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see this as a [[protoscience]] of [[human ecology]]. These ideas include the idea of humans as the [[keystone species]], say act to prevent [[climate change]], [[primate extinction]], etc., and might deliberately maintain the balances of the entire [[biosphere]] with their own cognition. One is not passively asking &quot;what is going on&quot;, but rather, &quot;what to do next&quot;, e.g. in [[terraforming]] or [[climate engineering]] or even on a small scale as [[gardening]]. Changes could thus be planned, consented to by many people, and very deliberate, as in [[urban ecology]] and especially [[industrial ecology]]. ''See [[arcology]] for more on this 'active' view.'' Gaians argue that it is a human [[duty]] to act as such - committing themselves in particular to the [[Precautionary Principle]]. Such views began to influence the [[Green Parties]], [[Greenpeace]], and a few more radical wings of the [[environmental movement]] such as the Gaia Liberation Front and the Earth Liberation Front. These views dominate some such groups, e.g. the [[Bioneers]]. Some refer to this political activity as a separate and radical branch of the [[ecology movement]], one that takes the axioms of the science of ecology in general, and Gaia theory in particular, and raises them to a kind of theory of [[personal conduct]] or [[moral code]]. NOTE: More to add in regards to (1) the terraforming of Mars as an &quot;offspring&quot; of Gaia, and (2) the Internet as the Gaian nervous system. == Semantic debate == The question of &quot;what is an [[organism]]&quot; and at what scale is it rational to speak about organisms vs. biospheres, give rise to a semantic debate. We are all ecologies in the sense that our (human) bodies contain [[gut bacteria]], [[parasite]] species, etc., and to them our body is not organism but rather more of a [[microclimate]] or [[biome]]. Applying that thinking to whole planets: The argument is that these symbiotic organisms, being unable to survive apart from each other and their climate and local conditions, form an organism in their own right, under a wider conception of the term organism than is conventionally used. It is a matter for often heated debate whether this is a valid usage of the term, but ultimately it appears to be a semantic dispute. In this sense of the word organism, it is argued under the theory that the entire biomass of the Earth is a single organism (as [[Johannes Kepler]] thought). Unfortunately, many supporters of the various Gaia theories do not state exactly where they sit on this spectrum; this makes discussion and criticism difficult. Much effort on behalf of those analyzing the theory currently is an attempt to clarify what these different hypotheses are, and whether they are proposals to 'test' or 'manipulate' outcomes. Both Lovelock's and Margulis's understanding of Gaia are considered valid scientific theories, and are now a part of [[biology]] proper. More speculative versions of Gaia, including all versions in which it is held that the Earth is actually conscious, are currently held to be outside the bounds of science. The views of self-proclaimed political [[Gaians]] are in this category. ==Other Notes== At least one work of fiction, the film ''[[Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]'', uses [[Gaia philosophy]] as a central point to the plot, and may arguably represent a fictional parallel to [[James Lovelock|Sir James Lovelock]] in the character of Dr. Sid, who is met with skepticism from the scientific and social community when he promotes the idea of a &quot;living Earth&quot;. In the film, Dr. Sid attempts to create a &quot;waveform&quot; from the positive energy signature of the Earth's spirit, in order to combat the films antagonists, the negative energy &quot;Phantoms&quot;, through use of [[phase inversion]] canceling. == See also== * [[Arcology]] * [[Climate engineering]] * [[Gaia hypothesis]] (James Lovelock's ideas) * [[Gardening]] * [[Industrial ecology]] * [[James Kirchner]] * [[Keystone species]] * [[Odic force]] * [[Places to intervene in a system]] * [[Technogaianism]] * [[Urban ecology]] == External links == * [http://www.oceansonline.com/gaiaho.htm The Gaia Hypothesis] * [http://www.colorado.edu/iec/FALL299RW/eco.html Gaia: Argument over a single word] * [http://conceivia.com/store/books/society-of-conceivia/ Society of Conceivia] (book) [[Category:New Age]] [[Category:Protoscience]] [[de:Gaia-Hypothese]] [[fr:Théories Gaïa]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Greenhouse gases</title> <id>12394</id> <revision> <id>15910083</id> <timestamp>2004-06-04T06:42:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Template namespace initialisation script</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[greenhouse gas]] {{R_from_plural}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Greenhouse effect</title> <id>12395</id> <revision> <id>42136818</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:41:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Michael Hardy</username> <id>4626</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''greenhouse effect''', first discovered by [[Joseph Fourier]] in [[1824]], and quantified by [[Svante Arrhenius]] in 1896, is the process by which an [[celestial body atmosphere|atmosphere]] warms a [[planet]]. [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] and other celestial bodies with atmospheres (such as [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]) have greenhouse effects, but for simplicity the rest of this article will refer to the case of [[Earth]]. In common parlance, the term ''greenhouse effect'' may be used to refer either to the the natural greenhouse effect, which is the greenhouse effect which occurs naturally on Earth, or to the enhanced (anthropogenic) greenhouse effect, which results from human activities (see also [[global warming]]). The former is accepted by all; the latter is [[scientific opinion on climate change|accepted by most scientists]], although there is [[attribution of recent climate change|some dispute]]. ==The natural greenhouse effect== ===Process=== The [[Earth]] receives an enormous amount of [[solar radiation]]. Just above the atmosphere, the solar power flux density averages about [[solar constant|1366]] [[watt]]s per [[square meter]], or [[orders of magnitude (power)|1.740×10{{sup|17}}]] W [[insolation|over the entire Earth]]. This figure ''vastly'' exceeds the power generated by human activities. The solar power hitting Earth is balanced over time by a roughly equal amount of power radiating from the Earth (as the amount of energy from the Sun that is stored is small). Almost all radiation leaving the Earth takes two forms: reflected [[solar radiation]] and thermal [[blackbody]] radiation. [[Image:MODIS ATM solar irradiance.jpg|thumb|350px||[[Solar radiation]] at top of atmosphere and at Earth's surface.]] Reflected solar radiation accounts for 30% of the Earth's total radiation: on average, 6% of the incoming solar radiation is reflected by the atmosphere, 20% is reflected by clouds, and 4% is reflected by the surface. The remaining 70% of the incoming solar radiation is absorbed: 16% by the atmosphere (including the almost complete absorption of shortwave [[ultraviolet]] over most areas by the stratospheric [[ozone layer]]); 3% by clouds; and 51% by the land and oceans. This absorbed energy heats the atmosphere, oceans, land and powers life on the planet. Like the Sun, the Earth is a thermal blackbody radiator. So because the Earth's surface is much cooler than the Sun (287 K vs 5780 K), [[Wien's displacement law]] dictates that Earth must radiate its thermal energy at much longer wavelengths than the Sun. While the Sun's radiation peaks at a visible wavelength of 500 nanometers, Earth's radiation peak is in the longwave (far) [[infrared]] at about 10 micrometres. [[Image:Atmospheric absorption.png|thumb|right|350px|Atmospheric absorption of various wavelengths of [[electromagnetic spectrum|electromagnetic radiation]] (measured along sea level).]] The Earth's atmosphere is largely transparent at visible and near-infrared wavelengths, but not at 10 micrometres. Only about 6% of the Earth's total radiation to space is direct thermal radiation from the surface. The atmosphere absorbs 71% of the surface thermal radiation before it can escape. The atmosphere itself behaves as a blackbody radiator in the far infrared, so it re-radiates this energy. The Earth's atmosphere and clouds therefore account for 91.4% of its longwave infrared radiation and 64% of Earth's total emissions at all wavelengths. The atmosphere and clouds get this energy from the solar energy they directly absorb; thermal radiation from the surface; and from heat brought up by convection and the condensation of water vapor. Because the atmosphere is such a good absorber of longwave infrared, it effectively forms a one-way blanket over Earth's surface. Visible and near-visible radiation from the Sun easily gets through, but thermal radiation from the surface can't easily get back out. In response, Earth's surface warms up. The power of the surface radiation increases by the [[Stefan-Boltzmann law]] until it (over time) compensates for the atmospheric absorption. The surface of the Earth is in constant flux with daily, yearly, and ages long cycles and trends in temperature and other variables from a variety of causes. The result of the greenhouse effect is that average surface temperatures are considerably higher than they would otherwise be if the Earth's surface temperature were determined solely by the [[albedo]] and blackbody properties of the surface. It is commonplace for simplistic descriptions of the &quot;greenhouse&quot; effect to assert that the same mechanism warms greenhouses (e.g. [http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming/kids/greenhouse.html]), but this is an incorrect oversimplification: see below. ===Limiting factors=== The
|1874]], [[1875 in sports|1875]] :'''Official television stations''': [[TBS (TV network)|TBS]], [[Turner South]], [[Fox Sports South]] :'''Official radio station''': WKLS-FM, WGST-AM (flagship) :'''Famous fans''': [[Jimmy Carter]], [[Elton John]], [[Cee-Lo]], [[Ludacris]], [[Lil Jon]], [[Jeff Foxworthy]], [[RuPaul]] ==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs== {| |valign=&quot;topbibibibkbkbkbkbkbkbkbkbkbkbk&quot;| Boston *[[Earl Averill]] *[[Dave Bancroft]] *[[Dan Brouthers]] *[[John Clarkson]] *[[Jimmy Collins]] *[[Hugh Duffy]] *[[Johnny Evers]] *[[Burleigh Grimes]] *[[Billy Hamilton]] *[[Billy Herman]] *[[Rogers Hornsby]] *[[Joe Kelley]] *[[King Kelly]] *[[Ernie Lombardi]] *[[Al Lopez]] *[[Rabbit Maranville]] *[[Rube Marquard]] *[[Tommy McCarthy]] *[[Bill McKechnie]] *[[Joe Medwick]] *[[Kid Nichols]] *[[Jim O'Rourke (baseball player)|Jim O'Rourke]] *[[Charles Radbourn]] *[[Babe Ruth]] (28 games in 1935) *[[Al Simmons]] *[[George Sisler]] *[[Warren Spahn]] *[[Casey Stengel]] *[[Ed Walsh]] *[[Lloyd Waner]] *[[Paul Waner]] *[[Vic Willis]] *[[George Wright (baseball)|George Wright]] *[[Harry Wright]] *[[Cy Young]] |width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp; |valign=&quot;top&quot;| Milwaukee *[[Henry Aaron]] *[[Eddie Mathews]] *[[Phil Niekro]] *[[Red Schoendienst]] *[[Enos Slaughter]] *[[Warren Spahn]] Atlanta *[[Henry Aaron]] *[[Orlando Cepeda]] *[[Eddie Mathews]] *[[Phil Niekro]] *[[Gaylord Perry]] *[[Bruce Sutter]] *[[Hoyt Wilhelm]] |} ==Retired numbers== * 3 [[Dale Murphy]], OF, Atlanta, 1976-90 * 21 [[Warren Spahn]], P, Boston 1942-52, Milwaukee 1953-64 * 35 [[Phil Niekro]], P, Milwaukee 1964-65, Atlanta 1966-83 &amp; 1 game in 1987 * 41 [[Eddie Mathews]], 3B, Boston 1952, Milwaukee 1953-65, Atlanta 1966; MGR 1972-74 * 44 [[Hank Aaron]], OF, Milwaukee 1954-65, Atlanta 1966-74 Murphy, Niekro, Aaron, and [[Paul Richards]], a former major league catcher and manager who served as Braves vice president 1966-72, are also members of the Georgia Sports Hall of Fame. Mathews is the only player to have played for the Braves in all three cities. ==Current roster== {{:Atlanta Braves roster}} ==Minor league affiliates== *'''AAA:''' [[Richmond Braves]], [[International League]] *'''AA:''' [[Mississippi Braves]], [[Southern League %28baseball%29|Southern League]] *'''Advanced A:''' [[Myrtle Beach Pelicans]], [[Carolina League]] *'''A:''' [[Rome Braves]], [[South Atlantic League]] *'''Rookie:''' [[Danville Braves]], [[Appalachian League]] *'''Rookie:''' [[Orlando Braves|GCL Braves]], [[Gulf Coast League]] == See also == *[[Atlanta Braves/Award winners and league leaders|Braves award winners and league leaders]] *[[Atlanta Braves/Team records|Braves statistical records and milestone achievements]] *[[Atlanta Braves/Players of note|Braves players of note]] *[[Atlanta Braves/Broadcasters|Braves broadcasters and media]] *[[Atlanta Braves/Managers and ownership|Braves managers and ownership]] *[[List of sports team names derived from Indigenous peoples]] == External links == *[http://atlanta.braves.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/atl/homepage/atl_homepage.jsp Atlanta Braves official web site] *[http://www.sportznow.com/teams/atl.htm Atlanta Braves News, Stats, and Roster] *[http://www.bravesnewsworld.com Atlanta Braves News World unofficial blog] *[http://www.davidpietrusza.com/Boston_Braves_Finale.html Boston Braves Finale] {{MLB}} {{Time Warner}} [[Category:Atlanta Braves| ]] [[Category:Major League Baseball teams]] [[Category:Time Warner subsidiaries]] [[da:Atlanta Braves]] [[de:Atlanta Braves]] [[es:Atlanta Braves]] [[fr:Braves d'Atlanta]] [[ja:アトランタ・ブレーブス]] [[sv:Atlanta Braves]] [[zh:亞特蘭大勇士]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Atari ST</title> <id>2141</id> <revision> <id>41986681</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:33:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DrBob</username> <id>2251</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Ultrogonic|Ultrogonic]] ([[User talk:Ultrogonic|talk]]) to last version by 82.64.30.226</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Atari-520ST.jpg|thumb|300px|The Atari 520ST]] [[Image:Atari 1040STf.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Atari 1040ST&lt;sup&gt;F&lt;/sup&gt; with SC1224 color monitor]] The '''Atari ST''' is a [[home computer|home]]/[[personal computer]] that was commercially popular from 1985 to the early 1990s. It was released by [[Atari]] in [[1985]]. The &quot;ST&quot; allegedly stood for &quot;Sixteen/Thirty-two&quot;, which referred to the [[Motorola 68000]]'s 16-bit external bus and 32-bit internals. &lt;!-- Commenting out; please see the talk page:Another theory is that ST really stood for &quot;Sam Tramiel&quot;, [[Jack Tramiel]]'s eldest son.--&gt; &lt;!-- Commenting out; please see talk page:This is a plausible explanation, since the Atari ST also used a [[bumblebee]] as the busy mouse pointer image, which might be a reference to Jack's birth name (although the phrase &quot;busy as a bee&quot; was probably the more likely inspiration).--&gt; ==Overview== The Atari ST was a notable [[home computer]], based on the [[Motorola 68000]] [[Central processing unit|CPU]], with 512&amp;nbsp;[[kilobyte|kB]] of [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] or more, and 3½&quot; [[floppy disk]]s as storage. It was similar to other contemporary machines which used the Motorola 68000, the [[Apple Macintosh]] and the [[Commodore Amiga]]. Although the Macintosh was the first widely available computer with a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), it was however limited to a lower-resolution monochromatic display on a smaller built-in monitor. The Atari ST was the first computer with a fully bit-mapped color GUI. It had an innovative single-chip graphics subsystem (designed by Shiraz Shivji) which shared the full amount of system memory, in alternating clock cycles, with the processor, similar to the earlier [[BBC Micro]] and the Unified Memory systems that have become common today. It was also the first home computer with integral [[Musical Instrument Digital Interface|MIDI]] support. The ST was primarily a competitor to the [[Commodore Amiga]] systems. This platform rivalry was often reflected by the owners and was most prominent in the [[Demo Scene]]. Where the Amiga had custom hardware which gave it the edge in the [[computer game|games]] and videowork market, the ST was generally cheaper and slightly faster at basic operation. Thanks to its built-in [[MIDI]] ports it enjoyed success as a [[music sequencer]] and [[controller]] of [[musical instrument]]s among amateurs and professionals alike, being used in concert by bands such as [[Tangerine Dream]] and 90's UK dance act [[808 State]]. In some markets, particularly [[Germany]], the machine gained a strong foothold as a [[small business]] machine for [[CAD]] and [[Desktop publishing]] work. The ST was later superseded by the [[Atari TT]] and [[Atari Falcon|Falcon]] computers, and ST technology was used in the creation of the [[Atari Jaguar]] video game console. Since Atari pulled out of the computer market there has been a market for powerful [[Atari TOS|TOS]]-based machines (clones). Like most &quot;retro&quot; computers the Atari enjoys support in the [[emulator]] scene. == Origins == Atari had created two released machines in the form of the [[Atari 2600]] console (also known as ''VCS'') and the various [[Atari 8-bit family|Atari 8-bit]] based home computers. Both of these lines were created around the [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] [[central processing unit|CPU]] and included a number of additional chips assisting this rather basic, but cost-effective CPU in providing graphics and sound. In fact the 8-bit machines had originally intended to be the replacement for the 2600, but they were later reengineered as home computers. As Atari grew and the management was shuffled by [[Time Warner|Warner]] (their parent company), the creators of the 2600 and 8-bit machines eventually got fed up and left. A group of them led by [[Jay Miner]] formed a small [[think tank]] called '''Amiga''' in [[1982]] and set about creating the third generation machine, this time based on the much more powerful 68000 CPU. During this time, the [[home computer]] market started to slow down, and the video game market underwent the great [[video game crash of 1983]]. Warner management decided to &quot;get out&quot; and started looking to sell Atari outright. Meanwhile many of the same effects were in the process of decimating [[Commodore International]]. An argument involving Commodore's chairman and largest shareholder Irving Gould, and [[Jack Tramiel]] ensued over development of a new 68000 system, resulting in Tramiel's immediate departure from Commodore in January of [[1984]]. Tramiel immediately formed a [[holding company]], '''Tramiel Technology''', and brought in a number of ex-Commodore staff to continue his project to develop a new, high-performance home computer. While this team, led by Shiraz Shivji, worked on the design, Tramiel discovered that Warner Communications wanted to sell Atari Corp. Tramiel purchased Atari Corp, mainly for the overseas manufacturing and dealer network. The design team considered &quot;one-upping&quot; the Macintosh by using a full [[32-bit]] chip, namely the [[NS32032]], but in talks, [[National Semiconductor]] couldn't supply the numbers, or price, the project needed. In retrospect this proved to be lucky, as a prototype built on the NS32032 benchmarked slower than the 16-bit 68000. The basic hardware design quickly &quot;gelled&quot; into a form that was almost identical to the ST that eventually shipped. The design used off-the-shelf parts where possible. Disk drive support was provided by the [[WD1772]], a standard [[Western Digital]] chip, and sound from a [[General Instruments AY-3-8912|Yamaha YM2149]]. Serial, MIDI, and other I/O functions were provided by standard [[Motorola]] chips. The custom chips included a memory controller, the simple &quot;Shifter&
eir rights to old games from which they're no longer making profit. Proponents of abandonware argue that it is more ethical to make copies of such software than new software that still sells. Some who are ignorant of copyright law have incorrectly taken this to mean that abandonware is legal to distribute, although no software is old enough for its copyrights to have expired, and even in cases where the original company no longer exists, the rights usually still belong to someone. Transfer of this software is still technically unlawful in most jurisdictions (except in cases of owner [[dissolution (law)|dissolution]]) as the copyright is still in effect. Abandonware changes hands based on the presumption that the time and money that a copyright holder would have to spend enforcing the copyright is greater than any money the holder would earn selling software licenses. Often the availability of abandonware on the Internet is related to the willingness of copyright holders to defend their copyrights. For example, unencumbered games for [[Colecovision]] are markedly easier to find on the Internet than unencumbered games for [[Mattel Intellivision]] in large part because there is still a company that makes money by selling Intellivision games while no such company exists for the Colecovision. Companies do sometimes voluntarily relinquish copyright on software, putting it into the [[public domain]], or re-license it as [[freeware]] or [[open source]]. [[id Software]] is notable as an early proponent of this practice, releasing older titles under an [[open source]] license. Another example is [[Amstrad]], who support emulation and free distribution of [[ZX Spectrum]] hardware ROMs and software. Transfer of public domain or free software is perfectly legal, distinguishing it from abandonware. It is uncommon for proprietary software companies to release software to the public domain or under an open source licence. However, many companies such as [[Novell]] and [[Sun]] have recently been experimenting with releasing their latest software under [[open source]] and [[free software]] licences which allow users not only to trade in the software freely but to sell and modify said software so long as they also release it under the same licence. ==Old copyrights that are still of value== A common misconception is that &quot;abandonware&quot; is synonymous with &quot;old [[warez]]&quot;, that is, any software older than a certain threshold (a common one being five years). This is not always the case, as some software companies (like [[Apogee Software|Apogee]]) still offer many of their older titles for sale and actively pursue those who illegally offer them. [[Atari 2600]] games are commonly distributed on the Internet based on the presumption that no one would buy a primitive Atari game. However, [[mobile phone]] manufacturers have bought the rights to use these games, which can be made to work well on newer programmable mobile phones. Some [[video game publisher|publishers]] argue that all abandonware distribution is harmful, whether it is still possible to buy the game or not. The reasoning is that because of the success companies like [[Nintendo]] and [[Activision]] have had in releasing old games for newer platforms like the [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]], [[Game Boy Advance]] and the [[PlayStation 2]], all abandonware has potential value, and that distributing it free on the Internet decreases the profits to be had from a legal rerelease. However, the reverse argument is also made: that the distribution of abandonware may help boost sales of new ports of old titles by making them popular again. Also, some argue that the new versions of classic titles are never as good as the classic ones. Classic game compilations have become popular on the [[Xbox]], PlayStation 2, and GameCube. [[Capcom]] and [[Midway]] have released compilation discs, and many other companies are doing the same. Also, many companies add older games as an unlockable in newer titles, like the original [[Wolfenstein 3D]] in the Xbox version of ''[[Return to Castle Wolfenstein]]'', and ''[[Prince of Persia]]'' in ''[[Prince of Persia: Sands of Time]]''(contained in ''[[Prince of Persia: Warrior Within]]'' on the Xbox) the original [[Metroid]] was also unlockable in [[Metroid Prime]] ([[Gamecube]]) and [[Metroid: Zero Mission]] ([[Game Boy Advance]]), as well as being released on the GBA as Nintendo's [[NES classics]] series. And on handheld systems like the Game Boy Advance, classic games are rereleased or remade for the system. ==Major software made available== ===Games=== The following formerly paid games have been made available for free download by their copyright holders for various reasons, often as publicity for a forthcoming sequel or compilation release. * ''[[Robby Roto|The Adventures of Robby Roto!]]'' (?), released to the public by its author, free arcade rom from http://www.mame.net* ''[[Alien Breed]] series'' ([[1991]]-[[1996]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_index.html Get it here]) * ''[[Akalabeth|Ultima 0/Akalabeth]]'' ([[1979]]) by [[Lord British]], see also the ''[[Ultima]]'' series * ''[[Allegiance (computer game)|Allegiance]]'' ([[1999]]) by [[Microsoft]], Kept alive by players, Windows only, designed for 56k connections so no connection is too slow, 3d action/space/strategy. ([http://www.freeallegiance.org]) * ''[[All Terrain Racing (computer game)|All Terrain Racing]]'' ([[1995]]) by [[Jamie Woodhouse]]/[[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_atr_downloads.html Get it here], also available on [http://www.jamiewoodhouse.co.uk/ Jamie Woodhouse's homepage]) * ''[[Apidya]]'' ([[1993]]) published in the UK by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_apidya_downloads.html Get it here]) * ''[[Arcade Pool]]'' ([[1990]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_arcadepool_downloads.html Get it here]) * ''[[Assassin (computer game)|Assassin]]'' ([[1992]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_assassin_downloads.html Get it here]) ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_assassinse_downloads.html Get the Special Edition here]) * ''[[Backlash (computer game)|Backlash]]'' ([[1994]]) by [[Sanctuary Software Studio]], originally shareware, now available as freeware ([http://www.sancsoft.com/galSoftware.asp Get it here]) * ''[[Beneath a Steel Sky]]'' ([[1994]]) by [[Revolution Software]] released to support the [[ScummVM]] Project ([http://www.scummvm.org/downloads.php Get it here]) * ''[[Betrayal at Krondor]]'' ([[1993]]) by [[Sierra On-Line]], limited time promotional free download in [[1997]] * ''[[Bio Menace]]'' ([[1993]] by [[Apogee_Software|Apogee]], re-released as freeware in December [[2005]]) * ''[[Body Blows]] series'' ([[1993]]-[[1995]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_index.html Get it here]) * ''[[Caesar (computer game)|Caesar]]'' ([[1991]]) by [[Impressions Games|Impressions]], later re-released by [[Sierra On-Line]], limited time promotional free download * ''[[Cardiaxx]]'' ([[1993]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_cardiaxx_downloads.html Get it here]) * ''[[The Elder Scrolls: Arena]]'' ([[1994]]) by [[Bethesda Softworks]] released to mark the 10th anniversary of the ''[[The Elder Scrolls|TES]]'' series, and as publicity release prior to the 4th installment, ''[[The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion|Oblivion]]'' ([http://www.elderscrolls.com/downloads/downloads_games.htm Get it here]) * ''[[Elite (computer game)|Elite]]'' ([[1984]]) by [[Acornsoft]], freeware release in [[1999]] courtesy of game developer [[Ian Bell (programmer)|Ian Bell]] ([http://www.iancgbell.clara.net/elite/pc/index.htm Get it here]) * ''[[Elite (computer game)|Elite +]]'' by [[Acornsoft]], freeware release in [[1999]] courtesy of game developer [[Ian Bell (programmer)|Ian Bell]] ([http://www.iancgbell.clara.net/elite/pc/index.htm Get it here]) * ''[[F17 Challenge]]'' ([[1993]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_f17_downloads.html Get it here]) * ''Fish Fillets'' (1998), by [[Altar Interactive]], freeware as of 2002, source code available since 2004, along with an official Linux port ([http://www.altarinteractive.com/pages/fillets_en.html Get it here]) * ''[[Flight of the Amazon Queen]]'' ([[1995]]) by [[Interactive Binary Illusions]] released to support the [[ScummVM]] Project ([http://www.scummvm.org/downloads.php Get it here]) * ''[[Full Contact (game)|Full Contact]]'' ([[1991]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_fullcontact_downloads.html Get it here]) * ''[[Grand Theft Auto (game)|Grand Theft Auto]]'' ([[1997]]) by [[Rockstar Games]], free download release in [[2002]] as publicity for the release of ''[[Grand Theft Auto: Vice City]]'' ([http://www.rockstargames.com/classics/gta.html Get it here]) * ''[[Grand Theft Auto 2]]'' ([[1999]]) by [[Rockstar Games]], free download release in 2004 as publicity for the release of ''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]'' ([http://www.rockstargames.com/classics/ Get it here]) *''[[Gridlee]]'' Gridlee, released by the authors to the public
elamonian Ajax '''. In [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' he is described as of great stature and colossal frame, the tallest among all the Achaeans, second only to his cousin [[Achilles]] in strength and bravery, and the 'bulwark of the Achaeans'. He was trained by the centaur [[Chiron]] (who had also trained his father, [[Telamon]], and Achilles' father [[Peleus]]), at the same time as Achilles was. Outshone only by his cousin, Ajax was the most valuable king in the battlefield, though not as smart as [[Nestor]], [[Idomeneus]], or, of course, [[Odysseus]]. He commanded his army wielding a great axe and a huge shield made of seven ox-hides with a layer of bronze. He was indeed a great asset to king [[Agamemnon]]'s army. He is not wounded in any of the battles described in the ''Iliad'', and he is the only principal character on either side who does not receive personal assistance from any of the gods who take part in the battles. As such, he embodies the virtues of hard work and perseverance. == Trojan War == During the ''[[Iliad]]'', Ajax is notable for his strength and courage, which he displays in abundance, particularly in two fights with [[Hector]]. In Book VII, Ajax is chosen by lot to meet Hector in a duel which lasts most of a whole day. Ajax at first gets the better of the encounter, wounding Hector with his spear and knocking him down with a large stone, but Hector fights on until the [[herald]]s, acting at the direction of [[Zeus]], call a draw: the action ends without a winner and with the two combatants exchanging gifts. In Book IX, [[Agamemnon]] and the other Greek chiefs send Ajax, accompanied by Odysseus and [[Phoenix (Iliad)|Phoenix]], to the tent of Achilles, in an attempt to reconcile with the great warrior and induce him to return to the fight. Although Ajax speaks earnestly and is well received, he does not succeed in convincing Achilles. The second fight between Ajax and Hector occurs when the latter breaks into the [[Achaean]] camp, and fights with the Greeks among the ships. In Book XIV, Ajax throws a giant rock at Hector which almost kills him. In Book XV, Hector is restored to his strength by [[Apollo]] and returns to attack the ships. Ajax, wielding a spear as a weapon and leaping from ship to ship, holds off the [[Trojan]] armies virtually single-handedly. In Book XVI, Hector is able to disarm Ajax (although Ajax is not hurt) and Ajax is forced to retreat under heavy fire. Hector and the Trojans succeed in burning one Greek ship, the culmination of an assault that almost finishes the war. All of the foregoing encounters happened when Achilles was not on the battlefield, because he was angry with Agamemnon. Ajax did manage to kill many of the other Trojan lords, including [[Phorkys]]. When [[Patroclus]] dies, the Trojans try to steal his body and feed him to the dogs, accusing him of being a liar. Ajax is the man who fights to protect the body, and take it back safely to the camp, back to Achilles, the best friend, Patroclus. Ajax, assisted by [[Menelaus]], succeeds in fighting off the Trojans and taking the body back with his chariot; of course, the Trojans had already stolen the armor and left the body naked. Ajax's prayer to Zeus, to remove the fog which has descended on the battle - even if the [[Greeks]] are destined to lose - to allow them to die in the light of day, has become proverbial. Like most of the other Greek leaders, Ajax is alive and well as the ''Iliad'' comes to a close. Later, when Achilles dies, killed by [[Paris_(mythology)|Paris]] (with help from Apollo), Ajax and Odysseus are the heroes that fight against the Trojans to get the body and bury it next to his dear friend, Patroclus. Ajax, with his great axe, manages to get the Trojans away, while Odysseus pulls the body towards his chariot, and rides away. After the burial, both claim the armor for themselves, as recognition for their efforts. But in the end, after some discussion, Odysseus is given the armor. Ajax is furious about it, and falls to the ground, exhausted. When he wakes up, he becomes mad and goes to a group of sheep, and slaughters them, imagining they are the Trojan leaders, as well as Odysseus and Agamemnon. When he comes to his senses, covered in blood, and realises what he did, he decides that he prefers to kill himself rather than to live in shame. He did it with the same sword Hector had given him when they exchanged presents. (''[[Odyssey]],'' XI. 541). From his blood sprang a red flower, as at the death of [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinthus]], which bore on its leaves the initial letters of his name ''Ai,'' also expressive of lament ([[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] I. 35.4). His ashes were deposited in a golden urn on the [[Rhoetean]] promontory at the entrance of the [[Hellespont]]. The foregoing account of his death is from the ''Ajax'' of [[Sophocles]]; in [[Pindar]]'s &quot;[[Nemea]]&quot;, 7; and in [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'', xiii. 1. Homer is somewhat vague about the precise manner of Ajax's death but does ascribe it to his loss in the dispute over Achilles's armour: when Odysseus visits [[Hades]], he begs the soul of Ajax to speak to him, but Ajax, still resentful over the old quarrel, refuses and descends silently back into [[Erebus]]. Like Achilles, he is represented (although not by Homer) as living after his death in the [[Snake Island (Black Sea)|island of Leuke]] at the mouth of the [[Danube]] ([[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] iii. 19. 11). Ajax, who in the post-Homeric legend is described as the grandson of [[Aeacus]] and the great-grandson of [[Zeus]], was the [[tutelary]] hero of the island of [[Salamis]], where he had a temple and an image, and where a festival called ''Aianteia'' was celebrated in his honour (Pausanias i. 35). At this festival a couch was set up, on which the panoply of the hero was placed, a practice which recalls the Roman [[Lectisternium]]. The identification of Ajax with the family of Aeacus was chiefly a matter which concerned the [[Athenian]]s, after Salamis had come into their possession, on which occasion [[Solon]] is said to have inserted a line in the ''[[Iliad]]'' (II. 557 or 558), for the purpose of supporting the Athenian claim to the island. Ajax then became an Attic hero; he was worshipped at [[Athens]], where he had a statue in the market-place, and the tribe ''Aiantis'' was named after him. == Family == Ajax is the son of [[Telamon]], who was the son of [[Aeacus]] and grandson of [[Zeus]], and his first wife [[Periboea]]. He is the cousin of Achilles, the most remembered Greek warrior, and elder half-brother of [[Teucer]]. Many illustrious Athenians — including [[Cimon]], [[Miltiades]], [[Alcibiades]] and the historian [[Thucydides]] — traced their descent from Ajax. == References == {{Commonscat|Ajax the Great}} *[[Homer]]. [[Iliad]] VII, 181-312; [[Homer]]. [[Odyssey]] XI, 543-67; [[Apollodorus]]. [[Epitome III]], 11-V, 7; [[Ovid]]. [[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]] XII, 620-XIII, 398. *The laundry [[detergent]] brand Ajax's slogan is &quot;Stronger than dirt&quot;, presumably in the mythological reference. *[[HMS Ajax]] (part of the [[UK]] [[Royal Navy]]) was named after him, but is no longer in use *The [[USS Ajax]] was named for his valor *Ajax is the name given to one of the most ferocious villians, known as a Titan, in [[Brian Herbert]] and [[Kevin J. Anderson]]'s prequel book trilogy, [[Dune: The Butlerian Jihad]], to [[Frank Herbert]]'s classic sci-fi epic [[Dune (novel)|Dune]]. *Ajax appears as one of the main characters in the [[computer game]] ''[[Age of Mythology]]'' *In the 2004 film ''[[Troy (film)|Troy]]'', Ajax was played by [[professional wrestling|wrestler]] [[Tyler Mane]]. *Amsterdam's football (soccer) club, [[Ajax Amsterdam]], is possibly named after Ajax *Ajax is a character in the 1979 film ''[[The Warriors]]''; played by James Remar, the character exhibits simliar traits to the mythological Ajax {{1911}} [[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]] [[ca:Àiax el Gran]] [[da:Ajax]] [[de:Ajax der Große]] [[es:Ayax el Grande]] [[fr:Ajax fils de Télamon]] [[it:Aiace Telamonio]] [[he:איאקס]] [[lt:Ajaksas]] [[nl:Ajax (mythologie)]] [[ja:大アイアス]] [[pl:Ajaks]] [[pt:Ájax]] [[ru:Аякс Великий]] [[fi:Aias]] [[uk:Аякс Теламонід]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ajax</title> <id>1569</id> <revision> <id>40577797</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T15:54:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>147.83.148.106</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Ajax''' can refer to: * Two figures in Homer's ''Iliad'', from which all other references named '''Ajax''' are derived: ** [[Telamonian Aias]], or Ajax the Great, King of Salamis ** [[Ajax the Lesser]], King of Locris * [[Ajax (Sophocles)|''Ajax'' (Sophocles)]], a tragedy whose protagonist is Ajax the Great * [[Ajax Amsterdam]], the major football (soccer) team of Amsterdam, The Netherlands * Automobiles: ** [[Ajax (1906 automobile)]], Aigner, Switzerland ** [[Ajax (1913 automobile)]], Briscoe, France ** [[Ajax (1921 automobile)]], prototype, U.S. ** [[Ajax (automobile)]], Nash Motors, 1925-26, U.S. * [[Ajax (band)]], from New York City * [[Ajax (arcade game)]], by [[Konami]] * [[Ajax (horse)]], a champion Australian racehorse which raced in the 1930s * [[Ajax (programming)]], Asynchronous JavaScript and XML for web development * [[HMS Ajax|HMS ''Ajax'']], several ships of the Royal Navy * [[Ajax cleanser]] household cleaner * [[Ajax Duckman]], a character in the animated television series ''Duckman'' * [[Ajax, Ontario]], Canada * [[Ajax Records]] * [[Operation Ajax]], a 1953 Anglo-American covert operation to overthrow the government of Iran * [[War Rocket Ajax]], from the 1980 movie [[Flash Gordon]] * Ajax, a character from the 1979 U.S. film ''[[The Warriors]]'' * Ajax, a fictional company in Mickey Mouse cartoons; see [[Acme Corporation]] * Ajax Mountai
idn't realise I wasn't logged in</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=h2g2}} [[Image:H2g2 logo.gif|right|h2g2 logo in the Brunel skin]] '''h2g2''' is an online community engaged in the construction of a guide to life, the universe, and everything. Much of it is encyclopedic, but the site also covers more idiosyncratic subjects, such as [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A450587 plastic bag bras], [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A625592 teaching cats to fetch], or [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A352522 burying oneself in sand]. Although the site is owned and hosted by the [[BBC]], many participants are from outside the [[United Kingdom]]. The site takes its name from ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', a fictional publication found in the book, radio, television series, and film of the same name. h2g2 has a strong [[community]] feel, with a largely helpful user base. The site is rich in graphics, which are designed by a volunteer team of community artists. The site is generally considered quite [[user-friendly]], particularly towards new users who are usually welcomed by volunteers known as ACEs (see below). As in many such communities, discussion ranges from the friendly to the hostile, but for the most part Researchers work together well. Entries typically aim for a slightly humorous, but correct and well-written treatment of their subject matter. Every entry has an associated discussion area, which allows for multiple threads, called Conversations. ==History== h2g2 was founded in April 1999 as the [[Earth]] edition of the ''Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' by the author of the series, [[Douglas Adams]], and his friends and colleagues at [[The Digital Village]]. &quot;h2g2&quot; serves as a handy abbreviation for that rather lengthy title, with the advantage that most people are able to spell it. Like many other [[dot-com]] companies, Adams' company [[The Digital Village|TDV]] ran into financial difficulties towards the end of 2000 and eventually ceased operations. In January 2001, the management of the site was taken over by the BBC, and moved to [[bbc.co.uk]] (then part of [[BBCi]]). During this takeover there was a lengthy intermission during which the site was unavailable, which the community refers to as &quot;Rupert&quot; &amp;mdash; an obscure reference to the serendipitous naming of the fictional tenth planet in Adams' novel ''[[Mostly Harmless]]''. Some members created an alternative site, &quot;n2g2&quot;, standing for &quot;Nowhere To Go To&quot;, in order to maintain their community while the site was down, and to complain about changes implemented by the BBC. [[April 21]], [[2005]] marked the launch of h2g2 Mobile, an edition of the guide produced specifically for PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) and some mobile phones that could access the internet, so that people could read h2g2 entries while on the move. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/mobile-info] This was done because people wanted h2g2 to be much like the ''Hitchhiker's Guide'' described in the books &amp;mdash; a mobile, electronic device that anyone could read from anywhere. == Terms and Conditions == In order to contribute to the site, it is necessary to register and to agree to the h2g2 &quot;House Rules&quot; and the general BBC Terms and Conditions. Registered users are called ''Researchers''. Researchers retain the [[copyright]] to their articles, but grant the BBC a non-exclusive license to do pretty much whatever it likes with them. The House Rules prohibit various things, including [[racism]], &quot;hard-core&quot; [[profanity|swearing]], [[spamming]], [[Usenet flood|flooding]], languages other than [[English language|English]], and &quot;otherwise objectionable&quot; material. The Terms and Conditions are more legalistic, and prohibit material that is not the submitter's own and original work, [[defamation|defamatory]] material, etc. When the site became part of BBCi, the BBC insisted on moderating all contributions to the site soon after they were made. However, they were eventually persuaded that the h2g2 Community could be trusted to a system of &quot;Reactive Moderation&quot;, in which posts are not checked by moderators unless a complaint is made. Individual user accounts are sometimes put on &quot;pre-moderation&quot;, meaning that any posts they make are not displayed until they have been reviewed by a moderator. Occasionally, there has been an issue that is particularly contentious, or that makes the BBC's libel lawyers particularly nervous, and discussion of this issue may be moderated differently. For example: * Political Discussions during any [[Elections_in_the_United_Kingdom|Elections in the United Kingdom]] are restricted to specific forums. These forums are have all posts read by moderators to ensure that the BBC cannot be seen to break the tight rules that govern the UK media during such elections. * During the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan|2001 invasion of Afghanistan]], extra rules were put in place and, for example, the username ''[[Osama bin Laden|OBL]]'' was deemed unacceptable. * On [[17 March]] [[2003]], h2g2 issued guidelines for discussions during the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Iraq war]], including saying that &quot;Postings and Entries on the subject of the conflict posted to h2g2 will be removed&quot;. * In February 2006, various posts linking to the [[Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy|Muhammad cartoons]] were removed. Additionally, several Entries have been deleted by the h2g2 Editors, at the behest of the BBC's &quot;Editorial Policy&quot; unit, headed by [[Stephen Wittle]]. == Editing process == h2g2 is really two separate but complementary Guides, one Edited and one Unedited. The Unedited Guide is described in a separate section below. The Edited Guide consists of articles (usually called 'Entries') which have passed through a [[peer review]] process, and then been checked and tidied up first by a volunteer sub-editor and then, more briefly, by an in-house editor. As of [[September 12]], 2003, the Edited Guide consisted of 5,832 Entries. The 7,000th entry was added to the Edited Guide on [[April 8]], 2005. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/F77636?thread=628854] === Peer Review === On h2g2, entries are peer reviewed by any members of the community who feel like spending a little time reading and commenting. Some of these may be specialists on the topic, but generally most are not, and it soon becomes obvious, therefore, whether the average Researcher can understand an Entry. While this has the advantage that Entries are generally written in terms that the layman can understand, it also means that mistakes can occasionally slip into the Edited Guide. Once an entry has been picked by a Scout (see later) and leaves Peer Review, a copy is made and editing rights are handed to a Sub-editor. After the Entry has its day on the Front Page of h2g2 and becomes part of the Edited Guide it can only be modified or updated by its author either by requesting minor changes through the Editorial Feedback section of h2g2, or by submitting it to the Update Forum if larger changes or a rewrite are needed. However, the author can still update the unedited version, which remains in the wider unedited guide. === Sub-Editing === Sub-editors, likewise, are not generally experts on the material they are editing, which is assigned on a more or less random basis. Sub-editing is mainly limited to ensuring readability and conformity to the h2g2 [[house style]], though the amount of changes made varies from one Entry to another. Some sub-editors tend to discuss changes with the Researcher who wrote the Entry to make sure that they are correct in their information and written in the right way. However, this is entirely at the individual sub-editor's discretion. h2g2 lacks an effective change control system, and this often leads to errors creeping in at this stage. The in-house editors make few changes&amp;mdash;the most visible of which is appending a &quot;Related BBC links&quot; section to entries that includes a link for readers to search BBCi for other entries on the same subject. === Updating === After years of discussion, h2g2 has now adopted a formal update system. This consists of an Update Forum, which works in the same way as Peer Review, allowing a new version of an existing entry to be submitted for full review. Small but important modifications can be fast-tracked with a posting on the relevant feedback page. === The Workshops === There are two workshops where help can be obtained in preparing an article for Peer Review. The Collaborative Writing Workshop is where people can collaborate to create an entry. At the Writing Workshop, entries that are not yet ready for Peer Review can be improved. Another review forum, the Flea Market, is where abandoned Entries that fall outside the writing guidelines and have been left in Peer Review are moved, so that other researchers can polish them up for Peer Review. There is also an Alternative Writing Workshop, where entries that don't adhere to the Writing Guidelines can be worked on. === The Unedited Guide === The Edited Guide forms only a small part of h2g2 as a whole. Most of the site's 'cultural life' takes place in the far larger Unedited Guide, which contains, amongst other things, various clubs and societies, discussion areas, Researchers' h2g2 homepages (known as their 'Personal Spaces'), and writing workshops. The Unedited Guide can also contain fiction, although this cannot be submitted for inclusion to the Edited Guide, which only contains factual information. If an article does not make it through the Peer Review process, the original (unedited) entry can still be viewed, as before, in the Unedited Guide. It can, of course, also be rewritten by the author(s) and submitted again at a later date. === The UnderGuide === The UnderGuide is h2g2's most ambitious attempt to bring the atten
text of political disempowerment detailed above. In that context, a typical individual will tend to be more isolated from the kinds of peer networks which grant access to broad sources of information, and may instinctively distrust any statement or claim made by certain people, media and other authority-bearing institutions. For some individuals, the consequence may be a tendency to attribute anything bad that happens to the distrusted authority. For example, some people attribute the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11, 2001]] attacks to a conspiracy involving the U.S. government (or disfavored politicians) instead of to [[Islamist terrorism|Islamic terrorists]] associated with [[Al-Qaeda]] (see [[9/11 conspiracy theories]].) ====Media tropes==== Media commentators regularly note a tendency in news media and wider culture to understand events through the prism of individual agents, as opposed to more complex structural or institutional accounts.{{ref|Ivan}} If this is a true observation, it may be expected that the audience which both demands and consumes this emphasis itself is more receptive to personalised, [[drama|dramatic]] accounts of social phenomena. A second, perhaps related, media trope is the effort to allocate individual responsibility for negative events. The media have a tendency to start to seek culprits if an event occurs that is of such significance that it does not drop off the news agenda within a few days. Of this trend, it has been said that the concept of a pure accident is no longer permitted in a news item [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4217024.stm]. Again, if this is a true observation, it may be expected to reflect a real change in how the media consumer perceives negative events. ==Controversies== Aside from [[controversies]] over the merits of particular conspiracy claims (see [[#Conspiracy theories by topic or main figure|catalog]] below), and the various differing academic opinions (above), the general category of conspiracy theory is ''itself'' a matter of some public contestation. ===Usage=== The term &quot;conspiracy theory&quot; is considered by different observers to be a neutral description for a conspiracy claim, a pejorative term used to dismiss such a claim, and a term that can be positively embraced by proponents of such a claim. The term may be used by some for arguments they might not wholly believe but consider radical and exciting. The most widely accepted sense of the term is that which popular culture and academic usage share, certainly having negative implications for a narrative's probable truth value. Given this popular understanding of the term, it is conceivable that the term might be used illegitimately and inappropriately, as a means to dismiss what are in fact substantial and well-evidenced accusations. The legitimacy of each such usage will therefore be a matter of some controversy. Disinterested observers will compare an allegation's features with those of the category listed above, in order to determine whether a given usage is legitimate or prejudicial. Certain proponents of conspiracy claims and their supporters argue that the term is entirely illegitimate, and should be considered just as politically manipulative as the Soviet practice of treating political dissidents as clinically insane. The term ''conspiracy theory'' is itself the object of a type of conspiracy theory, which argues that those using the term are manipulating their audience to disregard the topic under discussion, either in a deliberate attempt to conceal the truth, or as dupes of more deliberate conspirators. When conspiracy theories are offered as official claims (e.g. originating from a governmental authority, such as an intelligence agency) they are not usually considered as conspiracy theories. For example, certain activities of the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] may be considered to have been an official attempt to promote a conspiracy theory, yet its claims are seldom referred to as such. ===The truth of a conspiracy theory=== Perhaps the most contentious aspect of a conspiracy theory is the problem of settling a particular theory's truth to the satisfaction of both its proponents and its opponents. Particular accusations of conspiracy vary widely in their plausibility, but some common standards for assessing their likely truth value may be applied in each case: * [[Occam's Razor|Occam's razor]] - is the alternative story more, or less, probable than the mainstream story? Rules of thumb here include the [[multiplication of entities]] test. * [[Psychology]] - does the conspiracy accusation satisfy an identifiable psychological [[#Psychology_of_conspiracy_theory|need]] for its proposer? * [[Falsifiability]] - are the &quot;proofs&quot; offered for the argument well constructed, ie, using sound methodology? * [[Whistleblower|Whistleblowers]] - how many people&amp;ndash;and what kind&amp;ndash;have to be loyal conspirators? ====Real conspiracies==== On some occasions a particular accusation of conspiracy is found to be true (see for example, [[Émile_Zola|Emile Zola]]'s accusations concerning the [[Dreyfus Affair]]). Where such success is due to sound investigative methodology, it is clear that it would not exhibit many of the compromising [[#Features|features]] identified as characteristic of conspiracy theory, and would thus not commonly be considered a 'Conspiracy theory'. In the case of the 1971 revelation of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]]'s [[COINTELPRO]] counter-intelligence work against domestic political activists, it is not clear to what extent a 'conspiracy theory' involving government agents was either proposed or dismissed prior to the programme's factual exposure. Some argue that the reality of such conspiracies should caution against any casual dismissal of conspiracy theory. A number of true or possibly true conspiracies are cited in making this case; the [[Mafia]], the [[Business Plot]], [[Project MKULTRA|MKULTRA]], various CIA involvements in overseas [[coup d'état|coups d'état]], [[Operation Northwoods]], the [[Tuskegee Syphilis Study|Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male]], the [[General Motors streetcar conspiracy]] and the [[Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge debate]], among others. ====Falsifiability==== [[Karl Popper]] argued that [[science]] is written as a set of [[falsifiability|falsifiable]] [[hypothesis|hypotheses]]; [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] or unscientific theories and claims are those which do not admit any possibility for falsification. Critics of conspiracy theories sometimes argue that many of them are not falsifiable and so cannot be scientific. This accusation is often accurate, and is a necessary consequence of the logical structure of certain kinds of conspiracy theories. These take the form of uncircumscribed [[existential quantification|existential statements]], alleging the ''existence'' of some action or object without specifying the ''place or time'' at which it can be observed. Failure to observe the phenomenon can then always be the result of looking in the wrong place or looking at the wrong time &amp;mdash; that is, having been duped by the conspiracy. This makes impossible any demonstration that the conspiracy does not exist. In his two volume work, ''The Open Society &amp; Its Enemies, 1938&amp;ndash;1943'' Popper used the term &quot;conspiracy theory&quot; to criticize the ideologies driving [[fascism]], [[Nazism]] and [[communism]]. Popper argued that totalitarianism was founded on &quot;conspiracy theories&quot; which drew on imaginary plots driven by paranoid scenarios predicated on tribalism, racism or classism. Popper did not argue against the existence of everyday conspiracies (as incorrectly suggested in much of the later literature). Popper even uses the term &quot;conspiracy&quot; to describe ordinary political activity in the [[History of Athens|classical Athens]] of [[Plato]] (who was the principal target of his attack in ''The Open Society &amp; Its Enemies''). In response to this objection to conspiracy theories, some argue that ''no'' political or historical theory can be scientific by Popper's criterion because none reliably generate testable predictions. In fact, Popper himself rejected the claims of [[Marxism]] and [[psychoanalysis]] to scientific status on precisely this basis. This does not necessarily mean that either conspiracy theory, Marxism, or psychoanalysis are baseless, irrational, and false; it ''does'' suggest that if they are false there is no way to prove it . Falsifiability has been widely criticised for misrepresenting the actual process of scientific discovery by a number of scholars, notably [[paradigm]] theorists and Popper's former students [[Thomas Kuhn]], [[Paul Feyerabend]], and [[Imre Lakatos]]. Within [[epistemology|epistemological]] circles, falsifiability is not now considered a tenable criterion for determining scientific status, although it remains popular. ==Conspiracy theories in fiction== ''Main article'': [[Conspiracy theories (fictional)]] Conspiracies are a popular theme in several genres of fiction, notably [[Thriller|thrillers]] and [[science fiction]], primarily due to their dramatic potential: recasting complex or meaningless historical events into relatively simple [[Morality play|morality plays]], in which bad people are the cause of bad events, and good people face the relatively simple task of identifying and defeating them. Compared to the subtlety and complexity of more rigorous sociological or historical accounts of events, conspiracy theory makes for a neat and intuitive narrative. It is perhaps no coincidence, then, that the English word &quot;[[plot]]&quot; applies to both a story, and the activities of conspirators. ''[[Conspiracy Theory (film)|Conspiracy Theory]]'' is a 1997 thriller about a taxi driver (played by Mel Gibson) who publishes a newsletter in which he discusses what h
The Life and Times', ''Topology and its Applications'', Volume 77, Issue 2 ([[3 June]] [[1997]]) Pages 193-211. An on-line preprint is available [http://at.yorku.ca/p/a/a/a/16.htm here] Michael Reed and Barry Simon, ''Functional Analysis,'' Section III.3. Academic Press, San Diego, 1980. ISBN 0-12-585050-5. [[Category:Functional analysis]] [[Category:Mathematical theorems]] [[de:Satz von Hahn-Banach]] [[fr:Théorème de Hahn-Banach]] [[it:Teorema di Hahn-Banach]] [[he:משפט האן-בנך]] [[pl:Twierdzenie Hahna-Banacha]] [[ru:Теорема Хана — Банаха]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hampshire</title> <id>13861</id> <revision> <id>41893027</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:24:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pstevenson</username> <id>36805</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Transport */ city -&gt; county</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; |+ &lt;big&gt;'''Hampshire'''&lt;/big&gt; |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: center; background: white;&quot; | [[Image:EnglandHampshire.png]] |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; | Geography |- ! width=&quot;45%&quot; | Status ||[[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] &amp; (smaller) [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]] county |- !Region: |[[South East England]] |- ! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. area |[[List of Ceremonial counties of England by Area|Ranked 9th]]&lt;br /&gt;[[1 E9 m²|3,769]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]&lt;br /&gt;[[List of Administrative shire counties of England by Area|Ranked 8th]]&lt;br /&gt;3,679 km&amp;sup2; |- !Admin HQ: |[[Winchester]] |- ![[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]: |GB-HAM |- ![[ONS coding system|ONS code]]: |24 |- ![[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3: |UKJ33 |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Demographics |- ! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total ([[2004]] est.)&lt;br /&gt;- [[Density]]&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. pop. |[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 5th]]&lt;br /&gt;1,663,000&lt;br /&gt;441 / km&amp;sup2;&lt;br /&gt;[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population|Ranked 3rd]]&lt;br /&gt;1,253,300 |- !Ethnicity: |96.7% White&lt;br /&gt;1.3% S. Asian |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Politics |- |colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:arms-hants.jpg|200px|Arms of Hampshire County Council]]&lt;br/ &gt;Hampshire County Council&lt;br /&gt;http://www.hants.gov.uk/hcc/ |- !Executive |[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] |- ! [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Members of Parliament]] | *[[James Arbuthnot]] *[[John Yorke Denham|John Denham]] *[[Sandra Gidley]] *[[Mike Hancock]] *[[Mark Hoban]] *[[Gerald Howarth]] *[[Chris Huhne]] *[[Julian Lewis]] *[[Michael Mates]] *[[Sarah McCarthy-Fry]] *[[Maria Miller]] *[[Mark Oaten]] *[[Desmond Swayne]] *[[Peter Viggers]] *[[Alan Whitehead]] *[[David Willetts]] *[[George Young (politician)|George Young]] |- | colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Districts |- |colspan=2|&lt;center&gt;[[Image:Hampshire_Ceremonial_Numbered.png]]&lt;/center&gt; #[[Gosport]] #[[Fareham (borough)|Fareham]] #[[Winchester (borough)|Winchester]] #[[Havant]] #[[East Hampshire]] #[[Hart, Hampshire|Hart]] #[[Rushmoor]] #[[Basingstoke and Deane]] #[[Test Valley]] #[[Eastleigh (borough)|Eastleigh]] #[[New Forest (district)|New Forest]] #[[Southampton]] (Unitary) #[[Portsmouth]] (Unitary) |} '''Hampshire''' (abbr. ''Hants'') is a [[Counties of England|county]] on the south coast of [[England]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. The county borders ''(clockwise from West)'', [[Dorset]], [[Wiltshire]], [[Berkshire]], [[Surrey]] and [[West Sussex]]. The county has an area of 1,455 [[square mile]]s (3,769 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]) and at its widest points is approximately 55 miles (90 km) east-west and 40 miles (65 km) north-south. The [[county town]] is [[Winchester]] situated at {{coor dms|51|03|35|N|1|18|36|W|}}. The [[United_Kingdom_Census_2001|2001 census]] gave the population of the administrative county as 1.24 million; the ceremonial county also includes the cities of [[Portsmouth]] and [[Southampton]], which are administratively independent, and has a total population of 1.6 million. Hampshire is a popular holiday area, with tourist attractions including its many seaside resorts, the maritime area in Portsmouth, and the motor museum at [[Beaulieu, Hampshire|Beaulieu]]. The [[New Forest]] [[National Parks in England and Wales|National Park]] lies within the borders, as does a large area of the [[South Downs]], which is also scheduled to become a National Park. Hampshire has a long maritime history and two of England's largest ports lie on its coast. The county is famed as home of the writers [[Jane Austen]] and [[Charles Dickens]]. ==Physical geography== {{main|Geology of Hampshire}} Hampshire's [[geology]] falls into two categories. In the south, along the [[coast]] is the &quot;[[Hampshire Basin]]&quot;, an area of relatively [[resistance (geology)|non-resistant]] [[Eocene]] and [[Oligocene]] [[clay]]s and [[gravel]]s which are protected from [[sea]] [[erosion]] by the [[Isle of Purbeck]], Dorset, and the [[Isle of Wight]]. These low, flat lands support [[heathland]] and [[woodland]] [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]], a large area of which form part of the [[New Forest]]. The New Forest has a mosaic of heathland, grassland, coniferous and deciduous woodland habitats that host [[biodiversity|diverse wildlife]]. The forest is protected as a [[National parks of England and Wales|national park]], limiting development and agricultural use to protect the landscape and wildlife. Large areas of the New Forest are open common lands kept as a grassland [[plagioclimax]] by grazing animals, including domesticated cattle, pigs and horses, and several wild deer species. Erosion of the weak rock and sea level change flooding the low land has carved several large [[estuaries]] and [[ria]]s, notably the 12 mile (19 km) long [[Southampton Water]] and the large convoluted [[Portsmouth Harbour]]. The Isle of Wight lies off the coast of Hampshire where the non-resistant rock has been eroded away forming the [[Solent]]. In the north and centre of the county the substrate is the [[Southern England Chalk Formation]] of [[Salisbury Plain]] and the [[South Downs]]. These are high hills with steep slopes where they border the clays to the south. The hills dip steeply forming a [[Escarpment|scarp]] onto the [[River Thames|Thames valley]] to the north, and dip gently to the south. The highest point in the county is [[Pilot Hill]], which reaches the height of 286 m (938 ft). The [[downland]] supports a [[calcareous grassland]] habitat, important for wild [[flower]]s and [[insects]]. In the past Hampshire had little [[arable]] agriculture, but in the early [[20th century]] the demand for food led to the establishment of farms on the downs. A large area of the downs are now protected from further agricultural damage by the East Hampshire [[Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]] The [[River Itchen, Hampshire|Itchen]] and [[River Test|Test]] are [[trout]] rivers that flow from the chalk through wooded valleys into Southampton Water. Hampshire has a milder [[climate]] than most areas of the [[British Isles]], being in the far south with the climate stabilising effect of the sea, but protected against the more extreme weather of the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast. Hampshire has a higher average annual temperature than the UK average at 10.2 °C to 12 °[[Celsius|C]] {{ref|av_temp}}, average rainfall at 741&amp;ndash;1060 [[millimetre|mm]] per year {{ref|av_rainfall}}, and higher than average sunshine at over 1541 [[hour]]s per year {{ref|av_sunshine}}. ==History== {{main|History of Hampshire}} The chalk downland of the South Downs and southern edges of Salisbury Plain were settled in the [[neolithic]], and these settlers built [[hill forts]] and may have farmed the valleys of Hampshire. Hampshire was part of an area named ''Gwent'' or ''Y Went'' by the Celts, which also covered areas of Somerset and Wiltshire. In the [[Roman invasion of Britain]], Hampshire was one of the first areas to fall to the invading forces. The county was occupied by [[Jutes|Jutish]] tribes until [[Saxon people|Saxon]] times. Hampshire was one of the first Saxon [[shire]]s, recorded in [[755]], but for two centuries represented the western end of Saxon England, as advances into [[Dorset]] and [[Somerset]] were fought off by the Britons. After the Saxons advanced west Hampshire became the centre of the [[Kingdom of Wessex]], and many Saxon kings are buried at Winchester. A statue in Winchester celebrates the powerful [[King Alfred]], who stabilised the region in the [[9th century]]. [[Image:Winchester Cathedral.JPG|thumb|200px|Winchester Cathedral.]] After the [[Norman Conquest]] the county was favoured by Norman kings who established the [[New Forest]] as a hunting forest. The county was recorded in the [[Domesday Book]] divided into 44 [[hundred (division)|hundred]]s. From the [[12th century]] the ports grew in importance, fuelled by trade with the continent, wool and cloth manufacture in the county, and the fishing industry, and a shipbuilding industry was established. Over several centuries a series of [[castle]]s and [[fort]]s were constructed along the coast of the [[Solent]] to defend the harbours at
between fifteen and sixteen revolutions per day. The Moon, at an altitude of about 240,000 miles (385,000 km), takes thirty days to make a complete rotation. Between those extremes lies the &quot;magic&quot; altitude of 22,300 miles (35,786 km) at which a satellite's orbital period matches, or is an integral part of, the period at which the Earth rotates: once every [[sidereal day]] (23 hours 56 minutes). In that case, the satellite is said to be ''geosynchronous''. If a geosynchronous satellite's orbit is not exactly aligned with the equator, known as an [[inclined orbit]], it will appear (when viewed by someone on the ground) to oscillate daily around a fixed point in the sky. As the angle between the orbit and the equator decreases, the magnitude of this oscillation becomes smaller; when the orbit lies entirely over the equator, the satellite remains stationary relative to the Earth's surface &amp;ndash; it is said to be ''geostationary''. ==Application== There are approximately 300 operational geosynchronous satellites. Geostationary satellites appear to be fixed over one spot above the equator. Receiving and transmitting antennae on the earth do not need to track such a satellite. These antennae can be fixed in place and are much less expensive than tracking antennae. These satellites have revolutionized global communications, television broadcasting and weather forecasting, and have a number of important defense and intelligence applications. One disadvantage of geostationary satellites is a result of their high altitude: radio signals take approximately 1/4 of a second to reach and return from the satellite, resulting in a small but significant signal delay. This delay increases the difficulty of telephone conversation and reduces the performance of common network protocols such as [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]], but does not present a problem with non-interactive systems such as television broadcasts. There are a number of proprietary satellite data protocols that are designed to proxy TCP/IP connections over long-delay satellite links -- these are marketed as being a partial solution to the poor performance of native TCP over satellite links. TCP presumes that all loss is due to congestion, not errors, and probes link capacity with its &quot;slow start&quot; algorithm, which only sends packets once it is known that earlier packets have been received. Slow start is very slow over a path using a geostationary satellite. Another disadvantage of geostationary satellites is the incomplete geographical coverage, since ground stations at higher than roughly 60 degrees latitude have difficulty reliably receiving signals at low elevations. Satellite dishes in the Northern Hemisphere would need to be pointed almost directly towards the south, the general direction where the centre of our [[galaxy]] is also located, whose intense cosmic radiation bombards the receivers with strong radio noise and suppresses most signals. The signals would have to pass through the largest amount of atmosphere, and could even be blocked by land features. In the [[Soviet Union|USSR]], a practical solution has been developed for this problem with the creation of special [[Molniya]] / [[Orbita]] inclined path satellite networks with elliptical orbits. Similar elliptical orbits are used for the [[Sirius Radio]] satellites. Furthermore, since geostationary satellites are always positioned above the equator, it is impossible for them to see the north or south poles. They are able to cover the areas equal or less than 70 degrees latitude north or south; the Earth is not perfectly spherical, but flattened at the poles. ==History== The concept was first proposed by the [[science fiction author]] [[Arthur C. Clarke]] in a paper in Wireless World in 1945, based on [[Herman Potočnik]]'s previous work. Working prior to the advent of solid-state electronics, Clarke envisioned a trio of large, manned space stations arranged in a triangle around the planet. Modern satellites are numerous, unmanned, and often no larger than an automobile. The first geosynchronous satellite was [[Syncom 2]], launched on a [[Delta rocket]] B booster from [[Cape Canaveral]] [[26 July]], [[1963]]. It was used a few months later for the world's first satellite relayed [[telephone]] call, between [[United States|U.S.]] President [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Nigeria]]n Prime minister [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]]. The first [[geostationary]] communication satellite was [[Syncom 3]], launched on [[August 19]], [[1964]] with a Delta D launch vehicle from Cape Canaveral. The satellite, in orbit near the [[International Date Line]], was used to telecast the [[1964 Summer Olympics]] in [[Tokyo]] to the [[United States]]. It was the first [[television]] program to cross the [[Pacific ocean]]. ''See also'': [[Satellite television]] ==External links== [http://science.nasa.gov/Realtime/JTrack/3D/JTrack3D.html NASA's software for satellite tracking] shows clearly the position of satellites in geosynchronous orbit. [[Category:Space exploration]] [[Category:Satellites]] [[cs:Geostacionární družice]] [[id:Orbit Geosinkron]] [[ja:静止衛星]] [[zh:地球同步卫星]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geostationary satellite</title> <id>12722</id> <revision> <id>15910389</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geosynchronous satellite]]. </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gardener</title> <id>12726</id> <revision> <id>40131124</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T10:19:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Salix alba</username> <id>212526</id> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */ Category:Gardeners</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''gardener''' is any person involved in the growing and maintenance of plants, notably in a [[garden]]. The terms encompasses persons from different walks of life involved in [[gardening]], arguably the oldest profession, from the [[hobbyist]] in a [[residential garden]], the homeowner supplementing the family food with a small vegetable garden or orchard, to a worker engaged in maintaining greenery for money or the [[head gardener]] in a large estate. The term gardener is also used to describe [[garden design|garden designers]] and [[landscape gardener|landscape gardeners]], who are involved chiefly in the design of gardens, rather than the practical aspects of gardening. Gardening has a long history, and there have been many pioneering gardeners of note, from the great landscape gardeners of the [[18th Century]], to those who created or expanded the idea of the &quot;no-dig&quot; garden. In addition, [[television]] lifestyle programs have spawned a number of [[celebrity gardener]]s. == Notable gardeners == * [[Luis Barragan]] * [[Geoffrey Bawa]] * [[Capability Brown|Lancelot &quot;Capability&quot; Brown]] * [[Carolus Clusius]] * [[Esther Dean]] * [[A. J. Downing]] * [[Ian Hamilton Finlay]] * [[C. Z. Guest]] * [[Robert Hart (forest gardener)|Robert Hart]] * [[Michael Heseltine]] * [[Derek Jarman]] * [[Gertrude Jekyll]] * [[William Kent]] * [[Andre le Notre]] * [[Lucullus]] * [[John Beverley Nichols]] * [[Frederick Law Olmsted]] * [[Russell Page]] * [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] * [[Humphrey Repton]] * [[William Robinson (gardener)|William Robinson]] * [[Percy Thrower]] * [[Alan Titchmarsh]] * [[Vita Sackville-West]] * [[William Shenstone]] * [[Geoffrey Smith]] * [[Theophrastus]] * [[Tiberius]] * [[John Tradescant]] * [[Edith Wharton]] * [[Ozcar]] * [[Charlie Dimmock]] * [[Bob Flowerdew]] * [[Pippa Greenwood]] ==See also== *[[garden]] *[[gardening]] *[[head gardener]] [[Category:Gardeners]] [[da:Gartner]] [[nl:Hovenier]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Original proof of Gödel's completeness theorem</title> <id>12727</id> <revision> <id>41652936</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:40:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Trovatore</username> <id>310173</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Gödel's Theorem */ rm this section (about incompleteness, not completeness)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The proof of [[Gödel's completeness theorem]] given by [[Kurt Gödel]] in his doctoral dissertation of [[1929]] (and a rewritten version of the dissertation, published as an article in [[1930]]) is not easy to read today; it uses concepts and formalism that are outdated and terminology that is often obscure. The version given below attempts to faithfully represent all the steps in the proof and all the important ideas, yet to rewrite the proof in the modern language of [[mathematical logic]]. This outline should not be considered a rigorous proof of the theorem. == Definitions and assumptions == We work with [[first-order predicate calculus]]. Our languages allow constant, function and relation symbols. Structures consist of (non-empty) domains and interpretations of the relevant symbols as constant members, functions or relations over that domain. We fix some axiomatization of the predicate calculus: logical axioms and rules of inference. Any of the several well-known axiomatisations will do; we assume without proof all the basic well-known results about our formalism (such as the [[normal form theorem]] or the [[soundness theorem]]) that we need. We axiomatize predicate calculus ''without equality'', i.e. there are no special axioms expressing the properties of equality as a special relation symbol. After the basic form of the theorem is proved, it will be easy to extend it to the case of predicate calculus ''with equality''. ==Statement of the theorem and some reductions== ==Theorem 1. Every formula valid in all structures is provable.== This is the most basic form of the
> <id>15904916</id> <timestamp>2002-10-30T15:44:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tarquin</username> <id>83</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cable television]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>COBOL</title> <id>6799</id> <revision> <id>41005252</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T12:32:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FlaBot</username> <id>228773</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: zh</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''COBOL''' is a [[Third generation language|third-generation programming language]]. Its name is an [[acronym]], for '''''CO'''mmon '''B'''usiness '''O'''riented '''L'''anguage'', defining its primary domain in business, finance, and administrative systems for companies and governments. The COBOL 2002 standard includes support for [[object-oriented programming]] and other modern language features. However, most of this article is based on COBOL 85. == Prehistory and specification == COBOL was initially created in [[1959]] by The [[Short Range Committee]], one of three committees proposed at a meeting held at [[the Pentagon]] in May 1959, organized by [[Charles Phillips]] of the [[United States Department of Defense]]. The Short Range Committee was formed to recommend a short range approach to a common business language. It was made up of members representing six computer manufacturers and three government agencies. In particular, the six computer manufacturers were [[Burroughs Corporation]], [[International Business Machines|IBM]], Minneapolis-[[Honeywell]] (Honeywell Labs), [[RCA]], [[Sperry Rand]], and [[Sylvania Electric Products]]. The three government agencies were the [[US Air Force]], the [[David Taylor Model Basin]], and the [[National Bureau of Standards]] (Now [[NIST]]). This committee was chaired by a member of the NBS. An Intermediate-Range Committee and a Long-Range Committee were proposed at the Pentagon meeting as well. However although the Intermediate Range Committee was formed, it was never operational; and the Long-Range Committee was never even formed. In the end a sub-committee of the Short Range Committee developed the specifications of the COBOL language. This sub-committee was made up of six individuals: * [[William Selden]] and [[Gertrude Tierney]] of [[IBM]] * [[Howard Bromberg]] and [[Howard Discount]] of [[RCA]] * [[Vernon Reeves]] and [[Jean E. Sammet]] of [[Sylvania|Sylvania Electric Products]] This subcommittee completed the specifications for COBOL as the year of 1959 came to an end. The specifications were to a great extent inspired by the [[FLOW-MATIC]] language invented by [[Grace Hopper]], and the IBM [[COMTRAN]] language invented by [[Bob Bemer]]. The specifications were approved by the full Short Range Committee. From there, they were approved by the Executive Committee in January [[1960]], and sent to the government printing office, which edited and printed these specifications as ''[[Cobol 60]]''. COBOL was developed within a six month period, and yet is still in use over 40 years later. == Defining features == COBOL as defined in the original specification, possessed excellent self-documenting capabilities, good file handling methods, and exceptionally good data typing for the time, owing to its use of the PICTURE clause for detailed field specification. However, until the 1985 Standard, it had serious flaws by modern standards for programming language definition, notably lack of support for local variables, recursion, dynamic memory allocation, and [[structured programming]]. Its perceived lack of explicit support for [[object-oriented]] programming is understandable, given that the concept was unknown at the time. However sufficient standard COBOL constructs, even in the 1974 Standard, allowed a company to produce an object like framework totally in COBOL that predated [[C++]], (Netron Frames, 1986). COBOL also has many [[reserved word]]s, called [[keyword]]s. The original COBOL specification even supported [[self-modifying code]] via the famous &quot;ALTER X TO PROCEED TO Y&quot; statement. However, the COBOL specification has been redefined over the years to address some of these criticisms, and later definitions of COBOL have remedied many of these lacks, adding improved control structures, object-orientation and removing the ability to use self-modifying code. == Still going strong == COBOL programs are in use globally in governmental and military agencies, in all major commercial enterprises (even though COBOL was originally proposed simply to achieve governmental programming commonality), and on almost all significant operating systems (desktop and above) including the common ones such as IBM's [[Z/OS|z/OS]], Microsoft's [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], and the [[Unix]]/[[Linux]] families. The global code base is vast and from time to time applications are subject to review for enhancement or replacement. The expense of rewriting a COBOL application, that has already been debugged, in a different new language has not always been found worth any benefits that might ensue. In the late 1990s, the ''Gartner Group'', a data-processing industry research organization, estimated that of the 300 billion lines of computer code that existed, eighty percent &amp;mdash; or 240 billion lines &amp;mdash; were COBOL. They also reported that more than half of all new mission-critical applications were still being created using COBOL&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; an estimated 5,000,000,000 net new lines of COBOL code annually. Near the end of the twentieth century there was a flurry of activity for COBOL programmers fixing the [[year 2000 problem]], sometimes in systems the same programmers had designed decades before. This problem was especially prevalent in COBOL code because dates are relevant in business applications, and most existing business applications were written in COBOL. COBOL supports various forms of number representations, including BCD [[binary-coded decimal]] which was mandated at times by accountants for business applications. Some people think that the use of BCD arithmetic in their application's design happened to make programs designed without provision for the advent of the [[2000s]] particularly vulnerable to failure with the [[year 2000 problem]] because it might encourage storing the year as two decimal digits {{fact}}. Others argue that COBOL's decimal [[fixed-point arithmetic]] support avoided many other problems that can occur with the naïve use of [[floating point]] for financial calculations. BCD makes it easy to read hex dumps {{fact}}. COBOL has proven to be durable and adaptable. The current standard for COBOL is COBOL2002. COBOL2002 supports contemporary conveniences such as [[Unicode]], [[XML]] generation and parsing, calling conventions to/from non-COBOL languages such as [[C_programming_language|C]], and support within framework environments such as Microsoft's [[.NET Framework|.NET]] and [[Java programming language|Java]] (including COBOL instantiated as [[EJB]]s). ==[[Hello world]]== IDENTIFICATION DIVISION. Program-Id. Hello-World. * ENVIRONMENT DIVISION. * DATA DIVISION. * PROCEDURE DIVISION. Para1. DISPLAY &quot;Hello, world.&quot;. * Stop Run. &lt;!-- I haven't tested this reformatted version, as my COBOL compiler doesn't seem to handle the &quot;EXIT PROGRAM&quot;/&quot;END PROGRAM...&quot; syntax, but I'm pretty damn sure that if it worked before, it'll still work now. Please be careful of indentation! --&gt; If you copy and paste this example then be careful to preserve the indentation, as indentation is relevant to (at least) older COBOL compilers. If you're trying to compile this example on an older compiler and it fails to compile or produces no output when run, you may want to try a [http://www.cuillin.demon.co.uk/nazz/trivia/hw/hw_cobol.html more simple example]. == Opposing views on COBOL == All computer languages have their advocates and detractors. It has been said of languages like [[C]], [[C++]], and [[Java programming language|Java]] that the only way to modify legacy code is to rewrite it - write once and write once again; or write once and throw away. On the other hand, it has been said of COBOL that there actually is one original COBOL program, and it only has been copied and modified millions of times. === Criticism === A motivation of COBOL's design was to make programming easier by making the language as English-like as possible. While this idea seems reasonable on its face, in practice the most difficult task in programming is reducing a complex computation to a sequence of simple steps, not specifying those steps with a particular language. Nevertheless, critics had argued that COBOL's verbose syntax serves mainly to increase the size of programs, and that it impaired the development of the thinking process needed for software development. However, these same people do not generate business applications, they develop computer languages. Renowned computer scientist [[Edsger Dijkstra]] remarked in his repudiated [[1975]] letter to an editor &quot;How do we tell truths that might hurt?&quot;, &quot;The use of COBOL cripples the mind; its teaching should, therefore, be regarded as a criminal offence.&quot; But Dijkstra was also positively impressed by [[Michael A. Jackson]]'s ideas about &quot;Structured Programming&quot; in COBOL ([[Jackson Structured Programming]]). The [[SQL]] language, which follows COBOL's philosophy but is not used to write procedural code, has not faced as much criticism about its syntax. Some programmers joke that the object-oriented extension of COBOL should be called ADD 1 TO COBOL GIVING COBOL. This is by analogy with C++, a pun on [[C prog
lowe legend== As with other writers of the period, such as Shakespeare, little is known about Marlowe. Most of the evidence is legal records and other official documents that tell us little about him. This hasn't stopped writers of both fiction and non-fiction speculating about his activities and character. Marlowe has often been regarded as a spy, a brawler, a heretic, and a homosexual. The evidence for some of these claims is slight. The bare facts of Marlowe's life have been embellished by many writers into colourful, and often fanciful, narratives of the Elizabethan underworld. ===Marlowe the spy=== The only evidence that Marlowe worked for the government is the letter of the Privy Council mentioned above. The nature of this work is unknown. In an obscure incident in the [[Netherlands]] in 1592, Marlowe was apprehended at [[Flushing, Netherlands|Flushing]], then an English possession, after being accused of involvement in counterfeiting money[http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/flushing.htm]. Marlowe confessed, but was not punished on his return to England. This has suggested to some that he was working for the secret service again, but it could be that the authorities accepted the story he told the governor of Flushing, that he had only wanted &quot;to see the goldsmith's cunning&quot;. ===Marlowe the brawler=== Although the fight that resulted in his death in 1593 is the only occasion where there is evidence of Marlowe assaulting a person, he had a history of trouble with the law. Marlowe was arrested in Norton Folgate near Shoreditch in September 1589 following a brawl in which Thomas Watson killed one William Bradley. A jury found that Marlowe had no involvement in Bradley's death and Watson was found to have acted in self-defence. In Shoreditch in May 1592, he was required to provide a guarantee that he keep the peace, the reason is unknown. In September 1592 in Canterbury he was charged with damaging property. He subsequently counter-sued the plaintiff, alleging assault. Both cases appear to have been dropped. ===Marlowe the atheist=== Marlowe had a reputation for atheism. The only contemporary evidence for this is from Marlowe's accuser in Flushing, an informer called Richard Baines. The governor of Flushing had reported that both men had accused one another of instigating the counterfeiting and of intention to go over to the Catholic side, &quot;both as they say of malice one to another&quot;. Following Marlowe's arrest on a charge of atheism in 1593, Baines submitted to the authorities a &quot;note containing the opinion of one Christopher Marly concerning his damnable judgment of religion, and scorn of God's word&quot;[http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/baines1.htm]. Baines attributes to Marlowe outrageously blasphemous ideas such as, &quot;[[Christ]] was a bastard and his mother dishonest [unchaste]&quot;, &quot;the woman of Samaria and her sister were whores and that Christ knew them dishonestly&quot; and, &quot;St [[John the Evangelist]] was bedfellow to Christ and leaned always in his bosom&quot; (cf. [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?passage=JOHN%2B13%3A23-25&amp;showfn=on&amp;showxref=on&amp;language=english&amp;version=KJV&amp;x=12&amp;y=12 John 13:23-25]) and &quot;that he used him as the sinners of [[Sodom]]&quot;. He also claims that Marlowe had Catholic sympathies. Other passages are merely skeptical in tone: &quot;he persuades men to atheism, willing them not to be afraid of bugbears and hobgoblins&quot;. Similar statements were made by Thomas Kyd after his imprisonment and possible torture[http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/kyd1.htm][http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/kyd2.htm](see below); both Kyd and Baines connect Marlowe with the mathematician [[Thomas Harriot]] and [[Walter Raleigh]]'s circle. Another document claims that Marlowe had read an &quot;atheist lecture&quot; before Raleigh. Baines ends his &quot;note&quot; with the ominous statement: &quot;I think all men in Christianity ought to endeavour that the mouth of so dangerous a member may be stopped&quot;. Some critics believe that Marlowe sought to disseminate these views in his work and that he identified with his rebellious and iconoclastic protagonists. However, plays had to be approved by the [[Master of the Revels]] before they could be performed, and the [[censorship]] of publications was under the control of the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. Presumably these authorities did not consider any of Marlowe's works to be unacceptable (apart from the ''Amores''). ===Marlowe's sexuality=== Marlowe is often described today as [[homosexuality|homosexual]], although the evidence for this is inconclusive. The question of whether an Elizabethan was 'gay' in a modern sense is anachronistic; while [[sodomy]] was a crime in the period there was no word for an exclusively homosexual identity (see [[Homosexuality#History|History of homosexuality]]), a concept that did not emerge until the [[nineteenth century]]. ====Evidence==== Several pieces of evidence suggest that Marlowe may have been homosexual, though all are clearly circumstantial, or reported by people of questionable motives. *The most graphic is the testimony of [[Richard Baines]], an informer who made a long list of allegations against Marlowe after his arrest (see below). Most of these allegations concern Marlowe's [[atheism]], but Baines also claimed that Marlowe said &quot;all they that love not tobacco and boys were fools&quot; and that &quot;St John the Evangelist was bedfellow to Christ and leaned always in his bosom, that he used him as the sinners of Sodom&quot;. *In [[1595]], after Marlowe's death, his one-time roommate and fellow dramatist, [[Thomas Kyd]] was tortured and imprisoned when atheistical papers were found in his room. After claiming Marlowe's responsibility, Kyd produced on request a shorter list of allegations, which include the claim that Marlowe &quot;would report St. John to be our saviour Christ's Alexis ... that is, that Christ did love him with an extraordinary love.&quot; *In [[1598]] the writer [[Francis Meres]] reported that Marlowe was &quot;stabbed to death by a bawdy serving man, a rival of his in his lewd love&quot; (a claim that contradicts the coroner's report). Marlowe's writing is also notable for its homosexual themes. *''[[Edward II (play)|Edward II]]'' (c.[[1592]]) is one of the very few [[Elizabethan theatre|English Renaissance plays]] to be concerned with homosexuality, since Edward II had that reputation. The portrayal of [[Edward II of England|Edward]] and his love, [[Piers Gaveston]], is unflattering, but so too is the portrayal of the barons who usurp him, and the play's numerous modern revivals have demonstrated that Edward's tragic decline and death can elicit sympathetic responses; it is thus conceivable that some contemporary audience members might have responded similarly. * In ''[[Dido, Queen of Carthage]]'', he opens with a scene of Jupiter &quot;dandling [[Ganymede]] upon his knee&quot; and says &quot;what is't, sweet wag, I should deny thy youth?, whose face reflects such pleasure to mine eyes.&quot; Venus complains during the play that Jupiter is playing &quot;with that female wanton boy.&quot; *His most famous poem, ''[[Hero and Leander]]'', also contains homosexual themes. Marlowe writes of the male youth character, Leander, that &quot;in his looks were all that men desire&quot; and that when the youth swims to visit Hero as Sestos, the sea god Neptune becomes sexually excited. He says that Neptune, &quot;imagining that Ganymede, displeas'd... the lusty god embrac'd him, call'd him love... and steal a kiss... upon his breast, his thighs, and every limb&quot;, while the boy naive and unaware of Greek love practices (the mindset of the audience) said that, &quot;You are deceiv'd, I am no woman, I... Thereat smil'd Neptune.&quot; The mere inclusion of same-sex love themes, often in very tender terms, in Marlowe's works is seen by some as a significant, and as an act of artistic courage. In addition, it has been pointed out that no accounts of marriage or female companionship have been forthcoming whereas the only historical evidence for Marlowe's sexuality indicates that he was homosexual. However, the only other known &quot;evidence&quot; supporting Marlowe's homosexuality aside from Kyd's &quot;testimony&quot;, and in fact quite probably the reason why the rumours persist to this day, is found in accounts of sermons by an influential, puritanical clergyman who used Marlowe as an example of a sinner who got his just deserts. ====Criticism of this evidence==== Some scholars argue that the evidence is not conclusive and that the reports of Marlowe's homosexuality may simply be exaggerated rumours produced after his death. [[David Bevington]] and [[Eric Rasmussen]] describe Baines's evidence as &quot;unreliable testimony&quot; and make the comment: &quot;These and other testimonials need to be discounted for their exaggeration and for their having been produced under legal circumstances we would regard as a witch-hunt&quot; (''Doctor Faustus and Other Plays'', pp. viii - ix). It has also been noted that Kyd's evidence was given after torture, and thus may have little connection to reality. On Marlowe's writing, it has been noted that the argument from his plays and poems depends on a [[circular argument]]: that only someone who was homosexual would have written them. Much of Marlowe's work is also concerned with heterosexuality; however, it is frequently presented highly negatively, such as when [[Hero]] commits suicide after consummating her relationship with [[Leander]] (which is a significant departure from the plot of the [[Hero and Leander|original myth]]), or when [[Aeneas]] must escape the clutches of [[Dido]] in order to fulfil his destiny. In Marlowe's work, heterosexuality is most frequently presented as a restriction of freedom, lacking the elevated nature of same-sex attraction. However, this coul
sup&gt; || infinite |- | [[Flavordynamics]] || [[Weak interaction]] || [[W and Z bosons]] || 10&lt;sup&gt;25&lt;/sup&gt; || 1/''r''&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; to 1/''r''&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; || 10&lt;sup&gt;-18&lt;/sup&gt; m |- | [[Geometrodynamics]] || [[Gravity]] || [[graviton]] || 10&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; || 1/''r''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; || infinite |} These interactions are sometimes called '''fundamental forces''', although many find this terminology misleading because they cannot be described by classical [[potential]]s and [[force]]s in the [[Newton's laws of motion|Newtonian sense]]. For example, no gravitational force is acting at a distance to cause a body to accelerate. Instead, [[general relativity]] explains gravity by the curvatures of [[spacetime]] (composed of the [[gravitational time dilation]] and the [[curvature of space]]). In addition, the weak interaction need not even result in the same outgoing particles as those that entered the interaction. The modern quantum mechanical view of the three fundamental forces (all except gravity) is that particles of matter ([[fermions]]) do not directly interact with each other but rather exchange by [[virtual particles]] ([[bosons]]) called interaction carriers or interaction mediators (as, for example, virtual [[photons]] in case of interaction of [[electric charges]]). This coupling of matter ([[fermions]]) with force mediating particles ([[bosons]]) is believed to be the result of some fundamental symmetries of nature. ==The interactions== ===Gravity=== :''Main article: [[Gravity]]'' ''Gravity'' is by far the weakest interaction, but it is the interaction that has the largest range. The term ''long range'' refers technically to the falling off of the interaction with distance ''r'' at a rate equal to 1/''r''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. Unlike the other interactions, gravity works universally on all matter and energy. Because of its long range, and property of depending ''only'' on the mass of objects and independent of their charge etc., most interactions between objects separated by length scales larger than that of a planet, for example, are predominantly due to gravity. Because of its long range, gravity is responsible for such large-scale phenomena as the structure of galaxies, [[black hole]]s and the [[Universe#Expansion_and_age.2C_and_the_Big_Bang_theory|expansion of the universe]], as well as more elementary astronomical phenomena like the [[orbit]]s of [[planet]]s, and everyday experience: objects fall; heavy objects act as if they were glued to the ground; people are unable to jump very high. Gravitation was the first kind of interaction which was described by a mathematical theory. In ancient times, [[Aristotle]] theorized that objects of different masses fall at different rates. During the [[Scientific Revolution]], [[Galileo Galilei]] experimentally determined that this was not the case - if friction due to air resistance is neglected, all objects accelerate toward the ground at the same rate. [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[law of Universal Gravitation]] ([[1687]]) was a good approximation of the general behaviour of gravity. In [[1915]], [[Albert Einstein]] completed the [[General Theory of Relativity]], a more accurate description of gravity in terms of the [[geometry]] of [[space-time]]. An area of active research today involves merging the theories of general relativity and [[quantum mechanics]] into a more general theory of [[quantum gravity]]. It is widely believed that in a theory of quantum gravity, gravity would be mediated by a particle which is known as the [[graviton]]. Gravitons are hypothetical particles not yet observed. Although general relativity appears to present an accurate theory of gravity in the non-quantum mechanical limit, there are a number of alternate theories of gravity. Those under any serious consideration by the physics community all reduce to general relativity in some limit, and the focus of observational work is to establish limitations on what deviations from general relativity are possible. ===Electromagnetism=== :''Main article: [[Electromagnetism]]'' ''Electromagnetism'' is the force that acts between electrically [[electric charge|charge]]d particles. This includes the [[electrostatic force]], acting between charges at rest, and the combined effect of [[electric]] and [[magnetic]] forces acting between charges moving relative to each other. Electromagnetism is a long-ranged force that is relatively strong, and therefore describes almost all phenomena of our everyday experience&amp;mdash;phenomena ranging all the way from [[laser]]s and [[radio]]s to the structure of [[atoms]] and the structure of [[metal]]s to [[friction]] and [[rainbow]]s. Electrical and magnetic phenomena have been observed since ancient times, but it was only in the 1800s that it was discovered that these are two aspects of the same fundamental interaction. By [[1864]], [[Maxwell's equations]] had rigorously quantified the unified phenomenon. In [[1905]], [[special relativity]] resolved the issue of the constancy of the speed of light, and Einstein explained the [[photoelectric effect]] by theorizing that light was transmitted in quanta, which we now call [[photon]]s. Starting around [[1927]], [[Paul Dirac]] unified quantum mechanics with [[special relativity]]; [[quantum electrodynamics]] was completed in the [[1940s]]. [[Theodor Kaluza]] in [[1919]] noticed a curious property of electromagnetism, namely that Maxwell's classical (non-quantum) theory of electromagnetism arises naturally from the equations of [[general relativity]] with the assumption that there is an extra fourth dimension of space. This property is the basis of [[Kaluza-Klein theory|Kaluza-Klein theories]] which have been used to formulate a theory of quantum gravity. ===Weak interaction=== :''Main article: [[Weak interaction]]'' The ''weak interaction'' or ''weak nuclear force'' is responsible for some phenomena at the scale of the atomic nucleus, such as [[beta decay]]. Electromagnetism and the weak force were theoretically understood to be two aspects of a unified [[electroweak interaction]] - this was the first step toward the unified theory known as the [[Standard Model]]. In electroweak theory, the carriers of the weak force are massive [[gauge boson]]s called the [[W and Z bosons]]. The weak force is an example of a physical theory in which [[parity (physics)|parity]] is not conserved; it is left-right asymmetric. (But [[CPT symmetry]] is conserved.) ===Strong interaction=== :''Main article: [[Strong interaction]]'' [[Nucleon]]s are held together in the [[atomic nucleus]] by the ''strong interaction'' or ''strong nuclear force''. This force is unrelated to [[electric charge]]. One of the main effects of the strong force is that it tightly holds two [[proton]]s together in the [[helium]] nucleus, despite their tremendous [[electromagnetism|electric repulsion]]. The quantum theory of the strong force is called [[quantum chromodynamics]] or QCD. In QCD, the strong force is carried by particles called [[gluon]]s and it acts between particles that carry a &quot;color charge&quot;, [[quark]]s and gluons. Composite particles such as nucleons or [[meson]]s are made up out of quarks. ==Current developments== The [[Standard Model]] is a [[SU(3)XSU(2)XU(1)|unified]] [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] theory of three fundamental forces&amp;mdash;electromagnetism, weak interactions and strong interactions. Currently, there is no accepted candidate for a theory of [[quantum gravity]]. The search for an acceptable theory of quantum gravity, and a quantum mechanical [[grand unified theory]], are important areas of current physics research. Until such a search is successful, the gravitational interaction cannot be considered as a force because it is of a geometrical rather than dynamical nature. Particles are thought to be moving as they do because the curvature of spacetime directs their movement, and not because they are pushed or pulled by forces resulting from the exchange of gravitons. One important aspect of Quantum Mechanics, however, is that it allows for different ways of looking at things, such as gravity. One way of looking at it is as a force field, another way of looking at it is as curvature of spacetime and a last way of looking at it is as the exchange of gravitons. The equations can be rearranged to represent all three different points of view. An exotic [[fifth force]] has been proposed by some physicists from time to time, mostly to explain discrepancies between predicted and measured values of the [[gravitational constant]]. [[As of 2006]], all of the experiments which seem to indicate a fifth force have been explainable in terms of experimental errors. ==References== * Feynman, Richard P. (1967). ''The Character of Physical Law''. MIT Press. ISBN 0262560038 * Weinberg, S. (1993). ''The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe''. Basic Books. ISBN 0465024378 * Weinberg, S. (1994). ''Dreams of a Final Theory''. Vintage Books USA. ISBN 0679744088 * Padmanabhan, T. (1998). ''After The First Three Minutes: The Story of Our Universe''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521629721 ==See also== * [[Physics]] ** [[History of physics]] ** [[Physics basic topics|Basic physics topics]] ** [[Quantum mechanics]] * [[Particle physics]] ** [[Elementary particle]] ** [[Particle accelerator]] ** [[List of particles]] * [[Standard Model]] ** [[Standard Model (basic details)|Formulation]] ** [[Strong interaction]] ** [[Electroweak interaction]] ** [[Weak interaction]] * [[Gravity]] ** [[Quantum gravity]] ** [[Big Bang]] * ''People'': [[Isaac Newton]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], [[Albert Einstein]], [[Abdus Salam]], [[Steven Weinberg]], [[Gerardus 't Hooft]], [[David Gross]], [[Edward Witten]] [[Category:Interaction]] [[Category:Force]] [[ca:Forces fonamentals]] [[cs:Základní interakce]] [[da:Naturkræfter]]
95, 1896 and some from 1874) Anales de la Guerra en Cuba. Felipe González Rojas, Madrid Priestland, Jane (editor) 2003 British Archives on Cuba: Cuba under Castro 1959-1962. Archival Publications International Limited, 2003, London ISBN 1903008204 Puebla, Teté (Brigadier General Cuban Armed Forces) 2003 Marianas in Combat: and the Mariana Grajales Women's Platoon in Cuba's Revolutionary War 1956-58, New York Pathfinder ISBN 0873489578 Ramos, M. G., Villatoro, MAA, Urquiaga, S, Alves, BJR and: Boddey, RM 2001 Quantification of the contribution of biological nitrogen fixation to tropical green manure crops and the residual benefit to a subsequent maize crop using super(15)N-isotope techniques J. Biotechnol. 91 (2-3)105-115 Rodriguez, Felix I. and John Weisman 1989 Shadow Warrior/the CIA Hero of a Hundred Unknown Battles Simon &amp; Schuster, New York ISBN 0671667211 Rojo del Río, Manuel. 1981 La Historia Cambio En La Sierra. Editorial Texto, San José, Costa Rica 2a Ed. Aumentada Roloff y Mialofsky, Carlos and Gerardo Forrest 1901. Yndice Alfabetico y Difunctiones del Ejercito Libertador de Cuba. Edited under the official direction of Leonard Wood. Printed in Havana by Rambla y Bauza Ros, Enrique 2003 Fidel Castro y El Gatillo Alegre: Sus A~nos Universitarios (Coleccion Cuba y Sus Jueces) Ediciones Universal Miami ISBN 1593880065 La Rosa Corzo, Gabino (translated by Mary Todd) [1988] 2003 Runaway Slave Settlements in Cuba: Resistance and Repression University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill ISBN 0807828033 ISBN 0807854794 Rowan, Andrew Summers 1896 The island of Cuba; A descriptive and historical account of the &quot;Great Antilla.&quot; H. Holt and company, ASIN B00086NGHU Rowan, Andrew Summers 1922 How I carried the message to Garcia W.D. Harney ASIN B00086V3FW Rubens, Horatio S. 1932 “Liberty. The Story of Cuba” AMS Press New York, 1970 reprint of 1932 edition. SBN 404-00633-7 Spikes, Daniel 1993 Angola and the Politics of Intervention: From Local Bush War to Chronic Crisis in Southern Africa McFarland &amp; Company Jefferson, North Carolina and London ISBN: 089950888X Tejera, Noel; Ortega, Eduardo; Rodes, Rosa; and Lluch, Carmen 2006 Nitrogen compounds in the apoplastic sap of sugarcane stem: Some implications in the association with endophytes. J. Plant Physiology, 163 (1)80-85 Tennant, Gary 1999 Dissident Cuban communism: the case of Trotskyism, 1932-1965 PhD Thesis, University of Bradford, England . http://www.cubantrotskyism.net/PhD/central.html Thomas, Gordon and Max Morgan Witts 1974 Voyage of the Damned Stein and Day Publishers; 1st Edition edition (1974) Stein and Day, Briarcliff Manor, New York ASIN B000BKOCGM [[Hugh Thomas]] Cuba or the Pursuit of Freedom (Paperback) Da Capo Press; Updated edition (April, 1998) ISBN 0306808277) Thomas-Woodward, Tiffany (accessed 1/29/2006) Towards the gates of eternity: Celia Sánchez Manduley and the creation of Cuba’s new woman. Project Muse http://muse.jhu.edu Travieso, L.; Benítez, F.; Sánchez, E.; Borja, R.; Colmenarejo, M 2006 Production of Biomass (Algae-Bacteria) by Using a Mixture of Settled Swine and Sewage as Substrate.: Journal of Environmental Science &amp; Health, Part A: Toxic/Hazardous Substances &amp; Environmental Engineering, 41 (3) 415-429 U.S. State Department 1950-1954. Confidential Central files Cuba 1950-1954 Internal Affairs Decimal Numbers 737, 837 and 937, Foreign Affairs decimal numbers 637 611.37 Microfilm Project University of Publications of America, Inc. http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/us-cuba/Confidential_Files-Nov-1952-July-1953.pdf http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/us-cuba/Confidential_Files-Aug-1953-Oct-1954.pdf Velazquez, Loreta Janeta 1876 (2003 Editor Andrews, William L.) The Woman in Battle (The Civil War Narrative of Loreta Janeta Velazques, Cuban Woman and Confederate Soldier). University of Wisconsin Press 2003 ISBN: 0299194248 Volkman, Ernest 1995 Our man in Havana. Cuban double agents 1961-1987 Castro stings the CIA in: Espionage: The Greatest Spy Operations of the Twentieth Century Wiley, New York ISBN: 0471161578 Weiland, C. F. (Carl Ferdinand), (d. 1847) 1855 West Indien. Geographisches Institut (Weimar, Germany) [http://www.davidrumsey.com/maps960006-24795.html] Zayas y Alfonso, Alfredo 1914. “Lexografía Antillana” El Siglo XX Press, Havana Zimmerman, Robert 1958 Our Man in Havana: Viking ISBN 067053141 laneta, Mexico D.F ISBN 8423336042, ISBN 9707490012 Jackson, Jeremy {{West Indies}} [[Category:Caribbean countries]] [[Category:Caribbean islands]] [[Category:Cuba|Cuba]] [[Category:Former Spanish colonies]] [[Category:Island nations]] [[Category:Republics]] [[an:Cuba]] [[ast:Cuba]] [[bg:Куба]] [[zh-min-nan:Cuba]] [[be:Куба]] [[bn:কিউবা]] [[ca:Cuba]] [[cs:Kuba]] [[cy:Cuba]] [[da:Cuba]] [[de:Kuba]] [[et:Kuuba]] [[el:Κούβα]] [[es:Cuba]] [[eo:Kubo (lando)]] [[eu:Kuba]] [[fr:Cuba]] [[ga:Cúba]] [[gl:Cuba]] [[ko:쿠바]] [[ht:Kiba]] [[hr:Kuba]] [[io:Kuba]] [[ilo:Cuba]] [[id:Kuba]] [[ia:Cuba]] [[it:Cuba]] [[he:קובה]] [[la:Cuba]] [[lv:Kuba]] [[lt:Kuba]] [[ms:Cuba]] [[na:Cuba]] [[nl:Cuba (Portugal)]] [[nds:Kuba]] [[ja:キューバ]] [[no:Cuba]] [[nn:Cuba]] [[pl:Kuba]] [[pt:Cuba]] [[ro:Cuba]] [[ru:Куба]] [[simple:Cuba]] [[sl:Kuba]] [[sr:Куба]] [[fi:Kuuba]] [[sv:Kuba]] [[tl:Cuba]] [[tr:Küba]] [[uk:Куба]] [[zh:古巴]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of Cuba</title> <id>5584</id> <revision> <id>41345862</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:16:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Buicubano</username> <id>995432</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Communist Cuba */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">==Pre-Columbian Cuba== The archeological record and evidence from [[mitochondrial DNA]] studies indicate that Cuba and the [[Antilles]] have been inhabited by peoples ancestral to the [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] inhabitants for at least several thousand years. Some studies ascribe a role to these original inhabitants in the disappearance of the islands' [[megafauna]], including [[condor]]s [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/ON/v011n02/p0109-p0122.pdf], giant owls [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Strigiformes.html] and eventually groundsloths [http://en.powerwissen.com/2pRNTAz5Rk1ca3+iovh0uA%3D%3D_Ground_sloth.html]. Before 1492 Cuba was populated by at least two distinct [[indigenous peoples]]: [[Taíno]] and [[Ciboney]] (or Siboney) (some consider these populations to be [[neo-Taíno nations]]. These two groups were [[prehistoric cultures]] in a time period during which humans created tools from stone, yet they were familiar with gold (caona) and copper alloys (guanín) [[Copper Age]]. The Taíno agriculturalist and the Ciboney were a self-sufficient society, although their development was not limited to fishing and hunting, farming and production of wooden structures. Taínos and Ciboney took part in similar customs and beliefs, one being the sacred ritual practiced using, often nasally inhaled, narcotized tobacco vapors and particulates called [[cohoba]], is known in English as smoking. The Taino (Island Arawak) were part of a cultural group commonly called the [[Arawak]], which extends far into South America. The wide diffusion of this culture is witnessed even today by names of places in the New World; for example localities or rivers called Guama (the Taino name for ''Lonchocarpus domingens'', a leguminous tree, the designation of a chief (as in [[Guamá ]] a famous Taino who fought the Spanish) are found in Cuba, Venezuela and Brazil. The Arawaks incorporated readily into the successive invading groups and acculturated almost to the point of disappearance. Residues of their poetry, songs, sculpture, and art are found today throughout the major Antilles. The Arawak and other such cultural groups are responsible for the development of perhaps 60% of crops in common use today and some major industrial materials such as rubber. The Europeans were shown by the Native Cubans how to nurture [[tobacco]] and consume it in the form of [[cigar]]s. Approximately 16 to 60,000, [[Bartolome de las Casas]] estimated 200,000 natives belonging to the Taino and Ciboney nations inhabited Cuba before colonization. The Native Cuban Indian population, including the Ciboney and the Taíno, were forced in to reservations during the Spanish subjugation of the island of Cuba. Many Natives were put in reservations. One famous reservation was known as Guanabacoa, today a suburb of Havana. Many indigenous Cuban Indians died due to the brutality of Spanish conquistadores and the diseases they brought with them, such as the measles and smallpox, which were previously unknown to Indians. On the other hand the introduction of smoking and most probably syphilis into Europe as a result of this contact caused uncounted deaths in Europe (Duarte, 1989). Shakespeare's character Caliban is taken by many to represent a Caribbean Shaman. Sir Walter Raleigh's execution is said witnessed by his Caribbean servant. By 1550, many tribes were eradicated. Many of the Conquistadors intermarried with Native Cuban Indians. Their children were called [[mestizo]]s, but the Native Cubans called them ''Guajiro'', which translates as &quot;one of us&quot;. Today, the descendants are maintaining their heritage. ==Conquest of Cuba== ===Spanish Colonial Cuba=== [[Cuba]] was first visited by [[Europe]]ans when explorer [[Christopher Columbus]] landed on the island of Cuba for the first time on [[October 28]], [[1492]]. Two decades later, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar led the [[Spain|Spanish]] invasion, and became [[governor of Cuba]] for Spain. The Spanish established [[sugar]] and [[tobacco]] as [[Cuba|Cuba's]] primary products. As the native Indian population and the Spanish intermarried and educated, field labor became scarce. Natives from Florida and Bahama were imported as slaves, and as that population became mixed as we
nd &quot;national cultures&quot;, and Kroeber's student, [[Julian Steward]] developed theories of &quot;cultural ecology&quot; and &quot;multilineal evolution.&quot; Nevertheless, Boas has had an enduring influence on anthropology. Virtually all anthropologists today accept Boas's commitment to empiricism and his methodological cultural relativism. Moreover, virtually all cultural anthropologists today share Boas's commitment to field research involving extended residence, learning the local language, and developing social relationships with informants. Finally, anthropologists continue to honor his critique of racial ideologies. In his 1963 book, ''Race: The History of an Idea in America,'' Thomas Gossett wrote that &quot;It is possible that Boas did more to combat race prejudice than any other person in history.&quot; ==Sources/Further Reading== ===Writings by Boas=== *Boas n.d. &quot;The relation of Darwin to anthropology,&quot; notes for a lecture; Boas papers (B/B61.5) American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. Published on line with Herbert Lewis 2001b. *Boas, Franz 1911 ''The Mind of Primitive Man'' ISBN 0313240043 *Boas, Franz 1940 ''Race, Language, and Culture'' ISBN 0-226-06241-4 *Stocking, George W., Jr., ed. 1974 ''A Franz Boas Reader: The Shaping of American Anthropology, 1883-1911'' ISBN 0-226-06243-0 *Boas, Franz 1928 &quot;Anthropology and Modern Life&quot; (2004 ed.) ISBN 0-7658-0535-9 ===Writings on Boas and Boasian Anthropology=== *Bashkow, Ira 2004 &quot;A Neo-Boasian Conception of Cultural Boundaries&quot; in ''American Anthropologist'' 106(3): 443-458 *Bunzl, Matti 2004 &quot;Boas, Foucault, and the 'Native Anthropologist,'&quot; in ''American Anthropologist'' 106(3): 435-442 *Cole, Douglas 1999 ''Franz Boas: The Early Years, 1858-1906'' ISBN 1-55054-746-1 *Darnell, Regna 1998. “And Along Came Boas: Continuity and Revolution in Americanist Anthropology.” ISBN 1556196237 *Kuper, Adam 1988 ''The Invention of Primitive Society: Transformations of an Illusion'' ISBN 0-415-00903-0 *Kroeber, Alfred 1949 &quot;An Authoritarian Panacea&quot; in ''American Anthropologist'' 51(2) 318-320 *Lesser, Alexander 1981 &quot;Franz Boas&quot; in Sydel Silverman, ed. ''Totems and Teachers: Perspectives on the History of Anthropology'' ISBN 0-231-05087-9 *Lewis, Herbert 2001a &quot;The Passion of Franz Boas&quot; in ''American Anthropologist'' 103(2): 447-467 *Lewis, Herbert 2001b &quot;Boas, Darwin, Science and Anthropology&quot; in ''Current Anthropology'' 42(3): 381-406 (On line version contains transcription of Boas's 1909 lecture on Darwin.) *Stocking, George W., Jr. 1968 &quot;Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology&quot; ISBN 0-226-77494-5 *Stocking, George W., Jr., ed. 1996 ''Volksgeist as Method and Ethic: Essays on Boasian Ethnography and the German Anthropological Tradition'' ISBN 0-299-14554-9 ===Boas, Anthropology, and Jewish Identity=== *Glick, Leonard B. 1982 &quot;Types Distinct from Our Own: Franz Boas on Jewish Identity and Assimilation&quot; in ''American Anthropologist'' 84(3) pp. 545-565. *Frank, Gelya 1997 &quot;Jews, Multiculturalism, and Boasian Anthropology&quot; in ''American Anthropologist'' 99(4), pp. 731-745. * Mitchell Hart 2003 &quot;Franz Boas as German, American, Jew.&quot; In German-Jewish Identities in America, eds. C. Mauch and J. Salomon (Madison: Max Kade Institute), pp. 88-105. *Kevin MacDonald 1998 ''The Culture of Critique: An Evolutionary Analysis of Jewish Involvement in Twentieth-Century Intellectual and Political Movements'' -- chapter 2 provides a critique of Boas, by resurrecting the Nazi notion of &quot;[[Jewish Science|Jewish science]]&quot;. ==External links== *[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/222389599v1?ijkey=f3uGSmr3wB0r A reassessment of human cranial plasticity: Boas revisited] -- Summary of critical paper by Corey S. Sparks and Richard L. Jantz. *[http://lance.qualquant.net/gravleeetal03a.pdf Heredity, Environment, and Cranial Form] -- article confirming Boas's research, by Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard *[http://www.duke.edu/~ldbaker/documents/baker20.pdf Franz Boas Out of the Ivory Tower] -- essay on the relationship between the academy and politics, drawing on the example of Boas *[http://www.culturecult.com The Culture Cult]: a web site about romantic primitivism [[Category:1858 births|Boas, Franz]] [[Category:1942 deaths|Boas, Franz]] [[Category:American anthropologists|Boas, Franz]] [[Category:Columbia alumni|Boas, Franz]] [[Category:Jewish scientists|Boas, Franz]] [[ca:Franz Boas]] [[da:Franz Boas]] [[de:Franz Boas]] [[es:Franz Boas]] [[fr:Franz Boas]] [[he:פרנץ בועז]] [[nl:Franz Boas]] [[pl:Franz Boas]] [[pt:Franz Boas]] [[zh:法蘭茲·鮑亞士]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Franz Bopp</title> <id>11699</id> <revision> <id>39147863</id> <timestamp>2006-02-11T00:44:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>83.165.139.109</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Franz_Bopp.jpg|right|thump|140px|Franz Bopp]] '''Franz Bopp''' ([[September 14]], [[1791]] - [[October 23]], [[1867]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[linguistics|linguist]] known for extensive comparative work on [[Indo-European language]]s. He was born at [[Mainz]], but in consequence of the political troubles of that time, his parents removed to [[Aschaffenburg]], in [[Bavaria]], where he received a liberal education at the Lyceum. Here the eloquent lectures of [[Karl Joseph Hieronymus Windischmann |Karl J Windischmann]] drew his attention was drawn to the languages and literature of the East. (Windischmann, along with [[Georg Friedrich Creuzer|GF Creuzer]], [[Johann Joseph von Görres|JJ Görres]], and the brothers Schlegel, expressed great enthusiasm for Indian wisdom and philosophy.) And further, [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel | Friedrich Schlegel]]'s book, ''Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier'' (''On the Speech and Wisdom of the Indians'', Heidelberg, 1808), which had just begun to exert a powerful influence on the minds of German philosophers and historians, could not fail to stimulate also Bopp's interest in the sacred language of the [[Hindu]]s. In [[1812]] he went to [[Paris]] at the expense of the Bavarian government, with a view to devoting himself vigorously to the study of [[Sanskrit]]. There he enjoyed the society of such eminent men as [[Antoine Leonard de Chézy|AL Chézy]], [[Silvestre de Sacy|S de Sacy]], [[Louis Mathieu Langlès|LM Langlès]], and, above all, of [[Alexander Hamilton]] (1762 - 1824), who had acquired, when in [[India]], an acquaintance with Sanskrit, and had brought out, conjointly with Langlès, a descriptive catalogue of the Sanskrit manuscripts of the Imperial library. At that library Bopp had access not only to the rich collection of Sanskrit manuscripts (most of which Father Pons had brought from India early in the [[18th century]]) but also to the Sanskrit books which had up to that time issued from the [[Calcutta]] and [[Serampore]] presses. The first fruit of his four years' study in Paris appeared at [[Frankfurt|Frankfurt am Main]] in [[1816]], under the title ''Über das Conjugationssystem der Sanskritsprache in Vergleichung mit jenem der griechischen, lateinischen, persischen und germanischen Sprachen'' (''On the Conjugation System of Sanskrit in comparison with that of Greek, Latin, Persian and Germanic'') (Windischmann contributed a preface). In this first book Bopp entered at once on the path on which he would focus the philological researches of his whole subsequent life. He did not need to prove the common parentage of Sanskrit with [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Latin]] and [[German language|German]], for previous scholars had long established that; but he aimed to trace the common origin of those languages' [[grammar | grammatical]] forms, of their [[inflection]]s from composition -- a task which no predecessor had attempted. By a historical analysis of those forms, as applied to the verb, he furnished the first trustworthy materials for a history of the languages compared. After a brief sojourn in Germany, Bopp travelled to London, where he made the acquaintance of [[Sir Charles Wilkins]] and [[Henry Thomas Colebrooke|HT Colebrooke]], and became the friend of [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]], then [[Prussia]]n ambassador at the court of St James, to whom he gave instruction in Sanskrit. He brought out, in the ''Annals of Oriental Literature'' (London, 1820), an essay entitled, &quot;Analytical Comparison of the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin and Teutonic Languages&quot;, in which he extended to all parts of the grammar what he had done in his first book for the verb alone. He had previously published a critical edition, with a Latin translation and notes, of the story of Nala and Damayanti (London, 1819), the most beautiful episode of the ''[[Mahabharata]]''. Other episodes of the ''Mahabharata'' -- Indralokâgama, and three others (Berlin, 1824); ''Diluvium'', and three others (Berlin, 1829); and a new edition of Nala (Berlin, 1832) -- followed in due course, all of which, with [[August Wilhelm von Schlegel|AW Schlegel]]'s edition of the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' (1823), proved excellent aids in initiating the early student into the reading of Sanskrit texts. On the publication, in Calcutta, of the whole ''Mahabharata'', Bopp discontinued editing Sanskrit texts and confined himself thenceforth exclusively to grammatical investigations. After a short residence at [[University of Göttingen|Göttingen]], Bopp gained, on the recommendation of Humboldt, appointment to the chair of Sanskrit and comparative [[grammar]] at [[Humboldt University of Berlin|Berlin]] in 1821, and election as a member of the [[Royal Prussian Academy]] in the following year. He brought out in 1827 his ''Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der Sanskritsprache'', on which he had worked since 1821. Bopp star
