaling Airport]]. However, these are primary for military use and less well-known to the public.
=== Public transit ===
The evolving [[Beijing Subway]] has four lines (two above ground, two underground), with several more being built in preparation for the [[2008 Summer Olympics]]. There were 599 [[bus]] and [[trolleybus]] routes in Beijing as of 2004. [http://www.bjstats.gov.cn/tjyl/tjgb/200501210039.htm] [[Taxis]] are nearly ubiquitous, and some can accept [[Yikatong card]]s for payment.
Buses and trolleybus fares cost 1 [[Renminbi]] for shorter trips, and more for longer trips. Subway tickets range from 2 to 5 [[Renminbi]]. Taxi fares depend on vehicle type: these start at 10 [[Renminbi]] for the first 3 to 4 kilometers, and go up by 1.20, 1.60, 2.00, or 2.50 [[Renminbi]] per extra kilometer, depending on the type of taxi. Some, too, can accept [[Yikatong card]]s for payment.
== Tourism ==
[[Image:TempleofHeaven-HallofPrayer.jpg|thumb|250px|The Temple of Heaven]]
[[Image:Wan song monk pagoda01.jpg|thumb|150px|Wansong Pagoda]]
:''Main article: [[Tourist attractions of Beijing]]''
<!-- Please add any other sites you can think of to [[Tourist attractions of Beijing]]. -->
Despite the turmoil of the [[nineteenth century|nineteenth]] and [[twentieth century|twentieth]] centuries — including damage caused by [[Old Summer Palace|European military intervention]], the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|Japanese invasion of WWII]] and the [[Cultural Revolution]] — and the recent intense [[urbanisation]] and transformation, including the demolition of [[hutong]]s, Beijing still maintains tourist attractions that are rich in history.
Although more known for its political significance in the West, [[Tian'anmen]] (The Gate of Heavenly Peace) remains the spiritual center of China and one of the most important tourist sites of Beijing, both by itself and as the main entrance to the [[Forbidden City]]. Other world-renowned sites include the [[Badaling]] section of the [[Great Wall of China]], the [[Summer Palace]], and the [[Temple of Heaven]].
===Buildings, monuments, and landmarks===
*Sections of the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]] ([[World Heritage Site]]) at:
** [[Badaling]]
** [[Juyongguan]]
** [[Mutianyu]]
** [[Simatai]]
** [[Jinshanling]]
** [[Jiankou]]
*[[Forbidden City]] ([[World Heritage Site]])
*[[Tiananmen Square]], site of the Tiananmen Square protests of [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1919|May 4, 1919]], [[Tiananmen Incident|1976]], and [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989|1989]]
**[[Tiananmen]] (Gate of Heavenly Peace)
**[[Great Hall of the People]] (National Legislature)
**[[The National Museum of China]]
**[[Monument to the People's Heroes]]
**[[Mausoleum of Mao Zedong]]
* [[The Summer Palace]] ([[World Heritage Site]])
* [[Old Summer Palace|Ruins of the Old Summer Palace]]
* [[Peking Man]] Site at [[Zhoukoudian]] ([[World Heritage Site]])
* The [[Ming Dynasty Tombs]] ([[World Heritage Site]])
* [[Gulou| |
figures are for 2001.<br>
#<small>{{note|Spain}} The [[Spain|Spanish]] [[exclave]] of [[Ceuta]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.<br>
#<small>{{note|Portugal}} The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Madeira Islands]] are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to Morocco; population and area figures are for 2001.<br>
#<small>{{note|Spain}} The [[Spain|Spanish]] [[exclave]] of [[Melilla]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.<br>
#<small>{{note|SCcaps}} [[Bloemfontein]] is the judicial capital of [[South Africa]], while [[Cape Town]] is its legislative seat, and [[Pretoria]] is the country's administrative seat.<br>
#<small>{{note|ICcaps}} [[Yamoussoukro]] is the official capital of [[Côte d'Ivoire]], while [[Abidjan]] is the ''[[de facto]]'' seat.<br>
==See also==
{{sisterlinks|Africa}}
*{{wikitravel}}
*[[2005 in Africa]] - [[2006 in Africa]]
*[[31st G8 summit]]
*[[AIDS in Africa]]
*[[African Anarchism]]
*[[African philosophy]]
*[[African Union]]
*[[Cuisine of Africa|African cuisine]]
*[[Confederation of African Football]]
*[[Congo craton]]
*[[Ecology of Africa]]
*[[Education in Africa]]
*[[History of Africa]]
*[[Human rights in Africa]]
*[[Regions of Africa]]
*[[Sub-Saharan Africa]]
*[[Universities in Africa]]
*[[Heart of Africa (game)]]
*[[List of African countries by population density]]
*[[List of African countries by population]]
*[[List of African countries by GDP]]
*[[List of African stock exchanges]]
==External links==
;News
* [http://allafrica.com/ allAfrica.com] current news, events and statistics
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/africa/2005/africa/default.stm BBC News In Depth - Africa 2005: Time for Change?]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/hearafrica05/0,15756,1399090,00.html Guardian Unlimited - Special Report: Hear Africa 05]
;Directories
* [http://africadatabase.org/ Contemporary Africa Database]
* [http://www.afrika.no/index/ The Index on Africa] directory from The Norwegian Council for Africa
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/ Open Directory Project - Africa] directory category
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/ Columbia University - African Studies]
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/amed/ Library of Congress - African &amp; Middle Eastern Reading Room]
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/ Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara]
*[http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/su/afr/ University of Chicago - Joseph Regenstein Library: African Studies]
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/ University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center]
*[http://www.africahomepage.org/ Africa Homepage]
;Politics
*[http://www.africaaction.org/index.php ''Africa Action''] Africa Action is the oldest organization in the US working on Africa affairs. It is a national organization that works for political, economic and social justice in Africa.
*[http://www.zabalaza.net/texts/african_anarchism/contents.htm African Anarchism: The History of a Movement]
* [http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/africa/accounts/chekov.html An Irish anarchist in Africa], western Africa from anarchist perspective.
* [http://www.commissionforafrica.org/english.htm Commission for Africa]
* [http://www.africanfront.com African Unification Front]
* [http://www.libcom.org/history/africa.php Working class history in Africa] - people's and grassroots histories
;Photos and Information
*[http://www.junglephotos.com/africa/index.shtml ''Jungle Photos''] Jungle Photos Africa provides images and information on various countries in sub-Saharan Africa.
*[http://www.africam.com Africam - African Wildlife Webcams]
*[http://www.afrika.no/english/index.html Afrika.no News]
*[http://www.afrol.com/Afrol News- African News Agency]
*[http://www.ips.org/africa.shtml Inter Press Service-Africa]
;Sports
*[http://www.cafonline.com/ Confederation of African Football; in English and French]
;Tourism
* {{wikitravel}}
{{Africa}}
{{Continent}}
{{Region}}
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[Category:Africa|*]]
[[Category:Continents]]
[[tk:Afrika]]
[[af:Afrika]]
[[am:አፍሪቃ]]
[[ang:Africa]]
[[ar:أفريقيا]]
[[an:Africa]]
[[ast:África]]
[[az:Afrika]]
[[bg:Африка]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hui-chiu]]
[[bn:আফ্রিকা]]
[[bs:Afrika]]
[[br:Afrika]]
[[ca:Àfrica]]
[[cs:Afrika]]
[[cy:Affrica]]
[[da:Afrika]]
[[de:Afrika]]
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[[el:Αφρική]]
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[[eu:Afrika]]
[[fa:آفریقا]]
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[[is:Afríka]]
[[it:Africa]]
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[[jv:Afrika]]
[[kn:ಆಫ್ರಿಕ]]
[[ku:Efrîqa]]
[[kw:Afrika]]
[[sw:Afrika]]
[[la:Africa]]
[[lv:Āfrika]]
[[lt:Afrika]]
[[lb:Afrika]]
[[li:Afrika]]
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[[mk:Африка]]
[[mg:Afrika]]
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[[to:Aferika]]
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[[so:Afrika]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ashmore And Cartier Islands</title>
<id>589</id>
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<page>
<title>Austin</title>
<id>590</id>
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<id>41665486</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:56:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.186.159.125</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Austin''' is a word that may refer to various things.
'''Austin''' can also be a given name.
== Places in the U.S. ==
'''Austin''' may be the name of a town or city in the U.S.:
*[[Austin, Texas]], the capital of Texas (best known city with this name)
*[[Austin, Arkansas]]
*[[Austin, Colorado]]
*[[Austin, Indiana]]
*[[Austin, Kentucky]]
*[[Austin Township, Michigan]]
*[[Austin, Minnesota]]
*[[Austin Township, Minnesota]]
*[[Austin, Nevada]]
*[[Austin, North Carolina]]
*[[Austin, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Austin, Utah]]
*[[Port Austin, Michigan]]
*[[Austinburg, Ohio]]
Other places in the U.S. named '''Austin''':
*[[Austin, Chicago]], a neighborhood in Chicago
*[[Austin College]], a college in Sherman, Texas
*[[Lake Austin]]
== Places in Canada ==
*[[Austin Flat, British Columbia]]
*[[Austin Heights, British Columbia]]
*[[Austin Subdivision No 1, British Columbia]]
*[[Austin Subdivision No 2, British Columbia]]
*[[Austin, Manitoba]]
*[[Austin, Ontario]]
*[[Austin, Quebec]]
== Names of people named Austin ==
*[[Austin Powers]], a fictional movie spy
*[[Albert Austin]]
*[[Herbert Austin]], Sir Herbert Austin, founder of the Austin Motor Company
*[[John Austin (legal philosophy)]]
*[[J. L. Austin]], philosopher
*[[John Arnold Austin]], United States Navy warrant officer
*[[Phil Austin]], member of the Firesign Theatre
*[[Sherrie Austin]], musician
*[[Stephen F. Austin]], founder of Texas
*[[Steve Austin (fictional character)]], the title character in Martin Caidin's novel ''Cyborg'', which inspired the TV series "The Six Million Dollar Man"
*Col. [[Steve Austin (fictional character)]], the lead character played by Lee Majors in the TV series "The Six Million Dollar Man".
*[[Stone Cold Steve Austin]], a Professional wrestler turned actor
*[[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]], noticeable in the English version "Austin Friars" to refer to the '''[[Augustinians|Augustinian Order]]'''.
:''See also [[Jane Austen]], the author.''
== Things named Austin ==
*[[Austin Motor Company]], a British make of car
*[[American Austin Car Company]], a short lived United States make of automobile
*[[Austin (brand)]], a brand owned by the [[Kellogg Company]]
*[[USS Austin (sloop)|USS ''Austin'']], a sloop-of-war (originally in the Texas Navy)
*[[USS Austin (DE-15)|USS ''Austin'' (DE-15)]], a destroyer escort
*[[USS Austin (LPD-4)|USS ''Austin'' (LPD-4)]], an amphibious transport dock
*[[Austin elementary school]]
{{disambig}}
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[[ja:オースティン (曖昧さ回避)]]
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[[sv:Austin]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Animated</title>
<id>591</id>
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</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Ascii Art</title>
<id>592</id>
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<title>Animation</title>
<id>593</id>
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<id>41836622</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:37:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kuru</username>
<id>764407</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert: vanity link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{rootpage}}
<div style="float: right; width: 30%; margin: 1em">
[[Image:Animexample.gif]]<br /><small>''This animat |
nstance a function, called <code>foo</code> that takes a pointer to an int:
int foo(int *);
Although the person who wrote the function <code>foo</code> could have inserted <code>NULL</code> checks, let us assume that for performance reasons they did not. Calling <code>foo(NULL);</code> will result in [[undefined behavior]] (typically, although not necessarily, a '''SIGSEGV''' being sent to the application). To avoid such problems, Cyclone introduces the <code>@</code> pointer type, which can never be <code>NULL</code>. Thus, the "safe" version of <code>foo</code> would be:
int foo(int @);
This tells the Cyclone compiler that the argument to <code>foo</code> should never be <code>NULL</code>, avoiding the aforementioned undefined behavior. The simple change of <code>*</code> to <code>@</code> saves the programmer from having to write <code>NULL</code> checks and the operating system from having to trap <code>NULL</code> pointer dereferences. This extra restriction, however, can be a rather large stumbling block for most C programmers, who are used to being able to manipulate their pointers directly with arithmetic. Although this is desirable, it can lead to [[buffer overflow]]s and other "off-by-one"-style mistakes. To avoid this, the <code>?</code> pointer type is delimited by a known bound, the size of the array. Although this adds overhead due to the extra information stored about the pointer, it improves safety and security. Take for instance a simple (and naïve) <code>strlen</code> function, written in C:
int strlen(const char *s)
{
int iter = 0;
if (s == NULL) return 0;
while (s[iter] != '\0') {
iter++;
}
return iter;
}
This function assumes that the string being passed in is terminated by NUL (<code>'\0'</code>). However, what would happen if <code>char&nbsp;buf[]&nbsp;=&nbsp;{'h','e','l','l','o','!'};</code> were passed to this string? This is perfectly legal in C, yet would cause <code>strlen</code> to iterate through memory not necessarily associated with the string <code>s</code>. There are functions, such as <code>strnlen</code> which can be used to avoid such problems, but these functions are not standard with every implementation of [[ANSI C]]. The Cyclone version of <code>strlen</code> is not so different from the C version:
int strlen(const char ? s)
{
int iter, n = s.size;
if (s == NULL) return 0;
for (iter = 0; iter < n; iter++, s++) {
if (*s == '\0') return iter;
}
return n;
}
Here, <code>strlen</code> bounds itself by the length of the array passed to it, thus not going over the actual length. Each of the kinds of pointer type can be safely cast to each of the others, and arrays and strings are automagically cast to <code>?</code> by the compiler. (Casting from <code>?</code> to <code>*</code> invokes a [[bounds checking|bounds check]], and casting from <code>?</code> to <code>@</code> invokes both a <code>NULL</code> check and a bounds check. Casting from <code>*</code> or <code>@</code> results in no checks whatsoever; the resulting <code>?</code> pointer has a size of 1.)
===Dangling pointers and region analysis===
Consider the following code, in C:
char *itoa(int i)
{
char buf[20];
sprintf(buf,"%d",i);
return buf;
}
This returns an object that is allocated on the stack of the function <code>itoa</code>, which is not available after the function returns. While [[GNU Compiler Collection|gcc]] and other compilers will warn about such code, this will typically compile without warnings:
char *itoa(int i)
{
char buf[20], *z;
sprintf(buf,"%d",i);
z = buf;
return z;
}
Cyclone does regional analysis of each segment of code, preventing dangling pointers, such as the one returned from this version of <code>itoa</code>. All of the local variables in a given scope are considered to be part of the same region, separate from the heap or any other local region. Thus, when analyzing <code>itoa</code>, the compiler would see that <code>z</code> is a pointer into the local stack, and would report an error.
===Manual memory management===
== Examples ==
The best example to start with is the classic [[Hello world]] program:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <core.h>
using Core;
int main(int argc, string_t ? args)
{
if (argc <= 1) {
printf("Usage: hello-cyclone <name>\n");
return 1;
} else {
printf("Hello from Cyclone, %s\n", args[1]);
}
return 0;
}
==References==
*[http://www.research.att.com/projects/cyclone/papers/cyclone-safety.pdf "Cyclone: a safe dialect of C"] by Trevor Jim, Greg Morrisett, Dan Grossman, Michael Hicks, James Cheney and Yanling Wang
== External links ==
*[http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/~greg/cyclone/ A Safe Dialect of C] or you can use the alternative from AT&T's website [http://www.research.att.com/projects/cyclone/]
[[Category:C dialects]]
[[Category:C programming language family]]
[[de:Cyclone]]
[[pl:Cyclone]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cognitivism</title>
<id>7646</id>
<revision>
<id>41732023</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:11:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ixfd64</username>
<id>6284</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/194.36.155.251|194.36.155.251]] ([[User talk:194.36.155.251|talk]]) to last version by Ranveig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''cognitivism''' is used in several ways:
* In [[ethics]], cognitivism is the philosophical view that ethical sentences express propositions, and hence are capable of being true or false. See [[Cognitivism (ethics)]]. More generally, cognitivism with respect to any area of discourse is the position that sentences used in that discourse are cognitive, that is, are meaningful and capable of being true or false.
* In [[psychology]], cognitivism is the approach to understanding the mind which argues that mental function can be understood as the 'internal' rule bound manipulation of symbols. See [[Cognitivism (psychology)]].
* [[Cognition]] - the study of the human mind
* See also
** [[Computationalism]]
** [[Symbol grounding|Symbol Grounding Problem]]
{{disambig}}
[[fr:Cognitivisme]]
[[nn:kognitivisme]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Counter</title>
<id>7647</id>
<revision>
<id>37687294</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T15:51:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chlewbot</username>
<id>620581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: nl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the term counter used in electronics and computing. For other meanings of counter, see [[counter (disambiguation)]]''
In general, a '''counter''' is a device which stores (and sometimes displays) the number of times a particular [[event]] or [[process]] has occurred often in relationship to a [[clock signal]]. In practice, there are two types of counters:
*[[up counter]]s which increase ([[increment]]) in value
*[[down counter]]s which decrease ([[decrement]]) in value
== Counters in electronics ==
In [[electronics]], counters can be implemented quite easily using register-type circuits such as the [[Flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flop]], and a wide variety of designs exist, e.g:
* Asynchronous (ripple) counters
* Synchronous counters
* Johnson counters
* Decade counters
Each is useful for different applications. Usually, counter circuits are [[digital]] in nature, and count in [[binary code|binary]], or sometimes [[binary coded decimal]]. Many types of counter circuit are available as digital building blocks, for example a number of chips in the [[4000 series]] implement different counters.