accordance with edict and tradition. *[[Vegetarianism]] is typically adopted in pursuit of general good health, for spiritual or ethical reasons, when other food choices are not available, or as a matter of personal taste. *[[Anorexia nervosa|Anorexia]] and [[bulimia nervosa|bulimia]] are psychological (and possibly neurological) disorders in which victims endanger their lives through dangerous diet patterns. *Many professional athletes impose weight-gain diets on themselves. For example, [[wrestler]]s may overeat in order to achieve a higher weight class. Extreme [[bodybuilder]]s must maintain a high-calorie diet to sustain their physical activity. Football players may try to &quot;bulk up&quot; through weight-gain diets in order to gain an advantage on the field with a higher mass. *Medical conditions often require the following of special [[diet (nutrition)|diets]]. Each of these such diets will specifically include or exclude or regulate certain chemicals (and the foods that contain them). For example, a person who has [[diabetes]] is often on a diet designed to carefully manage their [[blood sugar]] level. Sufferers of [[celiac disease]] must follow a [[gluten]]-free diet, the [[lactose intolerance|lactose-intolerant]] are advised to omit [[milk]] products, and people with [[kidney disease]] must follow a strict low-[[sodium]] diet to ease the strain on their kidneys. Treatment of mild [[Arterial hypertension|hypertension]] includes adhering to a diet rich in [[fruit|fruits]] and [[vegetable|vegetables]] and low in fat and sodium. This diet may be tailored to focus on weight loss if that is necessary to control [[blood pressure]]. ==History== The practice of dieting in order to lose weight is ancient in its origins. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, physicians and patients regulated their food carefully, in order to prevent disease. In the 19th century, as the scientific classification of foods took shape, doctors and scientists began experimenting with targeted diets. [[William Banting]] is one of the first people known to have successfully lost weight by dieting, circa [[1863]], by targeting carbohydrates. The [[low carbohydrate diet]], sometimes marketed today as the [[Atkins]] Diet, remains popular today. ==Scientific principles of weight loss== A successful weight loss diet requires that energy expenditure exceeds energy intake (from food). It generally requires burning 3,500 calories (14 630 kilojoules) more than is consumed to lose one pound (0.453592 kilograms), or burning 37 000 kilojoules more than is consumed to lose one kilogram. ===Thermoregulation=== According to the principles of [[thermoregulation]], humans are [[endotherms]]. We expend energy to maintain our blood temperature at [[body temperature]], which is about 37 °C (98.6 °F). This is accomplished by metabolism and blood circulation, by shivering to stay warm, and by sweating to stay cool. In addition to thermoregulation, humans expend energy keeping the vital organs (especially the lungs, heart and brain) functioning. Except when sleeping, our [[skeletal muscles]] are working, typically to maintain upright [[posture]]. The average work done just to stay alive is the [[basal metabolic rate]], which (for humans) is about 1 watt per kilogram of body mass. Thus, an average man of 75 kilograms who just rests (or only walks a few steps) burns about 75 watts (continuously), or about 6,500 [[joule|kilojoules]] (1,500 [[Calorie|Calories]]) per day. ===Physical exercise (with an example)=== [[exercise|Physical exercise]] is an important complement to dieting in securing weight loss. [[Aerobic exercise]] is also an important part of maintaining normal [[health|good health]], especially the [[strength|muscular strength]] of the heart. To be useful, aerobic exercise requires maintaining a [[heart rate|target heart rate]] of above 50 percent of one's [[heart rate|maximum heart rate]] for 30 minutes, at least 3 times a week. Brisk walking can accomplish this. The ability of a few hours a week of exercise to contribute to weight loss can be overestimated. To illustrate, consider a 100-kilogram man who wants to lose 10 kilograms and assume that he eats just enough to maintain his weight (at rest), so that weight loss can only come from exercise. Those 10 kilograms converted to work are equivalent to about 350 megajoules. (We use an approximation of the standard 37 kilojoules or 9 Calories per gram of fat.) Now assume that his chosen exercise is stairclimbing and that he is 20 percent efficient at converting chemical energy into mechanical work (this is within measured ranges). To lose the weight, he must ascend 70 kilometers. A man of normal fitness (like him) will be tired after 500 meters of climbing (about 150 flights of stairs), so he needs to exercise every day for 140 days (to reach his target). The minimum safe dietary energy intake (without medical supervision) is 75 percent of that needed to maintain basal metabolism. For our hypothetical 100-kilogram man, that minimum is about 5,700 kilojoules (1,300 Calories) per day. By combining daily aerobic exercise with a weight-loss diet, he would be able to lose 10 kilograms in half the time (70 days). Of course, the described regime is more rigorous than would be desirable or advisable for many persons. Therefore, under an effective but more manageable weight-loss program, losing 10 kilograms (about 20 pounds) may take as long as 6 months. ===Fat loss versus muscle loss (and the importance of exercise and protein intake)=== It is important to understand the difference between weight loss and fat loss. Weight loss typically involves the loss of fat, water and muscle. A dieter can lose weight without losing much fat. Ideally, overweight people should seek to lose fat and preserve muscle, since muscle burns more calories than fat. Generally, the more muscle mass one has, the higher one's metabolism is, resulting in more calories being burned, even at rest. Since muscles are denser, muscle loss results in little loss of physical bulk compared with fat loss. To determine whether weight loss is due to fat, various methods of measuring [[body fat percentage]] have been developed. Muscle loss during weight loss can be restricted by regularly lifting weights (or doing [[push-ups]] and other strength-oriented [[calisthenics]]) and by maintaining sufficient [[protein]] intake. According to the [[National Academy of Sciences]], the [[Dietary Reference Intake]] for protein is &quot;0.8 grams per kilogram of body weight for adults.&quot; Those on low-carbohydrate diets, and those doing particularly strenuous exercise, may wish to increase their protein intake. Excessive protein intake, however, can cause toxic levels of protein [[metabolites]], such as [[uric acid]]. According to the [[American Heart Association]], excessive protein intake can cause liver and kidney problems and may be a [[risk factor]] for [[heart disease]]. ===Actual energy obtained from food=== The energy humans get from food is limited by the efficiency of digestion and the efficiency of utilization. The efficiency of digestion is largely dependent on the type of food being eaten. Poorly chewed seeds are poorly digested. Refined sugars and fats are absorbed almost completely. Despite the claims of certain popular diets, chewing and digesting does not use a substantial amount of the energy offered by any food (that anyone would want to eat). Even celery, known for being low in caloric value, contains enough [[sugar|sugars]] (including [[sucrose]], [[glucose]] and [[galactose]]) to easily compensate for the cost of (energy invested in) chewing it. (See [http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/ Food &amp; Nutrition Information Center].} The efficiency of energy utilization by skeletal muscles is around 20 percent. That is, of the chemical energy used, 20 percent does work and 80 percent creates heat. ===Proper nutrition=== Humans require essential nutrients from 5 broad classes: proteins, fats, [[carbohydrate]]s, [[vitamins]] and [[minerals]]. Essential [[amino acid|amino acids]] (protein) are required for cell, especially muscle, construction. Essential [[fatty acid|fatty acids]] are required for brain and cell wall construction. Carbohydrates are required to maintain liver stores of [[glycogen]], which is essential for brain function. (Obtaining glycogen primarily from protein, such as occurs during starvation, is abnormal.) Vitamins and minerals are essential for many functions. Any diet that fails to meet minimum nutritional requirements can threaten general health (and physical fitness in particular). If a person is not well enough to be active, weight loss and good quality-of-life will be unlikely. The [[National Academy of Sciences]] and the [[World Health Organization]] publish guidelines for dietary intakes of all known essential nutrients. Dieters should follow their listed minimums. A good general rule is to obtain at least 20 percent of caloric intake from each of the three classes of caloric nutrients (proteins, fats and carbohydrates). Sometimes dieters will take excessive amounts of vitamin and mineral supplements. While this is usually harmless, some nutrients are notably dangerous. Men (and women who don't [[menstruation|menstruate]]) need to be wary of [[iron poisoning]]. Retinol (oil-soluble vitamin A) is toxic in large doses. A sensible weight-loss diet is a normal balanced diet; it just comes with smaller portions. Extreme diets (based on caprice or obsession) will likely lead to malnutrition. ===How the body gets rid of fat=== All body processes require energy to run properly. When the body is expending more energy than it is taking in (e.g. when exercising), body cells rely on internally stored energy sources, like complex carbohydrates and fats, for energy. The first source the body turns to is glycogen, which is a complex carbohydrate created by the body. When that source is nearly depleted, t
doing much in recent years to revolutionize the way an encyclopedia can be built and maintained, the team behind Wikipedia is attempting to apply its collaborative information-gathering model to journalism.&quot; * '''[http://trends.newsforge.com/trends/04/11/22/1750202.shtml?tid=137 The open source wiki behind Wikipedia]''', NewsForge, [[November 30]], [[2004]]. Article on how to install [[MediaWiki]]. * '''The Wikipedia Wars''', School Librarian Journal, [[November, 2004]]. subtitle: School librarian sparks fight over free online resource. &quot;The ensuing conflict between techies and librarians and open content versus traditional resources underscores the challenges facing information specialists in the Digital Age, particularly those who work with young people.&quot; ===December=== *'''[http://www.cornellsun.com/vnews/display.v/ART/2004/12/02/41ae87066c10f Arrr!]''', The Cornell Daily Sun, Jim Shliferstein, [[December 2]] [[2004]]. Details deliberate vandalism on Wikipedia by the author of the piece (Jim Shliferstein) and his mate. &quot;I never fully understood the sheer awfulness of the human condition until last Tuesday. In the course of a debate about mammalian intelligence, my friend Harlan and I discovered an online encyclopedia called Wikipedia.org, a depressingly successful effort to harness the elusive Power of Loser.&quot; *'''[http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,65890,00.html Her So-Called Digital Life]''', Wired News, [[December 2]], [[2004]]. A new usage of the word ''Wikipedia'': &quot;She isn't an aberration. On the contrary, she's a trend. Most of her friends -- many of them geeks and übergeeks -- live this way, the internet at the center of their relationships. Hodder is one of a growing number of technophiles whose lives are one big Wikipedia (a web-based encyclopedia that anyone can edit). And the life she leads may foreshadow yours.&quot; *'''[http://www.usatoday.com/tech/webguide/internetlife/2004-12-07-online-truth-elusive_x.htm With information access so easy, truth can be elusive]''', Associated Press, [[6 December]] [[2004]]. &quot;The credentials of the people authoring grassroots Web journals and a committee-written encyclopedia called Wikipedia are often unclear. Nevertheless, some Internet users believe that such resources can collectively portray events more accurately than any single gatekeeper.&quot; (widely reprinted, link is to USA Today) *'''[http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/computing/personaltech/20041206-9999-mz1b6encyclo.html Everyone's Encyclopedia]''', San Diego Union-Tribune, [[6 December]] [[2004]]. Detailed article recounting the story of Wikipedia's origins and subsequent developments. *'''[http://www.expresscomputeronline.com/20041213/market06.shtml My Reference Desk]''', Express Computer, [[13 December]] [[2004]]. &quot;In that case you&amp;#8217;d definitely be turning to resources like the Wikipedia, free of any charge since it has been written collaboratively by contributors from all over the world. Why not then throw in the Wiktionary, Wikiquote and Wikibooks as well.&quot; *'''[http://news.scotsman.com/latest.cfm?id=3880996 The Internet Column: Looking back at 2004]''', The Scotsman, [[13 December]] [[2004]]. &quot;Interest in wiki has soared in the last year and sites like Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org) and Wikitravel (wwww.wikitravel.org) have captured headlines around the world. Watch out for more wiki; this is one idea that has only just started to show its potential.&quot; *'''[http://www.forbes.com/best/2004/1213/bow001.html Extreme Blogging]''', Forbes, [[13 December]] [[2004]]. Article about wikis as &quot;the next big thing&quot; has a detailed discussion of Wikipedia. &quot;We asked Frederick Allen, Managing Editor of ''American Heritage'' [published by Forbes], to compare entries from Britannica Online and the Wikipedia. He was skeptical about the Wikipedia, but after throwing several queries at the two encyclopedias ([[Haydn]], [[Millard Fillmore]], [[warbler]]s), he admitted, &quot;it looks as if Wikipedia's gotten a lot better, more thorough and more accurate.&quot; Even the Wikipedia's [[James II of England|James II of Britain]] article beat Britannica in size, reach and outside references. But Allen cautioned that there's &quot;still the underlying problem that you can't be sure of the accuracy of what it presents, because of the fact that it's open to contributions from the public.&quot;&quot; *'''[http://www.davisenterprise.com/articles/2004/12/14/features/025fea.txt Davis, at your fingertips]''', Davis (CA) Enterprise, [[14 December]] [[2004]]. Mentions &quot;wikipedia&quot; in an article about a local community wiki. *'''[http://books.guardian.co.uk/news/articles/0,6109,1374741,00.html Collins launches online dictionary to debate new words]''', The Guardian, [[16 December]] [[2004]]. In launching its new Living Dictionary, Collins cites Wikipedia as a model. *'''[http://www.syracuse.com/news/poststandard/index.ssf?/base/news-0/1103626509270880.xml Spam filters search for patterns in words]''', Syracuse Post-Standard, [[22 December]] [[2004]]. From Dr. Gizmo's Q&amp;A: &quot;Q. I am happy that I could find one person who has had the guts to criticize Wikipedia. - T.H., freenet.de (Germany) A. Wikipedia is an online encyclopedia that allows anyone, regardless of qualifications, to write an entry or revise what someone else wrote. The doctor finds this ridiculous. That's not an encyclopedia; it's graffiti. Unfortunately, Wikipedia is easily accessed on the Internet, which makes it an easy source of misinformation for kids doing homework.&quot; *'''[http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,1759,1745178,00.asp Wikis at work]''', PC Magazine, [[22 December]] [[2004]]. Overview article about wikis mentions Wikipedia as &quot;one of the more robust wikis&quot;. *'''[http://www.technologyreview.com/articles/05/01/issue/forward30105.asp?trk=nl Larry Sanger's Knowledge Free-for-All]''', Wade Roush, MIT Technology Review. &quot;There’s a second complaint against Wikipedia that bothers Sanger more deeply—the fractiousness among Wikipedians themselves. Sanger says participants often become embroiled in “revert wars” in which overprotective authors undo the changes others try to make to their articles. He says he’s afraid that this kind of behavior drives away academics and other experts whose contributions would otherwise raise Wikipedia’s quality.&quot; Referenced on [[slashdot]] [[24 December]] [[2004]] ([http://slashdot.org/articles/04/12/23/2312227.shtml?tid=95&amp;tid=146]) *'''[http://www.azcentral.com/arizonarepublic/local/articles/1226words26.html '04 crunk with clear and cream]''', Arizona Republic, [[26 December]] [[2004]]. Article about &quot;words that rose to prominence in 2004&quot; includes ''wiki'' and mentions Wikipedia, Wiktionary, and Wikinews as examples. *'''[http://www.expresscomputeronline.com/20041227/edit02.shtml Gettin' wiki with it]''', Express Computer, [[27 December]] [[2004]]. &quot; If you’re dabbling with the Wikipedia for the first time, it comes as quite a shock that you have the power to edit any of the existing content, deleting or modifying what others have written and adding in your own two-bit wisdom.&quot; *'''[http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/newse/20041228wo61.htm Favorite Web sites for 2004]''', Yomiuri Shimbun, [[27 December]] [[2004]]. &quot;The Wikipedia, still in its relative infancy, is also a really fun resource for random learning. Each day, a different article is featured on the main page, and you can use the random page feature to take you directly to unexpected topics.&quot; *Coverage of Wikipedia's article on the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]]: **'''[http://www.redherring.com/Article.aspx?a=11098&amp;hed=Information+wave Information wave]''', Red Herring, [[27 December]] [[2004]]. Discusses the spread of information on the internet about earthquake and tsunami, and mentions Wikipedia articles as examples. **'''[http://www.eschoolnews.com/eti/2004/12/000426.php The Future of News Right Now]''', Will Richardson, eSchool News, [[28 December]] [[2004]]. &quot;And when I do want a more complete picture of the story, I still don't go to the (NY) Times. Instead, I go to Wikipedia. Now I know there is some debate about the veracity of the information there. But take a minute to check out the Wikipedia entry on the tsunami event and tell me you aren't amazed. I know I am.&quot; **'''[http://news.scotsman.com/scitech.cfm?id=1473372004 Lazy guide to net culture: Tsunami]''', The Scotsman, [[29 December]] [[2004]]. &quot;An invaluable source of information on the disaster&quot; **'''[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,18690-1418771,00.html Tsunami weblinks guide]''', [[The Times]], [[29 December]] [[2004]]. &quot;The tsunami already has its own exhaustive entry on Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia, including an animation from the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, casualty updates and details on the relief operation.&quot; **[[MSNBC]] television ran a live segment called &quot;'''Cyberspace Collaboration'''&quot;. Guest [[Jeff Jarvis]] of Buzzmachine.com mentioned Wikipedia as a starting point for background information and links to collaborative and blog-based information on the earthquake and tsunami. ([http://www.buzzmachine.com/archives/2004_12_31.html#008763 Reference]) (2:30PM EST on [[December 31]], [[2004]]) *'''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/4131793.stm Why the web is often woeful]''', BBC News, [[29 December]] [[2004]]. Commenting on the state of search engine technology: &quot;I am making a lot more use of specific searches on places like Wikipedia and subscription database services.&quot; *Bazeley, Michael. &quot;Blogs, message boards draw world closer after (tsunami) tragedy.&quot; ''The Mercury News''. [[December 31]], [[2004]]. &lt;small&gt;[http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/10538681.htm]&lt;/small&gt; ::&quot;You can get a really good consensus picture of
ons to ''The Divine Comedy'', like [[Vergil (Devil May Cry)|Vergil]] and [[Cerberus]] * [[List of Italian writers]] * ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'' * [[Aldin]], actor who gives the voice to Dante in ''Devil May Cry''. * [[Radiohead]], British musical group who pays homage to aspects of Dante's work through songs on the albums [[Kid A]], [[Amnesiac]] and [[Hail To The Thief]], and also the video for the 2003 single [[There There]]. Also, lead singer [[Thom Yorke]]'s partner is a Dante scholar. * [[The Dante Club]], a mystery novel about Dante, The Divine Comedy, taking place in post Civil War [[Boston]] *[[Fullmetal Alchemist]] contains a character named Dante who commands [[homunculus|homunculi]] named for the seven deadly sins. * [[Tamashii no mon]], a Japanese video game based of the divine comedy. ==External links== {{Wikisource author}} {{wikiquote}} {{commons|Dante Alighieri}} * {{gutenberg author|id=Dante_Alighieri|name=Dante Alighieri}} * [http://dante.ilt.columbia.edu/index.html &quot;Digital Dante&quot;] &amp;ndash; A resource page dedicated to Dante and his works. * The [http://etcweb.princeton.edu/dante/index.html Princeton Dante Project] * The [http://dante.dartmouth.edu/ Dartmouth Dante Project] * [http://danteworlds.laits.utexas.edu/ Danteworlds] at UT Austin * Read [http://www.readprint.com/author-2/Dante-Alighieri Dante Alighieri]'s works on [http://www.readprint.com Read Print] &amp;ndash; Free books for students, teachers, and the classic enthusiast. * [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/picture-of-month/displaypicture.asp?venue=2&amp;id=152 Henry Holiday's 'Dante and Beatrice'] * [http://www.greatdante.net &quot;Dante Alighieri on the Web&quot;], about his life, time, and (complete) work. * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dante/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry] * [http://www.englishdante.com/ English translation of ''The Comedy''] by Anthony LaPorta * [http://www.danteonline.it/ Società Dantesca Italiana (bilingual site)] contains among other info a database of all the earliest manuscripts of Dante's works, with (for some) transcription of the text and page images *[http://books.guardian.co.uk/authors/author/0,5917,-2,00.html Guardian Books &quot;Author Page&quot;], with profile and links to further articles. *[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=5101 Dante Ravenna Tomb] *[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=18886 Dante Cenotaph Tomb] [[Category:1265 births|Alighieri, Dante]] [[Category:1321 deaths|Alighieri, Dante]] [[Category:Christian writers|Alighieri]] [[Category:Italian poets|Alighieri]] [[Category:Italian writers|Alighieri]] [[Category:Medieval literature|Alighieri]] [[Category:Natives of Tuscany|Alighieri]] [[Category:Italian Renaissance authors|Alighieri]] {{Link FA|pt}} [[bg:Данте Алигиери]] [[bs:Dante Alighieri]] [[ca:Dante Alighieri]] [[cs:Dante Alighieri]] [[da:Dante Alighieri]] [[de:Dante Alighieri]] [[et:Dante Alighieri]] [[el:Δάντης Αλιγκέρι]] [[es:Dante Alighieri]] [[eo:Dante ALIGHIERI]] [[eu:Dante Alighieri]] [[fr:Dante Alighieri]] [[ga:Dainté Ailigéirí]] [[ko:단테 알리기에리]] [[hr:Dante Alighieri]] [[is:Dante Alighieri]] [[it:Dante Alighieri]] [[he:דנטה אליגיירי]] [[la:Dantes Alagherius]] [[lt:Dantė]] [[hu:Dante Alighieri]] [[mk:Данте Алигиери]] [[nl:Dante Alighieri]] [[ja:ダンテ・アリギエーリ]] [[no:Dante Alighieri]] [[pl:Dante Alighieri]] [[pt:Dante Alighieri]] [[ro:Dante Alighieri]] [[ru:Данте Алигьери]] [[scn:Danti Alighieri]] [[simple:Dante Alighieri]] [[sk:Dante Alighieri]] [[sl:Dante Alighieri]] [[sr:Данте Алигијери]] [[fi:Dante Alighieri]] [[sv:Dante Alighieri]] [[tr:Dante Alighieri]] [[uk:Данте Аліґ'єрі]] [[zh:但丁]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dennis the Menace</title> <id>8171</id> <revision> <id>22285996</id> <timestamp>2005-08-31T23:12:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>JianLi</username> <id>399414</id> </contributor> <comment>stylistic</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Dennis the Menace''''' denotes either of two [[cartoon]] characters. In a strange coincidence, both characters premiered in [[comic strip]] form in the same week, one in the [[United States]], and one in the [[United Kingdom]]. Both feature a boy with a tendency to break rules, although the tone of the two cartoons is rather different. The US Dennis tends to cause trouble more by accident, while the UK version is straightforwardly malicious: * '''[[Dennis the Menace (UK)]]''' * '''[[Dennis the Menace (US)]]''' '''Dennis the Menace''' is also a nickname given to the [[2005]] [[Hurricane Dennis]]. {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dennis the Menace (UK)</title> <id>8172</id> <revision> <id>41932785</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:44:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>86.129.173.132</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Beano strip| strip_name=Dennis the Menace and Gnasher| image=[[Image:Dennis_the_menace.JPG|Dennis the Menace as drawn by Barrie Appleby]] [[Image:Gnasher.JPG|Gnasher- Dennis's dog sidekick]]| artist=Nigel Parkinson, Jimmy Hansen| start_issue=452| start_date=[[March 17]] [[1951]]| finish=Ongoing| characters=Dennis, Gnasher, Gnipper, Rasher, Mum, Dad, Curly, Pie Face, Walter and the Softies, Sergeant Slipper, The Colonel| }} :''For the United States comic strip of the same name, see [[Dennis the Menace (US)]].'' '''''Dennis the Menace''''' (known as '''''Dennis the Menace and Gnasher''''' since [[1970]]) is a long-running [[comic strip]] featured in [[The Beano]] children's [[comic book|comic]], published by [[D. C. Thomson &amp; Co. Ltd]], [[Dundee]], [[Scotland]], in the [[United Kingdom]]. The strip first appeared in issue 452, released on [[15 March]] [[1951]] (cover dated for the off-sale date of [[17 March]]), and is the longest running strip in the comic. From issue 1678 onwards (dated [[14 September]] [[1974]]) Dennis managed to grab the front cover, replacing [[Biffo the Bear]], and has been there ever since. Coincidentally three days earlier another ''[[Dennis the Menace (US)|Dennis the Menace]]'' debuted in the [[United States]]. The two strips should not be confused &amp;mdash; as a result of this the US series has been retitled ''Dennis'' for UK consumption. ''Dennis the Menace and Gnasher'' was first drawn by [[David Law]] ([[1951]] &amp;ndash; [[1970]]), then [[David Sutherland]] ([[1970]] &amp;ndash; [[1998]]). [[David Parkins]] took over in [[1998]], but due to his other work commitments, [[Nigel Parkinson]] and increasingly [[Jimmy Hansen]] have drawn the lion's share of the strips for some years. [[Barrie Appleby]] did the artwork for the [[Beano Superstars]] series, which, towards the end of its run, resorted exclusively to strips based on the TV series (see below). The main recurring storyline throughout the years features Dennis's campaign of terror against a gang of 'softies', particularly Walter. Bad things tend to happen to Walter quite regularly. Dennis usually used to get away with his mischief for a while before ending up getting a [[spanking]] from his father, for which Dennis's father used a slipper. Dennis' best defence involved sticking a thick book down his shorts. His dad never noticed. Dennis' grandma also had a slipper, except it was made of [[elephant]] skin and called 'The Demon Whacker'. Since the [[1980s]], however, the slipper is no longer used. [[Image:DennisUK.png|left|Dennis the Menace, as drawn by David Law]] A few weeks after the strip's launch, Dennis started wearing a striped red-and-black jumper, which along with his spiky hair has become his trademark. It is notable that another [[Beano]] character, Minnie The Minx, also wears this colour jumper. He uses his faithful [[pea shooter]], [[slingshot|catapult]] and [[squirt gun|water pistol]]. A Dennis the Menace [[fan club]] was set up in [[1976]]. By the time it was replaced with The Beano Club in [[1998]], it had reached over a million members (the millionth occurring in [[1988]]), including [[Mark Hamill]] in [[1979]]. A Dennis the Menace [[animation|animated cartoon]] began airing on [[BBC One]] (as part of [[CBBC]]) in [[1996]], with another series following in [[1998]]. Originally called ''Dennis the Menace'' in the UK, for international broadcast, the series was renamed ''Dennis and Gnasher''. ==Characters== [[Image:Dennis stamp.png|frame|110px|UK [[Postage stamp|stamp]] first issued in [[1990]]]] Over the years a variety of subsidiary characters have arisen. '''Dennis' Dad''', along with Dennis himself, appeared in the first strip. His hair loss is down to Dennis's menacing, and his real name has never been given. He also appears in both ''Bea'' and ''Gnasher and Gnipper''. The real name of his wife, '''Dennis's Mum''', has also never been given. According to the letters page of an early 1990s Beano, he was christened &quot;Dennis' Dad&quot;. In his twenties he met a girl named Dennis's Mum, and they knew they were made for each other. '''[[Bea (Dennis the Menace character)|Bea]]''' is Dennis's little sister, born in issue 2931, dated [[19 September]] [[1998]]. She has her own strip (''Bea'') and sometimes appears in ''Dennis the Menace and Gnasher''. '''Granny''' is Dennis' Dad's mother. She owned the Demon Whacker, as above, but in the late 1980s/early 1990s, she got her own strip - [[Go Granny Go]] drawn by [[Brian Walker]]. As a result, she transformed from the indulgent Granny who used the Demon Whacker when necessary to a very active elderly lady who enjoyed her motorbikes. '''Gnasher''' is a black [[dog]] owned by Dennis who first appeared in issue 1363, dated [[31 August]] [[1968]]. He is supposedly an Abyssinian wire-haired tripehound, although sceptics have suggested that he looks more like Dennis's hair, eyes, and teeth gone for a walk on their own. He has extremely strong teeth that can leave teethmarks in seemingly
f [[British India]] called [[Ajmer-Merwara]], which, after India's independence, became the state of Ajmer until November 1, 1956, when it was merged into Rajasthan state. It is situated in 26° 27, N. lat. and 74° 44, E. long., on the lower slopes of Taragarh hill, in the [[Aravalli Range]]. To the north of the city is a large artificial lake called the [[Anasagar]], whence the water supply of the place is derived. The city is well laid out with wide streets and handsome houses. Ajmer is at an important railway junction. The city is a trade center and has cotton mills and railroad shops. Manufactures include wool textiles, hosiery, shoes, soap, and pharmaceuticals. The chief object of interest is the ''[[dargah]]'', or tomb of a famous [[Muslim]] [[sufi]] saint named [[Moinuddin Chishti]]. It is situated at the foot of the Taragarh hill, and consists of several white marble buildings arranged around two courtyards, including a massive gate donated by the [[Nizam]] of [[Hyderabad state|Hyderabad]], a [[mosque]] donated by [[Mughal]] emperor [[Shah Jahan]], the Akbari [[Masjid]], and the domed tomb of the saint. To this place the emperor [[Akbar]], with his empress, performed a yearly pilgrimage on foot from [[Agra]] in accordance with the terms of a [[vow]] he had made when praying for a son. The large pillars erected at intervals of two miles the whole way, to mark the daily halting-place of the imperial pilgrim, are still extant. The '''Adhai-din-ka-jhonpra''', a [[Jain]] temple constructed in [[1153]] and converted into a mosque by [[Mohammed of Ghori]] after [[1193]], is situated on the lower slope of the Taragarh hill. With the exception of that part used as a mosque, nearly the whole of the ancient temple has fallen into ruins, but the relics are not excelled in beauty of architecture and sculpture by any remains of Hindu art. Forty columns support the roof, but no two are alike, and great fertility of invention is manifested in the execution of the ornaments. The city's Museum was once the residence of Emperor [[Akbar]], and presently houses a collection of the Mughal and Rajput armour and sculpture. The summit of Taragarh hill, overhanging Ajmer, is crowned by a fort, the lofty thick battlements of which run along its brow and enclose the table-land. The walls are two miles in circumference, and the fort can only be approached by steep and very roughly paved planes, commanded by the fort and the outworks, and by the hill to the west. On coming into the hands of the [[British Raj]], the fort was dismantled by order of Lord [[William Bentinck]], and was converted into a sanatorium for the troops stationed at the British cantonment town of [[Nasirabad, India|Nasirabad]]. Ajmer is also home to [[Mayo college]], a boarding school founded by the British Raj in 1870 to educate the children of Rajputana's nobles on the lines of an English public school. Ajmer was founded in the tenth century by Raja Ajay Pal [[Chauhan]], who established the dynasty which continued to rule the country (with many vicissitudes of fortune) while the repeated waves of [[Muslim]] invasion swept over [[India]], until it was conquered by Mohammed of Ghori, founder of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], in [[1193]]. Its internal government, however, was handed over to the Chauhan rulers upon the payment of a heavy tribute to the conquerors. It then remained feudatory to Delhi until [[1365]], when it was captured by the ruler of [[Mewar]]. In [[1509]] the place became a source of contention between the chiefs of Mewar and [[Marwar]], and was ultimately conquered in [[1532]] by the latter prince, who in his turn in [[1559]] had to give way before the emperor Akbar. It continued in the hands of the Mughals, with occasional revolts, till [[1770]], when it was ceded to the [[Maratha]]s, from which time up to [[1818]] the unhappy district was the scene of a continual struggle, being seized at different times by the Mewar and Marwar rajas, from whom it was as often retaken by the Marathas. In [[1818]] the latter ceded it to the [[United Kingdom|British]] in return for a payment of 50,000 rupees. Since then the country has enjoyed unbroken peace and a stable government. ==References== *{{1911}} == Famous Places == * [[Mayo College]] * [[Moinuddin Chishti]] [[Dargah]] ==External links== *[http://www.indianhorizons.com/best-of-india/ajmer/index.html Ajmer Pilgrimage Travel] *[http://maps-india.com/pilgrimages/ajmersharif.htm Ajmer Sharif Dargah] *[http://www.travel-to-rajasthan.com/travel-to-ajmer-rajasthan.html Ajmer Fair Travel] *[http://www.ioc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~islamarc/WebPage1/htm_eng/ajmer-eng.htm Ajmer at the Islamic Monuments of India Photographic Database] *[http://www.investrajasthan.com/maps/ajmer.htm Map of Ajmer District (investrajasthan.com)] *[http://www.zahuri.org/Ajmerindex.html Sufi sites in Ajmer (Zahuri Sufi web site)] {{Rajasthan}} [[Category:Cities and towns in Rajasthan]] &lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt; [[de:Ajmer]] [[pt:Ajmer]] [[sv:Ajmer]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ajmer-Merwara</title> <id>2646</id> <revision> <id>37264490</id> <timestamp>2006-01-29T21:57:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Shyamsunder</username> <id>800815</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ajmer-Merwara''' (also Ajmere-Merwara) is a former province of [[British India]]. The province consisted of the [[district]]s of [[Ajmer]] and [[Merwara]], which were physically separated by the territory of [[Rajputana]] Agency. Ajmer-Merwara was administered directly by the British Raj, by a commissioner who was subordinate to the [[governor-general]]'s agent for Rajputana. Rajputana was made up of [[princely states]], ruled by local nobles who acknowledged British sovereignty. Ajmer-Merwara remained a province of India from independence in 1947 to 1950, when it became the state of [[Ajmer]]. Ajmer state was merged into Rajputana on [[November 1]], [[1956]]. The area of the province was 2710 square miles. The plateau, on whose centre stands the town of Ajmer, may be considered as the highest point in the plains of [[North India]]; from the circle of hills which hem it in, the country slopes away on every side - towards river valleys on the east, south, west and towards the [[Thar Desert]] region on the north. The [[Aravalli Range]] is the distinguishing feature of the district. The range of hills which runs between Ajmer and [[Nasirabad]] marks the watershed of the continent of [[India]]. The rain which falls on the southeastern slopes drains into the [[Chambal River|Chambal]], and so into the [[Bay of Bengal]]; that which falls on the northwest side into the [[Luni River]], which discharges itself into the [[Rann of Kutch]]. The province is on the border of what may be called the [[arid zone]]; it is the debatable land between the north-eastern and south-western [[monsoon]]s, and beyond the influence of either. The south-west monsoon sweeps up the [[Narmada River|Narmada]] valley from [[Bombay]] and crossing the tableland at [[Neemuch]] gives copious supplies to [[Malwa]], [[Jhalawar]] and [[Kota]] and the countries which lie in the course of the Chambal River. The clouds which strike [[Kathiawar]] and [[Kutch]] are deprived of a great deal of their moisture by the hills in those countries, and the greater part of the remainder is deposited on [[Mount Abu]] and the higher slopes of the Aravalli Range, leaving but little for Merwara, where the hills are lower, and still less for Ajmer. It is only when the monsoon is in considerable force that Merwara gets a plentiful supply from it. The north-eastern monsoon sweeps up the valley of the [[Ganges]] from the Bay of Bengal and waters the northern part of Rajasthan, but hardly penetrates farther west than the longitude of Ajmer. On the varying strength of these two monsoons the rainfall of the district depends. The agriculturist of Ajmer-Merwara could never rely upon two good harvests in succession. Before Indian independence, the [[Rajput]]s were land-holders, and the [[Jat]]s and [[Gujarati people|Gujaratis]] were cultivators or the tenants.The Rajasthan Land Reforms and Resumption of Jagirs Act, 1952 was the landmarks in the legal history of land reforms in Rajasthan which was followed by Rajasthan Tenancy Act, 1955 that became applicable to the whole of Rajasthan. The overriding effect of this Act provided relief to the existing tenants and the rights accrued to tenants accordingly. Now the Jats are major land holders in the region. The [[Jainism|Jain]]s are traders and money-lenders. The aboriginal tribe of [[Mer]]s are divided between Hindus and followers of [[Islam]]. Trading centers include [[Beawar]] and [[Kekri]]. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Historical Indian regions]] [[Category:History of Rajasthan]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>American indian</title> <id>2647</id> <revision> <id>23786587</id> <timestamp>2005-09-22T22:35:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ish ishwar</username> <id>138516</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Native Americans in the United States]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abandonment of wife and children</title> <id>2648</id> <revision> <id>15901043</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abandonment]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abandonment of domicile</title> <id>2649</id> <revision> <id>15901044</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <mino
cribes the event: &quot;When Sharon expressed interest in visiting the [[Temple Mount]], Barak ordered [[GSS]] chief [[Ami Ayalon]] to approach [[Jibril Rajoub]] with a special request to facilitate a smooth and friendly visit... Rajoub promised it would be smooth as long as Sharon would refrain from entering any of the mosques or praying publicly... Just to be on the safe side, Barak personally approached [[Arafat]] and once again got assurances that Sharon's visit would be smooth...&quot; (p354) In October 2000, Palestinians destroyed a Jewish shrine in [[Nablus]], Joseph's Tomb. They also stoned worshippers at the Western Wall and attacked another Jewish shrine, Rachel's Tomb. Further information from pro-Israel source: [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/myths/mf19a.html] ===Special elections and negotiations by Barak=== With the Peace Process increasingly in dissaray, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak called a special election for Prime Minister. Barak was hoping that a victory for him would give him renewed authority in negotiations with the Palestinians. But Barak's hopes were not to be, and in 2001, opposition leader Ariel Sharon was elected as Prime Minister of Israel in the [[2001 special election to the prime ministership]]. Further information from pro-Israel source: [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/biography/sharon.html] A map of Barak's proposal at the Camp David Talks in October 2000 may be found here: [http://www.pmwatch.org/pmw/maps/finalstatus/2000campdavid.jpg] ===Israeli West Bank barrier=== In recent years, much of the Israeli public and political leadership has lost confidence with the [[Palestinian Authority]] as a peace partner, claiming that many Palestinians view the peace treaty with Israel as a temporary measure only. By the same token, some groups in the Israeli left have asserted that Israel has never abided by the terms of any proposal it has agreed with the Palestinians: [http://www.gush-shalom.org/archives/oslo.html] and has attempted to discredit all genuine peace proposals, regardless of their origin: [http://www.gush-shalom.org/archives/article184.html] [[Image:BarrierMay2005.png|thumb|250px|The approved barrier route as of May 2005]] ===Disengagement from Gaza=== On [[December 18]], [[2003]], Prime Minister [[Ariel Sharon]] announced he will consider a unilateral withdrawal from parts of the territories in order to make it easier for long term management of the ongoing intifada. This was crystallized as a plan for total withdrawal from the Gaza Strip, while maintaining most of the settlements in the West Bank. The US government announced its support for the plan on [[April 14]], [[2004]]. The first phase of the plan regarding the work of technical committees to work out logistical details was approved by the Israeli cabinet on [[June 6]], [[2004]]. On [[October 26]], [[2004]], Sharon's withdrawal plan was ratified by the Israeli parliament. It had been previously defeated in a vote among Sharon's own Likud party and was won in parliament only with the help of the opposition Labour Party's votes. Several more votes will be held on the plans over the course of the next year before the plan can be carried out. On [[April 12]], [[2005]], Sharon traveled to President Bush's ranch in Crawford, Texas, USA. Protestors against the Disengagement Plan burned tires in Tel Aviv. A day earlier there had been a fury at the Temple Mount, Judaism's holiest site, where clashes between ultra-Nationalist Israelis and Arabs on the Mount led to the intervention of over 3,000 police. == Foreign relations of the State of Israel == :''Main article: [[Foreign relations of Israel]]''. Ever since the establishment of Israel in 1948, the state faced problems in its foreign policy. In 1948, Israel was in diplomatic isolation resulting from being boycotted by its Middle Eastern neighbours. As an alternative, the Israeli government began developing ties with distant countries. The Israeli government sought to establish good relations especially with the U.S. government, and the newly independent states in [[Africa]] and [[Asia]]. On [[January 9]], [[1950]], the Israeli government extended recognition to the [[People's Republic of China]], but diplomatic relations were not established until 1992. On [[May 15]], [[1952]], diplomatic relations were established with the government of [[Japan]]. ==Arab-Israeli peace diplomacy and treaties== *[[Paris Peace Conference, 1919]] *[[Faisal-Weizmann Agreement|Faisal-Weizmann Agreement (1919)]] *[[1949 Armistice Agreements]] *[[Camp David Accords (1978)]] *[[Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty|Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty (1979)]] *[[Madrid Conference of 1991]] *[[Oslo Accords|Oslo Accords (1993)]] *[[Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace|Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace (1994)]] *[[Camp David 2000 Summit]] *[[Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] *[[Projects working for peace among Israelis and Arabs]] *[[List of Middle East peace proposals]] *[[International law and the Arab-Israeli conflict]] ==See also== {{commonscat|Israeli history}} *[[History of Levant]] *[[Israel]] *[[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] *[[Estimates of the Palestinian Refugee flight of 1948]] ==External links== * [http://www.mideastweb.org/briefhistory.htm History of Israel and Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict] * [http://www.mideastweb.org/timeline.htm Timeline of Israeli and Palestinian History from Earliest Times] * [http://www.mideastweb.org/misrael.htm Extensive political historical and detailed maps of Israel and Palestine] * [http://www.zionism-israel.com/zionism_history.htm A history of Zionism and the creation of Israel] * [http://www.zionism-israel.com/photos.htm A photo gallery of the history of Zionism and the creation of Israel] * [http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~dhershkowitz/ First Photos of the Holy Land] * [http://www.zionism-israel.com/zionism_timeline.htm A timeline of Zionism and Israeli history] * [http://www.mideastweb.org/labor_zionism.htm Labor Zionism and Socialist Zionism] * [http://www.zionism-israel.com/zionism_documents.htm Zionism: Historical Source Documents and texts] * [http://www.jsource.org/jsource/zion.html &quot;Zionism&quot; &amp;mdash; from the Jewish Virtual Library] * [http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/go.asp?MFAH00un0 &quot;Centenary of Zionism&quot; from the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs] * [http://www.jafi.org.il/education/index.html The Jewish Agency for Israel &amp;mdash; The Department for Zionist Education] * [http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf The UNISPAL web site] contains the full texts of hundreds of official documents, including those of the League of Nations and the United Nations, the British government, the Israeli government, the Palestinian authority, and many others. * [http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/halevi.israel Economic History of Israel] from EH.NET's Encyclopedia [[Category:History of Israel|*]] [[Category:History of the Levant]] [[Category:History of the Middle East]] [[Category:Israel and Zionism]] [[de:Geschichte Israels]] [[fr:Histoire d'Israël]] [[he:היסטוריה של מדינת ישראל]] [[it:Storia di Israele]] [[lt:Izraelio istorija]] [[nl:Geschiedenis van Israël]] [[pt:História de Israel]] [[ru:История Израиля]] [[sv:Israels historia]] [[zh:以色列历史]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Harvey Mudd College</title> <id>13810</id> <revision> <id>42106886</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:45:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bovineone</username> <id>296103</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Notable alumni */ fix cadence link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox University2 | name = Harvey Mudd College | image = [[Image:Hmc_seal.png|150px|HMC Seal]] | motto = ''none'' | established = [[1955]] | type = [[Private school|Private]] | head = [[Jon Strauss]] | city = [[Claremont, California|Claremont]] | state = [[California|CA]] | country = [[United States|USA]] | undergrad = 707 | postgrad = 0 | postgrad_label = graduate | faculty = 83 | faculty_label = ratio | campus = [[Suburban]], 38 acres (0.15&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) | free_label = Endowment | free = US$180 million | mascot = Wally the Wart (unofficial) [http://www.hmc.edu/admin/admission/wally.html] | homepage = [http://www.hmc.edu/ www.hmc.edu] }} '''Harvey Mudd College''' is a highly selective, private college of science, engineering, and mathematics, located in [[Claremont, California]]. It is one of the institutions of the [[Claremont Colleges]]. The school is informally known as '''Harvey Mudd''' as well as just '''Mudd'''. Students at Mudd are known as Mudders. The college is named after [[Harvey Seeley Mudd]], one of the initial investors in the [[Cyprus Mines Corporation]]. Although involved in the planning of the new institution, Mudd died before it opened. Harvey Mudd College was funded by Mudd's friends and family, and named in his honor. Harvey Mudd College is contiguous to the other [[Claremont Colleges]], and students at these colleges may take classes at any of them, though classes in the student's major are normally taken at their own college. [[Image:Harveymuddentrance.jpg|thumb|250px|Entrance at Mills Avenue]] ==Academics== Harvey Mudd College's mission is to educate scientists, engineers, and mathematicians well-versed in the [[social sciences]] and [[humanities]] so that they better understand the impact of their work on society. The college offers four-year degrees in [[chemistry]], [[mathematics]], [[physics]], [[computer science]], [[biology]], and [[engineering]], as well as interdisciplinary degrees in [[mathematical biology]], and a joint major in either computer science and mathematics, or biology and chemistry. Students may also elect to complete an Independent Program of Study (IPS) made up of cour
薛定谔]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Episome</title> <id>9944</id> <revision> <id>15907794</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[plasmid]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>EasyWriter</title> <id>9945</id> <revision> <id>28065440</id> <timestamp>2005-11-11T23:01:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jkruis</username> <id>532499</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>removed dead link to comparison</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''EasyWriter''' is a [[word processor]] released when the [[IBM PC]] was announced in [[1981]]. It was written by Capn Software, which also produced a version of [[Forth programming language|Forth]] &amp;mdash; see Byte Magazine, January, 1982, p. 62. EasyWriter was not received well and was soon replaced by better programs, such as [[WordStar]], which was ported from [[CP/M]]. EasyWriter was probably hastily selected by [[International Business Machines|IBM]] because of its rush to introduce the IBM [[Personal computer|PC]]. ==See also== *[[List of word processors]] {{compu-soft-stub}} [[Category:DOS software]] [[Category:Word processors]] ---- '''EasyWriter''' is a [[style guide]] for the [[English language]], written by Andrea A. Lunsford. It includes information about [[grammar]], usage, style and [[citation|citation formats]].</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ed Sullivan</title> <id>9946</id> <revision> <id>42164110</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:13:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>71.194.249.161</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For Sir Edward Sullivan, the Lord Chancellor of Ireland, see [[Edward Sullivan (lawyer)]]''. [[Image:EdSullivan.jpg|thumb|Ed Sullivan]] '''Edward Vincent Sullivan''' ([[September 28]], [[1901]] &amp;ndash; [[October 13]], [[1974]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[entertainment]] [[writer]] and [[television]] host, best known as the emcee of a popular TV [[variety show]] that was at its height of popularity in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]. Sullivan was originally a newspaper sportswriter and theater columnist for the ''[[New York Daily News]]''. His column concentrated on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] shows and gossip. He also did show business news broadcasts on [[radio]]. Sullivan continued writing for The News throughout his broadcasting career. In [[1948]], the [[CBS]] network hired Sullivan to do a weekly Sunday night TV [[variety show]], Toast of the Town, which later became ''[[The Ed Sullivan Show]]''. The show was broadcast from CBS Studio 50 on Broadway in New York City, which in 1967 was renamed the [[Ed Sullivan Theater]] (and is now the home of ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]''). Sullivan himself had little acting ability; his mannerisms on camera were somewhat awkward and often caricatured by comedians who called him &quot;Old Stone Face,&quot; owing to his deadpan delivery. Columnist Harriet Van Horne alleged that &quot;he got where he is not by having a personality, but by having no personality; he is the commonest common denominator.&quot; According to the crazyabouttv.com website, Sullivan replied with a short note: :''Dear Miss Van Horne,'' :''You bitch.'' :''Sincerely, Ed Sullivan'' Somehow, Sullivan still seemed to fit the show; he appeared to the audience as an average guy who brought the great acts of show business to their home televisions. Sullivan had a healthy sense of humor about himself and permitted- even encouraged- impersonators such as [[John Byner]] and [[Rich Little]] to imitate him on his show. In the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]], Sullivan was a respected starmaker because of the number of performers that became household names after appearing on the show. He had a knack for identifying and promoting top talent and paid a great deal of money to secure that talent for his show. There was another side to him: he could be very quick to take offense if he felt that he had been crossed and could hold a grudge for a long time. [[Jackie Mason]], [[Bo Diddley]], and [[The Doors]] became intimately familiar with Sullivan's negative side. [[The Doors]] were banned in [[1967]] after they were asked to remove the lyric &quot;Girl, we couldn't get much higher&quot; from their song &quot;[[Light My Fire]]&quot; (CBS censors believed it was too overt a reference to [[drug use]]) and sang the song with the lyrics intact. [[Jim Morrison]] is reported to have said &quot;Fuck you.&quot; to Ed's stagemanager and nephew, Phil Precht. (The [[Rolling Stones]] were a different story; they were forced to change the chorus of &quot;Let's Spend the Night Together&quot; to an incomprehensible mumble, or by some accounts &quot;Let's Spend Some Time Together,&quot; rather than accept censorship.) [[Jackie Mason]] was banned from the series in [[1962]], when Sullivan gestured that he should wrap things up and Sullivan believed Mason replied on live television with [[the finger]]. On [[November 20]], [[1955]], [[Bo Diddley]] was asked by Sullivan to sing Tennessee Ernie Ford's hit &quot;Sixteen Tons&quot;. Come air time, Diddley sang his #2 hit song, &quot;Bo Diddley&quot;. He, too, was banned from the show. In [[1961]]. Sullivan was asked by [[CBS]] to fill in for an ailing [[Red Skelton]] on [[The Red Skelton Show]]. He performed some of Skelton's characters successfully. One character was renamed &quot;Eddie the Freeloader&quot; (normally &quot;Freddie the Freeloader). In August of [[1956]] he was injured in an automobile accident that occurred near his country home in [[Southbury, Connecticut]] and had to take a medical leave from the show missing the [[September 8]] appearance of [[Elvis Presley]] on his show (something he earlier stated never would happen but he later changed his mind). The fact he had to play catch up to featuring such a star on his show made him determined to get the next big sensation first. In [[1964]], he achieved that with the first live American appearance of [[The Beatles]]. The Beatles first appearance, on February 9, 1964, was the most-watched program in TV history to that point, and remains one of the most-watched TV programs of all time. Sullivan paid for the funeral of dancer [[Bill Robinson|Bill 'Bojangles' Robinson]] out of his own pocket. He also defied pressure to exclude [[African American]] musicians from appearing on his show. By 1971, the show was no longer in television's top 20. New CBS executives, who wanted to attract younger viewers, canceled the show along with virtually all of the network's oldest shows. Sullivan was so upset and angry he refused to do a final show, although he did come back to CBS for several TV specials and a 25th anniversary show in 1973. One year later, the man known as &quot;Old Stone Face&quot; died of cancer at the age of 73. He was married to Sylvia Weinstein from [[April 28]], [[1930]] until her death on [[March 16]], [[1973]]. They had one child. He has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6101 Hollywood Blvd. == External links == * {{imdb name|id=0838047|name=Ed Sullivan}} * [http://www.televisionheaven.co.uk/edsullivan.htm Ed Sullivan] * [http://www.philsilversshow.homestead.com/EdSullivan.html Ed Sullivan appearance on the Phil Silvers Show] [[Category:1901 births|Sullivan, Ed]] [[Category:1974 deaths|Sullivan, Ed]] [[Category:American television personalities|Sullivan, Ed]] [[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Sullivan, Ed]] [[Category:Irish-Americans|Sullivan, Ed]] [[de:Ed Sullivan]] [[fr:Ed Sullivan]] [[he:אד סאליבן]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Erik Locarno</title> <id>9947</id> <revision> <id>40659202</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T03:03:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CesarB</username> <id>7410</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>change to {{softredirect}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{softredirect|sep11:Erik Locarno}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Marie Louise Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun</title> <id>9948</id> <revision> <id>40809499</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T03:52:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.105.114.80</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Vigee-Lebrun1782.jpg|thumb|''Self-portrait'', 1782]] '''Marie-Louise-Élisabeth Vigée-Le Brun''' ([[April 16]], [[1755]] - [[March 30]], [[1842]]) was a French painter, the most famous woman painter of the [[18th century]]. She was born in [[Paris]], the daughter of a painter, from whom she received her first instruction, though she benefited more by the advice of [[Gabriel François Doyen]], [[Jean-Baptiste Greuze]], [[Joseph Vernet]] and other masters of the period. By the time she was in her early teens, she was already painting portraits professionally. After her studio was seized for practicing without a license, she applied to the ''Académie de Saint Luc'' who willingly exhibited her works in their Salon. On [[25 October]] [[1774]], she was made a member of the Académie. In 1776, she married Jean-Baptiste-Pierre Lebrun, a painter and art dealer. She painted portraits of many of the nobility of the day and as her career blossomed, she was invited to the [[Palace of Versailles]] to paint [[Marie Antoinette|Queen Marie-Antoinette]]. So pleased was the Queen that over the next several years, Vigée-Lebrun was commissioned to do numerous portraits of the Queen, her children, and other members of the Royal family and household. In 1781 she and her husband toured [[Flanders]] and the [[Netherlands]] where the works of the Flemish masters inspired her to try new techniques. There, s
ated by Charles E. Martin. c1976 *''[[Maybe You Should Fly A Jet! Maybe You Should Be A Vet!]]'' Illustated by Michael J. Smollin. c1980 *''[[The Tooth Book]]'' Illustrated by Roy McKie. 1981 *''[[The Eye Book]]'' Illustrated by Joe Mathieu. 1999 *''[[I Wish That I Had Duck Feet]]'' *''[[Please Try to Remember The First of Octember!]] *''[[Come Over To My House]] *''[[The Many Mice of Mr. Brice]] (A pop-up book) *''[[I Can Write]] ===Writing as Rosetta Stone=== ''[[Because a little bug went ka-choo!]]'' illustrated by Michael Frith. New York: Beginner Books, 1975 ==Film, television, and theater adaptations of Seuss works== * ''[[Horton Hatches the Egg]]'': a 1942 [[Warner Brothers]] [[cartoon]], an early Seuss adaptation, which includes the elephant (and his son, at the end) singing a popular nonsense tune of that time, &quot;The Hut-Sut Song&quot; [http://www.rienzihills.com/SING/T/thehutsutsong.htm]. * ''[[The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T]]'': a 1953 feature-length live-action movie, with sets that look like classic Seuss drawings and screenplay by Dr. Seuss * ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas!]]'': a 1966 animated television special directed by [[Chuck Jones]] for [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] * ''[[Horton Hears a Who!]]'': a 1970 animated television special directed by Chuck Jones for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer * ''[[The Cat in the Hat]]'': a 1971 animated television special directed by [[Hawley Pratt]] for [[DePatie-Freleng Enterprises]] and [[CBS]] * ''[[The Lorax]]'': a 1972 animated television special directed by Hawley Pratt for DePatie-Freleng Enterprises and CBS * ''[[Dr. Seuss on the Loose]]'': a 1973 animated television special directed by Hawley Pratt for DePatie-Freleng Enterprises and CBS; this special included the stories ''The Sneetches'', ''The Zax'', and ''Green Eggs and Ham'' * ''[[The Hoober-Bloob Highway]]'': a 1975 animated television special directed by [[Alan Zaslove]] for DePatie-Freleng Enterprises and CBS * ''[[Halloween Is Grinch Night]]'': a 1977 animated television special directed by [[Gerard Baldwin]] for DePatie-Freleng Enterprises * ''[[Pontoffel Pock, Where Are You?]]'': a 1979 animated television special directed by Gerard Baldwin for DePatie-Freleng Enterprises * ''[[The Grinch Grinches The Cat in the Hat]]'': a 1982 animated television special directed by [[Bill Perez]] for DePatie-Freleng Enterprises and [[Marvel Productions Ltd.]] * ''In Search of Dr. Seuss'': a 1994 television biopic outlining Seuss's life along with his books * ''[[Daisy-Head Mayzie]]'': a 1995 animated television special by [[Christopher O'Hare]] for [[Hanna-Barbera Productions]] (posthumous) * ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas!]]'': a 2001 feature-length live-action movie (posthumous) * ''[[Seussical]]'': a 2001 Broadway musical (posthumous) * ''[[The Cat in the Hat]]'': a 2003 live-action film (posthumous) ==Further reading== *''Dr. Seuss From Then to Now'' (New York: Random House, 1987; ISBN 0394892682) is a biographical retrospective published for the exhibit of the same title at the [[San Diego Museum of Art]] *''[[The Secret Art of Dr. Seuss]]'' by Audrey Geisel (New York: Random House, 1995; ISBN 0679434488) contains many full-color reproductions of Geisel's private, previously unpublished artwork. *''Dr. Seuss Goes to War: The World War II Editorial Cartoons of Theodor Seuss Geisel'', a selection with commentary by Richard Minnear (New Press, 2001; ISBN 1565847040). *''The Seuss, the Whole Seuss and Nothing But the Seuss : A Visual Biography of Theodor Seuss Geisel'' by Charles Cohen (Random House Books for Young Readers, 2004; ISBN 0375822488). *''The Tough Coughs as he Ploughs the Dough'' : Early works of Dr. Seuss (also includes autobiographical material); ISBN 0688065481 ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *[http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/testing/html/mss0230d.html Brief biography of Dr. Seuss (UC San Diego)] *[http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/dsads/index.shtml The Advertising Artwork of Dr. Seuss (UC San Diego)] *[http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/dspolitic/ The complete Dr. Seuss editorial cartoons (UC San Diego)] *[http://www.anapsid.org/aboutmk/seuss.html An essay by Melissa Kaplan] *[http://www.globeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20031123.wseuss1123/BNStory/Entertainment/ &quot;Green eggs and subversion,&quot; an essay by Sarah Milroy, ''Toronto Globe and Mail''] *[http://www.seussville.com/ Seussville site (Random House)] *[http://www.seuss.org/seuss/seuss.home.html The Dr. Seuss Web Page] *[http://www.ksu.edu/english/nelp/seuss/ Dr. Seuss on the web] *{{imdb name|id=0317450|name=Dr. Seuss}} *[http://www.seuss.org/seuss/seuss.parody.html The Dr. Seuss Parody Page] *[http://www.kidsreads.com/features/010221-seuss/seuss-timeline.asp Dr. Seuss timeline] *[http://www.opinionjournal.com/la/?id=110007816]The Wall Street Journal - Green Eggs and Ham {{Link FA|he}} [[Category:1904 births|Seuss, Dr.]] [[Category:1991 deaths|Seuss, Dr.]] [[Category:Alumni of Lincoln College, Oxford|Seuss, Dr.]] [[Category:American cartoonists|Seuss, Dr.]] [[Category:American children's writers|Seuss, Dr.]] [[Category:American illustrators|Seuss, Dr.]] [[Category:American poets|Seuss, Dr.]] [[Category:American writers|Seuss, Dr.]] [[Category:California writers|Seuss, Dr.]] [[Category:Dartmouth College alumni|Seuss, Dr.]] [[Category:Dr. Seuss|*]] [[Category:German-Americans|Seuss, Dr.]] [[Category:Lutherans|Seuss, Dr.]] [[Category:Sigma Phi Epsilon brothers|Seuss, Dr.]] [[de:Theodor Seuss Geisel]] [[es:Dr. Seuss]] [[fr:Theodor Seuss Geisel]] [[he:דוקטור סוס]] [[pl:Theodor Seuss Geisel]] [[pt:Theodor Seuss Geisel]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dr. Suess</title> <id>8856</id> <revision> <id>15906797</id> <timestamp>2002-10-09T14:02:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Dr. Seuss]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dr. Seuss]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Digital compositing</title> <id>8858</id> <revision> <id>40596446</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T18:43:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Discospinster</username> <id>82432</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rvv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Digital compositing''' is the process of assembling multiple images to make a final image, typically for print, [[film|motion pictures]] or screen display. The basic operation used is known as 'alpha blending', where an opacity value, '&amp;alpha;' is used to control the proportions of two input [[pixel]] values that end up a single output pixel. Consider three pixels; * a foreground pixel, f * a background pixel, b * a composited pixel, c and * &amp;alpha;, the opacity value of the foreground pixel. (&amp;alpha;=1 for opaque foreground, &amp;alpha;=0 for a completely transparent foreground). A monochrome raster image where the pixel values are to be interpreted as alpha values is known as a [[matte (filmmaking)|matte]]. Then, considering all three colour channels, and assuming that the colour channels are expressed in a &amp;gamma;=1 colour space (that is to say, the measured values are proportional to light intensity), we have: :c&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt; = &amp;alpha; f&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt; + (1 - &amp;alpha;) b&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt; :c&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt; = &amp;alpha; f&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt; + (1 - &amp;alpha;) b&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt; :c&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt; = &amp;alpha; f&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt; + (1 - &amp;alpha;) b&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt; Note that if the operations are performed in a colour space where &amp;gamma; is not equal to 1 then the operation will lead to non-linear effects which can potentially be seen as [[aliasing]] artifacts (or '[[jaggies]]') along sharp edges in the matte. More generally, nonlinear compositing can have effects such as &quot;halos&quot; around composited objects, because the influence of the alpha channel is non-linear. It is possible for a compositing artist to compensate for the effects of compositing in non-linear space. The most historically significant nonlinear compositing system was the [[Cineon]], which operated in a logarithmic color space, which more closely mimics the natural light response of film emulsions (the Cineon system, made by Kodak, is no longer in production). Due to the limitations of processing speed and memory, compositing artists did not usually have the luxury of having the system make intermediate conversions to linear space for the compositing steps. Over time, the limitations have become much less significant, and now most compositing is done in a linear color space, even in cases where the source imagery is in a logarithmic color space. Compositing often also includes scaling, retouching and colour correction of images. Current digital compositing systems include: Inferno, Flame and Combustion systems by Autodesk Entertainment Systems After Effects by Adobe Systems Fusion by Eyeon software Shake by Apple Computer Nuke by D2 Software See also: * [[Gamma correction]] * [[Bluescreen]] * [[Digital cinema]] * [[Alpha compositing]] Reading: * T. Porter and T. Duff, &quot;Compositing Digital Images&quot;, Proceedings of SIGGRAPH '84, 18 (1984). * The Art and Science of Digital Compositing (ISBN 0121339602) [[Category:Special effects]] [[Category:Video and movie technology]] [[ja:デジタル合成]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dandy</title> <id>8859</id> <revision> <id>41853774</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:01:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>67.167.208.53</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[United Kingdom|British]] children's [[comic book]], see [[The Dandy]]''. [[Image:dandies.jpg|thumb|right|Sp
\partial \bar z} = -{1 \over 2i}.&lt;/math&gt; Differentiate a function &lt;math&gt;f (x, y) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y)&lt;/math&gt;: :&lt;math&gt;{\partial f \over \partial z} = {\partial f \over \partial x}{\partial x \over \partial z} + {\partial f \over \partial y}{\partial y \over \partial z}\ \mathrm{and}\ {\partial f \over \partial \bar z} = {\partial f \over \partial x}{\partial x \over \partial \bar z} + {\partial f \over \partial y}{\partial y \over \partial \bar z}.&lt;/math&gt; Finally, substitution yields: :&lt;math&gt;{\partial f \over \partial z} = {1 \over 2}\left({\partial f \over \partial x} + {1 \over i}{\partial f \over \partial y}\right)\ \mathrm{and}\ {\partial f \over \partial \bar z} = {1 \over 2}\left({\partial f \over \partial x} - {1 \over i}{\partial f \over \partial y}\right).&lt;/math&gt; If we let &lt;math&gt;{\partial f \over \partial \bar z} = 0&lt;/math&gt;, then, since &lt;math&gt;{\partial f \over \partial x} = {\partial u \over \partial x} + i{\partial v \over \partial x}\ \mathrm{and}\ {\partial f \over \partial y} = {\partial u \over \partial y} + i{\partial v \over \partial y}&lt;/math&gt;, :&lt;math&gt;{\partial u \over \partial x} + i{\partial v \over \partial x} = {1 \over i}\left({\partial u \over \partial y} + i{\partial v \over \partial y}\right).&lt;/math&gt; This represents Cauchy-Riemann equations. The relation has this interpretation: &lt;math&gt;\mathit{x}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mathit{y}&lt;/math&gt; must be constant with respect to &lt;math&gt;\bar z&lt;/math&gt;. This expresses the concept that an analytic function is &quot;truly&quot; a function of a single complex variable, rather than of a real vector. ==Polar representation== Considering the polar representation &lt;math&gt;z=re^{i\theta}&lt;/math&gt;, the equations take the form :&lt;math&gt;{ \partial u \over \partial r } = {1 \over r}{ \partial v \over \partial \theta},&lt;/math&gt; :&lt;math&gt;{ \partial v \over \partial r } = -{1 \over r}{ \partial u \over \partial \theta}.&lt;/math&gt; ==Several variables== There are Cauchy-Riemann equations, appropriately generalized, in the theory of [[several complex variables]]. They form a significant system of overdetermined PDEs. As often formulated, the ''[[d-bar operator]]'' :&lt;math&gt;\bar{\partial}&lt;/math&gt; annihilates holomorphic functions. This generalizes most directly the formulation :&lt;math&gt;{\partial f \over \partial \bar z} = 0&lt;/math&gt;, where :&lt;math&gt;{\partial f \over \partial \bar z} = {1 \over 2}\left({\partial f \over \partial x} - {1 \over i}{\partial f \over \partial y}\right).&lt;/math&gt; [[Category:Partial differential equations]] [[Category:Complex analysis]] [[Category:Equations]] [[ca:Equacions de Cauchy-Riemann]] [[de:Cauchy-Riemannsche partielle Differentialgleichungen]] [[es:Ecuaciones de Cauchy-Riemann]] [[fr:Équations de Cauchy-Riemann]] [[it:Equazioni di Cauchy-Riemann]] [[he:משוואות קושי-רימן]] [[fi:Cauchyn–Riemannin yhtälö]] [[sv:Cauchy–Riemanns ekvationer]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chaim Topol</title> <id>7585</id> <revision> <id>40362374</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:42:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Topol.jpg|thumb|Picture from the film &quot;Fiddler on the Roof&quot;.]] '''Chaim Topol''' (born [[September 9]], [[1935]]), often billed simply as '''Topol''', is one of the most famous [[Israel]]i [[theater|theatrical]] and [[film]] performers. == Biography == Topol was born in [[Tel Aviv]], [[Israel]]. He first practised acting in amateur theatrical plays that were conducted within the [[Israeli Army]]. Later on he managed to establish his own theatre troupe in [[Tel Aviv]] and in [[1961]] he significantly contributed to the foundation of the Municipal Theatre of [[Haifa]]. Despite some criticism that he has received over the years for supposedly using &quot;cute&quot; acting tricks, Topol has managed to retain his stardom and his personal cult following for over three decades. == Acting career == Topol appeared in his first film in [[1964]], and in [[1966]] he made his first English-language screen appearance as [[Abou Ibn Kaqden]] in the big-budget [[Mickey Marcus]] biopic ''[[Cast a Giant Shadow]]''. He came to greatest prominence in the role of [[Tevye]] the milkman in the long-running musical show ''[[Fiddler on the Roof]]''. After scoring an enormous success on the [[London]] stage, he later appeared in the [[1971]] film version of the play. In [[1972]] Topol was nominated for a [[Golden Globe Award]] and a [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor Oscar]] and for his perfomance in the film. He was on active service with the [[Israeli army]] at the time, but was granted permission to attend the awards ceremonies. Some of his other notable appearances were in ''[[Galileo (movie)|Galileo]]'' ([[1975 in film|1975]]), ''[[Flash Gordon]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]]), and the [[James Bond]] movie ''[[For Your Eyes Only]]'' ([[1981 in film|1981]]). One of Chaim Topol's best known roles in an Israeli production was in the controversial ''[[Sallah Shabbati]]'' by [[Ephraim Kishon]] &amp;mdash; a play, later adapted for film, depicting the hardships of a new [[Sephardi]] Jewish family in Israel of the early [[1950s]]. He has recently starred in ''[[Left Luggage (film|Left Luggage]]'' (1998) playing the role of Mr. Apfelschnitt, and ''[[Time Elevator]]'' (1998) as Shalem. == Filmography == *[[Left Luggage (film)|Left Luggage]] (1998) as Mr. Apfelschnitt. *[[Time Elevator]] (1998) as Shalem. *[[War and Remembrance]] (1988) (mini) TV Series as Berel Jastrow. *Queenie (1987) (TV) as Dimitri Goldner. *Roman Behemshechim (1985) as Effi Avidar. *[[The Winds of War]] (1983) (mini) TV Series as Berel Jastrow. *[[For Your Eyes Only]] (1981) as Milos Columbo. *[[Flash Gordon (Film)|Flash Gordon]] (1980) as Doctor Hans Zarkov. *The House on Garibaldi Street (1979) (TV) as Michael. *Galileo (1975) as Galileo Galilei. *Follow Me! (1972) as Julian Cristoforou. *[[Fiddler on the Roof]] (1971) as Tevye. *The Going Up of David Lev (1971) (TV) as Chaim. *Ha-Tarnegol (1971). *Before Winter Comes (1969) as Janovic. *A Talent for Loving (1969). *Ervinka (1967) as Ervinka. *[[Cast a Giant Shadow]] (1966) as Abou Ibn Kader. *[[Sallah Shabbati]] (1964) as Sallah Shabati. *El Dorado (1963) as Benny Sherman. *I Like Mike (1961). ==External links== *{{imdb name|id=0867694|name=Topol}} [[Category:1935 births|Topol, Chaim]] [[Category:Living people|Topol, Chaim]] [[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee|Topol]] [[Category:Film actors|Topol, Chaim]] [[Category:James Bond actors|Topol, Chaim]] [[Category:Musical theatre actors|Topol]] [[Category:Israeli stage actors|Topol, Chaim]] [[Category:Israeli film actors|Topol, Chaim]] [[Category:Israeli musical theatre actors|Topol, Chaim]] [[de:Chaim Topol]] [[it:Chaim Topol]] [[he:חיים טופול]] [[nl:Chaim Topol]] [[sv:Chaim Topol]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Christadelphians</title> <id>7586</id> <revision> <id>42142493</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:32:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>211.31.31.224</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Christadelphians''' (''Brothers and Sisters in Christ'') are a [[Nontrinitarianism|nontrinitarian]] [[Christian]] [[religious denomination|denomination]], which developed in [[United Kingdom]] and [[North America]] in the [[19th century]]. There are approximately 50 000 Christadelphians in 130 countries. ==Beliefs== Christadelphians base their beliefs wholly on the [[Bible]], and accept no other texts as inspired by [[God]]. They believe that [[God]] is the creator of all things and the father of true believers. He is a separate being from his son, [[Jesus]] Christ. The [[Holy Spirit]] is not a person, but the power of God used in creation and for [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation|salvation]], and at certain times in history has been given to believers. Jesus is the promised [[Messiah]], in whom the prophecies and promises of the Old Testament (particularly those to [[Abraham]] and [[David]]) find their fulfilment. Jesus is the [[Son of Man]], in that he inherited [[Sin#Christian views of sin|sin]]-prone human nature from his mother, and [[Son of God]] by virtue of his miraculous conception by the power of God. Although [[Temptation#Christian views of temptation|tempted]], he committed no sin, and was therefore a perfect representative sacrifice to bring salvation to sinful humankind. God raised him to [[immortality]], and he ascended to [[Heaven]], God's dwelling place. Jesus will return in person to establish the kingdom of God on earth, centered in Jerusalem. People become disciples of Christ only by belief in his teachings, by [[repentance]], and through [[baptism]] by total immersion in water. Although saved by faith in God's grace, real faith will manifest in works, and so believers are expected to live a life consistent with Bible teaching. After death, believers are in a state of non-existence, knowing nothing until the [[Resurrection]] at the return of Christ. Following the judgment at that time, the accepted are given the gift of [[immortality]], and live with Christ on a restored Earth, helping him to establish the Kingdom of God, and to rule over the mortal population for a thousand years (the [[Millennium]]). Christadelphians view the future Kingdom of God as the focal point of the Gospel taught by Jesus and the apostles. They point to fulfilled Bible prophecy, particularly as regards the nations, as clear evidence that the Scriptures can be trusted. Christadelphians reject a number of doctrines traditionally held by the orthodox Christian denominations, notably the immortality
co.uk]. * Online version of Dots and Boxes: [http://www.athey-educational.co.uk/games/game5/game5.htm] *[http://www.geocities.com/alpine_rick_2000/index.html Connect Capture] A simple game of strategy that combines Dots and Boxes with Chess. [[Category:Abstract strategy games]] [[Category:Mathematical games]] [[Category:Paper and pencil games]] [[de:Käsekästchen]] [[es:Timbiriche (juego)]] [[pl:Kreski_(gra)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Big Brother (1984)</title> <id>4261</id> <revision> <id>40620543</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T21:57:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Markeer</username> <id>499010</id> </contributor> <comment>See Discussion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{spoiler}} '''&quot;Big Brother&quot;''' is an enigmatic [[dictator]] in a [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] state taken to its utmost logical consequence. In the society that Orwell describes, everybody is under complete [[surveillance]] by the authorities. The people are constantly reminded of this by the phrase &quot;Big Brother is watching you&quot;, which is the core &quot;truth&quot; of the [[propaganda]] system in this state. The physical description of &quot;Big Brother&quot; is reminiscent of [[Joseph Stalin]] or [[Horatio Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener of Khartoum|Lord Kitchener]]. In the novel, it is not clear if he actually exists as a person, or is an image crafted by the state. However, since Inner Party [[torturer]] [[O'Brien (book character)|O'Brien]] at one point tells [[Winston Smith]] that Big Brother can never die, the implication is probably that Big Brother is merely the Party personified. In a book supposedly written by the rebel Goldstein (but later revealed to have a more complex origin) it is stated that &quot;nobody has ever seen Big Brother. He is a face on the hoardings, a voice on the telescreen&amp;hellip; Big Brother is the guise in which the Party chooses to exhibit itself to the world. His function is to act as a focusing point for love, fear, and reverence, emotions which are more easily felt towards an individual than towards an organization.&quot; ''(See [[Goldstein's book]])'' In Party propaganda, however, Big Brother is presented as a real person, who was one of the founders of the Party along with [[Emmanuel Goldstein]]. His real name is never mentioned and it is not publicly known. Since the publication of ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'', the phrase &quot;Big Brother&quot; has entered general usage, to describe any overly-inquisitive or overly-controlling authority figure or attempts by government to increase surveillance. The [[reality TV]] program ''[[Big Brother (television)|Big Brother]]'' takes its name from ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' and a similarly named figure is [[big mama]] &amp;mdash; the informal name for the internet censor on web boards in the [[People's Republic of China]]. ==Purported origins of Big Brother== In the essay section of his novel [[Nineteen Eighty-Five|1985]], [[Anthony Burgess]] states that Orwell got the idea for '''Big Brother''' from advertising hoardings current during [[World War Two]] for educational [[correspondence course]]s run by a company called ''Bennett's''. The original posters are claimed to have shown Mr Bennett himself - a kindly looking old man offering guidance and support to would-be students, with the slogan '''&quot;Let me be your father.&quot;''' When Mr Bennett died his company was inherited by his son, whose rather aggressive-looking face appeared on the posters instead, accompanied by the unappealing slogan: '''&quot;Let me be your big brother&quot;'''. The ideological basis for Big Brother likely comes from [[Leo Tolstoy|Leo Tolstoy's]] novel [[War and Peace]], particularly the discussion of the science of history in part two of that book's epilogue. [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] and various other military and political figures traditionally revered as geniuses, are presented in the theory of history Tolstoy opposes as the cause of the movement of humanity and nations. Orwell appears to call upon this previous work by his invention of just such a patriarchal figure. The historical background during which Orwell wrote his work included several national leaders who had held considerable power, including [[British prime minister]] [[Winston Churchill]], [[US president]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] leader [[Joseph Stalin]]. Stalin, among other leaders, is often claimed to have developed a [[personality cult]] around himself. ==See also== *[[Personality cult]] *[[Mass surveillance]] [[Category:Nineteen Eighty-Four]] [[Category:Surveillance]] [[Category:Characters in written fiction]] [[bg:Голям брат]] [[cs:Velký bratr]] [[de:Großer Bruder]] [[fr:Big Brother]] [[nl:Big Brother (George Orwell)]] [[pl:Big Brother]] [[sv:Storebrorssamhälle]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bergen</title> <id>4262</id> <revision> <id>42038199</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:52:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bota47</username> <id>341052</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: cs, ru</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}} '''Bergen''': ==Places== There are several places named '''Bergen''': * [[Bergen, Norway]], the second largest city in Norway * Bergen, Belgium, better known by its French name of [[Mons]] ===Germany=== ** [[Bergen, Hessen]] ** [[Bergen, Lower Saxony]] ** [[Bergen, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania]] ** [[Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp|Bergen-Belsen]], a concentration camp near Bergen, Lower Saxony ===Netherlands=== ** [[Bergen, North Holland]], including [[Bergen aan Zee]] ** [[Bergen, Limburg]] ** [[Bergen op Zoom]] ===United States=== ** [[Bergen (town), New York]] ** [[Bergen (village), New York]] ** [[Bergen, Wisconsin]] ** [[Bergen County, New Jersey]] ==Things== * A '''bergen''' is also a type of [[backpack|rucksack]] used by the [[British Armed Forces]]. This name is most likely a [[Corruption_(grammar)|bastardization]] of the [[trademark]] name ''Bergans'', a [[Norway|Norvegian]] manufacturer of backpacks and outdoor equipment. * [[Bergen Brunswig]] Corp. * [[Bergen (geography)]] - Bergen is a very common placename == People == * [[Candice Bergen]] * [[Edgar Bergen]] ([[Edgar John Bergen]]) == See also == * [[Bergenfield, New Jersey]] * [[Bergenroth]] * [[Berg]], [[Berger]] {{disambig}} [[Category:Place names]] [[Category:Surnames]] [[cs:Bergen]] [[de:Bergen (Begriffsklärung)]] [[fr:Bergen]] [[it:Bergen (disambigua)]] [[nl:Bergen]] [[pl:Bergen (strona ujednoznaczniająca)]] [[ro:Bergen (dezambiguizare)]] [[ru:Берген (значения)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>BAB</title> <id>4263</id> <revision> <id>41892450</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:14:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hardouin</username> <id>70570</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''BAB''' may refer to: * [[Bayonne]]-[[Anglet]]-[[Biarritz]], a [[Communauté d'agglomération]] (an [[Communes in France#Intercommunality|intercommunal]] entity) of south west [[France]] * [[List_of_motorways_in_Germany|Bundesautobahn]], the name of motorways in Germany, which translates as federal motorway. * [[Beale Air Force Base]] (IATA airport code: '''BAB''') in Marysville, California, United States * [[British Aikido Board]], the governing body of [[Aikido]] in Britain See also '''[[Báb]]''', a prophet of the [[Bahá'í Faith]]. {{TLAdisambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bahaullah</title> <id>4264</id> <revision> <id>15902547</id> <timestamp>2004-03-05T19:43:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Keldan</username> <id>23029</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bahá'u'lláh]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bodes law</title> <id>4265</id> <revision> <id>15902548</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Titius-Bode law]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Binary search algorithm</title> <id>4266</id> <revision> <id>40557425</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T12:03:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Palica</username> <id>188933</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: uk</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''binary search algorithm''' (or '''binary chop''') is a [[computer science]] technique for finding a particular value in a linear array, by &quot;ruling out&quot; half of the data at each step. A binary search finds the median, makes a comparison to determine whether the desired value comes before or after it, and then searches the remaining half in the same manner. A binary search is an example of a [[divide and conquer algorithm]] (more specifically a decrease and conquer algorithm) and a [[dichotomic search]] (more at [[Search algorithm]]). == The algorithm == The most common application of binary search is to find a specific value in a [[sorted list]]. To cast this in the frame of the guessing game (see Example below), realize that we are now guessing the ''index'', or numbered place, of the value in the list. The search begins by examining the value in the center of the list; because the values are sorted, it then knows whether the value occurs before or after the center value, and searches through the correct half in the same way. Here is simple pseudocode which determines the index of a given value in a sorted list ''a'' between indices ''left'' and ''right'': '''function''
be performed exactly as originally written. Here are some of the most commonly performed transcriptions, along with their general difficulty level and the instrument they were composed for: '''Easier''' (high school to college-level): *J. Edouard Barat, ''Andante and Allegro'' (trombone) *Herman Bellstedt, ''Napoli Variations'' (cornet) *Herbert L. Clarke, ''The Bride of the Waves'' and ''From the Shores of the Mighty Pacific'' (cornet) *[[Giuseppe Antonio Capuzzi]], &quot;Andante and Rondo&quot; from the ''Concerto for Double Bass'' *[[Ferdinand David]], ''Concertino'' (trombone) *Alphonse de la Nux, ''Concert Piece'' (trombone) *F. Alexandre Guilmant, ''Morceau Symphonique'' (trombone) *[[Georg Friedrich Handel]], ''Aria con Variazioni'' (orig. [[harpsichord]], trans. for cornet) *[[Benedetto Marcello]], ''Sonata in F Major'' (cello) *[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], ''Bassoon Concerto K. 191'' *[[Sergei Rachmaninov]], ''Vocalise'' *[[Georg Philipp Telemann]], ''Sonata in F Minor'' (bassoon) '''More advanced''' (upper-level college to graduate and professional): *[[Jean-Baptiste Arban]], ''Variations on 'The Carnival of Venice''' (cornet) *[[Johann Sebastian Bach]], ''Six Suites for Solo Cello'' *Edoardo Boccalari, ''Fantasia di Concerto'' (clarinet, cornet, or baritone) *Derek Bourgeouis, ''Concerto for Trombone, Op. 114'' *[[Jacques Casterede]], ''Fantaisie Concertante'' (bass trombone) *[[Julius Klengel]], ''Concertino no. 1'' (cello) *[[Arthur Pryor]], ''The Blue Bells of Scotland'' (trombone) == Some famous band pieces with euphonium solos == *[[Samuel Barber]], ''Commando March'' *[[Percy Grainger]], ''Colonial Song'', &quot;The Brisk Young Sailor&quot; from ''Lincolnshire Posy'', ''Molly on the Shore'' *[[Gustav Holst]], ''Second Suite in F'' (1st and 4th mvts.) *[[Roger Nixon]], ''Fiesta del Pacifico'' *[[Arnold Schoenberg]], ''Theme and Variations, Op. 43a'' *[[William Schumann]], &quot;When Jesus Wept&quot; from the ''New England Tryptich'' ==The euphonium in orchestras== These are some major orchestral works that contain parts commonly played on euphonium (whether the composer originally specified euphonium or not). *[[Hector Berlioz]], ''Symphonie Fantastique'' *[[Gustav Holst]], &quot;Mars,&quot; &quot;Jupiter,&quot; and &quot;Neptune&quot; from ''The Planets'' *[[Leos Janacek]], ''Sinfonietta'' *[[Gustav Mahler]], ''Symphony no. 7'' *[[Modest Mussorgsky]], &quot;Bydlo&quot; from ''Pictures at an Exhibition'' (Ravel orchestration) *[[Richard Strauss]], ''Ein Heldenleben'' and ''Don Quixote'' *[[Dmitri Shostakovich]], ''The Age of Gold'' (ballet) *[[Igor Stravinsky]], ''The Firebird'' == References == * http://home.earthlink.net/~tenorhorn/euphhistory.html * http://lowbrassnmore.com/euponiumhistory.htm * http://www.nikknakks.net/euphonium/ == Outside links == * [http://www.tubanews.com/ Tuba News], a free monthly online publication for tuba and euphonium players. * [http://www.iteaonline.org/ The International Tuba-Euphonium Association], the foremost professional organization for tubists and euphoniumists. * [http://www.tubaeuphoniumpress.com/ Tuba-Euphonium Press], one of the premier publishing houses for new euphonium and tuba music in all genres. * [http://www.brass-forum.co.uk Brass-Forum.co.uk], a UK based brass discussion forum. * [http://www.nikknakks.net/euphonium/ Nikk Nakks Music's Euphonium Page], one of the more informative sites for euphonium literature, history, music, recordings, and more. [[de:Baritonhorn]] [[fr:Euphonium]] [[hu:Baritonkürt]] [[nl:Euphonium]] [[ja:ユーフォニアム]] [[no:Eufonium]] [[nn:Eufonium]] [[fi:Eufonium]] [[sv:Eufonium]] [[Category:Brass instruments]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Entire function</title> <id>10372</id> <revision> <id>41696939</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:08:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username> <id>153314</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rm incorrect statement, it could be fixed but it is not worth it</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[complex analysis]], an '''entire function''' is a [[Function (mathematics)|function]] that is [[holomorphic function|holomorphic]] everywhere on the whole [[complex number|complex plane]]. Typical examples of entire functions are the [[polynomial|polynomials]], the [[exponential function]], and sums, products and compositions of these. Every entire function can be represented as a [[power series]] which converges everywhere. Neither the [[natural logarithm]] nor the [[square root]] function is entire. Note that an entire function may have a [[mathematical singularity|singularity]] or even an [[essential singularity]] at the complex [[point at infinity]]. [[Liouville's theorem (complex analysis)|Liouville's theorem]] establishes an important property of entire functions &amp;mdash; an entire function which is bounded must be constant. This property be used for an elegant proof of the [[fundamental theorem of algebra]]. [[Picard theorem|Picard's little theorem]] is a considerable strengthening of Liouville's theorem: a non-constant entire function takes on every complex number as value, except possibly one. The latter exception is illustrated by the exponential function, which never takes on the value 0. [[Category:Complex analysis]] [[de:Ganze Funktion]] [[es:Función entera]] [[fr:Fonction entière]] [[ko:완전함수]] [[it:Funzione intera]] [[he:פונקציה שלמה]] [[ja:整関数]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Elliptical curve</title> <id>10373</id> <revision> <id>15908188</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elliptic_curve]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Essay</title> <id>10374</id> <revision> <id>42134040</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:17:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rhobite</username> <id>82899</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */ site is covered in google ads. probably spam</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the town in France, see [[Essay, Orne]].'' An '''essay''' is a short work that treats a topic from an author's personal point of view, often taking into account [[subjective experience]]s and personal reflections upon them. Essays are usually brief works in [[prose]], but works in [[verse]] are sometimes dubbed ''essays'' (e.g. [[Alexander Pope]]'s ''An Essay on Criticism'' (1711) and ''An Essay on Man'' (1733-1734). Many voluminous and famous works refer to themselves as essays (e.g. [[John Locke]]'s ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'' (1690), [[Thomas Malthus]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Principle of Population]]'' (1798)). Virtually anything may be the subject of an essay. Topics may include actual happenings, issues of human life, [[morality]], [[ethics]], [[religion]] and many others. An essay is, by definition, a work of [[non-fiction]], and is often [[Expository Writing|expository]]. ==The essay as literary genre== The word ''essay'' derives from the French ''essai'' ('attempt'), from the verb ''essayer'', 'to try' or 'to attempt'. The first author to describe his works as essays was, unsurprisingly, French: [[Michel de Montaigne]] (1533-1592). Inspired in particular by the works of [[Plutarch]], a translation of whose ''Oeuvres morales'' [''Moral works''] into French had just been published by [[Jacques Amyot]], Montaigne began to compose his essays in [[1572]]; the first edition, entitled ''Essais'', was published in two volumes in [[1580]]. For the rest of his life he continued revising previously published essays and composing new ones. [[Francis Bacon]]'s essays, published in book form in [[1597]], [[1612]], and [[1625]], were the first works in English that described themselves as ''essays''. [[Ben Jonson]] first used the word ''essayist'' in English in [[1609]], according to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]. Notable essayists are legion. They include [[Joseph Addison]], [[Richard Steele (politician)|Richard Steele]], [[Charles Lamb]], [[William Hazlitt]], [[Thomas Babington Macaulay]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], [[Walter Bagehot]], [[George Orwell]], and [[E.B. White]]. It is very difficult to define the genre of essay, but the following remarks by [[Aldous Huxley]], regarded in his day as a leading practitioner of the genre, may be of interest: :&quot;Like the novel, the essay is a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything. By tradition, almost by definition, the essay is a short piece, and it is therefore impossible to give all things full play within the limits of a single essay. But a collection of essays can cover almost as much ground, and cover it almost as thoroughly, as can a long novel. Montaigne's Third Book is the equivalent, very nearly, of a good slice of the ''Com&amp;eacute;die Humaine''. Essays belong to a literary species whose extreme variability can be studied most effectively within a three-poled frame of reference. There is the pole of the personal and the autobiographical; there is the pole of the objective, the factual, the concrete-particular; and there is the pole of the abstract-universal. Most essayists are at home and at their best in the neighborhood of only one of the essay's three poles, or at the most only in the neighborhood of two of them. There are the predominantly personal essayists, who write fragments of reflective autobiography and who look at the world through the keyhole of anecdote and description. There are the predominantly objective essayists who do not speak directly of themselves, but turn their attention outward to some literary or scientific or political theme. &amp;hellip; And how splendid, how truly ora
point interpolation'' property. *The curve is a straight line if and only if all the control points lie on the curve, similarly, the B&amp;eacute;zier curve is a straight line if and only if the control points are [[collinear]] * The start (end) of the curve is [[tangent]] to the first (last) section of the Bézier polygon. * A curve can be split at any point into 2 subcurves, or into arbitrarily many subcurves, each of which is also a Bézier curve. * A circle cannot be exactly formed by a Bézier curve, not even a circular arc. However, often a Bézier curve is an adequate approximation to a small enough circular arc. * The curve at a fixed offset from a given Bézier curve (&quot;parallel&quot; to that curve, like the offset between rails in a [[railroad]] track) cannot be exactly formed by a Bézier curve (except in some trivial cases). However, there are [[heuristic]] methods that usually give an adequate approximation for practical purposes. ==Application in computer graphics== Bézier curves are widely used in computer graphics to model smooth curves. As the curve is completely contained in the [[convex hull]] of its control points, the points can be graphically displayed and used to manipulate the curve intuitively. [[Affine transformation]]s such as [[translation (geometry)|translation]], [[Scaling (geometry)|scaling]] and [[rotation]] can be applied on the curve by applying the respective transform on the control points of the curve. The most important Bézier curves are quadratic and cubic curves. Higher degree curves are more expensive to evaluate. When more complex shapes are needed low order Bézier curves are patched together (obeying certain smoothness conditions) in the form of [[Bézier spline]]s. The following code is a simple practical example showing how to plot a cubic Bezier curve in C. Note, this simply computes the coefficients of the polynomial and runs through a series of t values from 0 to 1 - in practice this is how it is usually done, even though neat algorithms such as [[de Casteljau's algorithm|de Casteljau's]] are often cited in graphics discussions, etc. This is because in practice a linear algorithm like this is faster and less resource-intensive than a recursive one like de Casteljau's. The following code has been factored to make its operation clear - an optimization in practice would be to compute the coefficients once and then re-use the result for the actual loop that computes the curve points - here they are recomputed every time, which is less efficient but helps to clarify the code. The resulting curve can be plotted by drawing lines between successive points in the curve array - the more points, the smoother the curve. On some architectures, the code below can also be optimized by [[dynamic programming]]. E.g. since ''dt'' is constant, ''cx'' * ''t'' changes a constant amount with every iteration. By repeatedly applying this optimization, the loop can be rewritten without any multiplications (though such a procedure is not [[Numerical_stability|numerically stable]]). &lt;pre&gt; /****************************************************** Code to generate a cubic Bezier curve *******************************************************/ typedef struct { float x; float y; } Point2D; /****************************************************** cp is a 4 element array where: cp[0] is the starting point, or A in the above diagram cp[1] is the first control point, or B cp[2] is the second control point, or C cp[3] is the end point, or D t is the parameter value, 0 &lt;= t &lt;= 1 *******************************************************/ Point2D PointOnCubicBezier( Point2D* cp, float t ) { float ax, bx, cx; float ay, by, cy; float tSquared, tCubed; Point2D result; /* calculate the polynomial coefficients */ cx = 3.0 * (cp[1].x - cp[0].x); bx = 3.0 * (cp[2].x - cp[1].x) - cx; ax = cp[3].x - cp[0].x - cx - bx; cy = 3.0 * (cp[1].y - cp[0].y); by = 3.0 * (cp[2].y - cp[1].y) - cy; ay = cp[3].y - cp[0].y - cy - by; /* calculate the curve point at parameter value t */ tSquared = t * t; tCubed = tSquared * t; result.x = (ax * tCubed) + (bx * tSquared) + (cx * t) + cp[0].x; result.y = (ay * tCubed) + (by * tSquared) + (cy * t) + cp[0].y; return result; } /***************************************************************************** ComputeBezier fills an array of Point2D structs with the curve points generated from the control points cp. Caller must allocate sufficient memory for the result, which is &lt;sizeof(Point2D) * numberOfPoints&gt; ******************************************************************************/ void ComputeBezier( Point2D* cp, int numberOfPoints, Point2D* curve ) { float dt; int i; dt = 1.0 / ( numberOfPoints - 1 ); for( i = 0; i &lt; numberOfPoints; i++) curve[i] = PointOnCubicBezier( cp, i*dt ); } &lt;/pre&gt; Another application for Bézier curves is to describe paths for the motion of objects in animations, etc. Here, the x, y positions of the curve are not used to plot the curve but to position a graphic. When used in this fashion, the distance between successive points can become important, and in general these are not spaced equally - points will cluster more tightly where the control points are close to each other, and spread more widely for more distantly positioned control points. If linear motion speed is required, further processing is needed to spread the resulting points evenly along the desired path. ==Rational Bézier curves== Some curves that seem simple, like the [[circle]], cannot be described by a Bézier curve or a piecewise Bézier curve (though in practice the difference is small and may be tolerable). To describe some of these other curves, we need additional degrees of freedom. The rational Bézier curve adds weights that can be adjusted. The numerator is a weighted Bernstein form Bézier curve and the denominator is a weighted sum of [[Bernstein polynomial]]s. Given ''n'' + 1 control points '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;, the rational Bézier curve can be described by: :&lt;math&gt; \mathbf{B}(t) = \frac{ \sum_{i=0}^n b_{i,n}(t) \mathbf{P}_{i}w_i } { \sum_{i=0}^n b_{i,n}(t) w_i } &lt;/math&gt; or simply :&lt;math&gt; \mathbf{B}(t) = \frac{ \sum_{i=0}^n {n \choose i} t^i (1-t)^{n-i}\mathbf{P}_{i}w_i } { \sum_{i=0}^n {n \choose i} t^i (1-t)^{n-i}w_i }. &lt;/math&gt; ==See also== *[[de Casteljau's algorithm]] *[[Spline (mathematics)]] *[[Bézier spline]] *[[Bézier surface]] *[[Bézier triangle]] *[[NURBS]] == References == *Paul Bourke: ''Bézier curves'', http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~pbourke/curves/bezier/ *[[Donald Knuth]]: ''Metafont: the Program'', Addison-Wesley 1986, pp. 123-131. Excellent discussion of implementation details; available for free as part of the TeX distribution. *Dr. Thomas Sederberg, BYU ''Bézier curves'', http://www.tsplines.com/resources/class_notes/Bezier_curves.pdf == External links == * [http://www.cs.unc.edu/~mantler/research/bezier/ Bezier Curves interactive applet] * [http://www.theparticle.com/applets/nyu/BezierApplet/ 3rd order Bezier Curves applet] * [http://www.sunsite.ubc.ca/LivingMathematics/V001N01/UBCExamples/Bezier/bezier.html Living Math Bézier applet] * [http://www.ibiblio.org/e-notes/Splines/Bezier.htm Living Math Bézier applets of different spline types, JAVA programming of splines] in [http://ibiblio.org/e-notes/Splines/Intro.htm An Interactive Introduction to Splines] * [http://www.tinaja.com/cubic01.asp Don Lancaster's Cubic Spline Library] describes how to approximate a circle (or a circular arc, or a hyperbola) by a Bézier curve; using cubic splines for image interpolation, and an explanation of the math behind these curves. [[Category:Splines]] [[cs:Bézierova křivka]] [[de:Bézierkurve]] [[es:Curva de Bézier]] [[fr:Courbe de Bézier]] [[ko:베지에 곡선]] [[lt:Bezjė kreivė]] [[nl:Béziercurve]] [[ja:ベジェ曲線]] [[pl:Krzywa Béziera]] [[pt:Curva de Bézier]] [[ru:Кривая Безье]] [[sl:Bézierjeva krivulja]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Banach algebra</title> <id>4665</id> <revision> <id>36777494</id> <timestamp>2006-01-26T11:35:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GrafZahl</username> <id>432345</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>indentation</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], especially [[functional analysis]], a '''Banach algebra''', named after [[Stefan Banach]], is an [[associative algebra]] ''A'' over the [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] numbers which at the same time is also a [[Banach space]]. The algebra multiplication and the Banach space norm are required to be related by the following inequality: :&lt;math&gt; \forall x, y \in A , \|x \, y\| \ \leq \|x \| \, \| y\| &lt;/math&gt; (i.e., the norm of the product is less than or equal to the product of the norms.) This ensures that the multiplication operation is [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]]. A Banach algebra is called &quot;unital&quot; if it has an [[identity element]] for the multiplication whose norm is 1, and &quot;commutative&quot; if its multiplication is [[commutative]]. Banach algebras can also be defined over fields of [[p-adic number]]s. This is part of [[p-adic analysis]]. == Examples == * The set of real (or complex) numbers is a Banach algebra with norm given by the [[absolute value]]. * The set of all real or complex ''n''-by-''n'' [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]] becomes a [[unital]] Banach algebra if we equip it with a sub-multiplicative [[matrix norm]]. * Take the Banach space '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; (or '''C'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;) with norm ||''x''|| = max |''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;| and define multiplication componentwise: (''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;)(''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) = (''x''&lt;
evolution]]'' is widely used, but the terms ''evolutionism'' and ''evolutionist'' are rarely used in scientific circles. However, all three of these terms are commonly used by [[anthropologists]], [[sociologists]], and other scholars outside the [[Physical science|physical]] and [[life science]]s; these terms are used to refer to theories about the development of [[culture]]s and [[civilisation]]s. Scientists object to the terms ''evolutionism'' and ''evolutionist'' because the [[-ism]] and -ist suffixes accentuate [[belief]] rather than scientific study. Conversely, [[creationists]] use those same two terms partly because the terms accentuate belief, and partly perhaps because they provide a way to package their opposition into one group, seemingly atheist and materialist, designations under which many scientists would not like to be cast. Thereby the creationists deride the scientists' theories as mere belief that ignores [[divine intervention]], contrary to what creationists think is [[common sense]]. == Evolutionary thought before Darwin == As early as 400 BC the Greek [[atomists]] taught that the sun, earth, life, humans, civilization, and society emerged over eons from the eternal and uncreated [[atoms]] colliding and vibrating in the [[Vacuum|void]]--all without [[divine intervention]]. In the epic poem [[On the Nature of Things]], the Roman atomist [[Lucretius]] in about 60 BC described the stages of the living earth coming to be what it is. The earth and sun formed from swirls of dust congregated from atoms colliding and vibrating in the void; early plants and animals sprang from the early earth's own substance because of the insistence of the atoms that formed the earth; the aging earth gave birth to a succession of animals including a series of progressively less brutish humans that made a succession of improved tools, laws, and civilizations with increasing complexity finally arriving at the current earth and lifeforms as they are. [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext97/natng10.txt] Robert Carneiro, the anthropologist, describes the progression of evolutionary thought at two levels. First, there was the succession of explanations that did not require [[divine intervention]]. And second, there were occasional uses of derivatives of the Latin word &quot;evolutio,&quot; meaning &quot;unroll like a scroll,&quot; to label the explanations. Carneiro describes it this way: &quot;In the seventeenth century, 'evolution' began to be used in English to refer to an orderly sequence of events, particularly one in which the outcome was somehow contained within it from the start.&quot; Since the outcome was already contained within every prior stage of the earth, life, and universe, everything would happen as it has without divine intervention. (Carneiro 2003:1) In giving an example of an early form of evolutionism theory, Carneiro notes that [[Gottfried Leibniz]] in 1714 explained the motion of objects by the &quot;[[monad]]s&quot; inside them where the monads operated by internal forces, so no outside force was required to make things happen as they did. The historian of ideas [[Arthur Lovejoy]] points to the &quot;monad&quot; or &quot;germ&quot; idea as a characteristic of typical evolutionary thought from 1700 to 1850; as such, it maintained that &quot;the 'germs' of all things have always existed . . . [such that they] contain within themselves an internal principle of development which drives them on through a vast series of metamorphoses&quot; through which they become the geological formations, lifeforms, psychologies, and civilizations of the present (Lovejoy 1936:274). An early application of evolutionary thinking to biology was [[Charles Bonnet]]'s 1762 assertion that each feature of the embryo was preformed in the parts; some of the parts came from the egg and some came from the sperm. Bonnet hypothesized that when the embryo grew, those preformed parts merely expanded, shifted, and rearranged themselves to grow into the adult. Hence, Bonnet was called a &quot;preformationist.&quot; This idea long preceded modern [[embryology]]. Carneiro conjectures that it was this &quot;preformationist&quot; connotation of the word &quot;evolution&quot; that caused [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] in 1809 to exclude the word &quot;evolution&quot; from his 1809 treatise ''[[Lamarckianism|Philosophie Zoologique]].'' For Lamarck proposed that a parent's learning to play an instrument would be passed on to the children as acquired traits--the direct opposite of the popular notions of &quot;evolution&quot; at the time which asserted that the parent passed on the &quot;germs&quot; given by the grandparents unaltered by the parent's learning. (Carneiro 2003:2) After [[Erasmus Darwin]] established his medical practice in [[Derby, England]], he began to put to paper in 1780 his many speculations on the processes that made the current 1) geological formations, 2) lifeforms, 3) [[psychological type]]s, 3) star systems, 4) science advancements, and 5) political reforms. Erasmus Darwin wrote most of his speculations on the evolutionary processes in verse form. He made the most complete statement in a poem he first titled &quot;Origin of Society,&quot; but he changed the title to &quot;Temple of Nature.&quot; In the poem, he describes the beginning of life and the formation of the diverse life forms. Against a vast cyclical background of star formation and collapse, he describes the eons of time until a &quot;general conflagration&quot; in which the planets and sun fall into &quot;one central chaos&quot; from which new earths sometimes appear, &quot;Which in process of time may again undergo the same catastrophe!&quot; Between the times of conflagration, he describes the spontaneity with which life springs forth again to populate the earth. :Organic life beneath the shoreless waves :Was born and nurs'd in ocean's pearly caves; :First forms minute, unseen by spheric glass, :Move on the mud, or pierce the watery mass; :These, as successive generations bloom, :New powers acquire and larger limbs assume; :Whence countless groups of vegetation spring, :And breathing realms of fin and feet and wing. He describes how the animals compete with each other, driven by &quot;three great objects of desire,&quot; namely sex, hunger, and fear. Through the competition, &quot;the strongest and most active . . . [will] propagate the species, which should thence become improved.&quot; Paul Elliott summed up Erasmus Darwin's writings this way, &quot;Five interconnected aspects of [Erasmus] Darwin's Enlightenment evolutionary worldview may be discerned: geological developmentalism, biological evolutionism, developmental psychophysiology, cosmological developmentalism, and scientific and political progressivism.&quot; (Elliott 2003) Furthermore, Erasmus Darwin was an organizer of a group of amateur scientists around Derby that would remain influential into the 1850s, the time of his grandson [[Charles Darwin]]. Erasmus Darwin became the first president of the [[Derby Philosophical Society]], which was something of a gentleman's social club, literary society, and scientific forum for discussing recent scientific discoveries and publications. Around Erasmus Darwin, there formed a small lively amateur scientific community that included the grandparents of [[Herbert Spencer]]. Herbert Spencer's father would become an active amateur scientist and speculator on evolutionary processes in his own right, and when he grew up would become the secretary of the Derby Philosophical Society. Herbert Spencer would later develop a vast evolutionary theory of his own that included cosmological, geological, biological, social, and cultural processes. == Evolutionism from 1836 to 1869 == [[image:TigerLarge_Gérome.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Tiger and Cubs; Oil on canvas by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1884]] Charles Darwin wrote his entire 1859 First Edition of [[Origin of Species]] without using the word ''evolution'' in it. [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext98/otoos11.txt] (Nor did he use the word ''evolve'', though he used ''evolved'' once, at the end of the last sentence in the book: &quot;There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.&quot;) The word ''evolution'' in popular use in 1859 applied to a speculative explanation of how the world and life could be created from [[Randomness|chance]], [[Probability|probabilities]], and the mere [[Chemical element|physical properties of atoms]] without ever an intervention of a [[Creation (theology)|Creator]]. For example in 1836, the month after Darwin returned from collecting his specimens and data on the [[HMS_Beagle|Beagle]], ''[[The Times]]'' summarized &quot;Buckland's Bridgewater Treatise: Geology And Mineralogy Considered With Reference To Natural Theology,&quot; and that 1836 review already contained the creationist argument that evolution was wrong because all variety of animals were found in the same geological strata: &quot;The investigation of the newer transitionary strata assures us by their remains of the cotemporaneous existence of the four divisions of the animal kingdom, vertebrata, mollusca, articulata, and radiala--a fact which at once and for ever annihilates the doctrine of spontaneous and progressive evolution of life, and its impious corollary, chance.&quot; (''[[The Times]]'', Nov. 15, 1836, p. 3, col. E) Though Darwin continued to exclude the word ''evolution'' from the first five editions of ''Origin of Species,'' Darwin's contemporaries, notably [[Herbert Spencer]] argued publicly that the theory of evolution explained how the universe, the world, animals, plants, civilization, ethics, laws, and art would resu