The simplest counter circuit is a single [[Flip-flop_%28electronics%29#D_flip-flop|D-type flip flop]], with its D (data) input fed from its own inverted output. This circuit can store one bit, and hence can count from zero to one before it overflows. By cascading a series of D-type flip flops, a ripple counter is formed, which can count to 2<sup>n-1</sup> where n is the number of bits (flip flop stages) in the counter. Ripple counters suffer from unstable outputs as the overflows "ripple" from stage to stage, but they do find frequent application as dividers for clock signals, where the instantaneous count is unimportant, but the division [[ratio]] overall is. (To clarify this, a 1-bit counter is exactly equivalent to a divide by two circuit - the output frequency is exactly half that of the input when fed with a regular train of clock pulses).
[[Image:4_bit_counter.png|thumb|400px|right|A 4-bit synchronous counter]]Where a stable count value is important across several bits, which is the case in most counter systems, synchronous counters are used. These also use flip-flops, either the D-type or the more complex J-K type, but here, each stage is clocked simultaneously by a common clock signal. [[Logic gate]]s between each stage of the circuit control data flow from stage to stage so that the desired count behaviour is realised. Synchronous counters can be designed to count up or down, or both according to a direction input, and may be presettable via a set of parallel "jam" inputs. Most types of hardware-based counter are of this type.
Decade counters are a kind of counter that counts in tens rath |
ic]]," which is a method of composing that employs computers and mathematical probability systems. Different probability algorithms were used to create a piece under a set of parameters. Xenakis used a computer to aid in calculating the velocity trajectories of [[glissando|glissandi]] for his orchestral composition ''Metastasis''.
===Déserts===
1954 saw the advent of what would now be considered authentic electric plus acoustic compositions—acoustic instrumentation augmented/accompanied by recordings of manipulated and/or electronically generated sound. Three major works were premiered that year: Varese's ''Déserts'', for chamber ensemble and tape sounds, and two works by Luening and Ussachevsky: ''Rhapsodic Variations for the Louisville Symphony'' and ''A Poem in Cycles and Bells, both for orchestra and tape.
By dint of his beginning work on ''Déserts'' the year before, in 1953, the prize for being the first to compose a "proper" electroacoustic piece should probably go to Varèse. Because he had been working at Schaeffer's studio, the tape part contains much more concrete sounds than electronic. "A group made up of wind instruments, percussion and piano alternates with mutated sounds of factory noises and ship sirens and motors, coming from two loudspeakers." [40]
''Déserts'' was premiered in Paris in the first [[stereo]] broadcast on French Radio. At the German premiere, which was conducted by [[Bruno Maderna]], the tape controls were operated by [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]]. [41] The title ''Déserts'', suggested to Varèse not only, "all physical deserts (of sand, sea, snow, of outer space, of empty streets), but also the deserts in the mind of man; not only those stripped aspects of nature that suggest bareness, aloofness, timelessness, but also that remote inner space no telescope can reach, where man is alone, a world of mystery and essential loneliness." [42] Meanwhile, Stockhausen composed his ''Elektronische Studie II''—the first electronic piece to be notated.
In 1955, more experimental and electronic studios began to appear. Notable were the creation of the [[Milan]] Studio de Fonologia [[RAI]], (with Luciano Berio as artistic director), a studio in [[Tokyo]] founded by [[Mayazumi]], and the Phillips studio at [[Eindhoven]], the [[Netherlands]], which was later shifted to [[University of Utrecht]] Institute of Sonology in 1960.
The impact of computers continued in 1956. [[Lejaren Hiller]] and [[Leonard Isaacson]] composed ''Iliac Suite'' for [[string quartet]], the first complete work of computer-assisted composition using [[algorithm|algorithmic]] composition. "... Hiller postulated that a computer could be taught the rules of a particular style and then called on to compose accordingly." [43]
That same year Stockhausen composed ''Gesang der Jungelinge'', the first major work of the [[Cologne]] studio, based on text from the ''[[Book of Daniel]]''. An important technological development of that year was the invention of the [[Clavivox]] [[synthesizer]] by [[Raymond Scott]] with subassembly by [[Robert Moog]].
Later, [[Milton Babbit]] began applying serial techniques to electronic music.
:From 1950 to 1960 the vocabulary of tape music shifted from the fairly pure experimental works which characterized the classic Paris and Cologne schools to more complex and expressive works which explored a wide range of compositional styles. More and more works began to appear by the mid-1950's which addressed the concept of combining taped sounds with live instruments and voices. There was also a tentative interest, and a few attempts, at incorporating taped electronic sounds into theatrical works. [44]
1957 saw an exciting new development in computer technology. The first use of a computer to generate sound was demonstrated at [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]], New Jersey by [[Max Mathews]], who used the [[MUSIC4]] program running on an IBM mainframe computer, which used a primitive digital to analog converter. Mathews later left Bell Labs to work at [[Stanford]], which became a major center for electronic and computer music.
In 1958, University of Illinois at Champaign/Urbana established the Studio for Experimental Music under the initial direction of Lejaren Hiller. The studio became, and remains, one of the most important centers for electronic music research in the United States.
The public remained interested in the new sounds being created around the world, as can be deduced by the inclusion of Varese' ''Poeme Electronique'', which was played over four hundred loudspeakers at the [[Phillips Pavilion]] of the 1958 [[Brussels World Fair]]. That same year, [[Mauricio Kagel]], an [[Argentina|Argentinean]] composer, composed ''Transición II'', the first piece to call for live tape recorder as part of performance. The work was realized in Cologne. Two musicians performed on a piano, one in the traditional manner, the other playing on the strings and wood. Two other performers used tape to unite the presentation of live sounds with the future of pre-recorded materials from later on and its past of recordings made earlier in the performance.
In 1958, one of the most important and influential studios was formed. The Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center (CPEMC) was formed by Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening of Columbia, and Milton Babbitt and [[Roger Sessions]] in Princeton with the help of a $175,000 Rockefeller Grant. Other composers involved included [[Mario Davidovsky]], [[Halim El-Dabh]], [[Bülent Arel]], [[Luciano Berio]], [[Milton Babbitt]], [[Charles Wuorinen]], [[Pril Smiley]], and [[Jacob Druckman]]. In 1960, [[Computer_Music_Center|CPEMC]] obtains the [[RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer]], the first major voltage-controlled synthesizer.
This is the same year that the [[integrated circuit]] was invented.
By this time, a strong community of composers and musicians working with new sounds and instruments was well established, and growing. 1960 witnessed the composition of Luening's ''[[Gargoyle]]s'' for violin and tape as well as the premiere of Stockhausen's ''Kontakte'' for electronic sounds, piano, and percussion. This piece existed in two versions—one for 4-channel tape, and the other for tape with human performers.
"In Kontakte, Stockhausen abandoned traditional musical form based on linear development and dramatic climax. This new approach, which he termed 'moment form,' resembles the 'cinematic splice' techniques in early twentieth century film." [45]
The 1960s also saw the development of large mainframe computer synthesis. Max Mathews of Bell Labs perfected MUSIC V, a direct [[digital synthesis]] language. Concurrent with this was the development of smaller voltage-controlled synthesizers by [[Moog Music]] and others that made instruments available to most composers, universities and popular musicians. A well-known example of the use of these synthesizers is the ''[[Switched-On Bach]]'' album by [[Wendy Carlos]].
This time is also the true beginning of live electronic performance. The [[Synket]], a live performance instrument—used extensively by composer [[John Eaton]] in works such as ''Concert Piece for Synket and Orchestra'' (1967)—was invented.
ONCE Festivals, featuring multimedia theater music, were organized by [[Robert Ashley]] and [[Gordon Mumma]] in [[Ann Arbor]], MI.
Milton Babbitt composed his first electronic work using the synthesizer—his ''Composition for Synthesizer''—which he created using the RCA synthesizer at CPEMC.
"For Babbitt, the RCA synthesizer was a dream come true for three reasons. First, the ability to pinpoint and control every musical element precisely. Second, the time needed to realize his elaborate serial structures were brought within practical reach. Third, the question was no longer "What are the limits of the human performer?" but rather "What are the limits of human hearing?" [46]
The collaborations also occurred across oceans and continents. In 1961, Ussachevsky invited Varese to the Columbia-Princeton Studio (CPEMC). Upon arrival, Varese embarked upon a revision of ''Déserts''. He was assisted by [[Mario Davidovsky]] and [[Bulent Arel]]. [47]
The intense activity occurring at CPEMC and elsewhere inspired the establishment of the San Francisco Tape Music Center in 1963. It was established by [[Morton Subotnick]], and soon incorporated a voltage-controlled synthesizer based around automated sequencing by [[Donald Buchla]], and used in album-length Subotnick pieces such as ''Silver Apples of the Moon'' (1967) and ''The Wild Bull'' (1968).
Back across the Atlantic, in [[Czechoslovakia]], 1964, the First Seminar of Electronic Music was held at the Radio Broadcast Station in Plzen. Four government-sanctioned electroacoustic music studios were later established in the 1960s under the auspices of extant radio and television stations.
New instruments continued to develop. In 1964, the first fully-developed [[Moog synthesizer]] was completed. Robert Moog began public sales the following year (1965). Another popular instrument was the [[Hammond organ]].
In 1965, Karlheinz Stockhausen composed ''Mikrophonie II'' for choir, Hammond organ, electronics and tape.
===Pop electronic music===
In 1966, the [[Beach Boys]] became the first pop music group to use electronic instruments (using a keyboard-controlled variation on the [[Theremin]], in the song "I Just Wasn't Made for These Times" on Pet Sounds).
The Beatles follow a year later by using concrete techniques on Revolver and Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, directly influenced by recordings of Schaeffer and Stockhausen (whose face appears on the album cover).
1967 was another exciting year for electronic music. [[Leon Kirschner]] composed ''String Quartet No. 3'', the first piece with electronics to win the [[Pulitzer Prize]].
Also that year, Max Mathews and F. Richard Moore developed GROOVE, a real- |
s a food. In language and literature, religion and folk belief, honey is frequently a symbol or talisman for sweetness of every kind.
The [[Old Testament]] contains many references to honey as a symbol for all that is pleasant and desirable. For example, the book of [[Exodus]] famously describes the [[Promised Land]] as a 'land flowing with [[milk]] and honey' (33:3). So important is honey in Jewish tradition that some scholars believe an exception was made for it in the dietary laws: Insects and their products are normally considered unclean, but honey is [[kosher]]. The word "honey" appears 61 times in the [[King James Version]] of the [[Bible]].
Honey plays an important role in the festival of [[Madhu Purnima]], celebrated by [[Buddhist]]s in [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]]. The day commemorates [[Buddha]]'s making peace among his disciples by retreating into the wilderness. The story goes that while he was there, a [[monkey]] brought him honey to eat. On Madhu Purnima, Buddhists remember this act by giving honey to [[monk]]s. The monkey's gift is frequently depicted in [[Buddhist art]].
In some parts of [[Greece]], it was formerly the custom for a [[bride]] to dip her fingers in honey and make the [[sign of the cross]] before entering her new home. This was meant to ensure sweetness in her married life, especially in her relationship with her [[mother-in-law]].
In popular culture, [[bear]]s are frequently depicted as eating honey, even though most bears actually eat a wide variety of foods, and bears seen at beehives are usually more interested in bee larvae than honey. Honey is sometimes sold in a bear-shaped [[jar]]. [[Teddy bear]]s are almost invariably associated with honey, possibly because of the influence of [[Winnie-the-Pooh]].
Many people believe that honey is more wholesome or healthful than [[refined sugar]], although most nutritionists say that all sweeteners are pretty much alike. Honey-based sweets are often sold as [[health food]].
'Honey,' along with variations like 'honey bun' and 'honeypot,' has become a [[term of endearment]] in most of the English-speaking world. In some places it is used for loved ones; in others, such as the [[American South]], it is used when addressing casual acquaintances or even strangers.
==Precautions==
Honey is not always healthful. Because it is gathered from flowers in the wild, there are situations in which it may be toxic.
There are several types of honey that are known to be toxic to humans. The most common of these in the northern hemisphere, popularly known as Mad Honey, is produced from the flowers of [[Rhododendron]]s, [[Mountain Laurel]]s and [[azalea]]s. The nectar of these plants may contain [[Grayanotoxin]], a compound which is both psychoactive and poisonous to humans but harmless to bees. The effects of Mad Honey have been reported in Western literature as early as 401 BC (See Xenophon's description of the effects of toxic honey in the ''Anabasis'' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabasis_%28Xenophon%29])
The shape of the Azalea flower, however, makes access to nectar difficult for honeybees. And during the time at which Azaleas bloom, there are usually other flowers available which are more appealing to the honeybee. So lethal honey is rarely encountered.
Toxic honey may also result when bees are in close proximity to Tutu bushes (''Coriaria arborea'') and the vine hopper insect (''Scolypopa australis''). Both are found throughout New Zealand. Bees gather honeydew produced by the vine hopper insects feeding on the tutu plant. This introduces the poison tutin into honey. Only a few areas in New Zealand (Coromandel Peninsula, Eastern Bay of Plenty and the Marlborough Sounds)frequently produce toxic honey. Symptoms of tutin poisoning include vomiting, delirium, giddiness, increased excitability, stupor, coma and violent convulsions. It is generally agreed that as little as 1 teaspoon of toxic honey may produce severe effects in humans. In order to reduce the risk of tutin poisoning, humans should not eat honey taken from feral hives in the risk areas of New Zealand. Since December 2001, New Zealand beekeepers have been required to reduce the risk of producing toxic honey by closely monitoring tutu, vine hopper, and foraging conditions within 3 km of their apiary.
Nonetheless, honey, [[corn syrup]] and other natural [[sweetener]]s are a potential and acute threat to [[infant]]s. Harmless to adults because of a mature person's stomach acidity, [[botulinum]] [[spore]]s are widely present in the environment and are among the few bacteria that can survive in honey. Since an infant's digestive juices are non-acidic, ingestion of honey creates an ideal medium for botulinum spores to grow and produce sufficient levels of toxins to cause infant '''[[botulism]]'''. For this reason, it is advised that neither honey, nor any other sweetener, be given to children under the age of 18 months. Once a child is eating solid food, the digestive juices are acidic enough to prevent the growth of the spores.
== Honey formation ==
{{mergefrom|Honey flow}}
{{mergefrom|Honey super}}
Honey is laid down by bees as a food source. In cold weather or when food sources are scarce, bees use their stored honey as their source of energy. By contriving the bee [[swarming (honeybee)|swarm]] to make its home in a [[Beehive (beekeeping)|hive]], mankind has been able to semi-domesticate the insects. In the hive there are three types of bee: the single [[Queen (bee)|queen bee]], a seasonally variable number of [[drone (bee)|drone bees]] to fertilize new queens and some 20,000 to 40,000 [[worker bee]]s. The worker bees raise larvae and collect the nectar that will become honey in the hive. They go out, collect the sugar-rich flower nectar and return to the hive. As they leave the flower, bees release [[nasonov]] [[pheromone]]s. These enable other bees to find their way to the site by smell. Honeybees also release nasonov pheromones at the entrance to the hive, which enables returning bees to return to the proper hive. In the hive the bees use their honey stomachs to ingest and [[regurgitate]] the nectar a number of times until it is partially digested. It is then stored in the [[honeycomb]]. Nectar is high in both water content and natural yeasts which, unchecked, would cause the sugars in the nectar to ferment. After the final regurgitation, the honeycomb is left unsealed - bees inside the hive "fan" their wings creating a strong draught across the honeycomb. This enhances [[evaporation]] of much of the [[water]] from the nectar. The reduction in water content, which raises the sugar concentration, prevents [[fermentation]]. Ripe honey, as removed from the hive by the [[beekeeper]], has a long shelf life and will not ferment.
The beekeeper encourages overproduction of honey within the hive so that the excess can be taken without endangering the bees. When sources of foods for the bees are short the beekeeper may have to feed the bees other forms of sugar so they can survive.
==Medical uses for honey==
For around 2000 years, Honey has been used to treat a variety of ailments through topical application, though it was not until modern times that the cause of infection was understood. Now, modern research into the use of honey as an antimicrobial agent has revealed potential treating a variety of ailments. Antibacterial properties of honey are the result of the [[Osmotic_effect|Osmotic effect]], [[Hydrogen_Peroxide|Hydrogen Peroxide]] effect[http://www.worldwidewounds.com/2001/november/Molan/honey-as-topical-agent.html], and high acidity[http://bio.waikato.ac.nz/honey/honey_intro.shtml].
====Osmotic effect====
Honey is primarily a saturated sugar mixture of approximately 84% fructose and glucose. At this high concentration, very few extra water molecules remain available to microorganisms and so presents a very undesirable environment for their growth.