reference to the [[Boxer Rebellion]] *Clover — Boxer's close friend, and also a draft horse. She blames herself for forgetting the original [[Seven Commandments]] when Squealer revises them. She represents the middle class educated people who acquiesce to the subversion of principles by the powerful. *Mollie — A horse who likes wearing ribbons (which represent luxury) and being pampered by humans. She represents upper-class people, the [[Bourgeoisie]] who fled from the [[Soviet Union|U.S.S.R]] after the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]]. *Benjamin — A [[donkey]] who is cynical about the revolution. He is said to be inspired by Orwell himself. He represented the skeptical people in and out of Russia who believed that [[communism]] would not help the people of Russia *Moses — A tame [[raven]] who spreads stories of Sugarcandy Mountain, the &quot;animal heaven&quot;. These beliefs are denounced by the pigs. Moses represents religion (specifically the Russian Orthodox Church), which has always been in conflict with [[communism]]. It is interesting to note that, while Moses initially leaves the farm after the rebellion, he later returns and is supported by the pigs. This represents the cynical use of religion by the state to anaesthetise the minds of the masses. *Muriel — A [[goat]] who reads the edited commandments. She may represent intelligent labour. *Jessie and Bluebell — Two dogs who give birth in Chapter III. Their puppies are nurtured by Napoleon to inspire fear, without doubt representing the formation of the [[NKVD]]/[[KGB]]. *The Hens — Represent the [[Kulaks]], landed [[peasants]] persecuted by [[Stalin]]. *The Dogs — Napoleon's secret police and bodyguards (inspired by Cheka, NKVD, OGPU, MVD) *The Sheep — The sheep show the dumb, animal following of the proletariats in the midst of the Russian Civil War (“Four legs good, two legs bad!”). == Significance== The book is an [[allegory]] about the events following the revolution in the [[Soviet Union]], and in particular the rise of [[Stalinism]] and the betrayal of the revolution which basically replaced one dictatorship for another. Orwell wrote the book following his experiences during the [[Spanish Civil War]] which are described in another of his books, ''[[Homage to Catalonia]]''. He intended it to be a strong condemnation of what he saw as the [[Stalinist]] corruption of the original [[socialism|socialist]] ideals, in which he believed and continued to believe after he saw a revolution betrayed, as in Spain. For the preface of a Ukrainian edition he prepared in 1947, Orwell describes what gave him the idea of setting the book on a farm&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/essays/ukrainian-af-pref.htm Preface to the Ukrainian Edition of Animal Farm]&lt;/ref&gt;. :..I saw a little boy, perhaps ten years old, driving a huge cart-horse along a narrow path, whipping it whenever it tried to turn. It struck me that if only such animals became aware of their strength we should have no power over them, and that men exploit animals in much the same way as the rich exploit the proletariat. This Ukrainian edition was an early propaganda use of the book. It was printed to be distributed among the soviet citizens of Ukraine who were just some of the many millions of [[displaced persons]] throughout Europe at the end of the Second World War. The American occupation forces did not appreciate these illegal presses, printing propaganda, and confiscated 1,500 copies of ''Animal Farm'', handing them to the Soviet authorities. The politics in the book also affected Britain, with Orwell reporting that [[Ernest Bevin]] was &quot;terrified&quot;&lt;ref&gt; Letter to [[Herbert Read]], [[18 August]], [[1945]].&lt;/ref&gt; that it may cause embarrassment if published before the [[United Kingdom general election, 1945|1945 general election]]. In recent years the book has been used to compare new movements that overthrow heads of a corrupt and undemocratic government or organization, only to become corrupt and oppressive themselves over time as they succumb to the trappings of power and begin using violent and dictatorial methods to keep it. Such analogies have been used for many former African colonies such as [[Zimbabwe]] and [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], whose succeeding African-born rulers were thought to be as corrupt as the European colonists they supplanted. In schools Animal Farm is used in the [[Core Knowledge]] curriculum. Core knowledge is based on the interaction of different subjects in schools. The way Animal Farm comes into play is that if a student's Geography or History Class is learning about the former Soviet Union, the English class will be reading Animal Farm. ==Post-publication views of the book== In the post-[[World War Two|War]] years it became apparent to Orwell that anti-Russian literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch — including his regular publisher [[Victor Gollancz Ltd|Gollancz]]. One publisher he sought to sell his book to rejected it on the grounds of government advice — although it was later found that the civil servant who gave the order was a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[spy]].&lt;ref&gt;''Orwell: The Life'', D.J. Taylor, 2003, ISBN 0-8050-7473-2)''&lt;/ref&gt; Orwell originally prepared a preface on freedom of the press for the book which noted &quot;The sinister fact about literary [[censorship]] in England is that it is largely voluntary. ... [Things are] kept right out of the British press, not because the Government intervened but because of a general tacit agreement that ‘it wouldn’t do’ to mention that particular fact.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Animal_Farm/english/efp_go The Freedom of the Press]&lt;/ref&gt; Somewhat [[irony|ironically]], the preface itself was censored and is not published with most copies of the book. ==Film versions== The book was the basis of an animated feature [[film]] in 1955 (Britain's first full-length animated movie), directed by [[John Halas]] and [[Joy Batchelor]] and quietly commissioned by the American [[CIA]], which softened the theme of the story slightly by reducing the role of Moses, the character representing religion, and adding an epilogue, that occurs immediately after the novel's iconic concluding imagery is depicted, where the other animals successfully revolt against the pigs. There was also a 1999 live action film directed by John Stephenson, with voices by [[Kelsey Grammer]] as Snowball, [[Patrick Stewart]] as Napoleon, and [[Ian Holm]] as Squealer. Despite a few differences (such as completely different songs and Jesse being the first to question the pigs), much of the plot is loyal to the book. The film diverges from the book with an additional epilogue in which Jesse and several animals escape and return years later to a post-Napoleon era Animal Farm. ==Cultural references== * [[Pink Floyd]]'s [[1977]] [[record album|album]] ''[[Animals (album)|Animals]]'' was partially inspired by Animal Farm. It categorises people as pigs, dogs, or sheep. * In an episode of ''[[Johnny Bravo]]'' (&quot;Aunt Katie's Farm&quot;), Johnny, while dressed in a pig costume, goes crazy and yells, &quot;Four legs good! Two legs bad!&quot; over and over. * Radical socialist rappers [[Dead Prez]] released a song called &quot;Animal in Man&quot; off their debut LP, ''[[Let's Get Free]]'', re-telling the story. * A song off canadian band [[Protest the Hero]]'s debut CD [[A Calculated Use of Sound]], called &quot;Red Stars Over the Battle of the Cowshed&quot; is presumably a reference to Animal Farm ==See also== '''Songs''' *&quot;[[Beasts of England]]&quot; *&quot;[[Comrade Napoleon]]&quot; '''Battles''' *[[Battle of the Cowshed]] *[[Battle of the Windmill (Animal Farm)|Battle of the Windmill]] '''Characters''' *[[Old Major]] *[[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]] *[[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]] *[[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]] *[[Frederick (Animal Farm)|Frederick]] *[[Pilkington (Animal Farm)|Pilkington]] *[[Jones (Animal Farm)|Jones]] *[[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer]] '''The Seven Commandments''' *[[Seven Commandments]] ==References== &lt;references/&gt; == External links == {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/LitNote/id-12.html Animal Farm CliffsNotes] * [http://www.slashdoc.com/tag/animal_farm.html Slashdoc : ''Animal Farm''] Analytical essays of the novel * [http://www.george-orwell.org/Animal_Farm/index.html Animal Farm] &amp;mdash; Searchable, indexed etext. * [http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/books/animalfarm.htm Animal Farm — Complete Novel] — Includes publication data and search feature. * [http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/essays/letters-agent-af.htm Excerpts from Orwell's letters to his agent concerning Animal Farm] * [http://t.webring.com/hub?ring=orwellwebring George Orwell Web Ring] *[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0047834/ IMDB — Animal Farm (1954 animated film)] *[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0204824/ IMDB — Animal Farm (1999 TV film)] ==ISBN numbers== * ISBN 9966472487 ([[paperback]], [[1988]], Swahili translation) * ISBN 0582021731 ([[paper text]], [[1989]]) * ISBN 0151072558 ([[hardcover]], [[1990]]) * ISBN 0582060109 (paper text, 1991) * ISBN 0679420398 (hardcover, 1993) * ISBN 0606001026 ([[prebound]], [[1996]]) * ISBN 0151002177 (hardcover, 1996, Anniversary Edition) * ISBN 0452277507 ([[paperback]], 1996, Anniversary Edition) * ISBN 0451526341 ([[mass market paperback]], 1996, Anniversary Edition) * ISBN 0582530083 (1996) * ISBN 1560005203 ([[cloth text]], [[1998]], Large Type Edition) * ISBN 0791047741 (hardcover, 1999) * ISBN 0451525361 (paperback, 1999) * ISBN 0764108190 (paperback, 1999) * ISBN 082207009X ([[e-book]], 1999) * ISBN 0758778430 (hardcover, 2002) * ISBN 0151010269 (hardcover, 2003, with ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'') * ISBN 0452284244 (paperback, 2003, Centennial Edition) * ISBN 0848801202 (hardcover) [[Category:1945 books]] [[Category:Animal Farm]] [[Cat
abolishing the Soviet-era constitution and restoring the 1921 Constitution of the [[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]. Many Abkhazians interpreted this as an abolition of their autonomous status. In response, on [[23 July]] 1992, the Abkhazia government effectively declared independence, although this gesture went unrecognized by any other country. The Georgian government accused Gamsakhurdia supporters of kidnapping Georgia's interior minister and holding him captive in Abkhazia. The Georgian government dispatched 3,000 troops to the region, ostensibly to restore order. Heavy fighting between Georgian forces and Abkhazian militia broke out in and around Sukhum. The Abkhazian authorities rejected the government's claims, claiming that it was merely a pretext for an invasion. After about a week's fighting and many casualties on both sides, Georgian government forces managed to take control of most of Abkhazia, and closed down the regional parliament. The Abkhazians' military defeat was met with a hostile response by the self-styled [[Confederation of Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus]], an umbrella group uniting a number of anti-Russian movements in the North Caucasus, Russia ([[Chechen]]s, [[Cossacks]], [[Ossetians]] and others). Hundreds of volunteer paramilitaries from Russia (including the then little known [[Shamil Basayev]]) joined forces with the Abkhazian separatists to fight the Georgian government forces . In September, the Abkhazians and Russian paramilitaries mounted a major offensive after breaking a cease-fire, which drove the Georgian forces out of large swathes of the republic. Shevardnadze's government accused Russia of giving covert military support to the rebels with the aim of &quot;detaching from Georgia its native territory and the Georgia-Russian frontier land&quot;. The year 1992 ended with the rebels in control of much of Abkhazia west of Sukhum. Significant &quot;[[ethnic cleansing]]&quot; occurred on both sides, with Abkhazians displaced from Georgian-held territory and vice-versa; some 3,000 people were reported to have been killed in this first phase of the war. The conflict remained stalemated until July 1993, when Abkhazian (separatist) militia launched an attack on Georgian-held Sukhum. The capital was surrounded and heavily shelled, with Shevardnadze himself trapped in the city. Although a truce was declared at the end of July, this collapsed after a renewed Abkhaz attack in mid-September. After ten days of heavy fighting, Sukhum fell on [[27 September]], 1993. Newly appointed Georgian President Eduard Shevardnadze narrowly escaped death, having vowed to stay in the city no matter what, but he was eventually forced to flee when separatist snipers fired on the hotel where he was residing. Shevardnadze had to rely on the Russian navy to evacuate him from Sukhum. The separatist forces quickly overran the rest of Abkhazia as the Georgian government faced a second threat: an uprising by the supporters of the deposed Zviad Gamsakhurdia in the region of Mingrelia (Samegrelo). In the chaotic aftermath of defeat, almost the entire non-Abkhazian population fled the region by sea or over the mountains. Many thousands died &amp;mdash; it is thought that as many as 10,000 may have perished &amp;mdash; and some 250,000-300,000 people were forced into exile. ==Abkhazia today== The Abkhaz conflict has not been resolved; a ceasefire agreement was signed on [[15 May]] [[1994]] and a [[United Nations]] peacekeeping force ([[UNOMIG]]) was given the task of monitoring the agreement. A separate force from the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS) was assigned to a peacekeeping mission. Peace talks have taken place on and off over the last ten years but have achieved little of significance. Although there have been no major outbreaks of fighting in the meantime, border clashes and armed raids by both sides continue to inflict casualties. A new constitution was adopted on [[4 November]] [[1994]] which declared Abkhaz sovereignty. Elections were held on [[23 November]] [[1996]] but these were not recognised by the Georgian government or the international community, as the elections were held after [[ethnic cleansing]] when majority of pre-war population had fled Abkhazia. The CIS imposed economic sanctions in January 1996 and the region is formally blockaded by both Georgia and Russia. On [[3 October]] [[2004]] presidential elections were held in Abkhazia. In the elections, Russia evidently supported then-Prime Minister [[Raul Khadjimba]], also backed by seriously ailing outgoing separatist President [[Vladislav Ardzinba]]. Posters of Russia's President [[Vladimir Putin]] together with Khadjimba, who like Putin had worked as a [[KGB]] official, were everywhere in Sukhum. Deputies of Russia's parliament and Russian singers, led by [[Joseph Kobzon]], both a deputy and a popular songster, came to Abkhazia compaigning for Khadjimba. Still, on [[12 October]] Abkhazia's Supreme Court, after a series of contradictory decisions by the Electoral Committee, recognized that the new president would be businessman [[Sergei Bagapsh]], accused by his rival's supporters of being pro-Georgian. Abkhazia's outgoing President Ardzinba claimed the decision was illegal and made under pressure from supporters of Bagapsh. The decision was cancelled by the Supreme Court that night. When supporters of [[Raul Khadjimba]] seized the building of the Supreme Court and destroyed the protocols from local electoral constituencies, new elections were prescribed. Soon the Supreme Court cancelled the later decision, and again named Bagapsh the new president. His supporters captured a local TV station, while Khadjimba's supporters took control over the parliament's building. Outgoing President Ardzinba replaced Khadjimba as prime minister with [[Nodar Khashba]], who before this appointment served in the [[Ministry of Extraordinary Situations (Russian Federation)|Ministry of Extraordinary Situations]] of Russia. On [[12 November]] supporters of Bagapsh, who was planning to be inaugurated on [[7 December]], took the building of Abkhazia's administration, making [[Nodar Khashba]] flee from his room. Capturing the major governmental offices in Sukhum led to the death of one elderly woman, [[Tamara Shakryl]]. (Bagapsh's supporters claim she was killed by Ardzinba's guard.) The same day Russia made it clear that it would directly intervene in Abkhazian developments in case of threats to its interests in this unrecognized republic, and blamed Bagapsh for the disorders. In response, Georgia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that it &quot;calls upon the Group of Friends of the UN Secretary General and the international community to give the proper reaction to such Russian declarations, to reiterate their support to Georgia's full sovereignty and territorial integrity and to warn Russia to abstain from any interference in Georgia's internal affairs.&quot; In response to Georgia's accusations that Russia was sending its so-called peacemaking troops to Sukhum, Russian lieutenant colonel Yevgeni Morenko, head of the Collective Peacemaking Forces in the region, told journalists on [[12 November]] that only two armored troop-carriers were sent to Abkhazia's capital, &quot;for better protection of the Peacemaking Headquarters&quot;. On [[14 November]], Prime Minister [[Nodar Khashba]], named by the relatives of Tamara Shakryl as responsible for her death and threatened by them, had to spend the night at Russia's Peacemaking Headquarters in Sukhum. Tensions continued to mount as the day for Bagapsh's inaugural ceremony came. In early December 2004, however, Bagapsh came to an agreement with Khadjimba under which they would run in new elections under a national unity ticket, with Bagapsh as presidential candidate and Khadjimba as vice-presidential candidate. The ticket won the elections with over 90% of the vote, and the new administration took office on [[12 February]] 2005. ==Abkhazia's future== Abkhazian leaders have made alternating demands in recent years. At times, they have insisted on full independence, and at other times, they have requested associate membership in the Russian Federation. However, the Russian government has been slow to respond to the latter proposal, fearing the negative effect of such an action on its relations with Georgia. On [[28 November]] [[2003]], Russian MP [[Vladimir Zhirinovsky]] tabled such a resolution in the [[State Duma]], but saw it rejected. Nonetheless, many citizens of Abkhazia now possess Russian citizenship, and Abkhazians, unlike Georgians entering Russia, do not require a visa. The [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]], [[European Union]] and [[United Nations]] have continued to insist that Abkhazia must remain part of Georgia, and that at the very least, the many Georgian refugees who fled after the 1992-1993 war must be allowed to return, before any acceptable vote on independence can be held. The Georgian government has continued to insist on Abkhazia's reunification with Georgia, but has differed in its suggestions of means to achieve this, particularly under the government of current President [[Mikhail Saakashvili]]. They have, at times, proposed two main peace deals. The first one would divide Georgia into seven autonomous entities, each with power over police and economic issues, but relinquishing power over defence and foreign affairs to the federal government. In a later proposal, it was suggested that Georgia and Abkhazia could form one federal Georgian republic, somewhat along the lines of [[Serbia and Montenegro]]. The Georgian government has, at times, suggested that they may attempt to resolve the conflict by military means. After the 2004 removal of [[Ajaria]]n leader [[Aslan Abashidze]] from office after large public protests, Saakashvili suggested that Abkhazia and fellow separatist entity [[South Ossetia]] could be reintegrated in the same man
''[[polyphony]]''. Common words of ten letters that can be spelled solely with the top line of letters on a [[QWERTY]] keyboard include ''perpetuity'', ''proprietor'', ''repertoire'' and, fittingly, ''[[typewriter]]''. There are at least two eleven-letter words, both rare: ''proterotype'' and ''[[rupturewort]]''. The eight-letter words ''ashfalls'', ''Falashas'', ''[[Hadassah]]'', ''[[Haggadah]]'' and ''[[Haskalah]]'' can all be typed on the middle row of letters on the keyboard. The longest such common word is probably the seven-letter ''[[alfalfa]]''. ==See also== * [[English language]] * [[Word Ways]]: The Journal of Recreational Linguistics * [[Inherently funny word]] * [[Lists of English words of international origin]] * [[Lists of words]] * [[List of names in English with non-intuitive pronunciations]] * [[Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious]] * [[Ghoti]] * [[cellar door]] * [[Siamese twins (English language)]] ==External links== *[http://members.aol.com/gulfhigh2/words.html A Collection of Word Oddities and Trivia] *[http://cetus.pmel.noaa.gov/AB/dave/wordplay.html Word Oddities] *[http://users.tinyonline.co.uk/gswithenbank/wordtriv.htm Word Trivia] *[http://www.oneletterwords.com/index.php Strange and Unusual Dictionaries] *[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mantidis.html What does antidisestablishmentarianism mean?] *[http://www.fun-with-words.com/ Fun with words] [[Category:Lists of English words|Uncommon properties, English words with]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eric S. Raymond</title> <id>9469</id> <revision> <id>42157785</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:03:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>64.223.113.196</ip> </contributor> <comment>rv deletion by [[User:Robust Physique|Robust Physique]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:305.JPG|thumb|right|Eric S. Raymond]] '''Eric Steven Raymond''' (born [[December 4]], [[1957]]), often referred to as '''ESR''', is the author of &quot;[[The Cathedral and the Bazaar]]&quot; and the present maintainer of the &quot;[[Jargon File]]&quot; (also known as &quot;The New Hacker's Dictionary&quot;). Though the Jargon File established his original reputation within [[hacker culture]], after [[1997]] he became a figure in the [[open source movement]], and is today one of its most controversial characters. Raymond is an avowed [[libertarian]]. He is known to have strong interests in [[science fiction]] and [[firearms]], is an enthusiastic amateur musician, and claims to have a black belt in [[taekwondo]]. His advocacy of [[Second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Second Amendment]] gun rights and support for the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] has nettled many, but he seems to enjoy the controversy those positions engender.{{ref|dancingwithgods}} Raymond suffers from a mild form of congenital [[cerebral palsy]]. == Hacker == Born in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] in [[1957]], Raymond lived on three continents before settling in [[Pennsylvania]] in [[1971]]. His involvement with hacker culture began in [[1976]] and he contributed to his first [[open source software]] project in [[1982]]. Since then, his primary contribution to open source software has been maintaining the [[fetchmail]] email client. Minor contributions have included [[Emacs]] editing modes and portions of libraries like [[ncurses|GNU ncurses]], giflib/libungif, and [[libpng]]. He has also written a number of [[How-to]] documents that are now included in the [[Linux Documentation Project]] corpus. Raymond's public claim to be a &quot;Core Linux Developer&quot; has been disputed since he has never had code accepted into the Linux kernel. His sole attempt to contribute to Linux (the [[Configuration Menu Language|CML2]] configuration system) was rejected by [[Linux kernel]] developers. [http://kerneltrap.org/node/view/17][http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-ivesr.html?ca=dgr-lnxw09EricRaymond][http://kerneltrap.org/node/view/340] Raymond initially became known by hackers for his adoption of the [[Jargon File]]. Some have become dissatisfied with the resulting character of the work due to the inclusion of material invented by Raymond or reflecting his own political views. Objectors to Raymond's stewardship are of the opinion that the Jargon File should be an impartial record of &quot;hacker culture&quot;.[http://slashdot.org/articles/03/06/08/1534249.shtml] == &quot;Open source&quot; == Raymond coined the [[aphorism]] &quot;Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow.&quot; He credits [[Linus Torvalds]] with the inspiration for this quotation, which he dubs &quot;[[Linus's law]]&quot;. The quotation appears in ''[[The Cathedral and the Bazaar|The Cathedral and the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Accidental Revolutionary]]'', Sebastopol, California: O'Reilly &amp; Associates.[http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/cathedral-bazaar/ar01s04.html] In 1997, Raymond became a prominent voice in the open source movement and was a co-founder of the [[Open Source Initiative]]. He also took on the self-appointed role of ambassador of [[open source]] to the press, business and public. The release of the [[Mozilla]] (then [[Netscape (web browser)|Netscape]]) source code in [[1998]] was an early accomplishment. He has agreed to lecture at [[Microsoft]] [http://www.techweb.com/wire/story/TWB19990615S0032], has accepted stock options from [[VA Software]] to provide credibility to the company and act as a hired &quot;corporate conscience&quot;[http://linuxtoday.com/news_story.php3?ltsn=1999-12-10-001-05-NW-LF] [http://lwn.net/2001/0222/a/esr-hard-times.php3] and has spoken in more than fifteen countries on six continents. Raymond has had a number of public disputes with other figures in the free software movement. His disagreement with [[Richard Stallman]] and the [[Free Software Foundation]]'s views on the ethics of free software in favour of a more market-driven stance has exacerbated some pre-existing tensions in the community. In 1999, Raymond published an article entitled &quot;Shut Up And Show Them The Code&quot;[http://linuxtoday.com/stories/7196.html#talkback_area]. The article criticized [[Richard Stallman]] over tactics to promote free and [[open source]] software, implying Stallman spent too much time proselytizing and not producing code. Stallman is the original author of some of the most widely used and sophisticated pieces of free software in the world, including [[EMACS|Emacs]], [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]], [[GNU Debugger|GDB]], and [[Make|GNU Make]]. Raymond addressed some of his critics from the software development community in his 1999 essay &quot;Take My Job, Please!&quot; [http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/take-my-job-please.html], stating that he was willing to &quot;back to the hilt&quot; anyone qualified and willing to take his job and present the case for open source to the world. In February 2005, Raymond stepped down as the president of the [[Open Source Initiative]]. == Commentator == Raymond is a prolific writer of political and technical opinion pieces through his website and blog. Since the summer of 2003, Raymond has used his [[web log]][http://esr.ibiblio.org/] to promote his views on politics, race and the Iraq war. Controversial opinions he has attempted to defend include that African Americans are responsible for a disproportionate percentage of crimes because they have lower [[IQ]]s [http://esr.ibiblio.org/?p=129], and that the United States should embark on a campaign of &quot;deliberate cultural genocide&quot; against the Islamic world [http://armedndangerous.blogspot.com/2002_09_15_armedndangerous_archive.html#81815163]. [[Image:raymond007-7.jpg|thumb|right|Eric S. Raymond (''One Magazine'' photo shoot)]] ==Books by Raymond== * The New Hacker's Dictionary (editor) (MIT Press, paperback ISBN 0-262-68092-0, cloth ISBN 0-262-18178-9) &amp;mdash; printed version of the [[Jargon file]] * The Cathedral and the Bazaar (O'Reilly; hardcover ISBN 1565927249, October 1999; paperback ISBN 0596001088, January 2001) &amp;mdash; includes &quot;[[The Cathedral and the Bazaar]]&quot;, &quot;[[Homesteading the Noosphere]]&quot;, &quot;The Magic Cauldron&quot; and &quot;Revenge of the Hackers&quot; * [[The Art of Unix Programming]] (Addison-Wesley, October 2003; paperback ISBN 0131429019) ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *[http://www.catb.org/~esr/ Raymond's home page] **[http://esr.ibiblio.org ESR's weblog] *{{gutenberg author | id=Eric_S._Raymond | name=Eric S. Raymond}} *[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0713253/ imdb filmography] (movies with Eric S. Raymond) *[http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/ The Cathedral and the Bazaar] *[http://catb.org/~esr/writings/unix-koans/ Rootless Root: The Koans of Master Foo], 2003 *[http://www.catb.org/~esr/faqs/loginataka.html The Loginataka: Dialogue between a guru and a newbie], 1992 *[http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue4_12/bezroukov/index.html A Second Look at the Cathedral and Bazaar by Nikolai Bezroukov (First Monday)] *[http://www.ora.de/catalog/cb/chapter/ The Magic Cauldron], 1999 *[http://www.catb.org/~esr/faqs/hacker-howto.html How To Become A Hacker] *[http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/ Jargon File] *[http://linuxtoday.com/news_story.php3?ltsn=1999-12-10-001-05-NW-LF Surprised by Wealth] &amp;mdash; Raymond's thoughts immediately after the [[VA Linux]] [[initial public offering]] *[http://www.dwheeler.com/essays/finding-raymond.html Finding Eric S. Raymond] &amp;mdash; or why links to his former home page at tuxedo.org don't work anymore *[http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cups-horror.html The Luxury of Ignorance: An Open-Source Horror Story] &amp;mdash; ESR's critique of software usability *[http://eurohacker.mine.nu/index.php?show_article=i001a005 Interview with ESR] in [[EuroHacker Magazine]] where he talks about guns and politics. *[http://archive.salon.com/21st/feature/1998/04/cov_14fe
ncluding entourages of scantily-clad women, flashy jewelry (known as &quot;''[[bling-bling]]''&quot;), and luxury [[ Cadillac Eldorado|Cadillacs]] (referred to as &quot;''[[pimpmobile|pimpmobiles]]''&quot;). Perhaps the most famous scene of [[The Mack]], featuring the &quot;Annual [[Players' Ball]]&quot;, has become an often-referenced [[pop culture]] icon, most recently by ''[[Chappelle's Show]]'', where it was parodied as the &quot;''Player-Haters' Ball''.&quot; ===Parodies and spoofs=== *''[[I'm Gonna Git You Sucka|I&amp;rsquo;m Gonna Git You Sucka]]'' (1988) is a famous [[Parody|spoof]] of urban blaxploitation films, featuring several of the male stars of that genre. A later film, ''[[Original Gangstas]]'' (1996), also featured many of those stars, but was made as a tribute to the genre. ''[[Pootie Tang]]'' (2001) also [[parody|parodies]] many blaxploitation elements. [[Robert Townsend]]'s comedy ''[[Hollywood Shuffle]]'' ([[1987 in film|1987]]) features a young black actor who is tempted to take part in a white-produced blaxploitation film. *The [[anime]] series ''[[Cowboy Bebop]]'' features several episodes with blaxploitation themes, particularly ''Mushroom Samba'' which extensively parodies blaxploitation movies. *''[[The Hebrew Hammer]]'' (2003) is another parody of blaxploitation films, but with a [[Jew]]ish protagonist (and was therefore ironically called &amp;ldquo;Jewsploitation&amp;rdquo; by some). *The [[animated series]] ''[[Family Guy]]'' showed a [[cutaway]] based on blaxploitation movies in the form of a parody of ''[[Back to the Future]]'' (''Black to the Future''), starring the main character [[Peter Griffin|Peter&amp;rsquo;s]] distant cousin as &amp;ldquo;Marty McSuperFly.&amp;rdquo; Also mentioned were the blaxploitation movies: ''[[Caddyshack|Caddyblack]]'', ''[[Backdraft (movie)|Blackdraft]]'', and ''Black [[Kramer vs. Kramer]]''. *In ''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode &amp;ldquo;[[Simpson Tide]]&amp;rdquo; (3G04) a TV announcer says &amp;ldquo;Next, on Exploitation Theatre...''Blackula'', followed by ''Blackenstein'', and ''The Blunchblack of Blotre Blame!''&quot;. *''[[The Onion|The Onion's]]'' book ''[[Our Dumb Century]]'' has an article from the [[1970s]] entitled &quot;Congress Passes Anti-Blaxploitation Act: Pimps, Players Subject to Heavy Fines&quot;. *[[Fox Entertainment Group|FOX]]’s network television comedy, “[[MadTV]]”, has frequently spoofed the [[Rudy Ray Moore]]-created franchise ''[[Dolemite]]'', with a series of sketches performed by comic actor [[Aries Spears]], in the role of ''“The Son of Dolemite”''. The sketches are testaments to the poor production quality of the films, with obvious boom mike appearances and intentionally poor cuts and continuity. *Among [[Saturday Night Live]]'s longest running and most popular sketches, ''&quot;[[The Ladies Man]]'',&quot; parodied blaxploitation’s exaggerated sexuality. The Ladies' Man, played by [[Tim Meadows]], featured an [[Afro]]-topped and sexually-crazed talk-show host who believes himself to be the living definition of what females search for in a man. *In the movie ''[[Leprechaun in the Hood]]'', a character played by [[Ice-T]] pulls a baseball bat from his afro; this scene is a satire of a similar scene in ''[[Foxy Brown (1974 film)|Foxy Brown]]'', in which [[Pam Grier]] hides a revolver in her afro. *Many of actor and wrestler [[The Rock (entertainer)|The Rock]]'s [[catchphrase]]s have come from blaxploitation films. *Cartoon Network's &quot;[[Aqua Teen Hunger Force]]&quot; series has a recurring character called 'Boxy Brown' (A play on [[Foxy_Brown_%281974_film%29|Foxy Brown]], a lead character in another blaxploitation film). An imaginary friend of one of the main characters, Boxy Brown is a cardboard box with a crudely drawn face with a goatee on it that dons an afro. Whenever the character speaks on the show 70's funk music, typical of blaxploitation films, is played in the background. The cardboard box also fronts a confrontational attitude and [[Jive_%28dialect%29|dialect]] similar to many heroes of this film genre. The character is voiced by [[Isaac Hayes]], a well known blaxploitation icon. [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:BoxyBrown.ogg Sample Dialogue]] == See also == * [[List of blaxploitation films]] * [[History of cinema]] == Further reading == * ''What It Is... What It Was!; The Black Film Explosion of the '70s in Words and Pictures'' by Andres Chavez, Denise Chavez, Gerald Martinez ISBN 0786883774 ==External links== *'' [http://www.eonline.com/Features/Topten/Blaxploitation/ Top 10 Blaxploitation Films]'' *'' [http://www.blaxploitation.com/ Blaxploitation.com]'' A comprehensive database on blaxploitation films, soundtracks and artwork. [[Category:Film genres]] [[Category:Portmanteaus]] [[de:Blaxploitation]] [[als:Blaxploitation]] [[fr:Blaxploitation]] [[nl:Blaxploitation]] [[pl:Blaxploitation]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Lists of people</title> <id>3883</id> <revision> <id>41856362</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:25:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jeffq</username> <id>23204</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixed redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">These are '''lists of people''' mentioned in articles. The [[biography|biographies]] don't include [[fictional character]]s, e.g., people like Arthur the Knight are included but [[King Arthur]] is not. {{Table_Lists_of_people}} ==People by name== {{portalpar|Biography}} * [[List of people by name|By name]] * Family name (surname, last name, patronym/matronym) ** List of [[Family name etymology|family name derivations]] ** [[List of most popular family names]] * First name (given name) ** List of [[Wiktionary:Wiktionary_Appendix:First_names|given name derivations]] * [[List of people known by one name]] * [[List of people known by initials]] * [[List of people known by full name]] * [[List of people known as The Great|List of people known as ''The Great'']] * [[List of people known as the father or mother of something]] * [[List of celebrities who have changed their name|List of famous people who have changed their name]] * [[List of eponyms]] or names derived from people ** [[Cartoon characters named after people|List of cartoon characters named after people]] ** [[List of companies named after people]] ** [[List of human anatomical parts named after people]] ** [[List_of_eponymous_diseases|List of diseases named after people]] ** [[List of political entities named after people]] ** [[List of foods named after people]] ** [[List of inventions named after people]] ** [[Chemical elements named after people|List of chemical elements named after people]] ** [[Scientific constants named after people|List of scientific constants named after people]] ** [[Scientific laws named after people|List of scientific laws named after people]] ** [[Scientific phenomena named after people|List of scientific phenomena named after people]] ** [[Scientific units named after people|List of scientific units named after people]] ** [[Prizes_named_after_people|List of prizes named after people]] * [[List of pseudonyms]] and [[stage name]]s * [[List of Biblical names]] * [[List of songs whose title includes personal names]] * [[Wikipedia:non-unique personal name]]s (homonymous or namesakes) ==People by date/age== * Date of birth or date of death ** [[List of historical anniversaries|by day of the month]], e.g. [[{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTDAY}}|today]] ({{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTDAY}}). ** [[centuries|by year]], e.g. [[1911]]. ** [[List of twins]] ** [[List of people who died on their birthdays]] ** List of [[recent deaths]] * [[Senescence|Age]] ** [[List of youngsters in history]] ** [[Centenarian|List of people who lived to the age of 100]] ** [[Oldest people|List of people who lived to the age of 110]] * [[Era|Period]]s ** [[List of ancient Chinese]] ** [[List of ancient Egyptians]] ** [[List of ancient Greeks]] ** [[List of ancient Persians]] ** [[List of ancient Romans]] ** [[List of people from the Dutch Golden Age]] ** [[List of people associated with the French Revolution]] ** [[List of people associated with the American Civil War]] ** [[List of people associated with World War I]] ==People by associated physical condition/characteristic== * [[List of people by nationality|Lists of people by nationality]], ethnicity, location, etc * List of [[Famous women in history|women in history]] * [[List of famous left-handed people]] * [[List of famous tuberculosis victims|List of tuberculosis victims]] * [[List of people believed to have been affected by bipolar disorder]] * [[List of people who have suffered from depression]] * [[Lists of people by cause of death]] ** [[List of artists who died of drug-related causes]] ** [[List of assassinated persons]] ** [[List of famous suicides|List of suicides]] ** [[List of people who died in aviation-related incidents]] ** [[List of professional cyclists who died during a race]] ** [[List of racing drivers who died in racing crashes]] ** [[List of famous people who died in road accidents|List of people who died in road accidents]] ** [[List of murdered people]] ** [[List of people who were executed]] ** [[List of people who died of starvation]] * [[List of people who have disappeared]] * [[List of celebrities with diabetes|List of people with diabetes]] * [[List of people with disabilities]] **[[List of people with visual disabilities]] **[[List of people with dyslexia]] **[[List of people believed to have epilepsy]] **[[List of paraplegic people]] * [[List of polydactyl people]] * [[List of HIV-positive people]] * [[List of the Most Obese Humans]] ==People by lifestyle (in certain cases with a possibly biological role)== * [[List of people widely considered eccentric]] * [[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people]] * [[List of transgendered people]] * [[List of vegetarians]] * [[List of teetotal
of the syntax used in this template. --&gt; {{Infobox Dogbreed | akcgroup = Hound | akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/irish_wolfhound/index.cfm | ankcgroup = Group 4 (Hound) | ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/irishwol.html | ckcgroup = Group 2 (Hound) | ckcstd = http://www.irishwolfhoundclubofcanada.ca/handbook/standard.shtml | country = [[Ireland]] | fcigroup = 10 | fcinum = 160 | fcisection = 2 | fcistd = http://www.fci.be/uploaded_files/160A2001_en.doc | image = IrishWolfhoundPair.jpg | image_caption = A pair of Irish Wolfhounds | kcukgroup = Hound | kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h785.htm | name = Irish Wolfhound | nzkcgroup = Hound | nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br476.html | ukcgroup = Sighthounds and Pariah Dogs | ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/sighthoundspariahs/irishwolfhound.std.shtml }} &lt;!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here --&gt; The '''Irish Wolfhound''' is a breed of [[hound]] (a [[sighthound]]), bred to hunt. The name originates from its purpose rather than from its appearance: To hunt [[wolf|wolves]]. ==Appearance== These [[dog]]s are the tallest [[dog breed|breed]], with a swift pace and good sight. They have a rough coat (gray, brindle, red, black, pure white, or fawn), a large arrow-shaped head, and a long, muscular neck. The Irish Wolfhound features in Gaelic mythology with Cuchaillin having a nice big dog. The Irish Wolfhound is usually known as the tallest dog in the world, averaging up to 86 cm (34 inches) at the [[withers]], a fact that sometimes is its biggest disadvantage when attracting owners who have no concern for its special needs. As with all breeds, the ideal and accepted measurements vary somewhat from one standard to another, and there will always be individuals whose size falls outside these standards. However, generally breeders aim for a height averaging 32 to 34 inches (81 cm to 86 cm) in male dogs, two to four inches (5 to 10 cm) less for bitches. Acceptable weight minimums range from 105 lb (48 kg) for bitches to 120 lb (54 kg) for males. ==Temperament== In temperament, they are considered gentle and friendly, very calm in the house, enjoying long sleeps but energetic when taken for walks. Despite their great size and sometimes intimidating appearance, wolfhounds are sensitive and should be corrected firmly but without anger. They should be socialized from a young age so that they have a chance to gather experience. While historically Wolfhounds should show a strong guarding instinct, most modern Irish Wolfhounds are not temperamentally suited to be a guard dog. [[Image:Wolfhound_mascot_wb.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Irish Guards mascot in parade dress]] ==Health== Wolfhounds should not receive additional supplements when a good dog chow is used. It is generally accepted that they should be fed a large breed puppy food until 18 months of age and then change to a large breed adult food. By the age of 8 months, the dogs appear adult, and many owners start stressing them too much. Outstretched limbs and irreparable damage are the result. Wolfhounds need at least 18 months to be ready for [[lure coursing]], running as a sport, and other strenuous activities. [[Heart disease]] and [[osteosarcoma|bone cancer]] are the leading cause of death and like all deep-chested dogs, [[gastric torsion]] (bloat) is always a possibility. Otherwise they are generally a healthy dog with few if any breed specific illnesses. The average lifespan is around 6 to 7 years, though breeders are doing their best to increase this, with some animals now reaching 10 years or more. ==History== The breed is very old, possibly from the [[1st century BC]] or earlier, bred as war dogs by the ancient [[Celts]], who called them ''Cú Faoil''. The [[Gael (Ancient people)|Irish]] continued to breed them for this purpose, as well as to guard their homes and protect their stock. Regular references of Irish Wolfhounds being used in dog fights are found in many historical sagas - [[Cuchulain]]'s favourite, Luath was slain by a southern chief's hound, Phorp. While many modern texts state Irish wolfhounds were used for coursing deer, contemporary pre-revival accounts such as Animated Nature ([[1796]]) by Oliver Goldsmith are explicit that the original animal was a very poor coursing dog. Their astonishing size, speed, and intelligence made them ideal hunting animals for both wild boar and wolves, and many were exported for this purpose. They were perhaps too ideal, as the wolf is now extinct in [[Ireland]]. The Irish Wolfhound has been recorded as being exhibited in [[Ancient Rome]] to some excitement, and mention is made that they so amazed and terrified the Romans that it was seen fit to only transport them in cages. There exists stories that in the arena, the original Wolfhound was the equal of a lion. During times of conflict with England, it was not uncommon for Wolfhounds to be trained to take armored knights off of their horses. Thus allowing an infantry man to move in and finish the kill if the Wolfhound has not done so already. Due to a massive export into various countries as a gift for royalty and a ban that allowed only royalty to own such a dog, the breed almost vanished in the middle of the [[19th century]]. Captain Graham rebred the Irish Wolfhound with the [[Deerhound]], [[Great Dane]], Borzoi and other breeds; this saved the breed, but had the inevitable effect of altering its appearance. The ancient breed (often referred to as the Irish Wolfdogge in contemporary accounts) was available in both a smooth and rough coated variety. Descriptions of its appearance and demeanor, as well as the method of its use place it closer to the flock guardians in appearance than the modern breed. The historical variety was famed for its loyalty, discernment, grave nature and aggression. In terms of temperament the modern breed has been greatly mellowed. ==Miscellaneous== An Irish Wolfhound serves as the regimental mascot to the [[Irish Guards]] in [[England]] and accompanies the regiment in all of its parades. The skulls of several Irish Wolfhounds were recovered in excavations of the ruins of [[Emain Macha]]. These skulls are now in the possession of the Royal Irish Academy. No reconstruction appears to have been done to establish the appearance of these progenitors of the breed. ==Famous Wolfhounds== *Centaur Pendragon, pet of [[Rudolph Valentino]] *The mascot for the London Irish Rugby team. ==External links== *[http://www.irishwolfhounds.org/mascots.htm Regimental mascot] [[Category:Dog breeds]] [[Category:Sight hounds]] &lt;!--- en:Irish Wolfhound ---&gt; [[de:Irish Wolfhound]] [[eo:Irlanda lupohundo]] [[fr:Lévrier irish wolfhound]] [[no:Irsk ulvehund]] [[pl:Wilczarz irlandzki]] [[sr:Ирски вучји хрт]] [[sv:Irländsk varghund]] [[he:וולפהאונד אירי]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Italian Greyhound</title> <id>15336</id> <revision> <id>40246174</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T05:26:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Elf</username> <id>40082</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rv - &quot;lithe&quot; is correct</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed. The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: --&gt; &lt;!-- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Dog_breeds#Infobox_Dogbreed_template --&gt; &lt;!-- for full explanation of the syntax used in this template. --&gt; {{Infobox Dogbreed | akcgroup = Toy | akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/italian_greyhound/index.cfm | altname = Piccolo Levriero Italiano | ankcgroup = Group 1 (Toys) | ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/italgrey.html | ckcgroup = Group 5 - Toys | ckcstd = http://www.ckc.ca/Default.aspx?tabid=137&amp;Breed_Code=IAG | country = [[Italy]] | fcigroup = 10 | fcinum = 200 | fcisection = 3 | fcistd = http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:41SXaj9RDzkJ:www.fci.be/uploaded_files/200gb98.doc+site:www.fci.be+%22200+/+17.+06.+1998%22&amp;hl=en&amp;ie=UTF-8 | image = Italian greyhund.jpg | image_caption = Italian Greyhound | kcukgroup = Toy | kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/toy/y909.htm | name = Italian Greyhound | nzkcgroup = Toy | nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br128.html | ukcgroup = Companion Breeds | ukcstd = http://mail.ukcdogs.com/UKCweb.nsf/80de88211ee3f2dc8525703f004ccb1e/366ff10ca6c35fec85257044004f7008?OpenDocument }} &lt;!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here --&gt; The '''Italian Greyhound''' is a small [[dog breed|breed]] of [[dog]], specifically a member of the [[sight hound]] family and member of the [[toy dog|toy]] group. ==Appearance== [[Image:ItalianGreyhound.jpg|left|]] The Italian Greyhound is the smallest of the sight hounds, typically weighing 3 to 5 kg. They look like miniature [[Greyhound]]s. The colour of the coat is a subject of much discussion. In [[United_Kingdom|England]], the [[United States|USA]], and [[Australia]], white spotted Italians are accepted, while the FCI standards adhered to in [[Europe]] allows white spots only on the chest and paws. The modern Italian Greyhound's appearance is a result of breeders throughout [[Europe]], particularly [[Austria]]n, [[Germany|German]], [[Italy|Italian]], and [[France|French]] breeders, making great contributions to the forming of this [[breed]]. The Italian Greyhound should resemble a small [[Greyhound]], or rather a [[Sloughi]]. It is important that the dogs are significantly more elegant and graceful than these breeds, though. ==Temperament== The Italian Greyhound is considered a good companion dog, as they are very affectionate. The Italian Greyhound's apparent lack of wide appeal is possibly because of their fragile appearance, with their spindly legs. The reality of the breed is quite contrary to the appearance, though, as they are frequently described as a 'big' dog in a small package. They also have a realatively
is_a_Matter_of_Life_and_Death1-Chechnya.html]. ===Second Chechen War=== {{main|Second Chechen War}} Despite the peace agreement the situation remained unstable. On November 16, [[1996]] an apartment house in [[Kaspiysk]] (Dagestan) was blown up. Sixty-nine persons, mainly members of frontier guards' families, died. Moscow authorities blamed Chechen fighters for this action and other actions listed below. Chechen president Aslan Maskhadov did not support any of these actions. On April 23, [[1997]] a bomb was detonated in the Russian railway station of [[Armavir]]. Three persons died. On May 28, [[1997]], there was an explosion in the Russian railway station of [[Pyatigorsk]], killing two persons. In December, [[1997]] the Chechen warlord (''emir'') Hattab attacked the Russian garrison of [[Buynaksk]] (Dagestan). The President of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria Aslan Maskhadov condemned this action, but had taken no action to prevent the incursion; Russian authorities blamed Chechen govenment for all the hostilities taking part at that time. On March 19, [[1999]], an explosion in the Central market of [[Vladikavkaz]] (Ossetia), killed 64 persons. The incursion by Chechen armed groups into [[Dagestan]] and [[Russian Apartment Bombings|apartment bombings]] on September [[1999]] (attributed by Russian propaganda to Chechens) were used to justify the second invasion of the Russian army into Chechnya. Bombs determined to be [[hexogen]] based were set off at apartment blocks at [[Buynaksk]] in Dagestan (on September 4, killing 62 people, mostly members of families of frontier guards), [[Moscow]], and [[Volgodonsk]] (on September 16, killing 18) in Southern Russia. The Russian government immediately blamed Chechen terrorists, but failed to provide any substantial evidence to support its claims. Later two Islamists allegedly participating in these acts, have been convicted of terrorism in a closed trial in Moscow [http://eng.terror99.ru/publications/138.htm]. It has since been alleged by oligarch Boris Berezovsky that [[FSB]] agents, rather than Chechen separatists, were behind the Moscow attacks. In support of his theory, Berezovsky cited an incident in Ryazan, where undercover FSB agents were caught by the local police on September 23, 1999 while planting explosives in the basement of an apartment house [http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/europe/9909/24/russia.bomb.01/]. The events in Ryazan, and the subsequent arrest of the whistleblower lawyer [[Mikhail Trepashkin]] indicate that FSB participation cannot be ruled out [http://eng.terror99.ru/publications/index.htm#berezovsky]. Today, Chechen separatists still claim an independent Chechnya. Official authorities of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria such as late President Aslan Maskhadov, Deputy Prime Minister and a Foreign Minister Akhmed Zakayev and current President Abdul Khalim Saidullayev condemned any actions against civilians. Maskhadov and Zakayev often made proposals of peace talks, however all these proposals were rejected by the Russian side. [http://www.bartstaes.be/tsjetsjenie.php?id=1226] However some Chechens decided to choose terrorist attacks in their fight against Russia. Such acts took place in the republic and within Russia itself. These acts were used by Russian President Putin to associate the conflict with the [[War on Terrorism]] after the [[September 11th, 2001 attacks|attacks of September 11th]][http://www.atimes.com/c-asia/CJ11Ag02.html] [http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/chechens_print.html]. Terrorist attacks have ranged from mass hostage-takings to rail, subway, and suicide bombings. In some cases a connection with the Chechen conflict was found; in others the circumstances were unclear. The most memorable occurred in [[Moscow]] in [[October 23]], [[2002]] where over 700 hostages were taken during the [[Moscow theater hostage crisis]] and in [[Beslan]] in [[September 2004]], during the [[Beslan school hostage crisis]] where 1,200 were taken hostage at a school and over 330 were killed &amp;ndash; half of whom were children{{fact}}. In the end, a decade of war has left most of Chechnya under the control of the Russian military. On 13 October 2005, buildings in [[Nalchik]] associated with the Russian security forces were attacked by a large group of armed men. The attackers are thought to be insurgents from nearby Chechnya{{fact}}. Fighting between the Russians and Chechen separatists continues, although in the form of guerrilla fighting. &lt;!--&quot;At the same time, upwards of 100,000 (Chechens and Russians) have been killed within Chechnya as a result of the second Chechen war{{fact}}.&quot; That figure is not confirmed by independent sources--&gt; The Russians and their Chechen allies have been accused of human rights abuses by international observers, such as the Russian group [[Memorial (society)|Memorial]] and the American organization [[Human Rights Watch]][http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/russia/chechnya/]. In this atmosphere, attempts to create a pro-Russian government have also been far from successful to date, as became apparent with the assassination of [[Akhmad Kadyrov]] in May 2004. Many Chechen separatist groups have become increasingly radicalized and fractured, with [[Shamil Basayev]] adopting a strongly [[Islamist]] position and inviting support from [[Arab]] Islamist organizations, such as [[Al-Qaeda]]{{fact}}. This was opposed by [[Aslan Maskhadov]], who publicly desired a negotiated settlement to the conflict until his death on March 8 of 2005 when he was killed by Russian forces.[http://www.tjetjenien.dk/personer/maskhadov.html]. While the two may have stood together against what they saw as a Russian occupation, they appeared to differ greatly in both vision and ideology. ==Politics== {{main|Politics of Chechnya}} Chechnya is considered an independent [[republic]] by its separatists, and a [[federal republic]] by its federalists. Its regional constitution was entered into effect on [[April 2]], [[2003]] after an all-Chechen referendum was held on [[March 23]], [[2003]]. The referendum was held far from international standards. The officially given turnout seemed to be much bigger than the reality[http://www.ishr.org/publications/2003/chechnya.htm]. Some Chechens are or were controlled by regional [[teip]]s, despite the existence of pro- and anti-Russian political structures. [[Image:Chechnya and Caucasus.png|thumb|right|Chechnya and Caucasus map]] Since 1990, the Chechen Republic has had legal, military, and civil conflicts involving separatist movements and pro-Russian authorities. The motivations of the Russian and Chechens in these conflicts are complicated. Principally, Russia's stake in Chechnya relates to the fear that if Chechnya becomes independent, even more territories will break away from Russia, leading to its disintegration. Another factor are economic interests: Chechnya possesses large oil reserves, and the Russians are concerned that prolonged instability may lead to third parties entering the region in order to seek to control the oil, causing further instability and war{{fact}}. There is also a long standing conflict between Russia and Chechnya that has perpetuated itself due to [[bad blood]] on both sides{{fact}}. There are different groups, within Chechnya, fighting the Russians who have different political, economic and/or ideological motivations for doing so. Some of these derive from hatred and a desire for the revenge of past Russian military and political action in the region. Most notably the forced relocation, in the 1940s, of the entire population to Siberia, resulting in the estimated death of a quarter of the population. The combination of motives demonstrates the cycle of violence and hatred that often fuels regional conflicts of this nature, as well as a military culture that makes much of the population willing to engage in military struggle under the command of one leader. Unemployment and poverty are also factors in the prolonged conflict. The former separatist warlord, [[Akhmad Kadyrov]], looked upon as a traitor by many separatists, was elected president with 83% of the vote in an internationally monitored election on [[October 5]], [[2003]]. Incidents of ballot stuffing and voter intimidation by Russian soldiers and the exclusion of separatist parties from the polls were subsequently reported by the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] monitors. [[Rudnik Dudayev]] is head of the Chechen Security Council and [[Anatoly Popov]] is the Prime Minister. On [[May 9]], [[2004]], Kadyrov was assassinated in [[Grozny]] football stadium by a [[land mine|landmine]] explosion that was planted beneath a VIP stage and detonated during a [[World War II]] memorial parade. [[Sergey Abramov]] was appointed to the position of acting prime minister after the incident. However following a car accident in Moscow in 2005 Sergey Abramov has been unable to function as prime minister. [[Ramzan Kadyrov]] (son of Akhmad Kadyrov) has been caretaker prime minister since the accident and on March 1 2006 Abramov resigned from his post as prime minister. Abramov told the [[Itar-Tass]] news agency: &quot;I resigned on the condition that Ramzan Kadyrov lead the Chechen government because I sincerely believe that this decision is right.&quot; Many believe that [[Ramzan Kadyrov]] would have attempted to succeed his father if he had not been barred from doing so by his age &amp;ndash; he is currently in his 20s and the constitution requires that the president be 30 years of age or older. Many also allege he is the wealthiest and most powerful man in the republic, with control over a large private militia referred to as the 'Kadyrovski'. The militia &amp;ndash; which began as his father's security force &amp;ndash; has been accused of killings and kidnappings by human rights organizations such as [[Human Rights Watch]]. On [[August 29]], [[2004]] a new Presidential ele
tadium]] near Leith and Hearts at [[Tynecastle Stadium]] in Gorgie. There are many reputable non league sides such as [[Spartans F.C.|Spartans]] and [[Edinburgh City F.C.|Edinburgh City]]. Although Edinburgh is Scotland's capital, the [[Scotland national football team|Scottish national team]] usually play at [[Hampden Park]], [[Glasgow]]. Scotland's national rugby team's base is [[Murrayfield Stadium]]. [[Rugby union]] internationals and &quot;home internationals&quot; (i.e. Scotland, England, Ireland &amp; Wales) are played at Murrayfield, owned by the [[Scottish Rugby Union]]. (Murrayfield is also used as a venue for other events, including music concerts.) Edinburgh's professional rugby team, the [[Edinburgh Gunners]], play in the [[Celtic League (Rugby Union)|Celtic League]] at Murrayfield. The [[Edinburgh Capitals]] are one of United Kingdom's biggest [[ice hockey]] clubs. The club play their home games at the [[Murrayfield]] ice rink and are currently the sole [[Scotland|Scottish]] representative in the [[Elite Ice Hockey League|Elite League]]. Edinburgh has also hosted various national and international sports events including the World Student Games, the [[1970 British Commonwealth Games]] and the [[1986 Commonwealth Games]]. For the Games in 1970 the city built major [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] standard venues and facilities including the Royal Commonwealth pool and the Meadowbank Stadium. ==Demographics== As of 2004 the [[General Register Office for Scotland]] estimated that the City of Edinburgh had a resident population of 453,670, an increase from 448,624 as reported by the [[2001 UK census]]. The General Register Office also reported that this resident population was split between 218,008 males and 235,662 females. Whilst Edinburgh's population is ageing a very large and transient population of young students studying at the universities in the city offset this [[demographic]] problem somewhat. The population of Edinburgh is expected to grow significantly over the next 20 years, with the number of residents expected to have reached 500,000 by 2024 [http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=552&amp;id=2442262005]. Edinburgh also has one of the highest-educated populations in Europe, with more university graduates per head of population, than any other European city. [http://www.scottish-enterprise.com/sedotcom_home/services-to-the-community/property/est/edinburghsciencetriangle-edinburgh.htm] ==Economy== [[Image:Wfm edinburgh.jpg|thumb|right|Edinburgh viewed from [[Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh|Arthur's Seat]]. See also [[:Image:ViewFromHolyrood-1200.jpg|this picture]] for a panoramic view from [[Holyrood Park]] towards [[Ocean Terminal, Edinburgh|Ocean Terminal]].]] Edinburgh has consistently been one of the most prosperous parts of the [[United Kingdom]]. It has been in good economic health since the arrival in 1999 of the [[Scottish Parliament]], which had a so-called &quot;headquarters effect&quot;, with many government departments being set up in the city, resulting in an increase in recruitment and [[employment]]. Some ancillary economic undertakings have since set up around this new seat of government. [[Unemployment]] rates are amongst the lowest in the country and job creation rates some of the highest. Edinburgh's population is also growing rapidly, mainly through inward migration from overseas and, particularly, the rest of the United Kingdom. This strong growth is, however, leading to pressure on the [[green belt]], particularly in the west of the city as office and housing developments compete for space. The economy of Edinburgh is largely based around the [[service sector]], with [[tourism]] and financial services [[banking]] being particularly important; education and high tech research. The [[Bank of Scotland]] was founded in 1695, by an act of the original [[Scottish Parliament]], and is now part of the [[HBOS]] group, who have kept their headquarters in Edinburgh. The [[Royal Bank of Scotland]] was founded in 1747 by [[Royal Charter]] and is now the fifth largest bank in the world by [[market capitalization|market capitalisation]]. In 2005 they began the move into their new purpose built headquarters at [[Gogarburn]], near the [[A720 road|Edinburgh City Bypass]]. Edinburgh is the second largest financial centre in the United Kingdom after the [[City of London]] and the fifth largest in Europe. The New Town and city centre has traditionally been home to many companies, but modern needs have caused many to relocate. Immediately to the west of the city centre is the [[Terry Farrell (architect)|Terry Farrell]] master-planned Exchange business district, which now houses major employers such as [[Scottish Widows]], [[Standard Life]], the [[Clydesdale Bank]] and [[Baillie Gifford]]. [[Edinburgh Park]] is a business park located in the west of city, near [[Edinburgh Airport]], and it now has its own railway station. Following the opening of the Royal Bank's new headquarters, there will be around 20,000 people working in the western outskirts of the city. Important nowadays are shopping centres and retail parks, including a few located in the suburbs and on the edge of the city. The [[St James Centre]] and [[Princes Mall]] started in the East End in the 1970s, then [[Cameron Toll]] in south Edinburgh in the 1980s. More recent developments are the [[Gyle]] centre next to [[Edinburgh Park]], [[Ocean Terminal, Edinburgh|Ocean Terminal]] in [[Leith]] and the retail parks at [[Hermiston Gait]], [[Straiton]] and [[Fort Kinnaird]] which are all next to the [[A720 road|Edinburgh City Bypass]]. Edinburgh has many modern [[supermarkets]] in its suburbs which offer a more day to day type of shopping. Good examples of prominent ones are [[Sainsbury's]] in the [[Cameron Toll]] centre, [[ASDA]] in the eastern suburbs close to the City Bypass, [[Tesco]] Extra at Corstorphine and [[Morrison's]] at [[Crewe Toll]]. [[Brewing]] is a traditional industry, and while the closure of the Fountainbridge brewery in 2005 leaves [[Caledonian Brewery]] as the largest brewery in the city, [[Scottish &amp; Newcastle]] still retain their headquarters in the city. [[Tourism]] is another important mainstay of the economy of Edinburgh. Edinburgh is the country's most popular tourist destination in terms of visitor numbers, and the second most popular in the UK after London, with numbers growing substantially each year, particularly in the budget travel and backpacking sector, assisted by the growth of [[Edinburgh Airport]] and direct [[rail transport|rail links]] to the rest of the country. The annual [[Edinburgh Festival]] attracts large numbers of people, as does the [[Hogmanay]] street party each New Year. The Edinburgh Festivals in August alone generate in excess of £100 million for the Edinburgh economy. Another major element of Edinburgh's tourist industry is [[conference]] and [[business tourism]] which is another major contributor to the economy. On [[March 12]], [[2004]], Edinburgh was granted [[Fairtrade City]] status. ==Politics== [[Image:Scottish Parliament, from Salisbury Crags.jpg|thumb|The [[Scottish Parliament]].]] [[Image:Edinburgh-coa.png|thumb|Coat of arms of Edinburgh]] As capital of Scotland, Edinburgh is home to the [[Scottish Parliament]], as well as frequently hosting a number of international events, such as [[CHOGM|Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting]] and the [[Council of Europe]]. On a national level, the city of Edinburgh is represented at both [[Scottish Parliament|Holyrood]] and [[UK parliament|Westminster]]. At the Scottish Parliament, it returns six [[MSP]]s from the constituencies of [[Edinburgh North and Leith (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh North and Leith]], [[Edinburgh Central]], [[Edinburgh East and Musselburgh]], [[Edinburgh Pentlands (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh Pentlands]], [[Edinburgh South (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh South]] and [[Edinburgh West (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh West]]. It dominates the [[Lothians (Scottish Parliamentary Electoral Area)|Lothians]] parliamentary area, which returns a further seven MSPs. In the House of Commons, it is represented by the five constituencies of [[Edinburgh South (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh South]], [[Edinburgh West (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh West]], [[Edinburgh South West (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh South West]], [[Edinburgh North and Leith (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh North and Leith]], and [[Edinburgh East (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh East]]. The seat of Edinburgh Central ceased to exist with redistricting prior to the [[UK general election, 2005]]. The seat of Edinburgh Pentlands largely became Edinburgh South West. Edinburgh Central was divided up between the remaining seats, although none of it went to Edinburgh South. ==Education== ===Universities and Colleges=== The [[University of Edinburgh]] was founded by Royal Charter in 1583, and is the fourth oldest university in Scotland. The [[Old College, University of Edinburgh|Old College]] on South Bridge opened in the 1820s. As the institution continued to expand, new buildings were constructed around George Square, where the heart of the university remains. Development of the college's buildings continues in the 21st century. The [[Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh]] and the [[Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh]] were also established by Royal Charter, in 1506 and 1681 respectively. The Trustees Drawing Academy of Edinburgh was established in 1760, an institution that became, in 1907, [[Edinburgh College of Art]]. [[Queen Margaret University College]] was founded in 1875 as a women's college, and today specialises in healthcare, media and business. In the 1960s [[Heriot-Watt University]] and Napier Technical College were established. Heriot-Watt traces its origins to 1821, when a school for technical education of the working class was
rfare is the expression of [[Sun Tzu|Sun Tzu's]] [[The Art of War|Art of War]], in contrast to [[Carl von Clausewitz|Clausewitz's]] [[Total war|unlimited use of brute force]]. However, guerrilla warfare has generally been unsuccessful against native regimes, which have nowhere to retreat to and are highly knowledgeable about their own people, society, and culture. The rare examples of successful guerrilla warfare against a native regime include the [[Cuban Revolution]] and the [[Chinese Civil War]], as well as the [[Sandinista]] overthrow of a military dictatorship in [[Nicaragua]]. More common are the unsuccessful examples of guerrilla warfare, which include [[Malaysia]] (then [[Federation of Malaya|Malaya]]) during the [[Malayan Emergency]], [[Bolivia]], [[Argentina]], and the [[Philippines]]. The [[Tamil Tigers|Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]] (LTTE), fighting for an independent homeland in the north and east of [[Sri Lanka]], achieved significant military successes against the Sri Lankan military and the government itself for twenty years. It was even able to use these tactics effectively against the [[IPKF]] forces sent by India in the mid-1980s, which were later withdrawn for varied reasons, primarily political. The mutual attrition on both sides in the island led to a ceasefire following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]. Guerrillas in wars against foreign powers do not principally direct their attacks at civilians, as they desire to obtain as much support as possible from the population as part of their tactics. Civilians are primarily attacked or assassinated as punishment for [[collaboration]]. Often such an attack will be officially sanctioned by guerrilla command or tribunal. An exception is in [[civil war]]s, where both guerrilla groups and organized armies have been known to commit [[atrocity|atrocities]] against the civilian population. [[Mao Zedong]], during the Chinese civil war, summarized the Red Army's principles of warfare in the following points for his troops: ''The enemy advances, we retreat. The enemy camps, we harass. The enemy tires, we attack. The enemy retreats, we pursue.'' Mao made a distinction between [[Mobile Warfare]] (''yundong zhan'') and Guerrilla Warfare (''youji zhan''). [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] of the [[Irish Republican Army]], who orchestrated the [[Anglo-Irish war]] of 1919-1921, had a more succinct principle behind his campaign of intelligence, assassination, and propaganda: create &quot;bloody mayhem&quot;. Guerrillas are often characterized as [[terrorism|terrorists]] by their opponents, as part of psychological warfare. Guerrillas are in danger of not being recognized as lawful [[combatant|combatants]] because they may not wear a [[uniform]], (to mingle with the local population), or their uniform and distinctive emblems may not be recognised as such by their opponents. Article 44, sections 3 and 4 of the [[1977]] [[Protocol I|First Additional Protocol]] to the [[Geneva Conventions]], &quot;relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts&quot;, does recognise combatants who, due to the nature of the conflict, do not wear uniforms as long as they carry their weapons openly during military operations. This gives non-uniformed guerrillas lawful combatant status against countries that have ratified this convention. However the same protocol states in Article 37.1.c that &quot;''the feigning of civilian, non-combatant status''&quot; shall constitute [[perfidy]] and is prohibited by the Geneva Conventions. Guerrilla warfare is classified into two main categories: urban guerrilla warfare and rural guerrilla warfare. In both cases, guerrillas rely on a friendly population to provide supplies and intelligence. Rural guerrillas prefer to operate in regions providing plenty of cover and concealment, especially heavily forested and mountainous areas. Urban guerrillas, rather than melting into the mountains and jungles, blend into the population and are also dependent on a support base among the people. Foreign support in the form of soldiers, weapons, sanctuary, or, at the very least, statements of sympathy for the guerrillas can greatly increase the chances of victory for an insurgency. However, it is not always necessary. [[Mao Zedong|Maoist]] theory of people's war divides warfare into three phases. In the first phase, the guerrillas gain the support of the population through attacks on the machinery of government and the distribution of [[propaganda]]. In the second phase, escalating attacks are made on the government's [[military]] and vital institutions. In the third phase, conventional fighting is used to seize cities, overthrow the government, and take control of the country. Guerrilla Tactics were summarized into the ''' Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla{{ref|refbot.779}}'' in [[1969]] by [[Carlos Marighella]]. This text was banned in several countries including the United States. This is probably the most comprehensive and informative book on guerrilla strategy ever published, and is available free online. Texts by Che Guevara and Mao Zedong on guerrilla warfare are also available. John Keats wrote about an American guerrilla leader in World War 2: Colonel [[Wendell Fertig]], who in [[1942]] organized a large force of guerrillas who harassed the Japanese occupation forces on the Philippine Island of Mindanao all the way up to the liberation of the Philippines in [[1945]]. His abilities were later utilized by the United States Army, when Fertig helped found the United States Army Special Warfare School at [[Fort Bragg, North Carolina]]. Others included Col. Aaron Bank and Col. Russell Volckmann. Volckmann, in particular, commanded a guerrilla force which operated out of the Cordillera of Northern Luzon, in the Philippines from the beginning of World War II to its conclusion. He remained in radio contact with US Forces, prior to the invasion of [[Lingayen Gulf]]. Guerrilla warfare sometimes involves surrounding nations, which are affected by a popular uprising against the neighbouring government. A case in point was the [[Mukti Bahini]] guerrillas who fought alongside the [[Indian Army]] in the 14-day [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] in [[1971]] against [[Pakistan]] that resulted in the creation of the state of [[Bangladesh]]. [[T.E.Lawrence]], best known as &quot;Lawrence of Arabia,&quot; introduced a theory of guerrilla warfare tactics in an article he wrote for the Encyclopedia Britannica published in 1938. In that article, he compared guerrilla fighters to a gas. The fighters disperse in the area of operations more or less randomly. They or their cells occupy a very small intrinsic space in that area, just as gas molecules occupy a very small intrinsic space in a container. The fighters may coalesce into groups for tactical purposes, but their general state is dispersed. Such fighters cannot be &quot;rounded up.&quot; They cannot be contained. They are extremely difficult to &quot;defeat&quot; because they cannot be brought to battle in significant numbers. The cost in soldiers and material to destroy a significant number of them becomes prohibitive, in all senses, that is physically, economically, morally, etc. It should be noted that Lawrence describes a non-native occupying force as the enemy (e.g. the Turks). ==Examples== Examples of successful guerrilla warfare: * [[Algeria]] * [[Angola]] * [[Afghanistan]] * portions of the [[American Revolution]] * [[East Timor]] * [[Indonesia]] * [[Mozambique]] * portions of the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]]; notably, actions led by [[Robert the Bruce]] * [[Anglo-Irish War]] [[1919]]-[[1921]] * [[Viet-Cong]] forces throughout the [[Vietnam War]] in the early 1960s. In many cases, guerrilla tactics allow a small force to hold off a much larger and better equipped enemy for a long time, as in the [[Second Chechen War]] and the [[Second Seminole War]]. ===Guerrillas in [[Europe]]=== Over centuries of history, many guerrilla movements appeared in Europe to fight foreign occupation forces. The tactics of [[Roman dictator]] [[Quintus Fabius Maximus]] against [[Hannibal]] could be considered a predecessor of guerrilla tactics. In expanding their own Empire, the Romans encountered numerous examples of guerrilla resistance to their legions. During [[The Deluge]] in [[Poland]] guerrilla tactics were applied. In the [[19th century]], peoples of the [[Balkans]] used guerrilla tactics to fight the [[Ottoman empire]]. In [[17th century]] [[Ireland]], Irish irregulars called [[tories]] and [[rapparees]] used guerrilla warfare in the [[Irish Confederate Wars]] and the [[Williamite war in Ireland]]. In India in the [[17th Century]], an Indian self-proclaimed leader and king &quot;[[Shivaji]] Bhonsle&quot; revolted against the ruling Mughal using guerrilla tactics. ====Europe 1800-1900==== =====Napoleonic Wars===== In the [[Napoleonic Wars]] many of the armies lived off the land. This often led to some resistance by the local population if the army did not pay fair prices for produce they consumed. Usually this resistance was sporadic, and not very successful, so it is not classified as guerrilla action. There are three notable exceptions, though: * The rebellion in the [[Tyrol]] of [[1809]] led by [[Andreas Hofer]]. * In [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia]] of [[1812]] two actions were ordered by [[Tsar]] [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander]] which could be seen as initiating guerrilla tactics. [[The Burning of Moscow]] after it had been occupied by the Napoleon's [[Grand Army]], so depriving the French of shelter in the city, is a classic guerrilla action. The second was his imperial command that the Russian serfs should attack the French. This did not so much spark a guerrilla war as encourage a revengeful slaughter. * In the [[Peninsular War]] the British, encouraged by the spontaneous mass resistance in Spain against Napoleon, gave aid to the Spanish guerrillas
o== * [[List of baryons]] * [[Baryon number]] * [[Particle physics]] * [[Pentaquark]] * [[List of particles]] * [[Proton decay]] {{composite}} [[Category:Baryons | ]] [[Category:Nuclear physics]] [[bg:Барион]] [[ca:Barió]] [[de:Baryon]] [[es:Barión]] [[fr:Baryon]] [[he:באריון]] [[hu:Barion]] [[it:Barione]] [[ja:バリオン]] [[ko:바리온]] [[nl:Baryon]] [[pl:Barion]] [[pt:Bárion]] [[ru:Барион]] [[sv:Baryon]] [[vi:Baryon]] [[zh:重子]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Byzantine fire</title> <id>4586</id> <revision> <id>33316766</id> <timestamp>2005-12-31T00:24:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Michael Hardy</username> <id>4626</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Greek fire]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Braille embosser</title> <id>4589</id> <revision> <id>39887439</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T16:00:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>87.242.143.111</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''Braille embosser''' is a [[computer printer|printer]], necessarily an impact printer, that renders text as [[Braille]]. Utilizing special [[Braille translator|translation]] software, a print document can be embossed with relative ease, making Braille production much more efficient and cost-effective. Blind users tend to call other printers ink printers, to distinguish them from their Braille counterparts. This is often the case regardless of the type of printer being discussed. As with ink printers, embossers come in all shapes and sizes, and are used by everyone from individual [[computer]] users to large corporations that produce books, magazines, and other widely distributed publications, requiring fast, high-volume embossing capabilities. Thus, an embosser can cost roughly anywhere from US$2,000 to $80,000, depending on the user's needs. ==See also== *[[Braille ASCII]] *[[Perkins Brailler]] == References == {{FOLDOC}} {{Compu-hardware-stub}} [[Category:Blindness equipment]] [[Category:Braille]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Brachycephalic</title> <id>4590</id> <revision> <id>15902852</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T08:46:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Cephalic index]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cephalic index]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Biological anthropology</title> <id>4591</id> <revision> <id>15902853</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Physical anthropology]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Basic Role-Playing</title> <id>4592</id> <revision> <id>37424065</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T22:56:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eskimbot</username> <id>477460</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: fr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Basic_Roleplaying.gif|right]] [[Basic Role-Playing]], or '''BRP''', is the name of the &quot;generic&quot; form of the [[fantasy]]-oriented ''[[RuneQuest]]'' [[role-playing game]] rules. A percentile skill-based system, BRP was used as the basis for most of the games published by [[Chaosium]], including ''[[Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)|Call of Cthulhu]]'', ''[[Elfquest]]'', ''[[Stormbringer (role-playing game)|Stormbringer]]'' (aka ''Elric!''), ''[[Hawkmoon]]'', ''[[Superworld]]'', ''[[Nephilim (RPG)|Nephilim]]'', and ''[[Ringworld (RPG)|Ringworld]]''. ''[[Pendragon (role-playing game)|Pendragon]]'' (acquired in 1998 by [[Green Knight Publishing]]), while related, has sufficiently different mechanics that it can only be seen as a separate system. The BRP standalone booklet was first released in [[1982]] as part of the [[Worlds of Wonder]] boxed set. [[Greg Stafford]] and [[Lynn Willis]] are credited as the authors. At least one non-Chaosium game has used BRP for its core rules. ''[[Other Suns]]'', published by [[Fantasy Games Unlimited]] (FGU), used them under license. In addition, ''[[Corum]]'', a supplement to the ''Stormbringer'' rules, was published in the fall of 2001 by [[Darcsyde Productions]]. BRP was used (through a special arrangement with Swedish gaming guru Fred Malmberg) as the base for the highly successful Swedish game ''[[Drakar och Demoner]]'' from [[Target Games]]. BRP was conceived of as being a sort of genre-generic engine around which any sort of RPG could be played, much like [[GURPS]] and the [[D20 system]] have become today. In order to underscore this, Chaosium produced the [[Worlds of Wonder]] supplement, which contained the generic rules and several specific applications of those rules to given genres. ''[[Superworld]]'', specifically, began as a portion of the Worlds of Wonder product. Although similar in a general way to other generic systems such as [[GURPS]], [[Hero System]] or [[Savage Worlds]], BRP is also quite different. Each incarnation of the BRP rules has changed or added to the core ideas and mechanics, resulting in generally compatible games that also provide a slightly different tone or feel to them, or which have slightly different rules interpretations. For example, in ''Call of Cthulhu'', skills may never be over 100%, while in ''Stormbringer'' skills in excess of 100% are encouraged for those who follow Law. BRP was developed from a core set of [[Ability score|attributes]] very similar to the original [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]] (D&amp;D). So Strength, Constitution, Size, Intelligence, Power, Dexterity and Charisma (or Appearance) replaced the D&amp;D norms. From that was evolved a structurally simulationist system. Therefore hit points, which increase with experience in ''D&amp;D'' were based on the average of Size and Constitution and were functionally stable for the life of the character. [[skill (role-playing)|Skill]]s, using a d100, rather than the ''D&amp;D'' d20, were used to simulate the way that people learn skills. Experience points were replaced by an experience check, rolling higher than your current skill on a d100. This created a learning curve that levelled out the higher a skill was. The Resistance Table, in which two attributes are compared and a chance of success read from a table, is the ugly duckling of the BRP system. It is potentially an entire system mechanic on its own and yet many say it sits oddly with the existing skill system. Armour, which had been merged with defence in ''D&amp;D'' was broken out. The act of parrying was a skill, the ability of the armor to absorb damage was a separate function. The last major element of many BRP games is one that is shared with [[Tunnels and Trolls]] (T&amp;T), which originated this, which is that there is no difference between the player character race systems and the monster or opponents. By varying ability scores the same system is used for a human hero as a trollish villain. This approach also led quickly, as it did in ''T&amp;T'', to players often playing a wide range of non-human characters and game worlds that were deeply pluralist. The core rules were originally written by [[Steve Perrin]] as part of his ground-breaking game ''RuneQuest''. It was [[Greg Stafford]]'s idea to simplify the rules (eliminating such things as Strike Ranks and Hit Locations) and issue them in a 16 page booklet called ''Basic Role Playing''. Over the years several others, including [[Sandy Petersen]], [[Lynn Willis]] and undoubtedly many more, contributed to their final form. In 2004, Chaosium published the Basic Role-Playing Players Book and Magic Book in monograph format, a very quick and cheap printed format, in order to assert their copyrights in the run-up to the publishing and distribution of essentially the 3rd Edition RuneQuest rules under the Basic Role-Playing name. == External links == * [http://www.basicrps.com/ www.basicrps.com] * [http://basicrps.narod.ru/ Mailing List of the Basic Role-Playing System] [[Category:Basic Role-Playing System]] [[fr:Basic Role Playing System]] [[it:Basic Role-Playing]] [[sv:Basic Role-Playing]] [[zh:基本角色扮演系統]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Battleship game</title> <id>4593</id> <revision> <id>15902855</id> <timestamp>2004-10-19T07:36:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stan Shebs</username> <id>7777</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Battleship (game)]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Battleship (game)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Block cipher</title> <id>4594</id> <revision> <id>42085309</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:56:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bota47</username> <id>341052</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: cs</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Encryption.png|thumb|225px|Encryption]] [[Image:Decryption.png|thumb|225px|Decryption]] In [[cryptography]], a '''block cipher''' or '''pseudorandom function''' ('''PRF''') is a [[symmetric key algorithm|symmetric key]] [[cipher]] which operates on fixed-length groups of bits, termed ''blocks'', with an unvarying transformation. When encrypting, a block cipher might take a (for example) 128-bit block of [[plaintext]] as input, and output a corresponding 128-bit block of ciphertext. The exact transformation is controlled using a second input &amp;mdash; the secret [[key (cryptography)|key]]. Decryption is similar: the decryption algorithm takes a 128-bit block of ciphertext together with the secret key, and yields the original 128-bit
previously. At around the age of 4, he was kidnapped by a band of [[Roma people|Gypsies]], but he was quickly rescued by his uncle and returned to his mother. Smith's biographer, [[John Rae (biographer)|John Rae]], commented wryly that he feared Smith would have made &quot;a poor Gypsy.&quot; At the age of fourteen, Smith proceeded to the [[University of Glasgow]], studying moral philosophy under &quot;the never-to-be-forgotten&quot; (as Smith called him) [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]]. Here Smith developed his strong passion for liberty, reason and free speech. In [[1740]] he entered [[Balliol College, Oxford]], but as William Robert Scott has said, &quot;the [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] of his time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework,&quot; and he left the university in [[1746]]. In [[1748]] he began delivering public lectures in [[Edinburgh]] under the patronage of [[Lord Kames]]. Some of these dealt with rhetoric and ''belles-lettres'', but later he took up the subject of &quot;the progress of opulence,&quot; and it was then, in his middle or late 20s, that he first expounded the economic philosophy of &quot;the obvious and simple system of natural liberty&quot; which he was later to proclaim to the world in his ''Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations''. About [[1750]] he met [[David Hume]], who became one of the closest of his many friends. In [[1751]] Smith was appointed professor on [[logic]] at the University of Glasgow, transferring in [[1752]] to the chair of [[moral philosophy]]. His lectures covered the fields of [[ethics]], [[rhetoric]], [[jurisprudence]], [[political economy]], and &quot;police and revenue.&quot; In [[1759]] he published his ''[[The Theory of Moral Sentiments]]'', embodying some of his [[Glasgow]] lectures. This work, which established Smith's reputation in his day, was concerned with how human communication depends on sympathy between agent and spectator (that is, the individual and other members of society). His analysis of language evolution was somewhat superficial, as shown only 14 years later by a more rigourous examination of primitive language evolution by [[Lord Monboddo]] in his ''Of the Origin and Progress of Language''{{ref|monboddo}}. Smith's capacity for fluent, persuasive, if rather rhetorical argument is much in evidence. He bases his explanation, not as the third Lord Shaftesbury and Hutcheson had done, on a special &quot;moral sense&quot;, nor (as Hume did) on [[utilitarianism|utility]], but on sympathy. Smith now began to give more attention to jurisprudence and economics in his lecture and less to his theories of morals. An impression can be obtained as to the development of his ideas on political economy from the notes of his lectures taken down by a student in about [[1763]] which were later edited by [[Edwin Cannan]]{{ref|cannan}}, and from what Scott, its discoverer and publisher, describes as &quot;An Early Draft of Part of The Wealth of Nations&quot;, which he dates about 1763. Cannan's work appeared as ''Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms''. A fuller version was published as [[Lectures on Jurisprudence]] in the Glasgow Edition of 1976. At the end of 1763 Smith obtained a lucrative post as tutor to the young [[Henry Scott, 3rd Duke of Buccleuch|Duke of Buccleuch]] and resigned his professorship. From [[1764]]-[[1766|66]] he traveled with his pupil, mostly in France, where he came to know such intellectual leaders as [[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune|Turgot]], [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert| Jean D'Alembert]], [[André Morellet]], [[Helvétius]] and, in particular, [[Francois Quesnay]], the head of the [[physiocrats|Physiocratic school]] whose work he respected greatly. On returning home to Kirkcaldy he devoted much of the next ten years to his [[magnum opus]], ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,'' which appeared in [[1776]]. It was very well-received and popular, and Smith became famous. In [[1778]] he was appointed to a comfortable post as commissioner of customs in Scotland and went to live with his mother in Edinburgh. He died there on July 17, 1790, after a painful illness and was buried in Canongate Churchyard, Royal Mile, Edinburgh. He had apparently devoted a considerable part of his income to numerous secret acts of charity. Smith's literary executors were two old friends from the Scottish academic world; physicist/chemist [[Joseph Black]] and pioneering geologist [[James Hutton]]. Smith left behind many notes and some unpublished material, but gave instructions to destroy anything that was not fit for publication. He mentioned an early unpublished ''History of Astronomy'' as probably suitable, and it duly appeared in 1795, along with other material, as [[Essays on Philosophical Subjects]]. ==Works== Shortly before his death Smith had nearly all his manuscripts destroyed. In his last years he seemed to have been planning two major treatises, one on the theory and history of law and one on the sciences and arts. The posthumously published ''Essays on Philosophical Subjects'' ([[1795]]) probably contain parts of what would have been the latter treatise. ''The Wealth of Nations'' was influential since it did so much to create the field of economics and develop it into an autonomous systematic discipline. In the Western world, it is arguably the most influential book on the subject ever published. When the book, which has become a classic [[manifesto]] against [[mercantilism]] (the theory that large reserves of [[bullion]] are essential for economic success), appeared in [[1776]], there was a strong sentiment for [[free trade]] in both [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] and [[United States|America]]. This new feeling had been born out of the economic hardships and poverty caused by the war. However, at the time of publication, not everybody was immediately convinced of the advantages of [[free trade]]: the British public and [[Palace of Westminster|Parliament]] still clung to mercantilism for many years to come. ''The Wealth of Nations'' also rejects the [[Physiocrats|Physiocratic]] school's emphasis on the importance of land; instead, Smith believed labour was paramount, and that a [[division of labour]] would effect a great increase in production. ''Nations'' was so successful, in fact, that it led to the abandonment of earlier economic schools, and later economists, such as [[Thomas Malthus]] and [[David Ricardo]], focused on refining Smith's theory into what is now known as [[classical economics]] ([[Modern economics]] evolved from this). Malthus expanded Smith's ruminations on [[overpopulation]], while Ricardo believed in the &quot;[[iron law of wages]]&quot; — that overpopulation would prevent wages from topping the subsistence level. Smith postulated an increase of wages with an increase in production, a view considered more accurate today. One of the main points of ''The Wealth of Nations'' is that the free market, while appearing chaotic and unrestrained, is actually guided to produce the right amount and variety of goods by a so-called &quot;[[Invisible Hand|invisible hand]]&quot;. If a product shortage occurs, for instance, its price rises, creating a profit margin that creates an incentive for others to enter production, eventually curing the shortage. If too many producers enter the market, the increased [[competition]] among manufacturers and increased supply would lower the price of the product to its production cost, the &quot;[[natural price]]&quot;. Even as profits are zeroed out at the &quot;natural price,&quot; there would be incentives to produce goods and services, as all costs of production, including compensation for the owner's labour, are also built into the price of the goods. If prices dipped below a zero profit, producers would drop out of the market; if they were above a zero profit, producers would enter the market. Smith believed that while human motives are often [[selfishness|selfish]] and [[Greed (emotion)|greedy]], the competition in the free market would tend to benefit society as a whole by keeping prices low, while still building in an incentive for a wide variety of goods and services. Nevertheless, he was wary of businessmen and argued against the formation of [[monopoly|monopolies]]. Smith vigorously attacked the antiquated government restrictions which he thought were hindering industrial expansion. In fact, he attacked most forms of government interference in the economic process, including [[tariff]]s, arguing that this creates inefficiency and high prices in the long run. This theory, now referred to as &quot;[[laissez-faire]]&quot;, which means &quot;let them do&quot;, influenced government legislation in later years, especially during the [[19th century]]. (However, it must be remembered that Smith advocated for a Government that was active in sectors other than the economy: he advocated for public education of poor adults; for institutional systems that were not profitable for private industries; for a judiciary; and for a standing army.) Two of the most famous and oft-quoted passages in ''The Wealth of Nations'' are: :''It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages.'' :''As every individual, therefore, endeavours as much as he can both to employ his capital in the support of domestic industry, and so to direct that industry that its produce may be of the greatest value; every individual necessarily labours to render the annual value of society as great as he can. He generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign i
rt Thomas Burnett|Burnett]], [[1828]] | subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]] | subdivision = ''[[Indri]]''&lt;br&gt; ''[[woolly lemur|Avahi]]''&lt;br&gt; ''[[Propithecus]]'' }} The '''Indridae''' (also spelled '''Indriidae''') are a family of [[strepsirrhine]] [[primate]]s. They are medium to large sized [[lemur]]s with only four teeth in the toothcomb instead of the usual six. '''Indrids''', like all lemurs, live exclusively on the island of [[Madagascar]]. The ten extant indrid species vary considerably in size. Not counting the length of their tails, the [[woolly lemur|avahis]] are only 30cm in length, while the [[Indri]] is the largest extant strepsirrhine. The tail of the Indri is only a stub, while avahi and the [[sifaka]] tails are as long as their bodies. Their fur is long and mostly from whitish over reddish up to grey. Their black faces, however, are always bald. The hind legs are longer than their fore limbs, their hands are long and thin, and their thumb cannot be opposed to the other fingers correctly. All species are [[arboreal]], though they do come to the ground occasionally. When on the ground, they stand upright and move with short hops forward, with their arms held high. In the trees, though, it can make extraordinay leaps and is extremely agile, able to change direction from tree to tree. Like most leaf eaters they adjust for the low nutrient content of their food by long rests. Often it can be seen lying stretched on trees sunning themselves. Indrids live together in family federations from two to 15 animals, communicating with roars and also with facial expressions. Indrids are strict [[vegetarian]]s, eating mostly leaves, fruits and flowers. Females and males usually mate monogamously for many years. Mostly at the end of the dry season, their four to five-month gestation ends with the birth of a single offspring, which lives in the family for a while after its weaning (at the age of five to six months). Indridae also contains eleven extinct species in six genera. Most if not all were larger animals, [[megafauna]], called sloth lemurs. These included the [[chimpanzee]]-sized ''[[Palaeopropithecus]]'' and the [[gorilla]]-sized ''[[Archaeoindris]]''. Most went extinct within the last 1500 to 2000 years, after humans started inhabiting Madagascar. ==Classification== &lt;small&gt;Extinct [[taxa]] are listed in parentheses.&lt;/small&gt; * '''ORDER [[primates|PRIMATES]]''' ** Suborder [[Strepsirrhini]]: non-tarsier prosimians *** Family [[Cheirogaleidae]]: dwarf and mouse lemurs *** Family [[Lemuridae]]: lemurs *** Family [[Lepilemuridae]]: sportive lemurs *** '''Family Indridae''': woolly lemurs and allies **** (Subfamily [[Archaeolemurinae]]) ***** (Genus ''[[Hydropithecus]]'') ***** (Genus ''[[Archaeolemur]]'') **** (Subfamily [[Palaeopropithecinae]]) ***** (Genus ''[[Archaeoindris]]'') ***** (Genus ''[[Babakotia]]'') ***** (Genus ''[[Palaeopropithecus]]'') **** Subfamily [[Indrinae]] ***** Genus ''[[Indri]]'' ***** Genus ''[[woolly lemur|Avahi]]'' ***** (Genus ''[[Mesopropithecus]]'') ***** Genus ''[[Propithecus]]'' *** Family [[Daubentoniidae]]: Aye-aye *** Family [[Lorisidae]]: lorises, pottos and allies *** Family [[Galagidae]]: galagos ** Suborder [[Haplorrhini]]: tarsiers, monkeys and apes ==See also== * [[Holocene extinction event]] ==References== {{Wikispecies|Indridae}} *[http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&amp;search_value=572769 ITIS entry] *[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&amp;name=indridae&amp;srchmode=1&amp;keep=1&amp;a=Go&amp;lvl=3 NCBI entry] [[Category:Prosimians]] [[da:Indrier]] [[de:Indriartige]] [[fr:Indridae]] [[lt:Indriniai]] [[nl:Indriachtigen]] [[ja:インドリ科]] [[sv:Indrier]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>I, Robot</title> <id>14545</id> <revision> <id>41598677</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T11:51:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Thryduulf</username> <id>157530</id> </contributor> <comment>/* References and parodies */ External link to The Onion's parody</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} '''''I, Robot''''' is a collection of nine [[science fiction]] [[short stories]] by [[Isaac Asimov]], first published by [[Gnome Press]] in [[1950]]. The stories originally appeared in the magazines ''[[Super Science Stories]]'' and ''[[Astounding Science Fiction]]'' between [[1940]] and 1950. Though the stories work well enough individually, they share a theme of the interaction of [[human]]s, [[robot]]s and [[morality]], and when combined they tell a larger story of Asimov's fictional history of [[robotics]]. Several of the stories feature the character of Dr. [[Susan Calvin]], chief robopsychologist at [[U.S. Robots and Mechanical Men]], Inc., the major manufacturer of robots. Upon their publication in this collection, Asimov wrote a [[framing sequence]] presenting the stories as Calvin's reminiscences during an interview with her about her life's work, chiefly concerned with aberrant behaviour of robots, and the use of &quot;[[robopsychology]]&quot; to sort them out. The book also contains the short story in which Asimov's famous [[Three Laws of Robotics]] first appear. Other characters that appear in these short stories are [[Powell and Donovan]], a field-testing team which locates flaws in USRMM's prototype models. The collection's title comes from [[I, Robot (short story)|a short story]] by [[Eando Binder]]. Asimov originally titled his collection ''Mind and Iron'', and initially objected when the publisher changed the title. &lt;div style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot;&gt; {| border=1 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 align=center |---- bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; !width=&quot;60%&quot;|Series:&lt;br&gt; !width=&quot;40%&quot;|Followed by: |----- align=&quot;center&quot; |[[Robot Series]]&lt;br&gt;[[Foundation Series]] |[[The Complete Robot]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; |} &lt;/div&gt; ==I, Robot== The following appeared on the back cover of ''I, Robot'' (paperback edition): :''To you, a robot is just a robot. But you haven't worked with them. You don't know them. They're a cleaner, better breed than we are.'' :''When Earth is ruled by master-machines... when robots are more human than humankind.'' :''Isaac Asimov's unforgettable, spine-chilling vision of the future - available at last in its first paperback edition.'' This is largely inaccurate. The first paragraph is a quotation from one of the book's recurring characters Dr. Susan Calvin, but the rest is incongruous with the themes that Asimov presents in his stories. At the time of the collection's publication, robots were depicted in science fiction as either servile machines or evil creations that revolted in the manner of [[Frankenstein]]'s monster. Asimov himself said that in writing the Robot stories he sought to replace both views with something more rational. ===Stories=== * &quot;[[Robbie]]&quot; * &quot;[[Runaround]]&quot; * &quot;[[Reason (Asimov)|Reason]]&quot; * &quot;[[Catch that Rabbit]]&quot; * &quot;[[Liar!]]&quot; * &quot;[[Little Lost Robot]]&quot; * &quot;[[Escape!]]&quot; * &quot;[[Evidence (Asimov)|Evidence]]&quot; * &quot;[[The Evitable Conflict]]&quot; ===ISBNs=== * ISBN 44902355 ([[mass market paperback]], 1970) * ISBN 0606171347 ([[prebound]], [[1991]]) * ISBN 0553294385 ([[mass market paperback]], 1991) * ISBN 1401400396 ([[e-book]], [[2001]]) * ISBN 1401400388 (e-book, 2001) * ISBN 0553803700 ([[hardcover]], [[2004]]) * ISBN 078577338X (hardcover) * ISBN 0007119631 ([[paperback]], UK, new edition) * ISBN 0586025324 (paperback, UK) ==Adaptations== In the [[1960s]], two short stories from this collection were made into episodes of the [[television series]] ''[[Out of the Unknown]]'': &quot;The Prophet&quot; ([[1967]]), based on &quot;[[Reason (Asimov)|Reason]]&quot;; and &quot;[[Liar!]]&quot; ([[1969]]). In the late [[1970s]], [[Warner Brothers]] acquired the [[option (films)|option]] to make a film based on the book, but no [[screenplay]] was ever accepted. The most notable attempt was one by [[Harlan Ellison]], who collaborated with Asimov himself to create a version which captured the spirit of the original. Asimov is quoted as saying that this screenplay would lead to &quot;the first really adult, complex, worthwhile science fiction movie ever made.&quot; Although the film was never made, the script eventually appeared in book form under the title ''I, Robot: The Illustrated Screenplay'', in [[1994]] (reprinted [[2004]], ISBN 0743486595). Although acclaimed by critics, the screenplay is generally considered to have been unfilmable based upon the technology and average film budgets of the time. The [[1977]] album ''[[I Robot (album)|I Robot]]'', by [[The Alan Parsons Project]], was also inspired by Asimov's ''I, Robot''. More recently, a [[I, Robot (movie)|movie of the same name]] starring [[Will Smith]], was released by [[Twentieth Century Fox]] on [[July 16]], [[2004]] in the United States. It was criticized by some fans of Asimov's work for departing from the source material. Indeed, the screenplay itself was originally not based on ''I, Robot'' at all, but rather an existing screenplay was modified once the rights to the name became available. ==References and parodies== A real-life company called [[iRobot]] manufactures industrial robots, and a robotic vacuum cleaner for home use. The [[animated series]] ''[[The Simpsons]]'' had an episode in its fifteenth season entitled &quot;[[I, D'oh-Bot]]&quot;, in which [[Homer Simpson|Homer]] and [[Bart Simpson|Bart]] compete in a ''[[Robot Wars]]''-type competition. Asimov's Three Laws came into play at the end, when one of the robots discovered Homer in the battlefield. The [[animated series]] ''[[Futurama (TV series)|Futurama]]'' had a first-season episode entitled &quot;[[Futurama (TV series - season 1)#I, Roommate|I, Roommate]]&quot;, in which the huma
artner for peace===== [[Israel]] claims that it has demonstrated flexibility and understanding by bringing about the initiation of the [[peace process]], agreeing to painful concessions, and partially implementing them. As opposed to this, many Israelis consider that the predominant [[Palestinian]] views of the peace process do not recognize Israel's right to exist, and believe that the only real long-term [[Arab]] goal is the complete destruction of the [[Jewish state]]. =====Non-recognition of Israel's right to exist or existence===== Many [[Israel]]is and supporters of Israel, and some [[Palestinian]]s and supporters of Palestine, take the view that the very existence of the state of Israel is at stake. Most of the other parties to the dispute maintain formally that Israel should be recognized as a state, although some consider that it should be abolished. Some opponents of Israel do not even acknowledge its existence, refusing any contact with or mention of it, and instead describing it as &quot;The Zionist Entity&quot; with outdated land claims. Israelis argue that the continued Jewish presence in the area throughout the past three millennia, and the deep religious ties maintained by Judaism with the Land of Israel, give Jews a continuing and valid claim. Although the 1800 years preceding the establishment of Israel saw very limited Jewish presence, they emphasize that the destruction of the [[Kingdom of Israel]] and [[Jewish Diaspora]] were due to foreign conquests. They also point out that since antiquity, Jewish beliefs were frequently branded as &quot;obsolete&quot; (see [[Against Apion]], [[Supersessionism]]). It may also be noted that historical grounds are not the only reasons given for the establishment of a Jewish state. Israelis regard many of the [[Arab]] criticisms against the state of Israel as threats to the state's existence, and say that against the multitude and power of the Arab states, there is only one Jewish state, which, they feel, should behave vigilantly, and assert its power in both a defensive and preemptive manner as deemed necessary. ====Issues of democracy and fairness==== ====Treatment of Jews in Arab-ruled societies and vice-versa==== Some Israelis point to issues of unfair and prejudicial treatment of Jews in Arab-ruled societies historically [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mf15.html] and currently. Israelis claim that Arab countries such as [[Syria]] and [[Yemen]] do not give full rights and freedoms to Jews, and others (such as [[Saudi Arabia]]) do not even allow Jews to be citizens. The United Nations Human Development Reports [http://www.rbas.undp.org/] and human rights groups report that many Arab countries do not allow political opposition and other freedoms and lack [[checks and balances]] and [[separation of powers]]. They also argue that within Israel, Israeli Arabs are not subject to this type of discrimination. They point to Israel's democratic system which protects the rights Jewish and Arab Israelis alike. Within the [[1949 Armistice Agreements|pre-1967 armistice lines]], Arab and other minorities are given freedom of religion, culture and political organization. Several Arab political parties have elected parliament members in the [[Knesset]]. Arabs are typically not conscripted into the Israeli military (though they are accepted as volunteers), so they will generally never have to fight their peoples. However, it is recognized that this can affect later job opportunities, as some jobs in Israel require previous military service. Based on injustice Jews experience today and have experienced in the past in Arab-ruled Nations, and their fairness in imposing this injustice on Arab Israeli citizens, Israel their right to resist imposition of Arab rule on Israel is justified. =====Islamic vs. other views of Land ownership===== Some pro-[[Israel]]i views focus on differences in concepts of land ownership as a root source of conflict. ''[[sharia]]'' (Islamic law) contains the concept of Waqf, revenue-generating property as religious endowment that, once established, is permanent in nature[http://i-cias.com/e.o/waqf.htm]. Under some traditional interpretations, [[Muslim]] territory encompass all land that was ever under Muslim control. The Hamas charter[http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=countries&amp;Area=palestinian&amp;ID=SP109206] embraces this view of land ownership: &quot;The Islamic Resistance Movement maintains that the land of Palestine is Waqf land given as endowment for all generations of Muslims until the Day of Resurrection. One should not neglect it or [even] a part of it, nor should one relinquish it or [even] a part of it. No Arab state, or [even] all of the Arab states [together], have [the right] to do this; no king or president has this right nor all the kings and presidents together; no organization, or all the organizations together - be they Palestinian or Arab - [have the right to do this] because Palestine is Islamic Waqf land given to all generations of Muslims until the Day of Resurrection. This is the legal status of the land of Palestine according to Islamic law. In this respect, it is like any other land that the Muslims have conquered by force, because the Muslims consecrated it at the time of the conquest as religious endowment for all generations of Muslims until the Day of Resurrection.&quot; Some pro-Israeli views would argue that this concept of a permanent Waqf, while strongly held under Sharia law, is not agreed to internationally. =====Characterizations of Zionism as Racisism and Colonialism===== Most [[Israel]]is see [[Zionism]] as merely the desire of [[Jew]]ish people to live as free people in the [[land of Israel]]. This opinion would argue that Zionism does not imply the superiority of Jews over any other nationality or ethnicity, and thus the characterization of Zionism as Racism is unfair. People of all races, colors and ethnic backgrounds live in Israel. It is pointed out that Israeli Jews come from a wide variety of ethnic backgrounds. In the 1930s, ideas of a 'population exchange' of Arabs and Jews between Arab states and Israel were actually popular among Zionists. In practice, most Jews living in Arab Nations in 1948 have currently left Arab countries: 2/3 have moved to Israel. Zionism does not prohibit [[Arab]]s, [[Druze]], [[Bedouin]] and other non-Jews from living in Israel as well, although by most interpretations it requires a Jewish majority to be established. While some extremist Israelis, (particularly supporters of [[Moledet]]) believe in the forced transfer of Arabs from Israel, although this is not a widely held view. Zionists hold that Zionism is not colonialism, since they claim it does not wish to enslave any other peoples or take over any lands other than the one in question, nor to exploit them, but rather is about allowing the Jewish people to have a state in one small area. They also point out that they are not representing an outsider colonial force but full-fledged movement of self-determination. ====Refugee issues==== =====Jewish refugees===== Most of the [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands|Jewish population in Arab countries]] fled from their homes since the establishment of [[Israel]] in 1948 or were thrown out of the land, and nearly two-thirds have been absorbed by [[Israel]]. These Jews lost most of their property and continue to claim compensation. Although there have been invitations from Arab states, virtually none have shown interest in returning to their former homes, as they have integrated in their new homes or fear persecution in Arab states. Many believe the [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]] to Israel and the [[Palestinian exodus|Arab exodus]] from the [[land of Israel]] to the surrounding territory constitutes a legitimate form of population exchange. =====Palestinian refugees===== [[Israel]] does not recognize a Palestinian [[right of return]]. Property belonging to former Arab residents in Israel is confiscated under the ''Absentee Property Act''. Israel maintains that the General Assembly resolutions establishing the Right of Return are merely recommendations under International law, and in any event doubt that the refugees wish to &quot;live in peace with their neighbors&quot;. Jewish Israelis fear that if [[Palestinian]]s were allowed to return to [[Israel]], the Jews would become a minority and [[Israel]] would no longer be a [[Jewish state]]. Many believe that if surrounding Arab states integrate the Palestinian refugees hostilities could be diffused, and that the harsh treatment of refugees in Arab states is done deliberately by those states in order to keep the conflict alive. Israel has stated that it is willing to allow a limited number of Arabs to immigrate on a humanitarian basis (such as the unification of families) and limited compensation for others in the framework of a comprehensive peace plan. Such discussions have yet to take place. The text of the UN Resolutions refer to a &quot;just settlement of the refugee problem&quot; and do not specifically mention either the [[Palestinian refugees]] or the [[Jewish refugees]]. Israel's refusal to consider large-scale resettlement of Palestinian refugees is also based on the continued refusal of Arab nations to compensate Israeli Jews of Arab origin, many of whom were driven out of their home countries after facing the expropriation of their property. ====Settlements==== Israelis of the political right, particular in the [[Likud]] party, strongly support settlements in the [[West Bank]]. The platform of the Likud party states that &quot;settlement of the land is a clear expression of the unassailable right of the Jewish people to the Land of Israel and constitutes an important asset in the defense of the vital interests of the State of Israel.&quot; [http://www.knesset.gov.il/elections/knesset15/elikud_m.htm] Liberal Israelis oppose settlements, be