==== Hydrogen peroxide====
Hydrogen peroxide in honey is activated by dilution. However, unlike medical hydrogen peroxide, commonly 3% by volume, it is present in a concentration of only 1 mmol/l in honey. Iron in honey oxidize the oxygen [[Free_radicals|free radicals]] released by the hydrogen peroxide.
:glucose + H<sub>2</sub>O+ O<sub>2</sub> → gluconic acid + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>
When used topically as, for example a wound dressing, hydrogen peroxide is produced by dilution with body fluids. As a result, hydrogen peroxide is released slowly and acts as an antiseptic. Unlike 3% medical hydrogen peroxide, this slow release does not cause damage to surrounding tissue.
====Acidity====
The pH of honey is commonly between 3.2 and 4.5 [http://bio.waikato.ac.nz/honey/honey_intro.shtml]. This relatively acidic pH level prevents the growth of many bacteria responsible for infection.
====Medical applications====
The most common use of honey as a microbial agent is as a dressing for wounds, burns and skin ulcers. This application has a long history in traditional medicine. Additionally, the use of honey reduces odors, reduces swelling, and reduces scarring; it also prevents the dressing from sticking to the healing wound. [http://bio.waikato.ac.nz/honey/honey_intro.shtml]
Honey that is local to where one lives can also help with seasonal pollen allergies because it contains the same pollen that is producing the allergy--consumed in this way it can act as an immune booster.{{fact}} It's most effective to eat about a teaspoonful a day for a few months leading up to allergy season.
Research has shown that the folk remedy of using honey to treat wounds is founded in science; it acts as an antiseptic/antibacterial agent.
==Honey as a product==
===Honey processing===
*'''[[Comb honey]]''' A popular honey product. The honey is sold still in the wax comb. Comb honey was once packaged by installing [[basswood|wooden]] framework in special supers, but this la |
the [[Unitarian]] Church of All Souls. Until the advent of this revelation, little had been known of his religious leanings.
==Literature==
''[[Moby-Dick]]'' has become Melville's most famous work and is often considered one of the greatest American novels. It was dedicated to Melville's friend Nathaniel Hawthorne. Melville also wrote ''[[White-Jacket]], [[Typee]], [[Omoo]], [[Pierre: or, The Ambiguities|Pierre]], [[The Confidence-Man]]'' and many short stories and works of various [[genre]]s. His short story "[[Bartleby the Scrivener]]" is among his most important pieces, and has been considered a precursor to [[Existentialism|Existentialist]] and [[Absurdist]] literature. Melville's short stories [[The Tartarus of Maids]] and [[The Paradise of Bachelors]], as well as his posthumous novella [[Billy Budd]] have been seen by some contemporary critics as anticipating key issues in the fields of [[gender studies]] and [[queer studies]]. For example the critic [[Eve Sedgewick]] has made notable contributions to the understanding of gender and sexuality in Melville's fiction. Melville is less well known as a [[poet]] and did not publish poetry until late in life; after the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], he published ''[[Battle-Pieces]]'', which sold well. But again tending to outrun the tastes of his readers, Melville's epic length verse-narrative ''[[Clarel]]'', about a student's pilgrimage to the [[Holy Land]], was also quite unknown in his own time. This may be the longest single poem in American literature. His poetry is not as highly critically esteemed as his fiction, although some critics place him as the first modernist poet in the United States.
==The Melville Revival==
After the success of stories and [[travelogues]] based on voyages to the South Seas during his youth, Melville's popularity declined. In the later years of his life and during the years after his death he was recognized as only a minor figure in American literature. The publication in 1921 of ''[[Billy Budd]]'' and Lewis Mumford's biography ''Herman Melville: A study of His Life and Vision'' began a revival in critical studies of Melville's work. This work was followed by a string of important criticism and biography, including Jay Leyda's ''The Melville Log: A Documentary Life of Herman Melville, 1819-1891'' and Leon Howard's ''Herman Melville: A Biography''. Due to these works and the subsequent profusion of research on Melville's work Melville became universally recognized as a major canonical figure. Today he may be the most written-about American author.
==Bibliography==
=== Novels ===
* ''[[Typee]]: A Peep at Polynesian Life'' (1846)
* ''[[Omoo]]: A Narrative of Adventures in the South Seas'' (1847)
* ''[[Mardi]]: And a Voyage Thither'' (1849)
* ''[[Redburn]]: His First Voyage'' (1849)
* ''[[White-Jacket]]: or, The World in a Man-of-War'' (1850)
* ''[[Moby-Dick]]'' (1851)
* ''[[Pierre: or, The Ambiguities]]'' (1852)
* ''[[Israel Potter]]: His Fifty Years of Exile'' (1855)
* ''[[The Confidence-Man]]: His Masquerade'' (1857)
* ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd, Sailor]]: An Inside Narrative'' (1924)
=== Short Stories ===
* ''[[The Piazza Tales]]'' (1856)
** "[[The Piazza]]" -- the only story specifically written for the collection. (The other five had previously been published in Putnam's Monthly Magazine.)
** "[[Bartleby the Scrivener]]"
** "[[Benito Cereno]]"
** "[[The Lightning-Rod Man]]"
** "[[The Encantadas, or Enchanted Isles]]"
** "[[The Bell-Tower]]"
===Poetry===
* Battle Pieces: And Aspects of the War (1866)
* Clarel: A Poem and Pilgrimage in the Holy Land (poems) (1876)
* John Marr and Other Sailors (1888) [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/18/ Online edition]
* Timoleon (1891) [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/16/ Online edition]
===Uncollected===
* Fragments from a Writing Desk, No. 1 (Published in ''Democratic Press, and Lansingburgh Advertiser'', May 4 1839)
* Fragments from a Writing Desk, No. 2 (Published in ''Democratic Press, and Lansingburgh Advertiser'', May 18 1839)
* Etchings of a Whaling Cruise (Published in ''New York Literary World'', March 6 1847)
* Authentic Anecdotes of "Old Zack" (Published in ''Yankee Doodle'', II, weekly (September 4 excepted) from July 24 to September 11 1847)
* Mr Parkman's Tour (Published in ''New York Literary World'', March 31 1849)
* Cooper's New Novel (Published in ''New York Literary World'', April 28 1849)
* A Thought on Book-Binding (Published in ''New York Literary World'', March 16 1850)
* Hawthorne and His Mosses (Published in ''New York Literary World'', August 17 and August 24 1850)
* Cock-A-Doodle-Doo! (Published in ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'', December 1853)
* Poor Man's Pudding and Rich Man's Crumbs (Published in ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'', June 1854)
* The Happy Failure (Published in ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'', July 1854)
* The Fiddler (Published in ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'', September 1854)
* The Paradise of Bachelors and the Tartarus of Maids (Published in ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'', April 1855)
* Jimmy Rose (Published in ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'', November 1855)
* The 'Gees (Published in ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'', March 1856)
* I and My Chimney (Published in ''Putnam's Monthly Magazine'', March 1856)
* The Apple-Tree Table (Published in ''Putnam's Monthly Magazine'', May 1856)
* Uncollected Prose (1856)
* The Two Temples (unpublished in Melville's lifetime)
==External links==
* {{gutenberg author|id=Herman_Melville|name=Herman Melville}}
* [http://www.bibliomania.com/0/0/36/1006 ''Billy Budd'' -- the whole text, free]
* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2701 Moby-Dick] Gutenberg EText
* [http://www.egwald.com/ubcstudent/theory/billybudd.php Poststructuralist analysis of Billy Budd] by Elmer G. Wiens
* [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/18/ ''John Marr and Other Sailors'' ]
* [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/16/ ''Timoleon, Etc.'' ]
*[http://www.literaryhistory.com/19thC/Melville.htm Melville's page at Literary Journal.com]-research articles on Melville's works
* [http://whaleofatime.com/mobydick Whale Of A Time :: Moby Dick]
* [http://immolated.com Immolated :: Classic Literature - Poetry - Herman Melville]
* [http://www.mcelhearn.com/article.php?story=20050630102959368 Reading Moby-Dick: one reader's approach to Melville's works and Moby-Dick]
* [http://www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/melville.htm Herman Melville (includes links to works, bibliographies, reading questions on <i>Moby-Dick</i>]
* [http://literalsystems.org/abooks/doku.php?id=audiobook:typee Typee] Unabridged Creative Commons audiobook.
{{Wikisource author}}
[[Category:1819 births|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:1891 deaths|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:American essayists|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:American novelists|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:American poets|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:American short story writers|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:American travel writers|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:Moby-Dick|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:Unitarians|Melville, Herman]]
[[bg:Херман Мелвил]]
[[br:Herman Melville]]
[[da:Herman Melville]]
[[de:Herman Melville]]
[[es:Herman Melville]]
[[eo:Herman MELVILLE]]
[[fr:Herman Melville]]
[[ko:허먼 멜빌]]
[[hr:Herman Melville]]
[[id:Herman Melville]]
[[it:Herman Melville]]
[[he:הרמן מלוויל]]
[[nl:Herman Melville]]
[[ja:ハーマン・メルヴィル]]
[[no:Herman Melville]]
[[pl:Herman Melville]]
[[pt:Herman Melville]]
[[ro:Herman Melville]]
[[sk:Herman Melville]]
[[fi:Herman Melville]]
[[sv:Herman Melville]]
[[uk:Мелвілл Герман]]
[[zh:赫尔曼·梅尔维尔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>High fidelity</title>
<id>13624</id>
<revision>
<id>42159201</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:18:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Palpatine</username>
<id>217561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Ascertaining high fidelity: double-blind tests */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:'' ''[[High Fidelity]]'' is also the title of a [[book]] by [[Nick Hornby]] and a [[film]] [[film director|directed]] by [[Stephen Frears]], based on Hornby's book.''
'''High fidelity''' or '''hi-fi''' reproduction is a quality standard that means the [[sound reproduction|reproduction of sound]] or [[video|images]] is very faithful to the original. High fidelity aims to achieve minimal or unnoticeable amounts of [[noise]] and [[distortion]]. The term ''high fidelity'' tends to be applied to any reasonable-quality home-music system, though some believe that a higher standard than this is intended, and in 1973, the German ''Deutsches Institut für Normung'' (DIN) standard [[DIN 45500]] laid down mimimum requirements for measurements of [[frequency response]], distortion, noise and other defects and gained some recognition in hi-fi magazines.
High-fidelity enthusiasts are often known as [[audiophile]]s. The equipment they prefer is often termed "[[high-end audio|high end]]."
==History==
The [[1920s]] saw the introduction of [[electronic amplifier|electronic amplification]], [[microphone]]s, and the application of quantitative [[engineering]] principles to the reproduction of sound. Much of the pioneering work was done at [[Bell Laboratories]] and commercialized by [[Western Electric]]. [[Acoustics|Acoustically]]-recorded [[gramophone record|disc records]] with capriciously peaky [[frequency response]] were replaced with electrically-recorded records. The [[Victor Talking Machine Company|Victor]] Orthophonic [[phonograph]], although purely acoustic, was created by engineers who applied [[waveguide]] technology to the design of the interior folded horn to produce a smooth frequency response which complemented and equalled that of the electrically-rec |
d subsequent releases used that version. Both versions appear on compilation albums and may be compared.
It was largely due to the popularity of artists such as Blind Lemon Jefferson and contemporaries such as [[Blind Blake]] and [[Ma Rainey]] that Paramount became the leading recording company for the blues in the 1920s. Jefferson's earnings reputedly enabled him to buy a car and employ chauffeurs (although there is debate over the reliability of this as well); he was given a Ford car "worth over $700" by [[Mayo Williams]], Paramount's connection with the black community. This was a frequently seen compensation for recording rights in that market. Jefferson is known to have done an unusual amount of traveling for the time in the American South, which is reflected in the difficulty of pigeonholing his music into one regional category. He sticks to no musical conventions, varying his [[riff]]s and rhythm and singing complex and expressive lyrics in a manner exceptional at the time for a "simple country blues singer".
Jefferson was reputedly unhappy with his royalties (although Williams said that Jefferson had a bank account containing as much as $1500). In [[1927]], when Williams moved to [[OKeh Records]], he took Jefferson with him, and OKeh quickly recorded and released Jefferson's "Matchbox Blues" backed with "Black Snake Moan", which was to be his only OKeh recording, probably because of contractual obligations with Paramount. When he had returned to Paramount, a few months later, "Matchbox Blues" had already become such a hit that Paramount re-recorded and released two new versions, under [[record producer|producer]] [[Arthur Laidly]]. Once again, Paramount's recording fares badly when compared with the OKeh version on compilation albums.
In 1927, Jefferson recorded another of his now classic songs, the haunting "[[See That My Grave is Kept Clean]]" (once again using the pseudonym Deacon L. J. Bates) along with two other uncharacteristically spiritual songs, "He Arose from the Dead" and "Where Shall I Be". Of the three, "See That My Grave is Kept Clean" became such a big hit that it was re-recorded and re-released in [[1928]].
As his fame grew, so did the tales regarding his life, often personally involving the teller. [[T-Bone Walker]] states that as a boy, he was employed by Jefferson to lead him around the streets of Dallas; he would have been of the appropriate age at the time. A Paramount employee told biographer [[Orrin Keepnews]] that Jefferson was a womanizing sloppy drunk; on the other hand, Jefferson's neighbor in Chicago, Romeo Nelson, reports him as being "warm and cordial", and singer [[Rube Lacy]] states that Jefferson always refused to play on a Sunday, "even if you give me two hundred". He is claimed to have earned money wrestling before his musical success, which is further claimed as proof that he was not blind at the time (somewhat of a ''non sequitur''). [[Victoria Spivey]] elliptically credits Jefferson as someone who "could sure ''feel'' his way around".
Jefferson died penny-less in Chicago in December 1929. The cause of death is unknown, rumours swirled that a jealous lover poisoned his coffee, but a more likely scenario is that he died due to a heart attack after being disoriented during a snowstorm. Paramount Records paid for the return of his body to Texas by train, accompanied by pianist [[Will Ezell]]. Jefferson was buried at Wortham Negro Cemetery (now Wortham Black Cemetery). Far from his grave being kept clean, it was unmarked until [[1967]], when a Texas Historical Marker was erected in the general area of his plot, the precise location being unknown. By [[1996]] the cemetery and marker were in poor condition, but a new granite headstone was erected in [[1997]].
==Trivia==
*The [[rock band]] [[Blind Melon]] is named from derivative [[wordplay]] on Jefferson's name, Blind Lemon; however, the band is not specifically named for him.
==External links==
*[http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/JJ/fje1.html "Jefferson, Blind Lemon" in the Handbook of Texas Online]
[[Category:1893 births|Jefferson, Blind Lemon]]
[[Category:1929 deaths|Jefferson, Blind Lemon]]
[[Category:People from Texas|Jefferson, Blind Lemon]]
[[Category:African American musicians|Jefferson, Blind Lemon]]
[[Category:American blues singers|Jefferson, Blind Lemon]]
[[Category:American guitarists|Jefferson, Blind Lemon]]
[[Category:American male singers|Jefferson, Blind Lemon]]
[[Category:Blues guitarists|Jefferson, Blind Lemon]]
[[Category:Blind musicians|Jefferson, Blind]]
[[de:Blind Lemon Jefferson]]
[[nl:Blind Lemon Jefferson]]
[[fi:Blind Lemon Jefferson]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baku (spirit)</title>
<id>4571</id>
<revision>
<id>41110270</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T02:48:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>172.198.252.189</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Baku in popular culture */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Baku''' ("[[dream]] eaters") are [[spiritual being|spirit]]s found in [[Chinese mythology|Chinese]] and [[Japanese mythology|Japanese]] [[mythology]]. They are generally pictured as [[chimera]]s, either with the head of an [[elephant]] and the body of a [[lion]] or with the head of a lion, the body of a [[horse]], the tail of a [[cattle|cow]], and the legs and feet of a [[tiger]]. Alternatively, they may be more [[pig]]- or [[tapir]]-like creatures that range in [[color]] from [[black]] to [[pink]].
Baku are generally benign creatures who aid [[human being]]s by eating [[nightmare]]s or the evil spirits that cause such dreams. Sometimes they do this unbidden, but other legends require a nightmare sufferer to awaken and call upon a baku to eat his dreams. According to some beliefs, baku can change eaten dreams to [[good luck]]. Other tales make the baku more troublesome, eating all dreams and thus depriving sleepers of their beneficial effects, or simply awakening sleepers and depriving them of [[sleep]] in general.
Baku are almost always seen as beneficial, however, and pictures of the creatures are often placed in [[Japan]]ese bedrooms to help ward off bad dreams (in modern times, baku toys and [[plush]] [[doll]]s may be used instead). In addition, people sometimes write the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] character for "baku" (獏) on [[pillow]]cases. In the Edo era, pillows with a baku depiction were sold widely.
==Baku in popular culture==
The baku makes appearances in many Japanese [[fantasy]] [[fiction]] stories, especially in [[anime]] and [[manga]].
* In [[Pokémon]], the baku is named [[Drowzee]] ("Sleep" in the Japanese version of Pokémon).