grants] [[Category:International law]] [[Category:United Kingdom law|Nationality law]] [[category:Immigration to the United Kingdom|Nationality law]] [[Category:International relations]] [[Category:Nationality law]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Basic Set Theory</title> <id>4018</id> <revision> <id>15902320</id> <timestamp>2004-12-27T06:31:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wile E. Heresiarch</username> <id>35683</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/WhisperToMe|WhisperToMe]] to last version by Wile E. Heresiarch</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Naive set theory]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bismarck (disambiguation)</title> <id>4019</id> <revision> <id>39457336</id> <timestamp>2006-02-13T06:25:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>203.240.254.231</ip> </contributor> <comment>+ko</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bismarck''' is a name usually associated with [[Otto von Bismarck]], the great German statesman of the 19th century. Places and things named after Otto von Bismarck include: * ''[[Fürst Bismarck]]'', a [[Mackensen class battlecruiser]] of the German navy, still under construction at the time of the 1918 Armistice and never completed. * [[German battleship Bismarck|''Bismarck'']], a battleship of the German navy during WWII ** [[Expedition: Bismarck]], a 2002 documentary about battleship Bismarck. * the [[Bismarck Sea]], north of the island of New Guinea * the [[Bismarck Archipelago]], a part of Papua New Guinea * [[Bismarck, Arkansas]] * [[Bismarck, North Dakota]], that state's [[capital]] * [[Bismark, Ontario]], a hamlet at the junction of [[Highway 20]] and [[Highway 57]] * [[Bismarck (doughnut)]], a German-style filled [[doughnut]] with jelly or preserves baked within, as distinguished from a ''kettle doughnut'' which is served open-faced with the filling in the center * Bismarck, an alcoholic cocktail also known as a [[Black Velvet (cocktail)|Black Velvet]] Other historical figures named Bismarck include: * [[Herebord von Bismarck]], the first verifiable holder of the name (from the 13th century) * [[Ludolf August von Bismarck]] (1683-1750), a Russian General * [[Levin Friedrich von Bismarck]] (1703-1774), a Prussian Attorney General * [[August Wilhelm von Bismarck]] (1750-1783), a Prussian Finance Minister * [[Friedrich Alexander Graf von Bismarck-Bohlen]] (1818-1894), a Prussian General * [[Herbert von Bismarck]] (1849-1904), Secretary of State, son of Otto von Bismarck * [[Gottfried von Bismarck]] (1881-1928) * [[Bernhard von Bismarck]] * [[Otto Fürst von Bismarck]] (1897-1975), a German politician of the CDU party, grandson of Otto von Bismarck * [[Gottfried Graf von Bismarck-Schönhausen]] (1901-1949), a Nazi parliamentary representative, grandson of Otto von Bismarck * [[Philipp von Bismarck]] (*1913), a German politician of the CDU party * [[Klaus von Bismarck]], 1961-1976, and administrator of a German radio station * [[Gunilla von Bismarck]] (*1949), great-granddaughter of Otto von Bismarck, a German philanthropist * [[Carl-Eduard von Bismarck]] (*1961), great-great-grandson of Otto von Bismarck, a German politician * [[Aurel von Bismarck]], a musician and composer {{disambig}} [[bg:Бисмарк]] [[cs:Bismarck]] [[de:Bismarck (Begriffsklärung)]] [[fr:Bismarck]] [[it:Bismarck]] [[ko:비스마르크]] [[he:ביסמרק (פירושונים)]] [[nl:Bismarck]] [[ja:ビスマルク]] [[pl:Bismarck]] [[pt:Bismarck]] [[fi:Bismarck]] [[sv:Bismarck]] [[th:บิสมาร์ก]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bomis</title> <id>4020</id> <revision> <id>41763921</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:58:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Optichan</username> <id>178811</id> </contributor> <comment>{{cite web}}</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bomislogo.gif|right|The Bomis Logo]] '''Bomis''' is a [[dot-com]] company founded in [[1996]]. Its primary business is the sale of [[advertising]] on the Bomis.com search portal. It was founded by [[Jimmy Wales]] and [[Tim Shell]], and provided support for the free encyclopedia projects [[Nupedia]] and [[Wikipedia]]. As of 2006, Shell is the CEO of Bomis. On the Bomis.com site, Bomis creates and hosts [[web ring]]s around popular search terms. The rings are currently categorized broadly as &quot;Babes&quot;, &quot;Entertainment&quot;, &quot;Sports&quot;, &quot;Adult&quot;, &quot;Other&quot; and &quot;Science fiction&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Bomis What's New | url=http://www.bomis.com/whatsnew/ | accessdate=December 24 | accessyear=2005 }} &lt;/ref&gt; The &quot;Adult&quot;, &quot;Babes&quot; and &quot;Entertainment&quot; categories are the most frequently updated and the most popular. In addition, Bomis hosts a copy of the [[Open Directory Project]] search directory. Revenue from search-related pages is generated from advertising and [[affiliate marketing]]. Bomis ran a website called ''Bomis Premium'' at premium.bomis.com, until 2005; offering access to [[erotica|erotic]] [[photograph]]s featuring 403 different models (a total of 54658 pictures), and videos of models in suggestive poses.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Bomis Premium Site | url=http://premium.bomis.com/indexpotd.html | accessdate=December 24 | accessyear=2005 }} &lt;/ref&gt; Until mid-2005, Bomis featured the ''Bomis Babe Report'', a free [[blog]], publishing news and reviews about [[celebrity|celebrities]], [[model (person)|model]]s, and the [[adult entertainment]] industry. The ''Babe Report'' prominently linked to ''Bomis Premium'', and frequently posted updates about new models joining Bomis. ==Role in the creation of [[Nupedia]] and [[Wikipedia]]== [[Image:Bomis Wiki.png|thumb|300px|Wikipedia hosted on Bomis.com]] As of 2005, Bomis is best known for having supported the creation of the free-content online [[encyclopedia]] projects Nupedia and Wikipedia. Wales started Nupedia in 2000, and [[Larry Sanger]] was hired to manage and edit that project. A year into the development of Nupedia, a wiki was set up as a way to solicit new drafts for Nupedia; named Wikipedia. While originally intended as a 'feeder' project for Nupedia, Wikipedia &amp;mdash; with its much lower barriers to contribution &amp;mdash; rapidly outgrew its parent in size and attention. For a while, Bomis provided [[web server]]s and [[bandwidth]] for these projects, paid Sanger in his role as project editor-in-chief (until he left the projects in 2002), and owned key items such as the associated [[domain name]]s. However, as the costs and popularity of Wikipedia rose, a general reluctance to display advertising on the site - together with a desire to reflect the spirit of openness and neutrality central to Wikipedia - suggested an alternative ownership model. ''See full article: [[History of Wikipedia]]'' The [[Wikimedia Foundation]] was formally announced on [[June 20]], [[2003]], and all related assets (both in terms of [[intellectual property]] and [[computer hardware]]) were transferred or donated to this [[non-profit organisation]]. (See: [http://www.wikimediafoundation.org/bylaws.pdf bylaws of the Wikimedia Foundation (PDF file)]). Larry Sanger had by this time left the project, but Jimmy Wales retains a key role on the board of the Foundation, along with users elected from the Wikipedia community. The Foundation now funds the operation of Wikipedia (and its sister projects) primarily through donations from readers. ==References== &lt;references /&gt; ==External links and sources== {{Commons|Bomis}} * [http://www.bomis.com/ Official Bomis website] * [http://www.bomis.com/about/slogans.html List of Bomis slogans] – a random slogan from the list is displayed on each www.bomis.com page * [http://mail.wikipedia.org/pipermail/wikipedia-l/2001-October/000652.html Jimmy Wales on the Wikipedia-L mailing list about Bomis] [[Category:Dot-com]] [[Category:Internet companies of the United States]] [[Category:Wikipedia]] [[ar:بوميس]] [[da:Bomis]] [[de:Bomis]] [[eo:Bomis]] [[fi:Bomis]] [[fr:Bomis]] [[he:בומיס]] [[ja:Bomis]] [[lb:Bomis]] [[nl:Bomis]] [[pl:Bomis]] [[sv:Bomis]] [[zh:Bomis]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>B.C.E.</title> <id>4021</id> <revision> <id>15902323</id> <timestamp>2003-11-09T09:16:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Docu</username> <id>8029</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>upd. redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[BCE]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>B.C.E</title> <id>4022</id> <revision> <id>15902324</id> <timestamp>2003-11-09T09:18:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Docu</username> <id>8029</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>upd. redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[BCE]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Butterfly effect</title> <id>4024</id> <revision> <id>42152150</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:03:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lulu of the Lotus-Eaters</username> <id>85553</id> </contributor> <comment>spacing</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sensitive-dependency.png|thumb|right|300px|Point [[attractor]]s in 2D [[phase space]].]] {{otheruses}} The '''butterfly effect''' is a phrase that encapsulates the more technical notion of ''sensitive dependence on initial conditions'' in [[chaos theory]]. Small variations of the [[initial condition]] of a [[dynamical system]] may produce large variations in the long term behavior of the system. This is sometimes presented as esoteric behavior, but can be exhibited by very simple systems: for example, a ball placed at the crest of a hil
lean officials, which failed. Afterwards, an attempted coup was plotted by the CIA with anti-Allende factions, but it eventually was forced to abort the project. (See [[Project FUBELT]]} Three years later, [[Chilean coup of 1973|Allende was overthrown]] by military leader [[Augusto Pinochet]]. Allegations have been made that the CIA was behind the coup, although none have been completely confirmed or contradicted. The [[Church Committee]], which investigated U.S. involvement in Chile during this period, stated that &quot;There is no hard evidence of direct U.S. assistance to the coup, despite frequent allegations of such aid.[http://foia.state.gov/Reports/ChurchReport.asp#E.%20Covert%20Action%20During%20the%20Allende%20Years,%201970-1973]&quot; In 2000 the CIA also [http://www.cia.gov/cia/reports/chile/ denied] that it assisted the coup. The Church Report also showed that the CIA played a prominent role in Chile after the 1973 coup: ''The goal of covert action immediately following the coup was to assist the Junta in gaining a more positive image, both at home and abroad, and to maintain access to the command levels of the Chilean government. Another goal, achieved in part through work done at the opposition research organization before the coup, was to help the new government organize and implement new policies. Project files record that. CIA collaborators were involved in preparing an initial overall economic plan which has served as the basis for the Junta's most important economic decisions.'' ====Nicaragua and cocaine conspiracy==== In the early [[1980s]], after the overthrow of the [[Anastasio Somoza Debayle|Somoza]] dictatorship in [[Nicaragua]], the CIA funded and armed the [[Contras]], forces opposed to the leftist and [[Marxist]] [[Sandinista]] junta. Congress passed the [[Boland Amendment]] which forbade any U.S. funding of the Contras. The Reagan administration violated the Boland Amendment by using profits from the sale of arms to Iran to fund the Contras. Part of the CIA campaign to overthrow the Nicaragua government included mining Nicaragua's harbors, resulting in the sinking of a merchant ship. This resulted in a [[World Court]] decision in the case [[Nicaragua v. United States]] ordering the United States to pay Nicaragua reparations, although the U.S. ignored the verdict of the World Court. In 1993, with support of the U.S. government, [[Colombia]] created the Search Block to locate and kill [[Pablo Escobar]]. In 1996, journalist [[Gary Webb]] wrote a series of exposes for the ''[[San Jose Mercury News]]'', entitled &quot;Dark Alliance&quot;, in which he uncovered the use of CIA aircraft, which has ferried arms to the Contras, to ship [[cocaine]] to the United States during the return flights. Thus, [[Central American]] narcotics traffickers could import [[cocaine]] to U.S. cities in the [[1980s]] without the interference of normal law enforcement agencies. This led, in part, to the [[crack cocaine]] epidemic, especially in poor neighborhoods of Los Angeles, and the CIA intervened to prevent the prosecution of drug dealers who were helping to fund the Contras. Government pressure forced the [[San Jose Mercury News]] to retract Webb's conclusions (without actually retracting any of the facts that Webb uncovered,) and Webb was prevented from conducting any more investigative reporting. Webb was transferred to cover non-controversial suburban stories, and was finally forced from his job. (See the book ''Whiteout''.) ==Controversies== [[Defector]]s such as former agent [[Philip Agee]] have alleged that such CIA covert action is extraordinarily widespread, extending to [[propaganda]] campaigns within countries allied to the United States. The agency has also been accused of participation in the illegal [[Recreational drug use|drug]] trade, notably in [[Laos]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Nicaragua]] and [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] (see &quot;Drug Trafficking&quot; section, below; &quot;Whiteout&quot; by [[Alexander Cockburn]] and Jeffrey St. Clair). It is known to have attempted [[assassination]]s of foreign leaders, most notably [[Fidel Castro]], though since 1976 a Presidential order has banned such &quot;[[executive action]]s,&quot; except during [[wartime]]. In 1996, the [[U.S. House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]] issued a congressional report estimating that the [[clandestine service]] part of the [[intelligence community]] &quot;easily&quot; breaks &quot;extremely serious laws&quot; in countries around the world, 100,000 times every year. [http://www.thememoryhole.org/ciacrimes.htm] In a briefing held [[September 15]] [[2001]], [[George Tenet]] presented the [[Worldwide Attack Matrix]]: A &quot;top-secret&quot; document describing covert CIA anti-terror operations in eighty countries in [[Asia]], the [[Middle East]], and [[Africa]]. The actions, underway or being recommended, would range from &quot;routine propaganda to lethal covert action in preparation for military attacks.&quot; The plans, if carried out, &quot;would give the CIA the broadest and most lethal authority in its history.&quot; [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A64802-2002Jan30?language=printer] On [[November 5]] [[2002]], newspapers reported that [[Al-Qaeda]] operatives in a car travelling through [[Yemen]] had been killed by a missile launched from a CIA-controlled [[RQ-1 Predator|Predator drone]] (a medium-altitude, remote-controlled aircraft). On [[May 15]], [[2005]], it was reported [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/14/AR2005051401121.html] that another of these drones had been used to assassinate [[Al-Qaeda]] figure [[Haitham al-Yemeni]] inside [[Pakistan]]. In June 2005, two events occurred that may shape future CIA operations. Arrest warrants for 13 CIA agents were issued in [[Italy]]. The agents are alleged to have taken a suspected Egyptian terrorist from [[Milan]] on [[17 February]] 2003 for [[extraordinary rendition]] to [[Egypt]], where according to relatives of the cleric, he was allegedly tortured. The removal of the terrorist wasn't unusual except that the Italian government has denied having approved the rendition. Similar operations of this sort have occurred worldwide since 9/11, the vast majority with at least tacit approval by the national government. Additionally, it allegedly disrupted Italian attempts to penetrate the terrorist's [[Al Qaeda]] network [http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/story.jsp?story=650032]. The [[New York Times]] reported soon after that it is highly unlikely that the CIA agents involved would be extradited, despite the US-Italy bilateral treaty regarding extraditions for crimes that carry a penalty of more than a year in prison. The agents involved in the operation are also reported to have booked lavish hotels during the operation and taken taxpayer-funded vacations after it was complete. [http://www.alternet.org/story/23683/] Soon after, President Bush appointed the CIA to be in charge of all human intelligence and manned spying operations. This was the apparent culmination of a years old turf war regarding influence, philosophy and budget between the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] of [[The Pentagon]] and the Central Intelligence Agency. The Pentagon, through the DIA, wanted to take control of the CIA's paramilitary operations and many of its human assets. The CIA, which has for years held that human intelligence is the core of the agency, successfully argued that the CIA's decades long experience with human resources and civilian oversight made it the ideal choice. Thus, the CIA was given charge of all US human intelligence, but as a compromise, the Pentagon was authorized to include increased paramilitary capabilities in future budget requests. Despite reforms which have led back to what the CIA considers its traditional principal capacities, the CIA Director position has lost influence in the White House. For years, the Director of the CIA met regularly with the President to issue daily reports on ongoing operations. After the creation of the post of the [[National Intelligence Director]], currently occupied by [[John Negroponte]], that practice has been discontinued in favor of the National Intelligence Director, with oversight of all intelligence, including DIA operations outside of CIA jurisdiction, giving the report. Current CIA Director [[Porter Goss]], himself a former CIA officer, denies this has had a diminishing effect on morale, in favor of promoting his singular mission to reform the CIA into the lean and agile counter-terrorism focused force he believes it should be. On [[December 6]] [[2005]], German [[Khalid El-Masri]] filed a lawsuit against former CIA Director George Tenet, claiming that he was transported from [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]] to a prison in Afghanistan and held captive there by the CIA for 5 months on a case of mistaken identity. Two months after his true identity had been found out, he had been taken to [[Albania]] and released without funds or an official excuse. === Support for foreign dictators === The activities of the CIA have caused considerable political controversy both in the United States and in other countries, often nominally friendly to the United States, where the agency has operated (or been alleged to). Particularly during the [[Cold War]], the CIA supported a long list of [[dictator]]s, including Chile's infamous [[Augusto Pinochet]], a number of dictatorships in Central America, the Shah of Iran, and the despots in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Indonesia, who have been friendly to perceived U.S. geopolitical interests (namely [[anti-Communism]], providing access to oil companies and other multi-national corporations and implementing a liberal economic system), sometimes over democratically-elected governments. Often cited as one of the American intelligence community's biggest blunders is the CIA involvement in equipping and training [[Mujahedeen]]
ight|thumb|300px|A selection of gemstone pebbles made by tumbling rough rock with abrasive grit, in a rotating drum. The biggest pebble here is 40 mm long (1.6 inches).]] :''This article is about gemstones as jewelry or decorative art. For other uses of the word see ([[Gemstone (disambiguation)]]).'' A '''gemstone''' is a [[mineral]], [[Rock (geology)|rock]], such in the case of [[lapis lazuli]], or [[Petrification|petrified]] material that when cut or faceted and polished is [[collectible]] or can be used in [[jewellery]]. Others are [[organic chemistry|organic]], such as [[amber]], which is [[fossil]]ised tree resin and [[Jet (lignite)|jet]], a form of [[coal]]. Some gemstones which may be generally considered precious or beautiful are too soft or too fragile to be used in jewelry, for example, single-crystal [[rhodochrosite]], but are exhibited in [[museum]]s and are sought by [[collector]]s. ==Characteristics and classification== Gemstones are described by [[gemology|gemologists]] using [[technical terminology|technical specifications]]. First, what is it made of, its [[chemical composition]]. Diamonds for example are made of [[carbon]] (C), rubies of [[aluminium]] oxide (Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;). Next, many gems are crystals which are classified by [[crystal system]] such as [[cubic]] or [[trigonal]] or [[monoclinic]]. Another term used is [[crystal habit|habit]], the form the gem is usually found in, for example diamonds which have a cubic crystal system are often found as octahedrons. Gems are classified into different ''groups'', ''species'' and ''varieties''. For example, ruby is the red variety of the species corundum that belongs to the [[spinel]] or [[hematite]] group. Emerald (green), aquamarine (blue), bixbite (red), goshenite (colorless), heliodor (yellow), and morganite (pink) are all varieties of the mineral species [[beryl]]. Gems have [[refractive index]], [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]], [[specific gravity]], [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|hardness]], [[Cleavage (crystal)|cleavage]], [[fracture]] and [[luster]]. They may exhibit [[pleochroism]] or [[double refraction]]. They may have [[luminescence]] and a distinctive [[absorption spectrum]]. Material or flaws within a stone may be present as ''inclusions''. The gem may occur in certain locations, the &quot;occurrence.&quot; ==Value== [[Image:Amber.pendants.800pix.050203.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Jewellery made with gem amber]] A gemstone is prized especially for great beauty or perfection so appearance is almost the most important attribute of gemstones. Characteristics that make a stone beautiful or desirable are colour, unusual [[optical phenomena]] within the stone, an interesting inclusion such as a [[fossil]], rarity, and sometimes the form of the natural crystal. Diamond is prized highly as a gemstone since it is the hardest substance known and is able to reflect light with fire and sparkle when faceted. However, diamonds are far from rare with millions of carats mined each year. Traditionally, common gemstones were classified into '''precious stones''' (''cardinal gems'') and '''semi-precious stones'''. The former category was largely determined by a history of ecclesiastical, devotional or ceremonial use and rarity. Only five types of gemstones were considered precious: [[diamond]], [[ruby]], [[sapphire]], [[emerald]], and [[amethyst]]. In current usage by [[Gemology|gemologists]], all gems are considered ''precious'', although four of the five original &quot;cardinal gems&quot; are usually&amp;mdash;but not always&amp;mdash;the most valuable. Rare or unusual gemstones, generally meant to include those gemstones which occur so infrequently in gem quality that they are scarcely known except to connoisseurs, include [[andalusite]], [[axinite]], [[cassiterite]], [[clinohumite]] and [[iolite]]. ==Factors Influencing Esteem== Factors influencing the esteem in which gems are held are attractiveness, durability, rarity, fashion, and size. ==Synthetic and artificial gemstones== Some gemstones are manufactured to imitate other gemstones. For example, [[cubic zirconia]] is a synthetic [[diamond simulant]] composed of [[zirconium]] oxide. The imitations copy the look and colour of the real stone but possess neither their chemical nor physical characteristics. However, true synthetic gemstones are not necessarily imitation. For example, diamonds, [[ruby]], [[sapphire]]s and [[emerald]]s have been manufactured in labs, which possess very nearly identical chemical and physical characteristics to the genuine article. Synthetic [[corundum]]s, including ruby and sapphire, are very common and they cost only a fraction of the natural stones. Smaller [[synthetic diamond]]s have been manufactured in large quantities as industrial [[abrasive]]s for many years. Only recently, larger synthetic diamonds of gemstone quality, especially of the coloured variety, have been manufactured. ==Gemstone list== There are over 130 species of minerals that have been cut into gems with 50 species in common use. These include: *[[Agate]] *[[Alexandrite]] and other varieties of [[chrysoberyl]] *[[Amethyst]] (originally a &quot;cardinal gem&quot;, but now no longer so, since huge quantities were discovered in [[Brazil]] and the price plummeted) *[[Aquamarine]] and other varieties of [[beryl]] *[[Chrysocolla]] *[[Chrysoprase]] *[[Diamond]] *[[Emerald]] *[[Feldspar]] ([[Orthoclase|moonstone]]) *[[Garnet]] *[[Hematite]] *[[Jade]] - [[jadeite]] and [[nephrite]] *[[Jasper]] *[[Kunzite]] *[[Lapis lazuli]] *[[Malachite]] *[[Obsidian]] *[[Olivine]] (Peridot) *[[Opal]] (Girasol) *[[Pyrite]] *[[Quartz]] and its varieties, such as [[tiger's-eye]], [[citrine]], [[agate]], and [[amethyst]] *[[Ruby]] *[[Sapphire]] *[[Spinel]] *[[Sugilite]] *[[Tanzanite]] and other varieties of [[zoisite]] *[[Topaz]] *[[Turquoise]] *[[Tourmaline]] *[[Zircon]] Minerals that infrequently occur in gem quality form: *Andalusite *Axinite *[[Benitoite]] *[[Bixbyte]] (Red beryl) *Cassiterite *[[Clinohumite]] *[[Cordierite|Iolite]] *Kornerupine *Natural [[moissanite]] *[[Zeolite]] (Thomsonite) Artificial or synthetic materials used as gems include: *High-lead [[glass]] *Synthetic [[cubic zirconia]] *Synthetic [[corundum]] *Synthetic [[spinel]] *Synthetic [[moissanite]] There are a number of organic materials used as gems, including: *[[Amber]] *[[Bone]] *[[Coral]] *[[Ivory]] *[[Jet (lignite)]] *[[Mother of pearl]] *[[Ammolite]] - from fossils formed from the shells of extinct [[ammonite]]s. *[[Pearl]] *[[Tortoiseshell]] ==See also== *[[List of minerals]] *[[List of fictional gemstones]] *[[Lapidary]] *[[Jewelry]] *[[Precious metal]] ==References== *Weinstein, Michael, 1958, ''The World of Jewel Stones'', Sheridan House, New York *''The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Rocks and Minerals'', 1978, New York, Alfred A. Knopf ISBN 0394502698 *Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York ISBN 0471805807 ==External links== *[http://www.gemscape.com/html/misnomer.htm Misleading Gem Names] [[Category:Gemstones| ]] [[bg:Скъпоценен камък]] [[da:Ædelsten]] [[de:Schmuckstein]] [[es:Gema]] [[eo:Gemo]] [[fr:Gemme]] [[he:אבן חן]] [[lt:Brangakmenis]] [[nl:Edelsteen]] [[ja:&amp;#23453;&amp;#30707;]] [[pt:Gema (mineralogia)]] [[ru:Драгоценные камни]] [[simple:Gemstone]] [[sk:Drahokam]] [[sl:Dragulj]] [[fi:Jalokivi]] [[sv:Ädelsten]] [[zh:寶石]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gerard David</title> <id>12807</id> <revision> <id>40364163</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:56:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gerard_David_Aankondiging.jpg|thumb|Annunciation from 1506, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[New York]]]] '''Gerard David''' (c. [[1455]], [[Oudewater]] - [[August 13th]] [[1523]], [[Bruges]]) was an [[early Dutch Renaissance]] [[artist]] known for his brilliant use of colour. He was born in [[Oudewater]], now located in [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]]. Most of his career took place in Bruges, where he was a member of the painters' [[guild]]. Upon the death of [[Hans Memling]] in [[1494]], David became Bruges' leading painter. In the early 1860s David was rescued from oblivion by W. J. H. Weale, whose researches in the archives of Bruges brought to light the main facts of the painter's life. There is now documentary evidence for the following: that David came to Bruges in [[1483]], presumably from [[Haarlem]], where he had formed his early style under [[Albert van Ouwater]]; he joined the guild of St Luke at Bruges in [[1484]] and became dean of the guild in [[1501]]; in [[1496]] he married Cornelia Cnoop, daughter of the dean of the [[goldsmith]]s' guild; he became one of the town's leading citizens; he died on August 13, 1523 and was buried in the Church of Our Lady at Bruges. In his early work, David had followed Haarlem artists such as [[Dirck Bouts]], Ouwater and [[Geertgen tot Sint Jans]], though he had already given evidence of superior power as a colourist. To this early period belong the ''St John'' of the Kaufmann collection in [[Berlin]] and the Saltings ''St Jerome''. In Bruges he studied and copied masterpieces by the [[Van Eyck]]s, [[Rogier van der Weyden]], and [[Hugo van der Goes]]. Here he came directly under the influence of Memling, the master whom he followed most closely. It was from him that David acquired a solemnity of treatment, greater realism in the rendering of human form, and an orderly arrangement of figures. Another master was to influence him later in life, when in [[1515]] he visited [[Antwerp]] and was impressed with the work of [[Quentin Matsys]], who had introduced a greater vitality and intimacy in the conception of sacred themes. D
People of the Scripture! Do not transgress the limits of your religion, and do not say about God except the truth. The Messiah, Jesus the son of Mary, was only a messenger of God, and His word that He had sent to Mary, and a revelation from Him. Therefore, you shall believe in GOD and His messengers. You shall not say, &quot;Trinity&quot;. You shall refrain from this for your own good. God is only one God. Be He glorified; He is much too glorious to have a son. To Him belongs everything in the heavens and everything on earth. God suffices as Lord and Master.&quot;'' No Muslim visual images or depictions of God are meant to exist because such artistic depictions may lead to [[idolatry]] and are thus disdained. Such [[aniconism]] can also be found in Judeo-Christian theology. Moreover, most Muslims believe that God is [[Spiritual being|incorporeal]], making any two- or three- dimensional depictions impossible. Instead, Muslims describe God by the many [[99 Names of God|divine attributes]] mentioned in the [[Qur'an]]. All but one Sura (chapter) of the Qur'an begins with the phrase &quot;In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful&quot;. These are regarded as the most important divine attributes, at least in the sense that Muslims repeat them most frequently during their prayers ([[salat]]) and throughout their daily lives. ===The Qur'an=== [[Image:FirstSurahKoran.jpg|thumb|300px| The [[Al-Fatiha|first]] [[surah]] in a handwritten copy of the Qur'an.]] {{main|Qur'an}} The Qur'an is the sacred book of Islam. It has also been called, in English, &quot;the Koran&quot; and (archaically) &quot;the Alcoran&quot;. Qur'an is the currently preferred English transliteration of the Arabic original (&amp;#1602;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1570;&amp;#1606;); it means &amp;#8220;recitation&amp;#8221;. Although the Qur'an is referred to as a &quot;book&quot;, when a Muslim refers to the Qur'an, they are referring to the actual text, the words, rather than the printed work itself. Muslims believe that the Qur'an was revealed to the prophet [[Muhammad]] by God through the [[Gabriel (archangel)|Angel Gabriel]] on numerous occasions between the years [[610]] and up till his death in [[632]]. In addition to memorizing his revelations, his followers are said to have written them down on parchments, stones, and leaves. Muslims hold that the Qur'an available today is the same as that revealed to the Prophet [[Muhammad]] and by him to his followers, who memorized and wrote down his words. Scholars generally accept that the version of the Qur'an used today was first compiled in writing by the third [[Caliph]], [[Uthman ibn Affan]], sometime between [[650]] and [[656]]. He sent copies of his version to the various provinces of the new Muslim empire, and directed that all variant copies be destroyed. However, some skeptics doubt the recorded oral traditions ([[hadith]]) on which this account is based, and will concede only that the Qur'an must have been compiled before [[750]]. There are numerous traditions, and many conflicting academic theories, as to the provenance of the Qur'anic verses that were eventually assembled into a single volume. (This is covered in greater detail in [[Qur'an]]). Most Muslims accept the account recorded in several hadith, which state that [[Abu Bakr]], The First Caliph, ordered his personal secretary [[Zayd ibn Thabit]] to collect and record all the authentic verses of the Qur'an, as preserved in written form or oral tradition. Zayd's written collection, privately treasured by Prophet Muhammad's wife [[Hafsa bint Umar]], was, according to Muslim sources, later used by Uthman and is thus the basis of today's Qur'an. Uthman's version, organized the suras roughly in order of length (excepting the brief opening surah [[Al-Fatiha]]), with the longest suras at the start of the Qur'an and the shortest ones at the end. More conservative views state that the order of most suras was divinely set. Later scholars have struggled to put the suras in chronological order, and among Muslim commentators, at least, there is a rough consensus as to which suras were revealed in [[Makkan sura|Mecca]] and which at [[Medinan sura|Medina]], with distinctive characteristics observed within these two subgroups. Some suras (e.g. surat [[Iqra]]) are thought to have been revealed in parts at separate times. To understand the notion of &quot;variants&quot; within the received Qur'anic text, one must understand that Arabic had not yet fully developed as a written language. The Qur'an was first recorded in written form (date uncertain) in the [[Hijazi]], [[Mashq]], [[Ma'il]], and [[Kufic]] scripts; these scripts write consonants only and do not supply vowels. (Imagine an English text that wrote the word 'bed' as &quot;BD,&quot; and required the reader to infer, from context, that the reference was to &quot;bed&quot; - and not to 'bad&quot; or &quot;bide.&quot;) Because there were differing oral traditions of recitation as non-native Arabic speakers converted to Islam, there was some disagreement as to the exact reading of many (vowel-free) verses. Eventually, scripts were developed that used diacritical markings (known as ''points'') to indicate the vowels. For hundreds of years after Uthman's recension, Muslim scholars argued as to the correct pointing and reading of Uthman's (unpointed) official text.{{citation needed}} Eventually, most commentators accepted seven variant readings ([[qira'at]]) of the Qur'an as canonical, while agreeing that the differences among the seven are minor and do not affect the meaning of the text. The Qur'an early became a focus of Muslim devotion and eventually a subject of theological controversy among skeptics. In the [[8th century]], the [[Mu'tazili]]s claimed that the Qur'an was created in time and was not eternal. Their opponents, of various schools, claimed that the Qur'an was eternal and perfect, existing in heaven before it was revealed to Muhammad. The [[Ashari]] theology (which ultimately became predominant) held that the Qur'an was uncreated. Most Muslims regard paper copies of the Qur'an with extreme veneration, wrapping them in a clean cloth, keeping them on a high shelf, and washing as for prayers before reading the Qur'an. Old Qur'ans are not destroyed as wastepaper, but burned. Most Muslims memorize for personal contact at least some portion of the Qur'an in the original language. Those who have memorized the entire Qur'an are known as [[hafiz]]. This is not a rare achievement; it is believed that there are millions of [[huffaz]] (plural) alive today. From the beginning of the faith, most Muslims believed that the Qur'an was perfect only as revealed in Arabic. Translations were the result of human effort and human fallibility, as well as lacking the inspired poetry believers find in the Qur'an. Translations are therefore only commentaries on the Qur'an, or &quot;translations of its meaning&quot;, not the Qur'an itself. Many modern, printed versions of the Qur'an feature the Arabic text on one page, and a vernacular translation on the facing page. ==Organization== ===Religious authority=== There is no official authority who decides whether a person is accepted into, or dismissed from, the community of believers, known as the ''[[Ummah]]'' (&quot;family&quot; or &quot;nation&quot;). Islam is open to all, regardless of race, age, gender, or previous beliefs. It is enough to believe in the central beliefs of Islam. This is formally done by reciting the ''[[shahada]]'', which should be made sincerely from the heart, the statement of belief of Islam, without which a person cannot be classed a Muslim. It is enough to believe and say that one is a Muslim, and behave in a manner befitting a Muslim to be accepted into the community of Islam. ===Islamic Law=== {{main|Sharia}} The Sharia is Islamic law, as elaborated by Islamic scholarship. The [[Qur'an]] is the foremost source of [[fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]]. The second is the [[sunnah]] of Muhammad and the early Muslim community. The sunnah is not itself a text like the Qur'an, but is extracted by analysis of the [[hadith]] (Arabic for &quot;report&quot;), or recorded oral traditions, which contain narrations of the Muhammad's sayings, deeds, and actions. [[Ijma]] (consensus of the community of Muslims) and [[qiyas]] (analogical reasoning) are the third and fourth sources of Sharia. Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from the broad topics of governance and foreign relations all the way down to issues of daily living. Islamic laws which were covered expressly in the Qur'an were referred to as ''hudud'' laws. This covered the prohibition of murder, [[extra-marital sex]], drinking of alcohol and gambling. The Qur'an also details laws of inheritance, marriage, restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, the prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so how they are applied in practice varies. Islamic scholars, ''the ulema'', have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these broad rules, supplemented by the hadith reports of how Muhammad and his companions interpreted them. See [[Sin]] for further discussion about the concept of sin and its atonement according to the Islamic law. In current times, not all Muslims understand the Qur'an in its original Arabic. Thus, when Muslims are divided in how to handle situations, they seek the assistance of a [[mufti]] (Islamic judge) who can advise them based on Islamic [[Sharia]] and hadith. ====Apostasy and Blasphemy==== {{main|Apostasy in Islam}} Local Islamic communities may exclude those they regard as [[apostasy|apostates]] and [[blasphemy|blasphemers]]. In Muslim-majority states, apostasy and blasphemy are considered crimes against the state and punished, sometimes with death. ===Islamic calendar=== {{main|Islamic calendar}} Islam dates from the Hijra, or migration from Mecca to Medina. This is year 1, AH (Anno Hegira)&amp;mdash;which
ing to occur for television programming on an episode-by-episode basis. Each user may submit one vote in a range of 1-10, with 1 indicating the most negative opinion, and 10 the highest. Each voter determines his own standards upon which to participate, and to rate each film. The received votes are weighted according to the demographic distribution in order to compensate for the fact that IMDb users are not representative of the demographics of the overall movie-going public. IMDb also applies additional confidential weighting factors to prevent &quot;vote stuffing&quot;. The IMDb [http://www.imdb.com/top_250_films Top 250] is a listing of the top 250 films of all-time as voted by the registered users of the website. Only theatrical releases running longer than 60 minutes with over 1250 votes are considered; all other product are ineligible. Also, the Top 250 rating is based on only the votes of &quot;regular voters&quot;. They also represent only the aglomeration of those inclined to vote, and these users tend to be overwhelmingly fans of recent productions. Therefore, the ratings have no scientific validity; neither do they represent a single standard of determination nor a fair representation of the international community. Despite these drawbacks and frequent complaints that the list is only a popularity contest, the list comprises films from a wide strata, including major releases, cult films, independent films, critically acclaimed films, silent films and foreign films. Since movies are subjective in nature and every viewer is in essence a critic, all lists are ultimately a matter of apples and oranges. It is a credit to the IMDb that the films represented on the list are wide and eclectic in range. The number one film on the list is [[Francis Ford Coppola]]'s [[The Godfather]] which is often considered a candidate for the all time greatest films by both professional critics and cinemagoers. The IMDb also has a [http://www.imdb.com/bottom_100_films Bottom 100] feature which is assembled in the same way. A disproportionate number of &quot;Bottom 100&quot; films were featured on [[Mystery Science Theater 3000]], as a result of an MST3K website encouraging all its users to register with IMDb and vote &quot;1&quot; on films featured on the show, during IMDb's early years. ===Message boards=== One of the most used features of the Internet Movie Database is the Message Boards that coincide with every database entry, along with 47 Main Boards. These boards allow registered users to share, discuss and debate information about the movie/actor/writer. They were not originally part of the IMDb, but were added only after its purchase by Amazon.com, some time in the year 2000. The [http://www.imdb.com/boards/ Main Boards] are wide discussion forums that pertain to certain aspects of film discussion. They divide into the categories ''Trivia! Trivia!'' (various aspects of detailed film minutia), ''Awards Season'' (various movie awards winners and nominees), ''FilmTalk'' (talk about film in general and specific films), ''TV Talk'' (television shows, new and old), ''Shop Talk'' (film professions), ''Genre Zone'' (a number of established movie genres), ''Around the World'' (global cinema), ''Star Talk'' (celebrities and film professionals), ''General Boards'' (miscellaneous and non-film-related topics), and ''IMDb Help'' (anything pertaining directly to the site itself). As the IMDb expires older posts from all message boards variably, it is difficult to precisely measure traffic according to individual board, but [http://www.imdb.com/board/bd0000043/threads/ The Sandbox] and [http://www.imdb.com/board/bd0000044/threads/ The Soapbox] are amongst the highest traffic boards on IMDb. The Soapbox is a general purpose discussion board, where users can go for &quot;their more heated discussions&quot;. The Sandbox is a general purpose, anything-goes board designated for test messages and off-topic posts. Over the last 5 years the [[George W. Bush]] and Soapbox message boards (and, to a lesser extent, the ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]'' and ''[[The Passion of the Christ]]'' message boards and other message boards for political and religious personas) have been major targets for heated debate, ranting and [[trolling]]. Registered Users: 8,630,000 - Jan 1 2006 -- 9,000,000 Sun Jan 22 2006 [http://www.imdb.com/ IMDb Home page] - &quot;Visited by over 30 million movie lovers each month!&quot; ==Copyright issues== All volunteers who contribute content to the database retain [[copyright]] to their contributions but grant full rights to copy, modify, and sublicense the content to IMDb. IMDb in turn does not allow others to use movie summaries or actor biographies without written permission. Using filtering [[software]] to avoid the display of advertisements from the site is also explicitly forbidden. Only small subsets of filmographies are allowed to be quoted, and only on non-commercial websites. ==Criticisms== {{POV}} {{verify}} Despite its popularity, IMDb still has its share of critics. Some of the more common complaints leveled against the site include: *The ability of the software to filter content is limited. *Only 17 staff members are actively involved in validating and processing through the system the hundreds of thousands of lines of presumed information contributed each month. *Staff members gauge the validity of contributed data based on the past reliability of the contributor, as none are themselves experts in significantly varied areas of film history to know what is valid themselves. *Submissions of product data are processed by categories of personnel contained in the submission, meaning the data for one film, e.g., is broken up into several components and examined independently of the other components, then reassembled without checking the continuity of the whole, which may be further disrupted if one manager's section(s) is/are backlogged, an unfortunately regular occurrence at IMDb. *Submission policies have become more rigid over the years, and approval of new titles to be added has become more cautious, but errors still abound while the added restrictions have made it more difficult to add information to the database or correct fallacies. For example, the editors will generally not allow the addition of new program entries (films, TV series, documentaries, etc.) unless a website featuring said production is provided, making it difficult for users to add older or obscure titles produced before the days of the internet. * Film crew professionals are woefully represented on the &quot;full cast and crew&quot; listings giving a false impression of who did what and creating more confusion when copycat sites re-inforce the mythology that is &quot;IMDB&quot; *Furthermore, IMDb also retains the right to publish AND what not to publish in such categories as a film's trivia, goofs, celebrity information, etc., regardless of how true it is. It is common for an item to be published one day, only to be relinquished the next; in other cases, it is impossible to get a demonstrably untrue piece of information removed. *There is a lack of ongoing moderation for its message boards. Many irrelevant, attacking or obscene messages, and general trolling, has increasingly plagued the boards of films and personalities, not to mention the board set up by IMDb for the explicit purpose of being an outlet for skreed (&quot;The Soapbox&quot;), which seems to only attract more flame-warriors and trolls to the site. Although offensive messages can be reported, their removals are very slow, and users have been given an &quot;ignore this poster&quot; option as a sop (the function blocks the message from the view of the user who has placed someone on his/her ignore list; the offending poster's contributions remain live and visible to anyone who does not have them in &quot;ignore&quot; status. *The &quot;Mini biography&quot; section (see a full view by clicking the &quot;(show more)&quot; link) on each actor's homepage has information which is very uneven and out-of-date, and in many cases shoddy and completely non-verified. The information regarding the most popular and established performers is often (but not always) correct, with the quality and veracity of the data of the supporting and less well-known players often very rough and quite unreliable. == See also == *[[MovieTome.com]] *[[All-Movie Guide]] *[[Internet Broadway Database]] *[[Internet Book Database]] *[[Fictional film]] *[[Films that have been considered the greatest ever]] *[[Films considered the worst ever]] *[[Rotten Tomatoes]] *[[Internet Movie Cars Database]] *[[Internet Adult Film Database]] ==External links== * [http://www.imdb.com/ The Internet Movie Database]&amp;mdash;including a [http://us.imdb.com/Copyright copyright statement], [http://us.imdb.com/terms/ license terms], and [http://www.imdb.com/database_statistics database statistics] * [http://www.imdb.co.uk/ IMDb's UK mirror] * [http://us.imdb.com/Help/Oweek/history IMDb's history of itself] * [http://www.imdb.com/boards/ IMDb general message boards] * [http://french.imdb.com/ IMDb's French site with French alternate titles] * [http://german.imdb.com/ IMDb's German site with German alternate titles] * [http://italian.imdb.com/ IMDb's Italian site with Italian alternate titles] * [http://spanish.imdb.com/ IMDb's Spanish site with Spanish alternate titles] * [http://portuguese.imdb.com/ IMDb's Portuguese site with Portuguese alternate titles] * [http://www.laweekly.com/deadline-hollywood/9084/do-you-imdb/ &quot;Do You IMDb?&quot;] August 2004 article from ''[[L.A. Weekly]]'' * [http://www.blogsnow.com/bnxiqq Most linked to IMDb entries] ===The IMDb's newsgroup origins=== *{{note|THE_LIST}} Unfortunately, [[Google Groups]] coverage of rec.arts.movies is incomplete during the relevant time period, with a 6-month gap in late 1988 and early 1989 and a number of missing articles after that. [ht
s the basis for a post-[[nuclear war]] [[role-playing]] computer game in [[1995]]. Late in development, after disagreements between the two companies, the GURPS character-building system was replaced with the [[SPECIAL System]], the GURPS name was dropped, and the game was released under the name [[Fallout (computer game)|Fallout]]. GURPS [[...For Dummies|For Dummies]], a guidebook by Stuart J. Stuple, Bjoern-Erik Hartsfvang, Adam Griffith, is scheduled to be published on [[April 3]], [[2006]]. ISBN 0471783293 ==See also== *[[List of GURPS books]] *[[List of unofficial GURPS books]] ==External links== *[http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/ Official GURPS Website] *[http://e23.sjgames.com/item.html?id=SJG02-0004 Free printable PDF] version of the &quot;lite&quot; rulebook (4th edition). *[http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/faq/ 4th Edition FAQ] *[http://e23.sjgames.com/item.html?id=SJG82-0106 Free printable PDF] version of the &quot;lite&quot; rulebook (3rd edition). *[http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/faq/FAQ-5.4.html 3rd Edition FAQ] *[http://www.krommnotes.org/ Kromm Notes (3rd edition)] The collected rulings of Dr. Kromm, GURPS Line Editor at [[Steve Jackson Games]]. *[http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/resources.html GURPS Resources] Free forms, errata, updates, and software for GURPS on Steve Jackson Games website. *[http://gcs.roleplayer.com/ GURPS Character Sheet], a free character creation program (4th edition). *[http://www.sjgames.com/pyramid/ Pyramid Magazine], a weekly online magazine devoted to supporting GURPS. *[http://www.warehouse23.com/ Warehouse 23] Steve Jackson Games' online store. *[http://e23.sjgames.com/ e23 digital content] Go here to download PDF files, some are of out-of-print books, and some are even free! *[http://www.gurpswiki.net/default.aspx/GURPSWiki.GURPSWiki Gurps Wiki], an independent GURPS Wiki. *[http://j.webring.com/hub?ring=gurps GURPS Webring] over 75 fansites. [[Category:GURPS|*]] [[Category:Origins award winners]] [[Category:Universal role-playing games]] [[cs:Generic Universal Role-Playing System]] [[da:GURPS]] [[de:GURPS]] [[es:GURPS]] [[fr:Generic universal role playing system]] [[ko:겁스]] [[it:GURPS]] [[lt:GURPS]] [[nl:GURPS]] [[ja:ガープス]] [[pl:GURPS]] [[pt:GURPS]] [[ru:GURPS]] [[simple:GURPS]] [[sv:GURPS]] [[fi:GURPS]] [[zh:泛用无界角色扮演系统]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Government</title> <id>12229</id> <revision> <id>42072659</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:08:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rmt2m</username> <id>544508</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rvv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''government''' is the body that has the [[authority]] to make and the [[Political power|power]] to enforce laws within an [[organization]] or group. In its broadest sense, &quot;to govern&quot; means to administer or supervise, whether over an area of land, a set group of people, or a collection of assets. The word ''government'' is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#922;&amp;#965;&amp;#946;&amp;#949;&amp;#961;&amp;#957;&amp;#942;&amp;#964;&amp;#951;&amp;#962; (''kubernites''), which means &quot;steersman&quot;, &quot;governor&quot;, &quot;pilot&quot; or &quot;rudder&quot;. In commonwealth usage, '''Government''' refers to the executive branch of government and a specficaly named government, i.e. the [[Blair]] Government or the [[Thatcher]] Government, refers to the tenure of the named executive. The [[Welsh Assembly Government]] is the name of the executive branch of Wales, and Scottish Government is the unofficial term to describe the [[Scottish Executive]]. ===Attributes of governments=== Effective governments possess two attributes, authority and legitimacy. '''[[Authority]]''' is the ability to compel obedience. Authority can be derived from naked force or terror as was the case in [[Stalinist]] Russia or [[Baathist]] Iraq or from a [[social contract]] between governed and government as is the case in many western [[democracies]]. Physical violence is not the only form of duress that compels loyal behavior. [[Corporate]] organizations use economic leverage to motivate. Indeed, the most coercive venue for governmental bullying may be the ecclesiastical which promises the unfaithful, the heretical, or the infidel an eternity of hellish suffering and thereby garners obedience. '''[[Legitimacy]]''' is the attribute of a government that prompts the governed to acquiesce willingly to its authority. Legitimacy is gained through the acquisition and application of power in accordance with recognized or accepted standards or principles. That is to say that a legitimate government will &quot;do the right thing&quot; and therefore deserves to be respected and obeyed. Authority can be upheld through violent means while legitimacy must be earned. As legitimacy is challenged the use of violence to maintain authority increases. ===Functions of governments=== Governments perform three functions. Governments make rules, the legislative function. They enforce the rules, the executive function; and the judicial function wherein the rules are interpreted. All three functions may be combined into a single institution as is the case in autocracies or they may be distributed among separate branches as in the system in place in the United States. The parliamentary system combines legislative and executive functions in one branch and judicial in another. ===Forms of Government=== {{main|Forms of government}} Two taxonomies are recognized for the categorization of government types. In the first governments are described by who gets to rule. Monarchies have hereditary rulers, less chosen than nurtured into the post. Oligarchies are governed by a few wealthy members of the community, democracies are governed by the governed, and anarchies are regulated by no one. A more useful taxonomy examines the concentration of power. In an autocracy all power is vested in a single individual. Czarist Russia is an example, as is a 19th century British Man-of-War at sea. A continuum of government types may include a limited monarchy (post Runnymede England), a constitutional monarchy, a representative democracy (The United States), and direct democracy. Direct democracy is cumbersome and the most often cited example points to New England (US) town hall meetings where all of the citizens make all of the decisions. ==Reasons for government== There are a wide range of theories about the reasons for establishing governments. The four major ones are briefly described below. Note that they do not always fully oppose each other - it is possible for a person to subscribe to a combination of ideas from two or more of these theories. ===Greed and oppression=== Many political philosophies that are opposed to the existence of a government (such as [[Anarchism]], and to a lesser extent [[Marxism]]), as well as others, emphasize the historical roots of governments - the fact that governments originated from the authority of warlords and petty despots who took, by force, certain patches of land as their own (and began exercising authority over the people living on that land). Thus, it is argued that governments exist to enforce the will of the strong and oppress the weak. ===Order and tradition=== The various forms of [[conservatism]], by contrast, generally see the government as a positive force that brings order out of chaos, establishes laws to end the &quot;[[Bellum omnium contra omnes|war of all against all]]&quot;, encourages moral [[virtue]] while punishing [[vice]], and respects [[tradition]]. Sometimes, in this view, the government is seen as something ordained by a higher power, as in the [[divine right of kings]], which human beings have a duty to obey. ===Natural rights=== [[Natural rights]] are the basis for the theory of government shared by most branches of [[liberalism]] (including [[libertarianism]]). In this view, human beings are born with certain ''natural rights'', and governments are established strictly for the purpose of protecting those rights. What the ''natural rights'' actually '''are''' is a matter of dispute among liberals - both in the sense of a definition of &quot;rights&quot;, and in the sense of listing which rights are natural. Indeed, each branch of liberalism has its own set of rights that it considers to be ''natural'', and these rights are sometimes mutually exclusive with the rights supported by other liberals. ===Social contract=== One of the most influential theories of government in the past two hundred years has been the [[social contract]], on which modern [[democracy]] and most forms of [[socialism]] are founded. The social contract theory holds that governments are created by the people in order to provide for collective needs (such as safety from crime, poverty, illiteracy) that cannot be properly satisfied using purely individual means. Governments thus exist for the purpose of serving the needs and wishes of the people, and their relationship with the people is clearly stipulated in a &quot;social contract&quot; (a [[constitution]] and a set of laws) which both the government and the people must abide by. If a majority is unhappy, it may change the social contract. If a minority is unhappy, it may persuade the majority to change the contract, or it may opt out of it by emigration or secession. ==Governmental operations== {{main|government operations}} Governments concern themselves with regulating and administering many areas of human activity, such as [[trade]], [[education]], [[medicine]], [[entertainment]], and [[war]]. ===Enforcement of power=== Governments use a variety of methods to maintain the established order, such as [[Covert#government_secrecy|secrecy]], [[police]] and [[military forces]], (particularly under [[despotism]], see also [[police state]]), making agreements with other states, and maintaining support within the state. Typical
[[Frank Drake]] (creator of the [[Drake equation]]) performed the first modern SETI experiment, named &quot;[[Project Ozma]]&quot;, after the [[Princess Ozma|Queen of Oz]] in [[L. Frank Baum]]'s fantasy books. Drake used a 25-meter-diameter radio telescope at [[Green Bank, West Virginia]], to examine the stars [[Tau Ceti]] and [[Epsilon Eridani]] near the 1.420 gigahertz marker frequency. A 400 kilohertz band was scanned around the marker frequency, using a single-channel receiver with a bandwidth of 100 hertz. The information was stored on tape for off-line analysis. Nothing of great interest was found. ====== SERENDIP ====== Project [[SETI#SERENDIP, Sentinel, META, and BETA|SERENDIP]] is an ongoing SETI program, which takes advantage of ongoing &quot;mainstream&quot; radio telescope observations as a &quot;piggyback&quot; program. Rather than having its own observation program, SERENDIP analyzes deep space radio telescope data that it obtains from other astronomers and examines it for extraterrestrial signals. The program has gone through several upgrades in techniques and equipment and is now in its 4th incarnation as SERENDIP IV, where data from the [[Arecibo Observatory]] is analyzed through the [[SETI@home]] program. ====== Project Sentinel, META and BETA ====== Running 1983 to 1985, [[SETI#SERENDIP, Sentinel, META, and BETA|Project Sentinel]] was the first SETI high-resolution &quot;all sky&quot; scan. Over a period of 200 days, Sentinel scanned the northern hemisphere of the sky examining a region of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] within 2 [[Hertz|kHz]] of the 21 cm neutral hydrogen band. It had several technical limitations: narrow scanning bandwidth, slow response time to re-examine &quot;candidate signals&quot;, and it was only capable of detecting signals ''deliberately'' targeted at our Sun. Sentinel was superseded by the [[SETI#SERENDIP, Sentinel, META, and BETA|META and BETA]] programs in 1985 and 1995, respectively. ====== MOP and Project Phoenix ====== In 1992, the U.S. government funded an operational SETI program in the form of the NASA [[SETI#MOP and Project Phoenix|&quot;Microwave Observing Program (MOP)&quot;]]. This program was intended to be two-fold: a &quot;Targeted Search&quot; of 800 specific nearby stars, and a less-rigorous &quot;Sky Survey&quot; to scan the sky. The program was ridiculed in [[Congress of the United States|Congress]], and was canceled after a year. An independently funded program called [[Project Phoenix (SETI)|Project Phoenix]] was begun to pick up the work started by MOP. Project Phoenix undertook only the targeted search, looking at 800 stars within 200 light years. The search was performed using the Arecibo Observatory and has been called the most sensitive SETI search to date. It analyzed radio frequency bands narrow as 1 Hz in the range between 1,000 and 3,000 MHz. On completion of the search, project leader Peter Backus remarked &quot;[W]e live in a quiet neighborhood&quot;. ====== [[SETI#Allen Telescope Array|ATA]] and the ongoing search ====== SETIs search programs are ongoing, and expanding. As well as the &quot;piggyback program&quot; of SERENDIP IV, SETI is planning to use the [[Allen Telescope Array]] &amp;mdash; currently under construction &amp;mdash; for its most comprehensive deep space survey yet: a survey of 1,000,000 stars within 1,000 light years of Earth, for medium-strength signals, plus a survey of the 4×10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; stars of the inner Galactic Plane from 1.42 to 1.72 GHz for very powerful transmitters. Observations began in late 2005, even though the telescope is still undergoing construction and expansion. The ATA holds the current best hope for future artificial extraterrestrial radio source detection. ==== Direct planetary observation: the exoplanet hunters ==== Detection and classification of [[exoplanets]] did not come about as part of the search for extraterrestrial life. Rather it has come out of mainstream astronomy as astronomical instruments and methods of data analysis have improved to the point where it is now possible to isolate the effects of planetary bodies, and to infer their existence. Exoplanet detection and cataloging is a very new sub-discipline of astronomy, with the first published paper claiming to have discovered an exoplanet released in 1989. Exoplanets have not yet been ''directly'' observed, only their effects have been noted. At present we can only estimate the size and orbit of exoplanets, and, combined with the [[stellar classification]] of their sun, we can estimate the planets' probable range of environments. From the perspective of the search for extraterrestrial life, the means of detecting exoplanets is not likely to be useful yet; the types and sizes of planets being detected are not those which have high probability of being able to support Earth-like life. As of 2005 only a handful of possible [[Terrestrial planet|terrestrial type planets]] have been detected. So far, only two such planets have been located in orbit of a [[main sequence]] stars: [[Gliese 876#Gliese 876 d|Gliese 876 d]] and [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb]]. Neither seem likely to be able to support life as we know it. It is hoped that refinement of instruments and techniques of data analysis will push the envelope of exoplanet detection to make more information available, and to increase the probability of finding more Earth-like worlds. ==== Alien constructs: Alien artifacts and the Dyson sphere survey ==== We have only been exploring our own solar system for a handful of decades, and we have only explored a minuscule percentage of it. While we have not uncovered any evidence that our solar system has ever been visited by alien colonists, or probes, we cannot yet rule out the existence of such evidence. Detailed exploration of areas of the solar system where resources would be plentiful and easily accessed &amp;mdash; such as the [[asteroid]]s, the [[Kuiper belt]], the [[Oort cloud]] and the various planetary ring systems &amp;mdash; may yet uncover evidence of alien exploration. Unfortunately, these regions where evidence of self-replicating alien probes is more likely to be found are also massive. Finding such evidence, if it exists, may be very difficult. There have been preliminary efforts to do just this, however. The '''SETA''' ([[Search for Extraterrestrial Artifacts]]) and '''SETV''' ([[Search for Extraterrestrial Visitation]]) projects[http://www.setv.org/] have attempted to locate such evidence within our own solar system &amp;mdash; although it must be admitted that many of the projects that fall under this umbrella are considered &quot;fringe&quot; science by many astronomers. There have also been attempts to signal, attract, or activate [[Bracewell probe]]s in our local vicinity. It may be that should we ''find'' alien artifacts, even here on Earth, we may not ''recognize'' them as such. The products of an alien mind and an advanced alien technology might not be perceptible to us, or recognizable as artificial constructs. Exploratory devices in the form of bio engineered life forms created through [[synthetic biology]] would presumably disintegrate after their &quot;demise&quot; leaving us no evidence; an alien information gathering system based on [[molecular nanotechnology]] could theoretically be swarming all around us at this very moment, completely undetected by us; and [[Clarke's three laws|Clarke's third law]] tells us that an alien civilization well in advance of our own might have means of investigation that we cannot even conceive of yet. On the other end of the spectrum, there have been some preliminary attempts to find evidence of the existence of [[Dyson sphere]]s or other large Type-II or Type-III [[Kardashev scale]] artifacts that would alter the spectra of their core stars. [[Fermilab]] has an ongoing [http://home.fnal.gov/~carrigan/Infrared_Astronomy/Fermilab_search.htm program to find Dyson spheres], but such searches are as of yet preliminary and incomplete. === What we have found === So far, no unambiguous evidence of extraterrestrial civilizations, or even extraterrestrial life, has been found. The various [[radio telescope]] [[SETI]] search programs have not discovered any unambiguous extraterrestrial signals, although there have been several candidate signals. On August 15, 1977 the &quot;[[Wow! signal]]&quot; was picked up by [[The Big Ear]] radio telescope. However it lasted for only 72 seconds, and has not been repeated. In 2003, [[Radio source SHGb02 plus 14a|Radio source SHGb02+14a]] was isolated by [[SETI@home]] analysis, although it has largely been discounted by further study. In neither case can the candidate signal be said to be unambiguously from an extraterrestrial intelligence. So far, all [[extrasolar planet]]s that have been detected appear to be harsh environments for advanced (Earth-like) life-forms. However, this should not be taken as an argument against the existence of hospitable planets, and thus against the existence of complex extraterrestrial life. It must be remembered that current means of detecting [[exoplanets]] work best with very ''massive'' planets on the order of [[Jupiter]] or larger. Only a few [[terrestrial planet]]s have yet been detected. As our methods of planet-detection improve over time, many more terrestrial planets will probably be discovered. None of the various [[Search for Extraterrestrial Artifacts|'''SETA''']] and [[Search for Extraterrestrial Visitation|'''SETV''']] projects have located any artifacts. The optical surveys for [[Dyson sphere]]s did not locate anything; neither has the [[Fermilab]] search, although the latter is ongoing. So far, our searches for evidence of technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilization have not resulted in incontestable positive evidence. == Trying to resolve the paradox theoretically: Explaining the silence == Despite the belief by many that the existence of an alien tech
he Greek mainland. The island is extremely mountainous and is defined by a high mountain range crossing it from West to East, formed by three different groups of mountains. These are: * the White Mountains or ''Lefka Ori'' (up to 2,452 m high); * the Idi range ([[Psiloritis]] ({{coor d|35.18|N|24.82|E|}}) 2,456 m); * the Dikti mountains (up to 2,148 m high) These mountains gifted Crete with fertile plateaus like Lasithi, Omalos and Nidha, caves like Diktaion and Idaion cave, and gorges like the famous Gorge of Samaria. == Climate == Crete straddles two climatic zones, the Mediterranean and the North African, mainly falling within the former. As such, the climate in Crete is primarily temperate. The atmosphere can be quite humid, depending on the proximity to the sea. The winter is fairly mild. Snow fall is practically unknown to the plains, but quite frequent in the mountains. During summer, average temperatures are in the high 20's-low 30's (Celsius). The exception can be the south coast, including the Messara plain and Asterousia mountains, which fall in the North African climatic zone and thus enjoys significantly more sunny days and high temperatures during the summer. Probably the best time to visit Crete is spring and fall. == Economy == The economy of Crete, which was mainly based on farming, started changing visibly during the [[1970s]]. While there is still an emphasis on farming and stock breeding, due to the climate and the terrain of the island, there is a drop in manufacturing and a big increase on the services industry (mainly tourism related). All three sectors of the Cretian economy (agriculture, processing-packaging, services), are directly connected and interdependent. Crete has an average per capita income which is close to 100% of the Greek average. Unemployment is at approximately 4%, half of that of Greece. The island has three significant airports, [[Heraklion International Airport, &quot;Nikos Kazantzakis&quot;|Nikos Kazantzakis]] at [[Heraklion]], the military airport [[Daskalogiannis]] at [[Chania]] and a new public airport in [[Sitia]]. == Personalities == * [[El Greco]] ([[Spanish language|medieval Castilian]] nickname meaning &quot;the [[Greece|Greek]]&quot;), by which '''Δομήνικος Θεοτοκόπουλος''' ''Domênikos Theotokópoulos'', is best known. (Born [[1541]], [[Fodele]], [[Heraklion]] and died in [[April 7]], [[1614]], [[Toledo, Spain]]), a world-famous [[painter]], [[sculpture|sculptor]] and [[architect]] * [[Eleftherios Venizelos]] ([[1864]]-[[1936]]), Politician, Prime-Minister of the Hellenic Republic 1910-1915, 1924, 1928-1933 * [[Epimenides]] of [[Knossos]], [[6th century BC]], a famous [[prophet|seer]] and [[philosopher]]-[[Poetry|poet]], associated with the [[Epimenides paradox]] who is said to have fallen asleep for fifty-seven years in a Cretian cave sacred to [[Zeus]], after which he reportedly awoke with the gift of prophecy. * [[Mikis Theodorakis]] (born.[[1926]]), Music Composer([[Zorba the Greek]]) * [[Nikos Kazantzakis]] ([[1885]]-[[1957]]), world-famous writer, novelist, poet * [[Konstantinos Mitsotakis]] (born.[[1918]]), politician, Prime-Minister of the Hellenic Republic 1990-1993 * [[Vitsentzos Kornaros]] (Greek Βικέντιος Κορνάρος) or Vincenzo Cornaro (Sitia, 1553-Candia, 1613, alternate spellings: Vicenzo, Vitzentzos), a Cretian poet of the Greek Renaissance who wrote the romantic epic poem [[Erotokritos]]. He was the leading figure of the Cretian Renaissance. ==Cities== Crete's principal cities are: * [[Heraklion]] (''Iraklion'' or ''Candia'') (275,000 inhabitants) * [[Chania]] (''Haniá'') (139,000 inhabitants) * [[Rethymno]] (69,290 inhabitants) * [[Ierapetra]] (21,025 inhabitants) * [[Agios Nikolaos, Crete|Agios Nikolaos]] (19,000 inhabitants) * [[Sitia]] (9,075 inhabitants) ==Political organization== The island of Crete is a [[peripheries of Greece|periphery]] of Greece, consisting of four [[Prefectures of Greece|prefectures]] ([[Greek language|Greek]]: νομοί): * [[Chania Prefecture|Chania]] * [[Heraklion Prefecture|Heraklion]] * [[Lasithi]] * [[Rethymno Prefecture|Rethymno]] For [[amateur radio]] purposes it is considered to be a separate &quot;entity,&quot; [[prefix]] SV9. == Tourism == Crete is one of the most popular holiday destinations in Greece. Fifteen percent of all arrivals in Greece come through the city of Iraklion (port and airport), while charter flights to Iraklion were last year 20% of the total of charter flights in Greece. In sum more than two million tourists visited Crete last year. This increase in tourism is reflected on the number of hotel beds, which increased in Crete by 53% from 1986 to 1991 while in the rest of Greece the increase was 25%. Today the tourism infrastructure in Crete caters to all tastes. There is accommodation of every possible category, from large luxury hotels with all the facilities (swimming pools, sports and recreation facilities etc.), to smaller family owned apartments, to camping facilities. Visitors can arrive at the island through two international airports in Iraklion and Hania, or by boat to the ports of Iraklion, Hania, Rethimno and Agios Nikolaos. ==See also== * [[History of Crete]] * [[Music of Crete]] *[[Former countries in Europe after 1815]] * [[Minoan civilization]] == External links == {{Commons|Category:Crete}} *[http://www.cretan-music.gr Traditional Cretian Music (Greek)] *[http://www.uch.gr University of Crete] *[http://www.tuc.gr Technical University of Crete] *[http://www.teicrete.gr Technological Educational Institute of Crete] {{Peripheries of Greece}} [[Category:Crete |*]] [[Category:Islands of Greece]] [[Category:Peripheries of Greece]] [[Category:Former countries in Europe]] [[Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe]] [[ar:كريت]] [[bg:Крит]] [[bs:Kreta]] [[ca:Creta]] [[cs:Kréta]] [[da:Kreta]] [[de:Kreta]] [[et:Kreeta]] [[el:Κρήτη]] [[es:Creta]] [[fr:Crète]] [[it:Creta]] [[he:כרתים]] [[id:Crete]] [[la:Creta]] [[lt:Kreta]] [[nl:Kreta]] [[ja:クレタ島]] [[no:Kreta]] [[pl:Kreta]] [[pt:Creta]] [[ro:Creta]] [[ru:Крит]] [[sl:Kreta]] [[sr:Крит]] [[fi:Kreeta]] [[sv:Kreta]] [[tr:Girit]] [[zh:克里特]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cyclades</title> <id>6592</id> <revision> <id>39308779</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T06:22:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>88.110.227.226</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */ link to Capn Barefoot</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Pref GR| name = Cyclades| name_local = Νομός Κυκλάδων| image_map = GreeceCyclades.png| periph = [[South Aegean]] | capital = [[Ermoupoli]]| population = 119,549 | population_as_of = 2005| pop_rank = 29th| pop_dens = 46.5| popdens_rank = 34th| area = 2,572 | area_rank = 23rdh| postal_code = 84x xx| area_code = 228x0| licence = &amp;Epsilon;&amp;Mu;| provinces = | municip = 20| commun = 11| ISO = GR-82| website = | }} The '''Cyclades''', from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#922;&amp;#965;&amp;#954;&amp;#955;&amp;#940;&amp;#948;&amp;#949;&amp;#962;, (&quot;circular,&quot; modern Greek ''Kykládes''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]) form an [[island]] group south-east of the mainland of [[Greece]]. They are a part of the [[Greek islands|vast number of islands]] which constitute the Greek [[archipelago]] in the [[Aegean Sea]]. The name was originally used to indicate those islands that formed a rough circle around the sacred island of [[Delos]] (''map''). The Cyclades are comprised of around 220 islands, with the major ones being [[Amorgos]], [[Anafi]], [[Andros|Ándros]], [[Antiparos]], [[Delos]], [[Ios]], [[Kea (island)|Kéa]], [[Kimolos]], [[Kynthos]], [[Milos|Mílos]], [[Mykonos]], [[Naxos, Greece|Náxos]], [[Paros|Páros]], [[Pholegandros]], [[Serifos]], [[Sifnos]], [[Sikinos]], [[Siros|Síros]], [[Tinos|Tínos]], and [[Santorini|Santorini (Thira)]]. [[Ermoupolis]], on Síros, is the chief town and administrative center of the group. The islands are peaks of a submerged mountainous terrain, with the exception of two [[volcano|volcanic]] islands, [[Melos]] and Santorini (Thera). The [[climate]] is generally dry and mild, but with the exception of Naxos the soil is not very fertile: agricultural produce includes [[wine]], [[fruit]], [[wheat]], [[olive oil]], and [[tobacco]]. Cooler temperatures are in higher elevations and mainly do not receive wintry weather. In transportation, the Cyclades is the only prefecture in Greece that is not linked with a state-maintained highway or a highway number. All of its roads in the island complex are secondary or provincial. ==History== The significant Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age '''Cycladic culture''' is best known for its schematic flat female idols carved out of the islands' pure white marble centuries before the great Middle Bronze Age (&quot;[[Minoan civilization|Minoan]]&quot;) culture arose in Crete, to the south: these figures have been looted from burials to satisfy a thriving Cycladic antiquities market since the early 20th century. A distinctive Neolithic culture amalgamating Anatolian and mainland Greek elements arose in the western Aegean before 4000 BCE, based on [[emmer wheat]] and wild-type barley, sheep and goats, pigs, and tuna that were apparently speared from small boats (Rutter). Excavated sites include Saliagos and Kephala (on [[Keos]]) with signs of copper-working, Each of the small Cycladic islands could support no more than a few thousand people, though Late Cycladic boat models show that fifty oarsmen could be assembled from the scattered communities (Rutter), and when the highly organized palace-culture of Crete arose, the islands faded into insignificance, with the exception of Delos, which retained its archaic reputation as a sanctuary through the period of Classical Greek civilization. ===Archaeology=== The first archaeological excavations of the 1880s were followed by systematic work by the British School at Athens and
as only a few of the Italian city-states which he had expected to gain as allies consented to join him. ===Stalemate=== The war in Italy settled into a strategic stalemate in the years following Cannae. The Romans, after suffering three consecutive defeats and losing countless other battles, had at this point, learned their lesson. They utilized the [[Attrition warfare|attritional]] strategies Fabius had taught them, and which, they finally realized, were the only feasible means of defeating Hannibal. They always kept Hannibal in view, they only fought when everything was in their favor; they sought to starve him rather than destroy him in battle; and cut down his power of doing harm as fast as circumstances warranted {{ref|Dodge}}. Despite their defeats and the defections, the Romans could still field larger armies than Hannibal, and could readily replace their loses. The consuls the Roman Senate elected always had an upwards of 80,000 men to oppose Hannibal, whose army was deteriorating in quality and barely more than half of that of the Romans’. Instead of using a single large army, Rome now began to field multiple smaller armies. These armies sought to tire Hannibal through fatiguing marches, constant skirmishes, and famine. As a result, for the next few years, Hannibal was forced to sustain a [[scorched earth]] policy and obtain local provisions for protracted and ineffectual operations throughout Southern Italy. Since he was no longer able to draw his opponents into a [[pitched battle]], his immediate objectives were reduced to minor operations which centered mainly round the cities of [[Campania]]. As the war drew on, Hannibal repeatedly appealed to the Carthaginian oligarchy for reinforcements and aid. The War-faction and the Pro-Roman Peace Party were the two main political parties that controlled Carthage during this time. The latter, represented Peace and Conciliation with Rome, and the other, represented a war policy and a policy of resistance to Rome. Despite the apparent unanimity of the acceptance of war, [[Hanno the Great|Hanno]], the leader of the Peace Party, condemned Hannibal’s actions. As spokesperson for the Carthaginian noble class, he opposed the policy of foreign conquest pursued by Hannibal. As a result, Hanno undermined support in Carthage for Hannibal's military efforts in Italy. Moreover, the success of the Romans in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] (Carthage's main source of wealth in the Mediterranean) had convinced the Carthaginians that their most valuable colony was at stake. Thus, in the hopes of stemming the tide against the Romans there, reinforcements desperately needed by Hannibal in Italy, were otherwise rerouted to Iberia. Carthage also diverted her limited resources in Sardinia as well as Sicily. At the same time, Hannibal experienced great difficulty materializing his allies. Many of the allies defected to the Carthaginians, on the condition that they could not be forced to serve against their will. This not only rendered this defection less beneficial to Hannibal, but also ensured him that he could not rely on his allies as he hoped for. To make matters worst, his men grew increasingly weak beyond the point where he was no longer able to beat the Romans, who were daily growing stronger in numbers and experience. [[Image:Second Punic War Battles.gif|180px|right|thumb|Hannibal's three-main victories in Italy: ''(1)'' The [[Battle of the Trebia]] ''(2)'' [[Battle of Lake Trasimene]] ''(3)'' [[Battle of Cannae]] respectively, The Department of History, United States Military Academy]] As the forces detached under his lieutenants were generally unable to hold their own, and neither his home government nor his new ally [[Philip V of Macedon]] helped to make good his losses, his position in southern Italy became increasingly difficult and his chance of ultimately conquering Rome grew ever more remote. Granted, Hannibal still won a number of notable victories: Completely destroying two Roman armies in [[212 BC]], and at one point, killing two Consuls (which included the famed [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]]) in a battle in [[208 BC]]. Nevertheless, without the resources his allies could contribute, or reinforcements from Carthage, Hannibal could not make further significant gains. Thus, inadequately supported by his Italian allies, abandoned by his government, and unable to match Rome’s resources, Hannibal slowly began losing ground. Hannibal continued defeating the Romans whenever he could bring them into battle, yet he was never able to complete another decisive victory that produced a lasting strategic effect. [[Leonard Cottrell]] encapsulated Hannibal's situation with an interesting [[analogy]]: ''“So the rest of the war becomes rather like a group of lesser animals [The Romans] following a wounded lion [Hannibal]. Every now and then the beast turns, and they scatter. Sometimes it conceals itself and then, leaping out, tears its tormentors to pieces. Afterwards, it moves on alone and unmolested for a while, but before very long it hears once again the stealthy pad-pad of footsteps following some way behind.”'' ===End of War in Italy=== In [[212 BC]] the Romans had so alienated [[Taranto|Tarentum]] that conspirators admitted Hannibal to the city. The conspirators then blew the alarm on some Roman trumpets allowing Hannibal's troops to pick off the Romans as they stumbled out into the streets. Hannibal was able to keep control of his troops to the extent that there was no general looting. Instead Hannibal having committed himself to respect Tarentine freedom told the Tarentines to mark every house where Tarentines lived. Only those houses not so marked and thus belonging to Romans were looted. The citadel, however, held out so denying Hannibal the use of harbor. His brother Hanno, however, was defeated at Beneventum further depleting the overall Carthaginian force. Despite resisting a siege by Roman forces at Herdonea, the tide was slowly beginning to turn in Rome's favor. Further, in the same year, he lost his hold upon Campania, where he failed to prevent the concentration of three Roman armies around Capua. Two Roman armies besieged Capua so persistently that Hannibal himself was forced to attack the besieging armies with his full force in [[211 BC]]. It was only a temporary relief, for two years later the Romans were again before Capua with three armies. By a sudden march through [[Samnium]] that brought him within three kilometers of Rome, Hannibal attempted to draw them away by a [[feint]] against their capitol. He was hoping that his feint on Rome would force the siege of Capua to be lifted, and draw the Roman army out into the open where Hannibal could destroy them in a [[pitched battle]]. Yet his strategy caused more alarm than real danger to the city. The siege of Capua continued, and the city fell in the same year. Likewise, in summer of 211 BC, the Romans completed their conquest of Syracuse and destruction of a Carthaginian army in Sicily. Shortly thereafter, the Romans pacified Sicily and entered into an alliance with the [[Aetolian League]] to counter Phillip V. Philip, who attempted to exploit Rome's preoccupation in Italy to conquer [[Illyria]], now found himself under attack from several sides at once and was quickly subdued by Rome and her Greek allies. Meanwhile, Hannibal had defeated Fulvius at Herdonea in Apulia, but lost Tarentum in the following year. In [[210 BC]] Hannibal again proved his superiority in tactics by a severe defeat inflicted at Herdoniac (modern [[Ordona]]) in Apulia upon a [[proconsul]]ar army, and in [[208 BC]] destroyed a Roman force engaged in the siege of [[Locri|Locri Epizephyri]]. But with the loss of Tarentum in [[209 BC]] and the gradual reconquest by the Romans of Samnium and [[Lucania]], his hold on south Italy was almost lost. In [[207 BC]] he succeeded in making his way again into Apulia, where he waited to concert measures for a combined march upon Rome with his brother [[Hasdrubal]]. On hearing, however, of his brother's defeat and death at the [[Battle of the Metaurus|Metaurus]] he retired into [[Bruttium]], where he maintained himself for the ensuing years. The combination of these events marked the end to Hannibal's success in Italy. With the failure of his brother [[Mago Barca|Mago]] in [[Liguria]] ([[205 BC]]-[[203 BC]]) and of his own negotiations with Philip of Macedon, the last hope of recovering his ascendancy in Italy was lost. In 203 BC, after nearly fifteen years of fighting in Italy, and with the military fortunes of Carthage rapidly declining, Hannibal was recalled to [[Carthage]] to direct the defence of his native country against a Roman invasion under [[Scipio Africanus]]. ==Conclusion of Second Punic War (203&amp;mdash;201 B.C.) == [[Image:scipio.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Scipio Africanus]]]] ===Return to Africa=== In [[203 BC]], when [[Scipio]] was carrying all before him in Africa and the Carthaginian peace party were arranging an [[armistice]], Hannibal was recalled from Italy by the war party at Carthage. After leaving a record of his expedition engraved in [[Punic]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] upon brazen tablets in the temple of [[Juno]] at [[Crotone|Crotona]], he sailed back to Africa. His arrival immediately restored the predominance of the war party, who placed him in command of a combined force of [[Africa]]n [[levies]] and his mercenaries from Italy. In [[202 BC]] Hannibal, met Scipio in a fruitless peace conference. Despite mutual admiration, negotiations floundered due to Roman allegations of &quot;Punic Faith,&quot; referring to the breach of protocols which ended the First Punic War by the Carthaginian attack on Saguntum, as well as perceived breach in contemporary military etiquette (Hannibal's numerous ambuscades). The decisive battle at [[Battle of Zama|Zama]] soon followed. ===The Battle of Zama=== {{Main|Battle of Zama}} Both Scipio and Hannibal met on the fiel
Le Moyne d'Iberville]] in 1699; however, indirect contact no doubt occurred between the Choctaw and [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] settlers through other tribes, including the [[Creek people|Creek]] and [[Chickasaw]]. Illegal fur trading may have led to further unofficial contact. Unfortunately, the archaeological record for this period between 1567 and 1699 is not complete or well-studied, but there are similarities in pottery coloring and burials that suggest the following scenario for the emergence of the distinctive Choctaw culture: the Choctaw region (generally located between the Natchez bluffs to the south and the Yazoo basin to the north) was slowly occupied by Burial Urn people from the Bottle Creek area in the Mobile delta, along with remnants of the Moundville chiefdom that had collapsed some years before. Facing severe depopulation, they fled westward, where they combined with the Plaquemine and a group of “prairie people” living near the area. When precisely this occurred is not entirely clear, but in the space of several generations, a new culture had been born (albeit with a strong Mississippian background). During the [[American Revolutionary War]], Choctaws divided over whether to support Britain or Spain (who declared war on Britain in 1779) with most Choctaws supporting Britain. Some Choctaw scouts served with U.S. General Wayne in the [[Northwest Indian War]]. During the [[American Civil War]], the Choctaws sided with the southern states. George Washington’s Indian Policy was used to “civilize” Indians. He believed that Indians were equals, but believed their society was inferior. The 6 points plan includes: 1) impartial justice toward Indians, 2) regulated buying Indian lands, 3) promoted commerce, 4) promoted experiments to civilize Indians, 5) give the president authority to give them “presents”, and finally 6) provided punishments to those who violate Indian rights. ==Treaties== Nine treaties were signed between the Choctaws and the United States between the years of 1786 and 1830. &lt;center&gt; &lt;table border=0 cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 width=400&gt; &lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Hopewell&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;January 3, 1786&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Fort Adams&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;December 17, 1801&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Fort Confederation&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;October 17, 1802&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Hoe Buckintoopa&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;August 31, 1803&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Mount Dexter&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;November 16, 1805&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Fort St. Stephens&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;October 24, 1816&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Doak's Stand&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;October 18, 1820&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Washington City&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;January 20,1825&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;September 15-27, 1830&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; &lt;/center&gt; The last treaty, the most recent, was the [[Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek]] (1830). The treaty signed away the remaining traditional homeland of the Choctaw to the United States. Article 14 of that treaty allowed for some Choctaws to remain in the state of Mississippi: &lt;blockquote&gt; ''&quot;ART. XIV. Each Choctaw head of a family being desirous to remain and become a citizen of the States, shall be permitted to do so, by signifying his intention to the Agent within six months from the ratification of this Treaty, and he or she shall thereupon be entitled to a reservation of one section of six hundred and forty acres of land, to be bounded by sectional lines of survey; in like manner shall be entitled to one half that quantity for each unmarried child which is living with him over ten years of age; and a quarter section to such child as may be under 10 years of age, to adjoin the location of the parent. If they reside upon said lands intending to become citizens of the States for five years after the ratification of this Treaty, in that case a grant in fee simple shall issue; said reservation shall include the present improvement of the head of the family, or a portion of it. Persons who claim under this article shall not lose the privilege of a Choctaw citizen, but if they ever remove are not to be entitled to any portion of the Choctaw annuity.&quot;'' &lt;/blockquote&gt; Those Choctaws who were &quot;[[Indian Removal|forcibly removed]]&quot; to the [[Indian territory]] in the [[1830s]] were organized as the Choctaw Nation of [[Oklahoma]]. Those who signed under article 14 of the Treaty of Dancing Rabit Creek later formed the [[Mississippi]] Band of Choctaw Indians. In 1831, tens of thousands of Choctaw walked the 800km journey to Oklahoma and more than half died. They later called this journey the &quot;Trail of Tears.&quot; ==Irish famine aid== In 1847, midway through the [[Irish famine]], a group of Choctaws collected $710 and sent it to help starving Irish men, women and children. &quot;It had been just 16 years since the Choctaw people had experienced the Trail of Tears, and they had faced starvation . . . . It was an amazing gesture. By today's standards, it might be a million dollars.&quot; according to Judy Allen, editor of the Choctaw Nation's newspaper, Bishinik, based at the tribal headquarters in Durant, Okla. To mark the 150th anniversary, eight Irish people retraced the Trail of Tears [http://www.uwm.edu/~michael/choctaw/retrace.html]. ==Original Code Talkers== In [[World War I]], a group of Choctaws serving in the U.S. Army used their native language as a code. They were the forerunner to Native Americans from various nations, most notably the [[Navajo Nation|Navajo]], who were used as radio operators, or [[code talkers]], during [[World War II]]. ==Recent history== The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians (MBCI) has one of the largest casinos located near Philadelphia, Mississippi. The Silver Star Casino opened its doors in 1994. The Golden Moon Casino opened in 2002. The casinos are collectivelly known as the Pearl River Resort. &quot;''[[Jack Abramoff]] and partner Michael Scanlon [[Abramoff-Reed Indian Gambling Scandal]] inflated expenses and divided the profits from $15 million in payments from the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, according to testimony and e- mails released at a Senate Indian Affairs Committee hearing.''&quot; (Bloomberg Website) &quot;''Choctaw Chief Phillip Martin did not testify, but released a prepared statement to the committee. 'After we learned what happened, we were astounded that a senior director at a major law firm would or could engage in misconduct of this sort -- whether as regards [to] billing fabrication or as regards [to] the more egregious 'gimme five' scheme -- and that he was able to get away with it for so long.'''&quot; (Washington Post Website) U.S. Senator John McCain stated during a June 22, 2005 hearing that some of the money contributed by the tribe was unknowingly &quot;funneled&quot; to various people and organizations, like an Israeli sniper school instructor. In e-mails to Scanlon, Abramoff also refered to the Choctaw as &quot;[[monkeys]].&quot; Famous Americans who reportedly claim Choctaw ancestry include [[Brett Favre]] ([[NFL]] quarterback), [[James Meredith]] (the first person of [[African American]] heritage to attend the [[University of Mississippi]]), and [[Jessica Biel]] (actress). ==Location== The Choctaw Reservation in Mississippi has 8 communities: Bogue Chitto, Bogue Homa, Conehatta, Crystal Ridge, Pearl River, Red Water, Tucker, and Standing Pine. These communities are located throughout the state like a chain of &quot;islands.&quot; Collectively, the Choctaws still living in Mississippi constitute the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, led by elected Chief Phillip Martin. Most Choctaws were forcibly removed from Mississippi to Oklahoma during the 1830s. The Choctaw Nation was established in the southeastern quadrant of the state, where the majority of Oklahoma Choctaws still live. Choctaws contributed much to the early history of Oklahoma, even giving the state its name. Former Principal Chief Allen Wright suggested the name Oklahoma, from a contraction of the Choctaw words ''okla'' (&quot;people&quot;) and ''humma'' (&quot;red&quot;). Oklahoma Choctaws comprise the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma. Their elected executive is Chief Gregory E. Pyle, and the Nation's headquarters are located in Durant, Oklahoma. Together, the Choctaws are one of the most populous American Indian groups in North America, and many Choctaws live and work in both urban and rural areas around the United States. ==Culture== ===Stickball=== [[Image:Stickball.jpg|thumb|right|400px]] [[Stickball (Native American)|Native American stickball]], the oldest field sport in America, was also know as the &quot;little brother of war&quot; because of its roughness and substitution for war. When disputes arouse between Choctaw communities, stickball provided a peaceful way to settle the issue. The earliest reference to stickball was in 1729 by a Jesuit priest. The stickball games would involve as few as twenty or as many as 300 players. With the goal posts any way from a few hundred feet apart to a few miles. &lt;blockquote&gt; &quot;''The nature of the playing field was never strictly defined. The only boundaries were the two goalposts at either end of the playing area and these could be anywhere from 100 feet to five miles apart, as was the case in one game in the 19th century.''&quot; (Kendall Blanchard, ''The Mississippi Choctaws at Play: The Serious Side of Leisure'') &lt;/blockquote&gt; The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians st
tus was perfected independently by Fresnel, who had also the satisfaction of being the first to put it into operation. But it is indisputable that Brewster was earlier in the field than Fresnel; that he described the dioptric apparatus in [[1812]]; that he pressed its adoption on those in authority at least as early as [[1820]], two years before Fresnel suggested it; and that it was finally introduced into lighthouses mainly by his persistent efforts. Brewster's own discoveries, important though they were, were not his only, perhaps not even his chief, service to science. He began literary work in [[1799]] as a regular contributor to the [[Edinburgh Magazine]], of which he acted as editor at the age of twenty. In [[1807]] he undertook the editorship of the newly projected [[Edinburgh Encyclopaedia]], of which the first part appeared in [[1808]], and the last not until [[1830]]. The work was strongest in the scientific department, and many of its most valuable articles were from the pen of the editor. At a later period he was one of the leading contributors to the Encyclopædia Britannica (seventh and eighth editions), the articles on [[electricity]], [[hydrodynamics]], [[magnetism]], [[microscope]], [[optics]], [[stereoscope]], [[voltaic electricity]], etc., being from his pen. In [[1819]] Brewster undertook further editorial work by establishing, in conjunction with [[Robert Jameson]] ([[1774]]&amp;ndash;[[1854]]), the [[Edinburgh Philosophical Journal]], which took the place of the Edinburgh magazine. The first ten volumes ([[1819]]&amp;ndash;[[1824]]) were published under the joint editorship of Brewster and Jameson, the remaining four volumes ([[1825]]&amp;ndash;[[1826]]) being edited by Jameson alone. After parting company with Jameson, Brewster started the [[Edinburgh Journal of Science]] in [[1824]], sixteen volumes of which appeared under his editorship during the years [[1824]]&amp;ndash;[[1832]], with very many articles from his own pen. To the transactions of various learned societies he contributed from first to last between three and four hundred papers, and few of his contemporaries wrote so much for the various reviews. In the [[North British Review]] alone seventy-five articles of his appeared. A list of his larger separate works will be found below. Special mention, however, must be made of the most important of them all&amp;ndash;his biography of Sir [[Isaac Newton]]. In [[1831]] he published a short popular account of the philosopher's life in Murray's Family Library; but it was not until [[1855]] that he was able to issue the much fuller ''Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton'', a work which embodied the results of more than twenty years' patient investigation of original manuscripts and all other available sources. Brewster's relations as editor brought him into frequent communication with the most eminent scientific men, and he was naturally among the first to recognize the benefit that would accrue from regular intercourse among workers in the field of science. In an article in the [[Quarterly Review]] he made a suggestion for &quot;an association of our nobility, clergy, gentry and philosophers,&quot; which was taken up by others and found speedy realization in the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]]. Its first meeting was held at [[York]] in [[1831]]; and Brewster, along with [[Charles Babbage]] and Sir [[John Herschel|John F. W. Herschel]], had the chief part in shaping its constitution. In the same year in which the British Association held its first meeting, Brewster received the honour of knighthood and the decoration of the [[Guelphic order of Hanover]]. In [[1838]] he was appointed principal of the united colleges of St Salvator and St Leonard, [[University of St Andrews]]. In [[1849]] he acted as president of the British Association and was elected one of the eight foreign associates of the [[Institute of France]] in succession to J. J. Berzelius; and ten years later he accepted the office of principal of the University of Edinburgh, the duties of which he discharged until within a few months of his death. Of high-strung and nervous temperament, Brewster was somewhat irritable in matters of controversy; but he was repeatedly subjected to serious provocation. He was a man of highly honourable and fervently religious character. In estimating his place among scientific discoverers the chief thing to be borne in mind is that the bent of his genius was not characteristically mathematical. His method was empirical, and the laws which he established were generally the result of repeated experiment. To the ultimate explanation of the phenomena with which he dealt he, contributed nothing, and it is noteworthy in this connection that if he did not maintain to the end of his life the corpuscular theory he never explicitly adopted the wave theory of light. Few would dispute the verdict of James D. Forbes, an editor of the eighth edition of the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]: &quot;His scientific glory is different in kind from that of [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Young]] and Fresnel; but the discoverer of the law of polarization of biaxial crystals, of optical mineralogy, and of double refraction by compression, will always occupy a foremost rank in the intellectual history of the age.&quot; In addition to the various works of Brewster already mentioned, the following may be added: ''Notes and Introduction to Carlyle's translation of Legendre's Elements of Geometry'' ([[1824]]); ''Treatise on Optics'' ([[1831]]); ''Letters on Natural Magic'', addressed to Sir Walter Scott ([[1831]]); ''The Martyrs of Science, or the Lives of Galileo, Tycho Brahe, and Kepler'' ([[1841]]); ''More Worlds than One'' ([[1854]]). See also [[Brewsters angle|Brewster's angle]]. ==References== *{{1911}} *{{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}} ==External links== * [http://www-ah.st-and.ac.uk/mgstud/reflect/david.html Sir David Brewster] -- a short biography * [http://www.brewstersociety.com/ The Brewster Kaleidoscope Society] [[Category:Natives of the Scottish Borders|Brewster, David]] [[Category:Scottish scholars|Brewster, David]] [[Category:Scottish physicists|Brewster, David]] [[Category:Scottish writers|Brewster, David]] [[Category:Scottish philosophers|Brewster, David]] [[Category:Scottish astronomers|Brewster, David]] [[Category:Scottish mathematicians|Brewster, David]] [[Category:1781 births|Brewster, David]] [[Category:1868 deaths|Brewster, David]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Brewster, David]] [[Category:University of Edinburgh alumni|Brewster, David]] [[Category:University_of_St_Andrews_academics|Brewster, David]] [[Category:University of Aberdeen|Brewster, David]] [[Category:Encyclopedists|Brewster, David]] [[Category:Toy inventors|Brewster, David]] [[de:David Brewster]] [[fr:David Brewster]] [[gl:David Brewster]] [[ja:&amp;#12487;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12532;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12489;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12502;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12517;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12473;&amp;#12479;&amp;#12540;]] [[sl:David Brewster]] [[fi:David Brewster]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dual-tone multi-frequency</title> <id>8488</id> <revision> <id>34167825</id> <timestamp>2006-01-06T22:36:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>85.157.108.84</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dual-tone multifrequency''' ('''DTMF'''), also known as '''Touch Tone''' or '''Tone Dialing''', is used for [[telephone]] signaling over the line in the [[Sound|voice frequency]] band to the call [[Automatic telephone exchange|switching]] center. DTMF is an example of a ''multifrequency shift keying'' ([[MFSK]]) system. Today DTMF is used for most call setup to the telephone exchange, at least in the Western world, and trunk signalling is now done [[out-of-band signaling|out of band]] using the [[SS7]] signaling system. The trunk signalling tones were different from the tones known as touch tone with a triangular matrix being used rather than a square matrix. See: [[blue box]] for more details on the switching tones. Prior to DTMF the phone systems had used a system known as [[pulse dialing]] to dial numbers, which works by rapidly disconnecting and connecting the [[calling party]]'s phone line, like flicking a light switch on and off. The repeated connection and disconnection sounds like a series of clicks. This was useful only as far as the local ''end office'' where the wires stopped, requiring operator intervention for long distance dialing. DTMF was developed at [[Bell Labs]] in order to allow dialing signals to dial long-distance numbers, potentially over nonwire links such as microwave links or satellites. Encoder/decoders were added at the end offices that would convert the standard pulse signals into DTMF tones and play them down the line to the remote end office. At the remote site another encoder/decoder would decode the tones and perform pulse dialing. It was as if you were connected directly to that end office, yet the signaling would work over any sort of link. This idea of using the existing network for signaling as well as the message is known as [[in-band signaling]]. It was clear even in the late [[1950s]] when DTMF was being developed that the future of switching lay in electronic switches, as opposed to the mechanical [[crossbar]] systems then in use. In this case pulse dialing made no sense at any point in the circuit, and plans were made to roll DTMF out to end users as soon as possible. Various tests of the system occurred throughout the 1960s where DTMF became known as '''Touch Tone'''. The Touch Tone system also introduced a standardized [[telephone keypad|keypad]] layout. After testing 18 different layouts, they eventually chose the one familiar to us today, with 1 in the upper-left and 0 at the bottom. The adding-machine layout, with 1 in the lower-left was also tr
-) === C === * [[Louis C.K.]] (1967-) * [[Sid Caesar]] (1922-) * [[Rhona Cameron]] (1965-) * [[James Campbell (Children's Comedian)|James Campbell]] (19??-) * [[John Candy]] (1950-1994) * [[Eddie Cantor]] (1892-1964) * [[Scott Capurro]] (1962-) * [[Drew Carey]] (1958-) * [[George Carlin]] (1937-) * [[Alan Carney]] (1909-1973) * [[Jim Carrey]] (1962-) * [[Adam Carolla]] (1964-) * [[Carrot Top]] (1967-) * [[Jasper Carrott]] (1945-) * [[Frank Carson]] (1926-) * [[Johnny Carson]] (1925-2005) * [[Dana Carvey]] (1955) * [[Dan Castellaneta]] (1958-) * [[Adam Cecil]] (19??-) * [[Cedric the Entertainer]] (1964-) * [[Charlie Chaplin]] (1889-1977) * [[Graham Chapman]] (1941-1989) * [[Dave Chappelle]] (1973-) * [[Craig Charles]] (1964-) * [[Charley Chase]] (1893-1940) * [[Chevy Chase]] (1943-) * [[Michael Chiklis]] (1963-) * [[Margaret Cho]] (1968-) * [[Andrew Dice Clay|Andrew &quot;Dice&quot; Clay]] (1958-) * [[John Cleese]] (1939-) * [[Jackie Clune]] (19??-) * [[Imogene Coca]] (1908-2001) * [[Sacha Baron Cohen]] aka &quot;Ali G&quot; (1971-) * [[Enrico Colantoni]] (1963-) * [[Stephen Colbert]] (1964-) * [[Kim Coles]] (1966-) * [[Billy Connolly]] (1942-) * [[Kenneth Connor]] (1916-1993) * [[Tim Conway]] (1933-) * [[Steve Coogan]] as [[Alan Partridge]] and Paul Calf (1965-) * [[Dane Cook]] (1972-) * [[David L. Cook]] aka [[Mortermer Crabbottom]] (1968-) * [[Peter Cook]] (1937-1995) * [[Tommy Cooper]] (1921-1984) * [[Ronnie Corbett]] (1930-) * [[Bill Cosby]] (1937-) * [[Lou Costello]] (1906-1959) * [[George Coulouris]] (1903-1989) * [[Mark Critch]] (19??-) * [[Anna Cromy]] (19??-) * [[Norm Crosby]] (1927-) * [[David Cross]] (1964-) * [[Billy Crystal]] (1947-) * [[Seán Cullen]] (1965-) * [[Jane Curtin]] (1947-) === D === * [[Brian Damage]] (1950-) * [[Rodney Dangerfield]] (1921-2004) * [[Ted Danson]] (1947-) * [[Rhys Darby]] (19??-) * [[Larry David]] (1947-) * [[Alan Davies]] (1966-) * [[Danny De Vito]] (1944-) * [[Jack Dee]] (1962-) * [[Ellen DeGeneres]](1958-) * [[Lea DeLaria]] (1958-) * [[Dom DeLuise]] (1933-) * [[Hugh Dennis]] (1962-) * [[Les Dennis]] (1953-) * [[Andy Dick]] (1965-) * [[Richard Digance]] (1949-) * [[Phyllis Diller]] (1917-) * [[Omid Djalili]] (1965-) * [[Ken Dodd]] (1929-) * [[Charlie Drake]] (1925-) * [[Richard Dreyfuss]] (1947-) * [[Ryan Drummond]] (1973-) * [[Jimmy Durante]] (1893-1980) === E === * [[Earthquake (comedian)|Earthquake]] * [[Jenny Eclair]] (1960-) * [[Neil Edmond]] (19??-) * [[Adrian Edmondson]] (1957-) * [[Jimmy Edwards]] (1920-1988) * [[Justin Edwards]] (19??-) * [[Ben Elton]] (1959-) * [[Harry Enfield]] (1961-) * [[Bill Engvall]] (1957-) * [[Lee Evans (comedian)|Lee Evans]] (1964-) * [[Kenny Everett]] (1943-1995) === F === * [[Bill Fagerbakke]] * [[Jimmy Fallon]] * [[Chris Farley]] * [[Marty Feldman]] * [[Graham Fellowes]] as [[Jilted John]] and [[John Shuttleworth]] * [[Don Ferguson]] * [[Will Ferrell]] * [[Tina Fey]] * [[Noel Fielding]] * [[W.C. Fields]] * [[Dave Foley]] * [[Diane Ford]] * [[Jeff Foxworthy]] * [[Pablo Francisco]] * [[Al Franken]] * [[Stan Freberg]] * [[Dawn French]] * [[Stephen Fry]] === G === * [[Jim Gaffigan]] * [[Gallagher (US comedian)|Gallagher]] * [[Graeme Garden]] * [[Jeff Garlin]] * [[Janeane Garofalo]] * [[Zach Galifanakis]] * [[Ana Gasteyer]] * [[Ricky Gervais]] (1961-Living) * [[Rhod Gilbert]] * [[Jackie Gleason]] (1916-1987) * [[Janey Godley]] * [[Gilbert Gottfried]] * [[Whoopi Goldberg]] (1955-Living) * [[John Goodman]] (1952-Living) * [[Dave Gorman]] * [[Luba Goy]] * [[Boothby Graffoe (comedian)]] * [[Kelsey Grammer]] (1955-Living) * [[Corinne Grant]] * [[Jeff Green]] * [[Seth Green]] (1974-Living) * [[James Gregory (comedian)|James Gregory]] * [[Kathy Griffin]] * [[Christopher Guest]] * [[Deryck Guyler]] === H === * [[Buddy Hackett]] * [[Rich Hall]] * [[Neil Hamburger]] * [[Mark Hamill]] (1951-Living) * [[Tony Hancock]] * [[Jack Handey]] a.k.a. Jack Handy * [[Chelsea Handler]] * [[Tom Hanks]] (1956-Living) * [[Terry Hansen]] * [[Malcolm Hardee]] (1950-2005) * [[Jeremy Hardy]] * [[Mike Harding]] * [[Otis Harlan]] (1865-1940) * [[Phil Hartman]] (1948-1998) * [[Steve Harvey]] * [[Phil Hayes]] * [[Natalie Haynes]] * [[Goldie Hawn]] * Sir [[Charles Hawtrey (19th century actor)|Charles Hawtrey]] * [[Charles Hawtrey (Carry On actor)|Charles Hawtrey]] (George Hartree) * [[Richard Hearn]] * [[Mitch Hedberg]] (1968-2005) * [[John Hegley]] * [[Tim Heidecker]] * [[Peter Helliar]] * [[Lenny Henry]] * [[Richard Herring]] * [[Bill Hicks]] * [[Benny Hill]] * [[Harry Hill]] * [[Adam Hills]] * [[Jessica Holmes]] * [[Bob Hope]] (1903-2003) * [[Kenneth Horne]] * [[Roy Hudd]] * [[Dave Hughes]] * [[Sean Hughes (comedian)|Sean Hughes]] * [[D.L. Hughley]] * [[Barry Humphries]] * [[Reginald D Hunter]] === I === * [[Armando Iannucci]] * [[Eric Idle]] * [[Robin Ince]] * [[Neil Innes]] * [[Scott Innes]] * [[Eddie Izzard]] === J === * [[Hattie Jacques]] * [[Sid James]] * [[Jake Johannsen]] * [[Dom Joly]] * [[Cathy Jones]] * [[Milton Jones]] * [[Spike Jones]] * [[Terry Jones]] * [[Tere Joyce]] * [[John Junkin]] === K === * [[Andy Kaufman]] * [[Dan Kaufman]] * [[Danny Kaye]] * [[Peter Kay]] * [[Buster Keaton]] (1895-1966) * [[Michael Keaton]] * [[Peter Kelamis]] * [[Jamie Kennedy]] * [[Mary E. Kennedy]] * [[Tom Kenny]] * [[Laura Kightlinger]] * [[Craig Kilborn]] * [[Jimmy Kimmel]] * [[Sam Kinison]] * [[Sid Kipper]] * [[Takeshi Kitano]] (1947-) * [[Daniel Kitson]] * [[Robert Klein]] * [[Ernie Kovacs]] === L === * [[Lisa Lampanelli]] * [[Nathan Lane]] * [[Larry the Cable Guy]] (Daniel Whitney) (1963-) * [[Hugh Laurie]] * [[Doug Lawrence]] aka &quot;Mr Lawrence&quot; * [[Martin Lawrence]] * [[Vicki Lawrence]] * [[Denis Leary]] (1957-Living) * [[John Leguizamo]] (1964-Living) * [[Tom Lehrer]] * [[Jack Lemmon]] (1925-2001) * [[Jay Leno]] * [[David Letterman]] * [[Jerry Lewis]] * [[Rich Little]] * [[Little Howard]] * [[Harold Lloyd]] * [[Sean Lock]] * [[Josie Long]] * [[Andres Lopez]] * [[George Lopez]] * [[Julia Louis-Dreyfus]] * [[The Great LukeSki]] * [[Stephen Lynch (comedian)|Stephen Lynch]] * [[Paul Lynde]] (1926-1982) === M === * [[Bernie Mac]] * [[Norm MacDonald]] * [[Doon Mackichan]] * [[Robert Mackle]] * [[Shaun Majumder]] * [[Howie Mandel]] * [[Cheech Marin]] * [[Pigmeat Markham]] * [[Betty Marsden]] * [[Jackie Mason]] * [[Demetri Martin]] * [[Steve Martin]] (1945-Living) * [[Jackie Martling]] (1948-Present) * [[Groucho Marx]] (1890-1977) * [[Zeppo Marx]] (1901-1979) * [[Walter Matthau]] (1920-2000) * [[Ralphie May]] * [[Rik Mayall]] * [[Jack Mayberry]] * [[Bruce McCulloch]] * [[Kevin McDonald]] * [[Michael McGaharn]] * [[Roger McGough]] * [[Mark McKinney]] * [[Ed McMahon]] * [[Rove McManus]] * [[Tim Meadows]] * [[Melsondorph the Powerful]] * [[Rick Mercer]] * [[Ethel Merman]] * [[Paul Merton]] * [[Dennis Miller]] * [[Max Miller]] * [[Yankel Miller]] * [[Spike Milligan]] * [[Colin Mochrie]] * [[Jay Mohr]] * [[Bob Monkhouse]] * [[Dudley Moore]] * [[Rudy Ray Moore]] * [[Victor Moore]] * [[Dylan Moran]] * [[Rick Moranis]] * [[Dermot Morgan]] * [[John Morgan (comedian)|John Morgan]] * [[Tracy Morgan]] * [[Chris Morris (satirist)|Chris Morris]] * [[Garrett Morris]] * [[Simon Munnery]] * [[Richard Murdoch]] * [[Eddie Murphy]] * [[Al Murray]] * [[Bill Murray]] * [[Lorenzo Music]] * [[Mike Myers (actor)|Mike Myers]] === N === * [[Jim Nabors]] * [[Paul Nardizzi]] * [[Rex Navarette]] * [[Henry Naylor]] * [[Kevin Nealon]] * [[Bob Newhart]] * [[Laraine Newman]] * [[Robert Newman|Rob Newman]] * [[Phil Nichol]] * [[Leslie Nielsen]] * [[Ross Noble]] * [[Graham Norton]] * [[Jim Norton (comedian)]] * [[Don Novello]] === O === * [[Dara Ó Briain]] * [[Conan O'Brien]] * [[Donald O'Connor]] * [[Ardal O'Hanlon]] * [[Ed O'Neill]] * [[Bill Oddie]] * [[Bob Odenkirk]] * [[John Oliver]] * [[Patton Oswalt]] * [[Otto Osworth]] * [[Cheri Oteri]] === P === * [[Jack Paar]] (1918-2004) * [[Frankie Pace]] * [[Michael Palin]] * [[Trey Parker]] * [[Sarah Jessica Parker]] * [[Andy Parsons]] * [[Wild Willy Parsons]] (The Original Biker Comic) * [[Joe Pasquale]] * [[Rob Paulsen]] * [[Sue Perkins]] * [[Russell Peters]] * [[Emo Philips]] (often misspelled as Phillips) * [[Nigel Planer]] * [[Mike Pollock]] * [[Lucy Porter]] * [[Paula Poundstone]] * [[Freddie Prinze]] * [[Greg Proops]] * [[Paul Provenza]] * [[Richard Pryor]] * [[Steve Punt]] === Q === * [[Randy Quaid]] * [[Colin Quinn]] === R === * [[Gilda Radner]] * [[Ted Ray]] * [[Al Read]] * [[Howard Read]] * [[Vic Reeves]] * [[Brian Regan]] * [[Carl Reiner]] * [[Roy Rene]] * [[Rick Reynolds]] * [[Michael Richards]] * [[Don Rickles]] * [[Joan Rivers]] * [[Tony Robinson]] as Baldrick * [[Chris Rock]] * [[Paul Rodriguez]] * [[Henry Rollins]] * [[Ray Romano]] * [[Patsy Rowlands]] * [[Rita Rudner]] * [[Maya Rudolph]] * [[William Rushton]] * [[Will Rogers]] * [[Mark Russell]] === S === * [[Ernie Sabella]] * [[Jerry Sadowitz]] * [[Bob Saget]] (1956-) * [[Adam Sandler]] * [[Erskine Sanford]] (1885-1969) * [[Martin Sargent]] * [[Jennifer Saunders]] * [[Alexei Sayle]] * [[Mark Schiff]] * [[Gus Schilling]] (1908-1957) * [[Art Paul Schlosser]] * [[Harald Schmidt]] * [[Rob Schneider]] * [[Harry Secombe]] * [[Jerry Seinfeld]] * [[Peter Sellers]] &quot;Pink Panther&quot; * [[Mack Sennett]] * [[Paul Shaffer]] * [[Garry Shandling]] * [[Harry Shannon]] (1890-1964) * [[Molly Shannon]] * [[Harry Shearer]] (1943-) * [[Scott Shields]] * [[Ken Shimura]] (1950-) * [[Pauly Shore]] * [[Martin Short]] * [[Sarah Silverman]] * [[Phil Silvers]] * [[Joan Sims]] * [[Sinbad (actor)|Sinbad]] * [[Red Skelton]] * [[Frank Skinner]] * [[Tony Slattery]] * [[Brendon Small]] * [[Robert Smigel]] * [[Linda Smith (comedian)|Linda Smith]] * [[Will Smith]] (1968-) * [[Paul Stewart (actor)|Paul Stewart]] (1908-1986) * [[Dana Snyder]] * [[David Spade]] (1964-) * [[Ron Sparks]] * [[Dave Spikey]] (1950-) * [[Arnold Stang]] * [[Doug Stanhope]] * [[Vivian Stanshall]] * [[Mark Steel]] * [[Pamela Stephenson]] * [[Jon Stewart]] * [[Ryan Stiles]] * [[Ben Stiller]] * [[Matt Stone]] * [[Jud Strunk]]
969, ''The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell'', 3 vols., London: George Allen &amp; Unwin. * 1969, ''Dear Bertrand Russell... A Selection of his Correspondence with the General Public 1950&amp;ndash;1968'' (edited by Barry Feinberg and Ronald Kasrils), London: George Allen and Unwin. Note: This is a mere sampling, for Russell also authored many pamphlets, introductions, articles and letters to the editor. His works also can be found in any number of anthologies and collections, perhaps most notably, ''The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell'', which [[McMaster University]] began publishing in [[1983]]. This collection of his shorter and previously unpublished works is now up to 16 volumes, and many more are forthcoming. An additional 3 volumes catalogue just his bibliography. The Russell Archives at [[McMaster University|McMaster]] also have more than 30,000 letters that he wrote. Additional References: A. Russell * 1900, ''Sur la logique des relations avec des applications à la théorie des séries'', ''Rivista di matematica 7'': 115-148. * 1901, ''On the Notion of Order'', ''Mind (n.s.) 10'': 35-51. * 1902, (with [[Alfred North Whitehead]]), ''On Cardinal Numbers'', ''American Journal of Mathematics 23'': 367-384. B. Secondary references: * John Newsome Crossley. ''A Note on Cantor's Theorem and Russell's Paradox'', ''Australian Journal of Philosophy 51'': 70-71. * [[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], 2000. ''The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1940''. Princeton University Press. ===Books about Russell's philosophy=== * ''Bertrand Russell: Critical Assessments'', edited by A.D. Irvine, consisting of essays on Russell's work by many distinguished philosophers, 4 vols, London: Routledge, 1999. * ''Theories of Truth'', by Richard L. Kirkham (1992). Chapter 4 includes a detailed discussion of Russell's theory of truth. * ''Bertrand Russell'', John Slater, Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 1994. * ''The Philosophy of Bertrand Russell'', edited by P.A. Schilpp, Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University, 1944. ===Biographical books=== * '' Bertrand Russell: 1872&amp;ndash;1920 The Spirit of Solitude'' by [[Ray Monk]] (1997) ISBN 0099731312 * ''Bertrand Russell: 1921&amp;ndash;1970 The Ghost of Madness'' by [[Ray Monk]] (2001) ISBN 009927275X * ''Bertrand Russell: Philosopher and Humanist'', by [[John Lewis (philosopher)|John Lewis]] (1968) * ''Bertrand Russell'', by [[A. J. Ayer]] (1972), reprint ed. 1988: ISBN 0226033430 * ''The Life of Bertrand Russell'', by [[Ronald W. Clark]] (1975) ISBN 0394490592 * ''Bertrand Russell and His World'', by Ronald W. Clark (1981) ISBN 0500130701 ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{wikisource author}} ===Writings available online=== * [http://www005.upp.so-net.ne.jp/russell/index-e.htm &quot;Contents Recommended&quot;] * [http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell1.htm &quot;A Free Man's Worship&quot;] (1903) * [http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell8.htm ''Am I an Atheist or an Agnostic?''] * [http://www.threads.name/russell/icarus.html ''Icarus: The Future of Science''] * [http://www.threads.name/russell/religionciv.html ''Has Religion Made Useful Contributions to Civilization?''] * [http://www.threads.name/russell/ideas_harm.html ''Ideas that Have Harmed Mankind''] * [http://www.zpub.com/notes/idle.html ''In Praise of Idleness''] (1932) * [http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1950/russell-lecture.html Nobel Lecture] (1950) * [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4776 ''Political Ideals''] * [http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=1900-1999&amp;author=Russell&amp;text=Problems%20of%20China The Problems of China] * [http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/phil/russell/index.php ''The Problems of Philosophy''] * [http://www.zpub.com/notes/rfree10.html ''Proposed Roads to Freedom''] (1918) * [http://karws.gso.uri.edu/JFK/the_critics/russell/Sixteen_questions_Russell.html ''16 Questions on the Assassination'' (of President Kennedy)] * [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2529 ''The Analysis Of Mind''] * [http://www.control-z.com/pages/agnosticism.html ''What is an Agnostic?''] * [http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell0.htm ''Why I am not a Christian''] * [http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-elements-of-ethics &quot;The Elements of Ethics&quot;] (1910) * [http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-principles-of-mathematics ''The Principles of Mathematics''] (1903) * {{gutenberg author| id=Bertrand+Arthur+William+3rd+Earl+Russell | name=Bertrand Russell}} ===Other=== * [http://www.pembroke-lodge.co.uk Pembroke Lodge - childhood home and museum] * [http://users.drew.edu/~jlenz/brs.html The Bertrand Russell Society] - a member organisation of the [[International Humanist and Ethical Union]] * [http://www.lehman.edu/deanhum/philosophy/BRSQ/ The Bertrand Russell Society Quarterly] * [http://www.russfound.org/ The Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation] * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Russell}} * [http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Russell_e.htm Biography and quotes of Bertrand Russell] * [http://russell.mcmaster.ca/~bertrand/ Russell Photo Gallery] * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/ ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' entry] * [http://www.mcmaster.ca/russdocs/russell.htm The Bertrand Russell Archives] * [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/russell.htm Resource list] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/reith/historic_audio/ram/russell_1948.ram The First Reith Lecture given by Russell] (Real Audio) * [http://www.britannica.com/nobel/micro/514_10.html Encyclopaedia Britannica] ==Succession== {{start box}} {{succession box | before = [[William Faulkner]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1950 | after = [[Pär Lagerkvist]]}} {{end box}} {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Frank Russell, 2nd Earl Russell|Frank Russell]] | title=[[Earl Russell]] | after=[[John Russell, 4th Earl Russell|John Conrad Russell]] | years=1931&amp;ndash;1970}} {{end box}} [[Category:1872 births|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:1970 deaths|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:20th century philosophers|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:Agnostics|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:Analytic philosophers|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:Anti-Vietnam War|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:Anti-war people|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:Atheist philosophers|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:Atheist thinkers and activists|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:British logicians|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:English mathematicians|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:English non-fiction writers|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:English philosophers|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:Humanists|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:Lecturers of the London School of Economics|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:Natives of Monmouthshire|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:Philosophers of language|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:Polymaths|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:Premature obituaries|Russell, Bertrand]] [[Category:World federalists|Russell, Bertrand]] [[af:Bertrand Russell]] [[bg:Бертран Ръсел]] [[ca:Bertrand Russell]] [[cs:Bertrand Russell]] [[da:Bertrand Russell]] [[de:Bertrand Russell]] [[eo:Bertrand RUSSELL]] [[es:Bertrand Russell]] [[et:Bertrand Russell]] [[fa:برتراند راسل]] [[fi:Bertrand Russell]] [[fr:Bertrand Russell]] [[gd:Bertrand Russell]] [[he:ברטראנד ראסל]] [[hr:Bertrand Russell]] [[hu:Bertrand Russell]] [[io:Bertrand Russell]] [[is:Bertrand Russell]] [[it:Bertrand Russell]] [[ja:バートランド・ラッセル]] [[jv:Bertrand Russell]] [[ko:버트런드 러셀]] [[mk:Бертранд Расел]] [[nl:Bertrand Russell]] [[no:Bertrand Russell]] [[pl:Bertrand Russell]] [[pt:Bertrand Russell]] [[ro:Bertrand Russell]] [[ru:Рассел, Бертран Артур Уильям]] [[sk:Bertrand Russell]] [[sr:Бертран Расел]] [[sv:Bertrand Russell]] [[th:เบอร์แทรนด์ รัสเซิลล์]] [[tr:Bertrand Russell]] [[uk:Бертран Рассел]] [[zh:伯特兰·罗素]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Boeing 767</title> <id>4165</id> <revision> <id>41561642</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:02:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mailer diablo</username> <id>131286</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* General characteristics */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:aircanada.b767.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Air Canada Boeing 767-300]] [[image:ba.b767-300.g-bzhb.800pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|British Airways Boeing 767-300]] The '''Boeing 767''' is a commercial passenger [[airplane]] manufactured by [[Boeing Commercial Airplanes]]. The Boeing 767, a [[widebody]] jet, was introduced at around the same time as the [[Boeing 757|757]], its narrowbody sister. The 767 has a seat-to-aisle ratio in economy class of 3.5 seats per aisle, making for quicker food service and quicker exit of the plane than many other jetliners, which typically have between four and six seats per aisle in economy class. On the downside, as the 767 has a slightly narrower fuselage diameter than other wide-body aircraft (such as the [[Airbus A300]] and [[Airbus A310|A310]]), it is unable to carry ordinary [[Unit Load Device]]s, and instead has to use specially designed air freight containers and pallets. The flight decks of the Boeing 757 and 767 are very similar and as a result, pilots rated in the 757 are also qualified to fly the 767 and vice versa. The 767 is to be succeeded in the Boeing lineup by the [[Boeing 787|787]]. &lt;!-- NOT 777 --&gt; At the end of [[December 2005]], the Boeing 767 has 965 orders placed and 935 of those had been delivered. ==Variants== * '''767-200''' - The first model of the 767, launched in 1978 and produced from 1981 to 1994. It entered service with [[United Airlines]] in 1982. The 767-20