* In the [[Monster Rancher]] series, Baku is a breed of fat, dog-like monster that falls alseep fairly often.
* Bakumon (also known as Tapirmon in the U.S.) is a tapir-like creature who appears in the Digimon series. (Bakemon, a digimon with a similar name, is a ghost-like creature whose name probably comes from the Japanese word for ghost, bakemono ( See [[Obake]]))
* Baku are also found in [[Magic: The Gathering]] in the Japan-inspired set [[Betrayers of Kamigawa]] as the Blademane, Skullmane, Waxmane, Quillmane and Petalmane Baku. [http://gatherer.wizards.com/default.asp?term=baku&Field_Name=on&output=summary&sort=name]
* Baku appear in the ''Oriental Adventures'' supplement of [[Dungeons and Dragons]], but are named "Shirokinukatsukami."
* The baku appear briefly in the book ''The Sandman: The Dream Hunters'', written by [[Neil Gaiman]] and illustrated by Yoshitaka Amano (published by DC Comics, Vertigo imprint).
* "Baku" is a main character in the Playstation 2 game [[Dual Hearts]], characterized as a "pig" that eats dreams.
* A baku is present in an early episode of [[Urusei Yatsura]], eating Ataru's bad dreams as he sleeps through a student council meeting. The baku is accidentally brought into the real world when Ataru is woken prematurely.
* In [[Klonoa: Empire of Dreams]], the villain, Bagoo is based on this creature...
* In [[Final Fantasy IX]], the leader of Tantalus is named Baku.
==See also==
* [[dreamcatcher]]
[[Category:Chinese mythology]]
[[Category:Japanese legendary creatures]]
[[de:Baku (Mythologie)]]
[[ja:獏]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blackbeard</title>
<id>4572</id>
<revision>
<id>42154090</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:23:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbh3rd</username>
<id>88976</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.165.97.42|64.165.97.42]] ([[User talk:64.165.97.42|talk]]) to last version by NekoDaemon</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pirate Flag of Blackbeard (Edward Teach).svg|thumb|right|300px|Blackbeard's flag, showing a horned skeleton holding an hourglass and threatening a bleeding heart with a spear.]]
'''Blackbeard''' (c.[[1680]]&ndash;[[November 22]], [[1718]]) was the nickname of '''Edward Teach''' alias '''Edward Thatch''', (other sources give his name as '''Edward Drummond''') a notorious [[Britain|British]] [[pirate]] who had a short reign of terror in the [[Caribbean Sea]] between [[1716]] and [[1718]], during a period of time referred to as the [[Golden Age of Piracy]]. His final and best known vessel, the ''[[Queen Anne's Revenge]]'', is believed to have run ashore near what is now the Ocracoke Inlet, North Carolina in 1718. Blackbeard had over a dozen wives, most of which were [[common-law marriage]]s. His last wife was [[Mary Ormond]] (or Ormand) of [[Bath, North Carolina]], to whom he was only married for a short while. A painting of him hangs in Van Der Veer house (ca. 1790), in Bath N.C. He is thought to have been born in |
>
<title>Baptist</title>
<id>3979</id>
<revision>
<id>42163236</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T06:03:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The tooth</username>
<id>652482</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>RV</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Christianity}}
A '''Baptist''' is a member of a Baptist church. '''Baptist''' churches are part of a [[Christianity|Christian]] movement often regarded as an [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] [[Protestant]] [[Religious_denomination|denomination]]. Baptists emphasize a [[believer's baptism]] by full immersion, which is performed after a profession of faith in [[Jesus]] as Lord and Savior. A [[congregational]] governance system gives autonomy to individual local Baptist churches, which are sometimes associated in organizations such as the [[Southern Baptist Convention]]. In the late 1990s, there were about 43 million Baptists worldwide with about 33 million in the [[United States]].
== Beliefs ==
Baptist churches do not have a central governing authority, resulting in the wide range of beliefs from one Baptist church to another. Baptist distinctives are beliefs that are common among Baptist churches, some of which are also shared with many other [[Protestant Reformation|post-reformational]] denominations. Some historically significant Baptist doctrinal documents include the [[1689 London Baptist Confession of Faith]], the [[1833 New Hampshire Baptist Confession of Faith]], and the [[Southern Baptist Convention]]'s [[Baptist Faith and Message]], which are often used as the "official" doctrinal statements of individual local Baptist churches or the starting point for an official statement.
''See also : [[List of Baptist Confessions|List of Baptist Confessions or Doctrinal Statements]]''
The following [[backronym]] (which spells out Baptist) is used by some Baptist churches as a summary of the distinctives or distinguishing beliefs of Baptists.
* '''B'''iblical authority
* '''A'''utonomy of the local church
* '''P'''riesthood of all believers
* '''T'''wo ordinances (baptism and [[Eucharist|communion]])
* '''I'''ndividual soul liberty
* '''S'''eparation of Church and State
* '''T'''wo offices of the church (pastor and deacon)
=== Biblical authority ===
Authority of the Scriptures or [[sola scriptura]] states that the Bible is the only authoritative source of God's truth (in contrast to the role of Apostolic tradition in the Roman Catholic Church, or "revelations from God" as espoused in [[charismatic]] circles). Any view that cannot be directly tied to a scriptural reference is generally considered to be based on human traditions rather than God's leading, and though they may be accurate, such views are ''never'' to be elevated to or above the authority of Scripture.
Each person is responsible before God for his or her own understanding of the Bible and is encouraged to work out their own salvation (Philipians 2:12[http://bible1.crosswalk.com/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?word=Philippians+2%3A12&section=0&version=kjv&new=1&oq=&NavBook=php&NavGo=2%3A1&NavCurrentChapter=2]). Baptists generally consider historic Christian [[creed]]s to be on lower footing in comparison to Scripture even though they may in essence agree with them. However, a group or local church may have a general "Statement of Faith" (such as the [[Baptist Faith and Message]] of the [[Southern Baptist Convention]]).
[[Biblical inerrancy]] is also a common position held by [[fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] Baptists in addition to contextually literal interpretations of the Bible and other fundamentalist theologies. However, because of the variety allowed under congregational governance, many Baptist churches are neither literalist nor fundamentalist, although most do believe in biblical authority. Most moderate or non-fundamentalist Baptists prefer the term ''inspired'' or ''God-breathed'' rather than ''inerrant'' to describe scripture, referring to the term Paul uses in 2 Timothy 3:16.
With regard to the inerrancy of the Scriptures, some Baptists consider that the original autographs (presumed lost) are inerrant and that the original words have been preserved by God on copies made throughout the years since they were written. Most Baptists consider the translations of these manuscripts into other languages (such as English) to be necessary, but not necessarily inerrant. Some Baptists believe that the King James Version of the Bible is an inspired translation and reject the need to know or use the Greek and Hebrew manuscripts.
Even though it is only the Bible that is considered authoritative, Baptists also cite other works as illustrative of doctrine. One work which is commonly read by Baptists is the allegory [[Pilgrim's Progress]] by [[John Bunyan].
=== Autonomy of the local church (Congregationalism) ===
[[Congregationalist church governance]] gives [[self-governance|autonomy]] to individual local churches in areas of [[policy]], [[polity]] and [[doctrine]]. Baptist churches are not under the direct administrative control of any other body, such as a national council, or a leader such as a bishop or pope. Administration, leadership and doctrine are usually decided democratically by the lay members of each individual church, which accounts for the variation of beliefs from one Baptist church to another.
Exceptions are some [[Reformed Baptist]]s, who are organized in a [[Presbyterian]] system, the [[Congolese]] [[Episcopal Baptist]]s that has an [[Episcopal]] system, and some Baptist [[megachurch]]es who lean towards a strong clergy-led style, in some instances abandoning congregational governance altogether (though as independent congregations within an association, are free to adopt any style).
In a manner typical of other congregationalists, many cooperative associations or conventions of Baptists have arisen. These associations were formed for missionary and other charitable work and have no authority over the operations of individual local churches. Local churches decide at what level they will participate in these associations. The largest association in the United States is the [[Southern Baptist Convention]]. The second largest is the [[National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc.]], which is also America's largest predominantly African-American denomination. There are hundreds of Baptist conventions and many [[Independent Baptist]] churches do not fall into any of them, believing such associations to be unscriptural. In addition, there are sometimes very strong disputes within conventions which are often divided between [[Christian fundamentalist]]s and moderates.
Baptist leaders of the 20th century include Civil Rights pioneer Dr. Martin Luther King, a member of the American Baptist Church denomination.
=== Priesthood of all believers ===
The doctrine of "[[priesthood of all believers]]" states that every Christian has direct access to God and the truths found in the Bible, without the help of an aristocracy or hierarchy of priests. This doctrine is based on the passage found in [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Peter%202:9;&version=31;50;9; 1 Peter 2:9] and was popularized by [[Martin Luther]] during the [[Protestant Reformation]] and [[John Wycliff]]'s [[Lollards]] before Luther.
Baptists are encouraged, though, to discuss scriptural and other issues with their minister and/or other, more "mature" Christians, when appropriate. However, ultimately the individual Christian is responsible for understanding the Bible and its application to the individual.
The Baptist position of the priesthood of all believers is one column that upholds their belief in religious liberty.
=== Two ordinances (Baptism and Communion) ===
Generally, Baptist churches recognize only two ordinances that are to be performed on a regular basis by churches: [[baptism]] and [[Eucharist|communion]]. Some churches, including [[Primitive Baptists]] and some [[Free Will Baptist Church|Free Will Baptists]], also practice [[foot washing]] as a third ordinance.
==== Believer's baptism ====
Baptism, commonly referred to as [[Believer's baptism]], is an ordinance that according to Baptist doctrine plays no role in salvation, being properly performed only after salvation, and is performed after a person professes Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior. It is an outward expression that is symbolic of the inward cleansing or remission of their sins that has already taken place. It is also a public identification of that person with Christianity and with that particular local church. Most Baptist churches consider baptism by full immersion, subsequent to salvation, a criterion for membership.
Through [[Anabaptist]] influence, Baptists reject the practice of [[pedobaptism]] (infant baptism) because they believe parents cannot make a decision of salvation for an infant. Related to this doctrine is the disputed concept of an "[[Coming of age#Christianity|age of accountability]]" when God determines that a mentally capable person is accountable for their sins and eligible for baptism. This is not necessarily a specific age, but is based on whether or not the person is mentally capable of knowing right from wrong. Thus, a person with severe mental retardation may never reach this age, and therefore would not be held accountable for sins. The book of [[Isaiah]] mentions an age at which a child "shall know to refuse the evil, and choose the good" but does not specify what that age is.
Baptists emphasize [[baptism]] by full immersion, the mode presumed to have been used by [[John the Baptist]]. This consists of lowering the candidate in water backwards while the baptizer (a pastor or any baptised believer) invokes the Trinitarian formula of Matthew 28:19 or other words concerning a profession of faith. This mode is also preferred for its parall |
ten partly to counter the [[Ebionite]]s, Jewish Christians who continued Jewish practices while accepting Christ. The emphatic text of the epistle reiterates the view of [[Pauline Christianity]] that the new covenant has ''superseded'' the old.
==See also==
*[[Authorship of the Pauline epistles]]
==External links==
Online translations of the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]]:
* {{biblegateway||Hebrews}}
Related articles:
* [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/goodspeed/ch16.html Goodspeed's introductory analysis of ''Hebrews''], 1908 at earlychristianwritings.com
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07181a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'':] Epistle to the Hebrews
* [http://www.ccel.org/e/easton/ebd/ebd.html ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'' 1897:] Epistle to the Hebrews
* [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/16-20/16-13.htm Holiness in Hebrews] by Wayne McCown
*[http://www.biblaridion-online.net/zine-online/zine05q2/bibzine05q2_p1.html ''Biblaridion magazine'':] A critical examination of the destination, authorship and dating of the Epistle to the Hebrews
*[http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp Hebrews from the Biblical Resource Database]
<center>
<br>
{| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse"
|- bgcolor="darkgray"
|colspan=3|<center>'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor="gainsboro"
|<Center>Preceded by:<br><Center>[[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|<Center>Followed by:<br><Center>[[Epistle of James|James]]
|}
</center>
[[Category:New Testament books|Hebrews]]
[[Category:Jewish Christian topics]]
[[de:Brief an die Hebräer]]
[[es:Epístola a los Hebreos]]
[[fr:Épître aux Hébreux]]
[[ko:히브리인들에게 보낸 편지]]
[[id:Surat kepada Orang Ibrani]]
[[nl:Brief aan de Hebreeën]]
[[pl:List do Hebrajczyków]]
[[pt:Epístola aos Hebreus]]
[[fi:Kirje heprealaisille]]
[[sv:Hebreerbrevet]]
[[zh:希伯來書]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Esther</title>
<id>9902</id>
<revision>
<id>41916578</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:27:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Slgrandson</username>
<id>191875</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+ SIMPLE</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Haddassah''' more commonly known as '''Esther''' ('''&#1488;&#1462;&#1505;&#1456;&#1514;&#1468;&#1461;&#1512;''', [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Ester''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&#702;Est&#275;r''') was a woman in the [[Hebrew Bible]], the queen of [[Ahasuerus]] (commonly identified with [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes I]] or [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]]), and heroine of the Biblical [[Book of Esther]] which is named after her.
==The name==
[[Image:Aert de Gelder 004.jpg|thumb|left|Esther and Mordecai, by Aert de Gelder]]
According to the [[Book of Esther]] she was a Jewish woman originally named Hadassah. When she entered the royal [[Harem (household)|harem]] she received the name Esther by which she was hence forth known. ''Hadassah'' means "[[myrtle]]" in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and the name ''Esther'' is most likely related to the [[Medes|Median]] word for myrtle, ''astra'' , the [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] words ''Estêre'' and ''Istêr'',the [[Persian language|Persian]] word ''setareh'' meaning [[star]] &mdash; the myrtle blossom resembles a twinkling star.
''Esther'' can also be understood to mean "hidden" in Hebrew, and her name is interpreted thus in [[Midrash]], where it is told that Esther hid her nationality and lineage as Mordecai had advised. In addition [[God]]'s workings are hidden in the events of the Book of Esther even though he is never mentioned explicitly.
The [[Targum]] provides another Midrashic explanation claiming that she was as beautiful as the [[Evening Star]], which is ''astara'' in [[Greek language|Greek]]. Critics of the historicity of the [[Book of Esther]] attempt to derive the name from [[Ishtar]], the pagan goddess associated with the Evening Star, although the usual Hebrew rendition of the latter name is the phonetically unrelated [[Ashtoreth]]. The names may nevertheless be coincidentally related, as the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] name ''Ishtar'' may share a common origin with [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] words for ''star''.
==The story==
[[Image:Esther-mordechai.jpg|thumb|right|The Shrine of Esther and [[Mordechai]] in [[Hamadan]], [[Iran]], is a popular attraction for Iranian Jews.]]
Esther was the daughter of Abihail, a [[Benjamin|Benjamite]]. She resided with her cousin [[Mordecai]], who held some office in the household of the Persian king at "[[Susa|Shushan]] in the palace."
Ahasuerus, having rid himself of [[Vashti]], chose Esther to be his wife and queen. Soon after this he gave [[Haman (Judaism)|Haman]] the Agagite, his prime minister, power and authority to kill and extirpate all the [[Jew]]s throughout the Persian empire. By the intervention of Esther this attempted genocide was averted. Haman was hanged on the [[gallows]] he had intended for Mordecai; and the Jews established an annual feast, the feast of [[Purim]], in memory of their wonderful deliverance. According to traditional Jewish dating this took place about fifty-two years after the Return.
Esther appears in the Bible as a woman of deep piety, faith, courage, patriotism, and caution, combined with resolution; a dutiful daughter to her adopted father, docile and obedient to his counsels, and anxious to share the king's favour with him for the good of the Jewish people. That she was raised up as an instrument in the hand of [[God]] to avert the destruction of the Jewish people, and to afford them protection and forward their wealth and peace in their captivity, is manifest from the Scripture account.
For a discussion of the historicity of Esther, see ''[[Book of Esther]]''.
==Modern retelling==
A [[film|movie]] about Esther and Ahasuerus, entitled ''[[One Night with the King: The Call of Destiny]]'', is rescheduled for a 2006 release.
In [[2001]], [[VeggieTales]], a company that uses [[CGI]] [[vegetables]] to teach children lessons from the [[Bible]] in a comical way, released ''Esther: The Girl Who Became Queen'', which retells the story of Esther.
==See also==
* [[Vashti]]
* [[Mordecai]]
* [[Ishtar]], [[Marduk]]
[[Category:Tanakh people]]
[[Category:Achaemenid dynasty]]
[[Category:Persian queen consorts]]
[[de:Königin Ester]]
[[et:Ester]]
[[es:Esther (Racine)]]
[[eo:Ester]]
[[fr:Esther (Racine)]]
[[he:אסתר המלכה]]
[[ja:エステル (人物)]]
[[nn:Estér]]
[[pl:Estera]]
[[simple:Esther]]
[[fi:Ester]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Entamoebid</title>
<id>9903</id>
<revision>
<id>37289850</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T01:12:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = khaki
| name = Entamoebids
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| phylum = [[Amoebozoa]]
| ordo = '''Entamoebida'''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''[[Entamoeba coli]]''<br>
''[[Entamoeba histolytica]]''<br>
''[[Entamoeba invadens]]''<br>
''[[Endolimax nana]]''<br>
etc.