]] [[es:Agujero negro]] [[eo:Nigra truo]] [[fa:سیاهچاله]] [[fr:Trou noir]] [[gl:Burato negro]] [[ko:블랙홀]] [[hr:Crna rupa]] [[io:Nigra truo]] [[id:Lubang hitam]] [[is:Svarthol]] [[it:Buco nero]] [[he:חור שחור]] [[ka:შავი ხვრელი]] [[la:Gurges ater]] [[lv:Melnais caurums]] [[lt:Juodoji skylė]] [[hu:Fekete lyuk]] [[ms:Lubang gelap]] [[nl:Zwart gat]] [[ja:ブラックホール]] [[no:Sort hull]] [[pl:Czarna dziura]] [[pt:Buraco negro]] [[ro:Gaură neagră]] [[ru:Чёрная дыра]] [[simple:Black hole]] [[sk:Čierna diera]] [[sl:Črna luknja]] [[fi:Musta aukko]] [[sv:Svart hål]] [[th:หลุมดำ]] [[uk:Чорна діра]] [[vi:Hố đen]] [[tr:Karadelik]] [[zh:黑洞]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Beta decay</title> <id>4651</id> <revision> <id>40409614</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T09:34:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Chobot</username> <id>259798</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: sv</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Nuclear_processes}} In [[nuclear physics]], '''beta decay''' is a type of [[radioactive]] decay in which a [[beta particle]] (an [[electron]] or a [[positron]]) is emitted. In the case of electron emission, it is referred to as &quot;beta minus&quot; (&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;), while in the case of a [[positron emission]] as &quot;beta plus&quot; (&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;). In &amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; decay, the [[weak interaction]] converts a [[neutron]] into a [[proton]] while emitting an electron and an [[antineutrino|anti-neutrino]]: : &lt;math&gt;n^0 \rightarrow p^+ + e^- + \bar{\nu}_e&lt;/math&gt;. At the [[fundamental particle|fundamental]] level (as depicted in the [[Feynman diagram]] below), this is due to the conversion of a [[down quark]] to an [[up quark]] by emission of a [[W boson]]. In &amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; decay, a proton is converted into a neutron, a [[positron]] and a [[neutrino]]: : &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{energy} + p^+ \rightarrow n^0 + e^+ + {\nu}_e&lt;/math&gt;. So, unlike '''beta minus''' decay, '''beta plus''' decay cannot occur in isolation, because the mass of the neutron alone is greater than the mass of the proton. '''Beta plus''' decay can only happen inside nuclei when the absolute value of the binding energy of the daughter nucleus is higher than that of the mother nucleus. The difference between these energies goes into the reaction of converting a proton into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino and into the kinetic energy of these particles. In all the cases where &amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; decay is allowed energetically (and the proton is a part of a nucleus with electron shells), it is accompanied by the [[electron capture]] process, when an atomic electron is captured by a nucleus with emission of neutrino: : &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{energy} + p^+ + e^- \rightarrow n^0 + {\nu}_e&lt;/math&gt;. But if the energy difference between initial and final states is low, the [[electron capture]] can occur without being accompanied by positron emission. If the proton and neutron are part of an [[atomic nucleus]], these decay processes [[transmutation|transmute]] one chemical element into another. For example: :&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{{}^1{}^{37}_{55}Cs}\rightarrow\mathrm{{}^1{}^{37}_{56}Ba}+ e^- + \bar{\nu}_e&lt;/math&gt; (beta minus), :&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{~^{22}_{11}Na}\rightarrow\mathrm{~^{22}_{10}Ne} + e^+ + {\nu}_e&lt;/math&gt; (beta plus), :&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{~^{22}_{11}Na} + e^- \rightarrow\mathrm{~^{22}_{10}Ne} + {\nu}_e&lt;/math&gt; (electron capture). Historically, the study of beta decay provided the first physical evidence of the [[neutrino]]. In [[1911]] [[Lise Meitner]] and [[Otto Hahn]] performed an experiment that showed that the energies of electrons emitted by beta decay had a continuous rather than discrete spectrum. This was in apparent contradiction to the [[law of conservation of energy]], as it appeared that energy was lost in the beta decay process. A second problem was that the spin of the Nitrogen-14 atom was 1, in contradiction to the [[Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson|Rutherford]] prediction of &amp;frac12;. In a famous letter written in [[1930]] [[Wolfgang Pauli]] suggested that in addition to electrons and protons atoms also contained an extremely light neutral particle which he called the neutron. He suggested that this &quot;neutron&quot; was also emitted during beta decay and had simply not yet been observed. In [[1931]] [[Enrico Fermi]] renamed Pauli's &quot;neutron&quot; the [[neutrino]], and in [[1934]] Fermi published a very successful model of beta decay in which neutrinos were produced. Beta decay does not change the number of [[nucleon]]s ''A'' in the nucleus but changes only its [[charge]] ''Z''. Thus the set of all nuclides with the same ''A'' can be introduced; these ''[[isobar]]ic'' nuclides may turn into each other via beta decay. Among them, several nuclides (at least one) are beta stable, because they present local minima of the [[mass excess]]: if such a nucleus has (''A'', ''Z'') numbers, the neighbour nuclei (''A'', ''Z''&amp;minus;1) and (''A'', ''Z''+1) have higher mass excess and can beta decay into (''A'', ''Z''), but not vice versa. It should be noted, that a beta-stable nucleus may undergo other kinds of radioactive decay ([[alpha decay]], for example). In nature, most isotopes are beta stable, but a few exceptions exist with [[half life|half-lives]] so long that they have not had enough time to decay since the moment of their [[nucleosynthesis]]. One example is [[potassium|&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;K]], which undergoes all three types of beta decay (beta minus, beta plus and electron capture) with half life of 1.277&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; years. Some nuclei can undergo [[double beta decay]] (&amp;beta;&amp;beta; decay) where the charge of the nucleus changes by two units. In most practically interesting cases, single beta decay is energetically forbidden for such nuclei, because when &amp;beta; and &amp;beta;&amp;beta; decays are both allowed, the probability of &amp;beta; decay is (usually) much higher, preventing investigations of very rare &amp;beta;&amp;beta; decays. Thus, &amp;beta;&amp;beta; decay is usually studied only for beta stable nuclei. Like single beta decay, double beta decay does not change ''A''; thus, at least one of the nuclides with some given ''A'' has to be stable with regard to both single and double beta decay. Beta decay can be considered as a perturbation as described in quantum mechanics, and thus follows [[Fermi's Golden Rule]]. [[Image:Beta minus Feynman diagram.png|thumb|300px|The [[Feynman diagram]] of beta minus decay]] ==See also== *[[beta particle]] *[[double beta decay]] *[[neutrino]] *[[positron emission]] *[[particle radiation]] *[[radioactive isotope]] &lt;!--Interwiki--&gt; &lt;!--Categories--&gt; [[Category:Radioactivity]] [[ca:Emissió beta]] [[da:Betahenfald]] [[de:Betazerfall]] [[es:Desintegración Beta]] [[fr:Radioactivité β]] [[ko:베타 붕괴]] [[is:Betasundrun]] [[it:Decadimento beta]] [[he:קרינת בטא]] [[hu:Béta-bomlás]] [[nl:Betaverval]] [[ja:ベータ崩壊]] [[pl:Rozpad beta]] [[sl:Razpad beta]] [[sv:Betasönderfall]] [[zh:Β衰变]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Blitzkrieg</title> <id>4652</id> <revision> <id>42087421</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:14:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bota47</username> <id>341052</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: cs</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:PanzerInfantryAdvance.jpg|thumb|250px|Blitzkrieg relies on close co-operation between [[infantry]] and [[panzer]]s (tanks). This photo was taken during operations along the Terek River in 1942.]] : ''This article is about the military term. For the [[professional wrestling|professional wrestlers]] of the same name, see [[Jay Ross]] and [[Jack Evans]].'' '''''Blitzkrieg''''' ([[German language|German]], literally '''lightning war''') is a popular name for an offensive [[Operational warfare|operational-level]] [[military doctrine]] which employed mobile forces attacking with speed and surprise to prevent an enemy from implementing a coherent [[defense (military)|defense]]. The doctrines resulting in the blitzkrieg effect were developed in the years after [[World War I]] as a method to help prevent [[trench warfare]] and [[linear warfare]]. Blitzkrieg was first used on any serious scale by the [[Germany|German]] [[Wehrmacht]] in [[World War II]]. While operations in Poland were rather conventional (see detailed discussion below), later operations early in the war — particularly the invasions of [[Battle of France|France]], [[The Netherlands]] and initial operations in the [[Operation Barbarossa|Soviet Union]] — were effective owing to surprise penetrations, general enemy unpreparedness and an inability to react swiftly enough to the superior German military doctrines. The Germans faced numerically superior forces and technically superior vehicles in the invasion of France, proving the early effectiveness of their tactics and strategies. From this peak, the Wehrmacht's cohesion deteriorated. [[Heinz Guderian]], an early implementor of blitzkrieg, was relieved of command on [[25 December]] [[1941]], for ordering a withdrawal in contradiction of Hitler's &quot;standfast&quot; order. This showed a fundamental doctrinal difference between Hitler's view of military strategy and the Wehrmacht's proven system. This event undermined confidence and military effectiveness from that point onwards. After this point, German offensive operations were severely limited; the last major blitzkrieg style operation in the East was at Kursk in July 1943, and the last in the west was the Ardennes Offensive in December 1944. By this period, the Allies had developed effective defensive tactics to deal with these operations (see
stuffs '''Imports - partners:''' [[Nigeria]] 13.2%, [[China]] 9.3%, United Kingdom 7.2%, United States 6.1%, Germany 4.8%, France 4.5%, [[South Africa]] 4% (2003) '''Reserves of foreign exchange &amp; gold:''' $1.469 billion (2003) '''Debt - external:''' $7.398 billion (2003 est.) '''Economic aid - recipient:''' $6.9 billion (1999) '''Currency:''' [[cedi]] (GHC) '''Exchange rates:''' cedis per US dollar - NA (2003), 7,932.7 (2002), 7,170.76 (2001), 5,455.06 (2000), 2,669.3 (1999) '''Fiscal year:''' calendar year ==See also== *[[Ghana]] *[[Economy of Africa]] {{WTO}} [[Category:WTO members|Ghana]] [[Category:Economy of Ghana| ]] [[Category:African Union member economies|Ghana]] [[fr:Économie du Ghana]] [[pt:Economia do Gana]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Communications in Ghana</title> <id>12073</id> <revision> <id>35162109</id> <timestamp>2006-01-14T17:08:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>196.201.34.160</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:''' 200,000 (1998 est.) '''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' 90,000 (yearend 2001) '''Telephone system:''' poor to fair system; Internet accessible; many rural communities not yet connected; expansion of services is underway &lt;br&gt;''domestic:'' primarily [[microwave]] radio relay; wireless local loop has been installed &lt;br&gt;''international:'' [[satellite]] earth stations - 4 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]]); microwave radio relay link to [[Panaftel]] system connects Ghana to its neighbors '''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:''' AM 0, FM 18, shortwave 3 (1999) '''Radios:''' 4.4 million (1997) '''[[Television]] broadcast stations:''' 11 (1999) '''Televisions:''' 1.73 million (1997) '''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' 16 (2004) '''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GH == External links == * [http://www.mobileafrica.net/ghana.php Mobile Communication in Ghana] :''See also :'' [[Ghana]] [[Category:Communications in Ghana| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Transport in Ghana</title> <id>12074</id> <revision> <id>37087815</id> <timestamp>2006-01-28T15:50:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fuhghettaboutit</username> <id>665998</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>faciliate---&gt;facilitate</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} == [[Railway]]s == &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 953 km (undergoing major rehabilitation) &lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:'' 953 km 1.067-m gauge (32 km double track) (1997 est.) === Railway links with adjacent countries === * [[Transportation in Burkina Faso|Burkina Faso]] - no - [[break-of-gauge]] 1067mm/1000mm * [[Transportation in Togo|Togo]]- no - [[break-of-gauge]] 1067mm/1000mm * [[Transportation in Côte d'Ivoire|Ivory Coast]] - no - [[break-of-gauge]] 1067mm/1000mm === Plans 2005 === [[Image:Ghana88001336a.jpg|thumbnail|px450|right|Ghana road and rail map.&lt;br&gt;Distance from Kumasi to Ho is approx 320km]] On [[2 July]], [[2005]], the Minister of Ports, Harbours and Railways announced some plans to extend the railway system to facilitate economic development. To begin with, $5m is being sought from the [[African Development Bank]] ([[ADB]]) for feasibility studies. Some possible projects include: * extend from [[Ejisu]] to [[Nkroranza]] and [[Techiman]] * [[Tamale, Ghana|Tamale]] to [[Bolgatanga]] and [[Paga]] to [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Wenchi]], [[Bole]] to [[Wa]] and [[Hamile]] and also to [[Burkina Faso]] * [http://www.allafrica.com] == [[Highway]]s == &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 39,409 km &lt;br&gt;''paved:'' 11,653 km (including 30 km of expressways) &lt;br&gt;''unpaved:'' 27,756 km (1997 est.) == Waterways == The [[Volta River|Volta]], [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]], and [[Tano River|Tano]] rivers provide 168 km of perennial navigation for launches and lighters; Lake Volta provides 1,125 km of arterial and feeder waterways == Pipelines == 0 km == [[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s == === Atlantic Ocean === [[Takoradi]], [[Tema]] == [[Merchant marine]] == &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 6 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 13,484 GRT/18,583 DWT &lt;br&gt;''ships by type:'' petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 4 (1999 est.) == [[Airport]]s == 12 (1999 est.) === Airports - with paved runways === &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 6 &lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 3 &lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 2 (1999 est.) === Airports - with unpaved runways === &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 6 &lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 1 &lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 3 &lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:'' 2 (1999 est.) == See also == * [[Ghana]] {{CIAfb}} {{Africa in topic|Transport in}} [[Category:Transport in Ghana| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Military of Ghana</title> <id>12075</id> <revision> <id>38925182</id> <timestamp>2006-02-09T15:32:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>80.87.85.242</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* General */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; width=30% cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em;&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#8888dd&gt;'''Military of Ghana''' &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2 align=center&gt;'''Military manpower''' &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Military age&lt;td&gt;18 years of age(2002) &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Availability&lt;td&gt;males age 15-49: 5,045,355 (2002 est.)&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fit for military service&lt;td&gt;males age 15-49: 5,045,355 (2002 est.) &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Reaching military age annually&lt;td&gt;males: 213,237 (2002 est.) &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2 align=center&gt;'''Military expenditures''' &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Dollar figure&lt;td&gt; $35.2 million (FY01) &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Percent of GDP&lt;td&gt;0.7% (FY01) &lt;/table&gt; [[Image:Ghanatroops.jpg|thumb|300px|Ghanaian troops]] '''Military of Ghana''' - consists of the Army, Navy, [[Ghana Air Force|Air Force]], National Police Force, Palace Guard, and Civil Defense. ==General== Like any [[army]], [[Ghana]]'s exists to ward off foreign aggression and ensure some form of security for the citizens of Ghana. The Ghanaian military is primarily composed of the army, which controls both the air and naval units. In terms of command, the minister of defense commands [[general]]s and other commanders on the field. Military units exist in the capital, [[Accra]] and in Ghana's border regions. The Ghanaian army, which has a northern and a southern command, is organized into two [[brigade]]s, with six [[infantry]] battalions; one reconnaissance regiment, with two reconnaissance squadrons; one airborne force, with one paratroop company; one artillery regiment; and one field engineer regiment. ==Weapons== The ordnance is mostly older weapons of [[United Kingdom|British]], [[Brazil|Brazilian]], [[Switzerland|Swiss]], [[Sweden|Swedish]], [[Israel|Israeli]], and [[Finland|Finnish]] origin. All Ghanaian equipment suffers from extremely poor servicing due to substandard maintenance capabilities. As a result, foreign military advisers or [[technicians]] perform all major maintenance tasks. ==Army== The Ministry of Defence is located in [[Accra]] as is Defence Headquarters. The army numbers some 5,000 personnel and is structured as follows: *Two BDE HQ in [[Accra]] and [[Kumasi]] *6 Infantry [[Battalions]] of the [[Ghana Regiment]] *2 Airborne [[company (military unit)|companies]] attached to DHQ *1 Battalion of the [[President's Own Guard Regiment]] *1 Training Battalion *1 Staff College *2 armoured reconnaissance squadrons of the [[Reconnaissance Regiment]] *1 Signals Regiment *1 Engineer Regiment *1 Logistic Group. ==Air Force== [[Image:Skyvan.jpg|thumb|250px|SC-7 Skyvan 3M]] The Ghanaian Air Force operates from bases in Accra (headquarters and main transport base) it numbers about a 1000 personnel, [[Tamale, Ghana|Tamale]] (combat and training base), [[Takoradi]] (training base), and [[Kumasi]] (support base). The air force's mission is to perform counterinsurgency operations and to provide [[logistics|logistical]] support to the army. Performance however has been hindered by a lack of spare parts and by poor maintenance capabilities. ==Navy== Ghana's navy provides coastal defense, protection of fisheries, and security on [[Lake Volta]]. In [[1994]] the navy was organized into an eastern command, with headquarters at Tema, and a western command, with headquarters at [[Sekondi]]. Still, the Ghanaian navy continues to experience low readiness rates because of spare parts shortages. In the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]], due to financial constraints and a lack of serviceable equipment, the navy to shrank from about 1,200 personnel to about 850. The navy currently numbers about 1000 personnel as of [[2003]]. ==Other== [[Paramilitary]] forces deal with preventing and controlling civil disturbances and insurrection. A small, elite Presidential Guard provides security for the [[President_of_Ghana|president]]. The [[Government_of_Ghana|Ghanaian government]] also has created a National Civil Defense Force (also known as the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution), which includes all citizens able to perform military service. According to the country's defense plans, the National Civil Defense Force would be required to guard important installations in times of crisis to relieve pressure on the regular armed forces. ==Peacekeeping== Ghana commits a large proportion of its armed forces to [[peacekeeping]] operations, mainly in Africa. Its largest contingents are: *[[MONUC]] ([[Democratic Republic of Congo]]) - 464 *[[UNMIL]] ([[Liberia]]) - 852 *[[UNAMSIL]] ([[Sierra Leone]]) - 782 *[[UNIFIL]] ([[Lebanon]]) - 651 ==See also== *[[Ghana]] [[Category:Militaries|Ghana]] [[Category:Military of Ghana|*]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign r
username>Valentinian</username> <id>256198</id> </contributor> <comment>/* References */ stub sorting</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander Anderson''' (c. [[1582]]-[[1620]]?) was a Scottish [[mathematician]] born in [[Aberdeen]]. In his youth he went to the continent and taught mathematics in [[Paris]], where he published or edited, between the years [[1612]] and [[1619]], various [[geometric]] and [[algebraic]] tracts. He was selected by the executors of [[François Viète]] to revise and edit Viete's manuscript works. The works of Anderson amount to six thin quarto volumes, and as the last of them was published in [[1619]], it is probable that the author died soon after that year, but the precise date is unknown. ==References== *{{1911}} {{Scotland-bio-stub}} {{UK-scientist-stub}} {{Mathematician-stub}} [[Category:1582 births|Anderson, Alexander]] [[Category:1620 deaths|Anderson, Alexander]] [[Category:Aberdonians|Anderson, Alexander]] [[Category:Scottish emigrants|Anderson, Alexander]] [[Category:Scottish mathematicians|Anderson, Alexander]] [[Category:Scottish scholars|Anderson, Alexander]] [[Category:University of Paris|Anderson, Alexander]] [[es:Alexander Anderson]] [[sv:Alexander Anderson]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Andocides</title> <id>1752</id> <revision> <id>28108588</id> <timestamp>2005-11-12T11:42:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bluebot</username> <id>527862</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andocides''', or '''Andokidès ''', ([[440 BC|440]]&amp;ndash;[[390 BC]]) one of the ten [[Attic orators]]. He was implicated during the [[Peloponnesian War]] in the mutilation of the [[Herms]] on the eve of the departure of the [[Sicilian expedition|Athenian expedition]] against [[Sicily]] in [[415 BC]]. Although he saved his life by turning informer, he was condemned to partial loss of civil rights and went into exile. He engaged in commercial pursuits, and returned to [[Athens]] under the general amnesty that followed the restoration of the democracy ([[403 BC]]), and filled some important offices. In [[391 BC]] he was one of the ambassadors sent to [[Sparta]] to discuss peace terms, but the negotiations failed. Oligarchical in his sympathies, he offended his own party and was distrusted by the democrats. Andocides was no professional orator; his style is simple and lively, natural but inartistic. '''Speeches extant'''--''De Reditu,'' his plea for his return and removal of civil disabilities; ''De Mysteriis,'' his defence against the charge of impiety in attending the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]]; ''De Pace,'' advocating peace with Sparta; ''Contra [[Alcibiades|Alcibiadem]],'' generally considered spurious. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Ancient Athenians|Andocides]] [[de:Andokides (Redner)]] [[el:Ανδοκίδης]] [[fr:Andocide]] [[hu:Andokidész]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Andrea Del Sarto</title> <id>1753</id> <revision> <id>15900218</id> <timestamp>2002-04-24T05:59:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gianfranco</username> <id>918</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Andrea del Sarto]] - (correct title) - moving content</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Andrea del Sarto]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Andrea Andreani</title> <id>1754</id> <revision> <id>35439958</id> <timestamp>2006-01-16T20:13:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FlaBot</username> <id>228773</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: de</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andrea Andreani''' ([[1540]]-[[1623]]), Italian [[engraver]] on wood, in [[chiaroscuro]]. Born in [[Mantua]] about [[1540]] (Brulliot says [[1560]]) and died at [[Rome]] in [[1623]]. His engravings are scarce and valuable, and are chiefly copies of [[Mantegna]], [[Albrecht Dürer]], and [[Titian]]. The most remarkable of his works are &quot;Mercury and Ignorance&quot;, the &quot;Deluge,&quot; &quot;Pharaoh's Host Drowned in the Red Sea&quot; (after Titian), the &quot;Triumph of Caesar&quot; (after Mantegna), and &quot;Christ retiring from the judgment-seat of Pilate&quot; after a relief by Giambologna. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1540 births|Andreani]] [[Category:1623 deaths|Andreani]] [[Category:Italian engravers|Andreani]] [[Category:Natives of Mantua|Andreani]] [[de:Andrea Andreani]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Andrew II of Hungary</title> <id>1755</id> <revision> <id>41213584</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:57:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mathiasrex</username> <id>776781</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andrew II''' ([[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: ''II. András'' or ''II. Endre'', [[Slovak language|Slovak]]: ''Ondrej II'') ([[1175]]-[[1235]]) was a son of [[Béla III of Hungary|Béla III]] and succeeded his nephew, the infant [[Ladislaus III of Hungary|Ladislaus III]], as King of Hungary in [[1205]]. Few other royal reigns were as detrimental to the Hungarian realm as Andrew's. Valiant, enterprising, pious as he was, all these fine qualities were ruined by a reckless good nature which never thought of the future. He declared in a decree that the generosity of a king should be limitless, and he followed this principle throughout his reign. He gave away everything - money, villages, domains, whole counties - to the utter impoverishment of the treasury, thereby rendering the crown, for the first time in Hungarian history, dependent upon the great [[nobility]] eager for personal gain. In all matters of government, Andrew was equally reckless and haphazard. He was directly responsible for the beginnings of the feudal anarchy which led to the extinction of the [[Árpáds|Árpád]] [[dynasty]] at the end of the [[13th century]]. The great nobles did not even respect the lives of the royal family, for Andrew was recalled from a futile attempt to reconquer [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] through the murder of his first wife [[Gertrude of Meran]] in [[1213]] by rebellious nobles jealous of the influence of her relatives. In [[1215]] he married Iolanthe (Yolande) of [[France]], but in [[1217]] was compelled by [[Pope Honorius III]] to lead the [[Fifth Crusade]] to the [[Holy Land]], which he undertook in hopes of being elected [[Latin Empire|Latin emperor]] of [[Constantinople]]. The crusade was not popular in Hungary, but Andrew contrived to collect 15,000 men together, whom he led to [[Venice]]. After the surrender of Hungarian claims on Zara ([[Zadar]]), about two-thirds of the crusaders were conveyed to [[Acre (city)|Acre]]. Nevertheless the whole expedition was a forlorn hope. The [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] was by this time reduced to a strip of coast about 440 mi² in extent, and after a drawn battle with the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] on the [[Jordan River]] on [[November 10]] 1217 and fruitless assaults on the fortresses of the [[Lebanon]] and on [[Mount Tabor]], Andrew started home ([[January 18]], [[1218]]) through Antioch ([[Antakya]]), Iconium ([[Konya]]), Constantinople, and [[Bulgaria]]. On his return he found the feudal barons in the ascendant, and they extorted from him the [[Golden Bull of 1222|Golden Bull]]. Andrew's last exploit was to defeat an invasion of [[Frederick II of Austria|Frederick II]] of [[Austria]] in [[1234]]. That same year he married his third wife, Beatrice of [[Este]]. ==Family== Andrew had five children by his first wife, Gertrude: # Maria of Hungary (1203-1221), married Tsar [[Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria]] # [[Bela IV of Hungary]] (1206-1270) # [[Elisabeth of Hungary|Saint Elizabeth of Hungary]] (1207-1231) # Kálmán, Duke of [[Croatia]] (1208-1241) # András, King of Galicia (1210-1234) From his second marriage to Yolande de Courtney, he had one daughter: # Jolán (Yolande) of Hungary (1215-1251), married [[James I of Aragon]] Andrew's third marriage to Beatrice d'Este produced one posthumous son: # István (1236-1271), who was himself father of King [[Andrew III of Hungary]] ==References== * {{1911}} {{start box}} {{succession box|title=[[King of Hungary]]|before=[[Ladislaus III of Hungary|Ladislaus III]]|after=[[Bela IV of Hungary|Béla IV]]|years=1205&amp;ndash;1235}} {{end box}} [[Category:Hungarian monarchs]] [[Category:1175 births|Andrew II of Hungary]] [[Category:1235 deaths|Andrew II of Hungary]] [[Category:Crusades]] [[de:Andreas II. (Ungarn)]] [[fr:André II de Hongrie]] [[hu:II. András]] [[ja:エンドレ2世]] [[pl:Andrzej II]] [[pt:André II da Hungria]] [[ro:Andrei al II-lea al Ungariei]] [[sk:Ondrej II. (Uhorsko)]] [[sv:Andreas II av Ungern]] [[zh:安德烈二世]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding</title> <id>1756</id> <revision> <id>42161859</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:47:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lucidish</username> <id>75338</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''''' is a book by the [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[philosopher]] [[David Hume]], published in [[1748]]. This is the book that woke [[Immanuel Kant]] from his self-described &quot;dogmatic slumber&quot;. It was a simplification of an earlier effort, Hume's ''[[A Treatise of Human Nature]]'', published anonymously in [[London]] in [[1739]]&amp;ndash;[[1740]]. Hume was disappointed with the reception of the ''Treatise'' (it &quot;fell dead-born from the press&quot;, as he put it) and so tried again to get his ideas before the public in this ''Enquiry''. Among the changes from the ''Treatise'' included a removal of Hume's theories of [[pe
cintosh]] Plus's Mouse, 1986]] In 1970 Engelbart received a [[patent]] for the wooden shell with two metal wheels ([[computer mouse]] {{US patent|3,541,541}}), describing it in the patent application as an ''&quot;X-Y position indicator for a display system&quot;''. Engelbart later revealed that it was nicknamed the ''mouse'' because the tail came out the end. It was also called the ''bug'' at the time (as evidenced by Engelbart's personal correspondence on file at Stanford) but eventually this practice died out. He never received any [[royalties]] for his mouse invention, partly because his patent expired in 1987, before the personal computer revolution made the mouse an indispensable input device, and also because subsequent mice used different mechanisms that did not infringe upon the original patent. During an interview, he says &quot;[[SRI International|SRI]] patented the mouse, but they really had no idea of its value. Some years later I learned that they had licensed it to [[Apple Computer|Apple]] for something like $40,000.&quot; Engelbart showcased many of his and ARC's inventions in 1968 at the so-called [[The Mother of All Demos|mother of all demos]]. ===ARPANET=== Because Engelbart's research and tool-development for online collaboration and interactive human-computer interfaces was partially funded by [[Advanced Research Projects Agency|ARPA]], SRI's ARC became involved with the, [[ARPANET#Initial_ARPANET_deployment |ARPANET]] (the precursor of the [[Internet]]). On [[October 29]], [[1969]], the world's first electronic computer network, the [[ARPANET#Initial_ARPANET_deployment |ARPANET]], was established between nodes at [[Leonard Kleinrock]]'s lab at [[UCLA]] and Engelbart's lab at SRI. [[Interface Message Processors]] at both sites served as the [[Internet backbone| backbone]] of the first [[Internet]] [http://www.engineer.ucla.edu/stories/2004/Internet35.htm]. In addition to SRI and UCLA, [[UCSB]], and the [[University of Utah]] were part of the original four network nodes. By [[December 5]], [[1969]], the entire 4-node network was connected. ARC soon became the first [[Network Information Center]] and thus managed the directory for connections among all ARPANET nodes. ARC also published a large percentage of the early [[Request For Comment]]s, an ongoing series of publications that document the evolution of ARPANET/Internet. ==End of corporate career and subsequent developments== Engelbart slipped into relative obscurity after 1976 due to various misfortunes and misunderstandings. Several of Engelbart's best researchers became alienated from him and left his organization for [[Xerox PARC]], in part due to frustration, and in part due to differing views of the future of computing, where Engelbart saw the future in timeshare (client/server) computing, which younger programmers rejected in favor of the personal computer. The conflict was both technical and social: Engelbart came from a time in which only timeshare computing was achievable, and also believed in joint effort; the younger programmers came from an era where centralized power was highly suspect, and personal computing was just barely on the horizon. The [[Mansfield Amendment]], the end of the [[Vietnam War]], and the end of [[Project Apollo]] reduced ARC's funding from ARPA and [[NASA]]. SRI's management, which disapproved of Engelbart's approach to running the center, placed the remains of ARC under the control of [[artificial intelligence]] researcher [[Bert Raphael]], who fired Engelbart (from the lab that Engelbart had founded) in 1976. Engelbart's house in [[Atherton, California|Atherton]] burned down shortly afterwards, causing him and his family even further problems. In 1978, a company called [[Tymshare]] bought [[On-Line System|NLS]], hired its creator as a Senior Scientist, and offered commercial services based upon NLS. Tymshare was already somewhat familiar with NLS; back when ARC was still operational, it had experimented with its own local copy of the NLS software on a minicomputer called OFFICE-1, as part of a joint project with ARC. At Tymshare, Engelbart soon found himself marginalized and relegated to obscurity--operational concerns at Tymshare overrode Engelbart's desire to do further research. Various executives first at Tymshare and later at [[McDonnell Douglas]] (which took over Tymshare in 1982) expressed interest in his ideas, but never committed the funds or the people to further develop them. He left McDonnell in 1986 and retired from corporate life. Since the late 1980s, prominent individuals and organizations have recognized the seminal importance of Engelbart's contributions: In December 1995, at the Fourth WWW Conference in Boston, he was the first recipient of what would later become the [[Yuri Rubinsky Memorial Award]]. In 1997 he was awarded the [[Lemelson-MIT Prize]] of $500,000, the world's largest single prize for invention and innovation, and the [[Turing Award]]. In 1998 the [http://svarchive.stanford.edu/ ''Stanford Silicon Valley Archives''] and the [[Institute for the Future]] hosted [http://unrev.stanford.edu/ ''Engelbart's Unfinished Revolution''], a large [[symposium]] at [[Stanford University]]'s Memorial Auditorium, to honor Engelbart and his ideas. In early 2000 Engelbart produced, with a dedicated team of volunteers and financial supporters, what was called the Engelbart Colloquium or [http://www.bootstrap.org/colloquium/colloquium.html ''The Unfinished Revolution - II''], at Stanford University. The Colloquium was meant to document and publicize his work and ideas to a large audience (live, and online). The archives of this [http://scpd.stanford.edu/scpd/students/Dam_ui/pages/ArchivedVideoList.asp?Include=engelbart_colloquium ''Engelbart UnRev-II Colloquium at Stanford''] are still available online as of this writing ([[2005|September 2005]]). In December 2000, US President [[Bill Clinton]] awarded Engelbart the [http://www.bootstrap.org/chronicle/pix/nmt.html ''National Medal of Technology''], the United States' highest technology award. In 2001 Engelbart was awarded a [[British Computer Society]]'s [[Lovelace Medal]]. 2005 saw Engelbart made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum and winner of the [[Norbert Wiener Award]], awarded annually by [[Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility]]. ==At present== Currently (at age 81 in [[As of 2006|2006]]), he is the director of his own company, the [[Bootstrap Institute]] which he founded in 1988 with his daughter, [[Christina Engelbart]]. It is located in [[Fremont, California]] and promotes Engelbart's latest refinement of his philosophy, the concept of [[Collective intelligence|Collective IQ]], and development of what he calls [http://www.bootstrap.org/augdocs/augment-132082.htm Open Hyper-Document Systems](OHS), and [http://www.invisiblerevolution.net/hyper-and-blog.html HyperScope], a subset of OHS. Bootstrap is housed rent-free courtesy of the [[Logitech|Logitech Corp.]], the world's largest manufacturer of computer mice. ==See also== * [[Collaborative software]] * [[History of the graphical user interface]] * [[Hypertext Editing System]] * [[Ivan Sutherland]] * [[Jeff Rulifson]] * [[Machine augmented intelligence]] * [[Ted Nelson]] * [[Andries van Dam]] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/sci/tech/newsid_1633000/1633972.stm ''The Man behind the Mouse''] (featured on [[BBC News Online]]) * [http://www.bootstrap.org/chronicle/chronicle.html Bootstrap Institute Bio] and [http://www.bootstrap.org/chronicle/cv.html Curriculum Vitae] * [http://unrev.stanford.edu/ ''Engelbart's Unfinished Revolution'']; Dec 1998 at Stanford University * [http://www.bootstrap.org/colloquium/colloquium.html ''The Unfinished Revolution: Strategy and Means for Coping with Complex Problems'']; Jan-March 2000 Colloquium at Stanford University * [http://invisiblerevolution.net The History of Doug Engelbart and Interactive Computing] * [http://opencourse.org/Collaboratories/hyperscope/hyperscope-wiki/FrontPage The Study of Engelbart: An Educational Networked Improvement Community] California State University Student Wiki studying Engelbart, Directed by Valerie Landau * [http://www.almaden.ibm.com/coevolution/bio/index.shtml?engelbart As We May Work from IBM Symposium site] * [http://www.pbs.org/cringely/pulpit/pulpit20040826.html Column] by [[Robert X. Cringely]] * [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.01/mouse_pr.html Wired article: The Click Heard Round The World] * [http://switch.sjsu.edu/nextswitch/categories/issue18/invitational/switch_engelbart_transcript.pdf Transcript] of 2003 visit to [http://cadre.sjsu.edu San Jose State University] * [http://www.zakros.com/wvr/wvr.html ''Multimedia: From Wagner to Virtual Reality''], by Randall Packer * [http://www.superkids.com/aweb/pages/features/mouse/mouse.html ''Doug Engelbart: Father of the Mouse''] * [http://sloan.stanford.edu/MouseSite/1968Demo.html ''Doug Engelbart 1968 Demo''] Original 90-minute video from [http://sloan.stanford.edu/MouseSite/ MouseSite] * [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/processing_engelbart/links ''A Fairly Extensive Set Of Links''] * [http://www.openaugment.org/ OpenAugment Consortium], dedicated to the preservation of the Augment system * [http://www.sri.com/about/timeline/mouse.html SRI mouse] * [http://www.pbs.org/cringely/nerdtv/shows/#11 Nerd TV, Inventer of the mouse] hour long video interview by Robert X. Cringely * [http://channel9.msdn.com/Showpost.aspx?postid=141728 Channel9 @MSDN ]Interview with Douglas Engelbart. [[Category:1925 births|Engelbart, Doug]] [[Category:Living people|Engelbart, Doug]] [[Category:American inventors|Engelbart, Doug]] [[Category:Computer hardware engineers|Engelbart, Doug]] [[Category:Computer pioneers|Engelbart, Doug]] [[Category:Human-computer interaction notables|Engelbart, Doug]] [[Category:Norwegian-Americans|Engelbart, Doug]] [[Category:Portlanders|Engelbart, Doug]] [[Category:Sigma Phi Epsilon br
of the [[soul]], the [[Trinity]], and the pre-existence of Christ. They believe that where the words ''[[devil]]'' or ''[[Satan]]'' occur in the Bible, they should be understood as the inherent evil within man (i.e. sin) and his inclination to disobey his Creator. These terms may also be used in reference to specific political systems or individuals in opposition or conflict. [[Hell]], is understood to simply refer to the grave to which all men go, rather than being a place of eternal torment. Christadelphians believe the doctrines they reject were introduced into Christendom after the 1st century, and cannot be demonstrated from the Bible. Christadelphians are [[conscientious objectors]] (but not [[pacifists]]), and refrain from involvement with politics, joining the armed forces, the police force, or other organised bodies such as trade unions. There is a strong emphasis on personal Bible reading, bible study, prayer, and morality. Congregational worship, which usually takes place on Sunday, centres on the remembrance of a Jesus Christ in bread and wine. ==History== There have been small groups of believers down the centuries, and particularly since the Reformation, who held unorthodox views. Groups such as the [[Anabaptist|Anabaptists]], [[Waldensians|Waldenses]], [[Socinianism|Socinians]], Racovians and the [[Polish brethren|Polish Brethren]] shared some or even many beliefs held by Christadelphians. [[Isaac Newton]], [[Joseph Priestley]], [[John Locke]], [[William Tyndale]] all appear to have held beliefs close to those of Christadelphians on the unity of God, the mortality of man and the role of the Jews in God's purpose. From the mid-19th century, there were groups in many parts of the United Kingdom and North America which held to the beliefs outlined above, and who were loosely associated with one another. Of particular significance was the publication in 1849 of [[John Thomas (Christadelphian)|John Thomas]] work, ''Elpis Israel'' in which he laid out his understanding of the main doctrines of the Bible. Groups associated with him met under various names, including ''Believers, Baptised Believers, the Royal Association of Believers, Baptised Believers in the Kingdom of God'', until the time of the [[American Civil War]]. At that time, church affiliation was required to register for conscientious objector status and in 1865 Thomas chose for registration purposes the word ''Christadelphian'', which was already in use by some members of congregations holding these beliefs. It is derived from the Greek for &quot;Brothers and sisters in Christ&quot;. In the nineteenth century Christadelphian meetings sprang up rapidly in the United Kingdom, America and throughout the English-speaking world. From the early days of Christadelphians, many have simply read the Bible for themselves, and discovered its truth independently. They have then come into contact with Christadelphians, and joined them. Christadelphians suffered three divisions early on in their history when three groups separated from the main body. A number left in 1873 and eventually became known as the ''[[Nazarene fellowship]]'', a separate religious denomination still in existence. In 1884-5 a dispute arose concerning the inspiration of the Bible. Robert Ashcroft, a leading member, wrote an article which challenged commonly held views about inspiration. In the controversy which followed, the Birmingham ecclesia withdrew fellowship from Ashcroft. Some members, while not agreeing with Ashcroft's views on inspiration, did not approve of Birmingham's handling of the matter. This group eventually left the Birmingham ecclesia and formed a new ecclesia which became known as the Suffolk Street ecclesia. The ecclesias throughout the world which supported them became known as the ''Suffolk Street fellowship''. The third division occurred in 1898 centered on whether the Judgement at the return of Christ would be limited to baptised believers, or would apply to all who had heard the Gospel message. The majority, who held the latter view, amended their Statement of Faith to clarify this. Those not accepting the amendment became the ''Unamended fellowship''. The group from which the Unamended and Suffolk Street fellowships had seceded became generally known as the ''Temperance Hall fellowship''. It underwent a further schism in 1923 over military service and other issues. This resulted in the formation of the ''Berean fellowship''. The Bereans subsequently divided over divorce and remarriage, with the majority becoming known as the ''Dawn fellowship''. In the early 1950s members of the Berean fellowship re-joined the Temperance Hall fellowship, though not all Bereans agreed with this move. In 1957-8, there was further reunion with the Suffolk Street fellowship, which had already incorporated many of the Unamended fellowship outside North America. This re-united group, which now included the large majority of Christadelphians, became known as the ''Central fellowship''. Some Christadelphians did not accept this reunion since they held that the reasons for separation remained. They formed the ''Old Paths Fellowship''. Despite periodic efforts at union the Central and Unamended fellowships in North America remain divided. The Berean, Dawn and Old Paths fellowships also continue to the present day. Christadelphians from different fellowships do communicate with one another over various issues, use some of each others' publications and there are usually continuing attempts to resolve areas of disagreement. The name Christadelphians is a generic title describing a group of people who share similar origins, but as history shows have quite a diverse history. For more information about individual fellowships readers are recommended to read the relevant Wikipedia entry. ==Organisation== Christadelphians usually call their congregations ''ecclesias''. There is no central Christadelphian organization or hierarchy. Ecclesias are autonomous to a degree and co-operation between most of them is based on a common acceptance of the Birmingham Amended Statement of Faith [http://www.christadelphia.org/basf.htm]. The Unamended fellowship use the Unamended Statement of Faith [http://www.texas-christadelphians.org/00_tuc.asp?nav=nav_main&amp;page=doct_stmt_faith]. Anyone who publicly assents to the doctrines described in this statement and is in good standing in their &quot;home ecclesia&quot; is generally welcome to participate in the activities of any other ecclesia. Christadelphians do not have paid [[minister of religion|ministers]]. Most male members are eligible to teach and perform other duties, and these are usually assigned on a rotation, rather than having a designated preacher. Governance follows a [[democracy|democratic]] model, typically with an elected arranging committee for each individual ecclesia. This unpaid committee is responsible for the day-to-day running of the ecclesia and is answerable to the rest of the ecclesia's members. Christadelphians, based on their understanding of the Bible, make a distinction between the roles of male and female members. Women are not eligible to teach in formal gatherings of the ecclesia when male believers are present, and do not sit on ecclesial arranging committees. They do, however, participate in other ecclesial and inter-ecclesial committees (for example, for youth work, evangelism, welfare). Women also participate in discussions, teach children, perform music, discuss and vote on business matters, preach, teach unbelievers, and engage in most other activities. Christadelphian ecclesias actively preach to their neighbours and co-operate at a regional, national, and international level in proselytizing. There are also ecclesially-accountable committees for youth and Sunday School work, military service issues, care of the elderly, and humanitarian work. These do not have any legislative authority, and are wholly dependent upon ecclesial support. Ecclesias in an area may regularly hold joint activities combining youth groups, fellowship, preaching, and Bible study. ==Further reading== * Peter Hemingray, ''John Thomas, His Friends and His Faith'' (2003: ISBN Number 81-7887-012-6) * Charles H. Lippy, ''The Christadelphians in North America'' (Lewiston/Queenston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1989). * Bryan R. Wilson, ''Sects and Society: A Sociological Study of the Elim Tabernacle, Christian Science and Christadelphians'' (London: Heinemann, 1961; Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961). ==External links== ===Christadelphian Websites=== *[http://www.thisisyourbible.com/ This is your Bible] information about what Christadelphians believe *[http://www.thechristadelphians.org The Christadelphians.org] Amended/Central Beliefs, Books, Articles, Talks and links to other Christadelphian Amended/Central websites *[http://www.dawnchristadelphians.org The Dawn Christadelphians] Information about the Dawn Christadelphians, their beliefs, where they meet and links *[http://www.gospeltruth.info Old Paths Christadelphians] *[http://www.christadelphians.org.nz Lightstand Christadelphians] and links to other Lightstand websites *[http://www.bereans.org The Berean Christadelphians] including links to other Berean meetings *[http://www.christadelphian-advocate.org The Christadelphian Advocate] Unamended Christadelphian periodical (site includes information about the Unamended group ===Forums relevant to Christadelphians=== *[http://www.thechristadelphians.org/forums BTDF]- for Christadelphians, former Christadelphians, Christians, and other groups to meet and to discuss the practical application of their belief. *[http://groups.msn.com/TruthAlive Truth Alive] - for former Christadelphians to meet together with Christadelphians to discuss the practical application of their faith. *[http://bibletruthalive.org Bible Truth Alive] - a place for Christadelpians to discuss freely their faith and its pract
r, and efforts are underway to unify the two. ====Chemistry==== {{main|History of chemistry}} [[Image:LinusPauling.jpeg|thumb|150px|left|[[Linus Pauling]]]] The history of chemistry begins with the distinction of chemistry from [[alchemy]] by [[Robert Boyle]] in his work ''The Skeptical Chymist'' (1661). It can also be dated to [[Antoine Lavoisier]]'s discovery of oxygen and the law of [[conservation of mass]], which refuted [[phlogiston theory]]. Proof that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest indestructible part of matter, was provided by [[John Dalton]] in 1803. He also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, [[Dmitry Mendeleyev]] composed his [[periodic table]] of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries. The synthesis of [[urea]] by [[Friedrich Wöhler]] opened a new research field in chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the nineteenth century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from [[whaling]]. By the twentieth century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. The twentieth century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom; [[Linus Pauling]]'s book on ''The Nature of the Chemical Bond'' used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce [[bond angle]]s in ever-more complicated molecules, culminating in the physical modelling of [[DNA]], or (in the words of [[Francis Crick]]) ''the secret of life''. In the same year, the [[Miller-Urey experiment]] demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of DNA, simple [[amino acid]]s, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules. ====Geology==== {{main|Geology}} Chinese polymath [[Shen Kua]] (1031 - 1095) was the first to formulate hypotheses for the process of land formation. Based on his observation of fossils in a geological [[stratum]] in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he deduced that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by [[Deposition (geology)|deposition]] of silt. [[Image:Wegener.jpg|thumb|130px|right|[[Plate tectonics]] - [[seafloor spreading]] and [[continental drift]] illustrated on relief globe]] [[Theophrastus]]' work on rocks ''Peri lith&amp;#333;n'' remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. During the 1700s [[Jean-Etienne Guettard]] and [[Nicolas Desmarest]] hiked central France and recorded their observations on geological maps; Guettard recorded the first observation of the volcanic origins of this part of France. [[James Hutton]] recorded his ''Theory of the Earth'' in 1788, which would later be refered to as ''[[Uniformitarianism (science)|Uniformitarianism]]''. In 1811, [[Georges Cuvier]] and [[Alexandre Brongniart]] published their explanation of the antiquity of the Earth, inspired by Cuvier's discovery of fossil elephant bones in Paris. They formulated the principle of [[Stratigraphy|stratigraphic]] succession of the layers of the earth. [[Charles Lyell]]'s ''Principles of Geology'' reiterated Hutton's Uniformitarianism, which influenced [[Charles Darwin]]. In the 20th century, the main development has been the theory of [[plate tectonics]] in the 1960s. Plate tectonic theory (which revolutionized The theory the [[Earth sciences]]) arose out of two separate geological observations: [[seafloor spreading]] and [[continental drift]]. ====Astronomy==== {{main|History of astronomy}} Advances in astronomy and in optical systems in the 19th century resulted in the first observation of an [[asteroid]] ([[Ceres]]) in [[1801]], and the discovery of [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] in [[1846]]. [[George Gamow]], [[Ralph Alpher]], and [[Robert Hermann]] had calculated that there should be evidence for a Big Bang in the background temperature of the universe{{fn|1}}. In 1964, [[Arno Penzias]] and [[Robert Wilson]]{{fn|2}} discovered a 3 kelvin background hiss in their [[Bell Labs]] [[radiotelescope]], which was evidence for this hypothesis, and formed the basis for a number of results that helped determine the [[age of the universe]]. Supernova [[SN1987A]] was observed by astronomers on Earth both visually, and in a triumph for [[neutrino astronomy]], by the solar neutrino detectors at [[Kamiokande]]. But the solar neutrino flux was [[solar neutrino problem|a fraction of its theoretically-expected value]]. This discrepancy forced a change in some values in the [[standard model]] for [[particle physics]]. ====Biology, medicine, and genetics==== {{main articles|[[History of biology]], [[History of medicine]] and [[History of evolutionary thought]]}} [[Image:dna-split.png|thumb|left|140px|Semi-conservative [[DNA]] replication.]] In 1847, Hungarian physician [[Ignaz Semmelweis|Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis]] dramatically reduced the occurrency of [[puerperal fever]] by the simple experiment of requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. This discovery predated the [[germ theory of disease]]. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon [[Joseph Lister]], who in 1865 proved the principles of [[antisepsis]]. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist [[Louis Pasteur]]. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in [[preventive medicine]], when in 1880 he produced a [[vaccine]] against [[rabies]]. Pasteur invented the process of [[pasteurization]], to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods. Perhaps the most prominent and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]] put forward by the British naturalist [[Charles Darwin]] in his ''On [[the Origin of Species]]'' in 1859. Darwin's theory proposed that all differences in animals were formed by natural processes over long periods of time, and that even [[human]]s were simply evolved organisms. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both [[Social effect of evolutionary theory|opposition and support]] from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of &quot;man's place in the universe&quot;. In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by the Austrian monk [[Gregor Mendel]] in 1866. Mendel's laws provided the beginnings of the study of [[genetics]], which became a major field of research for both scientific and industrial research. By 1953, [[James Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] clarified the basic structure of DNA, the [[genetic material]] for expressing life in all its forms{{fn|3}}. In the late 20th century, the possibilities of [[genetic engineering]] became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human [[genome]] (the [[Human Genome Project]]) has been touted as potentially having large medical benefits. ====Ecology==== {{main|History of ecology}} [[Image:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|thumb|right|Earthrise over the [[Moon]], [[Apollo 8]], [[NASA]]. This image helped create awareness of the finiteness of Earth, and the limits of its [[natural resource]]s.]] The discipline of [[ecology]] typically traces its origin to the synthesis of [[evolution|Darwinian evolution]] and [[Alexander von Humboldt|Humboldtian]] [[biogeography]], in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were [[microbiology]] and [[soil science]]&amp;mdash;particularly the [[biogeochemical cycle|cycle of life]] concept, prominent in the work [[Louis Pasteur]] and [[Ferdinand Cohn]]. The word ''ecology'' was coined by [[Ernst Haeckel]], whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking. In the 1930's, [[Arthur Tansley]] and others began developing the field of [[ecosystem ecology]], which combined experimental soil science with physiological concepts of energy and the techniques of [[natural history|field biology]]. The history of ecology in the 20th century is closely tied to that of [[environmentalism]]; the [[Gaia hypothesis]] in the 1960s and more recently the scientific-religious movement of [[Deep Ecology]] have brought the two closer together. ===&lt;U&gt;Social sciences&lt;/U&gt;=== Successful use of the scientific method in the physical sciences led to the same methodology being adapted to better understand the many fields of human endeavor. From this effort the social sciences have been developed. ====Political science==== :''Main article: [[Political science#History of political science|History of political science]]'' One of the basic requirements for a scientific community is the existence and approval of a political sponsor; in England, the [[Royal Society]] operates under the aegis of the [[monarchy]]; in the US, the [[National Academy of Sciences]] was founded by Act of Congress; etc. Otherwise, when the basic elements of knowledge were being formulated, the political rulers of the respective communities could choose to arbitrarily either support or disallow the nascent scientific communities. For example, [[Alhazen]] had to feign madness to avoid execution. The polymath [[Shen Kuo]] lost political support, and could not continue his studies until he came up with discoveries that showed his worth to the political rulers. The admiral [[Zheng He]] could not con
federal government. [[Image:The States of Austria Numbered.png|right|States of Austria]] {| border style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse&quot; !colspan=2|[[English language|In English]] !colspan=2|[[German language|In German]] |- ![[States of Austria|State]] !! [[Capital]] !! State !! Capital |- |'''1''' [[Burgenland]] ||[[Eisenstadt]] ||Burgenland ||Eisenstadt |- |'''2''' [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]]||[[Klagenfurt]]||Kärnten||Klagenfurt |- |'''3''' [[Lower Austria]]||[[St. Pölten]]||Niederösterreich||St. Pölten |- |'''4''' [[Upper Austria]]||[[Linz]]||Oberösterreich||Linz |- |'''5''' [[Salzburg (state)|Salzburg]]||[[Salzburg]]||Salzburg (Land)||Salzburg |- |'''6''' [[Styria (state)|Styria]]||[[Graz]]||Steiermark||Graz |- |'''7''' [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]]||[[Innsbruck]]||Tirol||Innsbruck |- |'''8''' [[Vorarlberg]]||[[Bregenz]]||Vorarlberg||Bregenz |- |'''9''' [[Vienna]]||[[Vienna]]||Wien (Land)||Wien |} ==Geography== {{details|Geography of Austria}} [[image:Oesterreich topo.png|thumb|left|240px|Topography of Austria]] Austria is a largely [[mountain]]ous country due to its location in the [[Alps]]. The [[Central Eastern Alps]], [[Northern Limestone Alps]] and [[Southern Limestone Alps]] are all partly in Austria. Of the total area of Austria (84,000 km² or 32,000&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]), only about a quarter can be considered low lying, and only 32% of the country is below 500 [[metre]]s (1,640&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). The high mountainous Alps in the west of Austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country. [[Image:Au-map.png|thumb|right|240px|Map of Austria]] Austria may be divided into 5 different areas. The biggest area are the [[Eastern Alps|Austrian Alps]], which constitute 62% of Austria's total area. The Austrian foothills at the base of the [[Alps]] and the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian]]s account for around 12% of its area. The foothills in the east and areas surrounding the periphery of the Pannoni low country amount to about 12% of the total landmass. The second greater mountain area (much lower than the Alps) is situated in the north. Known as the Austrian [[granite]] [[plateau]], it is located in the central area of the Bohemian Mass, and accounts for 10% of Austria. The Austrian portion of the [[Viennese basin]] comprises the remaining 4%. ===Climate=== The greater part of Austria lies in the cool/temperate [[climate zone]] in which humid westerly winds predominate. With over half of the country dominated by the [[Alps]] the [[alpine climate]] is the predominant one. In the East the climate shows continental features with less rain than the areas with high rainfall averages. The six highest mountains in Austria are: {| |----- bgcolor=#DDDDDD ! &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ! Name ! &amp;nbsp;Height&amp;nbsp;(m) !&amp;nbsp;Height&amp;nbsp;([[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) ! Range |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;1 || [[Großglockner]]&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; | 3,797 m || 12,457 ft || [[Hohe Tauern]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;2 || [[Wildspitze]]&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; || 3,768 m || 12,362 ft || [[Ötztal Alps]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;3 || [[Weißkugel]]&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; || 3,739 m || 12,267 ft || [[Ötztal Alps]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;4 || [[Großvenediger]]&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; || 3,674 m || 12,054 ft || [[Hohe Tauern]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;5 || [[Similaun]]&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; || 3,606 m || 11,831 ft || [[Ötztal Alps]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE | &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;6 || [[Großes Wiesbachhorn]]&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; || 3,571 m || 11,715 ft || [[Hohe Tauern]] |----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE |} ==Economy== {{details|Economy of Austria}} [[Image:20ec_oes.png|320px|right|frame| The [[Belvedere (palace)|Belvedere]] Palace, an example of the [[Baroque]] ]] Austria has a well-developed [[social market economy]] and a high [[standard of living]]. Until the 1980s many of Austria's largest industry firms were nationalised, however in recent years privatisation has reduced state holdings to a level comparable to other European economies. Labour movements are particularly strong in Austria and have large influence on labour politics. [[Germany]] has historically been the main trading partner of Austria, making it vulnerable to rapid changes in the [[German economy]]. Slow growth in Germany and elsewhere in the world affected Austria, slowing its growth to 1.2% in 2001. But since Austria became a member state of the [[European Union]] it has gained closer ties to other [[European Union]] economies, reducing its economic dependence on Germany. In addition, membership in the EU has drawn an influx of foreign investors attracted by Austria's access to the single European market and proximity to EU aspiring economies. Therefore estimates of growth in 2005 (up to 2%) are much more favourable than in the crippling German economy. '''Agriculture''': Austrian farms, like those of other west European mountainous countries, are small and fragmented, and production is relatively expensive. '''Industry''': Although some industries, such as several iron and steel works and chemical plants, are large industrial enterprises employing thousands of people, most industrial and commercial enterprises in Austria are relatively small on an international scale. '''Services''': Like in other western countries, the biggest contributor to Austria's GDP is its service sector. Most notably is [[tourism]], especially [[winter]] [[tourism]]. To meet increased competition from both EU and Central European countries, Austria will need to emphasize knowledge-based sectors of the economy, continue to deregulate the [[service sector]], and lower its tax burden. See also: [[List of Austrian companies]] ==Demographics== {{details|Demographics of Austria}} [[image:1Canaletto-Wien-Belvedere.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Vienna]] during the first half of the 18th century, painting by [[Canaletto]].]] Austria's capital [[Vienna]] is one of Europe's major cities with a population exceeding 1.6 million (2 million with suburbs) and constitutes a ''melting pot'' of citizens from all over Central and Eastern Europe. In contrast to this ''Metropolis'', other cities do not exceed 1 million inhabitants, in fact the second largest [[city]] [[Graz]] is home of 305,000 people (followed by [[Linz]] with 180,000, [[Salzburg]] with 145,000 and [[Innsbruck]] with 134,803 (2005). All other cities have fewer than 100,000 inhabitants. Austrians of German mother tongue, by far the country's largest group, form 91.1% of Austria's population. The remaining [[number]] of Austria's people are of non-Austrian descent, many from surrounding countries, especially from the former [[Eastern Bloc|East Bloc]] nations. The Austrian federal states of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] and [[Styria (state)|Styria]] are home to a significant (indigenous) Slovenian minority with around 14,000 members (Austrian census; unofficial numbers of Slovene groups speak of about 40,000). So-called guest workers ''(Gastarbeiter)'' and their descendants also form an important [[minority group]] in Austria. Around 20,000 [[Hungarians]] and 30,000 [[Croatians]] live in the east-most Bundesland, [[Burgenland]] (formerly part of Hungary). The official language, [[German language|German]], is spoken by almost all residents of the country. Austria's mountainous terrain led to the development of many distinct German dialects. All of the dialects in the [[country]], however, belong to [[Austro-Bavarian]] groups of German dialects, with the exception of the dialect spoken in its west-most Bundesland, [[Vorarlberg]], which belongs to the group of [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] dialects. There is also a distinct grammatical standard for [[Austrian language|Austrian]] German with a few differences to the German spoken in Germany. ===Politics concerning ethnic groups (Volksgruppenpolitik)=== An estimated 25,000-40,000 [[Slovenians]] in the Austrian state of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] as well as Croatians and [[Hungarians]] in Burgenland were recognized as a minority and have enjoyed special rights following the Austrian State Treaty (Staatsvertrag) of 1955. The Slovenians in the Austrian state of [[Styria (state)|Styria]] (estimated at a number between 1,600 and 5,000) are not recognized as a minority and do not enjoy special rights, although the State Treaty of July 27, 1955 states otherwise. The right for bilingual topographic signs for the regions where Slovene and Croatian speaking Austrians live alongside with the German speaking population (as required by the 1955 State Treaty) is still to be fully implemented. There is also an undercurrent of thinking amongst parts of the Carenthian population that the [[Slovenian]] involvement in the partisan war against the [[Nazi]] occupation force was a bad thing, and indeed &quot;Tito partisan&quot; is a not an infrequent insult hurled against members of the minority. Many Carinthians are afraid of Slovenian territorial claims, pointing to the fact that Yugoslav troops entered the state after each of the two World Wars and considering that some official Slovenian atlases still show parts of Carinthia as Slovenian cultural territory. The current governor, [[Jörg Haider]], has made this fact a matter of public argument in fall 2005 by refusing to increase the number of bilingual topographic signs in Carinthia. A poll by the Kärntner Humaninstitut conducted in January 2006 states that 65% of Carinthians are not in favour of an increase of bilingual topographic signs, since the original requirements set by the State Treaty of 1955 have already been fulfilled according to their point of view. Another interesting phenomenon is the so called &quot;Windischen-Theorie&quot; [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windischen-Theorie] stating that the Slovenians can be split in two g
hitting spectators in the road, and left the track into the crowd of spectators on the side, killing three and injuring 30. [[Bobby Unser]] used an Audi in that same year to claim a new record for the Pikes Peak Hill Climb at 11:09.22. ===Motorsports in the USA=== In 1987, Walter Röhrl claimed the title for Audi setting a new record of 10:47.85 in his Audi S1 he retired from the WRC in 2 years earlier. The Audi S1 employed Audi's time-tested 5-cylinder turbo charged engine and generated over 600 hp (447 kW). The engine was mated to a 6-speed gearbox and ran on Audi's famous all-wheel drive system. All of Audi's top drivers drove this beast, Hannu Mikkola, Stig Blomqvist, Walter Röhrl and the female driver, Michèle Mouton. The Audi S1 enjoys a 0-60 mph (0-100 km/h) time of 2.3 s. This Audi S1 started the S-series of cars for Audi which now represents an increased level of sports options and quality to the Audi line up. As Audi moved away from rallying and into circuit racing, they chose first into America with the [[Trans-Am Series|Trans-Am]] in 1988, In 1989, Audi moved to [[International Motor Sports Association|IMSA GTO]] with the [[Audi 90|90]], however as they avoided the two major endurance events (Daytona and Sebring) despite winning on a regular basis, they would lose out on the title. ===Touring cars=== In 1990, having completed their objective to market cars in the United States, Audi returned to Europe turning first to the [[Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft|DTM]] series with the [[Audi V8]], then in 1993, being unwilling to build cars for the new formula, they turned their attention to the fast growing [[Supertouring]] series, which took place nationally, first in the [[French Supertourisme]] and [[Italian Superturismo]]. In the following year, Audi would switched to the German [[Super Tourenwagen]] (known as STW) and then to [[BTCC]] (British Touring Car Championship) the year after that. The [[FIA]], having difficulty regulating the Quattro system and what impact it had on the competitors, would eventually ban all four wheel drive cars from competiting in 1998, by then Audi switched all their works efforts to sportscar racing. By 2000, Audi would still compete in the US with their [[Audi RS4|RS4]] for the [[SPEED World Challenge|SCCA Speed World GT Challenge]], through dealer/team [[Champion Racing]] competing against Corvettes, Vipers, and smaller BMWs (where it is one of the few series to permit 4WD cars). In 2003, Champion Racing entered an [[Audi RS6|RS6]]. Once again, the quattro was superior and Champion Audi won the championship. They returned in 2004 to defend their title but a newcomer, Cadillac, gave them a run for their money. After four victories in a row, the Audis were sanctioned with several negative changes that deeply affected the car's performance. In 2004, after years of competiting with the TT-R in the revitalised DTM series, with privateer team [[Abt|Abt Racing]] taking the 2002 title with [[Laurent Aiello]], Audi returned as a full factory effort to touring car racing by entering two factory supported [[Joest Racing]] [[Audi A4|A4s]]. ===Sports car racing=== Beginning in 1999, Audi built the [[Audi R8 Race Car|Audi R8]] to compete in [[sports car racing]], including the [[Le Mans Prototype|LMP900]] class at the [[24 hours of Le Mans]]. The factory supported Joest Racing team won at Le Mans three times in a row (2000 - 2002), as well as winning every race in the [[American Le Mans]] Series in its first year. Audi also sold the car to customer teams such as [[Champion Racing]]. In 2003, two [[Bentley]] [[Bentley Speed 8|Speed 8]]s, with engines designed by Audi and driven by Joest drivers ''loaned'' to the fellow VW company, competed in the GTP class and finished the race in the top two positions, while the Champion Racing R8 finished third overall and first in the LMP900 class. Audi returned to the winner's circle at the 2004 race, with the top three finishers all driving R8s: Audi Sport Japan Team Goh finished first, Audi Sport UK Veloqx second, and Champion Racing third. At the 2005 24 Hours of Le Mans, Champion Racing entered two R8s along with an R8 from the Audi PlayStation Team [[Oreca]]. The R8s (which were built to old LMP900 regulations) received a more narrow air inlet restrictor, cutting power, and an additional 50 kg of weight compared to the newer LMP1 chassis. On average, the R8s were about 2-3 seconds off pace compared to the [[Pescarolo]]-[[Judd]]. But with a team of excellent drivers and experience, both Champion R8s were able to take first and third while the ORECA team took fourth. The Champion team was also the first American team to win Le Mans since the Gulf Ford GT's in 1967. This also ends the long era of the R8, however its replacement for 2006, called the [[Audi R10]], was unveiled on December 13, 2005. the R10 employs many new features, including a twin-turbocharged diesel engine. Its first race will likely be the 2006 12 Hours of Sebring as a race-test for the 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans. ==Technology== Audi is the only car manufacturer that produces 100% [[galvanize]]d vehicles to prevent corrosion. Along with other precautionary measures, the thus achieved full-body [[zinc]] coating has proved to be very effective in preventing rust and [[corrosion perforation]]. The body's resulting durability even surpassed Audi's own expectations, causing the manufacturer to extend its original 10-year [[warranty]] against corrosion perforation to currently 12 years. An all-[[aluminium]] car was brought forward by Audi, and in 1994 the Audi A8 was launched, which introduced aluminium [[space frame]] technology. Audi introduced a new series of vehicles in the mid-nineties and continues to pursue leading-edge technology and high performance. The all-aluminium concept was extended to the company's new [[sub-compact]], the [[Audi A2]] which was launched in 2001. In the 1970's, some vehicle manufacturers including Audi (and [[Subaru]]) designed their own [[all wheel drive]] systems in passenger vehicles. In the 1980's, all-wheel drive systems in cars became a fad, and other manufacturers like [[Porsche]] and [[Mercedes-Benz]] offered all-wheel drive systems in their cars to compete in the marketplace. Unfortunately, the all-wheel drive system in the Mercedes-Benz vehicles were riddled with problems right from the design sheet. The system also was not popular in Porsche vehicles because owners wanted the traditional performance of the [[rear wheel drive]] they got used to in older Porsches. Although Porsche and Mercedes-Benz offer all-wheel drive systems in some cars today, neither manufacturer was able to ride the fad and come out on top like Audi has. Today, after many decades of class-leading technology and engineering, the name ''[[quattro]]'' is an identifiable symbol and trademark that shows would-be competitors the level of quality they have to achieve in order to attempt to compete with Audi. In the 1980s, Audi was the champion of the inline 5 cylinder, [[Engine displacement|2.1/2.2 L]] engine as a longer lasting alternative to more traditional 6 cylinder engines. This engine was used in not only production cars but also their race cars. The 2.1 L inline 5 cylinder engine was used as a base for the rally cars in the 1980's, providing well over 400 [[horsepower]] (298 kW) after modification. Before 1990, there were engines produced with a displacement between 2.0 L and 2.3 L. This range of engine capacity was a good combination of good fuel economy which was on the mind of every motorist in the 1980's, and a good amount of power the customer wants. Through the early 1990's, Audi began to move more towards the position of being a real competitor in it's target market against Mercedes-Benz and BMW. This began with the release of the Audi V8 in 1990. It was essentially a new engine fitted to the Audi 100/200, but with noticeable bodywork differences. Most obvious was the new grille that was now incorprated in the bonnet. By 1991, Audi had the 4 cylinder [[Audi 80|Audi 80]], the 5 cylinder [[Audi 80|Audi 90]] and [[Audi 100|Audi 100]], the turbocharged [[Audi 100|Audi 200]] and the [[Audi V8|Audi V8]]. There was also a coupe version of the 80/90 with both 4 and 5 cylinder engines. Although the five cylinder engine was a successful and very robust powerplant, it was still a little too different for the target market. With the introduction of an all-new Audi 100 in 1992, Audi introduced a 2.8l V6 engine. This engine was also fitted to a face-lifted Audi 80 (all 80 and 90 models were now badged 80 except for the USA), giving this model a choice of 4, 5 and 6 cylinder engines, in sedan, coupe and cabriolet body styles. The 5 cylinder was soon dropped as a major engine choice, however a turbocharged 230BHP (169kW) version remained. The engine, initially fitted to the 200 quattro 20V of 1991, was a derivative of the engine fitted to the Sport Quattro. It was fitted to the Audi Coupe and named the S2 and also to the Audi 100 body, and named the [[Audi S4|S4]]. These two models were the beginning of the mass produced S series of performance cars. The [[Audi A8|Audi A8]] replaced the [[Audi V8|V8]] in 1994, with a revolutionary Aluminium Space Frame (ASF) to save weight. The weight reduction was offset by the quattro all-wheel drive system, however it meant the car had similar performance to its rivals, but far superior handling. The next major model change was in 1995 when the [[Audi A4|Audi A4]] replaced the [[Audi 80|Audi 80]]. The new nomenclature scheme was applied to the Audi 100 to become the Audi A6 (with a minor facelift). This also meant the S4 became the [[Audi S6|S6]] and a new S4 was introduced in the A4 body. The S2 was discontinued. The [[Audi Cabriolet]] continued on (based on the Audi 80 platform) until 1999, gaining the engine upgrades along the way. A new [[Audi A3|A3]] (based on the [[VW Golf|Volkswagen Golf]]) was introduced to
complete medicalization, not elimination (304). ==Female genital cutting and human rights== FGC enters human rights discourse primarily on the basis of three issues: informed consent, patriarchal oppression, and violence against women. The issue of informed consent mirrors the debate about male circumcision though with far more intensity. African feminists generally reject the imported women's rights discourse that universally adopts an assumption of male dominance, and prefer instead to realize their gender roles on their own terms. The violence against women claim is complicated by the fact that the ritual is primarily continued by women and often against the wishes of a growing majority of men. African feminists are aware that this issue is a convenient tool for powerful political units to manipulate in pursuing hidden agendas. For example, [[Hillary Clinton]], then first lady, stated in 1995 at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China that “it is a violation of human rights when young girls are brutalized by the painful and degrading practice of genital mutilation”. The Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women (1995) makes ten mentions of female genital “mutilation” in a call to “prohibit” FGC, “enact and enforce legislation” and “give priority to…educational programmes…that emphasize the elimination of harmful attitudes and practices, including female genital mutilation…and recognizing that some of these practices can be violations of human rights and ethical medical principles”. By legitimizing FGC as a human rights violation, the United States passed 22 U.S.C. 262k-2 [http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=browse_usc&amp;docid=Cite:+22USC262k-2] [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode22/usc_sec_22_00000262---k002-.html] in 1997, a broadly worded law that effectively outlaws &quot;female genital mutilation&quot; all over the world by threatening the denial of loans and aid from the eight largest international banks. ==Legal status== FGC is prohibited in several [[Western countries]]. Not all countries ban all types of procedure. For instance Type I procedures (for medical reasons only), and any form on adult women, are openly available in the USA, whereas, in the UK there is an outright ban even on this elective surgery taken by mature adults. In [[Canada]], just running the risk of female genital mutilation is already sufficient reason to obtain the political asylum status. In [[France]], in recent years several women excising minor girls have been handed prison sentences up to five years; [http://www.droitsenfant.com/excision.htm] courts have also handed sentences between 6 and 15 months for parents. [http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/1999-02-17/1999-02-17-443296] Some countries in the area of practice have also prohibited FGC but the practice goes on in secret. In many cases, the enforcement of this prohibition is a low priority for governments. Some countries have tried to medicalize the procedure while in other countries there is no prohibition. There is a growing movement in the West to see the practice on minors prohibited throughout the world. Advocates of the procedures argue that this is an example of Western cultural imperialism, while opponents of the procedures argue that [[human rights]] are universal and not subject to cultural exceptions, and that such involuntary practices are a severe violation of human rights. Laws/Enforcement in Countries where FGC is Commonly Practiced, according the US State Department: * '''[[Burkina Faso]]''': A law prohibiting FGC was enacted in [[1996]] and went into effect in February [[1997]]. Even before this law, however, a presidential decree had set up the National Committee against excision and imposed fines on people guilty of excising girls and women. The new law includes stricter punishment. Several women excising girls have been handed prison sentences. [http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1998/09/STOLZ/10970] * '''[[Central African Republic]]''': In [[1996]], the President issued an Ordinance prohibiting FGC throughout the country. It has the force of national law. Any violation of the Ordinance is punishable by imprisonment of from one month and one day to two years and a fine of 5,100 to 100,000 francs (approximately US$8-160). We are unaware of any arrests made under the law. * '''[[Côte d'Ivoire]]''': A [[December 18]], [[1998]] law provides that harm to the integrity of the genital organ of a woman by complete or partial removal, excision, desensitization or by any other procedure will, if harmful to a women's health, be punishable by imprisonment of one to five years and a fine of 360,000 to two million CFA Francs (approximately US$576-3,200). The penalty is five to twenty years incarceration if the victim dies and up to five years' prohibition of medical practice, if this procedure is carried out by a doctor. * '''[[Djibouti]]''': FGC was outlawed in the country's revised Penal Code that went into effect in April 1995. Article 333 of the Penal Code provides that persons found guilty of this practice will face a five year prison term and a fine of one million Djibouti francs (approximately US$5,600). * '''[[Egypt]]''': There is no law in Egypt specifically against FGC. There are provisions under the Penal Code involving &quot;wounding&quot; and &quot;intentional infliction of harm leading to death&quot;, however, that might be applicable. There have been some press reports on the prosecution of at least 13 individuals under the Penal Code, including doctors, midwives and barbers, accused of performing FGC that resulted in hemorrhage, shock and death. There also is a ministerial decree prohibiting FGC. In December [[1997]], the Court of Cassation (Egypt's highest appeals court) upheld a government banning of the practice providing that those who do not comply will be subjected to criminal and administrative punishments. Although the government banned the practice, FGM is continues in many vilages throughout Egypt, although some have decided on their own to stop, such as the Egyptian village of Abou Shawareb, which made a vow in July of 2005 stating to end the practice. * '''[[Ghana]]''': In [[1989]], the head of the government of Ghana, President Rawlings, issued a formal declaration against FGC and other harmful traditional practices. Article 39 of Ghana's Constitution also provides in part that traditional practices that are injurious to a person's health and well being are abolished. There is the opinion by some that the law has driven the practice underground. * '''[[Guinea]]''': FGC is illegal in Guinea under Article 265 of the Penal Code. The punishment is hard labor for life and if death results within 40 days after the crime, the perpetrator will be sentenced to death. No cases regarding the practice under the law have ever been brought to trial. Article 6 of the Guinean Constitution, which outlaws cruel and inhumane treatment, could be interpreted to include these practices, should a case be brought to the Supreme Court. A member of the Guinean Supreme Court is working with a local NGO on inserting a clause into the Guinean Constitution specifically prohibiting these practices. * '''[[Indonesia]]''': Officials are preparing to release a decree banning doctors and paramedics from performing FGC. FGC is still carried out extensively in Indonesia, the worlds largest Muslim nation. Azrul Azwar, The director general of community health, stated that, &quot;All government health facilities will also be instructed to spread information about the decision as well as the redundancy of female circumcision&quot; [http://www.cbc.ca/story/world/national/2005/06/02/circumcision050602.html] * '''[[Nigeria]]''': There is no federal law banning the practice of FGC in Nigeria. Opponents of these practices rely on Section 34(1)(a) of the [[1999]] Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria that states &quot;no person shall be subjected to torture or inhuman or degrading treatment&quot; as the basis for banning the practice nationwide. A member of the House of Representatives has drafted a bill, not yet in committee, to outlaw this practice. * '''[[Senegal]]''': A law that was passed in January [[1999]] makes FGC illegal in Senegal. President Diouf had appealed for an end to this practice and for legislation outlawing it. The law modifies the Penal Code to make this practice a criminal act, punishable by a sentence of one to five years in prison. A spokesperson for the human rights group RADDHO (The African Assembly for the Defense of Human Rights) noted in the local press that &quot;Adopting the law is not the end, as it will still need to be effectively enforced for women to benefit from it.&quot; * '''[[Somalia]]''': There is no national law specifically prohibiting FGC in Somalia. There are provisions of the Penal Code of the former government covering &quot;hurt&quot;, &quot;grievous hurt&quot; and &quot;very grievous hurt&quot; that might apply. In November [[1999]], the Parliament of the Puntland administration unanimously approved legislation making the practice illegal. There is no evidence, however, that this law is being enforced. * '''[[Tanzania]]''': Section 169A of the Sexual Offences Special Provisions Act of [[1998]] prohibits FGC. Punishment is imprisonment of from five to fifteen years or a fine not exceeding 300,000 shillings (approximately US$380) or both. There have been some arrests under this legislation, but no reports of prosecutions yet. * '''[[Togo]]''': On [[October 30]], [[1998]], the National Assembly unanimously voted to outlaw the practice of FGC. Penalties under the law can include a prison term of two months to ten years and a fine of 100,000 francs to one million francs (approximately US$160 to 1,600). A person who had knowledge that the procedure was going to take place and failed to inform public authorities can be punished with one mo
ing]], genome assembly, [[ protein structural alignment | protein structure alignment]], [[protein structure prediction]], prediction of [[gene expression]] and [[protein-protein interactions]], and the modeling of [[evolution]]. The terms ''bioinformatics'' and ''computational biology'' are often used interchangeably, although the latter typically focuses on algorithm development and specific computational methods. (In the biology-mathematics-computer science triad, bioinformatics will intimately involve all three components while computational biology will focus on biology and mathematics.) Due to interest from computer scientists and mathematicians and the popularity of computational techniques in the field of genomics, it is commonly referred to as ''computational biology''; a more accurate term is computational genomics. There are also lesser known but equally important areas of computational [[biochemistry]] and computational [[biophysics]], that are also a part of computational biology. (For working definitions of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology used by [[NIH|National Institutes of Health]] please see [http://www.bisti.nih.gov/CompuBioDef.pdf this link].) A common thread in projects in bioinformatics and computational genomics is the use of mathematical tools to extract useful information from [[noise|noisy]] data produced by high-throughput biological techniques. (The field of [[data mining]] overlaps with computational biology in this regard.) Representative problems in computational biology include the assembly of high-quality [[DNA]] sequences from fragmentary &quot;shotgun&quot; DNA [[sequencing]], and the prediction of [[gene regulation]] with data from [[Messenger RNA|mRNA]] [[DNA microarray|microarray]]s or [[mass spectrometry]]. [[image:dna-split.png|thumbnail|right|150px|Making sense of the huge amounts of DNA data (pictured) produced by gene sequencing projects is just one of the tasks faced by bioinformatics.]] ==Major Research Areas== ===Sequence analysis=== ''Main articles:'' [[Sequence alignment]], [[Sequence database]] Since the [[Phi-X174 phage|Phage &amp;Phi;-X174]] was [[sequencing|sequenced]] in 1977, the [[DNA sequence]]s of more and more organisms have been decoded and stored in electronic databases. This data is analyzed to determine genes that code for [[protein]]s, as well as regulatory sequences. A comparison of genes within a [[species]] or between different species can show similarities between protein functions, or relations between species (the use of [[molecular systematics]] to construct [[phylogenetic tree]]s). With the growing amount of data, it long ago became impractical to analyze DNA sequences manually. Today, [[computer program]]s are used to search the [[genome]] of thousands of organisms, containing billions of [[nucleotide]]s. These programs can compensate for mutations (exchanged, deleted or inserted bases) in the DNA sequence, in order to identify sequences that are related, but not identical. A variant of this [[sequence alignment]] is used in the sequencing process itself. The so-called [[shotgun sequencing]] technique (which was used, for example, by [[The Institute for Genomic Research]] to sequence the first bacterial genome, ''Haemophilus influenza'') does not give a sequential list of nucleotides, but instead the sequences of thousands of small DNA fragments (each about 600-800 nucleotides long). The ends of these fragments overlap and, when aligned in the right way, make up the complete genome. Shotgun sequencing yields sequence data quickly, but the task of assembling the fragments can be quite complicated for larger genomes. In the case of the [[Human Genome Project]], it took several months of CPU time (on a circa-2000 vintage DEC Alpha computer) to assemble the fragments. Shotgun sequencing is the method of choice for virtually all genomes sequenced today, and [[genome assembly]] algorithms are a critical area of bioinformatics research. Another aspect of bioinformatics in sequence analysis is the automatic [[gene finding|search for genes]] and regulatory sequences within a genome. Not all of the nucleotides within a genome are genes. Within the genome of higher organisms, large parts of the DNA do not serve any obvious purpose. This so-called [[junk DNA]] may, however, contain unrecognized functional elements. Bioinformatics helps to bridge the gap between genome and [[proteome]] projects, for example in the use of DNA sequence for protein identification. ''See also:'' [[sequence analysis]], [[sequence profiling tool]], [[sequence motif]]. ====Genome annotation==== ''Main articles:'' [[Gene finding]] In the context of genomics, '''annotation''' is the process of marking the genes and other biological features in a DNA sequence. The first genome annotation software system was designed in 1995 by Owen White, who was part of the team that sequenced and analyzed the first genome of a free-living organism to be decoded, the bacterium [[Haemophilus influenzae]]. Dr. White built a software system to find the genes (places in the DNA sequence that encode a protein), the transfer RNA, and other features, and to make initial assignments of function to those genes. Most current genome annotation systems work similarly, but the programs available for analysis of genomic DNA are constantly changing and improving. ===RNA Bioinformatics=== The regulation of alternative splicing, translation, and the function of RNA inhibitory factors all depend on RNA bioinformatics. [[RNA folding prediction]] can determine possible secondary structure folding patterns in RNA. Folding of RNA is important for the function of many RNA factors such as ribosomal proteins involved in translation, splicing factors, and the [[untranslated region]]s (5' and 3' [[UTR]]s) of mRNA which are also involved in regulating translation of mRNA. [[RNAi]] and [[siRNA]] knock-down is also becoming a common tool in the molecular biology lab arsenal. [[RNAi]] prediction programs can predict interfering RNAs which can inhibit mRNA levels. ===Computational evolutionary biology=== [[Evolutionary biology]] is the study of the origin and descent of [[species]], as well as their change over time. Informatics has assisted evolutionary biologists in several key ways; it has enabled researchers to: *trace the evolution of a large number of organisms by measuring changes in their [[DNA]], rather than through [[physical taxonomy]] or physiological observations alone, *more recently, compare entire [[genomes]], which permits the study of more complex evolutionary events, such as [[gene duplication]], [[lateral gene transfer]], and the prediction of bacterial [[speciation factors]], *build complex computational models of populations to predict the outcome of the system over time *track and share information on an increasingly large number of species and organisms Future work endeavours to reconstruct the now more complex [[Evolutionary_tree|tree of life]]. The area of research within [[computer science]] that uses [[genetic algorithm|genetic algorithms]] is sometimes confused with [[computational evolutionary biology]]. Work in this area involves using specialized [[computer software]] to improve equations, algorithms, or [[integrated circuit]] designs. It is inspired by [[evolutionary principles]] such as [[replication]], [[diversification]] through [[recombination]] or [[mutation]], [[fitness]], survival through [[selection]] or [[culling]], and [[iteration]], collectively called a [[Darwinian machine]] or [[Darwinian ratchet]]. ===Measuring biodiversity=== [[Biodiversity]] of an ecosystem might be defined as the total genomic complement of a particular environment, from all of the species present, whether it is a biofilm in an abandoned mine, a drop of sea water, a scoop of soil, or the entire [[biosphere]] of the planet [[Earth]]. Databases are used to collect the [[species]] names, descriptions, distributions, genetic information, status and size of [[population]]s, [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]] needs, and how each organism interacts with other species. Specialized [[computer software|software]] programs are used to find, visualize, and analyze the information, and most importantly, communicate it to other people. Computer simulations model such things as population dynamics, or calculate the cumulative genetic health of a breeding pool (in [[agriculture]]) or endangered population (in [[conservation ecology|conservation]]). One very exciting potential of this field is that entire [[DNA]] sequences, or [[genome]]s of [[endangered species]] can be preserved, allowing the results of Nature's genetic experiment to be remembered ''[[in silico]]'', and possibly reused in the future, even if that species is eventually lost. ''Important Projects:'' [http://www.sp2000.org/ Species 2000 project]. ===Gene expression analysis=== The [[expression]] of many genes can be determined by measuring [[mRNA]] levels with multiple techniques including [[DNA_microarray|microarrays]], [[expressed sequence tag|expressed cDNA sequence tag]] (EST) sequencing, [[Serial Analysis of Gene Expression|serial analysis of gene expression]] (SAGE) tag sequencing, [[massively parallel signature sequencing]] (MPSS), or various applications of multiplexed in-situ hybridization. All of these techniques are extremely noise-prone and/or subject to bias in the biological measurement, and a major research area in computational biology involves developing statistical tools to separate [[signal (information theory)|signal]] from [[noise]] in high-throughput gene expression (HT) studies. HT studies are often used to determine the genes implicated in a disorder: one might compare microarray data from cancerous epithelial cells to data from non-cancerous cells to determine the proteins that are up-regulated and down-regulated in cancer cells. ===Regulation analysis=== Regulation is the complex orchestra of even
England and the American Colonies. Before 1752 the new year started on the 25th March, but in 1752 this was changed to the 1st January. This was part of the transition to the [[Gregorian calendar]] from the [[Julian calendar]]. Many other European countries had already made the change, and by 1751 there was an 11 day discrepancy between the date in England and the date in other European countries. The date continued to be recorded as usual in 1752 until 2nd September 1752, the following day became 14th September 1752. Dates that were recorded in the older system can be shown by &quot;double dating&quot;. For example; Original date: 24th of March 1750; Modern date: 24th March 1751; Double dating: 24th March 1750/51 For events occurring before 1752 in countries where the [[Julian calendar]] was still in use, it is best to use double dating whenever the exact year can be ascertained. When transcribing an original record where the exact year is evident but not expressed, the double date can be written as, for example, &quot;24th March 1750[/51]&quot;. One should also be aware that, in those places using the old [[Julian calendar]], the numbering of months also varied. The &quot;1st month&quot; of the year was considered March, the second April, the third May, and so on. Those 24 days in March which fell before the beginning of the year were generally regarded as being part of the first month. NOTE The foregoing may be true for British genealogical records but does in no way apply to records in other countries. A notable exception is the Nordic countries, especially Sweden, which have very detailed and mostly accurate records in the form of church records from the 18th century onwards. But there, as in any historical research, a critical review of all information and an assessment of the reliability of each source is required. ==The &quot;maximum relationship&quot;== One of the aims in professional genealogy circles has been to determine the maximum degree of separation which currently exists between all people in the world. That is to say, how many generations back is the first common ancestor that the two most distantly related people on earth share. Latest models, taking into account sexual differentiation, monogamy and realistic migration patterns suggest that the [[most recent common ancestor]] (MRCA) of all humans probably lived 75-150 generations or 2000-4000 years ago. Moreover, the MRCA is likely to have lived somewhere in Southeast Asia (increasing the likelihood of his or her descendents reaching the remote islands of the Pacific), is equally likely to be a man or woman, and is not characterized by an unusually large number of children. These models also show that while a large group (indeed all humans) share recent common ancestors, a given person is likely to share the vast majority of his or her genes with a very small local group. ==Software== {{main article|[[Genealogy software]]}} [[Genealogy software]] is [[computer software]] used to collect, store, sort, and display genealogical data. At a minimum, genealogy software tends to accommodate basic information about births, marriages, and deaths. Many programs allow for additional biographical information and a host of features. Certain programs are geared towards specific religions, and will include additional fields relevant to that religion. Other programs focus on certain geographical regions. Some programs will allow for the import of digital photographs, and sound files. Other programs focus on the ability to generate kinship charts. Some programs are more flexible than others in allowing for the input of [[same sex marriage]]s and [[Illegitimacy|children born out of wedlock]]. There is currently a move to incorporate fields for the input of [[genealogical DNA test]] results, though this information can be added into the &quot;Notes&quot; field of almost all genealogy software. Most genealogy software will allow for the export of data in the [[GEDCOM]] format, which can then be shared with people using different genealogy software. Certain programs allow the user to restrict what information is shared, usually by removing information about living people for [[privacy]] purposes. == See also == * [[Census]] * [[List of genealogy publications]] * [[List of genealogy portals]] * [[List of general genealogy databases]] * [[List of surname repositories]] * [[Wikitree]] ==External links== ''Referring to many of the links in this section'' ===General=== Message boards * [http://genforum.genealogy.com/ List of genealogy message boards] * [http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.gendir.com/village/ Archive.org backup of gendir.com] Mailing lists * [http://www.feliixplace.com/genealogylists/ David's Genealogy Discussion Lists Homepage] Guides * [http://www.amateur-genealogist.com/ The leading UK based website for Amateur Genealogists.] * [http://www.our-family-trees.co.uk/ The Complete Beginners Guide to Genealogy.] * [http://www.catholic-genealogy.com/ Information and advice for those seeking their Catholic Ancestors.] * [http://genealogy.about.com/ About Genealogy - Tutorials, Links and Surname Meanings] * [http://www.worldgenweb.org/ WorldGenWeb Project] Guidance from volunteer genealogists * [http://www.progenealogists.com/articles.htm ProGenealogists Articles] Free Articles, Tutorials from Professional Genealogists * [http://www.genuki.org.uk/gs/Newbie.html Newbies' Guide to Genealogy &amp; Family History] Miscellaneous * [http://www.wikitree.org/ WikiTree.Org] - freely-edited family tree of all human beings. * [http://www.wargs.com/political/ Ancestries of U.S. politicians] * [http://www.geocities.com/bx_huang Genealogy of the Chinese Huang Clan] - Traces the origin and history of the Chinese Huang Clan. * [http://www.scotlandroyalty.org/ Scotland Royalty - Free Royal Genealogy Resource &amp; Archives] * [http://www.complete-bible-genealogy.com/ Complete Bible Genealogy] - A list of all prominent figures named in the Bible. ===Australia=== * [http://www.gsv.org.au The Genealogical Society of Victoria Inc.] * [http://www.vicgum.asn.au Victorian GUM Inc.] * [http://www.tasfhs.org Tasmanian Family History Society Inc.] * [http://www.rootsweb.com/~auscqfha Central Queensland Family History Association Inc.] * [http://www.geocities.com/bundy_genies Bundaberg Genealogical Association Inc.] ===Denmark=== * [http://www.genealogi.dk/index_us.htm The Society for Danish Genealogy and Biography] * [http://www.dis-danmark.dk/dis-english.asp DIS Danmark] * [http://www.sadolins.com OneTree Genealogy - A large genealogical relationship database - Includes Danish patrician, nobility and royal lineages] * [http://www.progenealogists.com/denmark/ Genealogy and Records of Denmark] ===Finland=== * [http://www.genealogia.fi/indexe.htm The Genealogical Society of Finland] ===Germany=== * [http://home.att.net/~wee-monster/ German Roots - German Genealogy Resources] * [http://www.progenealogists.com/germany/ German Genealogy Resources and Gazetteers] * [http://www.progenealogists.com/palproject/ Palatines to America 1683-1819] * [http://www.heirlines.com/info/German-Genealogy.html/ German Genealogy ] ===Ireland=== * [http://www.scotlandsclans.com/ireland.htm Irish Genealogy] * [http://www.censusfinder.com/ireland.htm Ireland Census Records - Links to free Irish census records online.] * [http://www.ireland.com/ancestor/ Irish Ancestors] * [http://www.ireland.progenealogists.com/ Irish Genealogy] ===Israel=== * [http://www.isragen.org.il The Israel Genealogical Society] * [http://www.bh.org.il/Genealogy/index.aspx/ Beth Hatefutsoth] ===Italy=== * [http://www.italiangenealogy.com/ ItalianGenealogy.com - The best Internet resource for Italian Genealogy since April 1995] * [http://www.dejudicibus.it/genealogia/ I 1000 Anni dei Casati «de Judicibus» e «Giliberti»] ===Jewish=== * [http://www.jewishgen.org/ JewishGen] * [http://www.bh.org.il/Genealogy/index.aspx/ The Douglas E. Goldman Jewish Genealogy Center] * [http://www.jgsgb.org.uk Jewish Genealogical Society of Great Britain] * [http://www.jgsla.org/ Jewish Genealogical Society of Los Angeles, CA] ===Malta=== * [http://www.maltagenealogy.com/ Maltese migration research] ===Norway=== * [http://www.disnorge.no/ DIS-Norge] * [http://www.disnorge.no/eng/index.html Genealogy Society of Norway] * [http://www.genealogi.no/Engelsk/a_short_introduction_in_english.htm NSF - The Norwegian Genealogical Society] ===Pakistan=== * [http://www.shaikhsiddiqui.com Pakistan Genealogy] ===Serbia-Montenegro=== * [http://www.rodoslovlje.com/ Serbian Genealogical Society ] ===Slovakia=== * [http://www.progenealogists.com/slovakia/ Slovak Genealogy and Records] ===Sweden=== * [http://www.sweggate.com/ SweGGate = Sweden Genealogy Gate] * [http://www.genealogi.se/roots/ Swedish Roots] * [http://www.genline.com/ Swedish Church Records - Genline] ===Switzerland=== * [http://www.eye.ch/swissgen/ Swiss Genealogy on the Internet] * [http://www.progenealogists.com/switzerland/cantons.htm Swiss Gazetteer] ===United Kingdom=== * [http://www.familyrecords.gov.uk/ Family Records Centre] * [http://www.genuki.org.uk/ UK &amp; Ireland Genealogy] * [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ UK National Archives] * [http://www.soc.org.uk/ Society of Genealogists] * [http://www.scotlandspeople.gov.uk/ Scotlands people] * [http://www.1837online.com/Trace2web/HomeServlet 1837 Online] * [http://home.clara.net/denis.mccready/ Campaign to release 1911 Census] * [http://freebmd.rootsweb.com/cgi/search.pl Free BMD project] ===West Indies=== * [http://www.progenealogists.com/westindies/ West Indies Genealogy and Records] ===Miscellaneous=== * [http://calmenno.org/grandma/index.htm The GRANDMA Project, 713,132 people of German-Russian Mennonite Ancestry] * [http://www.gen-gen.ch Société Genevoise de Généalogie - 160'000 people from Switzerland, France, Italy and the rest of the world linked together] * [http://www.isogg.org/ Internationa
4 letters as ''Gratuité du Crédit,'' a 242-page book, included in volume 5 of his complete works. Some of Proudhon's letters (translated to English, including neither the last one, nor any of the replies by Bastiat) can be found [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/proudhon/interestletter1.html in the Anarchist Archives]. Letters by Bastiat can hardly be found anywhere. The [http://bastiat.org/fr/lettre2.html second letter] of the debate is on [http://Bastiat.org Bastiat.org] (in French). Another related essay by Bastiat, which contains arguments to reply to the last among letters by Proudhon published above, is [http://bastiat.org/fr/maudit_argent.html Maudit Argent] (available in English as [http://www.mises.org/journals/qjae/pdf/qjae5_3_7.pdf What is Money?]). At the [http://bastiat.net/en/Bastiat2001 Bastiat'2001] conference, Alain Laurent spoke about Bastiat's supposed influence on Proudhon and his belief that Bastiat's ideas slowly percolated into latter works by Proudhon. [[Category: Economics]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FOLDOC</title> <id>11342</id> <revision> <id>15909093</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foldoc</title> <id>11343</id> <revision> <id>15909094</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>First-order predicate</title> <id>11344</id> <revision> <id>23462165</id> <timestamp>2005-09-18T13:39:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Silverfish</username> <id>10903</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''first-order predicate''' is a [[predicate]] that takes only individual(s) as argument(s). Compare [[second-order predicate]] and [[higher-order predicate]]. ==See also== *[[First-order predicate calculus]] [[Category:Mathematical logic]] {{Mathlogic-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Snap (football)</title> <id>11345</id> <revision> <id>31538582</id> <timestamp>2005-12-15T23:43:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zzyzx11</username> <id>182902</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>moved [[Snap (American football)]] to [[Snap (football)]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''snap''' (colloquially called a &quot;hike&quot;, &quot;snapback&quot;, or &quot;pass from center&quot;) starts each [[American football]] and [[Canadian football]] [[play from scrimmage]]. The ball begins on the ground with its long axis parallel to the sidelines of the field, its ends marking each team's [[line of scrimmage]] in American football; in Canadian football line of scrimmage of the team without the ball is 1 yard their side of the ball. The snap must be a quick and continuous movement of the ball by one or both hands of the snapper (&quot;centre&quot; in Canadian football), and the ball must leave the snapper's hands. The various rules codes have additional requirements, all of which have the effect of requiring the ball to go backwards to a player behind the line of scrimmage (i.e. in the &quot;backfield&quot;). The ball may be handed, thrown, or even rolled, and its trajectory and the ball during that passage are called &quot;the snap&quot;. The snapper is almost always the [[center_(football)|center]]. The ball is almost always sent between the snapper's/center's/centre's legs, but only in Canadian football is that required. Additional rules apply regarding the positioning and stance of the snapper as one of several &quot;line&quot; players in anticipation of the snap. The team entitled to snap the ball will usually know in advance the moment when the snap is to occur as one of their players calls out signals, which usually include a loud sound such as &quot;hut&quot; voiced one or more times, the number of which they know; they are thus said to know the &quot;snap count&quot;. (A team of deaf players may get the snap timing via the beating of a bass drum near the field.) Therefore they have a considerable advantage over their opponents. The snapper is not, however, allowed to make motions simulating part of the snap action; therefore their opponents can be confident the first motion of the ball or the snapper's hands is the beginning of the snap. For a handed snap, the snapper will usually have his or her head up, facing opponents. For a thrown snap, especially in formations wherein the ball may be snapped to players in different positions, the snapper will commonly bend over looking between his or her legs. Because of the vulnerability of a player in such a position, the National Collegiate Athletic Administration (NCAA) and the National Federation of State High School Associations (&quot;Fed&quot;) have adopted rules providing that if a player is positioned at least 7 yards behind the neutral zone to receive a snap, opponents are not to deliberately contact the snapper until one second after the snap (NCAA), or until the snapper has a chance to react (Fed). However, in professional football it is common for a center to be able to practice a single &quot;shotgun&quot; formation thrown snap enough to keep his head up and toss it blindly. == History and rationale == The snap, the set scrummage and ruck in today's Rugby Union, and the play-the-ball in Rugby League have common origins in rugby football. As the rules of rugby's scrimmage were written when the game came to North America, they had a significant flaw which was corrected by custom elsewhere, but by the invention of the snap in American football. See [http://users.bestweb.net/~robgood/football/uncontested.txt &quot;Why the Uncontested Scrimmage&quot;]. The rule adopted by a committee for American football in 1880 first provided for the uncontested right of one side to play the ball by foot (in any direction) for a scrimmage. A certain use of the foot on the ball which had the same effect as heeling it back was known as a &quot;snap&quot;. Later in the 19th Century the option of snapping the ball back by hand was added. The option to play the ball with the foot was preserved, however, for several decades, although by early in the 20th Century it was restricted to kicking the ball forward. The kick forward in scrimmage was a surprise play which did not work against a prepared defense. Also for several decades alternatives to the scrimmage for playing the ball from across the sideline after it had gone out of bounds -- a throw-in or &quot;fair&quot;, and &quot;bounding in&quot; -- existed. Note also that until well into the 20th Century, rather than an official readying the ball for scrimmage, the side entitled to the snap had complete custody of the ball and could snap it from the required spot at any time; for instance, a tackled ball carrier might feign injury, then suddenly snap the ball while recumbent, there being no stance requirement yet. The neutral zone and the right of the snapper not to be contacted by an opponent before the snap also was not an original feature. As the 20th Century drew to a close, the NCAA and National Federation of State High School Associations extended that protection to some time '''after''' the snap, in cases where a player is positioned at least 7 yards deep to receive a thrown snap. Canadian football used the rugby scrimmage unaltered until near the end of the 19th Century, when, regionally at first, under the influence of the American scrimmage, the number of players in the scrimmage was limited to three -- a &quot;centre scrimmager&quot; bound on either side by props called &quot;side scrimmagers&quot;. The centre scrimmager was later renamed the &quot;snap&quot;, and in intercollegiate play one side was given the right to put foot to ball first. Beginning regionally again and universally by 1923, the 3-man scrimmage was reduced to the centre alone, the number of players on the field being reduced commensurately from 14 to 12, and a snap rule and neutral zone similar to that of American football was adopted. In addition to the between-the-legs requirement noted above, for several years after the adoption of the hand snap, a hand-to-hand snap was illegal, the ball required to be thrown instead, in Canadian football. Apparently a complete break was desired from system of backheeling, and the T formation having gone into eclipse in American football at the time, the Canadian snap was modeled on the formations then in common use in the USA, such as the single wing. The game design rationale for requiring the snap to be a quick and continuous motion to the backfield is to eliminate the need for rules provisions for a live ball in scrimmage. In Rugby Union the ball may be retained by the forwards and played for a time via the foot in a scrummage (which Rugby League has as well) or ruck, or by the hands in a maul, necessitating additional restrictions on play and player positioning during those intervals. In American and Canadian football, the ball as it is put in play is only held in the line (by the snapper) for a fraction of a second. The uncontested possession also, as Walter Camp pointed out, allows for better offensive and defensive planning by the side entitled to snap the ball and their opposition, respectively. Sometimes the snap is muffed by a player in the backfield an