}}
The '''entamoebids''' or '''entamoebae''' are a group of [[amoebozoa]] found as internal [[parasite]]s or commensals of animals. The cells are uninucleate small, typically 10-100 &mu;m across, and usually have a single lobose pseudopod taking the form of a clear anterior bulge. There are two major genera, ''Entamoeba'' and ''Endolimax''. They include several species that are pathogenic in humans, most notably ''[[Entamoeba histolytica]]'', which causes amoebic [[dysentery]].
Entamoebids lack [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]]. This is a secondary loss, possibly associated with their parasitic life-cycle. Studies show they are close relatives of the [[pelobiont]]s, another group of amitochondriate amoebae, but unlike them entamoebids retain [[dictyosome]]s. Both groups are now placed alongside other lobose amoebae in the phylum Amoebozoa.
Studying ''Entamoeba invadens'', [[David Biron]] of the [[Weizmann Institute of Science]] and coworkers found that about one third of the cells are unable to separate unaided and recruit a neighboring amoeba (dubbed the "midwife") to complete the fission. He writes:
:''When an amoeba divides, the two daughter cells stay attached by a tubular tether which remains intact unless mechanically severed. If called upon, the neighbouring amoeba midwife travels up to 200 &mu;m towards the dividing amoeba, usually advancing in a straight trajectory with an average velocity of about 0.5 &mu;m/s. The midwife then proceeds to rupture the connection, after which all three amoebae move on.''
They also reported a similar behavior in ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]]''.
== References ==
* [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] 410, 430 ([[22 March]] [[2001]]); doi:10.1038/35068628.
[[Category:Amoeboids]][[Category:Amoebozoa]][[Category:Parasites]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>England national football team</title>
<id>9904</id>
<revision>
<id>42121672</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:35:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Slumgum</username>
<id>580636</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Current players */ valign=top</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{National football team
| Name = England
| Badge = England 030206b.GIF
| Nickname = Three Lions
| Association = [[The Football Association]]
| Coach = [[Image:Flag_of_Sweden.svg|20px|Swedish]] [[Sven-Göran Eriksson]],<br> [[2001]]-present
| Most caps = [[Peter Shilton |
entirely Canadian route would require crossing 1,600 [[kilometre|km]] (1,000 [[mile]]s) of rugged terrain corresponding to the barren [[Canadian Shield]] and [[muskeg]] of [[Northern Ontario]]. To ensure this routing, the government offered huge incentives including vast grants of land in Western Canada.
In 1872, Sir John A. Macdonald and other high-ranking politicians, swayed by bribes in the so-called [[Pacific Scandal]], granted federal contracts to [[Hugh Allan]]'s "Canada Pacific Railway Company" (which was unrelated to the current company) and to the Inter-Ocean Railway Company. Because of this scandal, the Conservative party was removed from office in 1873. The new [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]] prime minister, [[Alexander Mackenzie]], began construction of segments of the railway as a public enterprise under the supervision of the Department of Public Works. The [[Thunder Bay District, Ontario|Thunder Bay]] branch linking [[Lake Superior]] to [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]] was commenced in 1875. Progress was discouragingly slow because of the lack of public money. With the return to power in [[October 16]], [[1878]] of Sir John A. Macdonald, a more aggressive construction policy was adopted. Macdonald confirmed that [[Port Moody, British Columbia|Port Moody]] would be the terminus of the transcontinental railway, and announced that the railway would follow the [[Fraser River|Fraser]] and [[Thompson River|Thompson]] rivers between Port Moody and [[Kamloops, British Columbia|Kamloops]]. In 1879, the federal government called for tenders to construct the 206 km (128 mile) section of the railway from [[Yale, British Columbia]] to [[Savona's Ferry, British Columbia|Savona's Ferry]] on [[Kamloops Lake]]. The contract was awarded to [[Andrew Onderdonk]], whose men started work on [[May 15]], [[1880]]. After the completion of that section, Onderdonk received contracts to build between Yale and Port Moody, and between Savona's Ferry and [[Eagle Pass]].
On [[October 21]], [[1880]], a new syndicate, unrelated to Hugh Allan's, signed a contract with the Macdonald government. They agreed to build the railway in exchange for [[Canadian dollar|$]]25,000,000 (approximately $625,000,000 in modern Canadian dollars) in credit from the Canadian government and a grant of 25,000,000 [[acre]]s (101,000 km², around 10,000,000 [[hectare]]s) of land. The government transferred to the new company those sections of the railway it had constructed under government ownership. The government also defrayed surveying costs and exempted the railway from property taxes for 20 years. The syndicate officially comprised five men: [[George Stephen, 1st Baron Mount Stephen|George Stephen]], [[James J. Hill]], [[Duncan McIntyre]], [[Richard B. Angus]], and [[John S. Kennedy]]. [[Donald Alexander Smith|Donald A. Smith]] and [[Norman Kittson]] were unofficial silent partners with a significant financial interest. On [[February 15]], [[1881]], legislation confirming the contract received [[royal assent]], and the [[Canadian Pacific Limited|Canadian Pacific Railway Company]] was formally [[Incorporation (business)|incorporated]] the next day.
===Building the railway, 1881-1885===
It was assumed that the railway would travel though the rich "Fertile Belt" of the [[North Saskatchewan River]] valley and cross the [[Rocky Mountains]] via the [[Yellowhead Pass]], a route advocated by [[Sir Sandford Fleming]] based on a decade of work. However, the CPR quickly discarded this plan in favour of a more southerly route across the arid [[Palliser's Triangle]] in [[Saskatchewan]] and through [[Kicking Horse Pass]] over the [[Field Hill]]. This route was more direct and closer to the American border, making it easier for the CPR to keep American railways from encroaching on the Canadian market. However, this route also had several disadvantages.
One consequence was that the CPR would need to find a route through the [[Selkirk Mountains]], as at the time it was not known whether a route even existed. The job of finding a pass was assigned to a [[surveyor]] named [[Major]] [[Albert Bowman Rogers]]. The CPR promised him a [[cheque]] for $5,000 and that the pass would be named in his honour. Rogers became obsessed with finding the pass that would immortalize his name. He found the pass on [[May 29]], [[1881]], and true to its word, the CPR named the pass "[[Rogers Pass]]" and gave him the cheque. This however, he at first refused to cash, preferring to frame it, and saying he did not do it for the money. He later agreed to cash it with the promise of an engraved watch.
Another obstacle was that the proposed route crossed land controlled by the [[Blackfoot]] [[First Nation]]. This difficulty was overcome when the [[missionary]] [[Priest|Father]] [[Albert Lacombe]] persuaded the Blackfoot chief [[Crowfoot]] that construction of the railway was inevitable. In return for his assent, Crowfoot was famously rewarded with a lifetime pass to ride the CPR. A more lasting consequence of the choice of route was that, unlike the one proposed by Fleming, the land surrounding the railway often proved too arid for successful [[agriculture]]. The CPR may have placed too much reliance on a report from [[natural history|naturalist]] [[John Macoun]], who had crossed the [[prairie]]s at a time of very high rainfall and had reported that the area was fertile.
The greatest disadvantage of the route was in Kicking Horse Pass. In the first six km (4 miles) west of the 1,625 metre (5,330 ft) high summit, the [[Kicking Horse River]] dropped 350 metres (1,150 ft). The steep drop would force the cash-strapped CPR to build a seven km (4.5 mile) long stretch of track with a very steep 4.5% gradient once it reached the pass in 1884. This was over four times the maximum gradient recommended for railways of this era, and even modern railways rarely exceed a 2% gradient. This section of track was the CPR's legendary [[Big Hill]]. Safety switches were installed at several points, the speed limit for descending trains was set at 10 km per hour (six mph), and special [[locomotive]]s were ordered. Despite these measures, several serious runaways still occurred. CPR officials insisted that this was a temporary expediency, but this state of affairs would last for 25 years until the completion of the [[Spiral Tunnels]] in the early 20th century.
[[Image:William Cornelius Van Horne.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Sir William Cornelius Van Horne]]
In 1881 construction progressed at too slow a pace for the railway's officials, who in 1882 hired the renowned railway executive [[William Cornelius Van Horne]], who was recruited to oversee construction with the inducement of a generous salary and the intriguing challenge of handling such a difficult railway project. Van Horne stated that he would have 800 km (500 miles) of main line built in 1882. [[Flood]]s delayed the start of the construction season, but over 672 km (417 miles) of main line, as well as various sidings and branch lines, were built that year. The Thunder Bay branch was completed in June 1882 by the Department of Railways and Canals and turned over to the company in May 1883, permitting all-Canadian lake and rail traffic from eastern Canada to [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]] for the first time in Canada's history. By the end of 1883, the railway had reached the Rocky Mountains, just eight km (5 miles) east of Kicking Horse Pass. The construction seasons of 1884 and 1885 would be spent in the mountains of British Columbia and on the north shore of [[Lake Superior]].
Many thousands of [[navvy|navvies]] worked on the railway. Many were [[Europe]]an immigrants. In British Columbia, the CPR also hired workers from [[China]], nicknamed [[coolies]]. A navvy received between $1 and $2.50 per day, but had to pay for his own food, clothing, transportation to the job site, mail, and medical care. After two and a half months of back-breaking labour, they could net as little as $16. Chinese navvies in British Columbia made only between $0.75 and $1.25 a day, not including expenses, leaving barely anything to send home. They did the most dangerous construction jobs, such as working with [[explosive material|explosives]]. The families of the Chinese who were killed received no compensation, or even notification of loss of life. Many of the men who lived did not have enough money to return to their families in China, and many spent years in lonely, sad and often poor condition. But those navvies were hard working and played a key role in building the western stretch of the railway; even some boys as young as 12 years old served as tea-boys.
By 1883, railway construction was progressing rapidly, but the CPR was in danger of running out of money. In response, on [[January 31]], [[1884]], the government passed the Railway Relief Bill, providing a further $22,500,000 in loans to the CPR. The bill received royal assent on [[March 6]], [[1884]].
[[Image:LastSpike Craigellachie BC Canada.jpg|thumb|300px|left|[[Donald Alexander Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal|Donald Alexander Smith]] drives the Last Spike]]
In March 1885, the [[North-West Rebellion]] broke out in Saskatchewan. Van Horne, in [[Ottawa, Ontario|Ottawa]] at the time, suggested to the government that the CPR could transport troops to [[Fort Qu'Appelle, Saskatchewan|Fort Qu'Appelle]] in 11 days. Some sections of track were incomplete or had not been used before, but the trip to Winnipeg was made in nine days and the rebellion was quickly put down. Perhaps because the government was grateful for this service, they subsequently re-organized the CPR's debt to the government and provided a further $5,000,000 loan, money desperately needed by the CPR. On [[November 7]], [[1885]] the Last Spike was driven at [[Craigellachie, British Columbia]], making good on the original promise. While the railway was completed |
ynasts (The [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]], the [[Duchy of Modena and Reggio|Duchy of Modena]], and the [[Duchy of Parma]]). The Pope was restored to the Papal States. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was restored to its mainland possessions, and also gained control of the Republic of Genoa. In Southern Italy the Bourbon [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand IV]] was restored to the throne.
A large United Kingdom of the Netherlands was created for the Prince of Orange, including both the old [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] and the formerly Austrian-ruled territories in the Southern Netherlands.
There were other, less important territorial adjustments, including significant territorial gains for the German Kingdoms of Hanover and Bavaria, and the Portuguese rights to the Territory of Olivenza were recognized.
The countries involved with the Congress also agreed to meet at intervals and this led to the establishment of the "[[Congress system]]". This system was frequently criticized by 19th century historians for ignoring national and liberal impulses associated with the French Revolution. However, in the twentieth century many historians began to admire the work of the statesmen at the Congress of Vienna, whose work appeared to have prevented another large-scale European war for nearly one hundred years (1818-1914).
==The 19th century==
After the defeat of revolutionary [[France]], the other great powers tried to restore the situation which existed before 1789. However, their efforts were unable to stop the spread of revolutionary movements: the [[middle class]]es had been deeply influenced by the ideals of democracy of the French revolution, the [[Industrial Revolution]] brought important economical and social changes, the lower classes started to be influenced by [[Socialist]], [[Communist]] and [[anarchism|Anarchistic]] ideas (especially those summarized by [[Karl Marx]] in the [[Communist Manifesto|Manifesto of the Communist Party]]), and the preference of the new capitalists became [[Liberalism]] (a term which then, politically, meant something different from the modern usage). Further instability came from the formation of several [[nationalism | nationalist]] movements (in [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Poland]] etc.), seeking national unification and/or liberation from foreign rule. As a result, the period between 1815 and 1871 saw a large number of revolutionary attempts and independence wars. Even though the revolutionaries were often defeated, most European states had become [[constitutional monarchy|constitutional]] (rather than absolute) monarchies by 1871, and Germany and Italy had developed into nation states. The 19th century also saw the [[British Empire]] emerge as the world's first global power due in a large part to the [[Industrial Revolution]] and victory in the [[Napoleonic Wars]].
The first revolution to occur in Europe after the French Revolution was the [[First_Serbian_Uprising|Serbian Uprising]] of 1804, and the [[Second Serbian Uprising]] of 1815, which resulted in the proclamation of autonomous [[Serbia]] by the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The political dynamics of Europe changed three times over the 19th century - once after the [[Congress of Vienna]], and again after the [[Crimean War]]. In 1815 at the Congress of Vienna, the major powers of Europe managed to produce a peaceful [[balance of power]] among the empires after the [[Napoleonic wars]] (despite the occurrence of internal revolutionary movements). But the peace would only last until the [[Ottoman Empire]] had declined enough to become a target for the others. (See [[history of the Balkans#Rise of Independence]].) This instigated the Crimean War in 1854 and began a tenser period of minor clashes among the globe-spanning empires of Europe that set the stage for the [[world War I|first World War]]. It changed a third time with the end of the various wars that turned the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]] and the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] into the Italian and German nation-states, significantly changing the balance of power in Europe.
<!-- Translation from french : please improve this.-->
From 1870, the [[Bismarck|Bismarkian]] hegemony on Europe put France in a critical situation, and it slowly rebuilt it's relationships, seeking alliances with Russia and Britain, to control the growing power of Germany. By this way, two sides grew in Europe, improving year by year their military forces and alliances.
==Early 20th century: the World Wars==
{{main articles|[[World War I]] and [[World War II]]}}
After the relative peace of most of the 19th century, the rivalry between European powers exploded in 1914, when [[World War I]] started. On one side were [[Germany]], [[Austria-Hungary]] and [[Turkey]] (the [[Central Powers]]/[[Triple Alliance]]), while on the other side stood [[Serbia]] and the ''[[Triple Entente]]'' - the loose coalition of [[France]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Russia]], which were joined by [[Italy]] in 1915 and by the [[United States]] in 1917. Despite the defeat of Russia in 1917 (the war was one of the major causes of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], leading to the formation of the communist [[Soviet Union]]), the ''Entente'' finally prevailed in the autumn of 1918.
In the [[Treaty of Versailles]] (1919) the winners imposed relatively hard conditions on Germany and recognized the new states (such as [[Poland]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Austria]], [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], [[Finland]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]]) created in [[central Europe]] out of the defunct German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires, supposedly on the basis of national self-determination. Most of those countries engaged in local wars, the largest of them being the [[Polish-Soviet War]] (1919-1921). In the following decades, fear of [[Communism]] and the [[Great Depression|economic Depression]] of 1929-1933 led to the rise of extreme governments - [[Fascist]] or [[National Socialist]] - in Italy (1922), Germany (1933), Spain (after a [[Spanish Civil War|civil war]] ending in 1939) and other countries such as [[Hungary]].
After allying with Mussolini's Italy in the "[[Pact of Steel]]" and signing a [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact|non-aggression pact]] with the Soviet Union, the German dictator [[Adolf Hitler]] and Soviet dictator [[Josef Stalin]] started [[World War II]] on 1st and [[17 September]] [[1939]] attacking [[Poland]] and following a military build-up throughout the late 1930s. After initial successes (mainly the conquest of western [[Poland]], much of [[Scandinavia]], France and the [[Balkans]] before 1941) the [[Axis Powers|Axis powers]] began to over-extend themselves in 1941. Hitler's ideological foes were the Communists in Russia but because of the German failure to defeat the [[United Kingdom]] and the Italian failures in North Africa and the Mediterranean the Axis forces were split between garrisoning western Europe and Scandinavia and also attacking Africa. Thus, the attack on the Soviet Union (which together with Germany had partitioned central Europe in 1939-1940) was not pressed with sufficient strength. Despite initial successes, the German army was stopped close to [[Moscow]] in December 1941. During this period, Germany began the systematic genocide of over 11 million people, including the majority of the Jews of Europe, in the [[Holocaust]]. Even as German persecution grew, over the next year the tide was turned and the Germans started to suffer a series of defeats, for example in the siege of [[Battle of Stalingrad|Stalingrad]] and at [[Battle of Kursk|Kursk]]. Meanwhile, [[Japan]] (allied to Germany and Italy since September 1940) attacked the British in [[Southeast Asia|south-east Asia]] and the United States in Hawaii on [[December 7]], [[1941]]; Germany then completed its over-extension by declaring war on the United States. War raged between the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the [[Allied Forces]] ([[British Empire]], Soviet Union, and the United States). Allied Forces won in [[North Africa]], invaded Italy in 1943, and invaded occupied France in 1944. In the spring of 1945 Germany itself was invaded from the east by Russia and from the west by the other Allies respectively; Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered in early May ending the war in Europe.