<timestamp>2006-02-23T05:07:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Adammathias</username> <id>478268</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ecclesia''' was a word meaning &quot;[[church]]&quot; in many contexts in [[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]], giving rise to many derivatives (e.g. [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''iglesia'', &quot;church&quot;), and can refer to: * The popular assembly in ancient [[Athens]], see '''[[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)]]'''. * The Christian Church, composed of [[Ecclesia Militans]] (the &quot;Church Militant&quot;), and [[Ecclesia Triumphans]] (the &quot;Church Triumphant&quot;), see '''[[Ecclesia (Church)]]'''. * A concept in the typology of religion, see '''[[Ecclesia (sociology of religion)]], [[ecclesiology]]'''. * The ''spiritual healing'' Temple of [[The Rosicrucian Fellowship]], see '''[[Oceanside, California#Mount Ecclesia|Mount Ecclesia]]'''. {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eureka Stockade</title> <id>9833</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>41758486</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:10:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Longhair</username> <id>99037</id> </contributor> <comment>sharper cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}} [[Image:EurekaFlag602.png|thumb|right|The [[Eureka Flag]]]] The '''Eureka Stockade''' was a miners' [[revolt]] in 1854 in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]] against the officials supervising the [[gold]]-[[mining]] region of [[Ballarat, Victoria|Ballarat]] due to many reasons, including heavily priced mining items and the expense of a digging license. It is often regarded as being an event of equal significance to [[History of Australia|Australian history]] as the [[storming of the Bastille]] was to [[History of France|French history]], but almost equally often dismissed as an event of little long-term consequence. Although the revolt failed, it was a watershed event in [[Politics of Australia|Australian politics]], and is often described controversially as the &quot;Birth of Australian [[Democracy]]&quot;. ==Background== The Australian [[colony]] of Victoria, a peaceful and sparsely populated region of farmers and graziers, was declared separate from [[New South Wales]] on [[1 July]], [[1851]]. This tranquility was irrevocably disrupted that same year with the discovery of substantial [[gold]] fields all across the colony. The result was a rapid and massive influx of fortune-hunting [[Immigration|immigrants]]. The roots of the Eureka Stockade uprising lay in the inability of a fledgling colonial government to cope with the new demographics of the colony. From being the administrative body of the &quot;[[Squatters#Australia|squattocracy]]&quot; the government suddenly found itself unprepared to take charge of a large and unruly population of itinerants. Its response was to impose an unofficial [[martial law]], enforced by the hurriedly assembled and quasi-military &quot;Gold Commission.&quot; That many of the newly-arrived miners regarded the Victorian authorities as close associates of the &quot;[[United Kingdom|English]]&quot; authorities was the first portent of conflict. Within a short time, the easy surface gold had been exhausted, and gold could be found only by digging for the deep lead &amp;mdash; the veins of gold buried beneath metres of clay and rock. By 1854, the fields of Ballarat were occupied by 25,000 or more miners, mostly from [[Ireland]], but also from the [[United Kingdom]], other parts of [[Europe]], [[China]] and [[North America]] (many had come to Australia from the [[California gold rush]]). The hills for miles around were soon entirely denuded of trees in order to provide timber for the deep shafts being dug &amp;mdash; an [[natural environment|environmental]] disaster from which the area has never fully recovered. Authority in the camps was held by the Resident Gold Commissioner, Robert Rede, and enforced by a military [[garrison]]. The main mechanism of government revenue was the &quot;Miner's Licence,&quot; a short term lease of a &quot;claim,&quot; a 3.6 square metre plot of land. The monthly fee for this licence was 30 shillings &amp;mdash; a huge fee for the time &amp;mdash; and was payable whether or not any gold had actually been found. This raised the ire of the miners, as did the weekly &quot;licence hunts&quot; where the military police searched for and arrested anyone lacking proof of a licence. [[Image:Hotham governor of victoria.JPG|thumb|Governor of Victoria Sir [[Charles Hotham]]]] In September 1854, prompted primarily by budget shortfalls resulting chiefly from the cost of maintaining a private army, the [[Governor of Victoria]], Sir [[Charles Hotham]], ordered the frequency of the licence hunts increased to twice weekly. With dissent simmering, this and two further events drove the miners to violence: * The first incident was the arbitrary arrest of a crippled, non-English speaking [[Armenian people|Armenian]] (Johannes Gregorious), wrongfully charged with assaulting an officer. This angered the miners for two reasons. First it was seen as [[racism|racial]] victimisation (though not expressed in such 21st-century terms). This alone would probably not have been enough to motivate the miners (not renowned for their racial tolerance), but they did identify with the Armenian as a fellow &quot;digger,&quot; a term used by the miners to describe their lack of privilege. More importantly, the man arrested was also the servant of a [[Roman Catholic]] [[priest]], Father Smyth, and this was interpreted as a religious affront by the large [[Irish Catholic]] component of the miner population, who already held deep resentments against the [[British people|British]] for religious and economic oppression. * The second incident was the [[acquittal]] of [[inn]] owner James Bentley, who had been charged with the murder of a miner, James Scobie. In early October, an angry mob, interpreting the acquittal as unjust, burnt Bentley's hotel to the ground. ==Protests, Chartism and the Ballarat Reform League== [[Civil disobedience|Civil]] and [[non-violent resistance|non-violent]] protests began to grow as a result of these perceived injustices: * '''Tuesday, [[17 October]], [[1854]]''': At the spot where [[James Scobie]] was killed 5,000-10,000 diggers gathered to protest the acquittal of the prime suspect, [[James Bentley]], the owner of the Eureka Hotel. Bentley fled for his life as the hotel was burnt down. * '''Sunday, [[22 October]], [[1854]]''': Ballarat Catholics met to protest the treatment of Father Smyth's servant. * '''Monday, [[23 October]], [[1854]]''': A mass meeting to protest the selective arrest of McIntyre and Fletcher for burning down Bentley's Eureka Hotel attracted 10,000 miners and supporters. It was decided to form a '''Digger's Right Society''', to maintain their rights. * '''Tuesday, [[1 November]], [[1854]]''': 3000 diggers met once again at Bakery Hill. They were addressed by Kennedy, Holyoake, Black and Ross. The diggers were further incensed by the arrest of another seven of their number, for the burning down of the Eureka Hotel. * '''Saturday, [[11 November]], [[1854]]''': A crowd estimated at more than 10,000 miners gathered at Bakery Hill, directly opposite the government encampment. At this meeting the &quot;'''Ballarat Reform League'''&quot; was created, under the chairmanship of [[Chartism|Chartist]] [[John Basson Humffray]]. Several other Reform League leaders including Thomas Kennedy and Henry Holyoake had been involved with the [[Chartism|Chartist movement]] in England. Many of the miners had past involvement in the Chartist movement and social upheavals in [[England]], [[Ireland]] and [[Europe]] during the 1840s. The Ballarat Reform League used the British [[Chartism|Chartist]] movement's principles to set their goals. The meeting passed a resolution &quot;''that it is the inalienable right of every citizen to have a voice in making the laws he is called on to obey that taxation without representation is tyranny''&quot;. The meeting also decided to secede from the United Kingdom if the situation did not improve. The '''demands of the Ballarat Reform League''' encompassed: * Manhood suffrage (the right for all men to vote) * Abolition of the property qualifications for members of parliament * Payment of members of parliament * Voting by [[secret ballot]] * Short term parliaments * Equal electoral districts * Abolition of diggers and storekeepers licenses * reform of administration of the gold fields * revision of laws relating to Crown land. Throughout the following weeks, the League sought to negotiate with Commissioner Rede and [[Charles Hotham|Governor Hotham]], both on the specific matters relating to Bentley and the men being tried for the burning of the Eureka Hotel, and on the broader issues of abolition of the licence, universal suffrage and democratic representation of the gold fields, and disbanding of the Gold Commission. Commissioner Rede's response to these disputes was perhaps an ill-judged one, but stemmed from his military background and has been attributed by many historians (most notably [[Manning Clark]]) to his belief in his right to exert authority over the &quot;rabble.&quot; Rather than hear the grievances, Rede increased the police presence in the gold fields and summoned reinforcements from [[Melbourne]]. On Monday [[November 27]] [[1854]] a delegation from the Ballarat Reform League: John Humffray, George Black and Thomas Kennedy; met with [[Charles Hotham|Governor Hotham]]. They attempted to negotiate the release of the miners arrested after the attack on Eureka Hotel, and presented the demands for universal suffrage as well as abolition of the miners and storekeepers licenses. The only concession Hotham was willing to make was on
quot;. United States Patent 4,832,968. May 23, 1989. * [http://www.fluent.com/about/news/pr/pr5.htm Scientific explanation of Guinness bubble circulation] [[Category:Brands of beer]] [[Category:Food Companies of Ireland]] [[Category:Irish breweries]] [[de:Guinness (Bier)]] [[es:Guinness]] [[fr:Guinness]] [[he:בירה גינס]] [[nl:Guinness]] [[ja:ギネス]] [[pt:Guinness]] [[ru:Гиннесс]] [[fi:Guinness]] [[sv:Guinness]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geology</title> <id>12207</id> <revision> <id>41509766</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:16:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Qyd</username> <id>889409</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Fields or related disciplines */ add petrophysics</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Geology''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] γη- (ge-, &quot;the earth&quot;) and λογος (''logos'', &quot;word&quot;, &quot;reason&quot;)) is the [[science]] and study of the [[Earth]], its composition, structure, physical properties, history and the processes that shape it. It is one of the [[Earth science]]s. [[Geologist]]s have helped establish the [[age of the Earth]] at about 4.6 billion (4.6x10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;) years, and have determined that the Earth's [[lithosphere]], which includes the [[Crust (geology)|crust]], is fragmented into [[tectonic plates]] that move over a [[rheid|rheic]] upper [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] ([[asthenosphere]]) via processes that are collectively referred to as [[plate tectonics]]. Geologists help locate and manage the earth's [[natural resource]]s, such as [[petroleum]] and [[coal]], as well as [[metals]] such as [[iron]], [[copper]], and [[uranium]]. Additional economic interests include [[gemstone]]s and many minerals such as [[asbestos]], [[perlite]], [[mica]], [[phosphates]], [[zeolites]], [[clay]], [[pumice]], [[quartz]], and [[silica]], as well as elements such as [[sulfur]], [[chlorine]], and [[helium]]. [[Astrogeology]] refers to the application of geologic principles to other bodies of the solar system. However, specialised terms such as ''selenology'' (studies of the [[Moon]]), ''areology'' (of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]), etc., are also in use. The word &quot;geology&quot; was first used by [[Jean-André Deluc]] in the year [[1778]] and introduced as a fixed term by [[Horace-Bénédict de Saussure]] in the year [[1779]]. An older meaning of the word was first used by [[Richard de Bury]]. He used it to distinguish between earthly and [[Theology|theological]] jurisprudence. == History == In [[China]], the [[polymath]] [[Shen Kua]] (1031 - 1095) formulated a hypothesis for the process of land formation: based on his observation of [[fossil]] [[animal shell|shell]]s in a geological [[stratum]] in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he inferred that the land was formed by [[erosion]] of the [[mountain]]s and by [[Deposition (geology)|deposition]] of [[silt]]. The work on rocks ''Peri lithon'' by [[Theophrastus]], a student of [[Aristotle]], remained authoritative for millennia. However, its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the [[Scientific Revolution]]. It was translated into [[Latin]] and the other languages of Europe such as [[French language|French]]. [[Georg Bauer]] (Georg Agricola), a physician, summarised the knowledge of [[mining]] and [[metallurgy]] in [[1556]]. Georg Agricola ([[1494]]-[[1555]]) wrote the first systematic treatise about [[mining]] and [[smelting]] works, ''De re metallica libri XII'', with an appendix ''Buch von den Lebewesen unter Tage'' (Book of the Creatures Beneath the Earth). He covered subjects like [[wind energy]], [[hydropower|hydrodynamic power]], melting cookers, transport of [[ore]]s, extraction of [[soda]], [[sulfur]] and [[alum]], and administrative issues. The book was published in [[1556]]. Nicolaus Steno (1638-1686) is credited with the [[law of superposition]], the [[principle of original horizontality]], and the [[principle of lateral continuity]]: three defining principles of [[stratigraphy]]. By the [[1700s]] [[Jean-Etienne Guettard]] and [[Nicolas Desmarest]] hiked central France and recorded their observations on [[Geologic map|geological maps]]; Guettard recorded the first observation of the [[Volcano|volcanic]] origins of this part of France. [[James Hutton]] recorded his ''Theory of the Earth'' in the [[1788]] Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, later called ''[[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]]''. [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]] (1769-1839) drew some of the first geological maps and began the process of ordering [[rock strata]] (layers) by examining the fossils contained in them. [[James Hutton]] is often viewed as the first modern geologist. In [[1785]] he presented a paper entitled ''Theory of the Earth'' to the [[Royal Society of Edinburgh]]. In his paper, he explained his theory that the Earth must be much older than had previously been supposed in order to allow enough time for mountains to be eroded and for [[sediment]] to form new rocks at the bottom of the sea, which in turn were raised up to become dry land. Followers of Hutton were known as ''[[Plutonism|Plutonists]]'' because they believed that some rocks were formed by [[vulcanism]] which is the deposition of lava from [[volcano]]es, as opposed to the ''[[Neptunism|Neptunists]]'', who believed that all rocks had settled out of a large ocean whose level gradually dropped over time. In [[1811]] [[Georges Cuvier]] and [[Alexandre Brongniart]] published their explanation of the antiquity of the Earth, inspired by Cuvier's discovery of fossil elephant bones in Paris. To prove this, they formulated the principle of [[Stratigraphy|stratigraphic]] succession of the layers of the earth. They were independently anticipated by [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]]'s stratigraphic studies on England and Scotland. [[Sir Charles Lyell]] first published his famous book, ''Principles of Geology'', in [[1830]] and continued to publish new revisions until he died in [[1875]]. He successfully promoted the doctrine of [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]]. This theory states that slow geological processes have occurred throughout the Earth's history and are still occurring today. In contrast, [[catastrophism]] is the theory that Earth's features formed in single, catastrophic events and remained unchanged thereafter. Though Hutton believed in uniformitarianism, the idea was not widely accepted at the time. [[Image:Wegener.jpg|thumb|right|Plate tectonics - [[seafloor spreading]] and [[continental drift]] illustrated on relief globe of the [[Field Museum]] ]] By [[1827]] [[Charles Lyell]]'s ''Principles of Geology'' reiterated Hutton's uniformitarianism, which influenced the thought of [[Charles Darwin]]. 19th Century [[geology]] revolved around the question of the [[Age of the Earth|Earth's exact age]]. Estimates varied from a few 100,000 to billions of years. The most significant advance in [[20th century]] geology has been the development of the theory of [[plate tectonics]] in the [[1960s]]. Plate tectonic theory arose out of two separate geological observations: [[seafloor spreading]] and [[continental drift]]. The theory revolutionised the [[Earth sciences]]. The theory of continental drift was proposed by [[Alfred Wegener]] in [[1912]] and by [[Arthur Holmes]], but wasn't broadly accepted until the [[1960s]] when the theory of plate tectonics was developed. ==Important principles of geology== There are a number of important principles in geology. Many of these involve the ability to provide the relative ages of strata or the manner in which they were formed. '''The Principle of Intrusive Relationships''' concerns crosscutting [[Intrusion (geology)|intrusion]]s. In geology, when an igneous intrusion cuts across a formation of [[sedimentary rock]], it can be determined that the igneous intrusion is younger than the sedimentary rock. There are a number of different types of intrusions, including stocks, [[laccolith]]s, [[batholith]]s, [[Sill (geology)|sills]] and [[Dike (geology)|dikes]]. '''The Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships''' pertains to the formation of [[Geologic fault|faults]] and the age of the sequences through which they cut. Faults are younger than the rocks they cut; accordingly, if a fault is found that penetrates some formations but not those on top of it, then the formations that were cut are older than the fault, and the ones that are not cut must be younger than the fault. Finding the key bed in these situations may help determine whether the fault is a [[normal fault]] or a [[thrust fault]]. '''The Principle of Inclusions and Components''' states that, with sedimentary rocks, if inclusions (or ''clasts'') are found in a formation, then the inclusions must be older than the formation that contains them. For example, in sedimentary rocks, it is common for gravel from an older formation to be ripped up and included in a newer layer. A similar situation with igneous rocks occurs when [[xenolith]]s are found. These foreign bodies are picked up as [[magma]] or [[lava]] flows, and are incorporated, later to cool in the matrix. As a result, xenoliths are older than the rock which contains them. '''The Principle of Uniformitarianism''' states that, the geologic processes observed in operation that modify the Earth's crust at present have worked in much the same way over geologic time. A fundamental principle of geology advanced by the 18th century Scottish physician and geologist [[James Hutton]], is that &quot;The Present is the Key to the Past.&quot; In Hutton's words: &quot;the past history of our globe must be explained by what can be seen to be happening now.&quot; '''The Principle of Original Horizontality''' states that, the deposition of sediments occurs as essentially horizontal beds. Observation of modern marine and nonmarine sed
ner. However, over the following months, he distanced himself from this idea. Saakashvili has also attempted to portray the Abkhaz dispute as being between Georgia and Russia, owing to the latter's support of the separatists, with the separatist government being portrayed as little more than a Russian puppet. To this end, they have pushed for either the complete removal of, or major changes to the mandate of, the Russian peacekeepers, and the removal of Russian military bases from Abkhaz territory. During 2003, they succeeded in achieving the latter demand, with Russia removing its bases, leaving only its peacekeeping force. Both the Abkhazian government and opposition resolutely oppose reunification with Georgia under any circumstances. ==See also== * [[Abkhaz language]] * [[Georgian-Abkhaz conflict]] * [[List of foreign ministers of Abkhazia]] * [[List of Prime Ministers of Abkhazia]] * [[List of Princes of Abkhazia]] * [[Divan of the Abkhazian Kings]] {{Asia}} {{Europe}} ==External links== *[http://www.abkhazia.org/ Abkhazia.org Web Site] *[http://www.abhazia.com/ Abhazia.com Web Site] *[http://www.apsny.ru/ www.apsny.ru Web Site] *[http://www.abkhaziya.info/ www.abkhaziya.info Web Site] *[http://www.abkhazeti.ru/ abkhazeti.ru Web Site] *[http://www.caucaz.com/home_uk/pays.php?pays=5 Special Abkhazia on Caucaz.com, Weekly Online about South Caucasus] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3261059.stm BBC Regions and territories: Abkhazia] *[http://www.unpo.org/member.php?arg=03 Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation] *[http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks19/chap3_19.html Publication of the United States Institute of Peace: ''Sovereignty after Empire Self-Determination Movements in the Former Soviet Union'', Hopes and Disappointments: Case Studies: ''Abkhazia''] *[http://www.nplg.gov.ge/ic/library_e/gabeskiria/20.htm The Autonomous Republic of Abkhazeti - from Georgian National Parliamentary Library] *[http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3110979 Former Soviet war zones | The hazards of a long, hard freeze] ([[The Economist]], 19 August, 2004) [[Category:Disputed territories]] [[Category:Caucasus]] [[Category:Abkhazia]] [[Category:Panhandles]] {{Link FA|es}} [[ab:Аҧсны]] [[an:Abjasia]] [[bg:Абхазия]] [[bn:আবখাজিয়া]] [[ca:Abkhàzia]] [[da:Abkhasien]] [[de:Abchasien]] [[et:Abhaasia]] [[es:Abjasia]] [[eo:Abĥazio]] [[fr:Abkhazie]] [[ko:압하스]] [[hy:Աբխազիա]] [[id:Abkhazia]] [[it:Abkhazia]] [[he:אבחזיה]] [[ka:აფხაზეთის ავტონომიური რესპუბლიკა]] [[lt:Abchazija]] [[nl:Abchazië]] [[ja:アブハジア]] [[pl:Abchazja]] [[pt:Abecásia]] [[ro:Abhazia]] [[ru:Абхазия]] [[fi:Abhasia]] [[sv:Abchazien]] [[tt:Abxazía]] [[tr:Abhazya]] [[uk:Абхазія]] [[zh:阿布哈茲]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abitibi</title> <id>2833</id> <revision> <id>39245802</id> <timestamp>2006-02-11T20:42:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kjkolb</username> <id>107439</id> </contributor> <comment>combined lists</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abitibi''' may mean: * [[Abitibi-Consolidated]], a Canadian pulp and paper manufacturer * [[Abitibi (electoral district)]] (Canada), a former federal electoral district * [[Abitibi-Témiscamingue]] (Canada), a region of Quebec * [[Abitibi County, Quebec]] (Canada), a historical county * [[Abitibi Regional County Municipality, Quebec]] (Canada) * [[Abitibi River]] (Canada) {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>A Vindication of the Rights of Woman</title> <id>2834</id> <revision> <id>40671443</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T04:54:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>CheshireKatz</username> <id>201100</id> </contributor> <comment>Reverting post-vandalism</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Wollstonecraft-right-of-woman.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Mary Wollstonecraft. Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects. Boston: Peter Edes for Thomas and Andrews, 1792, frontispiece. Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress]] Written in [[1792]], [[Mary Wollstonecraft]]'s '''''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman''''' is one of the earliest works on &quot;[[the woman question]]&quot; and influenced the earliest [[feminism|feminists]] in [[England]] and [[United States|America]] in the [[19th century]], primarily in their distancing themselves from the work due to the controversial life of its author. Some major themes of this work are [[education]] for girls, the debased position of women in society, the necessary [[social equality|equality]] of men and women, and the right of women to work. Shortly after publication, an anonymous parody appeared entitled &quot;A Vindication of the Rights of Beasts,&quot; in which the author (now known to be Cambridge Philosopher [[Thomas Taylor]]) applied all of Wollstonecraft's arguments to the rights of animals, showing that the same justifications that kept women subservient, could also be applied to animals. ==External links== * [http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/mwollstone/bl-mwoll-vin-in.htm free on-line text], hosted by [http://about.com/ About.com] * [http://www.swan.ac.uk/poli/texts/wollstonecraft/vindicon.htm free on-line text], hosted by [http://www2.swan.ac.uk/ the University of Wales Swansea] [[Category:Feminism books|Vindication of the Rights of Woman, A]] [[Category:1792 books|Vindication of the Rights of Woman, A]] {{fem-stub}} {{Nonfiction-book-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Afghan Hound</title> <id>2835</id> <revision> <id>41223478</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T22:12:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.154.23.19</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Dogbreed &lt;!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed. The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: --&gt; &lt;!-- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Dog_breeds#Infobox_Dogbreed_template --&gt; &lt;!-- for full explanation of the syntax used in this template. --&gt; | image = Afghan_Hound_600.jpg | image_caption = A gold coated Afghan | name = Afghan Hound | altname = Baluchi Hound &lt;br&gt; Sage Baluchi &lt;br&gt; Tazi | country = [[Afghanistan]] | fcigroup = 10 | fcisection = 1 | fcinum = 228 | fcistd = http://www.dogdomain.com/fcistandards/fci-228.htm | akcgroup = Hound | akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/afghan_hound/index.cfm | ankcgroup = Group 4 - (Hounds) | ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/afghan.html | ckcgroup = Group 2 - (Hounds) | ckcstd = http://www.canadasguidetodogs.com/hounds/afghanarticle1.htm | kcukgroup = Hound | kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h765.htm | nzkcgroup = Hounds | nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/hounds/afghanhound.htm | ukcgroup = Sighthounds and Pariah Dogs | ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/sighthoundspariahs/afghanhound.std.shtml }} &lt;!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here --&gt; The '''Afghan Hound''' is a very old [[sighthound]] [[dog]] [[dog breed|breed]]. Distinguished by its thick, fine, silky coat and its tail with a ring curl at the end, the breed acquired its unique features in the cold mountains of [[Afghanistan]], where it was originally used to hunt [[wolf|wolves]], [[fox]]es, and [[gazelle]]s. ==Appearance== [[Image:Afghan-Hound.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Afghan with reddish coat]] The Afghan Hound is high-stationed, standing 24 to 28 inches (61-71 cm) in height and weighing 45 to 60 pounds (23-28 kg). The coat may be any colour, but white markings, particularly on the head, are discouraged; many individuals have a black facial mask. However all Afghan Hounds have a white &quot;blaze&quot; on the chest. Some are almost white, but particolor hounds (white with islands of red or black) are not acceptable and may indicate impure breeding. The long, fine-textured coat requires considerable care and grooming. The long topknot and the shorter-haired saddle on the back in the mature dog are distinctive features of the Afghan Hound coat. The high hipbones and unique small ring on the end of the tail are also characteristics of the breed. ==Temperament== The temperament of the Afghan Hound is aloof and dignified, but happy and clownish when playing. The breed has the reputation of being the least intelligent dog breed, though this is not necessarily true. The Afghan Hound has many cat-like tendencies and is not slavish in its [[obedience training|obedience]] as are some other breeds. The Afghan hound has a leaning towards independence. Owners should not be surprised if their Afghan hounds sometimes choose to ignore commands. Although seldom used today for hunting in [[Europe]] and [[United States|America]] where they are popular, Afghans are frequent participants in [[lure coursing]] events and are popular as [[show dog]]s. ==Health== Afghans are a relatively healthy breed; major health issues are [[allergy|allergies]], and [[cancer]]. Sensitivity to [[anaesthesia]] is an issue the Afghan hound shares with the rest of the [[sighthound]] group, as sighthounds have relatively low levels of body fat. Afghan hounds as a whole are a fairly long-lived breed, often living 13-14 years. ==History== The breed was always thought to date back at least to the pre-Christian era, and recent discoveries by researchers studying ancient DNA have revealed that the Afghan Hound is in fact one of the most [[ancient dog breeds]], dating back for many thousands of years. Its original native name, ''Tazi'', betrays its connection to the very similar [[Tasy]] breed of [[Russia]]. The proximity of southern [[Russia]] and [[Afghanistan]] argue for a common origin for both breeds. Initially, Afghani people refused to sell their national dog to outsiders; the breed was not seen in [[Europe]] and [[United States|America]] until after the turn of the [[20th cent
name = Carolina Panthers | logo = CarolinaPanthers_100.png | founded = 1995 | city = Charlotte, North Carolina | nicknames = The Cardiac Cats | colors = Black, Panther Blue, and Silver | coach = [[John Fox (NFL)|John Fox]] | owner = [[Jerry Richardson]] | general manager = [[Marty Hurney]] | mascot = [[Sir Purr]] | stations = [[WBT (AM)]] (1110 AM) and WBT (FM) (99.3 FM) | announcers = [[Mick Mixon]], Eugene Robinson, and Jim Szoke | hist_yr = 1995 | NFL_start_yr = 1995 | division_hist = *'''[[National Football Conference]] (1995-present)''' **[[NFC West]] (1995-2001) **'''[[NFC South]] (2002-present)''' | no_conf_champs = 1 | no_div_champs = 2 | conf_champs = *'''NFC''' 2003 | div_champs = *'''NFC West:''' 1996 *'''NFC South:''' 2003 | stadium_years = *[[Memorial Stadium, Clemson]] (1995) *'''[[Bank of America Stadium]] (1996-present)''' **a.k.a. Ericsson Stadium (1996-2004) }} The '''Carolina Panthers''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Charlotte, North Carolina]]. They currently belong to the [[NFC South|Southern Division]] of the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Panthers, along with the [[Jacksonville Jaguars]], joined the NFL as 1995 [[expansion team]]s. :'''Uniform colors:''' Black, Panther Blue, Silver, and White :'''Helmet design:''' Silver helmet, a black snarling [[Black panther|panther]] outlined in blue ==Franchise history== ===The making of a dream=== Back in 1987, shortly after it was decided that Charlotte would receive an expansion [[National Basketball Association]] franchise (the [[New Orleans Hornets|Charlotte (now New Orleans) Hornets]]), former [[Baltimore Colts]] player [[Jerry Richardson]] met with a group of potential backers to discuss the possibility of bringing an NFL [[expansion]] team to the Carolina region. Richardson Sports decided upon a spot in the uptown section of Charlotte to build a privately financed stadium seating more than 70,000 fans. Richardson's announcement created a buzz in the region, as politicians, businessmen, and citizens all joined together to show the NFL that a team could be supported in the area. United States [[Senator|Senators]] [[Jesse Helms]] of [[North Carolina]] and [[Ernest Hollings]] of [[South Carolina]] put aside their partisan differences to lobby NFL owners to support the expansion. Meanwhile, North Carolina Governor [[James G. Martin]] and South Carolina Governor [[Carroll A. Campbell, Jr.]] created a committee of citizens from North and South Carolina to help the cause. Preseason games were held in the region in 1989, 1990, and 1991; all of the games were sold out as part of the fans' efforts to show their support. Also, in 1991 the [[Raleigh-Durham Skyhawks]] of the [[World League of American Football]] played professional football in North Carolina, without any success on the field, though. In 1992, the NFL released the list of five areas open to a potential NFL team: [[Baltimore, Maryland]], [[St. Louis, Missouri]], [[Memphis, Tennessee]], [[Jacksonville, Florida]], and the Carolinas. After the vote was delayed because of a dispute between the players and the league, the race began again in 1993. In June of that year, Richardson Sports announced that they would finance the stadium through the sale of [[Permanent Seat Licenses]], club seats, and luxury boxes. In a stunning show of fan support, all seats were sold out by the end of the first day. The feasabillity of the team was no longer a question, but it was still up to the league to decide where the team would go. On [[October 26]], [[1993]], the league announced that the owners had unanimously voted for the Carolinas to receive the 29th franchise, the first new NFL team since 1976. (Jacksonville was the other city.) Fans all over the region celebrated with fireworks. In a memorable moment during the expansion announcement conference, Richardson spoke directly into the camera to thank the 40,000 people who had purchased the PSLs and allowing the stadium to be built without a burden to the taxpayers. ===In the beginning=== [[Image:CarolinaPanthersAlt.png|150px|thumb|Carolina Panthers alternate logo]] The Panthers signed [[Dom Capers]], former defensive coordinator for the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], as head coach. During the 1995 [[expansion draft]], [[Rod Smith (defensive back)|Rod Smith]] was the first player selected by the Panthers. [[Greg Kragen]], [[Jack Trudeau]], and [[Mark Carrier]] were among the other players selected. In an interesting note, [[Bill Goldberg]] was picked up off the rosters of the [[Atlanta Falcons]], but made Panther history by being the first player cut by the Panthers; Goldberg would later go on to much greater fame as a [[professional wrestler]] for [[WCW]] and [[WWE]]. During the [[1995 NFL Draft]], the Panthers made their first significant addition (in terms of long-term contributions to the team) by drafting [[Penn State]] [[quarterback]] [[Kerry Collins]]. And in 1995, when the Panthers and [[Jacksonville Jaguars]] began building their team, they had the luxury of something the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]] and [[Seattle Seahawks]] did not have when they entered the league in 1976: [[free agent|free agency]]. The Panthers made excellent use of the tool, picking up [[wide receiver]] [[Don Beebe]], [[linebacker]] [[Sam Mills]], and [[placekicker]] [[John Kasay]]. [[As of 2005]], Kasay is the only remaining &quot;Original Panther&quot; from the inaugural season. The Panthers became the first expansion team to win their first game, winning the annual [[Pro Football Hall of Fame Game|Hall of Fame game]] against the fellow expansion Jacksonville Jaguars 20-14 on [[July 29]], [[1995]] (a game known as the &quot;Battle of the Big Cats&quot;, due to the similar nicknames of the franchises). The home games that first season were played at [[Clemson University]], as the stadium was still under construction. The Panthers won their first game against the [[New York Jets]] on [[October 15]], 1995, after Sam Mills returned an interception 36 yards for a touchdown. Later that year, the Panthers stunned the league by not only winning four consecutive games (an expansion team record), but defeating the defending [[Super Bowl]] champion [[San Francisco 49ers]], the first time an expansion team had beaten the reigning champs. The Panthers finished their season 7-9, more than doubling the previous record of a first year expansion team (and far surpassing the 0-14 record of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in their inaugural season). ===Second year surprise=== In the 1996 Draft, the Panthers used their first pick on [[running back]] [[Tim Biakabutuka]], and their second pick on wide receiver [[Muhsin Muhammad]], two players who would contribute greatly to the Panthers' success that season (and in the case of Muhammad, for many seasons to come). During the off-season, they also picked up quarterback [[Steve Beuerlein]], [[tight end]] [[Wesley Walls]], and linebacker [[Kevin Greene]]. The second year proved even better than the first, as the players found a groove and rattled off a seven-game winning streak to end the season and took the top spot in the [[NFC West]]. They beat the [[Dallas Cowboys]] in the NFC Divisional Playoffs before falling to the eventual [[Super Bowl]] champion [[Green Bay Packers]] in the [[NFC Championship]]. In an interesting note, their fellow second-year expansion team, the [[Jacksonville Jaguars]], played in the [[AFC Championship]] against the [[New England Patriots]]; the NFL nearly had an all-expansion Super Bowl. Panthers fans took it in stride, however, as the team had made massive improvement from the year before, and the team was represented at the [[Pro Bowl]] by eight players, including Collins, Kasay, Greene, Mills, Walls, [[Michael Bates (NFL)|Michael Bates]], [[Eric Davis (NFL)|Eric Davis]], and [[Lamar Lathon]]. ===Dark times (1997-2000)=== The Panthers fully expected to return to the NFC title game in 1997, but a 2-4 start quickly began to cloud the minds of Carolina fans. Meanwhile, the Panthers became known as much for their problems off the field as they did on. Wide receiver [[Rae Carruth]], taken with their first pick of the 1997 draft, was arrested in 1999 for murdering his pregnant girlfriend. He was later convicted, and is serving his sentence in [[Raleigh, North Carolina]]. Star quarterback Kerry Collins was dealing with alcoholism, and was accused of making racial comments about teammates (Noteably Muhsin Muhammad). Collins was later released following the 1998 season. Former running back [[Fred Lane]] was shot and killed by his wife during a domestic dispute in 2000. All the while, the Panthers played mediocre football, and [[George Seifert]] took over the team for the 1999 season. In his first year as head coach, he turned them into an 8-8 team, a vast improvement from the 4-12 record the previous year. Upon a number of huge signings, including [[Reggie White]], the team seemed poised to break deep within the playoffs they had missed the previous year, but injuries and inconsistent offensive play marred the team into a 7-9 season. Unfortunately, Seifert would go on to set a record, and a dubious one at that, in 2001. ===The Season From Hell: 1-15 === The Panthers had finished 7-9 in 2000, and were looking to return to the form they had in 1996, when they were one game away from the Super Bowl. And the 2001 season looked promising, especially after defeating the [[Minnesota Vikings]] in the first game of the season, when Minnesota was considered a high-quality team. First-year quarterback and [[Heisman Trophy]] winner [[Chris Weinke]] looked confident, and rookie wide receiver [[Steve Smith (NFL)|Steve Smith]] was a solid addition to the wide receiving corps, which already boasted Pro Bowler Muhsin Muhammad. However, the offense quickly fell apart, Seifert lost control of his players, and at the end of the season, the Panthers had lost 15 consecutive
n to divide it amongst themselves. Alexander's cavalry commander, [[Seleucus]], took nominal control of the eastern lands and founded the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] dynasty. Under the Seleucids, as under Alexander, Greek colonists and soldiers colonized Bactria, roughly corresponding to modern Afghanistan's borders. However, the majority of Macedonian soldiers of Alexander the Great wanted to leave the east and return home to Greece. Later, Seleucus sought to guard his eastern frontier and moved [[Ionian]] Greeks (also known as [[Yavanas]] to many local groups) to Bactria in the third century BCE. During the colonization of Bactria, the [[Mauryan dynasty|Mauryan Empire]] was developing in the northern part of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and following brief conflict with the Seleucids, an agreement was reached as Seleucus ceded Gandhara and [[Arachosia]] (centered around ancient Kandahar) and areas south of [[Bagram]] (corresponding to the extreme south-east of modern Afghanistan) to the Mauryans. During the somewhat brief rule of the Mauryans in ancient Afghanistan, Buddhism was introduced and eventually become a major religion if not the dominant faith alongside Zoroastrianism in ancient Afghanistan. In the middle of the [[3rd century BCE]], an independent, Hellenistic state was declared in [[Bactria]] and eventually the control of the Seleucids and Mauryans was overthrown in western and southern Afghanistan. [[Graeco-Bactrian]] rule spread until it included a large territory which stretched from northeastern Iran in the west to the [[Ganges River]] in India in the east by about 170 BCE. [[Graeco-Bactrian]] rule was eventually defeated by a combination of internecine disputes that plagued Greek and Hellenized rulers to the west, and overly ambitious attempts to extend control into northern India, as well as the pressure of two groups of nomadic invaders from Central Asia - the [[Parthia|Parthians]] and [[Sakas]] (perhaps a sub-group of the Iranian [[Scythians]]). == The Kushan Empire, ca. [[150 BCE]] - [[300]] [[Common Era|CE]] == [[Image: Heraios.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Silver tetradrachm of Kushan king [[Heraios]] ([[1]]&amp;ndash;[[30]]&amp;nbsp;CE) in [[Greco-Bactrian]] style, with horseman crowned by the Greek goddess of victory [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]]. &lt;br&gt;Greek legend: ΤVΡΑΝΝΟVΟΤΟ&amp;#931; ΗΛΟV - &amp;#931;&amp;#923;Ν&amp;#923;Β - ΚΟÞÞΑΝΟΥ &quot;Of the [[Tyrant]] Heraios, Sanav, the Kushan&quot; (the meaning of &quot;Sanav&quot; is unknown).]] In the [[3rd century BC|third]] and [[2nd century BC|second centuries BC]], the [[Parthians]], a nomadic [[Iranian people]], arrived in ancient Afghanistan. The Parthians established control in most of what is [[Iran]] as early as the middle of the [[3rd century BC]]; about 100 years later another Indo-European group from the north - the [[Tocharian]] [[Kushan|Kushans]] (a subgroup of the tribe called the [[Yuezhi]] by the [[China|Chinese]]) - entered the region that is now [[Afghanistan]] and established an empire lasting almost four centuries. The [[Kushan Empire]] spread from the [[Kabul River]] valley to defeat other [[Central Asia|Central Asian]] tribes that had previously conquered parts of the northern central Iranian Plateau once ruled by the Parthians. By the middle of the [[1st century BCE]], the Kushans' base of control became Afghanistan and their empire spanned from the north of the [[Pamirs|Pamir mountains]] to the [[Ganges|Ganges river valley]] in India. Early in the [[2nd century]] under [[Kanishka]], the most powerful of the Kushan rulers, the empire reached its greatest geographic and cultural breadth to become a center of literature and art. Kanishka extended Kushan control to the mouth of the Indus River on the [[Arabian Sea]], into [[Kashmir]], and into what is today the Chinese-controlled area north of [[Tibet]]. Kanishka was a patron of religion and the arts. It was during his reign that [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, imported to northern [[India]] earlier by the [[Mauryan dynasty|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka]] (ca. [[260 BCE]] - [[232 BCE]]), reached its zenith in Central Asia. Though the Kushanas were predominantly Zoroastrian themselves, they also supported local Buddhists and Hindus as well as the worshop of various local deities. == Sassanian Rule, ca. [[300]] - [[650]] == [[Image:Shapur i.jpg|thumb|200px|A coin depicting [[Shapur I]] who conquered ancient Afghanistan]] In the [[3rd century]], Kushan control fragmented into semi-independent kingdoms that became easy targets for conquest by the rising Iranian dynasty, the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanians]] (ca. [[224]] - [[561]]) which annexed Afghanistan by 300 CE. Sassanian control was tenuous at times as numerous challenges from Central Asian tribes led to instability and constant warfare in the region. The disunited Kushan and Sassanian kingdoms were in a poor position to meet the threat of a new wave of nomadic, Indo-European invaders from the north. The [[Hepthalite|Hepthalites]] (or White Huns) swept out of Central Asia around the fourth century into [[Bactria]] and to the south, overwhelming the last of the Kushan and Sassanian kingdoms. Some have speculated that the name ''Afghanistan'' derives from the name of the defeated Hepthalite king, [[Faganish]]. Historians believe that Hepthalite control continued for a century and was marked by constant warfare with the Sassanians to the west who exerted nominal control over the region. By the middle of the sixth century the Hepthalites were defeated in the territories north of the [[Amu Darya]] (the Oxus River of antiquity) by another group of Central Asian nomads, the [[Gokturks]], and by the resurgent Sassanians in the lands south of the Amu Darya. It was the ruler of western Gokturks, [[Sijin]] (aka Sinjibu, Silzibul and Yandu Muchu Khan) who led the forces against the Hepthalites who were defeated at the [[Battle of Chach]] ([[Tashkent]]) and at the [[Battle of Bukhara]]. == The Shahi Kings, ca. [[650]] - [[1013]] == [[Image:SpalapatiDeva.jpg|thumb|200px|Coin of the Shahi king Spalapati Deva, circa 750-900.&lt;br&gt; '''Obv:''' Bull, symbol of [[Shiva]]. '''Rev:''' King mounted on a horse.]] Up until the advent of [[Islam]], most of Afghanistan was dominated mainly by the Sassanians and local vassals who were Kushans or Hepthalites. However, for nearly four centuries, large parts of eastern Afghanistan around the Kabul Valley were ruled by the [[Indo-Iranian]] Hindu [[Shahi]] kings. When [[Xuanzang|Hsüan-tsang]] visited the region early in the 7th century CE, the Kabul valley region was ruled by a Kshatriya king, who is identified as the Shahi Khingal, and whose name has been found in an inscription found in [[Gardez]]. The Shahi kings of Kabul and Gandhara may have had links to some ruling families in neighboring [[Kashmir]] and other areas to the east. The Shahis, though Hindu, were rulers of a predominantly Buddhist and Zoroastrian population and were thus patrons of numerous faiths, and various artifacts and coins from their rule have been found that display their multicultural domain. The Last Shahi rulers Jayapal, Anandapal and Trilochanpal fought invading Muslim Turks from Central Asia and were gradually defeated. They then retreated to the Punjab and Kashmir. == Archaeological remnants from Afghanistan's pre-Islamic period == [[Image:GBA8.jpg|thumb|right|100px|One of the Buddhas of Bamiyan]] Most of these early Zoroastrian, Greek, Hellenistic, Buddhist, and Hindu cultures were wiped out by the coming of Islam and little influence remains in Afghanistan today. Along ancient trade routes, however, stone monuments of the once flourishing Buddhist culture did exist as reminders of the past. The two massive sandstone [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]], thirty-five and fifty-three meters high overlooked the ancient route through [[Bamiyan]] to [[Balkh]] and dated from the [[3rd century|third]] and [[5th century|fifth centuries]]. They survived until [[2001]], when they were destroyed by the [[Taliban]]. In this and other key places in Afghanistan, [[archeology|archaeologists]] have located [[fresco]]es, [[stucco]] decorations, statuary, and rare objects from as far away as [[China]], [[Phoenicia]], and [[Rome]], which were crafted as early as the [[2nd century]] and bear witness to the influence of these ancient civilizations upon Afghanistan. ==References== * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html Afghanistan: A Country Study, US Library of Congress] * Ahmed, Akbar S. 1980. Pukhtun economy and society. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. * Bryant, Edwin. 'The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). * Dupree, Louis. 'Afghanistan' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997). * [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0060505087 Ewans, Martin. Afghanistan : A Short History of Its People and Politics, Harper Perennial; 1st Perennial ed edition (September 1, 2002)] * Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. ''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250''. Paris, UNESCO Publishing. * Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu.'' Draft annotated English translation.[http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html] * Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Peoples of the West from the Weilue'' 魏略 ''by Yu Huan'' 魚豢'': A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE.'' Draft annotated English translation. [http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html] * [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520211405 Holt, Frank L. Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria, University of California Press (March, 1999)] * [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1400031427 Kriwaczek, Paul. In Search of Zarathustra : Across Iran and Central Asia to Find the World's First Prophet, Vintage (March 9, 2004)] * Litvinsky, B. A., ed., 1996. ''History
mmerce in the Executive Council. Three teams with a total of 44 candidates contested the general election held on November 20, 1996: the governing National Team, Team Cayman and the Democratic Alliance Group. The National Team were returned to office but with a reduced majority, winning 9 seats. The Democratic Alliance won 2 seats in George Town, Team Cayman won one in Bodden Town and independents won seats in George Town, Cayman Brac and Little Cayman. Although all administrative links with Jamaica were broken in 1962, the Cayman Islands and Jamaica continue to share many links and experiences, including membership in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] (and Commonwealth citizenship) and a common church ([[The Church of Jamaica and the Cayman Islands]]) and diocese as well as a [[Jamaican dollar|common currency]] (until [[1972]]). Also, by 1999, 38-40% of the population of the Cayman Islands was of Jamaican origin and in 2004/2005 little over 50% of the [[expatriates]] [[work permit|working]] in the Cayman Islands (i.e. 8,000) were Jamaicans (with the next largest expatriate communities coming from the Unites States, United Kingdom and Canada). In September 2004, The Cayman Islands were hit by [[Hurricane Ivan]], causing mass devastation, loss of human and animal life (both wild and domestic/livestock) and flooding, with some accounts reporting that 25% or more of Grand Cayman had been underwater and with the lower floors of buildings being completely flooded. This natural disaster also led to the bankruptcy of a heavily invested insurance company called Doyle. The company had re-leased estimates covering 20% damage to be re-insured at minimal fees when in fact the damage was over 65% and every claim was in the millions. The company simply could not keep paying out and the adjusters could not help lower the payments due to the high building code the Islands adhere to. Much suspense was built around the devastation that Hurricane Ivan had caused as the leader of Government business Mr. Mckeeva Bush decided to close the Islands to any and all reporters. This led to severe reports in the media of hundreds dead, when in fact none but two that refused to stay in the shelters were lost. It was also a collective decision within the government at that time to turn away two British warships that had arrived the day after the storm with supplies. This decision was met by outrage from the Islanders who thought that it should have been their decision to make. However, when the Island re-opened in early December to tourists the cruise ships once more started to pour in, all intrigued to see the damage. While there were visible signs of damage, in the vegetation and an apparent lack of construction in some places, the Island was bustling again as some things had been freshly re-built and those that were not were quite on their way. There remain housing issues for many of the residents as of late 2005. :''See also :'' [[Cayman Islands]] [[Category:Cayman Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of the Cayman Islands</title> <id>5470</id> <revision> <id>29570475</id> <timestamp>2005-11-29T07:21:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Grutness</username> <id>117878</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} [[image:cayman_islands_sm02.png|right|Map Of Cayman islands]] [[Caribbean]], island group in [[Caribbean Sea]], nearly one-half of the way from [[Cuba]] to [[Honduras]] ==Geographic coordinates== {{coor dm|19|30|N|80|30|W|}} ==Map references== [[Central America]] and the [[Caribbean]] ==Area== ''total:'' 259 km&amp;sup2; &lt;br&gt;''land:'' 259 km&amp;sup2; &lt;br&gt;''water:'' 0 km&amp;sup2; ===Area - comparative=== 1.5 times the size of [[Washington, DC]] ===Land boundaries=== 0 km ===Coastline=== 160 km ===Maritime claims=== ''exclusive fishing zone:'' 200 nm &lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:'' 12 nm ==Climate== tropical marine; warm, rainy summers (May to October) and cool, relatively dry winters (November to April) ==Terrain== low-lying [[limestone]] base surrounded by [[coral reef]]s ===Elevation extremes=== ''lowest point:'' Caribbean Sea 0 m &lt;br&gt;''highest point:'' The Bluff 43 m ==Natural resources== [[fish]], climate and beaches that foster tourism ===Land use=== ''arable land:'' 0% &lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:'' 0% &lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:'' 8% &lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:'' 23% &lt;br&gt;''other:'' 69% (1993 est.) ===Irrigated land=== NA km&amp;sup2; ==Natural hazards== hurricanes (July to November) ==Environment - current issues== no natural fresh water resources; [[drinking water]] supplies must be met by rainwater catchment and desalination ==Geography - note== important location between [[Cuba]] and [[Central America]] ==See also== *[[Cayman Islands]] {{Caymans-stub}}{{Caribbean-geo-stub}} [[Category:Cayman Islands]] [[Category:Geography by country|Cayman Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of the Cayman Islands</title> <id>5471</id> <revision> <id>29570482</id> <timestamp>2005-11-29T07:22:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Grutness</username> <id>117878</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}} '''Population:''' 34,763 (July 2000 est.) '''Age structure:'''&lt;br&gt; ''0-14 years:'' 22.36% (male 3,769; female 4,005)&lt;br&gt; ''15-64 years:'' 69.84% (male 11,864; female 12,416)&lt;br&gt; ''65 years and over:'' 7.79% (male 1,241; female 1,468) (2000 est.) '''Population growth rate:''' 2.22% (2000 est.) '''Birth rate:''' 14.21 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) '''Death rate:''' 5.09 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) '''Net migration rate:''' 13.12 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)&lt;br&gt; ''Note:'' Major destination for [[Cuba]]ns trying to migrate to the [[United States]] '''Sex ratio:'''&lt;br&gt; ''at birth:'' 0.86 male(s)/female&lt;br&gt; ''under 15 years:'' 0.94 male(s)/female&lt;br&gt; ''15-64 years:'' 0.96 male(s)/female&lt;br&gt; ''65 years and over:'' 0.85 male(s)/female&lt;br&gt; ''total population:'' 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.) '''Infant mortality rate:''' 10.44 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) '''Life expectancy at birth:'''&lt;br&gt; ''total population:'' 78.88 years&lt;br&gt; ''male:'' 76.1 years&lt;br&gt; ''female:'' 81.27 years (2000 est.) '''Total fertility rate:''' 2.05 children born/woman (2000 est.) '''Nationality:'''&lt;br&gt; ''noun:'' Caymanian(s)&lt;br&gt; ''adjective:'' Caymanian '''Ethnic groups:''' mixed 40%, white 20%, black 20%, expatriates of various ethnic groups 20% '''Religions:''' United Church (Presbyterian and Congregational), Anglican, Baptist, Roman Catholic, Church of God, other Protestant '''Languages:''' English '''Literacy:'''&lt;br&gt; ''definition:'' age 15 and over has ever attended school&lt;br&gt; ''total population:'' 98%&lt;br&gt; ''male:'' 98%&lt;br&gt; ''female:'' 98% (1970 est.) {{Caymans-stub}} [[Category:Cayman Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Politics of the Cayman Islands</title> <id>5472</id> <revision> <id>35791385</id> <timestamp>2006-01-19T08:27:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TShilo12</username> <id>153537</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Administrative divisions */ wikilinkings</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Cayman Islands}} '''Politics of the Cayman Islands''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[overseas territory]], whereby the [[Leader of Government Business]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the Legislative Assembly. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. The [[Cayman Islands]]' physical isolation under early British colonial rule allowed the development of an indigenous set of administrative and legal traditions which were codified into a constitution in [[1959]]. Although a [[British overseas territory]], the islands are self-governed in nearly all respects. The constitution, or Cayman Islands Order, that now governs the islands came into effect in [[1972]] and was amended in [[1984]]. The Cayman Islands' political system is very stable, bolstered by a tradition of restrained civil governance, sustained economic prosperity, and its relative isolation from foreign policy concerns by virtue of its colonial relationship with the [[United Kingdom]]. Public discussion revolves around public sector expenditure and social services, the pace of additional economic development, and the status of the large foreign national community on the islands. ==Executive branch== {{office-table}} |[[Governors of the Cayman Islands|HE The Governor and President of the Cabinet]] |[[Stuart Jack]], CVO | |[[November 23]] [[2005]] |- |Hon. [[Leader of Government Business]] |[[Kurt Tibbetts]] |[[People's Progressive Movement|PPM]] |[[May 11]] [[2005]] |} The Cabinet has three members appointed by the governor and five members elected by the Legislative Assembly, including the Leader of Government Business. The British Crown appoints a [[Governors of the Cayman Islands|Governor]], who is recruited from the U.K. [[Foreign &amp; Commonwealth Office]] and serves as the British representative, including his role as the direct representative of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]. Daily administration of the islands is conducted by the eight-member [[Cabinet]]. The chief secretary, financial secretary, and attorney general are appointed by the governor. Responsibility for defense and foreign affairs resides with the United Kingdom; however, the chief s
elements are morphisms and whose operation is composition. Functors between monoids, considered as categories, are nothing more than monoid [[homomorphism]]s. So in a sense, functors between arbitrary categories are a kind of generalization of monoid homomorphisms to categories with more than one object. ==Relation to other categorical concepts== Functors themselves can be considered as objects in a category called a [[functor category]]. Morphisms in this category are [[natural transformation]]s between functors. Functors are often defined by [[universal property|universal properties]]; examples are the [[tensor product]], the [[direct sum]] and [[direct product]] of groups or vector spaces, construction of free groups and modules, [[direct limit|direct]] and [[inverse limit|inverse]] limits. The concepts of [[limit (category theory)|limit and colimit]] generalize several of the above. Universal constructions often give rise to pairs of [[adjoint functors]]. ==See also== *[[faithful functor]] a functor which is injective on the set of morphisms with given domain and codomain *[[forgetful functor]] a forgetful functor takes a set with structures to the underlying set with fewer or none of its structures *[[full functor]] a functor which is surjective on the set of morphisms with given domain and codomain *[[essentially surjective functor]] a functor every object of whose codomain is isomorphic to the image of an object in the domain *[[adjoint functors]] ''F'' and ''G'' are adjoint if Hom(''FX'',''Y'')&amp;cong;Hom(''X'',''GY'') *[[additive functor]] a functor between categories whose hom-sets are abelian groups is additive if it is a group homomorphism of the hom-sets *[[exact functor]] takes [[short exact sequence]]s to short exact sequences *[[derived functor]] the image of a short exact sequence under a functor that is only half-exact can be extended to a long exact sequence. the objects of which are images of a derived functor *[[enriched functor]] *[[Kan extension]] [[Category:Category theory]] [[es:Funtor]] [[fr:Foncteur]] [[ja:関手]] [[uk:Функтор]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Felix Housdorff</title> <id>10988</id> <revision> <id>15908775</id> <timestamp>2002-04-16T22:40:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Toby</username> <id>1077</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Felix Hausdorff]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Felix Hausdorff</title> <id>10989</id> <revision> <id>41825786</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:10:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gene.arboit</username> <id>278325</id> </contributor> <comment>image, Commons</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hausdorff 1913-1921.jpg|thumb|right|Felix Hausdorff]] '''Felix Hausdorff''' ([[November 8]], [[1868]] &amp;ndash; [[January 26]], [[1942]]) was a German [[mathematician]] who is considered to be one of the founders of modern [[topology]] and who contributed significantly to [[set theory]] and [[functional analysis]]. He defined and studied [[partially ordered set]]s, [[Hausdorff space]]s, and the [[Hausdorff dimension]], proved the [[Hausdorff maximality theorem]], solved what is now called the [[Hausdorff moment problem]], and published philosophical and literary works under the pseudonym &quot;Paul Mongré&quot;. Hausdorff studied in [[Leipzig]] and taught mathematics there until [[1910]], when he became professor of mathematics in [[Bonn]]. He was professor in [[Greifswald]] from [[1913]] to [[1921]]. When the [[Nazi]]s came to power, Hausdorff, who was [[Jew]]ish, felt that as a respected university professor he would be spared from persecution. However, his abstract mathematics was denounced as &quot;Jewish&quot;, useless, and &quot;un-German&quot; and he lost his position in [[1935]]. When in 1942 he could no longer avoid being sent to a concentration camp, Hausdorff committed [[suicide]] together with his wife and sister-in-law on the 26th of January. == Important publications == * [[Grundzüge der Mengenlehre]] == External links == * [http://www.aic.uni-wuppertal.de/fb7/hausdorff/ Homepage of the Hausdorff Edition (german)] * [http://www.ulb.uni-bonn.de/bibliothek/veroeffentlichungen&amp;ausstellungen/veroeffentlichungen/hausdorff.pdf Hausdorff Findbuch] [[Category:1868 births|Hausdorff, Felix]] [[Category:1942 deaths|Hausdorff, Felix]] [[Category:German mathematicians|Hausdorff, Felix]] [[Category:Jewish mathematicians|Hausdorff, Felix]] [[Category:19th century mathematicians|Hausdorff, Felix]] [[Category:20th century mathematicians|Hausdorff, Felix]] [[Category:Topologists|Hausdorff, Felix]] [[Category:Suicides|Hausdorff, Felix]] [[bg:Феликс Хаусдорф]] [[de:Felix Hausdorff]] [[fr:Felix Hausdorff]] [[it:Felix Hausdorff]] [[he:פליקס האוסדורף]] [[ka:ჰაუსდორფი, ფელიქს]] [[nl:Felix Hausdorff]] [[pl:Felix Hausdorff]] [[ru:Хаусдорф, Феликс]] [[sl:Felix Hausdorff]] [[zh:费利克斯·豪斯多夫]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fimbulwinter</title> <id>10990</id> <revision> <id>39639672</id> <timestamp>2006-02-14T21:36:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nixdorf</username> <id>5771</id> </contributor> <comment>dating</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Norse Mythology|Norse mythology]] and [[Ásatrú]] (according to the [[Edda]]s), '''Fimbulwinter''' is the immediate prelude to the [[end of the world]], [[Ragnarok]]. Fimbulwinter is three successive [[winter]]s without any intervening [[summer]]. During this time, there will be innumerable wars and brothers will kill brothers. The original spelling of this word in the [[Old Norse language]] is '''Fimbulvintr''' (Denmark and Sweden) or '''Fimbulvetr''' (Iceland and Norway), ''fimbul'' meaning &quot;the great/big&quot; so the correct interpretation of the word is &quot;the great winter&quot;.{{ref|SAOB}} There have been several popular speculations about whether this particular piece of mythology has a connection to the [[climate change]] that occurred in the Nordic countries at the end of the [[Nordic Bronze Age]], circa [[650 BC]]. Before this climate change, the Nordic countries were considerably warmer.{{ref|Strom}} In [[Sweden]], [[Norway]] and other Nordic countries, the term '''fimbulwinter''' may also casually be used to refer to any unusually cold and harsh [[winter]] with lots of [[snow]].{{ref|SAOB}} ==Etymological speculation== The Old English cognate is ''fifel'' meaning &quot;Giant, (Sea) Monster&quot;, thereby retaining the root sense of &quot;Large, Vast in Extent&quot;. Thus, in both the Old Norse ''fimbul'' and Old English ''fifel'' we see the root word for the number &quot;five&quot;. Now, in Greek, the word for five is &quot;penta&quot;, and it gives us the Greek prefix &quot;pan-&quot; meaning &quot;All Encompassing&quot;, from the sense of &quot;All Five Fingers on One Hand&quot; being a metaphor for &quot;everything&quot; (''The Teaching Company'' lecture series on Linguistics). Therefore, it seems likely that the Germanic &quot;fimbul-&quot; is the exact cognate of the Greek &quot;pan-&quot;, both meaning &quot;Everything, All Inclusive&quot;. The ''fimbulwinter'', then, was a winter that encompassed everything -- to wit, all lands in Scandinavia and Finland and, perhaps, the British Isles, all the lands the folk of the Nordic Bronze Age knew of. ==Sources== *{{Note|SAOB}} [[Svenska Akademiens Ordbok]], entry for ''Fimbulvinter'' [http://g3.spraakdata.gu.se/saob/show.phtml?filenr=1/68/17359.html] *{{Note|Folke}} Ström, Folke: ''Nordisk Hedendom'', Studentlitteratur, Lund 2005, ISBN 9144005512 (first published 1961) among others, refer the climate change theory. ==Influences== * In the video game series [[Fire Emblem]] there is a magical spellbook named '''Fimbulvetr''' which uses the power of a [[snowstorm]]. * The [[Sweden | Swedish]] [[Melodic Death Metal]] band '''[[Amon Amarth (band)|Amon Amarth]]''' released an album entitled ''[[Arrival of the Fimbul Winter]]'' in 1994. * In the game Warrior Kings Fimbulwinter is an Act of God that can be called down upon an enemy village. * In the video game [[Age of Mythology]], there is a godpower named Fimbulwinter, causing opponents' devastation by invoking nordic wolves. ==See also== *[[Eschatology]] {{NorseMythology}} [[Category:Events in Norse mythology]] [[de:Fimbulwinter]] [[it:Fimbulvetr]] [[no:Fimbulvinteren]] [[nn:Fimbulvinteren]] [[sv:Fimbulvinter]] [[uk:Велика Зима]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>February 10</title> <id>10991</id> <revision> <id>41907215</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:02:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jimmmmmmmmm</username> <id>515208</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Births */ added Naybet</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot; |- |{{FebruaryCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=10}} |} '''February 10''' is the 41st day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 324 days remaining, 325 in [[leap year]]s. ==Events== * [[1258]] - [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|Battle of Baghdad]] - [[Mongols]] overrun [[Baghdad]], burning it to the ground and killing large numbers of citizens (estimates range from 10,000 to 800,000). * [[1355]] - The [[St. Scholastica riot|St. Scholastica's Day riot]] breaks out in [[Oxford]], [[England]], leaving 63 scholars and perhaps 30 locals dead in two days. * [[1542]] - Queen [[Catherine Howard]] of [[England]] is confined in the [[Tower of London]] to be [[Execution (legal)|executed]] three days later for treason ([[adultery]]). * [[1763]] - [[French and Indian War]]: The [[1763 Treaty of Paris]] ends the war and [[France]] cedes [[Canada]] to [[Great Britain]]. * [[1814]] - [[Battle of Champau
under the following circumstances: &quot;When a certain shepherd beheld one heifer of his flock limping and could find no cause for this wound, he anxiously followed the trail of blood and at length came to a sword it had unwittingly trampled while nibbling the grass. He dug it up and took it straight to Attila. He rejoiced at this gift and, being ambitious, thought he had been appointed ruler of the whole world, and that through the sword of Mars supremacy in all wars was assured to him.'' ::&amp;mdash; Jordanes, ''[[The Origin and Deeds of the Goths]]'' ch. XXXV [http://www.boudicca.de/jordanes3-e.htm (e-text)] Later scholarship would identify this legend as part of a pattern of sword worship common among the nomads of the [[Central Asia]]n steppes. ==Attila in the west== [[Image:AttilaTheHun.jpg|frame|An inaccurate sketch of Attila the Hun, probably from the [[19th century]]&lt;!-- my guess --mirv --&gt;, depicts him as [[European]], though the only extant description of his appearance by a Roman court historian states that Atilla had &quot;a flat nose, swarthy dark complexion, broad chest, short stature and small eyes, but full of confidence&quot; among his features, suggesting physical features common among [[Mongolia]]ns.]] As late as [[450]], Attila had proclaimed his intent to attack the powerful [[Visigoth]] kingdom of [[Toulouse]] in [[military alliance|alliance]] with Emperor [[Valentinian III]]. He had previously been on good terms with the western Empire and its ''[[de facto]]'' ruler [[Flavius Aëtius]]&amp;mdash;Aetius had spent a brief [[exile]] among the Huns in [[433]], and the troops Attila provided against the [[Goths]] and [[Bagaudae]] had helped earn him the largely honorary title of ''magister militum'' in the west. The gifts and diplomatic efforts of [[Geiseric]], who opposed and feared the Visigoths, may also have influenced Attila's plans. However Valentinian's sister [[Justa Grata Honoria|Honoria]], in order to escape her forced betrothal to a [[Roman Senate|senator]], had sent the Hunnish king a plea for help&amp;mdash;and her [[engagement ring|ring]]&amp;mdash;in the spring of 450. Though Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, Attila chose to interpret her message as such; he accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as [[dowry]]. When Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of his mother [[Galla Placidia]] convinced him to exile, rather than kill, Honoria; he also wrote to Attila strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila, not convinced, sent an embassy to [[Ravenna]] to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his. Meanwhile, Theodosius having died in a riding accident, his successor [[Marcian]] cut off the Huns' tribute in late 450; and multiple invasions, by the Huns and by others, had left the Balkans with little to plunder. The king of the [[Salian Franks]] had died, and the succession struggle between his two sons drove a rift between Attila and Aetius: Attila supported the elder son, while Aetius supported the younger{{ref|rift}}. [[J.B. Bury]] believes that Attila's intent, by the time he marched west, was to extend his kingdom&amp;mdash;already the strongest on the continent&amp;mdash;across [[Gaul]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] shore{{ref|atlantic}}. By the time Attila had gathered his [[vassal]]s&amp;mdash;[[Gepids]], [[Ostrogoths]], [[Rugians]], [[Scirians]], [[Heruls]], [[Thuringians]], [[Alans]], [[Burgundians]], et al.&amp;mdash;and begun his march west, he had declared intent of alliance both with the Visigoths and with the Romans. In [[451]], his arrival in [[Belgica]] with an army exaggerated by Jordanes to half a million strong soon made his intent clear. On [[April 7]] he captured [[Metz]], and Aetius moved to oppose him, gathering troops from among the [[Franks]], the [[Burgundians]], and the [[Celts]]. A mission by [[Avitus]], and Attila's continued westward advance, convinced the Visigoth king [[Theodoric I]] (Theodorid) to ally with the Romans. The combined armies reached [[Orleans]] ahead of Attila{{ref|orleans}}, thus checking and turning back the Hunnish advance. Aetius gave chase and caught the Huns at a place usually assumed to be near [[Châlons-en-Champagne]]. The two armies clashed in the [[Battle of Chalons]], whose outcome commonly, though erroneously, is attributed to be a victory for the Gothic-Roman alliance. Theodoric was killed in the fighting. Aetius failed to press his advantage, and the alliance quickly disbanded. Attila withdrew to continue his campaign against Italy. ==Invasion of Italy and death== Attila returned in [[452]] to claim his marriage to Honoria anew, invading and ravaging [[Italy]] along the way; his army sacked numerous cities and razed [[Aquileia]] completely, leaving no trace of it behind. Valentinian fled from [[Ravenna]] to [[Rome]]; Aetius remained in the field but lacked the strength to offer battle. Attila finally halted at the [[Po]], where he met an embassy including the [[prefect]] [[Trigetius]], the [[consul]] [[Aviennus]], and [[Pope Leo I]]. After the meeting he turned his army back, having claimed neither Honoria's hand nor the territories he desired. [[Image:Leoattila-Raphael.jpg|thumb|275px|right|[[Raphael]]'s ''The Meeting between Leo the Great and Attila'' shows Leo I, with [[Saint Peter]] and Saint Paul above him, going to meet Attila]] Several explanations for his actions have been proffered. The [[Pandemic|plague]] and [[famine]] which coincided with his invasion may have caused his army to weaken, or the troops that Marcian sent across the Danube may have given him reason to retreat, or perhaps both. [[Priscus]] reports that superstitious fear of the fate of [[Alaric I|Alaric]]&amp;mdash;who died shortly after sacking Rome in [[410]]&amp;mdash;gave the Hun pause. [[Prosper of Aquitaine]]'s pious &quot;fable which has been represented by the pencil of [[Raphael]] and the chisel of [[Algardi]]&quot; (as [[Edward Gibbon|Gibbon]] called it) says that the Pope, aided by [[Saint Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]], convinced him to turn away from the city. Various historians (e.g. [[Isaac Asimov]]) have supposed that the embassy brought a large amount of gold to the Hunnish leader and persuaded him to abandon his campaign. Whatever his reasons, Attila left Italy and returned to his palace across the Danube. From there he planned to strike at Constantinople again and reclaim the tribute which Marcian had cut off. However, he died in the early months of [[453]]; the conventional account, from Priscus, says that on the night after a feast celebrating his latest marriage (to a beautiful Goth named [[Ildico]]), he suffered a severe [[nosebleed]] and choked to death in a stupor. An alternative to the nosebleed theory is that he succummed to internal bleeding after heavy drinking. His warriors, upon discovering his death, mourned him by cutting off their hair and gashing themselves with their swords so that, says Jordanes, &quot;the greatest of all warriors should be mourned with no feminine lamentations and with no tears, but with the blood of men.&quot; His horsemen galloped in circles around the silken tent when Attila lay in state, singing in his [[dirge]], according to [[Cassiodorus]] and Jordanes, &quot;Who can rate this as death, when none believes it calls for vengeance?&quot; then celebrating a ''[[strava]]'' over his burial place with great feasting. He was buried in a triple coffin&amp;mdash;of gold, silver, and iron&amp;mdash;with the spoils of his conquest, and his funeral party was killed to keep his burial place secret. After his death, he lived on as a legendary figure: the characters of ''Etzel'' in the ''[[Nibelungenlied]]'' and ''Atli'' in both the ''[[Volsunga saga]]'' and the ''[[Poetic Edda]]'' were both loosely based on his life. An alternate story of his death, first recorded eighty years after the fact by the Roman chronicler [[Count Marcellinus]], reports: &quot;''Attila rex Hunnorum Europae orbator provinciae noctu mulieris manu cultroque confoditur.''&quot; (&quot;Attila, King of the Huns and ravager of the provinces of Europe, was pierced by the hand and blade of his wife.&quot;){{ref|marcellinus}} The ''Volsunga saga'' and the ''Poetic Edda'' claim that King Atli died at the hands of his wife [[Gudrun]].{{ref|atli_death}} Most scholars reject these accounts as no more than romantic fables, preferring instead the version given by Attila's contemporary Priscus. The &quot;official&quot; account by Priscus, however, has recently come under renewed scrutiny by Michael A. Babcock (''The Night Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun'', Berkley Books, 2005 ISBN 0425202720). Based on detailed [[philological]] analysis, Babcock concludes that the account of natural death, given by Priscus, was an ecclesiastical &quot;cover story&quot; and that Emperor Marcian (who ruled the Eastern Roman Empire from [[450]]-[[457]]) was the political force behind Attila's death. His sons [[Ellak]] (his appointed successor), [[Dengizik]], and [[Ernakh]] fought over the division of his legacy&amp;mdash;&quot;what warlike kings with their peoples should be apportioned to them by lot like a family estate&quot; and, divided, were defeated and scattered the following year in the [[Battle of Nedao]] by the Gepids, under [[Ardaric]], whose pride was stirred by being treated with his people like chattel, and the Ostrogoths. Attila's empire did not outlast him. ==Appearance, character, and name== [[Image:Atli.jpg|thumb|270px|left|Atilla. &lt;br&gt; From an illustration to the [[Poetic Edda]].]] The main source for information on Attila is [[Priscus]], a historian who traveled with [[Maximin]] on an embassy from Theodosius II in [[448]]. He describes the village the nomadic Huns had built and settled down in as the size of the great
ty, beauty, economic opportunities, the preservation of the built or natural heritage, and so on. The planning of towns, cities and rural areas may be seen as applied geography although it also draws heavily upon engineering, the arts, the sciences, lessons of history, and politics. Some of the issues facing planning are considered briefly under the headings of [[rural exodus]], [[urban exodus]] and [[smart growth]]. === Regional science === In the [[1950s]] the [[regional science]] movement led by [[Walter Isard]] arose, to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the more qualitative tendencies of traditional geography programs. Regional science comprises the body of knowledge in which the spatial dimension plays a fundamental role, such as [[regional economics]], [[resource management]], [[location theory]], [[urban planning|urban]] and [[regional planning]], [[transport]] and [[communication]], [[human geography]], [[population distribution]], [[landscape ecology]], and environmental quality. ==Reference== * [[M. Ismail Marcinkowski]], ''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]], [[Central Asia]], [[India]] and Early [[Ottoman Turkey]], with a foreword by Professor Clifford Edmund Bosworth'', member of the [[British Academy]], Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003, ISBN 9971774887. == See also == *[[List of geography topics]] *[[:Category:Geographical_term_stubs|Geographical terms]] *[[List of countries]] *[[List of reference tables#Geography and places|Geography reference tables]] *[[Map]] *[[Geographical renaming]] *[[National Geographic Society]] ([[United States]]) *[[National Geographic Bee]] (United States) *[[Royal Geographical Society]] ([[United Kingdom]]) *[[List of geographers]] ==External links== * [http://www.confluence.org/ Confluence.org - A work in progress, involving travelling to every point on the globe where the lines of longitude and latitude intersect and taking a photograph in each direction.] * [http://www.aag.org/ Association of American Geographers] * [http://www.gisuser.com/ GISuser.com, information-rich portal about GIS] * [http://www.populationdata.net/ PopulationData.net] * [http://www.freemaps.de/ Free Maps Germany] * [http://www.talkgeography.com/ Geography discussion forums] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-4/high.htm Using Literature To Teach Geography in High Schools. ERIC Digest.] * [http://ericdigests.org/1992-5/geography.htm Teaching Geography at School and Home. ERIC Digest.] * [http://ericdigests.org/1996-1/geography.htm The National Geography Content Standards. ERIC Digest.] * [http://www.geo-guide.de Geo-Guide] extensive list of academic resources on geography and earth science * [http://www.geopium.org Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia] * [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ National Geographic Online] * [http://www.rgs.org Royal Geographical Society] * [http://www.rcgs.org Royal Canadian Geographical Society] * [http://www.canadiangeographic.ca Canadian Geographic] * [http://hypergeo.free.fr Hypergeo : Geographical Encyclopedia] *[http://www.rare-maps.com/links.cfm Antique and Rare Maps - Art Source International] - Links to rare and antique maps and to cartography resources. * [http://www.mapinfo.com/ MapInfo GIS Software] * [http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/ Excellent Free Online Geography-Learning Games from Sheppard Software] [[Category:Geography| ]] [[Category:School subjects]] [[Category:Top 10| Geography]] [[ab:Географи]] [[af:Geografie]] [[als:Geografie]] [[ar:جغرافيا]] [[an:Cheografía]] [[ast:Xeografía]] [[az:Coğrafiya]] [[bg:География]] [[ba:География]] [[be:Геаграфія]] [[bn:ভূগোল]] [[bs:Geografija]] [[br:Jeografi]] [[ca:Geografia]] [[ceb:Heyograpiya]] [[co:Geografia]] [[cs:Geografie]] [[cy:Daearyddiaeth]] [[da:Geografi]] [[de:Geographie]] [[mh:Geografia]] [[et:Geograafia]] [[el:Γεωγραφία]] [[es:Geografía]] [[eo:Geografio]] [[eu:Geografia]] [[fo:Landafrøði]] [[fr:Géographie]] [[fy:Geografy]] [[fur:Gjeografie]] [[gl:Xeografía]] [[gu:ભૂગોળ]] [[ko:지리학]] [[hi:भूगोल]] [[hr:Geografija]] [[io:Geografio]] [[id:Geografi]] [[ia:Geographia]] [[ie:Geografie]] [[it:Geografia]] [[he:גאוגרפיה]] [[ka:გეოგრაფია]] [[csb:Geògrafijô]] [[ks:Geografia]] [[ky:География]] [[sw:Jiografia]] [[kv:География]] [[lad:Jeografiya]] [[la:Geographia]] [[lv:Ģeogrāfija]] [[lt:Geografija]] [[lb:Geographie]] [[li:Geografie]] [[hu:Földrajztudomány]] [[mk:Географија]] [[mg:Jeografia]] [[mt:Ġeografija]] [[ms:Geografi]] [[nl:Geografie]] [[ja:地理学]] [[no:Geografi]] [[nn:Geografi]] [[oc:Geografia]] [[os:Географи]] [[nds:Geographie]] [[pl:Geografia]] [[pt:Geografia]] [[ro:Geografie]] [[rm:Geografia]] [[ru:География]] [[sc:Zeografia]] [[scn:Geografia]] [[simple:Geography]] [[sk:Geografia]] [[sl:Geografija]] [[sr:Географија]] [[fi:Maantiede]] [[sv:Geografi]] [[tl:Heograpiya]] [[ta:புவியியல்]] [[te:భూగోళ శాస్త్రము]] [[th:ภูมิศาสตร์]] [[vi:Địa lý học]] [[to:Geografia]] [[tk:Geografiya]] [[tr:Coğrafya]] [[uk:Географія]] [[ur:جغرافيہ]] [[vec:Giografia]] [[vo:Taledav]] [[zh:地理学]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Greek mythology</title> <id>11961</id> <revision> <id>42055068</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:16:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Syrthiss</username> <id>334792</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.250.190.115|66.250.190.115]] ([[User talk:66.250.190.115|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Greek myth}} '''[[Greece|Greek]] [[mythology]]''' consists of a large collection of narratives detailing the lives and adventures of a wide variety of [[Greek gods|gods, goddesses, heroes, and heroines]], which were first envisioned and disseminated in an [[oral tradition|oral-poetic tradition]]. Our surviving sources of mythology are literary reworkings of this oral tradition, supplemented by interpretations of [[icon]]ic imagery, sometimes modern ones, sometimes ancient ones, as myth was a means for later Greeks themselves to throw light on cult practices and traditions that were no longer explicable. The historian must sometimes deduce from hints in imagery, such as in vase paintings, and offhand references the recognition of mythic themes tacitly expressed in [[cult (religion)|cult practice]]. In the wide variety of Greek legends and stories, the ancient gods all appear in human form: the few [[chimera|chimerical beings]] such as the [[Sphinx]] all have [[Near East]]ern or [[Anatolia]]n origins. Despite the fact that many Gods have birth myths attributed to them, none of them ever age. No sicknesses affect them, and there are precious few ways to wound a god. They have the ability to conceal themselves from human beings, they can transport themselves anywhere in the blink of an eye, and they are able to speak through people without their knowledge. Each god possesses a distinct appearance, descends from his or her own genealogy, pursues differing interests, has a certain area of expertise, and is governed by a unique personality; however, these descriptions arise from a multiplicity of archaic local variants, which do not always agree with one another. When these gods were called upon in poetry, prayer or cult, they are referred to by a combination of their name and [[epithet]]s, that identify them by these distinctions from other manifestations of themselves. A Greek deity's epithet may reflect a particular aspect of that god's role, as ''Apollo Musagetes'' is &quot;[[Apollo]], [as] leader of the [[Muse]]s.&quot; Alternatively the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, sometimes thought to be already ancient during the classical epoch of Greece. In such mythic narratives, we are told that the gods are all part of a huge family, spanning multiple generations. The oldest of the gods were responsible for the creation of the world, but younger gods usurped their power. In many familiar epic poems set in the &quot;age of heroes,&quot; the twelve Olympians are said to have appeared in person. In order to help out the Greeks' primitive ancestors, the gods performed miracles, instructed them in various areas of practical knowledge, taught them proper methods of worship, rewarded good behavior and chastised immorality, and even had children with them. ==Nature and Sources of Greek Mythology== The general issues in studying myths are discussed in the [[mythography]] article. While all cultures throughout the world have their own [[Mythology|myth]]s, the term '''mythology''' is a Greek coinage and had a specialized meaning within Greek culture. The Greek term ''mythologia'' is a compound of two smaller words: * '''mythos''' &amp;mdash; which in [[Homer|Homeric]] [[Classical Greek|Greek]] means roughly &quot;a ritualized [[speech act]]&quot;, as of a chieftain at an assembly, or of a poet or priest. * '''logos''' &amp;mdash; which in classical Greek stands for &quot;a convincing story, an ordered argument&quot;. In the original sense, therefore, a ''mythology'' is an attempt to bring sense to the stylized narratives that the Greeks recited at festivals, whispered at shrines, and bandied about at aristocratic banquets. Since few breeds of men are more prone to squabbling than poets, priests and aristocrats, contradictions in the material are rife. Moreover, they are part of the fun. Several types of primary source are available for the study of Greek mythology. [[Image:Patrocluspederastyscene.jpg|thumb|left|300px|right|[[Achilles]] binds the wound of [[Patroclus]]: the [[Trojan War]] formed a context for many cycles of Greek myth. Patroclus' [[penis]] is exposed to show the [[homosexuality|sexual aspect]] of their [[pederasty|pederastic relationship]]. Such relationships were a common element of [[Mythology of same-sex love|Greek mythology]], most notably that of [[Zeus]] and
Air Force]] bases in the [[Philippines]] after the expiration of their leases in the early 1990's, most of the forces stationed there were relocated to Guam. ===Self-Determination=== On September 11, 1968, eighteen years after passage of the Organic Act, Congress passed the &quot;Elective Governor Act&quot; (Public Law 90-497), which allowed the people of Guam to elect their own governor and lieutenant governor. Nearly four years later, Congress passed the &quot;Guam-[[Virgin Islands]] Delegate&quot; Act that allowed for one non-voting Guam delegate in the House of Representatives. Although Public Law 94-584 established the formation of a &quot;locally drafted&quot; constitution (later known as the &quot;Guam Constitution&quot;), the proposed document was rejected by Guam residents in an [[August 4]], [[1979]] referendum. In the meantime, Guam's local government had formed several [[political status]] commissions to address possible options for [[self-determination]]. The following year after passage of the Guam Delegate Act saw the creation of the &quot;Status Commission&quot; by the Twelth Guam Legislature. This was followed by the establishment of the &quot;Second Political Status Commission&quot; in 1975 and the Guam &quot;Commission on Self-Determination&quot; (CSD) in 1980. The Twenty-Fourth Guam Legislature established the &quot;Commission on Decolonization&quot; in 1996 to enhance CSD's ongoing studies of various political status options and public education campaigns. These efforts enabled the CSD, barely two years after its creation, to organize Guam's first political status referendum on January 12, 1982. Forty-nine percent, or almost half, of all Guam residents who voted, chose a closer relationship with the United States via [[Commonwealth]]. Twenty-six percent voted [[State|Statehood]], while ten percent voted for the Status Quo ([[Incorporated territory|Unincorporated territory]]). Smaller groups voted for [[Incorporated territory]] status (5%), [[Associated State|Free Association]] (4%), [[Independence]] (4%), and &quot;other&quot; political status options (2%). A subsequent run-off election held between Commonwealth and Statehood saw seventy-three percent, or nearly three-fourth's, of Guam voters choosing Commonwealth over Statehood (27%). Not until 1988, six years after Guam residents overwhelmingly approved Commonwealth status, was the first Guam Commonwealth Act introduced into Congress. Delegates have subsequently reintroduced the bill with little success. A 2005 monograph by Guam historian Dirk A. Ballendorf and Washington D.C. legal expert Howard P. Willens (&quot;Secret Guam Study&quot;) examines a recently declassified U.S. Federal study of Guam's political status. The report was commissioned by President [[Gerald Ford]] at the behest of Secretary of State [[Henry Kissinger]], but conducted by the [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]]. Delays, however, meant that the study was not completed until the end of the Ford administration. The documents were then shelved and classified, with few officials in the Carter administration, let alone Capitol Hill, even aware of their existence. [[Antonio Borja Won Pat|Antonio Won Pat Borja]], Guam's Washington delegate, and other GovGuam officials involved in political status negotiations at that time were also not informed about the study. ===Contemporary Guam=== The removal of Guam's security clearance allowed for the development of a [[tourism]] industry. The island's rapid economic development was fueled both by rapid growth in this industry as well as increased U.S. Federal Government spending during the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]]. The [[Asian financial crisis|Asian economic crisis]] of the late 1990's, which particularly hit Japan hard, severely affected Guam tourism, however. Military cutbacks in the 1990s also disrupted the island's economy. The island's economic recovery was further hampered by devestation from Supertyphoons Paka in 1997 and Ponsonga in 2002, as well as the economic effects of the [[September 11, 2001|September 11]] terrorist attacks. There are nevertheless indications that Guam is recovering from these setbacks. Japan's gradual economic recovery is reflected in increased tourist arrivals. U.S. military spending on the island has dramatically increased as part of [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush|George W. Bush's]] [[War on Terrorism]]. Recent proposals to further increase U.S. military presence on Guam, including plans to station 7,000 [[U.S. Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] on the island, have also contributed to hopes of a complete economic revival. The full legacy of Guam's rapid economic development remains to be seen, however. Along with economic expansion has come tremendous population growth that poses significant political, social, and cultural, as well as economic, ramifications. Perhaps the clearest indicator of these changes is the declining proportion of [[Chamorros]] vis-a-vis the general population. &quot;Cosmopolitan&quot; Guam poses particular challenges for Chamorros struggling to preserve their culture and identity in the face of [[acculturation]]. The increasing numbers of Chamorros, especially Chamorro youth, relocating to the U.S. Mainland, has further complicated both definition and preservation of Chamorro identity. ==Further reading== Robert F. Rogers, ''Destiny’s Landfall: A History of Guam'' (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1995) Paul Carano and Pedro C. Sanchez, ''A Complete History of Guam'' (Rutland, VT: C. E. Tuttle, 1964) Howard P Willens and Dirk A Ballendorf, ''The Secret Guam Study: How President Ford's 1975 Approval of Commonwealth Was Blocked by Federal Officials'' (Mangilao, Guam: Micronesian Area Research Center; Saipan: Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Division of Historical Preservation, 2004) ==External links== * [http://www.guamhumanitiescouncil.org/ Guam Humanities Council] * [http://www.guampedia.com/ Guampedia] * [http://www.nps.gov/wapa/indepth/index.htm War in the Pacific National Historic Park] * [http://ns.gov.gu/latte.html The Latte Stones of Guam] * [http://www.historyofnations.net/oceania/guam.html History of Guam] * [http://www.bisitaguam.com/ Bisita Guam] * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09660b.htm Prefecture Apostolic of Mariana Islands] * [http://www.guam-online.com/people/people.htm Guam Online's History Webpage] * [http://www.usnhguam.med.navy.mil/us/history/default.htm Brief History of Guam's U.S. Naval Hospital] * [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c105:S.RES.254: Senate Resolution 254, 105th Congress] Includes brief history of Guam's movement towards self-determination ==See also== * [[Guam]] * [[Villages of Guam]] * [[San Vitores]] * [[Chief Kepuha]] {{Oceania in topic|History of}} [[Category:Guam]] [[Category:Histories of non-state political divisions of the United States]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Guam</title> <id>12149</id> <revision> <id>40479659</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T21:44:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Reaganamerican</username> <id>761529</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GuamMapSmall.png|right|frame|(See [[:Image:GuamMap.png|detailed map]])]] This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[Guam]]'''. ; Location: : Oceania, island in the North [[Pacific Ocean]], about three-quarters of the way from [[Hawaii]] to the [[Philippines]] ; [[Geographic coordinate]]s: : {{coor dms|13|26|31|N|144|46|35|E|}} ; Map references: : [[Oceania]] ; Area: :* Total: [[1 E8 m²|541.3 km&amp;sup2;]] :* Land: 541.3 km&amp;sup2; :* Water: 0 km&amp;sup2; ; Area--comparative: : Three times the size of [[Washington, DC]] ; Land boundaries: Approximately 30 [[mile]]s/51 km long and 9 miles/15.3 km wide, narrowing to four miles/6.8 km wide at the center. ; Coastline: : 125.5 km ; Maritime claims: :* Exclusive economic zone: 200 [[nautical mile|nm]] :* Territorial sea: 12 nm :* The southern maritime boundary of Guam forms a border with the Federated States of Micronesia, and the northern maritime boundary forms a border with the Northern Marianas Islands. ; Climate: : Tropical marine; generally warm and humid, moderated by northeast trade winds; dry season from January to June, rainy season from July to December; little seasonal temperature variation ; Terrain: : Volcanic origin, surrounded by [[coral]] reefs; relatively flat coralline limestone plateau (source of most fresh [[water]]), with steep coastal cliffs and narrow coastal plains in north, low-rising hills in center, mountains in south ; Elevation extremes: :* Lowest point: [[Pacific Ocean]] 0 [[metre|m]] :* Highest point: Mount Lamlam 406 m ; Natural resources: : Commercial fishing (mostly servicing and unloading of long line fleets and commercial vessels), sport fishing of blue marlin, wahoo, mahi mahi, yellow fin tuna, and deep water reef fish, tourism (especially from [[Japan]] but increasingly from China and Korea) ; Land use: :* Arable land: 11% :* Permanent crops: 11% :* Permanent pastures: 15% :* Forests and woodland: 18% :* Other: 45% (1993 est.) ; Irrigated land: : NA km&amp;sup2; ; Natural hazards: : Frequent squalls during rainy season; relatively rare, but potentially very destructive [[typhoon]]s (typhoons are possible in any season but most common from August through December) ; Environment--current issues: : Extirpation of native [[bird]] population by the rapid proliferation of the brown tree snake, an exotic species. Island also supports feral populations of introduced deer, pigs and water buffalo. ; Geography--note: : Largest and southernmost island in the [[Mariana Islands]] archipelago; strategic location in western North [[Pacific Ocean]] [[Category:Guam]] [[Category:Geography by country|Guam]]</text> </revision> </page> <page>
text xml:space="preserve">In [[law]], the '''affray''' is the fighting of two or more persons in a public place to the terror (in [[French language|French]]: ''à l'effroi'') of the [[liege]]s. The offence is a [[misdemeanour]] at [[United Kingdom|English]] [[common law]], punishable by [[fine]] and [[imprisonment]]. A fight in private is an [[assault]] and [[Battery (crime)|battery]], not an affray. As those engaged in an affray render themselves also liable to prosecution for [[assault]], [[Riot act|Unlawful Assembly]], or [[Riot]], it is for one of these offences that they are usually charged. Any private person may, and [[constable]]s and justices must, interfere to put a stop to an affray. In the [[United States]] the English common law as to affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the [[statute]]s of particular states (Bishop, ''Amer. Crim. Law,'' 8th ed., 1892, vol. i. sec. 535). The [[India|Indian]] Penal [[Code]] (sect. 159) adopts the English definition of affray, with the substitution of ''actual disturbance of the [[peace]]'' for ''causing terror to the lieges.'' The [[Queensland]] Criminal [[Code]] of [[1899]] (sect. 72) defines affray as taking part in a fight in a public [[highway]] or taking part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access. This definition is taken from that in the English [[Criminal Code]] Bill of [[1880]], cl. 96. Under the Roman [[Netherlands|Dutch]] law in force in [[South Africa]] affray falls within the definition of ''vis publica''. ''Based on an article from a [[Britannica Public Domain|well-known encyclopedia published in 1911]].'' [[Category:Legal terms]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Affreightment</title> <id>2666</id> <revision> <id>28108770</id> <timestamp>2005-11-12T11:46:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bluebot</username> <id>527862</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Affreightment ''' (from [[freight]]) is a [[legal term]] used in [[shipping]]. Contract of Affreightment is the expression usually employed to describe the contract between a shipowner and some other person called the freighter, by which the shipowner agrees to carry goods of the freighter in his ship, or to give to the freighter the use of the whole or part of the cargo-carrying space of the ship for the carriage of his goods on a specified voyage or voyages or for a specified time; the freighter on his part agreeing to pay a specified price, called ''freight,'' for the carriage of the goods or the use of the ship. A ship may be let like a house to some person who takes possession and control of it for a specified term. The person who hires a ship in this way occupies during the currency of his term the position of shipowner. The contract by which a ship is so let may be called a charter-party; but it is not, properly speaking, a contract of affreightment, and is mentioned here only because it is necessary to remember the distinction between a charter-party of this kind, which is sometimes called a demise of the ship, and a charter-party which is a form of contract of affreightment, as will hereinafter appear. === Rules of law. === The law with regard to the contract of affreightment is, of course, a branch of the general law of contract. The rights and obligations of the shipowner and the freighter depend, as in the case of all parties to contracts, upon the terms of the agreement entered into between them. The law, however, interferes to some extent in regulating the effect to be given to contracts. Certain contracts are forbidden by the law, and being illegal are, therefore, incapable of enforcement. The most important example of illegality in the case of contracts of affreightment is when the contract involves trading with an enemy. The law interferes again with regard to the interpretation of the contract. The meaning to be given to the words of the contract, or, in other words, its construction, when a dispute arises about it, must be determined by the judge or court. The result is, that certain more or less common clauses in contracts of affreightment have come before the courts for construction, and the decisions in these cases are treated practically, though not perhaps quite logically, as rules of law determining the sense to be put upon certain forms of expression in common use in shipping contracts. A third way in which the law interferes is by laying down certain rules by which the rights of the parties are to be regulated in the absence of any express stipulation with regard to the matter dealt with by such rules. This is done either by statutory enactment, as by that part (Part VIII) of the Merchant Shipping Act [[1804]] which deals with the liability of shipowners; or by established rules of the unwritten law, the ''common law'' as it is called, as, for instance, the rule that the common carrier is absolutely responsible for the safe delivery of the goods carried, unless it is prevented by the act of God or the king's enemies. These rules of law, whether common law or statute law, regulating the obligations of carriers of goods by sea, are of most importance in cases which are uncommon though not unknown at the present day, in which there is an affreightment without any written agreement of any kind. It will, therefore, be convenient to consider first cases of this kind where there is no express agreement, oral or written, except as to the freight and destination of the goods, and where, consequently, the rights and obligations of the parties as to all other terms of carriage depend wholly upon the rules of law, remembering always that these same rules apply when there is a written contract, except in so far as they are qualified or negatived by the terms of such contract. === In defaults of express contract. === The rules of the common or ancient customary law of [[England]] with regard to the carriage of goods were no doubt first considered by the courts and established with regard to the carriage of goods by common carriers on land. These rules were applied to common carriers by water, and it may now be taken to be the general rule that shipowners who carry goods by sea are by the [[United Kingdom|English]] law subject to the liabilities of common carriers. (See, as to the grounds and precise extent of this doctrine, the judgments in Liver Alkali Company v. Johnson ([[1874]]), L.R., 9 Ex. 338, and Nugent v. Smith ([[1876]]) 1 C.P.D. 423.) In practice goods are not often shipped without a written contract or acknowledgment of the terms upon which they are to be carried. For each separate consignment or parcel of goods shipped a bill of lading is almost invariably given, and when a whole cargo is agreed to be carried the terms are set out in a document called a charter-party, signed by or on behalf of the shipowner on the one part, and the shipper, who is called the charterer, on the other part. But at present we are considering the relations of shipowner and shipper independently of any express contract, as in a case when goods are shipped and received to be carried to the place to which the ship is bound for a certain freight, but without any further agreement as to the terms of carriage. In such a case the rights of the parties depend on the rules of law, or, which is much the same thing, upon the warranties or promises which though not expressed must, as the courts have held, be implied as arising from the relation between the parties as shipper and carrier. The obligations on the one side and the other may be defined shortly to be as follows:--The shipper must not ship goods of a nature or in a condition which he knows, or ought, if he used reasonable care, to know to be dangerous to the ship, or to other goods, unless the shipowner has notice of or has sufficient opportunity to observe their dangerous character. The shipper must be prepared, without notice from the shipowner, to take delivery of his goods with reasonable despatch on the arrival of the ship at the place of destination, being ready there to discharge in some usual discharging place. The shipper must pay the agreed freight, and will not be entitled to claim delivery until the freight has been paid. In other words, the shipowner has a lien on the goods carried for the freight payable in respect of the carriage. On the other hand, the obligation upon the shipowner is first and foremost to deliver safely at their destination the goods shipped, and this obligation is, by the common law, subject to this exception only that the shipowner is not liable for loss or damage caused by the act of God or the king's enemies; but by statute (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, Part Viii.) it is further qualified to this extent that the shipowner is not liable for loss, happening without his actual fault or privity, by fire on board the ship, or by the robbery or embezzlement of or making away with gold or silver or jewellery, the true nature and value of which have not been declared in writing at the time of shipment; and, further, the shipowner is not laable for damage to or loss of goods or merchandise beyond an aggregate amount, not exceeding eight pounds per ton for each ton of the ship's tonnage. The shipowner is bound by an implied undertaking, or, in other words, is made responsible by the law as if he had entered into an express undertaking: (1) that the ship is seaworthy; (2) that she shall proceed upon the voyage with reasonable despatch, and shall not deviate without necessity from the usual course of the voyage. It is not our purpose in this article to discuss minute or doubtful questions; but in their general outline the obligations of shipper and shipowner, where no terms of carriage have been agreed, except as to the freight and destination
e'', [[1975]], ISBN 0716703513 *''Energy or Extinction? The case for nuclear energy'', [[1977]], Heinemann Educational Books Limited, ISBN 0435544306. In this provocative book Hoyle establishes the dependence of Western civilisation on energy consumption and predicts that nuclear fission as a source of energy is essential for its survival. * ''[[The Intelligent Universe]]'', [[1983]] *''Evolution from Space: A Theory of Cosmic Creationism'', 1984, ISBN 0671492632 *Burbidge, E.M., Burbidge, G.R., Fowler, W.A. and Hoyle, F., Synthesis of the Elements in Stars, ''Revs. Mod. Physics'' '''29:'''547&amp;ndash;650, 1957, the famous B&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;FH paper after their initials, for which Hoyle is most famous among professional cosmologists. *Hoyle, F., The big bang in astronomy, ''New Scientist'' '''92'''(1280):527, November 19, 1981. *Arp, H.C., Burbidge, G., Hoyle, F., Narlikar, J.V. and Wickramasinghe, N.C., The extragalactic universe: an alternative view, ''Nature'' '''346:'''807&amp;ndash;812, August 30, 1990. *''Home Is Where the Wind Blows: Chapters from a Cosmologist's Life'' (autobiography) Oxford University Press [[1994]], ISBN 0198500602 ==Further reading== *Alan P. Lightman and Roberta Brawer, ''Origins: the lives and worlds of modern cosmologists'', Harvard University Press, 1990. A collection of interviews, mostly with the generation (or two) of cosmologists after Hoyle, but also including an interview with Hoyle himself. Several interviewees testify to Hoyle's influence in popularizing astronomy and cosmology. *Dennis Overbye, ''Lonely Hearts of the Cosmos: the scientific quest for the secret of the Universe'', HarperCollins 1991, Back Bay 1999 (with new afterword). Very well-written (reads like a novel) biography-based account of modern cosmology. Complementary to ''Origins.'' *Simon Mitton, ''Conflict in the Cosmos: Fred Hoyle's Life in Science'', Joseph Henry Press, [[2005]], ISBN 0309093139 or, ''Fred Hoyle: a life in science'', Aurum Press, [[2005]], ISBN 1854109618 *Douglas Gough, editor, ''The Scientific Legacy of Fred Hoyle'', Cambridge University Press, [[2005]], ISBN 0521824486 *Chandra Wickramasinghe, ''A Journey with Fred Hoyle: The Search for Cosmic Life'', World Scientific Publishing, [[2005]], ISBN 9812389121 *Jane Gregory, ''Fred Hoyle's Universe'', Oxford University Press, [[2005]], ISBN 0198507917 ==References== *Ferguson, Kitty (1991). ''[[Stephen Hawking]]: Quest For A Theory of Everything''. Franklin Watts. ISBN 0553-29895-X. ==External links== *[http://www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-54/iss-11/p75b.html Obituary by Sir Martin Rees, ''Physics Today''] *[http://www.guardian.co.uk/obituaries/story/0,3604,540961,00.html Obituary in ''The Guardian''] [[Category:1915 births|Hoyle, Fred]] [[Category:2001 deaths|Hoyle, Fred]] [[Category:Alumni of Emmanuel College, Cambridge|Hoyle, Fred]] [[Category:Alumni of St. John's College, Cambridge|Hoyle, Fred]] [[Category:British astronomers|Hoyle, Fred]] [[Category:British science fiction writers|Hoyle, Fred]] [[Category:British scientists|Hoyle, Fred]] [[Category:Cosmologists|Hoyle, Fred]] [[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Hoyle, Fred]] [[ca:Fred Hoyle]] [[da:Fred Hoyle]] [[de:Fred Hoyle]] [[es:Fred Hoyle]] [[eo:Fred HOYLE]] [[fr:Fred Hoyle]] [[gl:Fred Hoyle]] [[he:פרד הויל]] [[it:Fred Hoyle]] [[nl:Fred Hoyle]] [[ja:フレッド・ホイル]] [[pl:Fred Hoyle]] [[ru:Хойл, Фред]] [[sl:Fred Hoyle]] [[sv:Fred Hoyle]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>French cuisine</title> <id>11002</id> <revision> <id>41746825</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:16:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RexNL</username> <id>241337</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/61.17.133.77|61.17.133.77]] ([[User talk:61.17.133.77|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cuisine}} '''French cuisine''' is characterized by its extreme diversity. French cuisine is considered to be one of the world's most refined and elegant styles of cooking, and is renowned for both its classical (&quot;haute cuisine&quot;) and provincial styles. Many of the world's greatest chefs, such as [[Taillevent]], [[François Pierre La Varenne|La Varenne]], [[Marie-Antoine Carême|Carême]], [[Auguste Escoffier|Escoffier]], or [[Paul Bocuse|Bocuse]] were masters of French cuisine. Additionally, French cooking techniques have been a major influence on virtually all Western cuisines, and almost all culinary schools use French cuisine as the basis for all other forms of Western cooking. ==Diversity== Traditionally, each region of [[France]] have their own distinctive cuisine: *Cuisine from northwest France uses [[butter]], [[cream (food)|cream]] (''[[crème fraîche]]''), and [[apple]]s; *Cuisine from southwest France uses [[duck]] fat, [[foie gras]], [[porcini]] [[mushroom]]s (''cèpes''), and [[gizzard]]s; *Cuisine from southeast France uses [[olive oil]], [[herb]]s, and [[tomato]]es, and shows [[Italian cuisine]] influences. *Cuisine from northern France uses [[potatoes]], [[pork]], [[endive]]s and [[beer]], and shows [[Flemish cuisine]] influences. *Cuisine from eastern France uses [[lard]], [[sausage]]s, [[beer]], and [[sauerkraut]], and shows [[German cuisine]] influences. Besides these five general areas, there are many more local cuisines, such as [[Loire Valley]] cuisine (famous for its delicate dishes of freshwater fish and Loire Valley white wines), [[Basque cuisine]] (famous for its use of tomatoes and [[Chile pepper|chili]]) and the cuisine of [[Roussillon]], which is similar to [[Catalan cuisine]]. With the movements of population of contemporary life, such regional differences are less noticeable than they used to be, but they are still clearly marked, and one travelling across France will notice significant changes in the ways of cooking and the dishes served. Moreover, recent focus of French consumers on local, countryside food products (''produits du terroir'') means that the regional cuisines are experiencing a strong revival in the early [[21st century]], especially as the [[slow food]] movement is gaining popularity. What is often known outside of France as &quot;French cuisine&quot; is the traditionally-elaborate [[haute cuisine]], served in restaurants for high prices. This cuisine is mostly influenced by the regional cuisines of [[Lyon]] and northern France, with a marked touch of refinement. It should be noted, however, that average French people do not eat or prepare this cuisine in their everyday life. As a general rule, elderly people tend to eat the regional cuisine of the region where they are located (or the region where they grew up), while younger people will be more inclined to eat dishes from other regions and foreign dishes. [[French wine]] and [[French cheese]] are an integral part of French cuisine (both high cuisine and regional cuisines), both as ingredients and accompaniments. France is known for its large ranges of wines and cheeses. Exotic cuisines, particularly [[Chinese cuisine]] and [[Vietnamese cuisine]] and some dishes from former colonies in Northern Africa ([[couscous]]), have made inroads. ==Ingredients== French regional cuisine uses locally-grown vegetables. Let us cite: * [[potato]]es * [[green bean]]s * [[carrot]]s * [[Leek (vegetable)|leek]]s * [[turnip]]s * [[aubergine]]s ([[eggplant]]s in American English) * [[courgette]]s ([[zucchini]] in American English) * [[Mushroom]]s such as ''[[champignon|Champignons de Paris]]'', [[oyster mushroom]]s (''pleurotes''), [[Porcini]]s (''bolets'' and ''cèpes''), [[truffle]]s, and other mushrooms, in order of increasing rarity and price. Common fruits include: * [[Orange (fruit)|orange]]s * [[tomato]]es * [[tangerine]]s * [[peach]]es * [[apricot]]s * [[apple]]s * [[pear]]s Meats commonly consumed include: * [[chicken]] * [[turkey (bird)|turkey]] * [[duck]] and [[Guinea fowl]] are less common * [[goose]], mostly a holiday dish * [[beef]] * [[veal]] * [[pork]] * [[mutton]] (generally, [[lamb]]) is often a holiday dish * [[rabbit]] [[Horse meat]] is available from special butcher stores (''boucheries chevalines''), but a minority of people consume it. Seafood commonly consumed include: * [[cod]] * [[sardine]] (often canned) * [[tuna]] (often canned)) * [[salmon]] used to be a luxury food but is now quite common. * [[trout]] * [[mussels]] * [[oysters]], mostly a holiday dish * [[shrimps]], [[calamari]] etc. Fresh fruit and vegetables, as well as fish and meat, are purchased either from [[supermarket]]s and grocery stores or smaller markets. Street markets are held on certain days in most localities; towns of a certain importance generally have a more permanent &quot;covered market&quot; in which food shops, especially meat and fish retailers, have better shelter than the periodic street markets. Generally, a street market for vegetables takes places on certain days outside such &quot;covered markets&quot;. ==Present-day food and drink in France== For French people, cooking is part of culture, and cooking and good food are well appreciated. The French generally take a high pride in the cuisine of their country, and some, particularly in the older generations, are reluctant to experiment with foreign dishes. ===Structure of meals=== The normal meal schedule begins by a light [[breakfast]] in the morning, generally consisting of: * [[bread]] with jam and butter spreads (''tartines''), often replaced nowadays by [[breakfast cereal]]s, * often, [[coffee]] or more rarely [[tea]], * possibly some fruit. Hotel breakfasts often contain [[croissant]]s, but most people eat croissants at breakfast at home only on special occasions. [[Lunch]] is had at some point between noon and 2 {{PM}}, and dinner in the evening (often, 7.30 {{PM}}). A normal complete meal consists of: * appetizers, often consisting of ''[[crudités]]'' (raw vegetables), or a salad; * a
Emperor]]. He married in [[1452]], at age 37, the 18-year-old Princess [[Leonor of Portugal (1434-1467)|Eleonore of Portugal]], whose dowry helped him to alleviate his debts and cement his power. In [[1446]], he entered into the ''[[Vienna Concordat]]'' with the [[Holy See]], which remained in force until [[1806]] and regulated the relationship between the Habsburgs and the Holy See. Frederick was the last Emperor to be crowned in Rome, being crowned in [[1452]] by [[Pope Nicholas V]]. He opposed the reform of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] at that time and was barely able to prevent the [[prince-elector|electors]] from electing another king. His politics were hardly spectacular but still successful. His first major opponent was his brother [[Albert VI of Austria|Albert VI]], who challenged his rule. He did not manage to win a single conflict on the battlefield, and thus resorted to more subtle plans. He held his nephew [[Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus Posthumus]], the ruler of Austria proper, Hungary and Bohemia, (born in [[1440]]) as a prisoner and attempted to extend his guardianship over him in perpetuity to maintain his control over [[Lower Austria]]. Ladislaus was freed in [[1452]] by the Lower Austrian estates. He acted similarly towards his nephew [[Sigismund of Austria|Sigismund]] of the Tyrolian line of the Habsburg family. Despite those efforts, he failed to gain control over [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] and [[Bohemia]], and was even defeated by the Hungarian King [[Matthias Corvinus]] in [[1485]], who manged to reside in [[Vienna]] until his death later that year. Ultimately, Frederick prevailed in all those conflicts by outliving his opponents and sometimes inheriting their lands from, such as in the case of his nephew Ladislaus Posthumus, from whom he gained Lower Austria in [[1457]], and his brother Albert VI, whom he succeeded in [[Upper Austria]]. These conflicts forced him to an anachronistic itinerant existence, as he had to move his court between various place through the years, residing in [[Graz]], [[Linz]] and [[Wiener Neustadt]]. Wiener Neustadt owes him its castle and the &quot;New Monastary&quot;. Still, in some ways his policies were astonishingly successful. In the Siege of [[Neuss]], he could force [[Charles the Bold]] of Burgundy to give his daughter [[Mary of Burgundy]] as wife to Frederick's son [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian]]. With the inheritance of Burgundy, the House of [[Habsburg]] began to rise to predominance in Europe. This gave rise to the saying &quot;Let others wage wars, but you, happy Austria, shall marry&quot;, which became a motto of the dynasty. The marriage of his daughter [[Kunigunde of Austria]] to [[Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria]], was another result of intrigues and deception, but rather a defeat for Frederick. Albert had illegally taken control over some imperial [[fief]]s, asked to marry Kunigunde (who lived in [[Innsbruck]], far from her father) and offered the Emperor to give the fiefs to the daughter as a dowry. Frederick agreed, but withdrew his approval when Albert also took control of [[Regensburg]]. Before the daughter learned of this, Albert had married her on [[January 2]], [[1487]]. A war could be prevented only by intermediation by the Emperor's son, Maximilian. In some smaller issues, Frederick was quite successful: in [[1469]] he managed to establish [[bishopric]]s in [[Vienna]] and [[Wiener Neustadt]], in which all previous Dukes of Austria had failed over the centuries. Frederick died in a failed attempt to have his left leg amputated. His grave, built by [[Niclaes Gerhaert van Leyden]], in the [[Stephansdom]] in Vienna is one of the most important works of sculptural art of the late middle ages. For the last ten years of Frederick's life, he and Maximilian ruled jointly. {{start box}} |- | width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Albert II of Habsburg|Albert II]]''' | width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[List of German Kings and Emperors|King of Germany]]'''&lt;br&gt;[[1440]]&amp;ndash;[[1493]] | width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;4&quot;| Succeeded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]]''' |- | width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Holy Roman Emperor]]'''&lt;br&gt;[[1452]]&amp;ndash;[[1493]] |- | width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Ernest of Austria (Habsburg)|Ernest the Iron]]''' | width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Duke of [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]], [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]] and [[Carniola]]&lt;br&gt;co-regent: [[Albert VI of Austria|Albert VI]]'''&lt;br&gt;[[1424]]&amp;ndash;[[1493]] |- | width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus Posthumus]]''' | width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[List of rulers of Austria|Archduke of Austria]]&lt;br&gt;co-regent: [[Albert VI of Austria|Albert VI]]''' {{end box}} [[Category:1415 births|Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Category:1493 deaths|Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Category:Holy Roman emperors]] [[Category:German Kings]] [[Category:Rulers of Austria]] [[Category:Rulers of Styria]] [[Category:Dukes of Carinthia]] [[Category:Knights of the Garter]] [[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece]] [[de:Friedrich III. (HRR)]] [[et:Friedrich III (Saksa-Rooma keiser)]] [[es:Federico III de Habsburgo]] [[fr:Frédéric III du Saint-Empire]] [[nl:Frederik III van het Heilige Roomse Rijk]] [[ja:フリードリヒ3世 (神聖ローマ皇帝)]] [[pl:Fryderyk III Habsburg]] [[sv:Fredrik III (tysk-romersk kejsare)]] [[uk:Фрідріх III Габсбург]] [[zh:腓特烈三世 (神圣罗马帝国)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Famous programmer</title> <id>11473</id> <revision> <id>15909217</id> <timestamp>2003-02-20T12:35:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Egil</username> <id>7457</id> </contributor> <comment>Double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of programmers]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fuerteventura</title> <id>11475</id> <revision> <id>41236932</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:58:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>83.154.44.36</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;305&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:3px&quot; !bgcolor=#e7dcc3 colspan=2|Fuerteventura&lt;!-- |- |align=center colspan=2|--&gt; |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Elevation]]:||217 m |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Latitude]]:||28.33° N (28°20' N) |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Longitude]]:||14° W |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Location:|| eastern and southeastern [[Canary Islands]], [[Spain]] |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Area:||1,660 km² |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[List of mountain types|Type]]:|| [[Stratovolcano]] |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Last [[eruption]]:|| Unknown |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[First ascent]]:|| |- |bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Easiest [[mountaineering|route]]:|| |} '''Fuerteventura''', a [[Spain|Spanish]] [[island]], is one of the [[Canary Islands]], in the [[Atlantic Ocean]] off the coast of [[Africa]]. It is situated at 28°20' north, 14°00' west. The elongated island has an area of [[1 E9 m²|1660 km²]]. The island is 100 km long from and 31 km wide. It is part of the province of [[Las Palmas (province)|Las Palmas]]. It is divided into six [[List of municipalities in Las Palmas|municipalities]]: *[[Antigua, Las Palmas|Antigua]] *[[Betancuria, Las Palmas|Betancuria]] *[[La Oliva, Las Palmas|La Oliva]] *[[Pájara, Las Palmas|Pájara]] *[[Puerto del Rosario, Las Palmas|Puerto del Rosario]] *[[Tuineje, Las Palmas|Tuineje]] 100 individual settlements are distributed through these municipalities. A nearby islet, [[Islote de Lobos]], is part of the municipality of [[La Oliva]]. Located just 100 kilometres off the coast of [[North Africa]], it is the second biggest of the islands, after [[Tenerife]], and has the longest beaches in the archipelago. The island is a paradise for sun, beach and watersports enthusiasts. The island is widely believed to be the oldest of the [[Canary Islands]]. Its strange form was created out of a series of volcanic eruptions many thousands of years ago. The first tourist hotel was built here in 1965 followed by the construction of the airport at [[El Mattoral]], heralding the dawn of a new era for the island. Fuerteventura, with its 3,000 sunshine hours a year, was placed firmly on the world stage as a major European holiday destination. The island is on the same latitude as [[Florida]] and [[Mexico]] and temperatures here rarely fall below 18°C or rise above 24°C. There are no fewer than 152 beaches along its coastline - 50 kilometres of fine, white sand and 25 kilometres of black volcanic shingle. The summer Trade Winds and winter swells of the Atlantic make this a year-round surfers' paradise. Sailors, scuba divers and big game fishermen are all drawn to these clear blue Atlantic waters where whales, dolphins, marlin and turtles are all common sights. Much of the interior, with its large plains, lavascapes and volcanic mountains, consists of protected areas which can be best be explored in a 4x4 or (for the more daring) with a cross-country motorbike. [[Image:fuerteventura panorama1 1200px.jpg|thumb|500px|center|Mountaintop of Cardón (619 m), view from the west]] ==Flag== The flag color of Fuerteventura is green on the left and white on the right. ==Geography== Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the Canary Islands dating back to 20 million years from a volcanic eruption. The majority of the island was created about 5 million years ago and since then eroded by wind and weather. The last volcanic activity in Fuerteventura was between 4,000 to 5,000 years ago. The h
ty |city =[[Gothenburg]] |state = |country =[[Sweden]] |enrollment = |undergrad =10,500 |postgrad = |doctoral =1,000 |staff =2,500 |president =Prof. [[Jan-Eric Sundgren]] |campus =Urban |colors = |colours = |mascot = |affiliations =[[EUA]] |free_label = |free = |website =http://www.chalmers.se/ }} '''Chalmers University of Technology''' or '''Chalmers tekniska högskola''' ('''CTH'''), often '''Chalmers''', is a [[university]] in [[Gothenburg]], [[Sweden]]. ==History== Founded in [[1829]] following a donation by [[William Chalmers]], a director of the [[Swedish East India Company]], and being run as a private institution until [[1937]], when the institute became a state owned university. In [[1994]] the school once again became a private institution, owned by a foundation. ==Schools== &lt;!-- The Schools at Chalmers are the equivalents to Faculties at non-technical universities. They are components of the organizational structure of the university and not study programs. --&gt; The organization is divided into schools, corresponding to faculties. *Architecture *Chemical and Biological Engineering *Civil Engineering *Computer Science and Engineering *Electrical Engineering *Environmental Science *Mathematical Sciences *Mechanical Engineering *Physics and Engineering Physics *Technology Management and Economics There is also a [[Chalmers Lindholmen University College|University College]] affilliated with the university. ==Students== Approximately 40 per cent of Sweden's graduate engineers and architects were educated at Chalmers. Each year around 250 post graduate degrees are awarded as well as 850 graduate degrees. About 1 000 post-graduate students attend programmes at the university and many students are taking Master of Science engineering programmes and the Master of Architecture programme. '''Master's degrees''' * Advanced Materials * Applied Environmental Measurement Techniques * Architecture * Automotive Engineering * Automotive Industrial Design Engineering * Automation and Mechatronics Engineering * Bio Engineering * [http://www.math.chalmers.se/Stat/Bioinfo/Master/ Bioinformatics] * Chemical Engineering * Chemical Engineering with Engineering Physics * Civil Engineering * [http://frt.fy.chalmers.se/cs/cas/Main.html Complex Adaptive Systems] * Computer Science and Engineering * [http://www.cs.chalmers.se/Cs/Education/dcs/ Dependable Computer Systems] * Digital Communication Systems and Technology * Electric Power Engineering * Electrical Engineering * Engineering Mathematics * Engineering Physics * Environmentally Sustainable Process Technology * Hardware for Wireless Communication * Information Engineering (Software Engineering) * Industrial Design Engineering * Industrial Ecology http://www.fy.chalmers.se/edu/imp/ie.xml * Industrial Engineering and Management * Management and Economics of Innovation * Management of Logistics and Transportation * Mechanical Engineering * Microsystem Integration Technology * [http://www.elm.chalmers.se/nano/NSThome/NanoST.html Nanoscale and Technology] * Naval ArchitectureProduction and Operations Management * Production and Operations Management * Quality Technology and Management * Radio Astronomy and Space Science * Sound and Vibration * Structural Engineering * Supply Chain Design and Management * [http://www.tfd.chalmers.se/imp/ Turbulence] Around 2 700 are also attending Bachelor of Science engineering programmes, merchant marine and other undergraduate courses at the [[Chalmers Lindholmen University College]]. ==Faculty== ==Campus== In 1937 the school was moved out of the city center to the new Gibraltar Campus, named after the mansion which owned the grounds, where it now is located. The [[Chalmers Lindholmen University College|Lindholmen College Campus]] was created in the early [[1990s]] and is located on the island of [[Hisingen]]. ==Societies and traditions== * [[Chalmers Students' Union]] * [[Chalmers Computer Society]] * [[Chalmers Aerospace Club]] * [[Cetac]] * [[Chalmers Choir]] ==People== * [[Abraham Langlet]], chemist * [[Gustaf Dalén]], [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] Laureate * [[Leif Johansson]], CEO [[Volvo]] * [[Peter Augustsson]], CEO [[Saab Automobile]] * [[Sigfrid Edström]], director [[ASEA]], president [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]] ===Rectors (Presidents)=== ''Although the official Swedish title for the head is &quot;rektor&quot;, the university now uses &quot;President&quot; as the English translation.'' &lt;table cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot;&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;1829-1852 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Carl Palmstedt]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;1852-1881 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Eduard von Schoultz]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;1881-1913 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[August Wijkander]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;1913-1933 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Hugo Grauers]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;1934-1943 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Sven Hultin]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;1943-1958 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Gustav Hössjer]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;1958-1966 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Lennart Rönnmark]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;1966-1974 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Nils Gralén]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;1974-1989 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Sven Olving]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;1989-1998 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Anders Sjöberg]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;1998- &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Jan-Eric Sundgren]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; ==See also== * [[Gothenburg University]] * [[IT University of Göteborg]] * [[Luleå University of Technology]] * [[Royal Institute of Technology]] * [[Umeå Institute of Technology]] * [[List of universities in Sweden]] ==External links== * [http://www.chalmers.se/ Chalmers University of Technology] - Official site * [http://www.chs.chalmers.se/ Chalmers Student Union] * [http://www.cing.chalmers.se/ Chalmers Alumni Association] [[Category:Universities and colleges in Sweden]] [[Category:Technical universities]] [[Category:Higher education in Gothenburg]] [[Category:Gothenburg]] [[de:Chalmers tekniska högskola]] [[fr:Chalmers tekniska högskola]] [[nl:Chalmers]] [[sv:Chalmers tekniska högskola]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Codex</title> <id>5691</id> <revision> <id>40758505</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T20:59:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brighterorange</username> <id>219031</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>style of dab links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the army books from the [[Warhammer 40,000]] game, see [[Codex (Warhammer 40,000)]]. For the [[Halo (video game series)|Halo]] [[machinima]] series see: [[The Codex]]'' [[Image:Codex Argenteus.jpg|thumb|first page of the Codex Argenteus]]A '''codex''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[book]]''; plural ''codices'') is a handwritten book from late [[Classical antiquity|Antiquity]] or the [[Early Middle Ages]]. Although the Romans used the codex and similar precursors made of wood for taking notes and other informal writings, the first recorded use of the codex for literary works dates from the late [[first century]], when [[Martial]] experimented with the format. At that time, the roll (also called a [[scroll (parchment)|scroll]]) was the dominant medium for literary works and would remain dominant for secular works until the [[4th century]]. As far back as the early [[2nd century]], there is evidence that the codex was the preferred format among [[Christianity|Christians]], while other religions preferred the roll. The Christian codex was made of [[papyrus]], more compact and better suited for people on the move than [[parchment]]. From the 4th century, when the codex gained wide acceptance to the [[Carolingian Renaissance|Carolingian Revival]] in the [[8th century]] many works were not converted from scroll to codex and were lost to posterity. The designation ''Codex'' is less used in conventional names given Medieval manuscripts, when the codex form is universal and understood. The correct Latin plural is ''codices'', although ''codexes'' is also often used as a plural form in [[English language|English]]. The codex was an improvement over the [[scroll (parchment)|scroll]], because it can be opened flat at any page, allowing easier reading, and pages can be written on both sides. The modern codex book owes a lot to the innovations of [[Aldus Manutius]] who introduced the compact format book that could be carried in a saddlebag and italic type as a means of increasing print density. The introduction of page numbers some time in the 1600s allowed for [[cross reference]]s to be made more easily. The codex also made it easier to organize documents in a [[library]] because it had a stable spine on which the title of the book could be written, and later read when books were arranged upright on shelves. The spine could be used for the [[incipit]], before the concept of a proper title was developed, during medieval times. Medieval book makers used [[parchment]] or [[vellum]] for their pages, which made them very durable, but extremely expensive. Early codices were also made from papyrus, however papyrus is too fragile to be repeatedly folded. The scholarly study of [[manuscript]]s from the point of view of book-making is called [[codicology]]. The study of ancient documents in general is called [[paleography]]. The books of [[Pre-Columbian]] [[Mesoamerica]] had basically the same form, with long folded strips of paper (usually made from either wood bark or plant fibers, often with a layer of [[whitewash]] applied before writing), hence the ancient books of the [[Maya civilization|Maya]], [[Aztec]], and [[Mixt
er * [[Irène Bordoni]] (1895-1953), singer, [[Broadway theatre]] &amp; [[film]] actress The local football club is [[AC Ajaccio]]. ==References== * {{1911}} [[Category:Communes of Corse-du-Sud]] &lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt; [[ca:Ajaccio]] [[co:Aiacciu]] [[cs:Ajaccio]] [[da:Ajaccio]] [[de:Ajaccio]] [[es:Ajaccio]] [[eo:Ajaccio]] [[fr:Ajaccio]] [[gl:Ajaccio]] [[ko:아작시오]] [[it:Ajaccio]] [[hu:Ajaccio]] [[nl:Ajaccio]] [[ja:アジャクシオ]] [[no:Ajaccio]] [[pl:Ajaccio]] [[pt:Ajaccio]] [[ro:Ajaccio]] [[ru:Аяччо]] [[sl:Ajaccio]] [[sr:Ajaccio]] [[fi:Ajaccio]] [[sv:Ajaccio]] [[zh:阿雅克修]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ajaigarh</title> <id>2641</id> <revision> <id>41242163</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T00:38:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fuhghettaboutit</username> <id>665998</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>privelages---&gt;privileges</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ajaigarh''', or '''Adjygurh''', is town in [[Panna District]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]] state in central [[India]]. ==History== Ajaigarh was the capital of a [[princely state]] of the same name in [[British India]]. Ajaigarh was founded in [[1765]] by Guman Singh, a [[Bundela]] [[Rajput]] who was the nephew of Raja Pahar Singh of [[Jaitpur]]. Ajaigarh was captured by the British in [[1809]], and became a princely state in the [[Bundelkhand]] Agency of the [[Central India Agency]]. It had an area of 771 mile&amp;sup2; (1997 km&amp;sup2;), and a population of 78,236 in [[1901]]. The rulers bore the title of ''sawai maharaja''. He commanded an estimated annual revenue of about £15,000/-, and paid a tribute of £460/-. The chief resided at the town of [[Nowgong]], at the foot of the hill-fortress of Ajaigarh, from which the state took its name. This fort, situated on a steep hill, towers more than 800 ft (244 m) above the eponymous township, and contains the ruins of several temples adorned with elaborately carved sculptures. The town was often afflicted by [[malaria]], and suffered severely from famine in [[1868]]-[[1869]] and [[1896]]-[[1897]]. The state acceded to the [[Government of India]] on [[January 1]] [[1950]]; the ruling chief was granted a Privy purse of Rs. 74,700/-, and the courtesy use of his styles and titles. All of these were revoked by the government of [[India]] in [[1971]], at the time when these privileges were revoked from all erstwhile princes. The former princely state became part of the new Indian state of [[Vindhya Pradesh]], and most of the territory of the former state, including the town of Ajaigarh, became part of Panna District, with a smaller portion going to [[Chhatarpur District]]. Vindhya Pradesh was merged into Madhya Pradesh on [[November 1]] [[1956]]. &lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;&gt; ==The Royal Family tree Of Ajaygarh== Pancham Singh Bundela : 1048-1071(A.D) | Virbhadra Singh : 1071-1087 | Karanpal Singh : 1087-1112 | Kinnar Shah : 1112-1130 | Shaukan Dev : 1130-1152 | Nanak Dev : 1152-1159 | Mohanpal Singh : 1159-1197 | Abhaybhupati Singh : 1197-1215 | Arjunpal Singh : 1215-1231 | Virpal Singh : 1231-1251 | Sohanpal Singh : 1251-1259 | Sahjendra Singh : 1259-1283 | Nanak Dev II : 1283-1307 | Prithviraj Singh : 1307-1339 | Ram Singh : 1339-1375 | Ramchandra Singh : 1375-1384 | Mednepal Singh : 1384-1437 | Arjun Dev : 1437-1468 | Malkhan Singh : 1468-1501 | Raja Rudrapratap : 1501- (First Ruler of Orchha) __________________________|____________________________ Bhartichandra Madhukarshah Udayjeet Singh (Orchha) (Orchha) (Mahewa) _________________________| | Ramshah Virsingh Dev(1605-1626) | (Banpur) (Orchha) | _________________________|______________________ | Pahar Singh Jujhar Singh Bhagwan Rao| (Orchha&amp; Kaniyadana) (Orchha) (Datia) | (Killed by Aurangzeb) | _____________________________| Premchandra | Bhagwandas | Champat Rai : 1635-1641--Ruled Orchha after Jujhar Singh (Mahewa) was killed by Aurangzeb. | [[Maharaja Chhatrasal|Maharajadhiraja Chhatrasal]] : 1649-1731 (founder Ruler of many Kingdoms) ___________________________|______________________________ Hirdeshah Jagatraj Bhartichandra (Panna) (Jaitpur) (Jaso) ____________________________|______________________________ Vir Singh Kirat Singh Pahar Singh(1758-1765) ____________________________|______________________________ Khuman Singh Guman Singh(1765-1792) Durg Singh (Charkari) (Banda)(No issues) | |__________________Son of______| Bhakhat Singh :b.1792-d.1837&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/a&gt; (Founder ruler of Ajaigarh) _____________________________|_______________________________ Madho Singh(R.1837-1849) Mahipat Singh(R.1849-1853) (No male issue) | | Ranjore Singh(K.C.I.E)___________Vijay Singh(R.1853-1855) (b.1844 d.1919) (Died early, fell from horse) _____________________________|______________________________ Jaipal Singh Bhopal Singh(b.1866-d.1942) Pakshapal Singh (b. | Punyapratap Singh :b.1884-d.1958 _____________________________| Bhupendra Vijay Singh Devendra Vijay Singh :b.1913-d.1984 (Adoption to Jigni) (Privy Purses,titles abolished) __________________________|_________________________________ | Kaushalendra V. Singh | Mahipendra V. Singh (b.1934-d.1982) Surendra V. Singh (b.1935- (Predeceased his father) (b.1940- | | | Shailesh V. Singh Ajayraj Singh Tarunendra V. Singh (b.1969- (b.1971- (b.1971- Courtesy: Tarunendra V. Singh [[Category: Cities and towns in Madhya Pradesh]] [[Category:Indian Princely States]] [[fr:Ajaigarh]] [[sv:Ajaigarh]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ajanta</title> <id>2642</id> <revision> <id>40360000</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:23:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ajanta ''' takes the name after the village Ajinţhā in [[Aurangabad]] district in the state of [[Maharashtra]] (N. lat. 20 deg. 32' by E. long. 75 deg. 48'). It is celebrated for its [[cave]] art and architecture. As of 1983, the Ajanta Caves have been an [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] specifically nominated for the international [[World heritage]] program. [[Image:Indischer Maler des 6. Jahrhunderts 001.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Fresco from the Ajanta caves]] ==Introduction== The caves are in a wooded and rugged horseshoe-shaped ravine about 3 1/2 m. from the village of Ajinthā. It is situated in the [[Aurangabad District, Maharashtra|Aurangābād]] district of [[Mahārāşţra]] State in India (106 kilometers away from the city of [[Aurangabad, Maharashtra|Aurangabad]]). The nearest towns are [[Jalgaon|Jalgāon]] (60 kilometers away) and [[Bhusawal|Bhusāwal]] (70 kilometers away). Along the bottom of the ravine runs the river Wāghūr or Waghōrā (from the root ''vyāghra'' in Sanskrit meaning the tiger), a mountain stream. There are 29 (officially numbered by the Archaeological Survey of India) caves, excavated in the south side of the precipitou
bama]] *Florida ** [[Apalachicola, Florida]] ** [[Fort Myers, Florida]] ** [[Fort Walton Beach, Florida]] ** [[Key West, Florida]] ** [[Naples, Florida]] ** [[Panama City, Florida]] ** [[Pensacola, Florida]] ** [[Sarasota, Florida]] ** [[St. Petersburg, Florida]] ** [[Tampa, Florida]] ==See also== *[[Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission]] *[[Geography of the United States]] {{U.S.Regions}} [[Category:Gulf of Mexico]] [[no:Gulfkysten]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Game</title> <id>11970</id> <revision> <id>42160980</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:38:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>EliWolcott</username> <id>1026548</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Types of games */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{about|a recreational activity|other meanings|[[game (disambiguation)]]}} A '''game''' is an (often, but not always [[recreation]]al) activity involving one or more [[player (game)|player]]s. This can be defined by either a [[Objective|goal]] that the players try to reach, or some set of [[rule]]s that determines what the players can or can not do. Games are played primarily for [[entertainment]] or [[enjoyment]], but may also serve as [[exercise]] or in an [[education]]al, [[simulation]]al or [[psychology|psychological]] role. [[Image:Tug-of-war.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Tug of war]] is an easily organized, impromptu game that requires little equipment.]] ==Definition== [[Image:Monopoly Game.jpg|thumb|''[[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]]'' is the best selling [[board game]] in history. It is available in [[localization|localized]] versions in many nations, such as this one in [[German language|Germany]].]] Although many [[animal]]s play, only [[human]]s confirmably have games. Whether some animals are [[intelligent]] enough to game is debatable, though a game has [[ritual]]istic elements (such as rules and procedures) that are voluntarily acted upon, rather than as a result of [[instinct]]. The existence of rules and criteria that decide the outcome of games imply that games require [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] of a significant degree of sophistication. Non-human animal species may, however, engage in games whose rules and sophistication may be of such a nature as to be incapable of detection by humans in their present state of knowledge. It would, for example, seem incongruous that large brained species such as many [[Cetacea]]ns and the larger hominids did not play games. Our inability to observe and understand such games should not be taken as a confirmation that they do not exist. Some [[courtship]] displays by some species of bird, such as the [[Black Grouse]], appear to have a component which, from an [[anthropology|anthropolgical]] view, might appear to be a game in which there are clearly winners and losers. Games can involve one player acting alone, or two or more players acting cooperatively. Most often involve [[competition]] among two or more players. Taking an action that falls outside the rules generally constitutes a [[foul]] or [[cheating]]. All through human [[history]], people have played games to entertain themselves and others. There are an enormous variety of games; for specific information about different types of games, see the links at the end of this article. Although Games have been played for thousands of years, many people do not know as much as we believe about them. Things such as how they were invented and why are all matters of the human races of knowledge not yet understood today in the 21st century. ==Games in philosophy== In ''[[Philosophical Investigations]],'' philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] argued that the concept &quot;game&quot; could not be contained by any single definition, but that games must be looked at as a series of definitions that share a &quot;family resemblance&quot; to one another. Games were important to Wittgenstein's later thought; he held that [[language]] was itself a game, consisting of [[token]]s governed by rough-and-ready rules that arise by convention and are not strict. [[Stanley Fish]], looking for a clear example of the sorts of [[social construction]]s, cited the balls and strikes of [[baseball]] as example. While the [[strike zone]] target is governed by the rules of the game, it epitomizes the category of things that exist only because people have agreed to treat them as real. No pitch is a [[ball (baseball statistics)|ball]] or a [[strike (baseball)|strike]] until it has been labelled as such by an appropriate authority, the plate [[umpire]], whose judgment on this matter cannot be challenged within the current game. ==Anthropology of games== Games, being a characteristic human activity strongly determined by [[custom]] and the frequent subjects of [[folklore]], have been the subject of [[anthropology|anthropological]] investigations. ===Classes of games=== While many different subdivisions have been proposed, anthropologists classify games under three major headings, and have drawn some conclusions as to the social bases that each sort of game requires. They divide games broadly into: *[[Games of physical skill|Games of skill]], such as [[hopscotch]] and [[shooting sport|target shooting]]; *[[Games of strategy|Games of strategy]], such as [[checkers]], [[go (board game)|go]], or [[tic-tac-toe]]; *[[Games of chance]], such as [[craps]], [[snakes and ladders]] and [[poker]]. In addition to these basic classifications, there are mixed games; such as [[American football|football]] and [[baseball]], involving both skill and strategy, and [[poker]], involving strategy and chance. [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Baseball Hall of Famer]] [[Casey Stengel]] addressed the illusion of luck dominating skill in his sport when he remarked, &quot;I had many years when I was not so successful as a ballplayer, as it is a game of skill.&quot; [[Image:ChessSet.jpg|right|200px|thumb|The game of [[chess]], which requires a chess set and consists of nearly pure strategy.]] Games of pure skill are likely the oldest sort of game, and are found in all cultures, regardless of their level of [[Archaeological culture|material culture]]. They are associated with cultures that place a high value on individual performance and prowess. Games of strategy require a higher material basis. They are associated with cultures that possess a [[writing|written language]]: not surprising, since most strategy games are based on [[mathematics]] and feature the manipulation of [[symbol]]s. They often require special equipment to be played. They are associated with [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] societies that place a high value on obedience. Games of chance appear at a variety of levels of material culture; what they seem to share generally is a sense of [[economics|economic]] insecurity. They are associated with cultures that place a high value on personal responsibility, keeping one's word, and maintaining personal standing in the face of misfortune; in other words, with &quot;cultures of [[honour|honor]]&quot;. ===Games and sports=== [[Image:SC-Heerenveen-supporters.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Fans at a [[Soccer]] match ([[SC Heerenveen]])]] There is no clear line of demarcation between games and [[sport]]s. Generally, sports are [[athletics|athletic]] in nature, and have an element of physical prowess, but then so do many games. For cultural anthropologists, the distinction between games and sports hinges on community involvement. Sports often require special equipment and playing fields or prepared grounds dedicated to their practice, a fact that often makes necessary the involvement of a community beyond the players themselves. Most sports can have [[spectator sport|spectators]]. Communities often align themselves with players of sports, who in a sense represent that community; they often align themselves against their opponents, or have traditional rivalries. The concept of [[fan (aficionado)|fandom]] began with sports fans. Games amuse the players; sports amuse a broader public; in advanced material cultures, sports can be played by [[professional sports|paid professionals]]. When games like [[chess]] and [[Go (board game)|go]] are played professionally, they take on many of the characteristics of a sport. ==One-person games== One-person games or one-player games are sometimes called solitaire games, but this term can be easily confused with the peg game and the card game of same name. Types of one-player games include: * many [[arcade game]]s * most [[computer and video games]] * [[juggling]] * most types of [[puzzle]]s (logical, mechanical, mathematical, etc.) * [[solitaire card game]]s ==Types of games== ''main article: [[Game classification]]'' *[[Alternate reality game]] *[[Ball game]]s *[[Board game]]s *[[Business game]]s *[[Car game]]s *[[Card game]]s **[[Collectible card game]]s *[[Casino game]]s *[[List of traditional children's games|Children's games]] *[[Clapping game]]s *[[Computer and video game]]s **[[Computer board game]]s **[[Computer puzzle game]]s **[[Online game]]s ***[[Online skill-based game]]s ***[[MUD|MUDs]] ***[[MMORPG]]s *[[Conversation games]] *[[Counting-out game]]s *[[Creative game]]s *[[Dice game]]s *[[Drinking game]]s *[[Educational game]]s *[[Economics game]]s *[[Game show]]s *[[Games of chance]] *[[Games of dare]] *[[Games of logic]] *[[Games of physical activity]] *[[Games of physical skill]] *[[Games of skill]] *[[Games of strategy]] *[[Simulation game|Games of status]] *[[Global Positioning System-based game]]s *[[Group-dynamic game]]s *[[Guessing game]]s *[[Letter game]]s *[[Locative game]]s *[[Mathematical game]]s *[[Mental Games]] *[[New Game]]s *[[Open gaming]] *[[Party game]]s *[[Parlour game]]s *[[Pencil and paper game]]s *[[Play-by-mail game]]s *[[Playground games]] *[[Political game]]s *[[Pub game]]s *[[Puzzle]]s *[[Quiz]]zes *[[Role-playing game]]s *[[Singing game]]s *[[Spoken game]]s *[[Street game]]s *[[String game]]s
l ''[[Keep the Aspidistra Flying]]'' ([[1936]]). == ''The Road to Wigan Pier'' == In early 1936, Orwell was commissioned by [[Victor Gollancz]] of the [[Left Book Club]] to write an account of life in the depressed areas of northern England, which appeared in 1937 as ''[[The Road to Wigan Pier]]''. Soon after completing his research for the book, Orwell married [[Eileen O'Shaughnessy]]. ==The Spanish Civil War and ''Homage to Catalonia''== In [[December]] [[1936]], Orwell went to Spain to fight for the Republican side in the [[Spanish Civil War]] against [[Francisco Franco]]'s Nationalist uprising. He went as part of the [[Independent Labour Party]] [[ILP Contingent|contingent]], a group of some 25 Britons who joined the militia of the [[Workers' Party of Marxist Unification]] (POUM), a revolutionary socialist party with which the ILP was allied. The POUM, along with the radical wing of the anarcho-syndicalist CNT (the dominant force on the left in Catalonia), believed that Franco could be defeated only if the working class in the Republic overthrew capitalism — a position fundamentally at odds with that of the Spanish Communist Party and its allies, which (backed by Soviet arms and aid) argued for a coalition with bourgeois parties to defeat the Nationalists. By his own admission, Orwell joined the POUM rather than the communist-run International Brigades by chance — but his experiences, in particular his witnessing the communist suppression of the POUM in May 1937, made him sympathetic towards the POUM line and turned him into a lifelong anti-Stalinist. During his military service, Orwell was shot through the neck and was lucky to survive. His book ''[[Homage to Catalonia]]'' describes his experiences in Spain. ==The Second World War and ''Animal Farm''== Back in the United Kingdom, Orwell supported himself by writing freelance reviews, mainly for the ''New English Weekly'' (until he broke with it over its pacifism in [[1940]]) and then mostly for ''Time and Tide''. He joined the [[British Home Guard|Home Guard]] soon after the war began (and was later awarded the [[British Campaign Medals|Defence medal]]). In 1941 Orwell took a job at the [[BBC]] Eastern Service, mostly working on programmes to gain Indian and East Asian support for the United Kingdom's war efforts. He was well aware that he was shaping [[propaganda]], and wrote that he felt like &quot;an orange that's been trodden on by a very dirty boot.&quot; This being under the [[Minister of Information|Ministry of Information]], based at [[Senate House (University of London)]], he essentially worked for them too - both that institution and its building provided inspiration for the Ministry of Truth in [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]. Despite the good pay, he resigned in [[1943]] to become literary editor of ''[[Tribune (magazine)|Tribune]],'' the left-wing weekly then edited by [[Aneurin Bevan]] and [[Jon Kimche]]. Orwell was on the staff until early 1945, contributing a regular column titled &quot;As I Please.&quot; In [[1944]], having temporarily moved from his bombed London flat to Greystone, a rural hamlet near [[Carlton, County Durham|Carlton]], [[Stockton-on-Tees]], Orwell finished his anti-[[Stalinism|Stalinist]] allegory ''[[Animal Farm]]'', which was published the following year with great critical and popular success. The royalties from ''Animal Farm'' were to provide Orwell with a comfortable income for the first time in his adult life. While ''Animal Farm'' was at the printer, Orwell left ''Tribune'' to become (briefly) a war correspondent for [[The Observer|''Observer'']]. He was a close friend of the ''Observer'''s editor/owner, [[David Astor]], and his ideas had a strong influence on Astor's editorial policies. (Astor, who died in 2001, is buried in the grave next to Orwell.) ==The road to ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''== George Orwell returned from Europe in spring 1945, shortly after his wife died during an operation (they had recently adopted a baby boy, Richard Horatio Blair, who was born in [[1944|May 1944]]). For the next three years Orwell mixed journalistic work — mainly for ''Tribune'', the ''Observer'' and the ''Manchester Evening News'', though he also contributed to many small-circulation political and literary magazines — with writing his best-known work, ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', which was published in 1949. He wrote much of the novel while living in a remote farmhouse on the island of [[Jura, Scotland|Jura]], off the coast of [[Scotland]], to which he moved in 1946 despite increasingly bad health. In [[1949]], Orwell was approached by a friend, Celia Kirwan, who had just started working for a Foreign Office unit, the Information Research Department, which had been set up by the Labour government to publish pro-democratic and [[anti-communist]] [[propaganda]]. He gave her a list of 37 writers and artists he considered to be unsuitable as IRD authors because of their pro-communist leanings. The list, not published until 2003, consists mainly of journalists (among them the editor of the ''[[New Statesman]]'', [[Kingsley Martin]]) but also includes the actors [[Michael Redgrave]] and [[Charlie Chaplin]]. Orwell's motives for handing over the list are unclear, but the most likely explanation is the simplest: that he was helping out a friend in a cause — anti-Stalinism — that they both supported. There is no indication that Orwell ever abandoned the [[democratic socialism]] that he consistently promoted in his later writings — or that he believed the writers he named should be suppressed. Orwell's list was also accurate: the people on it had all, at one time or another, made pro-Soviet or pro-communist public pronouncements. In October 1949, shortly before his death, he married [[Sonia Brownell]]. Orwell died in [[London]] at the age of 46 from [[tuberculosis]], which he had probably contracted during the period described in ''Down and Out in Paris and London''. He was in and out of hospitals for the last three years of his life. Having requested burial in accordance with the [[Anglican]] rite, he was interred in All Saints' Churchyard, [[Sutton Courtenay]], [[Oxfordshire]] with the simple epitaph: Here lies Eric Arthur Blair, born [[June 25th]], [[1903]], died [[January 21st]], [[1950]]. Orwell's adopted son, Richard Horatio Blair, was raised by an aunt after his father's death. He maintains a low public profile, though he has occasionally given interviews about the few memories he has of his father. Blair worked for many years as an agricultural agent for the British government, and had no interest in writing. ==Political views== Orwell's political views changed over time, but there can be no doubt that he was a man of the left throughout his life as a writer. His time in Burma made him a staunch opponent of imperialism, and his experience of poverty while researching ''Down and Out in Paris and London'' and ''The Road to Wigan Pier'' turned him into a socialist. &quot;Every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written, directly or indirectly, against [[totalitarianism]] and for [[democratic Socialism]], as I understand it,&quot; he wrote in 1946. It was Spain, however, that played the most important part in defining his socialism. Having witnessed at first hand the suppression of the revolutionary left by the Communists, Orwell returned from Catalonia a staunch anti-Stalinist and joined the Independent Labour Party. At the time, like most other left-wingers in the United Kingdom, he was still opposed to rearmament against Hitlerite Germany — but after the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact]] and the outbreak of the Second World War, he changed his mind. He left the ILP over its pacifism and adopted a political position of &quot;revolutionary patriotism&quot;. He supported the war effort but detected (wrongly as it turned out) a mood that would lead to a revolutionary socialist movement among the British people. &quot;We are in a strange period of history in which a revolutionary has to be a patriot and a patriot has to be a revolutionary,&quot; he wrote in ''Tribune'', the Labour left's weekly, in December 1940. By 1943, his thinking had moved on. He joined the staff of ''Tribune'' as literary editor, and from then until his death was a left-wing (though hardly orthodox) democratic socialist. He canvassed for the Labour Party in the 1945 general election and was broadly supportive of its actions in office, though he was sharply critical of its timidity on certain key questions and was also harshly critical of the pro-Soviet stance of many Labour left-wingers. Although he was never either a [[Trotskyist]] or an [[anarchist]], he was strongly influenced by the Trotskyist and anarchist critiques of the Soviet regime and by the anarchists' emphasis on individual freedom. This is a central truth about Orwell. Many of his closest friends in the mid-1940s were part of the small anarchist scene in London. In his last years, Orwell was, unlike several of his comrades around ''Tribune'', a fierce opponent of the creation of the state of [[Israel]]. He was also an early proponent of a federal Europe. ==Legacy== ===Work=== During most of his career, Orwell was best known for his [[journalism]], in essays, reviews, columns in newspapers and magazines and in his books of reportage: ''[[Down and Out in Paris and London]]'' (describing a period of poverty in these cities), ''[[The Road to Wigan Pier]]'' (describing the living conditions of poor miners in northern England) and ''[[Homage to Catalonia]]'' (describing his experiences during the [[Spanish Civil War]]). According to ''[[Newsweek]]'', Orwell &quot;was the finest of his day and the foremost architect of the English essay since [[William Hazlitt|Hazlitt]].&quot; Contemporary readers are more often introduced to Orwell as a novelist, particularly through his enormously successful titles ''[[Animal Farm]]'' and ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''. The form
di has another production plant in Neckarsulm. Audi started with a 2612 [[Cubic centimetre|cc]] model followed by a four cylinder model with 3564 cc, as well as 4680 cc and 5720 cc models. These cars were successful even in sporting events. August Horch left the Audi company in 1920. The first six cylinder model (4655 cc) appeared in 1924. In 1928, the company was acquired by [[J S Rasmussen]], owner of [[DKW]], who bought the same year the remains of the US [[automobile manufacturer]], [[Rickenbacker]] including the manufacturing equipment for eight cylinder engines. These engines were used in ''Audi Zwickau'' and ''Audi Dresden'' models that were launched in 1929. At the same time, six cylinder and a small four cylinder (licensed from [[Peugeot]]) models were manufactured. Audi cars of that era were luxurious cars equipped with special bodywork. ===The Auto Union era=== In 1932 Audi merged with [[Horch]], [[DKW]] and [[Wanderer (car)|Wanderer]] to form the [[Auto Union]]. Before [[World War II]], Auto Union used the four interlinked rings that make up the Audi badge today, representing these four brands. This badge was used, however, only on Auto Union racing cars in that period while the member companies used their own names and emblems. The technological development became more and more concentrated and some Audi models were propelled by Horch or Wanderer built engines. ===Pause and a new start=== Auto Union plants were heavily bombed and partly destroyed during [[World War II]]. After the war, Zwickau soon became part of the [[German Democratic Republic]] and Audi headquarters were moved to [[Ingolstadt]]. In that period, the four interlinked rings were used together with the DKW badge. The company focused efforts on the DKW brand, but their [[two-stroke]] engines became unpopular. In 1958, [[Daimler-Benz]] acquired 88 per cent of Auto Union and the next year became its sole owner. Daimler-Benz developed a 72 hp (54 kW) four-door sedan, with a modern [[four stroke engine]] driving the front wheels. This model appeared in September 1965, &quot;relaunching&quot; the Audi brand. Daimler-Benz sold the company to [[Volkswagen]] in 1964; subsequently, Volkswagen's purchase of Auto Union has led to the modernization of VW to which it gained expertise in manufacturing water-cooled vehicles. Today, aircooled powerplants once produced by VW are no longer placed into production vehicles since December 23, 2005. [[image:Audi_60.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Audi 60 (1968 - 1972)]] In 1969, Audi merged with [[NSU Motorenwerke AG|NSU]], based in [[Neckarsulm]] near [[Stuttgart]]. In the [[1950s]] NSU had been the world's largest manufacturer of [[motorcycle]]s but had moved on to produce small cars like the [[NSU Prinz]] (the TT and TTS versions are still popular as vintage race cars). NSU then focused on new rotary engines according to the ideas of [[Felix Wankel]]. In 1967, the new [[NSU Ro 80]] was a space-age car well ahead of its time in technical details such as aerodynamics, light weight, safety, et cetera, but teething problems with the rotary engines put an end to the independence of NSU. Presently several lines of Audi cars are produced in Neckarsulm. The mid-sized car that NSU had been working on, the K70, was intended to slot between the rear-engined Prinz models and the futuristic Ro 80. However, Volkswagen took the K70 for its own range, spelling the end of NSU as a separate brand. ===The modern era of Audi=== [[image:audi.quatro.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Audi Quattro]] [[Image:Audi.tt.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Audi TT]] The first Audi of the modern era was the [[Audi 100]] of 1968. This was soon joined by the [[Audi 80|Audi 80/Fox]] (which formed the basis for the 1973 [[Volkswagen Passat]]) in 1972. The Audi image at this time was a conservative one, and so, a proposal from chassis engineer [[Jorg Bensinger]] was accepted to develop the [[four-wheel drive]] technology in [[Volkswagen]]'s [[Iltis]] military vehicle for an Audi performance car and [[Rallying|rally]] racing car. The performance car was named the &quot;[[Quattro]],&quot; a turbocharged coupé which was also the first production vehicle to feature full-time all-wheel drive through a center [[differential]]. Commonly referred to as the &quot;Ur-Quattro&quot; (the &quot;[[Ur-]]&quot; prefix is a German [[augmentative]] used, in this case, to mean &quot;original&quot; and is also applied to the first generation of Audi's S4 and S6 sport sedans, as in &quot;UrS4&quot; and &quot;UrS6&quot;), few of these vehicles were produced (all hand-built by a single team) but the model was a great success in rallying. Prominent wins proved the viability of all-wheel drive racecars, and the Audi name became associated with advances in automotive technology, In 1986, as the Passat-based Audi 80 was beginning to develop a kind of &quot;grandfather's car&quot; image, the type 89 was introduced. This completely new development sold extremely well. However, its modern and dynamic exterior belied the low performance of its base engine, and its base package was quite spartan (even the passenger-side mirror was an option.) In 1987, Audi put forward a new and very elegant [[Audi 90]], which had a much superior set of standard features. In the early nineties, sales began to slump for the Audi 80 series, and some basic construction problems started to surface. This decline in sales was not helped in the [[United States|USA]] by a ''[[60 Minutes]]'' report which purported to show that Audi automobiles suffered from &quot;unintended acceleration&quot;. The ''60 Minutes'' report was based on customer reports of acceleration when the brake pedal was pushed. Independent investigators concluded that this was most likely due to a close placement of the accelerator and brake pedals (unlike American cars), and the inability, when not paying attention, to distinguish between the two. (In race cars, when manually downshifting under heavy braking, the accelerator has to be used in order to match revs properly, so both pedals have to be close to each other to be operated by the right foot at once, toes on the brake, heels on the gas. US citizens are used to automatic gearboxes and only two well separated pedals). This was never an issue in Europe, as Europeans in general use manual transmission gears, and have a &quot;feeling&quot; for vehicle revs in comparison to the speed of the car. ''60 Minutes'' ignored this fact and rigged a car to perform in an uncontrolled manner. The report immediately crushed Audi sales, and Audi renamed the affected model (The 5000 became the 100/200 in 1989, as in Germany and elsewhere). Audi had contemplated withdrawing from the American market until sales began to recover in the mid-1990s. The turning point for Audi was the sale of the new A4 in 1996, and with the release of the A4/6/8 series, which was developed together with VW and other sister brands (so called &quot;platforms&quot;). Currently, Audi's sales are growing strongly in Europe, and the company is renowned for having the best build quality of any mainstream auto manufacturer. 2004 marked the 11th straight increase in sales, selling 779,441 vehicles worldwide. Record figures were recorded from 21 out of about 50 major sales markets. The largest sales increases came from Eastern Europe (+19.3%), Africa (+17.2%) and the Middle East (+58.5%). In March of 2005, Audi is building its first two dealerships in India following its high increase in sales in that region. Though its brand still doesn't have the global cachet of [[Mercedes-Benz]] or [[BMW]], Audi's reputation for quality and understated style has once again made it a highly desirable marque. However, after 2003, with the release of the new A4, and in 2004 with the new A6, Audi's dedication to quality had finally paid off when it started to receive news reports and various vehicle critics praising Audis over [[Mercedes-Benz]] and [[BMW]]. ==Auto racing== Audi has competed in (and sometimes dominated) numerous forms of [[auto racing]]. Audi's rich tradition in motorsport began with the [[Auto Union]] in the 1930s. In the 1990s Audi dominated the Touring and Super Touring categories of motor racing after success in circuit racing Stateside. ===Rallying=== In 1980 Audi released the [[Audi Quattro|Quattro]], an [[all wheel drive]] turbocharged car that went on to win [[rally racing|rallies]] and races worldwide. It is considered one of the most significant rally cars of all time because it was one of the first to take advantage of the then-recently changed rules which allowed the use of all-wheel-drive in competition racing. Many critics doubted the viability of all-wheel-drive racers, thinking them to be too heavy and complex, yet the Quattro was an instant success, winning its first rally on its first outing. It won competition after competition for the next two years. In 1984 Audi launched the &quot;[[Quattro|Sport Quattro]]&quot; car which dominated races in [[Monte Carlo]] and [[Sweden]] with Audi taking all podium finishes but succumbed to problems further into [[WRC|World Rally Championship]] contention. After another season mired in mediocre finishes, Walter Röhrl finished the season in his Sport Quattro S1 and helped place Audi second in the manufacturer's points. Audi also received rally honors in the [[Hong Kong]] to [[Beijing]] rally in that same year. Michèle Mouton, the first female WRC driver to win a championship and a driver for Audi, took the Sport Quattro S1, now simply called the S1 and raced in the [[Pikes Peak|Pikes Peak Hill Climb]]. The climb race pits a driver and car to drive up a 4,302 meter high mountain in [[Colorado]] and in 1985, Michèle Mouton set a new record of 11:25.39 and being the first woman to set a Pikes Peak record. In 1986, Audi formally left international rally racing following an accident in Portugal involving driver Joaquim Santos in his RS200. Santos swerved to avoid
ungarian phonology]] *[[Hungarian literature]] *[[List of tongue-twisters#Hungarian|Hungarian tongue-twisters]] *[[List of English words of Hungarian origin]] *[[Hungary]] *[[Magyars|Hungarian people]] == External links == {{InterWiki|code=hu}} * [http://www.filolog.com/languageStrangeCake.html Hungarian - A Strange Cake on the Menu - ''article by Nádasdy Ádám''] * [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=HNG Ethnologue report for Hungarian] * [http://www.ut.ee/Ural/num.html Numerals of some Uralic languages] * [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/3093/finnugor.html Uralic page] * [http://impulzus.sch.bme.hu/info/magyar.shtml Introduction to Hungarian] * [http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/profiles/profh02.htm Hungarian Profile] * [http://stp.ling.uu.se/~bea/hungarian.pdf &quot;The Hungarian Language: A Short Descriptive Grammar&quot;] by Beáta Megyesi (PDF document) * [http://www.indiana.edu/~iuihsl/homethisisoldbutgoodone.html The old site of the Indiana University Institute of Hungarian Studies (various resources)] * [http://miejipang.homestead.com/untitled18.html Let's try to learn Hungarian (Magyar) and Turkish!] * [http://www.nyariegyetem.hu/regi/hlga/ang1.html Grammar, phonology and syntax plus some history of the language] * [http://www.rpi.edu/~sofkam/magyar.html Hungarian Language Learning References] on the Hungarian Language Page (short reviews of useful books) * [http://www.nyariegyetem.hu/ Debrecen Summer School] (with Hungarian Language and Culture Courses) * [http://www.bbi.hu/main.php?folderID=865&amp;langchanged=eng Balassi Bálint Institute] (Hungarian language teaching) * [http://users.tpg.com.au/etr/oldhu/halotti.html One of the oldest Hungarian texts - A Halotti Beszéd (The Funeral Oration)] * [http://www.geocities.com/rovasiras Hungarian runic writing] ===Linguistic chapters from the ''Encyclopaedia Humana Hungarica'' (1&amp;ndash;5)=== * [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01993/html/index2.html Introduction to the History of the Language; The Pre-Hungarian Period; The Early Hungarian Period; The Old Hungarian Period] * [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01955/html/index2.html The Linguistic Records of the Early Old Hungarian Period; The Linguistic System of the Age] * [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01949/html/index2.html The Old Hungarian Period; The System of the Language of the Old Hungarian Period] * [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01919/html/index2.html The Late Old Hungarian Period; The System of the Language] * [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index2.html The First Half of the Middle Hungarian Period; Turkish Loan Words] * (The English translations of volumes 6 to 9 are in preparation.) === Dictionaries === *[http://dict.sztaki.hu/english-hungarian Hungarian-English-Hungarian] *[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/translation/Hungarian/ Dictionary] with Hungarian - English Translations from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition *[http://seas3.elte.hu/delg/people/core/lazar/falsefriends.html Hungarian-English False friends] ([[False friend]]) *[http://www.notam02.no/~hcholm/altlang/ht/Hungarian.html Hungarian slang] *[http://www.japanmagyarszotar.hu/ Hungarian-Japanese-Hungarian online dictionary] === Online Language Courses === {{Wikibookspar||Hungarian}} * [http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/a/d/adr10/hungarian.html A Hungarian Language Course] by Aaron Rubin * [http://www.eulanguages.net STELLA HUNGARIAN – free online course Hungarian for beginners] * [http://www.hungarotips.com/hungarian/b/ Online course hungarotips.com] * [http://www.afs.hu/hungary/study.html Study Hungarian! (AFS.com)] * [http://www.single-serving.com/Hungarian/ Hungarian Phrase Guides] * [http://www.magyarora.com/ Magyaróra: New paths to the Hungarian language] * [http://www.hungarotips.com/hungarian/ Hungarian Language Lessons - Puzzles, Quizzes, Sound Files] * [http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&amp;to_lang=46&amp;learn-Hungarian/ Hear and learn useful expressions in Hungarian] Sentences are accompanied by sketch pictures to illustrate the situation where conversation happens === More links for learners === *[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/h.htm Course, Vocabularies, Phrases, Literature...] {{Official EU languages}} [[Category:Hungarian language|*]] [[Category:Agglutinative languages]] [[Category:Languages of Austria]] [[Category:Languages of Hungary]] [[Category:Languages of Romania]] [[Category:Languages of Slovakia]] [[Category:Languages of Slovenia]] [[Category:Languages of Vojvodina]] [[Category:Vowel harmony languages]] [[ar:لغة مجرية]] [[ast:Húngaru]] [[bs:Mađarski jezik]] [[ca:Hongarès]] [[cv:Венгр чĕлхи]] [[cs:Maďarština]] [[da:Ungarsk (sprog)]] [[de:Ungarische Sprache]] [[et:Ungari keel]] [[es:Idioma húngaro]] [[eo:Hungara lingvo]] [[fr:Hongrois]] [[gl:Lingua húngara]] [[ko:헝가리어]] [[hr:Mađarski jezik]] [[io:Hungariana linguo]] [[id:Bahasa Hongaria]] [[it:Lingua ungherese]] [[he:הונגרית]] [[kw:Hungarek]] [[li:Hongaars]] [[hu:Magyar nyelv]] [[mk:Унгарски јазик]] [[nl:Hongaars]] [[ja:ハンガリー語]] [[no:Ungarsk språk]] [[nn:Ungarsk språk]] [[pl:Język węgierski]] [[pt:Língua húngara]] [[ro:Limba maghiară]] [[ru:Венгерский язык]] [[se:Ungárgiella]] [[simple:Hungarian language]] [[sk:Maďarčina]] [[sl:Madžarščina]] [[sr:Мађарски језик]] [[fi:Unkarin kieli]] [[sv:Ungerska]] [[tr:Macarca]] [[zh:匈牙利语]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hewlett-Packard</title> <id>13973</id> <revision> <id>42159683</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:24:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tomf688</username> <id>94202</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* The eighties and beyond */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|HP}} {{Infobox_Company | company_name = Hewlett-Packard Company | company_logo = [[Image:Hp_logo.png|150px|HP Logo]] | company_type = [[Public company|Public]] ([[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=HPQ HPQ]) | company_slogan = invent. | foundation = [[Palo Alto, California]] ([[1939]]) | location = [[Palo Alto, California]], [[USA]] | key_people = [[Mark V. Hurd]], CEO &amp; President&lt;br&gt;[[Patricia C. Dunn]], Chairman&lt;br&gt;[[Robert Wayman]], CFO&lt;br&gt;[[William Hewlett]], Founder&lt;br&gt;[[David Packard]], Founder | num_employees = ~151,000 ([[2004]]) | industry = [[Computer Systems]] and [[Peripheral|Computer Peripherals]]| products = [[Computer Monitor]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[Digital Camera]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[Digital Imaging]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Personal Computer]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[Computer printer|Printers]]| revenue = {{profit}} $86.696 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2005]])| homepage = [http://www.hp.com/ www.hp.com] }} The '''Hewlett-Packard Company''' {{nyse|HPQ}}, commonly known as '''HP''', is one of the world's largest [[information technology]] corporations. Headquartered in [[Palo Alto, California]], [[United States]], it has a global presence in the fields of computing, printing, and digital imaging, and also sells software and services. ==Company history== ===From 1939 until the seventies=== HP was founded as a manufacturer of test and measurement instruments with a [[United States dollar|US$]]500 investment in a [[Palo Alto]], [[California|CA]] [http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/abouthp/histnfacts/garage/ garage] in [[1939]] by [[William Hewlett|Bill Hewlett]] and [[David Packard|Dave Packard]]. They had both graduated from [[Stanford University]] in [[1934]]. Their first product was a precision audio [[oscillator]], the Model 200A. Their innovation was the use of a small night-[[light bulb]] as a temperature dependent [[resistor]] in a critical portion of the circuit. This allowed them to sell the Model 200A for $54.40 when competitors were selling less stable oscillators for over $200. Their company's name, Hewlett-Packard, was derived from their last names and had Bill not won the coin toss, the company today could have been known as Packard-Hewlett. One of the company's earliest customers was [[The Walt Disney Company|Walt Disney Productions]], who bought eight Model 200B oscillators (at $71.50 each) for use in testing the [[Fantasound]] [[surround sound|stereophonic sound]] system for the movie ''[[Fantasia (movie)|Fantasia]]''. ===First Computers=== [[Image:HP0100A 1.jpg|thumb|&quot;The new Hewlett-Packard 9100A personal computer&quot; is &quot;ready, willing, and able ... to relieve you of waiting to get on the big computer.&quot;]] HP is [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.12/mustread.html?pg=11 acknowledged by] ''[[Wired Magazine|Wired]]'' magazine as the producer of the world's first [[personal computer]], in [[1968]], the Hewlett-Packard 9100A. HP called it a desktop calculator because, as Bill Hewlett said, &quot;If we had called it a computer, it would have been rejected by our customers' computer gurus because it didn't look like an [[IBM mainframe|IBM]]. We therefore decided to call it a calculator, and all such nonsense disappeared&quot;. An engineering triumph at the time, the logic circuit was produced without any [[integrated circuits]]; the assembly of the CPU having been entirely executed in discrete components. The mathematical functions and programmability rival the most powerful scientific calculators of the present day. With CRT readout, magnetic card storage, and printer the price was around $5000. The company earned global respect for a variety of products. They introduced the world's first ''handheld scientific electronic [[calculator]]'' in [[1972]] (the [[HP-35]]), the first ''handheld programmable'' in [[1974]] (the [[HP-65]]), the first ''alphanumeric, programmable, expandable'' in [[1979]] (the [[HP-41|HP-41C]]), and the first symbolic and graphing calculator [[HP-28C]]. Like their scientific and business calculators, their [[oscilloscope]]s, [[logic analyzer]]s, and other measurement instruments
er provides a G Major 7 (2-5 draw), a C Major 6th chord (1-4 blow), an Am or Am7 chord (3-5 or 3-6 blow), a D major chord (4-6 draw) and a C Major chord (6-10 blow). If we are in the key of G, then, the melody maker provides the I chord, the IV chord, the V chord and the II chord, allowing II-V-I progressions as well as I-IV-V progressions. It is also possible for a harp player to tune the harmonica himself. By making small scratches in a reed, the note played can be changed. It is possible to either get a higher or a lower note. Some harp players make extensive use of these modifications. One of the most famous examples is the harp solo on 'On the road again' by Canned Heat, on which the harmonicist gets the minor 3rd crossharp on the sixth drawn reed, which is normally the major 2nd crossharp. ==== The 12-Hole and 14-Hole Diatonic ==== Hohner had made a few non-standard harmonicas. All of them have more than 10 holes and are labeled &quot;grosse richter&quot;. For 12 holes, Hohner had made 364/24 Marine Band, as well as the 364S/24 Marine Band Solo Tuned. The Marine Band Solo Tuned, with 3 full diatonic octave, can play all notes of the key, and since it can easily bend notes, some players use this for Blues (and even jazz) instead of the more well known solo-tuned harmonicas, the chromatic harmonica, since the bended notes sounded a lot different than true semi-tones. (For layout, see below at Chromatic harmonica, key out) In this configuration, blues players usually play in third position, the D-minor blue scale. The Hohner Marine Band 365/28 14 hole harmonica is not a standard diatonic harmonica. It has 14 holes and its general dimensions are a bit bigger, so its structure is different from the normal diatonic harmonica and, in the key of C, is pitched one octave lower than the standard 10 hole C diatonic. Thus, hole 4 blow is one octave below middle C. Hole 7 blow is middle C. The Marine Band 365/28 in G is similar to a usual G diatonic, having its higher register expanded. Holes 1 through 4 and 6 are draw bendable, and holes 8 through 14 are blow bendable. Special attention to the extra holes 11 - 14 where the bending capabilities are, in theory, extended a lot (from A down to E in whole 14, for example). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ------------------------------------------ blow: |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |E | draw: |D |G |B |D |F |A |B |D |F |A |B |D |F |A | ------------------------------------------ There is also the &quot;Steve Baker Special&quot; manufactured by Hohner, a special tuned 14 holes diatonic: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ------------------------------------------ blow: |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |E | draw: |D |G |B |D |G |B |D |F |A |B |D |F |A |B | ------------------------------------------ === The Chromatic harmonica === [[Image:Mundharmonika_gfdl.jpg|thumb|Hohner Super-Chromatic harmonica, a typical 12-hole chromatic]] The Chromatic harmonica uses a button-activated sliding bar to redirect air from the hole in the mouthpiece to the selected reed-plate desired. This harp is used for Celtic, Classical, and Jazz, as well as many other styles. Traditionally these are made so that when the button is not pressed, an altered diatonic major scale of the key of the harmonica is available and depressing the button accesses the same scale a semi-tone higher in each hole, thus giving an instrument capable of playing the 12 notes of the Western chromatic scale. Chromatic harmonicas are usually 12, 14 or 16 holes long. The 12-hole chromatic is available in 12 keys, but due to the fact that the entire chromatic scale is available by definition, most professionals stick with the key of C—which is perhaps easier to remember, since slide in will automatically be the sharps of the associated note. In the standard 12-hole chromatic in C the lowest note is middle C, while 16-hole variants start one octave lower. For the 16-hole variant, the layout is as follows: `1 `2 `3 `4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ----------------------------------------------- blow: |C |E |G |C |C |E |G |C |C |E |G |C |C |E |G |C | key out draw: |d |f |a |b |d |f |a |b |d |f |a |b |d |f |a |b | -----------------------------------------------&lt;br&gt; `1 `2 `3 `4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ----------------------------------------------- blow: |C#|F |G#|C#|C#|F |G#|C#|C#|F |G#|C#|C#|F |G#|C#| key in draw: |d#|f#|a#|c |d#|f#|a#|c |d#|f#|a#|c |d#|f#|a#|c | -----------------------------------------------&lt;br&gt; Because it is a fully chromatic instrument, the chromatic harmonica is the instrument of choice in [[jazz]] and [[classical music]]. In traditional harmonica bands, the chromatic harmonica plays the lead part. However, while the chromatic harmonica is capable of playing in all keys, it is not without its limitations. For example, while chromatic harmonicas can &quot;bend&quot; notes down in pitch, as this is a single-reed bend it sounds quite different than the typical dual-reed bends of a diatonic. Further, unless the windsavers are removed chromatic harmonicas cannot &quot;overblow&quot; at all. Perhaps more importantly, the number of chords and double-stops available is limited, as are legato phrasings. Thus, even some of the most accomplished chromatic players are known to use instruments in other keys on occasion, usually the key of F and the key of G. On the other hand, the fact that the chromatic harmonica is designed to play melodies in any keys, plus the fact that many 16-holes and special versions only come stock in the key of C, implied that a good harmonica player should also try his or her best to use the chromatic in the key of C to its greatest capability, and only switch to other keys when it is absolutely necessary. Chromatic harmonicas are often described as either &quot;straight tuned&quot; or &quot;cross tuned&quot;. This refers to the way the slider is shaped to isolate the reed set being played at a given position (button &quot;in&quot; or button &quot;out&quot;). Traditionally the chromatic was &quot;straight tuned&quot; and the slider selected either the upper reed-plate (button out) or the lower reed-plate (button in). In the later half of the 20th century a new system came into use in which the slider played the upper and lower reed-plates at the same time, staggered by which hole (thus with the button out the player might play the upper reed-plate in hole 1, the lower reed-plate in hole 2, and then the upper again in hole 3 and so forth; pressing the button reversed this). This allows for a larger hole in the slider, and thus presumably more air gets through, allowing a louder volume. The two methods co-exist with some companies and players preferring one style and others another. There are at least two other types of slider design as well. The first one has holes side-by-side with each other in the slider, thus opening only the left side of the chamber or the right side depending on button position. The Renaissance chromatic uses this design, which is claimed to mix the larger hole of a cross-tuned design with an even shorter movement than in straight tuned sliders. The simple way of doing this is to construct the harmonica more like a traditional Richter diatonic whereas the standard chromatic design shares more in common with the Knittlinger octave harmonicas. Note, however, the Renaissance uses a complex comb design to achieve their slider design. The second type of alternative design is found mostly in East Asia and is based more along the traditional Weiner tremolo construction. Here each reed is isolated in its own cell within the comb and the slider selects a single reed at a time rather than a cell containing both blow and draw reeds. The Tombo Ultimo is an example of this type of chromatic. Finally, there are also several types of non-slide chromatic instruments available, particularly in Asia, such as the Horn Harmonica (see below), as well as Tombo's S-50, Tombo's Chromatic Violin Range, and others. Tombo Chromatic Violin Range (three and a half octaves), as well as S-50 (thre octaves) use the tremelo scale tuning system (but with only one-reed): in essence it is a C# tremolo harmonica sitting on top of a C tremolo harmonica, with blow and draw reeds each sitting in a single cell. The player switches between a top row tuned to C# and a bottom tuned to C by changing the angle of the harmonica. Like Diatonic, Chromatics are available in numerous tunings. However, there are three more popular versions: one is the '''Irish tuning''', which is done by flattening (instead of sharpening) the notes when the slide is in. This makes playing Irish music, and to a certain extend, blues, easier, since Irish music is commonly played in either the key of C or key of B, which is basically all notes in the key of C flattened. The Irish Tune can be done easily by reversing the slide (fliping the slide upside down) of a chromatic in the key of B major; alternatively, one can just use the B major as is, but use slide-in as the home position. Key out: identical to solo tuning&lt;br&gt; `1 `2 `3 `4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ----------------------------------------------- blow: |B |Eb|Gb|B |B |Eb|Gb|B |B |Eb|Gb|B |B |Eb|Gb|B | key in draw: |db|e |ab|bb|db|e |ab|bb|db|e |ab|bb|db|e |ab|bb| ----------------------------------------------- Another one is the '''bebop tuning''', which is done by tuning the redundent C/C# in hole 4', 4, 8, and 12 blow into a Bb/B pair. This allow playing chords in the key of F, as well as playing C7 chord. `1 `2 `3 `4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ----------------------------------------------- blow: |C |E |G |Bb|C |E |G |Bb|C |E |G |Bb|C |E |G |Bb| key out draw: |d |f |a |b |d |f |a |b |d |f |a
Automated Harmonization of Melody &lt;http://music.arts.uci.edu/dobrian/research02.htm&gt; Copyright © 2002 by Sarah Louise Bassingthwaighte. All rights reserved. http://www.subliminal.org/flute/dissertation/ch02.html ==See also== *[[Computer Music]] *[[Acousmatic]] *[[Electroacoustic]] *[[Sonology]] *[[Sound sculpture]] ==Bibliography== *Chadabe J., ''Electric Sound: The Past and Promise of Electronic Music'', Prentice Hall, NJ, 1997. *Emmerson S., ''The Language of Electroacoustic Music'', Macmillan Press, 1986, London. *Griffiths Paul, ''Modern Music and After: Directions Since 1945'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1995. *Roads C., ''The Computer Music Tutorial'', MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1996. ==External links== *[http://www.emf.org/ EMF.org] (Electronic Music Foundation). *[http://www.cdemusic.org/index.html CDemusic.org]. *[http://www.nime.org/ NIME.org] (New Interfaces for Musical Expression). *[http://www.furious.com/perfect/ohm OHM - The Early Gurus of Electronic Music] {{Electronic_music-footer}} [[Category:Electronic music genres]][[Category:Classical music]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Edvard Grieg</title> <id>9514</id> <revision> <id>41855219</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:14:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Feldmahler</username> <id>923395</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edvard_Grieg.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Edvard Grieg]] '''Edvard Hagerup Grieg''' ([[June 15]], [[1843]]&amp;ndash;[[September 4]], [[1907]]) was a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[composer]] and [[pianist]] who composed in the [[romantic period]]. He is best known for his [[Piano Concerto (Grieg)|Piano Concerto in A minor]], for his [[incidental music]] to [[Henrik Ibsen]]'s [[play]] ''[[Peer Gynt]]'', and for his lyric pieces for the piano. ==Biography== Grieg was born in [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]], and was of partial [[Scotland|Scottish]] descent; the original family name was spelled &quot;Greig&quot;. After the [[Battle of Culloden]] in [[1746]], his great-grandfather travelled widely, settling in Norway around [[1770]] as a businessman in [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]]. Edvard was brought up in a musical home. His mother, Gesine, became his first [[piano]] teacher. In the summer of [[1858 in music|1858]], Grieg met the legendary Norwegian [[violinist]] [[Ole Bull]], who was a friend of the family and Gesine's brother-in-law. Bull noticed the 15-year-old boy's talent and persuaded his parents to send him to further develop his talents at the [[Leipzig Conservatory]], then directed by [[Ignaz Moscheles]]. Grieg enrolled in the [[music school|conservatory]], concentrating on piano, and enjoyed the numerous concerts and recitals given in [[Leipzig]]. He disliked the discipline of the conservatory course of study, yet he still achieved very good grades in most areas, the exception being [[organ (music)|organ]], which was then mandatory for piano students. In the spring of [[1860 in music|1860]], he survived a life-threatening [[lung]] disease. The following year he made his debut as a concert pianist, in [[Karlshamn]], [[Sweden]]. In [[1862]] he finished his studies in Leipzig, and held his first concert in his hometown of Bergen, where his programme included [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s ''[[Piano Sonata No. 8 (Beethoven)|Pathétique]]'' sonata. In [[1863 in music|1863]], Grieg went to [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]], and stayed there for three years. He met the Danish composers [[J. P. E. Hartman]] and [[Niels Gade]]. He also met his fellow Norwegian composer [[Rikard Nordraak]] (composer of the [[Ja, vi elsker dette landet|Norwegian national anthem]]) who became a close friend and source of great inspiration. Nordraak died shortly after, and Grieg composed a [[Sørgemarsj over Rikard Nordraak|funeral march]] in his honor. Grieg had close ties with the [[Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra]] (Harmonien) and was Music Director of the orchestra from [[1880 in music|1880]]-[[1882 in music|1882]]. On [[June 11]], [[1867]], Grieg married his first cousin, [[Nina Grieg|Nina Hagerup]]. The next year, their daughter and only child, Alexandra, was born. The following summer, Grieg wrote his Piano Concerto op. 16 while on vacation in Denmark. [[Edmund Neupert]] gave the concerto its premiere performance on [[April 3rd]] [[1869]] in Copenhagen. Grieg himself was unable to be there due to commitments conducting in Christiania (as [[Oslo]] was then named). In [[1868]] [[Franz Liszt]], who had not at that time met Grieg, wrote a testimonial for him to the Norwegian Ministry of Education, which led to Grieg obtaining a travel grant. The two finally met in [[Rome]] in [[1870]]. On Grieg's first visit the two went over Grieg's First Violin sonata, which pleased Liszt greatly. On the second visit, in April, Grieg brought with him the manuscript of his Piano Concerto, which Liszt proceeded to play at sight (including orchestral arrangement), greatly impressing his audience, although Grieg gently pointed out to him that he took the first movement too fast. Liszt also gave Grieg some unsound advice on orchestration (e.g. to give the slow movement melody to a solo trumpet). In the summer of [[1869]], Grieg's daughter Alexandra caught ill and died at the age of 13 months. In 1876 Grieg created [[incidental music]] for the premiere of [[Ibsen]]'s play [[Peer Gynt]], at the request of the author. Many of the pieces from this work became very popular in the form of orchestral suites or piano and piano-duet arrangements. Grieg's later life brought him fame but not wealth. He was awarded a government pension. Edvard Grieg died in the autumn of [[1907]], after a long period of illness. The funeral drew thousands out on the streets of his hometown to honor the artist. He was 64. His and his wife's ashes are entombed in a mountain tomb near his house, [[Troldhaugen]]. ==Music== Grieg is noted as a nationalist composer, drawing inspiration from [[Norwegian folk music]]. Early works include a [[symphony]] and a [[piano sonata]]. He also wrote three [[Sonatas for Violin and Piano (Grieg)|sonatas for violin and piano]], and his many short pieces for piano &amp;mdash; often built on Norwegian folk tunes and dances &amp;mdash; led some to call him the [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]] of the north. Among Grieg's best-known pieces are his [[Piano Concerto (Grieg)|Piano Concerto in A minor]], ten volumes of ''[[Lyric Pieces]]'' (for piano), and his [[incidental music]] to [[Henrik Ibsen]]'s [[play]] ''[[Peer Gynt]]'', especially for ''[[Morning Mood]]'' and ''[[In the Hall of the Mountain King]]''. Another well-known piece is his ''Holberg Suite'' (for [[string instrument|string]] [[orchestra]]). In all his smaller scale pieces are probably the most successful musically. The Piano Concerto probably retains popularity because of its impressive opening flourish: the slow movement, with its folk-like melodies, is perhaps its most successful feature. Grieg's songs now feature frequently in recitals and it is perhaps in these and the 'Lyric Pieces' that his originality shows itself most convincingly. ==Grieg's music in popular culture== ''Morning Mood'' was a favorite of [[Carl Stalling]] who often used it for morning establishing shots in [[Warner Bros]]. cartoons. ''In the Hall of the Mountain King'' was famously used in the [[1931]] film ''[[M (1931 movie)|M]]'', in which [[Peter Lorre]]'s character, a serial killer who preys on children, whistles it. The piece has also seen extensive use in movies and commercials, usually in accordance with a dramatic and fantastic event. The first movement of Grieg's Piano Concerto is used in [[Adrian Lyne]]'s [[1997]] film ''[[Lolita]]''. Another piece from ''Peer Gynt'', ''Anitra's Dance'', serves as background music for the fourth game in the [[Quest for Glory]] series. A [[musical theatre|musical]], '[[Song of Norway]]', based very loosely on Grieg's life and using his music, was created in [[1944]] and filmed in [[1970]]. ==Important Repertoire== - Several Books of lyric pieces - notably, [[Wedding day at troldhaugen]], [[At your feet]], [[Norweigen melody]], [[Poeme erotic]] and Gone, - Holberg Suite, - Music for [[Peer Gynt]], - Norwegian dances, - [[Piano concerto]] in A minor, - [[Concert ouverture]], In autumn, - [[Symphonic Dances]]. ==See also== *[[:Category:Compositions by Edvard Grieg]] ==External links== *{{IMSLP | id=Grieg%2C_Edvard | cname=Grieg}} *[http://www.edvardgrieg.no The Grieg archives at Bergen Public Library] *[http://www.troldhaugen.no/default.asp?sp=2 Edvard Grieg Museum Troldhaugen] *[http://www.mnc.net/norway/GRIEG.HTM Biography of Grieg] *[http://www.gopera.com/lieder/live/kringelborn.html MP3 recording of Grieg's song cycle ''Haugtussa''] *[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0303955/ Film about Grieg's life] *[http://home.online.no/~trold/griegopus.htm Opus-list (Norwegian/English)] [[Category:Norwegian composers|Grieg, Edvard]] [[Category:Romantic composers|Grieg, Edvard]] [[Category:Norwegian classical pianists|Grieg, Edvard]] [[Category:Order of St. Olav|Grieg, Edvard]] [[Category:1843 births|Grieg, Edvard]] [[Category:1907 deaths|Grieg, Edvard]] [[cs:Edvard Grieg]] [[da:Edvard Grieg]] [[de:Edvard Grieg]] [[es:Edvard Grieg]] [[eo:Edvard GRIEG]] [[fa:ادوارد گریگ]] [[fr:Edvard Grieg]] [[hr:Edvard Grieg]] [[it:Edvard Grieg]] [[he:אדוורד גריג]] [[lt:Edvardas Grygas]] [[lb:Edvard Grieg]] [[nl:Edvard Grieg]] [[ja:エドヴァルド・グリーグ]] [[no:Edvard Grieg]] [[nn:Edvard Grieg]] [[pl:Edvard Hagerup Grieg]] [[pt:Edvard Grieg]] [[ro:Edvard Grieg]] [[sl:Edvard Grieg]] [[fi:Edvard Grieg]] [[ru:Григ, Эдвард]] [[sv:Edvard Grieg]] [[zh:爱德华·格里格]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emancipation Proclamation</title> <id>9515</id> <revision> <id>41912158</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:51:49Z</timestamp> <c
ntal psychology| evolutionary developmental psychologists]]. Most sociobiological research is now conducted in the field of [[behavioral ecology]]. The term ''evolutionary psychology'' was probably coined by Ghiselin in his 1973 article in ''Science''. [[Jerome H. Barkow|Jerome Barkow]], [[Leda Cosmides]] and [[John Tooby]] popularized the term in their highly influential [[1992]] book ''[http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Psychology/Cognitive/?view=usa&amp;ci=0195101073 The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and The Generation of Culture]''. Evolutionary psychology has been applied to the study of many fields, including [[economics]], [[aggression]], [[law]], [[psychiatry]], [[politics]], [[literature]], and [[reproduction|sex]]. == General evolutionary theory == : ''Main article: [[Evolution]] The idea that organisms are comprised of a number of parts that serve different functions (i.e., living things are, in some sense, machines) goes back at least to [[Aristotle]]. This idea is the foundation of modern medicine and biology. [[William Paley]], drawing upon the work of many others, argued convincingly that organisms are machines ''designed to function in particular environments''. Paley believed that this evidence of 'design' was evidence for a designer -- God. [[Charles_Darwin|Darwin]] appears to have been impressed with Paley's argument that organisms are designed for particular environments. The theory of [[natural selection]], created by Darwin and [[Alfred_Russell_Wallace|Wallace]], provided a scientific account of the origins of functional design in the natural world that did not invoke a supernatural designer. Evolutionary psychology is ultimately rooted in the basic theoretical principles that underlie the behavior of all living things: evolutionary theory. In fact, evolutionary psychology can be best conceived not simply as a sub-discipline of psychology but as a way in which evolutionary theory can be used as a meta-theoretical framework within which to examine ''the entire field of psychology''. Evolutionary theory begins with the process of natural selection. Natural selection involves three main ingredients: * [[mutation|Variation]] refers to a state in which there exists a variety of traits within a population. * [[Heritability]] refers to those traits that can be inherited via reproduction. * [[Selection]] refers to those heritable traits that remain in and spread through a population because those traits ultimately aid the organism in survival or reproduction. Many traits that are selected for can actually hinder survival of the organism. Consider the classic example of the peacock's tail. It is metabolically costly, cumbersome, and essentially a &quot;predator magnet.&quot; What the peacock's tail does do is attract mates. Thus, the type of selective process that is involved here is what Darwin called ''[[sexual selection]]''. Sexual selection can be divided into two types: * [[Intersexual selection]], which refers to the traits that one sex generally prefers in the other sex, (e.g. the peacock's tail). * [[Intrasexual competition]], which refers to the competition among members of the same sex for mating access to the opposite sex, (e.g. two stags locking horns). Ultimately, no matter how much an organism reproduces, that organism dies, and it is genetic information that gets passed on from one generation to the next. Since it is genetic information that matters, there can also be selection pressures that favor the aid in survival and reproduction of an organism's genetic relatives, since they carry partial copies of varying degrees of an organism's genes. Such pressures are called [[kin selection]]. ===Inclusive fitness=== [[Inclusive fitness]] theory, which was proposed by [[W.D. Hamilton|William D.Hamilton]] in 1964 as a revision to evolutionary theory, is basically a combination of natural selection, sexual selection, and kin selection. It refers to the the sum of an individual's own reproductive success plus the effects the individual's actions have on the reproductive success of their genetic relatives. General evolutionary theory, in its modern form, '''is''' essentially inclusive fitness theory. Inclusive fitness theory resolved the issue of how &quot;altruism&quot; evolved. The dominant, pre-Hamiltonian view was that altruism evolved via [[group selection]]: the notion that altruism evolved for the benefit of the group. The problem with this was that if one organism in a group incurred any fitness costs on itself for the benefit of others in the group, (i.e. acted &quot;altruistically&quot;), then that organism would reduce its own ability to survive and/or reproduce, therefore reducing its chances of passing on its altruistic traits. Furthermore, the organism that benefitted from that altruistic act and only acted on behalf of its own fitness would increase its own chance of survival and/or reproduction, thus increasing its chances of passing on its &quot;selfish&quot; traits. Inclusive fitness resolved &quot;the problem of altruism&quot; by demonstrating that altruism can evolve via kin selection as expressed in [[Hamilton's rule]]: :::&lt;math&gt;cost &lt; relatedness \times benefit&lt;/math&gt; In other words, altruism can evolve as long as the fitness ''cost'' of the altruistic act on the part of the actor is less than the ''degree of genetic relatedness'' of the recipient times the fitness ''benefit'' to that recipient. This perspective reflects what is referred to as the [[gene-centered view of evolution]] and demonstrates that group selection is a very weak selective force. However, in recent years group selection has been making a comeback, (albeit a controversial one), as [[group selection#multilevel selection theory|multilevel selection]], which posits that evolution can act on many levels of functional organization, (including the &quot;group&quot; level), and not just the &quot;gene&quot; level. ==Middle-level evolutionary theories== Middle-level evolutionary theories are theories that encompass broad domains of functioning. They are compatible with general evolutionary theory but not derived from it. Furthermore, they are applicable across species. During the early 1970's, three very important middle-level evolutionary theories were contributed by then Harvard graduate student, [[Robert Trivers]]: * The theory of [[reciprocal altruism]] demonstrates that altruism can arise amongst non-kin, as long as the recipient of the altruistic act reciprocates at a later date. * [[Parental investment]] theory refers to the different levels of investment in offspring on the part of each sex. For example, females in any species are defined as the sex with the larger gamete. In humans, females produce approximately one large, metabolically costly egg per month, as opposed to the millions of relatively tiny and metabolically cheap sperm that are produced each day by males. Females are fertile for only a few days each month, while males are fertile every day of the month. Females also have a nine month gestation period, followed by a few years of lactation. Males' obligatory biological investment can be achieved with one copulatory act. Cosequently, females in our species have a significantly higher obligatory investment in offspring than males do, (though in some species, the opposite is true.) Because of this difference in parental investment between males and females, males and females face different adaptive problems in the domains of mating and parenting. Therefore, it is predicted that the higher investing sex will be more selective in mating, and the lesser investing sex will be more competitive for access to mates. Thus, sex differences are predicted to exist not because of maleness or femaleness per se, but because of different levels of parental investment. * The theory of [[parent-offspring conflict]] rests on the fact that even though a parent and his/her offspring are 50% genetically related, they are also 50% genetically different. All things being equal, a parent would want to allocate their resources equally amongst their offspring, while each offspring may want a little more for themselves. Furthermore, an offspring may want a little more resources from the parent than the parent is willing to give. In essence, parent-offspring conflict refers to ''a conflict of adaptive interests'' between parent and offspring. However, if all things are not equal, a parent may engage in discriminative investment towards one sex or the other, depending on the ''parent's'' condition. Recall that females are the heavier parental investors in our species. Because of that, females have a better chance of reproducing at least once in comparison to males. Thus, according to the [[Trivers-Willard hypothesis]], parents in good condition are predicted to favor investment in sons, and parents in poor condition are predicted to favor investment in daughters. ==Products of the evolutionary process== There are three products of the evolutionary process: * [[Adaptation]]s are heritable, species-typical traits that, (in terms of fitness costs), are &quot;cost efficient&quot; and function to solve problems related to one's inclusive fitness. An example would be the umbilical cord. * A [[spandrel#biology|by-product]] is a trait that has no adaptive value but is carried along by an adaptive trait. An example would be a belly button. * Noise refers to random effects resulting from chance variation in the genes, environment, or development. An example would be the shape of a belly button. ==Evolved psychological mechanisms: the core of evolutionary psychology== :''Main article: [[psychological adaptation|Evolved psychological mechnisms]] Evolutionary psychology is based on the belief that, just like hearts, lungs, livers, kidneys, and immune systems, cognition has functional structure that has a genetic basis, and therefore has evolved by natural sele
Image:Replica catapult.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Replica catapult at Château des Baux, France]] '''Catapults''' are [[siege engine]]s using an arm to hurl a [[projectile]] a great distance. Any machine that hurls an object can be considered a catapult, but the term is generally understood to mean [[medieval]] siege weapons. The name is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#954;&amp;#945;&amp;#964;&amp;#945; (against) and &amp;#960;&amp;#945;&amp;#955;&amp;#955;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#947;(to hurl (a missile)). Originally, &quot;catapult&quot; referred to a dart-thrower, while &quot;[[ballista]]&quot; referred to a stone-thrower, but over the years, the two terms have swapped meaning. Catapults were usually assembled at the site of a [[siege]], and an army carried few or no pieces of it with them because wood was easily available on site. ==Types== Catapults can be classified according to the [[physics|physical]] concept used to store and release the [[energy]] required to propel the projectile. The first catapult distinct from hand-held launchers (bows, crossbows, slings etc.) was the Greek gastrophetes, a crossbow so large it was braced against the abdomen rather than being held in the hand, hence the nickname belly-bow. The next step from this was a larger form a crossbow mounted on a stand, including early versions of the oxybeles (Greek for bolt shooter) and the [[ballista]] (the Roman version of the oxybeles). The arbalette à tour is a medieval version of the stand-mounted crossbow. These catapults are [[tension]]al, in that the energy is stored as tension and compression of the bow. Although similar to a crossbow, a sling on the end of the rope meant these weapons could be used for firing all sorts of projectiles, from rocks to pots of [[Greek fire]]. Subsequently, [[torsion (mechanics)|torsional]] catapults were developed: those with two torsion powered arms, the later versions of the ballista and oxybeles, and those with one torsion powered arm, the [[onager (siege weapon)|onager]], known in medieval times as the [[mangonel]]. The bottom end of the throwing arm of the onager and the inner ends of both ballista arms are inserted into rope or fibers that are twisted, providing a torsional store of energy. Torsional ballistas were operationally equivalent to their tensional cousins, except the torsional energy store gave greater power. Onagers have an arm with a bucket, cup, or most often a [[sling (weapon)|sling]] to hold the projectile at one end. Finally, the last type of catapult is a [[trebuchet]], which uses [[gravity]] or traction rather than tension or torsion to propel the throwing arm. A falling [[counterweight]] or the effort of the operator(s) pulls down the bottom end of the arm and the projectile is thrown from a sling attached to a rope hanging from the top end of the arm, essentially like a [[sling (weapon)|sling]] attached to a giant [[see-saw]]. The counterweight is much heavier than the projectile. ==History== [[Image:French grenade catapult.jpg|right|thumb|300px|French troops using a catapult to throw [[hand grenade]]s during [[World War I]].]] In Europe, the first catapults appeared in later [[Greece|Greek]] times ([[400 BC]]-[[300 BC]]), early adopters being [[Dionysius of Syracuse]] and [[Onomarchus of Phocis]]. [[Alexander the Great]] introduced the idea of using them to provide cover on the battlefield in addition to using them during sieges. Catapults were more fully developed in [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Middle Ages|Medieval]] times, with the [[trebuchet]] being introduced a relatively short time before the advent of [[gunpowder]], which made the catapult obsolete. [[Cannon]]s replaced catapults as the standard siege weapon in Europe in the [[14th century]]. During medieval times, catapults and related siege machines were the first weapons used for biological warfare. The carcasses of diseased animals and those who had perished from the Black Death or other diseases were loaded up and then thrown over the castle's walls to infect those barricaded inside. There have even been recorded instances of [[beehive (beekeeping)|beehives]] catapulted over [[castle]] walls. The last use of catapults in warfare was during the [[trench warfare]] of the [[World War I]]. During the early stages of the war, catapults were used to throw [[hand grenade]]s across [[no man's land]] into enemy trenches. ==Chinese siege warfare== '''Chinese Siege Warfare: Mechanical Artillery &amp; Siege Weapons of Antiquity''' - An Illustrated History http://authors.history-forum.com/liang_jieming/chinesesiegewarfare ==See also== *[[Medieval siege weaponry]] *[[Slingshot]] *[[Aircraft catapult]] *[[Mass driver]] ==External links== *[http://www.sunward1.com/woodkits.htm Sunward Aerospace], feature a working Catapult Model Kit *[http://www.redstoneprojects.com/trebuchetstore/build_a_catapult.html Catapult Plans and Design] *[http://www.medieval-castle-siege-weapons.com/medieval-catapults.html Medieval Catapult Articles] *[http://www.medieval-castles.org/uses/medieval_catapults.htm Information about a Medieval Catapult] ==References== Catapult. ''The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary'' (1971) &lt;!--Categories--&gt; [[Category:Siege engines]] [[Category:Ancient Roman military technology]] &lt;!--Interwiki--&gt; [[de:Katapult]] [[es:Catapulta]] [[fr:Catapulte]] [[it:Catapulta]] [[he:&amp;#1511;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1492;]] [[nl:katapult]] [[no:Katapult]] [[pl:Katapulta]] [[pt:Catapulta]] [[zh:投石车]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cinquain</title> <id>7066</id> <revision> <id>19617586</id> <timestamp>2005-07-26T03:08:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Yossarian</username> <id>65633</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>link to Crapsey</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[poetry]], a '''cinquain''' or '''quintain''' is a five line [[stanza]], varied in [[rhyme]] and line, usually with the [[rhyme scheme]] ababb. An example of cinquain is the following stanza from [[Robert Browning]]'s poem &quot;Porphyria's Lover&quot;: Murmuring how she loved me -- she Too weak, for all her heart's endeavour, To set its struggling passion free From pride, and vainer ties dissever, And give herself to me for ever. '''Cinquain''' also has a more specialized meaning. Under the influence of [[Japanese poetry]], the American poet [[Adelaide Crapsey]] developed a poetic form she also called a &quot;cinquain&quot;. Hers is a short, unrhymed poem of twenty-two syllables, five lines of 2, 4, 6, 8, 2 syllables respectively. Her cinquains were published posthumously in [[1915]] in her ''The Complete Poems''. Cinquains became better known through the work of [[Carl Sandburg]] (''Cornhuskers'', 1918) and [[Louis Utermeyer]] (''Modern American Poetry'', 1919). Here is the Crapsey cinquain &quot;Triad&quot;: These be Three silent things: The falling snow... the hour Before the dawn... the mouth of one Just dead. == External links == * [http://www.amaze-cinquain.com Amaze-Cinquain], an online journal of the cinquain form [[Category:Poetic form]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cook Islands</title> <id>7067</id> <revision> <id>41952649</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:18:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MJCdetroit</username> <id>627347</id> </contributor> <comment>English measurements per [[WP:MOSNUM]] and formating</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">: ''See [[Cook Island]] for individual islands of that name.'' {| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;float: right; width: 300px; clear: both; margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; border-style: solid; border: 1px solid #7f7f7f; border-right-width: 2px; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; |+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Cook Islands'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt; |- | style=&quot;background: #ffffff;&quot; align=center colspan=2 | {| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 | width=140 align=center | [[Image:Flag of the Cook Islands.svg|125px|]] | width=140 align=center | [[Image:Cook islands coa.png|100px]] |- | width=140 align=center valign=top | [[Flag of the Cook Islands|Flag&lt;br/&gt;of the Cook Islands]] | width=140 align=center valign=top | [[Coat of Arms of the Cook Islands|Coat of Arms&lt;br/&gt;of the Cook Islands]] |} |- style=&quot;border-top: 2px solid gray;&quot; | '''[[Official Language]]''' | [[English language|English]], [[Cook Islands Maori]] |- | '''[[Capital]]''' | [[Avarua]] |- | '''[[Head of State]]''' | [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] (as Queen in right of New Zealand) |- | '''[[Queen's Representative]]''' | Sir [[Frederick Goodwin|Frederick Goodwin]] [[KBE]] |- | '''[[Prime Minister of the Cook Islands|Prime Minister]]''' | [[Jim Marurai]] |- | '''[[Area]]''' | 240 km² (92.7 sq. mi) |- | '''[[Population]]''' (July 2005 Estimate) | 21,388 |- | '''[[Independence]]'''&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;– Date | None (the Cook Islands is not independent); became self-governing in free association with [[New Zealand]] [[August 4]], [[1965]]. |- | '''[[National anthem]]''' | ''Te Atua Mou E'' (God is Truth) |- | '''[[Currency]]''' | [[New Zealand dollar]] (NZD). Also, have local $5, $2 and $1 coins that can't be used elsewhere. |- | '''[[Time zone]]''' | [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -10 |- | '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]''' | 682 |- | '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' | [[.ck]] |- | colspan=2 align=center | [[Image:Cw-map.gif|292px]] |- | colspan=2 align=center | Map of The Cook Islands |- | colspan=2 align=center | [[Image:Cookislands_church.jpg|292px]] |- | colspan=2 align=center | The Matavera Christian Church in [[Rarotonga]] |} The '''Cook Islands''' (''Cook Islands Maori'' : '''Kuki
2.jpg|thumb|left|80px|An FBI-released photo]]Hanjour came back to San Diego in [[December]] [[2000]], frequently visiting [[Abdussattar Shaikh]]'s house, which is shared with Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid Almihdhar. During this time Hanjour may have visited the [[San Diego Zoo]] in February, as a security guard recalls having to page his name to reclaim a lost briefcase containing cash and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] documents and later recognised his photograph. Shortly afterwards, the three hijackers move out of Shaikh's house to [[Falls Church, Virginia]] Hanjour, Moqed, al-Hazmi and Ahmed al-Ghamdi rent a minivan and travel to [[Fairfield, Connecticut]], where they meet a contact in the parking lot of a local convenience store who provides them with false IDs. (possibly [[Eyad Alrababah]], a Jordanian charged with document fraud). Hanjour later accompanies Almihdhar to a [[DMV]] office where they paid illegal immigrant Luis Martinez-Flores $100 to vouch for their permanent residency, and are granted state identity cards. Martinez-Flores is later sentenced to 21 months in prison for aiding them. In early Spring [[2001]], Hanjour rented a one-bedroom apartment in [[Paterson, New Jersey]]. He lived there with at least one roommate and was visited by several other hijackers, including [[Mohamed Atta al Sayed]]. During his time in New Jersey, he and Al-Hazmi rented 3 different cars including a sedan in June that Hanjour cosigns with the alias ''Hani Saleh Hassan''. He later makes his last phone call to his family back in Saudi Arabia - he claimed to be phoning from a payphone in the UAE, where he was supposedly still working. Hanjour, along with at least five other future hijackers, is thought to have traveled to [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]] several times in the summer of 2001, where they reportedly drank alcohol, gambled, and practiced other forms of vice.[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2001/10/04/MN102970.DTL] He was also stopped by police on August 1 2001 for driving 55 mph in a 30 mph zone in [[Arlington, Virginia]], for which he paid the $70 fine. Employees at [[Advance Travel Service]] in [[Totowa, New Jersey]] later claimed that Moqed and Hanjour had both purchased tickets there. They claimed that Hanjour spoke very little English, and Moqed did most of the speaking. Hanjour requested a seat in the front row of the airplane. Their credit card failed to authorise, and after being told the agency didn't accept personal cheques, the pair left to withdraw cash. They returned shortly afterwards and paid the $1842,25 total in cash.[http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm] This claim is in contradiction to other claims that Hanjour never had a ticket for the flight at all. [[Image:HanjiMajedATM.jpg|thumb|130px|Moqed and Hanjour]]In September, Hanjour began to make cross-country flights in August to test security, and tried to rent a small [[Cessna 172]] plane from ''Freeway Airport'' in Maryland - though he was declined after exhibiting poor flying skills. He moved out of his New Jersey apartment on [[September 1]], and was photographed four days later using an [[Automatic teller machine|ATM]] with fellow hijacker [[Majed Moqed]] in [[Maryland]], where all five Flight 77 hijackers had purchased a 1-week membership in a local [[Gold's Gym]], there Hanjour claimed that his first name translated as ''warrior'' when a gym employee asked if there was an English translation of their Arabic names. (''Hani'' actually translates as ''contented'') On [[September 10]], 2001, Hanjour, al-Mihdhar, and al-Hazmi checked into the Marriott Residence Inn in [[Herndon, Virginia]] where [[Saleh Ibn Abdul Rahman Hussayen]], a prominent Saudi government official, was staying - although no evidence was ever uncovered that they had met, or knew of each other's presence. ==The attack== [[Image:HaniHanjourSecTape.jpg|thumb|180px|Allegedly Hanjour in foreground]]On September 11, 2001, Hani Hanjour boarded American Airlines Flight 77 at 7:50am, though it is still disputed whether or not he had a ticket for the flight, or appeared on any manifest. In the security tape footage released in 2004, Hanjour appears to walk through the metal detector without setting it off, the only hijacker to do so. There is a controversy over whether or not the security tapes indeed show him, since the man claimed to be him seems significantly heavier than Hanjour, has kept his beard (Which the hijackers all reportedly shaved off the night before), and has a different style of hair. The plane was hijacked, and Hanjour was given the controls to pilot the plane into the Pentagon at 9:37 am in a high-speed dive that required a great deal of skill many have ruled suspicious given his repeated failures and inability to fly even simple Cessna simulators. Hanjour obtained a commercial pilots license in 1999 and according to the chief instructor, &quot;Despite Hanjour's poor reviews, he did have some ability as a pilot, &quot;There's no doubt in my mind that once that [hijacked jet] got going, he could have pointed that plane at a building and hit it,&quot; he said. In the initial report given by the FBI on September 14, 2001 the names of the hijackers were released for the first time; Hanjour was not originally listed as a suspect, but &quot;Mosear Caned&quot; instead. The FBI later corrected the list. ==Aftermath== After the attacks, Hanjour's family said they could not believe he had been involved, and stating that he had phoned them just 8 hours prior to the hijackings.[http://web.archive.org/web/20030616131506/http://arabview.com/article.asp?artID=98] ==External links== * [http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report] {{Template:911hijack}} [[Category:2001 deaths|Hanjour, Hani]] [[Category:Saudi Arabian terrorists|Hanjour, Hani]] [[Category:Participants in the September 11, 2001 attacks|Hanjour, Hani]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hyaenidae</title> <id>13925</id> <revision> <id>15911509</id> <timestamp>2003-06-14T20:06:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Baldhur</username> <id>28358</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect hyena</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hyena]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hyena</title> <id>13926</id> <revision> <id>42141974</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:27:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.81.197.16</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Legend */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Hyenas | image = Spotted hyena.jpg | image_width = 200px | image_caption = [[Spotted Hyena]] | regnum = [[Animalia Kingdom]] | phylum = [[Chordata]] | classis = [[Mammal]]ia | ordo = [[Carnivora]] | familia = '''Hyaenidae''' | familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821 | subdivision_ranks = Genera | subdivision = ''[[Spotted Hyena|Crocuta]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Striped Hyena|Hyaena]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Brown Hyena|Parahyaena]]''&lt;br /&gt; ''[[Aardwolf|Proteles]]'' }} '''Hyenas''' (or '''Hyænas''') are moderately large terrestrial [[carnivore]]s native to [[Africa]] and [[Asia]]. They are members of the [[family (biology)|family]] Hyaenidae. ==Physiology== Although hyenas look like rather large wild [[dog (family)|dog]]s, they make up a separate [[biological family]] which is most closely related to [[Herpestidae]] (the family of [[mongoose]]s and [[meerkat]]s). The hyena has one of the strongest [[jaw]]s in the animal kingdom and an adult of the species has only the large cats of the family Felidae ([[Lion|Lions]], [[Tiger|Tigers]], [[Jaguar|Jaguars]], etc.) to fear. Hyenas range in length from 1.2 - 1.5 meters (3.9 - 4.9 ft) including the tail, which is 30 cm (12 inches) in length. An adult hyena weighs between 25 and 55 kg (55 - 120 lb). The pelt can be light to dark-brown on Brown Hyenas, while the color can be grey, sometimes nearly white on Striped Hyenas. Aardwolves have a warm, sand-colored coat, while the coats of Spotted Hyenas can range from dark-brown fur to amber and reddish in color. In ancient times, large hyenas ranged over much of [[Europe]] and Asia, but they are much reduced in range and diversity today. Only four species survive: the [[Spotted Hyena|Spotted]], [[Brown Hyena|Brown]], and [[Striped Hyena]]s (which together make up the subfamily Hyaeninae), and the [[Aardwolf]], which is the only member of the subfamily Protelinae Hyenas are also highly intelligent predators, even more intelligent than the lions (some scientists claim they are of equal intelligence to certain apes). One indication of hyena intelligence is that hyenas will move their kills closer to each other to protect them from scavengers; another indication is their strategic hunting methods. A group of spotted hyenas (called a &quot;clan&quot;) can include 5-90 members and is led by a single alpha female called the matriarch. A complicated social hierarchy governs the clan. Cubs often learn this social system before they begin to walk. Females are the dominating members, followed in rank by cubs, while adult males rank lowest. Male hyenas, which are usually smaller and less aggressive than females, often leave the clan when they are about two years of age. Females tend to mate with males from other clans, thereby preventing inbreeding. Unlike many other animals, female hyenas hardly ever mate with highly aggressive males. Instead, they select calm, patient and charming mates. Patience is especially important since courtship can last as much as a year. For this reason, dominant and impatient males have difficulty finding mates. Despite the complicated courtship, the female raises her pups without the male. [[Image:Hyaena eximia head.jpg|thumb|left|Skull of Hyaena eximia]] [[Image:Hyaena eximia jaw.jpg|thumb|left|Lower j
rranean arms. * A purely geometric coat of arms is relatively unlikely to be Mediterranean (a conspicuous exception being ''Or four pallets gules'' for the [[County of Barcelona]]). * Crests are often not displayed at all in French and Mediterranean armory, but very important in Germany. A shield with three or more crested helms is usually German. Certain types of crests, too, are typically German, such as a pair of horns or a tall hat in the tinctures of the shield. ==Modern heraldry== Heraldry continues to flourish today. Institutions, companies, and members of the public may obtain officially recognized coats of arms from governmental heraldic authorities. This typically has the force of a registered trademark. The first recorded corporate coat of arms was granted to the [[Worshipful Company of Drapers|Drapers' Company]] of the [[City of London]] in [[1438]] (see [[Coat of Arms of The Drapers Company]]). However, many users of modern &quot;heraldic&quot; designs do not register with heraldic authorities, and some designers do not follow the rules of heraldic design at all. In Scotland the control of heraldry is fully legal and the [[Lord Lyon, King of Arms]] retains powers (including imprisonment, fines and defacing bogus arms) which he does not hesitate to use. His office has no equivalent in England, is pre-heraldic and is closer to that of the [[Earl Marshall]] than that of [[Garter King of Arms]]. Other active heraldic authorities include: Cronista Rey de Armas (Spain). the [[Chief Herald of Ireland]]; the [[Canadian Heraldic Authority]]. Some people who have interests in heraldry as a hobby participate in the [[Society for Creative Anachronism]] and other such medieval revivals, or in [[micronationalism]]. Many more people see heraldry as a part of their national, and even personal, heritage, as well as a manifestation of civic and national pride. ==Suggested Reading== ===General=== *Friar, Stephen &amp; John Ferguson. ''Basic Heraldry''. New York: Norton, 1993. *Parker, James. ''A Glossary of Terms Used in Heraldry''. New ed. Oxford: James Parker &amp; Co., 1894 (Newton Abbot: David &amp; Charles, 1970). *Woodcock, Thomas &amp; John Martin Robinson. ''The Oxford Guide to Heraldry''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. ===Great Britain=== *Bedingfeld, Henry &amp; Peter Gwynn-Jones. ''Heraldry''. Secaucus, NJ: Chartwell Books, 1993. *Boutell, Charles. ''Boutell’s Heraldry''. New York: Frederick Warner, 1983. Revised by J. P. Brooke-Little from the 1891 edition. Boutell's ''Manual of Heraldry'' was first published in 1863. *Burke, John Bernard. ''The General Armory of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales; Comprising a Registry of Armorial Bearings from the Earliest to the Present Time''. London: Burke’s Peerage, 1884 (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1967). Reprint of the last edition. *Dennys, Rodney. ''The Heraldic Imagination''. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1975. Artistic aspects of heraldry. *Elvin, Charles N. ''Elvin’s Handbook of Mottoes''. 2d ed. Revised with Supplement and Index by R. Pinches. London: Heraldry Today, 1971. Originally published in 1860. *Fairbairn, James. ''Fairbairn’s Crests of the Families of Great Britain &amp; Ireland''. 2v. Revised ed. New York: Heraldic Publishing Co., 1911 (New York: Bonanza Books, 1986 in 1 vol.). Originally published 1800. *Hasler, Charles. ''The Royal Arms, Its Graphic and Decorative Development''. London: Jupiter Books, 1980. Artistic aspects and commercial treatments. *Humphrey-Smith, Cecil. ''Anglo-Norman Armory''. Canterbury: Family History, 1973. *Franklyn, Julian. ''Shield and Crest: An Account of the Art and Science of Heraldry''. 3d ed. London: Macgibbon &amp; Kee, 1967. Textbook for the author's two-year course in heraldry at the City Literary Institute in London. *Friar, Stephen. ''Heraldry for the Local Historian and Genealogist''. (History Handbooks series) Phoenix Mill, Gloucs., UK: Sutton Publishing, 1997 *Palliser, Bury (Mrs.). ''Historic Devices, Badges, and War-Cries''. London: Sampson Low, 1870 (Detroit: Gale Research Co., 1971). *Paul, James Balfour. ''An Ordinary of Arms Contained in the Public Register of All Arms and Bearings in Scotland''. 2d ed. Edinburgh: W. Green &amp; Sons, 1903. *Pinches, J. H. &amp; R. V. ''The Royal Heraldry of England''. London: Heraldry Today, 1974. *Wagner, Sir Anthony R. ''Heralds of England: A History of the Office and College of Arms''. London: HMSO, 1967. *Wagner, Sir Anthony R. ''Historic Heraldry of Britain''. London: Oxford University Press, 1939 (London: Phillimore &amp; Co, 1972). College of Arms exhibit at the New York World's Fair of 1939. *Woodcock, Thomas &amp; John Martin Robinson. ''Heraldry in Historic Houses of Great Britain''. New York: Abrams, for the National Trust, 2000. ===Continental=== *Le Févre, Jean. ''A European Armorial: An Armorial of Knights of the Golden Fleece and 15th Century Europe''. (Edited by Rosemary Pinches &amp; Anthony Wood) London: Heraldry Today, 1971. *Louda, Jiří. ''Heraldry of the Royal Families of Europe''. New York: Clarkson Potter, 1981. Reprinted as ''Lines of Succession'' (London: Orbis, 1984). *Pinches, J. H. ''European Nobility and Heraldry: A Comparative Study of the Titles of Nobility and their Heraldic Exterior Ornaments for each Country, with Historical Notes''. Ramsbury, Wiltshire: Heraldry Today, 1994. *Rietstap, Johannes B. ''Armorial General''. 2v. The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1904-26 (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1967). **Rolland, V. &amp; H. V. ''Supplement to Rietstap’s Armorial General''. 2d ed. 9v. London: Heraldry Today, 1969. **Rolland, V. &amp; H. V. ''Illustrations to the Armorial General''. 6v. The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1903-26. *Siebmacher, Johann. J. ''Siebmacher’s Grosses und Allgemeines Wappenbuch . . . Vermehrten Auglage''. 137v. (total). Nürnberg: Von Bauer &amp; Raspe, 1890-1901. *Volborth, Carl-Alexander von. ''Heraldry: Customs, Rules and Styles''. London: Blandford Press, 1981. ==See also== *[[Academie Internationale d'Heraldique]] *[[American Heraldry Society]] *[[Armory (heraldry)]] *[[Cadency]] *[[Canadian Heraldic Authority]] *[[Chivalry]] *[[Chief Herald of Ireland]] *[[College of Arms]] *[[Court of Chivalry]] *[[Crest (heraldry)]] *[[Heraldic badge]] *[[The Heraldry Society (New Zealand Branch)]] *[[The Heraldry Society]] *[[Heraldry Society of Scotland|The Heraldry Society of Scotland]] *[[List of coats of arms]] *[[Lord Lyon King of Arms]] *[[Mon (badge)|Mon]] ([[Japan]]ese heraldry) *[[Officer of Arms]] *[[Polish Heraldry]] *[[The Royal Heraldry Society of Canada]] *[[Sashimono]] *[[Serbian Genealogical Society]] *[[Time immemorial]] *[[UK topics]] *[[United States Army Institute of Heraldry]] *[[Women in heraldry]] *[[Coat of Arms]] *[[List of academic coats of arms]] *[[Vexillology]] ==External links== {{commonscat|Coats of arms}} ===Authorities=== * [http://www.gg.ca/heraldry/index_e.asp The Canadian Heraldic Authority] * [http://www.college-of-arms.gov.uk/ The College of Arms] * [http://www.lyon-court.com The Court of the Lord Lyon] * [http://www.dpmc.govt.nz/honours/overview/herald-of-arms.html New Zealand Herald of Arms Extraordinary] * [http://www.nli.ie/fr_offi.htm The Office of the Chief Herald of Ireland] * [http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/ The United States Army Institute of Heraldry] ===Societies=== * [http://www.groups.yahoo.com/group/HeraldryAustralia/ Heraldry Australia Inc.] * [http://www.theheraldrysociety.com/ The Heraldry Society] * [http://www.heraldrysociety.us/index.php The American Heraldry Society] * [http://www.amateurheralds.org/ The International Association of Amateur Heralds (IAAH)] * [http://www.americancollegeofheraldry.org/ The American College of Heraldry (Chartered non-profit, not a state authority)] * [http://www.heraldry-scotland.co.uk/ The Heraldry Society of Scotland] * [http://www.heraldry.ca/index_en_nocount.html The Royal Heraldry Society of Canada] * [http://www.geocities.com/heraldry_society The Heraldry Society (New Zealand Branch) Inc] * [http://www.sca.org/heraldry/primer/ A Heraldic Primer (Society for Creative Anachronism)] * [http://www.rodoslovlje.com/ Serbian Genealogical Society] * [http://www.heraldika.org.mk/ Macedonian Heraldry Society] * [http://www.ngw.nl/ International Civic Heraldry] * [http://www.czipm.org/heraldika.html Board for Heraldic and Genealogical Studies - Center for Research of Orthodox Monarchism] * [http://www.russiancollegeofheraldry.org The Russian College of Heraldry] * [http://www.armorial.ru The Russian Heraldry Society] * [http://www.ahn-cr.info/ The Academy of Heraldic Science Czech republic] ===Heraldry-generating software=== * [http://petebarrett.members.beeb.net/blazon.htm Blazon (non commercial)] ===Other=== * [http://www.brasoes.com/ Brazil Heraldry] * [http://www.briantimms.com Studies in Heraldry. A wide ranging site, dealing with many aspects of heraldry, including French Civic Heraldry, Medieval Rolls of Arms, Pub Signs, Cigarette Cards, and much else] * [http://www.blason-armoiries.org Large illustrated armorial about french and european families and glossary (french)] * [http://www.kuruvinda.com/armorial.php Rietstap's Armorial General - over 130,000 fully searchable names and blazons (Subscription based)] * [http://www.heraldica.org Heraldica] * [http://www.footballcrests.com/ FootballCrests.com - The history and meaning of football (soccer) club crests from around the world] * [http://makepeace.ca/nehgs/ Committee on Heraldry of the New England Historic Genealogical Society] * [http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/admin/scadmin_2.htm#seven Scotscourts.gov.uk] * [http://makepeace.ca/vhr/ Page on the Flemish Heraldic Council] * [http://www.heraldry-scotland.co.uk/Lyoncourt.htm Page on the Lyon Court] * [http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/lord_lyon.htm Page on the Lyon Court] * [http://freepages.history.rootsweb.com/~amateurheralds/page_sa_boh.html Page on the South African Bureau of Heraldr