==Late 20th century: the Cold War==
{{main|Cold War}}
[[World War I]] and especially [[World War II]] ended the pre-eminent position of [[western Europe]]. The map of Europe was redrawn at the [[Yalta Conference]] and divided as it became the principal zone of contention in the [[Cold War]] between the two power blocs, the [[capitalism|capitalistic]] [[Western_countries]] and the [[communist]] [[Soviet Union]]. The U.S. and Western Europe (the[[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[West Germany]], etc.) established the [[NATO]] alliance as a protection against a possible Soviet invasion. Later, the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe ([[Poland]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[East Germany]]) established the [[Warsaw Pact]] as a protection against a possible U.S. invasion.
Meanwhile, Western Europe slowly began a process of political and economic integration, desiring to unite Europe and prevent another war. This process resulted eventually in the development of organizations such as the [[European Union]] and the [[Council of Europe]].
The [[Solidarność]] movement in the 1980s in weakened the Communist government in [[Poland]]. The Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] initiated [[perestroika]] and [[glasnost]], which weakened Soviet influence in Eastern Europe. Soviet-supported governments collapsed, and West Germany absorbed East Germany by 1990. In 1991 the Soviet Union itself collapsed, splitting into fifteen states, with the [[Russian Federation]] taking the Soviet Union's seat on the [[United Nations Security Council]].
The most vio |
The following are links to the main organizations espousing a variety of viewpoints:
<p></p>
{| style="background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}"
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
'''Young Earth Creationism'''
* [http://www.creationscience.com In the Beginning - Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood] By Dr. Walt Brown
* [http://www.answersingenesis.org/ Answers in Genesis] A group promoting Young-Earth Creationism.
* [http://www.familyradio.com/graphical/literature/calendar/calendar_contents.html The Biblical Calendar of History]
* [http://www.icr.org/ Institute for Creation Research] "A Christ-Focused Creation Ministry"
* [http://www.creationresearch.org/ The Creation Research Society]
* [http://www.trueorigin.org/ The True.Origin Archive]
* [http://www.nwcreation.net/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page CreationWiki]
<p></p>
| width="{{{width|}}}" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
'''Old Earth Creationism'''
* [http://www.reasons.org Reasons to Believe] led by [[Hugh Ross]]
* [http://www.answersincreation.org Answers In Creation] led by [[Greg Neyman]]
'''Intelligent design'''
* [http://www.arn.org/ Access Research Network]
* [http://www.discovery.org/csc/ Discovery Institute Center for Science and Culture]
''' Evolutionary creationism''' <!-- These are a bit thin on the ground. -->
* [http://koning.ecsu.ctstateu.edu/religion/scifaith.html Faith of a scientist: a personal witness]
'''Evolution'''
* [http://www.talkorigins.org talk.origins Archive]
* [http://www.ncseweb.org/ National Center for Science Education]
* [http://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/mineralogie/palbot/evolution/creationism.html Evolution Sciences versus Doctrines of Creationism and Intelligent Design] A pro-evolution or anti-creationism link directory
<p></p>
|}
[[Category:Creationism|*]]
[[Category:pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Theology]]
[[cs:Kreacionismus]]
[[da:Kreationisme]]
[[de:Kreationismus]]
[[es:Creacionismo]]
[[fi:Kreationismi]]
[[fr:Créationnisme]]
[[he:בריאתנות]]
[[it:Creazionismo]]
[[ja:創造論]]
[[lt:Kreacionizmas]]
[[nl:Creationisme]]
[[no:Kreasjonisme]]
[[pl:Kreacjonizm]]
[[pt:Criacionismo]]
[[ro:Teoria creaţionistă]]
[[ru:Креационизм]]
[[simple:Creationism]]
[[sv:Kreationism]]
[[zh:創造論]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chapter 1 - Variation Under Domestication</title>
<id>5327</id>
<revision>
<id>15903540</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T14:10:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[The Origin of Species]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Origin of Species]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chapter 2 - Variation Under Nature</title>
<id>5328</id>
<revision>
<id>15903541</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T14:10:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[The Origin of Species]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Origin of Species]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Chad</title>
<id>5329</id>
<revision>
<id>42082436</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:31:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aldux</username>
<id>326243</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Military rule (1975&ndash;78) */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Chad}}
==Prehistory==
Human presence in [[Chad]] is very ancient, a [[humanoid]] skull found in [[Borkou]] is more than 3 million years old. The territory now known as Chad possesses some of the richest [[archaeological site]]s in [[Africa]]. During the 7th millennium BC, the northern half of Chad was part of a broad expanse of land, stretching from the [[Indus River]] in the east to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the west, in which [[ecology|ecological]] conditions favored early human settlement. [[Rock art]] of the "Round Head" style, found in the [[Ennedi]] region, has been dated to before the 7th millennium BC and, because of the tools with which the rocks were carved and the scenes they depict, may represent the oldest evidence in the [[Sahara]] of [[Neolithic]] industries. Many of the [[pottery]]-making and Neolithic activities in Ennedi date back further than any of those of the [[Nile]] Valley to the east.
In the [[prehistory|prehistoric]] period, Chad was much wetter than it is today, as evidenced by large game animals depicted in [[Cave painting|rock paintings]] in the Tibesti and Borkou regions. Recent linguistic research suggests that all of [[Africa]]'s languages south of the Sahara Desert (except [[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]]) originated in prehistoric times in a narrow band between [[Lake Chad]] and the Nile Valley. The origins of Chad's peoples, however, remain unclear. Several of the proven archaeological sites have been only partially studied, and other sites of great potential have yet to be mapped.
==Era of Empires (AD 900&ndash;1900)==
Toward the end of the 1st millennium AD, the formation of states began across central Chad in the [[sahel]]ian zone between the [[desert]] and the [[savanna]]. For almost the next 1.000 years, these states, their relations with each other, and their effects on the peoples who lived in "stateless" societies along their peripheries dominated Chad's political history. Recent research suggests that indigenous [[History of Africa|Africans]] founded most of these states, not migrating [[Arabic language|Arabic-speaking]] groups, as was believed previously. Nonetheless, immigrants, [[Arab]]ic-speaking or otherwise, played a significant role, along with [[Islam]], in the formation and early evolution of these states.
Most states began as [[monarchy|kingdoms]], in which the [[monarch|king]] was considered divine and endowed with temporal and spiritual powers. All states were [[militarism|militaristic]] (or they did not survive long), but none was able to expand far into southern Chad, where forests and the [[tsetse fly]] complicated the use of [[cavalry]]. Control over the [[trans-Saharan trade]] routes that passed through the region formed the economic basis of these kingdoms. Although many states rose and fell, the most important and durable of the empires were [[Kanem-Bornu Empire|Kanem-Bornu]], [[Baguirmi Empire|Baguirmi]], and [[Ouaddai Empire|Ouaddai]], according to most written sources (mainly [[Noble court|court]] [[chronicle]]s and writings of Arab [[merchant|traders]] and travelers).
===Kanem-Bornu===
{{main|Kanem-Bornu Empire}}
The Kanem Empire originated in the 9th century AD to the northeast of [[Lake Chad]]. Historians agree that the leaders of the new state were ancestors of the [[Kanembu]] people. Toward the end of the 11th century the [[Sayfawa dynasty|Sayfawa]] king (or ''mai'', the title of the Sayfawa rulers) [[Hummay]], converted to Islam. In the following century the Sayfawa rulers expandeded southward into [[Kanem (region)|Kanem]], where was to rise their first capital, [[Njimi]]. Kanem's expansion peaked during the long and energetic reign of Mai [[Dunama Dabbalemi]] (c. 1221&ndash;1259).
By the end of the fourteenth century, internal struggles and external attacks had torn Kanem apart. Finally, around 1396 the [[Bulala]] invaders forced ''Mai'' [[Umar Idrismi]] to abandon Njimi and move the Kanembu people to [[Borno State|Bornu]] on the western edge of Lake Chad. Over time, the intermarriage of the Kanembu and Bornu peoples created a new people and language, the [[Kanuri]], and founded a new capital, [[Ngazargamu]].
Kanem-Bornu peaked during the reign of the outstanding statesman ''Mai'' [[Idris Aluma]] (c. 1571&ndash;1603). Aluma is remembered for his military skills, administrative reforms, and Islamic piety. The administrative reforms and military brilliance of Aluma sustained the empire until the mid-1600s, when its power began to fade. By the early 19th century, Kanem-Bornu was clearly an empire in decline, and in 1808 [[Fulani Empire|Fulani]] warriors conquered Ngazargamu. Bornu survived, but the Sayfawa dynasty ended in 1846 and the Empire itself fell in 1893.
===Baguirmi and Ouaddai===
:''Related articles: [[Baguirmi Kingdom]] and [[Ouaddai Kingdom]]''
In addition to Kanem-Bornu, two other states in the region, [[Baguirmi Kingdom|Baguirmi]] and [[Ouaddai Kingdom|Ouaddai]], achieved historical prominence. Baguirmi emerged to the southeast of Kanem-Bornu in the sixteenth century. [[Islam]] was adopted, and the state became a [[sultan]]ate. Absorbed into Kanem-Bornu, Baguirmi broke free later in the 1600s, only to be returned to [[tribute|tributary]] status in the mid-1700s. Early in the nineteenth century, Baguirmi fell into decay and was threatened militarily by the nearby kingdom of Ouaddai. Although Baguirmi resisted, it accepted tributary status in order to obtain help from Ouaddai in putting down internal dissension. When the capital was burned in 1893, the sultan sought and received [[protectorate]] status from the [[French colonial empires|French]].
Located northeast of Baguirmi, Ouaddai was a non-Muslim kingdom that emerged in the 16th century as an offshoot of the state of [[Darfur]] (in present-day [[Sudan]]). Early in the 17th century, groups in the region rallied to [[Abd al-Karim of Ouaddai|Abd al-Karim]], who overthrew the ruling [[Tunjur]] group, transforming Ouaddai in an Islamic [[sultan]]ate. During much of the 18th century, Ouaddai resisted reincorporation into Darfur. In about 1800, under the rule of [[Sabun]], the sultanate began to expand its power. A new trade route north was discovered, and Sabun |
its popularity in cryptographic software.
==See also==
* [[Twofish]]
* [[MacGuffin (cipher)|MacGuffin]]
* [[Advanced Encryption Standard]]
==References==
* Vincent Rijmen, "Cryptanalysis and design of iterated block ciphers", doctoral dissertation, October 1997.
* Bruce Schneier, Description of a New Variable-Length Key, 64-bit Block Cipher (Blowfish). Fast Software Encryption 1993: 191-204 [http://www.schneier.com/paper-blowfish-fse.html].
* Bruce Schneier, The Blowfish Encryption Algorithm -- One Year Later, ''[[Dr. Dobb's Journal]]'', 20(9), p. 137, September 1995 [http://www.schneier.com/paper-blowfish-oneyear.html].
* Serge Vaudenay, "On the weak keys of Blowfish," Fast Software Encryption (FSE'96), LNCS 1039, D. Gollmann, Ed., Springer-Verlag, 1996, pp. 27--32.
== External links ==
* [http://www.schneier.com/blowfish.html Official Blowfish website]
* [http://www.schneier.com/blowfish-products.html List of Blowfish users]
* [http://www.users.zetnet.co.uk/hopwood/crypto/scan/cs.html#Blowfish SCAN's entry for Blowfish]
* [http://www.farfarfar.com/scripts/encrypt/ Blowfish JavaScript implementation]
* [http://aam.ugpl.de/?q=node/1060 Blowfish JavaScript implementation and Page Encryption]
* [http://php-einfach.de/sonstiges_generator_blowfish.php Blowfish PHP implementation]
{{Block_ciphers}}
[[Category:Block ciphers]]
[[Category:Free ciphers]]
[[de:Blowfish]]
[[es:Blowfish]]
[[fr:Blowfish]]
[[it:Blowfish]]
[[nl:Blowfish-encryptiealgoritme]]
[[pl:Blowfish (kryptografia)]]
[[th:โบลว์ฟิช]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bijection</title>
<id>3942</id>
<revision>
<id>39848384</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T07:05:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.169.6.110</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Composition and inverses */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:bijmap.png|thumb|200px|A bijective function.]]
In [[mathematics]], a [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''f'' from a [[set (mathematics)|set]] ''X'' to a set ''Y'' is said to be '''bijective''' [[if and only if]] for every ''y'' in ''Y'' there is exactly one ''x'' in ''X'' such that ''f''(''x'') = ''y''.
Said another way, ''f'' is bijective if and only if it is a '''one-to-one correspondence''' between those sets; i.e., both '''one-to-one''' ([[injective function|injective]]) and '''onto''' ([[surjective function|surjective]]).
For example, consider the function succ, defined from the set of [[integer]]s <math>\Z</math> to <math>\Z</math>, that to each integer ''x'' associates the integer succ(''x'') = x + 1. For another example, consider the function sumdif that to each pair (''x'',''y'') of real numbers associates the pair sumdif(''x'',''y'') = (''x''+''y'', ''x''-''y'').
A bijective function is also called '''bijection''' or '''[[permutation]]'''. The latter is more commonly used when ''X'' = ''Y''. It should be noted that ''one-to-one function'' means ''one-to-one correspondence'' (i.e. ''bijection'') to some authors, but ''injection'' to others. The set of all bijections from ''X'' to ''Y'' is denoted as ''X''<math>{}\leftrightarrow{}</math>''Y''.
Bijective functions play a fundamental role in many areas of mathematics, for instance in the definition of [[isomorphism]] (and related concepts such as [[homeomorphism]] and [[diffeomorphism]]), [[permutation group]], [[projective map]], and many others.
==Composition and inverses==
A function ''f'' is bijective if and only if its [[inverse relation]] ''f''<sup>-1</sup> is a function. In that case, ''f''<sup>-1</sup> is a bijection.
The [[composition (mathematics)|composition]] ''g''<math>\circ</math>''f'' of two bijections ''f''<math>\;:\;</math> ''X''<math>{}\leftrightarrow{}</math>''Y'' and ''g''<math>\;:\;</math> ''Y''<math>{}\leftrightarrow{}</math>''Z'' is a bijection. The inverse of ''g''<math>\circ</math>''f'' is (''g''<math>\circ</math>''f'')<sup>-1</sup> = (''f''<sup>-1</sup>)<math>\circ</math>(''g''<sup>-1</sup>).
[[Image:INS then NIS.png|thumb|300px|A bijective composition.]]
On the other hand, if the composition ''g''&nbsp;<sup><small>o</small></sup>&nbsp;''f'' of two functions is bijective, we can only say that ''f'' is injective and ''g'' is surjective.
A relation ''f'' from ''X'' to ''Y'' is a bijective function if and only if there exists another relation ''g'' from ''Y'' to ''X'' such that ''g''<math>\circ</math>''f'' is the [[identity function]] on ''X'', and ''f''<math>\circ</math>''g'' is the [[identity function]] on ''Y''.
it is important to say that having the same cardinality for two sets is a must.
==Bijections and cardinality==
If ''X'' and ''Y'' are [[finite]] sets, then there exists a bijection between the two sets ''X'' and ''Y'' [[if and only if]] ''X'' and ''Y'' have the same number of elements. Indeed, in [[axiomatic set theory]], this is taken as the very ''definition'' of "same number of elements", and generalising this definition to [[infinite]] sets leads to the concept of [[cardinal number]], a way to distinguish the various sizes of infinite sets.
==Examples and counterexamples==
* For any set ''X'', the [[identity function]] id<sub>''X''</sub> from ''X'' to ''X'', defined by id<sub>''X''</sub>(''x'') = ''x'', is bijective.
* The function ''f'' from the [[real line]] '''R''' to '''R''' defined by ''f''(''x'') = 2''x'' + 1 is bijective, since for each ''y'' there is a unique ''x'' = (''y'' - 1)/2 such that ''f''(''x'') = ''y''.
* The [[exponential function]] ''g''&nbsp;:&nbsp;'''R''' <math>\rightarrow</math> '''R''', with ''g(x)'' = e<sup>''x''</sup>, is not bijective: for instance, there is no ''x'' in '''R''' such that ''g''(''x'') = -1, showing that ''g'' is not surjective. However if the codomain is changed to be the positive real numbers '''R'''<sup>+</sup> = (0,+&infin;), then ''g'' becomes bijective; its inverse is the [[natural logarithm]] function ln.
* The function ''h''&nbsp;:&nbsp;'''R''' <math>\rightarrow</math> [0,+&infin;) with ''h(x)'' = ''x''² is not bijective: for instance, ''h''(-1) = ''h''(+1) = 1, showing that ''h'' is not injective. However, if the domain too is changed to <nowiki>[0,+&infin;)</nowiki>, then ''h'' becomes bijective; its inverse is the positive square root function.
* A function ''f'' from the [[real line]] '''R''' to '''R''' is bijective if and only if its plot is intersected by any horizontal line at exactly one point.
==Properties==
* If ''X'' is a set, then the bijective functions from ''X'' to itself, together with the operation of functional composition (<sup><small>o</small></sup>), form a [[group (algebra)|group]], the [[symmetric group]] of ''X'', which is denoted variously by S(''X''), ''S''<sub>''X''</sub>, or ''X''! (the last read "''X'' [[factorial]]").
* For subset ''A'' of the domain and subset ''B'' of the codomain we
|''f''(''A'')| == |''A''|, and |''f''<sup>-1</sup>(''B'')| == |''B''|.
==Bijections and category theory==
Formally, bijections are precisely the [[isomorphism]]s in the [[category theory|category]] [[Category of sets|Set]] of sets.
==See also ==
*[[injective function]]
*[[isomorphism]]
*[[permutation]]
*[[symmetric group]]
*[[surjection|surjective function]]
{{cleanup-section}}
* <math>\mathbf{R} \to \mathbf{R} : x \mapsto (x-1)x(x+1) = x^3 - x </math>
* <math>\mathbf{R} \to [-1,1] : x \mapsto \sin(x)</math>
===Properties===
* For every function ''h'' : ''A'' &rarr; ''C'' we can define a surjection ''H'' : ''A'' &rarr; ''h(A)'' : a &rarr; h(a) and an injection ''I'' : ''h(A)'' &rarr; ''C'' : a &rarr; a. It follows that ''h'' = ''I'' <small>o</small> ''H''. This decomposition is unique [[up to isomorphism]].
(''Note: a '''one-to-one''' function is injective, but may fail to be surjective, while a '''one-to-one correspondence''' is both injective and surjective.'')
===Category theory===
In the [[category]] of [[set]]s, injections, surjections, and bijections correspond precisely to [[monomorphism]]s, [[epimorphism]]s, and [[isomorphism]]s, respectively.
[[Category:Set theory]]
[[bg:&#1041;&#1080;&#1077;&#1082;&#1094;&#1080;&#1103;]]
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[[it:Corrispondenza biunivoca]]
[[nl:Bijectie]]
[[ja:&#20840;&#21336;&#23556;]]
[[pl:Bijekcja]]
[[ru:&#1041;&#1080;&#1077;&#1082;&#1094;&#1080;&#1103;]]
[[fi:Bijektio]]
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[[uk:&#1041;&#1110;&#1108;&#1082;&#1094;&#1110;&#1103;]]
[[zh:&#21452;&#23556;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Binary function</title>
<id>3943</id>
<revision>
<id>27488160</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-06T00:33:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fresheneesz</username>
<id>247097</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>what Rtard wrote "is like a function" ? its not named a binary function cause it's LIKE a function - it IS a function</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''binary function''', or '''function of two variables''', is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] which takes two inputs.
To be specific, suppose ''X'', ''Y'', and ''Z'' are [[set]]s.
Suppose that, given any elements ''x'' of ''X'' and ''y'' of ''Y'', ''f''(''x'',''y'') is a unique element of ''Z''.
Then ''f'' is a binary function from ''X'' and ''Y'' to ''Z''.
For example, if '''Z''' is the set of [[i |
d#Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] wrote before he disappeared. It is a song of rebellion and defiance that seemed to say agony and suffering were not necessary. [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] listened to this piece in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141.
It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152.
==''Heaven's In Your Backyard''==
A film. [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Mort Liddy|Mort Liddy]] wrote the score, using a bastardized version of ''Halley's Fourth Concerto''. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.
==John Galt Legends==
Since everyone across the country is asking, "Who is John Galt?", it is not surprising that some people have come up with answers. A number of John Galt Legends are told, each of which, ironically, turns out to be true, at least symbolically.
'''''Legend 1''''' ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161): A [[Minor characters in Atlas Shrugged|spinster]] at [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden's]] party tells [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] the story. John Galt was a man of inestimable wealth who found the sunken island of [[Atlantis]] while fighting the worst storm ever wreaked upon the world. The sight was so beautiful that, having seen it, he could never go back to the world, so he sank his ship and took his fortune down with him.
The actual John Galt was a man who created something of inestimable value, a new motor, and who discovered the secret to what was wrong with the world while fighting the most evil social philosophy ever put into practice. The world he envisioned was so beautiful that he refused to live in the world that was, and disappeared, taking the secret of motor with him.
Atlantis, the Isles of the Blessed, is a place where no one could enter except those who had the spirit of a hero. Described in these terms, it is the same as ''Galt's Gulch''.
==Moe's Delicatessen==
A delicatessen in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged#New York|New York]]. When [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] returns to New York in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the ''Cub Club'' and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessen on Third Avenue.
==National Alliance of Railroads==
An industry group formed to promote the welfare of the industry as a whole, requiring members to sacrifice their individual interests for the common good. [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]] has friends on the National Alliance of Railroads, and he gets them to support the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule, which uses a string of pretenses to drive the [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged#Colorado|Colorado]].
The National Alliance of Railroads is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 131, 145 and 146.
==National Council of Metal Industries==
An industry group that uses political pull to get its way. [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]] has friends on the National Council of Metal Industries, and he gets them to support legislation that will hurt [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] and help [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Associated Steel|Associated Steel]].
The National Council of Metal Industries is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 131.
==Patrick Henry University==
The most prestigious university in the world. It was attended by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|John Galt]], [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Ragnar_Danneskj.F6ld|Ragnar Danneskjold]], where they met and became friends. [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]] and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]] taught there. It is located in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Cleveland]].
==Rio Norte Line==
A branch of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] that runs from [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Cheyenne, Wyoming]] to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|El Paso, Texas]].
It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131 (alluded to), 132, 133, 141, 146, 147 and 148.
==Rockdale Station==
A station on the [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] line, located five miles from the Taggart estate and overlooking the [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Hudson River]]. It was the site of [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] first job with the railroad, night operator, at age 16.
It appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152.
==San Sebastian==
A community built to house the workers of the ''San Sebastian Mines'' and their families. As it turns out, the houses, roads, and everything of practical value is built so poorly that the community can be expected to fall apart within a year or two. Only the church was built to last.
It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152.
==San Sebastian Line==
A branch of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] that serves the ''San Sebastian Mines'' in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Mexico]].
The mines were developed by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and attracted significant investments from [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]], who assumed Francisco could be counted on to deliver a winner.
The San Sebastian Line is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion.
When it is nationalized in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 142, it is referred to as the San Sebastian Railroad.
It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 114, 131, 132, 133, 142, 143 and 152.
==San Sebastian Mines==
San Sebastian Mines is a copper mining project in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Mexico]] founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and named after his ancestor [[Minor characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Sebastian d'Anconia]]. Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise. Investors include [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]]. Taggart goes so far as to build a new branch of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]], the ''San Sebastian Line'', to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project. When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the ''San Sebastian Line'', only to discover there is no copper and there never was.
When Taggart tells Francisco he considers the Mines a rotten swindle ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161), Francisco explains that Taggart should be pleased with the way he ran the mines. He says he put into practice those moral precepts that were accepted around the world. The world says it is evil to pursue a profit &mdash; he got no profit from the worthless mines. The world says the purpose of an enterprise is not to produce, but to give a livelihood to its employees &mdash; it produced nothing, but created jobs that would never have existed if one was only concerned with developing a real mine. The world says the owner is an exploiter and the workers do all the real work &mdash; he left the enterprise entirely in the hands of the workers and did not burden anyone with his presence. The world says need is more important than ability &mdash; he hired a mining specialist who needed a job very badly, but had no ability.
In short, the San Sebastian Mines were an illustration of what happens when this moral code is put into practice, and a warning of what will soon happen to the world as a whole.
The San Sebastian Mines appear in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 131, 132, 142, 151, 152 and 161.
==Taggart Building==
A skyscraper in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]], the headquarters of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]], and the location of the Taggart Terminal.
==Taggart Comet==
The Taggart Comet is [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] flagship train. It runs from [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]] to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|San Francisco]], and has never been late.
The Taggart Comet appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 113 and 152.
==The Future==
See [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]].
==''The Heart Is A Milkman''==
''The Heart is a Milkman'' is a novel being written by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Balph Eubank|Balph Eubank]]. It is about the central fact of human existence, frustration. Eubank says he will dedicate it to [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]].
It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.
==The Octopus==
See [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]].
==''The Vulture Is Molting''==
A best-selling novel that captures the spirit of the times, ''The Vulture Is Molting'' is "A penetrating study of a businessman's greed. A fearless revelation of man's depravity." The book is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141 as one of the artifacts of [[popular culture]] that depresses [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] with its baseness.
==Wayne-Falkland Hotel==
A luxurious hotel in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]], it is considered the best hotel left in the world. It is where [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Franci |
lebrated during the two weeks leading up to the first Sunday in October.
Bavaria has also given its name to a major [[Netherlands|Dutch]] brewery, ''[[Bavaria Brewery]]''.
===The meaning of the coat of arms===
Modern coat of arms was designed by [[Eduard Ege]], following heraldic traditions in 1946.
* The Golden Lion: The rampant lion Palatinate in its golden-and-red amour stands for the administrative region of Upper Palatinate.
* The "Franconian Rake": It represents the administrative regions of the Upper, Middle and Lower Franconia.
* The Blue Panther: At the bottom left of the third field there is a blue panther rampant, with gold talons, on a white (silver) ground. It rep-resents the regions of the Lower and Upper Bavaria.
* The Three Lions: In the fourth field three black lions with red talons stand on a golden ground one above the other, with heads askance. On the Bavarian coat of arms they symbolize Swabia.
* The White-And-Blue Heart-Shaped Shield: The heart-shaped shield of white and blue fusils askance was originally the coat of arms of the Counts of Bogen to be adopted in 1247 by the Wittelsbachs House. The white-and-blue fusils are indisputably the emblem of Bavaria and the heart-shaped shield today symbolizes Bavaria as a whole. Along with the People's Crown, it is officially used as the Minor Coat of Arms.
* The People's Crown: The four coat fields with the heart-shaped shield in the centre are crowned with a golden band with precious stones decorated with five ornamental leaves. This crown appeared for the first time in the coat of arms in 1923 to symbolize sovereignty of the people after the dropping out of the royal crown.
===Bavarian "citizenship"===
The fact that, different to the constitutions of all other German Länder, the Bavarian constitution provides for a Bavarian [[citizenship]], is often mentioned as an indicator for Bavarian distinctiveness. Some Bavarians are keen to emphasize that - in accordance with the generous indication of the constitution - they regard everyone
*born in Bavaria,
*born to a Bavarian parent,
*adopted by a Bavarian as a child,
*married to a Bavarian, or
*naturalized in Bavaria,
as a fellow-Bavarian; some of those falling under this untechnical definition express pride to being "Bavarian". However, state legislation regulating citizenship procedures has never been enacted, the constitution itself provides that all Germans enjoy the same rights as Bavarian citizens, and no office issues certificates concerning a "Bavarian" citizenship. Thus, the notion of citizenship rather bears a folkloristic, not really a political meaning.
Many people in the northern part of Bavaria see themselves as Franconians and do therefore not like to be called "Bavarians". They have a separate dialect and don't wear typical Bavarian clothing.
===German-Bavarian relations===
It is a common joke in Germany that Bavaria is not part of Germany. In fact a minority seriously agree to this notion; the ''[[Bavaria Party|Bayernpartei]]'' (Bavaria Party) has tendencies to make Bavaria an independent state in Europe.
It is important to note that Bavaria is the only state that declined the approval of the German constitution in 1949.
===Population and area===
'''Admin. Region population'''(2004) '''area''' (km²) '''municipalities'''
[[Lower Bavaria]] .... 1,196,178 9.6% 10,330 14.6% 258 12.5%
[[Lower Franconia]] .. 1,344,629 10.8% 8,531 12.1% 308 15.0%
[[Upper Franconia]] .. 1,106,541 8.9% 7,231 10.2% 214 10.4%
[[Middle Franconia]] . 1,708,972 13.7% 7,245 10.3% 210 10.2%
[[Upper Palatinate]] . 1,090,289 8.8% 9,691 13.7% 226 11.0%
[[Swabia]] ........... 1,786,166 14.4% 9,992 14.2% 340 16.5%
[[Upper Bavaria]] .... 4,211,118 33.8% 17,530 24.8% 500 24.3%
------------------ ---------- ------ ------ ------ ---- ------
Sum 12,443,893 100.0% 70,550 100.0% 2,056 100.0%
== Bavarian Culture Overseas ==
The Bavarians take great pride in their culture. Traditions are taught to the children and descendants of Bavarian citizens through literature, music and cultural events. Whether actually in Bavaria, overseas or full citizens of other nations they continue to cultivate their traditions. They hold festivals and dances to keep their traditions alive.
In New York the German American Cultural Society is a larger umbrella group for others such as the Bavarian organizations, which represent a specific part of Germany. They proudly put forth a German Parade each year. Various affilliated events take place amongst its groups, one of which is the [[Bavarian Dancers]].
==External links==
*[http://www.bayern.de/ Offical site] of the state of Bavaria
*[http://www.munich-to-vienna-via-salzburg.com/munich/bavaria.html Bavaria], Overview on Bavaria, its history and culture.
*[http://www.bayernviewer.de/ Bayern Viewer] aerial views and maps of Bavaria
*[http://www.bis.bayern.de/ Detailed map]
*[http://www.haus-bayern.com/ The Royal House of Bavaria], in German only
*[http://www.vdiest.nl/Europa/Germany/bavaria.htm Bavaria information]
*[http://www.bavariandancers.com/ Bavarian Dancers - Bavarian American Culture]
{{Germany_states}}
[[Category:Bavaria]]
[[Category:States of Germany]]
[[als:Bayern]]
[[ar:بافاريا]]
[[ast:Estáu Llibre de Baviera]]
[[bg:Бавария]]
[[ca:Baviera]]
[[cs:Bavorsko]]
[[da:Bayern]]
[[de:Bayern]]
[[eo:Bavario]]
[[es:Baviera]]
[[et:Baieri]]
[[fa:بایرن]]
[[fi:Baijeri]]
[[fr:Bavière]]
[[gl:Baviera]]
[[he:בוואריה]]
[[hr:Bavarska]]
[[hu:Bajorország]]
[[id:Bayern]]
[[it:Baviera]]
[[ja:バイエルン州]]
[[jv:Bayern]]
[[ka:ბავარია]]
[[ko:바이에른 주]]
[[la:Bavaria]]
[[lt:Bavarija]]
[[lv:Bavārija]]
[[nds:Bayern]]
[[nl:Beieren]]
[[no:Bayern]]
[[pl:Bawaria]]
[[pt:Baviera]]
[[ro:Bavaria]]
[[ru:Бавария]]
[[simple:Bavaria]]
[[sk:Bavorsko]]
[[sr:Бајерн]]
[[sv:Bayern]]
[[ta:பவேரியா]]
[[uk:Баварія]]
[[zh:巴伐利亚]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brandenburg</title>
<id>3765</id>
<revision>
<id>41766947</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:26:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jared Preston</username>
<id>262550</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>pop. update</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" style="float:right; margin-left:15px;margin-bottom:15px;empty-cells:show; width:225px"
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | Flag
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#EFEFEF" | <br>[[Image:Flag de-brandenburg.png|110px|Flag of Brandenburg]]<br>
|-
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | Coat-of-Arms
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#EFEFEF" | <br>[[Image:Coat of arms de-brandenburg.png|75px|Arms of Brandenburg]]<br>
|-! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | Statistics
|-
| Capital: || [[Potsdam]]
|-
| Area: || 29,478.14 [[square kilometre|km²]]
|-
| Inhabitants: || 2.568.507 <small>''(31/12/2004)''</small>
|-
| [[population density|pop. density]]: || 87 people/km²
|-
| Website: || http://www.brandenburg.de/
|-
| [[ISO 3166-2]]: || DE-BR
|-
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | Politics
|-
| [[Minister-president]]:
| [[Matthias Platzeck]] ([[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]])
|-
| Ruling party: || [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]]/[[Christian-Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]] coalition
|-
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFDEAD" | Map
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" | <br>[[Image:Germany Laender Brandenburg.png|250px]]<br>
|}
Surrounding but excluding the national capital [[Berlin]], '''Brandenburg''' is one of [[Germany]]'s sixteen ''[[States of Germany|Bundesländer]]'' (federal states).
Lying in the east of the country, in its current form it is one of the new states created in 1990 upon the reunification of the former [[West Germany]] and [[East Germany]]. The capital is [[Potsdam]].
Historically Brandenburg was an independent state which grew to become the core of modern Germany ([[#History|see below]]). The state of Brandenburg was named after the town of [[Brandenburg (town)|Brandenburg]].
== Geography ==
Brandenburg is bordered by [[Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania]] in the north, [[Poland]] in the east, [[Saxony]] in the south, [[Saxony-Anhalt]] in the west and [[Lower Saxony]] in the northwest.