itish poet and critic (b. [[1887]]) *[[1965]] - [[Branch Rickey]], American baseball commissioner (b. [[1884]]) *[[1970]] - [[Sir Feroz Khan Noon]], Prime Minister [[Pakistan]] *[[1971]] - [[Ralph Bunche]], American diplomat and [[Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1904]]) *[[1972]] - [[Louella Parsons]], American gossip columnist (b. [[1881]]) *[[1984]] - [[Razzle|Nicholas &quot;Razzle&quot; Dingley]], British drummer ([[Hanoi Rocks]]) (b. [[1960]]) *[[1993]] - [[Danny Blanchflower]], Northern Irish footballer and football manager (b. [[1926]]) *[[1995]] - [[Toni Cade Bambara]], American author (b. [[1939]]) *[[1996]] - [[Mary Leakey]], British archeologist and anthropologist (b. [[1913]]) *[[1998]] - [[Shaughnessy Cohen]], Canadian politician (b. [[1948]]) * 1998 - [[Archie Moore]], American boxer and World [[Light-Heavyweight]] Champion (b. [[1913]]) *[[1999]] - [[Franjo Tudjman]], first President of Croatia (b. [[1922]]) *[[2002]] - [[Stan Rice]], American painter, educator, and poet (b. [[1942]]) *[[2003]] - [[Paul Simon (politician)|Paul Simon]], U.S. Senator from Illinois (b. [[1928]]) *[[2004]] - [[David Brudnoy]], American radio personality (b. [[1940]]) * 2004 - [[Lea De Mae]], Czech actress (b. [[1976]]) *[[2005]] - [[György Sándor]], Hungarian pianist (b. [[1912]]) *2005 - [[Robert Sheckley]] an American author (b. [[1928]]) ==Holidays and observances== * [[Calendar of saints]]: ** Saint [[Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin]] : optional memorial ** [[Peter Fourier]], founder of the Congregation of Notre Dame * Also see [[December 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]; specifically the conception of [[Saint Anne]] * [[Scandinavia]] (specifically [[Sweden]]): Anna's Day. Recognizes everyone named Anna, and marks the day to start the preparation process of the [[lutefisk]] to be consumed on [[Christmas Eve]]. * [[Tanzania]] - [[Independence Day]] (of Tanganyika from Britain, [[1961]]) * [[Anti-Corruption Day]] [http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/events/anti_corruption/] ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/9 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[December 8]] - [[December 10]] - [[November 9]] - [[January 9]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:9 Desember]] [[ar:9 ديسمبر]] [[an:9 d'abiento]] [[ast:9 d'avientu]] [[bg:9 декември]] [[be:9 сьнежня]] [[bs:9. decembar]] [[ca:9 de desembre]] [[ceb:Disyembre 9]] [[cv:Раштав, 9]] [[co:9 di decembre]] [[cs:9. prosinec]] [[cy:9 Rhagfyr]] [[da:9. december]] [[de:9. Dezember]] [[et:9. detsember]] [[el:9 Δεκεμβρίου]] [[es:9 de diciembre]] [[eo:9-a de decembro]] [[eu:Abenduaren 9]] [[fo:9. desember]] [[fr:9 décembre]] [[fy:9 desimber]] [[gl:9 de decembro]] [[ko:12월 9일]] [[hr:9. prosinca]] [[io:9 di decembro]] [[id:9 Desember]] [[ia:9 de decembre]] [[is:9. desember]] [[it:9 dicembre]] [[he:9 בדצמבר]] [[jv:9 Desember]] [[ka:9 დეკემბერი]] [[csb:9 gòdnika]] [[ku:9'ê berfanbarê]] [[la:9 Decembris]] [[lt:Gruodžio 9]] [[lb:9. Dezember]] [[hu:December 9]] [[mk:9 декември]] [[ms:9 Disember]] [[nap:9 'e dicembre]] [[nl:9 december]] [[ja:12月9日]] [[no:9. desember]] [[nn:9. desember]] [[oc:9 de decembre]] [[pl:9 grudnia]] [[pt:9 de Dezembro]] [[ro:9 decembrie]] [[ru:9 декабря]] [[se:Juovlamánu 9.]] [[sco:9 December]] [[sq:9 Dhjetor]] [[scn:9 di dicèmmiru]] [[simple:December 9]] [[sk:9. december]] [[sl:9. december]] [[sr:9. децембар]] [[fi:9. joulukuuta]] [[sv:9 december]] [[tl:Disyembre 9]] [[tt:9. Dekäber]] [[te:డిసెంబర్ 9]] [[th:9 ธันวาคม]] [[vi:9 tháng 12]] [[tr:9 Aralık]] [[uk:9 грудня]] [[wa:9 di decimbe]] [[war:Disyembre 9]] [[zh:12月9日]] [[pam:Disiembri 9]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Den Haag</title> <id>8590</id> <revision> <id>15906569</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Hague]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Diaspora studies</title> <id>8591</id> <revision> <id>15906570</id> <timestamp>2005-01-20T18:07:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Msh210</username> <id>118007</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Diaspora studies''' is an academic field established in the late twentieth century to study dispersed [[ethnicity|ethnic]] populations, which are often termed [[diaspora peoples]]. The usage of the term [[diaspora]] carries the [[connotation]] of forced resettlement, due to expulsion, slavery, [[racism]], or war, especially [[nationalism|nationalist]] conflict. See [[diaspora]] for a further discussion of diasporas. {{ethno-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Domitian</title> <id>8592</id> <revision> <id>41838697</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:56:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Pavel Vozenilek</username> <id>87110</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rv: grammar, shared IP with history of vandalism</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Domitien.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Domitian bust in the Louvre]] '''Titus Flavius Domitianus''' ([[24 October]] [[51]] &amp;ndash; [[18 September]] [[96]]), commonly known as '''Domitian''', was a [[Roman Emperors|Roman emperor]] of the ''[[gens]] [[Flavius|Flavia]]''. Domitianus was the son of [[Vespasian]], by his wife Domitilla, and brother of [[Titus]], whom he succeeded in [[81]]. ==Early life== Domitian was born in Rome while his father was still a politician and military commander. He received the education of a young man of the privileged [[Roman senate|senatorial]] class. He studied rhetoric and literature, publishing some of his writings, law and administration. In his biography [[Suetonius]] describes him as a learned and educated adolescent, with elegant conversation. Unlike his brother, Titus, who was much older, Domitian did not join his father's campaigns in the [[Roman provinces|African provinces]] and Judea. During the [[Year of the four emperors]] ([[69]]), Domitian assumed a cautious, discreet position, but moved immediately to the imperial palace once his father was proclaimed emperor. He was the representative of the Flavius family in the senate prior to Vespasian and Titus' arrival in Rome. With the rise to power of his father, Domitian grew bolder. In [[70]] he managed to force the divorce of [[Domitia Longina]] in order to marry her. Lucius Aelius Lamia, her husband, could not prevent the prince's will, and so Domitia became daughter in law of the emperor. Despite its initial recklessness, the alliance was very prestigious for both sides. Domitia Longina was the only daughter of general [[Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo]], one of the victims of [[Nero]]'s terror, remembered as a worthy commander and a honoured politician. They had a son in 71 and a daughter in 74, but both died young. The marriage was far from being traditional: Domitian was a notorious womaniser and his wife was not jealous. Some sources refer that she would join Domitian in his escapades with his mistresses. As a second son, Domitian was spared from responsibilities. He held several honorary [[consul]]ships and several priesthoods but no office with ''[[imperium]]''. During the reign of his brother Titus, his situation remained essentially the same, since nobody saw him as future emperor. But Domitian certainly had his ambitions. When Titus was dying, he managed to be hailed as his successor by securing the [[Praetorian Guard]]'s support. ==Emperor== [[Image:024 Domitian.jpg|right|150px|thumb|Denarius of Domitian]] As an administrator, Domitian soon proved to be a disaster. The economy first came to a halt and then went into recession, forcing him to heavily devaluate the [[denarius]] (silver currency). To further compensate for the economic situation, taxes were raised and discontent soon followed. Due to his love of the arts and to woo the population, Domitian invested large sums in the reconstruction and embellishment of the city, still suffering the effects of the [[great fire of Rome]] in 64 and the civil war of 69. Around fifty new buildings were erected and restored, including the Temple of [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]] in the [[Capitoline Hill]] and a palace in the [[Palatine Hill]]. In [[85]], Domitian nominated himself perpetual [[censor]], the office which held the task of supervising Roman morals and conduct, a task he could hardly apply to himself. By [[83]], his own marriage was in rupture with continuous infidelities and scandals on both sides. In this year, Domitia Longina was caught with her lover, the actor Paris. The man was executed and the empress was exiled after a hasty divorce. In the next year he developed a passion for his niece [[Julia Flavia]] (daughter of Titus) and, like in his first marriage, he kidnapped the girl by dismissing her husband. Julia Flavia died in [[91]] during an [[abortion]], being deified afterwards. After this, Domitia Longina was recalled to the palace as Roman empress, despite the fact that Domitian never remarried her. Domitian's greatest passions were the arts and the games. He finished the [[Colosseum]], started by his father, and implemented the Capitoline Games in [[86]]. Like the [[Olympic Games]], they were to be held every four years and included athletic displays, chariot races, but also oratory, music and acting competitions. The Emperor himself supported the travels of competitors from the whole empire and attributed the prizes. He was also very fond of [[gladiator]] shows and added important innovations like female and dwarf gladiator fights. As a military commander, Domitian was not gifted, due to his education in Rome, away from the [[Roman legion|legions]]. Probably because
-505 (''Apollo 10'')]], [[Skylab 2|AS-206 (Skylab 2)]], [[Skylab 3|AS-207 (Skylab 3)]], [[Skylab 4|AS-208 (Skylab 4)]], [[Apollo-Soyuz|AS-210 (ASTP)]]. ==See also== *[[List of lunar astronauts]] *[[List of artificial objects on the Moon]] *[[Extra-vehicular activity]] - List and duration of moonwalks *[[Apollo moon landing hoax accusations]] *[[Splashdown]] *[[Ranger program]] *[[Soviet moonshot]] *[[Surveyor program]] *[[Lunar Orbiter program]] *[[Crew Exploration Vehicle]] *[[Space race]] *[[Launch complex 39]] ==References== * [[Gene Kranz|Kranz, Gene]], ''Failure is Not an Option''. Factual, from the standpoint of a chief flight controller during the [[Project Mercury|Mercury]], [[Project Gemini|Gemini]], and Apollo space programs. ISBN 0743200799 * Chaikin, Andrew. ''A Man on the Moon''. ISBN 0140272011. Chaikin has interviewed all the surviving [[astronaut]]s, plus many others who worked with the program. * [[Charles Shaar Murray|Murray, Charles]]; Cox, Catherine B. ''Apollo: The Race to the Moon''. ISBN 0671611011. This is an excellent account of what it took to build and fly Apollo. * Cooper, Henry S. F. Jr. ''Thirteen: The Flight That Failed''. ISBN 0801850975. Although this book focuses on Apollo 13, it is extremely well-researched and provides a wealth of background information on Apollo technology and procedures. * Wilhelms, Don E. ''To a Rocky Moon''. ISBN 0816510652. Tells the history of Lunar exploration from a geologist's point of view. * Pellegrino, Charles R.; Stoff, Joshua. ''Chariots for Apollo: The Untold Story Behind the Race to the Moon''. ISBN 0380802619. Tells [[Grumman Aerospace Corporation|Grumman]]'s story of building the Lunar Modules. * [[Jim Lovell|Lovell, Jim]]; Kluger, Jeffrey. ''Lost Moon: The perilous voyage of Apollo 13'' aka ''Apollo 13: Lost Moon''. ISBN 0618056653. Details the flight of Apollo 13. * [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Collins, Michael ]]. ''Carrying the Fire; an Astronaut's journeys''. Astronaut Mike Collins autobiography of his experiences as an astronaut, including his flight aboard Apollo 11, the first landing on the Moon * [[Deke Slayton|Slayton, Donald K.]]; Cassutt, Michael. ''Deke! An Autobiograpy''. ISBN 031285918X. This is an excellent account of Deke Slayton's life as an astronaut and of his work as chief of the astronaut office, including selection of the crews which flew Apollo to the Moon. *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19790020032_1979020032.pdf Chariots for Apollo: A history of Manned Lunar Spacecraft - NASA report (PDF format)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19690022643_1969022643.pdf The Apollo spacecraft. Volume 1 - A chronology: From origin to [[7 November]]. 1962 - (PDF format)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19740004394_1974004394.pdf The Apollo spacecraft: Volume 2 - A chronology: [[8 November]] [[1962]] - [[30 September]] [[1964]] - (PDF format)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19760014180_1976014180.pdf The Apollo spacecraft: Volume 3 - A chronology: [[1 October]] [[1964]] - [[20 January]] [[1966]] - (PDF format)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19800011953_1980011953.pdf The Apollo spacecraft: Volume 4 - A chronology: [[21 January]] [[1966]] - [[13 July]] [[1974]] - (PDF format)] *[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19750013242_1975013242.pdf Apollo program summary report: Synopsis of the Apollo program - NASA report (PDF format)] ==External links== * [http://moonpans.com/missions.htm A Collection of Apollo Lunar Surface Panoramas] * [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/history/apollo/index.html Official Apollo program website] * [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/contents.html Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft By Courtney G Brooks, James M. Grimwood, Loyd S. Swenson] * [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm NASA SP-4009 The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology] * [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm SP-4029 Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff] * [http://history.nasa.gov/apollo.html The Apollo Program Page at the NASA History Division Website] * [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/frame.html The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal] * [http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/apollo/apollo.html Project Apollo (Kennedy Space Center)] * [http://history.nasa.gov/diagrams/apollo.html Project Apollo Drawings and Technical Diagrams] * [http://www.lunarrock.com/Inventory.asp Lunar Rock Inventory] * [http://www.Apolloarchive.com/ The Project Apollo Archive] * [http://www.globalcuts.com/NASA/stock_footage_trailer_movie.htm Spirit of Apollo] Apollo 11 Memorial Video * [http://www.nasm.si.edu/collections/imagery/Apollo/Apollo.htm The Apollo Program (National Air and Space Museum)] * [http://sourceforge.net/projects/nassp/ Project Apollo for Orbiter spaceflight simulator] * [http://moon.google.com/ Google Moon: interactive map of the Moon and Apollo landing sites] {{US manned space programs | before=[[Project Gemini|Gemini]] | after=[[Skylab]]}} [[Category:Human spaceflight programmes]] [[Category:Apollo program| ]] {{Link FA|pt}} {{Link FA|pt}} [[ca:Programa Apollo]] [[cs:Program Apollo]] [[da:Apollo-programmet]] [[de:Apollo-Projekt]] [[es:Programa Apollo]] [[eo:Projekto Apollo]] [[fr:Programme Apollo]] [[gl:Misión Apolo]] [[ko:아폴로 계획]] [[it:Progetto Apollo]] [[he:תוכנית אפולו]] [[hu:Apollo-program]] [[nl:Apolloprogramma]] [[nds:Apollo-Programm]] [[ja:アポロ計画]] [[no:Apolloprogrammet]] [[pl:Program Apollo]] [[pt:Projeto Apollo]] [[sk:Program Apollo]] [[fi:Apollo (avaruusohjelma)]] [[sv:Apolloprogrammet]] [[ta:அப்பல்லோ திட்டம்]] [[zh:阿波罗计划]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alices Adventures in Wonderland</title> <id>1462</id> <revision> <id>15899943</id> <timestamp>2002-05-21T21:53:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <comment>#redirect [[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>AutoLisp</title> <id>1465</id> <revision> <id>15899945</id> <timestamp>2004-08-26T08:11:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stan Shebs</username> <id>7777</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[AutoLISP]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AutoLISP]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Assault</title> <id>1466</id> <revision> <id>39685782</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T03:54:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BDAbramson</username> <id>196446</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimLaw}} {{otheruses}} '''Assault''' is a [[crime]] of [[violence]] against another [[human|person]]. In some [[jurisdiction]]s, assault is used to refer to the actual violence, while in other jurisdictions (e.g. some in the [[United States]], [[England and Wales]]), assault refers only to the threat of violence, while the actual violence is [[battery (crime)|battery]]. '''Simple assaults''' do not involve deadly [[weapon]]s; '''[[aggravated assault]]s''' often do. Assault is often defined to include not only violence, but any physical contact with another person without their consent. When assault is defined like this, exceptions are provided to cover such things as normal social behavior (for example, patting someone on the back). [[English law]] makes distinctions based on the degree of injury, between: * [[common assault]] (which can be even the most minor assault) * assault with [[actual bodily harm]] (ABH) * assault with [[grievous bodily harm]] (GBH) ==American Jurisprudence== American '''[[common law]]''' has traditionally defined assault as an attempt to commit a [[battery (crime)|battery]]. Assault is typically treated as a [[misdemeanor]] and not as a [[felony]]. The more serious crime of [[aggravated assault]] is treated as a felony. Four elements were required at common law: 1) The apparent, present ability to carry out; 2) an unlawful attempt; 3) to commit a violent injury; 4) upon another. As the criminal law evolved, element 1 was weakened in most jurisdictions so that a reasonable fear of bodily injury would suffice. These four elements were eventually codified in most States. Modern American statutes define assault as: 1) an attempt to cause or purposely, knowingly, or recklessly causing bodily injury to another; or, 2) negligently causing bodily injury to another with a deadly weapon. The requirement is that a person be the subject of the attack or threatened attack. The principle underlying the [[Unborn Victims of Violence Act]] 2004 applies only to offenses over which the [[United States]] government has jurisdiction, namely crimes committed on [[Federal Government of the United States|Federal]] properties, against certain [[Federal Government of the United States|Federal]] officials and employees, and by members of the military, and treats the [[fetus]] as a separate person for the purposes of all levels of assault including [[murder]] and [[attempted murder]]: &quot;Sec. 1841. Protection of unborn children :(a)(1) Whoever engages in conduct that violates any of the provisions of law listed in subsection (b) and thereby causes the death of, or bodily injury (as defined in section 1365) to, a child, who is in utero at the time the conduct takes place, is guilty of a separate offense under this section. :(2)(A) Except as otherwise provided in this paragraph, the punishment for that separate offense is the same as the punishment provided under Federal law for that conduct had that injury or death occurred to the unborn child's mother. :2(B) An offense under t
s the possible impacts before the human activities can occur. This area of law is sometimes known as ''environmental impact assessment''. ==See also== *[[United States environmental law]] *[[environmental agreements]] *[[environmental impact statement]] *[[environmental justice]] *[[international environmental law]] *[[property rights]] *[[taking]]s ==External links== *[http://www.ielrc.org/ International Environmental Law Research Centre (IELRC)] *[http://www.law.uoregon.edu/org/llm/ Environmental Law Program and LL.M., University of Oregon] *[http://www.ciel.org/ Centre for International Environmental Law] *[http://www.lead-journal.org/ Law, Environment and Development Journal (LEAD Journal)] *[http://www.elc.org.uk/ Environmental Law Centre (ELC)] *[http://www.elaw.org/ Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide(E-LAW)] {{Environmental science}} {{law-stub}} [[Category:Environmental law|*]] [[de:Umweltrecht]] [[es:Derecho ambiental]] [[fr:Droit de l'environnement]] [[nl:Milieuwetgeving in Nederland]] [[ja:環境法]] [[pt:Direito ambiental]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Elevator</title> <id>10092</id> <revision> <id>41545476</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:43:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>209.120.230.238</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Modern elevator construction */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the transport device. For other meanings of the word, see [[elevator (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Elevator buttons.jpg|right|thumb|A modern elevator has buttons to allow passengers to select the desired floor.]] {{wiktionary}} An '''elevator''' is a [[transport]] device used to move goods or people vertically. In [[American and British English differences|British English]] and [[Commonwealth English]] (except Canadian), elevators are known more commonly as '''lifts''', although the word ''elevator'' is familiar from American [[film|movies]] and [[television]] shows, just as some [[United States of America|American]]s are aware of ''lift'' from imported entertainment. Other languages may have [[loanword]]s based on either ''elevator'' (e.g. [[Japanese language|Japanese]]) or ''lift'' (e.g. [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]]). Because of wheelchair access laws, elevators are often a requirement in new buildings with multiple floors. ==History== Elevators began as simple [[rope]] or [[chain]] [[hoist]]s. An elevator is essentially a platform that is either pulled or pushed up by a mechanical means. A modern day elevator consists of a cab (also called a &quot;cage&quot; or &quot;car&quot;) mounted on a platform within an enclosed space called a shaft or more correctly a &quot;hoistway&quot;. In the past elevator drive mechanisms were powered by steam and water hydraulic pistons. In a &quot;traction&quot; elevator, cars are pulled up by means of rolling steel ropes over a deeply grooved [[pulley]], commonly called a sheave in the industry. The weight of the car is balanced with a counterweight. The friction between the ropes and the pulley furnishes the traction which gives this type of elevator its name. Hydraulic elevators use the principal of [[hydraulics]] to pressurize an above ground or in-ground piston to raise and lower the car. Roped Hydraulics use a combination of both ropes and hydraulic power to raise and lower cars. Recent innovations include permanent earth magnet motors, machine room-less rail mounted gearless machines, and microprocessor controls. Which technology is used in new installations depends on a variety of factors. Hydraulic elevators are cheaper, but installing cylinders greater than a certain length becomes impractical for very high lift hoistways. For buildings of much over seven stories, traction elevators must be employed instead. Hydraulic elevators are usually slower than traction elevators. [[Image:ElevatorPatentOtis1861.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Elisha Otis's elevator patent drawing, [[15 January]] [[1861]].]] In 1823, an &quot;ascending room&quot; made its debut in London[http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/extreme_machines/1280851.html]. In [[1853]], [[Elisha Otis]] introduced the safety elevator, which prevented the fall of the cab if the cable broke. The design of the OTIS safety is somewhat similar to one type still used today. It consists of knurled roller(s) that lock the elevator to its guides should the elevator descend at an excessive speed, which is monitored by a governor device. On [[March 23]], [[1857]] the first Otis elevator was installed at 488 [[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]] in [[New York, New York|New York City]]. The first '''elevator shaft''' preceded the first elevator by four years. Construction for [[Peter Cooper]]'s [[Cooper Union]] building in [[history of New York City|New York]] began in 1853. An elevator shaft was included in the design for Cooper Union, because Cooper was utterly confident a safe passenger elevator would soon be invented; the shaft however was circular because Cooper felt it was the most efficient design. Later Otis designed a special elevator for the school. Today the [[Otis Elevator Company]], now a subsidiary of [[United Technologies Corporation]], is the world's largest manufacturer of vertical transport systems, followed by Schindler, Thyssen-Krupp and Kone, in order. The first electric elevator was built by [[Ernst Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in [[1880]]. The safety and speed of electric elevators were significantly enhanced by [[Frank J. Sprague|Frank Sprague]]. The development of elevators was led by the need for movement of large amounts of raw materials including [[coal]] and [[lumber]] from hillsides. The technology developed by these industries and the introduction of steel beam construction worked together to provide the need for the passenger and freight elevators we use today. ==Modern elevator construction== Today, elevators are built under strict supervision of the Building Codes. Model Codes which are the standard in most US jurisdictions require compliance with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers' (ASME) standards for the installation, maintenance, and inspection of elevators. In Canada, the governing authority is the CSA (Candadian Standards Association). In addition other related standards are likely required to be complied with as specified by Local Authorities Having Jurisdiction. Elevators are generally sold in prepackaged components which are inherently non-proprietary. All of the four major manufacturers sell proprietary [[microprocessor]] controls. Each manufacturer provides similar product designs, and the overriding issue for purchase is usually price and availability. In the case of renovations, the use of non-proprietary controls has become a large part of that business because it allows the owner to offer the maintenance contract to multiple bidders rather than accept a single manufacturer for the life of the elevator which can be more than 30 years. In some large campus type properties, the use of non-proprietary equipment in new construction has replaced the standard prepackaged product. Non-proprietary systems generally have a higher up front cost, but may be offset by allowing the owner to control the long term costs over the life of the elevator. In some locations, the shaft and parts of the cab are made of transparent material for specialized &quot;Scenic elevators.&quot; This allows riders to see outside the cab as they travel on the elevator. Some locations take advantage of this transparent material by placing the elevators along the walls of their building. This allows riders to see the outdoor environment as the cab runs along the side of the buildings. Today, all new elevators are computer-controlled and microprocessor based. This allows the elevator system to place cabs where they are most needed in the interest of smooth running, with behavior based on analysis of building use called &quot;Traffic Studies.&quot; Traffic Studies are done by professional [[elevator consultant]]s who use specialized tools to determine the optimum size, speed and number of elevators for a building based on its peak use periods. Computer control also permits greater control of access to various floors of a building after hours and on weekends. Methods of access control include card readers, keys, and access codes entered into the control panel of the elevator. Elevators are usually installed in a building during construction. Renovations may consist of replacements for hoistway (floor landing) doors, car doors, interior cab finishes, controls, hoist machines, hydraulic pistons and hall fixtures. At times renovations may also include replacement of the entire cab itself. In many instances the upgrading of components may require additional code compliance, these issues should be reviewed with an elevator consultant prior to the purchasing of new materials. ==Elevator safety== Elevators are extremely safe. Their safety record, that of moving millions of passengers every day, without incident, is unsurpassed by any other vehicle system. Recently, however, hydraulic elevators that were built prior to a code change in 1972 have been found to be subject to possible [[catastrophic failure]]. The code had previously required only single-bottom [[hydraulic cylinder]]s; in the event of a breach of the cylinder, an uncontrolled fall of the elevator might result. Because it is impossible to verify the system completely without a pressurized casing (as described below), it is necessary to actually remove the piston to inspect it. The cost of removing the piston is such that it makes no economical sense to re-install the old cylinder, and therefore it is logically necessary to install a new elevator. In addition to the safety concerns for older hydraulic elevators, there is risk of leaking hydraulic oil into the aquifer and causing potential environmental contamination. This has led to
9|talk]]) to last version by Masterv88</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GeorgeLucas.jpg|thumb|230px|George Lucas.]] '''George Walton Lucas, Jr.''' (born [[May 14]], [[1944]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[film director]], [[film producer|producer]], and [[screenwriter]] famous for his epic ''[[Star Wars]]'' saga and his [[Indiana Jones]] films. He is one of Hollywood's most financially successful directors and producers. == Biography == George Walton Lucas, Jr. was born in [[Modesto, California]]. His father, George Walton Lucas, Sr., ran a stationery store and owned a small walnut orchard and was mainly of British and Swiss heritage. His mother, Dorothy Ellinore Bomberger Lucas, was a member of a prominent [[Modesto]] family (one of her cousins is the mother of former U.S. Secretary of Agriculture [[Ann Veneman]]) and was mainly of German and Scots-Irish heritage. Lucas attended Thomas Downey High School, where he was an indifferent student at best and dreamed of becoming a professional race car driver. That early dream ended [[June 12]], [[1962]], when he crashed his [[Fiat Bianchina]]. The car was clipped from behind while he tried to make a left turn into his driveway. The car rolled; the racing harness that he had installed snapped, and he was thrown from the car. Had the harness not snapped&amp;mdash;and Lucas has said it shouldn't have&amp;mdash;he would most likely have been crushed to death by the steering column when the car smashed into a walnut tree. (The force of the impact uprooted the tree). During his recovery, Lucas reevaluated his life and decided to go to college. He enrolled at [[Modesto Junior College]], where he earned an AA degree, then transferred to the [[University of Southern California]]'s [[USC School of Cinema-Television|School of Cinema-Television]]. USC was one of the earliest universities to have a school devoted to film studies. There he made a number of short films, including an early version of ''[[THX 1138]]'' (the complete title was &quot;Electronic Labyrinth THX 1138 4EB&quot;), which later became his first full-length feature film. After graduating with a bachelor of fine arts in film in 1966, he drifted a little, trying to figure out what to do next. He tried joining the Air Force as an officer, but was turned down because of his numerous speeding tickets. He was later drafted by the Army, but tests showed he had [[diabetes]], which killed his paternal grandfather. Lucas was prescribed medication for the disease and does not seem to have required insulin. In 1967, Lucas re-enrolled as a USC graduate student in film production. Eventually he co-founded the studio [[American Zoetrope]] with [[Francis Ford Coppola]], hoping to create a liberating environment for filmmakers to direct outside the perceived oppressive control of the Hollywood [[Studio system]]. From the financial success of his films ''[[American Graffiti]]'' (1973) and ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]'' (1977), Lucas was able to set up his own studio, [[Lucasfilm]], in [[Marin County, California|Marin County]] in his native northern California. [[Skywalker Sound]] and [[Industrial Light and Magic]], the sound and visual effects subdivisions of Lucasfilm, respectively, have become among the most respected firms in their fields. Lucasfilm Games, later renamed to [[LucasArts]], is highly regarded in the gaming industry. ''Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope'' is considered by some to be the first &quot;[[high concept]]&quot; [[film]], although others feel the first was [[Steven Spielberg]]'s ''[[Jaws (film)|Jaws]]'', released two years prior. Lucas and Spielberg had been acquaintances for some time and eventually worked together on several films, notably the first Indiana Jones vehicle, ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' in 1981. On a return on investment basis, ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]'' proved to be one of the most successful films of all time. During the filming of ''Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope'', Lucas waived his up front fee as director and negotiated to own the licensing rights&amp;mdash;rights which the studio thought were nearly worthless. This decision earned him hundreds of millions of dollars as he was able to directly profit from all the licensed games, toys and collectibles created for the franchise. In 2004 [[Forbes Magazine]] estimated Lucas' personal wealth at $3 billion. In 2005 Forbes.com estimated the lifetime revenue generated by the ''Star Wars'' franchise at nearly $20 billion. Lucas was fined by the [[Directors Guild of America]] for refusing to have a standard [[title sequence]] in his ''Star Wars'' films. After paying the fine, he quit the guild. This made it hard for him to find a director for some of his later projects. According to some, he wanted his friend Spielberg to direct some of the later ''Star Wars'' movies, but as a member of the guild Spielberg may have been unable to do so. Spielberg has repeatedly stated that Lucas consciously did not let him direct any ''Star Wars'' films, despite the fact that Spielberg wanted to. Other directors Lucas pursued to aid him were [[David Lynch]] and [[David Cronenberg]], both of whom declined. On [[October 3]] [[1994]], Lucas started to write the three ''Star Wars'' prequels, and on [[November 1]] that year, he left the day-to-day operations of his filmmaking business and started a sabbatical to finish the prequels. The [[American Film Institute]] awarded Lucas its Lifetime Achievement Award for 2005. He received the award on [[June 9]], [[2005 in film|2005]]. [http://www.afi.com/tvevents/laa/laa05.aspx] On [[June 5]] [[2005]], Lucas was named 100th &quot;[[The Greatest American|Greatest American]]&quot; by the [[Discovery Channel]]. In [[1969]], Lucas married film editor [[Marcia Lucas|Marcia Lou Griffin]], who went on to win an Oscar for her work on the original (fourth) ''Star Wars'' film. They adopted a daughter, Amanda, in [[1981]], and divorced in [[1983]]. Lucas has since adopted two more children: Katie, born in [[1988]], and Jett, born in [[1993]]. All three of his children have appeared in the prequels. In 2005, Lucas gave $1 million to help build the [[Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial]] on the [[National Mall]] in [[Washington D.C.]] to commemorate American [[civil rights]] leader [[Martin Luther King, Jr.|Martin Luther King Jr.]]. ==Innovator== [[image:GeorgeLucas2.jpg|thumb|210px|George Lucas.]] Besides his directorial and production work on movies, Lucas is the most significant contemporary contributor to modern movie technology. In [[1975]] Lucas established [[Industrial Light and Magic]] (ILM) in [[Van Nuys, California|Van Nuys, CA]], which was responsible for the invention of the special computer assisted camera crane &quot;[[Dykstraflex]]&quot; (named after special effects innovator, John Dykstra) that was used for most of the space fight sequences used in the ''Star Wars'' movies (technology which was later adopted by most other [[visual effects]] production units, such as those responsible for ''[[Battlestar Galactica (1978)|Battlestar Galactica]]'' and ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]''). Through ILM, Lucas spurred the further development of [[computer graphics]], [[film laser scanner]]s and the earliest use of [[3D computer graphics|3D computer character animation]] in a film, ''[[Young Sherlock Holmes]]''. Lucas sold his early computer development unit to [[Steve Jobs]] in [[1986]], which was renamed [[Pixar]]. Lucas is also responsible for the modern [[sound system]]s found in many movie theaters. Though Lucas didn't invent [[THX]], he is responsible for its development. The acronym ostensibly stands for &quot;Tomlinson Holman eXperiment&quot; after its chief engineer, however, it is obviously a reference to Lucas' first film. Now Lucas is spearheading digital photography for movies. Though personal [[digital photography]] is now mainstream, most movie studios still use traditional cameras and film for movie production. Lucas departed from this model by filming ''[[Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones]]'' almost completely digitally. He showed the result to a select audience of the [[Hollywood]] elite, before the movie's general release. For the presentation, Lucas used a special digital projection system. The attendees said the movie had the clearest and sharpest presentation they had ever seen. Despite the successful demonstration of the technology, movie studios are slow to move to this new model, in part because of the high price of the digital equipment. == Controversy == {{main|Lucas Bashing}} Being the creator of an extremely popular work (''Star Wars''), Lucas has undergone severe [[fan criticism of George Lucas|criticism from ''Star Wars'' fans]] when he has gone back and altered ''Star Wars''. This first occurred with the Star Wars [[List_of_changes_in_Star_Wars_re-releases#1997_Special_Editions|1997 special editions]], which primarily consisted of cosmetic changes, but had some controversial elements such as the anti-hero Han Solo [[Han Shot First|shooting in self defense]] instead of in aggression. It occurred again with the [[List_of_changes_in_Star_Wars_re-releases#2004_DVDs|2004 DVD release]] of the original trilogy. In addition, the mixed reviews and an increased level of vocalized disappointment by some fans relating to the ''Star Wars'' [[Prequel trilogy (Star Wars)|Prequel Trilogy]] films have greatly stoked the debate concerning Lucas' treatment of certain characters and concepts in comparison to the 1977-1983 Star Wars films. Changes Lucas personally made to ''[[THX 1138]]'' for its 2004 DVD release further re-enforced criticism from fans who felt that he was spoiling the integrity of his original films. Lucas is also viewed by some to be anti-union. He dropped his membership in the directors guild when they fined him $250,000 for the fact that ''Star Wars'' had no opening credits. He subsequently film
''Monsieur Bergeret a Paris'' * ''Sur la Pierre Blanche'' * ''The Man Who Married A Dumb Wife'' play * ''The Gods Will Have Blood; The Gods Are A-Thirst'' * ''The Life of Joan of Arc'' 2 volumes * ''Mother of Pearl'' == Famous sayings == *&quot;The law, in its majestic equality, forbids the rich as well as the poor to sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal bread.&quot; *&quot;I prefer the errors of enthusiasm to the indifference of wisdom.&quot; *&quot;If fifty million people say a foolish thing, it is still a foolish thing.&quot; *&quot;When a thing has been said, and said well, have no scruple. Take it and copy it.&quot; *&quot;Let us give to men irony and pity as witnesses and judges.&quot; *&quot;Make hatred hated.&quot; *&quot;Never lend books, for no one ever returns them; the only books I have in my library are those that other people have lent me.&quot; *&quot;To accomplish great things, we must not only act, but also dream; not only plan, but also believe.&quot; *&quot;Without the utopians of other times, men would still live in caves, miserable and naked;...utopia is the principle of all progress, adn the essay into a better world.&quot; ==External links== {{wikiquote}} * {{gutenberg author| id=Anatole+France | name=Anatole France}} *[http://www.surlalunefairytales.com/bluebeard/fiction/anatolefrance.html The Seven Wives of Bluebeard (English) by Anatole France] *[http://www.surlalunefairytales.com/sleepingbeauty/fiction/anatolefrance.html The Story of the Duchess of Cicogne and of Monsieur de Boulingrin (English) by Anatole France] *[http://www.nobel-winners.com/Literature/anatole_france.html Anatole France Biography] {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Ferdinand de Lesseps]] | title=[[List of members of the Académie française#Seat 38|Seat 38]]&lt;br&gt;[[Académie française]] | years=1896&amp;ndash;1924 | after=[[Paul Valéry]] }} {{end box}} {{start box}} {{succession box | before=[[Knut Hamsun]] | title=[[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years=1921 | after=[[Jacinto Benavente]] }} {{end box}} [[Category:1844 births|France, Anatole]] [[Category:1924 deaths|France, Anatole]] [[Category:Members of the Académie française|France, Anatole]] [[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|France, Anatole]] [[Category:French novelists|France, Anatole]] [[Category:French satirists|France, Anatole]] [[bg:Анатол Франс]] [[be:Анатоль Франс]] [[de:Anatole France]] [[et:Anatole France]] [[es:Anatole France]] [[eo:Anatole FRANCE]] [[fr:Anatole France]] [[hr:Anatole France]] [[it:Anatole France]] [[he:אנטול פרנס]] [[nl:Anatole France]] [[no:Anatole France]] [[ja:アナトール・フランス]] [[pl:Anatole France]] [[pt:Anatole France]] [[ru:Франс, Анатоль]] [[sk:Anatole France]] [[fi:Anatole France]] [[sv:Anatole France]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>André Gide</title> <id>1058</id> <revision> <id>41443418</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T09:56:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>JoJan</username> <id>58781</id> </contributor> <comment>Elisabeth van Rysselberghe</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{French literature (small)}} '''André Paul Guillaume Gide''' ([[November 22]], [[1869]] &amp;ndash; [[February 19]], [[1951]]) was a [[France|French]] [[author]] and winner of the [[Nobel prize]] in literature in [[1947]]. Gide's career spanned from the [[symbolist]] movement to the advent of anticolonialism in-between the two [[World Wars]]. Gide's work can be seen as an investigation of freedom and empowerment in the face of moralistic and puritan constraints, and gravitates around his continuous effort to achieve intellectual honesty. His self-exploratory texts reflect his search of how to be fully oneself, even to the point of owning one's sexual nature, without at the same time betraying one's values. His political activity is informed by the same ethos, as suggested by his repudiation of [[communism]] after his [[1936]] voyage to the [[USSR]]. Known for his fiction as well as his autobiographical works, Gide exposes to public view the conflict and eventual reconciliation between the two sides of his personality, split apart by a straightlaced education and a narrow social moralism - as he perceives himself: the austere and refined [[Protestant]], and the divinely inspired - and no longer blushing - [[Pederasty|pederast]]. ==Early life== Gide was born in [[Paris]], France on [[November 22]], [[1869]]. His father was a Paris University professor of law and died [[1880]]. His uncle was the political economist [[Charles Gide]]. Gide was brought up in isolated conditions in [[Normandy]] and became a prolific writer at an early age, publishing in [[1891]] his first novel, ''The Notebooks of Andre Walter'' (French: ''Les Cahiers d'André Walter''). In [[1893]] and [[1894]] Gide traveled in northern [[Africa]]. He befriended [[Oscar Wilde]] in [[Algiers]] and there clearly recognized his own [[pederasty|pederastic]] orientation: :&quot;But how can I describe my delirium at holding in my naked arms that perfect, savage little brown body, eager, lacivious? I spent a long time, after Mohammed had left me, in a state of trembling exaltation, and although I had reached the peak of pleasure five times with him, I re-lived my ecstasy again and again, and back at my room at the hotel prolonged the memories until dawn. At the first pale light I got up; and ran, yes really ran, in sandals, far beyond Mustapha; a kind of lightness of the body and soul did not leave me all day.&quot; (''Si Le Grain Ne Meurt''). Though sympathetic to the plight of homosexuals in his day, he never saw himself as one of them, claiming that, &quot;I was never homosexual, in the sense of finding men attractive.&quot; ==The middle years== In [[1895]], after his mother's death, he married his cousin Madeleine Rondeaux but the marriage remained unconsummated. In [[1896]] he was mayor of [[La Roque-Baignard]], a [[Commune in France|commune]] in [[Normandy]]. In [[1908]] Gide helped found the literary magazine ''Nouvelle Revue française'' (''The New French Review''). In [[1916]] [[Marc Allégret]], 16, becomes his lover. He was the son of Elie Allegret, best man at Gide's wedding. Of Allegret's five children, Andre Gide adopted Marc. The two elope to London, in retribution for which his wife burns all his correspondence, &quot;the best part of myself,&quot; as he was later to comment. In [[1918]] he met [[Dorothy Bussy]], who was his friend for over thirty years and who would translate all his works into English. In the [[1920s]] Gide became an inspiration for writers like [[Albert Camus]] and [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. In [[1923]] he published a book on [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]; however, when he defended homosexuality in the public edition of ''[[Corydon]]'' ([[1924]]) he received widespread condemnation. He later considered this his most important work. In 1923 he conceived a daughter named Catherine with another woman, Elisabeth van Rysselberghe, daughter of his friend, the Belgian neo-impressionist painter [[Théo van Rysselberghe]]. His wife Madeleine died in [[1938]]. Later he used the background of his unconsummated marriage in his novel ''Et Nunc Manet in Te.'' The novel included passages about ponies and bananas. These works were unconventional at the time, and became instant classics ([[1951]]). After [[1925]] he began to demand more humane conditions for criminals. In [[1926]] he published an autobiography, ''If it die'' (French: ''Si le grain ne meurt''). ==Africa== From July 1926 to May [[1927]], he travelled through the [[French Equatorial Africa]] [[colony]] with his lover [[Marc Allégret]]. He went successively in [[Middle Congo]] (now the [[Republic of the Congo]]), in [[Oubangui-Chari]] (now the [[Central African Republic]]), briefly in [[Chad]] and then in [[Cameroun]] before returning to France. He related his peregrinations in a journal called ''[[Travels in the Congo]]'' (French: ''Voyage au Congo'') and ''Return from Chad'' (French: ''Retour du Tchad''). In this published journal, he criticized the behavior of French business interests in the Congo and inspired reform. In particular, he strongly criticized the ''Large Concessions'' regime (French: ''régime des Grandes Concessions''), i.e. a regime according to which part of the colony was conceded to French companies and where these companies could exploit all area's [[natural resource]]s, in particular [[rubber]]. He related for instance how natives were forced to leave their village during several weeks to collect rubber in the forest, and went as far as comparing their exploitation to [[slavery]]. ==Russia== During the [[1930s]] he briefly became a [[communism|communist]], but became disillusioned after his visit to [[Soviet Union]]. His criticism of communism caused him to lose many of his [[socialism|socialist]] friends, especially when he made a clean break with it in ''Retour de L'U.R.S.S.'' in [[1936]]. He was also a contributor to ''[[The God That Failed]]''. ==The 1940s== Gide left France for [[Africa]] in [[1942]] and lived in [[Tunis]] until the end of [[World War II]]. In [[1947]], he received the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]. Gide died on [[February 19]], [[1951]]. ==Partial list of works== *''Les cahiers d'André Walter'' - 1891 *''Le traité du Narcisse'' - 1891 *''Les poésies d'André Walter'' - 1892 *''Le voyage d'Urien'' - 1893 *''La tentative amoureuse'' - 1893 *''Paludes'' - 1895 *''Réflexions sur quelques points de littérature'' - 1897 *''Les nourritures terrestres'' - 1897 *''Feuilles de route 1895-1896'' - 1897 *''El Hadj'' *''Le Prométhée mal enchaîné'' - 1899 *''Philoctète'' - 1899 *''Lettres à Angèle'' - 1900 *''De l'influence en littérature'' - 1900 *''Le roi Candaule'' - 1901 *''Les limites de l'art'' - 1901 *''L'immoraliste'' - 1902 *''Saül'' - 1903 *''De l'importance du public'' - 1903 *''Prétextes'' - 1903 *'
[[Taurus Mountains]] of [[Turkey]] to the [[Zambezi]] Valley in southern Africa. The Great Rift Valley formed in [[Miocene]] times as a result of the [[Arabian Plate]] moving northward and then eastward away from the [[African Plate]]. Around three million years ago what is now the valley of the [[Jordan River]], Dead Sea, and [[Arabah|Wadi Arabah/Nahal Arava]] was repeatedly inundated by waters from the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The waters formed in a narrow, crooked bay which was connected to the sea through what is now the [[Jezreel Valley]]. The floods of the valley came and went depending on long scale climatic change. The lake that occupied the Dead Sea Rift, named &quot;[[Sodom and Gomorrah|Lake Sodom]]&quot;, deposited beds of salt, eventually coming to be 3 km (2 miles) thick. According to [[geology|geological]] theory, approximately two million years ago the land between the Rift Valley and the Mediterranean Sea rose to such an extent that the ocean could no longer flood the area. Thus, the long bay became a long lake. The first such prehistoric lake is named &quot;[[Sodom and Gomorrah|Lake Gomorrah]]&quot;. Lake Gomorrah was a freshwater or brackish lake that extended at least 80 km (50 miles) south of the current southern end of the Dead Sea and 100 km (60 miles) north, well above the present [[Lake Hula|Hula Depression]]. As the climate turned more arid, Lake Samra shrank and became saltier. The large, saltwater predecessor of the Dead Sea is called &quot;Lake Lisan&quot;. [[Image:GEO5-13=4.JPG|thumb|left|Mount Sedom, on the southwest side of the lake, is a giant mountain of [[halite]].]] In prehistoric times great amounts of sediment collected on the floor of Lake Gomorra. The sediment was heavier than the salt deposits and squeezed the salt deposits upwards into what are now the [[Lisan Peninsula]] and Mount Sedom (on the southwest side of the lake). &quot;Geologists explain the effect in terms of a bucket of mud into which a large flat stone is placed, forcing the mud to creep up the sides of the pail&quot;. When the floor of the Dead Sea dropped further due to tectonic forces the salt mounts of Lisan and Mount Sedom stayed in place as high cliffs. (see [[salt dome]]s) The period 23,000 years ago to 18,000 years ago was very dry and the surface level of Lake Lisan fell to a point well below the Dead Sea's surface level today. At the sea's minimum, its waters may have been over 600 m (2,100 feet) below sea level. Around 12,000 years ago this tiny puddle of the Lake Lisan minimum began to steadily grow again. Around a few thousand years ago, the Dead Sea was about as large as its northern basin is today. There was no southern basin until the late Middle Ages. The Jordan River is the only major stream flowing into Dead Sea. There are no outlet streams. The northern part of the Dead Sea receives scarcely 100 mm (4 inches) of rain a year. The southern section barely 50 mm (2 inches). The Dead Sea zone's aridity is due to the rainshadow effect of the [[Judean Hills]]. The highlands east of the Dead Sea receive more rainfall than the Dead Sea itself. The mountains of the western side, the Judean Hills, rise less steeply from the Dead Sea than do the mountains of the eastern side. The mountains of the eastern side are also much higher. Along the southwestern side of the lake is a 210 m (700 ft) tall [[halite]] formation called &quot;[[Mount Sedom]]&quot;. ==Chemistry and health effects== Until the winter of 1978-1979, the Dead Sea was composed of two stratified layers of water that differed in temperature, density, age, and salinity. The topmost 35 m or so of the Dead Sea had a salinity that ranged between 300 and 400 parts per thousand and a temperature that swung between 19 °C (66 °F) and 37 °C (98 °F). Underneath a zone of transition, the lowest level of the Dead Sea had waters of a consistent 22 °C (72 °F) temperature and complete saturation of [[sodium chloride]] (NaCl). Since the water near the bottom is saturated, the salt precipitates out of solution onto the sea floor. Beginning in the [[1960s]] water inflow to the Dead Sea from the [[Jordan River]] was reduced as a result of large-scale irrigation and generally low rainfall. By 1975 the upper water layer of the Dead Sea was actually saltier than the lower layer. The upper layer nevertheless remained suspended above the lower layer because its waters were warmer and thus less dense. When the upper layer finally cooled down so that its density was greater than the lower layer the waters of the Dead Sea, after many centuries, finally mixed and the lake was a homogeneous body of water. Since then, the stratification has begun to redevelop. The mineral content of the Dead Sea is significantly different from that of ocean water, consisting of approximately 53% [[magnesium chloride]], 37% [[potassium chloride]] and 8% [[sodium chloride]] (table salt) with the remainder comprised of various trace elements. The concentration of [[sulfate]], SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;, ions is very low, and the [[bromide]] ion concentration is the highest of all waters on Earth. Chlorides neutralize most of the [[calcium]] ions in the Dead Sea and its surroundings. While in other seas [[sodium chloride]] is 97% of the salts, in the Dead Sea the quantity of NaCl is only 12-18 percent. The water temperature varies from 19 °C in February to 31 °C in August. Comparison between the chemical composition of the Dead Sea to other lakes and oceans show that the salt concentration in the Dead Sea is 31.5% (the salinity fluctuates somewhat). Because of its unusually high concentration of salt, anyone can float in the Dead Sea easily because of natural [[buoyancy]]. In this the Dead Sea is similar to the [[Great Salt Lake]] in [[Utah]], in the [[United States]]. The water of the Dead Sea has a greasy feel to it. The water stings cuts, and causes pain if it comes in contact with the eyes. One of the most unusual properties of the Dead Sea is its discharge of [[asphalt]]. From deep seeps, the Dead Sea constantly spits up small pebbles of the black substance. After [[earthquake]]s, chunks as large as houses may be produced. The Dead Sea area has become a major center for [[health]] [[research]] and treatment for several reasons. The mineral content of the waters, the very low content of [[pollen]]s and other [[allergen]]s in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], the reduced [[ultraviolet]] component of [[solar radiation]], and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each have specific health effects. For example persons suffering reduced [[respiration (physiology)|respiratory]] function from [[disease]]s such as [[cystic fibrosis]], seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure. == Flora and fauna == The sea is called &quot;dead&quot; because its high salinity means no fish or macroscopic aquatic organisms can live in it, though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present. In times of flood the salt content of the Dead Sea can drop from its usual 35% salinity to 30% or lower. In the wakes of rainy winters the Dead Sea temporarily comes to life. In 1980, after one such rainy winter, the normally dark blue Dead Sea turned red. Researchers from [[Hebrew University]] found the Dead Sea to be teeming with a type of [[algae]] called ''Dunaliella.'' The ''Dunaliella'' in turn nourished [[carotenoid|carotenoid-containing]] (red-[[pigment]]ed) [[halobacteria]] whose presence is responsible for the color change. Since 1980 the Dead Sea basin has been dry and the algae and the bacteria have not returned in measurable numbers. Many animal species make their homes in the mountains surrounding the Dead Sea. A hiker can see [[camel]]s, [[ibex]]es, [[hare]]s, [[jackal]]s, [[fox]]es, and even [[leopard]]s. Hundreds of [[bird]] species inhabit the zone as well. Both Jordan and Israel have established nature reserves around the Dead Sea. The delta of the Jordan river was formerly a veritable jungle of [[papyrus]] and [[palm tree]]s. [[Flavius Josephus]] described Jericho as &quot;the most fertile spot in Judea&quot;. In Roman and Byzantine times [[sugarcane]], [[henna]], and [[sycamore]] all made the lower Jordan valley quite wealthy. One of the most valuable products produced by Jericho was the sap of the [[balsam]] tree, of which could be made into [[perfume]]. By the nineteenth century Jericho's fertility was a thing of the past. == Human history == [[Image:Dead_Sea_Sunrise.jpg|thumb|260px|Dead Sea in the morning, seen from Masada]] The human history of the Dead Sea goes all the way back to remote antiquity. Just north of the Dead Sea is [[Jericho]], the oldest continually occupied town in the world. Somewhere, perhaps on the Dead Sea's southeast shore, are the cities mentioned in the [[Book of Genesis]] which were destroyed in the times of [[Abraham]]: [[Sodom]] and [[Gomorra]] and the three other &quot;Cities of the Plain&quot;. [[King David]] hid from [[Saul the King|Saul]] at [[Ein Gedi]] nearby. The [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] knew the Dead Sea as &quot;Lake ''Asphaltites''&quot;, due to the naturally surfacing [[asphalt]]. [[Aristotle]] wrote about the remarkable waters. During the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] conquest it is said that Queen [[Cleopatra]] obtained exclusive rights to build cosmetic and pharmaceutical factories in the area. Later, the [[Nabatean]]s discovered the value of [[bitumen]] extracted from the Dead Sea needed by the Egyptians for [[embalm]]ing their [[mummies]]. [[Herod the Great]], [[Jesus]], and [[John the Baptist]] were closely linked with the Dead Sea and its surroundings. In Roman times the [[Essenes]] settled in [[Qumran]] on the Dead Sea's northern shore. There, in the soft marl of the Dead Sea area, they carved out storage caves for their library. Two thousand years later their library was found and given the name &quot;the [[Dead Se
come close to seeing before. He hit [[54]] [[home run]]s, smashing his year-old record of 29, batted .376, and led the league in [[runs]] (158), [[RBI]]s (137), [[bases on balls]] (148); and his [[slugging average]] of .847 was a major league record for over 80 years until [[Barry Bonds]] eclipsed it with a .863 mark in 2001. Ruth's season was so dominating that it led to one of the most amazing statistics in baseball history: In 1920, Ruth out-homered all but one team in baseball, as only the [[Philadelphia Phillies]], with 64, hit more home runs than Ruth. Ruth's remarkable season had the Yankees in a serious pennant chase for the first time since 1904 (the year a famous [[wild pitch]] by [[Jack Chesbro]] cost them the pennant). The Yankees battled the entire season with the [[Cleveland Indians]], player-managed by [[Tris Speaker]], Ruth's old Red Sox teammate, and the [[Chicago White Sox]], the same infamous &quot;[[Black Sox scandal]]&quot; team. In the end, the Indians won the pennant and eventually the World Series. Ruth was a natural fit in [[New York City]]&amp;mdash;the biggest star in the game needed the largest stage, the largest crowds, the largest [[media]] coverage. His flamboyance, vitality, and obvious flaws symbolized New York. His persona transcended baseball, and he was one of the enduring emblems in the carefree spirit of the [[roaring '20s]]. The large [[immigrant]] communities of [[New York City]] were drawn to him, and the [[Italian people|Italian]] [[enclave]] of New York gave him the nickname ''bambino'' (&quot;babe&quot;, &quot;baby&quot;). Even the [[black]] community adopted him as one of their own, as a reported story (that was untrue) was that Ruth had a &quot;secret&quot; black heritage, a story propagated with pride among players in the [[Negro Leagues]]. To some people, Ruth was more than a baseball player, he was a national [[icon]]. He became the dominant name in the storied [[New York Yankees]] franchise, whose winning tradition he inaugurated. As a few people in history seem to be an exact fit in place and time, such was the case with Babe Ruth going to New York in 1920. == Impact on Baseball == Ruth's impact on baseball went well beyond his statistics. Attendance, which had stagnated in the 1910s, greatly increased because of the attention Ruth brought to the game, and he was at the forefront of the new [[live ball]] era that revolutionized how the game was played. A few baseball fans even gave Ruth credit for &quot;saving&quot; baseball after the [[Black Sox scandal]] broke in the fall of 1920, and although this was not true, Ruth's exploits on the field likely won back some fans who had been soured by the [[scandal]]. ===Increased Attendance=== Obviously Ruth was not the only reason more fans were coming to the [[ballpark]]. Some people wished to escape the post&amp;ndash;[[World War I]] [[angst]] and wanted a &quot;[[Return to Normalcy]]&quot;, as a 1920 Presidential campaign slogan of [[Warren G. Harding]] put it. The dramatic increase in home runs and scoring was also getting fans' attention. These and other reasons were factors, but it is no coincidence that the 1920 Yankees shattered the league attendance mark. The Yankees drew nearly 1.3 million fans, breaking the old mark of the 1908 [[New York Giants]] by nearly 400,000 [[fan (aficionado)|fan]]s. Attendance dramatically increased in every major league city in 1920, and seven teams set their own attendance records. The attention Ruth generated for the game with all his home runs, playing in New York, his personality, and even his off-the-field activities (some not always positive) was bringing an unprecedented spotlight to baseball. One reporter wrote, &quot;This new fan didn't know where first base was, but he had heard of Babe Ruth and wanted to see him hit a home run. When the Babe hit one, the fan went back the next day and knew not only where first base was, but second base as well.&quot; Baseball still had its problems: a [[Racial segregation|segregate]]d game, competitive imbalance, and owners with complete control over the players, but the popularity of the game increased so much that the 1920s has often been called baseball's first ''Golden Age'', and Babe Ruth can justifiably be given a large share of the credit. === Beginning of the live ball era === Ruth's home runs were at the epicenter of an offensive explosion in baseball. In 1918, the major league [[batting average]] was .254; in 1921 it was .291. The league [[ERA]] went from 2.77 to 4.02, [[runs]] increased 25% and [[home run]]s increased 300% over the same time span. Almost overnight, baseball had gone from the most anemic hitting era in [[baseball history]] (the [[dead-ball era]]) to what would be the greatest hitting era&amp;mdash;the 1920s. A few factors have been cited for the dramatic increase in offense. One major reason was that baseball in 1920 outlawed the [[spitball]] pitch (with some exceptions), the emery (scuffed) pitch, and all unorthodox pitching deliveries. The spitball was a devastating pitch to the batter, as it gave a [[pitcher]] great movement on the ball, especially downward. Another factor for increased scoring was the league mandate to regularly replace the baseball during a game. Previously, the same discolored, tobacco-stained ball was used over and over until it was literally falling apart. The overused ball would lose its resiliency, making it much more difficult to hit it for distance. The impetus for this change was the death of [[Ray Chapman]] in 1920, who was killed when he was hit in the [[head]] with a dirty, darkened pitched ball that may have contributed to him losing the baseball in the hitting background. Another reason given for the increase in home runs was that more players were emulating Ruth's full, free swing. Before Ruth and the [[Live Ball Era]], the emphasis was for batters to choke up on the bat and hit for direction, not distance. With his swing, Ruth showed it was possible to hit a prodigious amount of home runs, and more players started to swing for the fences. With the home run now a weapon, more managers lessened their previous absolute control of the offense, and they started to play for the big inning by giving their players freedom to swing away. By 1921, [[stolen base]]s were half the total from just a few years earlier, and the use of the [[sacrifice]] and [[hit and run (baseball)|hit and run]], additional overused strategies during the [[dead-ball era]], also decreased. Skeptical of the new offense in the game, some baseball writers of the time claimed the baseball was livened (usually done by winding it tighter, or changing the [[cork]] center, or both). This assertion even became accepted as a fact over time, even though there was no scientific evidence the ball had changed. One study in August 1920 confirmed the ball was the same as in previous years, and early in 1921, also hearing rumors about the &quot;juiced&quot; ball, [[National League]] President John Heydler launched his own investigation and also concluded the ball was no different. Heydler's findings stated the outlawing of the [[spitball]] was the predominant factor for the increased scoring. Those who claimed the ball was livened may not have had hard evidence, but they had history and statistics on their side, as never in baseball history had there been such a quantum leap in offense over such a short time. ==The Greatest Season Ever== [[Image:BRuth1921-2.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Babe Ruth in 1921, a year he was at his best.]] As historic as Ruth's 1920 season was, his 1921 season was even better. In fact, Ruth's 1921 season is statistically the greatest season by any batter in major league history. This season merits a mention of some of his statistics and how they ranked all-time for a single season. In 152 games Ruth batted .378, had 204 [[hits]], 44 [[double]]s, 16 [[triple]]s, 59 [[home run]]s (8th all-time), scored 177 [[runs]] (2nd all-time), had 171 [[RBI]]s (7th all-time), 144 [[bases on balls]], with 119 [[extra base hits]] (1st all-time), an .846 [[slugging average]] (3rd all-time), and amassed 457 [[total bases]] (1st all-time). Using advanced statistical methods to measure a player's value, some of the best present-day baseball statistical researchers show Ruth's season is unmatched. The ''Stats Major League Baseball Handbook'', a massive, encyclopedic baseball work compiled by noted baseball researchers [[Bill James]], Neil Munro, Don Zminda, and John Dewan, developed a [[runs created]] formula to value how many runs a player produces. Using their formula, the 208 [[runs created]] by Ruth in 1921 is the highest total for any player in any season. Ruth's season was monumental on its own, but the Yankees had many quality players who helped lead the team to its first-ever pennant. [[Bob Meusel]], [[Frank Baker]], and [[Wally Pipp]] were part of a lineup that batted .300 and scored 948 runs. The pitching was led by [[Carl Mays]], who won 27 games, with fine seasons by [[Waite Hoyt]] and [[Bob Shawkey]]. The Yankees met the [[New York Giants]] in the [[World Series]], managed by [[John McGraw (baseball)|John McGraw]]. The Giants excelled at McGraw's time-tested strategy, using hit-and-run, stolen base, and bunt, and despite hitting only [[75]] home runs, they led the N.L. in runs scored. Their star was slick-fielding [[Frankie Frisch]], who batted .341 and led the league in stolen bases with 49. The Giants lineup also included future Hall of Fame players [[George Kelly]], [[Ross Youngs]], and [[Dave Bancroft]]. The Yankees were up 3&amp;ndash;2 in the series, but Ruth had badly scraped his elbow in game 2 when sliding into third. He continued to play, but his arm eventually became swollen and infected, and was told by the team [[physician]] not to play the rest of the series (although he would pinch hit in game 8). Without Ruth, the Yanke
nion Carbide and Carbon Corp. in 1938. Bakelite Limited was formed in [[1927]] from the amalgamation of three suppliers of phenol formaldehyde materials: the Damard Lacquer Company Limited of [[Birmingham]]; Mouldensite Limited of Darley Dale and Redmanol Limited of [[London]]. Around [[1928]], A new factory opened in [[Tyseley]], Birmingham in September [[1931]]. It was demolished in [[1998]]. [[Phenolics]] are little used in general consumer products today due to the cost and complexity of production and their brittle nature. An exception to the overall decline is the use in small precision-shaped components where their specific properties are required, such as molded disc brake cylinders, saucepan handles, electrical plugs and switches, and electrical iron parts. The [[retro]] appeal of old Bakelite products, especially [[kitchenware]] and [[toys]], has made them quite collectible in recent years: A quick search of, for example, [[eBay]] turns up hundreds of listings for all things Bakelite, ranging from radios to poker chips to telephones. [[image:rotor.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Bakelite [[distributor]] rotor]] ==Patents== * '''{{US patent|942809}}''' -- ''Condensation product and method of making same'' == See also == *[[phenol formaldehyde resin]] ==External links== *[http://www.bakelitmuseum.de Bakelite: The Material of a Thousand Uses] [[Category:Plastics]] [[Category:Companies from Birmingham, England]] [[de:Bakelit]] [[es:Baquelita]] [[fr:Bakélite]] [[it:Bachelite]] [[nl:Bakeliet]] [[pl:Bakelit]] [[pt:Baquelite]] [[fi:Bakeliitti]] [[sv:Bakelit]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Buckyball</title> <id>4486</id> <revision> <id>15902752</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fullerene]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bean</title> <id>4487</id> <revision> <id>41895066</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:53:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mig77</username> <id>931812</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */ rm spam</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is on the plant. For alternate meanings, see [[Bean (disambiguation)]]'' [[Image:Heaps of beans.jpg|thumb|250px|Green beans]] '''Bean''' is a common name for large plant [[seed]]s of several [[genus|genera]] of [[Fabaceae]] (formerly Leguminosae) used for food or feed. == Name == ''Bean'' originally meant the seed of the [[Vicia faba|broad bean]], but was later broadened to include members of the genus ''[[Phaseolus]]'' such as the [[common bean]] or haricot and the [[runner bean]] and the related genus ''[[Vigna]]''. The term is now applied in a general way to many other related plants such as [[soybean]]s, [[pea]]s, [[lentil]]s, [[vetch]]es and [[lupin]]s. Some raw beans, for example kidney beans, contain harmful toxins which need to be removed, usually by various methods of soaking and cooking. The soaking water from kidney beans should be discarded before boiling, and some authorities recommend changing the water during cooking as well. Cooking beans in a crockpot, because of the lower temperatures used, does not destroy toxins even though the beans do not smell or taste 'bad'. Beans have been known to produce prodigious quantities of intestinal gas in some people; resulting in pronouced [[flatulence]]. [[Image:Beans.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Dry beans]] ''Bean'' can be used as a near synonym of [[pulse (legume)|pulse]], ''i.e.'' an edible [[legume]], though the term &quot;pulses&quot; is usually reserved for those leguminous crops which are harvested for their dry grain. Pulses then exclude those crops mainly used for oil extraction (like [[soybean]] and [[peanut]]) or those used exclusively for sowing purposes ([[clover]] and [[alfalfa]]). Leguminous crops harvested green for food like snap beans, green peas etc. are classified as vegetable crops. In English usage beans sometimes also refer to seeds or other organs of non ''leguminosae'', for example [[coffee]] beans, [[castor bean]]s and [[cacao|cocoa bean]]s (which resemble bean seeds), and [[Vanilla|vanilla beans]] (which resemble the pods). == Types of beans == * ''[[Vicia]]'' ** ''V. faba'' or [[Vicia faba|broad bean]] * ''[[Vigna]]'' **''V. aconitifolia'' or [[Moth bean]] ** ''V. angularis'' or [[azuki bean]] ** ''V. mungo'' or [[Urd bean]] ** ''V. radiata'' or [[mung bean]] ** ''V. umbellatta'' or [[rice bean]] ** ''V. unguiculata'' or [[cowpea]] (includes the [[black-eyed pea]], [[yardlong bean]] and others) ** several others * ''[[Cicer]]'' ** ''C. arietinum'' or [[chickpea]] * ''[[Pisum]]'' ** ''P. sativum'' or [[pea]] * ''[[Lathyrus]] ** ''[[Lathyrus sativus]]'' (Indian pea) ** ''[[Lathyrus tuberosus]]'' (Tuberous pea) * ''[[Lens (genus)|Lens]]'' ** ''L. culinaris'' or [[lentil]] * ''[[Lablab]]'' ** ''L. purpureus'' or [[hyacinth bean]] * ''[[Phaseolus]]'' ** ''P. acutifolius'' or [[tepary bean]] ** ''P. coccineus'' or [[runner bean]] ** ''P. lunatus'' or [[lima bean]] ** ''P. vulgaris'' or [[common bean]] (includes the pinto bean, kidney bean and many others) * ''[[Glycine (plant)|Glycine]]'' ** ''G. max'' or [[soybean]] * ''[[Psophocarpus]]'' ** ''P. tetragonolobus'' or [[winged bean]] * ''[[Cajanus]]'' ** ''C. cajan'' or [[pigeon pea]] * ''[[Stizolobium]]'' ** ''S. spp'' or [[velvet bean]] * ''[[Cyamopsis]]'' ** ''C. tetragonoloba'' or [[guar]] * ''[[Canavalia]]'' ** ''C. ensiformis'' or [[jack bean]] * ''[[Macrotyloma]]'' ** ''M. uniflorum'' or [[horse gram]] * ''[[Lupinus]]'' or Lupin ** ''[[Lupinus mutabilis|L. mutabilis]]'' or tarwi * ''[[Erythrina]]'' or [[Coral bean]] ==Cultural aspects== The following traditional uses of beans refer to the [[Vicia faba|broad bean]]. *In ancient [[Greece]] and [[Rome]], beans were used in voting (a white bean meant ''yes'' and a black bean meant ''no'') and as a food for the dead, such as during the annual [[Feast of the Lemures|Lemuria]] festival. *In some folk legends, such as in [[Estonia]] and the common [[Jack and the Beanstalk]] story, magical beans grow tall enough to bring the hero to the clouds. The [[Grimm Brothers]] collected a story in which a bean splits its sides laughing at the failure of others. *Dreaming of a bean is sometimes said to be a sign of impending conflict, though others said they caused bad dreams. *[[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] claimed that beans act as a [[laxative]] (A possible reference to the [[Castor Bean]]). *European folklore also claims that planting beans on [[Good Friday]] or during the night-time is good luck. *&quot;[[Beans Beans the Magical Fruit...]]&quot; is a children's song about beans' capacity for causing [[flatulence]]. ==External links== * [http://growingtaste.com/vegetables/bean.shtml Beans for the home gardener] * [http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/d8683.htm Everett H. Bickley Collection, 1919-1980] Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. * [http://www.discovery.com/area/skinnyon/skinnyon970815/skinnyon.html Why eating beans causes gas] == See also == *[[pulse (legume)|Pulses]] *[[List of edible seeds]] *[[Baked beans]] [[Category:Beans|*]] [[Category:lists of foods|Bean]] [[de:Bohne (Pflanze)]] [[fr:Haricot]] [[ko:콩]] [[nl:Boon]] [[ja:豆]] [[pl:Fasola (warzywo)]] [[pt:Feijão]] [[sl:Fižol]] [[zh:豆类]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Breast</title> <id>4489</id> <revision> <id>42041528</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:39:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>89.57.167.146</ip> </contributor> <comment>ilo moved to lower position</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''''breast''''', also known by the [[Latin]] '''''mamma''''' in [[anatomy]], refers to the upper ventral region of an animal's [[torso]], particularly that of [[mammal|mammals]], including [[human|human beings]]. In addition, the '''breasts''' are parts of a female mammal's body which contain the [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] that secrete [[milk]] used to feed [[infant]]s. This article focuses on [[human anatomy | human]] [[female]] breasts, but it should be noted that [[man|male]] humans also have breasts (although usually less prominent) that are structurally identical and [[homologous]] to the female, as they develop [[embryology|embryologically]] from the same tissues. While the [[Mammary gland|mammary glands]] that produce milk are present in the male, they normally remain undeveloped. In some situations male breast development does occur, a condition called [[gynecomastia]]. Milk production can also occur in both men and women as an [[Adverse effect (medicine)|adverse effect]] of some medicinal [[medication|drugs]] (such as some [[antipsychotic]] medication) or in endocrine disorders. ==Anatomy of the female breast== [[Image:illu_breast_anatomy.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Cross section of the breast of a human female.]] The breasts are covered by [[skin]]; each breast has one [[nipple]] surrounded by the [[areola]]. The areola is colored from pink to dark brown, hairless, and has several [[sebaceous gland]]s. The larger [[mammary gland]]s within the breast produce the milk; they consist of several ''lobules'', and each breast has some 10-20 ''lactiferous ducts'' that drain milk from the lobules to the nipple, where each duct has its own opening, Most of the breast is [[connective tissue]], i.e., [[adipose tissue]] (fat) and [[Cooper's ligaments]]. The breasts sit over the [[pectoralis major]] muscle and usually extend from the level of the 2nd rib to the level of the 6th rib [[Anatomical terms of location|anteriorly]]. The [[Anatomical terms of location|superior lateral]] quadrant of the breast extends diagonally upwards in an '[[axillary tai
alf-Second Catalogue|LHS]] 57, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 4098.00, [[Henry Lee Giclas|G]] 140-024 and various other technical names. ===Supposed planets=== For many years from [[1963]] onwards, a substantial number of astronomers accepted a claim by [[Peter van de Kamp]] that he had detected a perturbation in the proper motion of Barnard's star consistent with its having one or more planets comparable in mass with [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. When independent data were collected in the [[1980s]], this conclusion came to be disputed and the consensus is now that van de Kamp's claim was erroneous. During the period that the claim was accorded credibility, it contributed to the star's fame among the [[science fiction]] community and the star's adoption as a target for [[Project Daedalus]] (The [[British Interplanetary Society]]'s proposal for an interstellar space probe). ==Barnard's Star in fiction== In [[Douglas Adams]]'s ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', Barnard's Star is a way station for interstellar travellers. ==See also== * [[List of nearest stars]] ==References== *[http://www.astronomy.com/asy/default.aspx?c=a&amp;id=3658 (1) Astronomy.com: A Flare for Barnard's Star] * [[Edward Emerson Barnard|E. E. Barnard]], ''A small star with large proper motion'', [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AJ.../0029//0000181.000.html Astronomical Journal '''29''' (1916) 181&amp;ndash;183] (1916AJ.....29..181B) ==External links== *[http://www.solstation.com/stars/barnards.htm SolStation.com: Barnard's Star] *[http://www.ari.uni-heidelberg.de/aricns/cnspages/4c01453.htm ARICNS 4C01453] &amp;ndash; technical data for Barnard's Star [[Category:Ophiuchus constellation]] [[Category:HIP objects|87937]] [[Category:Red dwarfs]] [[ca:Estel de Barnard]] [[cs:Barnardova šipka]] [[de:Barnards Pfeilstern]] [[es:Estrella de Barnard]] [[fr:Étoile de Barnard]] [[it:Stella di Barnard]] [[hu:Barnard-csillag]] [[nl:Ster van Barnard]] [[ja:バーナード星]] [[no:Barnards stjerne]] [[pl:Gwiazda Barnarda]] [[ru:Звезда Барнарда]] [[sk:Barnardova hviezda]] [[sv:Barnards stjärna]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Battery (electricity)</title> <id>4198</id> <revision> <id>41975871</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:09:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.5.203.246</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Electrical component */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[battery (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Four AA batteries.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Four double-A (AA) rechargeable batteries]] In science and technology, a '''battery''' is a device that stores [[energy]] and makes it available in an electrical form. Batteries consist of [[electrochemistry|electrochemical]] devices such as one or more [[galvanic cell]]s (or, more recently, [[fuel cell]]s). The earliest known artefacts that may have been batteries are the ''[[Baghdad Battery|Baghdad Batteries]]'', from some time between [[250 BCE]] and [[640 CE]]. The modern development of batteries started with the [[Voltaic pile]] developed by the Italian physicist [[Alessandro Volta|Alessandro Volta]] in [[1800]]. The worldwide battery industry generates 48 billion dollars in sales annually [http://www.dfj.com/cgi-bin/artman/publish/article_141.shtml (2005 estimate)]. ==Cell vs. battery== Strictly, an electrical &quot;battery&quot; is an interconnected array of one or more similar &quot;cells&quot;. That distinction, however, is considered [[Wiktionary:pedantic|pedantic]] in most contexts (other than the expression ''[[dry cell]]''), and in current English usage it is more common to call a single cell used on its own a ''battery'' than a ''cell''. For example, a hand lamp (flashlight) (torch) is said to take one or more &quot;batteries&quot; even though they may be D cells. A [[car battery]] is a true &quot;battery&quot; because it uses multiple cells. Multiple batteries or cells may also be refered to as a [[battery pack]], such as a set of multi-cell 12 V batteries in an [[electric vehicle]]. ==Electrical component== [[image:Battery_symbols_and_circuit.png|thumb|369px|Circuit symbol for a battery; simplified electrical model; and more complex but still incomplete model (the series capacitor has an extremely large value and, as it charges, simulates the discharge of the battery).]] The cells in a battery can be connected in parallel, series, or in both. A parallel combination of cells has the same [[voltage]] as a single cell, but can supply a higher [[Current (electricity)|current]] (the sum of the currents from all the cells). A series combination has the same current rating as a single cell but its voltage is the sum of the voltages of all the cells. Most practical electrochemical batteries, such as 9 [[volt]] flashlight (torch) batteries and 12 V [[automobile]] (car) batteries, have a series structure. Parallel arrangements suffer from the problem that, if one cell discharges faster than its neighbour, current will flow from the full cell to the empty cell, wasting power and possibly causing overheating. Even worse, if one cell becomes short-circuited due to an internal fault, its neighbour will be forced to discharge its maximum current into the faulty cell, leading to overheating and possibly explosion. Cells in parallel are therefore usually fitted with an electronic circuit to protect them against these problems. In both series and parallel types, the energy stored in the battery is equal to the sum of the energies stored in all the cells. A battery can be simply modelled as a perfect voltage source (i.e. one with zero internal [[electrical resistance|resistance]]) in series with a [[resistor]]. The voltage source depends mainly on the chemistry of the battery, not on whether it is empty or full. When a battery runs down, its internal [[electrical resistance|resistance]] increases. When the battery is connected to a load (e.g. a [[light bulb]]), which has its own resistance, the resulting voltage across the load depends on the ratio of the battery's [[internal resistance]] to the resistance of the load. When the battery is fresh, its internal resistance is low, so the voltage across the load is almost equal to that of the battery's internal voltage source. As the battery runs down and its internal resistance increases, the proportion of its internal voltage that gets through the internal resistance to appear at the load gets smaller, so the battery's ability to deliver [[Electric power|power]] to the load decreases. ==Battery concepts== ===Battery capacity=== The capacity of a battery to store charge is often expressed in '''[[ampere]] hours''' (1 A&amp;middot;h = 3600 [[coulomb]]s). If a battery can provide one ampere (1&amp;nbsp;A) of current (flow) for one hour, it has a ''real-world'' capacity of 1&amp;nbsp;A&amp;middot;h. If it can provide 1&amp;nbsp;A for 100&amp;nbsp;hours, its capacity is 100&amp;nbsp;A&amp;middot;h. Because of the chemical reactions within the cells, the capacity of a battery depends on the discharge conditions such as the magnitude of the current, the duration of the current, the allowable terminal voltage of the battery, temperature, and other factors. Battery manufacturers use a standard method to determine how to rate their batteries. The battery is discharged at a constant rate of current over a fixed period of time, such as 10 hours or 20 hours, down to a set terminal voltage per cell. So a 100&amp;nbsp;ampere-hour battery is rated to provide 5&amp;nbsp;A for 20&amp;nbsp;hours at room temperature. The efficiency of a battery is different at different discharge rates. When discharging at low rate, the battery's energy is delivered more efficiently than at higher discharge rates. This is [[Peukert's Law]]. ===Battery lifetime=== Disposable alkaline batteries are designed to be used only once. Even if never taken out of the original package, disposable (or &quot;primary&quot;) batteries can lose two to twenty-five percent of their original charge every year, depending heavily on temperature. This is known as the &quot;self discharge&quot; rate and is due to chemical reactions that occur within the cell even if no load is applied to it. Many people believe that storing batteries at cool temperatures, such as in the refrigerator, reduces the rate of these side reactions and extends the storage life of the battery -- this may have been true in the past with older technology batteries. Modern batteries should be stored in a dry place and at normal room temperatures. Also, some brands of batteries (like [[Duracell]] or [[Energizer]]) will provide dependable long life even after 5 years of storage in these conditions. Extreme temperatures also reduce battery performance. Some information on caring and disposing of alkaline batteries can be read [http://www.duracell.com/care_disposal/care.asp here] and [http://www.energizer.com/learning/batterycare.asp here]. Rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries. In fact, they can self-discharge up to three percent a ''day'' (again, depending on temperature). Due to their poor shelf life, they shouldn't be left in a drawer and then relied upon to power a flashlight or a small radio in an emergency. For this reason, it’s a good idea to keep a few alkaline batteries on hand. In fact, Ni-Cd Batteries are almost always &quot;dead&quot; when you get them, and need to be charged before first use. With the exception of lead-acid batteries, most Ni-MH batteries can be recharged 500-1000 times while Ni-Cd batteries can only be recharged about 400 times. Special &quot;reserve&quot; batteries intended for long storage in emergency equipment or munitions keep the electrolyte of the battery separate from the plates until the battery is activated, allowing the cells to be filled with the electrolyte. Shelf times for such batteries can be years or
y agreed that currently the French authorities collaborate closely with the Spanish government against ETA. ===Under democracy=== ETA performed their first [[car bomb]] assassination in [[Madrid]] in September [[1985]], resulting in one death and sixteen injuries; another bomb in July [[1986]] killed twelve members of the Guardia Civil and injured 50; on [[July 19]], [[1987]] the [[Hipercor]] bombing was an attack in a shopping center in [[Barcelona]], killing twenty one and injuring forty five; in the last case, several entire families were killed. ETA claimed in a communique that they had given advance warning of the Hipercor bomb, but that the police had declined to evacuate the area. The police claim that the warning came only few minutes before the bomb exploded. In a &quot;[[dirty war]]&quot; against ETA, [[Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberación]] (GAL, &quot;Antiterrorist Liberation Groups&quot;), a government-sponsored and supposedly counter-terrorist organization active [[1986]]&amp;ndash;[[1987|87]] (and possibly later) committed assassinations, kidnappings and torture, not only of ETA members but of civilians, some of whom turned out to have nothing to do with ETA. In [[1997]] a Spanish court convicted and imprisoned several individuals involved in GAL, not only mercenaries and low-level police officials but politicians up to the highest levels of the [[PSOE]] government of prime minister [[Felipe Gonzalez]], including a minister of the interior. Although González had been quoted as saying that the government would defend itself through the &quot;sewers of the state&quot; (''las cloacas del estado''), his role in GAL was never proven. No major cases of foul play on part of the Spanish government after 1987 have been proven in court, although ETA supporters routinely claim human rights violations and [[torture]] by security forces, and international human rights organizations like Amnesty International have backed very few of these claims. ETA's manuals had been found telling its members and supporters to claim routinely that they had tortured after any detention. In [[1986]] [[Gesto por la Paz]] (known in English as [[Association for Peace in the Basque Country]]) was founded; they began to convene silent demonstrations in communities throughout the Basque Country the day after any violent killing, whether by ETA or by GAL. These were the first systematic demonstrations in the Basque Country against terrorist violence. Also in 1986, in [[Ordizia]], ETA assassinated [[María Dolores Katarain]], known as &quot;Yoyes&quot;, the former director of ETA who had abandoned armed struggle and rejoined civil society: they accused her of &quot;desertion&quot;. [[January 12]], [[1988]] all Basque political parties except ETA-affiliated [[Batasuna|Herri Batasuna]] signed the [[Ajuria-Enea pact]] with the intent of ending ETA's violence. Weeks later on [[January 28]], ETA announced a 60-day &quot;ceasefire&quot;, later prolonged several times. A negotiation in Algeria known as the [[Mesa de Argel]] (&quot;[[Algiers]] Table&quot;) was attempted between ETA (represented by [[Eugenio Etxebeste]], &quot;Antxon&quot;) and the then-current PSOE government of Spain, but no successful conclusion was reached, and ETA eventually resumed the use of violence. During this period, the Spanish government had a policy referred to as &quot;[[reinsertion]]&quot;, under which imprisoned ETA members who the government believed had genuinely abandoned violent intent could be freed and allowed to rejoin society. Claiming a need to prevent ETA from coercively impeding this reinsertion, the PSOE government decided that imprisoned ETA members, who previously had all been imprisoned within the Basque Country, would instead be dispersed to prisons throughout Spain, some as far from their families as in the [[Salto del Negro]] prison in the [[Canary Islands]]. France has taken a similar approach. In the event, the only clear effect of this policy was to incite social protest, especially from nationalists and families of the prisoners, over the cruelity of separating family members from their loved ones and the supposed illegality of the policy itself. Much of the protest against this policy runs under the slogan &quot;''Euskal presoak - Euskal Herrira''&quot; (''Basque prisoners to the Basque Country'', by &quot;Basque prisoners&quot; only ETA members are meant). During the ETA ceasefire of the late 1990s, the PSOE government brought back to the [[Iberian Peninsula|mainland]] the prisoners in the islands and Africa. Since the end of the ceasefire, ETA prisoners have still not been sent to overseas prisons. Some Basque authorities have established grants for the expenses of visiting families. Another Spanish counter-terrorist law puts suspected terrorist cases under the specialized tribunal ''[[Audiencia Nacional]]'' in [[Madrid]]. Under Article 509 suspected terrorists are subject to being held &quot;incommunicado&quot; for up to thirteen days, during which they have no contact with the outside world, including informing their family of their arrest, consultation with private lawyers or examination by a physician other than the coroners. In [[1992]], ETA's three top leaders &amp;mdash; military leader [[Francisco Mujika Garmendia]] (&quot;Pakito&quot;), political leader [[José Luis Alvarez Santacristina]] (&quot;Txelis&quot;) and logistical leader [[José María Arregi Erostarbe]] (&quot;Fiti&quot;), often referred to collectively as the &quot;cupola&quot; of ETA or as the Artapalo collective [http://www.informativos.telecinco.es/dn_16360.htm] &amp;mdash; were arrested in the French Basque town of [[Bidart]], which led to changes in ETA's leadership and direction. After a two-month truce, ETA adopted even more radical positions. The principal consequence of the change appears to have been the creation of the ''&quot;[[Y Groups]]&quot;'', young people (generally [[minor (law)|minors]]) dedicated to so-called ''&quot;kale borroka&quot;'' &amp;mdash; street struggle &amp;mdash; and whose activities included burning buses, street lamps, benches, [[Automatic teller machine|ATM]]s, garbage containers, etc. and throwing [[Molotov cocktail]]s. The appearance of these groups was attributed by many to supposed weakness of ETA, which obliged them to resort to minors to maintain or augment their impact on society after arrests of leading militants, including the &quot;cupola&quot;. ETA also began to menace leaders of other parties besides rival Basque nationalist parties. The existence of the &quot;Y Groups&quot; as an organized phenomenon has been contested by some supporters of Basque national liberation, who claim that this construction is merely a trumped-up excuse to give longer prison sentences to those convicted of street violence. In [[1995]], the armed organization again launched a peace proposal. The so-called [[Democratic Alternative]] replaced the earlier [[Koordinadora Abertzale Sozialista|KAS]] Alternative as a minimum proposal for the establishment of Euskal Herria. The Democratic Alternative offered the cessation of all armed ETA activity if the Spanish-government would recognize the Basque people as having sovereignty over Basque territory, the right to [[self-determination]] and that it freed all ETA members in prison. The Spanish government ultimately rejected this peace offer. Also in [[1995]] came a failed ETA car bombing attempt directed against [[José María Aznar]], a [[conservatism|conservative]] politician who was leader of the then-opposition [[People's Party (Spain)|Partido Popular]] (PP) and was shortly after elected to the presidency of the government; there was also an abortive attempt in [[Majorca]] on the life of King [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|Juan Carlos I]]. Still, the act with the largest social impact came the following year. [[July 10]], [[1997]] PP council member [[Miguel Ángel Blanco]] was kidnapped in the Basque city of [[Ermua]] and his death threatened unless the Spanish government would meet ETA's demands. Six million people demonstrated to demand his liberation, with demonstrations occurring as much in the Basque regions as elsewhere in Spain. After three days, ETA carried through their threat, unleashing massive demonstrations reflecting the ETA action with the cries of &quot;Assassins&quot; and &quot;Basques yes, ETA no&quot;. This response came to be known as the &quot;Spirit of Ermua&quot;. After the [[Belfast Agreement|Good Friday Accord]] marked the beginning of the end of violent hostilities in [[Northern Ireland]], and given that the Ajuria-Enea pact had failed to bring peace to the Basque Country, the [[Lizarra/Estella Pact]] brought together political parties, unions, and other Basque groups in hopes again of changing the political situation. Shortly after, [[September 18]], [[1998]], ETA declared a unilateral truce or ceasefire, and began a process of dialogue with Spain's PP government. The dialogue continued for some time, but ETA resumed assassinations in [[2000]], accusing the government of being &quot;inflexible&quot; and of &quot;not wanting dialogue&quot;. The communique that declared the end of the truce cited the failure of the process initiated in the Lizarra/Estella Pact to achieve political change as the reason for the return to violence. The Spanish government, from the highest levels, accused ETA of having declared a false truce in order to rearm. Some of that was demonstrated by the appropiation of part of ETA's internal communications at the time of the truce. Later came acts of violence such as the [[November 6]], [[2001]] car bomb in Madrid, which injured sixty five, and attacks on [[soccer]] stadiums and tourist destinations. The [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] appeared to have dealt a hard blow to ETA, owing to the toughening of antiterrorist measures (such as the freezing of bank accounts), the increase in international police coordination, and the end of the toleration
<id>40551010</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T10:28:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eskimbot</username> <id>477460</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: es</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Her&amp;#257;t''' ([[Persian language|Persian]] &amp;#1607;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1578;) is a city in western [[Afghanistan]], in the valley of the [[Hari Rud]] river in the province also known as ''[[Herat province|Herat]]'', and was traditionally known for wine. The population of the city is 249,000 ([[2002]] official estimate}. The inhabitants are mainly [[Tajiks]] ([[Persians|Persian]]). It is an ancient city with many historic buildings, although these have suffered damage in various military conflicts during the last few decades. The buildings are generally constructed of mud brick. The city is dominated by the remains of a [[citadel]], constructed under the rule of [[Alexander of Macedon]]. The city had a favourable position on the trade routes between [[Iran|Persia]], [[India]], [[China]] and [[Europe]]. The roads from Herat to [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Iran]] are still strategically important. == History == Herat is probably a descendant of the ancient Persian town of [[Artacoana]], established before [[500 BC]]. It may also have been known as Aria. [[Image:Citadel3.jpg|thumb|right|Citadel, July 2001]] It was captured by Alexander in [[330 BC]] during his war against the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]]. The town was rebuilt and the citadel was constructed. It was part of the [[Seleucid Empire]] but was captured by others on various occasions and became part of the [[Parthian Empire]] in [[167 BC]]. Around [[300]] it became a seat of [[Christianity]], with a [[Nestorian]] bishop. Around [[484]] it became part of the [[Hephthalite Empire]]. Around [[786]]-[[809]] it was part of the [[Abbasid]] caliphate. Later, it was ruled by the [[Tahirid dynasty]]. After [[867]]-[[869]] the [[Saffarid dynasty]] took control. Before [[1040]] it was ruled by the [[Ghaznavid]]s. In [[1040]] it was captured by the [[Seljuk Empire]]. In [[1175]] it was captured by the [[Ghorid]]s and then came under the [[Khawarazm Empire]]. In this period Herat became an important center for the production of metal goods, especially in [[bronze]], often decorated with elaborate inlays in precious metals. In [[1221]] it was captured by the [[Mongols]] and later destroyed by [[Genghis Khan]]. In [[1245]] it was given to the [[Kart Maliks]]. [[Image:Gawhar shad-1417-2.jpg|thumb|right|Remains of Musallah complex, July 2001]] Around [[1381]] it was destroyed again by [[Timur]]. Under his son [[Shah Rukh]] it was rebuilt and became an important center under the [[Timurid Empire]]. In the late [[15th century|1400s]] the Musallah complex (with many [[minaret]]s) was built under the rule of [[Queen Gawharshad]]. Her tomb complex is considered one of the great monuments of Timurid architectural carving. In [[1506]] it was captured by the [[Uzbek]]s and a few years later by [[Ismail I|Shah Ismail Safavi]], to become part of a new [[Persian Empire]]. From [[1718]] until [[1880]] there were various battles until the city became part of a united [[Afghanistan]]. During the [[Qajar]] period of Persia, [[Britain]] supported the Afghans in order to protect their [[British East India Company|East India Company]]. [[Nasser-al-Din Shah|Nasereddin Shah]] was unable to defeat The British at Herat in 1857. Most of the Musallah complex in Herat was destroyed in 1885 by the British army for a clear line of sight for their artillery against Russian invaders (who never came). During the [[communist]] [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] Herat was used by the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]s. Even before the Soviet invasion at the end of [[1979]], there was a substantial presence of Soviet advisors in the city with their families. From 10 to [[20 March]] [[1979]] the army in Herat under the control of [[Ismail Khan]] mutinied and 350 Soviet citizens were killed. The Soviets [[bomb]]ed the city, causing massive destruction and thousands of deaths and it was recaptured with [[tank]]s and [[paratrooper]]s. Ismail Khan became a [[Mujahedin]] commander and after the departure of the Soviets he became governor of Herat. In [[1995]] the city was captured by the [[Taliban]]. On [[12 November]], [[2001]] it was captured by the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]] and Ismail Khan returned to power in the region. In 2004 it was the site of the ambush and killing of [[Mirwais Sadeq]], the Aviation Minister for the country. More than 200 people were immediately arrested, on suspicion of involvement[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3567277.stm] ==External links== *{{wikitravel}} *[http://www.faizani.com Islam Way Online - Your Religion and Spirituality Portal] Web-site of the celebrated Islamic scholar Mawlana Faizani, who hails from Herat *Scenes From Herat: [http://avalon.unomaha.edu/afghan/afghanistan/herat/ar01.HTM] *Local News From Herat: [http://www.poyaa.com/local/Herat/] [[Category:Cities along the Silk Road]] [[Category:Cities in Afghanistan]] [[cv:Герат]] [[de:Herat]] [[es:Herāt]] [[fr:Hérat]] [[nl:Herat]] [[ja:ヘラート]] [[no:Herat]] [[pl:Herat]] [[ru:Герат]] [[fi:Herat]] [[sv:Herat]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Haithabu</title> <id>14129</id> <revision> <id>15911706</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hedeby]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hedeby</title> <id>14130</id> <revision> <id>41413165</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:53:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Volkoff</username> <id>997797</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Haithabu_Haddebyer_Noor_WT2005.jpg|thumb|300px|Site of the former town of Hedeby.]] [[Image:Denmark vikings 3.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of Viking Denmark with Hedeby at the southern edge.]] '''Hedeby''' was an important settlement in [[Viking]] [[Denmark]], flourishing from the 8th to 11th centuries and located towards the southern end of the [[Jutland Peninsula]]. It developed as a trading centre at the head of a narrow, navigable inlet known today as the [[Schlei]] ([[Danish language|Danish]]: Slien) which connects to the [[Baltic Sea]]. Hedeby was the largest [[Nordic]] city during the [[Viking Age]] and used to be the oldest city in [[Denmark]].{{ref|Ribe}} [[Denmark]] lost the territory on which Hedeby was located to [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] and [[Prussia]] in [[1864]] in the [[Second War of Schleswig]]. As a result of these border movements, the site is now located in the province of [[Schleswig-Holstein]] in the extreme north of [[Germany]]. The name 'Hedeby' means the &quot;town on the heath&quot;. Abandoned almost a thousand years ago, Hedeby is now by far the most important archeological site in [[Schleswig-Holstein]]. A museum was opened next to the site in [[1985]]. ==Problems with naming== Both in modern European usage and in Viking times, the names and spellings used for Hedeby were varied and confusing.{{ref|Elsner}} * ''Hedeby'' is the accepted modern English and Danish spelling. * ''Heithabyr'' is derived from old Scandinavian sources and is the oldest known name. * ''Heidiba'' is a [[Latin]] form. * ''Haithabu'' is the modern German spelling used when referring to the historical settlement. This is reflected in the name of the museum now located at the site. * ''Haddeby'' is the modern German spelling for the ''[http://www.haddeby.de administrative district]'' around the site of the original town. * ''Heddeby'' is also known. A second set of names are used in other linguistic traditions. * ''Sliesthorp'' in the earliest [[Saxon people|Saxon]] and [[Frankish]] texts. * ''Sliaswich'' in later [[Saxon people|Saxon]] and [[Frankish]] texts. It is possible that two name sets were used interchangeably for the same settlement, depending on which language was being used. However the fact that two settlements came into existence, situated very close together, creates further difficulties. While the settlement today referred to as Hedeby/Haithabu lies on the south side of the [[Schlei]] inlet, a settlement also grew up (at around the same time) on the north side. That second settlement has had a continuous history of habitation to modern times, and has now grown into the town known as [[Schleswig]] (derived from the second set of names for Hedeby) and given its name to the surrounding province. ==History== [[Image:Haithabu Haeuser WT2005.jpg|thumb|left|Two reconstructed houses at Hedeby]] {| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot; |colspan=2 style=&quot;padding:0.3em;border-collapse:collapse;background-color:#ccccff&quot; align=center| '''Timeline''' {{ref|timeline}} |- |valign=top|'''793''' |Viking raid on [[Lindisfarne]] - traditional date for the beginning of the [[Viking Age]]. |- |valign=top|'''804''' |First mention of Hedeby |- |valign=top|'''808''' |Destruction of [[Reric]] and migration of tradespeople to Hedeby |- |'''c.850''' |Construction of a church at Hedeby |- |'''886''' |The [[Danelaw]] is established in [[England]], following Viking migration |- |'''911''' |The Vikings settle in [[Normandy]] |- |'''948''' |Hedeby becomes a bishopric |- |'''965''' |Visit of [[Ibrahim ibn Yaqub al-Tartushi|Al-Tartushi]] to Hedeby |- |'''974''' |Hedeby falls to the [[Holy Roman Empire]] |- |'''983''' |Hedeby returns to Danish control |- |'''c.1000''' |The Viking [[Leif Erikson]] explores [[Vinland]], probably in North America |- |'''1016-1042''' |Danish kings
the theme of many chapters and one could see the entire book as a suite of variations on &quot;the Powers of Nothingness&quot;, echoing the ancient Buddhist philosophy of 'form is emptiness, emptiness is form'. An explanation on how nothingness has power can be found in chapter 11: :We put thirty spokes together and call it a wheel; :But it is on the space where there is nothing : that the usefulness of the wheel depends. :We turn clay to make a vessel; :But it is on the space where there is nothing : that the usefulness of the vessel depends. :We pierce doors and windows to make a house; :And it is on these spaces where there is nothing : that the usefulness of the house depends. :Therefore just as we take advantage of what is, : we should recognize the usefulness of what is not. ::Chapter 11, tr. A. Waley Looking at a [[Chinese art|Chinese landscape painting]], one can understand also how nothingness (the unpainted parts) has the power of giving life to the beings - the trees, mountains, and rivers - it surrounds. Being nothing for a man means ''having no heart on his own'', having no fixed preconceptions on how things should be, and having no intentions or agenda. For the ruler's point of view, nothingness is not far from the [[classical liberalism|liberal]] ''[[laissez-faire]]'' approach: letting things happen by themselves is the best way to help them grow. As the Tao te Ching would say: ''So a wise leader may say: ''I practice inaction, and the people look after themselves.'' === &quot;Knowing oneself&quot; === The pursuit of the knowledge of the self appears in many variations throughout the Tao Te Ching. One example in chapter 33: :Knowing others is wisdom; :Knowing the self is enlightenment. :Mastering others requires force; :Mastering the self requires strength; :He who knows he has enough is rich. :Perseverance is a sign of will power. :He who stays where he is endures. :To die but not to perish is to be eternally present. ::Chapter 33 tr. Gia-Fu Feng and Jane English &lt;!-- to be expanded some other subtitles of this section could be &quot;Banish wisdom and other paradoxes&quot; (on why Lao Zi often explains himself with paradoxes), &quot;Ruling a large kingdom&quot; on political Lao Zi &quot;be twisted!&quot; on foolishness as a wisdom--&gt; ===Other themes=== Here are listed some other topics related to the ''Tao Te Ching'': *Force begets force. *One whose needs are simple can fulfill them easily. *(Material) wealth does not enrich the spirit. *Self-absorption and self-importance are vain and self-destructive. *Victory in war is not glorious and not to be celebrated, but stems from devastation, and is to be mourned. *The harder one tries, the more resistance one will create for oneself. *The more one acts in harmony with the universe (the Mother of the ten thousand things), the more one will achieve, with less effort. *The truly wise make little of their own wisdom for the more they know, the more they realize how little they know. *When we lose the fundamentals, we supplant them with increasingly inferior values which we pretend are the true values. *Glorification of wealth, power and beauty beget crime, envy and shame. *The qualities of flexibility and suppleness are often superior to rigidity and strength. *Everything is in its own time and place. *The contrast of opposition &amp;mdash; i.e. the differences between male and female, light and dark, strong and weak, etc. &amp;mdash; helps us understand and appreciate the universe. *Humility is the highest virtue. *Knowing oneself is a virtue. *Envy is our calamity; overindulgence is our plight. *The more you go in search of an answer, the less you will understand. *To lift something, first push down on it. *When many people are killed in battle, it is no time for celebration. Treat your victory like a funeral. ==Translation== ===The difficulties of translating classical Chinese=== [[image:Tao-te-ching005.png|thumb|right|[[Tao Te Ching]] - Translation by [[Gia-Fu Feng]] and [[Jane English]]]]The ''Tao Te Ching'' is written in [[classical Chinese]], which is in itself difficult even for normally educated modern native speakers of Chinese to understand completely. Furthermore, many of the words used in the ''Tao Te Ching'' are deliberately vague and ambiguous. At the time the ''Tao Te Ching'' was written, educated Chinese who could read it would have memorized a large body of fairly standard Chinese literature, and when writing it was common to convey meaning by making allusions to other well-known works which now may have been lost. Few people today have the full command of the vast body of ancient Chinese literature that would have been common in Laozi's day, and thus many levels of subtext are potentially lost on modern translators. There is no punctuation in classical Chinese, and thus often no way to conclusively determine where one sentence ends and the next begins. Moving a period a few words forward or back or inserting a comma can profoundly alter the meaning of many passages, and such divisions and meanings must be determined by the translator. Some Chinese editors and some translators, indeed, argue that the text is so corrupted (as it was written on one-line bamboo tablets linked with a silk thread) that it's not possible to understand some chapters without moving sequences of characters from one place to another. ===Translations=== The ''Tao Te Ching'' is perhaps the most translated book written in the Chinese language, with over 100 different translations into English alone. The combination of being mystical and obscure means that sometimes different translations have nothing in common, suggesting that getting a deep understanding of the text requires reading more than one. A common way to do this is to pick two translations and read them side by side. ====Online versions==== =====Original ===== {{wikisource|Tao te Ching}} * [http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?l=Daodejing Original text arrayed with translations] in English (Waley, Lau), French (Julien), German (Wilhelm) and modern Chinese. =====In English===== * An online translation by [[Charles Muller]] is available at [http://www.hm.tyg.jp/~acmuller/contao/daodejing.html Professor Muller's site: ''Daode jing'']. * An online translation by [[John H. McDonald|j.h. mcdonald]] is available at [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~stwright/rel/tao/TaoTeChing.html Religions and Scriptures: ''Tao Te Ching'']. * An online translation by [[Sonja Elen Kisa]] is available, going by the name [http://www.kisa.ca/daodejing.html ''The Flow and the Power of Good'']. * An online interpolation by Ron Hogan is available in several formats at [http://www.beatrice.com/TAO.html Beatrice.com: ''Tao Te Ching'']. An [[iPod]] formatted version of this translation is available at [http://www.swiftlytilting.com/2006/01/01/the-tao-te-ching-for-ipod/ SwiftlyTilting.com: ''The Tao Te Ching for your iPod''] * [[Hilmar Klaus]] [http://www.tao-te-king.org/index.html 老子Lǎozĭ 道德經Dàodéjīng trilingual: Pīnyīn/Chinese+English+German, word-by-word] * A &quot;plain English&quot; online interpolation of Chapters 1-37 (&quot;Tao&quot;) by the [[Universal Dialectic]] Institute is available at [http://naturyl.humanists.net/taotext.html ''Tao: The Way of Nature''] * The [[Moss Roberts]] version ''Dao De Jing: The Book of the Way'' can be searched on [[List of Google services and tools#Book_Search|Google Book Search]] though there is some restriction of content. * [[Wayne L. Wang]] [http://www.dynamictao.com/index.html The Dynamic Tao and Its Manifestations]:''Tao and modern scientific thoughts'' [[Image:Tao Te Ching Hintonjpg.jpg|thumb|Tao Te Ching, translation by [[David Hinton]]]] ====Printed versions==== * An English translation by [[John Chalmers]] appeared in 1868. * [[James Legge]] in ''The Texts of Taoism'', 2 vols (Sacred Books of China 39 and 40) Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1891/Humphrey Milford, London, 1891. * [[Arthur Waley]] ''The Way and Its Power: A Study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought'', Allen &amp; Unwin, London, 1934. * [[Witter Bynner]], ''The Way of Life According to LaoTsu: An American Version'', John Day Company, 1944. * [[J.J.L. Duyvendak]] ''Tao Te King: The Book of the Way and its Virtue''. (Wisdom of the East) John Murray, London, 1954. * [[D.C. Lau]] ''Tao Te Ching'' Penguin Books, England, 1963 * [[Jane English]] and [[Gia-Fu Feng]] ''Tao Te Ching'' Vintage Books, New York, 1972; new introduction by [[Jacob Needleman]], 1989. * [[Stephen Mitchell]] ''Tao te Ching, A New English Version'' (with forward and notes), HarperCollinsPublishers Inc, NY, NY, 1988. * [[Ellen M. Chen]] ''The Te Tao Ching: A New Translation with Commentary''. Paragon House, New York, 1989. * [[Victor H. Mair]], ''Tao Te Ching: The Classic Book of Integrity and the Way'' (translation and annotations, based on the recently discovered [[Ma-wang-tui Texts]]), Bantam Books, New York, 1990. * [[Patrick E. Moran]] in ''Three Smaller Wisdom Books'', University Press of America, 1993. * [[Bill Porter (author)|Red Pine]] (Bill Porter) ''Lao-Tzu's Taoteching, With Selected Commentaries of the Past 2000 Years'', Mercury House, San Francisco, 1996. * [[Ursula K. Le Guin]] ''Lao Tzu : Tao Te Ching, a Book about the Way &amp;amp; the Power of the Way'' (a translation and commentary), Shambhala, Boston &amp; London, 1998. * [[Robert G. Henricks]] ''Lao-tzu Te-Tao Ching'', A translation, study and comparison of the Ma Wang Tui versions with the received text with notes. Ballantine, 1989. ISBN 0345347900 * [[Robert G. Henricks]] ''Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching: A Translation of the Startling New Documents Found at Guodian'', Columbia University Press, New York, 2000. (Contains only those chapters found in the [[Guodian Laozi]].) * [[Jonathan Star]] ''Tao Te Ching: The Definitive Edition'' (translation and commentary), Penguin Books, NY, NY, 2001. * [[David H. Li]], ''Dao De Jing: a New Millennium
d roughly as in [[Italian language|Italian]] *Grit: a member or supporter of one of the federal or provincial [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]] parties (but ''not'' the [[Parti libéral du Québec]]) *Joe job: a low-class, low-paying job. Not to be confused with the American term [[joe job]]. *Keener: an enthusiastic student, not necessarily a positive term *[[Kokanee (fish)|Kokanee]]: British Columbian name for a species of land-locked salmon (accent on first syllable). Also the name of a [[Kokanee beer|popular beer]] made in the [[Kootenay]] district, aka &quot;Blue Cocaine&quot;. *[[Kraft Dinner]]: often shortened to ''KD'', known in the U.S. as [[Kraft Macaroni and Cheese]] *[[Loonie]] and [[toonie]]: Canadian one- and two-dollar coins. Derived from the use of the [[Loon|loon]] on the Canadian dollar coin. *Loser cruiser: public transit, i.e. the bus. Usually only used by owners of vehicles when speaking disparagingly of transit riders. *[[Nanaimo bar]]: a confection named for the town of [[Nanaimo, British Columbia]] and made of egg custard with a Graham-cracker-based bottom and a thin layer of chocolate on top; however, this term is now common in the United States and elsewhere, thanks to the efforts of [[Starbucks]] in popularizing them. *Navvy Jack - the name for the top grade of washed pea gravel in the hardware/landscaping business in [[British Columbia]]. Named for the first white settler in West Vancouver, a British &quot;[[navvy]]&quot; who supplied this type of gravel to the growing communities of Burrard Inlet. *[[Parkade]]: parking garage *[[Quiggly hole]] and Quiggly town: remains of First Nations underground houses in the Interior of [[British Columbia]] *[[Robertson screwdriver|Robertson]]: a Canadian square-headed screw or [[screwdriver]]. While this is used outside the country for that screw head type, the screws are much less common. *Runners: running shoes; sneakers *Shit disturber: a person who tends to create controversy or chaos *[[Sugar pie]]: A pie made with maple-sugar filling, similar to a [[butter tart]] and a staple in Québécois home cooking. *[[Ski-Doo]]: a brand name now used generically to refer to any [[snowmobile]]. Can also be used as a verb. *Snowbird: a Canadian who spends the winter in the States (often [[Florida]]). Often retired. Also the name of [[Snowbirds|the Canadian Forces aerobatics team]]. *[[Timbits]]: a brand name of doughnut holes made by [[Tim Hortons]] that has become a generic term *Trousseau tea: a reception held by the mother of a bride, for neighbours not invited to the wedding *[[Tuque]]: a knit winter hat that covers the head and ears (called a &quot;ski hat&quot;, &quot;watch cap&quot;, &quot;stocking cap&quot;, or &quot;beanie&quot; in American English) *Newfie: A colloquial term used to discribe one who is from Newfoundland and Labrador. *[[Pickerel]]: This is a mis-used slang word for [[Walleye]]. [[pickerel]] are actually a number of species that are members of the [[Esox]] family, commonly called the pike family, while [[walleye]] is a member of the [[Percidae]] family. *[[Canuck]]: A a slang term for &quot;Canadian&quot; in American English and Canadian English. It sometimes means &quot;French Canadian&quot; in particular, especially when used in the Northeast of the United States and in Canada. The [[Bob &amp; Doug McKenzie]] &quot;Take off to the Great White North&quot; comedy routines, popular in both the U.S. and Canada in the early [[1980]]s, drew heavily on linguistic differences such as pronunciation (such as ''Trawna'' for Toronto or ''brudle'' for brutal) as well as once-obscure historical terms such as ''hoser'' or ''hosehead'' (originally used to refer to gas [[siphon]]ing on the [[Canadian Prairies|prairies]] in the [[Great Depression|depression]] era). ===Variations between Canadian and American lexicons=== There are a few meaning differences between Canadian and American English; for example, to table a document in Canada is to present it, whereas in the U.S. it means to withdraw it from consideration. Also, a 'rubber' in the U.S. and Canada is slang for a condom; however, in Canada it is sometimes also another term for 'eraser' (as it is in [[England]]) and for overshoes. In the same vein is &quot;pissed&quot;, which in the U.S. means &quot;angry&quot; but in Canada means &quot;drunk&quot;; the Canadian equivalent to the American usage most often requires the context &quot;pissed off&quot;, although the &quot;off&quot; is not mandatory. Similarly, &quot;pissed up&quot; means ''(got) drunk'' and the phrase &quot;it was a real piss-up&quot; means that everybody involved became really inebriated. Canadians mostly use the term 'gasoline', rather than the [[United Kingdom|British]] term 'petrol'. Gasoline prices require some awkward [[translation]] between Canadian and American figures. Even before the [[metrication]] efforts of the [[1970]]s, the translation of &quot;dollars per gallon&quot; required not only replacing Canadian vs. American [[currency|currencies]] but also a conversion between Imperial (4.5 [[litre|L]]) vs. U.S. (3.8 [[liter|L]]) [[gallon]]s. When pronouncing letters of the alphabet, Canadians almost invariably use the Anglo-European (and French) &quot;zed&quot; rather than the American &quot;zee&quot; for the letter [[Z]]. Canadian students add &quot;grade&quot; before their grade level, instead of after it as is the usual, but not sole, American practice. For example, a student in the &quot;10th grade&quot; in the U.S. would be in &quot;Grade 10&quot; in Canada. (Quebec anglophones may instead say &quot;sec 5&quot; (secondary 5) for Grade 11.) It should also be noted that in Canada, the specific high school grade (eg. Grade 9 or Grade 12) or university year is stated and not the American terms &quot;freshman&quot; or &quot;sophomore&quot;. Also, while in the United States the term &quot;college&quot; refers to post-secondary education in general, the term &quot;college&quot; has a different meaning in Canada. It refers to either a post-secondary technical or vocational institution, or to one of the colleges that exist as individual institutions within some Canadian universities. Most often, a &quot;college&quot; is a community college, not a university. It may also refer to a [[CÉGEP]] in Quebec. In Canada a &quot;college student&quot; might denote someone obtaining a diploma in plumbing while &quot;university student&quot; is the term for someone earning a [[bachelor's degree]]. Still, &quot;going to college&quot; has the same meaning as &quot;going to university&quot;, unless someone is being specific about which level of post-secondary education they are referring to. There is also greater resistance to turning nouns into verbs in Canada. Until recently, many Canadian teachers rejected the verb ''to contact''. Adoption of [[SI|metric]] units is more advanced in Canada than in the U.S. due to governmental efforts during the [[Pierre Trudeau|Trudeau]] era; Canadians still often use pounds, feet and inches to measure themselves; cups, teaspoons and tablespoons in the kitchen; and miles per gallon instead of litres per 100km for fuel efficiency; but outdoor temperatures, groceries, fuel and highway speeds/distances are almost always given in metric figures. ===Chinook Jargon words in British Columbia=== British Columbia English has several words still in current use which are loanwords from the [[Chinook Jargon]], which was widely spoken throughout the province by all ethnicities well into the middle of the 20th Century. Granted these originally came from the lower Columbia River (for the most part) but the Jargon came to B.C. before the mainland colony was declared and the development of the Jargon in the form it spread to here as is the direct result of British influence (the HBC's activity) in the region. These words tend to be shared with, but are not as common in, the states of [[Oregon]], [[Washington]], [[Alaska]] and, to a lesser degree, [[Idaho]] and western [[Montana]]. The most famous of these words, and probably the most popular still, is ''skookum'', which was used in the [[Chinook Jargon|Jargon]] either as a verb auxiliary for ''to be able'' or an adjective for ''able, strong, big, genuine, reliable'' - which sums up its use in BC English, although there are a wide range of possible usages: a ''skookum house'' is a jail or prison (''house'' in the [[Chinook Jargon|Jargon]] could mean anything from a building to a room. &quot;He's a skookum guy&quot; means that the person is solid and reliable while &quot;we need somebody who's skookum&quot; means that a strong and large person is needed. A carpenter, after banging a stud into place, might check it or refer to it as &quot;yeah, that's skookum&quot;. Asking for affirmation, someone might say &quot;is that skookum&quot; or &quot;is that skookum with you?&quot; ''Skookum'' can also be translated simply as &quot;O.K.&quot; but it means something a bit more emphatic. Other [[Chinook Jargon|Jargon]] words in BC English include ''chuck'', originally meaning water or any fluid but adapted into English to refer to bodies of water, particularly &quot;the saltchuck&quot; in reference to salt water. In combination with ''skookum'' the compound word ''skookumchuck'', meaning a rapids (lit. &quot;strong water&quot;), is found in three placenames although not used with its true meaning in ordinary speech. ''Chuck'' and ''saltchuck'', however, remain common, even in local broadcast English. There's also &quot;high muckamuck&quot; and even its proper form &quot;hyas muckamuck&quot; (high-ass), and the variant &quot;high mucketymuck&quot;; &quot;high mucketymuck/muckamuck&quot; has spread far beyond the Pacific Northwest, and meaning a big boss, a high poohbah, and while literally meaning &quot;big feed&quot; or &quot;important banquet&quot;, potentially meaning even a fullblown [[potlatch]] - another very BC word, by the way - i