The [[Oder]] river forms a part of the eastern border, the [[Elbe]] river a portion of the western border. The main rivers in the state itself are the [[Spree]] and the [[Havel]]. In the southeast there is a wetlands region called the [[Spreewald]]; it is the northernmost part of the [[Lausitz]], where the [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] people of the [[Sorbs]] still live. These areas are bilingual, i.e. [[German language|German]] and [[Sorbian language|Sorbian]] are both used.
''See also:'' [[List of places in Brandenburg]].
== Administration ==
Brandenburg is divided into fourteen (rural) counties (''Landkreise''),
[[image:brandenburg.jpg]]<br />
{|
|-
|
# [[Barnim]]
# [[Dahme-Spreewald]]
# [[Elbe-Elster]]
# [[Havelland]]
# [[Märkisch-Oderland]]
# [[Oberhavel]]
# [[Oberspreewald-Lausitz]]
|
<ol start=8>
<li> [[Oder-Spree]]
<li> [[Ostprignitz-Ruppin]]
<li> [[Potsdam-Mittelmark]]
<li> [[Prignitz]]
<li> [[Spree-Neiße]]
<li> [[Teltow-Fläming]]
<li> [[Uckermark]]
</ol>
|}
and four independent cities (''Stadtkreise''),
# [[Brandenburg (town)|Brandenburg an der Havel]]
# [[Cottbus]]
# [[Frankfurt an der Oder]]
# [[Potsdam]]
== History ==
In late medieval and early modern times, Brandenburg was one of seven [[Elector]]ships of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and, |
n until the latter half of the 19th century. Portugal lost part of Guinea to [[French West Africa]], including the center of earlier Portuguese commercial interest, the [[Casamance River]] region. A dispute with [[United Kingdom|Britain]] over the island of [[Bolama]] was settled in Portugal's favor with the involvement of U.S. President [[Ulysses S. Grant]].
Before [[World War I]], Portuguese forces, with some assistance from the [[Muslim]] population, subdued animist tribes and eventually established the territory's borders. The interior of Portuguese Guinea was brought under control after more than 30 years of fighting; final subjugation of the [[Bijagós Islands]] did not occur until [[1936]]. The administrative capital was moved from [[Bolama]] to [[Bissau]] in [[1941]], and in [[1952]], by constitutional amendment, the colony of Portuguese Guinea became an overseas province of Portugal.
==Struggle for independence==
''Main article: [[Guinea-Bissauan Revolution]]''
In [[1956]], the [[Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde|African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde]] (PAIGC) was organized clandestinely by [[Amílcar Cabral]] and [[Rafael Barbosa]]. The PAIGC moved its headquarters to [[Conakry]], Guinea, in 1960 and started an armed rebellion against the Portuguese in 1961 (for a detailed account of this struggle, see the PAIGC page). Despite the presence of Portuguese troops, which grew to more than 35,000, the PAIGC steadily expanded its influence until, by [[1968]], it controlled most of the country. It established civilian rule in the territory under its control and held elections for a [[National Assembly]]. Portuguese forces and civilians increasingly were confined to their garrisons and larger towns. The Portuguese Governor and Commander in Chief from 1968 to 1973, General [[António de Spínola]], returned to Portugal and led the movement which brought democracy to Portugal and independence for its colonies.
[[Amílcar Cabral]] was assassinated in Conakry in [[1973]], and party leadership fell to [[Aristides Pereira]], who later became the first president of the [[Republic of Cape Verde]]. The PAIGC National Assembly met at [[Boe (Guinea-Bissau)|Boe]] in the southeastern region and declared the independence of Guinea-Bissau on [[September 24]], [[1973]] and was recognized by a 93-7 UN General Assembly vote in November [http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/281/33/IMG/NR028133.pdf?OpenElement] , unprecedented as it denounced illegal Portuguese aggression and occupation and was prior to complete control and Portuguese recognition. Following Portugal's April 1974 [[Carnation Revolution]], it granted independence to Guinea-Bissau on September 10, 1974. [[Luís Cabral]], Amílcar Cabral's half-brother, became President of Guinea-Bissau. In late 1980, the government was overthrown in a relatively bloodless coup led by Prime Minister and former armed forces commander [[João Bernardo Vieira]].
==Vieira's presidency==
From November 1980 to May 1984, power was held by a provisional government responsible to a Revolutionary Council headed by President [[João Bernardo Vieira]]. In 1984, the council was dissolved, and the National Popular Assembly (ANP) was reconstituted. The single-party assembly approved a new constitution, elected President Vieira to a new 5-year term, and elected a Council of State, which was the executive agent of the ANP. Under this system, the president presides over the Council of State and serves as head of state and government. The president also was head of the PAIGC and commander in chief of the armed forces.
There were alleged coup plots against the Vieira government in 1983, 1985, and 1993. In 1986, first Vice President Paulo Correia and five others were executed for treason following a lengthy trial.
==Democracy==
In 1994, 20 years after independence from Portugal, the country's first multiparty legislative and presidential elections were held. An army uprising that triggered the [[Guinea-Bissau Civil War]] in 1998, created hundreds of thousands of displaced persons. The president was ousted by a military junta in [[May 7]], [[1999]]. An interim government turned over power in February 2000 when opposition leader [[Kumba Ialá]] took office following two rounds of transparent presidential elections. Guinea-Bissau's transition back to democracy will be complicated by a crippled economy devastated by civil war and the military's predilection for governmental meddling.
In September [[2003]] a bloodless coup took place in which the military, headed by General [[Veríssimo Correia Seabra]], arrested Ialá, because "he was unable to solve the problems". After being delayed several times, [[Guinea-Bissau legislative election, 2004|legislative elections]] were held in April [[2004]].
A [[mutiny]] of [[military]] factions in [[October]] [[2004]] resulted in the death of General Seabra and others, and caused widespread unrest. The Prime Minister [[Carlos Gomes Júnior]] has stated that the mutineers were ex-[[UN]] soldiers recently returned from Liberia who were angry about delays in being paid. Talks between these soldiers and the authorities have so far failed to come to an agreement.
The next presidential election is due early next year.
==See also==
*[[History of Africa]]
*[[History of West Africa]]
{{Africa in topic|History of}}
[[Category:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[de:Geschichte von Guinea-Bissau]] [[pt:História da Guiné-Bissau]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Guinea-Bissau</title>
<id>12188</id>
<revision>
<id>40706904</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T13:14:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lupo</username>
<id>34978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Shaded relief map</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Guinea Bissau Map.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Map Of Guinea Bissau]]
This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[Guinea-Bissau]]'''.
; Location:
: Western [[Africa]], bordering the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], between [[Guinea]] and [[Senegal]]
; [[Geographic coordinates]]:
: {{coor dm|12|00|N|15|00|W|type:country}}
; Map references:
: Africa
; Area:
:* Total: 36,120 [[Square kilometre|km&sup2;]]
:* Land: 28,000 km&sup2;
:* Water: 8,120 km&sup2;
; Area--comparative:
: Slightly less than three times the size of [[Connecticut]]
; Land boundaries:
:* Total: 724 km
:* Border countries: Guinea 386 km, Senegal 338 km
; Coastline:
: 350 km
; Maritime claims:
:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 [[Nautical mile|nm]] (370.4 km)
:* Territorial sea: 12 nm (22.2 km)
; Climate:
: Tropical; generally hot and humid; monsoonal-type rainy season (June to November) with southwesterly winds; dry season (December to May) with northeasterly [[harmattan]] winds
; Terrain:
: Mostly low coastal plain rising to [[savanna]] in east
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 [[metre|m]]
:* Highest point: Unnamed location in the northeast corner of the country 300 m
; Natural resources:
: [[Fish]], [[timber]], [[phosphates]], [[bauxite]], unexploited deposits of [[petroleum]]
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 11%
:* Permanent crops: 1%
:* Permanent pastures: 38%
:* Forests and woodland: 38%
:* Other: 12% (1993 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: 17 km&sup2; (1993 est.)
; Natural hazards:
: Hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season; brush fires
; Environment--current issues:
: Deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing; overfishing
; Environment--international agreements:
:* Party to: [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Wetlands]]
:* Signed, but not ratified: None of the selected agreements
==See also==
*[[Guinea-Bissau]]
{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography by country|Guinea-Bissau]]
[[Category:Geography of Guinea-Bissau| ]]
[[pt:Geografia da Guiné-Bissau]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Guinea-Bissau</title>
<id>12189</id>
<revision>
<id>34641538</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T18:43:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The population of [[Guinea-Bissau]] is ethnically diverse with distinct languages, customs, and social structures. Most people are farmers, with traditional religious beliefs ([[animism]]); 45% are [[Muslim]], principally [[Fula]] and [[Mandinka language|Mandinka]]-speaker concentrated in the north and northeast. Other important groups are the [[Balanta]] and [[Papel]], living in the southern coastal regions, and the [[Manjaco]] and [[Mancanha]], occupying the central and northern coastal areas.
'''Population:'''
1,285,715 (July 2000 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
42% (male 271,100; female 272,304)
<br>''15-64 years:''
55% (male 335,150; female 370,667)
<br>''65 years and over:''
3% (male 16,574; female 19,920) (2000 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
2.4% (2000 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
39.63 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Death rate:'''
15.62 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Net migration rate:'''
0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.03 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
0.9 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.83 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
112.25 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
49.04 years
<br>''male:''
46.77 years
<br>''female:''
51.37 years (2000 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
5.27 children born/woman (2000 |
ry control, was ceded to the United Provinces as [[Staats-Brabant]], a federally governed territory (the present [[North Brabant]]). The southern part remained in Habsburg hands as a part of the [[Southern Netherlands]]. It was transferred to the [[Austria|Austrian]] family branch in [[1714]]. During the French occupation of the Southern Netherlands in [[1795]] the duchy of Brabant was dissolved. The territory was reorganised in the ''[[The 130 départements|départements]]'' of [[Deux-Nèthes]] (present [[Antwerp (province)|province of Antwerp]]) and [[Dyle (département)|Dyle]] (the later province of Brabant).
==Province of Brabant==
After the defeat of Napoleon in [[1815]] ([[Battle of Waterloo]]), the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] (consisting of modern day Netherlands, Belgium and [[Luxembourg]]) was created at the [[Congress of Vienna]] in [[1815]]. The former ''département'' [[Dyle (département)|Dyle]] became the new '''province of Brabant'''. With the Belgian independence of [[1830]], Brabant became the central province of Belgium with capital town [[Brussels]].
In [[1989]] [[Brussels-Capital Region]] was created, but the region was still part of the province of Brabant. In [[1995]] the province of Brabant was split into the Dutch speaking [[Flemish Brabant]], the French speaking [[Walloon Brabant]] and the bilingual Brussels-Capital Region.
Along the international border between the Netherlands and Belgium there are a few [[enclave]]s and [[exclave]]s, as relicts of the old duchy of Brabant: the municipalities [[Baarle-Hertog]] (Belgium) and [[Baarle-Nassau]] (Netherlands).
==See also==
* [[North Brabant]], a province of the [[Netherlands]].
* [[Flemish Brabant]], a province of [[Belgium]], [[Flemish Region]].
* [[Walloon Brabant]], a province of [[Belgium]], [[Wallonia]].
* [[Brabantic]], a dialect of the [[Dutch language]].
* [[Duke of Brabant]]
* [[Brabant, West Virginia]], USA.
* [[Belgian (horse)|Brabant]] can also refer to the Belgian Heavy Horse.
* [[Brabant Island]], in [[Antarctica]]
[[Category:Brabant]]
[[Category:Former polities in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:States of the Holy Roman Empire]]
[[cs:Brabant]]
[[da:Brabant]]
[[de:Herzogtum Brabant]]
[[fr:Brabant (homonymie)]]
[[nl:Brabant]]
[[pl:Brabancja]]
[[sv:Brabant]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Back-Cover Texts</title>
<id>4509</id>
<revision>
<id>15902775</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-08T02:12:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Angela</username>
<id>8551</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#redirect [[GNU Free Documentation License]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[GNU Free Documentation License]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boone, North Carolina</title>
<id>4512</id>
<revision>
<id>41644060</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:25:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Suamme1</username>
<id>536187</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ transit link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Boone''' is a town located in the northern mountains of [[North Carolina]] and in [[Watauga County, North Carolina]], for which it is the county seat{{GR|6}} and market town. As of the [[2000]] census, the town had a total population of 13,472.
Boone acquires its name from the famous pioneer and explorer [[Daniel Boone]], who on several occasions camped at a site generally agreed to be within the present city limits. Boone was served by the legendary narrow gauge [[East Tennessee and Western North Carolina Railroad]] (ET&WNC) (also known as "Tweetsie Railroad").
Boone is the site of the [[Appalachian State University]] (ASU), a constituent member of the University of North Carolina. It has an enrollment that exceeds 14,000.
"''[[Horn in the West]]''", a dramatization of the life and times of Daniel Boone, has been performed in an outdoor [[amphitheatre]] above the town every summer since 1952. The original "Daniel Boone" was [[Ned Austin]], whose "Hollywood Star" stands on a pedestal on King Street downtown. The multi Grammy award winner,guitar player [[Doc Watson]] also comes from the Boone area, as do many bluegrass musicians and Appalachian storytellers.
== Geography ==
[[Image:NCMap-doton-Boone.PNG|right|Location of Boone, North Carolina]]
Boone is located at 36&deg;12'41" North, 81&deg;40'7" West (36.211364, -81.668657){{GR|1}} and has an elevation of 3266 ft above mean sea level. An earlier survey gave the elevation as 3332 ft and since then it has been published as having an elevation of 3333 ft. Boone has the highest elevation of any town of its size (over 10,000 population) east of the Mississippi River. As such, the climate of Boone is closer to that of New England or the upper Midwest than the South.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the town has a total area of 15.1 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (5.8 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 15.1 km&sup2; (5.8 mi&sup2;) of it is land and none of the area is covered with water.
== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 13,472 people, 4,374 households, and 1,237 families residing in the town. The [[population density]] is 890.7/km&sup2; (2,307.0/mi&sup2;). There are 4,748 housing units at an average density of 313.9/km&sup2; (813.0/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the town is 93.98% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 3.42% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.30% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.19% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.05% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.46% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.60% from two or more races. 1.64% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 4,374 households out of which 9.6% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 21.0% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 5.6% have a female householder with no husband present, and 71.7% are non-families. 38.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 7.3% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 1.97 and the average family size is 2.63.
The age distribution is 5.8% under the age of 18, 65.9% from 18 to 24, 12.1% from 25 to 44, 9.1% from 45 to 64, and 7.1% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 21 years. Both the overall age distributon and the median age are typical for communities dominated by a large university, here Appalachian State. For every 100 females there are 95.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 94.7 males.
The median household income is $20,541, and the median family income is $49,762. Males have a median income of $28,060 versus $20,000 for females. The [[per capita income]] is $12,256. 37.0% of the population and 9.2% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. However, poverty statistics that are based on surveys of the entire population can be extremely misleading in communities dominated by students, such as Boone. Out of the total population, 6.3% of those under the age of 18 and 9.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. These particular statistics are far less skewed by the overwhelming dominance of students in Boone's population.
== External links ==
* [http://www.townofboone.net/ Official Boone, NC website]
* [http://www.boonechamber.com/ Boone Area Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.visitboonenc.com/ Boone Convention & Visitors Bureau]
* [http://www.appalcart.com/ AppalCART Public Transportation]
* [http://www.booneonline.com/ Historical Boone Photos, Postcards, and Paper]
* [http://www.blueridgevacations.com/ Blue Ridge Vacations Travel Guide]
* [http://www.johnsonsdepot.com/crumley/cyhome.htm Cy Crumley ET&WNC Photo Collection]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|36.211364|-81.668657}}
[[Category:Towns in North Carolina]]
[[Category:Watauga County, North Carolina]]
[[Category:University towns]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Banshee</title>
<id>4513</id>
<revision>
<id>40386641</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T05:09:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.4.102.152</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article describes the banshee of [[Gaelic]] folklore (in [[Ireland]], [[Isle of Man|Man]] and [[Scotland]]). For other uses, see [[Banshee (disambiguation)]].''
The '''banshee''' ({{IPA2|&#712;bæn&#643;i&#720;}}) is a creature in [[Irish folklore|Gaelic folklore]], the word being derived from the [[Old Irish]] ''ben síde'', [[Irish language|modern Irish]] ''bean sídhe'' or ''bean sí'', "[[fairy]] woman" (''bean'', woman, and ''[[sidhe]]'', being the ''tuiseal ginideach'' or possessive case of "fairy"). The sídh are derived from [[pre-Christian]] Gaelic [[deity|deities]].
When members of the community died, a woman would sing a traditional lament or ''caoineadh'' at their [[funeral|funerals]]. These women singers are sometimes referred to in [[English language|English]] as "keener". Traditionally, the banshee can only cry for five great Gaelic families: the O'Gradys, the O'Neills, the O'Briens, the O'Connors, and the Kavanaghs. These families had a fairy woman associated with them, who would make an appearance after a death in the family to sing this lament. Tales recount how, when the family member had died far away then the appearance or, in some tales, the sound of the fairy keener, might be the first intimation of the death.
When these oral narratives were first translated into English, a distinction between the "banshee" and other fairy folk was introduced which does not seem to exist in the original stories in |
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